The Eneolithic Period in Bulgaria in the Fifth Millennium B.C. 9780860540274, 9781407347899

Table of contents :
Cover Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER I: THE STUDY OF THE ENEOLITHIC PERIOD IN BULGARIA
CHAPTER II: GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ENEOLITHIC PERIOD
CHAPTER III: CHRONOLOGY, STRATIGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY OF THE BULGARIAN ENEOLITHIC
CHAPTER IV: ANTHROPOLOGICAL DATA ON THE ENEOLITHIC POPULATION
CHAPTER V: THE ENEOLITHIC CULTURES IN BULGARIA
CHAPTER VI: SETTLE MENTS AND THEIR ARCHITECTURE
CHAPTER VII: PALAEODEMOGRAPHY AND PALAEOECONOMY
CHAPTER VIII: ENEOLITHIC NECROPOLISES AS SOURCES OF SOCIOLOGICAL INFORMATION
CHAPTER IX: SPIRITUAL CULTURE OF ENEOLITHIC MAN
CONCLUSION
ABBREVIATIONS FOR THE REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
REFERENCES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MAPS
PLATES
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS IN THE TABLES

Citation preview

The Eneolithic Period in Bulgaria in the Fifth Millennium B.C.

Henrieta Todorova translated from the Bulgarian by Vessela Zhelyaskova

BAR. International Series (Supplementary) 49 1978

B.A.R. 122, Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GE�ERAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, E.Se., M.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, M.A. B.A.R. International Series 49, 1978:

"The Eneolithic in Bulgaria."

© Henrieta Todorova, e/o Jusautor, Sofia, Bulgaria, 1978. The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860540274 paperback ISBN 9781407347899 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860540274 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTE NTS

P age 1

I nt roduct ion CHAPTER

I I I

r y V

The S tudy o f t he Eneo l ith ic Per iod i n Bu lgar ia

3

General Character ist ics o f t he Eneo l ith ic Per iod

7

Chrono logy , S trat igraphy a nd Topography o f t he Bu lgar ian Eneo l ith ic

1 5

An thropo log ica l Da ta o n t he Eneo l ith ic Populat ion

2 3

The Eneo l ith ic Cu ltures i n Bu lgar ia

2 7

Early a nd Midd le Eneo l ith ic i n Thrace

2 8

Early a nd Midd le Eneo l ith ic i n North-Eastern Bu lgar ia

3 1

L ate Eneo l ith ic Co mp lex o f t he Kod jader men-Gu meln itaK aranovo V I Cu l ture

V I V I I V I I I I X

3 5

The Eneo l ith ic o n t he B lack S ea L i ttoral

3 8

The Eneo l ith ic i n N orth-western Bu lgar ia

4 3

S et t le men ts a nd t he ir Arch itecture

4 8

P alaeode mography a nd Pa laeoecono my

5 4

Eneo l ith ic N ecropo l ises a s S ources o f S oc io log ica l I n for mat ion

7 4

S p ir itua l Cu lture o f Eneo l ith ic Man

8 0

Conclus ion

8 7

References

8 9

B ibl iography

9 8

Maps

1 28

P la tes

1 52

T ab les

1 82

I NTRODUCTION

The Eneo l i th ic p er iod i n Bu lgar ia , wh ich c overs t he 5 th m i l lenn ium B .C . , i s ar e markab le s pan o f t ime i n h er p reh is tory .

F or a v ery l ong t ime t he

i dea o f ar ud i men tary , p r im i t ive mode o f l i fe a nd c u l ture o f t he p opu la t ion wh ich i nhab i ted t he Bu lgar ian l ands i n t ha t v ery d is tan t e poch l arge ly d om ina ted t he p ubl ic m ind. H owever , s ys te ma t ic a rchaeo log ica l i nves t iga t ions , c arr ied o u t w i th t he a id o f a dvanced me thods d ur ing t he p as t t wen ty y ears o n an u mber o f Eneol i th ic s et t le men ts i n v ar ious p ar ts o f t he c oun try h ave r esu l ted i n s urpr is ing d iscover ies , wh ich s how h ow f ar r e moved t he ' t rad i t iona l ' i deas a bou t h ist ona l r ea li ty were f ro m t he a c tua l f ac ts , a nd h ow i rrelevan t t he u nderra t ing o f t h is impor tan t e ra i n Bu lgar ia 's p reh is tory was . Thanks t o t he e f for ts o f a rchaeo log is ts a nd s c ien t is ts i n a l l ied f i elds , we n ow h ave a p re t ty a ccura te p ic ture o f t he h igh ly d eveloped e thnocu l tura l c o mmun i ty wh ich , more t han s ix ty c en tur ies a go , h ad made a d e ter m ined s tep t owards c iv i l ised l i fe .

The r e markab le a ch ieve men ts o f t h is c iv i l isa t ion i n

me ta l e x trac t ion , t he me ta l lurg ica l i ndus try , a rch i tec ture , t rade , a r t a nd i deo logy a ss ign i t af ore mos t p lace among c oeva l p reh is tor ic c u l tures o f Europe , wh ich o we a g rea t d ea l t o i t s b ene f icia l i n f luence . S i tua ted a s i ti s o n t he c rossroads b e tween E as t a nd wes t , Bu lgar ia h as o f ten s erved a s at rans m iss ion b e l t f or p ass ing o n t he c u l tura l a t ta inmen ts o f t he E as t .

Dur ing t he Eneo l i th ic , h owever , t he f or mu la E x Or ien te Lux h ad

l os t ac ons iderab le p ar t o f i t s s ign i f icance , b ecause a n ew a nd c o mpac t e thnoc u l tura l c o mp lex w i th a n i ndependen t e cono m ic a nd c u l tura l p o ten t ia l h ad a ppeared o n t he p a th o f t hese f ar-o f f c u l tura l i n f luences .

I t s i mpac t was s o

s trong t ha t o ne may j us t i f iably r eword t he f or mu la t o E x B a lcanae L ux . The r e markab le c rea t ive g en ius o f Eneo li th ic man p roduced i n im i tab le works o f ma ter ia l a nd s p ir i tua l c u l ture i n e ach o ne o f t he s pheres i n wh ich i t was a c t ive .

The p resen t v o lume w i l l a cqua in t t he r eader w i th i t s a ch ieve-

men ts a nd a lso , i n i t s g enera l l ines , w i th t he s i tua t ion i n t he B a lkans a nd i n S ou th-eas tern E urope when Eneol i th ic c u l ture f lour ished i n t he B u lgar ian l ands .

1

CHAPTER I THE S TUDY OF THE ENEOLITH IC PER IOD I N BULGAR IA

The s e t t le men t mounds a re t he mos t s igni f ican t p reh is tor ic monumen ts o n Bu lgar ia 's t err i tory a s t hey c on ta in r ich v es t iges f ro m t he Eneol i th ic . The l oca l p opu la t ion i n Thrace a nd N or th-eas tern Bu lgar ia h as k nown t he m s ince t ime im me mor ia l a nd u sed t he m a s l and marks i n t he p la ins. Many l egends h ave b een i nven ted a s t o t he ir o r ig in wh ich r e ma ined a p uzzle u p t o t he e nd o f t he p as t c en tury . The mounds a t tracted t he a t ten t ion o f many f ore ign s cho lars , a s we l l a s t ha t o f t he f irs t B u lgar ian p reh is tor ians .

The a ppearance o f t he Bu lgar ian

s c ience o f p reh is tory a nd t he i n i t ia l e f for ts o f Bu lgar ian p reh is tor ians a re c lose ly c onnec ted w i th t he i nves t iga t ion a nd s tudy o f t he Eneo l i th ic p hases o f o ccupa t ion o f t he s e t t le men t mounds . The f irs t s ound ings were made a t R acheva Mound i n Thrace a t t he e nd o f t he p as t c en tury ( i n 1 898 ) b y t he F renchman P . J erö me .1 Ag roup o f F rench a rchaeo log is ts u nder G . S eure 2 a nd A . Degrand 3 made t he n ex t s ound ings a t t he mounds o f Mechkyur a nd K os t ievo ,a lso i n Thrace . t ha t t hese were p reh is tor ic s e t t le men t mounds .

The r esu l ts s howed

The o b jec ts wh ich c a me t o

l igh t d ur ing t h is e xped i t ion a re h oused t oday a t t he Musee d es a n t iqu i tes n a t iona les i n P ar is .4 E ar ly t h is c en tury A . C h i l ingu irov 5 e xp lored s evera l p reh is tor ic s e t t lemen ts a nd d ug a t t he s e t t le men t mound n ear t he v i l lage o f N evsky ;

h is p re-

ma ture d ea th , h owever , p reven ted h im f ro m c onc lud ing h is i nves t iga t ions . I t was h e who a c tua l ly l a id t he f ounda t ions o f Bu lgar ian p reh is tor ic r esearch , wh ich c an b e d iv ided i n to t hree s tages : i s t s tage ( 1898-1944 ) , c ol lec t ing o f i n i t ia l i n for ma t ion o n t he s ub ject ( exa m ina t ion o f t erra ins , l im i ted s ound ings , p reva lence o f t he t ypo log ica l me thod .

Eneo li th ic s i tes p redo m inan t ly were s tud ied ) .

2 nd s tage ( 1944-1959 ) , r e la t ive d a t ing o f t he N eo l i th ic , Eneol i th ic a nd , t o s o me e x ten t , t he B ronze Age .

Eneol i th ic s i tes t ake p recedence i n t he

s tudy ( sound ings o ver w ide a reas d own t o t he i n i t ia l c u l tura l l ayer , p ref erence f or t he s tra t igraph ic me thod ) . 3 rd s tage ( 1 959 — t o t he p resen t d ay ) , c o mprehens ive i nves t iga t ions o f t he N eol i th ic , Eneo li th ic , B ronze Age a nd , t o s o me e x ten t , H a l ls ta t t c u lt ures w i th t he s tress b e ing l a id o n t he Eneo l i th ic .

( Excava t ions o f e n t ire

s e t t led a reas t i l l t he e xhaus t ion o f t he p hases o f o ccupa t ion , w i th t he u se o f s tra t igraph ic , c o mpara t ive a nd t ypolog ica l me thods .) emp loyed i n p reh is tor ic s tud ies . A t te mp ts a t s ynchron isa t ion .

E xac t s ciences

N ew d a t ing o f B u lgar ian p reh is tory.

3

R a fa i l P opov , t he d ean o f B u lgar ian p reh is tor ic s c ience , was t he mos t p ro m inen t f igure i n t he f irs t s tage o f p reh is tor ic r esearch i n t he c oun try . Ear ly t h is c en tury h e b egan t o s tudy t he Eneo l i th ic s e t t le men t mounds n ear t he v i l lage o f S a l manovo 6 a nd K od jader men , o rgan ised p ar t ia l e xcava t ions .

7

S hou men d is tr ic t , where h e

The l a t ter mound i s p ar t icu lar ly r ich i n L a te

Eneo li th ic r e l ics a nd t he d iscovery o f t he K od jader men-Gu me ln i ta-Karanovo •

V I L a te Eneo li th ic c u l ture g oes t o h is c redi t .

Un for tuna te ly , t h is u npara l le led d iscovery was u napprec ia ted e ven b y t he man who made i t .

I t was o n ly a f ter t he S econd Wor ld War t ha t t he n a me o f

t he Kod jader men s i te was a dded t o t he d es igna t ion o f t he c u l ture h e h ad d isc overed . A lso e ar ly i n t h is c en tury a no ther e n thus ias t , A nan i Yavashev , t he f ounder o f t he R a .zgrad Museu m , g a thered a r ich Eneo l i th ic c ol lec t ion f ro m t he s e t t lemen t mounds n ear h is n a t ive t own .

8

I n t he i n ter im b e tween t he t wo wor ld wars , V ass i l Mikov e xp lored a n u mber o f Eneo l i th ic s e t t le men ts i n K oubra t9 ( 1 924 ) , G abarevo l° ( 1936 ) a nd e lsewhere .

I n 1 936 1 2

t he Karanovo s e t t le men t mound .

( 1 926 ) , Yuna ts i t6 1 1

h e a nd N . Ko ichev b egan t he i nves t iga t ion o f B ecause o f i nadequa te f unds , a l l t hese i n-

v es t iga t ions amoun ted t o n o more t han s ound ings a nd were l im i ted t o t he c o l lect ion o f museu m e xh ib i ts , t h is b e ing t he ma in o b jec t o f t he e xcava t ions i n mos t o f t he c ases .

The f inds were d iscussed f ro m t he t ypo log ica l p o in t

o f v iew i n t he p er iod ica ls o f t he d ay .

The ir s c ien ti f ic v a lue b eco mes a pparen t

t oday o n ly when t hey a re c o mpared w i th s im i lar f inds f ro m a ccura te ly s tra t if ied s i tes . I t was a bou t t he s a me t ime t ha t Kur t B i t te l u nder took i nves t iga t ions o f t he K ir i l- Me tod ievo l3

( 1 935 ) s e t t le men t mound , wh i le P . D e tev i nves t iga ted t he

mounds o f B anya ta n ear Kapi tan-D im i tr ievo , P azard juk d is tr ic t1 4 K ir i l- Metod ievo ( K ir i lovo ) .

a nd o f

1 5

I n 1 924-1925 V . Du m i trescu a nd o ther R u man ian a rchaeo log is ts made s ound ings a t t he s e t t le men t mounds o f S oko l ,1 6 T sar Assen a nd Mezhden i n t he Dobroud ja . On ly t he f inds f ro m t he f irs t s i te were p ub l ished , wh ich c ont r ibu ted t o e luc ida t ing t he c hrono logy o f t he Eneo l i th ic , b ecause i t was p roved w i th t he a id o f t he s tra t igraph ic me thod t ha t t he B o ian A c u l ture ( now c a l led B o ian-V idra ) was o lder t han t he G ume ln i ta c u l ture .

1 7

I n a c tua l f ac t i ti s n o t t he B o ian A ( V idra ) c u l ture , b u t t he P o lyan i tsa c u lt ure wh ich i s a t t he b ase o f t he S oko l s e t t le men t mound , af ac t wh ich t he a rchaeo log is t was n o t t hen i n ap os i t ion t o k now a s t he P o lyan i tsa c u l ture was d iscovered a s l a te a s 1 972 .

The t wo c u l tures , B oian-V idra a nd P o lyan i tsa ,

h ave b e tween f ive a nd t en p er c en t o f p o t tery s hapes a nd o rna men ts i n c o m mon , af ac t wh ich o f ten h as mis led s cho lars a s t o t he c harac ter o f e n t ire a rchaeolog ica l c o mp lexes i n N or th-eas tern Bu lgar ia . The r esu l ts o f N eo l i th ic a nd Eneo l i th ic s tud ies i n t he i n i t ia l p er iod o f Bu lg ar ian p reh is tory h ave b een s u m med u p b y t he Amer ican a rchaeolog is t J a mes G au l l8

i n h is b ook The N eo l i th ic P er iod i n Bu lgar ia .

A f ter t he S econd Wor ld War w ide v is tas o pened u p b e fore Bu lgar ian a rchaeol ogy .

G enerous ly f inanced b y t he S ta te a nd a ided b y a dvanced me thods a nd

4

e qu ip men t , Bu lgar ian p reh is tor ians e x tended t he ir r esearch o ver a w ide f ron t . The t ask o f d e ter m in ing t he s tra t igraphy o f t he s et t le men t mounds c a me t o t he f ore a nd t he s o lu t ion o f t h is p rob le m h as g rea t ly c on tr ibu ted t o t he a ccura te d a t ing o f t he Eneo l i th ic p er iod i n B u lgar ia . T o t h is e nd s tra t igraph ic s ound ings were made a t an umber o f s e t t le men ts . I n 1 948-1950 P . D e tev i nvest iga ted Yassa tep &9 i n P lovd iv , G . G eorg iev made s tud ies a t K o lena " i n 1 947 , a nd M . M irchev a nd D . Z la tarsk i , i n S ava 2 1 1 951-1953 .

i n

N a tura l ly , t he s ound ings made o ver many y ears a t t he Karanovo

s e t t le men t mound a nd r esu med i n 1 945 , were o f t he g rea tes t impor tance . The e xcava t ions were c onc luded i n 1 957 . S tra t igraph ic C o lumn 2 2

Wi th t he p ubl ica t ion o f t he Karanovo

i n 1 959 b y G . G eorg iev , Bu lgar ian p reh is tor ic s cience

made a g rea t s tep f orward i n t he f ie ld o f Eneo l i th ic s tud ies . S upp le men ted d ur ing t he p as t d ecade , t he K aranovo s tra t igraph ic c har t f or ms t oday t he b ackbone o f t he r e la t ive c hrono logy o f t he Eneo l i th ic b o th i n Thrace a nd i n a d jacen t t err i tor ies .

2 3

The u psurge o f t he t echno log ica l r evolu t ion i n t he s econd h al f o f t h is c ent ury o pened u p n ew o ppor tun i t ies b e fore a rchaeo logy a s we l l .

A n umber o f

s c iences s uch a s c he m is try , g eophys ics , p a laeobotany , p a laeozoo logy , a n throp o logy a nd ma the ma t ics , h ave t ack led t he s o lu t ion o f s o me p ress ing p roble ms o f p reh is tory , wh ich c ou ld n o t b e s a t is fac tor i ly s o lved b ecause o f t he l ack o f wr i t ten s ources . among t he m .

The p rob le m o f a bso lu te c hrono logy was f irs t a nd f ore mos t

A c ase i np oin t a re t he Eneo l i th ic c u l tures i n Bu lgar ia wh ich

were t en ta t ive ly d a ted t o t he 3 rd a nd 2 nd mi l lenn ia B . C . 2 4 A f ter t he ir d a t ing b y t he C 14 method t hey were p laced i n t he 4 th mi l lenn iu m 2 3 a nd w i th t he c a l ib ra t ion o f t hese d a tes w i th t he a id o f t he d endrochrono log ica l me thod , t hey were s e t a s f ar b ack a s t he 5 th m i l lenn iu m B . C . The a bso lu te d a t ing h as made i tp oss ible t o t ake a h is tor ica l v iew o f t he Bu lgar ian Eneol i th ic .

An ew s tage was t hus i naugura ted i n t he d eve lop men t

o f Bu lgar ian p reh is tory wh ich c ou ld t hen embark o n t he s o lu t ion o f f resh p rob le ms .

The f irs t t ask was t o i nves t iga te f u l ly a nd i n ac o mprehens ive way

t he mode o f l i fe a nd c u l ture o f t he t r ibes wh ich i nhab i ted Bu lgar ia 's t err i tory i n r e mo te a n t iqu i ty . T o a ch ieve t h is , v as t me thodo log ica l a nd l ong-ter m s tud ies o f p reh is tor ic s e t t le men ts o ver t he e n t ire i nhabi ted a rea a nd d own t o t he b ase o f t he c u l tura l l ayers h ave b een p u t i n h and .

Thus a g roup o f s c ien t is ts u nder t he g u idance

o f G . G eorg iev e xp lored t he A z mashka mound 25 i n 1 960-1963 ; was e xcava ted i n 1 968-1969 b y M . D im i trov , V in i tsa 2 7 Radouncheva , a nd G o lya mo D e lchevo 2 8

C ha ta lka 2 6

i n 1 967-1968 b y A .

( 1968-1970 ) , Ovcharovo 2 9

( 1971-1972 )

a nd P o lyan i tsa n ( 1 973-1975 ) b y H . T odorova . The f ol low ing s i tes h ave a lso b een s tud ied o ver t he e n t ire s e t t led a rea b u t n o t f u l ly i n d ep th : t he R ouss s e t t le men t mound 3 1

( 1948-1950 ) b y G . G eorg iev a nd N . Ange lov , a nd t he H o t-

n i tsa s e t t le men t mound 3 2

( 1 956-1957 ) b y N . Ange lov .

I n t ha t p er iod e xhaust ive

s tud ies were a lways a cco mpan ied b y s ound ings o f ap rel im inary i nves t iga t ive n a ture . The r esu l ts o b ta ined h ave t hrown n ew a nd , i n many r espec ts , u nexpec ted l igh t o n t he n a ture , e cono m ic p o ten t ia l a nd c u l tura l l eve l o f t he Eneo l i th ic

5

t r ibes wh ich i nhabi ted t he t err i tory o f p resen t-day Bu lgar ia.

Much f actua l

ma ter ia l h as b een c o l lec ted , wh ich h as y ie lded a n e nor mous amoun t o f i n forma t ion .

The r esu l ts f ro m r ecen t t erra in e xp lora t ions s upp le men ted b y

e ar l ier o bserva tions , h ave made i tp oss ib le t o a rr ive a t impor tan t c onc lus ions r egard ing t he c harac ter a nd h is tor ica l s ign i f icance o f t he Eneo li th ic c u l tures i n Bu lgar ia .

6

CHAPTER I GENERAL CHARACTER IST ICS OF THE ENEOLITH IC PER IOD

The Eneo l i th ic i s o ne o f t he mos t r e markab le p er iods i n t he p reh is tory o f S ou th-eas tern E urope .

I t s d is t inc t ive f ea ture was t ha t i tc rea ted t he r e-

q u is i te c ond i t ions f or t ak ing t he f irs t s tep t owards a s econd d iv is ion o f l abour , i .e. t he r ise o f p roduc t ion ( cra f ts ) s pec ia l isa t ion o f i nd iv idua l g roups o f p eople a nd t he d eve lop men t o f b ar ter t rade b e tween t he m .

I t was d ur ing t h is

p er iod t ha t s oc io-econo m ic c ond i t ions made t he ir a ppearance , wh ich l ed t o i nequa l i ty i n p roper ty s ta tus w i th a l l t he e nsu ing c onsequences .

The s ign i-

f icance o f t he p er iod , h owever , d oes n o t s o le ly l i e i n t he c rea t ion o f p rer equ is i tes f or f u ture s ocio-econo m ic d eve lop men ts , e ven i fi t s i nheren t ly p rogress ive c ore i s t o b e l ooked f or p rec ise ly h ere . F ro m t he h is tor ica l p oin t o f v iew , t he Eneol i th ic i s t he b r i l l ian t f ina le t o t he e ra o f t he t r iba l c o m mun i ty s ys te m i n i t s c lass ica l f or ms wh ich c haracter ised t he e ar l ies t f ar m ing a nd c a t t le-breed ing c u l tures .

T he b eg inn ing o f t h is e ra i n t he B a lkan

P en insu la c an b e t raced b ack t o t he e nd o f t he 7 th a nd t he e ar ly 6 th mi l lenn ia B . C ., when t he f irs t b ig e thnocu l tura l c o mp lexes s uch a s S tarCevo-Cr is , Karanovo a nd Thessa ly , whose p opu la t ion was p robably o f I ndo-European o r ig in , d eve loped a nd were c onso l ida ted w i th t he i n troduc t ion o f p roduc t iono r ien ted e cono m ies ( map 1 ) .

There f o l lowed a d yna m ic g row th o f p reh is tor ic

c o mmun i t ies i n t h is p ar t o f t he wor ld wh ich l as ted t wo mi l lenn ia a nd g ave r ise t o as er ies o f b r i l lian t N eo l i th ic a nd Eneo l i th ic c u l tures . The s econd h a l f o f t h is t ime-span b e longs t o t he Eneo l i th ic wh ich i s c haract er ised b y t he d eve lop men t o f an umber o f n ew s pheres o f h u man a c t iv i ty , l ead ing t o p rofound s ocio-econo m ic c hanges a nd t rans for ma t ions i n t r iba l c o mmun i ty r e la t ions . N eo l i th ic e cono my was b ased o n f ar m ing , c a t t le-breed ing ,hun t ing a nd w i ld f ood g a ther ing .

I t was c losed a nd s el f-su f f icien t .

The f ew c ases o f b ar ter

a s r evea led b y a rchaeolog ica l f inds , c oncerned a r t ic les o f p ersona l a dornmen t a nd s o me r are r aw ma ter ia ls .

These e xchanges were i nciden ta l a nd q u i te

e xcep t iona l f or t he p reva len t c losed e cono m ic s truc tures .

E cono m ic e qua l i ty

b etween me mbers , d iv is ion o f l abour a ccord ing t o a ge , a s we l l a s ap robab le ma tr i l inea l o rgan isa tion o f f am i ly r e la t ions c an b e n o ted i n t he e ar ly f ar m ing t r iba l c o m mun i t ies . Archaeo log ica l f inds a lso p o in t t o t he p resence among t he m o f f am i ly u n i ts wh ich , h owever , were a n i nd iv is ible c o mponen t p ar t o f t he l arger p roducer a nd c onsumer g roups . I t was t he u t i l isa t ion o f c opper t han d ea l t t he h arshes t b low t o t he i nheren t t rad i t iona l is m o f t he c losed N eo li th ic s oc ie t ies . • The g row ing u se o f t h is me ta l was t he mos t impor tan t f ea ture o f t he Eneol i th ic , a s we l l a s ad e ter m in ing f ac tor i n t he d eve lop men t o f p rogess ive t rends w i th in i t s f ra mework .

H owever , t he a ppearance a nd g row th o f me ta l e x tract ion 7

a nd me ta l lurgy were t he r esu l t o f an umber o f impor tan t s oc io-econo m ic p rec ondi t ions , wh ich b eca me man i fes t a t d i f feren t t imes i n t he d i f feren t p ar ts o f t he wor ld . F or B u lgar ia 's t err i tory t h is d eve lop men t may b e d a ted t o t he e ar ly 5 th mi l lenn ium B . C . H ere i s ab r ie f r ev iew o f t hese p recond i t ions : C opper was k nown t o man a s ar aw ma ter ia l a s e ar ly a s t he a cera m ic N eo l i th ic i n H i ther As ia .

3 3

The e ar l ies t s ca t tered s ea ms o f c opper o re were

d iscovered i n Bu lgar ia a t t he e nd o f t he 6 th mi l lenn ium B . C . F or a l ong t ime t h is n ew s phere o f h uman a c t iv i ty f ound n o f er t i le s oi l f or d eve lop men t b ecause s oc io-econo m ic c ond i t ions were n o t y e t r ipe f or i t .

The p roduc t ive

f orces o f N eo l i th ic s oc ie ties were c hanne l led i n to i mprov ing t he e x is t ing s tone , b one a nd f l in t t oo ls , a s t he o ppor tun i t ies o f r a is ing t he ir e f f iciency h ad n o t y e t b een f u l ly e xhaus ted .

T owards t he e nd o f t he N eo l i th ic a nd i n t he e ar ly

Eneo l i th ic , h owever , t he f or m a nd u se fu lness o f t hese t oo ls h ad r eached t he p roduc t ive l im i ts o f s tone , b one a nd f l in t , a nd t he ir d eve lop men t c ou ld n o t b e c arr ied a ny f ur ther b ecause o f t he ma ter ia ls ' l im i ta t ions . The u rgen t n ecess i ty o f f ur ther r a is ing l abour p roduc t iv i ty made i t imp erat ive t o l ook f or n ew r aw ma ter ia ls o u t o f wh ich more e f f icien t i mp le men ts c ou ld b e f ash ioned .

C opper was j us t wha t was n eeded .

The t ask n ow was t o

i ncrease i t s o u tpu t .

O f a l l t he a reas i n S ou th-eas tern Europe ,

3 5

B u lgar ia 's

t err i tory was t he r iches t i n c opper o re d epos i ts , ac ircu ms tance wh ich e xp la ins t he r e markable a dvance made b y t he Eneo l i th ic c u l tures h ere , a nd e spec ia l ly t hose i n Thrace a nd o n t he B lack S ea c oas t . A l though t he e x is tence o f c opper o re d epos i ts h ad b een k nown e ar l ier , t he e xp lo i ta t ion o f t h is n a tura l r esource c ou ld o n ly b e p u t i n h and i f s u f f icien t manpower w ere r e leased f ro m t he p roduct ion o f f oods tu f fs a nd t he r e ma in ing p ar t o f t he p opu la t ion u nder took t o s upp ly t h is work force w i th p rov is ions . E ar ly i n t he Eneo l i th ic f ar m ing p assed o n t o ah igher s tage — f ro m h oe ing t o p lough ing3 6

w i th d raugh t a n i ma ls .

r e f ine men t o f t oo ls .

3 7

Th is was made p oss ib le b y t he f ur ther

L a ter , a t te mp ts a t i rr iga t ion w ere a lso made i n p laces .

As a r esu l t , t he p roduc t iv i ty o f f ar m ing i ncreased c ons iderab ly a nd t h is s t i mul a ted f ur ther d eve lop men t a nd improve men ts , a s f ood s urp luses were a p r i mary c ond i t ion f or : a ) t he emp loy men t o f manpower i n o ccupa t ions o ther t han t he p roduc t ion o f f oods tu f fs , a s f or i ns tance me ta l e x trac t ion , me ta l lurgy , t rade , e tc ., a nd b ) t he b ar ter o f s urp lus p roduc ts o f p lan t a nd a n i ma l o r ig in w ith t he g oods p roduced b y t hese p eop le . H ow much h eadway t he Eneol i th ic t r iba l c o m mun i t ies h ad made b eco mes a pparen t f ro m t he f ac t t ha t n o t a ny k ind o f man-power b u t men o n ly , i .e . t he mos t p roduc t ive w orkers , c ou ld b e r e leased t o e ngage i n me ta l e x trac t ion a nd t rade away f ro m h o me .

Wha t i s more , t he q ues t ion h ere i s o f c ons iderable

c on t ingen ts o f manpower , a s t he p r im i t ive t echn iques o f a ncien t o re min ing r equ ired t en wood-cu t ters a nd wa ter-carr iers t o e very miner , p rov ided t ha t wood a nd wa ter were c lose b y .

Trade a nd wa ter t ranspor t a lso r equ ired c on-

s iderable c on t ingen ts o f manpower .

G iv ing u p f ar m ing a nd a cqu ir ing t he

s pecia l ised k now ledge a nd s k i l l o f a me ta l worker was t he p recond i t ion t ha t g ave r ise t o t he f irs t i ndus try i n h uman h is tory — me ta l lurgy 3 9 k ind o n t he r oad t o c iv i lisa t ion .

8

wh ich s e t man-

As was a lready n o ted , c opper me ta l lurgy a ppeared when t here was n o f ur ther r oo m f or improv ing t he e f f iciency o f N eo l i th ic imp le men ts a nd when t he p roduct iv i ty o f f ar m ing h ad b een r a ised b y t he i n troduc t ion o f t he f orked p o le a nd t he u se o f d raugh t a n i ma ls .

A l l t h is was a t h and a t t he i ncep t ion o f

t he Eneo l i th ic a nd , g iven t he f avorab le o b ject ive a nd s ub jec t ive c ond i t ions , t he p reh is tor ic c o m mun i t ies o n B u lgar ia 's t err i tory c rossed t he t hresho ld o f t he p er iod t o b eg in t he ir t rans i t ion t o t he Eneo l i th ic .

The e ver more e x tens ive

u se o f c opper was t he mot ive f orce b eh ind t h is p rocess .

I t wen t a t as low

p ace a t t he b eg inn ing , a s n ew t echn iques h ad t o b e d ev ised a nd mas tered , a nd q uan t i t ies o f me ta l a ccu mu la ted o ver a v as t t err i tory wh ich i ncluded t he who le o f S ou th-eas tern E urope . T o a l l a ppearances , t h is a ccumu la t ion p roceeded a t t he r a te o f g eo me tr ic p rogress ion .

I tt ook o ver a h a lf mi l lenn iu m f or c ond i t ions t o b r ing a bou t a

me ta l b oo m 4 ° a t t he e nd o f t he 5 th a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he 4 th mi l lenn ia B . C . The u se o f t he more e f f ic ien t a nd h igh ly p roduc t ive me ta l t oo ls was i ns trumen ta l i n i n tens i fying t he E neo l i th ic e cono my , wh i le t he s ubd iv is ion o f meta l e x trac t ion a nd me ta l lurgy i n to i ndependen t b ranches l ed t o p rofound c hanges i n i t s s tructure . The f irs t s igns o f u neven d eve lop men t i n t he v ar ious p ar ts o f t he c oun try may n ow b e n o ted .

Ma ter ia l wea l th was mos t r ap id ly a ccumu la ted i n t he

s e t t le men ts a long t he B lack S ea c oas t , wh ich owed t he ir s udden a dvance t o t he ir g eograph ic l oca t ion .

The d e mand f or c opper o n t he p ar t o f t hose v as t

t err i tor ies o f t he a nc ien t w or ld wh ich f el t i t s l ack ( Mo ldav ia , f or i ns tance ) a f forded h i ther to u nknown o ppor tun i t ies f or c oas ta l t rade a nd b ar ter .

I n a n

a ge when t he whee l was n o t y e t u sed i n t ranspor t a nd t he h orse was h ard ly k nown i n t he Bu lgar ian l ands , wa ter t ranspor t was i nd ispens ible .

I t was

c oas ta l t rade a bove a l l wh ich a ccoun ted f or t he p rosper i ty o f t he B lack S ea l i t tora l , where c ons iderable wea l th i n g o ld a nd S pondy lus was amassed f ro m t he e xpor t o f c opper o re a nd a r t ic les . a ble i n t he h in ter land .

I n c on tras t , ac er tain l ag was n ot ice-

Th is i s s o f ar t he e ar l ies t k nown c ase o f u neven

s ocio-econo m ic d eve lop men t i n o ne a nd t he s a me e thnocu l tura l a rea , a f ford ing t hus p o ten t ia l p oss ibi l i t ies f or t he e rup t ion o f c on f l ic ts . Trade w i th f oreign p ar ts a nd a lso w i th t he i n ter ior e xpanded d ea l ing a b low t o t he c losed f ar m ing a nd c a t t le-breed ing e cono m ic s truc ture .

C u l tura l e x-

c hanges b e tween i ndiv idua l e thn ic r eg ions were t o b e o bserved more f requen t ly , s e t t ing i n mo t ion a c u l tura l i n tegra t ion b e tween v ar ious e thn ica l ly r e la ted c o mmun i t ies .

I n t he f ina l a na lys is , t h is b rough t a bou t ac ons iderab le u n i f ica t ion

o f t he t ypo log ica l a spec ts o f t he L a te Eneo l i th ic c o mplexes . Impor tan t q ua l i ta t ive c hanges a lso t ook p lace w i th in t he t r iba l c o m mun i t ies . The a ccu mu la t ion o f s urp luses r esu l t ing f ro m h igher l abour p roduct iv i ty , made i t impera t ive t o t ake measures o f s a feguard ing t hese a ccu mu la t ions a ga ins t o u ts ide e ncroachmen ts . a f ter a s e t p lan ,

4 2

A l l Eneol i th ic s et t le men ts , wh ich were b u i l t

h ad t he ir s ys te ms o f f or t i f ica t ions .4 1

The t rans for ma t ions

w i th in t he s e t t le men ts p o in t t o ar ap id i ncrease o f t he p opu la t ion , l ead ing s o me t imes t o d e mograph ic p ressure . The t rans i t ion o f p reh is tor ic s oc ie t ies t o t he Eneo l i th ic s tage was a cco mp an ied b y t ang ible c hanges i n t heir s ocia l s truc ture . These c hanges were

9

t he l og ica l c onsequence o f t he f ac t t ha t i t was t he men who were e ngaged i n t he mos t a dvanced b ranches o f t he e cono my , a s ar esu l t o f wh ich a g rea t d ea l o f e cono m ic p ower a nd a u thor i ty was c oncen tra ted i n t heir h ands .

B y t he

e nd o f t he Eneo l i th ic , d is t inc t s igns o f d i f feren tia t ion i np roper ty s ta tus c ou ld b e o bserved . C ons iderable wea l th was c oncen tra ted i n t he h ands o f t he c h ie ft a ins a nd t he b eg inn ings o f p a tr iarcha l r e la t ions w ere a lready i n e v idence . 43 I n c on tras t t o t he s tone t oo ls o f e ar l ier p er iods , c opper a r t ic les were l ooked u pon a s p ersona l p roper ty a nd o f ten a cco mpan ied t he ir owner t o h is g rave . The r ise a nd g row th o f p ersona l p roper ty a nd b ar ter t rade r equ ired t he r ecord ing o f c er ta in i n for ma t ion .

S o a t t he d awn o f c iv i l isa t ion , i n t he e ar ly

5 th mi l lenn iu m B . C ., t here b egan t o a ppear i n t he B a lkan P en insu la i nd iv idua l p ic tograph ic s igns 44

o n v esse ls , s ea ls a nd c lay t ab le ts .

The ir p resence

a t tes ts t he h igh l evel a t ta ined b y p reh is tor ic man a t t h is s tage o f h is d eve lopmen t . I tc an , t here fore , b e a ssu med t ha t t he Eneol i th ic t r ibes wh ich i nhab i ted Bu lgar ia 's t err i tory , e n joyed a n e ra o f g rea t e cono m ic p rosper i ty wh ich was a cco mpan ied b y p rofound s ocia l c hanges .

Dur ing t h is impor tan t p er iod o f

i n tens ive d eve lop men t , r e markab le ma ter ia l a nd c u l tura l v a lues were c rea ted wh ich s tand o u t a l l t he more impress ive ly a ga ins t t he g enera l ly h igh l eve l o f p reh is tor ic c u l tures i n S ou th-eas tern E urope .

The r o le o f t he E neo l i th ic c u l tures i n Bu lgar ia c an b es t b e g auged b y a na lys ing t he c ond i t ions o bta in ing t hen i n Europe . An u mber o f c u l tura l c o mp lexes i n ad i f feren t d egree o f r e la t ionsh ip a nd v ar ied t err i tor ia l s cope a nd c hrono logy , were l oca ted o n E urope 's t err i tory . Accord ing t o t he g enera l ly a ccep ted c lassi f ica t ion o f modern a rchaeo logy , t he d egree o f r e la t ionsh ip i s i n t hree d escend ing o rders : 45 a ) p r i mary o rder — l arge c u l tura l-terr i tor ia l z ones ; b ) s econdary o rder — e thnocu l tura l a reas i ncorpora t ing g roups o f t r iba l c u l tures ; c ) t er t iary o rder — e thnocu l tura l r eg ions c orrespond ing t o t he a reas o f i nd iv idua l c u l tures a nd t he ir l oca l v ar ian ts . The d egree o f r e la t ionsh ip i s e nhanced f ro m t he p r i mary t o t he t er tiary o rder .

The g eograph ic f ac tor p lays a d e ter m in ing r o le i n t he l arge c u l tura l-

t err i tor ia l z ones .

T here were t wo s uch z ones i n Eneol i th ic E urope :

n or thern ,

i nhabi ted p r i mar i ly b y h un ters a nd f ishers , a nd s ou thern , p opu la ted b y f ar m ing a nd c a t t le-breed ing t r ibes .

Av as t i n ter med ia te t err i tory s tre tched b etween

t he t wo z ones a nd t here t he ir c harac ter is t ic f ea tures merged .

Th is i n ter-

med ia te t err i tory g radua l ly e x tended t o t he n or th a s f ar m ing a nd c a t t le-breed ing b eca me t he o ccupa t ion o f a n i ncreas ing n umber o f N eo l i th ic t r ibes . Dur ing t he N eo l i th ic a nd Eneol i th ic , t he Bu lgar ian l ands a nd t he a d jacen t t err i tor ies f or med t he n uc leus o f t he s ou thern c u l tura l-terr i tor ia l z one . S evera l l arge e thnocu l tura l a reas g rouped o n t he b as is o f t ypo log ica l c r i ter ia ,

1 0

made u p t h is z one .

The t r iba l g roups wh ich i nhabi ted t he t err i tory o f p resen t-

d ay Bu lgar ia a nd t he n e ighbour ing c oun tr ies h e ld a n impor tan t p lace among t he m .

I ts hou ld b e b orne i n mind t ha t t he p reh is tor ic e thnocu l tura l a reas

were mos t o f ten s epara ted b y moun ta in r anges , a nd v ery r are ly b y r ivers . I n many p laces t he ir b oundar ies were n o t c lear ly d e f ined , a nd t hey b lended i n to o ne a no ther j us t l ike s o me o f t oday 's e thnograph ic r eg ions . Dur ing t he Eneo l i th ic t here e x is ted i n t he n or th-eas tern p ar t o f t he B a lkan P en insu la a d ense ly p opu la ted e thnocu l tura l a rea wh ich i nc luded t he t err i tor ies b e tween t he C arpa th ians i n t he n or th a nd t he A egean i n t he s ou th , b e tween t he b as ins o f t he N ishava a nd t he S trou ma i n t he wes t a nd t he B lack S ea a nd S out hern B essarabia i n t he e as t .

Th is a rea i ncluded a n umber o f t r ibes b ased

o n t he e ar l ier N eo l i th ic K aranovo-Cr is e thnocu l tura l c o mp lex , whose a u toc h tonous d evelop men t r esu l ted i n t he emergence o f t he a rea u nder c ons idera t ion . Owing t o t he c ircu ms tance t ha t d ur ing t he Eneo l i th ic , Thrace was o ne o f t he mos t i mpor tan t a nd c u l tura l ly a nd h is tor ica l ly a dvanced c en tres w i th in t h is a rea 's c on f ines , i t wou ld b e a ppropr ia te t o c a l l i tE thnocu l tura l a rea o f t he Thracian Eneo l i th ic . A j us t i f ica t ion f or t h is d es igna t ion may b e f ound i n t he c ircums tance t ha t t he t r ibes o f t h is p ar t icu lar a rea h ad a p ar t t o p lay i n t he e thnogenes is o f t he Thracians . 45

The c o m mon f ea tures o f t heir c u l tures h ave b een c on f ir med

i nb o th t heir d iachronous a nd s ynchronous a spec ts , wh ich p o in t i s a t tes ted b y a va i lab le a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l .

