The Ethnoarchaeology of the Zaghawa of Darfur (Sudan): Settlement and Transcience 9780860545743, 9781407347295

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
List of Illustrations
List of Tables
Acknowlegements
Introduction: Spatial Organisation and Settlement Patterns
Chapter One: The Area and the People
Chapter Two: Seasonal Settlement and Ceramic Production
Chapter Three: Village Settlement
Chapter Four: Life Cycle and Domestic Structures
Chapter Five: Mobility, Stability, and Fluidity
Appendix A: Seasonal Settlement
Appendix B: Permanent Settlement
Glossary
Bibliography

Citation preview

The E thnoarchaeology of the Zaghawa of Darfur (Sudan) Settlement and Transcience

Natalie Tobert Illustrations by Graham S. Reed

Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology 30

BAR International Series 445

1988

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S445, 1988:

'The Ethnoarchaeology of the Zaghawa of Darfur (Sudan)'

© Natalie Tobert, 1988

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860545743 paperback ISBN 9781407347295 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545743 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS p age n o .

I NTRODUCTION : S PATIAL ORGAN ISATION AND S ETTLE MENT PATTERNS

1 . RESEARCH TOP IC

1

2 . QUEST IONS ADDRESSED I N THE L ITERATURE

3

2 . i .

3 4 6 7 7 8 9

D i s t r ibu t ion o fS e t lemen ti nt h eR eg ion t a . S eden t i sm v e r sus mob i l i ty b . V i lage : s i te a nd r e sou rce s l c . C amps i te s R esou rce s P e r sonne l P o te ry a nd e t hn ic i ty t

2 . i . I n t ra -v i lage S pa t ia lO rgan i sa t ion i l a . K in sh ip a nd d we l ing s l b . Un i to fa na ly s i s : h ouse o rh ouseho ld? c . F unc t ion o f ad we l ing : s oc ia lo r ma te r ia l? l d . Dwe l ings a nd p opu la t ion e s t ima tes l

1 0 1 0 1 1 1 3

2 . i . I nd iv idua l S t ruc tu re s i i a . Hou se d e s ign a nd s eden t i sm b . S oc ia lo rgan i sa t ion c . T echno logy a nd c ons t ruc t ion

1 5 1 5 1 6 1 7

3 . I SSUES RELEVANT TO THE PRESENT S TUDY

1 7

3 i . . 3 . i . i

1 7 1 9

Mac ro leve l : R eg iona lD i s t r ibu t ion o fV i lage C amps l M icro leve l : I n t ra -v i lage S pa t ia lO rgan i sa t ion , l a nd I nd iv idua l S t ruc tu re s

4 . CO M MENT ON THE F IELD WORK

2 2

5 . THE P LAN

2 4

11

CHAPTER ONE THE AREA AND THE PEOPLE

2 6

1 .

2 7

THE AREA

1 i . S udan : t h eC oun try , C l ima te , a nd P opu la t ion . 1 . i . D a r fu rP rov ince i K ebkeb iya D is t r ic t

2 7 2 9 3 1

2 . THE P EOPLE

3 2

2 . i . Z aghawa S oc ie ty 2 . i . Z aghawa B lack sm i th s : S ub s i s tance a nd C ra f tE conom ie s i a . Ag r icu l tu re b . An ima ls c . C ra f t s B lack sm i th ing L ea therwo r ldng P o te ry manufac tu re t d . A l te rna t ive e conom ic a c t iv i ty

3 2 3 4 3 6 3 9 4 1 4 1 4 4 4 6 5 1

3 . SU M MARY

5 2

CHAPTER T WO S EASONAL S ETTLE MENT AND CERA MIC PRODUCTION

5 3

t T ype so fS ea sona l S e t lemen t

5 4

1 . POTTERY PRODUCT ION AND ETHN IC ITY

5 6

. 1 i . i 1 . i . i i 1 . i . 1 . iv .

t P o tery , E thn ic i ty , a nd M ig ra t ion t E thn ic i ty o fP o te r si nr e la t ion t o Ho s tP opu la t ion t E thn ic I den t i ty a nd S y s tem o fP o te ry P roduc t ion t P o te ry T echno logy , Manufac tu re a nd F i r ing a . T he t e chn ique b . T oo l su sed i np o tery mak ing t c . F ab r ic a nd f i le r l d . S u r face d eco ra t ion 1 . v . P o te ry a s aMeans o fD e te rm in ing E thn ic I den t i ty t

5 7 5 8 5 9 6 2 6 2 6 3 6 5 6 5 6 7

2 . LOCAT ION OF POTTERY - MAK ING CA MPS I N THE REG ION

6 9

2 . i . Ma rke tC en t re s a nd P o te ry Manufac tu re t 2 . i . C amp P o s i t ion i nr e la t ion t oS e t lemen t i t 2 . i . S umma ry i i

6 9 7 4 7 8

i v

3 . I NFOR MAT ION NET WORKS AND CA MP P ERSONNEL

7 9

. 3 i .

8 0

C amp P e r sonne l

4 . THE ARCHAEOLOG IST AND THE POTTERY CA MP

8 5

t 4 . i . P o te ry a nd E thn ic I den t i ty i t 4 . i . P o te ry D is tr ibu t ion i i 4 . i . C amp S i te T he a bandonmen to fK ebkeb iya c amp 1 984

8 5 8 6 8 8 9 0

5 . SU M MARY

9 3

CHAPTER THREE V ILLAGE S ETTLE MENT

9 5

1 . K IREYKA V ILLAGE I N REG IONAL CONTEXT

9 7

1 i . R e sou rce s . 1 . i . H i s tory o ft h eV i lage 's F o rma t ion i l a . 1 960 's m ig ra t ion t oK i reyka b . 1 980 's m ig ra t ion a way f r om K i reyka

9 7 1 00 1 00 1 01

2 . DEF IN IT ION OF TER MS USED I N THE TEXT

1 02

2 . i .

1 02 1 02 1 03 1 03

D ef in i t ion o fT e rm s a . T he h ouse b . T he c ompound c . T he o ccupan t s

2 . i . T he n umbe r ing s y s tem i

1 06

3 . S TRUCTURES WITH IN K IREYKA V ILLAGE

10

3 . i . P opu la t ion o ft h eV i lage l 3 . i . E f ec to fK insh ip o n S e t lemen t i f t Ma in s i b l ing r e la t ionsh ips a . S ib l ing t i e s b . Woman a nd o f spr ing f c . P o lygamous mar riage

10 11 11 12 12 13

3 . i . Abandoned Dwe l ings i i l 3 . iv . C ompound F o rma t ion i n 1 974 S ummary

19 1 24 1 26

4 . BU ILD ING TECHN IQUES AND ARCHAEOLOG ICAL RE MA INS 1 27 4 . i

Dwe l ing C ons t ruc t ion l a . Ma te r ia ls b . House a nd c ompound c ons t ruc t ion c . R oof b u i ld ing

1 29 1 29 1 30 1 32

4 . i . P a te rns o fD ecay i t 4 . i . V i s ib le R ema in s i i a . Houses a nd c ompound s b . A r tefac t s a nd f e a tu res

1 33 1 34 1 34 1 40

5 . SU MMARY

1 41

CHAPTER FOUR L IFE CYCLE AND DO MESTIC S TRUCTURES

1 44

1 . FA M ILY ORGAN ISAT ION AND L IFE CYCLE

1 45

Ma te r ia lC u l tu re C hange st h a tO ccu ra tD if ren tS tage s . fe

1 45

1 i . B ir th . 1 . i . C h i ldhood i 1 . i . MARR IAGE : S tage so f Mar i i riage T he B r ide -p r ice P aymen to ft wo t h i rd so fb r ide -pr ice P aymen to f5 /6 th sb r ide p r ice P aymen to ft h ef u lb r ide -pr ice l

1 45 1 46 1 47 1 48 1 48 1 49 1 50

1 . iv . Ma tu r i ty , Menopau se , a nd O ld Age 1 . v . D ea th a nd As ia ted B e l ief s s oc

1 50 1 52

2 . D IV ISIONS OF THE V ILLAGE I NHAB ITANTS

1 53

3 . THE RELAT IONSH IP OF S TRUCTURES TO THE SOC IAL UN IT D a i ly a c t iv i ty i nr e la t ion sh ip t ov i lage s pace l a . P rosc r ip t ion s b . D iv is ion o fs pace i n ac ompound 3 . i . C ompound s i a . C ompound s hape b . C ompound s i ze c . C ompound mod if ica t ion d . S umma ry 3 . i . House s i i a . House s i ze a nd f unc t ion b . B r ide h ouse s 3 . iv . House c on ten t sa sa ni nd ica to ro fl i f ec yc le a . T he H ea r th b . G r ind s tone c . G rana r ie s d . B ed s e . Wa l D eco ra t ion l

1 56 1 56 1 57 1 58 1 61 1 61 1 64 1 65 1 68 1 69 1 70 1 74 1 78 1 78 1 83 1 85 1 87 1 90

4 . ARCHAEOLOG ICAL IMPL ICAT IONS OF THE DATA

1 92

4 . i .

1 92

3 i . .

F ix tu res a nd F i t ing so f Abandoned b u t S tand ing House s t

5 . SU M MARY

1 97 v i

CHAPTER F IVE MOBILITY , S TABILITY , AND FLUIDITY

2 01

1 .

FACTORS AFFECT ING CA MP LOCAT ION

2 01

i . i .

C amp L oca t ion w i th in t h eR eg ion t C amp l o ca t ion i nr e la t ion t o aS e t led C ommun i ty

2 02 2 04

2 .

I ND IV IDUAL MOB IL ITY v e r sus GROUP S TABL ITY

2 05

i . i . i i .

L ong -d i s tance e ndogamy G roup F lu id i ty l s V i lage F i s ion

2 06 2 06 2 08

3 .

MATER IAL CULTURE AS AN I NDEX OF L IFE CYCLE

2 09

i . i .

R e s idence , Mob i l i ty , a nd L if eC yc le A r tefac t sa sa nI ndex o fC hange

2 09 2 13

4 .

IMPL ICAT IONS OF THE DATA FOR ARCHAEOLOGY

2 15

4 . i .

t Mac ro leve l : A rchaeo log ica l Ana lys i so fP o te ry t a . T he s t udy o fp o te ry b . T he p roduc t ion s i te t c . T he p o te r s

2 15 2 15 2 17 2 18

i 4 . i . M ic ro leve l

2 20

f a . E fec to f Mob i l i ty o nP opu la t ion E s t ima te s l I n t ra -v i lage mob i l i ty P opu la t ion e s t ima te sb a sed o nt h e s i ng le r e s iden ta l u n i t b . R ound h ouses : a ni ndex o fs eden t ism o r mob i l i ty l c . Dwe l ing sa sa ni ndex o fs oc ia lo rgan isa t ion

2 20 2 21 2 22 2 23 2 24 2 25

5 . SU MMARY

i v i

APPEND IX

Append ix A : S EASONAL S ETTLE MENT 1 . POS IT ION OF POTTERY - MAK ING CA MPS RELAT IVE TO THE HOST S ETTLEMENT i . P r ima ry C en tre s . S e conda ry C en t re s i . T e r t ia ry C en t re s i i v . Q ua te rna ry C en t re s

27 2 27 2 28 2 29 2 2 31

2 . CONSTRUCT ION OF SHELTERS ( KEBKEB IYA CAMP ) i . T ypo logy o fs he l te r s . I n te r io rf e a tu re s i

2 32 2 32 2 32

3 . CA MP ABANDON MENT AT KEBKEB IYA

2 34

Append ix B : PER MANENT S ETTLE MENT 1 . FACTORS AFFECT ING S ETTLE MENT WITHIN THE V ILLAGE i . K in sh ip r e la t ing t oo ccup ied a nd a bandoned c ompound s . K in sh ip o fp a s to ccupan t so fr u ined h ouse s i te s i

2 38 2 38 2 4 1

Append ix C : L IFE CYCLE 1 . B IRTH

2 44

2 .

' COM ING OUT ' CERE MONY -n o te o n ma te r ia lc u l tu re a nd r i tua l

2 45 2 46

3 .

MARR IAGE i . An ima l sa nd a r tef ac t su sed d u r ing t h e m ar g reemen t riage a . 6-8t e na iya c e leb ra t ion ( 2 /3 p a id ) i . 1 0t e na iya p a id ( 5 /6 p a id ) i

2 47 2 47

4 . DEATH

i . a t av i lage l . a t ap o te ry mak ing c amp i t

2 47 2 48 2 49 2 49 2 49

GLOSSARY

2 50

B IBL IOGRAPHY

2 54 v i i i

L IST OF I LLUSTRATIONS p age n o . F igu re 1 .

F igu re 2 . F igu re 3 . F igu re 4 .

F igu re 5 .

F igu re 6 . F igu re 7 . F igu re 8 . F igu re 9 . F igu re 1 0 . F igu re 1 . F igu re 1 2 . F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re

1 3 . 1 4 . 1 5 . 1 6 .

F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re

1 7 . 1 8 . 1 9 . 2 0 . 2 1 .

L oca t ion o fs t udy a r ea i A f r ica udan i S a r fu r i D i v D a r fu r ,d e ta i l Ag r icu l tu re i T h re sh ing g ra in b yt h ef i e ld oo l s i T T rapp ing a nd H un t ing B lack sm i th ing i Sm i th ing t oo l s ec t ion t h rough h ea r th i S oo l sp roduced i T L ea the rc ra f t i P i tu sed i nt h ep roduc t ion o f t h et a nn ing a gen t ec t ion t h rough ap i t i S oo l su sed b yt h el e a the rt a nne r i T I t em s made o ft a nned l e a the r i v T oo l su sed w i th c u red l e a the r I t em s made o fc u red l e a the r P o te ry F o rm a nd F unc t ion ( 3s hee t s ) t P o te ry - Mak ing T oo l s t P o te ry D eco ra t ion t P o te ry -mak ing c en t re si nK ebkeb iya d i s t r ic t t B lack sm i th v i lage sa soc ia ted w i th K i reyka l s P o te ry -mak ing c amp s t C en t re sv i s i ted b yp o te r so fK i reyka 1 984 /85 t i d ry s e a son 1 984 ry s e a son 1 985 i d K ebkeb iya : P o te ry C amp A bandonmen t t Umm D e lu P la in , K ebkeb iya t oK i reyka K i reyka a nd e nv i ron s K i reyka V i lage : l o ccup ied , a bandoned a nd r u ined d we l ing s l

G enea logy o fK i reyka o ccupan t s C ompound l o ca t ion w i th in t h ev i lage ( 5s hee t s ) l K i reyka v i lage :c ompound f o rma t ion i n1 974 l H ou se C on s truc t ion Dwe l ing s ,p e rmanen ta nd s e a sona l l i Dwe l ing sa nd s he l te r sa tK i reyka l ea sona l dwe l ing s : K ebkeb iya c amp i S l ence c on s t ruc t ion i F F igu re 2 2 . K i reyka v i lage :r u ined h ou se s i te s 1 984 /84 l k in sh ip o fo ccupan t s F igu re 2 3 . K i reyka ,r ema in so fh ou se s i te s F igu re 2 4 . C ompound : d iv i s ion o fs pa ce

i x

2 6

3 8 4 0 4 3

4 5

4 8 -50 6 4 6 4 7 1 7 1 7 7 8 2 9 1 9 6 9 8 1 07 1 08 -118 14 18 1 28 1 31

1 35 1 38 1 62

F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu re

2 5 . 2 6 . 2 7 . 2 8 . 2 9 . 3 0 .

F igu re 3 1 .

F igu re 3 2 .

C ompound mod if ica t ion sa tK i reyka H ou se f e a tu re sa nd f i t ing s t B r ide h ou se s : C a tego ry A B r ide h ou se s : C a tego ry B H ea r th a nd a soc ia ted f e a tu re s s G r ind ing e qu ipmen ta nd G rana r ie s i S add le q ue rn s rana r ie s i G r ind ing a nd p ound ing e qu ipmen t i G Hou se c on ten t s i B ed s he lve sa nd T ab le s i S thod so fs t o rage i Me i v D ome s t ic e qu ipmen t H ou se w a ld eco ra t ion l i E x te r io r n te r io r i I t if s i Mo

1 66 1 71 1 76 1 77 1 80 1 84

1 89

1 91

L IST OF TABLES T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le

n o .1 n o .2 n o .3 n o .4

T ab le n o .5 T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le

n o .6 n o .7 n o .8 n o .9 n o .10

T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le T ab le

n o .11 n o .12 n o .13 n o .14 n o .15 n o .16 n o .17 n o .18 n o .19 n o .20 n o .21 n o .22 n o .23 n o .24

T ab le n o .25 T ab le n o .26

S e lec t ion o fp o te ry c amp si nD a r fu r 1 982 -1985 t C or la t ion b e tween c amp l o ca t ion a nd e t hn ic g roup re K i reyka v i lage ,P opu la t ion i nD ecembe r 1 982 l V i lage c ompound s : i n hab i ted , a bandoned , l a nd i nr u in s K i reyka v i lage : o ccup ied a nd a bandoned d we l ing s , l l a nd r u ined h ou se s i te s S tand ing h ou se sa bandoned s i nce 1 982 R u ined h ou se s i te s , a bandoned d u r ing a nd b efo re 1 982 R ea son f o rp eop le s ' move so u to ft h ev i lage l O ccup ied d we l ing s : w a la nd f ence c on s truc t ion l l K i reyka v i lage : v i s ib le r ema in so f l r u ined h ou se s i te s Ma te r ia lc or la te so fs t age si n aw oman 's l i f ec yc le re F ive c a tego r ie so fw omanhood C ompound s i ze a nd s t age o fo ccupan t 's l i f ec yc le H ou se f unc t ion a cco rd ing t ol i f ec yc le Mean h ou se d i ame te ra cco rd ing t of unc t ion H ou se d i ame te ra nd s t age o fo ccupan t sl i f ec yc le H ea r th t ype a nd p o s i t ion r e . l if ec yc le H ou se f unc t ion i nr e la t ion t oh ea r th t y pe P o s i t ion o fh ea r th G r ind s tone t y pe a cco rd ing t ol i f ec yc le G rana r ie sa sa ni nd ica to ro fs t a tus B ed t y pe a cco rd ing t o aw oman 's s t age o fl i f ec yc le F ix tu re sa nd f i t ing so fa bandoned , s t and ing h ou se s t A bandoned h ou se s , ma te r ia lf e a tu re sa nd i n fo rman t s ' d a ta I den t ifyab le f e a tu re so fh ou se t ype s R e la t ion sh ip b e tween s i ze o fs he l te ra nd n umb e ro fo ccupan t s

7 2 7 3 1 09 10 1 20 1 21 1 22 1 23 1 30 1 36 1 54 1 55 1 63 1 70 1 70 1 72 1 81 1 81 1 82 1 83 1 86 1 88 1 93 1 95 2 00 2 33

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS

Iw ou ld l i ke t ot h ank t h e many p eop le w ho h ave g iven me h e lp a nd s uppor t . I n p a r t icu la r Iw ou ld l i ke t o men t ion

my a dv iso r A nn S tah l f o r h e r c r i t ic i sm

a nd g u idance ; h e r c ommen t s w e re i nva luab le .

Iam g ra tefu l t o G raham R eed

f o r h i s h e lp i n t h e f i e ld , a nd s uppo r t a nd e ncou ragemen t i n E ng land . f i na l i t ra t ion s i n t h i s v o lume a r e h i s w o rk . lus

A l t h e l

T he r e su l t s o f t h is r e sea rch

w e re o r ig ina ly p re sen ted a s ad oc to ra l t h e s is a tL ondon U n ive r s i ty . l

T hank s

a r e

a l so

d ue

t o J ohn

P i c ton

a nd

M ike

e ncouragemen t d ur ing t h e e a r ly s t ages o f t h e r e sea rch ;

Mu rphy

f o r t h e i r

membe r s o f ARSTAG

( t he t h e s is w r i te r s ' s e lf h e lp g roup ) f o r t h e i r c on t inu ing s uppo r t a nd f r iend sh ip ; my p a ren t s a nd f r iend s w ho h ave a l h e lped a tv a r ious s t ages w i th p roof r ead ing l a nd a dv ice . A ny e ro r s r ema in ing a r e my o wn . Iam g ra tefu l t ot h e s t af f t h e r f o Museum o f L ondon a nd t h e Ma ry Wa rd C en t re f o r t h e i r h e lp

a nd p rac t ica l

s uppor to ve rt h el a s tf ew y ea r s .

I t wou ld n o t h ave b een p os le t o c a ry o u t t h e f i e ld w o rk w i thou t t h e sib r k indnes nd h o sp i ta l i ty o f t h e p eop le o f K i reyka v i lage , a nd t o t h em Ia m s a l e spec ia ly g ra tefu l . T he h e lp g i ven b y t h e I n s t i tu te o fA f r ican a nd A s ian S tud ie s l i nK ha r toum , a nd Mohammed Abdu la ( Sa id e l Mohaf ez i nK ebkeb iya ) made i t l p os le f o r t h e r e sea rch t o b e c ar u t w i th e a se . sib ried o

Many o the r p eop le i n

S udan f a c i l i ta ted t h ep rac t ica l s i de o ft h ep ro jec t : t h e l a te H amze Mohammed E l Am in a nd h i s f am i ly p rov ided w e lcome h o sp i ta l i ty i n K har toum , a s d id S a rah I z e ld in a nd h e r f am i ly i n E l F a she r ;

a nd o the r f r iend s i n c lud ing H am id Y usef ,

Y usef K us iy a nd AbuBeke r w e re i nva luab le .

T he r e sea r ch w a s made p o ss ib le w i th f i nanc ia l a i d f r om t h e Em s l ie H orn iman F ounda t ion , t h e C en t ra lR e sea rch F und , a nd S udan A i r .

x i

7

Darfur,

S udan

During

the

dry

s eason Z aghawa potters

camp

o n

the

r iver-bed a t K ebkebiya. A s s oon a s the r ains b egin they permanent v illage t o p lant crops.

r eturn

t o

their

I NTRODUCTION

S PAT IAL ORGAN ISAT ION AND S ETTLE MENT PATTERNS

1 . RESEARCH TOP IC

N ume rou s i sue sf a l ing w i th in t h er ub r ic o fs pa t ia l o rgan i sa t ion h ave b een s l a dd res s ed

b y

e t hnoa r chaeo log i s t s .

Many

o f t h e

c oncep t s

u sed

i n t h e

a r chaeo log ica l a na ly s i s o f s e t lemen t a r e d i ff i cu l t t o a pp ly i n a n e t hnog raph ic t s e t ing . t

T h roughou t t h e y ea r s , r e sea r ch i n to s pa t ia l o rgan i sa t ion a nd s oc ia l

mean ing h a s e vo lved a tn ume rous l e ve l s , a nd i na n a temp tt od e f ine t h ea r ea o f t t h e r e sea r ch , v a r iou s a s pec t s o fs e t lemen tp a te rn a na ly s i s a r ep re sen ted . T he se t t i n c lude t o p ic ss uch a s : -r eg iona ls e t lemen td i s t r ibu t ion t -l o ca t ion o fs e a sona lc amp s -s i te c a t chmen ta na ly s i s -s pa t ia lo rgan i sa t ion w i th in av i lage l -p opu la t ion e s t ima te sf r om f l oo rp l an s -s o c ia lc or la te so fi nd iv idua ld ome s t ic d we l ing s . re l E a ch o ft h e se t o p ic s c ome u nde rt h e umb re la o fs pa t ia l o rgan i sa t ion . l

Y e t

a no the r i sa na logy , w h ich a lmo s t e ve ry a r chaeo log i s t p ub l i sh ing e t hnog raph ic ma te r ia l h a s c ove red .

I ta ppea r s t o b e a conven t ion t h a t many p recede t h e i r

sion o d a ta w i th ad i scus n t h e u se o f e t hnog raph ic a na logy i n t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f a r chaeo logc ia l m a te r ia l .

Id o n o t i n tend t o d o t h i s .

T he a rgumen t s

c oncer n ing t h e u se o fe t hnog raph ic a na logy a r e p re sen ted b y Wy l ie ( 1985 ) w ho p rov ide s a n o ve rv iew o ft h ed eve lopmen t si nt h e t h ink ing a bou t a na logy , a nd b y C ha r l ton ( 1981 ,130 ) w ho g i ve s b a ckg round i n fo rma t ion o n t h e d eve lopmen t o f t r end s i n t h e u se o f e t hnog raph ic a nd e t hnoh i s to r ic d a ta .

A h i s to ry o f t h e

d eve lopmen to fe t hnoa r chaeo logy i so u t l ined b yS t i le s( 1977 ) , a nd r ev iew so ft h e l i t e ra tu re o n t h i s s ub jec t a r e g i ven b y O rme ( 1973 ) , Hodde r ( 1982a ,11-27 ) , a nd B in fo rd ( 1967 ,1968 ,1983 ) . 1

T he r e sea r ch w a s u nde r taken t o g ene ra te i n fo rma t ion o n t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween s o c ia lb ehav iou ra nd t h e ma te r ia lc or la te so fs pa t ia lo rgan i sa t ion . T he re b u lk o f t h e emp i r ica l e t hnog raph ic d a ta o n t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween s e t lemen t t a nd l i f e c yc le c ove r s b ehav iou r a nd t h e p roduc t s o f b ehav iou r . C la rke 's p redepo s i t iona l a nd d epo s i t iona l t h eo ry ( 1973 ,16 ) .

I tl i e s w i th in

T he a im o f t h i s

v o lume i st oi s o la te f a c to r sr e spon s ib le f o rv a r ia t ion si ns pa t ia l o rgan isa t ion , a nd t oe xam ine s o c ia lf a c to r sg ove rn ing r e s idency . A g roup o f s pec ia l i s t mob i le c r a f two rke r s i n S udan w ho a r e o u t s ide t h e t r ad i t iona l c a tego r ie s c on s ide red b y a r chaeo log i s t s a r e t h e b a s i s o ft h e r e sea rch . F ie ldwo rk f o cu sed u pon t h e a nnua l c yc le o f a c t iv i ty o f as i ng le e t hn ic g roup , w ho se membe r s m ig ra te d u r ing t h e d ry s e a son t o p u r sue c r a f two rk a nd a r e l s eden ta ry d u r ing t h er a in s w hen t h ey c u l t iva te m i le t . B a sed i nD a r fu rP rov ince , S udan , t h e p ro jec t c en t red a round t h e B lack sm i th c ommun i ty o f t h e Z aghawa . T h i s e t hn ic g roup i s d iv ided i n to t h ree s t ra ta : r oya l ty ( s a la t in ) ; s ub jec t s ( me sak in ) ; a nd t h e B lack sm i th s ( hadah id ) . A s t h ef i e ldwo rk i nS udan w a s d one sib s d u r ing ap e r iod o fs eve re d rough t a nd f am ine i tw a s p os le t oc ha r tt h e f i s ion l a nd f u s ion t h a t o ccu red i nv i lage r e s idency , a nd t oo b se rve t h ee s tab l i shmen to f l l n ew v i lage s . A ne xam ina t ion o fo ne v i lage i n c lud ing o ccup ied , a bandoned , a nd t f r u ined h ou se s p rov ided a n a na ly s i s o fs e t lemen td u r ing ai f teen y ea r s pan , a nd i su sed t oh e lp i d en t ify p rob lem sr e la t ing t ot h ec on t inu i ty o fo ccupa t ion t h rough t ime . A na ly s i si s conduc ted o nt wo l e ve l s : mac ro leve l l -w i th empha s i so nt h er eg iona ld i s t r ibu t ion o fv i lage sa nd s ea sona lc amp s m ic ro leve l l -f ocu s ing o n s pa t ia lo rgan i sa t ion a t as i ng le v i lage s i te sing t as ses h e

r e la t ion sh ip b e tween d ome s t ic a r ch i tec tu re a nd t h e l i f e

c yc le o ft h eo ccupan t s O n t h e mac ro leve l , c oncep t s o f s eden t i sm a nd mob i l i ty a r e d i scus . sed C ur t t h eo r ie s o n v a r iab le s a f ec t ing s e a sona l s i te l o ca t ion a r e p re sen ted , ren f f o lowed b ya ni nve s t iga t ion i n to t h e mechan i sm st h a tf a c i l i ta te i n fo rma t ion f l ow l i n mob i le s oc ie t ie s .

Q ue s t ion s a r e r a i sed r e la t ing t o t h e u se o f p o te ry t

a s a

i nd ica t ion o fe t hn ic i ty . T he s e cond p a r t o f t h e r e sea r ch e xp lo re s p rob lem s c once rned w i th m ic ro leve la na ly s i s : v i lage s pa t ia lo rgan i sa t ion i sp re sen ted w i th ad i scus n l sion o 2

t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween k in sh ip a nd h ou se t y pe a nd l o ca t ion . A ccep ted m e thod s l o fe s t ima t ing p opu la t ion f r om d we l ing s pace a r eq ue r ied , a nd a l te rna t ive w ay so f t u s ing ma te r ia lc u l tu re t oa na ly se as e t lemen t 's o ccupan t sa r es ough t . R e sea rch i s c onduc ted i n to t h e l e ve l s o f i n fo rma t ion r e t r ievab le f r om l r ema in so fd we l ing s .Q ue s t ion sr ev iewed c once rn t h ed e f in i t ion o fs eden t i sm ,a nd re t h ec or la t ion sb e tween s oc ia lo rgan i sa t ion a nd d ome s t ic a r ch i tec tu re .

2 . QUEST IONS ADDRESSED I N THE L ITERATURE t t S e t lemen t p a te rn s c an b e a na ly sed o n t h ree l e ve l s . A cco rd ing t oT r igge r ( 1968 ,55 ) " t he f i r s t a nd mo s t b a s ic o f t h e se i st h e i nd iv idua l b u i ld ing o r s t ruc tu re ; t h e s e cond , t h e manne r i n w h ich t h e se s t ruc tu re s a r e r a ranged w i th in s i ng le c ommun i t ie s ; a nd t h e t h i rd , t h e m anne r i n w h ich c ommun i t ie s a r e d i s t r ibu ted o ve r t h e l a nd scape " ( s ee a l so P a r son s 1 972 ,137 ) . T h i s a pp roach h a s b een a dop ted t h roughou t t h e monog raph i n o rde r t o c l a r i fy t t t h e p o s i t ion b e tween s e t lemen t s a nd w i th in s e t lemen t s . F u r the rmo re b o th T r igge r ( 1968 , 1 978 ) a nd P a r son s ( 1972 ) c ommen t o n t h e l a ck o f c r i t ica l t S ince t h e re h a s b een r e la t ive ly l i t le

e xam ina t ion o f i nd iv idua l s t ruc tu re s .

i nve s t iga t ion o f t h e b a s ic u n i t Ih ave made a s y s tema t ic a na ly s i s i n t h i s a r ea . T he empha s i s o f t h e l a t te r p a r t o f t h i s v o lume i so n t h e c or re la t ion b e tween l dwe l ing a nd l i f ec yc le o ft h eo ccupan t . T he s e c t ion b e low p re sen t s ar ev iew o fp rob lem so n s pa t ia lo rgan i sa t ion . I t i ss e to u ti nt h ree p a r t s : t i . t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fs e t lemen ti nt h er eg ion i n t ra -v i l lage s pa t ia lo rgan i sa t ion i . i nd iv idua ls t ruc tu re s

2 . i .

D i s t r ibu t ion o fS e t t lemen ti nt h eR eg ion

t T he s t udy o f s e t lemen t d i s t r ibu t ion w i th in a r eg ion r a i se s av a r ie ty o f q ue s t ion s , t h ree o f w h ich a r e d ea l t w i th h e re : t h e d ef in i t ion o f t h e t e rm s ' s eden t i sm ' a nd ' mob i l i ty ' ; t h e l o ca t ion o f v i l lage s i n r e la t ion t o m a te r ia l r e sou r ce s ; a nd o the rf a c to r sa f f ec t ing c amp s i te l o ca t ion . 3

. 2 i .a .

S eden t i sm v e r su s mob i l i ty T he s ub jec t g roup i s n e i the r s eden ta ry n o r n omad ic b u t l i e s a t am id -po in t

o nt h ec on t inuum o f mob i l i ty t os eden t i sm .

Z aghawa B lack sm i th sh ave t h es ame

e conomy f o r mo s t o f t h e y ea r a s o t he r e t hn ic g roup s i n r u ra l a r ea s o f D a r fu r . T hey a r e s eden ta ry , g row ing c rop so nr a in -f ed l a nd s a nd k eep ing a n ima l s . I nt h e d ry s e a son ,h oweve r , t h ey a r e mob i le c r a f two rke r sw ho m ig ra te t ov a r iou sm a rke t c en t re s t h roughou t t h e p rov ince . i nd ica te

S tud ie s o f o the r c on tempo ra ry c ommun i t ie s

t t h a t t h ey t oo a r e n o t s imp ly s e t led o r n omad ic , b u t t h e i r w ay o f l i f e

v a r ie sb e tween t h e se t wo e x t reme s( e g . Wa tanabe 1 968 ,69 ,S ha rp 1 968 ,158 ,O rme s ed b 1 981 ,104 ) . T he t e rm ' s eden t i sm ' i s di scus e low . fe s. H R af r ty ( 1985 ,113 )e xam ine st h ec oncep to fs eden ta r ines e ra im i st ot r y s d a nd u nde r s tand h ow a nd w hy s eden ta r ines eve loped , a nd h ow i tc ou ld b e l s p r e cogn i sed a r chaeo log ica ly . S he e xam ine s h ow s eden ta r ines rov ided t h e f ounda t ion f o r c hange i n s ome s o c ie t ie s , w h i le i n o the r s i tf a i led t o l e ad t o g rea te rc omp lex i ty . S he c l a im st h a tt h e wo rd ' p e rmanen t ' s hou ld n o tb e u sed a s a synonym f o r ' s eden ta ry ' ,

t s i nce many s eden ta ry s e t lemen t s e xh ib i t v a ry ing

d eg ree s o f p e rmanence a nd t h a t

t s eden ta ry s e t lemen t s y s tem s a r e t ho se i n

w h ich a tl e a s t p a r t o f t h e p opu la t ion r ema in s a tt h e s ame l o ca t ion t h roughou t t h e e n t i re y ea r ( 1985 ,116 ) .

U s ing t h i s c r i te r ia o ne wou ld s ay t h a t t h e Z aghwa

B lack sm i th s w e r e s eden ta ry i n s p i te o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h ey l i ved i n s e a sona l c r a f two r ldng c amp sf o ru pt oh a lf o ft h ey ea r . fer O rme ( 1981 ,104 ) t a ke s as im i la r v i ew t o R af ty o n t h e d ef in i t ion o f s eden ta ry . S he a l so i n c lude sg roup si nvo lved i ns e a sona l mob i l i ty , a nd c ons ide r s t h a t many t empo ra ry c amp s a ro se f r om t h e s e a sona l m ig ra t ion s o f o the rw i se s eden ta ry p eop le . T h i s d e sc r ip t ion f i t s t h e s i tua t ion o f t h e Z aghawa i n D a r fu r . O n t h e s ub jec t o fs e a sona l movemen t O rme ( i b id . ) n o te s t h a ti t is l i ke ly t h a t t h e l f f s ame p eop le w i l b e f ound a td i f e ren t t ime s i n ar ange o f d i f e ren t e co log ica l l re t z one s , a nd t h e re w i l b e c or spond ing v a r ia t ion s i nt h e s i ze o f s e t lemen t s a nd i nt h er aw ma te r ia l su sed f o rb u i ld ing . K a i se ra nd V oy tek ( 1983 ,323 )d on o tp u tf o rwa rd s uch aw ide i n te rp re ta t ion . T hey s ugge s t t h a t s eden t i sm i n vo lve s l o ng te rm r e s idence a t as i ng le l o ca t ion b y ag roup o fp eop le . T hey r e se rve ' s eden t i sm ' f o r s i te o ccupa t ion o ve r mo re t h an t ag ene ra t ion . T h i s d ef in i t ion i st oo r e s t r ic t ive f o r s e t lemen t i n D a r fu r w he re l s ome p ea san t f a rme r s r e loca te t h e i r v i lage e ve ry 1 6 -20 y ea r s a s t h e l a nd t h ey 4

u se f o r c rop s l o se s f e r t i l i ty .

O n t h e Umm D e lu p l a in , f o r e xamp le , t h e p re sen t

l l v i lage o f Umm R obob w a so r ig ina ly s i ted 2 00 m e t r e st ot h en or th w e s t , b u tt h e e l de r s d ec ided t h a t t h ey w e re l i v ing o n g ood c rop -g row ing l a nd ( She ikh A dam E isa ,p e r s . c omm ) . T he c oncep to fp e rmanence t h en , a sd ef ined b yK a i se ra nd V oy tek d oe sn o t a pp ly t o t ho se s eden ta ry i n hab i tan t s o f t h e Umm D e lu p l a in f o r t h ey ma in ta in ( 1983 ,324 )

t h a t " s e t lemen t p e rmanence i mp l ie s a sub s i s tance s t ra tegy t h a t i s t

c apab le o f c on t inua l r e sou rce e x t ra c t ion w i thou t ac r i t ica l d im inu t ion o f y i e ld s o ve r t ime ; s uch a s t a tegy w ou ld n o t r equ i re p e r iod ic r e loca t ion i n o rde r t o r ema in v i ab le " .

R af r ty ( 1985 ,116 ) o b se rve s t h a t w hen a p opu la t ion i s fe

s eden ta ry , s ub s tan t ia l r e s idence s c an b e b u i l t , a sw e l a sb e te r s t o rage f a c i l i t ie s . l t A t own i st h e mo s t o bv iou s f o rm o f p e rmanen t s e t lemen t . t r e loca t ion o f s eden ta ry v i lage s e t lemen t s i sn o t u nu sua l . l t

I n N o r th D a r fu r

Many f a rm ing a nd

v i lage c ommun i t ie s move s po rad ica ly o ve r t h e d ecade s a s i n o the r a r ea s o f l l A f r ica . J a rman , V i ta -F inz i a nd H igg s ( 1972 ,61 ) s ugge s ted t h a t t h ree t ype s o f e conomy e x i s t : mob i le ( hun te r /ga the re r ,p a s to ra l i s t ) ; mob i le -cum -seden ta ry ( i nl ow p roduc t iv i ty a r ea s ) ; a nd s eden ta ry ( a g r icu l tu ra l i s t s ) .

T he se t h ree d iv i s ions o f

e conomy a r e r a the r s imp l i s t ic s i nce t h e re i si nr ea l i ty ac on s ide rab le b lur f ring o o u r u nde r s tand ing o f s eden ta r ines nd t h e n umb e r o f g roup s who a r e s, a mob i le -cum -seden ta ry f o rm al a rge p ropo r t ion o fp eop le i nr u ra la r ea s . T hough t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween s eden ta ry p eop le s a nd t ho se l e ad ing a mob i le w ay o f l i f e h a s b een c ove red i n a n th ropo log ica l l i t e ra tu re ( e .g . S ah l in s 1 968 ,34 , B a r th 1 961 , L eed s a nd V ayda 1 965 ) , much o ft h el i t e ra tu re o n s e a sona l t c amp s h a s b een w r i ten b y e t hnoa r cha e ,o log i s t s w i th r e f e rence t oh un te r /ga the r e r p eop le s . H oweve r Wa t son ( 1979a ) a nd K rame r( 1979 ) h ave s t ud ied t r an shuman t p opu la t ion s a nd H o le ( 1979 ) h a s s t ud ied ap a s to ra l i s t s o c ie ty i n L u r i s tan , I r an . t A pa r t f r om t h e se t h e re i sl i t le e mp i r ica l d a ta f r om e t hnoa rchaeo log i s t s d ea l ing w i th s eden ta ry p eop le w ho a r e mob i le f o rp a r to ft h ey ea r . s t T he Z aghawa c ommun i ty i sa soc ia ted w i th mo re t h an o ne s e t lemen t s i te l d u r ing t h ef a rm ing s e a son a nd c r a f tw o rk ing p e r iod . T he f o low ing t y po logy s e t s t o u t s e t lemen t s p re s en t i n D a r fu r P rov ince , S udan :

E l F a she r , t h e c ap i ta l o f

N or the rn D a r fu ri st h ep r ima ry r eg iona lc en t re ; K ebkeb iya , t h e l o ca l g overnmen t d i s t r ic t h eadqua r te r s i st h e s e conda ry r eg iona l c en t re ; 5

t K i reyka , t h e s e t lemen t

w he re am ic ro -le ve l a na ly s i so fs pa t ia lo rgan i sa t ion w a sc a r r ied o u t , i sc l as sif ied a s a n uc lea ted v i l lage ;

a nd t h e s e t t lemen t s r e su l t ing f r om t h e s e a sona l

movemen to ft h eZ aghawa B lack sm i th sa r ec amp s . 2 . i .b .

V i l lage : s i te a nd r e sou rce s I th a s b een s ugge s ted t h a t r e sou rce s a r e a lway s e xp lo i ted a t aq uan t ifyab le

d i s tance f r om t h e s e t t lemen t .

V i ta -F inz i a nd H igg s ( 1970 ,7 ) p re sen ted s i te

c a tchmen t a na ly s i s a st h e s t udy o ft h e r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween at e r r i to ry a nd t h e n a tu ra l r e sou rce s l y ing w i th in e conom ic r ange . T hey s ugge s ted t h a t t h e f u r the r a re sou r ce a r ea w a s f r om a si te , t h e l e s s l i ke ly i tw a s t o h ave b een e xp lo i ted a nd t h e l e s sr ewa rd ing i t s e xp lo i ta t ion s i nce " t he e ne rgy c on sumed i n movemen t t o a nd f r om t h e s i te w i l l t e nd t o c ance l o u t t h a t d e r ived f r om t h e r e sou r ce s " ( i b id . ) . T hey q uo te C h i sho lm ( 1968 ,66 ) w ho s ugge s ted t h a t ad i s tance o f 3 -4 k i lome t re s i sd e t r imen ta l t ot h e t a sk i nh and , a nd L ee ( 1968 ) who c l a imed t h a t 1 0k i lome t re sf r om as e t t lemen ti s une conom ic . F lanne ry ( 1976 ,92 ) p rov ide s ac r i t ique o ft h i s a r t ic le i n wh ich t h e a u tho r s s ugge s t t h a t o ne s hou ld d raw c oncen tr ic c i r c le s a round as i te , a nd c a lcu la te t h e s a r ea u sed f o rp a r t icu la rk ind s o fr e sou r ce s . F lanne ry q ue s t ion s t h e a sump t ion s b eh ind t h e i r s y s tem , a nd g ive s e xamp le s o fp ea san t s w ho f a rm l a nd i n av a r ie ty o fe co log ica l z one s . H e s ugge s t s t h a t i na n a r ea o fc hang ing e nv i ronmen t s i ti s s s s s mo re d i ff i cu l t t oa ses i te c a tchmen t ( i b id . ,94 ) . H e s e t s o u tt h er eve r se p roces f o r

d e te rm in ing

s i te

c a tchmen t

b y

s ugge s t ing

t h a t

a r chaeo log i s t s

a nd

e t hnog raphe r s s hou ld e xam ine t h e a c tua l p l an t , a n ima l a nd m ine ra lr ema ins a ta s i te ,t h en a sk t h em se lve sh ow f a rt h e ma te r ia lh a sc ome ( i b id . ,106 ) . Wob s t ( 1978 ,303 ) c r i t ic i se s t h e l i t e ra tu re o n s i te c a tchmen t a na ly s i s r ega rd ing h un te r /ga the re r s :

h e w r i te s " many o f t h e c on s truc t s o f s pace , t ime

a nd b ehav iou r . may b e p a r t ly d e te rm ined b y t h e s eve re c on s t ra in t s o f r e t hnog raph ic f i e ldwo rk " . H ec l a im s t h a t t h et wo h ou rw a lk t e r i to ry ( Lee , 1 968 ) a nd t h e c a tchmen t a r ea ( J a rman e t a l . a r chaeo log i s t 's f i e ld o f v i s ion .

l 1 972 ) a r e a l t h a t i s w i th in t h e

T ime r e s t ra in t s s u ch a s t h e se d o n o t t a ke i n to

sa a ccoun t t h e mode o f t r an spo r t n o r t h e f a c t t h a t t r ip s a r e n o t n eces r i ly c onduc ted o n ad a i ly b a s i s , a nd t h a t i ti sq u i te c ommon f o r p eop le t o s l eep o u t a tn igh t .

6

Ma te r ia l r e sou r ce s a r e o bv iou s ly n eces ry f o r t h e e s tab l i shmen t o f a sa s e t lemen t . t

When t h e se a r e u b iqu i tou s , h oweve r , o the r f a c to r s b ecome

i n c rea s ing ly s i gn if ican t .

I n t h e c a se o f Z aghawa s e t lemen t s t h e r e la t ive t

s i gn if i cance o fs oc ia la nd ma te r ia lf a c to r si sa ses . s s ed 2 i .c . .

C amp s i te s I nt h ef o low ing s e c t ion t h e ma in r e sou r ce s( ma te r ia l ,e conom ic , a nd s oc ia l ) l

a f ec t ing s i te l o ca t ion o f s e a sona l c amp s a r e d i scus , f o lowed b y q ue s t ion s f s ed l r e la t ing t o i nd iv idua l s mak ing u p ac amp , a nd mechan i sm s f o r o b ta in ing i n fo rma t ion a bou t t h e s i tua t ion i n ar eg ion .

se I ta l so a dd res s t h e q ue s t ion s

t r e la t ing t op o te ry ,t r ade a nd e t hn ic i ty . R e sou rce s : Ho le ( 1979 ,200 ) s ugge s t s t h a t t h e u sua l m e thod s o fa r chaeo log ica l s u rvey a r e n o t a dequa te t of i nd t empo ra ry c amp s .

P a s to ra l a nd s e a sona l c r af two rk ing

l c amp s a r e o f ten s i tua ted a way f r om t h e a r ea s w he re v i lage s u rveys a r e c onduc ted ,a nd l a ck t h ea ccumu la t ion o fd eb r i st h a tr e su l t si n mound s . f F a c to r s w h ich a f ec t c amp s i te l o ca t ion a r e e xam ined t o d e te rm ine w ha t t l p a te rn s o f v a r iab le s o ccu r r e la t ive t oc ho ice o f s i te . Ma r sha l ( 1957 ,32 ) s t a te s t h a t ! Kung c amp s i ze a tw a te rho le s v a r ie s a cco rd ing t ot h e c l ima te : i ny ea r s o f d rough t l a rge g roup s g a the r a t t h e w a te rho le s , b u t c amp s a r e mo re d i spe r sed d u r ing ag ood y ea r . B o th O rme ( 1981 ,120 )a nd Le e ( 1976 ,91 )n o te t h a tt h e re a r e n ume rou se xamp le so ft h ep a te rn so fc oncen t ra t ion a nd d i spe r sa l o fp eop le sd ue t t os e a sona l v a r iab i l i ty o fr e sou r ce s , a nd t ho se w ho h ave s t ud ied h un te r /g a the re r p eop le s a g ree t h a t " a c amp i sa n o pen a gg rega te o fc oope ra t ing p e r son s w h ich c hange s i n s i ze a nd c ompo s t ion f r om d ay t o d ay " ( L ee 1 968 ,31 ) .

Wi lm sen

( 1970 ,153 ) n o te s t h a t w ide ly d i s tr ibu ted , s t ab le r e sou r ce s l e ad t o s ma l f am i ly l c o lec t ing u n i t s w he rea s l

t h e re may b e af l uc tua t ing c o lec t ion o f p eop le i n a l

s e t lemen t w he re t h em a jo rr e sou rce i se i the r mob i le o ru neven ly d i s t r ibu ted . t I tw a s n o ted t h a t " i n a n e nv i ronmen t o f s c a te red a nd v a r iab le r e sou r ce s , t a n

o p t imum

s ub s i s tance

s t ra tegy

i s f o r a ny

o rgan i sa t ion

t o b e mob i le

i ndependen t ly o fo t he r s. Ye len a nd H a rpend ing 1 972 ,246 ) . L ee a nd D eVo re . ." ( l ( 1976 ,79 ) p ropo se t h a t w hen c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s a r e u n s tab le a nd c an r egu la r ly c au se d rough t a nd f am ine , a n a nuc lea te o rgan isa t ion i s mo s t s u i tab le f o r r ap id i n fo rma t ion f l ow .

Woodbu rn ( 1968 ,107 ) s ugge s t st h a tt h ew e s te rn i n te l lec tt e nd s 7

t o t r ea t p e rmanen t , s t ab le t i e s a s n o rma l , a nd l oo se i mpe rmanen t t i e s a s a bno rma l . T he c avea t n o t t oi n te rp re t e t hnog raph ic s i tua t ion s s ub jec t ive ly f r om aw e s te rn o u t look i ss ha red b yS ha rp ( 1968 ,158 )a nd L ee a nd D eVo re ( 1 976 ,81 ) . T he f i e ldwo rk i n S udan w a s u nde r taken b o th d u r ing p e r iod s o f a dequa te r a in ( 1982 ) a nd d u r ing d rough t ( 1984 ) .

T hu s i tw a s p os le t o n o te d i f e r ing sib f

m ig ra t ion s t ra teg ie su sed b yt h eZ aghawa u nde rv a ry ing c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s . P e r sonne l : I n a n a temp t t o d ef ine p eop le mak ing u p a camp F lanne ry ( 1976 ) u se s t t e rm s s uch a s ' m ic ro -band ' a nd ' mac ro -band ' ,t h ef o rme rb e ing ac amp i nw h ich 2 -3 h ou seho ld s s t ayed f o r af ew d ay s , w he r ea s t h e l a t te r h ad mo re h ou seho ld s f o r t h e w ho le s e a son .

G iven t h e f l uc tua t ing n a tu re o f c amp p e r sonne l a mong

e sa A f r ican s oc ie t ie s (Woodbu rn 1 968 , L ee 1 968 ) t h i sd i s t inc t ion s em su nneces ry l a nd w i ln o tb eu sed . Woodbu rn ( 1968 ,103 ) t a ke s t h e v i ew t h a t H adza r e s iden t ia l g roup ing s a r e " open ,f l ex ib le a nd h igh ly v a r iab le i nc ompo s i t ion . T hey h ave n oi n s t i tu t iona l i sed l e ade r sh ip , a nd i ndeed n o c o rpo ra te i d en t i ty " . H e i sn o t a l one i n c l a im ing t h a t rec t h e wo rd ' b and ' i sn o t t h e c or t t e rm f o r t h e i nhab i tan t s o f ac amp .

l Y e len

a nd H a rpend ing ( 1972 ,244 ) w r i te t h a t " a b and may b e d ef ined i n t e rm s o f i t s a r ea l f ocu s b u t n o t i nt e rm s o fi t s m embe r sh ip " . T hey c ommen t ( i b id . ,247 ) t h a t . . " un re s t ra ined f am i ly mob i l i ty p e rm i t s a d ju s tmen t s t o . v a r ia t ion s i n r e sou r ce a va i lab i l i ty " a nd t h ey s ugge s t t h a t a n a nuc lea te o rgan i sa t ion i sb e s t f o rt h er ap id f l ow o f i n fo rma t ion .

T h i s i s p a r t icu la r ly i mpo r tan t f o r p eop le l i v ing i n a n

e nv i ronmen t o f u n s tab le o r i r regu la r r e sou r ce s .

T u rnbu l l ( 1968 ,132 )

w r i t ing

a bou t t h e Mbu t i a nd I k s o c ie t ie s o f E a s t A f r ica n o ted t h a t t h e t r an s ien t n a tu re a nd a ppa ren t i n s tab i l i ty o fp e r sonne l a t ac amp s i te i si nf a c t t h e mechan i sm t h a t g ive s

h un te r /ga the re r

s o c ie t ie s

t h e i r

c ohe s ion .

C on s tan t

t r ave l

p rov ide s

f i n fo rma t ion o nt h el o ca t ion o fr e sou r ce si nd i f e ren ta r ea s . H adza c amps l i kew i se , a r e made u p o fg roups t h a t a r e f l ex ib le a nd h igh ly v a r iab le i nc ompo s i t ion (Woodbu rn 1 968 ,103 ) . C amp p e r sonne la r e at empo ra r i ly u n s tab le a gg rega t ion o ff am i l ie s w i th l i nk s o fk in sh ip o r f r iend sh ip , a nd t h e re i s n oo ne w ho e xe r c i se sa u tho r i ty o ve rt h eo the r s .

t A n i nve s t iga t ion w a s u nde r taken i n to t h e p e r sonne l a t Z aghawa p o te ry mak ing c amp s .