Wha t i s more , t he h is tor ica l d eve lop men t

o f t he t r ibes wh ich i nhabi ted t he a rea d ur ing t he N eo l i th ic a nd Eneo li th ic p roc eeded i n s ynchronous s tages a nd h ad t he s a me e nd r esu l ts , wh ich i s a no ther c on f ir ma t ion o f t he c o m mon c u l tura l a nd h is tor ica l i den t i ty o f t h is l arge a rea . The b ig E thnocu l tura l a rea o f t he Thracian Eneo l i th ic i nc luded s evera l r eg ions wh ich i n a l l p robab i l i ty were p opu la ted b y c losely r ela ted t r ibes .

Dur ing t he

v ar ious s tages o f t he Eneo l i th ic t hey more o r l ess c orresponded t o t he t err it ory o f d i f fus ion o f t he i nd iv idua l c u l tures . F irs t a nd f ore mos t was Thrace wh ich l ay b e tween t he B a lkan R ange t o t he n or th , t he I h t i man h e igh ts t o t he wes t , t he Rhodopes t o t he s ou th a nd t he Bakad jik h eigh ts t o t he e as t .

Th is i s t he a rea p roper t o t he Karanovo Ia nd

I c u l ture o f t he E ar ly Eneo l i th ic . I n t he c ourse o f t he ir mi l lenn ialong a u toc h tonous d evelop men t , t he t r ibes o f t h is h igh ly a dvanced f ar m ing a nd c a t t leb reed ing c o m mun i ty l e f t b eh ind impress ive c u l tura l l ayers i n t he Thracian s et t le men t mounds , whose s tra t igraphy h as h e lped t o d e ter m ine t he r ela t ive c hrono logy 46

o f t he c u l tures o f t he e n t ire E thnocu l tura l a rea .

Th is was t he

wea l th ies t a nd mos t r ap id ly d eve loping p ar t o f t he Thracian Eneo l i th ic , wh ich u n in terrup ted ly em i t ted c u l tura l impu lses , s e t t ing t he p ace o f d eve lop men t f or t he e n t ire a rea . And f ro m t he a rchaeo log ica l p o in t o f v iew , i ti s t he mos t t horough ly i nves t iga ted a rea i n t he c oun try . The s econd i n impor tance e thnocu l tura l r eg ion o f N or th-eas tern Bu lgar ia h as a lso b een s tud ied r ela t ively we l l .

I ti s b ound t o t he n or th b y t he Danube ,

t o t he wes t , b y t he Yan tra a nd Ossu m b as ins , t o t he s ou th , b y t he B a lkan Range , a nd t o t he e as t , b y t he s teppes o f t he D obroud ja a nd t he B lack S ea c oas t .

I n t he E ar ly N eo li th ic t h is r eg ion c ou ld b e d escr ibed a s b e long ing

more t o t he n or th t han t o t he s ou th .

The p resence o f b earers o f t he s ou thern

v ar ian t o f t he C r is c u l ture — t he Ovcharovo c u l ture , wh ich i nc luded e le men ts

1 1

o f t he Bug-Dn ies ter c u l ture , h as b een r ecen t ly e s tab l ished h ere .

N o s e t t le-

men t mounds were f or med i n t h is r eg ion d ur ing t he N eo l i th ic , a nd a c er ta in l ag i nt he e cono my i n c o mpar ison w i th T hrace h as b een n o ted .

Th is i s t o b e

e xpec ted , s ince t he c u l tura l d i f fus ion t ook a s ou th-nor ther ly r ou te . I n t hose e ar ly d ays t he B a lkan R ange p resen ted a s ubs tan t ia l b arr ier t o c u l tura l d i f fus ion , wh i le t he D anube , a n impor tan t l ine o f c on tac ts a nd c o m mun ica t ion a nd t he s pread o f c u l tura l v a lues , p layed a v i ta l r o le i n t he d eve lop men t o f N eo l i th ic c u l tures .

S et t le men t mounds a ppeared i n t h is r eg ion o n ly i n t he E ar ly Eneo-

l i th ic a nd n ever r eached t he d i mens ions o f s o me o f t hose t ha t h ave b een f ound i n Thrace .

I n terac t ion b e tween t h is r eg ion a nd t he n eighbour ing c u l tures was

o f af ar f ro m s i mp le n a ture , a nd t he o vera l l p icture h ere was c ons iderably more d yna m ic t han i n Thrace , wh ich h ad a more u nru f f led d eve lop men t . The t h ird e thnocu l tura l r eg ion was t he B lack S ea l i t tora l a nd t he s teppes o f t he Dobroud ja .

T races o f t he e ar ly N eo l i th ic s tages may b e s een h ere o n ly

a long t he K a mch iya v a l ley i n t he E as tern B a lkan R ange , where t o a l l a ppearances t he e thn ic n uc leus o f t he l a ter c u l tures w as f or med .

S uch was t he N eo l i th ic

p ic ture f or t he who le o f N orth-eas tern Bu lgar ia wh ich s tre tches n or thwards f ro m t he f oo th i l ls o f t he B a lkan R ange . As t ime wen t b y , t he t r ibes g radua l ly t ook p ossess ion o f t hose p ar ts o f t he r eg ion wh ich h ad u n fa i l ing wa ter s ources s uch a s t he L ongoz , t he r iver v a l leys a nd t he l agoons .

The r e ma in ing , more

o r l ess d ry r eg ions were u nsu i tab le f or Eneo li th ic f ar m ing a nd c a t t le-breeding . The B lack S ea c oas t , t here fore , made a n e cono m ic a dvance o n ly when t he me ta l b oo m a nd t he e xpor t o f c opper o pened u p o ppor tun i t ies f or s ea t rad ing . The f our th e thnocu l tura l r eg ion s pread o ver N or th-wes tern Bu lgar ia , E as tern S erbia a nd O l ten ia i n Ruman ia .

I t was b ound t o t he n or th b y t he C ar-

p a th ians , t o t he wes t , b y t he T i mok a nd N ishava r ivers a nd t o t he e as t , b y t he Yan tra a nd Ossu m v a l leys .

The s ou thern b oundary h as n o t b een a scer-

t a ined y e t , a s r esearch i n S ou th-wes tern Bu lgar ia i s s t i l l u nder way. P ern ik a nd t he S o f ia u p land were p ar t o f t h is r eg ion .

However ,

The Eneo l i th ic c u l tures

o f S ou th-wes tern B u lgar ia a re c lose ly l inked w i th t hose o f A egean Thrace a nd may b e i nc luded i n o ne a nd t he s a me e thnocu l tura l r eg ion i n t he s hape o f t he l e t ter E , o f wh ich t he A egean l i t tora l a lso f or med a p ar t .

A s e ar ly a s t he

N eo li th ic i n tens ive i n f luences p ene tra t ing f ro m T hessa ly a nd G reece w ere p assed o n t o t he B a lkans a nd C en tra l E urope a long t he v a l leys o f t he S trou ma , N ishava a nd Vardar . b e t raced ;

R everse i n f i l tra t ions - f ro m n or th t o s ou th - c an a lso

t hese were p ar t icu lar ly n ot iceab le i n t he E ar ly Eneo l i th ic .

The r eg ion i n N or th—wes tern Bu lgar ia i s c on t iguous t o t he V in & c u l ture i n t he wes t ;

e xchanges b e tween t he t wo c an a lso b e a t tes ted .

H ere t he s e t tle-

men ts o f t he La te N eo l i th ic a nd P hase Io f t he E ar ly Eneo l i th ic a re l oca ted i n t he l ow lands a nd c ons is t o f s evera l b u i ld ing l evels .

Dur ing t he n ex t p hases o f

t he E ar ly Eneo l i th ic t hey a re t o b e f ound o np la teaux where t hey d o n o t f or m s e t t le men t mounds , wh i le i n t he L a te Eneo l i th ic i ti s t he n a tura l ly f or t i f ied h igh land s e t t le men ts t ha t p redo m ina te . The Rhodopes a re a n e thnocu l tura l r eg ion t ha t h as b een s can t i ly i nves tiga ted . Here c ond i t ions f or b u i ld ing s e t t le men t mounds were a t h and o n ly i n s o me o f t he c losed v a l leys ( such a re R ak i tovo , Kurd ja l i , Assenovgrad a nd a f ew o ther p laces where , h owever , h u man a c t iv i ty c eased i n t he Ear ly Eneo l i th ic ) . t he r e ma in ing p ar ts o f t he Rhodopes t he i nhabi ted p laces were t he c aves .

1 2

I n

A l though t he N eol i th ic a nd Eneo l i th ic c u l tures h ere r ese mble c lose ly t hose i n Thrace , t here a re c er ta in d i f ferences wh ich were d ue t o l oca l ways o f d eve lopmen t a nd t he i n f luences c om ing f ro m t he s ou th a nd t he wes t .

Un for tuna te ly ,

t he r esu l ts f ro m t he i nves t iga t ion o f t he Rhodope Eneo l i th ic s i tes ( Ima mova D oupka a nd o ther s i tes ) h ave n o t y e t b een p ubl ished a nd c annot b e i nc luded i n t he p resen t b ook .

The Eneo l i th ic i n S ou th-wes tern Bu lgar ia h as a lso b een

i nadequa te ly s tud ied . As ide f ro m t he a bove- men t ioned e thnocu l tura l r eg ions s i tua ted o n B u lgar ian t err i tory , t wo o ther impor tan t r eg ions s hou ld b e d escr ibed , a s t hey f or m p ar t o f t he Thrac ian E neo l i th ic .

T heir i nc lus ion w i l l c o mp le te t he p ic ture o f t he

c u l tura l a nd h is tor ica l c o mmun i ty i n t h is p ar t o f S ou th-eas tern E urope . F irs t a nd f ore mos t i s t he Mun ten ia r eg ion i n Ru man ia ;

i ti s b ound t o t he

n or th b y t he C arpa th ians , t o t he wes t , b y t he v a l ley o f t he O l t r iver , t o t he s ou th , b y t he Danube , a nd t o t he e as t , b y t he P ru t v a l ley .

Th is s izeable a rea

h as b een s tud ied r a ther t horough ly .

I n c harac ter i tr esembles c lose ly t he

c u l tures o f N or th-eas tern Bu lgar ia .

Wha t i s more , i n tegra t ion p rocesses

d ur ing t he L a te Eneo l i th ic h ad l ed t o t he o ver lapping o f c u l tura l p a t terns o n b oth b anks o f t he L ower Danube . merged i n to o ne . Eneo l i th ic ,

4 7

As a r esu l t o f t h is t he t wo r eg ions a c tua l ly

S e t t le men t mounds a ppeared i n b o th r eg ions a s l a te a s t he

wh i le t he g raph i te o rna men t -t he mos t c harac ter is t ic f ea ture o f

t he Thrac ian Eneo l i th ic , a ppeared f irs t i n N or th-eas tern B u lgar ia a nd t hen i n Ruman ia . The n or th-eas tern mos t r eg ion o f t he Thrac ian Eneo l i th ic i s e spec ia l ly i n teres t ing f ro m a c u l tura l a nd h is tor ica l p o in t o f v iew .

I tc overs t he t err i tory

o f S ou thern B essarabia wh ich i n t he L a te Eneo l i th ic was p opu la ted b y t he c arr iers o f as peci f ic c u ltura l p heno menon k nown u nder t he n a mes o f A lden i Ia spec t 48 o r B o lgrad v ar ian t o f t he G u melnAa c u l ture . 49

Th is a rea i s i n

im media te p rox im i ty t o a nd f or ms a sma l l wedge i n t he t err i tory o f t he P ro toc ucu ten i ( Cucu ten i A 1 , A2 )- Tr ipo lie A3 , B 1 c u l ture . Th is was i n a c tua l f ac t ac u l tura l p heno menon wh ich h ad t he c loses t c on tac t a nd mos t p robab ly c o m mon g ene t ic r oots a s we l l w i thth . e .B lack S ea c oas ta l r eg ion a nd t he Dobroud ja .

I t

d eve loped u nder t he s trong i n f luences o f t he a bove- men t ioned n e ighbour ing c u l tures , b u t p reserved t he s pec i f ic f ea tures o f t he Thracian Eneo l i th ic .

T he

migra t ion o f Eneo l i th ic t r ibes t o t he n or th a nd n or th-eas t c oincided i n t ime w i th t he b eg inn ing o f t he L a te Eneo l i th ic , as pan o f t ime f or wh ich d e mograph ic p ressures a re r epor ted n o t o n ly i n t he E thnocu l tura l Area o f t he Thracian Eneo l i th ic , b u t i n a d jacen t t err i tor ies t o t he wes t a nd s ou th a s we l l .

B y t hen

a l l t he t err i tor ies i n S ou th-eas tern E urope wh ich were s u i table f or f ar m ing a nd c a t t le-breeding h ad b een c o mpac t ly p opu la ted .

There was h ard ly a ny l and

a va i lab le o r , f or t ha t ma t ter , a ny t r ibe a t al ower s tage o f d evelop men t , whose t err i tor ies were s parse ly p opu la ted a nd c ou ld b e c olon ized .

The s teppes

a lone were emp ty a nd t hey were t he o n ly p lace where s urp lus p opu la t ion c ou ld move t o .

S o ag radua l e xodus b egan i n t h is d irec t ion .

Un for tuna te ly t he

Eneo l i th ic t r ibes were u nab le t o a dap t t heir e cono my t o t he c ond i t ions o bta in ing i n t he s teppes a nd t hey c o lon ized o n ly t he l ake a nd r iver v a l leys o f B essarabia " where t hey c ou ld c on t inue t o f ar m a nd r a ise t heir c a t t le i n t he t rad i t iona l way , n ear t he wa ter s ources .

The o verwhe lm ing n umber o f s et t le men ts , t here fore ,

were s i tua ted n ear t he Danub ian l akes a nd t he ir t r ibu tar ies , where t hey f orm n umerous , t hough n o t v ery t h ick c u l tura l l ayers .

1 3

H owever , t hey c ou ld n o t f or m

r ea l s e t t le men t mounds b ecause o f t he l im i ted t ime o f r es idence o f t he Eneo l i th ic t r ibes o n t he t err i tory . B e tween t he e thnocu l tura l r eg ions d escr ibed , t here o ccur l oca l i t ies o f c u l tura l o ver lapp ing a nd i ti s d i f f icu l t t o t e l l t o wh ich o f t wo a d jacen t c u l tura l c o mp lexes t hey may h ave b e longed .

These l oca l i t ies a re marked o n t he maps

w i th c ross-ha tch ing . I t s hou ld a lso b e b orne i n mind t ha t a s ar esu l t o f t he a cce lera ted i n tegra t ion p rocesses c onnec ted w i th t he i n tens i f ica t ion o f t he e cono my , t he me ta l b oo m a nd t he p opu la t ion e xp los ion , t he f ina l s tages o f t he Eneo l i th ic p roduced a n o t iceab le l eve l l ing o f f o f c u l tures when t he d e marca tion l ines b e tween t he r eg ions h ad p ract ica l ly d isappeared t o f or m t wo v as t a reas :

t he B lack S ea

l i t tora l ( wh ich a lone p reserved a nd e ven d eve loped f ur ther i t s c u l ture ) , a nd t he r e ma in ing l ands w i th in t he E thnocu l tura l Area o f t he Thrac ian Eneo l i th ic , wh ich a cqu ired a S a lcu a-type a spec t , t he c o m mon u n i f ied a spec t o f t he K od jader men-Gumeln i ta-Karanovo V I a nd Kr ivodo l-Sa lcu ta c u l tures d ur ing ,

t he ir f ina l p hase .

1 4

CHAPTER I I CHRONOLOGY ,

S TRATIGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY

OF THE BULGAR IAN ENEOL ITH IC

The mos t impor tan t t ask o f B u lgar ian p rehis tor ians f or t he p as t 2 0 y ears h as b een t o s o lve t he p rob le m o f t he r e la t ive c hronology o f t he N eo li th ic a nd Eneo l i th ic c u l tures i n t h is p ar t o f S ou th-eas tern E urope . The ir e f for ts h ave b een s uccess fu l a nd n ow t he r e la t ive c hrono logy o f t he N eo l i th ic a nd Eneo l i th ic c u l tures i n Bu lgar ia h as b een e s tabl ished i n i t s ma in l ines .

An umber o f

emp ty s paces o n t he map o f p reh is tor ic Bu lgar ia a nd many g aps i n t he c hronol og ica l c o lu mn o f t he c u l tures o f i nd iv idua l r eg ions h ave b een f i l led .

R egard-

l ess o f t he f act t ha t t he p roble m h as b een o n ly p ar t ia l ly s o lved f or c er ta in p ar ts o f t he c oun try ( Sou th-wes tern Bu lgar ia , t he Rhodopes , e tc .) , t he g enera l p ict ure o f d eve lop men ts d ur ing t he 5 th a nd i n t he e ar ly 4 th mi l lenn ia B .C . h as emerged q u i te c lear ly ( t ab le 1 ) . I ti s n ecessary t o s tress h ere t he g rea t impor tance o f t he s tra t igraphy o f t he s e t t le men t mo tmds f or t he s uccess fu l s o lu t ion o f t h is c o mpl ica ted p roble m wh ich h as p resen ted d i f f icu l t ies t o g enera t ions o f a rchaeo log is ts i n t hose c ount r ies where t here a re n o s i tes o f s uper i mposed l evels o f b u i ld ing.

Bu lgar ia h as

b een f or tuna te i n t h is r espec t , a s t he s tra t igraphy o f t he s e t t le men t mounds h as d isc losed , a f ter p a ins tak ing , me thod ica l s tud ies , af a ir p ic ture o f t he r ela t ive c hrono logy o f t he c u l tures . Thus , f or i ns tance , t he Karanovo c hron o log ica l c o lu mn h as s hed l igh t o n t he c hrono logy o f t he Eneo l i th ic i n Thrace . The miss ing l inks o f t he E ar ly Eneo li th ic 5 1

a nd t he f ina l p hase o f t he L a te

Eneo l i th ic h ave b een s upp l ied b y t he i nves t iga t ion o f t he A z mashka s e t t le men t mound 5 2 a nd o f t he s e t t le men t mound n o t f ar f ro m t he S tara Z agora minera l b a ths .

5 3

Thus s upp le men ted , t h is c hronolog ica l c har t s erves a s ap oin t o f

d epar ture i n t he s o lu t ion o f t he much more c o mp l ica ted c hrono log ica l a nd s tra t igraph ic p roble ms o f n e ighbour ing t err i tor ies .

F or n owhere e lse i n

Europe , w i th t he e xcept ion o f G reece a nd Yugos lav ia , d oes o ne c o me a cross s et t le men ts w i th s o many l eve ls o f b u ild ing a nd s uch a l ong p er iod o f o ccupat ion a s i n Thrace .

Qu i te a f ew E neo l i th ic s i tes o f s uper i mposed l ayers o f t he s e t t le-

men t- mound t ype a lso o ccur i n N or th-eas tern Bu lgar ia a nd i n t he L ongoz , where s im i lar ly f avourable c ond i t ions a re a t h and f or e s tabl ish ing t he r e la t ive c hrono logy o f t h is p er iod .

D i f f icu l t ies a r ise o n ly i n d e ter m in ing t he o r ig ins

o f t he E neo li th ic , s ince t he v es t iges o f e ar l ier p er iods i n t h is a rea a re n o t t o b e f ound i n s e t t le men t mounds , b u t o n p la teaux .

The p rob le m , t here fore ,

i s b eing s o lved w i th t he a id o f c o mpara tive d a ta o f fered b y t he K aranovo c har t a nd o ther r e la ted s tra t igraph ic s i tua t ions i n t he E thnocu l tura l Area o f t he Thrac ian Eneo l i th ic .

The d i f f icu l t ies h ere w i l l b e d iscussed l a ter when t he

c oncre te p rob le ms o f t hese a reas a re e xa m ined . The s i tua t ion i n N or th-wes tern Bu lgar ia i s s t i l l more c o mp l ica ted .

As

p rev ious ly men t ioned , t rue to-type s e t t le men t mounds h ere a re f ew a nd f ar

1 5

b e tween .

I ti s o n ly f ro m t he L a te Eneo l i th ic t ha t t here a re s i tes w i th s evera l

b u i ld ing l eve ls wh ich a re n o t d iss im i lar i n s truc ture t o s e t t le men t mounds . Un for tuna te ly , t heir l ayers a re n o t t h ick , t hey h ave b een i nadequa te ly s tud ied a nd c anno t g ive a f u l l i dea o f t he r e la t ive c hrono logy o f t he Eneo l i th ic h ere . S evera l E ar ly Eneo l i th ic s i tes s i tua ted o n p la teaux 5 4 h ave b een t horough ly , ' i nves tiga ted .

The ir r e la t ive c hrono logy h as b een e s tabl ished w i th t he a id o f

h or izon ta l s tra t igraphy a nd a c o mpar ison w i th t he K aranovo c har t . f or tuna te t ha t t he ma ter ia l o b ta ined

I t was

c a me f ro m r e la ted c u l tura l c o mp lhxes ,

f aci l i ta t ing i n t h is way t he p rocess o f i nves t iga t ion .

H owever , we a re n o t y e t

a cqua in ted w i th a l l t he s tages o f t he Eneo l i th ic i n t h is a rea wh ich h ave t he ir o ppos i te n umbers i n t he Thrac ian c hrono log ica l c o lumn ; t he M idd le Eneo l i th ic .

s uch i s , f or i ns tance ,

Fur ther s tudy a nd r esearch w i l l g radua l ly f i l l t he emp ty

s paces i n t he c hrono logy o f N or th-wes tern B u lgar ia . Da ta o n t he r ela t ive c hrono logy , a nd e specia l ly t hose o b ta ined w i th t he a id o f t he c o mpara t ive me thod , s hou ld b e c hecked b y t he a rchaeo magne t ic me tho .5 5 Two c oeva l s e t t le men ts s hou ld y ield i den t ica l i n for ma t ion o n t he i n tens i ty , d ecl ina t ion a nd i nc l ina t ion o f t he e ar th 's magne t ic f i e ld .

I ft he i ndices d o n o t

t a l ly , d oubts may a r ise a s t o t he r esu l ts o b ta ined b y t he c o mpara t ive me thod . T ab le 2 s hows t he a rchaeo magnet ic i nvest iga t ions made s o f ar o n Bu lgarian a nd Yugos lav p reh is tor ic s i tes , c on f ir m ing t he c on te mporane i ty o f g iven s tages i n t he l i fe o f s e t t le men ts . The p rob le ms r e la ted t o t he a bso lu te c hrono logy o f t he Eneo li th ic f inds i n Bu lg ar ia a re s o lved w i th t he a id o f t he r adiocarbon ( C14 ) , d endrochrono log ica l a nd c o mpara t ive me thods .

More t han 1 00 d a t ings o b tained i n t he l abora tory

o f t he G er man Acade my o f S c iences i n B er l in o n c arbon s a mp les f ro m t he E thnocu l tura l Area o f t he Thracian Eneo l i th ic , make i tp oss ib le t o d eter m ine i n t he ir g enera l o u t l ine t he c hrono log ica l marg ins o f t he Bu lgar ian Eneo l i th ic , a s we l l a s t o f ind i t s p lace among c oeva l e thnocu l tura l p heno mena i n t he O ld Wor ld .

5 6

A f ter t he d endrochrono log ica l me thod was a dop ted , i tb eca me e v i-

d en t t ha t Eneo l i th ic d a tes o b ta ined b y t he C 14 me thod n eeded a n a pprec iab le c a l ibra t ion i n o rder t o b e b rough t i n l ine w i th c a lendar d a tes .

5 7

Th is c a l i-

b ra t ion f or t he p er iod u nder d iscuss ion i s o f b e tween 8 00 a nd 1 000 y ears , wh ich s ends t he B u lgar ian Eneo l i th ic f ur ther b ack i n to a n t iqui ty .

Bu t c a l ibra-

t ion d oes n o t n ecessar i ly e l im ina te t he g eophys ica l a no ma l ies a nd o ther i nacc uracies o f t he C 14 me thod .

I ti s t o b e r egre t ted t ha t p recise ly d ur ing t he

Eneo li th ic t hese a no ma l ies were e specia l ly p ronounced a nd , b ecause o f t h is , t he d a tes o bta ined may o n ly b e v iewed a s t en ta t ive .

Tab le 3 g ives s evera l

d a tes f ro m t he E thnocu l tura l a rea o f t he Thrac ian E neo li th ic o btained b y t he C 14 me thod a nd t heir c a l ibra t ion a ccord ing t o t he t ab le o f P ro fessor H ans S uess . The d a ta o b tained w i th t he a id o f t he s tra t igraph ic , c o mpara t ive , a rchaeomagne t ic , r ad iocarbon a nd d endrochrono log ica l methods h ave e nabled a rcha eo log is ts t o g e t ac lear p ic ture o f t he c hrono logy o f t he Eneo l i th ic c u l tures b y e thn ic r eg ions . T he S tone-Copper Age i s s ubd iv ided i n to t hree c lear ly d e f ined s uccess ive p er iods - E ar ly , M idd le a nd L a te , e ach o f wh ich h ad a d i f feren t t ime s pan a nd a t ta ined d i f feren t c u l tura l l eve ls i n t he v ar ious p ar ts o f t he c oun try , a s s hown o n t ab le 1 .

I n t he f ina l s tages o f t he L a te N eo li th ic

Karanovo I V - Ka loyanovets c u l ture a nd i t s p ara l le l p heno mena , t here a ppeared t he f irs t s y mp to ms o f t he E ar ly Eneo l i th ic c u l tures o f Mar i tsa , S ava , G rades hn i tsa , P o lyan i tsa , e tc .

The ir mos t s tr ik ing f ea ture i s t he i nc ised p o t tery 1 6

a nd a lso t he p resence o f p o t tery w i th p a in ted g raph i te o rna men ts .

Th is i s t he

e ar l ies t Eneo l i th ic c o mp lex i n E urope w i th f inds o f p a in ted p ot tery a nd may j us t i f iab ly b e c a l led t he f orerunner o f t he p a in ted p ot tery c u l tures i n t h is p ar t o f t he wor ld .

The o ther g enera l c harac ter is t ic o f t he E ar ly Eneo l i th ic c u l tures

-i nc ised a nd r ed-or-wh i te e ncrus ted p o t tery - i s n o t c on f ined t o t h is a rea , b u t i s me t w i th i n a l l c oeva l p reh is tor ic c u l tures o f S ou th-eas tern E urope ( Bo ian-V idra , Tr ipo l ie A , P recucu ten i , e tc .). I t s hou ld b e p oin ted o u t , h owever , t ha t t he f ea tures t hey s hare i n c o m mon , f ind a d i f feren t e xpress ion i n e ach i nd iv idua l c u l ture .

S o much s o t ha t t he g enera l t ypolog ica l a spec t o f

e ach o ne o f t he m i s u n ique a nd i n im i table , a nd t h is may b e t aken a s a n i nd icat ion t ha t t he a reas were t o al arge e x ten t c losed u n i ts . The p ic ture r e ma ined u nchanged u p t o t he Midd le Eneo l i th ic , wh ich was a c o mpara t ive ly s hor t t rans i t iona l s tage l ead ing t o t he L a te Eneo l i th ic . Th is s tage i nc ludes t he f our th a nd f ina l p hases o f t he E ar ly E neo l i th ic c u l tures . I tp rac t ica l ly d oes n o t o ccur i n N or th-wes tern Bu lgar ia .

Dur ing t h is t rans i-

t iona l s tage t he i nc ised o rna men t g radua l ly d isappeared a nd t he l inear g raph i te o rna men t c hanged i n to i t s e xac t o ppos i te - t he n ega t ive g raph i te o rn a men t .5 8 An u mber o f o ther E ar ly E neo l i th ic p heno mena , s o me o f t he m i nher i ted f ro m t he L a te N eo li th ic c u l tures , a lso d isappeared .

The p rocesses o f c u l tura l

i n tegra t ion b e tween t he i nd iv idua l e thnocu l tura l r eg ions d ur ing t he M idd le Eneol i th ic may b e f o l lowed u p w i thou t much d i f f icu l ty .

As a r esu l t o f t hese

p rocesses t he s tr ik ing i ndiv idua l i ty o f c harac ter o f t he e ar l ier c u l tures i s o bscured .

The e nd r esu l t was t he f or ma t ion a t t he o u tse t o f t he L a te Eneo l i th ic

o f t hree impor tan t e thno-cu l tura l a reas o f t he K r ivodo l-Sa lcuta , t he Kod jader menG u me ln i4a-Karanovo V I a nd t he Varna c u l tures , wh ich r ep laced t he a bovemen t ioned s ix o r more E ar ly Eneo li th ic c o mplexes . The u pper c hrono log ica l marg in o f t he Bu lgar ian Eneo l i th ic c orresponds t o t he e nd o f p hase I I o f t he K od jader men-Gumeln4a-Karanovo V I ( end o f p hase B I a ccord ing t o V lad im ir Du m i trescu )

a nd t he Kr ivodo l-Sa lcu tia .I I c u l tures .

N o l a ter ma ter ia l t han t he a bove- men t ioned c u l tures h as c o me t o l igh t i n t he c u l tura l l ayers a t t he s i tes n ear R ouss, t he S tara Z agora minera l b a ths , G o lya mo D e lchevo , Z am ine ts a nd e lsewhere i n B u lgar ia , a nd i n C asc ioare le , G l ina , C eo lane t i , S a lcu t,a I I a nd e lsewhere i n Ru man ia . Bu lgar ia h ad a t ime s pan o f a bou t 1 000 y ears .

The Eneo l i th ic i n

I n t ha t t ime a n a verage o f 9 .10

m o f c u l tura l l ayers were f or med i n Thrace , w i th a n a verage o f 1 .30 m p er p hase o r 0 .91 cm ( 1 cm ) ay ear . F or t he s a me p er iod i n N or th-eas tern Bu lgar ia a nd t he B lack s ea c oas t , 8 .90 m o f c u l tura l l ayers were f or med w i th a n a verage o f 1 .28 m p er p hase o r 0 .90 cm ( 1 cm ) p er y ear . I n N or th-wes tern Bu lgar ia t he t h ickness i s 0 .80 m p er p hase ( t able 4 ) . The a verage s ta t is t ica l d a ta f or t he t h ickness o f t he c u l tura l l ayers make i tf a ir ly p oss ib le t o c a lcu la te t he t ime n eeded f or t he f or ma t ion o f s uch s tra ta . Thus , f or i ns tance , t he 4 .60 m t h ick c u l tura l l ayer o f t he V in i tsa s e t t le men t mound i n S hou men d is tr ic t5 9 w as f or med i n t he c ourse o f 4 60 y ears , wh ich i s q u i te f eas ib le f or t he d ura t ion o f h u man a c t iv i ty a t t ha t p ar t icu lar s i te . The p rob le m o f p os t-Eneo l i th ic d eve lop men ts i n t he B u lgar ian l ands may a lso b e a scer ta ined w i th a ccuracy f ro m t he p oin t o f v iew o f a bso lu te c hrono logy.

1 7

The s ubsequen t t rans i t iona l p er iod o f Bu lgar ian p reh is tory , wh ich p red a ted t he B ronze Age , h as b are ly b een s tud ied .

I ti s i mposs ib le , t here fore ,

t o g ive i tas a t is fac tory c harac ter is t ic f ro m a s oc io-econo m ic p o in t o f v iew. I t s c hrono log ica l p lace a nd s pan , h owever , h ave b een q u i te a dequa te ly d e termined b y at er m inus p os t q ue m s e t a t t he e nd o f t he K od jader men-Gume ln t 5aK aranovo V I c u l ture , a nd a t er m inus a n te q ue m s et e ar ly i n t he B ronze Age . The d ura t ion o f t h is t rans i t iona l p er iod was c ons iderable . As i ti s s andw iched b e tween t wo r ich a nd we l l i nves t iga ted p er iods a nd h as p roduced r a ther i ndi ff eren t ma ter ia l , i th as f ai led u n t i l r ecen t ly t o a t trac t t he a t ten t ion o f r esearchers . I t s s tudy , h owever , w ou ld n o d oubt c on tr ibu te b o th t o a scer ta in ing t he c auses f or t he s udden d isappearance o f t he s p lend id Eneo l i th ic c iv i l isa t ions i n B u lg ar ia a nd t o e s tabl ish ing t he o r ig ins o f t he Thrac ians . The o verwhel m ing n u mber o f Eneo l i th ic r e l ics i n B u lgar ia h ave b een r ec overed f ro m s e t t le men t mounds .

Th is i s t o b e e xp la ined b y t he f ac t t ha t

t he r eg ions b es t s tud ied f ro m t he a rchaeo log ica l p o in t o f v iew a re Thrace a nd N or th-eas tern Bu lgar ia , b o th o f wh ich b e long t o t he c lass ica l a rea o f s e t t lemen t mounds . o n map 2 .

The l oca t ion o f s e t t le men t mounds i n B u lgar ia may b e s tud ied

They o ccupied t he mos t f er t i le p ar ts o f t he c oun try , where t here

h ave a lways b een o pt i ma l c ond i t ions f or f ar m ing a nd , h ence , f or s e t t led l i fe . The t err i tory o f t he Eneo l i th ic s e t t le men t mounds s tretches a s f ar n or th a s t he s ou thern f oo th i l ls o f t he C arpa th ians .

I t s wes tern b oundary f o l lows t he

c ourse o f t he O l t a nd R oss i tsa r ivers a nd , c ross ing t he B a lkan R ange , r eaches P azard jik d is tr ic t .

T he Rhodopes h em i n t he a rea t o t he s ou th , b u t s e t t le men t

mounds c on tain ing r e l ics t ha t a re r e ferred t o t he T hracian Eneo l i th ic a re me t w i th i n Aegean Thrace ;

s o i n a c tua l f ac t t he s ou thern b oundary g oes d own a s

f ar a s t he s hore o f t he Aegean .

The e as tern b oundary f o l lows t he r igh t b ank

o f t he P ru t , a vo ids t he D obroud ja s teppes a nd r eaches t he S trand ja Moun ta ins a long t he S i l is tra-Dou lovo-Provadia-Bourgas l i ne .

The s can ty i n for ma t ion

we h ave f ro m European Turkey wh ich h as b een v ery i nadequa te ly s tud ied , s ugges ts t ha t t h is r eg ion was a lso a c o mponen t p ar t o f t he g rea t a rea u nder r ev iew . N o t a l l t he s e t t le men t mounds o n t h is v as t t err i tory c a me i n to b e ing s i mu lt aneous ly .

The e ar l ies t a re s o me o f t he s e t t le men t mounds i n Thrace a nd t he

s ou thern f oo th i l ls o f t he B a lkan R ange wh ich a ppeared i n t he E ar ly N eo l i th ic . S uch a re t he Karanovo Ia nd t he C havdar-Kre m ikov ts i c u l tures ( Karanovo , A z mashka mound , K ap i tan-D im i tr ievo , e tc .)

T he s e t t le men t mounds i n

Aegean Thrace made t he ir a ppearance d ur ing t he M idd le Eneo l i th ic ( t he V esse l inovo-Parad im i c u l ture ) , wh i le w i th a f ew e xcep t ions t hose i n N or the as tern B u lgar ia a nd Ruman ia a rose i n t he E ar ly E neo l i th ic .

A l arge p ar t

o f t he sma l ler s e t t le men t mounds i n Thrace d a te b ack t o t he s a me p er iod ( map 2 ) .

These f ac ts a re s ign i f ican t f or t he c orrec t i n terpre ta t ion o f t he

h is tor ica l p rocesses i n t h is p ar t o f t he wor ld .

One i s i nc l ined t o l ink t he m

w i th a c er ta in e cono m ic l ag i n t he n or thern r eg ions a nd w i th d i f ferences o f a n e thn ic a nd s truc tura l n a ture b e tween t he d i f feren t c u l tures . The v ery f irs t s e t t le men t mounds a ppeared i n H i ther As ia i n t he a cera m ic Neo li th ic . The p rac t ice was c arr ied o ver t o S ou th-eas tern Europe w i th t he i n troduc t ion o f p roduc t ion-or ien ted e cono my a nd was f irs t a dop ted i n T hessa ly a nd Thrace a t t he e nd o f t he 7 th mi l lenn iu m B . C .

1 8

H ydro-geograph ic c ond i t ions t o t he n or th o f t he B a lkan R ange a re r a ther d i f feren t f ro m t hose o bta in ing i n Thrace a nd b ecause o f t h is t he n umerous N eol i th ic p opu la t ion t here b u i l t o ther e cono m ic s truc tures .

Wha t i s more ,

i t s t rad i t ions i n s e t t le men t f or ma t ion were t o a l l a ppearances d i f feren t f ro m t hose o f t he i nhab i tan ts o f T hrace . I t wou ld s ee m t ha t t he l ow lands i n t he n or thern c oun try w ere p er manen t ly f looded d ur ing t he N eo l i th ic a nd c onseq uen t ly u nsu i tab le f or e xp lo i ta t ion .

F ar m ing was d one o n t he p la teaux where

s e t t le men ts o f t he o pen t ype h ad s prung u p b u t n ever b eca me s e t t le men t mounds . The p ic ture c hanged r ad ica l ly i n t he E ar ly E neo l i th ic when t he p opu la t ion d eser ted t he p la teaux t o s e t t le b y o r o n f looded t erraces a nd , i t wou ld a ppear , b egan t o t i l l t he m . F ro m t he t opograph ica l p o in t o f v iew t here were t hree t ypes o f s e t t le men t mounds i n t h is r eg ion : a ) o n marshy g round o n a sma l l i s land o r p ro mon tory ( i n 5 0 p er c en t o f t he c ases ) ; b ) o n ar iver b ank s urrounded b y g u l l ies ( i n 2 6 p er c en t o f t he c ases ) ; c ) o n af ore land s urrounded b y g u l l ies a nd r av ines n ear a s pr ing i n t he f oo th i l ls o f t he B a lkan R ange ( i n 2 0 p er c en t o f t he c ases ) ; d ) o ther c ases ( 4p er c en t ) . The c hanged t opography o f t he E ar ly Eneo l i th ic s e t t le men ts n or th o f t he Ba lkan R ange may b e e xp la ined b y c hanges i n t he c l i ma te ; d r ier a nd t he f l ooded l and , u sab le .

i th ad b eco me

T he o vera l l p rogress o f Eneo l i th ic e cono my

a nd t he u se o f t he f orked p o le i n p lough ing mus t s ure ly h ave p layed a n i mp or tan t r o le i n t h is r espec t t oo .

I t was o n ly i n t h is p er iod t ha t s oc io-econo m ic

c ond i t ions i n T hrace a nd N or th-eas tern Bu lgar ia were l eve l led o f f , af ac t n o d oubt d ue t o t he b enef ic ia l i n f luence o f t he more a dvanced s ou thern a rea . Th is i n f luence was e spec ia l ly p ronounced i n h ouse-bu i ld ing , wh ich b orrowed i ts f or ms s tra igh t f ro m Thrace . Wha t h as b een s a id a bove makes i tp la in t ha t s e t t le men t mounds i n N or the as tern B u lgar ia a ppeared o n ly a s l a te a s t he Eneo l i th ic . The p hases o f o ccupa t ion i n t he s e t t le men t mounds a re n ot u n in terrupted . I n s o me o f t he m , l ong p er iods o f u p t o 3 00 y ears o r more o f s e t t led l i fe o n o ne a nd t he s a me s i te may b e o bserved ( t he P o lyan i tsa 6 ° a nd Ovcharovo 6 1 s e t t le men t mounds i n Turgov ish te d is tr ic t a nd t he G olya mo De lchevo 62 s e t t lemen t mound i n V arna d is tr ic t ) , b u t p rac t ica l ly e verywhere i n terrup t ions may a lso b e o bserved , a nd t hese a re mos t o f ten s tra t igraph ica l ly i ndis t ingu ishab le . The i n terrup t ions were n o t a lways c aused b y e x terna l f ac tors s uch a s f ires o r e ne my a t tacks .

A t s o me s i tes t he i nhabi tan ts l e f t t he ir h o mes b ecause o f

e cono m ic o r r e l ig ious c ons idera t ions , s ince t hey h ad b een a ble t o t ake w i th t he m a l l t heir movables . r esu med .

A f ter a wh i le l i fe o n t he s e t t le men t mounds was

The p resence , d ura t ion a nd c on ten t o f t he h ia tuses o n s i tes w i th

many l eve ls o f b u i ld ing i s e s tabl ished w i th t he a id o f t he c o mpara t ive method e ven i nt hose r are c ases when t he i n terrup t ion i s o bservab le i n t he o b jec t ive s tra t igraph ic s i tua t ion a s we l l . Thus , f or i ns tance , t he h ia tus b e tween l ayers I V a nd V o f t he K aranovo mound was a scer ta ined a s l a te a s 1 961 a f ter

1 9

e xcava t ions a t t he A z mashka mound , a nd t he v o lume a nd c on ten t o f t he h ia tus b e tween l ayers V I a nd V I I , a f ter r esearch o n t he E ar ly B ronze Age i n t he s e t t le men t mound a t E zero , av i l lage n ear N ova Z agora .

The t h ickness o f

t he Eneo l i th ic l ayers i n t he v ar ious s e t t le men t mounds i s b e tween 1 a nd 9 m ( Karanovo :

6 .60 m , B anya ta :

7 .50 m , B ikovo :

8 .50 m , e tc .)

Many o f

t he mounds were s et t led d ur ing t he Eneo l i th ic o n ly , wh i le i n o thers a c t iv i t ies c a me t o a n e nd i n t ha t s a me p er iod . The t o ta l n u mber o f t he r ecorded E neo l i th ic mounds i s 4 88 ( map 3 ) . N ear ly 1 0 p er c en t o f t he m h ave b een p ar t ia l ly r esearched b y v ar ious s ound ings ( map 4 , t ab les 5 , 6 ) . Modern s tra t igraph ic i nves t iga t ions o ver t he e n t ire s ur face o f as e t t le men t a nd d own t o b ase h ave b een c arr ied o u t o n s ix s i tes : t he A z mashka mound , a n i tsa 6 7

C ha ta lka ,

6 3

a nd Ovcharovo .