T he o b jec t w a s t o d i scove r i fi nd iv idua l s r ema ined t h e w ho le 8

t ime ac amp s i te w a si nu se ,o rw he the rt h ey w e re t r an s ien t . P o te ry a nd e t hn ic i ty : t P o te ry f o rm a nd d eco ra t ion h ave b een u sed f o r a tl e a s t h a lf ac en tu ry f o r t t h e d iv i s ion o ft h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd i n to c u l tu ra l o re t hn ic g roup s ( Renf rew 1 977 ,4 ) . A rchaeo log i s t s made c onven t iona la sump t ion s f r om t h e i re xam ina t ion s o f e xcava ted p o te ry r ema in s ; t

i nc e r ta in c a se s t h e p opu la t ion w a s n amed a f te r

t h ep o te ry ( e .g . R e i sne r 's ' C ' g roup p eop le i nS udan ; A rke l 1 961 ,18 ) t l

o ri tw a s

a sumed t h a t v i lage s w i th l i t le o u t s ide c on tac t p roduced s t y l i s t ica ly d i s t inc t s l t l p o te ry . t

Mo re r e cen t ly e t hnoa r chaeo log i s t s h ave t u rned t h e i r a ten t ion t o t h e t

p rob lem o f c e ram ic a semb lage a nd e t hn ic f i t s

w i th t h e a im o f d e te rm in ing t o

w ha t e x ten t ma te r ia l c u l tu re r ef l ec t s e t hn ic a ff i l ia t ion ( e g . C ros nd sland a P o snan sky 1 978 ) . R ev iew s o fc or la t ion s b e tween ma te r ia l c u l tu re a nd s oc ie ty re h ave b een p ub l i shed b y Ma ck ( 1982 ) , a nd Hodde r ( 1978 ) w ho c onc luded t h a t s o c ie t ie s

a r e

s o

c omp lex

t h a t

o ne

c anno t

w i th

a ny

c onf idence

r e la te

a r chaeo log ica lc u l tu re st oo the ra spec t so fs oc ia ll i f e . T he u se o f c e ram ic a semb lage s t o s ugge s t e t hn ic i ty m igh t b e j u s t if ied s among s uch c ommun it ie s a s : t h e I r oquo i s I nd ian s ( Enge lb rech t 1 978 ,45 ) ;

t h e

T a ra scan c ommun i ty i n Mex ico ( Ha rd in 1 979 ,95 ) ; a nd a l so t h eB e rbe rp eop le si n N or th A f r ica ( Ba l f e t 1 981 ) . Among t h e se c ommun i t ie s ac hange i n c e ram ic d eco ra t ion o r s t y le m igh t i nd ica te a d i f e r ence i n v i lage , r eg ion o r s i te . f l

I n

e a ch o f t h e a bove c a se s t h e e t hn ic g roup t h a t make s t h e p o te ry a l so u se s i t . t H oweve r , H e rb ich ( 1987 ) d o cumen t s p o te ry mak ing a mong t h e L uo o fK enya . t T he s oc ie ty i s p a t r i l inea l , a nd w omen l e a rn t o make p o te ry f r om t h e i r t mo the r s in law

w ho h ave a l so c ome f r om o u t s ide t h e c ommun i ty .

T he r e ,

w omen p o te r s p romo te t h e c e ram ic s t y le o ft h e p a t r i l inea l g roup . T he s i tua t ion t i nD a r fu r , S udan i s mo re c omp lex . P o te ry f r om s eve ra le t hn ic g roup si nD a r fu r t i se xam ined t od e te rm ine w he the r , o r t ow ha te x ten t , p o te ry c an b e u sed a sa n t i ndex o fe t hn ic i d en t i ty .

9

i 2 . i .

l I n t ra -v i lage S pa t ia l O rgan i sa t ion

l F ou r a r ea s a r e c on s ide red w i th in t h e s ub jec t o f i n t ra -v i lage s p a t ia l o rgan i sa t ion w h ich i n c lude : -t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween k i nsh ip a nd a r ch i tec tu ra l s t ruc tu re s ; sion c -ad i scus en t red a r ound t h e u n i t o f a na ly s i s ( j e . t h e h ou se a nd t h eh ou seho ld ) ; l -t h e f unc t ion o f ad we l ing , a s a n i ndex o f s oc ia l b ehav iou r o r a s a s he l te rf o rd ome s t ic a nd e conom ic a c t iv i t ie s ; s s en l -a n a sesm t o f t h e e x ten t t o w h ich a d we l ing c an b e u sed t o e s t ima te p opu la t ion . i 2 . i .a .

l K in sh ip a nd d we l ing s

t T he d a ta o n s eden ta ry s e t lemen to ft h eZ aghawa B lack sm i th si sb a sed o n a l s t udy o fo ne v i lage i nD a r fu r . D a ta o nm ic ro leve l s pa t ia l o rgan i sa t ion h a s b een s e t o u t o n t wo l e ve l s . T he f i r s t e xam ine s t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween k in sh ip a nd l a c tua l h ou se o r c ompound p o s i t ion i n t h e v i lage .

T he s e cond e xam ine s t h e

r e la t ion sh ip b e tween d ome s t ic s t ruc tu re sa nd s o c ia l o rgan i sa t ion , t od e te rm ine t o w ha t e x ten t t h e r ema in s o fb u i ld ing s a nd t h e i r c on ten t s c an b e u sed a sa n i ndex o ft h ep opu la t ion . s ed b O ne o f t h e p rob lem s a dd res y e t hnoa rchaeo log i s t s i s t o d e t e rm ine s s ed i w he the rr e s idence a nd k i n sh ip a soc ia t ion c an b ee xp res nt h ea r cha eo log ica l l r e co rd ( e .g . D ee tz 1 967 , 9 4 ; T re tyakov 1 934 ; C h i lde 1 943 ; a nd A len a nd R icha rd son 1 971 ) .

t Wh i t ing a nd Ay re s ( 1968 ,128 ) a temp t t o d e te rm ine s oc ia l

l i n f luence f r om t h e s hape o f d we l ing s .

T hey make t h e i n te re s t ing s ugge s t ion

s t h a t t h e re may b e a n a soc ia t ion b e tween p rema r i ta l s ex , p a t r i loca l s oc ie t ie s a nd r ound h ou se s .

sion o Howeve r , ad i scus f t h i s a spec t o f t h e t op ic i sc on s ide red

b eyond t h e s cope o f t h i s v o lume .

T he r e con s t ruc t ion o f r e s idence a nd k i n sh ip

t re p a te rn s c an b e m i s lead ing , f o r t h e re i sa la ck o f c or spondence b e tween t h e l i d ea l so f as o c ie ty a nd i t s a c tua lf unc t ion ing . F u r the rmo r e A len a nd R icha rd son ( 1971 ,51 ) s ugge s t t h a t t h e a na ly s i s o f d e s cen t s y s tem s f r om t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd i s" an u nob ta inab le l u xu ry " .

1 0

i 2 . i .b .

U n i to fa na ly s i s : h ou se o rh ou seho ld?

W i lk ( 1983 ) make s at e rm ino log ica l d i s t inc t ion b e tween t h e h ouseho ld a sa s oc ia lg roup a nd t h ea r te f ac ti nw h ich t h es oc ia lg roup r e s ide s . Woodbu rn ( 1968 ) u se s t h e p h ra se ' s imp le r e s iden t ia l u n i t ' t o d e sc r ibe g roup ing s i n c amp s r a the r s t h an t h el e sn eu t ra lt e rm ' hou seho ld ' . F lanne ry ( 1976 ,5 ) l d we l ing s .

i s c once rned w i th t h e u se o f s pa ce i n i nd iv idua l

H e d iv ide s E a r ly Me soame r ican s e t lemen t s i n to a n umb e r o f t

o b se rvab le u n i t s : t h ea c t iv i ty a r ea ; f e a tu re sw h ich i n c lude ' non -po r tab le f a c i l i t ie s ' s uch a s h ea r th s a nd g r a in s s t o rage a r ea s . H i s l a rge s t u n i t i st h e ' hou se ' , a nd t h en t h e ' hou seho ld c l u s te r ' . T h i s i n c lude s t h e h ou se i t se lf a nd t h e a soc ia ted s f e a tu re s s uch a s m idden s a nd b u r ia l s .

H e s ugge s t s t h a t a r chaeo log i s t s s hou ld ,

w hen e xcava t ing , a lway s t r y t o f i nd t h e f e a tu re s a soc ia ted w i th a hou se a nd s h ou seho ld c l u s te r( i b id . ,15 ) . Ah ou seho ld c an b ed i s t ingu i shed b yi n te rp re t ing t h e u se o fe qu ipmen t a nd n o t ing t h e p a r t i t ion s w h ich s epa ra te h ou seho ld s ( T r igge r 1 968 ,58 ; C hang 1 958 ) . I n t h e t e x t t h e t e rm ' s imp le r e s iden t ia l u n i t ' i su sed t o d e sc r ibe o ne o r mo re p e r son sl i v ing i n ad we l ing . l 2 . i .c . i

F unc t ion o f ad we l ing : s o c ia lo r ma te r ia l? l

McGu i re a nd S ch if r( 1983 ,280 )d ef ine t h eb a s ic f unc t ion o fa r ch i tec tu re a s fe med ia t ing b e tween p eop le , t h e i r a r te fa c t s , a nd t h e n a tu ra l e nv i ronmen t . I ta l so d iv ide s s pa ce s o t h a t t h e v a r iou s s oc ia l u n i t s c an c a ry o u t t h e i r a c t iv i t ie s ( s ee r a l so S ch if r 1 972 ) . T hey d i scus h es ymbo l ic f unc t ion so fb u i ld ing s , s ugge s t ing fe s t t h a t t h e se d o i n s ome c a se s , " l ead i nd iv idua l s a nd s oc ia l g roups t o make i nve s tmen t s i n a r ch i tec tu re b eyond o r i n s p i te o f a b u i ld ing 's u t i l i ta r ian r equ i remen t s " ( i b id . ,281 ) . T hey c on t inue : " t he s t ruc tu ra li nve s tmen ti ns ymbo l ic f unc t ion s i n c rea se s i n r e spon se t o g rea te r s oc ia l d i f e ren t ia t ion " ( i b id . ) . f

I ti s

u nc lea r w ha t i sm ean t b y s oc ia l d i f e ren t ia t ion : t h e t e rm m igh t r e f e r t ow ea l th , f p owe r , s t a tu s , l i f e c yc le , o r a ge g rade . T he s oc ia l i n equa l i ty r e f e r ed t os em s t o e r e f e r t o w ea l th o n ly . g roups

h ave

l i t le t

McGu i re a nd S ch if r a l so s ugge s t t h a t h igh ly mob i le fe s oc ia l

d i f e ren t ia t ion a r ch i te c tu ra ly . f l

i n equa l i ty

a nd

l i t le t

n eed

t o

e xp res s

s oc ia l

A ppa ren t ly t h e d ef in i t ion o f ' u t i l i ta r ian ' a su sed

h e re i s as ub jec t ive w e s te rn i n te rp re ta t ion .

H oweve r , t h e p h ra se ' u t i l i ta r ian

r equ i remen t s ' s hou ld a u toma t ica ly c ove rt h e s ymbo l ic d imen s ion s o f ab u i ld ing l ( O l ive r 1 975 ; Wi lk 1 983 ,99 ; Wa l ton 1 975 ) .

1

t I n a n a temp t t o d emon s t ra te t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e s ymbo l ic d imens ion s o f h ou se s r e la t ive t ot h e e conom ic b a s i s o f t h e s o c ia l s y s tem , W i lk ( 1983 ,113 ) s ugge s t s t wo m e thod s o fv i ew ing as o c ie ty : t h e K ekch i h e s ay s h ave f " concea led s o c ia l d i f e rence s , t h ey h ave a c l o sed e conomy a nd t h ough t h e i r f h ou se s v a ry w ide ly i n s i ze , t h ey d o n o t d i f e r i n q uan t i ty , b a s ic p lan o r f u rn ish ing s " . I nc on t ra s t , t h e i rn e ighbou r st h e Mopon ,h ave a ne conomy w he reby t h ey o b ta in w ea l th w i thou t d epend ing o n a i d a nd c oope ra t ion f r om o t he r l v i lage r s . T he i r h ou se s v a ry i ns i ze a nd i nt h e i rv i s ib le q ua l i ty . T he i n hab i tan t s l o f t h e f i e ldwo rk v i lage i n D a r fu r a r e mo re s im i la r t o t h e K ek ch i w i th t h e i r s y s tem o f r e c ip ro c i ty ( c .f . H a le s 1 979 ) .

O n t h e s ub jec t o fr e c ip roc i ty a q uo te

f r om Woodbu rn ( 1968 ,53 )i s re levan t : " mea ts hou ld b es ha red w i th t ho se w ho a sk f o r i t . T o e a t mea t s l ow ly , t op re se rve i ta nd s t o re i tw ou ld b e l a rge ly w a s ted f e fo r t : o the rp eop le w ou ld s imp ly d emand mea tw hen t h e i ro wn w a sf i n ished a nd i t wou ld b e w rong t o r e fu se t h em " . H e w r i te s a bou t t h e H adza b u t s im i la r l s en t imen t sr ega rd ing f ood c an b ef ound i n many s ma lc ommun i t ie sw he the rt h ey a r eh un te r /ga the re ro rs eden ta ry . Wi lk ( 1983 ,99 ) s ugge s t st h a t al a rge rh ou se m igh t mean al a rge rh ou seho ld , a highe r s t a tu s , o r t h a t i tw a s o ccup ied b y t h o se l i v ing l o nge r a ta si te .

T he

p eop le h e s t ud ied , t h e K ek ch i , d en ied t h a t t h e s i ze o f ah ou se w a s a n i nd ica t ion o fw ea l th , s t a tu s o r p owe r , r a the r , t h a t t h e s i ze o f aman 's h e rd o fp i g s w a s t h e mo s t a ccu ra te i nd ica to r o f w ea l th ( i b id . ,103 ) .

T he K ekch i d o n o t h ave a n

e ga l i ta r ian s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion , b u t a r e r anked a cco rd ing t o a ge , a nd t o t h e i r r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e h ou seho ld c l u s te rh ead . W i lk ( i b id . ,110 ) n o te s t h a tt hough f ring s oc ia l d i f e ren t ia t ion i sn ow o ccur , d i ff e r ence s i nw ea l th h ave n o t y e t b een i n s t i tu t iona l i sed . t Z aghawa s e t lemen t s a r e e xam ined t o d e te rm ine t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween l t h es t ruc tu re o f ad we l ing a nd t h es o c ia lo rgan i sa t ion o ft h ei nhab i tan t s .

1 2

2 . i .d . i

Dwe l ing sa nd p opu la t ion e s t ima te s l

T he d i scus n m e thod s o f e s t ima t ing p opu la t ion i n as e t lemen t h a s sion o t r e ce ived much a ten t ion , a nd a rev iew o f a rgumen t s r e la t ing t o t h e t o p ic a r e t p re sen ted h e re . H as 1981 ) r ev iew s t h e v a r iou s m e thod s d ev i sed b y a r chaeo log i s t s t o s an ( a na ly se t h e s i ze o f p opu la t ion , a nd h e s ay s t h a t t h e re i s a n u nde r ly ing s re t a sump t ion t h a t t h e r e i s ac or la t ion b e tween p opu la t ion s i ze a nd s e t lemen t s pa ce .

F rank fo r t ( 1950 ) w a s t h e f i r s t t o p u t f o rwa rd t h e p e r son -pe r room

a pp roach .

N a ro l ( 1962 ,588 ) t ook i t up a nd s ugge s ted t h a t " t he p opu la t ion o fa l

p reh i s to r ic s e t lemen t c an b e v e ry r ough ly e s t ima ted b y a r chaeo log i s t s a so ft h e t o rde r o fo ne ten th o f t h e f l oo r a r ea i n s qua re m e t re s o ccup ied b y i t s d we l ing s . l A t B roken K P ueb lo , H i l ( 1968 ) u sed af i gu re o f 1 . 7 p e r sons p e rr oom , a nd a t l G ras r P ueb lo , L ongac re ( 1976 ) u sed 2 . 88 p e r son s p e r r oom . s hoppe ( 1981 ,74 ,f ig .6 ,7 )

H as s an

c ompa re s t h e se v a r iou s mode l s o f r e la t ion sh ip b e tween

p opu la t ion s i ze a nd h ab i ta t ion . T he i mpo r tance o f u se o f r oof ed a r ea f o r p opu la t ion a na ly s i s a so ppo sed t ou n roo fed a r ea h a s a l so b een n o ted b y K rame r ( 1979 , 1 55 ) , C ook a nd H e ize r( 1968 ) , a nd L eB lanc ( 1971 ,210 ) . T he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween h ou se s , s e t lemen t a r ea s a nd p opu la t ion h a sb een t s u rveyed i nC a l ifo rn ia ( Cook a nd H e ize r 1 968 ) ; i nF a r s p rov ince I r an ( Sumne r 1 979 ) ; a nd a l so i n I r an b y J a cob s ( 1979 ) a nd K rame r ( 1979 ) .

I n t h e p a s t a

p opu la t ion d en s i ty o f 1 00 -200 p eop le p e r h ec ta re w a s q uo ted , b u t t h e t o le rance o f ag i ven p opu la t ion t oo ve r c rowd ing i si t se lf v a r iab le ( Sumne r 1 979 ,168 ) . I t is u nc lea r h ow much t h e se p opu la t ion e s t ima te sr e la te t ot o ta l r oo fed a r ea o r t o ta l c ompound a r ea , o r w he the r t h e e pheme ra l q ua l i ty o f t empo ra ry s t ruc tu re s w a s t a ken i n to a ccoun t . K rame r 's p ape rd oe sa n swe rt h i sq ue s t ion ; f r om h e ra na ly s i s o f aK u rd i sh v i lage i n I r an , s he n o te s t h a t c ou r tya rd s u r fa ce s c ou ld b e l d i s t ingu i shed f r om a ley s a nd c ommon g round . S he e xam ine s whe the rd ome s t ic l a r ch i tec tu re r ef lec t s v a r iab i l i ty i n e conom ic s t a tu s a nd i n t h e n umbe r a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e v i lage i n hab i tan t s ( K rame r 1 979 ,149 ) . l

S he f ound n o

s i gn if i can tr e la t ion sh ip b e tween w ea l th a nd p opu la t ion d en s i ty , a nd c ame u pw i th af i gu re o f9 . 75 s qua re me t re so fc ove red d we l ing s pace p e rp e r son ( i b id . ,155 ) . l J a cob s ( 1979 ,188 ) s e t s o u t s ome i n te re s t ing f i gu re s f r om h e rs t udy a tT e li l N un i nI r an . S he f ound t h a ti n av i lage u nde rgo ing c hange , t h em ean h ou seho ld l 1 3

s i ze i n n ew c ompound s w a s 4 . 8 a s a ga in s t 8 . 75 p eop le i n t h e o lde r p a r t o f t h e l v i lage .

S he s ugge s t s t h a t a n a r chaeo log i s t c om ing u p w i th t h e se t wo s e t s o f

s, o f i gu r e s m igh t t h ink e i the r t h a t t h e re w a s a n e l i te c l as r t h a t t h e t wo p a r t s o f l t h e v i lage w e re n o t c on tempo raneou s ly i nhab i ted o r t h a t

o ne c u l tu re m igh t

l s s h ave d ive r se s e a sona l d we l ing s b u t h ave t h e s ame c l as t ruc tu re a nd e conom ic s t ra teg ie s( i b id . ) . O rme

( 1981 ,93 )

s ugge s t s t h a t a r chaeo log is t s

e s t ima te s b a sed o n t o ta l f l oo r s pa ce w i th c au t ion ,

s hou ld t r ea t p opu la t ion s i nce t h e n umbe r o f

s t ruc tu re s f ound a nd t h e f e a tu re s , s uch a s h ea r th s c ou ld b e m i s lead ing , a nd n o t s an ( e ve ry s t ruc tu re i si n hab i ted c on tempo raneou s ly . H as 1981 ,64 ) a nd Ma r cu s t ( 1976 ,82 ) a l so n o te t h a to the rf a c to r s i n f luence s e t lemen t s pace s uch a st h e s i ze o f t h e s i te , t h e p e r iod i tw a s o ccup ied , t h e n umbe r a nd r a te o fr ep la cemen t o f l dwe l ing u n i t s .

re T he c or la t ion s b e tween r aw ma te r ia l s , s t ruc tu re s , a nd s o c ia l

f a c to r s a r e c omp lex , a nd Onne ( 1981 ,91 ) make s o ne p a r t icu la r ly i n te re s t ing c ommen t : f r ee s t and ing h u t s a s o ne f i nd s i n A f r ica

s hou ld b e r ega rded a s a

d i spe r sed h ou se o f as i ng le r e s iden t ia l u n i t a nd n o t a s s epa ra te h ou se s ( o r f h ou seho ld s ) i nt h e i r own r i gh t . S he t e rm s t h e d i f e ren t h ou se s t y le s ' d i spe r sed ' a nd ' n uc lea ted ' . S uch ac oncep ti sp e r t inen ta mong t h er u ra lZ aghawa c ommun i ty i nD a r fu r , w he re

n uc lea r f am i l ie s

l i ve

i n c ompound s

i n w h ich

t h e re

a r e

s e ve ra l

f r ee -s tand ing h ou se s , e ach s e rv ing ap a r t icu la r f unc t ion . T h i s c an b e c on t ra s ted f t o E u ropean o r e ven u rban S udane se r e s idence s , whe re r oom s o f d i f e ren t f unc t ion

a r e a d jo in ing .

I t i s c ommon f o r t ho se a na ly s ing s t ruc tu r e s t o

s sing t d e te rm ine p opu la t ion n umb e r s o n ly b y a ses h e d imen s ion s o f t h e c ove red s pace i n r e la t ion t o t h e n umbe r o f i nhab i tan t s ( e .g . C ook a nd H e ize r 1 968 ,83 ; l se ry 1 N a ro l 1 962 ; a nd C as lber 974 ) . k insh ip o r s o c ia l a ff in i t ie s .

t re F ew a temp t t o c or la te t h e s pa ce w i th

D av id ( 1971 ,119 ) n o te s t h a t a n th ropo log i s t s w ho

sion o s t udy k in sh ip a nd s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion r a re ly d e sc r ibe t h e e xp res f t h i s v a r ia t ion i n t e rm s o f s t ruc tu re s .

I n t h e t e x t , t h e a ccu ra cy o f a r chaeo log i s t s '

p opu la t ion e s t ima te s b a sed o n e x t rapo la t ion i sq ue s t ioned . Z aghawa r e s iden t ia l e s s en u n i t s a r ee xam ined t os ew he the r amo r ev a l id f o rm o fa sesm tc an b e made .

1 4

2 . i i i .

I nd iv idua l S t ruc tu re s

2 . i .a . H ou se d e s ign a nd s eden t i sm i i I n t h e f o low ing p a rag raph s f a c to r s a f ec t ing t h e d e s ign o f i nd ivdua l l f d we l l ing s a r e e xam ined i no rde r t od ef ine w ha t e f f ec t r aw ma te r ia l s o rf unc t ion h ave o n h ou se c on s truc t ion .

Q ue s t ion s o f t h i s n a tu re h ave b een a i red b y

McGu i re a nd S ch if r( 1983 ,278 )w ho p re sen t ab a s ic t h eo ry t oe xp la in t h ed e s ign fe o f v e rna cu la r s t ruc tu re s .

I n t h e i r p ape r t h ey i d en t ify g ene ra l c au sa l f a c to r s a nd

re t h e i n ter la t ion sh ip s t h a t i nf luence d ec i s ion s l e ad ing t o t h e d e s ign s o f s pec if ic s t ruc tu re s . A rchaeo log i s t s e xam ine t h e e nd p roduc t o f d e s ign , t h a t i st h e s i ze , s hape a nd ma te r ia l o f as t ruc tu re , a nd " g iven t h e w ide l im i t s s e t b y t e chno logy t a nd a va i lab le ma te r ia l s , i n ve s t iga to r s mu s t p ay s pec ia l a ten t ion t o t h e s oc ia l s o l l p roces fd e s ign t h a td e te rm ine s w he re , w i th in t h e l im i t s , c ho ice s a c tua ly f a l ," ( i b id . ) . T he u se o f t h e s hape o f a re s idence a s a n i ndex o f t h e p opu la t ion h a s fe g iven r i se t o s ome c ommen t ; McGu i re a nd S ch if r ( 1983 ,285 ) s ugge s t t h a t a r ound h ou se w i th ad omed r oo fi sa n i ndex o f amob i le s o c ie ty , a nd t h a ti n mo re l l ong -li ved v i lage s , r e c tangu la r s t ruc tu re s c an g row a l ong w i th t h e e xpand ing s oc ia l u n i t .

r R obb in s ( 1966 ) c a r ied o u t ag ene ra l r ev iew o f e t hnog raph ic

l i t e ra tu re a nd c ame t o t h e s ame c onc lu s ion .

fe T h i s v i ew i se choed b y R af r ty

( 1985 ,130 ) R apopo r t ( 1969 , a nd 1 976 ) a nd

Wh i t ing a nd A y re s ( 1968 ,124 ) .

e F lanne ry ( 1972 ,47 ) s e s t h e i n hab i tan t s g o ing t h rough a' c i rcu la rh u tc ompound s t age ' a s t hough i tw a s a lway s a tempo ra ry l e ve l o f h ab i ta t ion o f u n s t ra t if i ed s oc ie t ie s o n t h e i r w ay t ob ecom ing s t ra t if ied . H e n o te s t h a tp eop le s w ho l i ve i n r ound h ou se sh ave s im i la rl e ve l so fw ea l th , w he rea sp eop le i nr e c tangu la rh ou se s p a r take i ns e lec t ive s ha r ing . S ome s ugge s t t h a t t h e mo re n omad ic s o c ie t ie s t e nd t ol i ve i nh ou se s w i th fe r ound f l oo rp lans ( Robb in s1 966 ; Wh i t ing a nd Ay re s1 968 ;R af r ty 1 985 ; McGu i r e fe a nd S ch if r 1 983 ) .

t T he l a te r s ugge s t t h a t mob i le s oc ie t ie s h ave l ow s oc ia l

l s i n equa l i ty ( 1983 , 2 84 ) . T hey a l so n o te t h a tc i rcu la r dwe l ing s a r el e ss ub s tan t ia l t h an r e c tangu la r o ne s , a nd a r e mo re l i ke ly t o b e a cl o se

i ndex o f t h e s o c ia l

u n i t , s i nce t h e u se l i f e o f r e c tangu la r s t ruc tu re s e xceed s t h e l i f e span o f t h e h ou seho ld s( i b id . ,287 ) .

1 5

McGu i re a nd S ch if r ( 1983 ,285 ) s ugge s t t h a t v i lage s w i th r e c tangu la r fe l s t ruc tu re sc an g row a l ong w i th t h ee xpand ing s o c ia lu n i t . H oweve r , O rme ( 1981 , 9 1 ) c on s ide r s t h a t r e c tangu la r h ou se s f o rm p a r t o f a nuc lea ted dwe l ing , w h i le l r ound o ne s f o rm p a r t o f ad i spe r sed d we l ing . I nt h is w ay b o th r e c tangu la r a nd l r ound h ou se c an e xpand w i th t h e s o c ia l u n i t : t h e f o rme r b y t h e a dd i t ion o f a j o in ing r oom s , a nd t h e l a te r b y mo re i s o la ted h ou se s b e ing b u i l t w i th in t h e t h ou seho ld c l u s te r . 2 . i .b . S o c ia lo rgan i sa t ion i i I ti sw ide ly a ccep ted t h a t d ome s t ic a r ch i te c tu re c an i nd ica te t h e l i f e c yc le o fi t si n hab i tan t s( K rame r1 979 ,155 ;D iva le 1 977 ;H ea lan 1 977 ; Wa t son 1 978 ) . I n s p i te o f t h e f a c t t h a t W i ley ( 1956 ) n o te s t h a t l

" s e t lemen t s a r e amo r e d i r ec t t

r e f lec t ion o f s oc ia l a nd e conom ic a c t iv i t ie s t h an a r e mo s t o the r a s pec t s o f ma te r ia l c u l tu re a va i lab le t o t h e a r chaeo log i s t " d e ta i led s t ud ie s o n s i ng le s t ruc tu re s , s uch a s t ho se o f R obb in s ( 1966 ) a nd D av id ( 1971 ) , a r e s c a r ce .

A

r ev iew o f t h e l i t e ra tu re o n p hy s ica l r ema in s o f h uman s e t lemen t i sg i ven b y t P a r son s ( 1972 ) , i nw h ich h e t r ace s t h e h i s to r ica l d eve lopmen t o ft h e c oncep t o f s e t lemen t p a ter n s i n a r chaeo logy a nd e s t ima te s s ome o f t h e k ey p rob lem s t t f a c ing t ho se w o rk ing i nt h i sf i e ld ( s ee a l so T r igge r 1 976 , 1 67 -193 ) . W i th r ega rd t ot h eu se o fs pace w i th in ac ompound ,W i lk ( 1983 ,105 ) w r i te s f l t h a t p eop le h ave d i f e ren t n o t ion s o f p r iva cy , t h a t a r e n o t e nfo r ced b y w a l s , b u t b y s oc ia l c onven t ion .

fe O n t h i s t h eme McGu i re a nd S ch if r ( 1983 ,285 ) a l so

c ommen t t h a t " p r ivacy , d ef ined a s c on t ro l o f u nwan ted s o c ia l i n te ra c t ion , i sa l c u l tu ra ly v a r iab le c oncep t , " a nd t h a t " when t h e c ompo s i t ion o r s i ze o f s oc ia l u n i t s c hange s , t h e i r a c t iv i t ie s ( a nd t h u s r equ i remen t s f o r s pace ) o f ten a l so c hange " .

t T h i s l a te r q uo te i n p a r t icu la r , i sp e r t inen t t o t h e d a ta s e t o u t i n

C hap te r F ou r o n m ic ro leve l s pa t ia l o rgan isa t ion . T he d ome s t ic a r ch i te c tu re o f s s w Z aghawa B lack sm i ths i se xam ined t oa ses he the r i t can b e u sed a sa n i ndex o ft h eo ccupan t s ' s o c ia lo rgan i sa t ion .

1 6

i i 2 . i .c .

T echno logy a nd c on s t ruc t ion

A d emon s t ra t ion o f t h e c omp lex i n te rp lay b e tween t h e c ha rac te r i s t ics o f l r aw ma te r ia l s , t e chno log ica l s k i l s a nd s o c ia l f a c to r s i nd ome s t ic b u i ld ing , i ss e t e o u t b y H odge s ( 1972 ,523 ) w ho c onc lude s t h a t s o c ia l h ab i t s s em t oh ave much mo re i n f luence o n t h e s t y le a nd s hape o fb u i ld ing t h an a c tua l b u i ld ing ma te r ia ls . T h i s v i ew i sr e in fo r ced b y O l ive r ( 1975 ,12 ) w ho p re sen t s as e r ie s o f s t ud ie s lu i s t ra t ing t h e i n te rna l s y s tem s o f t hough t , mo t iva t ion , s oc ia l s t ruc tu re , mo ra l s a nd c ode s o f b ehav iou r o f as oc ie ty .

H e c l a im s t h a t t hough p eop le " may b e

c on s t ra ined b y t h e a va i lab l i ty o f ma te r ia l s , o r t h e s u i tab l i ty o f t h e s t ruc tu re t o w i th s tand t h e c l ima te , the s ymbo l ic c onno ta t ion s t a ke p recedence o ve r r e sou r ce s o rc om fo r t " ( i b id . ) . Much o ft h e h ou s ing i nK i reyka v i l lage i so fu nf i red mud b r ick .

Mc In to sh

( 1974 ; 1 977 ,185 )h a s made s eve ra ls t ud ie so f mud w a ld ecay i n We s tA f r ica ,a nd l h e h a s e xpe r imen ted w i th t e chn ique s o f e xcava t ing t h em t hough h e s ay s t h a t " t he e xcava t ion o f u nmod if ied mud w a l l ing r ema in s o ne o f t h e a r chaeo log i s t 's mo s t p e r s i s tan t ly f r u s t ra t ing a nd t h ank les s t a sk s " .

H e c ompa re s a r ch i tec tu ra l

c ons t ra in t s n o ted a tt h e s i te o f B egho a nd w i th t ho se a tt h e mode rn v i l lage o f H an i .

H i s p ape r d e sc r ibe s m echan ica l t e s t s wh ich c an b e u sed t o d e te rm ine

t l l ' i nv i s ib le ' a r ch i tec tu ra lp a te rn sa nd w a lc o lapse ( i b id . ,187 ) .

3 . I SSUES RELEVANT TO THE PRESENT S TUDY . 3 i .

l Ma c ro leve l : R eg iona lD i s t r ibu t ion o fV i lage a nd C amp s

Du r ing t h e 1 984 /85 f i e ld t r ip t h ep opu la t ion w e re s uf f e r ing d ep r iva t ion d ue t o s ucce s ive y ea r s o f d rough t .

sib A t t h a t t ime i tw a s p os le t o o b se rve t h e

t d eve lopmen to fa l te rna t ive c ho ice so fe conom ic a nd s e t lemen ts t ra tegy c ompa r ed t o p e r iod s o f p l en ty .

T he Z aghawa B la ck sm i th c ommun i ty w a s e xam ined t o

t d e te rm ine t h e d eg ree o ff l u id i ty o fs e t lemen t , b o th i ns e a sona l c amp s a nd i nt h e l p ermanen t v i lage . ' p lace ' .

' Popu la t ion ' w a s u sed a s t h e u n ify ing f a c to r r a the r t h an

S im i la r ly t h o se w ho s t udy mob i le p opu la t ion s s uch a sh un te r /ga the re r s

t l b a se t h e i r a na ly s i so n t h ep eop le a nd t h e i rs e t lemen t s ( e g . Y e len 1 977 ; L ee a nd l D eVo re 1 976 ) . O b se rva t ion s o f ma te r ia l f r om t h is c ommun i ty w i l a dd t o t h e d a taba se o fk now ledge , s i nce t h eZ aghawa a r ea ne xamp le o f af l u id , ' s eden ta ry ' 1 7

s oc ie ty , w ho d o n o t c onfo rm t o t h e t r ad i t iona l c a tego r ie s c on s ide r ed b y a r chaeo log i s t s . U s ing d a ta f r om s e a sona l

s s i te s t h i s p ape r e xam ine s t h e i sue

' i nconven ience ' r egad ing d i s tance o f r e sou r ce s f r om a s i te .

o f

s se I ta l so a ses s

l s o c ia l a nd p hy s ica l f a c to r s a s w e l a s ma te r ia l r e sou r ce s a s d e te rm inan t s o f s i te l o ca t ion .

l I th a s b een s ugge s ted t h a t s t ab le r e sou r ce s a l t h e y ea rr ound l e ad s t o

l l v i lage f o rma t ion , a nd s e a sona ly s t ab le r e sou r ce sl e ad st oy ea r ly m ig ra t ion . T h i s h igh l igh t s q ue s t ions r e la t ing t ot h e c ho ice o fa r ea a nd t h e r e la t ion sh ips b e tween t ho se w ho a r e mob i le a nd t h e mo re s eden ta ry h o s t p opu la t ion .

N ume rou s

e xp lana t ion s h ave b een s ugge s ted o n t h e t o p ic o fs i te c a t chmen t a nd t h e se r a nge f r om t h e p re sence o f l a nd , w a te r , b u i ld ing ma te r ia l s , p rox im i ty t o t r ade r ou te s , me thod s o f t r an spo r ta t ion , p ro tec t ion a ga in s t e nem ie s , a nd s e rv ice s

( r e l ig iou s ,

e duca t iona l , a dm in i s t ra t ive , a nd t r ade ) . l T he v i lage o fK i reyka , s e lec ted t op rov ide d a ta ,i su nu sua l . Du r ing t h ed ry s e a son mo s t o f t h e p opu la t ion m ig ra te c on s ide rab le d i s tance s ( up t o 2 00 km s t hough s ome men t r ave l much f u r the r ) . T h i sm ean st h a t g ood sf ound o n t h e s i te l may c ome f r om av e ry w ide a r ea i ndeed . F ur the rmo re i tw i lb ecome c l ea rf r om t d a ta g i ven h e re o n s e a sona l s e t lemen t t h a t t h e empha s i s r e la t ing m a te r ia l r ow a r e sou r ce s t o s i te p o s i t ion i sr a the r n ar nd o the r s oc ia l a nd p hy s ica l f a c to r s l a r ee qua ly i mpo r tan t . f V ar iab le s a f ec t ing c amp s i te l o ca t ion a r e e xp lo red . B lack sm i th s h ave a s y s tem o f s e a sona l m ig ra t ion , a nd

T he Z aghawa

t h e p ape r a pp roache s

s se q ue s t ion sr e la t ing t og roup c ompo s i t ion a nd v a r iab i l i ty . I ta ses s whe the rt h e i r t m ig ra t ion p a te rn s a r e r i g id o r f l uc tua t ing , a nd s ugge s t s r ea son s f o r t h e v a r iab i l i ty .

l I te xam ine s t h e m echan i sm s t h a t a low i n fo rma t ion f l ow .

I ts e t s

o u t w h ich f a c to r s make a g roup c hoo se a p a r t icu la r s i te , w he the r f o r t h e e s tab l i shmen t

t o f ap e rmanen t s e t lemen t o r f o r s e a sona l h ab i ta t ion .

I t

t e s tab l i she s w he the r t h e re i s ad ef ined p a te rn t o t h e movemen t s o f Z aghawa B lack sm i th s , o r w he the r t h ey c oncen t ra te a nd d i spe r se l i ke h un te r /ga the re r s d ue t ot h ep reva len tc l ima t ic c ond i t ion s . As u rvey i s made o ft h ec ompo s i t ion o ft h e Z aghawa B la ck sm i th c amp , t o d e te rm ine w he the r i ti s made u p o f ag roup o f k in w i th a l e ade r h av ing a u tho r i ty , o r i ft h e g roup i s h igh ly v a r iab le a nd a cepha lou s .

I ti s s a id t h a t

t h un te r /ga the re r s e t lemen t s a r e v a r iab le i n c ompo s i t ion d ue t o t h e h igh d eg ree 1 8

o f mob i l i ty a mong t h e m embe r s .

T he p ape r e xam ine s g roup s a tv a r iou s c amp

s s w s i te st oa ses he the rZ aghawa h ave s im i la rm echan i sm sr ega rd ing movemen t ,o r w he the r t h ey c on s t i tu te a s t ab le u n i t .

f T he w ay i n w h ich mob i l i ty a f ec t s

t s e t lemen t w i th in a c amp s i te i s i n ve s t iga ted . T he e x ten t o f s o c ia l v a r iab le s r e la t ing t o c amp l o ca t ion , s uch a s t h e e t hn ic i d en t i ty o f t h e h o s t g roup , i s o u t l ined , a nd a ny v a r ia t ion i ng roup c ompo s i t ion d u r ing t h es e a son i sn o ted . T he p o s i t ion o f c amp s a nd t h e i r r e la t ion sh ip t o r e sou r ce s a nd t h e h o s t t p opu la t ion a r e e xam ined t od e te rm ine w h ich p a te rn o ff a c to r s c an b e u sed a sa mode lt oe nab le a r chaeo log i s t st od eve lop i mp roved m e thod sf o rf i nd ing s e a sona l t s e t lemen t s .

O ne c amp a t K ebkeb iya i su sed a s ac a se s t udy f o r s y s tema t ic

s o o b se rva t ion o ft h ep roces fa bandonmen ta nd d ecay . s ed i t A l so d i scus st h e q ue s t ion o fw he the r p o te ry c an b e u sed a s a n i ndex o f e t hn ic i ty i n t h i s r eg ion .

t l P o te ry f ab r ic , f o rm , f i le r , a nd s u r f ace d eco ra t ion

a r e e xam ined t od e te rm ine w he the ro ne c an u se w a re s t od i s t ingu i sh e t hn ic u se r a nd p roduce r g roup s .

t t t D i s t r ibu t ion p a te rn s o f b o th t h e p o te r s a nd t h e p o te ry

s sed t a r e a ses op rov ide i n fo rma t ion o n t r ad ing a nd m arke t s , a nd t oi nd ica te h ow t p o te r so pe ra ted w i th in t h ee conom ic s y s tem .

i 3 . i . M ic ro leve l : l I n t ra -v i lage S pa t ia lO rgan i sa t ion ,a nd I nd iv idua lS t ruc tu re s l A t m ic ro leve l t h e re a r e t wo l e ve l s o f a na ly s i s r ega rd ing v i lage s pa t ia l o rgan i sa t ion : f l -f a c to r sa f ec t ing t h ep o s i t ion o ft h eh ou se w i th in t h ev i lage ; f -f a c to r s t h a t a f ec t t h e c ha rac te r i s t ics o f i nd iv idua l s t ruc tu re s ( e .g . s hape , s i ze a nd c on ten t s ) . l D ome s t ic d we l ing s r a re ly e x i s t i n i s o la t ion . Hou se s a r e e i the r p a r t o f a l s d i spe r sed dwe l ing , o r b e long t oo ne r e s iden t ia l u n i t a nd a r e a soc ia ted w i th a c l u s te r o f f e a tu re s .

T he v a lue o f a na ly s ing s i ng le s t ruc tu re s , i n r e la t ion t o

s a soc ia ted f e a tu re s a nd o t he r s t ruc tu re s , a s o ppo sed t o o n t h e i r o wn i s d emon s t ra ted .

I n o rde r t oa na ly se p opu la t ion t h e t e rm ' s imp le r e s iden t ia l u n i t '

i s mo re n eu t ra l t h an ' h ouseho ld ' , a nd c an b e u sed a s t h e u n i t o f a na ly s i s f o r l l o ccupan t s o f b o th v i lage a nd c amp d we l ing s . A s y tema t ic a na ly s i s o f p o s t ma r i ta l r e s idence r u le s a nd t h e i rr e con s truc t ion i na n a r chaeo log ica l s i tua t ion i s 1 9

n o t u nde r taken h e re .

s s es t H oweve r , t h i s v o lume a ses o w ha t e x ten t o ne c an

t r e con st ruc t ma r i ta l r e s idence p a te rn s . I ts ugge s t s t h a t t h e f a c to r s w h ich g ove rn f p o s t ma r i ta l r e s idence a r e a f ec ted b y mo re t h an p a t r i l inea l o r ma t r i l inea l k i n sh ip s se re c onven t ion s . I ta ses s t h e d eg ree o fc or la t ion b e tween k in sh ip a nd r e s idence l p e rce ived f r om ma ter ia lr ema ins o f dwe l ing s . s s t T he d a ta o b ta ined d u r ing f i e ldwo rk i s u sed t o a ses h e v a l id i ty o f sing s f d i scus oc ia l d i f e ren t ia t ion i nt e rm s o f w ea l th a l one , o r h ouse f unc t ion /u se i n t e rm s o f a c t iv i ty .

f I t s ugge t s t h a t s oc ia l d i f e ren t ia t ion

a nd f unc t ion b e

c on s ide red i n r e la t ion t o s oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion w i th in t h e f am i ly . T he p ape r t s s why t a temp t s t o a ses h e

h ouse w a s b u i l t , w he the r f o r p u re ly u t i l i ta r ian

r ea sons s uch a s s he l te r a nd s t o rage o f ma te r ia l g ood s , o r f o r ad i sp lay o fw ea l th o r s t a tu s .

I tc on s ide r s w he the r a hou se h a s s oc ia l s i gn if icance a s a n i n dex o f

a ge g rad ing , l i f ec yc le , o rw ea l th . l f s s ed I n t h e v i lage t h e d eg ree o f v i s ib i l i ty o f d i f e ren t a ge g roups i sa ses . T h is i sd one t od e te rm ine t h ev a lue o fp opu la t ion e s t ima te s b a sed o ni nd iv idua ls . I ti s s ugge s ted t h a t a l te rna t ive c r i te r ia b e u sed f o r a ses opu la t ion . s sing p

I n

p o lygamous s oc ie t ies t h ep ropo r t ion o fm en t ow omen m igh tb e u nequa l a nd i ti s u nc lea r w he the r p opu la t ion e s t ima te s t a ke t h is i n to a ccoun t . F u r the rmo re , w hen a r chaeo log is t s

s ay

' popu la t ion '

d o t h ey m ean b o th

a du l t s a nd c h i ld ren?

A cco rd ing t oD av id 's s urvey o ft h e F u lan i , c h i ld ren d o n o t s how u p i nt e rm s o f ma ter ia lc u l tu re i nt h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd u n t i lp ube r ty ( Dav id 1 971 ) . T h i s v o lume e xam ine s c r i te r ia u sed t o e s t ima te p opu la t ion .

I ta ses s s se

f a c to r s wh ich a f ec t h ouse d e s ign s uch a s : r aw ma ter ia l s ; f a sh ion ; w ea l th ; s t a tus ; f t h e a ge o f t h e o ccupan t ; t h e f unc t ion o f t h e dwe l ing ; a nd t h e n umbe r o f l o ccupan t s . A l t h e se f a c to r s s hou ld b e t a ken i n to a ccoun t a s w e l a s t a boo s , t h e l l n eed f o r p r ivacy , a nd t h e c on sc ious o r u ncon sc iou s n eed t o c onform t o t h e n o rm s o f s oc ie ty . T he p ape r d i scus s w he the r p opu la t ion a na lys is s hou ld b e se wo rked o u t f r om t h e c ompound a r ea , t h e h ouse s , t h e r oof ed a r ea , t h e f l oo r s pace , o r e ven f r om t h e p re sence o f p ar t icu la r a r tefac t s l i ke h ea r th s o r g r ind s tone s . Me thod s w h ich c ou ld b e u sed t or ep lace t h e t r ad i t ion o fe s t ima t ing t h en umbe ro fi nd iv idua l sp e rs qua re me t re o ff l oo rs pace a r ei nve s t iga ted . A mode l f o r a ses h e n umbe r o f h ou seho ld s o r r e s iden t ia l u n i t s i n a s sing t c ommun i ty i s s ugges ted , s i nce t h e d a ta i nd ica te s t h a t i t i s n o t r ea l i s t ic t o d e term ine t h e a c tua l i nd iv idua ls i n a hou seho ld / re s iden t ia l u n i t . 2 0

O b serva t ions

l i ke N a ro l l 's ( 1962 ,588 ) t h a t p opu la t ion n umbe r s c an b e e s t ima ted f r om a n a na ly s i s o f f l oo r a r ea o r w ha teve r , c an b e m i s lead ing .

T he u nknown f a c to r i s

t h e n umbe r o f o f f sp r ing w ho se p re sence i s v i r tua l ly u nde tec tab le i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd .

A mo re a c cu ra te a s sesm s en t c ou ld p e rhap s b e m ade b y

d e te rm in ing t h e v a r iou s f unc t ion s o f ah ou se . I np a r t icu la r i tw ou ld b e o fv a lue t o d e te rm ine h ow many h ou se s h ave a r te f ac t s a s soc ia ted w i th c ook ing , a nd i n t h i s w ay t oe s tab l i sh t h e n umb e r o f h ou seho ld s p re sen t ( c f . D av id 1 971 ) .

I ti s

u nc lea r h ow e xa c t n umbe r s a r e r e ached s i nce f e r t i l i ty a nd f am i ly s i ze v a r ie s s o much t h roughou t t h e w o r ld , a nd o n w ho se s o c ie ty s hou ld o ne b a se t h e f i gu re s? T hough a du l t t o c h i ld p ropo r t ion s c ou ld b e e s tab l i shed f r om b u r ia l s i te s o f s eden ta ry s e t lemen t s , t

v a r iab le s s u ch a s d eg ree o f mob i l i ty c an a f ec t t h e f

f i gu re s . T he v a lue o f a ses opu la t ion i nt e rm s o fn umbe r s o fr e s iden t ia l u n i t s s sing p r a the r t h an n umb e r s o f i nd iv idua l s i s e xam ined .

I t i s a r gued t h a t ' s imp le

r e s iden t ia lu n i t s ' r a the rt h an i nd iv idua l ss hou ld b eu sed t om ea su re p opu la t ion . W i th r ega rd t o s hape a nd h ou se d e s ign , t h i s w o rk r ev iew s t h e s t a temen t t h a t r ound h ou se s a r e a n i ndex o f a mob i le , t empo ra ry s o c ie ty , w i th o pen r e c ip roc i ty . I ta ses he the r t h e s t udy g roup h ou se s a dhe re t ot h i s mode l . T he s s w s t a temen tt h a tr e c tangu la rh ou se sc an g row a l ong w i th t h ee xpand ing s o c ia lu n i t , i se xam ined , s i nce i ti su nc lea r w he the r t h i s mean s t h a t r ound h ou se s d o n o t . F ina ly , t h e e x ten t t o w h ich d ome s t ic a r ch i tec tu re p rov ide s i n fo rma t ion o n t h e l s oc ia lo rgan i sa t ion o ft h ei n hab i tan t si sa ses . s sed T he se a nd s im i la rp rob lem sh ave b een a pp roa ched b y s cho la r si nr e la t ion t o av a r ie ty o f s oc ie t ie s , a nd t h e o b se rva t ion s g i ven p re sen t a n i d ea o f t h e c omp lex i ty o ft h e p rob lem s i nvo lved i ns u ch as t udy .

T he re i s an eed f o r mo re

p r ima ry emp i r ica l d a ta , p a r t icu la r ly f r om t ho se g roups w ho d o n o t l i e w i th in t r ad i t iona lc a tego r ie s .

2 1

4 . CO MMENT ON THE F IELD WORK C on tac t w a s f i r s t made w i th t h e s t udy g roup i n Ma r ch 1 980 , w hen Ip as sed t h rough K ebkeb iya , a nd v i s i ted t h e w omen p o t te r s w ho s upp l ied t h e ma rke t . I n t 1 982 , Ir e tu rned t oK ebkeb iya a nd s t ayed f o r s i x mon th s w i th t h e p o te r s o n t h e r i ve r -bed , l i v ing i n a st raw s he l te r .

T ha t t ime I s t ud ied c r a f t t e chno logy a nd

t t t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f p o te ry a nd p o te r s . T he w omen b ecame a ccus tomed t o my s t range h ab i t s : w r i t ing a nd mak ing s ke t che s , m ea su r ing t h et empe ra tu r eo ft h e i r r b onf ire s , a nd t a k ing n ume rou sp ho tog raph s . When Ia r ived t h ey h e lped t ob u i ld t m e a st raw s he l te r a tt h e e dge o f t h e i r r i ve r -bed s e t lemen t .

T owa rd s t h e e nd

o f t h e s e a son o the r s he l te r s w e re b u i l t a r ound m ine a st h e w omen a ccep ted t h a t s. my p re sence w a s h a rm les

E ve ry e ven ing Iw a s i nv i ted t o s ha re mea l s w i th

f d i f e ren tf am i l ie s . Du r ing t h e 1 982 f i e ld t r ip my A rab ic w a s l im i ted a nd Ic on s ide red w o rk ing w i th a n i n fo rman t .

sib T he re w e re s eve ra l p os i l i t ie s : Ic ou ld h ave w o rked w i th

a n E ng l i sh -speak ing Z aghawa s choo lt e ache r ; ag ove rnmen t wo rke r ; o r aF r ench l s peak ing Z aghawa r e fugee f r om C had w ho w o rked a s aw a te r -se le r . A l though e l l t h e se i nd iv idua ls s emed w i l ing w hen a sked , n one wou ld a c tua ly wo rk w i th m e . T he p rob lem w a s t h a t t h e s t udy g roup w e re o f ' B la ck sm i th ' s t a tu s .

When i t

c ame d own t oi t ,n oe duca ted Z aghawa , w he the rr oya l ty o r s ub jec t w a sp repa red t oh ave a ny c on ta c t w i th t h em . Mo reove r , i f Ih ad b rough t i n amembe r o f t h e s ub jec t o r s u l tan Z aghawa , i tm igh t h ave r e su l ted i nr e sen tmen t f r om t h e s t udy s t l g roup , a nd ad ec rea se i na cces od we l ing s . T owa rd s t h ee nd o ft h e 1 982 f i e ld t l t r ip , Iv i s i ted t h ep o te r s ' p e rmanen tv i lage ( K i reyka ) ac oup le o ft ime s , a nd my n o te so fh ou se sa nd c ompound sw e re t h eb a s i so ft h es e cond t r ip . t t I nA p r i l 1 984 Ir e tur ned t oD a r fu rt os t udy s e t lemen tp a te rn s , h ou s ing a nd lu m a te r ia lc u l tu re . Iw a sa ccompan ied b yG raham R eed ,a ni s t ra to r . T he re w e re l n ume rou s emp ty h ou se s i nt h e v i lage a bandoned d ue t ot h e d rough t . We w e re l a lowed t os t ay i no ne b e long ing t o aw oman w ho h ad moved o u tt h a t y ea r . We s t ayed i nS udan u n t i l Ma rch 1 985 . r l O n a r iva l a tt h e v i lage t h e re w a s s ome i n i t ia l h e s i ta t ion f r om i nhab i tan t s l w ho d id n o t k now u s w e l . T hey d id n o t w an t u s t oe n te r t h e i rc ompound s a nd t a ke n o te s .

e Howeve r , o nce t h ey h ad s en s ke tche s o ft h e i r mo the r 's o r s i s te r 's

l c ompound s , a nd c ou ld r e cogn i se t h eh ou se a nd c on ten t s , e ve ryone w a sw i l ing t o 2 2

h ave t h e i rh ome r e co rded . We d rew a nd m ea su red t h es pace b e tween c ompound s f i r s t , s o t h a t p eop le c ou ld g e t u sed t o o u r a n t ic s .

T hen w e m ea su red t h e a r ea

l w i th in t h ec ompound s , a nd l a s to fa lr e co rded h ou se i n te r io r s . sa F o r t h e p u rpo se s o f t h e s t udy , i tw a s n eces ry t o e n te r e ve ry h ou se a nd l c ompound i nt h e v i lage .

l s, w e We w e re a lowed f r eedom o fa cces i thou ts em ing

t oi n t rude o n t h e p r iva cy o ft h e o ccupan t s , b ecau se w e w e re t o ta l o u t s ide r s . A s s uch w ew e re b eyond t h ec onven t ions t h a tw ou ld h ave a pp l ied t o an a t ive . T he re w a s a la nguage p rob lem .

A l though Is poke A rab ic , If ound t h a t

l s e ve ra l w omen i n t h e v i lage c ou ld n o t u nde r s tand me . a ccu s tomed t ou s ing t h eZ aghawa l a nguage .

Women w e re mo r e

Mo s tm en u sed A rab ic : f r equen t ly ,

w hen I ask ed a w oman a q ue s t ion s he c ou ld n o t u nde r s tand , l f o lowed my mean ing a nd t r an s la ted . b u t

men p re sen t

It r ied t ol e a rn t h e Z aghawa l a nguage ,

c ou ld o n ly d o s o t h rough t h e med ium o fA rab ic . Id ec ided t oc oncen t ra te

l o nA rab ic o n ly . N o -one a tt h ev i lage s poke E ng l i sh . r When Ia r ived a tK ebkeb iya i n A pr i l 1 984 Ie xpec ted t o f i nd t h e s ame t g roup o fw omen p o te r s o n t h e r i ve r b ed , a nd Iw a s s omewha t s u rp r i sed t of i nd t h a t t h i s w a s n o t s o .

t R epea ted d rough t h ad r e su l ted i n p o te r s m ig ra t ing t o

f d i f e ren t c en t re s i nt h e r eg ion . I n m id 1 984 f am ine h i t t h e a r ea , a nd f ew i nt h e l v i lage o fK i reyka h ad e nough f ood t ol a s t t h em t h rough t h e r a iny s e a son . T he l r a in s w e re p oo r , b a re ly a dequa te t og e rm ina te t h e c rops l e t a l one a low g row th t o ma tu r i ty .

l l T he h a rve s tf a i led d i sma ly , a nd o n ly t h ree p eop le f r om t h ev i lage

h ad a ny k ind o fy i e ld f r om t h e i r f i e ld s .

l It r ied t oa lev ia te t h e s i tua t ion i nt h e

l s. v i lage b u t d i scove red t h a t Iw a s p owe r les

B y t h a t t ime Ic ou ld n o t t a ke t h e

l s t ra in o fl i v ing c on t inuou s ly a tt h e v i lage . Imoved b ack t oK ebkeb iya ,j o in ing l my c ompan ion a l r eady t h e re . S ub sequen t ly , Ir e tu rned t o t h e v i lage f o r t h ree l d ay p e r iod s ,t r ave l ing t h es i xm i le t r ip b yd onkey . T he re w a s , h oweve r , f ood i nt h e m a rke tp l a ce f o r t ho se w ho h ad money t o b uy i t .

I had c a sh

K ebkeb iya .

f a s o I cou ld e a t , a s c ou ld s a la r ied g ove rnmen t s t af t

T he i n hab i tan t s o f K i reyka , l i ke t ho se o f many o the r r u ra l

t s e t lemen t s , w e re s t a rv ing .

T he a n ima l m a rke t f l ou r i shed s i nce many w e re

l f s e l ing o f t h e i r h e rd s i ne xchange f o r g r a in . w a s s eve re .

B y t h e e nd o f 1 984 t h e s i tua t ion

l T he w i ld c rops h ad b een f u ly e xp lo i ted , a nd women w e re l y ing

l a r ound w i th b a re ly e nough e ne rgy t o w a lk t o t h e w e l f o r w a te r .

T he re w a s

s m l mas ig ra t ion f r om t h e v i lage a si n hab i tan t s moved i nw i th r e la t ive s a tG i rgo . 2 3

T he n on -e x is ten t h a rve s t o f 1 984 w a s t h e f i na l s t raw a f te r s eve ra l y ea r s o f p oo r r a ins .

N ume rous f am i l ie s l e f t K i reyka a nd s e t led i n mo re f e r t i le a r ea s t o t

t h e w es t . T he r eg ion b ecame f l ooded w i th a i da nd d eve lopmen tp e r sonne l , many a mong t h em u nab le t op e rce ive t h er u ra l a nd u rban d i cho tomy ( Tober t 1 985a ) .

5 . PLAN OF THE MONOGRAPH T he f o low ing p a rag raphs s e t o u t h ow t h e s t udy w i l a dd res h e p rob lem s l l s t o u t l ined i nt h is c hap te r . T he p l an i sa sf o low s . l C hap te r O ne i n t roduce s b o th t h e r eg ion o fD a r fu r i n S udan w he re t h e f i e ld wo rk w a s c ar u t , a nd t h e Z aghawa B lack sm i th p opu la t ion o n whom i t wa s ried o b a sed .

T he d i f e ren t s t ra ta o f Z aghawa s oc ie ty a r e p re sen ted f o lowed b y a f l

d escr ip t ion o f t h e e conomy o f t h e B lack sm i th g roup , i nd ica t ing t h e t r ans ien t n a tu re o ft h e i rw ay o fl i f et h roughou tt h ey ea r . C hap te r Two d ea ls w i th r eg iona l d i s t r ibu t ion o f s e t lemen t a nd f o cus s t se u pon s ea sona l c amps o f t h e Z aghawa B lack sm i ths .

T he g roups ' m ig ra t ion

b ehav iou r d u r ing t ime s o fh a rd sh ip a nd p l en ty i sa ses . I n t h is c hap te r much s s ed o f t h e empha s is l i es o n a n a na lys i s o f t h e p o tery -mak ing c amps . Q ue s t ion s t r e la t ing t o e t hn ic i ty a nd p o te ry a r e e xam ined . t p e r sonne l a r e s urveyed .

M ig ra t ion p a te rns o f c amp t

T he s oc ia l a nd ma te r ia l f a c to r s a r e s e t o u t w h ich

a fec t f i r s t t h e c ho ice o f ap a r t icu la r r eg ion a nd ma rke t c en t re , f o lowed b y f l t hose w h ich a f ec t t h e l o ca t ion o f t h e c amp s i te r e la t ive t o t h e r e sou rce s a nd f t h e h o s t p opu la t ion .

A t o ne s i te d e ta i led o b serva t ion i s made o f p o s t

d epo s i t iona l a c t iv i ty . T he a r chaeo log ica l i sue s r a i sed b y t h e d a ta a r e e xam ined , s h igh l igh t ing f a c to r si n f luenc ing c amp c ho ice .

I n C hap te rT h ree o n i n t ra -v i lage s pa t ia l o rgan i sa t ion , d a ta f r om o ne v i lage l l o n t h e Umm D e lu p l a in i s s e t o u t , a nd a n a temp t made t

t o d ef ine w hy t h e

p opu la t ion c ho se t h a t p a r t icu la r s i te , a nd , h av ing c ho sen i t , w ha t f a c to r s a f ec t f t h e s e lec t ion o f t h e h ouse l o ca t ion . T he h i s to ry o f t h e v i lage 's f o rma t ion i s l p resen ted , t oge the r w i th p a te rn s o f r e s idency a nd k insh ip . t o ccupan t si s pre sen ted . I nfo rma t ion i sa na ly sed f r om f our s t age s o fd a ta : -t h eo ccup ied c ompound s ; -a bandoned b u t s t i l s t and ing c ompound s ; l 2 4

Ac ensus o fv i lage l

-r ema in so fh ou se s i te sa nd s t one c i rc le s ; -a na e r ia lp ho to t a ken i n1 974 . l T he se l e ve l s o fd a ta g i ve a n i nd ica t ion o ft h e v i lage 's e vo lu t ion o ve r a 15 y ea r s pan .

l F ina ly , t h e t e chno logy o f c on s t ruc t ion i se xam ined t o d e te rm ine

s s en w h ich m e thod s r e su l t i n ag i ven k ind o fr ema in s . A n a sesm t i s made a st o sion i w h ich p a r t o f t h e s t r uc tu re s w ou ld f i nd e xp res nt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , c ommen t ing o n f a c to r s c au s ing d ecay s u ch a s a n ima l , h uman , o r c l ima t ic sib v a r iab le s . A t K i reyka m any h ou se s a r e r e cen t ly a bandoned s o i t is p os le t o e s e w h ich f e a tu re s h ave b een r emoved f r om t h em a nd w h ich l e f t b eh ind .

T he

e r ema in s o f o lde r r u ined s t ruc tu re s c an a l so b e s en i nt h e f o rm o fr a i sed s andy mound s ,o ra s as e r ie so fs t one sl a id i n ac i r c le . A n a na ly s i s o f aw oman 's l i f e c yc le f r om b i r th t o d ea th i s s e t o u t i n C hap te r F ou r . T h i s i sd one t og i ve i n s igh t i n to i nd igenou s w ay s o fc e leb ra t ing s age o t h e p as f t ime .

Ia r gue t h a t t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f a ge c an b e u sed a s a

mode l t o a na ly se t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween l i f e c yc le , d ome s t ic s t ruc tu re s a nd re h ou se c on ten t s . T he m a te r ia lc or la te so fs o c ia lo rgan i sa t ion ( c ompound ,h ou se , sed i a nd h ou se c on ten t s ) a r e d i scus nt h e s e cond p a r to ft h ec hap te r . A mode l f o r p red ic t ing s o c ia l o rgan i sa t ion f r om d ome s t ic s t ruc tu re s i sf o rmu la ted a nd t e s ted l f r om t h e r ema in s o f d we l ing s . T he d a ta a r e u sed t o e xp la in h ow s oc ia l f d i f e ren t ia t ion a cco rd ing t o l i f e c yc le c an b e d e te rm ined f r om r e s iden t ia l s t ruc tu re sa nd t h ea r te f ac t sp re sen tw i th in t h em . f C hap te r F ive i nd ica te s w ay s i n w h ich t h e d a ta p re sen t a d i f e ren t l s ed b p e r spec t ive t op rob lem s t r ad i t iona ly a dd res y a r chaeo log i s t s .

Me thod s o f

s sing p t a ses o te ry manu f a c tu re a nd d i s t r ibu t ion i n a n a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t a r e c on s ide red . We s te rn u nde r s tand ing o f s t ab le v e r su s f l u id s oc ie t ie s i sr ev iewed . T he v a lue o f b a s ing i n te rp re ta t ion r e -exam ined ,

o n i nd iv idua l

a nd g roup

o a nd a no the r l ok i s t a ken a t a r chaeo log i s t s '

a c t iv i ty i s

d ef in i t ion s o f

t r s e t lemen t a nd mob i l i ty . T he c u ren t u se o f i nd iv idua l s f o r t h e i n te rp re ta t ion o f s sed p opu la t ion e s t ima te s i sa ses .

T he b roade r i mp l ica t ion s o f t h e w o rk a r e

p re sen ted , a nd t h e p o ten t ia l c on t r ibu t ion o f t h e r e sea rch t o t h e f i e ld o f a r chaeo logy i s exam ined .

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CHAPTER ONE THE AREA AND THE P EOPLE R e sea r ch w a sc a r r ied o u ta mong t h eZ aghawa B lack sm i th c ommun i ty s e t t led a r ound K ebkeb iya , at own w h ich s e rved a s a n a dm in i s t ra t ive h eadqua r te r s i n D a r fu r , ap rov ince i n We s te rn S udan .

T he c hap te r i ss e t o u t i nt wo p a r t s ; t h e

f i r s t o u t l ine s t h e a r ea i n w h ich r e sea r ch w a s c a r ied o u t , a nd t h e s e cond r i n t roduce st h ep eop le . T he r eg ion w he re f i e ldwo rk t ook p l ace i s i n t roduced , w i th a b r ief d e sc r ip t ion o f e co logy

a nd c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s wh ich h ad

e f f ec t o n s e t t lemen t d u r ing t h e

1 980 's .

s u ch a n i mpo r tan t

I n fo rma t ion o n ' p la ce ' , s pa t ia l

o rgan i sa t ion a nd s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s w a s t a ken f r om o ne e t hn ic g roup ; t h o se b e long ing t ot h eb l ack sm i th c ommun i ty o ft h eZ aghawa . T he h i s to ry a nd e conomy o ft h e Z aghawa p eop le s i sd i scus sed t oi lu s t ra te t h e i r r e la t ion sh ip b o th t o o the r e t hn ic g roup s i n t h e a r ea a nd b e tween t h e v a r iou s s e c t ion so ft h eZ aghawa t h em se lve s . T he p o l i t ica l s y s tem i nS udan , b o th t r ad i t iona la nd a si mpo sed b yt h eC en t ra l Gover nmen ti sd e sc r ibed . R e sou rce s a va i lab le t ot ho se l i v ing o n t h e Umm D e lu p la in t ot h e n o r th o f K ebkeb iya a r e s e t o u t i n t h e s e cond s e c t ion o f t h i s c hap te r . t h e Z aghawa b l ack sm i th s i sp re sen ted , i lu s t ra t ing h ow

T he e conomy o f

i tc hange s t h roughou t

t h e y ea r c au s ing t h e ' p lace ' o f a c t iv i ty t o a l te r w i th t h e s e a son s .

N o t o n ly d o

t h e Z aghawa s e t t le i n d i f f e ren t c en t re s s e a sona l ly b u t p eop le d o n o t a lway s m ig ra te t ot h e s ame c en t re s e a ch y ea r . F o r t h i s r ea son t h e Z aghawa p opu la t ion t h em se lve s a r e u sed a s t h e b a s i s o f t h e d a ta , p a r t icu la r ly i n C hap te r s Two a nd T h ree .

H oweve r o n ly o ne o f t h e i r v i lage s w a s s e lec ted a st h e f o cu s o fd a ta i n l

C hap te rF ou r .

2 7

1 . THE AREA . 1 i .

S udan : t h eC oun t ry , C l ima te , a nd P opu la t ion

T he c oun t ry o f t h e p re sen t d ay r epub l ic o f t h e S udan i sv e ry n ea r ly o ne l m i l ion

s qua re

m i le s ,

a bou t

a q ua r te r

o f t h e

s i ze

o f E u rope

( f ig .! ) .

l G eog raph ica ly , t h e g rea te r p a r t o ft h e c oun t ry i sa n i mmen se p la in w h ich m ay b e d iv ided i n to t h ree z one s .

I n t h e n o r th i sr ocky d e se r t a nd s em i -de se r t ,

s ou th o fw h ich i s ab e l to fu ndu la t ing s and p as sing f r om s em i -de se r tt os a vanna . F u r the r s ou th a ga in i s ac l ay b e l t w h ich w iden s f r om s ou th D a r fu r t o t h e r a in land s a nd s em i -de se r tl y ing e a s to ft h e B lue a nd Wh i te N i le s . T he S udane se p l a in i sd ra ined b y t h e N i le a nd i t s t r ibu ta r ie s , a nd t h e p en in su la w h ich l i e s b e tween t h eB lue a nd Wh i te N i le a tK ha r toum i s known a st h eG ez i ra ,w h ich w a s o nce t h e g rana ry o f t h e S udan , a nd i sn ow t h e p r inc ipa l s i te o fc o t ton g row ing ( Ho l t 1 96 1 ,4 ) .

T he E a s te rn S udan i sl i nked w i th E gyp t a nd t h e Med i t er ranean

S ea t o t h e n o r th b y t h e R ive r N i le w h ich r un s t h rough t h e d e se r t s o f n o r the rn S udan a nd l owe rN ub ia ( A rke l 1 96 1) . l T he c l ima te i se x treme ly v a r iab le .

T he a nnua l r a inf a l v a r ie s f r om n i l i n l

t h e n o r th t o 6 0 i n che s i n t h e s ou th , p roduc ing b ar e se r t i n t h e n o r th t o ren d g r een , d e c iduou s f o re s t s i n t h e s ou th , w he re r a in o ccu r s a lmo s t e ve ry mon th . H oweve r , i n No r ther n D a r fu r t h e r a iny s e a son l a s t s f o r o n ly t h ree mon ths ( J une t oA ugu s t )a nd e ven t h en i ti s ir la r . regu T he p opu la t ion o f mod e rn S udan i st h e p roduc t o f t h e i n te rm ing l ing o f A rab /Mu s l im s w i th A f r ican s . T h i s f u s ion b egan o ve r at housand y ea r s a go a nd l i e s a tt h e b a se o f S udane se n a t iona l i ty , r e l ig ion a nd c u l tu re .

T oday t h e r e i sa

b road d i s t inc t ion b e tween t h e p eop le s o f n o r the rn a nd s ou the rn S udan .

T he

n o r th i s ma in ly A rab ic i n s peech , i t s p eop le s l a rge ly A rab i sed i n c u l tu r e a nd o u t look .

I t s i nd igenou s i n hab i tan t s a r e u n ive r sa ly Mu s l im ; t hough t h e re a r e a l

m ino r i ty o f A rab ic s peak ing C h r i s t ian s c ompo sed o f t h e d e scendan t s o f i mm ig ran t s f r om E gyp t a nd L ebanon ( Ho l t 1 961 ,5 ) . I n t h ec en su s o f 1 956 , 5 97 t r ibe s w e re i d en t if i ed , o f

w h ich t h e A rab s w e re t h e l a rge s t g roup , a nd 15

l a nguage s w e re s poken ( Ca te r 1 986 ) . T he S ou the rn S udan c on ta in s av a r ie ty o f e t hn ic a nd l i ngu i s t ic g roup s . T hough t h ep eop le a r e n o t Mu s l im s t h e re h a sb een s ome I s lam i sa t ion a nd A rab i sa t ion .

2 8

S udan g a ined i t si ndependance a nd b ecame aR epub l ic i n1 956 w i th C o lone l N ime r i t a k ing o ve r f r om G ene ra l Aboud i n 1 969 . N ume r i 's p e r sona l i n secu r i ty r a nd p o l i t ica l s w ing s w e re r e f lec ted i n t h e i n c rea s ing ly e ra t ic g ove rnmen t . H e c r ea ted f i r s t as oc ia l i s t s t a te , a nd t h en a dop ted p o l icy .

a mo re p ro -we s te rn f o re ign

l S ome d id w e l o u t o f t h e N ime r i y ea r s , b u t mo s t , p a r t icu la r ly t h e

f t r ad i t iona l f a rme r s a nd n omad s , s u f e red . S eve re d rough to ccu red i nt h e 1 970 's , b u t e ven w o r se w a s t h e d rough t o f t h e 1 980 's c u lm ina t ing i n t h e w ide sp r ead f am ine s o f 1 984 . D eb t s s p i ra led a nd p r ice sr o se , a nd i n 1 984 I s lam ic l aw s a nd t a xe s w e re b rough t i n b y N ime r i . I n 1 985 h e i n c rea sed t h e p r ice o f f ood a nd f ue l ,

a nd a f te r aw ave o f s t r ike s t h e h ead o f t h e a rmy t ook c on t ro l .

I n te rna l

p o l i t ic sc omb ined d u r ing t h eN ime r iy ea r st ot u rn t h ee conomy wh ich w a sa lmo s t t l o ta ly r e l ian to na g r icu l tu re i n to a na lmo s tc omp le te d i sa s te r( Ca te r 1 986 ) . i 1 . i .

D a r fu rP rov ince

D a r fu r i st h e mo s t w e s te r ly p rov ince i n S udan , b o rde r ing t h e c oun tr ie s o f i i L ibya , C had , a nd t h eC en t ra lA f r ican R epub l ic ( f ig .l . i ) . I t sp o s i t ion h a sc au sed l l i t to b e i s o la ted f r om t h e N i le V a ley , a nd i t wa s n o t f o rma ly i n co rpo ra ted i n to S udan u n t i l e a r ly t h i s c en tu ry .

s ed t Two a nc ien t t r ade r ou te s p as h rough

D a r fu r : o ne w en t f r om e a s t t o w e s t a nd l i nked D a r fu r w i th t h e p o r t o f S uak in l o n t h e R ed S ea c oa s t a nd w a s c a led t h e b i lad e l S udan ; a nd t h e o the r w a s l c a led t h e d a rb a l -a rba in , t h a t i s t h e F o r ty D ay s r oad .

t T he l a te r b egan a t

s t Koubeh t h e p r inc ipa l c omme r c ia l c en t re o f D a r fu r a nd c on t inued a c ros h e d e se r t t o t h e N i le a tA syu t .

Many p i lg r im s t ook t h e se r ou te s f r om o the r p a r t s

l o f We s t A f r ica , t hough s ome r ema ined a nd c on s i s t o f t h e p re sen t -day F e la ta , s p read a l ong t h e p rov ince s b y t h e b i lad e lS udan r ou te ( Ho l t 1 96 1 ,13 ) . T oday t t h e re a r e a i rpo r t s a tE l F a she r , E l G enena a nd N ya la . T he l a te r i sa l so s e rved b y ar a i l t e rm ina l .

T hough t h e re a r e b u se s w h ich r un t o t h e ma in t own s , t h e

r l o ry i sb y f a r t h e mo s t c ommon f o rm o f t r an spo r t .

r D epend ing o n t h e t e ra in ,

c ame l s ,d onkey s , a nd h o r se sa r ea l so u sed . t I n t h e We s te rn a r ea o f S udan t h e re a r e s e t lemen t s o f n on -A rab s eden ta ry p eop le e x i s t ing b e tween g roups o f c ame l h e rde r s i n t h e n o r th a nd t h e B agga ra t c a t le p a s to ra l i s t s i nt h e s ou th .

r A l though S udan w a s s u rounded b y af l ood o f

i mm ig ran tA rab t r ibe s , t h eF u rs ucceeded i ne s tab l i sh ing ad yna s t ic Mu s l im S t a te w h ich o n ly c ea sed o n t h e d ea th o ft h e S u l tan A l i D ina r i n 1 916 . D a r fu rm ean s ' l and o ft h eF u r ' . 2 9

T he p rov ince i sq u i te a hi l ly a r ea .

I t s m a in f e a tu re i st h e g r ea t v o lcan ic

moun ta in o fJ ebe l Mar ra w h ich r i se s a ti t s s ou the rn e nd t oo ve r 1 0 ,000 f e e t a nd h a sc on s ide rab le i nf luence o n t h er a in fa l lp a t te rn i ns u round ing a r ea s . K ebkeb iya ( t he f i e ldwo rk b a se , f i g .1 . iv ) l i e s o n af l a t p l a in t ot h e n o r th o fJ ebe l Mar ra , a nd i ss u r rounded b y s ma l l moun ta ins w ho se p eak s c an b e s e en f r om t h e t own . Mu sa ( 1986 ,27 ) s ugge s t s t h a t t h e a r ea r e ce ived f a r mo re r a in i n t h e p a s t a nd t h a t s i nce t h e 6 t h m i l lenn ium BC , p ra c t ice s r e su l t ing f r om b o th a g r icu l tu r e a nd i r on wo rk ing may h ave b een r e spon s ib le f o rt h ed im in i sh ing t r ee c ove r . Many o f t h e p opu la t ion a r e s eden ta ry f a rme r s d ependen t o n r a in -f ed c u l t iva t ion f o r f ood c rop s .

l T he s t ap le m i le t ( dokhn ) i sg rown o n s andy s o i l s

s t l ( qoz ) , a nd i s r e l ian t o n t h e r a in , f o r f ew h ave a cces o t h e a luv ia l s o i l s ( t a tu ra ) w h ich b o rde r t h e r i ve r b ank s .

C rops s u ch a s t oma to , r ad i sh o r w hea t

r c an b eg rown u s ing i r iga t ion . I n D a r fu r t h e c l ima te c an b e d iv ided i n to t h ree p e r iod s : t h e d ry s e a son , t h e r a in s , a nd t h e w in te r .

T he d ry s e a son ( s e if ) l a s t s f r om J anua ry t o J une w i th

l t empe ra tu re s r i s ing w e l o ve r 4 0 d eg ree s C en t ig rade , a nd d u r ing t h i s t im e t h e p la in s a r e c ove red w i th d ry v ege ta t ion a nd d rough t -re s i s t ing p lan t s .

T he re i s

ra Moun n o s u r f a ce w a te r e xcep t i nv e ry i s o la ted p o cke t s i nt h e J ebe l Mar ta in s . r D us t i s e a s i ly w h ipped u p a nd c a r ied b y t h e h aboob , t h e s t rong w ind c ha rac te r is t ic o f t h i s s e a son .

T he r a iny s e a son o r l c ha r if l a s t s f o r u p t o t h r ee

r mon th s , w i th i regu la rp rec ip i ta t ion o fa rou n d4 00mm . I fa si n1 984 , i td oe sn o t r a in f o r d ay s a nd w eek s o n e nd , t h e c rop r e ce ive s e nough w a te r t o g e rm ina te , b u t n o t e nough t o f l ou r i sh .

l D u r ing t h e r a in s t h e p r ev iou s ly d ry r i ve r b ed s f i l

u p a nd t o r r en t s o f w a te r r u sh t h rough t h em .

A t t h i s t ime p eop le c o l lec t w a te r

l f r om s u r f a ce p oo l s a nd ma la r ia i sr i f e . O nce t h e w a te r s s ub s ide w e l s a r ed ug i n s g t h e r i ve r b ed s , a nd t ho se w ho h ave a cces row c rop s o n i t s b ank s .

l R a inf a l

l t l d o e s n o t f o low a n e ven p a te rn : s eve ra l i n che s may f a l i n o ne d ay , a nd t h e re may b e ac on s ide rab le g ap b e fo re t h en ex td ownpou r . F la sh f l ood sa r ec ommon . t l I n t h e w in te r ( s h i ta ) t empe ra tu re s c an f a l i n s ome a r ea s t o a round f r eez ing d u r ing t h e n igh t s , r i s ing t o b e tween 2 5 a nd 3 0 d eg ree s C en t ig rade i n t h e d ay t ime .

R a in -f ed c rop s a r e h a rve s ted f r om S ep tembe r o nwa rd s b efo re t h e

w in te rp rope rb eg in si nN ovembe r . s ed b T he 1 971 L o ca l Gove rnmen t s A c t , w h ich w a s p as y N ime r i 's r eg ime , a bo l i shed n a t ive a dm in i s t ra t ion , a nd d own -graded t r iba l l e ade r sh ip . 3 0

T h i s a c t

r educed t h e p owe r s o f t h e R u ra l C ounc i l s , w h i le i n c rea s ing t h e p owe r o f t h e l sione C en t ra ly a ppo in ted c omm is r s .

T he mo s tb a s ic u n i to fg over nmen ta nd t h e

l o ne d i rec t ly e l ec ted b ody , t h e P eop le 's V i lage C ounc i l , d id n o t h ave a ny f i nanc ia l p owe r s .

D ecen t ra l i sa t ion i n t h e e a r ly

1 980 's r e su l ted i n mo re

s ed d r epon s ib i l i ty b e ing p as own , w h i le mo s t o f t h e money r ema ined i nC en t ra l Gover nmen t h and s ( Ca te r 1 986 ) . I nt h ee a r ly 1 980 's l o ca l G ove rnmen to ff ic ia l s w e re r a re ly o ft h e s ame e t hn ic g roup a sp eop le t h ey s e rved . O f ten t h ey f o rmed a n e duca ted e l i te , b rough t i n f r om K ha r toum a nd t h e E a s te rn P rov ince s t o a dm in i s te rt h ed i s t r ic tf o r ay ea ro rt wo . K ebkeb iya D i s t r ic t T he Gove rnmen t O ff i ce s o f t h e R u ra l D i s t r ic t C ounc i l a r e b a sed i n K ebkeb iya ( f ig .15 ) , w h ich l i e so n t h e E lF a she rt oE lG enena R oad , t ot h en o r th ra r o ft h eJ ebe l Mar ange o f moun ta in s( 139 3 0 ' t o1 3° .45 ' N ,2 4° 0 0 ' t o2 4° 1 5 ' E ) .

T h i s r ange i sd ra ined b y t h e Wad i B o rgo , wh ich r i se s f o r as ho r t t ime

t d u r ing t h e r a in s , a nd o n w ho se b ank s p o te r s r egu la r ly c amp i n t h e d ry s ea son . ra T he a r ea l i e s o n ap l a teau b e tween t h e J ebe l Gu rge i a nd J ebe l Mar , h a s a l r m ic ro -c l ima te , a nd r e ce ive s p ropo r t iona ly mo re r a in t h an t h e s u round ing a r ea . B lu s te ry w ind s b low t owa rd s t h e e nd o ft h e d ry s ea son , a nd c on t inue d u r ing t h e r a iny s ea son . T he c l ima te i s qu i te d ry . l l T he l a nd b e tween t h ef oo th i l si su sed e x ten s ive ly f o rm i le tc u l t iva t ion . A s men t ioned p rev iou s ly , t h e re a r e t wo ma in t ype so fl a nd u sed : q oz , c ompac t s a nd d une s wh ich a r e r a in -f ed a nd u sed b y o ve r 9 0% o f t h e p opu la t ion f o r f a rm ing ; a nd t a tu ra ,

l a luv ia l s o i l s c l o se t o t h e r i ve r b ank s wh ich a r e v e ry f e r t i le .

T he

r u se o fi r iga t ion o nt a tu ra c an p rov ide y ea rr ound c u l t iva t ion . T he t own o fK ebkeb iya s e rve s a s ama rke t c en t re t w ice aw eek ( Thu r sday s t l a nd S unday s ) a nd i s a tended b y F u r p ea san t f a rme r s s e l ing g ra in a nd f v ege tab le s , a nd b y R izeka t a nd Mahad iya ' A rab ' c ame l n omad so f e r ing l e a the r s t g ood s , o i l s a nd m i lk . T he n omad s p as h rough t h e d i s t r ic tj u s t b efo re , a nd t h en t a f te r t h e r a in s , t hough s ome R izeka t h ave s e t led o n t h e o u t sk i r t s o fK ebekb iya . t t T he B en i H a lba c a t le h e rde r s a tend t h e m a rke t l a te r i n t h e y ea r a f te r h a rve s t t ime .

T he p opu la t ion o f t h e t own i t se lf i sd iv ided b e tween F u r , T ama a nd

l ' A rab ' e t hn ic g roup s , w i th s ma le r c ommun i t ie s o f Z aghawa a nd G im r .

T he

ma rke td raw sp eop le f r om at we lve m i le r ad iu s ( t h ree h ou r sd i s tance o nf oo t ) .

3 1

2 . THE P EOPLE 2 . i . Z aghawa S o c ie ty T he re a r e n ume rou s e t hn ic g roup s i n D a r fu r , w h ich a r e s e t o u t i n Ma cM ichae l ( 1922 ) . T h i s monog raph i sc once rned w i th t h e Z aghawa , ag roup w h ich i nhab i t b o th We s te rn S udan a nd E a s ter n C had . O n ly t ho se i n S udan a r e t h e f o cu s o f t h i s p ro jec t .

T he f o l low ing p as s age s s e rve a s a n i n t roduc t ion t o

t h eZ aghawa e t hn ic g roup . T hey g i ve a no u t l ine o ft h e s i tua t ion i nD a rZ aghawa ( l and o f t h e Z aghawa ) , t h e o r ig ina l h ome land o f t h e p opu la t ion .

I t mu s t b e

s t res h a t t h e s i tua t ion d u r ing t h e y ea r o f f i e ld wo rk w a s n o t an o rma l o ne : sed t i n 1 984 t h e p opu la t ion s u f e red t h e w o r s t d rough t t h i s c en tu ry ( Hu lme a nd f T r i l sbach 1 986 ) , a nd t h i s a f ec ted t h e i ra c t iv i t ie s a nd s e t lemen t . D e ta i l so fh ow f t t h e l o ca l p opu la t ion d eve loped f r om s ub s i s tance a c t iv i t ie s t o a cr i s is s i tua t ion r e su l t ing i n s t a rva t ion i sd i scus nT obe r t ( 1985a ) . Ag ene ra l d i scus f s ed i sion o t h ed rough ta nd f am ine i nS udan c an b ef ound i nC a te r( 1986 ) . Z aghawa s oc ie ty e x i s t sa tt h ree l e ve l s : s a la t in ,r oya l ty me sa ldn

( l i t , t h es u l tan g roup )

t h e s ub jec t s( l i t , t h ep oo rp eop le )

h adah id , t h e ' B la ck sm i th s ' . T he t e rm ' B lack sm i th ' i s d e roga to ry a nd d o e s n o t n eces r i ly d eno te sa o ccupa t ion : o ne c an b e ap o te r , c obb le r o r m e r chan t , b u t i fb o rn o fB la ck sm i th t p a ren t s t h en o ne i sa lway s c l as lack sm i th ( c f . E l T igan i 1 982 ) . I ti ss a id sed aB t h a t t h ey mu s t l i ve o n t h e o u t sk i r t s o f ' n o rma l ' s o c ie ty s o t h a t t h e i r n o i se a nd s moke d o n o t p o lu te t h e p ub l ic . T h i s s t udy i s ma in ly c oncer ned w i th t h a t l p a r t icu la r s e c t ion o f Z aghawa s o c ie ty : t h e ' B lack sm i th s ' , t ho se w i th t h e l owe s t s t a tu s i n t h e c ommun i ty .

( I n t h e r ema inde r o f t h e t e x t ' B lack sm i th ' w i th a

c ap i ta l ' B ' i su sed t od eno te t h e p eop le b o th ma le a nd f ema le b e long ing t ot h a t g roup , w h i le ' b la ck sm i th ' w i th as ma l ' b ' d eno te s aman w ho i sa ni r on w o rke r . ) l ' B lack sm i th s ' a r e a n e ndogamou s g roup : n o -one f r om t h e s u l tan o r s ub jec t c l as s w i l mar h em , n o r w i l t h ey e a t o r d r ink w i th t h em . I ti sn o t s o much se l ry t l t h e c r a f t s t h em se lve s t h a t a r e d e sp i sed a s t h e p eop le w ho c a ry t h em o u t ( s ee r T obe r t 1 984b ) . T h i s a t i tude i sw e l i s t ra ted i nt h e f o low ing e xamp le . A f te r t l lu l ad ea th i ti sc u s toma ry f o r p eop le t o mou rn w i th t h e r e la t ive s o ft h e d ecea sed , 3 2

s i t t ing w i th t h em a nd a lway s p a r tak ing o f t e a .

When a po t te r 's c h i ld p as sed

a way a tK ebkeb iya c amp s ome w omen f r om t h e t own c ame t og r ieve w i th t h e b e reaved mo the r .

T hough t h ey d id s i t o n t h e g round t o mou rn , t h ey d id

h oweve r r e fu se a l d r ink s ay ing " i t i s much t oo h o t t o d r ink " o r " Ih ave o n ly l j u s t h ad s ome t e a " o r " b r ing m e s ome w a te r. u t t h i s b ow l i s much t oo b ig t o . . b d r ink f r om " .

I n f a c t t h e t own swomen made amu l t i tude o fe xcu se s i no rde r t o

a vo id d r ink ing w i th t h eB lack sm i th se ven a t at ime o fc omm i se ra t ion . I nD a rZ aghawa p r io rt o 1 970 i tw a sc u s toma ry f o re a ch B la ck sm i th f am i ly t o b e p a t ron i sed b y am emb e r o f t h e r u l ing o r s ub jec t c l as se s : t h ey w e re e xpec ted t ow o rk f o r t h e i rp a t ron s , h un t ing , h ou se b u i ld ing , a nd w o rk ing i nt h e f i e ld s ,

a nd t h e w omen p o t te r s g ave t h e p a t ron f am i ly v es se l s .

T hey w e re

s, av r ega rded a s a se rvan t c l as i ew a l so p u t f o rwa rd b y E l T igan i ( 1982 ) w ho se d i scus sZ aghawa s o c ia ls t ruc tu re i n mo re d e ta i l . C hange s w e re b rough t t o t h e Z aghawa w ay o f l i f e w i th t h e d rough t o ft h e 1 960 s . When t h eB la ck sm i th sl e f tD a rZ aghawa i nN o r the rn D a r fu r( t he i ro r ig ina l h ome land ) t h ey a l so l e f t t h e i ro b l iga t ion s t owa rd s t h e i rp a t ron s , b u t d id n o t l o se t s. t h e s t igma a tached t o t h e i r c l as

A l though t h ey w e re a b le t o o b ta in t o ta l

s s l f r eedom , Z aghawa o f t h e p a t ron c l as t i l i n s i s ted t h a t ' B la ck sm i th s ' w e re n o t h o r , f r ee p eop le .

t Z aghawa B la ck sm i th s h ave n ow s e t led t h roughou t D a r fu r .

K i reyka w a s t h e s e cond o r t h i rd s t op f o r m any o f t h e p re sen t i nhab i tan t s o n t h e i rw ay s ou th ,f l ee ing f r om t h ed rough t . Among t h e f i r s t g roups t ol e ave t h e D a r Z aghawa , w e re t h e B la ck sm i th s . Wi th t h e o n se t o ft h e 1 960 's d rough t , membe r s o ft h e i rc ommun i ty a l ready h ad s i a n e s tab l i shed n e two rk t h rough w h ich t op as n fo rma t ion o n t h e mo s t s u i tab le t a r ea sf o rr e se t lemen t . T he me sak in a nd s a la t in Z aghawa o n ly moved t ot h e ma in c en t re s i n t h e m id 1 970 's .

I n 1 985 i tw a s s a id t h a t mo s t o f t h e me r chan t s i n

K ebkeb iya ma rke t b e longed t o t h e Z aghawa e t hn ic g roup .

E l S ha r if H a r i r

( 1986 ,7 )n o te st h a ti nt h ee a r ly 1 970 's a lmo s th a lf t h ep opu la t ion o fD a rZ aghawa h ad m ig ra ted t ou rban a r ea s . As t udy o fe conom ic c ond i t ion sf r om t h ep e r iod 1 965 -1970 w a su nde r taken s b y T ub iana a nd T ub iana( 1977 ) . L ive s tock w e re t h e ma in e conom ic a se to ft h e Z aghawa , w ho w e r ep r ima r i ly h e rd smen . T hey p ra c t iced t r an shumance w i th t h e t l c ame ls a nd s heep , w h i le c a t le a nd g oa t s w e re g razed c l o se r t o t h e v i lage . ses sion A n ima lr e sou r ce sp rov ided m en w i th much o ft h e i rf ood ,c l o th ing a nd p os s . 3 3

A ny s u rp lu s c a sh w a s u sed t oi n c rea se l i ve s tock h e rd s .

T he g a the r ing o fw i ld

g ra in s a nd f r u i t s w a s e sen t ia l t o t h e d i e t d u r ing t h e d rough t y ea r s , a nd t h e s T ub iana s ( i b id . ,6 ) c ommen tt h a t t h ec u l t iva t ion o fb u l ru sh m i le t w a s " ag amb le l l v e rg ing o n t h e

a b su rd " .

" Be tween t h e y ea r s o f 1 960 a nd 1 970 , Z aghawa

f c oun t ry s u f e r ed s eve ra l s ucce s ive y ea r so fd rough t ,c u lm ina t ing i nt h ef am ine o f 1 969 , w h ich r e su l ted i nm en a nd a n ima l sg o ing s ou th " ( i b id . ,93 ) . I n 1 984 t h e p eop le o f D a r Z aghawa a nd o t he r a r ea s n o r th o f K ebkeb iya e xpe r ienced d rough t a s ac r i s i s s i tua t ion .

A v i s i t t o t h e D a r Z aghawa a tt h a t

t ime s howed n o t o n ly t h a t t h e a r ea h ad u nde rgone 2 0 y ea r s o fd rough t , b u t t h a t f i tw a s a l so s u f e r ing e x ten s ive d e se r t if i ca t ion .

S and d une s h ad e nc roa ched t o

s uch a n e x ten t t h a t t h ey t h rea tened t o e ngu lf h ou se s , a nd i n c e r ta in d i s t r ic t s a round UmmBo ro a nd T ina t h ey r o se a sh igh a st h eh ou se s ' c on ica l s t raw r oove s . I n s ome p l a ce s t h e w e igh t o f s and w a s s o g rea t t h a t i th ad f o rced d own t h e l c ompound w a l s . I th ad a l so c omp le te ly c ove red t h e t op s o i l . T he o n ly p eop le e who r ema ined i n t h e se a r ea s , w h ich h ad h ad n o r a in f o r f i ve y ea r s , s em ed t o s) b e long t o t h e s a la t in ( s u l tan c l as . n umbe r s s t ead i ly d ec rea s ing .

T he o n ly l i ve s tock w e re d onkey s , t h e i r

A t T ina t h e g oa tp opu la t ion w a s r ep re sen t ed b y

l umps o f h a i r a nd r aw -h ide i n t h e s and i nd ica t ing t h a t a n ima l s h ad d i ed w he re t h ey s t ood . T he re w e re n o b i rd s a nd n o f l ie s . F u r the r s ou th , c amp s h ad s p rung l u p a t a ny ma rke t c en t re w he re f ood w a s s t i l a va i lab le .

l E n t i re v i lage

l f p opu la t ion s h ad moved , f am i l ie s s e l ing o f t h e t h a tch r oo f s o f t h e i r h ou se s i n o rde r t o b uy f ood w hen n o th ing e l se w a s l e f t .

T he c on t inu ing d rough t a nd

s ub sequen t f am ine o f 1 984 r e su l ted i nf u r the rd epopu la t ion o ft h e D a r Z aghawa b y b o th l i ve s tock a nd h uman s , t hough E l S ha r if H a r i r ( 1986 ,277 ) n o te s t h a t i n t 1 986 , g ood r a in sb egan t oa t rac tp eop le b ack t ot h ea r ea . t T oday , t h e Z aghawa h ave s e t led a round t h e ma rke t c en t re s i n N o r th a nd S ou th D a r fu r , a nd w o rk a st e a che r s , m e r chan t s ,a nd g ove rnmen t emp loyee s . T he l B la ck sm i th ss t i lw o rk a tt h e i rv a r iou sc r a f t s .

i 2 . i .

Z aghawa B lack sm i th s : S ub s i s tance a nd C ra f tE conom ie s

I tw a s s t a ted e a r l ie r t h a t t h e Z aghawa B lack sm i th s d id n o t f i t i n to t h e t t r ad i t iona l c a tego r ie s o f s e t led o r n omad ic c ommun i t ie s . T he ma in d i v i s ion o f a c t iv i t ie s o ccu red b e tween f a rm ing a nd c ra f two rk .

D u r ing t h e d ry s e a son b o th

l men a nd w omen l e ave t h e i r p e rmanen t v i lage s a nd m ig ra te t o ma rke t c en t re s 3 4

t h roughou t t h e p rov ince w he re t h ey p ly t h e i r c r a f t s ; p o te ry f o r t h e w omen , a nd t b l ack sm i th ing o r l e a the r w o rk ing f o r t h e m en . mon th o f f a s t ing , c ome t h e r a in s .

A f te r R amadan , t h e I s lam ic

I n l a te J une a nd e a r ly J u ly , c l oud s c an b e

s en i n t h e u sua ly c l ea r s ky , a nd f u r ious w ind s b low a t n igh t . e l

A t a l t h e l

ma rke t c en t re s , c r a f t smen a nd w omen t a ke d own t h e i r s t raw s he l te r s a nd r e tu rn t o t h e i r o wn v i lage s t o p repa re t h e i r f i e ld s f o r g row ing t h e s t ap le b u lru sh l l m i le t( dokhn ) o ng oz s o i l s . l Du r ing t h eg row ing a nd h a rve s t ing p e r iod t h e re i sc on s ide rab le movemen to f p eop le . F am i l ie sf r om e ach o ft h eB la ck sm i th v i lage sa round K ebkeb iya D i s t r ic t l s end m embe r s t o h e lp w i th w eed ing a nd h a rve s t ing i n t h e i r l dn s ' f i e ld s . C e leb ra t ion s o f c i r cum c i s ion , b e t ro tha l a nd mar r e n o rma ly h e ld a tt h i s riage a l t ime o f y ea r ( i e . w hen t h e g rana r ie s a r e f u l ) . A f te r t h e h a rve s t t h e ma jo r i ty o f l t h e i nhab i tan t s move t o ma rke t c en t re s t o s e l t h e i r c r a f t p roduc t s . l

H u sband s

a nd w ive s o f ten w o rk i nd i f e ren t c en t re s i nt h e b e l ie ft h a t t h ey c an make mo re f money i ndependen t ly .

N uc lea r f am i l ie s o n ly s t ay t oge the r d u r ing t h e r a iny

s e a son w hen a lt h el a bou ri s requ i red t op repa re t h ef i e ld s . l I n t h e y ea r s o f my f i e ldwo rk ( 1984 /85 ) i tw a s p la in t h a t d rough t w a s a f f ec t ing t h e p opu la t ion 's b ehav iou r . T he c oun t ry w a s i nt h e g r ip o ff am ine . I t h a s b een s a id t h a t f l uc tua t ing d rough t i s ac on s tan t t h rea t i n t h e S ahe l r eg ion . t T hu s t h e k ind s o fs e t lemen t a nd i n fo rma t ion n e two rk s t h a t e x i s t b ecau se o ft h e p reca r iou s c l ima t ic b a lance , a r e r e levan t t o t h e d a ta .

T he c hange i n t h e c r a f t

t t l m ig ra t ion p a te rn , a nd t h er e se t lemen to fv i lage p opu la t ion sd ue t oh a rd sh ip a r e d ea l tw i th i nC hap te r s Two a nd T h ree r e spec t ive ly . T he r ema inde ro ft h ec hap te rp re sen t s as umma ry o ft h ee conom ic a c t iv i t ie s o ft h e B la ck sm i th s . T he c yc le o ff a rm ing i sp re sen ted , t oge the rw i th t h ek ind so f c rops g rown , p lu s ac ommen ta bou tt h e t r ad i t iona lf ood se a ten . A c t iv i t ie sw h ich l r e la te t oh e rd ing a nd h un t ing o f a n ima l s a r e s e t o u t . F ina ly a n a na ly s i s o ft h e t c ra f two rk p rov ide s d e ta i l s o ft h e manuf ac tu r ing t e chno logy o fe ach . T h i s l a te r t d a ta t hough n o t c en t ra l t o my a rgumen t o n s e t lemen t i sp e r t inen t i n t h a t t h e r ema in s o f t h e t e chn ique s a r e r e ad i ly i d en t if iab le i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , l a nd c an p o in t t o t h e p re sence o f ac amp o r t o a c t iv i ty a r ea s w i th in av i lage . t T he r ema in s o f c r a f two rk ing m en t ioned i nr e la t ion t oo ne p a r t icu la r s e t lemen t o nt h e Umm D e lu p l a in a r es e to u ti nC hap te rF ou r .

3 5

2 . i i .a .

Ag r icu l tu re

Z aghawa B la ck sm i th s s e t t led i nv i l lage s a l l o ve r D a r fu r . H oweve r , t h e o ne o n w h ich t h e d a ta i nC hap te r F ou r w a s b a sed , i su sed f o r t h e d e sc r ip t ion o ft h e e conomy . T he l a nd t ot h en o r th w e s to fK ebkeb iya w he re t h ev i l lage o fK i reyka l i e s w a s p rev iou s ly o wned b y t h e T ama s he ikh a t Umm R obob . H e g ran ted t h e Z aghawa u suf ruc t r i gh t s .

T he p o s i t ion o ft h e f i e ld s i nr e la t ion t ot h e v i l lage i s

s hown i nf i g .15 ( p .98 ) . E ach w oman w ho se b r ide p r ice i sf u ly p a id h a s h e r o wn a r ea t o p l an t , l wh i le t ho se w ho se b r ide p r ice i so n ly p a r t ia ly p a id p rov ide l a bou r t oh e lp p l an t l t h e i r mo the r 's f i e ld .

Men h e lp t e nd t h e i r w ive s ' f i e ld s , b u t may a l so p l an t a n

a r ea o fl a nd a pa r t f r om t h e i r s pou se . Af u tu re h u sband i se xpec ted t oh e lp i nh i s i n law sf i e ld , a nd p o lygamou s men a r ee xpec ted t ol a bou ri ne a ch o ft h e i rw ive s ' f i e ld s .

E x tended f am i l ie s p l an t i n t h e s ame e nc lo sed a r ea s , t hough i nd iv idua l s

u sua ly h ave s epa ra te p lo t s w i th in t h em . Women j oke t h a t t h e i r h usband sd on ' t l h e lp i n t h e f i e ld s ; t h ey s ay t h a t m en a r e c on ten tj u s t t oe a t a s ida p or nd i ridge a d r ink t e a .

Men d o , h oweve r , h e lp w i th w eed ing w h ich , d epend ing o n t h e

r a infa l , n eed s t ob e d one r egu la r ly . O ne p o lygamou s man s poke o f ' h i s ' f i e ld s l a tK ireyka a nd a tK ebkeb iya .

I ti sp os le t h a t h e d id b uy o r l e a se t h e l a te r sib t

f i e ld s s i nce t h ey w e re o n i r igab le l a nd ( wa te r ed w i th as haduf ) , a nd i ti sv e ry r u nu sua lf o r aB la ck sm i th t oh ave a cces oa luv ia l s o i ls . ( No -one e l se a tK i reyka s t l h ad a cces o i r igab le l a nd . ) s t r

A t K i reyka , h oweve r , ' h i s f i e ld s ' w e re i n f a c t

t ho se o fh i s t h i rd w if e w ho p l an ted i nt h e s ame e nc lo sed a r ea a s t h e mo the r o f h e r d ecea sed f i r s t h u sband . I tw a s c u s toma ry f o r c o -w ive s t oh e lp e a ch o the r i n t h e f i e ld s w i th w eed ing a nd h a rve s t ing a nd , i n g ene ra l , c o -w ive s t r ea ted e ach o the ra ss i s te r s . A sw e l a se xchang ing l a bou rw i th k in , s ome i n hab i tan t sa l so wo rk f o rc a sh l i nn e ighbou r ing v i lage s w he re t h ey a r ep a id s udi 12 .50 ( L4 s t e r l ing i n 1 985 ) f o r l w eed ing a s ma l a r ea ( a rba maya ) , a nd s ud£30 W O s t e r l ing ) f o r ac omp le te l mohame s .