6 8

6 4

V in i tsa ,

6 5

G o lya mo D e lchevo ,

6 6

P o ly-

A l l o f t he m c on ta in i mpress ive Eneo l i th ic l ayers ,

wh ich h ave g rea t ly c on tr ibu ted t o t he s tudy o f t he p er iod i n B u lgar ia . I na dd i t ion t o t he s e t t le men t mounds , t here a re o ther E neo li th ic s i tes i n t he ir a rea p roper .

S uch a re , f or e xa mp le , t he E neo l i th ic n ecropo l ises ( map

5 ) , wh ich a re a n ecessary a d junc t o f a l l s e t t le men ts i n N or th-eas tern B u lgar ia ( V in i tsa ,

L i lyak ,

6 9

7 0

G o lya mo D e lchevo ,

7 1

D evnya ,

e tc .).

7 2

The n ecropo l ises

o f t he Eneo li th ic s et t le men ts i n Thrace h ave y e t t o b e d iscovered . Ano ther k ind o f s i tes a re t he s o c a l led o pen s e t t le men ts .

Their c u l tura l

l ayer i s t h in a nd t hey a re s i tua ted o n n a tura l ly f or ti f ied e leva t ions .

Un for-

t una te ly n o t o ne o f t he m h as b een s ys te ma t ica l ly i nves t iga ted . Traces o f l i fe d a t ing b ack t o t he Eneo l i th ic may b e o bserved i n t he c aves o f t he B a lkan R ange a nd t he Rhodopes ( Madara , S hou men d is tr ic t , D eve tashka c ave , L ovech d is tr ic t , Yagod ino , Smo lyan d is tr ic t ,

7 5

7 4

7 3

t he

Ima mova D oupka n ear t he v i l lage o f

R ash n ear Tr igrad , a lso i n Smo lyan d is tr ic t ) .

There a re n o Eneo li th ic s e t t le men ts i n t he s teppes o f t he D obroud ja .

H ere

t he p opu la tion i nvar iably s e t t led i n c lose p rox im i ty t o wa ter s ources — t he k ars t ic s pr ings a nd t he l agoons . S habla l ake ,

7 6

a t P lach ido l ,

7 7

Eneo l i th ic s e t t le men ts o ccur n ear t he

D ourankou lak ,

7 8

e tc .

B ecause o f t he

f avourab le c l i ma t ic c ond i t ions , t he p opu la t ions d id n o t s e t t le f or l ong i n t hose p ar ts .

The t h in c u l tura l l ayer l i es o ver t he l oess a nd i s c overed b y t h ick

l oa m , ap roof t ha t t he s o i l i s o f p os t-Eneo l i th ic o r ig in . Many p i le dwe l l ings f ro m t he L a te Eneo l i th ic h ave c o me t o l igh t a t t he Varna l akes . ( Varna ,

8 0

7 9

R ich n ecropo lises were a lso d iscovered o n a d jacen t d ry l and

Devnya 8 1 ) .

There mus t h ave b een p i le d we l l ings i n o ther p ar ts

o f t he c oun try t oo , v ery p robab ly b y t he T ound ja n o t f ar f ro m Ya mbo l , o r a t t he B ourg a ,s l akes , a nd p oss ib ly i n t he L ower L ongoz . I n N or th-wes tern Bu lgar ia o ld p rac t ices i n s e t t le men t f or ma t ion w ere p reserved a l mos t u p t o t he e nd o f t he Eneo l i th ic .

The ma jor ity o f

s e t t le men ts were s i tua ted o n p lateaux ( Gradeshn i tsa 8 2 ) . h ave p rac t ica l ly n o s uperposed s tra ta .

T hese s e t t le men ts

As t ime wen t b y , t he p opu la t ion b u i l t

t he ir s e t t le men ts i n d i f feren t p ar ts o f t he s a me p la teau o r o n n e ighbour ing p la teaus , w i thou t d eser t ing t he t r iba l t err i tory .

On s uch a t err i tory a l l p hases

o f t he N eo l i th ic a nd t he Eneo l i th ic may b e t raced o n o ne a nd t he s a me l eve l a nd t he e f fec t i s v ery much l i ke t ha t o f ah or izon ta l ly a rranged s e t t le men t mound , t he o n ly d rawback b eing t ha t t h is h or izon ta l e vo lut ion o f t he s et t le men ts d epr ives a rchaeolog is ts o f t he s tra t igraph ic d a ta wh ich a s e t t le men t mound o f fers .

2 0

Dur ing t he L a te Eneo l i th ic , t he p opu la t ion i n N or th-wes tern Bu lgar ia s e t t led o n n a tura l ly f or t i f ied r ocky h e igh ts ( Oko lgrava ,

8 3

Kr ivodo l ,

where many s e t t le men ts o f t he mound t ype made t he ir a ppearance ;

8 4

e tc .) ,

t he ir

c u l tura l l ayers , h owever , n ever a t ta ined t he t h ickness o f t hose i n t he r ema in ing p ar ts o f t he c oun try . The t opography o f t he E neo l i th ic s e t t le men ts t es ti f ies t o ac o mpe ten t k nowl edge o f t he t erra in a nd i t s h ydro-geograph ic p ar t icu lar i t ies o n t he p ar t o f t he p opu la t ion , a s we l l a s t o i t s k een s ense o f t he e cono m ic p o ten t ia l o f t he t r iba l c o m mun i ty .

The p laces o f fer ing t he b es t p oss ible c ond i t ions were i nvar iably

c hosen . The c o mpac t ly s i tua ted s e t t le men ts ( a t p laces n o more t han 6 t o 7 km away f ro m o ne a no ther ) a rgue f or a s tr ic t a ppor t ionmen t o f t he t r iba l c o m mun i ty l ands a nd a r egu la ted way o f t he ir e xp lo i ta t ion . N o t a l l Eneo li th ic s e t t le men ts were i nhabi ted a t o ne a nd t he s a me t ime . The d a ta o n t ab le 7 s how t ha t u p t o 6 0 p er c en t o f t he s i tes were s i mu l taneous ly o ccup ied d ur ing a p hase . The s ta t is t ica l a na lys is o f t he p rocesses o f a ppearance , g row th a nd d isa ppearance o f t he i nd iv idua l s e t t le men ts d ur ing t he Eneo l i th ic h as made i t p oss ib le t o t race s o me i n teres t ing , l aw-governed d evelop men ts , wh ich a re g iven g raph ica l ly o n t ab les 8 , 9a nd 1 0. Table 1 0 s hows t hat t hese p rocesses were i n terconnec ted a nd d id n o t r un c oun ter t o t he g enera l t rends . The a na lys is s hows t he p u lsa t ing c ourse o f t he s e t t le men t f or ma t ion p roc esses , wh ich i s b es t i l lus tra ted o n t able 8where t hree c u lm ina t ion p o in ts a re n oted , o ne o f wh ich i s a t t he s tar t o f t he Eneo l i th ic .

Th is s erves t o i nd i-

c a te t ha t t he b earers o f t he Eneo l i th ic c u l tures f ur ther d eve loped a nd e x tended t he s e t t le men t s ys te m i nher i ted f ro m t he p rev ious s tages . A marked q ua l i ta t ive c hange i n t he s e t t le men t s ys te ms f ro m t he N eo li th ic t o t he Eneo li th ic i s o bservab le .

I n Thrace , f or i ns tance , t here i s ac hange

i n t he l oca t ion o f a l mos t a l l s e t t le men ts .

Table 7 s hows t ha t t here i s n o d irect

c on tinui ty b etween s e t t le men ts f ro m t he L a te N eo li th ic t o t he Eneo l i th ic i n a s ing le o ne o f t he i nves t iga ted s i tes . S im i lar b reaks may b e n oted i n t he r ema in ing p ar ts o f t he c oun try , b u t t here i s d is t inc t c on t inu i ty i n t he t ype o f t oo ls a nd o ther o b jec ts u sed .

The p rofound c hanges i n t he s et t le men t s ys te m

may b e e xp la ined b y t he s oc io-po l i t ica l t rans for ma t ions wh ich n ecess i ta ted t he f or t i fy ing o f s e t t le men ts , a nd a lso b y t he c ons iderab le d isp lace men t o f t he p opu la t ion b o th w i th in a nd o u ts ide t he t r iba l t err i tor ies . The s econd c u lm ina t ion p o in t i n t he d iagra m c o inc ides w i th t he p er iod o f t rans i t ion f ro m t he E ar ly t o t he L a te Eneo l i th ic . Th is was a t urbu len t p er iod i n t he p reh istory o f Bu lgar ia , w hen n u merous s ett le ments w ere d estroyed b y f ire .

Th is was e spec ia l ly t rue o f Thrace .

Dur ing t hose t roub led t imes a n

i n tens i f ica t ion o f t he s e t t le men t f or ma t ion p rocesses i s o bservab le i n N or the as tern Bu lgar ia . T o a l l a ppearances , i t was d ur ing o r a t t he e nd o f t h is p er iod t ha t t he t r ibes wh ich c arr ied t he t rad i t ions o f t he E thnocu l tura l a rea o f t he Thracian Eneo l i th ic m igra ted t o S ou thern B essarab ia .

The p ar t icu lar

f ea tures o f t he s e t t le men t f orma t ion p rocesses d ur ing t ha t p er iod may b e t aken a s ar e f lect ion o f c er ta in s h i f ts o f t he Eneo li th ic p opu la t ion f ro m t he s ou th t o t he n or th — d isp lace men t wh ich b egan e ar ly i n t he Eneo l i th ic a nd

2 1

r eached i t s c u lm ina t ion a t t ha t s a me s tage .

A t t he n ex t s tage , ap oin t o f

s tagna t ion i n t he s et t le men t f or ma t ion p rocesses was r eached f or t he who le o f t he E thnocu l tura l a rea o f t he Thrac ian Eneo l i th ic .

I ti s o bv ious t ha t , a f ter

t he c a tac lys ms , t he o ld s e t t le men ts , a s we l l a s t he n ew ly f ounded o nes , wen t t hrough a p rocess o f c onso l ida t ion . s e t t le men ts .

Taere was n o n eed t o f ound n ew

I n t he a dvanced s tages o f t he L a te Eneo l i th ic , t he s e t t le men t

f or ma t ion p rocesses were r ev ived .

I n a l l l i ke l ihood , t h is u psurge was d ue

t o t he me ta l b oo m a nd t he c u l tura l a dvance c onnec ted w i th i t . Tab le 9 e xp la ins t he d ec l ine o f t he s e t t le men ts d ur ing t he Eneo l i th ic .

As

o ne may s ee , as ign i f ican t n umber o f s e t t le men ts d isappeared n ear t he e nd o f t he e poch , wh i le 4 6 .6 p er c en t o f t he m s urv ived u p t o i t s f inal e nd. As f ar a s t he p os t-Eneo l i th ic d eve lop men t o f t he s e t t le men t s ys te m i s c oncerned , t races o f c on t inu i ty t o l a ter e pochs c an b e s een o n ly i n Thrace . N o im med ia te s tra tigraph ic s uperpos i t ion f ro m t he b eg inn ing o f t he E ar ly Bronze Age o ver t he l a tes t Eneo l i th ic h as b een d iscovered i n a ny i nves t iga ted s i te .

I n 7 3 .4 p er c en t o f t he c ases l i fe i n t he s e t t le men t mounds d id n o t l as t

b eyond t he Eneo l i th ic .

I n t he r e ma in ing 2 6 .6 p er c en t , t he B ronze Age i s

s epara ted f ro m t he l as t Eneo l i th ic s e t t le men t b y ah ia tus o f v ar ied d ura t ion ( t ab le 7 ) .

I tf o l lows f ro m t h is t ha t o ne c an h ard ly e xpec t t o f ind t races o f

l i fe i n t he s e t t le men t mounds i n Thrace d ur ing t he t rans i t iona l p er iod f ro m t he Eneo l i th ic t o t he B ronze Age .

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CHAPTER I V ANTHROPOLOG ICAL DATA ON THE ENEOL ITH IC POPULATION

A c ons iderab le amoun t o f t he a n thropo log ica l ma ter ia l amassed f ro m p reh is tor ic s i tes i n B u lgar ia , c o mes f ro m e xcava t ions o f Eneol i th ic n ecropo l ises . I to f fers i mpor tan t e v idence a s t o t he r ac ia l t ype o f t he p eop le who c rea ted t he Eneo l i th ic c u l tures i n B u lgar ia .

We h ave a t h and t oday t he r esu l ts f ro m

t he a n thropo log ica l s tud ies o f s ku l ls f ro m t he f o l low ing Eneo l i th ic s i tes :

t he

Deve tashka c ave — f ive s ku l ls s u i tab le f or me tr ic s tud ies , K oubra t — 1 1 s ku l ls , Roussg — 7 5 s ku l ls , L i lyak — o ne s ku l l , V in i tsa — o ne s ku l l , K od jader men — o ne s ku l l , G o lya mo De lchevo — f ive s ku l ls , a nd Devnya — t hree s ku l ls , o r at ota l o f 1 02 s ku l ls . O f t he t o ta l n umber o f i nves t ig a ted Eneo l i th ic a n thropo log ica l s a mp les , t he s ta te o f p reserva t ion o f 6 8 s ku l ls h as e nabled s cho lars t o d e ter m ine t he r ac ia l t ype o f t he i nd iv idua ls , a s we l l a s t he s ex a nd a ge i n a l l o f t he 1 02 c ases .

D a ta h ave b een a lso o bta ined a bou t t he a verage s ta ture a nd l i fe s pan

o f t he a du l t p opu la t ion .

I t s hou ld b e b orne i n mind , h owever , t ha t t he a bove-

men t ioned a n thropo log ica l f inds h ave b een e xcava ted f ro m s i tes t o t he n or th o f t he B a lkan R ange ;

t he ir p rovenance f ro m e thnocu l tura l a reas i s a s f ol lows :

f ro m N or th-wes tern Bu lgar ia — f ive s ku l ls , f ro m N or th-eas tern B u lgar ia — 8 9 , a nd f ro m t he B lack S ea l i t tora l — e igh t .

Th is c ons iderab le s hr ink ing o f

t he g eograph ic c on f ines o f t he a n thropo log ica l i n for ma t ion a t o ur d isposa l ma in ly t o t he n or th-eas tern p ar t o f t he c oun try e nhances t he s ign i f icance o f t he i n ferences f ro m t he s ta t is t ica l p rocess ing o f t he r espec t ive d a ta .

These

i n ferences , h owever , a re n o t a pp l icab le t o Thrace where n o a n thropo log ica l f inds f ro m t he Eneo l i th ic h ave y e t c o me t o l igh t . There a re e ssen t ia l d i f ferences b e tween t he E ar ly N eo l i th ic f inds i n Thrace a nd i n N or th-wes tern Bu lgar ia , a nd t hese d i f ferences were i n a l l l ike l ihood o f a n e thn ic c h arac ter a s we l l . Whereas E ar ly N eo l i th ic s ku l ls f ro m N or thwes tern Bu lgar ia a nd Wes tern R u man ia s how d is t inc t ive C ro- Magno id f ea tures ( t he f inds f ro m t he D eve tashka c ave ,

8 6

G radeshn i tsa ,

8 7

a nd G ura B ac iu lu j8 8 ) ,

t he N eo l i th ic s ku l ls i n Thrace a lready h ave p ronounced p ro to- Med i terranean a nd Med i terranean t rai ts ( t he f inds f ro m K azan luk 8 9 a nd e lsewhere ) . Th is e v idence s ugges ts e thn ic d i f ferences i n t he N eo l i th ic c u l tures t o t he n or th a nd s ou th o f t he B a lkan R ange , a l though t he sma l l n u mber o f e xa m ined N eo li th ic s ku l ls ( 1 1 i n a l l ) makes i t imposs ible t o d raw a ny d e f in i te c onclus ion , a l l t he more s o when t here i s n o N eo l ith ic a n thropo log ica l mater ial f ro m Nor the as tern Bu lg ar ia , wh i le t he E neo l i th ic c o mes ma in ly f ro m t here . A t p resen t t he a na lys is o f a va i lab le d a ta o n t he r acia l t ypes d ur ing t he N eo li th ic a nd Eneo l i th ic g ives t he f o l low ing p ic ture : Dur ing t he E ar ly N eol i th ic , t he C ro- Magno id r ac ia l t ype o ccurred i n N or th-wes tern Bu lgar ia , a nd t he p ro to- Med i terranean a nd t he Med i terranean i n Thrace .

2 3

I n t he Eneo li th ic

t he t wo l a t ter t ypes s pread n or th o f t he B a lkan R ange , ma in ly i n N or th-eas tern Bu lgar ia a nd Mun ten ia .

They a lso p ene tra ted i n to N or th-wes tern Bu lgar ia

where t he o lder , C ro- Magnoid t ype was p reserved t oo .

Th is p ic ture , t hough

s i mp l i f ied b ecause o f i nco mp le te a n thropo log ica l d a ta , h as b een c on f ir med a rchaeo log ica l ly b y t he p rocess o f d eve lop men t o f t he N eo l i th ic a nd Eneo l i th ic t r ibes .

Dur ing t he N eo l i th ic t he c o mp lexes i n N or th-eas tern Bu lgar ia s howed

an u mber o f f ea tures wh ich were t yp ica l o f t he L ower Danubian r eg ion a nd o f t he c u l tures f ur ther t o t he n or th . S uch were t he d ug-ou ts , micro l i ths a nd t rapezes t ha t were v ery much d iss im i lar f ro m t he Thracian N eo l i th ic , whose a spec t was d ec ided ly s ou thern i n c harac ter . E ar ly i n t he Eneo l i th ic , h owever , c on t ingen ts o f p eop le migra ted f ro m Thrace t o N or th-eas tern Bu lgar ia a nd t he t wo a reas g radua l ly a ssumed t he s a me c u l tura l a spec t . The d is tr ibu t ion o f t he v ar ious r acia l t ypes i n N or th-eas tern B u lgar ia may b e s een o n t able 1 1. I ti s a pparen t t ha t d ur ing t he Eneo li th ic t he D inar ic a nd D inaro- Med i terranean t ypes were p reva len t among t he p opu la t ion ; t hey f or med a c o mpac t r ac ia l g roup t oge ther w i th t he Med i terranean a nd p ro to- Med i terranean t ypes .

S ku l ls w i th

C ro- Magno id f ea tures o ccur r are ly . An thropo log ica l r esearch i n t he p as t t wo d ecades h as s hown t ha t t he p rotoMed i terranean r ac ia l t ype p robab ly o r ig ina ted d ur ing t he N eo l i th ic a s as ou thern v ar ian t o f t he C ro- Magnon s tra in .

As a r esu l t o f l oca l d eve lop men t , t he p roto-

Med i terranean t ype b eca me more g raci le g iv ing r ise t o t he Med i terranean . The g raci le Med i terranean a nd t he d i f feren t D inar ic t ypes e vo lved 9 ° d ur ing t he Eneo l i th ic i n t he mids t o f Med i terranean a nd p ro to- Med i terranean s tra ins ( t ab le 1 3 ) . The p rogress ive g rac i le a nd b rachycepha l ic d eve lop men t o f t he Eneo li th ic p opu la t ion may b e c lear ly s een i n t he d iagra m o f t he c ran ia f ro m t he N eo l i th ic a nd Eneo l i th ic ( t ab le 1 2 ) . The Med i terranean s tock was t yp ica l o f t he E neo li th ic p opu la t ion n o t o n ly i n Bu lgar ia , b u t a lso i n Mun ten ia , Mo ldav ia a nd S ou thern U kra ine .

F ur ther

t o t he n or th , h owever , t he p ercen tage o f t he p ro to-European s train i ncreased a s o ne a pproached t he a rea o f t he Dn ieper-Done ts c u l ture 9 1 where i tp red om ina ted .

Th is s a me t ype a lso p reva i led i n t he S ou thern R uss ian s teppes .

I n Bu lgar ia a c er ta in d ev ia t ion f ro m t he g enera l a n thropo log ica l c haract er is t ics o f t he Eneo l i th ic p opu la t ion i s t o b e n oted o n t he B lack S ea c oas t , where t he Med i terranean s tock was a r ar i ty .

I ns tead we s ee a h igh p ercen-

t age o f p ro to-European ( Cro- Magnoid ) r ac ia l t ypes , a s we l l a s t he ir g raci l is a t ion ( t ab le 1 4 ) . Th is c oinc ides w i th t he a rchaeo log ica l d a ta , wh ich , o n t he o ne h and , emphas ise t he s peci f ic e thnocu l tura l a spec t o f t he r eg ion a nd , o n t he o ther , p o in t t o i n tens ive c on tac ts w i th t he n or thern r eg ions , wh ich were t he a rea o f d is tr ibu t ion o f t he p ro to-European r ac ia l t ypes . The t wo e thn ica l ly d i f feren t N eol i th ic c o mponen ts — t he c u l tures o f Ousso6 a nd Ha mang ia — f ro m wh ich t he l oca l Eneo l i th ic p opu la t ion e vo lved , s hou ld b e a lso b orne i n mind . f requen t9 2

The C ro- Magno id — p ro to-European s tra ins a re n o t i n-

i n t he n ecropo lises o f t he l a ter c u l ture .

2 4

The b as ic r ac ia l t ype o f t he Eneo l i th ic i n Bu lgar ia was n o t f ree o f o u ts ide i n f i l tra t ions , s uch a s t he N ord ic a nd o ther s tra ins , wh ich were t he r esu l t o f b r isk c on tac ts b e tween t he v ar ious e thnocu l tura l a reas .

Th is wou ld s ugges t

t ha t t here mus t h ave b een move men ts f ro m n or th t o s ou th a s we l l .

These

r everse move men ts , h owever , t ook p lace c ons iderab ly l a ter a nd a rchaeolog ica l f inds h e lp t o p lace t he m a t t he c lose o f t he Eneo l i th ic . The a n thropo log ica l ma ter ia l h as a lso e nabled s cho lars t o f or m a n o pin ion a bou t t he a ppearance o f t he Eneo l i th ic p opu la t ion .

The a bove- men t ioned

r ac ia l t ypes o ccur t o t h is d ay i n Bu lgar ia , w i th t he D inaroid a nd Med i terranean t ypes r e ta in ing t he ir p lace o f p ro m inence 93

( t able 1 2 ).

The N ord ic s tra in

a lso o ccurs , b u t i n ah igher p ercen tage 9 4 t han i n t he r e mo te p as t .

One wou ld

n o t b e f ar wrong i n s aying t ha t t he a ppearance o f t he Eneo l i th ic p opu la t ion was q u i te c lose a nd i n many c ases i den t ica l t o t ha t o f t he p resen t i nhabi tan ts o f t he c oun try .

And t h is i s i mportan t e v idence i n s upport o f t he t heory o f

t he I ndo-European o r ig in o f t he Eneo l i th ic p opu la t ion i n o ur l ands .

9 5

S tud ies o f t he a verage s ta ture o f t he a du l t Eneo l i th ic p opu la t ion s how i t s i nd ices t o b e l ower t han t hose o f t he p opu la t ion t oday : a ge

wo men

men

a verage

, La te Eneo l i th ic

a pprox . 1 56 cm

a pprox . 1 68 cm

a pprox . 1 62 cm

Today

1 57.97 cm

1 70 .63 cm

1 64 .30 cm

c a . 1 901

1 55 .70 cm

1 65 .60 cm

1 60 .60 cm

The a verage l i fe e xpec tancy o f t he Eneo l i th ic p opu la tion i n Bu lgar ia i s g iven o n t ab le 1 5 . I t s hou ld b e n o ted h ere t ha t n o b ur ia ls o f c h i ldren u nder t he a ge o f s ix o r s even h ave b een f ound , t ha t i s t o s ay t here i s o n ly i n for ma t ion o n t he a verage l i fe e xpec tancy o f t he a b lebod ied p opu la t ion , wh ich a lone was h onoured b y b ur ia l i n t he n ecropo l ises . q u ity ,

B u t k now ing t ha t i n fan t mor ta li ty was h igh i n a n t i-

i ti s p oss ib le t o e s tab l ish w i th a g ood d egree o f p robabi l i ty i t s r a te b y

p ro long ing t he r espec t ive mor ta l i ty v ec tor a long a n a scend ing l ine .

The

a ccuracy o f t h is me thod h as b een c on f ir med b y d a ta o n c hi ld mor ta l i ty o bta ined f ro m a n umber o f l a ter n ecropo l ises , f or i ns tance , t ha t o f D evnya 9 6 f ro m t he 9 th a nd 1 0 th c en tur ies , t ha t o f Kavarna 9 7 f ro m t he 1 4 th a nd 1 7th c en tur ies , e tc . I nt he l a t ter , c h i ldren 's b ur ia ls c ons t i tu te more t han 5 0 p er c en t o f t he t o ta l . Dur ing t he Eneo l i th ic a r e la t ive ly l ow mor ta l i ty r a te e x is ted f or t he p opul a t ion a ged b e tween 1 0 a nd 1 5 , a f ter wh ich i tc on t inued t o d rop f or men , whi le f or wo men i tr ose s harp ly b ecause o f t he e ar ly p regnanc ies , b u t f e l l a ga in a s t hey r eached 2 2 o r 2 3 .

The s econd marked r ise i n t he mor ta l i ty r a te o f wo men

c oinc ided w i th a s harp r ise i n t ha t o f men b e tween t he a ge o f 2 5 a nd 3 0 .

Th is

was t he ma ture a ge f or t he p er iod d ur ing wh ich t he a du l t p opu la t ion b ore t he b run t o f l i fe i n t he c o m mun i ty , f ough t w i ld a n i ma ls a nd f oes a nd was t he v ic t im o f v ar ious a cciden ts .

I t s hou ld b e b orne i n mind h ere t ha t t he h ighes t mor-

t a l i ty r a te f igure f or men i n t ha t p er iod was i n a c tua l f ac t e ven h igher a s t he e s t i ma tes a re b ased o n t he a va i lab le a n thropo log ica l ma ter ia l a nd d o n o t i nc lude t he c enotaphs .

These were i n a l l l ike l ihood d ed ica ted t o me mbers o f

2 5

t he c o m mun i ty who h ad p er ished away f ro m h o me ;

more o f ten t han n ot t hey

were men r a ther t han wo men , a s t he l a t ter s tayed mos t ly a t t he s e t t le men ts w i th t he ir c h i ldren , a nd d is tan t e xped i t ions a nd h un t ing d id n o t e n ter i n to t he ir o b liga t ions . As a r esu l t o f t he h igh mor ta l i ty r a te among men i n t he ir e ar ly t h ir t ies , e ach g enera t ion l os t ac ons iderab le p ar t o f i t s a ble-bod ied r epresen ta t ives a nd b egan t o d ecl ine , g iv ing way t o t he n ex t . The n u mber o f t hose who l i ved t o t he a ge o f 4 3-45 was i ns ign i f ican t a nd o n ly a f ew p ersons r eached t he ' very o ld a ge ' o f 6 0-65 .

F our o r f ive g enera t ions c a me a nd wen t i n t he s pan o f a

c en tury ( t able 1 5 ) . The a verage l i fe s pan o f t he a b le-bod ied p opu la t ion , b ur ied i n t he n ecrop o lises , was 2 7.4 o r 2 4 .6 i ft he a pprox i ma te i n fan t morta l ity f igure i s i nc luded . F ro m t he ma ter ia l f ound i n t he n ecropo l ises i t may b e i n ferred t ha t c h i ldren b egan t o work a t t he a ge o f s ix o r s even , when t hey b egan t o b e b ur ied i n t he n ecropo lises t oge ther w i th t he a du l ts .

The mos t a c t ive p er iod i n t he l i fe o f

ag enera t ion was b e tween 1 5 a nd 3 2 , t ha t i s t o s ay , i tl as ted a bou t 2 0 y ears . The h ighes t mor ta l i ty r a te i s r ecorded i n t he s econd h a l f o f t h is p er iod , a f ac t t es t i fying t o t he e xcep t iona l h ardsh ips Eneo l i th ic man h ad t o c on tend w i th i n h is s trugg le f or s urv iva l . I n s p i te o f t he e xceed ingly l ow l i fe e xpectancy , a rchaeo log ica l f inds c onv incing ly s how t ha t t he n umber a nd d ens i ty o f t he Eneo l i th ic p opu la t ion s tead i ly r ose.

Th is was u ndoub ted ly d ue t o t he p rac t ice o f e ar ly marr iages a nd t he

b ir th o f many c h i ldren . i n t he f er t i l i ty c u l t .

J us t i f iab ly t he mother h e ld t he mos t impor tan t p lace

Bu t emp loy men t a t a n e ar ly a ge a nd t he e ar ly p regnanc ies

a lso h ad t heir r everse e f fec t .

The h u man o rgan is m wore o u t much s ooner ,

a nd t h is was a n impor tan t f ac tor i n c u t t ing s hor t t he l i fe s pan a nd t hus t he t o ta l n umber o f t he p opu la t ion . The r esu l ts o f a n thropo log ica l i nves t iga tions t hrow impor tan t l igh t o n t he d e mograph ic p rocesses d ur ing t he Eneol i th ic a nd i nd irec t ly c on f ir m t he a ccuracy o f an umber o f a rchaeo log ica l i n ferences a nd t he ir e thnoh is tor ica l i n terpre ta t ion .

They h ave a n impor tan t b ear ing o n t he n a ture o f e thn ic o r ig ins

i n t ha t r e mo te e poch .

The a n thropo log ica l ma ter ia l a rgues i n f avour o f a

c on t inuous d eve lop men t w i th in t he E thnocu l tura l Area o f t he Thracian Eneol i th ic , a nd makes i tp oss ible t o t race t he r ecurr ing e thn ic i n f i l tra t ions a nd t he e xchange o f e thn ic u n i ts b e tween n e ighbour ing t err i tor ies .

I tl eaves n o

r oo m f or t he t heor ies o f s o me s cho lars o f t ota l d epopu la t ion a nd a c o mp le te r ep lace men t o f t he p opu la t ion d ur ing t he t rans i t ion f ro m o ne c u l ture t o a no ther .

2 6

CHAPTER V THE ENEOLITH IC CULTURES I N BULGAR IA

The h is tor ica l p rocesses i n r e mote a n t iqu i ty a re r e f lec ted i n t he d eve lopmen t o f a rchaeo log ica l c u l tures , a nd i n t hose o f t he ir s tages f or wh ich t here a re n o o ther s ources , b u t t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence s hou ld b e s tud ied i n d e ta i l a nd i t s s ign i f icance a s ah is tor ica l s ource p roper ly g raded a nd e va lua ted . P o t tery i s t he mos t s ens i t ive i nd ica tor o f t he c hanges i n t he e thnocu l tura l e ven ts a nd p heno mena . I t s s epara te c o mponen ts , h owever , d o n o t a lways r espond t o o ne a nd t he s a me d egree t o t hese c hanges , a nd t h is imposes a c losely d i f feren t ia ted a pproach t o i ta s ah is tor ica l s ource . F ro m t he c hrono log ica lp o in t o f v iew , t he mos t s ens i t ive t o c hange i s t ha t s ys te m o f o rna men ta t ion wh ich c onveys a n i dea ( t he l inear mo ti fs a nd t hose c lose ly r esembl ing t he m ) ; n ex t c o me t he f ine c eram ics a nd s cu lpted f igur ines , whose s hapes e vo lved more s low ly .

These t wo i nd ica tors a re

mos t v a luab le a s h is tor ica l s ources a nd o ccupy a p lace o f p ro m inence among t he r es t o f t he a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l . Their a na lys is h as made i tp oss ib le t o d e ter m ine t he p ar t icu lar i ties o f t he v ar ious c u l tures a nd t he ir p hases , t o s o lve t he p rob le ms o f c on t inu i ty a nd d iscon t inu i ty , a nd t o f o l low t hrough h ist or ica l e ven ts o f g rea t impac t . Cu l tura l c on tac ts b e tween e thn ic c o m mun i t ies may a lso b e t raced t hanks t o t he p resence o f impor ts . As a h is tor ica l s ource t he c oarse k i tchen p o t tery i s o f c ons iderably l ower a nd q ua l i ta t ive ly d i fferen t v a lue . I t s mot i fs c onvey n o i deas a nd t he o rna men ts a re o fp ure ly d ecora t ive o rp rac t ica l n a ture . I tp rogressed more s low ly a cross t ime , b u t c oinc iden t ly , i t s c harac ter is t ic f ea tures were t yp ica l o f r a ther v as t e thnocu l tura l a reas . I ti s p rec ise ly t h is p ar t icu lar i ty o f k i tchen p o t tery wh ich h as made i tp oss ib le t o e s tab l ish t he e thnocu l tura l i den t i ty o f t he a reas , t o t race t he ir b oundar ies a nd d e term ine t he ir t ime s pan . B y a na lys ing t he c era m ics , s ta tue t tes o f i do ls a nd t he ir o rna men ta t ion , i ti sp oss ib le t o d e ter m ine t he c harac ter is t ics o f e ven t he b r ie fes t s tages o f d eve lop men t , wh ich c ons t i tu te s epara te p hases o f c u l ture . As t o t he Eneol i th ic , wh ich h as b een c o mpara t ive ly we l l s tud ied , i ti s p oss ible t o d e tect i n s o me c ases d e ta i ls o f c u l tura l d eve lop men ts w i th in i nd iv idua l p hases ( subp hases A a nd B ) . The r e main ing c o mponen t p ar ts o f a n a rchaeo log ica l c u l ture — t ools , p o t tery mak ing , i t s t echno logy a nd u sage , s e t t le men t a nd h ousing a rch i tecture , a nd a lso b ur ia l r i tes , u ndergo s lower c h anges wh ich t ake p lace w i th in t he t ime s pan o f e n t ire p reh is tor ic p er iods ( Neo l i th ic , Eneo l i th ic , B ronze Age ) a nd make u p t he c harac ter is t ics o f t hese p er iods , s how ing a l mos t n o q ua li tat ive c hanges w i th in t heir c hrono log ica l l im i ts .

They , h owever , c haracter ise

v ery we l l t he Eneo l i th ic p er iod u nder r ev iew a nd a re a n i nva luable s ource o f i n for ma t ion o nt he e cono my , s oc ia l s truc ture a nd c u l tura l l i fe o f t he p opu la t ion . 2 7

S ince Eneo l i th ic c u l ture h ad i t s v ar ious a nd e ssen t ia l p ar t icu lar i t ies i n t he d i f feren t p ar ts o f Bu lgar ia , i tw i l l b e e xa m ined b y r eg ions a nd p er iods . Thrace :

E ar ly Eneo l i th ic ( t ab les 1 ,16 , maps 6 ,7 )

I den t i f ied f or t he f irs t t ime b y G . G eorg iev i n 1 959 among t he ma ter ia l f ro m Karanovo ,

9 8

t he Ka loyanove ts c u l ture i s ap recursor o f t he S tone-Copper

Age c u l tures i n Thrace .

Th is c u l tura l l ayer , l abe l led K aranovo I V , was

s andw iched b e tween t he Vesse l inovo ( Karanovo I I ) l ayers a nd t ha t o f p hase I V o f t he Mar i tsa ( Karanovo V ) c u l ture . The t ypica l f ea tures wh ich c harac ter ise t he E neo l i th ic were f or med a nd c onso lida ted d ur ing t h is t rans i t iona l p er iod b e tween t he N eo l i th ic a nd t he Eneo l i th ic . Fro m t he p o in t o f v iew o f s e t t le men ts , t he c on t inu i ty b e tween t hese t wo p er iods i s r a ther l im i ted , a s may b e s een f ro m t able 7 .

Th is i s d ue t o t he

c ircu ms tance t ha t as er ies o f L a te N eo l i th ic s e t t le men ts i n T hrace were s i tua ted o n p lateaux , where t hey c overed e x tens ive t rac ts . t he m may b e f ound i n t he s tra ta o f t he s e t t le men t mounds 9 9

On ly s o me o f ( map 6 ) ; i n t he

E ar ly Eneol i th ic , o n t he o ther h and , t he s i tua t ion was r eversed . C ons iderab le c on t inu i ty may b e n o ted i np o t tery . mo t i fs o f v esse ls , t hough n o t a l l t heir s hapes .

I ti nvo lves a l l o rna men ta l

T he d i f ferences o bserved

r evea l t he c o mp lex i ty o f t he p rocesses wh ich p reda te t he Eneo l i th ic :

t he

w i ther ing away o f t he o ld N eo l i th ic e le men ts a nd t he a ppearance o f t he t yp ica l Eneol i th ic f ea tures , wh ich a re o f i n teres t i n t he p resen t s tudy .

The c hanges

i n t he s e t t le men t s ys te m o r more p rec isely t he a ppearance o f f or t if ied s e t t lemen ts o f t he mound t ype , i s af ac t o f c ons iderab le h is tor ica l s ign i f icance . The f o l lowing n ew e le men ts , c harac ter is t ic o f t he i nc ipien t S tone-Copper Age , may b e o bserved i n p o t tery : 1 .

P reva lence o f t he meandroid a nd s p ira l mo ti fs ;

2 .

I ncised , r ed o r wh i te e ncrus ted o rna men ts ;

3 .

Wh i te p a t terns whose t echn ique o f a pp l ica t ion d id n o t d i f fer f ro m t ha t o f g raph i te , a nd l a ter a c tua l ly b eca me a g raph i te o rna men t ; t hey i n troduced t he n ega tive o rna men t ;

4 .

B lack , wh i te a nd r ed c o loured v esse ls a nd o ther ware ;

t he s ta tue t tes

o f i do ls i n h u man s hape a lso b e long h ere . The d eve lop men t wh ich b egan d ur ing t he L a te N eo l i th ic s erved a s t he b as is o f t he E ar ly Eneo l i th ic Mar i tsa c u l ture . f inds a rgue i nf avour o f i t s l oca l o r ig ins .

The a na lys is o f t he a rchaeo log ica l The a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l f ro m

Thrace e v inces a c on t inuous p rocess o f d evelop men t f ro m t he E ar ly N eo li th ic t o t he e nd o f t he Eneo li th ic .

Th is p rocess , h owever , was n ot a l together f ree

f ro m i n terna l o r e x terna l i n f luences a nd c hanges o f a n e cono m ic a nd e thnocu l tura l n a ture . Archaeo log ica l d a ta f ro m Thrace , when c o mpared w i th t hose f ro m N or the as tern B u lgar ia , s ugges t e x tens ive move men ts o f t he p opu la t ion a t t he e nd o f t he N eo l i th ic , mos t p robab ly b ecause o f d e mograph ic p ressure , whose p res ence i s a t tes ted b y t he mass ive L a te N eo l i th ic s e t t le men ts o n p la teaux a t Assenove ts , n ear N ova Z agora , a nd e lsewhere .

2 8

The c en tre o f t he Mar i tsa c u l ture was i n Thrace , b u t i t s s tr ik ing i n f luence s pread n o t o n ly t o c on te mporary c u l tures o f t he Thracian Eneo l i th ic , b u t f ur ther a f ie ld , t o t he V inda c u l ture i n t he wes t . The Mar i tsa c u l ture h ad f our p hases .

The f irs t t hree a re r e ferred t o t he

E ar ly Eneo l i th ic , t he f our th i s ab r i l l ian t p hase o f t he Midd le Eneo l i th ic a s we l l a s at rans i t ion t o t he L a te Eneo l i th ic . Phase Ih as b een l i t t le i nves tiga ted .

R e l ics f ro m i th ave b een f ound a t t he

s et t le men t mounds o f Yassa tepe , P lovd iv d is tr ic t , R acheva mound , Ya mbo l d is tr ic t , a t t he b ase o f K oukova mound , P leven d is tr ic t , a t Cha ta lka , t he S tara Z agora m inera l b a ths a nd o ther s i tes wh ich h ave n o t y e t b een s tud ied . The p o t tery o f t h is p hase i s c harac ter ized b y af ew s i mp le f or ms - c ones haped a nd s em ispher ica l b ow ls o f ten w i th r ing b ases , l i ly-shaped d ishes , h el me t-l ike b ow ls , r ound amphorae w i th h igh n ecks , sma l l z oo morph ic c u l t t ables a nd c rude p o ts d ecora ted w i th b arbo t ine a nd p i t ted a t t he r im ( p l . I , 1 , 5 , 6 ;

p l . I , 3 , 4 , 5 ) .

Vesse ls o f f ine c era m ics a re d ecora ted w i th i nc ised o rna men ts , l inear o r o f t he ' l adder ' t ype . o r s p ira l .

B ands o f s im i lar mo t i fs f or m meanders - a ngu lar

The e ncrus ta t ion i s wh i te , a nd t he s pace b e tween t he i ncised o rna-

men ts i s s o me t i mes f i l led w i th r ed d is te mper . t he g rey o r g reyish-b lack g round .

Th is d oes much t o e n l iven

Vesse ls d ecora ted w i th g raph i te l inear

o rna men ts f avour ing t he s a me mo t i fs o ccur v ery r are ly .

The g raph i te p a t tern

r ep laced t he f lu ted o rna men t o f t he L a te N eo l i th ic . Dur ing p hase I a nd I I o f t he Mar i tsa c u l ture , t he p o t tery h ad a s of t , smooth p ro f i le a nd t he o rna men t p layed t he d om inan t p ar t . Phase I h as b een we l l i nves t iga ted i nb u i ld ing l eve ls V I t o V I I I o f t he A z mashka mound .

R e l ics o f t he s a me a lso o ccur i n B anya ta mound , K oukova

mound , Yuanats itg , Mar itsa , Mechkyur , Mudrets, e tc. The v esse ls o f t h is p hase n o l onger h ave t a l l , h o l low p edes ta ls o r h igh l i ds . They t ake o n n ew f or ms , among wh ich a re b arre ll ike s torage j ars d ecora ted w i th i nc ised o rna men ts , v ase-shaped v esse ls w i th c y l indr ica l n ecks , e tc . The v esse ls a re more r ich ly d ecora ted , b u t t he ' l adder ' t ype o rna men t i s r ep laced b y t he i nc ised l inear , wh i te a nd r ed e ncrus ted o r g raph i te p ain ted d ecorat ion The d eve lop men t c on tinued u n in terrup ted d ur ing p hase I I o f t he Mar i tsa c u l ture , wh ich i s a lso r ecogn ized a t t he A z mashka mound , B ikovo , Yassa tept , K ir i lovo , Yuna ts i tg , C ha ta lka , Mechkyur , t he S tara Z agora d is tr ic t h ospi ta l a nd e lsewhere . Tha t s a me p hase w i tnessed t he f u l l f lower ing o f t he g raph i te l inear o rnamen t , wh ich c overs t he v esse ls i ns ide a nd o u t , a nd e ven t he ir b o t to m ;

t ha t i s

why t h is p hase may a lso b e c a l led a g raph i te p hase . Mos t o f ten t he o rna men t may b e s een o n t he s o f t ly mode l led d eep b ow ls , j ugs , d rums , amphorae , e tc . L inear Mo ti fs c over u n i for m ly a nd s y m me tr ica l ly t he e n t ire s ur face .

The

meander , b oth t he a ngu lar a nd t he s p ira l , a nd s uch s i mple g eo me tr ic f or ms a s l ozenges w i th i nscr ibed e l l ipses , t r iang les , d o ts a nd c oncen tr ic c irc les make u p t he o rna men ta l c o mpos i t ions .

The c oncen tr ic c irc les s how s im i lar i ty

2 9

w i th t he s igns o nt he a l tars o f t he c u l t s cene f rom O vcharovo n° a nd may b e i n terpre ted a s s o lar mo ti fs . The s i lvery wh i te l i nes o f t he g raph i te o n t he b lack b urn ished s ur face o f t he v esse ls c rea te a n i l lusion o f e therea l i ty , wh ich l ends l i gh tness t o t he ir o therw ise h eavy f or ms ( p l . I , 2 , 3 , 4 ) . The E ar ly Eneo l i th ic e thnocu l tura l c o mp lex i n T hrace s howed a v ery h igh l eve l o f d eve lop men t , wh ich was u ndoub ted ly d ue t o t he m in ing o f c opper , a me ta l o f wh ich t he r eg ion h ad r ich d epos i ts .

T he e ar l ies t p o t tery d iscovered

i n t he A l B ounar p i t n ear S tara Z agora , d a tes b ack t o p hase I La nd I I o f t he Mar i tsa c u l ture . I ts ee ms t ha t t he b r i l l iance o f t he me ta l made s uch a n imp ress ion o n t he l oca l p opu la t ion t ha t t he c ra f ts men b egan t o l ook f or a nd p rod uce me ta l e f fec ts o nt he ir ware . On ly t hus c an t he i n terre la t ion b e tween t he d eve lop men t o f c opper m in ing a nd t he a ppearance o f t he g raph i te o rna men t i n Thrace b e e xp la ined . I n c o mpar ing t he p o t tery o f p hases It o I I o f t he Mar t isa c u l ture a nd t he o ther c on te mporary c u l tura l c o mp lexes i n S ou th-eas tern a nd C en tra l E urope , ap ronounced s im ilar ity may b e o bserved i n t he i nc ised o rna men ta t ion , t he u se o f t he s p ira l meander a nd i n t he s o f t ly r ounded c on tours o f t he v esse ls . F ur ther a f ie ld t hese c o mmon t ra i ts a re a lso c harac ter is t ic o f t he P recucu ten i I - Tr ipo l ih A l c u l tures i n Mo ldav ia a nd U kra ine , L eböS zaka lhä t i n H ungary a nd e lsewhere ( map 7 ) .

I ti s p oss ib le t ha t t he e xp lana t ion

o f t h is s ty l is t ic s im i lar i ty may l i e i nt he c ons iderable d irec t a nd i nd irec t i nf luence o f t he Mar i tsa c u l ture o n i t s c on te mporary c u l tures , a n i n f luence wh ich c an b e l i nked w i th t he u se o f t he f irs t me ta l , t he c opper mined i n Thrace . Midd le E neo l i th ic ( t ab les 1 , 1 6 , map 8 ) Th is was a p er iod o ft rans it ion t o t he l ate Eneo l ith ic i n T hrace.

I ti ncluded

p hase I V o f t he Mar i tsa c u l ture , wh ich h as t wo s tages o f d eve lop men t ( A a nd B ). The Eneo l i th ic t r ibes o f Thrace mus t h ave g one t hrough a v ery t urbu len t p er iod o f i n terna l c on f l ic ts , a s i s a t tes ted b y t he f requen t d es truc t ion o f f i re o f s e t t lemen ts , s o me th ing t ha t h as b een a scer ta ined b y t he e xcava t ions a t R acheva mound , K o lena , Mar i tsa , e tc . The s ty l is t ic c hanges o bserved i np o t tery mak ing a re r e la ted a bove a l l t o t he s hape o f v esse ls . The s o f t ly mode l led d eep b ow ls g radua l ly d isappeared t o make way f or t he s ha l low b ow ls w i th c y lindr ica l , S -shaped r i ms . D i f feren tia ted c eram ic f or ms b egan t o a ppear , t he ir b ases s carce ly o u t lined a nd t he ir f l a t tened l ower p ar t s haped a s ac one . The v ase-shaped v essels b eca me l ower , w ider a nd h ad s harper c on tours . The d ecora t ion was s i mp l i f ied , w i th a t rend t o a bandon ing t he p os i t ive l inear o rna men t a nd a dopt ing t he n ega t ive n onl inear o ne , wh ich f i l led o n ly t he b ackground o f t he k ey mo t i fs . T he l arge o rnamen ta l s ys te ms o f meanders a nd s pr ia l meanders d is in tegra ted . Th is l ine o f d eve lop men t c an mos t c lear ly b e s een i n t he p a in ted o rna men ts . o f i nd iv idua l mo ti fs i s f e l t .

Ag radua l d isappearance o f t he i dea

The i ncised o rnamen t was o nt he way o u t .

Mo t i fs were s imp l i f ied a nd

r educed t o h or izon ta l o r s hor t v er t ica l l ines a nd t r iang les w i th a n i nscr ibed d o t . These were a pp l ied b y means o f t he ' l adder ' t echn ique a nd were e ncrus ted w i th wh i te p as te . On t he o ther h and , t he p o lychro me d ecora t ion ( t he b lackwh i te-red c o mbina t ion ) ( p l . X L I , 5 ) g rea t ly d eve loped .

T o a ch ieve t h is , a

r ed o chre p as te was u sed wh ich , a l terna t ing w i th t he b lack g round o f t he v esse l , s uppl ied t he b ackground t o t he wh i te e ncrus ted mo ti fs . The v esse ls i n wh ich t he b ackground o f t he n ega t ive mo ti fs ( sp ira ls, s was tika-l ike mo ti fs , e tc .) i s f i l led w i th d ense ly h a tched , wh i te e ncrus ted b ands a re v ery e f fec t ive . 3 0

The a bove-l is ted t ypolog ica l c hanges i n p o t tery a nd i t s d ecora t ion were t he b as ic t rends i n s tyl is t ic d evelop men ts wh ich p aved t he way t o t he L a te Eneo l i th ic i n Thrace .

The t rans i t ion f ro m t he Mar i tsa c u l ture t o t he K od ja-

d er men-Gu meln4a-Karanovo V I c u l ture p roceeded smooth ly w i thou t o u ts ide i n ter ference , wh i le t he c hange f ro m t he l inear t o t he n ega t ive g raph i te o rnamen t i s t o b e t raced mos t c onc lus ive ly h ere . h ave b een o f a n i n terna l n a ture .

The r easons f or t he c hange mus t

I n e xa m in ing t he f actors wh ich l ed t o t h is

c hange , o ne i nev i tab ly c o mes o nce a gain t o t he c onc lus ion t ha t t h is was a n a tura l p heno menon n o t o n ly i np reh is tor ic d ays b u t i n l a ter e pochs a s wel l , a nd t ha t t he l aws g overn ing t he c hange i n a r t is t ic s ty les s ee m t o b e p recond it ioned b y t he n a tura l d eve lop men t o f t he i nd iv idua l s ty les .

A t ag iven s tage

t heir c rea t ive p o ten t ia l i s e xhaus ted , t as tes h ave b een g ra t i f ied a nd e ven s urf ei ted , a nd n ew a nd o f ten c on tras t ing means o f e xpress ion a re s ough t f or a nd f ound .

Ac ase i n p o in t a nd o ne t ha t i s i den t ica l w i th t he a bove- men t ioned , i s

t he c hange f ro m t he b lack-f igure t o t he r edf igure t echn ique i n G reek c era m ics . I n o ur p ar t icu lar c ase , t he c o mplex i ty o f c era m ic s hapes may b e e xp lained b y improve men ts i n t he t echno logy a nd t he p robab le i n troduc t ion o f t he p ot ter 's wheel , a nd t he s i mp l i f ica t ion o f t he o rna men t , b y t he i n tens i f ica t ion o f t he e cono my wh ich c a l led f or h igher l abour p roduc t iv i ty i n t h is s ec tor t oo . The a bove- men t ioned f ac tors t aken i n c on junc t ion w i th t he e nhanced c ont acts b e tween k indred t r ibes o f t he E thnocu l tura l a rea , r esu l t ing f ro m t he d evelop men t o f t he meta l lurg ica l i ndus try , l ed t o an o t iceab le c u l tura l u n if or m i ty d ur ing t he L a te Eneo l i th ic .

Thrace was t he f oca l p o in t o f t he v as t

a rea o f t he K od jader men-Gu me ln4a-Karanovo V I c u l ture .

I n o rder t o h ave a

c learer i dea o f t he l a t ter 's emergence , o ne s hou ld a lso e xa m ine t he r es t o f i ts e thnocu l tura l c o mponen ts o f t he E ar ly a nd M idd le Eneo li th ic . N or th-eas tern B u lgar ia ( w i thou t t he B lack S ea c oas t ) E ar ly Eneol i th ic ( t ab les 1 , 1 6 , map 7 ) The f ac t t ha t n o N eo l i th ic l ayers h ave b een f ound i n t he s e t t le men t mounds n or th o f t he B a lkan R ange c o mp l ica tes t he s o lu t ion o f t he p roble m r e la ted t o t he o r ig ins o f t he Eneo li th ic i n t h is p ar t o f Bu lgar ia .

On t he o ther h and , t he

v acuum wh ich was o n ly f i l led w i th t he d iscovery o f t he E ar ly Eneo li th ic i n t ha t r eg ion i n 1 971 , g ave r ise t o i n terpre ta t ions wh ich d id n o t c orrespond t o h is tor ica l r ea l i ty a s e s tabl ished i n r ecen t y ears .

S t i l l t here a re q u i te a

f ew b lanks i n t he c hrono logy o f t he N eo l i th ic i n t h is p ar t o f t he c oun try .

There

r e main u nc lar i f ied p o in ts , o ne o f wh ich i s d irec t ly l inked w i th t he p rob le m o f i n teres t h ere :

t he f ina l p hases o f t he N eo l i th ic a nd t he t rans i t ion t o t he Ene-

o l i th ic a re y e t t o b e a scer ta ined . Th is p resen ts d i f f icu l t ies i n a nswer ing t he q ues t ions a bou t t he o r ig ins o f t he E ar ly Eneo l i th ic i n N or th-eas tern Bu lgar ia , aq ues t ion t ha t r e ma ins o pen i n s evera l o f i t s a spec ts . There a re , h owever , many f ac ts wh ich t hrow l igh t -e i ther d irec t ly o r i nd irec t ly - o n t he p rob le m o f t he o r ig ins o f t he Eneo l i th ic i n t h is p ar t icu lar p ar t o f t he c oun try . 1 .

Dur ing t he M idd le a nd i n t he e ar ly s tages o f t he L a te Eneo li th ic ( t he

H o tn i tsa c u l ture ) , a n i ndependen t d eve lop men t o f ad i fferen t t ype f ro m t he c u l tures i n Thrace e x is ted i n N or th-eas tern Bu lgar ia .

I th ad much i n c o m mon

w i th t he L ower Danubian c o mp lexes o f t he a dvanced N eo l i th ic :

3 1

s harp ly p ro-

f i led b iconc ia l v esse ls , f lu t ing , p ecked-band o rna men ts , e tc .

The B a lkan

R ange was a s ubs tan t ia l b arr ier t o t he f l ow o f c u l ture b e tween t h is a rea a nd Thrace .

The l oca l p opu la t ion l i ved ma in ly i n d ug-ou ts o n t he p la teaux , b u t

h ouses were n o t u nknown .

B arr ing a f ew e xcep t ions , n o s e t t le men t mounds

o ccur . The t wo c o mp lexes o n e i ther s ide o f t h is b arr ier - t he L a te N eo l i th ic H o tn i tsa c u l ture i n N or th-eas tern Bu lgar ia a nd t he Ka loyanovets c u l ture i n T hrace - were e n t ire ly d i f feren t i n c harac ter a nd b e longed t o t wo d i f feren t e thnocu l tura l a reas . E spec ia l ly marked a re t he d i f ferences i n t he f l in t t ools o f t he t wo a reas . I n c on tras t t o t he s p l i t f l in t i ndus try o f N eo l i th ic T hrace , f l in t t oo ls i n N or the as tern Bu lgar ia were made f ro m f lakes w i th a p reva lence o f micro l i ths . There e ven o ccur o ccas iona l t rapezes . C onsequen t ly , t he d i f ferences b e tween Thrace a nd N or th-eas tern B u lgar ia i n t he La te N eo l i th ic may b e t raced b o th i n t he t ypes o f t oo ls a nd t he s truc ture o f s et t le men ts . 2 .

The E ar ly Eneo l i th ic p opu la t ion o f N or th-eas tern Bu lgar ia l i ved i n

h ouses b u i l t o nf looded t erraces o r n ex t t o t he m a nd made s e t t le men t mounds , i .e . i th ad c hanged i t s mode o f l i fe a dop t ing Thracian p rac t ices .

The g raph i te

o rna men ta t ion o f v esse ls was a lso b orrowed f ro m T hrace , b u t t he ir s hape u nderwen t al oca l e vo lu t ion a nd i s v ery d i f feren t f ro m t he Thracian .

I t may

s afe ly b e s a id t ha t t he L a te N eo l i th ic t rad i t ions a re t o b e g leaned f ro m t he E ar ly E neo l i th ic p ot tery s hapes . I t s hou ld b e b orne i n mind , h owever , t ha t t h is c o mpar ison i s b eing made i n t he a bsence o f d a ta c oncern ing p hase Io f t he E ar ly Eneo l i th ic i n t he r eg ion , t he d iscovery o f wh ich wou ld , i n o ur o p in ion , p rove e ven more c onv inc ing ly ac on t inu i ty i n t he l oca l p o t tery i ndus try . 3 .

An i n teres t ing e thnocu l tura l p heno menon i s t o b e o bserved i n t he

n or th-eas tern p ar t o f t he B a lkan P en insu la . Dur ing t he ir e n t ire s pan o f e x is tence , t he L ower Danub ian N eo l i th ic c u lt ures o nb oth b anks o f t he r iver h ad a g roup o f p o t tery o f i den t ica l c harac ter . I nt he L a te N eo l i th ic i t was t he f lu ted t ype o f d ecora t ion a nd t he r e t icu la ted o rna men t , wh i le d ur ing t he E ar ly Eneo l i th ic i t was t he s torage j ars a nd t he ir l i ds t ha t were d ecora ted w i th t he s a me c rude ly i ncised o rna men ts .

Th is f ac t

s peaks o f c lose c on tac ts b e tween t he t wo n e ighbour ing c u l tures , b u t i tc anno t b e t aken a s p roof p os i t ive t ha t t he t r ibes wh ich l i ved o n t he t wo b anks o f t he Danube d ur ing t he Eneo l i th ic h ad i den t ica l c u l tures , b ecause t he ir t oo ls a nd imp le men ts r e ta ined f or a l ong t ime t he ir e ssen t ia l d i f ferences . 4 .

T o t he n or th o f t he Danube , i n Mun ten ia , t he La te N eo l i th ic i s r epre-

s en ted b y t he G u i le9 t i ( Boian I ) 101

c u l ture .

The s e t t le men ts were s i tua ted

o np la teaux a nd t he ma in p lace o f dwe l l ing was t he d ug-ou t . Eneo l i th ic V idra ( Bo ian I I ) 102

The E ar ly

c u l ture h ad h ouses , a nd r e l ics f ro m i ta re f ound

a t t he b ase o f s e t t le men t mounds .

The d i f ference i n t he p o t tery o f t he t wo

c o mp lexes i s a lso c ons iderab le .

3 2

I n c onc lus ion , t he e s tab l ished f ac ts a bou t t he t rans i t ion f ro m t he L a te N eo l i th ic t o t he E ar ly Eneo l i th ic n or th o f t he B a lkan R ange may b e s u m med u p a s f o l lows : a .

a ppreciable c on t inu i ty i n t he d ecora t ion o f p o t tery i n Mun ten ia , b u t d iscon t inu i ty i n h ouse-bu i ld ing p rac t ices ;

b .

al esser d egree o f c on t inu i ty i n p o t tery a nd t he s a me d egree o f d iscon t inu i ty i n h ouse-bu i ld ing p rac t ices i n N or th-eas tern Bu lgar ia ;

c .

c o mp le te c on t inu i ty a l l a long t he l ine i n Thrace .

I t may b e i n ferred f ro m wha t h as b een s a id e ar l ier t ha t ag radua l a dop t ion o f t he more p rogress ive t rad i t ions a nd c u l tura l a ch ieve men ts o f t he Thracian Eneo l i th ic b y t he e thn ica l ly r e la ted t r ibes o f t he n or th t ook p lace o n t he b order l ine b e tween t he L a te N eo l i th ic a nd t he E ar ly Eneo l i th ic .

Th is was p robab ly

l im i ted o n ly t o e cono m ic a nd c u l tura l i n f luences i n t he l ands t o t he n or th o f t he Danube , wh i le o n t he t err i tory o f N or th-eas tern Bu lgar ia t here mus t h ave b een a n i n f lux o f p opu la t ion f ro m Thrace , wh ich v ery l ike ly m ixed w i th t he l oca l t r ibes a nd l e f t ad is t inc t impress ion o n t heir c u l ture ( t he s e t t le men t s ys te m , t he e ar ly a ppearance o f t he g raph i te o rna men t , e tc .) .

The b eg inn ing

o f t h is s tep-by-s tep move men t f ro m s ou th t o n or th h as b een r epor ted o n t he s treng th o f impor ts f ro m t he r eg ions where t hose e ar l ier s tages h ave b een i nves t iga ted , b u t wh ich h ave n o t y e t b een r ecogn ized i n N or th-eas tern Bu lgar ia . A c ase i n p oin t i s t he L ongoz . The E ar ly a nd M iddle Eneo l i th ic i n t he e thnocu l tura l r eg ion u nder d iscuss ion h ere a re b es t r epresen ted b y t he P o lyan i tsa c u l ture . I ts f irs t p hase h as n o t y e t b een d iscovered a nd i nves t iga ted .

The e xcava-

t i ons i n 1 971-1975 o f t he O vcharovo a nd P o lyan i tsa s e t t le men t mounds o f fered ac o mp le te p ic ture o f i t s l a ter d eve lop men t a nd o f t hose a spec ts o f t he l i fe o f i ts b earers , k now ledge a bou t wh ich may b e o bta ined f ro m a rchaeolog ica l i nves t iga t ions .

The S oko l , R a .zgrad , Mezhden , S a l manovo , H o tn i tsa , K oubra t ,

H issar luk , V in i tsa a nd s o me o ther s e t t le men t mounds a re a lso a ssocia ted w i th t h is c u l ture . P hases 1 a nd I I o f t h is c u l ture a re r e ferred t o t he E ar ly Eneo l i th ic a nd h ave a f f in i t ies w i th t he B oian-V idra c u l ture i n Ru man ia a nd Mar i tsa I a nd I I i n Thrace . The b earers o f t he P o lyan i tsa c u l ture l i ved o n s e t t le men t mounds wh ich t hey f or t i f ied a ccord ing t o as y m me tr ica l ly r ec tangu lar p lan .

The ir

g roundleve l h ouses were o f t he wa t t le-and-daub t ype a nd t h is a rgues i nf avour o f at rad i t ion o f l ong s tand ing .

Th is l as t may b e a dded t o t he e v idence l i s ted

a bove i n f avour o f t he t heory o f ap opu la t ion move men t f ro m t he s ou th a cross t he B a lkan R ange .

They k new h ow t o b u i ld s e t t le men t mounds , g roundleve l

h ouses , a nd h ow t o f ar m b y wa ter s ources s ince t he v ery b eg inn ing o f t he N eo li th ic a nd h e lped t o i n troduce t hese p rac t ices h ere i n t he e ar ly 5 th mi l lenn iu m . The p o t tery o f t he P o lyan i tsa c u l ture i s d is t ingu ished b y i t s c y l indr ica l a nd c onc ia l s hapes . The s o f t p ro f i l ing o f v essels was u nknown s ince i th ad n o t b een p ract ised i n t he r eg ion . The s harp p rof i l ing o f v esse ls was i nher i ted f ro m t he l oca l La te N eo l i th ic H o tn i tsa c u l ture . I n Mun ten ia i th ad i t s o r ig ins i nt he Dud e i c u l ture . 3 3

The d eep c y l indr ica l-and-concia l a nd b icon ica l b ow ls o f p hases I a nd I I a re d ecora ted w i th g raph i te l inear o rna men ts , c over ing t he u pper p ar t o f t he v esse l , a nd c orrespond ing t o t he f lu ted o rna men t o f t he e ar l ier p er iod . O f ten t he g raph i te o rna men t was c o mbined w i th i ncised , r ed e ncrus ted s ur faces a nd h or izon ta l b ands o f w ider f lu ting . There a re d ishes w i th a l ow c y l indr ica l r im , d ecora ted w i th i nc ised l i near o rna men ts . T he s torage j ars a nd t he ir l i ds a re e n t ire ly c overed w i th i nc ised , wh i te e ncrus ted , V idra t ype d ecora t ions . Th is s or t o fp o t tery c ons t i tu tes f ive p er c en t o f t he e n t ire s tock . T he mo t i fs a re p redo m inan t ly a cu te-ang led meanders , b u t e xqu is i te c o mpos i t ions o f s pira l meanders a re a lso t raced i n g raph i te .

T he f ron t p ar t o f t he b e l ly o f t he t a l l

c y l indr ica l b ow ls i s marked w i th t hree t o f our i nc ised a nd e ncrus ted r ec tang les . C rude p o t tery c ons is ts o f v ase-shaped o r b arrel-l ike p ots a nd b ow ls ( Pl. I I , 1 0 ) w i th r ough , u ndecora ted s ur faces o r c overed w i th b arbo t ine . Midd le Eneo l i th ic ( t ab les 1 , 1 6 ,

map 8 )

P o t tery mak ing i n N or th-eas tern B u lgar ia d ur ing t he E ar ly E neo l i th ic was more c onserva t ive t han i n Thrace . I tp assed a l mos t u nchanged f ro m t he E ar ly t o t he M idd le Eneo l i th ic wh ich i s r epresen ted b y p hase I V o f t he P o lyan i tsa c u l ture . Th is p hase a lso i nc ludes t he t rans i t iona l p er iod t o t he L a te Eneo l i th ic . An ew a dd i t ion t o t he s hapes i nher i ted f ro m t he E ar ly Eneo l i th ic a re t he a l l b u t c y l indr ica l b ow ls w i th i nver ted r i ms . T hey were u sed f or b oi l ing wa ter wh ich may b e d educed f ro m t he t h ick l ayer o f s ca le l in ing t he i nside . Proceeding v ery much a long t he s a me l i nes a s i n Thrace , t he e vo lu t ion o f t he o rna men t d ur ing t h is p er iod c hanged t he g raph i te o rna men t f ro m p os i t ive t o n ega t ive ( p l . I V , 1 ) .

N on-l inear mo t i fs t raced i n g raph i te , s uch a s t r iang les

( t he s o c al led w o l f-tooth ) , z igzag b ands a nd s em ic ircles , b egan t o a ppear o n v esse ls . T o p u t i tb r ie f ly , t here a ppeared i n ar ud imen tary f orm t he b as ic e le men ts o f L a te Eneol i th ic p o t tery d ecora t ion a nd t he i dea c on ten t o f t he o rna men t b egan t o d isappear . The e ncrus ted o rna men t ( p l . I I , 6 , 8 , 9 ) a lso b egan t o l oose i t s l i near c harac ter a nd t he s p iral meander mo t i fs . I tw as o n ly t he c oarse k i tchen p o t tery t ha t was r e markably im mune t o c hange . Dur ing t he M idd le Eneo l i th ic a p rocess o f c u l tura l i n tegra t ion o nb o th s ides o f t he Danube was i np rogress ; t he t rend t owards r approche men t c u lm ina ted i n t he a ppearance a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he L a te Eneo l i th ic o f t he c o mpos i te K od jader men-Gu meln i. t a-Karanovo V I c u l ture ( map 9 ) . Th is c u l tura l s tand ardiza t ion a nd t he r easons f or i ta re d iscussed i n C hap ter I . The a va i lab le a rchaeolog ica l ma ter ia l f ro m N or th-eas tern B u lgar ia c onv inc ing ly s hows h ow t he e ar ly s tage o f t he Eneo l i th ic g rew i n to i t s l a te s tage . Th is l eaves n o r oo m f or c on jec tures a bou t migra t ions a nd e thn ic a ss im i la t ions , wh ich a t te mp ted t o e xp la in t he r ise o f t he L a te Eneo l i th ic i n t he e as tern p ar t o f t he B a lkan P en insu la b e fore t he P o lyan i tsa c u l ture was d iscovered i n 1 971 . I t s d iscovery a nd s ubsequen t s tudy f i l led a b lank o n t he map o f N or th-eas tern Bu lgar ia .

3 4

Thrace a nd N or th-eas tern B u lgar ia :

L a te Eneol i th ic ( t ables 1 , 1 6 , map 9 )

The K od jader men-Gume ln4a-Karanovo V I c u l ture i ncorpora tes t he t err it or ies o f t he E ar ly a nd Midd le E neol i th ic c u l tures o f Mar i tsa i n Thrace , P o lyan i tsa i n N or th-eas tern B u lgar ia a nd B o ian I l , I V ( V idra-Span. l ov ) i n Mun ten ia . The i n tegra t ion p rocesses i n t he p er iod o f t rans i t ion f ro m t he E ar ly t o t he L a te E neo l i th ic a lso p ar t ia l ly i nvo lved t he L ongoz where t he K od jader menG ume ln i p-Karanovo V I c u l ture e xer ted a n i n f luence d ur ing i t s f irs t p hase . On ly i nt he s econd h a l f o f t he S tone-Copper Age d id t h is r eg ion f a l l u nder t he s way o f t he r ap id ly d eve lop ing c u l ture o f t he B lack S ea c oas t . I nt he p rocess o f i t s f or ma t ion , t he K od jader men-Gu me ln i p-Karanovo V I c u l ture c hanne l led i n to o ne a nd t he s a me d irec t ion t he s im i lar e thnocu l tura l p ar t icu lar i t ies o f e ach o ne o f i t s c o mponen ts , wh ich c on tr ibu ted i n a n e qua l measure t o t he u l t i ma te s hap ing o f t he o vera l l c u l tura l a spec t o f t he L a te Eneol i th ic . The K od jader men-Gume ln i p-Karanovo V I c u l ture h as t hree ma jor p hases o f d eve lop men t , s o me o f wh ich a re d iv ided i n to s ubphases . P hase Iwas t horough ly i nves t iga ted a t t he t hree s uccess ive b u i ld ing l eve ls ( VI I I , I X , X ) o f t he Ovcharovo 8 1 s e t t le men t mound , wh ich were d es troyed b y f ire .

Traces o f t h is p hase i n B u lgar ia were a lso f ound a t t he s e t t le men t

mounds o f P o lyan i tsa ( bu i ld ing l eve l V I I I ) , S a l manovo , K od jader men , S ava , Z ave t , N evsky , S oko l , R acheva mound , E zero , Mar i tsa-Devebargan a nd e lsewhere . As t h is p hase s hows f or ma t ive l inks w i th t he M idd le Eneo l i th ic , s o me r esearchers a ssoc ia te i tw i th t he t rans i t iona l p hase .

S uch a n a ssocia t ion ,

h owever , i s n o t warran ted , a s t he E ar ly Eneo l i th ic e le men ts o f t he c u l ture ( t he s p ira l- meander l inear s tyle o f o rna men ta t ion , e ncrus ted c era m ics a nd t he i ncised o rna men ts ) h ad c o mp le te ly d isappeared a t t ha t h is tor ica l s tage . Tha t i s why t he p er iod s hou ld b e c ons idered t o h ave b een f u l ly c o mp le ted . As t o t he e le men ts wh ich c rea te t he impress ion o f o lder l i nks , i n t h is p ar t icu lar c ase i ti s aq ues t ion o f n ew e le men ts t ha t h ad a r isen d ur ing t he t rans i t iona l p er iod ( t he M idd le Eneo l i th ic ) a nd h ad b een s t i mu la ted i n to f ur ther n a tura l d eve lop men t .

Bu t f or t he m , i t wou ld h ave b een imposs ib le t o p rove

t he c on t inu i ty b e tween t hese t wo s tages o f t he Eneo l i th ic . The f i rs t p hase i s d iv ided i n to t wo c onsecu t ive s ubphases A a nd B . Whereas i np hase I A c y l indr ica l a nd b icy l indr ica l s hapes ( p l . I I , 2 ,5 ) were r e ta ined t o ac ons iderab le d egree i n p hase I B t he r ud i men ts o f b icon ica l f or ms , wh ich a re s o t ypica l o f t he c lass ica l s tage o f t he L a te Eneo l i th ic ( p l . I I , 1 , 3 , 4 , 7 ) , may b e o bserved .

B ig b icy l indr ica l b ow ls a nd s torage

j ars , d ecora ted i n t he ir u pper p ar t w i th t hree h or izon ta l b ands o f g raph i te o rna men ts f requen t ly o ccur d ur ing t he e n t ire f irs t p hase .

The f ron t p ar t o f

s o me o f t he m was marked b y me topes , b u t t h is p rac t ice s oon d isappeared . There a re a lso d ishes w i th c y l indr ica l o r s l igh t ly e xaggera ted r i ms , v ases haped v esse ls , b u lky s torage j ars w i th b ig d o me-shaped l i ds o f t he S a l manovo t ype d ecora ted w i th g raph i te b ands e nc los ing s was t ikal ike o rna men ts .

T he

d ecora t ion o f t he v esse ls i s mos t ly g raph i te d one i n h or izon ta l b ands o f z igzags , 3 5

n ega t ive t r iang les a nd l ozenges , d iagona l ly r unn ing c o mpos i t ions wh ich c onnec t s em icirc les , e tc . The i nc ised o rna men t o f t he M idd le Eneol i th ic i s im i ta ted o n s torage j ars . Bu t i t was n ow b u i l t w i th b ands a pp l ied i n r e l ief a nd b urn ished , wh i le t he r ough b ackground was f i l led w i th a t h in l ayer o f wh i te o r r ed o chre , o f wh ich h ard ly a ny t race h as b een p reserved .

The mot i fs o n t h is t ype o f v esse ls a re f a in t ly

r em in iscen t o f t he a ngu lar meander . I n g enera l t he o rna men ts c overed o n ly t he s hou lders o f t he v esse ls , a nd s o me t i mes t he i ns ide o f t he s ha l low d ishes .

T he n eck a nd mou th were

o ccas iona l ly p a in ted r ed o n t he i ns ide . There a re t wo k inds o f p o ts among t he c rude p ottery — b icon ica l , d ecora ted w i th f ine b arbo t ine o r i ncis ions , a nd s hor t , b arre l-l ike o nes e n t ire ly c overed w i th b arbo t ine i n r el ie f .

Knobs a nd r a ised , f inger-i mpressed b ands o ccur

r arely . The c onc lud ing s tage o f p hase Iw i tnessed t he e x tens ive a dop t ion o f b icon ica l f or ms i np o t tery , wh ich were t o b eco me t he t yp ica l f ea ture o f p hase I . P hase I o f t he K od jader men-Gu me ln4a-Karanovo V I c u l ture i s t he b es t i nves t iga ted s pan o f t ime i n t he c u l ture . a l l s e t t le men t mounds :

R e l ics o f i th ave b een f ound i n a l mos t

K oubra t , K od jader men , N evsky , Ovcharovo , S ava ,

Karanovo , A z mashka mound , G o lya mo De lchevo , V in i tsa , t he S tara Z agora minera l b a ths a nd e lsewhere . B icon ica l v esse ls d ecora ted w i th n ega t ive g raph i te o rna men ts o ccur mos t f requen t ly .

The ir c on tours a re s o met i mes

s harp a nd a t o thers , r ounded , o r t he l ine i s b roken u nder t he b e l ly . Sma l l b ow ls were mass p roduced . The d ishes h ave a l ow , e x travagan t ly c urved o r s l igh t ly i nver ted r im o f d i f feren t t h ickness .

Ord inar i ly t hey h ave n o o rna-

men ta t ion , b u t i n tr ica te c o mpos i t ions t raced i n g raph i te a re t o b e s een o n t he i ns ide o f s o me o f t he m . Among t he c rude p o t tery , t he b ig d eep d ishes w i th a l ow r im h o ld a n imp or tan t p lace ;

a t t he a ng le o f t he r im a nd o n t he b e l ly , an arrow h or izon ta l

b and may b e o bserved , wh ich i s ar em in iscence o f t he b icyl indr ica l p ro f i les o f t he v essels o f p hase I .

There a re a lso a g rea t many l arge a nd sma l l

v ase-shaped v esse ls ( p l . I V , 8 ) .

S o me t i mes t hey a re r ibbed , p ecked o r

h ave g raph i te o rna men ts o n t he s hou lders a nd a re i n ac lass w i th t he a cco mp l ished p o t tery ( p l . I V , 3 ) .

There a re a lso l arge , v ase-shaped s torage j ars ,

c overed w i th b arbo t ine , w i th w ide f lu t ing a nd t ongue-l ike p ro tuberances . The s torage j ars a ssu me much l arger p ropor t ions .

Whereas i np hase I

t heir c apac i ty was n o t i n e xcess o f 1 0 1 . , t ha t o f t he v esse ls o f p hase I r eaches 5 0 1 . o r more .

Th is i s p roo f p os i t ive t ha t t he q uan t i ty o f s upp l ies

a nd s urp luses h ad g rea t ly i ncreased .

The s torage j ars a re d ecora ted w i th

r ough ly a pp l ied b arbo t ine o r g raph i te .

L ids were o f t wo k inds :

h igh , d o me-

s haped a nd d ecora ted w i th g raph i te ( t he S a l manovo t ype ) , wh ich were o f t he s a me t ype a s t hose u sed a t t he p rev ious s tage a nd were mean t t o c over b ow ls a nd s torage ware .

The o ther k ind were sma l l , s l igh t ly c onvex l i ds w i th b ow-

s haped h and les a nd b arbo t ine s ur face , a nd were u sed t o c over p o ts .

The

l a t ter f or med a l arge p o t tery g roup , wh ich i nc ludes r ounded b icon ica l a nd b arre l-l ike s hapes ( p l . I V , 4 , 5 , 6 ) .

They a re d ecora ted w i th k nobs a nd

o b l ique ly l a id , f inger-i mpressed b ands i n r e l ie f , v er t ica l i nc is ions a nd

3 6

f ingeri mpressed b arbo t ine ;

more o f ten t han n o t ac o mbina t ion o f s evera l

o f t hese t echn iques was u sed . The g raph i te o rna men t was e xc lus ively n ega t ive a nd was a rranged i n a s ing le b and i n t he u pper p ar t o f t he v esse l .

I nc is ions o n t he mou ths o f v es-

s e ls , t he b lack-wh i te-red c o lour s che me a nd t he r ed b and o n t he i ns ide o f t he mou th a re n o l onger t o b e s een . I ti s p oss ible t o t race t he o r ig ins o f a l l o rna men ta l mo t i fs b ack t o t he s p ira l a nd a ngu lar meanders o f t he E ar ly Eneo l i th ic , b u t t he i dea c on ten t o f t he o rna men t h ad b een l os t . 11

The s ty l is t ic t rans for ma t ion o f t he l a t ter i s e asy t o f o l low u p ( t able 1 7 ) . A t t h is s tage i t was c us to mary t o d ecora te t he v esse ls ( t he v ase-shaped o nes , a bove a l l ) w i th a n S -l ike o rna men t impressed w i th a s he l l .

Th is t echn ique

g rea t ly d eve loped d ur ing t he n ex t p hase . Phase I I o f t he Kod jader men-Gu meln i4a-Karanovo V I c u l ture i s t he f ina l s tage o f t ha t c u l ture a nd o f t he Eneo l i th ic i n g enera l . c u lm ina t ion o f t he me ta l b oo m .

I tc o inc ided w i th t he

Meta l o b jec ts h ave b een f ound i n a l l s e t t le-

men ts a nd n ecropo l ises , a nd t he o vera l l a spec t o f t he c u l ture e verywhere i n t he a rea was i ncreas ing ly u n i f ied .

R e l ics o f p hase I I a re p resen t a t many

s i tes , t he mos t impor tan t o f wh ich a re :

R ouss6 , H o tn i tsa , K oubra t , N evsky ,

G abarevo , Yuna ts i t, t he S tara Z agora minera l b a ths , B anya ta , Karanovo a nd Mechkyur .

I t s d eve lop men t may b e d iv ided i n to t wo s uccess ive s ubphases

Aa nd B . The mos t f requen t ly o ccurr ing f or m i np o t tery i s t he v ase-shaped v esse l w i th a n eck o f v ar ied l eng th . The n eck i s d ecora ted w i th g raph i te o rna men ts , wh i le t he b ody i s c overed w i th b arbo t ine . a lso t o b e s een .

V er t ical o r h or izon ta l h and les a re

There i s ag enera l t rend o f i ncreas ing t he s ize o f v essels

w i th a r ough f in ish .

Ab roken c on tour l ine a t t he s hou lders a nd u nder t he

b e l ly h e lps t o a ch ieve s harp o r r ounded b icon ica l s hapes wh ich a re v ery w ide i nt he m idd le .

The t rad i t iona l d ishes w i th a n i nver ted r im o f v ar ied t h ickness

a re d ecora ted w i th g raph i te o rna men ts , r ibs a nd f lu t ing .

Z oo morph ic a nd

e xpecia l ly a n thropo morph ic v esse ls a nd l i ds a ppear more a nd more f requen t ly . A t t he e nd o f t h is p hase t here b egan t o b e made c ups i n t he s hape o f r hy tons a nd c ups w i th t wo h and les .

N a i li mpressed b arbo t ine , s ha m c orded o rna men ts

a nd s he l li mpressed d ecora t ions b eca me mos t w ide ly s pread . s o c a l led S a lcup . e le men ts ( p l . V , 1 , 2 ;

These a re t he

p l . X I I , 3 , 4 ).

The q ua l i ty o f g raph i te o rna men ta t ion d e ter iora ted b ecause o f t he c a lcareous a dm ix tures a nd i tb egan t o d isappear . s ty l ised v ege ta l .

Mot i fs were e i ther s i mply l inear o r

I t was a t t h is s tage t ha t g o ld was u sed f or t he f irs t t ime .

J ewe ls o f v ar ious

k inds — l oops f or e arr ings a nd n eck laces , b race le ts , b eads , a n thropo morph ic p endan ts , a pp l iqués , a s we l l a s i do ls were made o f i t . G o ld j ewe l lery h as b een e xcava ted a long t he B lack S ea c oas t a nd mos t o f ten i n ma le b ur ia ls . I nd iv idua l v esse ls s how t races o f g o ld d ecora t ion . I nves t iga tions o f s e t t le men t mounds s how t ha t t he l a tes t Eneo l i th ic b u i ld ing l eve ls h ere may b e d a ted t o t he e nd o f t he p hase u nder d iscuss ion wh ich , a ccord ing t o t he c hrono log ica l s ys te m a dopted i n Ru man ia , c orresponds t o

3 7

p hase I B o f t he G u me ln i Ia c u l ture i n Mun ten ia o r , a ccord ing t o t he p er iod isat ion o f D . B erc iu , t o t he e nd o f i t s t h ird p hase . The l a tes t Eneo l i th ic s e t t le men ts i n B u lgar ia a nd Mun ten ia h ad b een r epea ted ly d es troyed b y f ire , wh ich t es t i f ies t o s tor my e ven ts a t t he c lose o f t he e poch .

N o t a l l s e t t le men ts s urv ived t ha t l ong ;

many o f t he m p er ished

e ar ly i np hase I I , a nd s o me i n i t s midd le , wh ich marked t he e nd o f h u man a ct iv i ty o n mos t o f t he s et t le men t mounds i n N or th-eas tern Bu lgar ia .