F ie ld s a r e m ea su red i nu n i t s o ff i ve l e ng ths o fd u ra ( t he l e ng th o fa

man 's f o rea rm ) . A mohame s f i e ld , i s made o f2 0 b y 3 0 o ft h e se l e ng th s , a nd i t w a s s a id t h a t am an t a ke s s i x d ay s t o w eed i t .

I n t h e p a s t , v i lage r s h e ld l

w o rk ing p a r t ie s ( n af i r ) t ow eed t h e i r f i e ld s , b u t o ne i n fo rman tr ema rked t h a tt h e l a s t n af i r

w a s h e ld i n 1 976 .

w eed t h e i r f i e ld s i n 1 984 .

O n ly t wo m emb e r s o ft h e v i lage p a id o the r s t o l T he f i e ld s a r e c l ea red o f a ny v ege ta t ion a nd a r e 3 6

l p l an ted i mmed ia te ly a f te r h eavy r a infa l .

F ie ld s mu s t b e w eeded a f te r e ach

l r a infa l , a nd b o th t h i s a nd s ow ing a r e d one w i th al ong h and led a dze o r b ow ten i ( f ig .2 . i .c ) . A f te r t h e i n i t ia l p l an t ing a nd w eed ing , l a bou r i ss ha red .

T eenage

f ried s o f spr ing a r e o f ten s e n t t o h e lp i n t h e f i e ld s o f mar i b l ing s i n o t he r l v i lage s . T he c rops g rown a r e d okhn ( wa te rme lon ) , l ub ia

l l ( bu l ru sh m i le t ) , i =g

( wh i te h a r ico t b ean s ) , l c i rkadeh

( s o rghum ) , b a t ikh

re t ( s or l ) , s ha ta

l ( c h i l i

p eppe r ) , b am ia ( ok ra ) , f agu s a nd t i bb i sh , b o th o ft h e c ucumbe r f am i ly .

T he

w i ld f ood s g a the red i n c luded k o reb . a dda r . n abak . l a lob . mahke i t . k ow l .

T he

r c rop s g rown o n i r igab le l a nd i n c luded : p anado ra ( t oma to ) , f i g i l ( r add i sh ) , a nd l a d ju r ( c ucumbe r ) , b u tn one i nt h ev i lage ( a pa r tf r om t h e a bove m en t ioned man ) s t r h ad a cces o i r igab le l a nd .

F ood s uch a s o i l , f a t , mea t , t e a , a nd s uga r w a s

b ough t . I n te rc ropp ing w a s p ra c t i sed w i th p lan t s s uch a s b a t ikh , a d ju r . l ub iya , a nd k i rkadeh g row ing a mong s t t h e g ra in .

l l B u l ru sh m i le t w a s p re f e red a l though

l p eop le d id g row s o rghum a nd ma ize ( e sh e rr i f ) . Wi th r egu la rr a inf a lt h ea moun t o f g ra in h a rve s ted w a s r e la t ive t o f am i ly s i ze ,

t h a t i sr e la t ive t o t h e l a bou r

l f o r ce t h a tc ou ld b ec a led u pon . Af am i ly w i th o lde rc h i ld ren c ou ld s ow aw ide r a r ea o fl a nd , a nd t h e i r f i e ld c ou ld b e w eeded mo re r egu la r ly . A f te r g ood r a in s , af am i ly h a rve s ted mo re g ra in t h an t h ey n eeded f o r t h e y ea r , a nd t h i s ' s u rp lus ' e w a s s t o red i nh uge g rana r ie s i n s ide t h eh ou se a nd w a s u sed t os et h ep opu la t ion t h rough t h e t h in y ea r s .

T h i s p ra c t ice o f p roduc ing a s u rp lu s a nd s t o r ing i ti s

c ommon t o s ub s i s t ence f a rme r s t h roughou t t h e S ahe l r eg ion ( s ee a l so Ho ly 1 980 ,67 ) . l i rige made f l T he f ood t r ad i t iona ly e a ten i sa s ida , ap or r om m i le t f l ou r a nd r l s e rved i n a wooden b ow l s u rounded b y mu lah , av ege tab le o r m ea t s a uce . l l F re sh mea t w a s u sua ly b ough t f r om t h e m a rke t , s i nce v i lage r s w ou ld r a re ly s l augh te r f r om t h e i r o wn h e rd s e xcep t o n r e l ig iou s h o ly d ay s .

Y oung c h i ld ren

ridge i a r e o f ten g i ven f r e sh m i lk w i th t h e i r p or n s tead o f s auce .

T ea i sd runk

fs l a f te r m ea l s . T he a bove f ood s tuf , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o fm i le t , o k ra a nd k ow l , l a l r equ i re a ca sh o u t lay .

t S ince t h e re w a s l i t le o ppo r tun i ty t o o b ta in money

e s aved f r om t h e t ime o f l d u r ing t h e f a rm ing mon th s , a l c a sh h ad t o •b c r a f two rk ing .

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A n ima l s

Two c a tego r ie s o fa n ima l s a r e d e sc r ib ed h e re : t ho se w h ich a r e h e rded a nd t h o se w h ich a r eh un ted . D ome s t ic a n ima l s : t sion o s c I n t h e p a s t c a t le w e re t h e ma in e xp res fw ea l th ; a ny e xces a sh w a s s pen t o n e n la rg ing t h e h e rd , a nd t h ey w e re u sed t op ay t h e b r ide p r ice .

D u r ing

my f i e ld t r ip i n 1 982 t h e a bove s t a temen t w a s t r ue , a nd t h i s r ema ined t h e i d ea l ; r l t h oweve r , o n my a r iva l a tt h e v i lage i n 1 984 , t h e re w e re o n ly 8c a t le l e f t d ue t o s e r iou s d rough t c ond i t ion s . A g i r l 's b r ide p r ice w a s made u p o f 1 2 u n i t s l sive d ( t ena iya ) , a l p ayab le i na n ima l s . A f te r s ucces rough t t h e p r ice o fa n ima l s l f d ropped b ecau se s o m any p eop le w e re s e l ing o ft h e i r h e rd s t ob uy f ood . T he p r ice o f ac ow w a s r educed f r om £ 200 t o£ 60 , ad onkey f r om £ 60 t o£ 6 , a nd a g oa t f r om £ 30 t o£ 4 .

l B y t h e t ime Il e f t t h e v i lage i n 1 985 , t h e re w a s n o t a

t riage s i ng le h ead o f c a t le l e f t , a nd t h e b r ide p r ice o n s ub sequen t mar s w a s c a lcu la ted i ng oa t s . l C ow s w e re g razed c l o se t o t h e v i lage d u r ing t h e r a iny s e a son , b u t i nt h e d ry s e a son w e re t a ken t o Gondu l iad s ome s i x h ou r s t ot h en o r th . O lde rm en a nd e t enage c h i ld ren , b o th b oy s a nd g i r l s , t ook c ha rge o f t h e a n ima ls d u r ing t h e mon th s a way .

s s t I n o rde r t o a ses h e b e s t a r ea t o t a ke t h e i r a n ima l s d u r ing

t h e d ry s e a son , t h e i n hab i tan t s g l eaned u p t od a te i n fo rma t ion o n t h e e x ten t o f l t h ed rough tf r om t r ave le r s . T ho se w ho h ad l e f tt h e i ra n ima l s a t Gondu l iad w i th r e la t ive sf ound t h a t , t ot h e i rm i s fo r tune , t h er ema in ing a n ima l sh ad d ied . P eop le l w ho d id s t i l o wn g oa t s a nd s heep i n 1 985 t e nded t ok eep t h e i rf l ock s a tp a s tu re l much c l o se r t o t h e v i lage .

f O the r s u sed t h e i r r ema in ing h e rd s t o p ay o f t h e

b r ide p r ice . O ne y oung man w ho s o ld h i sf am i ly 's f ew r ema in ing g oa t sa nd f ow l , s a id t h a th ew ou ld n eve ra ga in p u th i s money i n to a n ima l s . Wi ld a n ima l sa nd h un t ing : E l S ha r if H a r i r( 1986 ,4 ) p o in ted o u tt h a ti nD a rZ aghawa ,B la ck sm i th su sed t r ad i t iona l m e thod s t ot r ap a n ima ls f o r t h e i r m e sak in a nd s a la t in p a t ron s u n t i l r t h e a r iva l o f t h e g un .

O ne i n fo rman t s a id t h a t w hen h e f i r s t c ame t o t h e

Umm D e lu p la in s ome 2 0y ea r se a r l ie r , t h e re h ad b een amuch g rea te rv a r ie ty o f fe l a n ima l s s u ch a s g i raf , l e opa rd , g aze le , o s t r ich , a nd l i on .

H e c on s ide red t h a t

man h ad d i s tu rbed t h em a nd f o r ced t h em t o move s ou th , l e av ing f ew w i ld a n ima l s ;j u s tf oxe s ,r abb i t s , h yaena s , a nd g u inea f ow l . 3 9

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2i 0 cm . e x cep t K .

l e V e ry y oung c h i ld ren t r ap s ma l , b r igh t ly c o lou red b i rd s w h ich s em t o a ppea r f r om n owhe re o nce t h e g ra in r i pen s .

Y oung men a nd b oy s t r ap g u inea

f ow l a nd r abb i t w h ich a l so a ppea r i n l a rge n umb e r s d u r ing t h e h a rve s t p e r iod . l T hough many o ft h e w i ld a n ima l s h ave n ow g one , t h e o lde r m en a tt h e v i lage l l l s t i l h ave a l t h e e qu ipmen t u sed f o rt r app ing l i on s , g aze le , a nd o s t r iche s . T he se lu a nd o the rt r ap sa r ei s t ra ted i nf i g .3 . i 2 . i .c . C ra f t s l l A l t h e i n hab i tan t s , b o th ma le a nd f ema le , o f t h e s e lec ted v i lage a r e c ra f t s b w o rke r s , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o fo ne woman . S he b e long s t ot h e s a la t in c l as u t s he h a sb een s hamed . H e rc a se i s de sc r ibed i nC hap te rT h ree . l I n 1 984 /85 t h e re w e re o n ly 1 5 men p e rmanen t ly r e s iden t a tt h e v i lage , t hough o the r men f r equen t ly v i s i ted f am i ly membe r s o r f u tu re w ive s .

Many

men h ave mo r e t h an o ne o ccupa t ion : s even w o rk ing a s b l a ck sm i th s ; s even a s l e a the r t a nne r s ; o ne a s al e a the r d eco ra to r ; t h ree a s k o ran ic d o c to r s ; t wo a s m e r chan t s ; a nd o ne a s ab u tche r a nd t a i lo r . A pa r tf r om t h e i rc ho sen t r ade s ome men a l so d o wood w o rk ing : mak ing b ed s ( a nga reb ) , s t oo l s ( bamba ) , a nd s add le s . l l T he se t h ey p roduce f o r t h e i r own r equ i remen t s a nd r a re ly s e l . A l t h e w oman , t b a r o ne , a r e p o te r s .

l L ea the r t a nne r s o f ten s t ay a tt h e v i lage d u r ing t h e d ry

s ea son , wh i le t h e i rw ive s , a nd t h eb l ack sm i th s a nd l e a the rd eco ra to r s , m ig ra te t o d i s tan t ma rke tc en t re s . B la ck sm i th ing : r Me ta l -wo rk ing i sc a r ied o u t a tt wo p r inc ipa l s i te sj u s tb eyond t h ec onf ine s l o f t h e v i lage , b o th s e t u p i n t h e s hade o f a ca c ia t r ee s .

T he o ne t o t h e n o r th

l o f t h e v i lage i s a l so s haded b y ar aquba ( a s t raw s he l te r ) .

A t a ny t ime a

ried o v a r ie ty o fw o rk i s car u tb y men a nd b oy s ; b l a ck s rn i th ing , woodwo rk ing ,t h e p roduc t ion o f l e a the r a r te fa c t s , a nd a n ima l t r aps . E a ch man w o rk s f o r h im se l f t hough h e r e ce ive s h e lp

l t ow o rk t h e b e low s o r f o rge at oo l . U nde r t h e s hade

l o ft h er aquba , t h e re a r es eve ra lh ea r th s , a nv i l s ( s inda la ) , a nd b e low s . S ome t ime s m en d o woodwo rk i n s ide t h e i rc ompound s mak ing s add le so rh and le sf o rk n ive s . O n ly o nce i n 1 982 d id a man h ave a f o rge i n s ide h i s c ompound f o r h e w a s lega mak ing i l w eapon s . Men b eg in b l a ck sm i th ing s ho r t ly a f te rt h e f i r s t g ra in i s h a rve s ted .

Mo s t w o rk a tK i reyka , t a k ing t h e i r w a re t o ma rke t c en t re s , t hough

o s ome t a ke t h e i r t o l s a nd w o rk a tt h e d i s tan t ma rke t s t h em se lve s , s l eep ing b y 4 1

t h e i rf o rge a tn i gh t . I n t h e p a s t i r on w a s s me l ted i n af u rnace .

H oweve r , t h e l a s t t ime t h a t a n

i n fo rman t r emembe r ed u s ing o ne t o s me l t m e ta l w a s i n t h e 1 950 's .

A l l

b l ack sm i th s h ad t o p ay d ue s t o t h e c ou r t a tE l F a she r , a nd e a ch w ou ld t a ke a s o l id l ump o f h i s b e s t m e ta l t o t h e s u l tan 's p a lace .

D u r ing a s me l t , o ne

i n fo rman t s a id t h a t t h e re c ou ld b e u p t o 2 00 p eop le p re sen t ; m en w o rk ing i n l t u rn a tt h e b e low s , w h i le w omen s a ng s ong s o fe ncou ragemen t .

T o m ake t h e

f u rnace , ah o le w a s d ug i nt h e e a r th u p t o aman 's c he s t , m ea su r ing t wo f o r ea rm l e ng th s i nd i ame te r . I tw a s l i ned w i th c l ay , a nd ad ebanga l ike s t ruc tu re ( l ike a g rana ry ) w a s b u i l t a bove t h e g round t o t h e h e igh t o f aman .

A t g round l e ve l ,

l h o le s w e re b o red i n to t h e b a se w i th ak n if e , a nd t h e f u rna ce w a s f i led w i th a l m ix tu re o ft h ree b a ske t s ( r ey ika ) o f m i le t h u sk t oo ne o fi r on -s tone . I r on s tone l ried o w a s l o ca ly q uar n Umm D e lu p l a in , a nd o ne i n fo rman t s howed m e ar i ve r r b ed c on ta in ing b l ack , f e rug inou s s and .

l B e low sw e re manned f r om d awn u n t i l

d u sk , w i th 1 0 t o 2 0 p a i r s o f m en a r ound t h e f ur nace .

E x t ra q uan t i t ie s o f

l i r on -s tone a nd m i le t h u sk w e re a dded f r om a n o pen ing i n t h e t o p a s t h e r aw m a te r ia l s b egan t om e l t . g on ta r i s 1 00 l b s ) .

i O ne f r ing c ou ld p roduce 1 0 t o2 0 g on ta r o fm e ta l ( a

i I ti sp robab le t h a t b y " one f r ing " t h e i n fo rman t m ean t

a

n umbe r o f f u rnace s b e ing f i red a tt h e s ame t ime , f o r t h e s me l t w a s s ha r ed b y a l g roup o f b l ack sm i th s , w ho o pened t h e f u rnace s t h e f o low ing d ay t o d i g o u t b loom ( Abdu la iI d r i s ,p e r s . c omm . ) . l T oday m e ta l i so b ta ined f r om v eh ic le p a r t s : l a nd rove r b a l b ea r ing sp rov ide r re c h rome s t ee l ( had id b i ld i ) ; l o ry s p r ing s y i e ld i r on ( h ad id ) , a nd p e t ro l b ar l s ( b e rm i l ) a r e u sed

f o r t i n p l a te .

o T he e qu ipmen t u sed t o p roduce i r on t o l s i s

lu i s t ra ted i nf i g .4 . i ( p .43 ) . r Sm i th ing i sc a r ied o u t i nt wo a r ea s , b o th a ts ome d i s tance f r om t h e ma in t l s e t lemen t . A t t h e se s i te s , t h e re a r e h ea r th s , b e low s , a nd a nv i l s , a nd e a ch man se l p o ses s h i s own s e t o ft oo l s . O nce f i n i shed aman t a ke s h i s b e low s a nd a nv i l b a ck t ot h e c ompound . When n o o ne i s w o rk ing t h e re i sn oe qu ipmen tp r e sen t , o l f o r t h e b l a ck sm i th c u ra te s h i s t o l s c a re fu ly , t h ough t h ey m igh t b ecome l o s t i n t h e s and . N ea r t h e h ea r th ( f ig .4 . i . f ) i st h e a nv i l w h ich i sd ug i n to t h e g round . l H amme r sca le a nd s ma l s c rap s o f m e ta l a r e a l so l e f t i n t h i s a r ea .

H oweve r ,

l m any ma te r ia l s a r e r eu sed ; e ven a ve ry s ma l s c rap o f m e ta l i sm ade i n to a l n eed le , as ma l k n if e , o r t h e b l ade o f at e gd i ( h a rve s t ing t oo l ) .

Ar e v iew o f

a nc ien ts i te so ff ur nace sa nd s t n i th ing a r ea si nD a r fu ri sg iven b y Mu sa ( 1 986 ) . 4 2

F i g . 4

B l a cksm ith ing i .S m i th ing t o ls o a .h ea rth l b .b e lows c .a nv i l d .t u Are e .c ha rcoa l f .a sh g .h amme rs h .t o ngs i .f i l e j .c h ise l k .b u rn ishe r I .a dze m .s pea r n .w ood s hav ings o .a w l

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4 3

L ea the r -wo rk ing Men w ho w o rk w i th l e a the r f a l i n to t wo s epa ra te c a tego r ie s : d ebagha , a l man w ho t a n sa nd c u re sa n ima lh ide ; a nd e s ca r f i aman w ho e mbe l i she sa r t if ac t s l w i th c u red g oa t -sk in , mak ing k n if es hea th s ,p u r se sa nd s hoe s . D ebagha : L ea the rt a nne r S even m en a t t h e v i lage b uy g oa t , c ame l , c a t le o r s heep sk in f r om t h e l t s l augh te r -hou se s t o t a n .

T hey u se s eve ra l l a rge p o te ry v es l s f o r t h i s t se

p roces f ten s i nk ing t h em i n to t h e g round t o s t ab i l i se t h em . s, o

T he t a nn ing

a gen t i sg o t ran , w h ich i sa n o i l p roduced f r om ac omb ina t ion o fc ru shed b one s , a nd t h e s ed s o fw a te rme lon a nd c ucumbe r . T he se a r e h ea ted u n t i l t h ey f o rm e a n o i l .

T hey a r e p l aced i n ap o t c a led amu lgah , w h ich i st h en u p tu rned a f te r l

i t s mou th h a s b een s e a led w i th f i b re s , a nd i sp l aced mou th d ownwa rd s i n to a s e cond v es l t i f l ( f ig .5 . i ) . se i

T he j o in i sp l a s te red w i th f r e sh d ung a nd t h e p o t s

a r e f i red u s ing c ow d ung f u e l .

A t K i reyka t h e re a r e t h ree s i te s a t t h e

o u t sk i r t s o f t h e v i lage u sed f o r f r ing mu lgah ; t h e se a r e n eve r f i red i n s ide a l i c ompound .

T he s i te s o ccu r c l o se t o t h e p o te r s ' c l amp k i ln s , a nd i n o ne c a se t

t h e mu lgah w a s a c tua ly f i red w i th in o ne . l

T he h o le i nw h ich t h e mu lgah r e s t s

d u r ing f r ing i s much s ma le ra nd d eepe rt h an ap o te ry k i ln . i l t T he l e a the r t a nne r r equ i re s f i ve o r s i x l a rge p o te ry v es l s i n w h ich t o t se t r ea t t h e s k in s .

I ti s c u s toma ry f o r h im t o r ema in a th i s own v i lage d u r ing l

t h e d ry s e a son , t r an spor t ing h i s s k in s o r h and ic ra f t s t o t h e c en t r e s o n m a rke t l e A c o lec t ion o f a r tef ac t s made b y t h e l e a the r t a nne r c an b e s en i n

d ay .

i i f i g .5 . i .b , i n c lud ing w a te r sk in s , b ag s , a nd b ucke t s .

T he t e chn ique o f l e a the r

t a nn ing i s de sc r ibed i nT obe r ta nd R eed ( f o r thcom ing ) . T he s i te o ft a nn ing m ay b e l o ca ted e i the rw i th in t h e c ompound o rb e tween l l t h e s t raw i n te r io r w a l a nd t h e t ho rn o u te r w a l . S ome r ema in s , s uch a st h er ow se sion i o f c e ram ic v es l s u sed f o r t a nn ing , may f i nd e xp res n t h e a r cha eo log ica l r e co rd .

l T he se p o t s a r e u sua ly d ug i n to t h e g round t o k eep t h em s t ab le .

Wooden t oo l s w ou ld b e e a ten b y t e rm i te s , b u t i r on o ne s , s u ch a s t h e g e ra i o r b o rdu w ou ld r ema in .

T he s k in s t h em se lve s , o nce t h ey a r e d ry , w ou ld a l so b e

d e s t royed b y t e rm i te s .

T he s i te o f t h e manuf ac tu re o f t h e t a nn ing a gen t i s

o u t s ide t h e c ompound .

t I ti sf ound i n a n a shy a r ea , o f ten n ea r t o t h e p o te ry

k i ln s .

red s e C lo se b y c an b e f ound t h e r ema in s o f c har ed s a nd b u rn t c ru shed

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o i v . a . T ok u sed w i th c u red l e a the r c isso rs . 1 .S

i . o a . T ok u sed b yt h e l e a th e r t a nne r

2 .K n i fe .

1 .V esse ls f o r s oak ing h i des . . Wooden b l ades . o 2 .T o ls f o r c l e an ing h i des .3 3 .W o rk f r ame .

4 . Hamme r a nd n a i ls . 5 .A w ls . 6 . Sew ing i t ems . 7 . Dye a nd a pp l ica to r 8 .W a te r , s o ap a nd b r ush .

i . b . I t ems m ade o ft a nned l e a the r 1 .C ame l h obb le . 2 .S add le s t rap . 3 .S add le b a g . 4.B e l lows . 5.a Wter b u cke t . 6 .H o rse f e ed b ag . 7 . Qu ive r 4 . le ts . 8 .S hou lde r b a g . A mu 9 Wa ter s k in .

i v . b . I t ems m ade o fc u red l e a the r 1 .S word h and le a nd s cabba rd . 2 .D e co ra t i ve e l emen ts . 3 .K n i fe h and le a nd s c abba rd . 5 .S add le b ag . 6 .P u rse .

4 5

E sca r f i D eco ra t ive L ea the r Wo rke r l O n ly o ne man a tt h e v i lage i sa n e s ca r f i , t h ough t wo y ou th s w e re t a k ing u p t h i s c r a f t i n 1 985 .

I ti nvo lve s t h e w o rk ing o f c u red g oa t sk in t o make b ag s ,

p ouche s , c ove r s o f k n if e a nd s wo rd h and le s , a nd t h e i r s hea th s .

E sca r f i a l so

t p roduce c ove r s f o rt h ew r i ten p ro tec t ive c ha rm s ( h e jab ) , made u pf r om p age so f t k o ran ic v e r se w r i ten b y t h e f ak ih . E xamp le s o ft h e a r te f ac t s a nd t h e e ng raved e a nd s t amped d e s ign so fe s ca r f ic an b es en i nf i g .5 . iv .b . r I n c on t ra s t t ot h e l e a the r t a nne r , a n e s ca r f i may w o rk a nywhe re . H e c a r ie s h i s t oo l s w i th h im t ot h e ma rke t c en t re w he re h e s e t s u p ap l a ce t ow o rk . S ome sion men b r ing f i n i shed p roduc t s w i th t h em a nd w a i t f o r s a le s o r c omm is s . A l te rna t ive ly , t h ey may b uy as upp ly o fk n ive s f r om t h e l o ca l b l a ck sm i th s a nd s hea th t h em .

I n o rde r t o make k n if e s hea th s t h ey c u t g oa t sk in i n to s hape w i th

so s c is r s a nd p a s te i to n to t h e a r t if a c t u s ing g um a r ab ic ( s emog ) . t h en e ng raved w i th a ha rd -wood t oo l ( b abanu s ) .

T he s k in i s

L ea the r may b e d yed r ed o r

b l ack o r i tmay b el e f tn a tu ra l . R ecen t ly , h oweve r , s ome wo rke r s h ave b egun t o l u se f i b re d ye sa nd a r ep roduc ing a r te f ac t si nh ue so fp u rp le , g reen , a nd y e low . T he d eco ra t ive l e a the r c r a f t sman may w o rk i n a ny s hady a r ea .

H e l e ave s

l f ew r ema in s a th i s wo rk s i te , s i nce a l h i s e qu ipmen t i sp o r tab le . F u r the rmo re , t t h e w a s te f r om h i s t r ade i so rgan ic , a nd l i t le w ou ld r ema in t o i nd ica te t h i s a c t iv i ty t ot h ea r chaeo log i s t . t P o te ry manuf a c tu re : t l P o te ry mak ing t a ke s p l ace i n t h e v i lage a tt h e e nd o f t h e w in te r d u r ing t l a te D ecembe r a nd J anua ry . T he m a jo r i ty o ft h e p o te ry i s , h oweve r , p roduced l o u t s ide t h e v i lage a tc amp s n ea r m a rke tc en t re s . I t is c u s toma ry f o rt h ew omen l t ol e ave t h e v i lage a nd move t o ma rke tc en t r e s t h roughou t D a r fu rp rov ince . I n l t h e v i lage i t se lf mo s t w omen w o rk i nt h e i ro wn h ome s o r w i th n e ighbou r s , a nd t l many h ou se s h ave a n a r ea s e t a s ide f o r p o te ry manuf ac tu re , w h ich i su sua ly u nde r t h e s hade o f ar aquba .

H oweve r , s ome w omen wo rk i n t h e s hade

l p rov ided b y t h e i r c ompound w a l s . C on sequen t ly t h ey move a round a st h e s un c hange s i t s p o s i t ion .

A l te ra t ion s i n t h e p l a ce o f a c t iv i ty s uch a s t h e se w ou ld

r e su l t i na r te f ac t s b e ing s p read o ve r aw ide a r ea r a the r t h an c oncen t ra ted i no ne p l ace .

4 6

t N ume rous h ou se s h ave a d i s t inc t p o te ry mak ing a r ea w i th s unken z i r ( wa te r j a r s ) f o r t h e s t o rage o f d amp c l ay .

O ne m igh t a l so f i nd t h e re r ounded

t i h amme r -s tone s , a nd b u rn i sh ing p ebb le s . T he re a r e 1 4 p o te ry f r ing -p i t s i nt h e l l v i lage , a l o n t h e o u t sk ir t s ; w omen d o n o t f i re w i th in t h e i r c ompound s .

S ome

i w omen u se ac ommuna l f r ing p i t , t hough t h ey p roduce w a re i ndependen t ly a nd f f i re o n d i f e ren t d ay s .

i T he d ay o f t h e f r ing i sr egu la ted b y t h e f r equency o f

t t h e ma rke t . F rom K i r eyka ,w omen a tend ma rke t sa t Umm L a 'o ta ( ha l fa nh ou r 's d i s tance o n f oo t ) , G i rgo ( 3h ou r s a way ) , a nd K ebkeb iya ( one a nd ah a lf h ou r 's a way ) .

se l S ome a l so h awk t h e i r v es l s a r ound o the r v i lage s o n t h e Umm D e lu

p la in . E ach woman w o rk s a sa n i ndependen te conom ic u n i t . H e rt oo l si n c lude t h e r ounded h amme r -s tone s ,b u rn i sh ing p ebb le s ,b u rn i sh ing t hong ing ( h ab i le la r ab ) ,a se s c rape r ( mugh ra f a ) , a nd af i b re ma t ( f e ra sh ) o n w h ich t h e v es l b a se i sb ea ten l l t o u t ( f ig .7 .a ) . A l t h e se ma te r ia l s c an b e c o lec ted o r made b y t h e p o te r h e r se l f . l l T he women u se c l ay f r om t wo s ou rce s , a nd t wo d i s t inc t f i le r s : t h e f i r s t , m i le t se h u sk ( bow tab ) i sk neaded i n to t h e c l ay u sed f o r t h e s phe r ica l b a se o ft h ev es l ; t h e s e cond , d onkey d ung ( b a r h oma r ) i su sed w i th c l ay f o r t h e n eck w h ich i s c o i led . se T o p roduce t h e v es l , ac one shaped l ump o f c l ay i sb ea ten o u t , u s ing a l h o low i n t h e s and t o mou ld t h e b a se .

l T he f i b re ma t i sl a id o ve r t h i s h o low

t a nd p owde red d onkey d ung u sed a s as epa ra to r . B e fo re b e ing f i red , t h e p o te ry i s g iven a s l ip o f h aema t i te .

se V es l s a r e made o n a4 , 7 , o r 1 0 d ay c yc le

se t d epend ing o n t h e q uan t i ty o fv es l s p roduced , a nd w h ich m a rke t t h e p o te r i s s upp ly ing .

T hey a r e f i red i n a cl amp k i ln u s ing c ow d ung a s a fue l , w i th a

t empe ra tu re r ang ing b e tween 6 00 a nd 9 00 d eg ree s C en t ig rade . T he r e su l t s o f i o b se rva t ion s o f f r ing s equence s , p y rome t r ic d a ta a nd p e t ro log ica l a na ly se s a r e p re sen ted i nT obe r t ( 1 984a ) .

t As u rvey o ft h e me thod s o fp o te ry manuf ac tu re ,

r aw ma te r ia l sa nd t e chno logy may b ef ound i nT obe r t( 1984b ,c ) . se l V es l s a r e made i n av a r ie ty o f s hape s a nd s i ze s a nd t h e se u sua ly re se lu c or spond t o t h e i r f unc t ion . V es l f o rm s h ave b een i s tra ted i n f i g .6 ( 3 s hee t s ) .

re se T he c or la t ion b e tween v es l f o rm a nd f unc t ion a s m igh t b e

i n te rp re ted b yt h ea r chaeo log i s t may b ef ound i nT obe r t( 1984d ) . se A t K ebkeb iya t wen ty two v es l f unc t ion s w e re n o ted i n 1 982 a nd t h e se l r, i n c luded t h ef o low ing : v e se l sf o rt h et r an spor ta t ion a nd s t o rage o fw a te r( j er 4 7

F i g .6 .i .

P o t te ry f o rm a nd f u n ct ion

0

F unct ion W a te r s t orage r W ater c a ry ing

A rab ic a .z i r b .b owsha i c .g umbang ( a lso f l ou r s t orage ) r d .j e r o e . t a jun ( a lso d r ied f od s t o rage

4 8

2 5c m .

F i g .6 .i .

P o t tery f o rm a nd f un ct ion

f r 1

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2 5c m .

f .g u la l g .i b r ik h .d awa iy i .k hamma ra jd u lang k .u m tuma iy ( a lso c a led c o lo l f o r f od s to rage ) l o 1 .b o rma m .c o lo t

4 9

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n .t a nge l o .w ada iy p .k hasa la G r a in s o ak ing q .d aha lob ( a lso u sed i nl e a the r t a nn ing a nd p er fume m ak ing) S i eve r .g horba l S t ove s .m anga t I n cense b u rne r t . mukhba r L ea the r t a nn ing u. m u lgha f v .t i D rums w . u mm d a luka x . w a lad d a luka W ash ing

5 0

l t z i r , b ow sha i a nd g u la ) ; w a sh ing b ow l s ( t ange l , k ha sa la ) ; p o te ry f o r s t o rage , p repa ra t ion a nd c ook ing o ff ood ( khamma ra ,g umbang ,bo rma a nd c o lo l ) . C e ram ic d i she s a r e n eve r u sed f o r s e rv ing f ood .

T he d aha lob i sv a r iou s ly u sed f o r

s oak ing g ra in , c u r ing l e a the r , a nd f o r mak ing p e r fume .

se V es l s u sed f o r r i tua l

p u rpo se s i n c lude t h e a b lu t ion j ug ( i b r ik ) ; t h e i n cen se b u rne r ( mukhba r ) , a nd t h e k o ran ic d oc to r 's i nk -po t ( d awa iy ) .

se Many o f t h e se v es l s a r e m ade o f a

s phe r ica lo rs em i -sphe r ica lb ody w i th at r umpe t -shaped n eck a nd s l igh tv a r ia t ion s f i nt h ep ropo r t ion so ft h eb ody t ot h en eck d eno te d i f e rence so ff unc t ion . se V es l s a r e f r equen t ly mod if ied w hen t h ey b ecome o ld , f o r e xamp le az i r t h a t g oe s 'sou r ' may b e u sed t o s oak g ra in , a nd ag umbang , t hough made f o r s t o r ing f l ou r , i s o f ten u se d f o r s t o r ing w a te r , p a r t icu la r ly among n omad ic r p eop le s . O ld j e rc an b e mended a nd u sed f o rd ry s t o rage . t s sion i P o te ry a nd a so c ia ted a r tef a c t s o f p roduc t ion may f i nd e xp res n t h e a r chaeo lg ica l r e co rd .

t Wi th in t h e c ompound t h e p o te r may l e ave t oo l s l y ing

l a round : b roken h amme r -st one s , a nd s ma l b u rn i sh ing p ebb le s . O rgan ic r ema in s s uch a s t h e f i b re ma t o r t h e s c rape r w ou ld n o t s u rv ive .

O the r r ema in s m igh t

l i n c lude l umps o fu nf i red c l ay , a nd p e rhap s s ma l amoun t so fh aema t i te ,u sed a sa t s l ip o n t h e p o te ry .

F i r ing i sd one o u t s ide t h e c ompound , a nd t h e d i ame te r o f

t h e c l amp p i t may r ange f r om o ne t ot h ree me t re s d epend ing o n t h e a moun t o f se t i v es l s f i red . P o te ry w a s te r s , m i s take s f r om t h e f r ing , a r e a l so l e f t , a nd t h e se se i n c lude b low -ou t s o r c r acked w a re w he re t h e c o re o f t h e v es l h a s f i red r ed i r a the r t h an b l a ck d ue t oc r a ck ing d u r ing f r ing . S ome b roken p o t s a r e r e -u sed ; se l t h ey a r e p la ced o ve rv es l s t ob e f i red t os t op f ue l f r om f a l ing t h rough . T hu s l t t h e re i so f ten ac o lec t ion o f b roken p o te ry i n ar i ng a round t h e c i rcum f e rence i o ft h ef r ing p i t . i 2 . i .d . A l ter na t ive e conom ic a c t iv i ty A s ide f r om f a rm ing , a n ima lh u sband ry , a nd c r a f two rk , o the rc a sh g ene ra t ing l a c t iv i t ie s t a ke p l ace , r e s t r ic ted t o af ew i nd iv idua l si nt h ev i lage . T he se i n c lude o ccupa t ion s s uch a s t h o se o f t h e k o ran ic d oc to r ( f ak ih ) , t h e h i red l a bou re r , t h e b u tche r a nd t h e t a i lo r .

I n t h e p a s t t h e re w a s m ig ra t ion t o f o re ign p l ace s ,

l e spec ia ly L ibya b efo re t h e b o rde rw a sc l o sed . Af ew y oung men m ig ra te t ot h e G ez i ra P rov ince i nE a s te rn S udan .

5 1

l K o ran ic d oc to r s h ave t h e mo s t p re s t ige i n t h e v i lage .

T hey l e ad t h e

p opu la t ion i nt ime o fp raye r , a tf e s t iv i t ie s , a nd d u r ing mou rn ing . T hey a r e t h e l o n ly m en i n t h e v i lage w ho c an r e ad a nd w r i te A rab ic .

T he re a r e t h ree f a l c ih

l r e s iden t i n t h e v i lage , a nd a f u r the r t wo w ho v i s i t f r equen t ly .

l A s w e l a s

l l e ad ing t h e v i lage r s i n p raye r , t h e i r mo r e r emune ra t ive a c t iv i t ie s i n c lude t h e t p roduc t ion o f w r i ten o f p ro tec t ive c ha rm s .

s age T he se c on s i s t o f p as s o f t h e

t K o ran w h ich a r e e i the r w o rn a sa mu le t s , o r w r i ten o n to ap raye r b oa rd ( l owh ) . f T he ' w r i t ing ' i st h en w a shed o fi n to ab ow l a nd d runk . O ne man , w ho i sn o ta l f ak ih e ngage s i n f o r tune t e l ing ( r umu l ) b y r e ad ing s i gn s i n t h e s a nd .

H i s

e xpe r t i se i sr eque s ted n o t o n ly b y m embe r s o fK i reyka , b u t a l so f r om p eop le i n r l s u round ing v i lage sa nd t own s . l O n ly t wo o ft h e men p e rmanen t ly r e s iden t a tK i reyka v i lage a r em e r chan t s , l l w ho s e l p roduce o the r t h an t h e i ro wn c r a f t s . O ne s e l s t e a , a nd t h e o t he r b uy s t i ng red ien t s s uch a st oma to ( p anado ra ) , p eppe r ( s ha ta ) , a nd o k ra ( d e raba ) , w h ich l h e o b ta in s i n l a rge q uan t i t ie s f r om G i rgo j u s t a f te r t h e h a rve s t , a nd s e ls i nt h e ma rke t a tK ebkeb iya .

O ne man w ho i s at a i lo r , h a s as ew ing mach ine , b u t h e

a l so w o rk s a s ab u tche r , b uy ing g oa t s f r om t h e ma rke t a t K ebkeb iya , a nd l s l augh te r ing t h em f o rt h es ma le ro ne a t Umm L a 'o ta . l Two p eop le i nt h ev i lage u se h i red l a bou ra nd p ay c a sh f o ro the r st ow o rk i nt h e i r f i e ld s .

l H oweve r , i ti sc ommon f o r a l w o rk d one a th a rve s t t ime t ob e

p a id i n g ra in ; a bow l f o r e a ch d ay o f w o rk , w he the r t h re sh ing o r g a the r ing . O ne w oman e a rn te x t ra b yg r ind ing g ra in . 3 . SU MMARY T he B lack sm i th s a r e ad e sp i sed s e c t ion o ft h e Z aghawa e t hn ic g roup . T hey l i ve i n, Da r fu r P rov ince , w e s te rn S udan g row ing c rop s o n r a in -f ed l a nd , i n a r eg ion w he re d rough t i se ndem ic . T hey e ngage i ns e a sona l s ub s i s tance f a rm ing s upp lemen ted b y i tne ran t c r a f t a c t iv i t ie s .

l T hey m ig ra te f r om t h e v i lage a f te r

t t h e h a rve s t t op rac t ice c ra f t s w h ich i n c lude p o te ry -mak ing , b l ack sm i th ing , a nd l e a the rwo rk ing .

T he y ea r o f t h e f i e ldwo rk ( 1984 /85 ) w a s o ne o f s e ve r e

h a rd sh ip . V a r iab le c l ima t ic c ond i t ion sr e su l ted i np a r t icu la rs t ra teg ie sb e ing u sed d u r ing c r a f two rk m ig ra t ion . m ig ra t ion .

l T he f o low ing c hap te r d ea ls w i th s e a sona l

t t S e t lemen t p a ter n s a nd c r a f two rk ing c amp s a r e a na ly sed t o

d e te rm ine h ow ap a r t icu la rg roup o fp eop le d ec ide w h ich c amp t ow o rk a tw i th in t h er eg ion . 5 2

CHAPTER TWO S EASONAL S ETTLE MENT AND CERA MIC PRODUCTION

I tw a s s ugge s ted e a r l ie r t h a t t h e w e s te rn w o r ld 's p e r cep t ion o f s eden ta ry a nd n omad ic s o c ie t ie s a ppea red t o b e c l ea r -cu t . H oweve r , t h e w ay o f l i f e o f many n on -u rban c ommun i t ie s l i e s b e tween t h e se t wo c a tego r ie s .

T h i s c hap te r d ea l s

t sing o w i th s e a sona l m ig ra t ion a nd s e t lemen t ; f ocus n ag roup o fp eop le w ho l i ve a t ap e rmanen t h ome b a se f o r p a r t o ft h e y ea r a nd move t ot empo ra ry c amp s t o d oc r a f two rk . T h i sc hap te ri s di v ided i n to f ou rs e c t ion s : t -p o te ry p roduc t ion a nd e t hn ic i ty t -l o ca t ion o fp o te ry -mak ing c amps i nt h er eg ion -i n fo rma t ion n e two rk sa nd c amp p e r sonne l s -a r chaeo log ica li sue sr a i sed b yt h ed a ta t T he m a in g roup f r om w h ich t h e d a ta w a s o b ta ined a r e Z aghawa p o te r s t ( w ive so ft h eb l a ck sm i th s ) ,t hough c ompa ra t ive ma te r ia li s pre sen ted f r om p o te r s t o fo the re t hn ic g roup s . D a ta b a sed o n p o te r s o ff i ve e t hn ic g roup s i ss u rveyed , a nd t h e s y s tem o f p roduc t ion u sed b y e a ch i ss e t o u t .

A n a na ly s i s i s made o f

t h e e x ten t t o w h ich t h e i r w a re c an b e d i s t ingu i shed u s ing :

f ab r ic , t e chn ique ,

t f o rm a nd d eco ra t ion . Empha s i s i sp l aced o n t h e p o te ry s i nce i th a s b een n o ted t h a t w a re s c an b e u sed t oi n ve s t iga te ma rke t ing m echan i sm s ( Peacock 1 977 ) . A f t r ev iew i sm ade o ft h e v a r iab le s t h a t a f ec t ap o te r 's c ho ice o fc amp l o ca t ion i n t r e la t ion t ot h eh o s ts e t lemen t . T he s e cond s e c t ion f o cu se s o n s e a sona l c amps s e t u p a t ma rke t c en t re s i n t h e D a r fu r r e g ion .

f t I td i s t ingu i she s b e tween d i f e ren t s e t lemen t s a nd t h e i r

t r e la ted m a rke t s y s tem s . C r i te r ia u sed b y c r a f t speop le ( po te r s ) t o s e lec t a p a r t icu la r ma rke tc en t re i nt h er eg ion a r ei d en t if ied . 5 3

I n t h e t h i rd s e c t ion a n a sesm t i sm ade o f t h e m e thod s u sed t oc onvey s s en i n fo rma t ion a bou tp a r t icu la rs i te s .T he c oncep t so f' i nd iv idua l ' ; ' b and ' ;a nd ' c amp ' a r e e xam ined t o d e te rm ine w he the r a camp e x i s t s i n i t s o wn r i gh t o r i fi ti s o n ly ac o lec t ion o fi nd iv idua l s . l T he f i na l s e c t ion d raw s t o ge the r t h e p o in t s r a i sed i n t h e f i r s t t h ree .

I t

t a im s t o e s tab l i sh p a te rn s r e la t ing t o t h e p o s i t ion o f at empo ra ry c amp b o th i n t r e la t ion t o t h e h o s t s e t lemen t , a nd w i th in t h e r eg ion .

se I ta dd res s h ow o ne

t m igh ta na ly se p o te ry t oo b ta in d a ta o ns y s tem so fp roduc t ion a nd ma rke t ing . t Mu sa ( 1986 ,102 ) s t a te s o fD a r fu r t h a t " t he re a r en o t r iba lp o te ry t r ad i t ion s t t i n t h e r eg ion , a nd n o p o te ry w h ich c an b e a t r ibu ted t o ad i s t inc t e t hn ic g roup temp e e i the r a s aw a re o r a s ac u l tu ra l m a rke r " . I n t h i s c hap te r I at t t o s e sib w he the r t h i s i si ndeed t h e c a se o r w he the r i tw ou ld b e p os le t oi d en t ify t h e f t d i f e ren t p o te ry -mak ing g roup s f r om t h e i r w a re .

sib I ti sp os le t h a t t h e a c tua l

e t hnog raphy i s mo re c omp lex t h an c ou ld b e i n te rp r e ted f r om t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . t T ype so fS ea sona lS e t lemen t T he re a r e f ou r ma in s r e a son s w hy c ommun i t ie s s uch a s t h e Z aghawa t B lack sm i th s , e s tab l i sh t empo ra ry s e t lemen t s . T he se a r e f o r t h e p u rpo se s o f a g r icu l tu re , a n ima lh e rd ing , t r ad ing , a nd c r a f two rk . l Ag r icu l tu re : I nhab i tan t s i ns ome v i lage s l i ve ac on s ide rab le d i s tance f r om t h e i r f i e ld s , a nd d u r ing h a rve s t ing i ti sn o t u ncommon f o r f am i l ie s t o move c l o se r t ot h e i r c rop s . S ome b u i ld q u i te s ub s tan t ia l s t ruc tu re s b o rde r ing o n t h e i r f i e ld s .

D u r ing p e r iod s o f h a rd sh ip a nd d rough t

t ho se w ho h ave ar e a sonab le

sib y i e ld p re f e r t o s l eep i n t h e i r f i e ld s t o e l im ina te t h e p os i l i ty o f t h e f t .

I n

l 1 984 , o ne f am i ly a tK i reyka v i lage h ad ad i sma lh a rve s tt hough ar e la t ive l i v ing l a tG i rgo ( aB lack sm i th v i lage s ome 1 2m i le sa way ) ,h ad ag ood c rop . T he f am i ly l t h e refo re moved t o G i rgo a nd b u i l t f ou r h ou se s o n t h e e dge o f t h e f i e ld , w e l t a way f r om t h e s e t led a r ea . T hey r ema ined t h e re u n t i l a f te r t h e h a rve s t , h e lp ing t o t h re sh a nd w innow t h e c r op .

t T he h a rve s t a tG i rgo w a s s o much b e te r t h an

a t K i reyka , t h a t a t l e a s t 1 6 f am i l ie s moved t h e re , l i v ing i n t empo ra ry o pen 5 4

r oof ed s t ruc tu re sf o rs e ve ra l mon th s ( Tobe r t 1 985a , f i g .7 ) . H e rd ing : T ho se r e spon s ib le f o rh e rd ing t h ef am i ly 's a n ima l s a r eo f ten a way f o r u p t o s i x mon th s . c ook ing u t en s i l s .

r T hey s t ay i n s imp le c amp s , c a ry ing s l eep ing ma t s a nd

A t n igh t t h e a n ima l s

a r e k ep t c l o se -by i n t ho rn e nc lo su re s

c ( z e r iba ) . P eop le a r ea cu s tomed t oc amp b e s ide t r ee so rb ou lde r s a nd t h ey d on o t b u i ld a ny t y pe o f s t ruc tu re .

I n t h e i mmed ia te p o s t -occupa t ion p e r iod , t h e s i te s

e a r e c l ea r ly v i s ib le : h uge t h o rn e nc lo su re s c an b e s en o n t h e p l a in , w i th al a ye r o f b l ack d ung c ove r ing t h e g round .

t L i t le r ema in s o f h uman a r tef a c t s : i no ne

l c a se ar o led -up s l eep ing ma t w a s l e f t i n at r ee , w i th ac ook ing p o t l e f t a ti t s b a se .

sion o H e rd ing i st h e u sua l w ay o fl i f e , w i th a n ima l s a st h e ma in e xp res f

l l t w ea l th , h oweve r , t h e 1 984 d rough t v i r tua ly a nn ih i la ted a n ima l h e rd s : a l c a t le f w e re s o ld o fo rd i ed , a nd v e ry f ew g oa t sr ema ined . T rad ing : Me rchan t s w ho t r ave l t o ma rke t s w he re t h ey h ave n o r e la t ive s l u sua ly s pend t h e n i gh t i n t h e o pen .

ry t L or r an spo r t t o a nd f r om t h e m a rke t

c en t re s d oe s e x i s t b u t many t r ave l

o n f oo t , b y d onkey o r w i th a c ame l .

B lack sm i th s w ho t r ave l w i thou t t h e i r w omen fo lk o f ten s l eep i n t h e o pen . I n u rban c en t re s m en c amp b e s ide t h e i r ma rke tp i tch , s ome s pend ing w eek s i nt h i s w ay , t hough o t he r s p re f e r t h e s he l te r o f t r ee s . T he c l ima te i ss uch t h a t , w i th a sib b l anke t , i t is p os le t o s l eep i nt h e o pen f o r mo s t o f t h e y ea r . H oweve r , i t is l n o t s o c om fo r tab le d u r ing t h er a in s o rd u r ing t h e w in te r , f o ri nt h e h i ly r eg ion s t empe ra tu re s c an d rop b e low z e ro a tn igh t . D u r ing 1 984 , t h e re w a s w ide sp read l rie f e a ro fm a raud ing b and i t s , s of ew t r ave led b yn igh t . L or sd rove i nc onvoy so f t t h ree o rf ou rv eh ic le s ,t hough e ven t h i sd id n o td e te ra tacke r s . C ra f two rk :

l B la ck sm i th s a nd l e a the rwo rke r s m ig ra te s e a sona ly , b u t m en

l t r ave l ing a l one d o n o t b u i ld a ny k ind o f s t ruc tu re f o r t h ey r a re ly s t ay l o ng a t a ny c en t re .

t I n c on t ra s t , w omen p o te r s m ay s t ay u p t o s i x mon th s a t ama rke t

c en t re , a nd a lmo s t i n va r iab ly b u i ld s he l te r s .

I ti st h e i r c amps t h a t f o rm t h e

t b a s i s o f t h i s c hap te r . T he re a r e t wo c a tego r ie s o f p o te r s : r e s iden t a nd mob i le . t S ome e t hn ic g roup s r ema in i n t h e i r o wn h ome s a nd p roduce p o te ry f o r l o ca l c on sump t ion , o t he r s m ig ra te t o w o rk i n d i s tan t ma rke t c en t re s .

T ho se w ho

t m ig ra te t o make p o te ry t r ave l w i th t h e i r f am i l ie s t o t h e s i te o f a ma rke t t c en t re . R e s iden t p o te r s a r e t h o se w ho l i ve i nt h e i r o wn h ome s a nd manu f a c tu re f o r t h e l o ca l m a rke t , t hough t h ey may a l so t r ave l t o n e ighbou r ing ma rke t s t o l s e l .

5 5

I n t h e p rev iou s c hap te r i tw a s n o ted t h a t t h e re w e re n ea r ly 6 00 e t hn ic g roups i nS udan ( 1956 c en su s ) , a nd t h e d iv i s ion o ft h e p opua t ion w i th r ega rd t o t e r i to ry a nd l a nguage i sc omp lex . I n D a r f u rp o te ry mak ing i so n ly u nde r taken r t b y af ew e t hn ic g roup s . T ho se n o ted b y t h ew r i te ri n c lude Z aghawa , F u r , T ama , B e r t i a nd M i s i r iya . P o te ry i sa se a sona l c r a f t ; t h o se w ho p roduce i ts ha re t h e s ame e conomy a s t t h e r e s t o ft h e p opu la t ion , i e . , t h ey e ngage i na g r icu l tu ra l p u r su i t s . A t n o t ime w a s as pec ia l is t p o te r o b se rved w ho w o rked a l t h rough t h e y ea r , n o r w e re t l t h e re p o te r sw ho p roduced w a re s o le ly f o rt h e i ro wn c on sump t ion .T he f o low ing t l s e c t ion g ive s a n o verv iew o f t h e p o te ry -mak ing s y s tem i nD a r fu r r eg ion , w i th t p a r t icu la r a ten t ion t o ma rke t c en t re s a nd t h e t empo ra ry c amp s i te s o f t h e t Z aghawa .

1 . PO T TERY P RODUCT ION AND ETHN IC ITY I n N o r the rn D a r fu r t h e re a r e a r ea s o f s e t lemen t w he re t h e re i s ad emand t f o r p o te ry a nd w he re p o te ry i s manuf ac tu red l o ca ly . H oweve r , p o te ry i sn o t t t l t t r an spo r ted f o r t r ade b u t t h e p o te r s t h em se lve s move t o c en t re s w he re t h e r e i s t ad emand f o r t h e i r w a re .