I n

Thrace , t he p opu la t ion wh ich u shered i n t he E ar ly B ronze Age s e t t led o n s o me o f t he mounds a t al a ter d a te . The c auses o f t he d isappearance o f t he Kod jader men-Gu meln i Sa-Karanovo V I c u l ture w i l l b e d iscussed l a ter , a f ter d eve lop men ts t hroughou t t he e n t ire e thnocu l tura l a rea h ave b een r ev iewed . The B lack S ea L i t tora l :

E ar ly Eneo l i th ic ( t ab les 1 , 1 6 , map 7 )

The Eneo l i th ic o n t he B lack S ea l i t tora l i s o ne o f t he mos t c o mp l ica ted p er iods i n B a lkan p reh is tory .

The p rob le m i s t ha t d ur ing t he N eo l i th ic t he

a rea s tre tch ing a long t he wes t c oas t o f t he B lack S ea was p opu la ted b y t r ibes o f d i f feren t e thn ic o r ig in , wh ich f or med t he e thn ica l ly h e terogeneous b ase o f t he l a ter Eneo l i th ic p opu la t ion , wh ich o n i ts p ar t ma in ta ined c on tac ts w i th t he v ar ious i n land a rchaeo log ica l c u l tures .

As a r esu l t o f t h is , i t was s ub jec ted

t o v ar ious i n f luences , more p ar t icu lar ly d ur ing t he E ar ly Eneo l i th ic .

Th is

makes t he a rea mos t i n teres t ing f ro m t he s cien t i f ic p oin t o f v iew a s i ti s h ere p recise ly t ha t t he l inks b etween c on te mporary c u l tures a nd t he d irec t ions o f t he i n f luences wh ich t hey r ece ived o r r ad ia ted may b es t b e r ecogn ised o n t he b as is o f impor ts .

Wha t i s more , t h is a rea was f avoured b y t he p rox im i ty o f

t he s ea , wh ich p layed a n impor tan t r o le i n i ts e cono m ic a dvance . wa ter r ou te a nd v ia t he N or thern Dobroud ja , c on tac ts

A long t h is

were e s tabl ished w i th

S ou thern B essarab ia a nd t he C ucu ten i-Tr ipo lM t r ibes wh ich l ived b e tween t he P ru t a nd t he Dn ies ter . N a tura l ly , l inks were a lso ma in ta ined w i th t he Med it erranean . The e ar l ies t i n t h is a rea was t he Tsonevo N eo l i th ic c u l ture wh ich c orresp onded t o t he s econd s tage o f t he E ar ly N eo li th ic i n Thrace .

I to r ig ina ted i n

t he s he l tered v a l leys o f t he K a mch iya i n t he E as tern B a lkan R ange . M idd le a nd L a te N eo l i th ic c u l tures o f Oussog 1 1 03 d irect d escendan ts o f i t s t rad i t ions .

a nd Oussoe 1104

T he w ere

These N eo l i th ic s e t t le men ts c ons is ted

o f d ug-ou ts a nd were s i tua ted o np la teaux .

J us t a s i n Thrace , h ere t oo c er-

t a in b as ic e le men ts o f t he E ar ly Eneo l i th ic c u l ture o f S ava made t he ir a ppearance w i th in t he f ra mework o f t he L a te N eo l i th ic c u l ture o f Oussob I .

These a re

l i ly-shaped , f oo ted v esse ls ( p l . V I , 3 ) , c on ica l b ow ls d ecora ted w i th e ncrus tat i ons , a nd t he e ncrus ted l inear o rna men ts ( p l . V , 4 , 5 ;

p l . V I , 1 , 2 ;

p l . V I I ,

2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ) . A pparen t ly t he t rans i t ion f ro m t he L a te N eo l i th ic t o t he E ar ly Eneo l i th ic i n t h is p ar t o f t he c oun try was a cco mpan ied b y migra t ions o f t he p opu la t ion f ro m Thrace , a s o ne s ees e ven more c lear ly h ere t han i n N or the as tern Bu lgar ia d is t inc t c u l tura l e le men ts t ranspor ted f ro m t he more s ou ther ly a rea :

r ectangu lar , g round-leve l dwe l l ings , f or t i f ied s e t t le men ts o r ien ted

a ccord ing t o t he f our c ard ina l p oin ts a nd s i tua ted i np rox im i ty t o o r o n f looded t erraces .

A lso s o me Thrac ian e le men ts , t yp ica l o f t he L a te N eo l i th ic a nd

a lready e x t inc t o n t he t err i tory where t hey h ad o r ig ina ted , were p reserved a nd f ur ther d eveloped i n t he S ava c u l ture .

3 8

S uch were , f or i ns tance , t he h igh

lids (pl. VII, 2, 3, 4, 5), the ,application of incised ornaments in densely laid hatches so that the free narrow bands in reverse outline the contours of the ornament, which is usually a variant of the angular meander. There were no graphite deposits in this area and for this reason the graphite ornament was adopted later, which also holds true of Muntenia. There are, however, several small, graphite decorated vessels which are imports from the Maritsa culture and whose shape and workmanship were unknown on the Black Sea lit­ toral. Fluting (pl. V, 6) is also to be met with. The Early Eneolithic culture of Sava, therefore, was created by the local Neolithic population. However, individual elements brought from the south, were integrated into this culture. It had four phases of development, the first three of which belong to the Early Eneolithic, and the fourth to the Middle Eneolithic. Relics of phase I of the Sava culture occur at a few sites only, which are scattered over a large territory. Pottery of this phase was first discovered at the Salmanovo settlement mound; other sites where such pottery was found are Sava, Turnak, Oussoe III, Shabla, Kableshkovo, etc. The pottery is of three kinds - decorated with incised ornaments, devoid of ornamentation, and crude kitchen ware. The incised ornaments represent groups of two to five parallel lines delineating a spiral meander or a simple

r - shaped motif.

This type of ornamentation is used in combination with

a narrow, checkerboard-pattern of encrusted bands, which are disposed on the front part of the vessel and its shoulders. The massive storage jars with high necks are decorated in this manner and so are their tall lids (pl. VIII, 1). There is a suggestion of anthropomorphic features on these vessels. There are in addition lily-shaped, footed bowls and small cone-shaped dishes. The crude pottery includes barrel-shaped pots which are pitted at the rim and covered with a thin layer of barbotine. Relics of phases II and III of the Sava culture occur at many sites on the Black Sea coast: in the settlement mounds of Sava, Tsonevo, Golyamo Del­ chevo, Kableshkovo, Kavarna and elsewhere. To all appearances, by that time all flooded tracts of land along rivers, karstic springs and lagoons were fully exploited. The basic pottery shapes were preserved, but deep bowls decorated with fluting beg;an to appear. They did not differ much in shape from the deep graphite decorated bowls made in Thrace at that same time (phase III of the Maritsa culture). The surface of the pottery from the pre­ vious phase was mostly yellow or rusty brown, while in the classical stages of development of the Sava culture the ware was predominantly black. The incised, white encrusted ornament covered wider, hatched surfaces separated by narrow neg;ative bands, not more than a centimetre wide. The ornament is often framed by small incised or stabbed triangles and the mouths of the vessels have slight indentations. The lily-shaped vessels become wider and their feet shorter. The ornamented lids are no longer as tall as those made in the initial stages, their cylindrical rim is covered with a checkerboard pattern and the handles on top are often anthropomorphically shaped (pl. V, 5). The great variety of incised ornaments apparently compensated for the almost total absence of graphite decorations, the imports from Thrace making an exception. 39

Middle Eneolithic (tables 1, 16, map 8) Phase IV of the Sava culture is also known in the literature as the Varna phase. It is ref erred to the transitional period between the Early and the Late Eneolithic and is a remarkable phenomenon, in which influences of distant provenance met. Material of this phase has been found in the Eneolithic settlements at Golyamo Delchevo III and IV, Sava, Tsonevo, Turnak, Shabla I and II, Dourankoulak, Plachidol and elsewhere. The further development of the pottery shapes of the Sava culture led to the appearance during this phase of the tiered storage jars, which were typical of the Black Sea littoral. These are bulky vessels whose outlines call to mind the human body: a big belly, tall and narrow chest, wide straight shoulders, a neck and lid. The lily-shaped vessels and the small conical bowls disappeared and were replaced by sharply profiled cylindrical bowls, similar to those of the Polyanitsa cul­ ture. The incised ornament rapidly evolved from positive linear into negative linear and was encrusted with a thick layer of white paste of the Spantov type. Elegant jugs, typical of this region only, with a spherical body, high neck, elbow-shaped handles and raised burnished ornamentation made their appearance. Among the crude pottery were tall jars with nearly cylindrical bellies decorated with knobs. Many and heterogeneous influences are to be discerned in the vessels' decoration: the incised ornament and the fluting are traceable to the old traditions of the Sava culture, but the strong influence of the Polyanitsa culture in North-eastern Bulgaria and of the Hamangia culture in the Northern D obroudja was also felt. From Polyanitsa, the Sava culture borrowed the cylindrical-biconical bowls and the graphite ornament called wolf tooth, as well as the familiar negative motifs. The sudden appearance of the stamped ornament on the Black Sea littoral and especially in the Longoz is hard to explain as it does not occur in the other parts of the Ethnocultural Area of the Thracian Eneolithic. The earliest samples of this ornament in South-eastern Europe were found in Moldavia on vessels of the Precucuteni II - Tripolie Al culture and of the Hamangia culture in the Dobroudja. From here it spread quickly to the south, but only in the ethnocultural region of the Black Sea coast, where it helped create the cultural aspect of the Varna phase (Sava IV culture). Vessels with stamped ornamentation occur most frequently in the Dobroudja, which was their point of departure. As one proceeds south, this type of orna­ mentation is less frequently met with, and in Golyamo Delchevo III and IV it appears on less than two per cent of the ceramic ware (pl. VI, 4; pl. VIII, 1). The formation of the Varna phase on the Black Sea coast is an illustration of cultural integration during the transitional period from the Early to the Late Eneolithic within the framework of the Ethnocultural Area of the Thracian Eneolithic. It should be noted that other influences coming from the west, south-west and south are to be traced in the Dobroudja. In this way alone can the ap­ pearance of the cultures of Kodjadermen-GumelniJa-Karanovo VI and Varna be explained. These cultures occupied the �erritory of the Hamangia culture. Late Eneolithic (tables 1, 16, map 9) Developments on the Black Sea littoral during the Late Eneolithic were no less complicated. The ethnocultural region was extended by the inclusion of new territories in Bessarabia, taken over by tribes which had come from 40

t he Dobroud ja .

Un for tuna te ly , v ery f ew s e t t le men ts o f t he La te Eneo li th ic

h ave b een t horough ly s tud ied , a nd t he c ourse o f t he h is tor ica l p rocess h as n ot b een c lar i f ied .

The n ow f am i l iar s i tes o f G o lya mo De lchevo V -XVI I , S ava ,

t he p i le dwe l l ings a t t he Varna l akes , K ab leshkovo , Bu lgarovo Ia nd I , D ourank ou lak a nd many more h ave p a in ted t he f o l lowing p ic ture : d ur ing p hase Io f t he L a te Eneol i th ic , t he K od jader men-Gu meln4a-Karanovo V I c u l ture d eve loped i n t he i n ter ior i n i t s n ear ly c lass ica l f or ms , t ypica l o f t he B a lkan Moun ta in a rea .

Th is p hase , h owever , h as n o t b een s a t is fac tor i ly i nves t iga ted o n t he

s ea c oas t .

B eg inn ing w i th p hase I , l oca l f ea tures b egan t o e vo lve u nder t he

impac t o f t he r apid a dvance o f t he l i t tora l r esu l t ing f ro m t he b r isk s ea t rade . The i n land r eg ions f e l l b eh ind a nd n ever s ucceeded i n r each ing t he h igh c u lt ura l l eve l o f t he l ake dwe l lers n ear V arna a nd t he B ig I s land a t D ourankou lak . F or t h is r eason , i t wou ld n o t b e wrong t o a ssu me t ha t t he c lass ica l f or ms o f t he Varna c u l ture were d irec t ly l inked w i th t he s ea a nd t he o ppor tun i t ies i t o ffered . The p ot tery o f t he L a te Eneo l i th ic V arna c u l ture d i f fers c ons iderably f ro m t ha t o f t he K od jader men-Gume ln i p-Karanovo V I c u l ture . 1 °5 A c o mpar ison b e tween t he t wo c o mp lexes h as b een made p oss ib le b y t he p resence i n t he Varna c u l ture o f av ery sma l l p ercen tage o f e le men ts i nheren t i n t he K od jad er men-Gu me ln i ta-Karanovo V I c u l ture .

These e le men ts p o in t t o t he l a t ter 's

e thn ic a f f i l ia t ion t o t he g roup o f Thracian Eneo l i th ic c u l tures .

Wh i le t he

p rob le m o f t he o r ig in o f t he Thrac ian e le men ts i n t he Varna c u l ture i s t hus d isposed o f , t he c o mp lex q ues t ion o f t he o r ig in o f t he s peci f ic , mos t n u merous e le men ts c harac ter is ing t h is c u l ture warran ts a d i f feren t e xplana t ion . I ft he d eve lop men t o f t he B lack S ea e thnocu l tura l r eg ion i s e xa m ined c lose ly , t he f o l low ing p ic ture o f t he t wo l oca l E ar ly Eneo l i th ic c u l tura l g roups emerges : La te H a mang ia t o t he n or th a nd L a te S ava t o t he s ou th i n tegra ted d ur ing t he M idd le Eneol i th ic a nd w i th t he empha t ic p ar t ic ipa t ion o f t he P o lyan i tsa a nd B o ian I V c u l tures , merged i n to a l oca l v ar ian t a t t he e nd o f t he t rans i t iona l p hase .

Th is v ar ian t , t he s o c a l led D obroud ja v ar ian t , was s im i lar i n t ype t o

p hase Io f t he K od jader men-Gu me ln i p-Karanovo V I c u l ture .

L a ter , h owever ,

t he B lack S ea a nd N or th-eas tern Bu lgar ian c u l tures g rew p rogress ive ly a par t a nd t he c harac ter is t ic a spec t o f t he Varna c u l ture was f or med . I na l l p robabi li ty i t was d ur ing p hase It ha t ag rea t s h i f t o f t he l oca l ( Dobr oud ja ) Eneo li th ic p opu la t ion t ook p lace a cross t he Danube ( or p oss ibly v ia t he B lack S ea a nd t he Danube ) t o t he n or th .

Th is p opu la tion s e t t led i n t he l ake

d is tr ic t o f S ou thern B essarab ia w i th B o lgrad l °6 a s i t s c en tre .

I n i t s n ew

s urroundings , t he p opu la t ion c a me i n to c lose c on tac t w i th t he l oca l , h igh lyd eve loped P rotocucu ten i-Tr ipo l ig t r ibes . Fro m t he m t he n ewco mers l earned n ew t echn iques i n h ouse-bu i ld ing , b e t ter s ui ted t o l oca l c ond i t ions . There was a n i n tens ive e xchange o f c u l tura l v a lues b e tween t he t wo a d jacen t a reas whose h is tory , h owever , t ook a d i f feren t t urn .

I n t he s e t t le men ts o f t he l oca l

Tr ipo li 6p opu la t ion , t he f ore ign e le men ts s tand o u t c lear ly a nd were mos t o f ten i n f i l tra t ions o f p o t tery s hapes ;

t hey were b orrowed a nd u sed , b u t n ever

h ad a d ec isive i n f luence o n t he s ty le o f l oca l w are a nd w ere r egarded a s i mp or ts . D eve lop men ts among t he n ewco mer t r ibes t ook j us t t he o ppos i te c ourse . I n t he f irs t y ears a f ter t hey s e t t led h ere , t hey l i tera l ly a ss im i la ted t he b es t o f t he P ro tocucu ten i-Tr ipo lM c u l ture , r e f lec t ing i tt hrough t heir o wn a es the t ic

4 1

c oncep ts , a s ar esu l t o f wh ich t here a rose a n ew , i ndependen t c u l tura l v ar ian t wh ich may b e t ermed t he B olgrad v ar ian t o f t he V arna c u l ture , a nd n o t o f t he G ume ln i Sa o ne .

T he i n tr ica te i n terac t ion b e tween t he t wo e thnocu l tura l c o m-

p lexes a re a n e xcep t iona l ly c lear d e mons tra t ion o f t he manner i n wh ich c ont ac ts b e tween n e ighbour ing , b u t e thn ica l ly h e terogeneous t r iba l g roups may h ave d eve loped i n r e mo te a n t iqu i ty .

T he n ew s e t t lers , b ecause o f t he ir

weaker e cono m ic a nd p oss ibly s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion o n a ccoun t o f h av ing h ad t o a d jus t t o t he n ew h abi ta t , w ere more r ecep t ive t o p os i t ive e x traneous i nf luences . B u t b ecause t hey h ad c o mpac t ly p opu la ted t he n ew t err i tory , t hey were s uccessfu l i n a dap t ing t he e le men ts b orrowed f ro m t he l oca l c u l ture t o t he ir o wn t rad i t ion a nd c us to ms , t o p reserve t he ir e thn ic e n t i ty a nd e ven t o c rea te u nder t he n ew c ondi t ions a n ew , a cco mp l ished c u l tura l v ar ian t . Once e s tabl ished , t he n ew c u l tura l c o mp lex d eve loped r e la t ive ly i ndependen t ly o n t he n ew t err i tory , ma in ta in ing c ons tan t c on tac ts w i th t he B lack S ea me tropo l is f ro m where i t impor ted f l in t , g raph i te a nd me ta l . Th is a lso h e lps t o e xp la in f ur ther d eve lop men ts i n t he B lack S ea a rea :

t he a ppearance t here o f n ew

f orms o f ac lear ly n or thern o r ig in , b u t o rgan ica l ly i n terwoven w i th l oca l t rad i t ions a nd r e mou lded i n t he s p ir i t o f t he Thracian Eneo l i th ic . A l though s e t t le men ts o f many b ui ld ing l eve ls a ppeared i n t he B olgrad a rea ( Bo lgrad , O zernoe , Vu lcanes p , t he ir c u l tura l l ayers a re n ot t h ick wh ich i s a n i nd ica t ion t ha t l i fe h ere l as ted n o more t han f our o f f ive g enera t ions . The s ynchron isa t ion o f t he r eg ion 's d eve lop men t w i th i nd iv idua l p hases o f t he K od jadermen-Gu meln i. l a-Karanovo V I c u l ture i s g rea t ly h a mpered b y t he c irc ums tance t ha t t he p ercen tage i n i to f c la " ss ica l e le men ts o f t he K od jader menG ume ln i la-Karanovo V I c u l ture i s e x tre me ly l ow ( l ess t han o ne p er c en t ) , s o much s o t ha t r ea l is t ic c o mpar isons a re i mposs ib le t o make . At er m inus a n te q ue m f or t he c lose o f t he c o lon isa t ion i s s upp l ied b y t he a rea o ver wh ich t he t r ibes , c arr iers o f p hase I C o f t he Tr ipo l ie c u l ture s pread , a nd wh ich c overs t he r eg ion i n q ues t ion . C onsequen t ly , a s ar esu l t o f t he n or thto-sou th e xp ans ion o f t he T r ip°l ie t r ibes , t he c arr iers o f t he B o lgrad v ar ian t o f t he Varna c u l ture w ere t o a n e x ten t f orced o u t o f t he ir t err i tory a nd , i n a l l p robabi l i ty , a ss im i la ted . And s o i n t he f ina l p hases o f t he E neo l i th ic , t he e thnocu l tura l r eg ion o f t he B lack S ea l i t tora l h ad s hrunk b ack i n to i t s f ormer b oundar ies . The d i f fus ion o f e le men ts f ro m t he V arna c u l ture d id n o t p roceed u n i form ly t hroughou t t he a rea , n or was t he l eve l o f s ocio-econo m ic d eve lop men t t he s a me e verywhere .

The c u l ture a ch ieved i t s h ighes t s ocio-econo m ic l eve l a t

t he s i tes s i tua ted n ear t he s ea — t he p i le d we l lings a t t he Varna l akes a nd t he ir n ecropol ises , t he s et t le men t o nt he B ig I s land n ear D ourankou lak , a nd t hose a t K ab leshkovo , Bu lgarovo , e tc . G o lya mo D e lchevo , S ava , Y abu lchevo a nd o ther s e t t le men ts wh ich w ere f ar ther i n land , h ad c ruder c u l tura l t rad t ions a nd s howed c onserva tis m a nd l ack o f d i f feren t ia t ion i n s ocia l r e la t ions . The e xqu is i te , a r t is t ica l ly o rna men ted v esse ls o f t he p i le d we l lers w ere a l uxury i nt he i n land s e t t le men ts a nd c ou ld v er y w e l l b e l ooked u pon a s impor ts . The s e t t le men t mounds o f t he N or thern D obroud ja , wh ich w ere l i nked b o th g eograph ica l ly a nd e cono m ica l ly w i th t he Danube ( Medg id ia , H i uova ,

e rna-

v oda ) , s how f ew e le men ts t ha t a re c harac ter is t ic o f t he V arna c u l ture , b u t h ave a h igh p ercen tage o f t hose o f t he K od jadermen-Gu meln ila-Karanovo V I c u l ture w i th wh ich t hey were c lose n e ighbours , wh i le d ry s teppe l and a nd t he N or thern D obroud ja h eigh ts c u t t he m o f f f ro m t he B lack S ea c oas t .

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The V arna c u l ture , t herefore , d eve loped a ga ins t t he b ackground o f t h is c o mp lex e nv ironmen ta l s cene . The mos t impor tan t f ea ture o f i t s p o t tery i s t he S -shaped p rof i le o f v esse ls a nd t he c are fu l ly model led r im , wh ich i s o f ten e ver ted a nd i s s o me t i mes p a in ted r ed o n t he i ns ide . t urned o n t he whee l . ab r i l l ian t l us ter .

The f iner ware h as t h in wa l ls a nd was o bv ious ly I t s s ur face i s l igh t g rey o r i n tense ly b lack a nd h as

1 07

The i n tense b lack was o bta ined b y p a in t ing t he v esse ls '

s ur face w i th b lack p yro lus i te p a in t .

The s torage j ars s how a f ur ther d eve lop-

men t o f t he l oca l a n thropo morph ic f or ms k nown f ro m t he E ar ly Eneo l i th ic . They a re t he s o c a l led t iered j ars a nd a re n ow l av ish ly d ecora ted w i th f lu t ing , g raph i te o r i ncised o rna men ts o f t he E zerovo t ype , o r ac o mbina t ion o f t hese . I nt he E zerovo t ype o f o rna men t , t he mo ti f i s s e t a ga ins t ab ackground o f n otches a nd e ncrus ta t ions , wh i le t he o rna men t i t se l f r e ma ins i n r e l ief a nd r e ta ins t he c o lour o f t he v esse l .

Mos t o f ten b ands o f s uch o rna men ts e nc irc le

t he b e l ly o f b ow ls , c over t he s hou lders o f s torage j ars , t he l i ds , d ru ms , b ases a nd p edes ta ls o f v essels .

The g raph i te o rna men t a lso o ccurs , b u t i ti s a pp l ied

e cono m ica l ly i n h or izon ta l l ines a nd d o ts .

The c rude k i tchen ware o f t he

Varna c u l ture i s a l mos t i den t ica l w i th t ha t o f t he Kod jader men-Gume ln4aKaranovo V I c u l ture .

I to ccurs v ery r are ly a nd w i l l n o t b e d iscussed h ere .

I n a l l o f S ou th-eas tern E urope , t he Varna c u l ture h as y ie lded t he l arges t a nd mos t v ar ied a ssor t men t o f meta l o b jec ts f ro m t he e nd o f t he 5 th a nd t he e ar ly 4 th mi l lenn ia B . C .

Th is i s b orne o u t a bove a l l b y t he f inds i n t he n ecro-

p o lises o f t h is r ich r eg ion .

The b ur ia ls d is tinc t ly s how t wo k inds o f r i tua l :

t he men were l a id i n ah or izon ta l p os i t ion o n t he ir b acks , a nd t he wo men i n ac on trac ted p os i t ion o n t he ir r igh t s ide . The o r ien ta t ion o f s ke le tons h ere d i f fers f ro m t ha t i nt he i n ter ior , where t he h eads mos t o f ten p oin ted s ou the as t o r e as t , wh i le t hose i n t he B lack S ea c oas t n ecropo l ises p oin ted n or th . The r ich c opper a nd g o ld f inds f ro m t he V arna a nd Devnya n ecropo lises a nd t he ir u nequa l d is tr ibu t ion i n t he b ur ia ls p o in t o u t t ha t s oc ia l d i f feren t ia t ion a lready e x is ted a nd t ha t t he i ns t i tu t ion o f c h ie f ta ins a nd p a tr iarcha l r ela t ions h ad b een i n troduced . The B lack S ea c oas ta l a rea was t he mos t h igh ly d eve loped L a te Eneo l i th ic p ar t o f t he E thnocu l tura l Area o f t he Thrac ian Eneo l i th ic , a nd t h is was b eyond a ny d oub t d ue t o i t s f avourab le g eograph ic p os i t ion .

The i mpress ive p rogress

o f t he Eneo l i th ic t r ibes wh ich i nhabi ted i t , was c u t s udden ly s hor t , mos t p rob ably u nder t he impac t o f i nvad ing f orces , ap rob le m wh ich w i l l b e d iscussed l a ter . N or th-wes tern B u lgar ia :

E ar ly Eneo l i th ic ( t ables 1 , 1 6 , map 7 )

The L a te N eo l i th ic i s r epresen ted i n N or th-wes tern B u lgar ia b y t he Kour i lo c u l ture , wh ich c on ta ins e le men ts c harac ter is t ic o f t he K a loyanove ts c u l ture ( Karanovo I V ) i n Thrace a nd a lso o f t he V inea-Tordos c u lture , a s w el l a s a n umber o f l oca l N eol i th ic f ea tures s te m m ing f ro m t he Dud ei , H o tn i tsa a nd Vadas tra c u l tures .

S o me o f t he f inds f ro m t he D eve tashka c ave , s a id t o b e

o f t he B o len t ineanu t ype ,

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c ou ld b e r e ferred t o t h is c hrono log ica l s tage

wh ich , h owever , h as n o t b een t horough ly s tud ied a nd n e i ther h ave i t s s i tes b een s ys te ma t ica l ly e xcava ted . The s herds c o l lec ted f ro m t he s i tes ( Kour i lo , Bren i tsa , B ya la S la t ina , e tc .) g ive a n i dea o f t he t ype o f ma ter ia l t ha t may

4 3

e ven tua l ly b e f ound .

The d e f in i t ion o f i t s e thnocu l tura l a spec t a nd t he e x ten t

o f i t s t err i tory w i l l b e t he o b jec t o f f u ture i nves t iga t ions . I t was o n t he b as is o f t h is L a te N eo l i th ic c o mp lex t ha t t he c harac ter is t ic f ea tures o f t he E ar ly Eneo l i th ic G radeshn i tsa c u l ture i n N or th-wes tern B u lg ar ia e vo lved . The G radeshn i tsa c u l ture d eve loped p ara l le l t o t he Mar i tsa , P o lyan i tsa a nd S ava c u l tures .

S o f ar , t hree c onsecu t ive E ar ly Eneo l i th ic

p hases h ave b een e s tabl ished . C rude , t h ick-wa l led p o t tery t ypi fy ing p hase I , h as b een f ound i n I h t i man , G radeshn i tsa , G orn i B ogrov , B ouhovo , K our i lo , C he lopechane a nd e lsewhere . I t s p redo m inan t ly b lack a nd g reyish-black s ur faces a re mos t ly d ecora ted w i th i ncised l inear o rna men ts , wh ich e nc lose s p ira l meanders a nd l ozenges w i th ad o t i n t he c en tre ( P l . I , 2 , 6 , 7 , 8 ) . An i n teres t ing c o mbina t ion o f ap ecked b and a nd a n i nc ised o rna men t i s t o b e s een o n o ne a nd t he s a me v esse l .

B road

f lu t ing ( P l . I , 1 ) a round t he k nobs a nd a t t he b roken c on tour l ine o f t he d ishes d ecora tes t he f ine ware , wh ich a lso c arr ies t he s e ldo m s een g raph i te l inear o rna men t . An impor tan t d iscovery a t t he D ik i l i taj s e t t le men t mound n ear Dra mal° 9 i n Aegean Thrace was t he p o t tery d a ted t o t h is p hase a s i th as e nab led s cho lars t o f ix t he s ou thern l im i t o f i t s a rea . Phase I o f t he G radeshn i tsa c u l ture i s b es t r epresen ted a t t he s i te o f t he s a me n a me , a s we l l a s i n an umber o f s e t t le men ts i n N or th-wes tern B u lgar ia — Oko lg lava , B ouhovo , Kre m ikov ts i , P ern ik — t he f or tress , G orn i P assare l . A t t ha t s tage a l l s e t t le men ts were a lready s i tua ted o n p la teaux . The we l l i nves t iga ted s e t t le men t a t G radeshn i tsa h as y ie lded amp le i n forma t ion a bou t t he a spec t o f t h is c u l ture .

The g rea t v ar ie ty o f c era m ic f or ms ,

p r ide o f p lace among wh ich g oes t o t he a n thropo morph ica l ly s haped s torage j ars i nher i ted f ro m p hase I , t he l i ds w i th a n thropo- a nd z oo morph ic p ro tub erances , t he b ow ls w i th h and les , e tc ., i s s i mp ly amazing .

On t he whole ,

t he a n thropo- a nd z oo morph ic e le men t i s v ery p ro m inen t i n t he a rt ist ic s ty le o f t he G radeshn i tsa c u l ture a nd i s emphas ised a t e very a ppropr ia te o ccas ion . The k ey mo t if i s t he s pira l meander t raced w i th i ncised l ines .

On t he s torage

j ars i ti s a rranged w i th in me topes , v ery o f ten o n ly o n t he f ron t p ar t o f t he v esse l .

T he g raph i te o rna men t i s a lso me t w i th , b u t i th as a s econdary r o le .

The k nobs o n s o me v essels a re s urrounded b y c oncen tr ic f lu t ings .

T he i n-

f luence o f t he V in6a c u l ture a t t h is s tage may b e s a id t o h ave c ons iderab ly weakened , wh i le d ur ing t he n ex t p hase I I t he p rocess was r eversed w i th t he g rowing i n f luence o f t he G radeshn i tsa c u l ture .

T races o f t h is p hase h ave

b een f ound i n S adove ts , C he lopech , P ern ik — t he f or tress , P ek lyuk a nd e lsewhere i n B u lgar ia , a nd a t t he B uban i a nd Humska ö uka s e t t le men ts n ear N is i n Yugos lav ia , a nd a lso a t S i tagroi a nd D ik il ita .s n ear Dra ma i n Aegean T hrace. P hase I I o f t he G radeshn i tsa c u l ture c o inc ides i n t ime w i th t he c lass ica l o r s o c a l led g raph i te p hase o f t he Mar i tsa c u l ture a nd p ossesses t he mos t i mport an t f ea tures o f t h is impress ive c u l tura l l ayer . I n c o mpar ison w i th t he p rev ious p hase , t he s hape o f t he v esse ls s hows l i t t le c hange .

Mos t o f t he m h ave h and les , t wo f or e ach o f t he sma l l d ishes

a nd b ow ls , a nd f ro m t wo t o f our f or t he v ase-shaped s torage j ars .

4 4

The g raph i te o rna men t p redo m ina tes , a l though t here a re i nc ised o nes a s we l l .

I t s e xecu t ion was l inear a nd t he g raph i te was a pp l ied i n v ery t h in l ines ,

e nhanc ing t he a ppearance o f t he e xqu is i te ly s haped v esse ls . d is t inc t ive f ea ture o f t he wes tern a rea .

Th is was a

F lu t ing was s t i l l t o b e s een o n t he

b roades t p ar t o f s o me d ishes , b u t i n s o me c ases a g raph i te o rna men t was s uper i mposed a t v ar iance w i th t he o r ig ina l mo ti f . b lack a nd f inely b urn ished ;

The v esse ls a re u sua l ly

t here a lso o ccur p o lychro me d ecora t ions a ppl ied

a f ter f ir ing b y means o f r ed , wh i te , y e l low a nd r edd ish-ye l low o chre p as te . Dur ing t ha t p er iod t he s cope a nd i n tens i ty o f i n f luence o f t he G radeshn i tsa c u l ture o n t he c on t iguous r eg ions s ee ms t o h ave b een e specia l ly s trong .

I t

c oinc ides i n t ime w i th t he s tronges t impac t e xer ted b y t he Mar i tsa c u l ture . A t t he p resen t s tage o f r esearch , t he a spec t o f t he M idd le Eneo l i th ic o n t he t err i tory o f t he G radeshn i tsa c u l ture r e ma ins u nclar i f ied .

J us t af ew

s i tes may t en ta t ive ly b e r e ferred t o i t , a nd n o t o ne o f t he m h as b een s ys tema t ica l ly e xcava ted . The E ar ly Eneo l i th ic i n t he r eg ion n or th o f t he B a lkan Range , b e tween t he n or th-wes tern a nd t he n or th-eas tern a reas , i s o f s pec ia l i n terest . p heno menon i n t he Ba lkans i s t o b e o bserved h ere :

A r are

ac u l tura l c o mp lex t ha t

h as wedged i t se l f i nb etween t wo e thn ica l ly r e la ted c u l tures .

Though i ti s

a lso r e ferred t o t he Thrac ian Eneol i th ic c u l tures , t h is c o mp lex i s f ar r e moved i nt ype f ro m t he t wo n eighbour ing c u l tures men t ioned a bove . The c o mp lex i n q ues t ion i s t he Vadas tra c u l ture , r e l ics o f wh ich h ave c o me t o l igh t i n Bu lgar ia i n t he a rea l ying b e tween t he I skur a nd t he Ossu rn a nd a s f ar u p a s t he D anube i n to wh ich b o th r ivers emp ty . o n a d jacen t t err i tor ies .

F inds f ro m i ta lso o ccur

Th is p ar t icu lar c u l tura l c o mp lex a ppeared o n t he

s i tes o f t he L a te N eo l i th ic c u l tures o f H o tn i tsa s ou th o f t he Danube , a nd o f Dude52 t o t he n or th o f i t . Dur ing t he E ar ly Eneo li th ic i ta cquired a n u mber o f f ea tures wh ich a re t ypica l o f t he G radeshn i tsa a nd V in6a c u l tures . I nd iv idua l f inds o f t he V adas tra t ype h ave b een u ncovered i n t h is c oun try a t Vodna n ear L ovech , L issova n ear C herven B ryag , a t t he c on f luence o f t he I skur a nd t he D anube , a t K our i lo a nd e lsewhere ;

a nd a lso a s ac o mponen t p ar t o f t he

c era m ic c o mplex o f p hase Io f t he G radeshn i tsa c u l ture , a t Bren i tsa , Vra tsa d is tr ic t .

The v esse ls a re l av ish ly d ecora ted w i th i nc ised o rna men ts e xecu ted

i n v ar ious t echn iques - r e t icu la t ion , p i t t ing , i ncis ion , e tc .

The b as ic mo ti f

o f t he o rna men ta t ion i s t he a ngu lar s pira l meander a rranged i n me topes - a t ypica l f ea ture o f N or th-eas tern Bu lgar ia . The f ine ware i s d ecora ted w i th f lu t ing , a nd t he c rude p o t tery , w i th b arbot ine . The d a t ing o f t he Vadas tra c u l ture i s ac o mp l ica ted p rob le m wh ich i s v ar ious ly i n terpre ted b y r esearchers . There i s t he o pin ion t ha t i tl as ted l ong , h ad f our p hases ,1 10 t he l as t o f wh ich s urv ived u p t o t he Midd le Eneol i th ic a nd e ven p layed a p art i n t he f or mat ion o f t he S a lc e c u lture.

The

mater ia l f rom t he N orth-western p art o f t he c oun try , h owever , s uggests t hat t he p resence o f t h is c u l ture i n Bu lgar ia h ad n o t b een l ong a nd

c an s o f ar

b e e stabl ished w ith c erta in ty o n ly w ith in t he c hrono log ica l l im its o f p hase Io f t he Gradeshn itsa c u lture ( Bren it sa p hase ). I n t he l ater p hases n o s uch f inds h ave c o me t o l igh t i n t he c o mp lexes o f N or th-wes tern B u lgar ia ; t h is may b e e xp la ined b y t he c onso lida t ion o f t he G radeshn i tsa c u l ture , wh ich b egan t o e xer t a n e ver g rowing i n f luence o n i ts n e ighbours .

N o t ang ible

h er i tage s ee ms t o h ave b een p reserved f ro m t h is p ic turesque c u l ture i n t he

4 5

the next phases of the Eneolithic and it is to be assumed, therefore, that the statement to the effect that the Vadastra culture had taken part in the forma­ tion of the Late Eneolithic Krivodol-SalcuJa culture cannot be valid for the Bulgarian lands. I t could not have played such a part because it no longer existed when the culture referred to made its appearance. Late Eneolithic (tables 1, 16, map 9) The Late Eneolithic in North- western Bulgaria had its roots in the Gradeshnitsa culture. This has been confirmed by the particularities of the entire complex, owing to which a continuity in the Eneolithic development of the region may be established in spite of insufficient research on the transitional period of the Middle Eneolithic. It should be borne in mind here that the big internal demographic shifts and other transformations in settled life during the Early and Middle Eneolithic in Thrace and in North-eastern Bulgaria must have also affected North­ western Bulgaria to no inconsiderable degree. After the close of the Early Eneolithic changes of lasting significance must have taken place here, but they have not yet been well investigated archaeologically. The absence of explored sites from the Middle Eneolithic and also from phase I and the beginning of phase II of the Late Eneolithic may tentatively be interpreted as a demographic collapse. But the obvious continuity in the type of pottery argues in favour of the limited nature of the disaster (if there ever was one) and of a continuity in the ethnocultural development of the area. The Late Eneolithic culture of Krivodol-SalcuJa covers a considerable territory bound by the Carpathians to the north, the I ron Gates and the Nisava valley to the west and the Olt and Rossitsa rivers to the east. I ts .border to the south is the Balkan Range, but some elements of the culture have been traced down the Strouma valley and as far as Aegean Thrace, so that the Aegean Sea may be accepted as its southern limit. At the points of contact between the Krivodol-Salcu}a and the Kodjadermen-Gumelnija-Karanovo VI cultures, where the characteristics of the two intermingled, mixed borderline complexes appeared between the valleys of the Olt and of the Rossitsa and Iskur and also in the Western part of the Thracian plain. The Krivodol­ Salcuja culture has been well investigated at the two settlements of the same name and at the sites of Zaminets, Peklyuk, Ohoden, Sadovets, etc. A considerable number of fortified highland settlements of this period have been identified throughout the area. During the Late Eneolithic the caves in North-western Bulgaria were also inhabited. Relics have been found in the Devetashka cave near Lovech, in Morovitsa near Teteven and elsewhere. I n Eastern Serbia relics of the same culture have been found at the settle­ ments of Bubani and Humska Cuka near Nis and elsewhere. Investigations up to now have not yet enabled researchers to collect reliable stratigraphic data which would give a clear-cut idea of the individual stages of development of the Krivodol-Salcuta culture. .J

Because of the assumption that the two related Late Eneolithic cultures of Krivodol-Salcuj:a and Kodjadermen-Gumelnija-Karanovo VI developed in 46

p ara l le l , i t may b e a ccepted , i n a gree men t w i th B ercu i ,1 11 t ha t h ere t oo t here were t hree p hases o f d eve lop men t . Among t he c era m ic ware o f t he f or mer c u l ture t here a re many sma l l c ups , b ow ls a nd j ars w i th t wo h and les ( p l . I V , 7 ) , d ishes w i th i nver ted r i ms , a skoi , t h ick-r i m med b ow ls , v ase-shaped p o ts , b icon ica l v esse ls , o ven l i ds , s tra iners ( p l . V , 7 , 8 ) . There was a g enera l t endency o f g iv ing a c rude f in ish t o t he p o t tery b y

a pp ly ing n a i li mpressed b arbo t ine , p inch ing , u sing s ha m c orded o rna men ts , p eck ing , i nc is ions , e tc .

The g raph i te o rna men t may b e s een o n ly o n t he n eck

o f t he v essels a nd o n t he i ns ide o f d ishes . s i mp le p a t terns ;

I ti s mos t o f ten l inear a nd t races

t here a lso o ccur n ega t ive g raph i te o rna men ts .

V er t ica l

r ibb ing , s im i lar t o f lu t ing , o f ten e nc loses t he o rna men ts w i th in me topes . A s urvey o f t he d eve lop men t o f t he Eneol i th ic i n N or th-wes tern Bu lgar ia wou ld r evea l t wo c u lm ina t ion p o in ts .

One o f t he m c oincides w i th P hase I I

o f t he G radeshn i tsa c u l ture , a nd t he o ther w i th t he p er iod u nder r ev iew h ere , when t he i n terchange a nd s pread o f c u l tura l e le men ts was v ery s trong owing t o i n tens ive c on tac ts i n t he n or thern p ar t o f t he B a lkan P en insu la .

T yp ica l

p ot tery s hapes a nd d ecora t ion ( s ma l l c ups w i th t wo h and les , n a i l-i mpressed b arbo t ine , e tc .) were a dop ted r ap id ly t hroughou t t he who le o f t he E thnocu l tura l Area o f t he Thracian Eneo l i th ic a nd i t s g enera l ly u n i fied c u l tura l a spec t d i ff ered o n ly f ro m t ha t o f t he V arna c u l ture t o t he e as t .

4 7

CHAPTER V I S ETTLE MENTS AND THEIR ARCH ITECTURE

The a rch i tecture o f t he Eneo l i th ic s e t t le men ts i s a n impor tan t s ource o f i n for ma t ion o n t he v ar ious a spec ts o f l i fe i n t he m . The ir s truc ture may b e s een i n i t s e n t ire ty o n ly i ft he s e t t le men t i s s i mu l taneous ly i nves t iga ted o ver i ts e n t ire a rea i nc lud ing t he p er iphery a nd s ubs truc ture .

The s e t t le men ts

o n Bu lgar ia 's t err i tory t o h ave b een i nves t iga ted i n t h is manner a re R ouss, t he Az mashka mound , H otn i tsa , V in i tsa , G o lya mo De lchevo , Ovcharovo , P o lyan i tsa , R ad ingrad a nd C ha ta lka .

The r esu l ts f ro m t he e xcava t ion o f

t hese s i tes h ave t hrown amp le l igh t o n t he d eve lop men t o f a rch i tec ture t hrougho u t t he who le o f t he E thnocu l tura l a rea o f t he Thracian Eneo l i th ic .

I t s c harac-

t er is t ic f ea tures , v a l id f or a l l Eneo l i th ic s e t t le men ts , a re a s f o l lows :

1 .

A we l l-kn i t i n terna l o rgan isa t ion o f t he s e t t le men t .

R egard less o f

whe ther i tb e longed t o t he s e t t le men t mound t ype o r t o t he g roup o f o pen s e t t le men ts , t he Eneo l i th ic s e t t le men t was b u i l t a ccord ing t o as e t p lan ; s tra igh t p assages c u t a cross i ta nd i t s s y m me tr ica l ly g rouped b u i ldings were o r ien ted a ccord ing t o t he f our c ard ina l p oin ts . 2 .

Ad ense ly b u i l t-up t erra in . 0 .50 a nd 1 .20 m. were r are .

3 .

The w id th o f t he p assages was b e tween

Sma l l s quares o r w ider p assages o f u p t o 2m

The b u i ld ings were s e t c lose t oge ther .

An o bv ious i n ten t o f f or ti fying t he s e t t le men ts b y mak ing g ood u se o f t he t erra in 's l oca t ion a nd b y employ ing v ar ious k inds o f f or t i f ic a t ions .

4 . 5 .

Absence o f s tone work . The p resence i n e very s e t t le men t o f a mass ive , c en tra l b u i lding made o f p ressed c lay wh ich more o f ten t han n o t was t wo-s tor ied a nd i n wh ich t he c o m mon s tock o f s ow ing s eed was k ep t .

The b u i ld ing s ys te m may b es t b e o bserved a t t he P o lyan i tsa s e t t le men t mound .

The p hases o f o ccupa t ion h ere t el l o f t he b u ild ing , d e mograph ic a nd

e thnocu l tura l s tory o f t h is Eneo l i th ic s e t t le men t wh ich d eve loped w i thou t i n terr upt ion o r d es truc t ion b y f ire .

A t t he b ase o f t he P o lyan i tsa mound l ay t he

f irs t s e t t le men t wh ich was b u i l t o n v irg in s o i l a nd was i n a n e xce l len t s ta te o f p reserva t ion a nd u nda maged b y t he s ubsequen t p hases o f o ccupa t ion .

1° 3

I th as b een e s tab l ished t ha t t he s e t t le men t was f or t i f ied f ro m t he s tar t . Wha t i s more , t he b u i lding o f t he f irs t f or ti f ica t ion s ys te m ( Po lyan i tsa I ) , c ons is t ing o f t hree p ara l le l ly r unn ing r ows o f wooden p a l isades , p receded t ha t o f t he dwe l l ings ( Tab le 1 8 ). The e ar l ies t f or t i f ica t ion s ys te m e nc losed a r ec tang le o f 3 6 x3 9 m o n t he i ns ide a nd 4 5 x5 0 o n t he o u ts ide , wh ich was o r ien ted a ccord ing t o t he f our

4 8

c ard ina l p oin ts .

H al fway i n e ach s ide o f t he f or t i f ica t ion was a n e n trance .

Three o f t he f our e n trances — t hose t o t he e as t , s ou th a nd wes t — were f lanked b y wa l ls r unn ing a t r igh t a ng les t o a nd c onnec t ing t he t hree r ows o f p a l isades ;

t he wa l ls n arrowed d own a t t he p laces where t he i nner a nd o u ter

g a tes o f e ach e n trance a re a ssu med t o h ave b een . men t a bu t ted o n marshy g round ;

T o t he n or th , t he s e t t le-

i t s f or t i f ica t ion h ere was , t here fore , p er-

f unc tor i ly b u i l t a nd t he e n trance was l ess e labora te ly c ons tructed .

I n t he

n arrow p assage b e tween t he p a l isades , t wo s ha l low p ara l le l g rooves , n o more t han 5 cm d eep a nd l eading t o t he wa ter , were n o t iceable .

I ti s p oss ib le t ha t

t hey were t he t racks l ef t b y t he wooden s k ids u sed f or h au l ing t h ings t o a nd f ro m t he wa ter . The f or t if ica t ion p roper c ons is ted o f a n i nner a nd o u ter wa l l b u i l t o f mass ive p os ts , 2 5-30 cm t h ick a nd s unk i n to t he g round t o ad ep th o f 6 0 cm . B e tween t he t wo p a l isades t here were o ne a nd , a t p laces , t wo i n ter med ia te r ows o f much l ess s ol id c ons truc t ion .

The ir 1 0-15 cm t h ick p o les were s unk

i n to t he g round t o ad ep th o f o n ly 3 0 cm . u nbroken .

T hese a ux i l iary p a l isades were n o t

The f or t i f ica t ion s ys te m d escr ibed a bove was a c lever a rrange men t

d es igned t o t rap a ny u n inv i ted v is i tor . The f our e n trances were c onnec ted b y t wo l anes , i n tersec t ing a t r igh t a ng les i n t he c en tre o f t he s e t t le men t a nd d iv id ing i ti n to f our q uar ters . Ob long h ouses , more o r l ess s y m me tr ica l ly a rranged , f i l led i n e ach q uar ter . The h ouses h ad o ne , t wo o r t hree r ooms.

The b u ild ings w ere s epara ted

f ro m t he f or ti f ica t ion wa l l b y ap er iphera l l ane . The o rder ly , we l l-conceived p lan o f t he P o lyan i tsa Is e t t le men t t es t i f ies b eyond a s hadow o f d oub t t o ap rev ious k nowledge o f t own-plann ing a nd t o i ts r ea l isa t ion b y t he c o mbined e f for ts o f t he t r iba l c o m mun i ty .

Wha t i s more ,

t he f ac t t ha t as table , we l l-organ ised a nd d e fended s e t t le men t was b u i l t f ro m t he s tar t s ugges ts t ha t t he p opu la t ion h ad a c lear i dea o f t he r eg ion 's e cono m ic p o ten t ia l a nd was c on f iden t i n i t s f u ture .

The l i fe o f t he t r iba l c o m mun i ty

wh ich s e t t led h ere was n ot s haken b y c a tac lys ms f ro m t he c lose o f t he E ar ly Eneo l i th ic t hrough t he Midd le a nd u p t o t he b eg inn ing o f t he L a te Eneo l i th ic , i n wh ich p er iod e igh t c onsecu t iNe b u i ld ing l eve ls r ose ( seven o f t he m were n o t r avaged b y f ire ) t o f or m t he a l mos t t hree- me tre d eep p reh is tor ic c u l tura l l ayer o f t he s e t t le men t mound .

I t was o n ly a f ter t he d es truc t ion b y f ire o f

t he l as t a nd e igh th s e t t le men t t ha t t he Eneo l i th ic p opu la t ion d eser ted t he P o lya n i tsa r eg ion . A l l e igh t b u i ld ing l eve ls h ad b een f or t i f ied t o o ne e x ten t o r a no ther .

The

d evelop men t o f t he f or t i f ica t ion s ys te m o f t he f irs t f our p hases o f o cuupa t ion i s e asy t o t race i nt he h or izon ta l s tra t igraphy o f t he mound 's s ubstructure ( Table 1 9 ) . The g ood r epa ir o f t h is s ys te m h ad o bv ious ly b een o f p r i mary c oncern a s e very r enova t ion o r r econs truc t ion o f t he dwel l ings was a cco mp an ied b y work o n t he f or t i f ica t ions . Thus t he i nner p a l isade o f t he s econd a nd t h ird b u i ld ing l eve ls was r econs tructed i n to a t h ick emp lec ton ( Tab le 2 0 ) . To t h is e nd , aw ide d i tch was d ug a nd h uge , u nhewn b o les were s tood u pr igh t i n i t .

T he t wo b anks o f t he d i tch were l ined w i th f ences , a nd h or izon ta l b ea ms

were l a id t o c onnec t t he b o les a nd f ences , wh i le t he s pace b e tween t he m was f i l led w i th e ar th a nd r ubb ish f ro m t he dwe l l ings t ha t h ad b een p u l led d own . The g ood q ua l i ty y e l low c lay f ro m t he d i tch was p robab ly u sed t o c oa t t he

4 9

emp lec ton

n d t he h ouses o f t he s e t t le men t .

A f ter t he s ta mped e ar th b e tween

t he f ences h ad d r ied , t he emp lec ton wa l l was r eady .

Tak ing i n to a ccoun t t he

d ia me ter o f t he b o les ( 35-45 cm ) a s we l l a s t he w id th a nd d ep th o f t he f oundat ions , i ti s q u i te p oss ible f or t he wa l l t o h ave b een u p t o 5m h igh .

S uch a

wa l l s tood i n n o d anger o f b e ing d es troyed b y f ire b ecause , e ven i ft he o u ter f ence s hou ld b urn d own , t h is wou ld o n ly f ire t he c lay a nd w ou ld f ur ther h e lp t o s treng then t he emplec ton . F or ti f ica t ions were r ein forced i n a no ther way a s we l l : b y d igg ing a moa t a nd r a is ing a r a mpar t a nd a s em i-ra mpar t o n t he s ou thern a nd mos t a ccess ible s ide o f t he s e t t le men t .

As t ime wen t b y s em i-ra mpar ts were u sed t o r ein-

f orce o r b u t tress t he o u ter mos t emplec ton wa l ls t o t he e as t a nd wes t , wh i le t he e n trances were f lanked b y mass ive c lay f or ts , p ar t ia l ly f aced w i th s tone . B e tween t he f or ts e very e n trance ( barr ing t he o ne t o t he n or th ) was f ron ted b y a 2 m-deep moa t wh ich was p rov ided w i th a wooden d rawbr idge . The r e ma ins o f ad rawbr idge made o f t igh t ly j oin ted wooden b ea ms , were f ound a t t he wes tern e n trance t o P o lyan i tsa .

F ro m t he d ebr is a t t he b o t to m o f t he

moa t f ron t ing t he wes tern e n trance t o b u i ld ing l eve l V I I I wh ich h ad b een b urn t d own , i t may b e i n ferred t ha t s o l id ly b u i l t wooden s tructures , c oa ted w i th c lay , t opped t he e n trances .

S im i lar o bserva t ions h ave b een made d ur ing

e xcava t ions a t o ther Eneo l i th ic s i tes . As a r esu l t o f p opu la t ion g row th i n t he t r iba l c o m mun i ty , t he i nner emp lec ton wa l ls o f t he f or ti f ica t ion s ys te m were r epea ted ly e x tended , b u t t he o u ter l ine o f t he s em i-ra mpar t r e ma ined i n tac t d escr ibing t he max i mum p er ime ter wh ich t he t erra in o f t he s e t t le men t a l lowed .

The p opu la t ion h ad n o

c ho ice b u t t o b e c on ten t w i th t he r es tr ic ted s pace w i th in t he f or ti f ica t ion . As i ti ncreased i n n u mber a nd t he s e t t le men t b eca me o vercrowded , c hanges were made i n i t s i n terna l p lann ing .

The h ouses i n e ach s ubsequen t b u i lding

l eve l were b u i l t more a nd more c lose ly t oge ther a nd t he i n i t ia l , we l l-organ ised t own p lan b egan t o l ose i t s c lear o u t l ines , t he p assages a l l b u t d isappeared a nd t he b u i ld ings p ressed c lose t o t he f ort i f ica t ion wa l ls ( Tab le 2 1 ). The f ac t t ha t a we l l-regu la ted s e t t le men t c ou ld b e b u i l t a f ter a s e t p lan a nd w i th t he c o mbined e f for ts o f an umerous g roup o f p eop le a rgues i nf avour o f u n i ty a nd c ohes ion w i th in t he t r iba l c o m mun i ty , o f i t s n o t i ncons iderable p roduct ion c apaci ty a nd h igh l eve l o f s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion .

T he s i mu l taneous

b u i ld ing u p o r o vera l l r econs truc t ion o f t he P o lyan i tsa s e t t le men t s hows t ha t impor tan t c ons truc t ion work was u nder taken i n a n o rgan ised way , a nd t ha t t he who le t r iba l c o m mun i ty t ook p ar t i n i t .

N o t races o f p r iva te b u i ld ing h ave

b een f ound , a nd i ti s h igh ly u n l ike ly t ha t t hey s hou ld b e , f or t he c o mpac t ly b u i l t h ouses s et c lose t oge ther p rec lude s uch a p oss ibi l i ty , a s t h is w ou ld i ne v i tably h ave l ed t o t he c o l lapse o f t he wa l ls o f a d jacen t s truc tures .

Tha t i s

why t he f am i l ies were o b l iged t o r e mode l t he i n ter ior o f t he ir d we l l ings b y r a is ing p ar t i t ion wa l ls , r ebu i ld ing o vens , p u t t ing u p n ew p os ts , e tc .

A l l

t hese a c t iv i t ies a re e as i ly t o b e d educed f ro m t he a va i lab le a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l . The o bserva t ions a t P o lyan i tsa h ave b een c on f ir med w i th a d egree o f v ar iat ion b y f inds i n a l l o ther we l l i nves t iga ted s e t t le men ts ;

t h is c o mes a s c on-

v inc ing e v idence t ha t t he b as ic p r inc ip les o f t own-p lann ing i n P o lyan i tsa were s hared b y t he Eneol i th ic p opu la t ion o f Thrace a nd N or th-eas tern B u lgar ia .

5 0

The i:1.complete data about Eneolithic town-planning in North-western Bulgaria do not provide information as to the existence of fortification systems, but planned building of settlements is to be observed here too, though not to such a degree of compactness as at the settlement mounds. That a tribal community settlement in P rehistoric Europe should have been built after a preconceived architectural plan was hardly to be imagined until recently. These findings are now throwing new light on the role which the Ethnocultural area of the Thracian Eneolithic played during the period. Information on the earliest similarly organised settlements has been obtained from Neolithic Thrace where a continuity in their development has been recorded. This lends support to the conjecture that the idea of town­ planning originated in all likelihood in Thrace and the population there accumu­ lated experience along these lines. The principles of internal organisation of the Eneolithic settlements offer the best town-planning solution for a forti­ fied tribal community settlement inhabited by an average of 100 people of equal status and having a closed, self-sufficient economy. Once arrived at, the town-planning solution became a tradition handed down from generation to generation and repeated in each new settlement. Its advantages have been attested more than once in the history of architecture. As far as Eneolithic housing architecture is concerned, here too, a number of principles were observed: 1.

All houses were built on ground level; they were rectangular and the number of premises varied between 1 and 5. I

2. With a few exceptions, they were made of wattle coated with clay. They were raised over a wooden platform and had a pitched roof sup­ ported by a single or double row of rafters. 3.

They were furnished with pressed-clay, utilitarian equipment such as ovens, raised platforms, benches.

4.

They were oriented according to the four cardinal points.

5.

The oven was always placed by the wall to the right of the entrance.

6.

Some of them were built after a megaroid plan with small porches in front of the entrance, others had sheds or fenced-off space attached to the shorter side.

The building technique may be reconstructed as follows: A shallow pit (20-30 cm deep) was dug, over which large beams were placed longitudinally at an interval of 60 to 80 cm. Halved boles were com­ pactly arranged over the beams to form a solid wooden platform above the pit. At places the beams were jointed with wooden pegs. After the floor of the dwelling was ready, the walls were then raised. Posts were fixed in the four corners of the building, between which poles were sunk in at an interval of 30 or 35 cm and sometimes even closer. A wattle construction was made between them by intertwining branches and thus the walls of the house were formed. Then the frame of the roof was made which was supported by rafters on the inside. The roof must have been covered with reeds or straw weighted down with stones on the windy side. 51

AvailaMe data indicate that some of the more important buildings were two-storeyed. Such buildings have been identified and studied in the settle­ ment mounds of Ovcharovo, Radingrad and elsewhere. In a similar building in Ovcharovo a storeroom for sowing seed was found, as Wfll as six pairs of grindstones and more than a hundred vessels which had been put away o_n the second floor. Clay mixed with straw was daubed on the wattle construction both on the inside and out. The wooden platform of the floor whs also coAted with clay and the built-in furniture put in. With the roofs of the houses pressing closely together there must have been a system of wooden conduits for the outflow of rain water. It is hard to tell if the houses had windows. Only one of the many clay models of Eneolithic dwellings has round openings or windows, the rest do not. The coating on the outside of some of the houses was decorated with painted ornaments, while inside the walls and floor were tinted differently with each new coat of paint - yellow, then red, then pink and so on. There are remains of houses which had been plastered 47 times (Ovcharovo). If we assume that they were plastered over once every spring, it then follows that houses of this type could have lasted 47 years or more, if not burnt down earlier. The model of a house from Ovcharovo (Pl. IX, 4) gives an idea of the interior of an Eneolithic dwelling. The appointment of the houses that have been excavated is an exact replica of the model. To the right of the entrance was a large rectangular oven with a sloping roof and two openings with a small round column between them The shape of the ovens is so much like that of the houses, that during excavations models of ovens (Pl. IX, 1, 2, 3) have sometimes been mistaken for models of dwellings. In the corner next to the oven was the quern with one or two pairs of quern stones. Along the wall facing the entrance was a long, 10 cm high and about • 50 cm wide raised platform. After clearing the debris from the burnt-down buildings, all the vessels, tools, knuckl� bones for use in games and various other household objects were found on these platforms. The place of worship must have been close to the oven as parts of idols and miniature models of houses have been found near it. Some of the houses had ancillary premises used as storerooms for grain and other produce. In cases when the soil around the settlements was dry, pits were dug in the ground and used for storage space. However, these occur very rarely and are practically absent from the settlement mounds. The study of Eneolithic architecture has provided some clues as to social relations in the tribal communities. There were no substantial differences in the interior of indi_vidual buildings within _the Eneolithic settlement. With the exception of the central, often two-storeyed buildings, which could be surmised to have been the seat of the tribal elders, the rest of the houses are almost identical in appointment, containing the same cultural inventory and differing only in the number of premises, which probably depended on the number of members in a family. All this argues in favour of equal 52

ma ter ia l s ta tus f or t he me mbers o f t he t r iba l c o m mun i ty , a nd t h is was n o t u pse t b y t he p resence o f i n terna l t r iba l s pec ia l isa t ion i n t he p roduc t ion o f , f or e xa mp le , h orn a nd b one t oo ls , t ex t i les , p o t tery a nd j ewe l lery . S oc ia l d i f feren t ia t ion , s uch a s may h ave e x is ted d ur ing t he Eneo l i th ic , i s n o t n o t iceable i n t he i nves t iga ted h ouses i n t he c oun try 's i n ter ior . E ven t he o b jects f ound i n t he c en tra l b u i ld ing d o n ot d i f fer i n q ua l i ty , b u t o n ly i n q uan t i ty f ro m wha t h as b een d iscovered i n t he r es t o f t he h ouses . D i f ferences a re t o b e p erce ived o n ly o n ab roader s ca le — when c o mpar ing t he s ize o f t he o rd inary s e t t le men ts a nd t he s o c a l led p roto-towns o f t he Karanovo t ype o r l ead ing e cono m ic c en tres l i ke t he p i le d we l l ings a t t he Varna l akes . C o mp lete t ypo log ica l c on t inu i ty b e tween t he a rch i tec ture o f t he N eo l i th ic a nd t ha t o f t he Eneol i th ic may b e o bserved i n Thrace a nd N or th-wes tern B u lg ar ia .

Th is , h owever , i s n o t t he c ase o f N or th-eas tern Bu lgar ia

where

t he a bove- men t ioned a rch i tec tura l p r incip les a ppeared n o t e ar l ier t han t he b eg inn ing o f t he Eneo l i th ic . Eneo li th ic a rch i tec ture o n t he B lack S ea l i t tora l was e ssen t ia l ly d i f feren t f ro m t he o ne d escr ibed a bove . As my i nves t iga t ions i n 1 977 o f t he s e t t le men t mound o n t he B ig I s land n ear t he v i l lage o f Dourankou lak , T olbukh in C l is te ic t h ave s hown , i t was h ere t ha t s tone was u sed i nb u i ld ing f or t he f irs t t ime . The e d i f ices h ad a b road , u p t o 5 0 cm h igh p l in th o f u ncu t s tone s labs b onded w i th mud .

H igher u p t he wa l ls were o f p ressed c lay .

The p lan was t rape-

z oida l a nd t he d i mens ions q u i te l arge ( 1 7 x6m o n a n a verage ) . was i n t he midd le a nd n earer t he n or th wa l l .

The f irep lace

The l anes a nd p assages were

b etween 1 a nd 1 .60 m w ide a nd were c overed w i th midden a nd a shes .

The

a rch i tec ture o f t he B lack S ea l i t tora l i s o ne more e v idence i n s uppor t o f t he r eg ion 's a u tono mous c u l tura l d eve lop men t a nd t he h igh l eve l o f t he p opu la t ions 's s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion .

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CHAPTER V I I PA LAE ODE MOGRA PHY AND PA L AE OE CONOMY

A .

A t te mp t a t Pa laeode mograph ic Reconstruct ion Ava ilab le d ata o n Eneo l ith ic s et t le men ts i n Bu lgar ia , a s w el l a s o n t he ir

i n terna l o rgan izat ion h ave p rompted s cho lars t o make e x tens ive p a laeode mog raph ic r econstruct ion s. Whereas s trat igraph ic d a ta t hrow l i gh t o n t he d e mog raph ic p rocesses i n t he ir h istor ica l a spect , t he amoun t o f d ata o bta ined f rom s tudy ing t he a rch itecture o f s et t le men ts a nd h ouses o f fers p oss ib il it ies o f d raw ing c onclus ions a bou t t he p a laeode mograph ic s i tua t ion i n Bu lgar ia f or t he who le o f t he Eneo l ith ic. These d a ta a re a lso a s tar t ing p o in t f or p alaeoecono m ic e st i ma tes a nd a t te mpts a t r econs truct ing t he s tructure o f Eneo l ith ic s oc iety . L et u s f i rst t ake u p t he f i gures o f fered b y t he Eneo l ith ic s et t le men ts wh ich h ave b een f u l ly i nvest igated. The a verage i nhab i ted a rea o f a n Eneo l ith ic s et t lemen t s ituated o n a mound was 2 ,500 s q m.

There w ere sma l ler o nes ( Sava ,

1 ,500-2,000 s q m ) , a s w el l a s t hose w hose a rea w as b etween 1 5 ,000 a nd 2 5 ,000 s q m ( Karanovo , t he B ereketska mound , e tc.). However , e ither e x tre mes w ere r are w hen c ompared w ith t he s et t le men ts o f c onven t iona l s ize , s tructure a nd n u mber o f i nhab itan ts. Fortuna tely , a n Eneo l ith ic s i te, t he Po lyan itsa s et t le ment mound , whose a rch itecture h as b een f u l ly i nvest igated , i s o f s tandard s ize a nd may b e u sed a s ay ardst ick , a nd s o , a n a verage Eneo l ith ic s et t le men t o f t he mound t ype c overed a n a rea o f 2 ,500 s q m. Th is a rea , b ecause o f t he c ompact t ype o fb u ild ing wh ich c haracter ized t he e poch , h eld s ome 1 9 o r 2 0 h ouses e ach o f 1 0 x 5m = 5 0 s q m o n a n a verage. I ti s p resumed t ha t ah ouse w ith a n o ven o r f i rep lace b elonged t o as ing le f am i ly o f f i ve t o s ix me mbers o n a verage. Th is i s t he mean f i gure f or a f am ily a ccepted b y r esearchers i np reh istor ic d e mography ;

t he e st i ma te i s made o n

t he b as is o ft he a verage n umber o f me mbers i n af am ily i n e conom ica l ly b ackw ard c oun tr ies w ith a h igh morta l ity r ate r ecorded e arly t h is c en tury , a s w e l l a s o n t he b as is o f t he s ize o f f am il ies i n S umer i n t he 3 rd m il lenn ium B .0 .12 I ft here w ere 1 9 o r 2 0 h ouses t o ab u ild ing l evel a nd f ive o r s ix p ersons t o ah ouse , t hat makes a n a verage o f 1 00 o r 1 20 p eop le t o at r iba l c o mmun ity. As a b as is o f o ur e st i mates i ti s a ssumed t hat a s et t le ment h ad 1 00

i nhab i tan ts.

I tf o l lows f rom h ere t ha t 4 0 p eop le l i ved o n 1 ,000 s q m o f i nhab ited a rea , wh ich c omes u p t o 2 5 s q m p er p erson . The b u il t-up a rea o fb u ild ing l evel Ia t P o lyan itsa was 1 ,320 s q m.

With

ap opu lat ion o f 1 00 , t he f l oor s pace p er p erson w as 1 3.20 s q m ( i nclud ing w al ls , p art it ions, s torerooms , s heds , e tc.). The r e ma in ing 1.80 s q m p er p erson w ere t aken u p b y p assages a nd f ort if icat ions.

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The r elat ively s pac ious b u ild ing

a t t he l evel i n q uest ion o f fers a ni dea l s i tuat ion wh ich o ccurs o n ly a t t he b ase o f s et t le men t mounds. The 6 :5 i : at io b etween f l oor s pace a nd b u il t-up a rea p er h ead o f t he p opu lat ion c hanged a s t he s et t le men t g rew a nd t he n umber o f i t s i nhab itan ts i ncreased.

I n a nInber o f c ases, t h is r at io ( f or t he u pper p hases

o f o ccupat ion ) w as 6 :2 i n f avour o f t he b u i lt-up a rea , r evea l ing h ow e x tre me ly o vercrowded t he s i tuat ion w as. For t he p resen t a na lys is , h owever , mean f i gures a re s uf f ic ien t ; t hey h ave b een o bta ined f ro m t he i n it ia l p hase o f o ccupat ion o f as tandard-s ized s i te w ith many b u ild ing l evels , a nd t h is makes i tp oss ible t o c arry f urther o ur d e mog raph ic e st i ma tes. When a pp l ied t o s i tes wh ich h ave n o t b een f u l ly i nvest iga ted ( a s , f or i nst ance , K aranovo ), t he a bove i nd ices e nable r esearchers t o e st i ma te w ith a h igh d egree o f a ccuracy t he n umber o f i nhab itan ts.

The l at ter s i te h ad a n a verage

i nhab ited a rea o f 1 5 ,000 s q m , i .e. t en t imes a s b ig a s t ha t o f t he sma l lest s et t lemen t mound o f S ava. I ts hou ld , t herefore, h ave h ad a n a verage o f 6 00 i nhab itan ts t o a n Eneo l ith ic b u ild ing l evel , l iv ing i n 1 00-120 h ouses. I n v iew o f t h is , t he e conom ic a nd s oc ia l s ign if icance o f t he f ew h uge s et t lemen ts i n Thrace i s u nm istakable.

They o bv iously p layed t he r o le o f c u ltura l , e con-

om ic a nd p oss ib ly s oc ia l c en tres.

Th is t ype o f ' super ' s et t le men ts c annot ,

h owever, b e c ons idered t owns b ecause t hey d o n ot a nswer t he t hree ma in r eq u ire men ts o f t h is c lass i f icat ion : 13 a ) 5 ,000 o r more i nhab itan ts; b ) monu men ta l a rch itecture ( bo th s ecu lar a nd r el ig ious ) c ) c raf ts p roduct ion c en tre. Bu t i n o ur v iew , t hey w ere t owns i n a n embryon ic s tage ( proto-towns ) f or t he f o l low ing r easons : a ) h igher c oncen trat ion o fp opu lat ion ( 1 :6 a s a ga inst o ther s et t le men ts ) ; b ) b eg inn ings o f s ecu lar a nd r el ig ious a rch itecture, a lthough n o t monumen ta l b u t more s o l id t han t he r est ,of t he b u ild ings ( t he t e mp le a t Casc ioarele ); c ) b eg inn ings o f p roduct ion s pec ia l izat ion a nd t he ma in ta inance o f c on tacts w ith s pec ia l ized c raf ts ( ore min ing a nd meta l lurgy ) wh ich w ere p ract i sed o uts ide t he s et t le men ts. The p i le dwel l ings a t t he Varna l akes where t he g reatest n umber o f p eop le w ere c oncen tra ted f or t he who le o f t he B lack S ea l i t tora l , b u t whose e xact f i gure h as n o t b een e stab l ished y et , may b e r egarded a s ap ro to-town .

The h igh ly

s pec ia l ized c raf ts o f t h is impor tan t Eneo l ith ic p roduct ion a nd t rade c en tre a re c onv inc ing ly i l lustrated b y a rchaeo log ica l f inds. The p i le dwel l ings a t t he Varna l akes w ere t he o bv ious e conom ic , c u ltural a nd p robab ly s oc ia l c en tre o f t he B lack S ea e thnocu ltura l r eg ion .1 14 The p resence o f p roto-towns i s a no ther f eature wh ich c haracter ized t he e poch , a nd t he f act t hat t hey n ever g rew i n to a ctua l t owns e loquen t ly i l lustrates t he a pt d ef in it ion o f fered b y E . N . Chern ikh a bou t t he c u lture o f t he S toneCopper Age i n Bu lgar ia a s ' ac iv il izat ion t hat n ever c ame i n to i t s own .' 4 0 P a laeode mograph ic d ata p rov ide t he b as is f or e st i mat ing t he o veral l n u mber o f t he Eneo l ith ic p opu lat ion i n Bu lgar ia , a l l t he more s o a s w e h ave a t o ur

5 5

d isposa l t oday a s at isfactory map o f t he Eneo l ith ic s et t le men ts o n t he c ount ry 's t err itory ( map 3 ). The t o ta l n umber o f Eneo l ith ic s et t le men t mounds i nd icated o n t he map c omes u p t o 4 88. Th is f i gure i s f a ir ly c lose t o t he o ne s uggested b y G . Georg iev f or t he p robable n umber o f s et t le men t mounds i n Bu lgar ia ( 400 ). 1 15 T ak ing i n to a ccoun t t hat t he i den t if icat ion o f p reh istor ic s i tes i n Yambo l , Bourgas a nd s evera l o ther d istr icts s t il l l eaves much t o b e d es ired , i t may b e a ssu med t hat t he r ea l n umber o f t he s et t le men t mounds i s c lose t o 5 00 , a nd t h is f i gure w il l s erve a s ab as is i n t he p resen tat ion o f o ur n ex t a rgumen ts.

The a rea i n wh ich s ett le men t mounds o ccur t akes u p h a l f o f t he

c oun try 's t err itory ( map 2 ).

There a re a lso o ther t ypes o f s et t le men ts ,

t hough f ew i n n umber , wh ich w ere b u il t o n e levat ions o r o n p i les i n t he l akes a nd wh ich h ave n o t y et b een s at isfactor ily mapped.

The o vercrowd ing o f t he

p opu lat ion i n t he i nvest iga ted Eneo l ith ic s et t le men ts o f t he mound t ype a rgues a ga inst t he e x istence o f al arge n umber o f u n fort if ied s ett le men ts i n t he s a me a rea wh ich m igh t h ave e scaped i den t i f icat ion . Bu t b ecause o f p oss ib le om is s ions , t he n umber o f s et t le men ts c ou ld s t il l b e r a ised t o 6 00. The i den t if icat ion a nd mapp ing o f s et t le men ts i n North-western Bu lgar ia h ave n o tb een c omp leted y e t , wh ile t he ir s yste mat ic i nvest iga t ion i n t he s ou thw estern p art o f t he c oun try h as n o t e ven b egun .

T hese c ons iderat ion s make i t

p oss ible t o d ouble t he a bove f i gure a nd a ssume t hat t he n umber o f Eneo l ith ic s et t le ment s t hroughou t t he c oun try w as n o f ewer t han 1 ,200. However , n o t a l l o f t he s et t le men ts w ere a ct ive a t o ne a nd t he s a me t ime. From s tat ist ical d a ta o n t he h iatuses a nd c hrono log ica l g aps i n t he s et t le men ts w ith many b u ildi ngs l evels i n Thrace a nd N orth-eastern Bu lgar ia , i t may b e i n ferred t ha t 6 0 p er c en t o f t he Eneo l ith ic s i tes w ere o ccup ied a t o ne a nd t he s a me t ime , a p ercen tage wh ich may b e a ssu med t o b e v a l id f or t he who le o f t he c oun try . I ti s o n t h is b as is t ha t t he p robable mean n umber o f Eneo l ith ic s i tes w h ich w ere s i mu l taneously i n e x istence w ith in t he l im its o f ap hase , i s s et a t 7 20 . I ft h is f i gure i s mu l t ip l ied b y t he a verage n umber o f i nhab itan ts o f a s et t le men t ( 100 ) , t hen t he a pprox i ma te n umber o f t he p opu lat ion o f Eneo l ith ic Bu lgar ia must h ave b een 7 2,000 o r 0 .65 p er s q km.

Today 's d ens ity o f t he

p opu lat ion i s 7 8 p ersons p er s q km , w h ich means t hat i n s even m il lenn ia i t h as i ncreased 1 20 t imes. By 1 900 t h is d ens ity was 3 0-40 p ersons p er s q km , o r t he i ncrease f or t he p ast 7 0 y ears i s o f a bou t 5 0 p er c en t. E st i mates h ave b een made o n t he p robab le r ate o f t he p opulat ion g row th o n o ur p lanet f ro m t he Pa laeo l ith ic u p t o t he p resen t , a nd t hey s erve t o c heck t he a ccuracy o f t he r esu lts o bta ined h ere. E . S . D evey 16

a ssumes t hat t he e arth 's p opu lat ion w as 8 6 ,500 ,000 i n t he

6 th m il lenn ium B .C. Bulgar ia 's t err itory i s a0 .077th p art o f t he e arth 's i nhab ited a rea. I ft he c oun try 's p opu lat ion w as X i n t he 6 th m il lenn ium B .C. , t hen x

=

8 6 25 00 90 00 x 0 .077 -6 7 ,000 p eop le ( 2 . 6 000 B .C.) 1 00

Th is c o mes t o s how t hat t he p opu lat ion f i gure o f 7 2,000 o bta ined b y u s f or t he p er iod b etween 5 000 a nd 3 800 B .C. i s n o t f ar o f f a nd s hows w ith a d egree o f a ccuracy t he n umber o f Eneo l ith ic i nhab itant s o f Bu lgar ia.

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B .

A tt e mp t a t P a laeoeconom ic Analys is o f Eneol ith ic Economy

The p a laeode mograph ic i n ferences a rr ived a t e arl ier , a nd t he n ewest f inds i n a rchaeo logy , p a laeobo tany , p a laeozoo logy a nd p a laeogeography may s erve a s ab as is i n a na lys ing t he p a laeoeconom ic s truc ture o f t he Eneo l ith ic t r ibes w h ich i nhab ited Bu lgar ia 's t err itory . The method o f p a laeoeconom ic a na lys is i s c omparat ively n ew i n a rchaeo logy . I tw as f i rst a pp l ied b y S . N . B ib ikov ( USSR ) when a na lys ing t he r es u l ts f rom t he e xcava t ions o f t he Early T r ip° l ie 's et t le men t o f L uka Vrub levets kaya , 17 wh ile i t s e laborat ion a nd t heoret ica l g round ing may b e f ound i n V . M. Masson 18

a nd C . Ren frew .1 19

I t s a pp l icat ion i n Bu lgar ia b eca me p oss ible o n ly a f ter t he f i rst c omprehens ive r esu l ts o f t he p a laeobo tan ical a nd p alaeozoo log ical i nvest iga t ions a t Go lyamo D elchevo i n 1 975 w ere p ub l ished.

I n ap ub l ica t ion o n t h is p art icu lar s i te,

w e w ere a ble t o o f fer s ome p a laeoecono m ic c ons iderat ions 1 2°

w ithou t g o ing

d eep i n to t he p rob le m a s t h is w as n ot t he a im o f t he s a id p ubl icat ion . As a g reat d eal more mater ia l h as b een amassed s ince t hen , t he r esu l ts o bta ined b y t h is method may b e r egarded a s more r el iab le , a l l t he more s o n ow t ha t d a ta f or mak ing c o mpar isons a re o n h and f rom o ther s i tes ( Ovcharovo , Ezero ). Before a ctua l ly t ak ing u p t he p rob le m , i to ugh t t o b e n oted t hat a l l o ur e st i ma tes a re b ased o n mean f i gures. Under d iss im ilar c ircu mstances , a ±v ar iat ion w ith in t he 5 0-100 p er c en t l im it i s p oss ible , b ut a ny s uch v ar ia t ion i s s upported b y a rchaeo log ica l o r l og ical a rgumen ts. Therefore, t he d ata o bta ined a re t o s ome e x ten t c ond it iona l , f or t hey may b ecome a bso lute o n ly a f ter a l l Eneo l ith ic s et t le men ts i n Bu lgar ia h ave b een i nvest iga ted. A l l t h is n otw i thstand ing , t he e x tens ive s tudy o f t he S tone-Copper Age i n Bu lgar ia makes i tp ossible t o a ssume t hat t he o f fered e st i ma tes a re q u ite a ccura te.

The S tone-Copper Age i n Bu lgar ia i nher ited f rom t he N eo l ith ic a c losed f ar m ing a nd c a t t le-breed ing e cono my , whose b as ic p roduct ion u n it was t he t r iba l c ommun ity. Far m ing a nd c at t le-breed ing , s upp le men ted b y h un t ing , f i sh ing a nd w i ld f ood g ather ing g uaran teed t he n ecessary f oodstuf fs a nd a l most a l l t he r aw ma ter ia ls wh ich t he p opu lat ion n eeded.

S ome c o m mun it ies wh ich

w ere s i tuated a t ad istance f ro m t he d epos its o f h igh-qua l ity f l in t o r s u itable s tone, p resumably h ad t o make p er iod ic e xped i t ions. Th is s e lf-su f f ic ien t e conomy g ave r ise t o n o n o t iceable d i f feren t ia t ion b etween t he s et t le men ts, a nd s t il l l ess s o w ith in t he c om mun it ies. The i n terna l o rgan izat ion o f t he i nd iv idual s ett le men ts, t herefore, w as i den t ica l a nd r epea ted i t sel f , wh ich h as b een p roved t ime a nd a ga in b y t he i nvest iga t ion o f Eneo l ith ic s i tes. Th is s tandard p at tern makes i tp oss ible t o l ook u pon t he d ata o n t he q uan t ity o f f ood c onsumed a nd t he amoun t o f l abour

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e xpended b y as ing le s et t le men t a s g enera l ly v a l id f or t he e n t ire E thnocu l tura l Area o f t he T hrac ian Eneo l ith ic.

A lmost a l l r esearchers o f t he Bu lgar ian

Eneo l ith ic a re u nan i mous a bou t t he l ead ing r ole o f f ar m ing i nt he e conomy o f t he p er iod . Though n o e v idence h as b een a dvanced i n s upport o f t he ir a ssumpt i on , i th as b een a ccepted a p r ior i. An e ssen t ia l a rgumen t i n i t s f avour w as s uggested b y u s when r ev iew ing t he l aw-governed manner i n wh ich t he Eneo l it h ic s et t le men ts w ere s itua ted :

a marked p reference w as o bserved f or t er-

r a ins s u ited t o f ar m ing , a nd n o t t o c at t le-breed ing. As w e d o n o t , n or e ver c ou ld h ave a ny d a ta o n t he q uan t ity o f g ra in c ons umed , i ti s n ecessary t o a na lyse f i rst t hose s ectors o f t he Eneo l ith ic e cono my o n wh ich i n for mat ion i s a va ilab le a nd , w ith t he h elp o f t he r esu lts o bta ined , t o a scerta in b y i n ference t he r o le a nd p lace o f f ar m ing. S uch s ectors a re c at t le-breed ing a nd h un t ing , t he t ang ible r e ma ins o f wh ich may b e i nvest iga ted a nd u sed a s as tar t ing p o in t f or e st i ma tes.

C arefu l ly c o l-

l ected , s tud ied a nd c lass if ied b y r esearchers S . I vanov a nd V . Vass i lev , t he b ones o f a n i mals d iscovered a t t he Go lya mo Delchevo s et t le men t mound p rov ide t he p re m ises f or o ur p a laeoecono m ic e st i mates. The a verage n umber o f i nhab i tan ts t o ab u i ld ing l evel a t t h is s i te may b e c a lcula ted o n t he b as is o f t he h ouses, i .e. 1 0 h ouses x 6 me mbers t o af am ily makes 6 0 p ersons a l together.