T rave l w i th in t h e r eg ion i s t ime -com sum ing a nd

h aza rdou s . C ame l a nd d onkey a r e t h e ma in f o rm o f t r an spo r t ;

t h e re a r e n o

r oad s , o n ly t r a ck s i n t h e s and a nd s c rub c u t d eep b y r i ve r -bed s . D u r ing t h e r a iny s e a son t h er ou te s a r ec omp le te ly i mpas le f o rb o th man a nd a n ima l . F ew s ab a pa r t f r om g ove rnmen t o f ic ia l s u se v eh ic le s , b u t e ven t h e i r u se i sr e s t r ic ted b y f t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f p e t ro l .

Aj ou rney t o E l F a she r , t h e p rov inc ia l c ap i ta l , m ay

r t a ke u p t o t wo d ay s b y l o ry , a l though a l a nd rove r may d o t h e t r ip i n e i gh t r h ou r s . T he d i s tance i so n ly 9 6 k i lome t r e s . T he t e ra in i n We s te rn S udan i sn o t t c onduc ive t ot h et r an spo r ta t ion o fp o te ry . l t L oca ly -made p o te ry i sf a r c heape r t h an c on ta ine r s i no t he r ma te r ia l s a nd l i s s t i l i n d emand . I n t h e ma rke t , e name l b ow l s a nd p l a s t ic b ucke t s a r e l f r equen t ly s o ld a sw e l a sf i ne p o r ce la in c up s f r om C h ina . H oweve r , i nD a r fu r , se t wen ty two v es l f unc t ion s w e re n o ted d u r ing t h e 1 982 f i e ld t r ip , w h ich a r e lu i s t ra ted i n f i g .6 , a nd h ave b een d e sc r ibed

i n d e ta i l e l sewhe re ( Tobe r t

f 1 984a ,b ,d ) . D e sp i te e t hn ic a f i l ia t ion s , t h e w ay o fl i f er ema in s t h e s ame : o u t s ide t h e t owns mo s t o f t h e r u ra l p opu la t ion a r e e i the r r a iny -sea son f a rme r s o r l p a s to ra l i s t s . T he re i sn o r unn ing w a te r , a nd s upp l ie s a r e o b ta ined f r om aw e l , 5 6

u sua l ly h and d rawn w i th a s k in b ucke t .

Wa te r i sc a r r ied b ack t o t h e h ome

e i the r i n ag oa t s k in o r i n ap o t , d epend ing o n t h e d i s tance a nd q uan t i ty . T he re i ti ss t o red i n al a rge c e ram ic w a te rj a r

( I r )

w i th a2 0g a lon c apac i ty . l

C ook ing i sd one e i the r o n at h ree -s tone h ea r th ( w i th wood f ue l ) o r o n a q anoun ( as qua re m e ta l s t ove t h a tr equ i re sc ha r coa lf ue l ) . R ounded c ook ing p o t s a r e p ref e rab le f o r t h e f o rme r a nd f l a t a l um in ium p o t s f o r t h e l a te r . t

A f te r t h e

h a rve s t mo s t f ood i ss un d r ied a nd k ep t e i the r i nc e ram ic s t o rage j a r s , o r l a rge c l ay g rana r ie s .

I ti s e x t reme ly r a re t o s e p eop le e a t f r om a n e a themwa re e

p o te ry d i sh . F ood i ss e rved i n aw ooden b ow l ( ghada ) , t h ough r e cen t ly e name l t d i she sh ave t a ken o ve rt h i sf unc t ion . Wi th r ega rd t op o te ry f o rm : t h e l i f e s ty le o ft h e s e t led r u ra l p opu la t ion i n t t D a r fu r , i st h e s ame w ha teve r t h e i r e t hn ic i d en t i ty . v es l s se

s e rv ing t h e s ame f unc t ion ,

A l s e t led p eop le s r equ i re l t

a nd a l p o te r s , l t

d e sp i te t h e i r e t hn ic

a f i l ia t ion s , manuf ac tu re v es l ss e rv ing t h es ame r ange o ff unc t ion s . f se 1 i . .

P o te ry ,E thn ic i ty , a nd M ig ra t ion : t

I nD a r fu rs pec ia l i s tc e ram ic p roduc t ion c r ea te s as i tua t ion w he reby much o f t h e p opu la t ion u se s p o te ry made b y a n e t hn ic g roup n o t t h e i r o wn . O f t ho se t w ho a r e p o te r s , s ome a r e m ig ran t a nd s ome a r er e s iden t . T he f o low ing s e c t ion t l a ses s w he the r a n a r chaeo log i s t m igh t d e te rm ine e t hn ic i ty i n r e la t ion t o s se p o te ry i n a n a r ea s uch a st h i s . I ts hou ld b e n o ted t h a t t h e e t hn ic g roup o f t h e t u se r i sa lmo s t i nva r iab ly d i f e ren t f r om t h e e t hn ic g roup o ft h e p roduce r . f

I ti s

n o tp os le t od e rm ine t h ee t hn ic i d en t i ty o ft h ec on sume rf r om t h ep o te ry . sib t I n D a r fu r , o f t h e t wen ty c en t re s v i s i ted , 8 0% o f t h e m ig ran t p o te r s w e re t Z aghawa , 1 0% w e re M i s i r iya , 5% F u r a nd 5% B e r t i .

M ig ran t p o te r s n ea r ly t

a lway s c amp a tc en t re s w i th ama rke t ( Tab le n o .1 , f i g .1 . iv , f i g .9 ; p . 71 -2 ) . T he e xcep t ion w a s a tB ou ra , w he re am ig ran tF u rp o te rc amped b ecau se s he h ad k in t t h e re . Wi th r ega rd t ot h e r e s iden t p o te r s s en , 5 7% b e longed t ot h e F u re t hn ic t e g roup , 1 4% t ot h eT ama , a nd 2 9% t ot h eZ aghawa . T he c r a f t may b es t igma t i sed o r n o t , d epend ing o n t h e e t hn ic i d en t i ty o f t h e h o s t c ommun i ty .

T he p a te rn s t

t h a t e x i s ted r e la t ing t o r e s iden t Z aghawa p o te r s w e re i n te re s t ing ; i f t h e t s e t lemen t s w e re p r ima ry c en t re s , t h e p o te r s l i ved a t t h e e x t reme o u t sk i r t s . t t T he o n ly o the r p l a ce s w he re t h ey w e re r e s iden t w a s i nt h e i ro wn v i lage s , made l u p o fe xc lu s ive ly B lack sm i th f am i l ie s . F u r , T ama , a nd B en ip o te r sl i ved a mong t 5 7

o t he r so ft h e i re t hn ic g roup sa nd w e re n o ti s o la ted ( Tab le n o .2 ; p . 73 ) . B a sed o n t h e r e su l t s o f t h e p re sen t s t udy , t h e re a ppea r s t o b e t h ree p os sib le c a tego r ie s o fp o t te ry p roduc t ion . T he f i r s t made b y a n u n sk i l led , p oo r p e r son w ho make s p o te ry t o e a rn e x t ra c a sh . t

T he s e cond i s m ade b y

s pec ia l i s t s , r e s id ing i n t h e i r o wn v i lage s w ho s e l w a re f r om t h a t v i lage o r l l l p edd le i ta t l o ca l ma rke t s .

T he t h i rd c a tego ry i s made b y s pec ia l i s t s w ho

m ig ra te f r om t h e i r o wn v i lage s t oo t he rc en t re s i nt h ep rov ince , a nd c amp t h e re l w h i le mak ing p o te ry . T he d i s tance c ove red i nt h em ig ra t ion so ft h i sl a te rg roup t t c an b es eve ra lh und red m i le s . T he c r a f to fp o t te ry mak ing b y a l lg roup si ss e a sona l , t hough s ome p roduce o n al a rge s c a le . O n as i te s uch a sK ebkeb iya am ig ran t g roup o fa r ound t we lve w omen c ou ld p roduce u pwa rd s o f4 00 v es se l s e ach w eek . T hough e ach w oman w o rked a sa n i ndependan te conom ic u n i t t h e w a re i sv i r tua l ly mas s p roduced . Mo s t c en t re s w i th ama rke t a t t ra c ted c amp s o f m ig ran t Z aghawa p o t te r s . N ume rou sv i l lage s w i thou t ma rke t s w e re v i s i ted , b u tt h ey h ad n op o t te r s a nd a r e n o t i n c luded i nT ab le n o .1 ( p .72 ) . A s ar u le , F u rp o t te r s a r er e s iden t , a nd make p o t te ry a th ome w h ich t h ey may s e l l a tt h e i rv i l lage o r a tn e ighbou r ing m a rke t s . T hough F u rp o t te r sr a re ly m ig ra te , t h ew oman a tB ou ra w a sa ne xcep t ion . T he f o l low ing p a rag raph s e xam ine t h e r e la t ion sh ip o f p o t te r s t o t h e c ommun i t ie s i n w h ich t h ey wo rked .

L a te r a n a t temp t i s made t o d e te rm ine

w he the r ar egu la r p a t te rn o f s i te p l a cemen t o ccu red t h a t c ou ld b e d educed b y t h ea r chaeo log i s t . 1 . i i . E thn ic i ty o fP o t te r si nr e la t ion t oH o s tP opu la t ion : T he d a ta ( Tab le n o .2 ) i nd ica te s t h a t Z aghawa p o t te r s u sua l ly l i ve o n t h e o u t sk i r t s o f as e t t lemen t ( 8 1% ) .

O n ly i n o ne c a se w a s a Fu r m ig ran t p o t te r

r e co rded o n t h e o u t sk i r t s . Two c amp s o f M i s i rya p o t te r s w e re o b served i nt h e s ou th w e s t o f D a r fu r , b o th o n t h e o u t sk i r t s o f t h e s e t t lemen t . A s h a s b een i n d ica ted , Z aghawa B la ck sm i th s a r e a st igma t i sed g roup , w ho a r e d e sp ised b y m embe r s o f t h e i r o wn e t hn ic g roup a nd b y o the r p a s to ra l e t hn ic g roup s ( Mu sa l 1 986 ,101 ) . Mu sa c l a im st h a tt h ey a r eu n ive r sa ly d e sp i sed b yc ommun i t ie sa mong w hom t h ey w o rk ( i b id . ) .

t H oweve r , t hough Z aghawa p o te r s a r e i ndeed r ev i led

b y o the r Z aghawa , t h i s i sn o t t h e c a se a mong o t he r e t hn ic g roup s , p a r t icu la r ly 5 8

the Fur, Tama and Berti. Among these groups pottery making has no special significance within the community. Potters usually live among the people that they serve, and I was told that there was no stigma attached to being a potter (Abdel Aziz pers.comm.). A Fur potter may live, make, and fire pottery in her own community, and her daughters may or may not follow her occupation. In contrast, among Zaghawa potters, there is no other occupation for a woman; the daughter is always a potter. However in 1985 several Zaghawa Blacksmith girls were recorded attending school in El Fasher. In one centre (Kas), a daughter of a Zaghawa potter actually ate with a Fur family. This was quite unheard of in the communities farther north where there was a greater Zaghawa population.

1.iii. Ethnic Identity and System of Pottery Production The changing nature of ethnic identity in Darfur has been noted. O'Fahey (1980,8) comments that there, "tribal labels have only limited ethnic content and stablity". Gunnar Haaland (1969,61) also discusses the fluctuating nature of ethnic identity and suggests economic factors which determine changes of identity among the Fur and the Baggara cattle nomads in western Darfur. I came across several cases of confusion over ethnic identity: in one case two sisters of the same mother and father called themselves respectively Tama and Zaghawa. In Kutum migrant potters calling themsleves Kinin were encountered who were later established as being Zaghawa. Arkell (1939,79) wrote that all the potters around El Fasher were Tama, and Randi Haaland (1978,58) recorded potters she encountered in south Darfur who claimed they were Baggara. It is quite possible that all are now calling themselves Zaghawa. Though I did see Tama potters, they usually worked as individuals and were not migrant, and the Baggara always stated that none of their ethnic group ever made pottery. Potters of five ethnic groups were observed in Darfur: Zaghawa; Fur; Tama; Berti; and Misiriya. Each group spoke a distinct language, with Arabic used at the market. Some migrant potters like the Zaghawa, had a good command of the Fur language since they frequently worked in Fu� areas. The following list documents the quality of the pottery made by each group and the degree of specialisation. Zaghawa potters: These women are specialists.

Mass production of pottery is their only 59

l se o ccupa t ion d u r ing t h e d ry s e a son . T hey m ake t h e f u l r ange o fv es l s f r om t h e l l a rge s t t o t h e s ma le s t , w o rk ing c on t inuou s ly .

T he re i sn o d iv i s ion o f l a bou r ;

e ach w oman w o rk s a s a n i ndependan t e conom ic u n i t .

T hey a r e m ig ran t , a nd

d e sp i sed p a r t icu la r ly b y m embe r s o f t h e i r o wn e t hn ic g roup . T he i r b l ack sm i th l h u sband s u sua ly w o rk a to t he r c en t re s , s o t h e w omen a nd t h e i r c h i ld ren c amp t a l one o n t h e o u t sk i r t s o f e ach m a rke t c en t re f o r t h e d u ra t ion o f t h e p o t ing s e a son . T he r e s t o f t h e y ea r t h ey a r e r a iny s e a son f a rme r s . T he c a sh t h ey t r e ce ive f r om t h e s a le o f t h e p o te ry i s u sed t o b uy c l o the s , b l anke t s a nd fs l t f ood s tuf , a nd mu s tl a s tu n t i lt h ef o low ing p o t ing s e a son . t l se T he p o te r s make af u l r ange o f v es l s f r om 8 to 5 0 cm s . d i ame te r a nd l f r om ah e igh t o f 1 0 t o6 0 cm s . T hey make a l t h e l a rge s t o rage j a r s f o r w a te r , f l ou r a nd g ra in .

se B ecau se o f t h e s i ze o f t h e se s t o rage v es l s , o n ly o ne c an b e

r c a r ied a ta ny t ime . t F u rp o te r s : l T he se f a l i n to t wo g roup s :

t h e f i r s t a r e s pec ia l i s t s , w o rk ing i nt h e i r o wn

l se h ome s a nd mak ing a r ange o f m ed ium s i zed a nd s ma l v es l s , w h ich t h ey

p r od u ce f o r l o ca l c omm is nd f o r ma rke t s a le . T hey s ome t ime s o b ta in c a sh sion a f r om t h e s a le o f o the r a g r icu l tu ra l p roduce .

T he s e cond g roup o f F u r a r e

u n sk i led , wo rk ing i nt h e i r own h ou seho ld st os upp lemen t am eag re i n come , a nd l t h ey make o n ly t h es ma le s tr ange . l S pec ia l i s tF u rp o te r s make am idd le r ange o fv es l s b e tween 1 0 a nd 3 0 t se cm s d i ame te r . V es l s o f t h i s s i ze c an b e e a s i ly t r an spo r ted t o t h e v a r iou s se ma rke t s , c a r ied i n te r lock ing r

i n ab a ske t o n t h e h ead . T he w a te r -car ing j a r s ry

a r e mo re o vo id i nf o rm t h an t ho se o ft h e Z aghawa . F u rp o te r s a tS hoba s e rve t t h e ma rke t a tK ebkeb iya .

T hey a r e r enowned f o r t h e q ua l i ty o ft h e i r c ook ing

p o t s w h ich h ave a hi gh ly b u rn i shed r ed e x te r io r a nd a sh iny b l a ck i n te r io r , a r e su l t o f t h e t e chn ique o ff r ing . i

I tw a s c ommon f o r Z aghawa p o te r s t o b uy t

c ook ing p o t sf r om t h ew omen o fS hoba . T he u n sk i led F u r make t h e s ma le s t v es l s r ang ing f r om t h e i n cen se l l se b u rne r t h rough t ot h e w a sh ing b ow l a nd t h e l e a the r wo rke r 's p o t . T he se h ave a d i ame te ro fb e tween 1 0 a nd 2 0 cm s . a nd a r e f r equen t ly p roduced i n ar ough a nd i regu la r manne r . r

6 0

T ama : t V e ry f ew T ama p o te r s w e re e ncoun te red .

O n ly t wo i nd iv idua l s w e re

t r e co rded i n 1 982 a nd a no the r i n 1 985 . B o th a tended t h e ma rke t a tK ebkeb iya , t a nd w e re t h e o n ly w omen i n t h e i r r e spec t ive v i lage s t o make p o te ry .

O f t h e

t e t l t wo p o te r s s en , t h e f i r s t made am idd le r ange o fp o te ry , s ma l e nough t ob e r c a r ied t h e s eve ra l k i lome t re s t o ma rke t .

l l S he s pec ia l i sed i n g u la a nd s ma l

r r) t l w a te r c a ry ing j a r s ( j er , w he rea s t h e o t he r p o te r made a s ma l r ange o f se v es l s ,i n cen se b u rne r sa nd w a sh ing b ow l s . B en i : t T he B e r t i p o te r s a t S ayeh a r e s pec ia l i s t s r enowned

f o r t h e q ua l i ty o f

t h e i r w a re , a nd many c u s tome r s t r ave l t h e re t o b uy t h e i r p roduc t s . A l though t h ey w e re wo rk ing i n E l F a she r i n t h e 1 980 's , t h ey w e re n o t m ig ran t i n t h e f s ame s en se a st h eZ aghawa . T he i ro wn r eg ion w a ss eve re ly a f ec ted b yd rough t , t h e refo re t h ey moved t oE l F a she r a s at empo ra ry mea su re , t oe a rn money f o r f ood .

H oweve r , t h ey d id n o t t r ave l o n t o o the r c en t re s .

s p t Z aghawa , mas roduce p o te ry .

T hey , l i ke t h e

T hey a r e s pec ia l i s t s mak ing t h e m idd le a nd

l se s ma l r ange o fv es l s . I n E l F a she r t h ey b uy l a rge s t o rage j a r s f r om Z aghawa t p o te r s . M i s i r iya : t s T he M i s i r iya a r e m ig ran t p o te r s i n t h e s ame w ay a s t h e Z aghawa , mas p roduc ing w a re f o r t h e ma rke t .

O n ly t wo c amp s o fM i s i r iya w e re n o ted , s i nce

my s u rvey w a s c oncen t ra ted i n c en t ra l D a r fu r , a nd Io n ly b r ief ly v i s i ted s ou th w e s tD a r fu rw he re t h ey wo rked . T hey w e re p robab ly i nS udan b ecau se f ood a i d w a s p re sen t , w h ich a tt h a t t ime w a s n o t a va i lab le i n C had .

A l so i n t h e s ou th

t w e s t a tE l G enena o n t h e C had b o rde rw e re s eve ra l g roup so fp o te r s i nr e fugee c amp s . O the r sr e f e red t ot h em a s ' Nuba ' , at e rm mean ing ' b la ck ' b u to f ten u sed i n ad e roga to ry manne r .

6 1

t 1 . iv . P o te ry T echno logy , Manuf a c tu re a nd F i r ing t l I n t h i s s e c t ion t h e t e chn ique o fp o te ry manuf ac tu re i ss e t o u t f o lowed b y o t f l an o te o n : t o l s u sed i n p o te ry mak ing ; d i f e ren t f ab r ic s a nd f i le r s ; a nd t h e s u r f ace d eco ra t ion .

sion c T he d i scus on s ide r s t h e e x ten t t ow h ich t h e se m ay b e

t f u sed t o i d en t ify p o te ry o f d i f e ren t e t hn ic g roup s .

A n u nde r s tand ing o f

t l t p o te ry t e chno logy a low s a n i n s igh t i n to w hy p o te r s s e lec tp a r t icu la r c l ay s a nd l f f i le r s o r d i f e ren t k ind s o f s u r f ace d eco ra t ion . t h e f i na l a ppea rance o f

f E a ch o f t h e a bove m ay a f ec t

t ap i ece o f p o te ry , a nd m ay b e u sed b y t h e

f a r chaeo log i s t t o d i s t ingu i sh b e tween d i f e ren t t y pe s o f w a re .

fe D if r ence s i n

t t p o te ry f o rm may e nab le u s t o d e te rm ine w he the r p o te r s a r e m ig ran t o r r e s iden t . l l t l Af u l c o lec t ion o fp o te ry , t oo l s a nd s amp le s o fc l ay a nd f i le r w a s m ade t b yt h ea u tho ri n1 982 a nd i sw i th t h eP i tR ive r s Mu seum , O x fo rd . 1 . iv .a .

T he t e chn ique :

t t T he a c t iv i ty o fp o te ry mak ing r equ i re s l i t le o r n o c a sh o u t lay : c l ay s a nd p igmen t s a r e f r ee ly o b ta ined , t oo l s a nd e qu ipm en t c an b e made i n c lud ing t h e h amme r s tone , t h e s i eve a nd t h e f i b re ma t ( s ee T obe r t 1 984a ,228 , f o r ad e ta i led d e sc r ip t ion o f t oo l s ) .

ry T he a dze f o r q uar ing c l ay i sb ough t , t hough Z aghawa

menfo lk a r e b l a ck sm i th s s o t h i s t oo l c an b e m ade .

T he b a ske t ( r ey ika ) w i th

rie w h ich w omen t r an spo r t t h e c l ay f r om t h e q uar s d oe s r equ i re c a sh , t hough r s ome c a ry c l ay i n ag oa t sk in . T he t e chn ique , d e sc r ibed i n c hap te r t wo , i sc ommon t h roughou t D a r fu r l ( A rke l 1 939 ; H aa land 1 978 ; Musa 1 986 ) a nd h a sb een n o ted i nK o rdo r f an . T he t p o te ry a lmo s t a lway s h a s a s phe r ica l b a se w i th a n e ve r ted r im a nd a t r umpe t -shaped n eck .

l t A l p o te r s f i re t h e i r w a re i nt h e s ame manne r , u s ing a

c l amp k i ln ( bonf i re k i ln ) e i the r o n t h e s andy r i ve r b ed , ar ubb i sh d ump , o re ven w i th in t h e i ro wn c ompound .

O n o n ly t wo o cca s ion s ( i n S hoba a nd K u tum ) w a s

l wood o b se rved a s af ue l ; a ta l o the r t ime s c ow d ung i su sed .

t P o te r s u se t h e

se s ame t e chn ique o f s t ack ing t h e k i ln , t h a t i so fp l a c ing v es l s o n t h e i r s i de s i f t h ey w an t t h em t o h ave ar ed i n te r io r , o r l e av ing t h em f l u sh w i th t h e b a se o f t h ek i ln t og i ve ab l ack c a rbon i sed i n te r io r( s ee T obe r t 1 984a ,155 ) . se i S ome F u r v es l s a r e g i ven as e conda ry f r ing , o r r a the r as mok ing . T he se l i n te r io r o f t h e v es l i sf i led w i th s mou lde r ing s t raw , t h en u p tu rned o n t h e 6 2

ground and left to blacken.

This technique is used to produce pottery with a

reduced interior, which makes the pot less porous and better for cooking sauces. Of the potters included in this survey, only the Fur were seen to use this technique of secondary reduction. Firing took between half an hour to 3 hours depending on the wind speed, and recordings of 25 pyrometric readings of firings taken at Kebkebiya and El Fasher can be found in Tobert (1984a). The technology of all potters whatever their ethnic group, is similar, and the technique used is the same. 1.iv.b. Tools used in pottery making The tools (fig.7) used by different ethnic groups do vary slightly, but from the tools alone it would not be possible to distinguish the ethnic identity of the potter. Hammer-stones were universally used, likewise the burnishing tools. · Clay beaters were observed at several sites. Ceramic or cow rib scrapers may be used to distinguish potters. modu�ag, hammer-stone: Almost every group uses rounded hammer-stones that they chip out themselves to beat out pottery. These are of varying proportions, depending on the type of pottery made; for example that used to make a water storage jar is 15 ems across, whereas one for an incense burner is 6 cm. Some women alter their hammer-stones so that they can obtain a better grip (fig.7�a). A Zaghawa group working in.Kutum uses mushroom-shaped beaters made ·or unfired ciay, whereas the Misiriya at Nanguseh who also use day beaters, fire theirs. These tools vary in size according to the vessel type required. mu�hrafa, scrapers: Many potters use gourd scrapers; rectangular sections cut from dry gourds with the edges ground smooth. These are used by most ethnic groups but would not survive in the archaeological record. However, the Berti and the Misiriya use scrapers in other materials that would survive; the Berti use sections of broken pottery, ground on a· stone to a rectangular form, while the Misiriya use cow ribs for this same purpose. All forms of scrapers are illustrated in fig.7.a,b,c.

63

F i g . 7

P ottery -Mak ing T oo ls

a .Z aghawa

b . Be rt i

g ourd s c rape r

h ammer s t ones

h amme r s tones

c e ram i c s c ape r

c eram ic b urn isher

> .

• & .

4 15 . 4A si t v i4 ,ez e heh i,

4 ‘ 49 . 7 0

m a t b urn ish ing p ebb les

b urn ish ing r ope

m a ts

c . M is ir iya

0 -- ---' m o r tar

. . . . _ ' •

4

•

a

c eram ic

. ,

/ b one s crape rs

i !. " -H z -— _

. . . 2 , . : . ; , . : . • , 5 41: ' : . m at ' .' , -4--

s t raw m at

1 5 .4

d . Fu r

1

'.

F i g .8

h ammer s tone

._ .

0

a o

b urn ish ing p ebb les

g ourd s craper

u p tu rned p o t

e . T ama

P ot te ry D ecorat ion

a .Z aghawa

b . Be rt i d -

r fe en u .

e f e e

o '

P I I 1I IW

1 + 0

e R."Cl i rl*

_ . i m pressed d es igns

•

g raph i te

c .M i s ir iya

i 11

e 0

• ••.• • • • .. . e . . • a l : % I li M O I I I I I P l e

d . Fur

i n c ised d es igns

6 4

_

e. T ama

o B u rn i sh ing t o l s : many g roups u se q ua r tz p ebb le s w h i le s ome l i ke t h e Z aghawa a nd t h e F u r u se p l a i ted l e a the r t hong ing , h ab i l e la r ab .

O the r s u se a

s o f te rs t one , l i ke as a nd s tone w ho se s hape b ecome s mod if ied t h rough b u rn i sh ing . 1 . iv .c .

F ab r ic a nd f i l le r

I n N or the rn D a r fu r n e i the r t h e f ab r ic n o r t h e f i l le r c an b e u sed a s am ean s o fi d en t i fy ing t h e e x i s tence o f ap a r t icu la r e t hn ic g roup .

A t as i ng le v i l lage , i f

t h e re a r e t wo e t hn ic g roup s mak ing p o t te ry , b o th a r e l i ke ly t ou se t h e s ame c l ay s ou r ce .

F u r the rmo re , a mong as i ng le e t hn ic g roup , i nd iv idua l p o t te r s may u se

p a r t icu la r m ix tu re s o f c l ay n o t c ommon t o t h e o the r s .

A t S hoba f o r e xamp le ,

o ne o ld w oman i sr enowned f o r t h e q ua l i ty o fh e r p o t s .

S he u se s am ix tu re o f

t l s i xc l ay s , w he r ea so the rp o te r si nt h ev i lage o n ly u se t wo . l l I n c e r ta in c en t re s , t h e Z aghawa t r ad i t iona ly u se m i le t h u sk a nd d onkey l d ung a s af i le r , t h e f i r s t f o r t h e b a se a nd t h e s e cond f o r t h e n eck o f t h e se l v es l . H oweve r Z aghawa , T ama a nd F u r may u se e i the r m i le t h u sk , d onkey d ung , o r c ru shed s t raw , t hough t h i s u sage c an v a ry w i th in t h e s e a son o r w i th in t h e g roup .

l f I n s ome c a se s h oweve r , f i le r c an b e u sed t o d e te rm ine d i f e ren t

g roup s . I n t h e p rov inc ia l c ap i ta l o fE l F a she r ( Tobe r t 1 984b ) t h e Z aghawa a nd t t B e r t i p o te r s d o u se d i s t ingu i shab le t empe r ing a gen t s . B er t i p o te r s make t h e l m idd le r ange o f w a re a nd u se c ow d ung a s af i le r w h ich p roduce s av e ry c ompac t b ody . T hu s t h e re i sc on s ide rab le v a r ia t ion i nw a l l t h icknes s b e tween a se B e r t ib ow l( 5mm )c ompa red t ot h es ame v es lp roduced b yt h eZ aghawa ( 8mm ) . 1 . iv .d .

S u r f ace d eco ra t ion :

S l igh t v a r ia t ion i n s u r f ace t r ea tmen t a nd d eco ra t ion c an b e u sed a s a d e te rm inan t o f ap o t te r 's e t hn ic i d en t i ty .

Mu sa i n h i s s t udy o ft h e a r chaeo logy

t sed d o fC en t ra l D a r fu r , r e f e r s t op o te ry a sh av ing ' ma ti mp res eco ra t ion ' ( Mu sa 1 986 ,106 ) .

sion H oweve r , i n D a r fu r , ma t i mp res s a r e f o rmed a s ar e su l t o f t h e

l t e chn ique o fp roduc t ion , a nd n o ta s embe l i shmen ta f te rt h ep roduc t ion . l T he Z aghawa t r ad i t iona ly b ea t t h e i r w a re o n af i b re m a t ( f e ra sh ) a nd o n t h e s hou lde r a dd a n i n c i sed r ow o f f i nge r d o t s o r a n i nden ted r i dge . T he se a r e t t u sed a s as i gna tu re o r p o te r 's m a rk . Among t h e Z aghawa , p o te r 's ma rk s v a ry f r om i n c i sed d eco ra t ion b e low t h e r im t o v a r ia t ion s i n t h e n umbe r , s i ze a nd 6 5

t s hape o fv e s t ig ia l h and le s . T he se l a te r a r e a pp l ied t ot h ej unc t ion b e twen n eck a nd s hou lde r .

t l se P o te r s u sua ly g i ve t h e i r v es l s a sl ip o f m ica a nd h aema t i te

i se p r io r t of r ing a nd i ti st h i s t h a t d i s t ingu i she s t h e i r v es l s ; t h e F u r w e r e n eve r e s en t ou se m ica . t T he F u r p o te r s a l so b ea t o u t t h e i r p o t s o n f i b re ma t s ( f e ra sh a nd s h em la ) . H oweve r , t h e s u r f a ce t e x tu re o f t h e s phe r ica l b a se may v a ry d epend ing o n t h e l t y pe o ff i b re ma t u sed . T h is i sn o t d i s t inc t ive e nough t ob e u sed i na l c a se s a s amean s o fd i s t ingu i sh ing b e tween e t hn ic g roup s . H oweve r , t h et e x tu red s u r f ace ry o n t h e s hou lde r o f w a te r -car ing p o t s i ss c raped d own t o l e ave a s s moo th a se s u r f ace a s a tt h e n eck . T he w ho le v es l i st h en c oa ted i n ah aema t i te s l ip a nd f i ne ly b u rn i shed .

i se A f te r f r ing , t h e v es l s r e ce ive a l i nea r d eco ra t ion o f

t g raph i te a pp l ied t o t h e j unc t ion o f b ody a nd n eck w i th t h e f i nge r , a nd p o te r s v a ry t h i s m a rk s l igh t ly a nd p re sumab ly u se i ta s as i gna tu re .

A t S hoba s ome

se w omen p l ace l ug s o n t h e v es l r im b u t o t he rw i se t h ey u se g raph i te a s am ean s o fi d en t ify ing t h e i rw a re . t A t B ou ra a re s iden t F u r p o te r a l so c oa t s t h e i n s ide o f h e r c ook ing p o t s i w i th g raph i te p r io r t o f r ing .

t T he m ig ran t F u r p o te r t h e re u se s am ix tu re o f

t wo c l ay s , o ne r ed ( t oo p l a s t ic t o b e u sed o n i t s o wn ) , a nd t h e o t he r av e ry se ' s tony ' b l ack c l ay . Ar ed p igmen t i su sed o n l e a the r h a rd v es l s , b u t n o m ica . l se S he make s t h e f u l r ange o f v es l t ype s i n c lud ing t h e l a rge z i r , w h ich h a s a t e r ough s u r f ace o n t h e b a se , a nd as qua te rr im t h an w a s s en a tK ebkeb iya . T he p o t s a r e n o t d eco ra ted e xcep t f o r t h e s i gna tu re m a rk s , n e i the r d o t h ey h ave a sions a r ow o ff i nge r i mp res tt h e s hou lde r , s o t y p ica l o fZ aghawa p o t s . A l so o n t h e r i ve r b ed a tB ou ra a r e t h e r ema in s o ft wo q ue rn s t one s uppo r t s ; as t one a nd l s t raw b a se , t h e a c tua l g r ind ing s t one h ad b een r emoved , b u t t h e h ou se ' wa l ' o f l c l ay a nd s t raw w a s s t i l p a r t ly a dhe r ing t o t h e c l ay .

T he re w a s e v idence o f a

i sion d i su sed f r ing p i t , ac i rcu la ra shy d ep res , a nd a n a n ima le nc lo su re w i th c ame l e d ropp ing s o n t h e s and . M ica d u s ted s he rd s c ou ld b e s en o n t h e g round , e a ch o f s ed d w h ich h ad ar ow o f i mp res o t s . T he se mu s t h ave b een t h e r ema in s f r om a t c amp o fZ aghawa p o te r s . l T he T ama w oman o b served , make s g u la w i th aw ide t h ick n eck , c r ude ly r o p roduced , b u t h e r k hamma ra a nd j e r l ok v e ry s im i la r t ot h o se o ft h e Z aghawa w i th a r a i sed b and o f d eco ra t ion o n t h e s hou lde r .

f I t i s q u i te d i f icu l t t o

se t d i s t ingu i sh t h e se v es l s f r om t h o se o ft h e Z aghawa , e xcep t t h a t t h ey a r e al i t le l t h icke rw a led . 6 6

t A t N angu seh t h e M i s i r iya w omen make p o te ry o f t h e s ame s hape a s t h e f l Z aghawa , b u t t h ey b ea t t h e p o t s o u t o n ad i f e r en t k i nd o f ma t . T h i s i sc a led ringbone p t ab i r i sh made o fd om p a lm f i b re w h ich l e ave s ad i s t inc t ive h er a te rn . sion t t se H oweve r , r a the r t h an l e av ing t h e m a t i mp res h e p o te r s s c rape t h e v es l l s-cros s i w a l s s moo th , t h en a dd ab and o fc r is n c i sed d eco ra t ion j u s t a bove t h e l t se max imum d i ame te r . T he s moo thed w a l s a nd i n c i sed p a ter n make t h e se v es l s q u i te d i s t inc tf r om Z aghawa w a re o ft h es ame f o rm . t se B e r t i p o te r s a t E l F a she r s l ip t h e i r v es l s w i th h eama t i te b e fo re i b u rn i sh ing , b u t a f te r f r ing t h ey a pp ly l i nea r d eco ra t ion w i th g r aph i te i n much t h e s ame w ay a s t h e F u r d o .

se H oweve r , t h e i r v es l s a r e d i s t inc t ive f r om t h e

F u r a nd a ny o f t h e o t he r g roup s b ecau se o f t h e c ompac t f ab r ic .

F u r the rmo re ,

sed ma B e r t i r a re ly u se i n c i sed o r i mp res rk s , t hough t h ey d o v a ry g raph i te d eco ra t ion a nd h and le f o rm st oi nd ica te t h e i rs i gna tu re . t 1 . v . P o te ry a s am ean so fD e te rm in ing E thn ic I den t i ty f O ne o f t h e mo re d i s t inc t ive m e thod s o f d i s t ingu i sh ing t h e d i f e rence s t b e tween p o te ry o f e t hn ic g roup s i st h e u se o f am ica s l ip . T he F u r n eve r u se m ica , o n ly h aema t i te .

D u r ing t h e 1 982 s u rvey , t h e u se o f m ica s l ip w a s

t p a r t icu la r t o Z aghawa p o te r s .

I n f a c t ,

t a tt h a t t ime o n ly o ne Z aghawa p o te r

t w a s r e co rded w ho h ad n o s upp ly o fm ica . I ti sc u s toma ry f o r Z aghawa p o te r s rie t o make t h e i r a nnua l t r ip t o t h e m ica q uar s a t t h e e nd o f t h e d ry s e a son l b e fo re r e tu rn ing t ot h e i r v i lage s t of a rm . A t Awa l , o ne o ft h e s ou rce s o fm ica ry i d us t , t h e q uar s1 00 me t re s a way f r om t h e ma rke t p l ace . ( A s e cond s ou r ce i s t h a t o f J ebe l Nomoh , s ou th o fK ebkeb iya . )

t P o te r s a t Awa l u se at h ick m ica

s l ip w h ich i st h en b u rn i shed . T hey w e re t h e o n ly Z aghawa w ho d id n o tu se a ny t h aema t i te . C lo se t o Awa l , a tt h e s i te o f S i je r in , p o te r s i n c rea se t h e p ropo r t ion o fm ica t oh aema t i te i nt h e i rs l ip . I n 1 985 , h oweve r , d rough t a nd f am ine a nd l a ck o f s t reng th a mong t h e rie Z aghawa m ean t t h a t t h ey w e re n o t p repa red t o t r ave l t ot h e m ica q uar s . A t K ebkeb iya i tb ecame o bv iou s t h a t t owa rd s t h e e nd o f t h e d ry s e a son c e r ta in t p o te r s ' s upp ly o f m ica r an s o l ow t h a t t h ey o n ly u sed h aema t i te t o s l ip t h e p o t s .

t T h i s l a te r w a s a va i lab le f r om n ume rous l o ca l s ou rce s , w he rea s t h e m ica

ried f w a so n ly q uar r om t wo s ou r ce s . T hu sd u r ing t h a tp e r iod , m ica d u s t ing c ou ld f t n o tb eu sed a s am ean so fd e te rm in ing e t hn ic d i f e rence sb e tween p o te r s . 6 7

S im i la r ly , t h e u se o fg r aph i te w i th ap a r t icu la r t y pe o fb ody f ab r ic , m igh t b e u sed a s a n i nd ica t ion o f F u r p o te ry . t

H oweve r ,

d u r ing 1 985 , a Zaghawa

p o te r a tK a la , av i lage w i th am a in ly F u r p opu la t ion , d eco ra ted h e r p o t s w i th t l g r aph i te d e s ign s . t h e o n ly c a se

S he w a s i nf a c t , i m i ta t ing t h e F u r p o te ry . T hough t h i s w a s t

s en , t h e i mp l ica t ion s o f t h i s e xamp le a nd t h e o ne a bove , m ean e

t h a tc onfu s ion m igh tr e su l t w hen u s ing p o te ry t oi d en t ify e t hn ic g roup s . t T he re i s l i t le t o d i s t ingu i sh b e tween t h e t e chn ique s u sed b y d i f e ren t t f p o t ing g roup s . t

H oweve r , e xcep t f o r t h e a bove e xamp le s , f o rm

a nd s u r f ace

t r ea tmen t c an b e u sed t o i d en t ify e t hn ic i ty o f t h e p roduce r . U se o f f a b r ic t o i nd ica te e t hn ic i d en t i ty c an b e m i s lead ing , e xcep t i n t h e c a se o f t h e B er t i w ho u se ad i s t inc t ive f i le r w h ich p roduce s ac ompac tb ody . T hough i na n t iqu i ty w e l may n o tk now e xac t ly w ho w a sp roduc ing w ha t , i tmay b ep os le t od e te rm ine sib d i f e ren ts y s tem so fp roduc t ion f r om t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fw a re i nt h er eg ion . f V es lf o rm s may b ed iv ided i n to t h ree g roup sb a sed o n s i ze ( r ang ing f r om se ad i ame te r o f 8 50cm s , a nd a h e igh t o f 1 0 -60cm s ) . d i ame te r o f b e tween 3 0 t o 5 0 cm s , m idd le r ange

L a rge v es l s se

h ave a

b e tween 1 5 t o 3 0 c m s , a nd

s ma l b e tween 8 to 1 5 cm s . T he Z aghawa a nd M i s i r iya make a l t h ree g roup s . l l T he F u r , T ama , a nd B e r t i make t h em idd le a nd l owe rr ange , w h i le t ho se w ho a r e i n expe r ienced make t h e s ma le r r ange . T he a c tua l f o rm o fv es l s made b y a l l se l g roup s o f p o te r s a r e v e ry s im i la r , e xcep t i n t h o se c a se s w he re t h e p o te r i sa t t n ov ice a nd p roduce s c rude w a re s .

U s ing f o rm a l one , i t may b e p os le t o sib

d e te rm ine t h ed eg ree o f mob i l i ty f r om t h ed i s t r ibu t ion . T he

f d i f e rence

i n p ropo r t ion

o f

se v es l

p ro f i le s

c an

se a r chaeo log i s t s t o d i s t ingu i sh v es l f o rm a nd i n te rp re t f unc t ion .

b e

u sed

b y

A s e r ie s o f

se l v es l si nm ed ium o rs ma l s i ze s , t o ge the rw i th as im i la r i ty o fs u r f a ce d eco ra t ion , t m igh t s ugge s t t h a t t h e p o te r p edd le s h e r w a re a r ound l o ca l ma rke t c en t r e s . se S uch v es l s f ound i nc on junc t ion w i th w a re s o fl a rge s i ze a nd d i ame te r ( w i th f d i f e ren t s u r f ace d eco ra t ion ) m igh t s ugge s t t h a t t h e p roduce r o f m ed ium -s ize t w a re i s ar e s iden t p o te r , w h i le t h e p roduce r o f t h e l a rge r w a re m igh t b e e i the r r e s iden t o r m ig ran t .

s s w t I n o rde r t o a ses he the r t h e l a te r w a s m ig ran t o r

s s t r e s iden t o ne w ou ld h ave t o make as u rvey o ve r aw ide r eg ion t oa ses h ek i nd s o f w a re p roduced .

Mu sa ( 1986 ,120 ) , w o rk ing i n D a r fu r , c ame t o r e levan t

c onc lu s ion s a bou t h i s ' Type A ' p o te ry , i e . t h a t i tw a s m ade b y a sp ec ia l i sed t m ig ran t g roup .

H e c ame t ot h e se c onc lu s ion s b o th t h rough a n a na ly s i s o f t h e 6 8

w a re i t se lf , a nd b ecau se h em ade a na lagou si n te rp re ta t ion f r om h i s e t hnog raph ic d a ta . l sib t G ene ra ly , i ti sp os le t o d i s t ingu i sh b e tween p o te ry o f c e r ta in e t hn ic sa l g roup s , n o t n eces r i ly f r om f ab r ic o r f i le r , b u t f r om f o rm a nd s u r f ace t r ea tmen t .

H oweve r , s o c ia l a nd c l ima t ic f a c to r s t e nd t oc on fu se s u rvey r e su l t s .

t t Wh i le s ome a t r ibu te s o f t h e p o te ry may b e d i s t inc t ive , v a r ia t ion a nd c hange w h ich b lu r sd i s t inc t ion sd oo ccu r .

2 .

LOCAT ION OF POTTERY - MAK ING CA MPS I N THE REG ION

t t l t M ig ran t p o te r s n ea r ly a lways c amp a t s e t lemen t s w i th w e l a tended ma rke t s . e xam ined .

f O the r f a c to r s w h ich a f ec t c amp s i ze , p o s i t ion , a nd p e r sonne l a r e f T he se i n c lude : t h e p rox im i ty o fr e sou rce s ; t h e e f ec t o ft h e c l ima te

t o n a g r icu l tu re ; t h e p re sence o f p o te r s f r om o the r e t hn ic g roup s .

F ac to r s

f en m a f ec t ing t h er e la t ion sh ip b e twe ig ran tc r a f t wo rke r s a nd t h eh o s tp opu la t ion h ave b een o u t l ined a bove .

t T he s t age s o f ' p e rmanen t ' s e t lemen t o b se rved i n

lu D a r fu r r eg ion a r e g i ven b e low . T hey i s t ra te t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e s i ze l t o f t h e ma rke t a nd t h e f a c i l i t ie s a nd s e rv ice s a va i lab le , a s w e l a s h ow p o te r s o pe ra te i nr e la t ion t ot h em a rke t ing s y s tem s . . t 2 i . Ma rke tC en t r e sa nd P o te ry Manuf ac tu re t T he a im o ft h i s s e c t ion i st os how n o to n ly h ow t h e p o te rc hoo se s ag i ven t l m a rke t , b u t a l so h ow c u s tome r sc hoo se w h ich ma rke tt oa tend . I nD a r fu r , s ma l c en t re s h ave w eek ly m a rke t s w he re t h e l o ca l p opu la t ion c an b uy g roce r ie s . t ses s m f L a rge r s e t lemen t s , h oweve r , n o t o n ly p os a rke t s w h ich c an o f e r aw ide f r ange o fm e r chand i se b u t a l so a r e t h e l o ca t ion f o r g ove rnmen to f ice s , h o sp i ta l s a nd s choo l s .

I nd iv idua l s w ho o n ly r equ i re f ood a nd c l o th ing g o t ot h e c l o se s t

m a rke t ; h oweve r , i f th ey r equ i re med ica lo ra dm in i s t ra t ive s e rv ice st h ey t r ave l t o al a rge rc en t re .

6 9

se t re F ou rc l as s o fs e t lemen t w e re o b served i nD a r fu rr eg ion c or spond ing t o t h ee x i s tence o fs e rv ice s : -p r ima ry c en t re -s e conda ry c en t re -t e r t ia ry c en t re -q ua te rna ry c en t re . t P r ima ry c en t re s : T he se a r e u rban s e t lemen t s c on ta in ing t h e p r inc ipa l a dm in i s t ra t ive h eadqua r te r s . T he se c en t re s h ave p e rmanen t s hopkeepe r s a nd a l t s even d ay ma rke t , a nd m e r chan t s t r ave l f r om t h em t os e rve s ma le r s e t lemen t s . T he p rov inc ia l c ap i ta l s o f n o r th a nd s ou th D a r fu r , E l F a she r a nd N ya la r e spec t ive ly , h ave l a rge h o sp i ta l s a nd H ighe r S econda ry s choo l s f o r b o th b oy s a nd g i r l s .

T he i nhab i tan t s o f s e conda ry c en t re s l i ke K ebkeb iya R u ra l D i st r ic t

l w ou ld n o t n o rma ly u se t h em f o r t h e m a rke t , t h ough s ome t r ade r s t a ke t h e i r t p roduce t o t own t o g e t ab e te r p r ice .

I n o rde r t o r each e i the r c ap i ta l , o ne

s h r mu s tt r ave la c ros a r sh t e ra in . S econda ry c en t re s : T he D i s t r ic t C ounc i l Adm in i s t ra t ive K ebkeb iya a nd Z a l inge i a r e i n

H eadqua r te r s o f

l t h i s c a tego ry . T hey h ave s ma l h o sp i ta l s , a nd

l l j un io rs choo l sp lus s hop s s e l ing g ro ce r ie s a nd c l o th ing t h a t a r e o pen a lw eek i n l a dd i t ion t o s t a l s s e ll ing g a rden p roduce .

T he l a rge t w ice w eek ly m a rke t i n

t t K ebkeb iya i sa tended b yb o th s e t led a nd n omad ic p eop le s . l T e r t ia ry c en t re s : T he se a r e v i lage s w i th aw eek ly ma rke t d ay . Me rchan t s l t l s e l ing c l o th , e name l g ood s , a nd g roce r ie s a tend o n ma rke t d ay a f te r t r ave l ing r b y l o ry f r om l a rge r c en t re s .

T he m a rke t s a r e t h e o cca s ion f o r t h e l o ca l

l l v i lage r s t os e l t h e i r o wn g ood s , a nd t ob uy l uxu r ie s s uch a sd a te s , s oap , s uga r l a nd t e a . F re sh m ea t i sg ene ra ly o n ly a va i lab le a t s uch w eek ly m a rke t s . T he l n umbe r o f v endo r s v a ry b e tween t h i r ty f o r s ma le r ma rke t s s uch a s S i je r in , t o o ve r ah und red f o rl a rge ro ne sl i ke T oumeh . l Q ua te rna ry c en t re s : T he f ou r th a nd f i na l c a tego ry a r e s ma l c ommun i t ie s t h a t d o n o t h ave a ma rke t , a nd i nhab i tan t s mu s t t r ave l t o o the r c en t re s f o r s upp l ie s . E ach w eek p eop le t r ave l d i s tance s o fu p t ot wo o r t h ree h ou r s o n f oo t o ro n ad onkey t ov i s i t ama rke t . Sm i th ( 1974 ) g i ve s amo re d e ta i led a ccoun to f m a rke t ing s y s tem s .

7 0

Pottery-making centres in Kebkebiya district

Fig. 9

o ldd el Kharuweh

o Kutum

DARFUR

NORTHERN

•Jebel Si •Awai

• Jebel Gurgei • Toumeh

• §ijifin • Bouril t l e3 1 .

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s i ng le r i ng o f s t ones . a d ‘ '

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l s m v i s ib le . I t is c ommon w hen t r ave l ing i nN o r the rn D a r fu rt op as any g roup so f l s t one c i rc le s t e s t ify ing t o t h e p a s t e x i s tence o f v i lage s i n d e se r ted a r ea s n ow g r ipped b yd rough t . A tK i reyka ,7 2% o ft h e3 2r u ined h ouse s i te sw e re i n d ica ted b y t h e p re sence o f as t one c i r c le a l one ( f ig .23 .b ) o r as t one c i r c le w i th ar a i sed mound o f mud . l e T he r ema in s o f mud w a l s c ou ld b e c l ea r ly s en i n3 1% o ft h e h ou se s i te s , sion i a nd t h e se m igh tf i nd e xp res nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd . S ome w e re 1 2c m s e a bove t h e g round a nd t h e s t one s o f t h e f ounda t ion w e re c l ea r ly s en e me rg ing l l t h rough t h e mud . Wa l c o lapse r e su l ted i nt h e g round a r ound t h e h ou se b e ing e r a i sed ( 2 5% o f h ouse s i te s , s e f i g .23 .a ) .

S ome t ime s t h e f l oo r a r ea i n s ide t h e

h ou se s w a s l owe r t h an t h e o u t s ide ( 22% ) .

T h i s m igh t b e c au sed b y ar egu la r

s weep ing o u t o ft h e i n te r io r .

S i te s w h ich w e re s imp ly l ow mound s c ou ld h ave

b een f o rmed i n o ne o f t wo w ay s : t h e a dd i t ion o f s and .

l l e i the r f r om t h e w a l s f a l ing i nwa rd s o r b y

I ti sc ommon e a ch y ea r a f te r t h e r a in s f o r w omen t o

l b r ing b a ske t s f u l o f f r e sh r i ve r s and i n to t h e i r h ome s t o make a n ew f l oo r s u r f ace .

T h i s i sd one b y s ome a s p a r t o f t h e y ea r ly r enova t ion .

O the r s o n ly

b r ing i n n ew s and w hen t h e re i s ab i r th o r o t he r f o rm o f c e leb ra t ion l i ke a ' c om ing o u t ' c e remony .

t I tw a s c l ea r a f te r t h e a bandonmen t o f t h e p o te r 's

c amp a tK ebkeb iya t h a t n ume rou s w omen h ad b rough tt h e l i gh te rc o lou red r i ve r s and i n to t h e i r t empo ra ry s he l te r s , af e a tu re w h ich c ou ld b e d e tec ted i n t h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd . l O ne h ou se s i te w a s c ove red i n s ma l s t one s b o th i n s ide a nd b eyond t h e c i r c le o f f ounda t ion r o ck s .

I ti sp robab le t h a t t h i s ( C .no .82 ) w a s b u i l t u s ing a

f l d i f e ren t t e chn ique f r om t h e ma jo r i ty . T he w a l w a s made e n t i re ly i ns t one , a nd t h en p l a s te red o ve r w i th mud .

H ou se n o .50 w a s a l so made i n t h i s w ay , s i nce

l l l r ock s s t i l s how t h rough t h e p l a s te red mud w a l , e spec ia ly o n t h e s i de o f t h e t h ou se t h a t w a s a tacked b y r a in .

A t h i rd h ou se , t h e k i tchen o f C .no .51 h ad

l b een made u s ing t h is t e chn ique . I th ad w a l s s t and ing t o ah e igh t o f 3 0 c m s i n l l t 1 985 . I tw a s c l ea r t h a t t h e u ppe r p a r t s o f t h e w a l h ad f a len s c a te r ing s t one s l b o th i n s ide a nd b eyond t h ew a l s . t e T h i s s c a te r ing o f s t one s w a s s en e l sewhe re a tK i reyka , t ot h e s ou th e a s t l o f t h e v i lage a t t h e s i te o f h ou se n o s .87 a nd 8 8 ( f ig .23 .c ) .

T he i n fo rman t

l h oweve r i n s is ted t h a t t h e se d id n o t b e long t ot h e p re sen t v i lage r s e ven t hough t h ey n e ighbou red c ompound n o s .40 a nd 4 6 . 1 39

I tw a s p l a in t h a t t h e se h ou se s h ad

b een b u i l t u s ing q u i te a d i f e ren t t e chn ique t o t h a t emp loyed t oday ; e ach f c ons is ted o f a doub le r i ng o f l a rge s t one s w i th a m as f s ma le r s t one s b o th s o l i n s ide a nd o u t . g r ind s tone .

B e s ide t h e o u te r r i ng o f n o .88 w a s ah uge p ink g ran i te

T he s ma le r s t one s h ad b een u sed a s i n f i l f o r t h e w a ls , a nd t h e l l l

s c a te r o f g rave l s ugge s ted t h a t t h e r oof h ad b een o f mud a nd s ma l s t one s t l ( p e rhaps o ve r at imbe r s t ruc tu re l i ke t ho se i n F ur dwe l ings i n J ebe l S i ) . l F ur the r t o t h e s ou thea s t w e re s im i la r s t one g roup ing s a nd t h e i n fo rman t s a id t h is w a st h e s i te o fa n a nc ien tv i lage . l 4 . i .b . i i

A r tef ac t s a nd f e a tu res

T he o n ly a r tef ac t s n o ted w e re t ho se v i s ib le o n t h e s u r face ; n o e xcava t ion w a s u nder taken .

T he mo s t c ommon r ema ins w e re s t one s , w h ich , d epend ing o n

t h e ir c ond i t ion a nd p o s i t ion , c ou ld h ave b een u sed i n av a r ie ty o f w ay s .

F i re -

b l acken ing i nd ica ted h ea r th s t ones . I fs t ones w e re i n ac onf igu ra t ion o f t h ree i n t h e c en t re o f t h e h ou se , t h ey may h ave b een u sed t o s uppor t a grana ry .

S uch

s t one s a r e s ome t ime s c oa ted i n g o t ran , a ta nn ing a gen t w h ich i nh ib i t s t e rm i te a c t iv i ty .

G r ind s tone s ( mo rhaka ) w e re q u i te d i s t inc t ive , b o th t h e f l a t s add le

q ue rn a nd t h e s ma le r r ubbe r a nd r ounded p ebb le s . H uge g r ind s tone s ( dugaga ) l w e re d i s t inc t ive a nd f r equen t ly l e f t o n s i te .

I s t ra t ion o f t h e d i f e ren t lu f

e qu ipmen tf o rg r ind ing c an b e s en i nf i g .30 . i ( p 184 ) . B lack g ran i te h one -s tone s e i i w e re a l so p re sen t . F la t a r ea s o n t h e g round , s moo thed o ve r w i th al a ye r o fc l ay a nd c ow d ung w e re u sed f o r g ra in d ry ing ( madek ) . S ha low p i t s f r om wh ich c l ay w a sq uar l ried w e re r e co rded n ea r t os eve ra l h ouse s . S ome t ime s t h e b one s o fc ow s w e re f ound i n t h e se p i t s , f o r i t wa s n o t u ncommon f o r t h e b l ack sm i ths t o wo rk a sb u tche r s . T he se p i t s a nd o cca s iona ly t h e s i te s o f r u ined h ouses e xh ib i t c oncen t ra t ions o f l r ubb ish . I ng ene ra l ,r ubb ish i s di spo sed o fa nywhe re b eyond t h ec ompound w a ls , l a nd p a thway s f o rm t h rough i ta s t h e a r ea i sr egu la r ly t r ave r sed b y man a nd a n ima l .

R efuse d umps a r e i nd ica ted b y c ro ss h a tch l i ne s o n t h e map ( f ig .16 ;

p 107 ) , a nd p a thway sa r e s hown a sd o ted l i nes . T he o ccupan t so fe ach c ompound t g o t ot h e s ame a r ea t od ump r ubb ish e ach d ay , a nd i n t h e s ou th e a s t p ar t o ft h e v i lage f o r e xamp le , t h e p o s i t ion o f r ubb ish r e la t ive t ot h e c ompound w a ls c an l l b e c l ea r ly s en ( C .no s .35 /36 /46 /47 ) . e

I f ag rea t d ea l o f o ld s t raw r ema ins a f te r

h ouse r enova t ion , t h ed ump i sb urn t . B urn t r ema in s i n t h is v i lage may r e su l t f r om a numbe r o f a c t iv i t ies , n o t l l e a s t o f w h ich a r e t h e c l amp k i lns o f t h e p o te r s . T he se a r e b u i l t o n t h e v i lage t l 1 40

o u t sk ir t s o n f r e sh g round a nd n o t o n r ubb i sh d umps . F ou r teen c l amp k i lns w e re r e co rded i n 1 985 , p l us a fu r the r t h ree p i t s u sed b y l e a the r t a nne r s .

O ne s uch

p i t i si s t ra ted i n f i g .5 . i ( p45 ) w h ich w a s s i tua ted b e s ide ap o tery k i ln . lu i t

T he

p i t s u sed f o r l e a the r t a nn ing a r e i nva r iab ly a soc ia ted w i th c har eds a nd s red s e c rushed b ones w h ich a r e u sed t op roduce t h e t a nn ing o i l .

L ea the r w o rke r s a l so

d ig p i t s t o s uppor t c l ay p o t s u sed i n t h e c ur ing a nd t a nn ing p roces s . se

Two

b l ack sm i ths ' s i tes a r e s i tua ted o u t s ide t h e v i lage . Ad i s t inc t ive f e a tu re o f s uch l a r ea s i st h e s e r ies o f c ha rcoa l a nd a sh f i led d ep res h ich ma rk t h e s i te o f l sions w e ach h ea r th . Ac ros e c t ion o ft h eh ea r th i si s t ra ted i nf i g .4 . i ( p43 ) . s s lu i

A n ima le nc lo su re s wou ld b ef ound i nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd .

D eep p i le s

o f d ung r e su l t b ecause a n ima ls a r e o f ten k ep t i nt h e s ame e nc losu re f o r y ea r s . T he s o i l i n t h e e nc lo sed a r ea b ecomes c ompac ted b y t h e a n ima ls . Howeve r , a t K i reyka s uch a r ea s w e re i n t h e p roces f b e ing d i s tu rbed d ur ing 1 985 . s o P rev ious ly c ow d ung h ad b een u sed a s af ue l f o r p o te ry f r ing . t i

Wi th t h e s a le

o f t h e p opu la t ion 's h e rd s , n o f r e sh d ung w a s a va i lab le a nd t h e women b egan d igg ing u p t h e g round i n s ide t h e f o rme r a n ima l e nc lo su re s i no rde r t of i re t h e i r p o te ry . t Mound s t opped b y af ew s t one s c l o se b y t h e h ouse s ma rked g rave s . I tw a s t h e c us tom

t o b ury y oung c h i ld ren , s t i l s uck l ing , j u s t b eyond t h e c ompound l

w a ls a nd i nt h e n o r th e a s t p a r t o f t h e v i lage a tl e a s t f i ve s ma l mound s c an b e l l l s en s u rmoun ted b y s t one s . Adu l t s w e re u sua ly b u r ied b y H i la t Abde l K r im , a e l l k i lome t re a way . O n ly o nce w a s a n a du l t b ur ied b e s ide h i s h ouse . T h is w a s t h e man w ho d i ed i nC .no .72 . O n h i s d ea th t h e e n t i re n o r th w es t q ua r te r o fK i reyka v i lage d i spe r sed . l 5 . SU MMARY

D a ta h a s b een a na lysed a tt wo s t age s : t h e mac ro leve l , a nd t h e m ic ro leve l . T he f o rme r d ea ls w i th f a c to r s a f ec t ing t h e c ho ice o f s t ing av i lage w i th in t h e f i l r eg ion . T he l a te r e xam ine s f a c to r s t h a t a fec t t h e c ho ice o f h ouse l o ca t ion t f w i th in t h e v i lage , a nd d e te rm ines t h e e x ten t t h a t s t ruc tura l f e a tu re s f i nd l e xp res nt h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd . sion i C l ima te i s am a jo r f o rce a f ec t ing p eop les ' movemen t i n D a r fu r . R epea ted f d rough t c ause s p opu la t ion m ig ra t ion . V ege ta t ion dw ind le s r e su l t ing i nl o se s t o s b o th d ome s t ic a nd w i ld a n ima ls , a nd c aus ing c hanges i nt h e t e chno logy r e la t ing 1 41

t o h ouse c on s t ruc t ion .

I n C hap te r Two i tw a s s t a ted t h a t o ne o f t h e ma jo r

r e sou rce s w a s a ma rke t : a cce ss t o c u s tome r s a nd p rox im i ty t o t r ade r ou tes w a s c ons ide red a n i mpor tan t r e sou rce , a no the r b e ing a va i lab i l i ty o f g ood f a rm ing l a nd . I nt h e 1 970 's p eop le moved s ou th f r om D a rZ aghawa t of e r t i le a r ea sa round K ebkeb iya , a nd i nt h e 1 980 's t h ey moved w e s t f r om K ebkeb iya t ot h e a r ea s t h a t w e re r epu ted t o h ave b e te r r a infa l . t l

T hus , s eve r i ty o f c l ima te w a s t h e c au se

o ft h eB lackm s i ths ' a r iva li nK i reyka , a nd t h e i rs ub sequen td i spe r sa l . r

F ou r l e ve ls o f d a ta w e re u sed i n o rde r t o o b ta in i n fo rma t ion o n f a c to r s a f ec t ing t h ep rox im i ty o fc ompound sa nd h ouse sw i th in t h e s e t lemen t : o ccup ied f t c ompounds ; r e cen t ly a bandoned c ompound s ; r u ined h ouse s i te s ; a nd a n a e r ia l p ho to t a ken i n 1 974 .

D a ta o n t h e c or la te s b e tween p opu la t ion a nd b u i ld ing s re

w a s d e r ived f r om o ccup ied c ompound s , a nd t h ree ma in f a c to r s i nf luenc ing p rox im i ty o f h ouse s w e re i s o la ted . T hese w e re mo the r a nd o f spr ing ( no tab ly f mo the r a nd d augh te r , t hough l o ca t ion m igh t c hange o n p aymen t o f t h e f u l l b r ide -p r ice ) ;

s i b l ing t i e s g o ing b ack o ne o r t wo g ene ra t ions ; a nd f i na ly l

p o lygamous mar s . riage T he p ro ce s o f d ecay w a s r e co rded f r om r e cen t ly a bandoned c ompound s . s T hese dwe l ing s a nd t h e r ema ins o f r u ined h ou se s i tes w e re u sed t o i d en t ify a l p a te rn o f m ig ra t ion o u t o ft h e v i lage . B e tween 1 982 a nd 1 985 t h e ma jo r i ty o f t l t h e i nhab i tan t s m ig ra ted b ecause o fd rough t . I n l e ss s eve re c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s , b e reavemen t w a s t h e ma jo r c ause o f f i s ion a nd m ig ra t ion . s

T he p e rcen tage o f

men a nd w omen w ho moved o u t d ue t o mar a s s im i la r f o r b o th s e t s o f riage w d a ta ( 17% ,18% ) . P opu la t ion o ft h e v i lage w a s f l u id , n o t o n as e a sona l b a s is a sa tt h e c amps , l r a the r o ve r l onge r p er iod s .

I nd iv idua ls c ame a nd w en t , a nd a s l i f e p as i th s ed w

b e t ro tha l , mar , a nd b e reavemen t , a n a l te ra t ion o ccur n t h e s i ze a nd riage red i p o s i t ion o f ap e r son 's d we l ing . l

S o much movemen t h ad t a ken p lace i nt h e 1 5

y ea r s s i nce t h e v i lage 's e s tab l ishmen t , t h a t t h e c ur t p opu la t ion w a s a me re l ren t wo - f i f ths o ft h e s i ze av i lage p l an w ou ld i nd ica te . I f , w hen mak ing p opu la t ion l e s t ima te s ,

a r chaeo log is t s

j udge

h ouse

p l ans

a l one

w i thou t

t a k ing

t h e se

f l uc tua t ions i n to a ccoun t , t h ey wou ld a r ive a t a max imum f i gu re f o r t h e r p opu la t ion .

T h is w ou ld n o t t a ke i n to a ccoun t t h e y ea r s t h a t t h e s e t lemen t w a s t

w an ing . F ur thermo re , 1 2% o ft h ep opu la t ion l i ved i n mo re t h an o ne h ou se d ur ing t h e i r t e nu re a tK i reyka . P opu la t ion e s t ima te s n o t t a k ing t h is i n to a ccoun t wou ld r e su l t i ni n f la ted f i gu re s . I n a dd i t ion , e n t i re v i lages move e very 1 5 t o2 0 y ea r s l 1 42

i no rde r t oa low e xhau s ted f i e ld s ar e s t . S uch f r equen t movemen t c ou ld r e su l t l i ne xagge ra ted r eg iona lp opu la t ion e s t ima te s . C hange s h ad t a ken p l ace b e tween 1 974 a nd 1 984 : d a ta f r om t h e 1 974 a e r ia l p ho to s howed t h a t c ompound f o rma t ion h ad a l te red c on s ide rab ly .

I n 1 974

e x tended f am i l ie s m ade u p o f mar i b l ing s l i ved e nc lo sed w i th in t h e s ame ried s p e r ime te rw a l s . B y 1 984 , e ach n uc lea rf am i ly w a si t se lf e nc lo sed w i th in i t so wn l p er ime te rf e nce s , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o fG roup D , a nd mo s to fG roup I .I n 1 974 , f i ve e x tended f am i ly g roup sw e re v i s ib le f r om t h ep ho to . T he

f i na l

t e chno log ie s .

s e c t ion

a na ly sed

t h e r ema in s

l e f t

b y

p a r t icu la r b u i ld ing

S t raw h ou se s l e ave n eg l ig ib le r ema in s , t hough t h e s t one a r tef ac t s

i nt h em , s u ch a sh ea r th s o r g rana ry s uppo r t s , may p rov ide ac l ue t ot h e u se o fa s i te .

l sion w H oweve r , mud a nd s t one w a l ing w ou ld f i nd e xp res i th in t h e

a r chaeo logc ia l r e co rd .

sib t l I t i s p os le f r om t h e p a te rn s o f c o lap se a nd t h e

l n umbe r o f s t one s t ot e l w he the r ah ouse h a s b een c on s truc ted a s mud b r ick o r mud p l a s te red o ve r as t ruc tu re o f s t one b ou lde r s . c on s i s t ing

A t K i reyka , h ou se r u in s

o f ad oub le r i ng o f f ounda t ion s t one s a r e o f aq u i te d i s t inc t p e r iod

f r om t ho se b u i l t w i th a s i ng le r i ng .

O rgan ic ma te r ia l mak ing u p p e r ime te r

f ence s a r e u n l ike ly t o l e ave a ma rk , e xcep t f o r p o s t h o le s a nd t h e b ou lde r s l im i t ing t h e b ounda ry .

s T e rm i te s a r e t h e f o remo s t a gen t s b eg inn ing t h e p ro ces

o fd ecay . Many h ea r th s a nd b ur n t a r ea s w e re p re sen t , c au sed b y n ume rou s a c t iv i t ie s : c ook ing , l i gh t , b l ack sm i th 's f i re s , l e a the rwo rke r s ' p i t s f o rp roduc ing t h e t a nn ing t i t a gen t , f i re s f o r p rehea t ing p o te ry , t h e c l amp k i ln f o rf r ing p o te ry , a nd r ubb i sh b u rn ing .

1 43

CHAPTER FOUR

L IFE CYCLE AND DO MESTIC S TRUCTURES

T h is c hap te r e xam ines t h e

s t ruc tu re

p e rmanen t Z aghawa v i lage o f K i reyka . l

o f d ome s t ic dwe l ing s i n t h e l

I ta im s t o s e w ha t p a te rns o ccu r i n e t

t h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e dwe l ing a nd t h er e s iden t ia lu n i to rf am i ly . l

T he f i r s t p a r t o f t h e c hap te r i sd evo ted t o a n e t hnog raphy o f t h e v i lage l i nhab i tan t s i n w h ich t h e d e ta i ls o ff am i ly o rgan i sa t ion a nd l i f e c yc le a r e s e t o u t . T he s t ages o f a n i nd iv idua l 's l i f e c yc le a r e p resen ted f r om b i r th t o d ea th , a nd t h e r i tua ls a nd c e leb ra t ions w h ich ma rk t h e ir p as r e d e scr ibed . Wh i le n o te s age a i s made o f t h e c e remon ie s a tend ing b i r th a nd c h i ldhood , empha s is i sp l aced o n t t h e s t ages o f l i f e c yc le t h a t o ccu r i n y ou th a nd a du l thood , s i nce i ti s a f te r p ube r ty t h a t s t age s i n t h e l i f e c yc le h ave d i s t inc t ive ma ter ia l c or la tes t h a t re m igh t b e v i s ib le i nt h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . P a r t icu la r a ten t ion i sp a id t ot h e t s t age s o f mar nd p aymen t o f t h e b r ide -pr ice . riage a

D e ta i l s o f t h e r i tua ls

a ccompany ing e ach s t age o ft h el i fe c yc le a r e g iven i nA ppend ix C ( p244 ) . C hange s t h a t o ccu r i n ma ter ia l c u l tu re w i th d i f e ren t s t age s o f mar , f riage ma tur i ty a nd d ea th a r e n o ted i n t h e s e cond s e c t ion o f t h e c hap te r .

A

d escr ip t ion i sg iven o f ma te r ia l c hange s t h a t o ccu r t h roughou t a pe r son 's l i f e f r om w h ich a n e t ic c a tegor i sa t ion c an b e d eve loped . U s ing t h e mod if ica t ion s i n ma te r ia l c u l tu re , a n a temp t i s made t od iv ide t h ev i lage p opu la t ion a cco rd ing t o t l a ge . Mo s t d a ta p rov ided r e la te s t o women r a the r t h an men , f o r among Z aghawa B lack sm i ths w omen o wn t h e h ouses , w h i le men a r e much mo re t r ans ien t .

F ive

c a tego r ie s o fw omanhood a r e p resen ted a nd t h e se a r e u sed t oa na ly se p a te rns o f t ma ter ia l c u l tu re . T h is i sn o t ac omp rehens ive d e sc r ip t ion o fs oc ia l l i f e b u tr e f e r s o n ly t ot ho se a spec t st h a tr e la te t o ma te r ia l c u l tu re . T he r e la t ionsh ip

b e tween d ome s t ic

e xam ined i nt h e t h i rd s e c t ion .

s t ruc tures a nd t h e s oc ia l u n i t i s

Ad e scr ip t ion o f d a i ly a c t iv i t ie s i n t h e v i lage i s l 1 44

f o lowed b y ad e scr ip t ion o fc ompound mo rpho logy , a nd ac ons ide ra t ion o fh ow l t h e s pace w i th in i su sed . S eve ra l c ompounds w e re mod if ied d u r ing t h e p er iod o f t h ef i e ld t r ip , a nd t h ese c hange s a nd t h er e a sons f o rt h em w e re r e co rded .

T he h ouse s a r e a na lysed t o s e t o w ha t e x ten t t h ey a r e a n i ndex o f a e w oman 's l i f e c yc le . I no rde r t oa se ss p a terns i nt h e r e la t ionsh ip b e tween h ouse s t a nd l i fe c yc le , d we l ing s i ze i sf i r s te xam ined , f o lowed b y a n e xam ina t ion o ft h e l l t ype o f h ouses u sed b y n ew ly b e t ro thed w omen .

A n a na lys is o f h ouse f e a ture s

i n c lud ing h ea r ths , g r ind s tone s , g rana r ie s a nd b ed si ss e to u t .

T he f i na l s e c t ion o ft h e c hap te r d i scus s t h e a r chaeo log ica l i mp l ica t ions o f se t h e d a ta p resen ted .

House c on ten t s a r e s u rveyed t o s e w h ich f e a tu res a nd e

a r tefac t s m igh t b e p re served f o r t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . I mp l ica t ions o ft h e se d a ta f o ri n f er oc ia lo rgan isa t ion a nd r oom f unc t ion a r ec ons ide red . ring s

1 . FA MILY ORGANISATION AND L IFE CYCLE

Ma ter ia l C u l tu re C hange s t h a tO ccu ra tD if ren t S tages fe 1 i . B ir th .

Z aghawa women s ay t h a t t h e i d ea l n umbe r o fc h i ld ren t oh ave i s" a s many a s A lah w ou ld g i ve " l

( u sua ly a bou t t e n o r t we lve ) s o t h a t amo the r s i t s " l ike l

t h e moon w i th t h e s t a r s , h e r c h i ld ren , a l a round h e r " . When a sked h ow many l o f spr ing s he h a s , awoman f i r s t p rov ide s t h e n umbe r o f c oncep t ion s a nd t h en f t h e n umbe r o f t ho se s t i l l i v ing . T he re i sn o s t a ted p refe rence f o r a ma le o r l f ema le c h i ld .

C on t racep t ion i s c ons ide red a s i n .

T he c e remon ies w h ich

a ccompany b i r th u se an umbe ro fa r tefac t s wh ich a r ed esc r ibed i nA ppend ix C .

S even d ays a f te r b i r th , a" com ing o u t " c e remony t a kes p l ace ;

t h e mo the r

d res s a nd e a t s n o rma l f ood r a the r t h an t h e s pec ia ly p repa red mad ida , a se l i v i scous p or . ridge

T he b aby i sw a shed f o r t h e f i r s t t ime , a nd mo the r a nd c h i ld

l e ave t h e h ouse f o r t h e f i r s t t ime .

I n A rab ic t h ey s ay b emo rugu b ur , l i t e ra ly ra l

t r ans la ted a s " s he c ome s o u t s ide " .

When t h e b aby i sf r a i l o r s i ck , mo the r a nd

c h i ld d o n o t c ome o u t o f t h e h ouse f o r t e n o r t wen ty d ays . B efo re t h e " com ing o u t " c e remony , t h e i n s ide o f t h e h ouse i ss wep t c l ean . T he h ouse f l oo r a nd t h e a r ea o u t s ide w he re t h e c e remony t a kes p l ace a r e c ove red w i th f r esh r i ve r s and . 1 45

F o r s eve ra l w eek s a f te r b i r th , ab aby d oe s n o t h ave a n i nd iv idua l n ame ; r a the r e ach p e r son k nown t o t h e n ew mo the r c hoo se s t h e n ame t h ey w ou ld p ref e r t h e c h i ld t o h ave , a nd i ti s b y t h is n ame t h a t t h ey r e f e r t o t h e b aby . Mu l t ip le n ame s a r e t hough t t o b e aw ay o f f oo l ing t h e d ev i l o f t h e b aby 's i d en t i ty .

T he Z aghawa i nt h is v i lage u se n o p rec ise d ay f o r n am ing t h e c h i ld , l

t hough i nt h e t owns t h e re i su sua ly ad i s t inc t n am ing c e remony ( s ima iya ) , s even l d ays a f te rt h ec h i ld i sb o rn . T en d ay s a f te r b i r th t h e c h i ld 's h a i r i s c u t b y ac l o se r e la t ive . A l t h e l s t rand s a r e c o lec ted a nd wound w i th t w is ted s t r ing w h ich i st i ed a r ound t h e l b aby 's w a is t .

Young c h i ld ren s t i l s uck l ing a r e l e f t w i th at u f t o f h a i r o n t op l

o ft h eh ead t ow h ich b ead s a r eo f ten a tached . t

1 . i . i

C h i ldhood

C h i ldren a r e e xpec ted t o p a r t ic ipa te i n a c t iv i t ie s i n t h e h ome a nd o u t s ide f r om a ve ry y oung a ge .

G i r ls a s y oung a s s i x o r s even y ea r s o ld k nee l a t a

mo rhaka ( g r ind s tone ) , a nd c a ry w a te r . F rom t h e a ge o f n ine o r t e n t h ey c o lec t r l f i rewood . o the r

G i r ls c a ry o u t v ar ious d ome s t ic t a sk s s uch a s g r ind ing g ra in a nd r

d ry f ood s tuf , mak ing a s ida ( por ) fs i ridge

y ounge r b ro the r s a nd s i s te r s .

a s w e l a s l ook ing a f te r t h e i r l

C h i ld ren f r om t h e a ge o f t e n a r e e xpec ted t o

h e rd a n ima ls a nd wo rk i nt h ef i e lds h oe ing , s ow ing , w eed ing a nd h a rve s t ing .

B o th b oy s a nd g i r ls p l ay w i th c l ay w h i le t h e i r mo the r s a r e a t t h e p o te ry -mak ing c en t re s . t

G i r ls make s ma l b ow ls f o r c o lec t ing w a sh ing w a te r l l

( kha sa la , t h a t s e l f o r ac oup le o fp ence , a nd s ome b oys make a n ima ls t oy s s uch l a s h o r se s , c ame ls , a nd c ow s , w h ich a r e a l so s o ld . T he money made f r om t h e se i t em s b e longs t o t h e c h i ld .

B y t h e t ime a g i r l r e ache s h e r e a r ly t en s , s he i s e

e xpec ted t o make t h e r ange o f s ma le r p o te ry v es ls , i nd i s t ingu ishab le i n l t se q ua l i ty f r om h e r mo the r 's w o rk . O lde r b oys h e lp ma le r e la t ives b y wo rk ing t h e b e low s ( nufakha ) o ft h eb l ack sm i th . l C i rcumc i s ion i s s a id t oo ccu r w hen ac h i ld i sb e tween s even a nd t e n y ea r s o ld , t hough p eop le w e re r e luc tan t t od i scuss t h is ma te r . B o th b oys a nd g i r ls a r e t c i rcumc i sed , a nd t h e c e leb ra t ion u sua ly t a ke s p l ace a f te r t h e h a rve s t . l

( No

c e leb ra t ions t ook p l ace d ur ing my f i e ld t r ip s i nce t h e 1 984 /85 h a rve s t w a s n on -ex is tan t , a nd s o Ic anno tr epo r to n a soc ia ted r i tua ls . ) s 1 46

T he l i ps o f y oung g i r ls a r e t a tooed w hen t h ey a r e b e tween t h e a ges o f t s even a nd s i x teen .

T a too ing i sd one b y a n o lde r f ema le r e la t ive u s ing l o ng

t ho rns t i ed t o ge the r i n ab und le . t h ey a r e b e t ro thed .

S ome g i r ls h ave t h e ir l i ps t a tooed j u s t b efo re t

T he w omen s ay t h a t p ro t rud ing b l ack l i ps a r e as i gn o f

b eau ty , a nd t h ey o n ly p r ick t h e l owe r l i p . Membe r s o f o the r e t hn ic g roups a l so d o t h is t hough i ti sl e sc ommon i nt h et owns . s

D ur ing

a p e r son 's

l i f e

c yc le ,

t h e

ma in

' a rchaeo log ica ly ' i sw hen t h ey p o sses ouse . l s ah

t ime

t h a t

t h ey

s how

u p

I n t h is p a r t icu la r v i lage , a nd l

a mong t h is p a r t icu la r e t hn ic g roup , mo s to ft h e h ouse s a r e owned b y t h e women . C h i ld ren a r e r a re ly a soc ia ted w i th a r tefac t s t h a t wou ld f i nd e xp res n t h e s sion i a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd ( e xcep t p e rhaps f o r t h e i r c l ay t oys ) , f o r t h ey p os o s es s n d we l ing o ft h e i r own u n t i l t h ey a r ep ube scen to ro f mar le a ge . l riageab

1 . i . MARR IAGE : s t age so f mar . i i riage

T he Z aghawa B lack sm i th c ommun i ty i s endogamou s , t hough s ome mar riage p a r tne r s b e long t o d i f e ren t c l ans ( kha sh im b e i t ) , a nd s peak d i f e ren t d i a lec t s . f f P o lygamy i sc ommon : men w ho h ave s uf f ic ien t money may mar wo o r t h ree ry t w ive s . T he l e v i ra te i s a l so p rac t ised .

A cco rd ing t o o ne i n forman t , a f te r t h e e s tab l ishmen t o f K i reyka i n 1 968 , r a ins w e re a dequa te a nd c rops y i e ld s w e re g ood , t hus p eop le mar n to t h e ried i v i lage . l

A t t h a t t ime g i r l s w e re e i the r mar o men w i th in t h e v i lage , o r ried t l

t h e i r h usband s s e t led t h e re . L ikew ise , men b rough t t h e i r w ives i n to t h e v i lage . t l I n c on t ra s t , a f te r t h e d rough t i n 1 985 , i ts emed t h a t b o th men a nd g i r ls w e re e b e ing mar o p a r tne r s o u t s ide t h e v i lage , a nd mov ing o u t o n c omp le t ion o f ried t l t h e b r ide -pr ice p aymen t s . T hus t h e re w e re t wo a spec t s t o b e c on s ide red o n mar : t h ec ho ice o fp a r tne ra nd t h ec ho ice o fl o ca t ion . riage

I ti s c ommon f o r p a ren t s t oc hoo se t h e i r o f spr ing 's f i r s t mar a r tne r . f riage p O ne 2 0 y ea r o ld i n fo rman t h oweve r , s a id t h a t h e h ad " s to len " h i s w if e a nd w a s t h e refo re f o rced t o m ar e r . ry h

H e s a id t h a t h e t ook a g i r l a way f o r t wo

mon ths , a nd w hen h e b rough t h e r b ack , h e r p a ren ts h ad t o a g ree t o t h e mar , b u t b ecause t h ey w e re a ngry , t h e b r ide p r ice w a s i n c rea sed f r om 1 2 t o riage 1 6 t e na iya ( un i t o f b r ide p aymen t ) .

H e a l so men t ioned o ne o f t h e g i r ls i n t h e 1 47

v i lage w ho w a s h e r se lf " s to len " . A l though s he h ad h ad ac h i ld ( who w a s 8y ea r s l o ld ) h e r f am i ly r e fused t o l e t h e r mar h e f a the r , a nd s he h ad s i nce b een ry t o f e red t o a no the r man i n t h e v i lage . f l

T he a bove s t o r ies o f " s to len " g i r ls a r e

d en ied b y a no lde rf ema le i n forman t . T he B r ide -pr ice : ( j i zu )

V a r ious s t age s o f mar r e r e cogn ised b y t h e v i lage r s b a sed o n t h e riage a l l e ve ls o fp aymen t o f t h ej i zu b r ide p r ice , a nd e ach l e ve l o fp aymen t i s ma rked b y f e s t iv i t ie s ( s ee a l so E l S ha r if H a r i r 1 986 , 4 2 -55 ) . T he se p resen ta t ions r e su l t i n ac hange o f s t a tus f o r t h e woman , w h ich i s r e co rded a s ac hange i n h e r ma te r ia l c u l ture ( h e r h ouse a nd c on ten t s , a s w e l a s h e r c l o thes a nd j ewe le ry ) , l l a nd t h ey r e su l ti nd i f e ren tl e ve ls o fv i s ib i l i ty i nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd . f B r ide -pr ice i s made u p o f t we lve u n i t s o r t e na iya , a nd i s u sua ly p a id i n l a n ima ls , t hough o ne man , af a l c ih , p a id i nc a sh s ud £ 1 ,000 ( va lued a t2 0 t e na iya f o r h e w a s s a id t oh ave " s to len" h i s b r ide ) . Al i s t o f a n ima ls a nd t h e i rr e la t ive v a lues i n 1 984 i sg iven i nA ppend ix C ; 3 . i ( p247 ) .

P aymen to ft wo t h i rd sb r ide -pr ice ( 6 -8 t e na iya ) My s ou rce s o fi n fo rma t ion o n t h is a spec to f mar r ev a r ious , i n c lud ing riage a o ne f ema le i n fo rman t w ho t o ld m e t h a t t h e t h e mar s riage i

a g reed b y t h e p a ren t s .

f o low ing e ven t s t a ke p l ace a f te r l O n a g reemen t t h e g i r l i s g iven a

n eck lace o f r ed a nd b l ack b ead s . S he r e ce ives a g o ld c ha rm f r om h e r f u tu re h usband w hen aq uar te r o f t h e b r ide -pr ice i sp a id .

O nce h a lf t h e b r ide -pr ice i s

p a id t h e re i s ac e leb ra t ion , a nd t h e f u tu re h u sband v i s i t s a nd b r ing s g i f ts t ot h e g i r l a nd h i s f u tu re i n law s . A f te r 8t e na iya a r e p a id , t h e man h a s s exua l a cces s t o h i s b r ide , t hough t h e g i r l s t i l l i ve s w i th h e r mo the r e xcep t d u r ing h i s v i s i t s . l S ome t ime s a f te r t h e f i r s t c h i ld i sb o rn , ah u sband p ays a f u r the r 2t e na iya , a nd , i fh e h a s a good h ea r t , h e p ays t h e r ema in ing t wo s o t h a t t h e mar s riage i c omp le te a nd t h e b r ide c an g o t oh e r h ouse . Many men b r ing g i f t s o ft e a , s uga r a nd c l o th ing a sw e l a sp ay ing t h e 1 2t e na iya i na n ima ls . l

As e cond i n forman t , h oweve r , s a id t h a t ac oup le d o n o t s l eep t oge the r u n t i l t h e b r ide p r ice i s p a id i n f u l , b u t t h a t i f ag i r l d oes b ecome p regnan t , s he l m igh t l e ave h e r mo the r 's v i lage , a nd r e turn a f te r t h e b aby h a s b een b o rn . I ti s l p os le t h a t t h is w oman w a s g i v ing t h e i d ea l v i ew a so ppo sed t ot h e n orm , s i nce sib i ti sq u i te u sua l f o r a man t o h ave s exua l a cces o ag i r l a f te r 1 / 2 t o 2 / 3 o f s t 1 48

t h e b r ide p r ice i sp a id . A t t h e t ime t h a t ag room b r ing s t h e a n ima ls mak ing u p t h e b r ide -pr ice t o h i s f u tu re w if e 's f am i ly , h e mus t , o u t o f r e spec t , k eep w e l l a pa r t f r om a ny o f t h e f e s t iv i t ies o r d i scus . sions

H is mo the r in law b u i lds a

s t raw h ouse f o r h im o u t s ide h e r own c ompound w he re h e c an r ema in t h roughou t i n p r ivacy .

B o th r ound a nd s qua re h ouse s w e re r e co rded f o r g room s , t h e

f o rme r h av ing a n i n terna l w a l , a nd t h e l a te r e nc lo sed b y w a ls o n a l f our s i de s l t l l w i th ad oo r s ol ow t h a to ne h ad t oc r aw l t oe n te r .

A f te r t h e b r ide -pr ice i s a ccep ted , t h e g room 's t empo ra ry h ouse i st a ken d own , a nd a m ud h ouse i sb u i l t o n t h e s ame s i te b y t h e mo the r o f t h e f u tu re b r ide .

H oweve r , i ti s o n ly o ccup ied d ur ing t h e t wo o r t h ree d ays o f t h e

h usband 's v i s i t s .

L a te r , t h e b r ide h ouse h a s a n i n ter io r o r ' modes ty w a l ' ( my l

t e rm ) w h ich i se i the r o f mud o r s t raw .

C hange s a r e made t o t h is h ouse i fi ti s

made o fp oo r mud . S ome y oung women r enew t h e i rh ouse , a nd i n c rea se t h e s i ze l o f t h e w a l s o r e ven a dd f e a tu re s , b u t t h e i n terna l h ea r th i su sed o n ly f o r l i gh t . l T he b r ide d oes n o t u se t h e f i re f o r c ook ing u n t i l a l h e r b r ide p r ice h a s b een ring o p a id . T he c e leb ra t ions o ccur n p aymen t o f 6 -8 t e na iya a r e d e scr ibed i n i d e ta i li nA ppend ix C ( 3 . i ) . T he t e rm " b r ide h ouse " i s my own .

I tr e f e r s t o ah ouse wh ich h a s a n

l l i n te rna l p ro tec t ive w a l o f mud o r s t raw a tt h e e n t rance , wh ich p reven t s a l v i ew l o f t h e i n ter io r . A g i r l w i th a p a r t ia ly p a id b r ide p r ice may h ave a h ouse l s t ruc tu re w i th o r w i thou t a n i n ter io r p ro tec t ive w a l , o r s he may h ave al a rge r , l r enewed h ouse , b u t i ne ach c a se s he w i l h ave n o c ook ing p o t s . S he may h ave c h i ld ren o r b e c h i ld le ss .

O ne g i r l ( i n C .no .39 ) w i th at wo y ea r o ld c h i ld w a s

red t l r e f er o a s f o low s b y h e r mo the r w ho s a id :

ma a ndu b e i t , " s he h as n o t y e t

g o t ah ouse " , a nd ma a ndu b o rma , " s he h a s n o t g o t h e r c ook ing p o t s " , i e . s he i s l ried n o tf u ly mar .

P aymen to f5 /6 ths b r ide -pr ice ( 10 t e na iya ) l I n o ne i n s tance , t h e p aymen t o f t e n t e na iya a l a t o nce r e su l ted i n a t empo ra ry h ouse b e ing b u i l t f o r t h e c oup le , n ex t t oo ne o f t h e f am i ly 's f i e lds a t G i rgo . I tw a s o f s t raw , r e c tangu la r , w i th a n i n te rna l s c reen c omp le te ly b lock ing t h e i n ter io r f r om v i ew . I th ad ad eco ra ted mud b ed , a nd t h e b a th ing a r ea w a s f o rmed b y as c reen a dded t ot h e s i de o ft h e h ouse . T he g i r l w a s g iven ag i f t o f h e jab ( c ha rm s ) b y h e r h usband , a nd a l l t h e v i l lage women g ave h e r b ead s w h ich w e re a t tached t o t h e s t r ing o f c ha rm s .

S he n o l o nge r wo re t h e t a rha o r s c a r f

o f y oung g i r ls , b u t w o re al o ng c l o th t obe . 1 49

T he c oup le s t ayed i nt h e h ouse f o r

s even d ay s w i thou t l e av ing . O n t h e e i gh th d ay , a f te r t h e c om ing o u t c e remony t h e b r ide r e tu rned t o h e r mo the r 's h ou se .

F o r d e ta i l s o f t h e c e leb ra t ion

e i i a ccompany ing t h i s s t age s eA ppend ix C ( 3 . i ) . l P aymen to ft h ef u lb r ide -pr ice ( 12 t e na iya ) O nce a w oman h a s h ad 2 o r 3 ch i ld ren , h e r h u sband p ay s t h e r ema in ing l h t e na iya , a nd a ce remony t a ke s p l ace w he reby s he i st a ken , a l ong w i th a e r t p o te ry a nd d ome s t ic g ood s , t oh e rh ou se .

l A tt h i s s t age aw oman n o rma ly h a s

c h i ld ren , a l though t h i s i sn o t a lway s t h e c a se ( s he m ay n o t c once ive o r s h e m ay h ave h ad c h i ld ren t h a t d i e ) .

S ome w omen r e ta in t h e s t ruc tu re o f t h e b r ide

l h ouse b u t c hange t h e h ea r th , e i the r b y a c tua ly mov ing i t to a no the r p a r t o ft h e l t d we l ing , o r b y p u t ing i nf i re s tone s w he re p rev iou s ly t h e f i rep lace h ad b een o f mud a l one ( s ee s e c t ion b e low o n h ea r th s ) .

I no ne c a se , t h e b r ide r enewed h e r

l c ompound w a l s j u s t b efo re t h e c e leb ra t ion o f p aymen t w a s d ue t o t a ke p l ace , a l though s he h ad r enewed t h e h ou se i t se lf s ome t h ree mon th s e a r l ie r . Wh i le s he e n la rged t h e h ou se s i ze , s he r e ta ined t h e p ro tec t ive mud s c r een i n s ide .

T he

sion l c e remony i nvo lve s ap roces e ad ing t h eb r ide f r om h e r mo the r 's h ou se t oh e r ry l o wn , c ar ing a l h e r h ou seho ld g ood s i n c lud ing m a t s , p o t s , a nd g r ind s tone s . l O nce a h u sband h a s p a id t h e f u l 1 2 t e na iya h e c an t a ke h i s b r ide t o l i ve w he reve r h e w an t s ,

l e ven a way f r om h e r mo the r 's v i lage .

P eop le s a y o f a n

a b sen tb r ide : s a id e lb e i ts haa lu , t h e ma s te ro ft h eh ou se h a st a ken h e r . 1 . iv .

Ma tur i ty , Menopau se , a nd O ld A ge

riage p l O n c omp le t ion o ft h e m ar aymen t s aw oman i sc on s ide red t ob ef u ly ried l mar , a nd f r om t h a t t ime h e r h u sband t a ke s f u l r e spon s ib i l iy f o r h e r .

O nce

f t h i s s t age h a s b een r e ached i t become s mo re d i f icu l t t od i s t ingu i sh t h e ma te r ia l re ried w c or la te s o f aw oman 's l i f e c yc le , f o r mar omen , w ha teve r t h e i r a ge , t e nd s es s s t o p os im i la r a r tef ac t s .

ried Women i n t h i s g roup m igh t b e : n ew ly m ar ;

f riagab m a tu re w i th o f spr ing o f m ar le a ge ; a b sen t ; o r f r a i l a nd d ependen t o n o t he r s .

l f p a s t m enopau se w i th a l o f sp r ing t A n a temp t i s made b e low t o

f d i f e ren t ia te b e tween t h e se v a r iou s g roups , a nd t o d e te rm ine t o w ha t e x ten t l i n te rmed ia te s t age s a r e r e cogn ised b y t h e v i lage r s t h em se lve s . T he a im o ft h i s s t udy i s t o d e te rm ine c hange s i n m a te r ia l c u l tu re t h a t o ccu r t h roughou t a w oman 's l i f e c yc le . I n c e r ta in c a se s s t a temen t s m ade w i th r ega rd t o a ge a nd e s ma te r ia lc u l tu re m ay s em o bv iou s , b u tt h ey a r ee sen t ia l t ot h ea r gumen t .

1 50

F u ly mar omen p os ook ing p o t s ,g r ana r ie sa nd g r ind s tone s . S ome l ried w ses s c w omen b u i ld e x t ra h ou se s f o r s l eep ing o r c ook ing , a nd s ome e n la rge t h e i r o r ig ina l h ome t oa ccommoda te t h ee x t ra f e a tu re s . Women may o r may n o th ave c h i ld ren . I n c e r ta in c a se s ah ou se a nd c ompound s i ze a r e as t a tu s s ymbo l i nt h e e ye s o f t h e v i lage w omen . l

Ah ou se m igh t b e e n la rged a nd f e a tu re s a dded i n

s p i te o f aw oman 's c h i ld les t a te . s s

F o r e xamp le , t h e re w e re t wo c h i ld les s

w omen , mar o r 8a nd 1 0y ea r sr e spec t ive ly ,w ho , t h ough c h i ld les os ried f s, p ses sed d we l ing s c ompa ra t ive i n s i ze a nd n umbe r t o t ho se o f w omen mar i th l ried w s eve ra l y oung c h i ld ren . p robab ly r emar ry

Af e r t i le w oman o n t h e d ea th o f h e r h u sband , w ou ld

a nd move ,e i the rt o an ew h ou se o rt o an ew v i lage . l

T he o lde ro f sp r ing o fm ar omen , o nce t h ey h ave r e ached p ube r ty a nd f ried w a r e o f mar le a ge , riagab

s t a r t t o u se a r tef ac t s ( hou se s ) w h ich w ou ld f i nd

e xp res n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd . sion i

U nmar l de r s on s may i n hab i t ried e

h ou se s w i th in o rj u s t o u t s ide t h e i r mo the r 's c ompound s . G i r l s w ho se b r ide -p r ice i sp a r t ia ly p a id w ou ld a l so h ave ah ou se o u t s ide t h e i r mo the r 's c ompound . l

I n

t h i s w ay w omen w ho d o h ave o lde ro f spr ing m igh t b e d i s t ingu i shed f r om t h o se f w ho d on o t . T he re w a s ad ef in i te c hange i nt h e w ay t h a t w omen s aw t h em s e lve s w hen t h ey p as h i ldbea r ing a ge . S uch w omen w e re c a led a j uz , a nd t h ey s a id t h a t s ed c l t h e i r b e ly w a s n o t s okhn ( ho t ) , i e . t h ey c ou ld n o l onge r p roduce c h i ld ren . B y l . t h i s t ime mo s to ft h e i ro f sp r ing a r e a pp roach ing o ra c tua ly o f mar le a ge . f l riageab I ft h e i rh u sband d i ed t h e re w a sl i t le l i ke l ihood o fr emar . S ome w omen w e re t riage a j uz a nd y e t s t i l h ad t h e i r y ounge s t c h i ld ren l i v ing a tt h e i r h ouse . O nce a l t h e l l o f sp r ing h ad l e f th ome ,t h e se w omen h ad f ewe rs pa t ia lr equ i remen t s . H oweve r , f t h e h ou se o f a n o lde r s on m igh t b e ma in ta ined s o t h a t h e o r o t he r g ue s t s c ou ld u se i t du r ing v i s i t s . A l te rna t ive ly am ar on m igh t c hoo se t ob r ing h i s w if e ried s t ol i ve b y h i s mo the r 's c ompound . F ew m ar ad h ou se s f o r t h e i r o wn ried men h u se , a nd t ho se w ho d id b u i l tt h eh ou se i n s ide t h e i rw if e 's c ompound . Among t h e b l ack sm i th c ommun i ty , i tw a s s a id t h a t t h e re w a s n o d i vo r ce , t h ough i t did e x i s t f o r o t he r c l as s o fZ aghawa . I f aw oman h ad n o c h i ld ren i t se w a s u nneces ry f o r h e r h u sband t o d i vo r ce h e r , f o r h e c ou ld mar e cond sa ry as w if e .

T he ma ter ia l c or la te s o f aw oman 's l i f e c yc le a r e d ea l t w i th i ng r ea te r re

d e ta i l s ho r t ly .

1 51

1 . v . D ea th a nd As ia ted B e l ief s s oc A t K i reyka , t h e c eme tery f o r a du l t s i s

n ea r t h e v i lage o f A bde lk r im . l

S tone s a r e p l aced a t t h e h ead a nd f e t o f e ach g rave . e

O ne man w a s

b ur ied

j u s t o u t s ide t h e h ou se w he re h e d i ed , h i s g rave ma rked b y a low mound w i th t w ig s p l aced o n t op .

C h i ld ren a r e b ur ied b y a n o u tc rop o f b l ack , g ran i te r o ck

n o r th o f t h e v i lage , b u t s uck l ing i n fan t s a r e b ur ied i mmed ia te ly o u t s ide t h e l p a ren t 's c ompound . p l ace .

Al ow mound t o pped b y af ew s t one s d eno te s t h e i r b ur ia l

When d ea th o ccur s a t o ne o f t h e c r af t mak ing c amps , t h e c o rpse i s

b ur ied i n t h e c eme tery o f t h e r e levan t t own , w i th in t wo h ou r s o f d ea th .

Two

c a se h i s tor ie s g iven i n A ppend ix 6d e scr ibe t h e p rocedu re a tt h e t ime o f b ur ia l ; o ne w hen ad ea th o ccur tt h e v i lage , a nd a no the r a t ap o te ry -mak ing c amp . red a l t T he l a te r t e x t ( Append ix C , 4 . i ; p 249 ) d e scr ibe s t h e r i tua ls i nvo lved i n mak ing t i t h e p a r t ia ly f o rmed p o tery p u re a f te r t h e d ea th , a nd t h e a c t iv i t ie s o f t h e l t b e reaved mo the r who s ub sequen t ly moved h ou se .

P eop le b e l ieve t h a t d ea th i s c aused b y o ne 's a lo ted t ime ( a je l , l i t , w hee l ) l t c om ing r ound .

I ti ss a id w hen ap e r son 's w hee l h a s t u rned f u l c i rc le , h i s t ime l

a loca ted b y A lah i s c omp le ted . I ti s f o r t h is r e a son t h a t o ne mu s t n o t w eep , l l f o r o ne mus t n o t a ppea r t o p ro te s t a ga ins t t h e w ishe s o f A lah . l

O n t h e

o cca s ion o fo ne c h i ld 's d ea th , i tw a s s ugge s ted t h a t t h e mo the rm igh t h ave t a ken h e r c h i ld t ot h e h o sp i ta l . O ne woman r e sponded a ng r i ly , a nd s a id t h a tA lah h ad l o rda ined t h a t t h e c h i ld 's l i f e c yc le w a s c omp le te , a nd n o med ic ine e x i s ted t o a l te rt h ew i l o fA lah . l l

G ene ra ly p eop le d id n o t b e l ieve i n g ho s t s o r l i fe a f te r d ea th . l t h a t w hen p eop le d i ed , t h ey s t ayed

d ead .

T hey s a id

I n c on t ra s t t h e b e l ief i n t h e ' e v i l

e ye ' p e rmea te s t h e w ho le o f s oc ie ty . T he e v i l e ye i s n o th ing u nusua l , a nyone c an p os tw hen t h ey l ook w i th a dm i ra t ion o r e nvy . s es s i

I ti s n o t s en t o b e e

s t range ; i nf a c t w ha t w e u nde r s tand a s " t he e v i l e ye " , t h ey r e f e red t os imp ly a s e le yn ( l i t , t h e e ye , c f . Wes te rma rck 1 926 ) . I fo ne p ra ises ap e r son 's p roper ty , i t i s

a lmo s t a s t hough o ne h ad c on tam ina ted i t , a nd t h e o b jec t i n q ue s t ion i s

f r equen t ly g iven a way .

P rophy lac t ics a ga in s t t h e e v i l e ye c ons is t o f k o ran ic

c ha rm s o r n on -ko ran ic s ub s tance s made b y af ak ih . Women c ove ry oung b ab ie s w i th ac l o th t op ro tec t t h em f r om " t he e ye " , a nd w hen b uy ing f r esh m i lk f r om t h e ma rke t , t h ey t h row a pi ece o f d r ied c h i l i i n to t h e b ow l s o t h a t " t he e ye " l d oe s n o t t u rn t h em i lk .

1 52

D ec is ions c once rn ing t h e p l acemen t o f w a ls a nd s c reens a nd c ook ing l e qu ipmen t a r e a f ec ted b y t h e ' e v i l e ye ' . B e l ief i n t h e ' e v i l e ye ' f

a nd i t s e f ec t f

o n h ouse c ons t ruc t ion a nd i n te rna l f e a tu re s a r e e xam ined b e low . F ea r o f t h e d ev i l a l so s t rong ly a f ec t s p eop le 's b ehav iour , f o r i t i s f b e l ieved t h a t t h e d ev i l i s a t rac ted t o t ho se a tv u lne rab le s t ages i n t h e i r l i f e , t e g . b i r th a nd mar . T he d ev i l i s d rawn t o t ho se w ho s t and i nd oorway s o r riage i nt h e s hadow o f at r ee c a s t b y t h e moon . H e a l so h ides d own t h e w e l a tn igh t l a nd s na tche s p eop le i f t h ey c o lec t w a te r a t d usk . l

E xcep t ions a r e made ,

h oweve r , w hen w a te ri s n eeded i n eme rgenc ie s s uch a sf o rb i r ths o rd ea ths .

2 . D IV IS IONS OF THE V ILLAGE I NHAB ITANTS

T he s y s tem s e t o u t b e low i su sed t o d iv ide t h e f ema le p opu la t ion o f t h e v i lage i n to a ge g roups , w h ich a r e s ub sequen t ly u sed t o a na ly se a spec t s o f l ma ter ia lc u l tu re i n c lud ing t h ec ompound , h ouse , a nd h ou se c on ten t s . T ab le n o .11 s e t s o u t t h e se a ge g roups a nd t h e i r ma ter ia l c or la te s . re

E a r ly i n l i fe c h i ld ren

a r e n o t a soc ia ted w i th d ome s t ic s t ruc tu re s o r h ouse c on ten t s . T he s ame a pp l ie s s a t t h e o the r e nd o f t h e a ge s c a le w hen women b ecome t oo f r a i l t o l ook a f te r t h em se lves . A t t h a t t ime t h ey b ecome d ependen t o n t h e i r o f sp r ing a nd t h e i r f ma te r ia lv i s ib i l i ty d im in i she s .