The a verage t ime s pan o f a ct iv ity o n t he s i te,

a scerta ined a ccord ing t o t he methods w e h ave emp loyed , c ou ld n o t h ave b een l onger t han 5 00 y ears. These t wo i nd ices a re u sed a s p re m ises f or o ur s ubs equen t c alcu lat ions. For t he e n t ire t ime s pan o f t he s et t le men t , i t s p opu lat ion c onsumed 2 09 ,993 k g o f meat ( o f t h is : 4 1.25 p er c en t o f w ild a n i ma ls a nd 5 8.75 p er c en t o f d omest icated a n i ma ls ). 1 2 ° T h is amoun t , a ssessed o n t he b as is o f t he b ones d iscovered , i s b orne o u tb y c onv inc ing a rgumen ts p resen ted b y t he r esearchers , a nd s hou ld b e a ssu med t o r ef lect t he a ctua l a rchaeo log ica l s i tuat ion . S o t he amoun t o f meat c onsumed a t t he s et t le men t i n 5 00 y ears c a me u p t o 2 09 ,993 k g o r t o r ound t he f igure o f f , t o 2 10 ,000 k g , t ha t i s t o s ay : 4 20 k g p er y ear f or t he s et t le men t 3 5 k g p er mon th f or t he s et t le men t 1 .167 p er d ay f or t he s et t le men t , wh i le t he f i gures p er h ead o f t he p opu lat ion a re a s f o l lows : 7k g p er y ear 0 .583 k g p er mon th 0 .020 k g p er d ay . These a re t he f i gures o bta ined b y w ay o f p a laeoeconom ic e st i mates f rom t he a n i ma l b ones f ound a t t he s i te. Before d iscuss ing t he m , h owever , i ti s n ecessary t o t ake i n to a ccoun t t he c ircums tance t ha t ( 1 ) d ur ing t he w ork ing d ay , t he a ble-bod ied p opu la t ion d id n o t t ake t he ir meals a t t he s et t le men t , b u t i n t he f i elds o r f orest s , o r w h ile g raz ing t he ir c at t le. These a re a t l east t wo mea ls a d ay f or wh ich n o b ones c an b e a ccoun ted .

However , t h is d id n o t h o ld

a l together t rue o f t he w in ter s eason ; a nd t hat ( 2 ) sma l l b ones must h ave b een e aten b y c ats a nd d ogs a nd c anno t , t herefore, b e i ncluded i n t he a na lys is. I n

5 8

o ther w ords , n ot a l l o f t he a n i ma l b ones w ere f ound a t t he s et t le men t .

Because

o f t h is , a1 00 p er c en t i ncrease i n t he p a laeoosteo log ica l d a ta i s p er m iss ible : 2 10 ,000+ 2 10 0 00 4 20 ,000 k g o f meat w as t he t en tat ive c onsumpt ion f or t he e n t ire s et t le men t i n 5 00 y ears. H ence : 8 40 1 g p er y ear 7 0 k g p er mon th 2 .334 k g p er d ay , o r p er h ead o f t he p opu lat ion : 1 4 k g p er y ear 1 .166 p er mon th 0 .040 k g p er d ay . I ti s o bv ious f rom t he a bove q uoted f igures t ha t ad iet o f 2 0 o r 4 0 g ra m mes o f meat p er d ay f a l ls f ar s hort o f t he s ubs istence l evel a nd c onsequen t ly i t wou ld b e a bsurd t o ma in ta in t ha t c at t le-breed ing was t he l ead ing b ranch i n Eneo l ith ic e conomy .1 21 On t he o ther h and , a mon th ly c onsu mp t ion o f 1 .166 k g o f meat p er h ead o f t he p opu la t ion i s , i n o ur o p in ion , ar ea l ist ic f igure , wh ich d oes n ot r un c ount er t o t he f ar m ing a nd c a tt le-breed ing s tructure o f t he e cono my . Th is f igure may b e c o mpared w ith t he s tat ist ica l d ata o n t he c onsumpt ion o f meat i n Bu lg ar ia i n 1 939.

Accord ing t o t he 1 969 S tat ist ica l Y earbook o f t he Peop le 's

Republ ic o f Bu lgar ia ( p . 2 05 ), t he c oun try 's meat p roduct ion p er h ead o f t he p opu lat ion w as 3 4 k g i n 1 939. I ft he e xport o f meat , w h ich c a me u p t o 5 .22 k g p er h ead o f t he p opu lat ion , i s s ubtracted , t hen t he a ctua l p er c ap ita f i gure f or t he y early c onsump t ion o f meat w as 2 8.78 k g. Th is makes : 2 .400 k g p er mon th p er h ead o f t he p opu lat ion 0 .080 k g p er d ay p er h ead o f t he p opu lat ion . There a re a lso s o me c omparat ive d ata o n t he a nnua l c onsump t ion o f meat i n a na verage 6 - me mber p easan t f am ily i n t he L ongoz r eg ion b efore S epte mber 1 944 , i .e. b efore s oc ia l is m w as e stab l ished i n Bu lgar ia. Meat w as c onsumed o ccas iona l ly , a nd n o t d a ily ;

t he b as ic f ood w as b read.

A p ig ( o f t he s em i-

d omest icated K a mch iya b reed ) o f a n a verage w e igh t o f 8 0 l g was s laugh tered a round Chr istmas , a nd a l a mb w e igh ing 2 0 k g o n a n a verage , o n S t George 's d ay .

Fro m t ime t o t ime a h en w as k i l led , b u t t he a verage w e igh t o f t h is

mea t h ard ly e xceeded 2 0 l g ay ear.

Th is made a n a nnua l t ota l o f 1 20 l g o f

meat f or a f am i ly o f s ix , o r 2 0 l g o f meat p er y ear 0 .055 k g o f mea t p er d ay * * The i n for mat ion w as c o l lected b yD . Z latarsk i , t o who m Ie x tend g rat itude f or h is p er m iss ion t o u se i t .

5 9

These f I gures d o n ot d if fer v ery much f ro m t he o nes w e h ave a rr ived a t f or t he c onsu mp t ion o f meat d ur ing t he Eneo l ith ic.

They g ive u s g round t o

b el ieve t hat Eneo l ith ic man t oo a te meat o n ly o ccas iona l ly , a nd t ha t i nstead o f t he p ou ltry mea t o f 1 939 , t hat o f g a me w as u sed. Data f ro m t he 1 975 a nd 1 976 S tat ist ica l Yearbooks o f t he UN E cono m ic Co m m iss ion o n t he p resen tday c onsu mpt ion o f meat i n Bu lgar ia a nd s o me o ther European c oun tr ies may b e q uo ted b y w ay o f c o mpar ison : Bu lgar ia

1 974

0 .147 k g p er d ay p er h ead o f t he p opu lat ion

G reece

1 975

0 .146 l q p er d ay p er h ead o f t he p opu lat ion

Yugoslav ia

1 975

0 .113 k g p er d ay p er h ead o f t he p opu lat ion

Portuga l

1 975

0 .120 k g p er d ay p er h ead o f t he p opu lat ion

S pa in

1 975

0 .147 k g p er d ay p er h ead o f t he p opu lat ion

Ru man ia

1 975

0 .133 k g p er d ay p er h ead o f t he p opu lat ion

Eneo l ith ic man c onsumed 3 .6 t imes l ess meat t han t he p opu lat ion o f Bu lgar ia i n 1 974;

h is 4 0 g ra m mes o f meat g ave h im a n a verage o f 5 5 c a lor ies

ad ay. O bv iously , c a t t le i n Eneo l ith ic t imes w ere n o t b red f or t he ir mea t a lone. I t w as c h ie f ly h un t ing wh ich s upp l ied meat f or f ood .

The s hare o f g a me a nd

c at t le i n t he d a ily 4 0-gra m me r at ion o f meat i n t he d i f feren t Eneo l ith ic s et t lemen ts t hroughou t t he c oun try d epended v ery much o n t he s et t le men ts' l ocat ion . I n r eg ions w here h un t ing was g ood , t he p ercen tage o f mea t o bta ined f ro m d o mest ica ted a n i ma ls was l ower.

The a bove q uoted f igures make i tp la in t ha t

meat was n o t t hebas ic f ood o f t he p opu lat ion .

Thus t he s ign if icance o f c a tt le-

b reed ing a s as ource o f mi lk a nd d a iry p roducts i s f urther e nhanced , t he l at ter o bv iously p lay ing a n importan t p art i n t he p opu lat ion 's s ubs istence.

I n a l l

i nvest iga ted s i tes t he n umber o f c at t le w as h igher t han t hat o f a ny o ther t ype o f h erd a n i ma ls , a nd t h is c omes t o s how o nce a ga in t hat t he c h ief f unct ion o f c at t le-breed ing was t o s upp ly m ilk a nd d a iry p roducts.

O steo log ists , o n

t he ir p art , h ave p u t f orth o ne more a rgu men t i n f avour o f t h is.

They h ave

e stabl ished t hat , e xcept i n t imes o f s tress , Eneo l ith ic man n ever s laugh tered p roduct ive a n i ma ls ( observat ions o f V . Vass ilev o nb ones f ro m t he O vcharovo s et t le ment mound ). I n v iew o f t h is , t he f o l low ing q uest ion a r ises :

what w ere t he f actors t ha t

l im ited t he g row th o f Eneo l ith ic c at t le-breed ing? Fore most , i n o ur o p in ion , w as t he e cono m ic s tructure i nher ited f ro m t he N eo l ith ic a nd b est a dap ted t o t he e co log ical s ituat ion , i n w h ich f oods o f p lan t o r ig in ( f rom f ar m ing a nd g a ther ing ) w ere c onsumed r ather t han meat .

The

f i gures o b ta ined r ef lect t he k ind o f e cono m ic s tructure , wh ich o bv iously w as t he most e xped ien t , s ince i td id p rov ide t he n ecessary p o ten t ia l f or t he g reat a dvance o f t he Eneo l ith ic c u ltures i n Bu lgar ia. There w as a p ract ica l r eason t oo , f or c urta i l ing c at t le-breed ing.

Eneo-

l i th ic man w as u nab le t o p roduce a ny a pprec iable q uant it ies o f f odder , f or o therw ise i t wou ld b e h ard t o e xp la in t he l arge c onsu mpt ion o f a corns 1 22 t he p opu lat ion .

b y

We must , t herefore, p resu me t hat w ith t he e xcept ion o f

s traw f ro m b ar ley ( ? ), c att le w ere f ed o n what t he p astures p rov ided , a nd t hose a reas i n w h ich Bu lgar ia 's Eneo l ith ic s et t le ments w ere s itua ted , w ere u nable t o g uaran tee a s u f f ic ien t s upply o f f odder f or b ig h erds.

6 0

A r ough e st i ma te o f t he n umber o f c att le i n i nd iv idua l s et t le men ts may b e a rr ived a t o n t he b as is o f t he f i gures o bta ined f rom a na lys ing t he b ones a nd b y a ug men t ing t he l at ter b y 1 00 p er c en t .

However , t he p ronounced v ar ia t ion i n

t he r at io b etween c at t le-breed ing a nd h un t ing a t t he v ar ious s i tes r ob s uch e st i ma tes o f t he ir g enera l ly a pp l icable v a lue. As a n i l lustrat ion o n ly , t he mean f i gures f or a h erd i n o ne o f Go lya mo Delchevo 's b u ild ing l evels w il l b e q uo ted h ere : 3 0 h ead o f c at t le , 2 9.52 s heep/goats , 4 8.48 p igs. 1 20 For t he V in itsa s et t le ment mound w e h ave o n ly t he r at io i np ercen tage o f t he h erd 's make-up , b u t n o t t he a ctua l n umber o f e ach k ind o f a n i ma ls :

c at t le -54.62 p er c en t ,

p igs-54.13 p er c en t , s heep/goa ts -16.06 p er c en t ( t he r e ma in ing 4 .19 p er c en t a re f or t he s et t le men t 's d ogs ) .1 21 Eneo l ith ic c at t le w ere o f ap r im it ive r ace w hose m ilk p roduct iv ity must h ave b een v ery l ow , h ard ly i ne xcess o f 5 00-600 1 .p er y ear. S o w e s hal l b ase o ur e st i mates a bou t t he q uan t ity o f p rocessed a nd c onsumed mi lk o n 5 00 1 .p er y ear. We s ha l l a ssume t ha t t here w ere 3 0 h ead o f c at t le a t Go lya mo Delchevo , 8 0 p er c en t o f w h ich w ere ma le , c a lves o r h e ifers.

By d oubl ing t he n u mber

o f d omest icated a n i ma ls i n k eep ing w ith t he p rev iously d escr ibed a rgumen ts, w e s hou ld h ave 1 2 m ilk c ows y ield ing 6 ,000 1 .o f m ilk p er y ear. Consequen t ly , t he m i lk r a t ion p er h ead o f t he p opu lat ion wou ld s tand a t 1 00 1 .per y ear , 8 .33 1 . p er mon th , a nd 0 .28 1 ,p er d ay . To t h is f i gure s hou ld a lso b e a dded t he m ilk o f s heep a nd g oa ts. The a nn ua l m ilk y ie ld o f 1 5 s heep/goats c ou ld b e a bou t 1 ,200 1 . I ft he s et t le men ts ' i nhab i tan ts w ere 6 0 , t ha t w ou ld make 2 0 :1 p er y ear p er h ead o f t he p opu lat ion o r 0 .055 1 ,p er d ay . H ence , t he i nhab itan ts ' d a ily r at ion o f m ilk wou ld c o me u p t o 0 .280+0.055=0.335 L , a nd t hat w ou ld g uaran tee e ach o ne o f t he m 1 10 c alor ies p er d ay . L et u s n ow t urn t o Eneo l ith ic f ar m ing , w h ich c ou ld s a fely b e a ssumed t o h ave b een t he e cono my 's l ead ing b ranch. T he q uest ion h ere i s w ha t amoun t o f c erea ls a nd l egumes d id Eneo l ith ic man n eed d a ily i n a dd it ion t o t he a bove men t ioned r at ion o f meat a nd m ilk , s o t ha t h e w ou ld h ave e nough t o e at a nd b u ild u p s urp luses ? S . N . B ib ikov b el ieves 0 .533 k g o f c ereals p er d ay ( or 1 6 k g p er mon th )1 24 t o h ave b een t he n ecessary m in i mu m f or a n Eneo l ith ic i nhab itan t o f L uka Vrublevetskaya , w h i le V . M. Masson 1 25

s et t les f or t he n o t t oo d iss im ilar

f i gure o f 0 .500 k g p er d ay f or t he N eo l ith ic s ett le men t o f J e itun .

Our e st i mates

b ased o n t he c apac ity o f t he s torage p i ts a t Bu ild ing l evels I I a nd I V o f Go lya mo Delchevo a re c lose t o t he a bove f igures : o r 0 .583 k g p er d ay .

2 10 k g o f c ereals p er man p er y ear 1 26

We a re , t herefore, i ncl ined t o a ccept a s r equ is ite a n

a verage o f 0 .550 k g o f c erea ls a nd a c erta in amoun t o f l egumes p er man p er d ay. I ft he a verage n u mber o f i nhab itan ts o f as et t le men t w ere 1 00 , t hen t he mean f i gure f or t he who le o f t he s et t le men t w ou ld b e 5 5 k g o f c ereals p er d ay o r a n a nnua l r equ is ite amoun t o f 2 0 ,000 k g.

To t h is f igure s hou ld b e a dded

t he s eed s et a s ide f or s ow ing a nd t he s urp luses u sed i nb arter, s o a n i ncrease o f u p t o 2 4,000 k g wou ld n ot s ee m u nrea l ist ic.

Far m ing , f i sh ing a nd s o me o f

t he h un t ing imp le men ts were c h ief ly made o f h orn ( P l. X , 1 -9 , 1 0 , 1 1, 1 3, 1 4 ).

6 1

I ti s d i f f icu l t t o d eter m ine what y ields w ere l ike d ur ing t he Eneo l ith ic. I t i s t rue t ha t methods o f c u l t iva t ion w ere p r im it ive a nd t he p lough ing s ha l low , • b u t t he s o i l w as a ny th ing b u t i mpover ished a nd f ar m ing b y t he l agoons w as im mune f ro m d rough ts. T he a ccep ted f i gure f or Go lya mo Delchevo i s n o t a t a l l h igh-1,800 k g p er h ectare. For J e itun , V . M. Masson a ssumed 1 ,500 k g p er h ectare. 1 27 As c ond it ions w ere n o t e qua l ly f avourable e verywhere i n Bu lgar ia , w e a ccept a s a dm iss ible t he mean f i gure o f 1 ,500 k g p er h ectare. I n s uch a c ase, 2 4,000 k g o f g ra in wou ld h ave b een o bta ined f rom 1 6 h ectares o f c u l t ivated l and. Accord ing t oV . M. Masson , l abour p roduct iv ity i n J e itun w as 1 20 mand ays p er h ectare;

t h is f igure may b e a ccep ted w i th s ome r eserva t ions f or

Bu lgar ia a s w el l. I n t hat c ase , at ota l o f 1 ,920 man-days w ou ld h ave b een n ecessary f or t he c u l t ivat ion o ft he 1 6 h ectares i n q uest ion . I ft hese 1 ,920 man-days w ere d iv ided among t he 1 9-20 f am il ies o f t he s et t le men t , e very f am ily w ou ld h ave h ad t o p u t i n s o me 9 0-120 man-days i n to f ar m ing.

T h is was

ap roport ionate s easona l workload w h ich s howed t hat f ar m l abour l e f t f ree s u f f ic ien t man-power t o b e emp loyed i nb u ild ing , l u mber ing , r ecla im ing l and f or c u lt iva t ion , d am m ing o f r ivers , t rad ing , c at t le-breed ing , h un t ing , f i sh ing , g a ther ing , t he h o me c raf ts, a s w el l a s h ouse c hores a nd t he u pbr ing ing o f c h ildren . Th is l im ited amoun t o f w ork p u t i n f ar m ing i s , i n o ur o p in ion , a n i nd icat ion o f h igh l abour p roduct iv i ty , i n Eneo l ith ic t er ms , o f c ourse, a nd t hat i s w hat c on tr ibu ted t o mak ing a gr icu l ture t he k ey b ranch o f t he S tone-Copper Age e cono my. C .

O re Min ing a nd Meta l lurgy

Far m ing a nd c at t le-breed ing f or med t he t rad it iona l e conom ic b ase o f Eneo l ith ic s oc iet ies, t he ir b eg inn ings b e ing r oo ted i n t he a cera m ic N eo l ith ic o f H ither As ia.

I n c on trast t o t he f ar m ing a nd c at t le-breed ing p a t tern w h ich

t he Balkan Pen insu la b orrowed a t t he e nd o f t he 7 th m i l lenn ium B .C., o re min ing a nd meta l lurgy , t hese most p rogress ive b ranches o f Eneo l ith ic e conomy , r eached t he p eak o f t he ir e arl iest d evelopmen t r ight h ere i n t he Ba lkans i n t he l ate 5 th a nd e ar ly 4 th m il lenn ia B .C. Metal lurgy a s s uch w as n o t i nven ted o n t he Pen insu la , i tw as b orrowed f rom H ither As ia 1 28

where t he e arl iest f inds

o f smal l me ta l o b jects h ave c o me t o l i gh t a t a cera m ic s i tes. H owever , meta l work ing n ever r eached a ny p art icu lar g row th l evel i n t he c oun try o f i t s d isc overy. I n r ecen t y ears , many s cho lars h ave emphas ized t he i ndependen t r oad o f d evelop men t o f Ba lkan meta l lurgy , a nd t he g rea t r o le wh ich t h is importan t meta l lurg ica l c en tre p layed i n t he e cono m ic h istory o f man ld .nd. 1 29 Favourable c ond it ions f or p rogress i n t h is momen tous s phere o f man 's a ct iv ity w ere a t h and i n t he Balkan P en insu la , i n t he E thnocu l tural Area o f t he Thrac ian Eneo l ith ic a nd o f t he V inCa c u lture i np art icu lar.

Dur ing t he

Eneo l ith ic , t he p roble m o f t he p roduct ion a nd e x tens ive u se o f meta l t oo ls was p osed i n a l l i t s u rgency b efore t he p reh istor ic t r ibes o f S outh-eastern Europe b ecause a t t h is s tage t he l im ited t echn ical p oss ib il it ies o f t he s tone r aw ma ter ia l , o f wh ich most o f t he t oo ls w ere made, h ad b een e xhausted a nd w ere h amper ing t he d evelop men t o f p roduct ive f orces.

By t he e nd o f t he N eo l ith ic, t he s tone

6 2

a xes a nd a dzes c ou ld n o l onger b e i mproved u pon a nd made more e f f ic ien t .

I t

w as imperat ive f urther t o r a ise l abour p roduct iv ity a nd t hus g uaran tee man 's p rogress. Copper w h ich h ad l ong b een k nown t o man a s ar aw m inera l , o f fered as o lu t ion t o t he p rob le m. O re m in ing a nd meta l w ork ing t echn iques were d ev eloped a nd t he n ew b ranch s oon t ook u p ap os it ion o f p rom inence i n Eneo l ith ic e conomy .

A l ead ing r o le w as t hus a ss igned t o t hose t err itor ies wh ich h ad c op-

p er o re d epos its.

Bu lgar ia w as o ne o f t he f ortuna te a reas ( map 1 2 ).

But t he

p r im it ive t echno logy o f meta l e xtract ion w h ich Eneo l ith ic man h ad d ev ised , w as l im ited t o t he u se o f o x ide o res o f c opper ( ma lach ite, a zur ite, e tc.) , whose d epos its a re n earest t o t he e arth 's s urface , a t ad ep th o f n o more t han 2 0-25 m. I n 1 971-1972 a Bu lgar ian-Sov iet a rchaeo log ical e xped it ion d iscovered a l arge c opper o re b ed a tA i Bunar ( Mech i K ladenets ) n ear S tara Z agora. 1 3 ° E xcavat i ons r evea led t hat t he e arl iest e xp lo itat ion o f t he d epos its h ad b egun d ur ing t he Eneo l ith ic. T he o ldest f inds f rom t he A i Bunar p its a re r eferred t o p hase I I ( or g raph ite p hase ) o f t he Mar itsa c u lture. I t may , t herefore , b e a ssumed t hat t he e xp lo ita t ion o f t h is importan tb ed h ad b egun n o l ater t han a t t h is s tage.

Th is

d oes n o t mean o f c ourse t ha t t he Early Eneo l ith ic s et t le men ts c a me t o h ave a n u n l im ited s upp ly o f o re a nd me ta l a t t he ir i mmed iate d isposa l.

O re min ing a nd

p rocessing me thods b e ing s o p r im it ive , i tt ook t he Eneo l ith ic e conomy o f S ou the astern Europe n early h a l f am il lenn ium t o a ccumu late s u ff ic ien t q uan t it ies o f meta l f or i t s p resence t ob e e stabl ished a rchaeo log ical ly3t ha t i s t o s ay when meta l o b jects c ou ld b e f ound i n g raves. S ub ject t o t he a va ilable amoun t o f c opper , t he e arly d eve lopmen t o f me ta ll urgy may b e d iv ided i n to t hree b as ic p er iods : i st p er iod , w hen sma l l i t e ms wh ich d id n o t r equ ire l arge q uan t it ies o f c opper , w ere p roduced :

t hese w ere n eed les , aw ls, b eads, e arr ings, p endan ts.

Because t hey o x id ize s o e as ily , t hey a re d if f icu lt t o i den t ify d ur ing e xcavat ions. Th is p er iod i nc ludes t he Early , Midd le a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he L ate Eneo l ith ic. 2 nd p er iod , w hen c opper i mp le men ts b igger t han t he i t e ms l i sted a bove , w ere p roduced.

T echno log ies o f c ast ing c opper imp le men ts w ere d ev ised t o

s u it t he n atura l p ropert ies o f t he r aw mater ia l. i nd ispensable amoun t o f meta l w as u sed.

To make t hese t oo ls , o n ly t he

The ir s hape was s treaml ined a nd

t he ir p erfor mance improved. Many d i f feren t k inds o f t he m w ere p roduced : w edges, a xe-wedges , a xe-ha m mers , a xe-hoes, n eed les , aw ls , s pearheads , c h isels , b orers a nd j ewels.

T h is w as t he p er iod o f t he meta l b oo m a t t he

c lose o f t he Eneo l ith ic. 3 rd p er iod , w hen t he u se o f a rsen ic w as i n troduced i n me ta l lurgy .

Im-

p le men ts o f p ure c opper o ccur most f requen t ly , b u t a rsen ic a nd o ther a dm ixt ures may b e d etected h ere a nd t here i n s uch sma l l q uan t it ies t hat n o t a l l c he m ists a re i ncl ined t o a gree t hat t hey w ere k now ing ly a dded. The p r inc ipal t oo l w as t he p ick-hoe ( axe-adze ). Th is p er iod b e longs t o t he e nd o f t he t rans i t ion f rom t he Eneo l ith ic t o t he Bronze Age i n t he Bu lgar ian l ands. By t he e nd o f t he Eneo l ith ic , t he c o m mun it ies i n S outh-eastern Europe a nd t he n e ighbour ing t err itor ies h ad a ccu mu la ted s o h uge a n amoun t o f c opper t hat i t s p resence was f el t i n t he e n t ire e cono m ic a nd s oc ia l s tructure o f t he a rea.

T he e x tract ing a nd r ef in ing o f c opper h ad a ccelerated t o s uch a

d egree t hat t he p icture o f a n a ctua l meta l b oom emerged b efore a rchaeo log ists.

6 3

T h is meta l b oom h as b een e stabl ished a nd c onv inc ing ly p roved b y t he i nvest igat i ons o f E . Chern ikh 1 31

( Table 2 2 ).

The s econd a nd t h ird p er iods i n t he d evelopment o f meta l lurgy c o inc ided w ith t he me ta l b oo m , w h ile t he f i rst p er iod w as t he t ime o f g radua l a ccumu lat ion o f t he meta l a nd t he a cqu is it ion o f k now ledge a nd s k il ls , w h ich p aved t he w ay f or t he s ubsequen t p er iods. The c opper t oo ls f ound i n Bu lgar ia , w hen c he m ica l ly a na lysed a t t he met a l lurg ica l l abora tory o f t he Archaeo log ica l I nst itu te w ith t he Acade my o f S c iences o f t he U SSR, h ave s hown t hat d ur ing t he L ate Eneo l ith ic t here w ere t wo c opper o re a reas : o ne i ncluded t he s outhern a nd n orth-eastern p arts o f t he c oun try , a nd t he o ther w as s ituated i n i t s w estern p art. 1 32 T h is t a l l ies w ith o ur map o f t he e th .nocu l tura l r eg ions d uring t ha t p er iod—the K r ivodo lS a lcu ta c u lture i nt he w est , a nd t he K od jadermen-Gu meln ita-Karanovo V I a nd t he Varna c u l tures i n t he s outh a nd n orth-east . T he o re d epos its o f t he f or mer r eg ion w ere p robab ly t hose o f Run .a G lava i n Eastern S erb ia 1 33 l a tter, t he A i Bunar b ed i n T hrace. 1 34

a nd o f t he

I ti s worth n ot ing t hat t he A i Bunar

d epos its s upp l ied c opper n o t o n ly t o t he n orth-eastern p art o f t he Ba lkan Pen insu la , b u t a lso t o t err itor ies f urther a f ie ld. For i nstance, t he meta l o f t he K arbuna t reasure i n Uk ra ine h ad c o me f rom T hrace. 1 35 Th is importan t f ind c orrobora tes o ur p o in t o f v iew t hat t he a ccumu lat ion o f c opper w as n o t l im ited t o t he E thnocu l tura l Area o f t he Thrac ian Eneo l ith ic a lone , b u t i ncluded t he e n t ire S ou th-eastern Europe a nd t he n e ighbour ing t err itor ies. On t he o ther h and , t he K arbuna f i nd p rov ides a v a luab le p roo f o f t rade r ela t ions d ur ing t he Eneo l ith ic b etween o ur l ands a nd f ar-o f f p laces ( map 1 2 ). I n o re e x tract ion , h uge f i res w ere b u il t t o h eat t he b ed o f r ock , a f ter w h ich water was p oured o ver i ts o t hat i tc racked. S tone h am mers a nd h orn p icka xes w ere u sed t o d ig u p a nd s epara te t he o re f rom t he n on- meta l i ferrous matt er. Th is method n ecess itated t he emp loymen t o f many p eop le : wood-cu t ters , w ater-carr iers , d iggers a nd s epara tors.

The o re c ou ld h ave h ard ly b een p ro-

c essed a t t he p lace o f e xtract ion , b u t s omewhere e lse , a t me ta l lurg ica l c en tres t o wh ich i tw as t ransported.

T hese c en tres w ere n o t o n t he s et t le ments '

t err itory , b u t i n l oca l it ies b est s u ited t o t he p urpose. O f t he ir e x istence w e h ave o n ly i nd irect e v idence. A p robable s i te f or s uch a meta l lurg ica l c en tre may v ery w el l b e f i xed i n t he v ic in ity o f t he Varna p i le dwel l ings, b ecause o f t he l arge c oncen trat ion o f c opper o b jects t here, b ecause o f c erta in o f t he ir f ea tures w h ich w ere q u ite t yp ica l o f t he a rea , a nd b ecause o f t he e x travagen t u se t o w h ich t he l oca l p opu lat ion p ut t he meta l. a xe- ma l lets w ere made f or c h ildren t o p lay w ith.

For i nstance, sma l l c opper S ince t he ir i ncep t ion a nd

u p t o t h is d ay , o re m in ing a nd meta l work ing a re n o t d one a t o ne a nd t he s a me p lace, w h ich s ee ms t o b e ar u le i n meta l lurgy . I t was most p robably t he o re , a nd n o t t he manu factured a rt icles t ha t w ere e xported , ac on f ir mat ion o f wh ich i s t he t ype o f t he o b jects made o f A i Bunar c opper , l ike t he K arbuna t reasure. 1 35

The s hape a nd workmansh ip o f t hese

o b jects a re t yp ica l o f t he Cucu ten i-Tr ipo l ie c u lture a nd a re n o t met w ith o n Bu lgar ian t err itory. S o me l i gh t o n t he t echn iques o f Eneo l ith ic meta l lurgy i n Bu lgar ia w as t hrown b y t he r esearch o f N . V . R ind ina a t t he l aboratory o f Metal lography w ith t he Moscow S tate Un ivers ity.

S he h as e stabl ished t ha t d ur ing t he L ate 6 4

Eneo l ith ic meta l o b jects w ere c ast a nd n o t h ammered. 1 36

H er i n ference i s i n

a gree men t w ith d ata o n t he t echn iques u sed i n t he r e ma in ing p arts o f t he Balkan-Carpa th ian meta l lurg ica l p rov ince. T he mou lds must h ave b een e arthen 1 37 a s n o s tone mould o f t he p er iod h as c ome t o l i gh t f ro m among t he v ast a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l . The n ecessary t e mperature o f 183 ° f or o bta in ing mo lten me ta l f or c ast ing p resupposed t he u se o f c harcoa l i n t he f urnaces , a s w el l a s ah igh l evel o f c raf ts mansh ip. A f ter c ast ing , t he c opper t oo ls n eeded a dd it iona l h am mer-harden ing a long t he worki ng e dges. I n t he c ase o f c opper , h a m mer-harden ing h ad t o b e d one p er iod ica l ly b ecause t he u na l loyed me ta l e as ily l ost i t s f i r mness.

I n t he Eneo l ith ic

s et t le men ts, h a mmer-harden ing w as d one o n t he s pot , i n a dd it ion t o sma l l r ep a irs a nd r etouch ing. I th as b een e stabl ished t hat sma l l q uan t it ies o f c harcoa l w ere p roduced a t t he Go lya mo D elchevo s et t le men t mound f or t he p urpose. The c opper i mp le men ts made i n Bu lgar ia ( P l . X I ) w ere o f t he t ype u sed i n S ou th-eastern Europe i n t hose d ays a nd h ad t he s ize a nd s hape b est s u ited t o t he r aw mater ia l. What i s more, mod i f ied v ar ian ts h ave a lso b een f ound i n Bu lgar ia , af act w h ich s peaks o f t he h igh l evel o f t he l oca l meta l lurgy a nd t he c onstan t q uest a f ter n ew f or ms. Copper w edges a re o f t wo k inds : as l ight ly w ider e dge.

s hort w ith a b evel led e dge a nd l ong w ith

They h ave a r ectangu lar c ross-sect ion ( Pl. X I , 5 ) .

The a xe-wedges a re c omparat ively f l at ter, w edge-shaped t oo ls , r ather w ide a t t he e dge. They t oo h ave a r ectangu lar c ross-sect ion ( P l. X I , 6 , 7 , 8 ). T he o blong Mar itsa t ype, c opper a xe-wedge f rom Devebargan i s q u ite u ni que.

I th as a c ircu lar c ross-sect ion a nd b ecause o f i t s u ndeveloped t ypo logy ,

we a re i ncl ined t o d ate i tt o t he 2 nd p er iod i n t he d eve lopmen t o f meta l lurgy ( P l . X I , 9 ). The a xe-ham mers a re o f s evera l t ypes : The P lochn ik t ype a xe-ha mmer i s a mass ive s hor t t oo l w ith a f l a t tened b ody , n arrow , r ectangu lar b ack a nd a n a symmetr ica l ly p laced r ound o r o va l h o le.

I to ccurred ma in ly i n N orth-western Bu lgar ia.

The V idra t ype a xe-ham mer h as a b road , b ow-l ike e dge , s harp ly s lop ing b ack w ith a r ec tangu lar c ross-sect ion a nd a n o va l h o le ( P l . X I , 1 0 ). The ä 'o ka t ype a xe-ha m mer h as a s tra igh t b ody , o val c ross-sect ion , f l at b ack a nd a n a symmetr ica l ly p laced h o le. The o ka-Varna t ype o f t oo l h as a s tra igh t b ody , r ectangu lar c ross-sect i on , f l at b ack a nd a r ound h o le ( Pl. X I , 1). T he Devnya-Varna t ype o f t oo l h as a k ee l-shaped b ody w ith a r ectangu lar c ross-sect ion a nd a b ow-l ike o r t r iangu lar e dge ( P l . X I , 1 ) . The Devnya t ype o ft oo l h as a k eel-shaped b ody w ith a n o va l c ross-sect ion , r a ised e dges o f t he w ider p art o f t he b ody n ear t he h o le , a nd a f l at , o va l b ack . I t s e dge i s o f t wo k inds : b ow-l ike o r t r iangu lar. An a xe-p ick o f u n ique f or m.

I ti s s im ilar t o t he Devnya t ype o f t oo l , b u t

i t s h o le i s o n t he t r iangu lar b lade; i t s b ack l ooks l ike a l ong , s l igh t ly c urved b eak w ith a c ircu lar c ross-sex t ion .

6 5

An a dze-ha mmer o f u n ique s hape was f ound a t t he Gabarevo s et t le men t mound.

I th as a na dze-l ike b lade a nd a n o va l h o le n ear t he b ack .

The c opper c h isels ( p iercers ? ) a re l ong s t icks w ith a r ectangu lar c rosss ect ion , a Fshaped b ack a nd a s ym me tr ical e dge. Axe-adzes o ft he Ar iu e , J asladany , T frgu-Ocna t ype. Copper aw ls a re e i ther s hort w ith a c ircu lar c ross-sect ion , o r l ong w ith ar ec tangu lar c ross-sect ion a t t he u pper e nd , w h ich w as i nserted i n to a b one h and le ( Pl . X I , 3 ). The c opper j ewel lery i s n o t r e markable f or i t s v ar iety . T here a re c opper h a ir o r c lo thes p ins wh ich a re l ong a nd h ave a d oub le s p ira l a t t he h ead ( P l. X I , 4 ). The c opper b racelets a re o f t wo k inds :

o pen-ended made o f b en t c opper

w ire , o r s p ira l made o f af l at c opper b and . Copper s p ira ls ( f inger r ings ? ) —f lat , 1 .5-2 mm w ide b ands wound a round t hree o r f our t imes;

t he d ia meter o f t he r ing i s 1 .8-2 cm.

Copper f i nger r ings —f la t , 3 -4 m m w ide b ands , b en t w ithou t t he ir e nds t ouch ing. Cooper l oops , p robab ly e arr ings ( P l. X I , 2 ) . Copper b eads —s ing le f inds o f c opper d iscs o r l a me l lae t w isted i n to sma l l t ubes. Copper e arr ings —s ma l l o pen-ended c irclets o f b en t c opper w ire. Copper a pp l ique s o f v ar ious s hapes. Copper d ecorat ions f or b one i do ls. I ti s o bv ious t hat t here w ere more t ypes o f t oo ls t han o f j ewels, p oss ibly b ecause o ther mater ia ls w ere a lso u sed i n mak ing t he l at ter. Copper w en t c h ief ly i n to t he mak ing o f imp le men ts. Pure c opper b e ing s o f t , i tw as u nsu ita b le f or mak ing w eapons w ith a s harp , c u tt ing e dge s uch a s k n ives o r d aggers. They w ere c ast i nb ronze f or t he f i rst t ime a t t he e nd o f t he t rans it iona l p er iod f rom t he Eneo l ith ic t o t he B ronze Age. Copper t oo ls d id n ot f ind a pp l icat ion i n a l l b ranches o f t he e conomy . They w ere n o tu sed i n f ar m ing , f or i nstance , a s c opper i s l ess h ard t han s tag h orn wh ich w as e x tens ively u sed i n mak ing f orked p o les , p icks , h oes a nd t he l i ke , a nd w as e as ily o bta inable a t t hat .

Copper f orked p o les wou ld n ot h ave c on-

t r ibu ted t o r a is ing l abour p roduct iv ity i nf ar m ing , a nd t o u se t he r are a nd e xp ens ive meta l f or t h is p urpose wou ld h ave b een a n u nw ise a nd u npro f itab le i nvestmen t.

Metal i mp le men ts w ere u sed i n t hose b ranches o n ly w here t he ir

a pp l icat ion y ielded t he max i mum e cono m ic e f fect , a s w as t he c ase o f l u mberi ng a nd woodwork ing.

I n c lear ing l arge f orest t racks f or t he p urpose o f

min ing t he p rec ious me ta l , n ot o n ly b u i ld ing mater ia l w as o bta ined , b u t n ew l and f or f ar m ing w as a lso r ecla i med. I ti s i n terest ing t o n ote t hat c opper o b jects w ere p r ivately owned.

N o t

o n ly c opper t r inkets, b u t a lso t he c opper a xe-hammers a ccompan ied t he ir

6 6

owner i n to t he g rave. I n t he e arly s tages o f t he Eneo l ith ic , t h is p ract ice d id n o t i nvo lve o ther i mp le men ts f or , v ery l ikely , t hey w ere c om mun ity o r f am ily p roperty .

I tw as o n ly a t t he c lose o f t he e poch t hat p r ivate ownersh ip i n s ome

o f t he more a dvanced r eg ions b egan t o s pread t o t he n on- meta l l ic t oo ls a s w el l . Copper o b jects w ere t he most p rec ious p ossess ion o f Eneo l ith ic man , w h ile t he c opper o re d epos its i n t he Bu lgar ian l ands w ere t he i nvaluab le a sset wh ich g uaran teed t he ir p rosper ity . Dur ing t he Eneo l ith ic , Bu lgar ia w as p art o f t he g reat Ba lkan-Danub ian metal lurg ica l p rov ince. 1 38 I t embraced a c ons iderable p art o f S ou th-eastern E urope ( map 1 2 ) a nd h ad t hree importan t o re m in ing c en tres : 1 .

A i Bunar i n T hrace, w h ich b egan t o b e e xplo ited i n t he Early Eneo l ith ic;

2 .

Rudna G lava i n N orth-eastern Y ugoslav ia , w hose e xp lo itat ion b egan a t a bou t t he s a me t ime ;

3 .

T ransy lvan ia , w here o re m in ing b egan a t t he e nd o f t he Eneol ith ic.

T he me ta l e x tracted a t t hese t hree c en tres d i f fered i n i t s c he m ica l c omp os it ion ,1 37 a nd t h is h as made i tp oss ible t o d eterm ine t he o r ig in o f t he c opper o f wh ich a n o b jec t w as made, r egard less o f t he s i te o n wh ich i t was f ound. T ha t i s h ow t he a rea i n w h ich t he A i Bunar c opper w as u sed , w as d e f ined ; i ti ncluded t he t err itor ies o f t he K od jader men-Gumeln ita-Karanovo V I a nd t he Cucuten i-Tr ipo l ie c u l tures. I ti s i n terest ing t o n o te t hat t he b order l ine s ep ara t ing t he Thrac ian c opper o re a rea f rom i t s w estern c oun terpart o f Rudna G lava r an a long t he a nc ien t c u ltural a nd h istor ical f ron t ier b etween t he r ivers Yan tra a nd O ssum , s ometh ing t hat g oes t o s how t hat t he p opu lat ions a va iled t he mselves o ft hose d epos its f rom wh ich t he o re w as most e as ily t ran sported. Th is l ed t o t he u n if icat ion o f h eterogeneous e thnocu ltural c o mmun i t ies a round a g iven c en tre; i n t h is p art icu lar c ase t hey w ere t he K od jader menGume ln ita-Karanovo V I a nd t he Cucu ten i-Tr ipo l ie c u ltures t o t he e ast , a nd t he S a lc i4a a nd V in a c u ltures t o t he w est .

Thus t he d iv id ing l ine b etween

t he t wo meta l-us ing g roups o f Thrace a nd V in a c u t a cross t he m idd le o f t he E thnocu l tura l Area o f t he Thrac ian Eneo l ith ic , b u t w ithou t d isrupt ing i t s e thnocu ltura l u n ity. Copper o b jects f ro m t he Ba lkan-Danub ian meta l lurg ica l p rov ince w ere d ist ingu ished b y t he ir s tandard ized f or ms , t echn iques o f c ast ing a nd f in ish. The most v ar ied t ypes o f t oo ls w ere made f rom A i Bunar c opper, wh ich w as q u ite n atura l f or i tw as s uch a n importan t , h igh ly p roduc t ive c en tre. D .