Women w ho se b r ide -pr ice i so n ly p a r t ia ly p a id p os ouse w i th a l s es s ah p ro tec t ive s c reen ( mode s ty w a l ) a c ro ss t h e d oorway . A l b r ide h ouses h ave t h is l l f e a tu re w hen f i r s t c on s t ruc ted , b u i l t o f mud o r s t raw . Howeve r , t h e t wo women w ho h ave r ebu i l t t h e i r h ou se s h ave n o t r ep laced t h e s c reen . None o ft h e h ouse s o f women i nt h is c a tego ry p os ook ing p o t s , t hough t h ey d o h ave h ea r ths f o r s es s c l i gh t .

I n t h e n ex t c a tego ry a r e women w ho se mar r e c omp le ted a nd w ho riages a p os ook ing e qu ipmen t a nd a c ook ing h ea r th , b u t w ho h ave r e ta ined t h e s es s c p ro tec t ive s c reen i n f r on t o f t h e e n t rance .

T h is l a te r f e a tu re t oge the r w i th t h e t

c hange i n h ea r th t y pe , c ou ld b e u sed t o s ugges t t h a t t h ese women a r e r e cen t ly mar . ried

T he f o low ing g roup ( C .no s .2 ,3 ,4 ,5 ,14 ,17 ,36 ) a r e o f s im i la r a ge a nd l

s t a tus a nd a l so p os ook ing p o t s t hough t h ey h ave r emoved t h e e n t rance s es s c s c reen .

S o f a r w omen i n e ach o f t h e g roups p re sen ted h ave y oung c h i ld ren .

T ho se w ho a r ec h i ld les ave t h e s ame s t a tus . s h 1 53

: Data f rom t he 3 5 i nhabited c ompounds a t K ireyka v illage

:

: life c ycle : c ompound : m odesty : p ottery : o ffspring : : (category ): :w all : + : pubescent : all absent : : 3 s tone : extra h ouses : : :h earth : : childhood : : : betrothed : ( A ) : b ride: p rice : partially : p aid

: : : : : :

2 0 2 5 2 6 2 8 3 9 4 7

:m arried ( B )

: : : : .

9 1 8 2 9 3 1 3 2

: .

:married : ( D )

* *

: : :

4

*

1 4 : : 17 : 3 6

* * *

:

: : • .

: : :

: (offspring : :mature, : : a bsent ) : :f ▪ rail & : : dependant :

K ey :

) , . L * * „ „

2 3

: ( with : :t eenage : : offspring ): . : : :older w omen : ( E )

* *

: :

:

:fu lly : pa id )

*

: : : : :

* * * , ; .

( C )

:(bride

*

1 6 8 1 3 1 6 1 9 2 3 2 4 3 5 4 6

: : : : : : : : : :

* * * * . * * * * * „ , . .

1 2 1 5 2 2 2 7 3 0 3 8 5 0

: : : : : : :

* * * i . . „ * * *

: :

p r i c e 5 * : : : :: : * * * * J . „ * * * * *

: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :

* =p resence b lank= a bsence

T able n o .11 M ATERIAL C ORRELATES O F S TAGES I N AW OMAN 'S L IFE C YCLE 1 54

* „ , . . * * * *

T he t e n women mak ing u p t h e n ex t g roup a r e t ho se w ho h ave b een mar ried f o r s ome t ime a nd h ave o f spr ing w ho a r e p ube scen t o r o f mar le a ge . f riageab T he ir o f spr ing a r e b eg inn ing t o p o sse ss a r tefac t s a nd d we l ing s t h a t w ou ld b e f l v i s ib le i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l r e co rd , t hough mo s t a r e s t i l d ependen t ( Tab le l n o .11) . S uch w omen a r et owa rd st h ee nd o ft h e i rc h i ldbea r ing y ea r s .

Women w ho se o f spr ing h ave a ll e f tt h e i r mo the r 's c ompound a nd a r el i v ing f l i ndependen t ly i n h ouse s o f t h e i r o wn , f i t i n to t h e p enu l t ima te c a tegory .

T hese

w omen ( po s t menopausa l ) a r e s t i l a c t ive a nd ' u sefu l ' a nd l i ve i n t h e i r own l c ompound s . Howeve r , t h e f i na l c a tego ry men t ioned e a r l ie r , a r e e l de r ly w omen , d ependen to n t h e i ro f spr ing , a nd w ho d on o th ave ah ouse o ft h e i r own . f I n t h e a na ly s is b e low ( Tab le n o .12 ) Ih ave n o t u sed t h e c a tegor ies a te i the r e nd o f T ab le n o .11 ; t hose who a r e t oo y oung o r t oo o ld t o h ave ma te r ia l c or la te s . Women i nt h e f i ve i n te rven ing c a tego r ies h ave b een d iv ided o n t h e re g round so f ma te r ia lc u l tu re .

: category :b ride p rice : Correlates ( material & s ocial) A

:1 /2-2/3 p aid : no c ooking p ottery :protective s creen i n h ouse :hearth f or l ight

B

:f u lly p aid

:cooking p ots :cooking h earth :protective s creen p resent

C

: fu lly p aid

:cooking p ottery a nd h earth

: fu lly p aid

:cooking p ottery a nd h earth :extra h ouses i n c ompound :offspring o f m arriageable a ge : ( extra h ouses o utside ) :near e nd o f c hildbearing y ears:

:f u lly p aid

:cooking p ottery a nd h earth :extra h ouses :all o ffspring i ndependent ( in o wn h ouses) :beyond c hildbearing

T able n o .12 .

F IVE C ATEGORIES O F W OMANHOOD

1 55

T he a bove

s c a tego r ie s a r e ah eu r is t ic d ev ice t o a s is t i n t h e a na lys is o f

ma ter ia l c u l tu re .

sa O nce t h e d a ta h ave b een a na lysed , i tm ay b e n eces ry t o

r edef ine t h em .

l l I n t h e s e c t ions t h a t f o low , d ome s t ic dwe l ing s a r e a na lysed a cco rd ing t o t h e a ge c a tegory o f t h e i r o ccupan t .

T h is i sd one t o d e term ine whe the r c e r ta in

f e a tu re s o ccu r r egu la r ly i n h ouses o f w omen i n ag iven a ge g roup .

D a ta f r om

l s s ed w o ccup ied d we l ing s a r e a ses i th t h e a im o f p roduc ing a m ode l .

S uch a

l mode l w i l b e t e s ted o n t h e g roup o f 1 8 a bandoned h ou se s t od i scove r w he the r t h e r ema in s l e f t i n t h e i n te r io r o f t h e se h ouse s a r e e nough t o e s tab l i sh s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion .

3 . THE RELATIONSHIP OF S TRUCTURES TO THE SOCIAL UNIT An o u t l ine o f t h e d ome s t ic a c t iv i t ie s o f p eop le i n t h e v i lage i sp re sen ted l b e low f o lowed b y ad i scus f t h e d ome s t ic s t ruc tu re s . l sion o

T he se n o tes a r e

i n c luded t o d eve lop a n u nde r s tand ing o f t h e u se o f s pace f o r b a s ic h uman a c t iv i t ie s s uch a sf ood p repa ra t ion , e a t ing , a nd s l eep ing . 3 i . D a i ly a c t iv i ty i nr e la t ionsh ip t ov i lage s pace . l

T he s t ap le d i sh e a ten c on s is t s o f af l ou r a nd w a te r m ix tu re ( a s ida ) . i G ra in i s g round i n amo rhaka as add le q ue rn , a nd t h e i ng red ien t s f o r t h e s auce a r e p ounded e i the r i n awooden mor ta r w i th ap e s t le ( f unduk ) , o r b y u s ing t wo s t one s o f v a ry ing s i ze s ( dugaga ) . I ti s c us tom ary f o r al a rge g ran i te d ugaga t o b e p laced o u t s ide t h e h ou se a nd a s ma le r o ne , o f s and s tone t o b e u sed i n s ide l ( f ig .30 . i .d ;p 184 ) . O nce c ooked , t h ea s ida p or s mou lded i n awooden b ow l , i i i rige i a nd s u rounded b y as auce made u p o f d ry i ng red ien t s ; mea t ( s hermu t ) , t oma to r ( s a lsa ) , c h i l i ( s ha ta ) , d r ied o k ra ( de raba ) , a nd f e rmen ted l e aves ( kow l ) . l t

F ood

p repa ra t ion t a ke s p lace e i the r i n s ide t h e h ouse o r i mmed ia te ly o u t s ide b y t h e d oo rway .

T he c ook ing o f a s ida i s u sua ly d one i n s ide t h e h ouse , s o t h a t t h e i l

' e v i l e ye ' d oes n o t s po i l t h e f ood w h i le i ti s

b e ing made .

Howeve r , a tn igh t

s ome w omen c ook o u t s ide w i th ah ea r th made u p o f t h ree s t one s .

S uch af i re

m igh t b e s h if ted f r om p l ace t o p lace i n t h e c ompound d epend ing o n w ind d i rec t ion .

1 56

Househo ld d eb r is i s s wep t o u t a nd p l aced o n ar ubbb i sh d ump o u t s ide t h e l c ompound . T he a r ea w i th in t h e c ompound w a ls i sr egu la r ly s wep t a nd k ep t f r ee l o f d ebr i s . A nywhe re b eyond t h e c onf ines o f a pe r son 's c ompound w a ls i s a s u i tab le p l ace t oe s tab l i sh ar ubb i sh d ump , a nd many a r e p resen t ( f ig .16 ) . P a ths b e tween t h e c ompound s make c l ea r ings i nt h e r ubb i sh . Mea t t oo i s s l augh te red o u t s ide t h e c ompound b y men o r o lde r b oys , a nd t h e re a r e s eve ra l p i t s i n t h e l v i lage w he re l a rge r b one s a r e d umped .

S k ins a r e t a ken b y t h e l e a the r t a nne r s

( d ebagha ) , w ho a l so r e -u se t h eb one s .

D ur ing t h e w in te r mon ths ( Decembe r & J anua ry ) t empe ra tu re s d rop

t o

a lmos t f r eez ing p o in t , a nd d ur ing t h er a iny s e a son ( J u ly t oS ep tembe r ) e ve ryone s l eeps i n s ide t h e i r h ouse .

P eop le s l eep e i the r o n b ed s o r o n ma t s o n t h e f l oo r .

E lde r c h i ld ren s l eep t o ge the r , o r may b e s en t t o s l eep w i th t h e i r g randmo the r i f t h e e l de r ly woman i s a l one .

T he r e s t o f t h e y ea r when t h e w ea the r i s

w a rme r , mo s t p eop le s l eep o n t h e g round o u t s ide t h e i r h ouse , b u t w i th in t h e l c ompound w a ls .

. 3 i .a . P ro scr ip t ions T he re a r e s eve ra l p ro scr ip t ion s c onnec ted w i th e a t ing .

T he f i r s t i s

l c ommon a mong Mu s l im s : t h a t women s hou ld e a t i np r iva te . B u t a tt h e v i lage , men a l so e a t i n p r iva te , f o r i ti s s hamefu l a nd s hows al a ck o f r e spec t t o b e e s en e a t ing b y o ne 's i n law s .

O n s eve ra l o cca s ions Is aw men r e fuse f ood , a nd

f w a lk a way f r om a n o f e red d i sh n o t e ven t a s t ing i to r t a k ing t h e c us toma ry mo r se l t o s how

l s t aw i l ingnes oj o in .

e T he r i sk o f b e ing s en e a t ing i s f a r

g rea te r i n t h e s ea sona l c amps , w he re t h e re i s n o c ompound f ence a round t h e s he l te r s ; d u r ing t h a tt ime m en a lways e a ti n s ide . R e spec tf o ri n laws a nd s pouses l l l means t h a ti d ea ly w a l so fc ompound s s hou ld b e k ep ti ng ood c ond i t ion t oa low f o r t h e a pp ropr ia te p r ivacy t o b e ma in ta ined .

ried men a N ew ly mar nd w omen

n eve r p ronounce t h e n ame o f t h e i r s pou se n o r t h a t o f t h e i r i n laws .

O lde r

women a r ep repa red t od o s o , t hough t h ey a lways s ay i ti nh ushed t ones .

r I ti s c us toma ry f o r h ouse s a t K i reyka t o b e c omp le te ly s u rounded b y l c ompound w a ls , s o t h a t max imum p r ivacy i se nsu red , a nd t h is i s t h e c a se f o r l 8 0% o f a l c ompound s . l a l b u t o ne b e long s

l l O f t h e h ouse s t h a t a r e p a r t ia ly o r f u ly o pen t o s i gh t ,

t o p eop le w ho h ave l e f t .

T he re a r e , h oweve r , o n ly f ou r

l o ccupan t s i n t h e v i lage w ho a r e u nca r ing a bou t t h e i r s t a te o fp r ivacy : n o tab ly t h e o ccup ie ro fc ompound n o .34 , a nd h e rt wo d augh te r s . T hough t h is w oman h a s l n o c ompound f enc ing a ta l , t h e b ounda r ie s o fh e r c ompound a r e c l ea r ly ma rked 1 57

b y as e r ie s o f p o s t h o le s , a nd t h e a r ea w i th in t h em i s s wep t c l ea r o f d eb r i s . B o th d augh te r s ' h ou se s a r e p a r t ia l ly e nc lo sed .

O ne o the r p a r t ia l ly o pen h ou se

i s t h a t o f c ompound n o .3 . I n t h e p a s t , t h e c ompound h ad b een e nc lo sed , a s i nd ica ted b y t h er a i sed mound e nc i r c l ing i t . T he w oman o ccupan t i s n ew t ot h e l l v i lage , a nd s he m ay n o t h ave h a rve s ted a n a dequa te a moun t o ft h e m i le t s t a lk s ub l ( g us ) t h ep rev iou sy ea rt op rov ide h e r se lf w i th w a ls . 3 . i .b .

D iv i s ion o fs pace i n ac ompound l A l c ompound s a r e d i v ided i n to a r ea s w he re p a r t icu la r a c t iv i t ie s t a ke p l ace

a nd ,

d epend ing o n t h e c i r cum s tance o r t h e p e r sona l i ty o f t h e o ccupan t , t h e se

l l a c t iv i ty a r ea s m igh t o r m igh t n o t b e s c reened w i th m i le t s t a lk w a l s .

A

c on s ide rab le n umbe r o f p ro sc r ip t ion s r ega rd ing i n law r e spec t a r e o b se rved , s t d e sp i te t h er e la t ive f r eedom o fa cces oe ach o t he r s ' c ompound s . T he mo s t c ommon p ro sc r ip t ion i s t h a t o fi n law a vo idance , f o r , a s s t a ted p rev iou s ly , n e i the r aman n o r aw oman may p ronounce t h en ame o ft h e i ri n law s , e n o r s hou ld t h ey b e s en e a t ing o rd r ink ing b y t h em . T h i s t a boo l a s t s t h roughou t s t ap e r son 's l i f e . T hu s as c reen a c ros h e e n t rance i s p a r t icu la r ly i mpo r tan t , f o r low s t i t al s a cces ot h ec ompound s ot h a to ne c an a nnounce o ne 's p re sence , w h i le p reven t ing av i ew o ft h e i n te r io r . T h i s i s o ne o ft h e mo s t c ommon s c r een s a nd i s p re sen ti n6 9% o ft h ec ompound s . Women w ho se e l de r s on s l i ve i nt h e i r c ompound f r equen t ly b u i ld as c reen l p a r t ia ly d iv id ing t h e s on 's a r ea f r om t h e i r o wn ( C .no s .6 ,15 ,30 , a nd 4 6 ) .

O ne

g roup o fc ompound si sp a r t icu la r ly i n te re s t ing ( f ig .24 .g , C .no s .30 , 3 1 , 3 2 ; p 162 ) : ried d t h e mo the r 's c ompound i s n o t o n ly j o ined t o t h a t o f h e r mar augh te r ( C .no .32 ) b u t i sa l so d iv ided i n h a lf b y a cen t ra l s c reen , w h ich s epa ra te s h e r s f s pace f r om t h a t o f h e r s on . T he s on 's a r ea h a s i mmed ia te a cces r om o u t s ide w he r ea s h e r e n t rance i sp ro tec ted b y a n i n te rna l s c reen .

T he re a r e

a l so t wo

s he l te r s ( r aquba ) , o ne o n e a ch s i de , a nd t wo w a sh ing a r ea s . I n f a c t h e r s on n o l onge rl i ve sa tK i reyka f o rh eh a sw ive si nG i rgo ,b u th ev i s i t sr egu la r ly . f O the r c ompound s w h ich h ave a n a r ea s c reened o f f o r t h e u se o f a n e l de r s on i n c lude C .no .46 w h ich h a s at h i rd o fi t s a r ea p a r t i t ioned b y ac urved s c reen . T h i s a r ea a l so h a s i t s o wn e n t rance a nd i t s o wn r aquba .

T he re i s

a la rge

f a s c reened -of r ea i n t h e n o r the rn p a r t o f t h i s c ompound u sed f o r s e ve ra l s ub p u rpo se s : s t o r ing g us ;

t e the r ing a n ima l s ; a nd c u r ing l e a the r .

I n c ompound

l n o .6 , t h e s on h a s as ma l s c reened a r ea i n f r on t o f h i s h ou se , a nd t h e s ame 1 58

o ccu r si nc ompound n o .15 .

F ew c ompound s a r e

d iv ided i n to e xc lu s ive ly p r iva te ma le a nd f ema le

a c t iv i ty a r ea s , t hough d ur ing w edd ing s a nd o the r t ime s when l a rge n umbe r s a r e g a the red t oge the rc e r ta in a r ea s a r e made p r iva te f o rb o th men a nd women .

C ra f t s s uch

a s p o te ry o r l e a the rwo rk , t

a r e

c ar u t w i th in t h e ried o

c ompound , t hough r a re ly b l ack sm i th ing . T he d e term in ing f a c to rf o rt h ep o s i t ion o f c r af t a c t iv i ty i s t h e r equ i remen t o f s hade f r om t h e

s un .

P o te ry mak ing t

m igh t b e c ar u t a nywhe re w i th in t h e c ompound , a nd t h e f oca l p o in t o f ried o a c t iv i ty c an s h if t w i th t h e s un 's p o s i t ion .

I n f a c t many women wo rk u nde r a

r aquba , a n o pen s he l te r w i th a f l a t , t h a tch r oof .

I n t wo c a se s ( c ompound s

n o s .13 , 4 6 ) , t h e p o tery mak ing a r ea i s s c reened o n t h ree s i des , a nd i n o the r t c ompound st h er ema ins o fs c reens s he l te r ing t h e wo rk a r ea c an b e s en . e

T o i le t a c t iv i t ie s a r e f r equen t ly j u s t o u t s ide .

c ar u t b eyond t h e b ounda ry o f t h e c ompound , ried o

T he o ccupan t s o f e ach c ompound h ave a n a r ea b eyond

t h e i r w a ls f o r d ump ing r ubb i sh , a nd i ti s o n t h is r ubb ish a r ea t h a t h uman l e xc remen t c an b e f ound . i s p e r fo rmed .

O the r s h ave as pec ia l r ock b e s ide w h ich t h i s f unc t ion

U r ina t ion i s s ome t ime s c a r ied o u t i n s ide t h e c ompound i nt h e r

a r ea c a led t h e o sk i la . T h is Z aghawa wo rd t r ans la tes t oh ammam i na r ab ic a nd l m eans b a th ing a r ea . T he b a th ing a r ea o sk i la ( a round 2 me t re s a c ro ss ) may b e a soc ia ted w i th s t h ree d eg rees o f p r ivacy : t h e f i r s t h a s c urved s t raw w a l s w i th a n ar l row e n t rance a nd i s

u sua ly a tached t o t h e o u te r w a ls ( f ig .24 .b ,c ; p 162 ) . l t l

I ti s

t h e mo s t p r iva te a nd t h e mo s t c ommon t ype , o ccur ing i n6 3% o fa l h ouseho ld s . l T he s e cond t ype i s ab a th ing a r ea o n ly p a r t ia ly c l osed o f , a nd u sua ly p l aced l f l b eh ind ah ouse w i th as c reen o n o ne s i de ( f ig .24 .a ) . V e ry f ew e xamp le s o ft h is t ype o ccu r ( 17% ) . T he t h i rd t y pe i s o ne w h ich i sn o t e nc lo sed a ta l ; b a th ing l t a ke s p lace b eh ind t h e h ouse ( 20% o f t o ta l ) .

T he b a th ing a r ea i s u sua ly l

i nd ica ted b y t h e p os i t ion o f af i re -b lackened b ow l c o lo l ( f o r h ea ted w a te r ) l e f t a tt h e p l ace o f w a sh ing , a nd s ome t imes ar ock i sf ound b e s ide i tw h ich i su sed t o r e s t t h e f e t w h i le w a sh ing . e

T he se a r tef ac t s a r e

a lmo s t a lway s p re sen t i n

t h ew a sh ing a r ea .

T he c ompound p os s s c reen s f o r p urpo se s o the r t h an t ho se men t ioned s es se a bove : o ne t y pe i su sed t ol im i t a n a n ima l e nc lo su re ( z e r iba ) , t hough mos tp eop le 1 59

k eep a n ima ls i n e nc lo sure s o u t s ide t h e ir c ompound s .

O n ly t h ree f am i l ie s k eep

g oa t s i n s ide i ne nc lo sure s o ft ho rn b ushe s ( C .no s .8 ,23 , a nd 5 0 ) . Af u r the r t h ree h ave s c reens made u p o fh o r izon ta l b ranche s l a id b e tween s e t s o fv e r t ica l s t akes , w h ich r e s t r ic t t h e movemen t o fa n ima ls . C ame ls , t h e mo s tv a luab le a n ima ls , a r e mo s t f r equen t ly t e the red w i th in

t h e

c ompound , w h i le c ow s a nd d onkeys a r e

e the red o u t s ide . t I n 1 984 t h e re w e re 1 6 g oa t e nc lo su re s w i th in t h ev i lage a nd 3a r ea s w he re l c ow s w e re t e the red ( t he d rough t h ad a nn ih i la ted h e rd s ) . t o at r ee , ap o s t o r al a rge s t one .

H yena s a r e

D onkeys a r e t e the red

ap rob lem i n t h e a r ea a nd h ave

t a ken g oa t s o n an umbe r o f o cca s ions , s o g oa t e nc lo su res a r e

m ade o f a

p a l isade o ft ho rn b ushe s , w i th t h et ho rns s uppo r ted b yv er t ica l s t ake s .

E leven c ompound s h ave s ma l g a rdens j ub raka w i th in t h e i r w a l s , f i ve o f l l w h ich a r e

s c reened ( f ig .24 .c ) t o p ro tec t t h e c rops f r om a n ima ls .

D ur ing my

v i s i to k ra ( bam ia ) w a s g rown w i th in t h ec ompound s .

A no the r f e a tu re w i th in t h e c ompound s i sj u run , ( po le s o n w h ich g r a in i s s t o red ) .

A f te r t h e h arve s t , s t a lk s o f b u l rush m i le t a r e l l

g a the red a nd b rough t

b ack f r om t h e f i e ld t o s e rve a s t h e f o low ing y ea r 's ma te r ia l f o r c ons t ruc t ing l c ompound w a ls a nd t h a tch r oove s . T hey a r e l

s t o red o n as e t o f h o r izon ta l

wooden p o le s k nown a s j u run , a l so c a led e dan . l

T he se p o les a r e o f ten

c ons t ruc ted a new a f te re ach h arve s t , a nd t h e i rp o s i t ion i nt h e c ompound c hange s . When t h e s urvey w a sf i r s tc ar u t ( i n A ugus t 1 984 ) o n ly 2 9% o f c ompound s ried o h ad j u run f o r s t o rage ,

b u t a f te r t h e h a rve s t i n D ecembe r 1 984 m any mo re

c ompound sc on ta ined t h em . T hey a r e o n ly f ound i nt h ec ompound so fw omen i n C a tego r ie s C , D , a nd E , f o r w omen i n C a tego r ies A a nd B , wo rk i n t h e i r mo the r s ' f i e ld s .

T he p a te rn o fj u run i so f ten f ound p a in ted o n g rana r ie s ( s ee t

b e low ) . T empe ra tu re s d ur ing t h e d ay r i se t o o ve r 4 5 d egree s C en t ig rade a nd o ne e sen t ia l r equ i remen t i ss hade ; t h e mo s t b a s ic k ind i so b ta ined b y s i t ing i n t h e s t s hadow o f av er t ica l w a l . l

Howeve r a r aquba , ( f ig .21 . i .f ; p 131 ) i so ne o f t h e

s imp le s t s he l te r s b u i l t f o r s hade . I ti sc on s t ruc ted o n a se t o f f ou r , s i x o r e i gh t f o rked p os t s w i th a mi le t s t a lk r oof w h ich a lows t h e b reeze t o p as enea th . l l s b O n ly o ne e xamp le i nt h e v i lage i sf r ee -st and ing ; t h e ma jor i ty a r e f a ced b y o ne l o r t wo w a ls , t hough t wo e xamp le s a r e l

o ta ly e nc losed w i th a l ow ( 60cm ) t l

d oo rway e n t rance . T hese a r e e ach b u i l t i nt h e c ompound s o fc o -w ive s , a nd a r e 1 60

u sed a s k i tchens d ur ing t h e s umme r mon th s ( Ma r ch t o J une ) .

W i th o ne

e xcep t ion , t h er aquba a r e o n ly f ound i nt h e c ompound so fw omen i nC a tego r ie s C , D , a nd E . A l though t h ey p rov ide s hade , t h ey a r e

n o t n eces r i ly t h e f o cu s sa

o fa l d ay t ime a c t iv i ty , s i nce s hade c an b e f ound u nde r at r ee o rw a l d epend ing l l o n t h e h ou r . T he s i te o fm any a c t iv i t ie s s h if t s a cco rd ing t ot h e t ime o fd ay a nd p o s i t ion o ft h es un . 3 . 1 . 1

C ompound s

A l t h e c ompound s w e re f i r s t r e co rded i nt h e mon th s o fJ u ly a nd A ugu s t l 1 984 . L a te r i n t h e y ea r s ome o f t h e c ompound i n te r io r s w e re

mod if ied . T he

r ea son s b eh ind t h e se a l te ra t ion s , a nd a ny n ew d we l ing s b u i l t , a r e m en t ioned l a f te r t h e i n i t ia l d e sc r ip t ion s .

T hu s t h e s e c t ion a bove a na ly sed t h e i n te rna l

s t ruc tu re o fc ompound sb efo re S ep tembe r 1 984 , a nd t h ef o low ing o ne d ea ls w i th l s ub sequen t c hange s . T ha t mod if i ca t ion o ccu red i ns t ruc tu re s w i th in s uch as ho r t t ime s pan i so f r e levance t o t h e

a r chaeo log i s t a nd i sd i scus a te r i n t h e s ed l

c hap te r . O n ly t h et h i r ty f i ve c ompound s o ccup ied i n1 984 a r e u sed f o rt h ep u rpo se s o f t h i s a na ly s i s . T he r ema in ing e i gh teen a r e

a bandoned a nd , t hough t h e s t a tu s

o f t h e o ccupan t m ay b e k nown , t h ey a r e n o t d i scus e re b ecau se o ne c anno t s ed h b e c e r ta in t h a t t h e f e a tu re s o ft h e c ompound a r e ma in ta ined a st h ey w ou ld h ave b een h ad t h ey b een

o ccup ied . I tw i l b e r e ca led t h a t ac ompound i s t h e l l

b ounded a r ea s u round ing ah ou se , w h ich i st h er oo f ed d we l ing . r l

3 . i .a C ompound s hape i F ive t y pe so fc ompound s hape may b ei d en t if ied : s imp le r ound

4 9%

p a r t ia ly r ounded l

2 3%

r ounded w i th p ro tru s ion

1 4%

a d jo in ing

1% 1

s qua re

3%

-S imp le r ound s hape ( f ig .24 .a , C .no .47 ; p 162 ) .

A s t h e t e rm s ugge s t s

t h i s i s a simp le c ompound w i th n o f e a tu re s a f ec t ing i t s s hape . f t h ec ommone s tf o rm mak ing u p4 9% ( n=35 ) o ft h et o ta l .

1 6 1

I ti s b y f a r

F i g .2 4

C ompound : d i v is ion o f s pace K ey

a .

0

h ouse

• p os t r "r

C .

C Y '

1

g ras s w a l l t h orn f e nce s t ones g r ass s t orage

h s he l te r a w ash ing a rea f odde r

4 9 * V

( 3

p l an ted a r ea t r ee c ame l d ung

0

g ra in d r y ing

6 Q 1

o h en c op

9 o

a , b. C a tegory A . c ,d .C a tegory C . e . f . g . h . w i th i .

1 62

1 0m .

b r ide h ouse . m a rr ied w oman .

ried w C a tego ry D . m ar oman w i th ried s h ouse f o r u nmar on . ried w C a tego ry E . m ar oman ,w i dow , w i th g ues t h ouse f o rs on . r C a tego ry B . m ar ied w oman . ried w C a tego r y E . m ar oman ,w i dow , l ried d s a t e l i te h ouses o fm ar augh te rs , i g ues t h ouse f o rv s i t ing s on . A b andoned h ouse o fC a t ego ry E .w om an s h ow ing r ema ins o fc ompound f e n ce .

: Stage i n : compound : m ean : life c ycle : number : compound : diameter :( metres) . :b etrothed : 2 0 : 7 .2 : 2 5 : 8 .0 ( bride26 : 6 .4 p rice 2 8 : 9 .0 : partially : 3 9 : 7 .0 p aid ) 4 7 : 1 0 .4

:m ean o f : : each : : category :

:

( A )

:

8 .0

: : : : :

• . : : :

9 1 8 2 9 3 1 3 2

• : 9 .5 • . 8 .5 : 7 .8 : 1 0 .0

: : : : : : :

2 3 4 5 1 4 1 7 3 6

: : : : : : :

1 8 .6 1.0 1 4 .0 1 6 .0 1.0 1 5 .0 1 3 .0

:

:

: : : : : • . : : : :

1 9 .2 1 5 .0 2 1.5 2 8 .0 2 3 .0 1 3 .0 2 .0 2 1 5 .0 2 0 .5 2 5 .3

:

: 2 0 .25

:

: :

1 6 8 1 3 1 6 1 9 2 3 2 4 3 5 4 6

. 1 3.4 . 1 5 .6 • 1 2 .4 1.4 • . 2 0 .6 : 6 .2 . 1 5 .2

:

( E )

:

: 1 3 .5

:

: (offspring : : m ature, : : a bsent) :

1 2 1 5 2 2 2 7 3 0 3 8 5 0

: : :

:

:M arried : (bride : p rice f u lly • p aid )

• . M arried : • . . : ( with : : t eenage : : offspring ):

: : O lder : w omen

( B ) 8 .76

: : :

( C )

: : : : :

: 1 4 .0

: ( D )

:

: :

T able n o .13 C OMPOUND S IZE A ND S TAGE O F O CCUPANT 'S L IFE C YCLE ( 35 o ccupied c ompounds i n K ireyka v illage)

1 63

-Pa r t ia ly r ounded w i th h ouse p ro t rud ing .The c i rcumf e rence o f t h is l k ind o fc ompound i s o b s t ruc ted b y ah ouse ( f ig .24 .b , C .no .20 ; p 162 ) , s ot h a tt h e w a l o f t h e c ompound i s b u i l t a tr i gh t a ng les t o t h e h ouse w a l . l l

T h is i s t h e

s e cond mo s tc ommon t y pe mak ing u p 2 3% o ft h e t o ta l . - R ounded ,

b u t

w i th

d i s to r t ion

f r om

a n

i n te rna l

f e a tu re .

T he

c i rcumf e rence o f s uch ac ompound ( f ig .18 , C .no .6 ; p 114 ) i s d i s to r ted i n s ome w ay d ue t ot h e p o s i t ion o fi n terna l f e a tu re s e g . a n a n ima l e nc lo su re o r ag a rden f o rp lan ted c rops . T h is t y pe makes u p 1 4% o ft h et o ta l .

-A d jo in ing ( f ig .18 . iv .M , C .no s .41 ,42 ; p 117 ) .

T h is t ype c on s is t s o f

c ompound s w h ich a r e j o ined t oo ne a no the r b y ac ommon w a l ( 1% ) . I nf a c t l 1 t h is o ccu r s i n v e ry f ew c a se s , a nd t hough t h e c ompound s a r e f l a tened a tt h e i r t p o in to fj o in ing , t h er ema inde ro ft h e w a l s a r e c i rcu la r . l -Squa re ( f ig .18 . i .A , C .no .2 ; p 114 ) .

T he re i so n ly o ne o ccup ied s qua re

c ompound ( 3% ) , t hough as e cond e x i s t sw h ich h a sb een a bandoned .

O n e xam in ing c ompound s hape a cco rd ing t ot h e s t age o ft h eo ccupan t 's l i f e c yc le , a n i n te res t ing p o in t i sb rough t o u t . Among t ho se o f C a tego r ie s Aa nd B ( t ho se w i th p a r t ia ly o rr e cen t ly p a id b r ide -p r ice ) t h e ma jor i ty o ft h e c ompound s l ( 64% ) a r e p a r t ia ly r ounded w i th ah ou se p ro t rud ing . T he p redom inan tc ompound l s hape o f women i nC a tego r ie s C ,D , a nd E , i ss imp le r ounded ( 58% ) . T hus a tt h e s t a r t o f o ne 's mar i f e t h e re i s ad ef in i te t e ndency t oc ons t ruc t ap a r t icu la r ried l s hape o fc ompound .

3 . i .b . C ompound s i ze i T ab le n o .13 s e t s o u t al i s t o fo ccup ied c ompound s a tK i reyka t oge the rw i th t h e i r d i ame te r s .

A n e xam ina t ion o f t h e r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t h e s i ze o f t h e

c ompound a nd t h e s t a tu s o f t h e o ccupan t r evea ls t h a t c ompound s o f w omen i n C a tego r ies A a n B a r e v e ry c l ose i n s i ze ( 8 a nd 8 . 76 me t res m ean d i ame te r r e spec t ive ly ) a nd a r e

t h e

s ma le s t c ompound s i n t h e v i lage . l l

C ompound s

b e long ing t o women i nC a tego ry C h ave a n a ve rage s i ze o f 1 4 me t re s . Women i n C a tego ry D h ave t h e l a rge s t c ompounds w i th amean d i ame te r o f 2 0 .25 m e t res . T he m ean d i ame te ro fc ompound so fe l de r ly women i nC a tegory E is 1 3 .5 m e t re s . I n t ho se c ompound s t h a t h ave p a r t ia l o r n o p e r ime te r w a ls , t h e d i ame te r i s l 1 64

l m ea su red f r om t h e h o lows r e la t ing t o p a s t p os t h o les , o r f r om t h e e dges o f a s wep t -ou ti n te r io r s pace . T he s i ze o f c ompound s s how s ac l ea r r e la t ionsh ip w i th t h e s t ages i n a ried l w oman 's l i f e c yc le . A t t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e i r mar i f e ( Ca tegor ie s Aa nd B ) l t w omen h ave s ma l f am i l ie s a nd r equ i re l i t le s pace , w he rea s women i nt h ep r ime o f t h e i r c h i ld b ea r ing y ea r s ( Ca tego ry C ) , e n la rge t h e i r c ompound s pace a st h e i r e T ho se w i th t enage c h i ld ren ( Ca tego ry D )

f am i ly g rows .

who a r e a t , o r

a pp roach ing t h e e nd o ft h e i r c h i ldbea r ing y ea r s h ave t h e l a rge s t f am i l ie s a nd t h e f g r ea tes t s pa t ia l r equ i remen t s . O nce t h e o f spr ing h ave l e f t h ome ( Ca tegory E ) , l t h e n eed f o r s pace d ec rea se s , a nd t hu s t h e a r ea e nc lo sed b y t h e c ompound w a ls l i kew ise d ec rea ses . i 3 . i .c . C ompound mod if ica t ion T he p rev ious s e c t ion d ea l t w i th t h e i n te rna l d iv is ion o f c ompound s a s o b served d u r ing A ugu s t 1 984 . H oweve r , t h ec ompound s t ruc tu re sd id n o tr ema in c ons tan t ; d u r ing t h e s t udy p er iod ( 1984 /85 ) s even c ompound s w e re mod if ied a nd t wo n ew o ne s b u i l t .

e T h is s e c t ion e xam ine s i nd iv idua l c ompound s t o s e w ha t

lus c hange st ook p lace , a nd f o rw ha tr e a sons . C hange s a r ei t ra ted i nf i g .25 .

C ompound n o . 1 . T h is c ompound , w h ich w a sp rev iou s ly o pen , w a s a l te red t op rov ide s epa ra te a r ea s f o r men a nd w omen ; as e cond s he l te r ( r aquba ) w a s b u i l t t o t h e r i gh t o f t h e e n t rance .

l s ub B o th r aquba w e re s c reened o n t h ree s i des b y w a ls o f g us

l ( m i le t s t a lk ) . T he se d i s t inc t a r ea s w e re r equ i red b ecause t h e o ccupan t 's e l de s t s on w a s r e ady t o p ay s i x u n i t s o f b r ide p r ice a nd a ce leb ra t ion w a s d ue . T he r s t g i r l 's r e la t ives w e re e xpec ted t o a r ive f r om G i rgo t od i scus h e q ua l i ty o f t h e a n ima ls mak ing u pt h eb r ide p r ice .

C ompound n o . 2 3 . T h is c ompound w a s a l so c hanged o n t h e o cca s ion o f ab e t ro tha l c e remony w hen t h e e l de s t s on c o lec ted t wo t h i rd s o f t h e b r ide p r ice . l

A n a r ea i n w h ich

men c ou ld c ong rega te w a s s c reened o fb y as i ng le g us e nce r unn ing b e tween f s ub f t h e t wo h ouses .

T he w omen 's a r ea f ocus round t h e r aquba , w h ich w a s s ed a

s u rounded o n a l s i de s w i th g us a ls w i th o n ly an ar n t rance . T he w a l r l s ub w l r ow e l p ro tec t ing t h e k i tchen d oo rway f r om v i ew w a s a l so r ebu i l t , p robab ly t op ro tec t t h ep repa red f ood f r om t h ee v i le ye . 1 65

F i g . 2 5

C ompound m od if icatons a tK i reyka

A ugust 1 9 84

D e cember 1 9 84

K ey

3 .

h ouse l g r ass w a l t h orn f en ce s he l ter g r ass s t orage h earth 0

2 0m .

R eason f o r c h ange

h.x › , , : x 7 \

m arr iage

C .C .n o . 8

d ea th

d .C .n o .3 5

g ues t

e .C .n o .4

4

0

o . 1 a .C .n b .C .n o . 2 3

1 0m .

f .C .n o .1 9 g .C .n o . 3 7 h .C .n o . 5

m arr iage

w i nd s c reen g ues t g ues t l t empora ry d we l ing o f w oman f r om C .n o . 5

1 66

C ompound n o . 8 . I n t h is c a se , t h e d ea th o f ay oung c h i ld l e d t o a l te ra t ions .

T he c ompound

h ad b ecome r un d own . I tw a s o pen w i th j u s t t h e r ema ins o f t h e p a s t y ea r 's s c reens . I s o la ted p o le s s t ood a l one , f o r t h e s t raw f enc ing h ad l o ng s i nce b lown a way .

O n o cca s ion s o f c h i ld d ea th t h e p a ren t s may e i the r move v i lage o r l

c hange t h e s i te o f t h e i r h ouse .

I n t h is c a se t h e f am i ly r enewed t h e i r

e nv i ronmen t ; t h e f r on tp ar t o ft h e c ompound w a sr ebu i l t u s ing b ranches , a nd t h e e n t rance w a s moved a way f r om t h e d augh te r 's h ouse .

A dd i t iona ly a cen t ra l l

s t raw s c reen w a s b u i l ta c ros h ec ompound p ro tec t ing t h e k i tchen d oorway f r om s t v i ew .

C ompound n o . 3 5 . T he w a ls o f t h i s c ompound w e re r enewed w hen t h e s e a son 's m i le t s t a lk s l l w e re h a rve s ted i nN ovembe r , a sp a r t o ft h e g ene ra l r enova t ion wh ich t ook p lace a ts eve ra l h ou se s i nt h e v i lage . An ew b a th ing a r ea w a s a dded a ts ome d i s tance l f r om t h e o ld , a nd aw a l p ro tec t ing t h ej u run f r om v i ew w a s s t reng thened u s ing l wood .

T he s t raw h ad b lown d own d ur ing as t o rm . A ma le g ue s t s t ayed a tt h e

h ouse o n n ume rous o cca s ions , a nd b ecause t h e n o r th s i de o ft h e c ompound w a s u sed a s ag a rden , t h e g ue s t s t ayed u nde r ar aquba n ea r t ot h e woman 's s l eep ing h u t .

A s c reen w a s b u i l t t h a t made t h is a r ea p r iva te a nd a l so s e rved t o p ro tec t

h e rd oo rway f r om v i ew . T he o ccup ie r mod if ied h e ra bsen tn e ighbou r 's c ompound , w ho w a s h e r b ro the r in law b y h e r f i r s t mar , b y p lac ing at ho rn e nc lo sure riage f o rg oa t sw i th in h i so u te rc ompound w a l s . l

C ompound n o . 1 9 . T h is c ompound w a s a l so c hanged a st h er e su l t o f ag ue s t 's v i s i t . T he g ue s t i n q ue s t ion w a s h e r s e cond h usband , w ho se o the r t h ree w ive s w e re i n F a she r , a nd who w a s v i s i t ing f o r af ew w eek s .

E l

H e r f i r s t h usband h ad d i ed s i x

y ea r s e a r l ie r , a nd a s s he w a s s t i l o f c h i ld b ea r ing a ge s he r emar . l ried

O n t h e

a r iva l o f h e r h usband , as c reen w a s b u i l t b e s ide t h e r aquba w h ich c on t inued a t r r i gh t a ng le s .

I tj u ted o u t a c ro ss t h e c ompound a nd f o rmed a n e n t rance s c reen t

p ro tec t ing h e rd oo rway f r om v i ew .

C ompound n o . 4 . T he o ccupan t b u i l t s c reens ma sk ing o f t h e b ack h a lf o f t h e c ompound , a s f w e l a s r enova t ing t h e e n t i re a r ea . l

S he a l so h ad n ew e dan f o r s t or ing g ussub ,

a nd h ad p e rhaps w an ted t op ro tec t t h is g ras r om ' t he e v i l e ye ' . s f 1 67

An ew w a l l

r unn ing f r om t h e o the r s i de o f h e r h ou se w a s ,

s he s a id , t o s t op t h e w ind

b low ing h e rf i re t oo f u r ious ly .

C ompound n o .37 . T h is c ompound w a s a bandoned f o r p a r t o f t h e y ea r f o r t h e o r ig ina l owne r h ad moved i n to c ompound n o .36 . D ur ing o ne v i s i t , t h e owne r 's mo the rr emoved a l t h e p o s t s a r ound t h e h ou se wh ich made u p t h e c ompound w a l , a nd o n a l l s ub sequen t v i s i t , r ebu i l t a n o sk i la o n t h e s i de o f t h e h ouse .

T he h ouse i n f a c t

h ad a modes ty w a l , b u t w a s u sed f o r g ue s t s , a nd s o i tn o l onge r s e rved t h e l p u rpo se f o rw h ich i tw a so r ig ina ly b u i l t . l

N ew s t ruc tu re s b u i l ti nl a te 1 984 : C ompound n o .49 . T h i s w a s b u i l tw hen t h ef u tu re h usband o ft h eo ccupan t 's y ounge s td augh te r h ad p a id t h e ma jor i ty o f t h e b r ide p r ice .

I tc on s i s ted o f a n o pen r oof ed , s t raw

h ouse b u i l t w i th n o p er ime te r w a ls , t hough i t did h ave a n i n te rna l s t raw s c reen . l I ts e rved a s ag ue s th ouse f o rt h e g room w h i le h ev i s i ted t h ef am i ly . C ompound n o . 5 . A f te r t h e h arve s t , mos t o f t h e women u sua ly l e f t t h e v i lage a nd moved l l t o ma rke tc en t re s t h roughou t D a r fu r whe re t h ey w o rked a sp o te r s . T he o ccupan t t o f n o . 5w a s , h oweve r , n o t a ccus tomed t o d o t h i s , f o r s he h ad n o c h i ld ren a nd n o o ne t ol ook a f te r h e r g oa t s .

S he b u i l t at empo ra ry r e s idence t ot h e n o r th o f

t h ev i lage n ea ra no the rf am i ly w ho w e re a l so r ema in ing b eh ind . T he w oman w a s l a f ra id t o s t ay i nh e r own h ome b ecause t h a t p a r t o ft h e v i lage h ad b ecome d i lu l ( emp ty ) .

H e r n ew h ou se h ad a l a rge d i ame te r ( 5 .5 me t re s ) .

I t w a s made

e xc lu s ive ly o fs t raw ,excep t f o rt h e a r ea i mmed ia te ly b y t h e f i re p lace , w h ich w a s made o f h o r izon ta l b ranche s . T he h ouse w a s u nusua l , i tw a s d iv ided i n to t h r ee a r ea s i n s ide : o ne f o r c ook ing , o ne f o r h e r h usband t os l eep , a nd o ne w h ich w a s c ove red w he re s he k ep t h e rp o ses nd h e r b ed . H e ro ld , b l ind mo the r s l ep t sions a o u t s ide i na nu nenc lo sed a r ea . T he h ouse w a st a ken d own a f te r amon th .

3 . i .d . i

S umma ry

T he s hape o f ac ompound a ppea r s t ob e a f ec ted b y t h e s t age o f awoman 's f l i f e c yc le . B e t ro thed w omen h ave c ompound s w he re t h e f ence i sc u t o fb y t h e f h ou se p ro t rud ing . c ompound s .

Women mar o r l o nge r t e nd t o h ave s imp le r ounded ried f

B e t ro thed o r n ew ly mar omen h ave s ma le r c ompound s t h an ried w l 1 68

t h o se w ho h ave b een m ar o r m any y ea r s . ried f

O lde r w omen w ho se o f spr ing f

h ave a ll e f th ome h ave s ma le rc ompound s . l l Wa l s d i v ide t h e s pace i n ac ompound f o r ac omb ina t ion o fr e a son s . Wa l s l l a nd s c reen s a r e b u i l t t op ro tec t w ha teve r i sb eh ind t h em .

T hey p ro tec t p eop le

a nd p os s f r om t h e ' e v i l e ye ' , a nd f r om t h e h ea t o ft h e s un . T hey p ro tec t ses sion c r ops e i the rg rown o r s t o red , f r om d amage b y a n ima l s . T hey e n su re t h a tr e spec t i su phe ld i nf r on t o fi n law s , a nd t h a tm en a nd w omen c an e a t i np r ivacy . T hey p e rm i tp e r sona l mode s ty w h i le b a th ing . Y ea r ly r enova t ion m ean st h a tf e a tu re so f l ad we l ing m igh tb ec hanged r egu la r ly . C ompound mo rpho logy i sq u i te i n t ima te ly l i nked t o t h e s i tua t ion o f t h e o ccupan t s , t h ough a s s oon a s a gi ven s i tua t ion c ea se s t o e x i s t , t h e c ompound may r eve r t t oi t s p r ev iou s s t a te . T h i s h appened i nt h e c a se o fC ompound N o .1 . O nce t h e s on 's w edd ing c e leb ra t ion w a s o ve r t h e g us c reen s w e re t a ken s ub s d own a nd f ed t ot h e o wne r 's d onkey s .

1 984 w a s ay ea r o f s e r iou s d rough t a nd

p e rhap st h ew a l sm igh th ave s t ayed u pl o nge ri nb e te rt ime s . l t T he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e c ompound a nd t h e l i f e c yc le o f t h e v i lage l i n hab i tan t s i sb road , b u t i td oe s i mp ly t h a t g ene ra l i sa t ion s c an b e made .

T he

f o low ing s e c t ion a na ly se s h ou se s a nd f e a tu re s o fh ou se s i nr e la t ion t ol i f e c yc le l t od i scove ri f mo re s pec if ic p a te rn sb ecome o bv iou s . t 3 . ii i . Hou se s I n t h e f i r s t s e c t ion o f t h i s c hap te r c a tego r ie s o f w omanhood w e re p re sen ted , f i ve o fw h ich h ad ma te r ia l c or la te s . T he se w e re b a sed b o th o n t h e re l o ca l p e rcep t ion o fl i f e c yc le , a nd o n t h e m a te r ia l c u l tu re . T he p rev iou s s e c t ion e xam ined t h e s hape , s i ze a nd i n te rna l s t ruc tu re o f c ompound s , t h a t i s , t h e a r ea w i th in t h ep e r ime te rf e nce s . I nt h ef o low ing p a rag raph sh ouse sa r ee xam ined i n l mo re d e ta i l a cco rd ing t o s i ze a nd f unc t ion . I n te rna l f e a tu re s s uch a s h ea r th s , g r ind s tone s , a nd g r ana r ie s a r e s u rveyed . T he i r p re sence a nd p o s i t ion i ss e t o u t t o s e w h ich f e a tu re s o ccu r i n h ou seho ld s o f w omen o f ap a r t icu la r a ge . e

My

a r gumen t i st h a t , i nt h i s s oc ie ty , ah ou se ' f i t s ' i t s o ccupan t a nd c an b e u sed a s a ni ndex o fl i f ec yc le . E ve ry w oman i nC a tego r ie s Aa nd B h a so n ly o ne h ou se , w h i le i nC a tego ry C( n=7 ) , 7 1% o f t h e w omen h ave o ne h ou se w h i le t h e r e s t h ave t wo o r t h r ee 1 69

h ouse s . I n C a tego ry D t h e s i tua t ion i sq u i te d i f f e ren t ; mo s t women ( 70% ) h ave t wo h ouse s i n t h e i r c ompound , w h i le 2 0% h ave 3 h ouse s .

O ne w oman i n

C ompound n o .28 h a s o n ly o ne h ouse , f o r s he h a sr e cen t ly r emar ried a nd moved t o an ew p l ace . I n C a tego ry E ju s t o ve r h a lf o ft h e women h ave t wo h ouse s , t h e r e s t h ave o n ly o ne .

3 . i .a . House s i ze a nd f unc t ion i i

T he f o low ing t a b le sd i sp lay f i gu re so b ta ined f r om h ouse si nt h e3 5o ccup ied l c ompound s a tK ireyka v i lage . l

: : Function

:A :

C ategory o f W oman B : C : D :

E

: :

: s leeping : 6 : cooking a nd s leeping :

: : 5

: 1 : 6 : 7 :1 0

: : 7

:

: house f or m en

:

: 1

: 4

:

• : c k i g o n l y . 1 : o n : 1 :

:

• . 1

: 1

: 1

•

.

: guests

T able n o .14 H OUSE F UNCTION A CCORDING T O L IFE C YCLE ( Number r eflects q uantity o f h ouses i n e ach c ategory )

: Function

C ategory o f W oman :A : B : C : D :

: sleeping : cooking a nd s leeping : house f or m en : cooking o nly : guests

: -. T .7i -: : : 3.4 : : :

T able n o .15

: 4.3 :3 .9 :3 .1 :3 .0 :2 .4

E

: :

: -2 72 7- : :4 .2 : 3 .7 : 2.9 : : :2 .9 :2 .5 : 2 .8

: : : : :

M EAN H OUSE D IAMETER A CCORDING T O F UNCTION ( measurements i n m etres)

l se A l women p os ss a t l e a s t o ne h ou se wh ich , e xcep t i n t h e c a se o f b e t ro thed g i r l s , i su sed f o r c ook ing , s t o rage a nd s l eep ing . F ive h ouse s a r e b u i l t l a nd l i ved i n b y men a nd a fu r the r f ou r a r e u sed b y g ues t s , u sua ly t h e e l de r ried s l mar on . A s w e l a sb r ide h ouse s t h e re a r e af u r the r s even h ou se s w h ich a r e u sed j u s t f o r s l eep ing , a nd t h ese h ave ah ea r th o n ly u sed t ob urn wood f o r l i gh t . fe l D if rences i n h ea r th a r e d i scu ssed i nd e ta i l i nt h e f o low ing s e c t ion , a s a r e t h e a r t e f ac t s f ound i ne ach h ouse . 1 70

F i g .2 6

H ousefe a tu res a nd f i t t ings

a .

b .

C .

e .

g .

f .

0

00

h . k .

J .

•

1 . 0

2

4m .

K ey

a C .n o .4 9 , g r ooms h ouse .

M ud w a l l

b . [ no .2 0 , c a tego ry A , b r ide h ouse . c . [no . 3 1 , c a tego ry B ( r ema ins o fr o und h earth ) .

4 ? 1

d . [ no .1 4 , c a te go ry C ( s m a l lh ouse , t h ree s tone h earth ) . e .[ no . 4 ,c a tego ry C ( r enewed w a l ls ) . f .[ no . 13 ,c a tego ry 0 ( t wo h e a r ths ) . g . C . no .8 , c a tegor y 0( c ook ing a nd s l eep ing h ouse ) . h . C . no .8 , c a tegory D ( s (eep ing h ousewi th r o und h ea r th ) .

0 .0

W a ter p o t

P os t

P o t s t and

R ound h e ar th

A sh

T h ree s t one h e a r th

1 0 2j ) G r inds tones

k . C .n o .4 6 , c a tegory D( s ons h ouse) .

A nga reb

1 .C . no .5 , c a tego r y C( g ues t h ouse) .

1 71

M ud b ed

G r ass w a l l

r ana ry D I G

i .C . no .12 , c a tego ry E . j .C . no .24 , c a tego ry 0 (m ans h ouse ) .

1 E 1

: Stage i n : compound : m ean h ouse d iameter :m ean o f : : life c ycle : number : : each : : cooking/:sleeping : men o r : category : : sleeping : : guest :b etrothed : : ( bride- : : p rice : : partially : : p aid ) : : : : : : :M arried :

2 0 2 5 2 6 2 8 3 9 4 7

3 .6 4 .0 3 .2 2 .9 3 .2 3 .5

9 1 8 2 9 3 1 3 2

: : : : :

3 .4 3 .6 2 .9 3 .3 3 .8

: : : : :

:

( B )

:

3 .4

: :

: ( C ) : cooking/ :s leeping : 3 .95

( bride p rice : fu l y p al id ) :

: :

2 3

: :

4 .8 3 .5

: :

4 5 1 4 1 7 3 6

: : : : :

:

:

: M arried

:

1 6 8 1 3

: : : :

4 .5 : 4 .0 : 3 .5 : 3 .85 : 3 .55: : 4 .6 : 3 .8 : 4 .8 : 5 .2 :

1 6 1 9 2 3 2 4 3 5 4 6

: : : : : :

4 .0 3 .9 4 .1 4 .2 3 .4 3 .8

: : : : : :

1 2 1 5 2 2 2 7 3 0 3 8 5 0

: : : : : : :

3 .4 3 .5 3 .6 3 .7 4 .0 3 .9 3 .8

: : : : : : :

: ( with : : t eenage : : offspring ): :

: O lder : w omen

:

: :

: (offspring : : m ature, : : a bsent ) :

4 .3

2 .4

4 .0 3 .8

3 .0 3 .1 2 .5

: cooking/ :s leeping : 4 .2

3 .4 3 .9 4 .5 4 .8

2 .6 2 .8 :

: 3 .2

: cooking/ : :s leeping : 3 .7 :

T able n o .16 H OUSE D IAMETER A ND S TAGE O F O CCUPANT 'S L IFE C YCLE ( 35 o ccupied c ompounds i n K ireyka v illage ) P lus C .no .2, c ooking h ouse 3 .0 C .no .22, c ooking h ouse 2 .9 C .no .50, b arn 4 .0 1 72

( E )

: 2 .5

Women i nC a tego ry A h ave c ompound sc on ta in ing o n ly o ne h ouse ,i nw h ich t h ey s l eep d ur ing t h e v i s i t s

o f t h e i r f u tu re h usbands .

Women i n C a tego ry B

a l so o n ly h ave o ne h ou se i nt h e i r c ompound t hough t h is i s u sed f o rc ook ing a nd s l eep ing .

I tw a s

l ried s t a ted e a r l ie r t h a t C a tegory B women , t hough f u ly mar

l s t i l u se t h e i r o r ig ina l b r ide -house s , i e . the h ou se w i th t h e i n terna l p ro tec t ive s c reen ( f ig .26 .c ) . I n b o th C a tego r ies A a nd B t h e mean d i ame te r o f s uch ah ou se i s 3 . 4 me t res ( Tab le n o .16 ) . I na dd i t ion t ot h e i ro r ig ina lh ou ses f o rc ook ing a nd s l eep ing , 6 0% o fw omen i nC a tego r ie s Ca nd D h ave e x t ra s l eep ing h ou ses , w i th amean d iame te ro f4 . 2 m e t re s . T ha t i s , t h e se a dd i t iona l s l eep ing h ouse s a r e n ea r ly a me t re l a rge r i n d i ame te rt h an b r ide h ouse s( f ig .26 .e ,f ,g ) . Hou ses i nt h ree c ompound s( C .no s .16 ,17 , l a nd 3 6 ) w e re p a r t ia ly e n la rged .

l I n e ach c a se o ne s i de o f e ach h ouse w a l w a s

r e ta ined w h i le t h e o the r w a s k nocked d own a nd r ebu i l t . T he se h ouse s h ave a n r i regu la rd i ame te ra nd t h e mean mea su remen ti su sed i nt h et a b le s . l T hough t h e s amp le s i ze i ss ma l a nd mean f i gure s c an b e d ece iv ing , h ouse s u sed f o r c ook ing a nd s l eep ing s how ag radua t ion i n mean d iame te r , f o re xamp le , ried women ( ried f n ew ly mar B ) h ave h ou ses o f 3 . 4 me t re s ( mean ) , t ho se mar o r f s eve ra l y ea r s ( C ) h ave h ou se s o f 3 . 95 me t re s , w h i le t hose w i th o f spr ing o f riageab mar le a ge ( D ) h ave h ouse s o f 4 .2 me t re s . Women b eyond t h e a ge o f f l c h i ldbea r ing w ho se o f spr ing h ave a l l e f t h ome h ave h ouses w i th a m ean d i ame te r o f 3 . 7 m e t re s .

ried w T hus n ew ly mar omen w i th f ew c h i ld ren h ave a

l ried f s ma le r h ouse t h an t ho se who h ave b een mar o r l onge r , wh i le women w i th f o lde r o f spr ing h ave h omes w i th t h e l a rge s t m ean d iame te r . House s i ze t e nd s t o f l d ec l ine o nce a w oman 's o f sp r ing h ave a l l e f t h ome .

Howeve r , n umbe r s o f

re c h i ld ren d id n o t a lways c or la te w i th h ouse s i ze ; t h e re w e re t wo women i nt h e l ried al s, y v i lage , w ho t hough mar ong w h i le , r ema ined c h i ld les e t h ad e n la rged t h e i rh ou se s .

I n t h e v i lage o n ly t wo h ouse s h ave b een b u i l t e xc lus ive ly f o r t h e p u rpo se s l o f c ook ing a nd s t or ing o f f ood s t uf . O ne w a s i n a ve ry r un -down s t a te , t h e fs s e cond n ew ly b u i l t a nd n o t y e t i nu se .

T he i r d i ame te r s a r e 2 . 9 a nd 3 . 0 m e t re s

r e spec t ive ly .

T hough t h e f o cus o f t h i s c hap te r i so n w omen a nd h ous ing , s ome m en d o h ave s epa ra te h ouse s w i th in t h e i r w if e 's c ompound ( eg . f i g .26 . j ) . 1 73

N o tab ly ,

s pouse s o f w omen w ho h ave o f f spr ing o f mar riageab le a ge

( Ca tego ry D ) .

I n

s uch c ompounds , 4 0% o f t h e h usband s h ad a h ouse f o r t h e i r u se , t h e m ean d i ame te r o f w h ich w a s 2 . 9 m e t re s . T he h usband o fo ne w oman i n C a tego ry C , w ho , t hough y oung , w a s ar e spec ted f ak ih , a l so h ad ah ouse ( d iam :3 .1 m ) .

l T he h ouse s w i th t h e s ma le s t d i ame te r a r e u ndoub ted ly t ho se b u i l t f o r g ue s t s ( mean d i am . 2 .65 m e t re s ) . T he g ues t h ouse o f t h e woman i n C .no .5 ( f ig .26 . 1 ) i s u sed b y h e r e l de r ly mo the r . T h is i s t h e o n ly c a se o f a widowed w oman l i v ing w i th h e rd augh te r . T he o lde r woman i s n o l onge ri ndependen tf o r s he i s f r a i l a nd h a sl o s th e rs i gh t .

O nce a ga in , t h e r e la t ionsh ip b e tween h ouse mo rpho logy a nd l i f e c yc le o fa w oman i sc l ea r : w hen ay oung w oman i sb e t ro thed o r mar , s he n eed s o n ly a ried s i ng le h ome ; a s h e r f am i ly g rows s o d oe s h e r n eed f o r e x t ra h ous ing . O nce h e r c h i ld -bea r ing y ea r s a r e p a s t a nd a l h e r o f spr ing h ave l e f t h ome , h e r s pa t ia l l f r equ i remen t s d ec rea se . S he l i ve s i no ne h ouse a nd may h ave as e cond a s ag ue s t h ouse .

S ome h ou ses h ave av e ry s im i la rd iame te r , a nd i no rde rf o ra n a r chaeo log i s t t o d e te rm ine t h e d i f e rence s i n f unc t ion b e tween t h em , o ne wou ld h ave t o f e xam ine t h e c on ten t s .

P a r t icu la r n o te i s t a ken o ff e a tu re s w h ich wou ld b e l e f t

i n t h e a r cheao log ica l r e co rd , s uch a s h ear ths , g r ind ing s t ones , a nd g rana r ie s . T he se h e lp t o d ef ine t h e f unc t ion o f ah ouse a nd a l so i nd ica te t h e s t age o f l i f e c yc le o f t h e o ccupan t .

B efo re b eg inn ing t h e s e c t ion o n h ouse c on ten t s , a

d e scr ip t ion o f t h e h ouses u sed b y t h e b r ideg room a nd b y t h e b e t ro thed g i r l i s g i ven b e low .

3 . i .b . i i

B r ide h ouse s

B r ide h ouses a r e b u i l t b y a gi r l 's mo the r w hen t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h e b r ide p r ice i s p a id .

T he f i r s t h ouse o n t h a t s i te i su sua ly t empo ra ry a nd i t s p urpo se l

i s t o p rov ide a s he l te r f o r t h e g room d u r ing h i s v i s i t s t o t h e b r ide 's f am i ly . O f ten t h is p r ima ry h ouse i s b u i l t o f s t raw , t hough o n ly t wo e xamp le s w e re r e co rded ; as qua re o ne i nG i rgo ( a l ready d escr ibed w i th av e ry l ow d oorway ) ,a nd t h e s e cond a t K ireyka ( C .no .49 ) w h ich w a s r ound a nd h ad a s t raw e n trance s c reen . When ay oung man b r ing s h i s b r ide 's t e na iya , h e s t ays s e c luded i nt h is h ouse d ur ing t h e c e remony a nd d i scus f t h e p aymen t . sion o

O nce t h e

a g reemen t i s f i na l i sed , amud h ouse i s b u i l t o n t h e s ame s i te i nw h ich t h e g i r l 1 74

c an mee t h e r f u tu re h u sband .

I ft h i s mud h ou se i ss t u rdy , t h e g i r l m igh t r e ta in

i ta nd n o tr ebu i ld u pon f u lp aymen to ft h e b r ide p r ice . T he f u l b r ide p r ice w a s l l p a id f o r o ne w oman i n l a te 1 984 , a tw h ich t ime t h e re w a s a ce leb ra t ion a nd p roces a ry ing c ook ing p o t s a nd f l ou r i n to h e r h ou se ( f ig .18 . i .D , C .no .18 ; sion c r i p 115 ) . S he d id e n la rge t h e w a l s o f h e r h ouse , i n c r ea s ing t h e d i ame te r b y 0 . 8 l m e te r s , t h ough s he d id n o t r emove t h e p ro tec t ive mud s c reen , r a the r l e ng thened i tt oj o in t h en ew w a l . l Women i nC a tego r ie s Aa nd B a r e t h e o n ly o ne s w ho l i ved i nh ou se s w i th i n te r io r s c reen s ( h a j i s ) .

T he s c reen s a r e t h e mo s t s t r ik ing f e a tu re , b u i l t r i gh t

a c ros h e d oo rway p r even t ing a l v i ew o f t h e i n te r io r ( f ig .26 .b ,c ; p 171 ) . s t l h ouse s h ave u ndeco ra ted s c reen s ,

t h ree made o f c l ay a nd o ne o f s t raw .

F ou r T he

r ema inde r , f i ne ly d eco ra ted f r om t o p t o b a se , a r e i s t ra ted i n f i g s .27 , 2 8 . lu T he re i s h oweve r , a no the r w e l d eco ra ted h ou se w ho se o ccupan t h ad moved t o l N ya la w hen h e rh u sband p a id t h ef u lb r ide p r ice i n1 984 . l E n t rance s c reen s a r e d eco ra ted w i th ac omb ina t ion o fp a in ted a nd i n c i sed d e s ign s , a nd z i g -zag p a ter n b and ing . F ou r e xamp le s a r e p a in ted w h i te a l o ve r t l a nd t wo h ave r a i sed e dge sf o rm ing ap a ra le lo rz i g -zag p a te rn ( f ig .27 . i .b , 2 8 ,a ) . l t A n u nu sua l f e a tu re c an b e s en i n C .no s .10 a nd 2 6 w he re s ha low c ups a r e e l s cu lp ted i nc l ay o nt o po ft h es c reen s( f ig .27 . i .a ,b ) . I n te r io r w a ls a r e d eco ra ted w i th b and s f o rm ing h o r izon ta l p a te rn s f r om l t t h e t op e dge ( f ig .28 ; p 177 ) . T he d e s ign i s made u p o fe i the r p a in ted o r i n c i sed mo t if s , o r b o th , a nd h a s ar ow o r t wo o f f i nge r t ip i mp res s a l ong t h e v e ry sion t o p . I n c i sed d e s ign s a r e made u s ing a mugh ra f a , at oo l u sed f o r d eco ra t ing t p o te ry .

l T h ree h ou se s h ave a n i nne r w a l c ove red i n aw h i te b a se o n w h ich a

c o lou red d e s ign i sp a in ted . T he mo s t f r equen t ly u sed d e s ign i st h a t b a sed o n a l b and o f z i g -zag mo t if s , t hough ac oup le o f h ou se s h ave w a l s u r f ace s d iv ided i n to r e c tangu la rd e s ign s . O the r e a r then f e a tu re s a r e p re sen t i nb r ide h ou se s : t h ree h ave amud r i dge r unn ing a l ong t h e f l oo r a t t h e b a se o f t h e b ed : o ne i s 2 0 cm s h igh w i th a l p inched a nd c r ene la ted e dge ( C .no .20 ) , w h i le a no the r h a s ab and o f i n c i sed z i gz ag s . T he f unc t ion o f t h i s r i dge i sn o t k nown .

l l Sma l s ha low c l ay s a uce r s

e s en i n s even h ou se s , j u s t a bove t h e g round s u r f a ce s e rve a s as uppo r t f o r t h e w a te rj a r . 1 75

F i g . 2 7

B r ide h ouses : C atego ry A

i .a .

b .

C . no . 10

C . no .26

; C ? 7

( 0I

( c ) )

d ecor a ted s c reen

a .

C . C . no .39

b .

i . Bed d e t a i ls a .C .n o .15 b .C .n o .10

d . C . no .20

C . C .n o .2 0

a .

d .

i s i .H ea r ths a nd a soc iated f e a tu res C . h ear th a nd p o t s t and C .n o .2 6 ea r th C .n o .3 9 a .h b .h ear th C .n o . 4 7 d .w a ter p o t s t and C .n o . 3 1

1 76

0

F i g . 2 8

B r ide h ouses : C a tego ry B b .

a .

C . n0 . 3 1

C .n o .3 2

d e co ra ted s c reen

C .

d . C . no .9

C .n o . 18

"

e .

I

C . no .29

D e t a i ls o fh ouse w a l l d e co ra t ion .

C .n o .3 1

C . no .2 0

1 77

C . no . 10

E ach h ouse p o sse sse s as ma l r ounded c l ay h ea r th ( f ig .27 . i .a ,b ) w h ich , o n l i i c omp le t ion o f t h e m ar sr emoved , a nd r ep laced b y at h ree s t one c ook ing riage i h ea r th .

T he o ccupan t o f c ompound n o .32 i st h e o n ly woman t or e ta in h e r c l ay

h ea r th a nd u se i tf o r c ook ing f ood .

T he f i re i n C ompound n o .39 h a s a n e dge

d eco ra ted w i th ad oub le r ow o ff i nge ri mp res s . sion

3 . 1v .

House c on ten ts a sa n i nd ica tor o fl i fe c yc le

T he l a s ts e c t ion i t ra ted h ow b o th c ompound a nd h ouse d i ame te rc an h e lp lus t o d ef ine t h e s t age o f t h e o ccupan t 's l i f e c yc le .

T h is s e c t ion e xam ine s t h e

c on ten t s o f ah ouse ( f ea tu re s a nd p e rmanen t a nd s em i -permanen t f i x tu re s ) i n o rde r t o d e term ine whe the r a n o ccupan t w a s ma le , o r f ema le , o r i ff ema le , t h e s t age i n t h e l i f e c yc le .

F ea tu res i n c lude t h e h ea r th , g r ind s tone , g rana ry ,

b edd ing , a nd w a l d eco ra t ion . l

3 . iv .a .

T he H ea r th

H ea r ths a r e p a r t icu la r ly i mpor tan t t ot h e a r chaeo log is t s i nce t h e r ema in s o f t h e i r f e a ture s a r e r ead i ly i d en t if iab le

i n a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t s .

S ince t h e

v i lage i s made u p e xc lu s ive ly o f p o te r s a nd b l ack sm i ths t h e s e t lemen t a l so l t t p rov ides many e xamp le s o f h ear ths r e la ted t o c r af t p roduc t ion .

T he se w e re

e xam ined i nC hap te r F ou r . O n ly i n te rna l h ea r ths a r e d ea l t w i th h e re , t hose u sed f o rc ook ing a nd f o rl i gh t . B o th t ypes a r ei t ra ted i nf i g .29 ( p 180 ) . lus H ea r ths f o r c ook ing t a ke s eve ra l f o rm s : t h e s imp le s t c ons is t s o ft h ree l a rge s t ones , o ne o f w h ich i ss e t i n to t h e h ouse w a l ( f ig .29 .a ) . A s e cond t ype h a s a l f u r the r t wo s ma le r s t one s a dded , t o ta l ing f i ve ( f ig .29 .b ) . l l

Embe r s a r e d rawn

f r om b e tween t h e t h ree l a rge s t one s t o t h e a r ea b y t h e s ma le r o ne s w he re t e a l i s p u t o n t h e b o i l . B o th t h ree a nd f i ve -s tone h ea r ths may h ave a l ow mud s u round w h ich j o ins a mud o r f i red -c lay s uppo r t f o r c ook ing p o t s . r

S uch a

c ook ing f i re i sf ound i n 2 9 o u t o f t h e 3 5 o ccup ied h ouse s , i e . i n a l t h e h ouse s l e xcep t C a tego ry A ( b r ide -house s ) .

T he h ea r th f o r l i gh t h a s d i f e ren t c ha rac te r is t ics ; l e ss h ea t i s n eeded t o f s upp ly l i gh t t h an i sr equ i red f o r c ook ing . T he f o rme r h ea r th i su sua ly c i rcu la r l o r p a r t ia ly c i rcu la r w i th amud s u round e nc lo s ing t h ree p ro t rus ions . T he se a r e l r e i the r made o f c l ay a l one o r c l ay c ove r ing s ma l s t one s ( f ig .29 .h , i ) . l 1 78

T h is t y pe

o fh ea r th i sf ound i nf i f teen h ou se s , s i x o fw h ich a r e b r ide h ou se s ( Ca tego ry A ) . A f u r the r t h r ee a r e f ound i n h ou se s o f w omen i n C a tego ry B w ho h ave n o t c hanged t h e f o rm o f t h e i r f i re d e sp i te c ook ing f o r t h e i r h u sband s .

T he

r ema in ing s i xe xamp le sa r ef ound i ns l eep ing h ou se so fw omen i nC a tego ry D . C ompound n o .31 i s u nu sua l i nt h a t i t ha s ac ook ing h ea r th t ot h e r i gh t o f t h e d oo rway , a nd t h e r ema in s o f a h ea r th f o r l i gh t o ppo s i te t h e d oo r ( f ig .26 .c ; p 171 ) . T he h ea r th i n c ompound n o .25 i sa l so u nu sua l b ecau se a l though i ti s u sed f o r l i gh t ( t he o ccupan t i s c ook ing h ea r th .

i n C a tego ry A ) i th a s amud s u r round l i ke a

T he o ccupan t w a s b e t ro thed f o r s i x y ea r s b u t h ad n o c h i ld ren ,

s o h e r h u sband h ad n o t p a id t h e f u l l b r ide p r ice .

H oweve r h e r h ouse n eeded

r ebu i ld ing , a nd w h i le r emov ing t h e mode s ty w a l l , s he a l so r ede s igned t h eh ea r th . C ompound n o .13 ( Ca tego ry D ) h a s t wo h ea r th s ; o ne f o r c ook ing a nd as e cond r ound mud o ne .

T he l a t te r i s

b u i l t i n t h e c en t re b eh ind t h e g rana r ie s t o

p rov ide l i gh tf o rt h eb a ck o ft h eh ou se ( f ig .261 ; p 171 ) . I n h ou se s u sed b y m en , t h e re a r e

n o h ea r th s t one s ( f ig .26 . j ,k ) .

t o make af i re , t wo o r t h ree b u rn ing b ranche s a r e

I n o rde r

s imp ly l a id o n t h e g round ,

u sua l ly t ot h el e f to ft h ed oo r . H ea r th t y pe a nd p o s i t ion a c co rd ing t oh ou se f unc t ion T h i s s e c t ion e xam ine s t h er e la t ion sh ip o fh ea r th t y pe t oh ou se f unc t ion ( 35 l l o ccup ied d we l ing s ) .T he h ou se sa r ed iv ided a cco rd ing t ot h ef o low ing f unc t ion s : f s l eep ing o n ly ; c ook ing a nd s l eep ing ; ma le ( u sed f o r aman a nd h i s ma le o f sp r ing t o s l eep o r w o rk i n ) ; a nd g ue s t h ou se .

T he re i s o n ly o ne h ou se t h a t d oe s n o t

f i t i n to t h i s t y po logy : i th a s b een r e -u sed a nd n ow s e rve s a s ab a rn a nd a n ima l s he l te r( C .no .50 ) . I n h ou se s b e long ing t o w omen i n C a tego ry A , a l l t h e h ea r th s a r e r ound w i th 3 3% p l a ced t ot h e r i gh t o ft h e d oo r a nd 6 6% p l aced o ppo s i te t h e d oo r . I n t h o se o f w omen b e long ing t o C a tego ry B t h e h ea r th s a r e

u sed f o r c ook ing

l w he the r o f t h e t h ree s t one t y pe o r r ounded : h oweve r , a l t h e f o rme r t y pe a r e l p l aced t o t h e r i gh t o f t h e d oo r w he rea s a l t h e r ounded mud h ea r ths ( t ho se p r ev iou s ly u sed f o r l i gh t ) a r e

o ppo s i te t h e d oo r .

lu T o i s t ra te t h i s p o in t ; t h e

t h ree s t one h ea r th f o r c ook ing i n c ompound n o .31 i s r e co rded t ot h e r i gh t o f t h e d oo r , w he rea s t h e f ound o ppo s i te t h e d oo r .

r u ined r ema in s o f t h e w oman 's h ea r th f o r l i gh t

a r e

T he w oman i n C .no .29 ( Ca tego ry B ) u se s ac ook ing

h ea r th o ppo s i te t h ed oo r . 1 79

F i g .2 9

H ea r ths a nd a s so c ia ted f e a tu res

0

2 5

5 0

d

e )

a . b . c . &d . e . f . g . h . i .

T h ree s t one h ea r th . F i ve s t one h ea r th . H ea r th w i th m ud s u rround . H ea r th w i th a sso c ia ted p o t s t and . H ear th w i th a so c ia ted s add le q ue rn . s H e a r th w i th c e ram ic p o t s t and . R ound h ea r th f o r l i gh t , s t raw h ouse w a l p l as te red w i th m ud . l R ound h e a r th f o r l i gh t w i th v en t i la t ion h o l es a bove .

1 80

7 5cm .

: hearth t ype : p osition : Category o f W omen : : relative t o d oor :A: B : C : D: E : •

:o pposite :right l eft r oom c entre

:Round

:7 7 —: 2 : : :2 :1 :1 : 4 : : :1 • •1

:opposite :3 /5 s tone : r ight :Ashy : r emains

: : : :1 : •

:1 : : :1 : :2 :7 : 11 : 6 :

:right :l eft

: •

: :1 :1 : •1 •3 •

: no h earth :

•2 •2 •

( Two h ouses e ach h ad t wo h earths) T able n o .17

H EARTH T YPE T YPE A ND P OSITION R E . L IFE C YCLE

: Category : : o f : H OUSE F UNCTION : W omen : :

A

:

B

:

C

:sleeping

D

: : :

6

: co l eping : .- 3 -. - : o king & se

: : :

• . HEARTH T YPE : : round : 3/5 s tone : ashy : n o : : remains : f ire :

E

T able n o .18

:s leeping c ooking & s leeping : :male . :guest : 1 :sleeping : 5 c ooking & s leeping : 1 :male :guest :c ooking & s leeping : :guest : 1

3

7 :

: :

1 1 0

:

: : 1

: : 4 :

7

2

2

: : 1

H OUSE F UNCTION I N R ELATION T O H EARTH T YPE

I n h ouses o f women i nC a tegor ie s Aa nd B n ine r ound h ea r ths a r e p resen t , s even a r e o ppo s i te t he d oo r . T hus i fa n a r chaeo log is t w e re t o f i nd t h e r ema ins o f ah ouse w i th a n e n t rance s c reen a nd ar ound f i re o ppos i te t he e n t rance , t h e re i s a7 8% c hance t h a t t h is h ouse c ou ld b e i n te rp re ted a s ab r ide h ouse . T he t wo h ouse s who se f i re s a r e

t o t h e r i gh t o f t h e d oo r a r e

whose mo the rb u i l tb o th h ouses .

1 81

o ccup ied b y s i s te r s ,

: 3/5 s tone c ooking h earths : to r ight o f t he d oor :r ound m ud h earths f or l ight : opposite t he d oor : to r ight o f t he d oor :t o l eft o f t he d oor : ashy r emains T able n o .19

: 907 0 :4 17 :4 77 0 : 677

: : : :

P OSITION O F H EARTHS

l I n h ou se s o ccup ied b y w omen i n C a tego r ie s C a nd D , a l h ea r th s f o r c ook ing a r e

p l aced t o t h e r i gh t o f t h e d oo r , a s a r e h ea r th s o f w omen i n

C a tego ry E ( e xcep t o ne w h ich i s o ppo s i te ) . t h e l e f t o f a doo r .

e N o h ea r th f o r c ook ing i s s en t o

Mo s t r ound h ea r th s f o r l i gh t ( e xcep t i n b r ide h ou se s ) a r e

a l so p l aced t ot h er i gh t , w i th o n ly o ne e xamp le i nc ompound n o .35 p l aced t ot h e t l e f t ( t he w oman o ccupan t i s ' h ead ' o f t h e p o te r s ) . C ompound n o .1 a l so h a s a f i re i na n u nu sua l p l ace : at h r ee s t one h ea r th i s p l aced o ppo s i te t h e d oo r o ft h e s l eep ing h ou se . T he r ema inde r o ft h e f i re s , t ho se w i th n o th ing mo re t os how t h an ap i le o f a she s t o t h e l e f t o f t h e d oo r ( 6 7% ) a r e

f ound i n h ou se s e xc lu s ive ly u sed b y

m en . T he re a r e a l so t wo e xamp le s o f a shy p a tche s t o t h e r i gh t o f t h e d oo r i n l m en 's h ou se s . A lh ou se sw i th n oe v idence o ff i re sb e long t om en . S umma ry : R ound mud h ea r th s o ccu r i nb r ide h ou se s . H a lf o ft h e h ea r th sr e co rded i n C a tego ry B h ou se s a r e r ound a nd o f mud , a nd h a lf h ave t h ree s t one h ea r th s . T he o n ly r ound h ea r th sr e co rded i nh ou se s o fw omen i nC a tego r ie s C , D , a nd E a r e

i n s l eep ing o r g ue s t h ou se s .

T he t h ree o r f i ve s t one h ea r th i s a lway s

u sed f o r c ook ing , mo s t f r equen t ly i n t h e h ou se u sed f o r c ook ing a nd s l eep ing . T h i s t ype c an b e f ound o u t s ide i nc ompound s o ft ho se w ho c ook i nt h e o pen a t n i gh t . N ine ty p e r c en t o f h ou se s w i th a t h ree s t one h ea r th t o t h e r i gh t o f t h e e n t rance a r e u sed f o r c ook ing . Ar ound mud f i re b u i l t t ot h e r i gh t o ft h e d oo r i nd ica te s as l eep ing h ou se .

H oweve r , ar ound f i re l y ing o ppo s i te t h e d oo r i s

mo re f r equen t ly a n i nd ica t ion o f ab r ide h ou se , ac onc lu s ion s t reng thened b y a t t l a ck o f p o te ry . P o te ry p re sen t i n ah ou se w i th af i re i nt h i s p o s i t ion i nd ica te s t h a t t h e o ccupan t h a s ( Ca tego ry B ) .

ried s r e cen t ly c hanged f r om a b e t ro thed t o a m ar t a tu s

A h ou se w i th n o e v idence o f ah ea r th o r w i th a shy r ema in s

w i thou t ad e f ined h ea r th i n d ica te s t h a tt h eo ccupan ti s ma le . 1 82

3 . iv .b . G r ind s tone , mo rhaka

A t K i reyka t h e g r ind ing o f g ra in i s c a r ied o u t i n t h e s ame h ouse w he re r f ood i s c ooked . I n a lmo s t e very c a se t h e g r ind s tone c an b e f ound i mmed ia te ly t o t h e r i gh t o f t h e e n t rance b e s ide t h e h ear th ( f ig .26 .d -g ; p 171 ) . T he s t one ( a s add le q ue rn ) i s s e t i n to ac l ay s uppo r t wh ich i s e i the r r a ised s l igh t ly f r om t h e f l oo r o r s e t o n al a shed w 000den s t and ( f ig .30 . i ; p 184 ) . c ons t ruc ted s i ng ly o r i np a i r s . a round t h e

G r ind s tones a r e

Women who se g r ind s tone s a r e r a i sed p lace s a l t

wooden l e gs t o s t op a n t a nd t e rm i te i n f e s ta t ion .

a bandoned f o r w ha teve r r ea son , t h e g r ind s tone i s

When ah ou se i s

r emoved f r om i t s s t and

l e av ing o n ly t h ec l ay s uppo r t . : Category : g rindstone : of w oman : o n t he f loor : : : : :

A B C D E

T able n o .20

: : : : :

4 37 0 6 07 v 8 67 v

: grindstone : : on s upports : : : : : :

5 77 4 07 l 47

: : : : :

G R INDSTONE T YPE A CCORDING T O L IFE C YCLE

No woman i nC a tego r ies A o r Bp os r ind s tone . s es s ag

Young women i n

C a tego ry C p os r ind s tones t h a t w e re mo s t o f ten r a ised o n at a b le ( 57% ) , s es s g wh i le t ho se i n c a tego ry D b u i ld mo re o n t h e f l oo r ( 60% ) . I n C a tego ry E ( t he o lde r women ) , t h e d i f e rence i s f

f a r mo re ma rked , o n ly o ne woman h a s

a

r a ised g r ind s tone , a lt h eo the r s ( 86% ) u se ag r ind s tone o nt h ef l oo r . l

T he d a ta i nd ica te t h a t mo s t women ( 77% ) p o sses wo g r inds tone s . S eve ra l s t h ad as i ng le s t one , w h i le o ne woman h ad t h ree s e t i n ar ow o n t h e f l oo r o f h e r h ouse ( f ig .30 . i .c ) .

S he h ad t h ree d augh te r s who a l wo rked t oge the r . l

g r ind ing o f m i le t i s l

T he

al e ng thy b us ines nd i t is u sua ly g round t w ice , o f ten s, a l

t ak ing u p a n h ou r o r mo re b efo re e ach mea l .

Mo s t a du l t s e a t t w ice a day , a t

a round 9 am a nd a ga in a td usk 7 pm , t hough s ome women c ook a n a f te rnoon mea l a t 4pm i f th ey h ave y oung c h i ld ren . T he p resence o r a b sence o f g r ind s tone s may b e u sed b y a r chaeo log is t s t o i nd ica te t h e s t age o f l i f e c yc le o f t h e h ou se 's o ccupan t . T he i r a b sence s hows t h a t a woman i s

b e t ro thed o r r e cen t ly mar , a nd t h e s t y le s hows t h a t ried

y ounge r w omen t e nded t o c ons t ruc t s t and ing g r ind s tone s w h i le o lde r women c ons t ruc tf l oo r leve l s uppo r t s . 1 83

G r ind ing e qu ipmen t a n d G r anar ies

F i g .3 0

a .

. 1 . 1. 112

1 7 i 9r

•

0

i .S add le q ue rns

5 0 cm .

I . G rana r ies

5 0cm .

I .S add le q uerns . a , b a nd c .g round l e ve l q ue rns .

a .

da nd e .r a ised q uerns . f . brush f o r f l ou r .

b .

g .r ubb ing s tone . I .G ranar ies . a .C . no . 8 b . C . no .2 1 c . C . no .2 I I . G r ind ing a nd P ound ing e q u ipment . a , b a nd c .f u nduk ( w ood ) . d . d ugaga ( p ink g r an i te ) . e . d u gaga ( g ran i te ) . f . s ogu rah ( s andstone ) .

2 =Zrz

0—

g .

g . h one s t one ( b la ck g r an ite ) .

e n 7 7 -J

• • I I . G r ind ing a nd p ound ing e qu ipmen t

1 84

3 . iv .c .

G rana r ie s ( d ebanga )

S ix ty f i ve g r ana r ie sw e re r e co rded a tK i reyka , a l lo fw h ich w e re m ea su red f o r m ax imum d i ame te r a nd h e igh t . b u i l t a nd o wned b y w omen .

G rana r ie s s t and i n s ide t h e h ou se s a nd a r e

N ea r ly a l a r e

p o s i t ioned i n ar ow i n o rde r t o

p rov ide a s c reen w h ich i nh ib i ted v i ew o f t h e h ou se i n te r io r , t o p ro tec t t h e i n te r io r f r om t h e ' e v i l e ye ' . T hey t h u s s e rve t h e s ame f unc t ion a s t h e mode s ty w a l i n b r ide h ou se s . l

Many a r e

o b scu re a l v i ew o f t h e i n te r io r . l

p l aced d i rec t ly i n f r on t o f t h e d oo rway t o O the r s a r e p l aced t ot h e l e f t o f t h e d oo rway ,

p e rm i t ing av i ew o ft h e c ook ing a r ea , b u t p ro tec t ing t h e b ed b eh ind f r om v i ew . t I n a l , 9 2% o fg rana r ie s a r e p l a ced i n ar ow f r om t h e l e f t o ft h e d oo r ( f ig .26 .f ; l p 171 ) .

I n t wo h ou se s h oweve r , t h i s i s r eve r sed , t h e b ed i st o t h e r i gh t o f t h e

d oo r , a nd t h er ow o fg rana r ie sa l so o r ig ina te sf r om t h er i gh t . G rana r ie s a r e

t r ad i t iona ly b u i l t d u r ing t h e mon th s f r om A ugu s t t o l

O c tobe r , w h i le t h ec rop s ma tu re . T he l a rge s to ne s a r e o ve r 1 . 5 me t re sh igh w i th ac apac i ty b e tween 3 -400 l b s . G rana r ie s a r e

b u i l ti ns e c t ion s u s ing c o i l so fc l ay

w i th af i le r o fc ru shed s t raw , a nd a r e made o ve r t h e c ou r se o fs eve ra l d ay s . T o l c l o se o ft h e mou th o ft h eg rana ry s ome w omen b u i ld l i d s ( f ig .30 . i .c ; p 184 ) , b u t f i mo s t u se ar ounded p o t s u ch a s aj e r , ag umbang , o r az i r d epend ing o n t h e r s i ze o f t h e mou th .

A ny g ap b e tween t h e p o t a nd t h e mou th i sp l a s te red o ve r

l w i th w e t c l ay . S eve ra l h ou se s c on ta in p a r t ia ly c omp le ted g rana r ie s w h ich a r e u sed t o s t o re d ome s t ic e qu ipmen t .

T e rm i te s e a t t h e o rgan ic f i l le r o f t h e c l ay

l w a l s a nd c an r ende r t h e c on ta ine r w eak , i n f a c t a n o ld g rana ry w a s r emoved f r om C .no .30 i nN ovembe r 1 984 .

I ft a r ( go t ran ) i sp u t a round t h e i r b a se a sa

m ean s o fi nh ib i t ing t e rm i te i n f e s ta ton , g r ana r ie s c an o u t l ive t h e h ou se i nw h ich t h ey a r eb u i l t . T he o lde s tw e re b u i l ti n1 968 ; n one h ad b een made s i nce 1 979 ,f o r t h a tw a st h el a s ty ea ro fg ood h a rve s t . Many w omen d eco ra te t h e e x te r io r o f t h e g rana r ie s w i th r a i sed r i dge s sions i mp r in ted w i th a r ow o f f i nge r i mp res .

T he se b and s o f d eco ra t ion a r e

l f r equen t ly f ound a tm id -be ly o r a ts hou lde r h e igh t .

sib T hey p os ly ma rk a r ea s

. w he re j o in s o ccu rd u r ing m anuf ac tu re , i e . t h e a dd ing o fn ew c l ay t oo ld . Af ew g r ana r ie s h ave p a i r s o fm amma r ie s i n co rpo ra ted i n to t h ed e s ign ( s ee a l so Wa l ton 1 975 ,133 ) , a nd o t he r s h ave p a in ted d eco ra t ion . T h i sc on s i s t so ft h e s u r f ace b e ing d i v ided i n to h o r izon ta l b and s o f v a r iou s c o lou r s .

l T he b and s a r e e i the r f i led

t l w i th r ow so fs po t s o r az i g -zag p a te rn , a nd t h e c o lou r s ( wh i te l ime s tone , y e low 1 85

o ch re )

a r e a l q uar o ca ly . B lack i s a va i lab le f r om t wo s ou rce s , e i the r l ried l l

s c raped f r om c a rbon o f t h e c ook ing p o t , o r o b ta ined b y s ma sh ing o pen ar ad io f b a te ry , a nd c rush ing d own t h e c a rbon r od s i n s ide . t

T he t oo l mos t f r equen ty

u sed f o rp a in t ing g rana r ie si st h ef i nge rt i p .

A pa r t f r om t h e r a ised a nd p a in ted d eco ra t ion o n ag rana ry , t h e re a r e o the r f o rm s o f d e s ign , w h ich a r e a pp l ied u s ing a f l ou r a nd w a te r m ix ture , i t ra ted i n f i g .30 . i . T he se c ons is t o f c i rcu la r o r s qua re mo t if s w i th a cros lus i s t h rough t h e c en t re , o r o f c ame ls a l one o r b e ing l e d b y aman . o b ta ined f r om a f i e ld i s

T he f i r s t g ra in

n eve r e a ten : c ru shed t o ap owde r a nd m ixed w i th

w a te r , i ti s made i n to a p a s te a nd u sed a s p a in t .

D e s igns i n f l ou r p a s te a r e

u sua l ly f ound o n g rana r ie s , b u t a l so o ccu r o n g r ind s tone s o r h ouse w a l ls . T he s qua re mo t if w i th a cro ss i n s ide i ss a id t o r ep resen t j u run ; t h e s t ruc ture w he re p o le s l a id o u t i n ac r iss -c ros a te rn , r a ised f r om t h e g round , o n w h ich m i le t s p t l h ead s a r e

s t o red u n t i l t h reshed a f te r ag ood h arve s t .

( I n 1 985 n o -one h ad a ny

e x t ra m i le t , n oj urun w e re c ons truc ted , a nd t h eg rana r ie s s t ood emp ty . ) l T he o the r mo t if i st h e c ame l , t h e mos t v a luab le a n ima l , wo r th t h ree u n i t s o f t h e b r ide p r ice i n 1 985 . T o p o sses s o ne i sa n i nd ica t ion o f w ea l th . T hey a r e u sed n o to n ly f o rp ay ing t h eb r ide -pr ice b u t a l so t op lough t h ef i e ld s .

G rana r ie s a sa ni nd ica to ro fs t a tus

:C ategory o f w oman : no . o f g ranaries : A B C D E

T able n o .21

: : : : :

1 4 3 7 1 4

: : : : :

C ATEGORY O F W OMEN A ND N UMBERS O F G RANARIES

No g rana r ie s a r e

f ound i n t h e h ome s o f w omen i n C a tegor ies A o r B , a

p a t tern t h a t c or re spond s w i th t h e o ccur rence o f g r ind s tone s . A n e xcep t ion i s c ompound n o .32 ( f ig .28 .a ; p 177 ) w h ich c on ta in s ah a lf b u i l t g rana ry o wned b y a y oung woman ; s he , h oweve r , s t i l lr e l ie so n t h e s t o re so fh e r mo the r . I n h ouse s o f w omen i n C a tego ry C , t h e re i sa n a ve rage o f t wo g rana r ies p e r c ompound , a nd i n C a tego ry D , t h e mean i sa n a ve rage o f 3 . 7 g rana r ie s p e r 1 86

compound, while in Category E it is two per compound. These figures are not unexpected; they indicate that (in a year of good rain) when one's labour force is small (Categories C and E) one sowed, harvested, and threshed less grain than if one had a larger work force (cf. Holy 1980). On the whole women in Category D have more children who are older and thus able to cultivate a larger area of field. There are other factors which affect yield: some women send their elder sons and daughters to relatives in other villages to assist in the fields. This means the harvest would be shared; such distribution of labour is a way of protecting the family from the results of drought. Certain compounds do not posess granaries. In Category C, one woman who had moved into the village two years earlier did not have an adequate grain yield to warrant building a granary. In Category E, there are two women who do not have granaries: the first a poor woman who possesses no animals, and the second, the non-Blacksmith woman who does, however, rent an abandoned house (in C.no.7) which contains a large well-built granary. Granaries are always found in the house used for cooking and sleeping (84%) though among women in Catagory D they are also found (16%) in houses used for sleeping only. No granaries are found in houses used by men or guests. 3.iv.d. Beds Throughout much of the year most of the inhabitants of Kireyka village sleep · outside using a straw mat birish. Families generally only sleep inside during the rains and during the cold nights of winter, when the temperature drops to around freezing. Different types of bedding are illustrated in fig.31.i.(p189) and these consist of: - mud bed supported on lashed branches - bed made up of lashed poles, covered with a derange! - angareb, a bed with carved wooden legs and a frame with a centre part of lashed cow rawhide - woven straw mat birish - sheet of canvas ferash - cow hide, or sheepskin. Mud beds (fig.31.i.a,b) are always seen in houses of women in Category A (those of betrothed girls), and are frequently seen in those of Category B. 187

T he ir o ccur ec l ine s s t ead i ly b y a ge c a tego ry ; b y C a tego ry E n o mud b ed s rence d a r e r e co rded . S ome mud b ed s p os ss as e t o ff ou r c l ay c ups s cu lp ted o n e ach se o f t h e c o rne r s . T h i s f e a ture i sf ound i n6 0% o f a l h ouse s b e long ing t ow omen l i nC a tego ry A . O n ly o ne o the re xamp le i s f ound ; i nt h e h ouse o fo ne w oman i n C a tego ry D .

T he h igh o ccur f t h e se s ha low c ups o n b eds o f w omen i n rence o l

C a togo ry A m igh t i mp ly t h a t t h e i r i n c idence i s c onnec ted w i th t h e t r ad i t ions o f mar . riage P eop le s ay t h a t i n t h e p a s t , t h e c ups o n t h e b ed w e re

u sed t o s uppor t

c on ta ine r s o f o i ls , p e r fume s , a nd i n cense , u sed d ur ing t h e i n i t ia l mar riage c e leb ra t ion .

N owaday s , h oweve r , t h e c up s a r e

l e s t h an s ha low s auce r s , a nd s l

t h e ir v e s t ig ia l p re sence i s j u s t a rem inde r o f t h e i r p a s t u se .

T h is d oes n o t

h oweve r , e xp la in t h e i r p re sence o n t h e b ed o f a w oman i n C a tego ry D .

T he

woman i nc ompound n o .19 w a s w idowed s i x y ea r s e a r l ie r a nd t h en r emar . ried A f te r h e r f i r s t h usband 's d ea th , s he moved a way f r om t h e h ouse i n w h ich s he h ad l i ved , a nd o n r emar , b u i l t a new h ouse w i th in t h e v i lage . riage l

T h is n ew

h ouse ( a l ready men t ioned e a r l ie r a s h av ing a s ma l d i ame te r i n r e la t ion t o h e r l s t a tus ) s em s t o b e a n i ndex o f h e r n ew ly r emar t a te . e ried s i t s c ups l i kew ise i nd ica te t h is .

H e r mud b ed w i th

T he h ouse a nd b ed a r e u nusua l i n t h a t t h ey d o

n o t i nd ica te t h a t s he i s aw oman t owa rd s t h e e nd o f h e r c h i ldbea r ing y ea r s w i th t enage c h i ld ren . e

O n t h e o the r h and t h ey d o a ccu ra te ly r e f lec t t h a t s he i s

n ew ly mar . I nt h is c a se t h ee xcep t ion c onf i rm st h er u le . ried : Category : of w oman . A B C D E T able C YCLE

n o .22

: B ED T YPE : : m ud :l ashed : angareb : m etal : . : 1 00% : •. : : • . 6 07 : 2 07 • . 2 0% : . 2 7% : 9 % • 4 5% : • . : 1 27 : 5 07 : 3 6% : - : 8 5% • : . l i :: : : • . : B ED T YPE A CCORDING T O W CMAN 'S S TAGE O F *L IFE

F ew l a shed b ed s a r e r e co rded i nh ouse s o fw omen i nC a tego r ie s B , a nd C , t hough i nt ho se o f C a tego ry D c ons is t o f 5 0% o f t h e t o ta l . I n C a tego ry E , i t is t h e mo s t f r equen t ly u sed b ed t ype ( 85% ) . T he e xcep t ion i s t h e w oman i n C ompound n o . 5 0 , w ho h a st wo me ta lb ed s , a nd w ho se r a the ru nusua lp a s th i s to ry h a s b een d e scr ibed e a r l ie r .

l S he d oe s n o t ' b e long ' t o t h e v i lage a nd o ne m igh t

f e xpec t h e r a r tef ac t s t o d i f e r f r om t hose o f t h e o t he r women . E xc lud ing h e r , e ve ry o t he rw oman i nC a tego ry E h a s al a shed b ed . 1 88

F i g . 3 1

H ouse c o nten ts .

h .

t 2 i -

B eds .

0

2 m .

a .m ud b ed w i th c o rne rc u ps . b .m ud b ed . c .l a shed b ed . d .d e range l . e .a nga reb f . me ta l b ed . g .s t raw m a t( b ir ish ) . h .s heep s k in .

M e thods o fs t o r age 9

E l

r e d C I cl ay C I wh ite

1 89

i m .

S he l ves a n dT a b les 9

i v . 0 . 5m .

b l ack

D omes t ic e qu ipmen t0

c m .

5 0

T he a nga reb b ed i s mo s tf r equen t ly f ound i nh ou se sb e long ing t ow omen i n C a tego r ie s Ca nd D . t h i s i s

I tc an b e u sed a s am ean s o f i n d ica t ing w ea l th , a l though

sa l n o t n ecces r i ly s o , s i nce t h e l e g s a nd f r ame c an b e c a rved . A l t h e

l m en i nt h e v i lage a r ee xpe r ienced a tw oodca rv ing a nd l e a the rt hong ing . T hu s a b ed c an b e m ade v e ry c heap ly , t hough i td oe s r equ i re a n o u t lay o f t ime a nd l a bou r .

Am e ta l b ed , h oweve r , r equ i re s ac a sh o u t lay a nd d oe s s ugge s t w ea l th

o n t h e p a r t o f i t s o wne r , a l be i t p a s t w ea l th .

B ed s o n t h e i r o wn d o n o t g i ve a

f i rm i nd ica t ion o f t h e l i f e c yc le o f t h e o ccupan t t hough t h e i r p re sence d oe s c onfo rm t op a t te rn so fu sage . 3 . iv .e .

Wa l lD eco ra t ion ( f ig .32 )

l l D eco ra t ion i su sua ly a pp l ied i n a band a tt h e t o p o f amud w a l , a tt h e p l ace w he re t h e r oof j o ined .

s ed o I ti se i the r i n c i sed , i mp res r p a in ted , a nd t h e

t oo l mo s t f r equen t ly u sed f o ri n c i sed w o rk i st h e mugh ra f a o r s c rape r , a l so u sed t f o r p o te ry .

sed d T he f i nge r t i p i su sed f o r i mp res e s ign s a nd i sa l so t h e mo s t

o c ommon t o l f o r p a in t ing , a l though a rag i su sed w hen c ove r ing l a rge a r ea s . l C o lou r s mo s t f r equen t ly a pp l ied a r e b l ack , r ed , b l ue , y e low o ch re , a nd w h i te , l ried f a lq uar r om l o ca l s ou r ce s . T he se d e s ign s a r e e i the r f ound o n t h e i r o wn o r t oge the r w i th p a in ted d eco ra t ion . Mo t if s u sed f o r p a in ted d eco ra t ion a r e s imp le a nd a r e made u p o f t lu i i s po t s , s t r ipe s ,o rz i gzag p a te rn s ,a nd a r ei s t ra ted i nf i g .32 . i . I t i s s a id t h a t i f ah ou se i s d eco ra ted a nd b eau t ifu l , t h e ' e v i l e ye ' i s t a t rac ted t o t h e h ou se i t se lf a nd n o t t o t ho se l i v ing i n i t . T o as im i la r e nd , w omen p l a ce as e r ie so fo ld , b l ack , b roken c ook ing p o t s a r ound t h e i rc ompound l ls t w al , s o t h a t t h e ' e ye ' i s r epu l sed b y t h e p o te ry a nd d oe s n o t e n te r t h e c ompound . R ec tangu la r o r c i r cu la r mo t if s p a in ted w i th ap a s te made o fc r u shed l g ra in a r e u sed a s al i ba t ion t o' A lah ' f o rp rov id ing ag ood h a rve s t . l O ne h ou se t h a t b e long s t ot h eh u sband i nc ompound n o .24 h a s i n c i sed w a l l d eco ra t ion , e xecu ted w i th t h e f i nge r w hen t h e w a l w a s f i r s t m ade . T he m an i n l q ue s t ion i sr a the r e ccen t r ic a nd t h e p i c tu re s o n h i s w a l a r e

q u i te u nu sua l : h e

i n sc r ibed t h ree l o ng h a i red w omen ( a l o ng h a i red w oman i sa lway s s t a ted a s b e ing ab eau t ifu l o ne ) , o ne s heep , o ne g ra in s t o re , a nd d e s ign s w h ich h e c l a im s a r e t h e c ame l b rand ma rk s o fv a r iou s e t hn ic g roups i nN o r thern D a r f u r . T he se lu i a r ei s t ra ted i nf i g .32 . i . 1 90

Fig. 32

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