S tone a nd F l in t Imp le men ts Eneo l ith ic man

i n her i t ed t he t rad it ions a nd t echn iques o f work ing i n s tone

' f rom t he N eo l ith ic , w h i le t hose o f mak ing f l in t t oo ls c a me t o h im f rom t he P a laeo l ith ic. N o n ew t echn iques i nt he work ing o f t hese r aw mater ia ls w ere d ev ised d ur ing t he S tone-Copper Age , b u t t he o ld o nes w ere b rought t o p erf ect ion . F l in t Too ls : The q ua l ity o f f l in t t oo ls d epended o n t he r aw mater ia l u sed. Most h igh ly p r ized w as t he y el low f l in t wh ich , h owever , o ccurred r are ly. 6 7

F l in t must h ave b een e x tracted i nt he r e mote p ast n ear t he v i l lage o f K r iva Reka , S houmen d istr ict , where t races o f s uch a c t iv it ies h ave b een s po tted. I ti s q u ite p oss ib le t ha t t h is r ich d epos it w as e xp lo ited v ery e arly a s t oo ls made f rom t he p art icu lar k ind o f f l in t o bta inable t here, o ccur a t many p reh ist or ic s et t le men ts s pread o ver a v ast t err itory . Cut t ing t oo ls w ere a lso made f rom d ark r ed , b lack o r g rey ish Ba lkan f l in t . T he l a tter k ind , h owever , i s amorphous, d oes n ot s p l it e ven ly , a nd w as u sed o n ly w hen b et ter q ual ity f l in t was n ot a va i lab le.

The Eneo l ith ic f l in t i ndustry w as e xclus ively o f t he s p l it-

s tone k ind. A l l c u t t ing , s crap ing a nd p ierc ing t oo ls ( kn ives , s crapers , a ugers , b orers , a rrowheads , e tc., P l. X I I , 1 , 2 ) w ere made o f c h ipped f l in t. The p laques o bta ined b y c h ipp ing a r ock o f f l in t w ere r etouched i n r are c ases a nd t hen o n ly a t t he f ron t p art s o t hat a s crap ing e dge w as f ormed.

K n ives d o n o t s how t races

o f r etouch ing , b u t c onstan t u se u sua l ly r ef ined t he ir c u t t ing e dge. Borers w ere t apered o f ft o ap o in tb y ab ifac ia l r etouch a nd w ere u sed a s t ips o f a mechan ica l p ierc ing d ev ice , c ons ist ing o f as tra igh t s t ick t o o ne o f whose e nds t he f l in tb orer w as moun ted , ac lay o r wooden w e igh t w as s l ipped a cross t he s t ick a nd a l eather l oop w ith a s t ick i nserted c rossw ise w as a t tached t o i t s o ther e nd. By q u ick ly w ind ing a nd u nw ind ing t he l eather l oop a r o tary mot ion o f g rea t momen tum w as p assed o n t o t he b orer , w h ich d id n o t f a il t o p ierce a h o le i n as hort t ime. F l in t a rrowheads a nd h eavy a xes w ere made b y f l at , b ifac ia l r etouch.

The

l at ter f i rst made t he ir a ppearance i n t he L ate Eneo l ith ic. Dur i ig e xcavat ions a t Eneo l ith ic s ett le men ts t here f requen t ly c rop u p h eav ily b lun ted a nd p o l ished f l in t b lades f or s ick les wh ich must h ave h ad a wooden b ody a nd h and le a t tached. The s hape o f t he s ick les c annot b e r econstructed b u t t hey must h ave h ad r ather b ig d i mensions , i fw e a re t o j udge b y t he s ize o f t he b lades. T hey a re t he most f requen t ly o ccurr ing t oo ls a fter t he s crapers. As t he ir v ar ied t ypes r eveal , t he s crapers w ere u sed f or many p urposes — in t he work ing o f s k ins , w ood a nd b one. The l a tera l e dges o f s crapers w ere s omet i mes u sed f or c u tt ing. The v ersat il ity o f t h is f l in t t oo l a ccoun ted f or i t s g rea t p opu lar ity f rom t he L a te P a laeo l ith ic t o t he e nd o f t he Eneo l ith ic. T he b as ic a nd most e x tens ively u sed t oo ls o f Eneo l ith ic man w ere t hose made o f f l in t . The l arge n umbers i n wh ich t hey a ppear d ur ing e xcavat ions e v ince t hat t here w as a n amp le s upp ly o f t he r aw mater ia l w h ich w en t i n to mak ing t he m a nd t hat p roduct ion t echn iques w ere s i mp le.

By a d ef t b low a t

t he mass o f r ock t he f l in t w as s p l it i n to p laques w h ich c ou ld a t o nce b e u sed a s k n ives. A f ter a s l igh t r etouch , t hey b eca me s crapers o r b orers. I ti s t rue t hat f l in t i s b r it t le , b ut t here w as n o th ing e lse t o r ep lace i tw ith u n t i l t he b ronze-and-arsen ic a l loy w as d iscovered i n t he m idd le o f t he 4 th m il lenn ium B .C. U p t o t ha t t ime man d id n ot h ave a ny o ther r aw ma ter ia l f or mak ing c u t t ing t oo ls e xcep t f l in t a nd o bs id ian , v ery f ew s a mp les o f t he l a t ter h av ing b een e xcava ted a t t he Varna n ecropo l is a nd i n Dourankou lak o n t he B lack S ea c oast. E .

S tone Imp le men ts a nd Weapons ( P l. X I I I ) S tone imp le men ts w ere t he h eavy d u ty t oo ls o f Eneo l ith ic man.

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T hey w ere

ma in ly u sed i n l u mber ing a nd woodwork ing b u t , w hen n ecessary , c ou ld d oub le a s w eapons. What i s more , t he s tone a xe-ham mer a nd t he mace must h ave b een s ymbo ls o f p ower a s wel l. Hard r ocks o f v o lcan ic o r ig in , c rysta l l ine s ch ists a nd marb le w ere u sed i n mak ing s tone t oo ls. ( P l . X , 1 2 ).

The o ne most f requen t ly met w ith w as t he s tone a dze

I tw as f i t ted i n to a b one s ocket w ith a h and le a t tached , o r t o a n

e lbow-shaped w ooden h and le. h and les t o f l in t o r s tone t oo ls. s tone a xes.

R es ins a nd l eather s traps w ere u sed i n f ix ing Th is w as a lso h ow h and les w ere a t tached t o

The p roport ion b etween a dzes a nd a xes i n p reh istor ic s et t le men ts

d i ffers g reat ly , b u t a dzes s ee m t o h ave b een more n umerous.

Th is i s t o b e

e xp la ined b y t he c ircu mstance t hat a dzes w ere u sed i n woodwork ing o n t he t err itory o f t he s et t le men t i t sel f , w hereas a xes w ere u sed i n t he f orests , w here t he d iscarded o nes w ere l e f t. Dur ing t he L a te Eneo l ith ic t here w as a s harp r educ t ion i n t he n umber o f s tone a xes.

A t t he Go lya mo Delchevo s et t le men t

mound f or i nstance t he r at io b etween s tone a xes a nd a dzes w as 1 :6.

T he d rop

i n t he n umber o f s tone a xes a t t he e nd o f t he Eneo l ith ic may b e e xp la ined b y t he ir g radua l r ep lace men t w ith t he f ar more e f f ic ien t c opper a xe-wedges a nd a xe-ham mers , w h ich t ook o ver t he ir d u ty.

The e ff ic iency o f t he s tone a xes

w hen c ompared w ith t hat o f t he c opper a xe-ha mmers, w as i n t he o rder o f 1 :30 i n f avour o f t he c opper i mple men ts. 1 39 As ide f rom a xes a nd a dzes ( Pl . X I I I , 1-18 ) , c h isels ( P l . X I I I , 1 -6 ), w edges, a xe-ha mmers ( Pl . X I I I , 7 -10 ) , p est les, g r indstones , mor tars, smoothers, w eapons , maces a nd c u l t o b jects w ere a lso made o f s tone

The t echn ique

o f s tone w ork r eached i t s h ighest l evel i n t he mak ing o f a xe-ham mers a nd maces, whose e xqu is ite w orkmansh ip i s q u ite amaz ing.

T he e dge o f t he a xe-ha mmers

i s v ery o f ten b lun t a nd r ounded , w h ich s uggests t hat t hey w ere n o t mean t f or work . T he c on jecture t hat t hey s ymbo l ized p ower h as b een c on f ir med b y f inds i n t he Varna n ecropo l is 1 40 w here a n a xe-ha m mer w i th a h and le c overed w ith g o ld a nd a n a pp l iqued g o ld f l ower o n t he b lade w as e xcavated.

The r are f inds

o f s tone maces a re made o f marble o r o ther s pec ia l ly s e lected f ine r ock . must a lso h ave b een i n o ne w ay o r a no ther s ymbo ls o f p ower.

They

The t wo l a t ter s tone t oo ls , t he a xe-ha mmers a nd maces, h ave h o les i n to wh ich h and les w ere f i tted.

Archaeo log ica l f inds h ave e nabled r esearchers t o

r econstruct t he t echn ique o fp ierc ing h o les ' , a nd e thnograph ic s tud ies o ffer e xamp les o f h ow a h eavy p ierc ing mechan is m w as made. The p rocess o f manufac tur ing a p o l ished s tone t oo l w ith a h o le may b e r econstructed i n t he f o l low ing w ay :

as elected p iece o f r ock w as f i rst h ewn i n to t he d es ired s hape ,

t hen t he s urface w as smoo thed b y l i gh t h a mmer s t rokes a nd g iven a r ough p o l ish w i th w et s and. The n ex t s tep w as t o p ierce t he h o le ( P l. X I I I , 1 8 ) a nd i ft hat o perat ion w as s uccessfu l a nd t he f uture t oo l d id n o t b reak , i tw as g iven i t s f ina l s hape b y a dd it iona l p o l ish ing.

I ti s i n terest ing t o n o te t he sma l l

d ia me ter o f t he h o les i n wh ich t he h and le w as i nserted. I tv ar ied b e tween 1 .5 a nd 1 .8 cm. S o smal l t ha t i ts ee ms s trange t o u s t oday , t he s ize o f t he h o le w as d ict ated b y t he n ature o f t he r aw mater ial .

A w ider h o le w ou ld h ave

r educed t he w id th o f t he a xe n ext t o t he h and le, w here t he work load i s t he h eav iest a nd t he t oo l wou ld h ave b roken .

I ti s a ssu med t ha t h and les w ere

made o f c ornel w ood a nd w ere s u i ted t o t he p reh istor ic manner o f w ork , i n w h ich

6 9

as trong , d irect c hop a s w i th a p resen tday s teel a xe wou ld h ave b een imposs ible. Fel l ing w ith a s tone a xe was d one b y s hort , o bl ique s trokes t o d etach s p l in ters f rom a nd l i t t le b y l i t t le c u t i n to t he t runk . The v arious t ypes o f s tone t oo ls a re d escr ibed i n d e ta il b y P . Detev ( s ee Detev , P ., 1 960a a nd 1 963 ). F .

L u mber ing a nd Woodwork ing

Eneo l it h ic man e xp lo ited t o t he f u l l t he f orest w eal th o f t he a rea i n w h ich h e l i ved . H e c on t inued t he w ork o f h is N eo l ith ic p redecessors c lear ing more l and f or f ar m ing a nd f e l l ing t rees f or b u ild ing a nd f ort ify ing h is p er manen t s et t lemen ts.

I tw as a lready i n t he Eneo l ith ic t hat t he g radua l d eforestat ion o f l arge

t racts b egan i n t he Bu lgar ian l ands. T h is may b e s een i n t he p o l len c harts f rom t he Varna , Dourankou lak a nd S hab la l akes ( Bozh ilova , E u npubl ished ), i n wh ich t he a ppearance a nd s pread o f c u l t ivated p lan ts w en t h and i n h and w ith t he d ecrease o f s ome t ree v ar iet ies. Bes ides f el l ing t rees t o c lear l and f or f ar m ing , Eneo l ith ic man a lso c u t d own t housands u pon t housands o f t rees f or b u ild ing p urposes. On ly sma l l t rees a nd b ranches d id n ot r equ ire a dd it iona l work .

B ig l ogs w ere s p l it i n t wo

o r i n to t h ick p lanks , w h ich w ere u sed i n h ouse b u i ld ing.

The t runks u sed i n

f ort ify ing t he s et t le men ts w ere a lso s omet i mes s p l it i n t wo. Bark a nd l e fto ver p ieces o f wood w ere u sed a s t her ma l i nsu la t ion o f f l oors. They may b e d etected i nt he f or m o f at h in r usty l ayer i n t hose b u ild ing l evels w h ich h ad n o t b een b urn t d own , o r i n t he f or m o f ab lack , c harred l ayer a t t he f oundat ions o f t he h ouses wh ich h ad b een d estroyed b y f i re. Many o b jects f or t he i n ter ior d ecora t ion o f h ouses w ere made o f wood— sma l l s quare t ables , sma l l c ha irs w ith c urved b acks a nd , v ery l ikely , v essels , t ubs, b readtroughs, b oxes , e tc. S pec ia l ly s elected wood w as u sed f or mak ing b ows , s pears, a rrows, t oo l h and les , p ierc ing d ev ices, w eav ing l ooms , e tc. A v ast amoun t o f wood w en t i n to o re m in ing , i n t he p roduc t ion o f c harcoa l f or t he meta l lurgy a nd a s f i rewood. Dug-ou ts w ere f ash ioned o u t o f t he l argest t ree t runks; h as b een a t tested b y f inds i nt he Varna l akes .1 41

t he ir e x istence

Exa m ina t ion o f t he b u ild ings h as s hown t hat p reference w as g iven t o o akw ood b ecause o f i t s r es istance t o w ear.

T he dwel l ings o n t he Varna l akes

w ere b u i lt o n o ak p i les , s ome o f wh ich h ave b een p reserved t o t h is d ay . S tone , f l in t a nd wood w ere t he most e xtens ive ly u sed r aw mater ia ls d ur ing t he S tone-Copper Age. G .

Weav ing

The p roduct ion o f t ex t iles w h ich b egan i n t he Early N eo l ith ic , s hows d ur ing t he Eneo l ith ic a n umber o f e le men ts o f i n ternal c ommun ity s pec ia l izat i on w h ich may b e t raced w ith t he h elp o f a rchaeo logy .

S p ind le w hor ls ,

c lums ily f ash ioned f rom s herds , o ccur i n a l most a l l Eneo l ith ic h ouses w h ich h ave b een d estroyed b y f i re;

i t may b e i n ferred f rom t h is t hat t he i n it ia l

p rocess ing o f woo l a nd t he s p inn ing w ere d one b y t he women a t h ome.

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P arts

o f al oo m , o ne o n t he o u tsk ir ts o f e ach s et t le men t w ere f ound i nb u i ld ing l evel I V o f t he Go lya mo De lchevo s ett le men t mound a nd b u ild ing l evel X o f t he O vcharo vo o ne.

T h is s uggests t hat o n ly o ne f am ily s pec ia l ized i n t he p roduct ion o f

f abr ics.

The l oom w as most p robab ly v ert ica l , a nd t he t hreads o f t he warp

w ere p u l led t i gh t b y c lay w e igh ts; t hey w ere r ound , o va l o r p yram ida l i n s hape a nd w ere p erfora ted e i ther i n t he m idd le o r a t t he u pper e nd. The w id th o f t he c lo th w oven o n t he Go lya mo D elchevo l oom c ou ld h ave b een 0 .45 m , a nd t hat o n t he O vcharovo l oom a bou t 1 .20 m. F ine woo l len f abr ics o f t he c o mplex o r p la in w eave w ere woven , a s s een f rom t he m icroscop ic f rag men ts o f mater ia l o n c opper t oo ls f ound i nt he n ecropo l ises.

The t h ickness o f t he t hread

w as b e tween 0 .8 mm o n a n a xe-ham mer f rom Devnya , a nd 2 -3 mm ( impress ions o n t he b o t to m o f v esse ls ). I n a dd it ion t o f abr ics, c oarse ma ts were a lso made , impress ions o f w h ich h ave b een l e f t o n t he b o ttom o f l arge p o ttery v esse ls p laced o nt he m w h ile s t il l d a mp. Weav ing t echn iques t hen w ere n o l ess v ar ied t han t hose o f t he h andwoven f abr ics k nown t o e thnographers t oday .1 42 I fo ne w as t o j udge b y t he o rna men ts o n s cu lpted i do ls ( P l. X IV, 4 ) , t he f i n ished c lo th w as s omet i mes d ecora ted w ith r ed-pa in ted mot ifs. C lo thes w ere made o f t hese f abr ics a nd t hey s ee m t o h ave f o l lowed a t rad it iona l p at tern. I n e ach i nd iv idua l e thnocu ltura l a rea , i th ad i t s s pec if ic f ea tures, a s d e monstrated b y t he h uman f i gures made o f c lay .

The p a in ted o r i nc ised o rna men ts o n t he f e ma le c lay

f i gurines a re r epeated i n t he s a me c ompos it ions w ith v ar iat ions i n t he mo t ifs o n ly . H .

C lay o r b one s p ind le whorls w ere u sed i n s p inn ing ( P l. X , 2 5-27 ).

S k in Work ing

The d ress ing o f h ides a nd p e lts f ro m w h ich c lothes w ere made w as o bv iously aw ide ly p rac t ised o ccupat ion , f or s crapers w ith t races o f s uch p rocess ing o n t he m , a s w e l l a s b one aw ls ( Pl. X , 1 5-24 ) a re t he most f requen t ly o ccurr ing f l in t t oo ls. H eavy w e ights w ere u sed i n s tretch ing a nd d ry ing t he s k ins; o n a w e igh t f ound a t Ho tn itsa t here a ppears t he e arl iest d raw ing o f as tretched h ide. S im ilar i mpress ions may a lso b e s een o n s ome i do ls a nd o n v essels f ro m t he L ate Eneo l ith ic , p robably a s a n i l lustra t ion o f t he u se o f s k ins f or c loth ing. S o me o f t he h ides must h ave b een t anned , w h ich i s a t tested b y f inds o f p o ttery v essels w i th a t h ick l ayer o f s ca le o n t he i ns ide , t he c hem ical a na lysis o f w h ich h as s hown t ha t i ti s o f o rgan ic o r ig in . I tw as p robably u r ine t hat w as c o l lec ted i n t hese v essels a s i tw as w ide ly u sed i n t ann ing t hroughou t a nt iqu ity. Th is t ype o f p o ttery v essels d iscovered a t Po lyan itsa o n ly i n s o me o f t he h ouses, s uggests t hat t here must h ave b een s pec ia l izat ion i n t h is b ranch a s we l l.

As

c at t le-breed ing a nd h un t ing w ere n o t s uch a n i mportan t s ec tor o f t he s et t le men ts ' e conomy , i ti s i mprobable t hat s k ins w ere b artered , e xcep t f or t rad ing w ith o re m iners a nd me ta l workers. I .

P o t tery

A l though t he mak ing o f v essels s erved a u t il i tar ian p urpose , i ta lso o ffered aw ide s cope f or a esthet ic e xpress ion t o p reh istor ic man. P o t tery t echn iques d ur ing t he Eneo l ith ic were many a nd v ar ied ; t hey a lso s how a h igh l evel o f s pec ia l iza t ion a nd t echn ica l k nowhow .

B ig p o ttery k i lns w ith h undreds o f

s tacked v esse ls h ave b een d iscovered a t b urn t h ouses i n K aranovo a nd Ovcharo vo . The f or mer may b e i n terpreted a s p ot tery workshops ( ? ), wh ich i s o ne more i nd icat ion o f i n terna l s pec ia l izat ion i n t he t r iba l c ommun it ies. Eneo l ith ic

7 1

v essels , e spec ia l ly t hose o f t he Varna c u lture , a re s haped w ith s uch p rec is ion t ha t t hey g ive t he i mpress ion o f h av ing b een d rawn o n t he w hee l , ac on jecture t hat h as b een c on f ir med b y r esearch.

I th as b een e stabl ished t hat t hey w ere

d rawn o n af ast-turn ing whee l w h ich , i n o ur o p in ion , c ou ld h ave b een made o n ly o f wood , a s a re a l l p ot ter 's w hee ls t o t h is d ay . As w ood i s p er ishable , t here i s n o a ctua l p roo f o f t he ir e x istence. 1 43 The s urface o f t he f ine Eneo l ith ic c era m ics i s most o f ten b lack o r g rey . The s ta in ing w as o bta ined b y c rea t ing a r educt ion med ium i n t he k i lns a t t he e nd o f t he f i r ing , o r b y p lac ing t he v essels o ver o rgan ic ma t ter a f ter t he f i r ing a nd wh ile t hey w ere s t il l h ot . O n t he B lack S ea l i t tora l , w here t here a re p yro lus ite c oncret ions, t he i n tensely b lack a nd l ustrous s urface o f t he v esse ls w as a ch ieved b y a pp ly ing w ith a b rush a t h in l ayer o f p yro lus i te d ye • When e xposed t o h eat i n ar educt ion med iu m , t he d ye b ecomes l ustrous b lack , w h ile u nder o rd inary c ond it ions i t s c o lour r anges f rom d ark r ed t o p a le o range a nd g o ld d epend ing o nt he t e mperature i n t he k i ln .

Adm ixtures o f manganese i n

t he c lay o f t h is a rea w ere r espons ib le f or t he g rey i n t he p o t tery . o rna men ts w ere a pp l ied w ith a t h in b rush b efore f i r ing.

The g raph ite

T he g raph ite i t sel f

w as f ixed d ur ing b urn ish ing b y r ubb ing i ti n to t he p ores o f t he v esse l w ith a b one smoother.

S omet i mes ,

a f ter t he l ong u se o f av essel , t he g raph ite wore

o f f a nd o n ly d u l l s urfaces o r l i nes w ere l e f t w h ich e ven s o makes i tp oss ible t o r econstruct t he o rna men ts. Vessels w ere a lso d ecora ted w ith f l ut ing made b y h and o r w ith a smoother a nd t hen b urn ished.

I nc ised o rna men ts a re

o f s evera l k inds. T he o rd inary i nc ised l i ne o ccurred t hroughou t t he Eneo l ith ic , b u t w as most w idespread d ur ing i t s e arly a nd , p art ly s o , d ur ing i t s m idd le s tages.

Var ious s urfaces o f t he v essel w ere i nc ised a nd t hen e ncrusted w ith

w h ite o r r ed o chre , at echn ique p opu lar a t t he e nd o f t he Early a nd d ur ing t he e n t ire Midd le Eneo l ith ic. I tp ers isted t o t he e nd o f t he e poch i r t he Varna c u lture o n t he B lack S ea c oast. Th is t echn ique w as u sed i n d ecorat ing s ome most e xqu is i te e xa mp les o f c eram ic a rt. Dur ing t he L a te Eneo l ith ic t he i nc ised t echn ique w as i m itated b y t he a pp l icat ion o f r a ised b ands , t he s pace b e tween w h ich w as f i l led w ith c o loured p aste.

Impressed o rna men ts w ere

a lso w idespread , t he impress ions b e ing made w ith a d en t icu lated b one s tamp o r b y s tabb ing w ith o ne o r t wo p o in ts. Rows o r g roups o f t i ny p i ts a nd o ther f i gures w ere a lso i mpressed. S tabb ing was u sed i n f i l l ing b ands o n ly d uring p hase Io f t he G radeshn itsa c u l ture a f ter wh ich t hey d isappeared a l most c omp le tely. T hese t echn iques w ere r ev ived d ur ing t he L ate Eneo l ith ic w hen t he e n t ire s urface o f t he v esse l o r i t s b el ly w ere p ecked , t hough n o t i n c lear-cu t mot i fs. T he f i ne Eneo l ith ic w are was a lso d ecora ted w ith r ibb ing o nt he b e l l ies o f v essels , a s w el l a s w ith s evera l k inds o f h and les : p omorph ic.

b ow-l ike , k nobbed , e lbow-shaped , z oo- a nd a n thro-

The h and les e i ther d ecorated t he v essel o r f or med t he c en tre

a round wh ich t he o rna men ts w ere a rranged. Eneo l ith ic d ecorat ion ; Bu lgar ia.

The k nobs a re a t yp ica l Early

t hey , h owever , were n ever p opu lar i n N orth-eastern

C rude p ot tery mak ing h ad i t s own s pec if ic t echno logy . S ome o f t he l arger p o ts w ere n o d oubt made b y h and , a s t hey a re s l igh t ly a symmetr ical . L arge s torage j ars a nd t he ir l i ds w ere a l l made b y h and. I n t he ir c ase , t he t echn ique o f s t ick ing b ands t ogether was u sed , w h ich may b e s een a f ter b reak ing a s i t

7 2

u sual ly o ccurs a t t he p lace w here t he b ands met. S l ip w as a pp l ied o ver t he e n t ire s urface o f t he v esse l , a nd af ter t ha t , t he o rna men ts — i mpressed , i nc ised , r a ised , e tc. I n k i tchen w are t he s l ip h ad a marked d ecorat ive c haracter.

The ma ter ia l

u sed f or t he p urpose was m ixed w ith m inu te b its o f d r ied c lay , w h ich l en t i ta g ranu la ted c ons istency .

Th is s ubstance w as a pp l ied b y t ra il ing t he f i ngers

a long t he s urface o f t he v essel t o f or m v ar ious f i gures.

I n a dd it ion t o t hat ,

r a ised b ands w ere o f ten a pp l ied b y p ress ing w ith t he f i ngers o r w i th a s harp o b ject .

Knobs w ere a lso f or med.

I n s o me c ases n o d r ied c lay w as a dded , a nd

t he s l ip w as a pp l ied u n ifor m ly o ver t he s urface o f t he v esse l . A t p laces i t s tood o u t i n r el ief , w h ich w as a ch ieved b y p ress ing w ith a nd t hen l i f t ing t he p a lm o f t he h and. N a il b arbot ine w as o bta ined b y l i gh t ly l i f t ing w ith a f i nger n a il t he s t il l s o f t s l ip. Th is t echn ique was e spec ial ly p opu lar d ur ing t he f i na l s tages o f t he Eneo l ith ic.

I th as b een i ncorrect ly t er med ' r etarded S tareevo .'

Pot tery s hapes a nd o rna men ta l mot ifs e vo lved a l l t hrough t he Eneo l ith ic , t he c hanges b e ing more marked d ur ing t he M idd le Eneo l ith ic wh ich w as t he p er iod o f t rans it ion f ro m t he G radeshn itsa , S ava , P o lyan i tsa a nd Mar itsa c u lt ures t o t he K r ivodo l-Sa lcu ta , K od jader men-Gume ln ita-Karanovo V I a nd Varna c u ltures. Th is u n in terrup ted l ine o f d evelopmen t i n p ot tery i s a n i mp ortan t s ource o f i n for mat ion i n t rac ing t he d yna m ics o f t he h istor ica l p rocess i n t h is p ar t o f t he wor ld.

7 3

CHAPTER V I I I ENEOL ITH IC NECROPOLISES AS S OURCES OF S OC IOLOG ICAL I NFORMATION

Bur ia ls a nd t he n ecropo l ises a re a n e xcept iona l ly importan t s ource o f i n for ma t ion , w h ich t hrows l i gh t o n many a spects o f l i fe i n p reh istor ic s oc iet ies. S cho lars w ou ld i ndeed h ave b een h ard p u t t o i tt o g l i mpse i n to t he r e mo te p ast , h ad i tn ot b een f or t hese i nva luable s ources. As s tated e arl ier , most o f t he i nvest iga ted Eneo l ith ic n ecropo l ises a re t o b e f ound i n N orth-eastern Bu lgar ia.

On ly a f ew b ur ia ls h ave b een s tud ied i n

N orth-western Bu lgar ia , wh ile t he t horough i nvest iga t ion o f t he n ecropo l ises i n T hrace i s af orthco m ing t ask .

I n o ur o p in ion , h owever, t he n ecropo l ises

wh ich h ave b een s tud ied s o f ar, make i tp oss ible t o a rr ive a t i n ferences wh ich a re a pp l icab le t o t he who le o f t he E thnocu l tural Area o f t he Thrac ian Eneo l ith ic. The n ecropo l ises a t t he s et t le men t mounds o f Rousse , Ovcharovo ,

1 46

V in itsa ,

1 47

i n t he v ic in i ty o f Devnya 1 49 u p t o d ate.

a nd P o lyan itsa 1 48 a nd Varna 1 50

1 44

Go lya mo Delchevo ,1 45

a nd t hose n ear t he p ile dwe l l ings

h ave b een e n t ire ly o r ' p art ia l ly s tud ied

S ing le b ur ia ls h ave b een f ound a t L ilyak ,

1 51

a nd K alna c aves ( near Vel iko Turnovo ) a nd e lsewhere.

i n t he Devetashka 1 52 They h ave b een d ated

t o t he M idd le Eneo l ith ic ( Po lyan itsa ) a nd t he L ate Eneo l ith ic ( t he r est ).

There

a re n o d a ta o nb ur ia l r i tes d ur ing t he L ate N eo l ith ic a nd t he Early Eneo l ith ic , a nd t h is p resen ts g rea t d if f icu lt ies i n s o lv ing t he p roble m o f whether t here w as ac on t inu ity ( or d iscon t inu ity ) i n b ur ial

c usto ms i n t he v ar ious p ar ts o f t he

c oun try . The q uan t itat ive a na lys is o f t he d ata f ro m t he i nvest iga ted n ecropo l ises h as y ie lded s ome i n terest ing i n for mat ion . A c o mpar ison b e tween t he f uneral o f fer ings i n t he n ecropo l ises a t Go lya mo De lchevo , V in itsa a nd Devnya * ( Tab le 2 3 ) c onv inc ing ly d e monstra tes t he d ifere nces t ha t e x isted d ur ing t he L a te Eneo l ith ic b etween t he a rea o f t he K od jadermen-Gumeln iti a -Karanovo V I c u lture , t he B lack S ea c oast a nd t he h in terland. The a l most e qual n u mber o f f inds i n t he f i rst a nd t h ird c ases p o in ts t o a n a lmost i den t ica l e cono m ic l evel f or t he i n ter ior o f t he c oun try , w h ile t he w ea l th o f t he l i t tora l b ur ia ls , wh ich e xceeds t w ice t hat o f t he n ecropo l ises a t V in itsa a nd Go lya mo Delchevo t aken t ogether , i s a n i l lustrat ion o f t he r eg ion 's p rosp er ity .

The r at io o f 2 :1 i n f avour o f t he B lack S ea l i ttora l i s v ery s ign if ican t

a s i ts hows t he g ap i n t he e cono m ic p erfor mance b etween t he d if feren t p arts

* These t hree s ites a re b e ing d iscussed b ecause t hey h ave b een s tud ied i n t he ir e n t irety a nd much i n for mat ion h as b een p ub l ished o n t he m. t i ons were c arr ied o u t b y A . Radouncheva a nd H . Todorova.

7 4

T he e xcava-

o f t he E thnocu ltura l Area o f t he T hrac ian Eneo l ith ic.

Th is i s a lso c orroborated

b y t he n umber o f meta l f inds i n t he v ar ious k inds o fb ur ia l.

I n D evnya , me ta l

o b jects o ccur i n ma le , f e ma le ( on ly v ery f ew ) a nd c h ildren 's b ur ia ls a nd i n t he c eno taphs.

I n Go lya mo Delchevo , meta l o f fer ings o ccur o n ly i n ma le b ur ia ls ,

a nd i nV in itsa , i nb oth ma le a nd f e ma le b ur ials , b u t i n a n e xceed ing ly sma l l n umber.

The i n ference i s t ha t t he amoun t o f meta l i nb ur ia ls d rops t he f urther

t he r eg ion i s r e moved f ro m t he c oast . An a nalysis o f t he mean n umber o f f i nds i n t he b ur ia ls o f men , women a nd c h ildren a nd i n t he c eno taphs w ou ld p inpo in t t he d i f feren t iat ion o f t he p opu lat ion b y a ge g roups ( Table 2 4 ). The h ighest n umber o f f i nds ( 3 4 p er c en t ) c omes f rom t he ma le b ur ia ls; t he o b jec ts f ound i n f e ma le b ur ia ls c onst itute 2 2 p er c en t ; t hose f ro m c h ildren 's g raves , 1 4 p er c en t ; a nd f rom t he c eno taphs, 3 0 p er c en t . The h igh f i gure f or t he c eno taphs , w h ich c omes c lose t o t hat o f t he male b ur ia ls , i s ac onv incing p roof t hat t hey w ere d ed icated t o men . And t h is i s o n ly l og ica l a s men w ere e xposed t o g reater d angers a nd h ad f requen t ly t o b e away f rom h o me , e ngaged a s t hey w ere i nh un t ing , t rad ing , e tc., a nd c ou ld n ot b e b ur ied i nt he t r iba l c o m mun ity c e metery w hen t hey d ied i n af ar-of f p lace. S o i ft he f inds f ro m ma le b ur ia ls a nd t he c enotaphs a re a dded u p , i tb ecomes a pparen t t hat 6 4 p er c en t o f a l l t he o f fer ings w ere made t o men. T h is i s e qua ll y t rue o f t he a rea o f t he K od jader men-Gumeln ita-Karanovo V I c u lture a nd t he B lack S ea c oast , a nd c o mes t o s uggest h ow impor t an t man 's r o le w as i n L ate Eneo l ith ic s ociety ( Table 2 5 ). I n c o mpar ison , women w ere i n ac ons iderab ly l ess f avoured p os it ion a nd i n t he n umber o f o f fer ings ( 2 2 p er c en t ) t hey c a me c loser t o c h ildren ( 1 4 p er c en t ) t han t o men. T h is w as a g enera l r u le a nd i s a pp l icab le t o a l l k inds o f o f fer ings f or men +c eno taphs , w o men a nd c h ildren r espect ive ly : t oo ls

- 6:2:1 .8

j ewe l lery

- 2 .8:0.7:1.5 ( i t t ransp ires f rom t h is t hat t he l east j ewel lery w as o f fered t o w omen )

o chre

- 1: 0.5 : 0

c opper o b jects

- 3 .2 : 1 : 0.3

v essels

- 2 4:8:4

The n u mber o f g if ts i n men 's g raves i s s o c on sp icuously h igh t ha t o n t he s treng th o f t h is i ti s q u ite p oss ible t o t e l l w ith a f a ir d egree o f a ccuracy i fa b ur ied c h ild h ad b een a b oy o r ag irl , w hen i t s s ex c annot b e d eter m ined i n a ny o ther w ay . I nvest iga t ions o f t he n ecropo l ises h ave s hown t hat o n ly p erfunctory a t tent i on w as p a id t o d eceased i n fan ts; t here i s n oth ing s urpr is ing i n t h is c ons ide r ing t he h igh morta il ity r a te among c h i ldren i nt hose r e mo te d ays.

Th is

a t t itude , h owever , h ad i t s s oc ia l mot ivat ions a s w el l , w h ich w e s ha l l g o i n to l a ter.

I n P o lyan itsa t he d ead c h i ldren w ere n o t i n terred , t he ir c orpses w ere

s i mp ly l a id o n t he g round.

Very o f ten t he ir s keletons a re i ncomp lete o r

d a maged , s o i ti s a ssumed t hat t h is k ind o f b ur ia l ma ter ia l h as b een l ost t o u s. The d istr ibu t ion o f b ur ia l o f fer ings f rom t he t hree n ecropo l ises b etween t he d if feren t s ex a nd a ge g roups i s b est s een o n Table 2 6. 7 5

I th as t een a ccep ted t ha t n urse l ings w ere b ur ied w ithout g if ts;

c h ildren

b etween 2 a nd 7 r ece ived a m in i ma l n umber o f o f fer ings , wh ich w as a lso v ery l ow i n t he c ase o f y oung u nmarr ied g ir ls ( aged 8 -15 ), w h ile f or b oys o f t he s a me a ge g roup i tr ose p ercept ib ly .

S o i t may b e a ssumed ( do t ted l ine o n

Table 2 6 ) t hat o f fer ings w ere a lso m in i ma l f or g irls u p t o t he a ge o f 7 , wh ile t hose f or sma l l b oys were g rea ter. I nt he c ase o f a du l t men a nd w omen ( ist a ge g roup b etween 1 6 a nd 4 0 ) t he n umber o f b ur ia l g if ts i ncreased p ara l lel w ith t he ir a ge. For men o f a dvanced a ge , w h ich w as o ver 4 0 d ur ing t he Eneol i th ic , t he n umber o f o f fer ings d ropped s harp ly , b u t f or w omen i tc on t inued t o r ise. T he d iagram p inpo in ts t he r o le o f e ach a ge g roup i n t he e cono m ic l i fe o f t he t r iba l c om mun ity a nd i t s p lace i n t he s oc ia l s tructure, g iv ing a n i dea o f h ow t he e n t ire s oc ia l o rgan is m f unct ioned. I ta lso s hows t he p rom inen t p os it ion w h ich man h eld f ro m c h ildhood t o mat ur ity , a s w el l a s t he s ubord ina te r o le o f w omen , w ho w ere a ss igned a p lace i n t he s oc ia l h ierarchy o n ly a fter t hey h ad b ecome mothers. T he i n ference h ere i s t hat t he r o le o f women w as l im ited t o t he h ome a nd f am ily . T he d iagra m c onv inc ing ly p roves t he a bsence o f a ma tr iarcha l o rgan izat ion o f s oc iety i n Eneo l ith ic Bu lgar ia , a s w el l a s t he l ead ing r o le w h ich man p layed i n t he e conomy o f t he t r iba l c o m mun ity. The d iagra m a s aw ho le r evea ls h ow t he s oc ia l s ign if icance o f man w as a ssessed . I fw e a ssume t ha t a n i nd iv idua l 's i mpor tance i n s oc iety w as r ef l ected b y t he n umber o fb ur ia l g if ts , w e s ha l l s ee t hat i tw as o ne's p ersona l c ont r ibu t ion t o t he g enerat ion o f ma ter ia l w ea l th t hat e n t it led o ne t o f unera l o ffer ings, a nd t hat t he ir n umber r ose i n p roport ion t o t h is c on tr ibu t ion .

Th is

a lso h elps t o e xp la in w hy t here o ccur b ur ia ls w ithou t g rave g oor 's i n a l l a ge g roups. O f s pec ia l i n terest h ere i s t he s tatus o f p eop le o f a dvanced a ge.

The r o le

a nd impor tance o f wo men d id n o t d im in ish b u t , t hough more s low ly , w ere e ven e nhanced , w h ile men s oon l ost t he ir p os it ion , o bv iously p ushed t o t he b ackg round by t he y ounger g enera t ion . T h is c omes t o s uggest t hat s oc iety h ad p res erved a d egree o f matr iarchal r espect f or o lder w omen w ho c ou ld b e u se fu l a round t he h ouse , whereas o lder men c ou ld n o l onger t ake f u l l p art i n ' ma le ' o ccupat ions s uch a s h un t ing , c at t le-breed ing , l ong e xped it ions e tc., a nd c onsequen t ly l ost t he ir p rest ige i n s oc iety. And s o t he a na lys is o f t he d ata f rom Eneo l ith ic n ecropo l ises s hows : 1 .

t he a bsence o f a ma tr iarcha l o rgan izat ion o f s oc iety ;

2 .

t he i mpor tan t e conom ic a nd s oc ia l r o le o f men , w h ich r o le f or t he i n ter ior o f t he c oun try i s n o t s upported b y e v idence f or a p art iarcha l o rgan iza t ion o f s oc ia l r ela t ion s;

3 .

s urv iva ls o f ma tr iarcha l t rad it ions, w h ich may b e d educed f rom t he h igh e stee m i n w h ich o lder w omen w ere h eld ;

4 .

t he s oc ia l s ign if icance o f man w as a t i t s h ighest i n h is ma ture a nd , t herefore, most p roduct ive a ge ( 1 7-30 ) , a nd h is p rest ige w as n ot r oo ted i n t rad it ion , b u t w as d ue t o h is e f fect ive p art ic ipat ion i n t he g enerat ion o f mater ia l w ea l th ; 7 6

5 .

h is p os it ion i n s oc iety w as n o t d icta ted b y ap art iarcha l o rgan izat ion o f s oc ia l r elat ions , b u t b y o b ject ive c ond it ions;

6 .

t hese i n ferences h ave n o b ear ing o n t he p roble m o f t he l ocal p art icu lar it i es o f f am i ly a nd mar ita l r e lat ions , w h ich w il l b e d iscussed l a ter;

7 .

c h ildren b egan w ork ing q u ite e arly ( a t t he a ge o f 6 -7 );

t hat a ge w as

t he d iv id ing l ine b etween t he a b lebod ied p opu lat ion a nd t hat s ect ion o f i tw h ich w as n ot y et f i t t o w ork . T hese c onclus ions h ave b een r eached o n t he b as is o f a va ilable a rchaeo log ica l mater ia l f rom t he n ecropo l ises a nd a re v al id , a bove a l l , f or t he c oun try 's i nt er ior where t here i s n o q ua l itat ive d i f ference i n t he g rave g oods b es ides t he g radat ion i n q uan t ity d escr ibed a bove.

T h is s peaks o f n o o ther d i f feren t iat ion

among t he p opu lat ion b ut t hat a ccord ing t o a ge a nd s ex. H owever , s o me o f t he b ur ials i n t he Varna n ecropo l is 1 53 o n t he B lack S ea l i ttora l c annot b e f i tted w ith in t he l im its s et b y t he mean f i gures s o f ar a nalysed. T hey p o in t t o ac ons iderable s oc ial , s ex a nd a ge d if feren t iat ion . I n t h is a rea t here e x isted a p r iv i leged s tratum made u p o f men o n ly i n w hose g raves many a nd v a luab le o b jects w ere p laced—copper t oo ls a nd w eapons , g o ld a nd S pondy lus j ewel lery , e tc. T hese b ur ials a t test t o p ro found c hanges i n t he s oc ia l s tructure o f t he l oca l t r iba l c om mun it ies a nd t he f or ma t ion o f as t ratum i n w hose h ands g rea t w eal th a nd p robably p ower w ere c oncen trated. I ti s t o b e r egretted t hat t he e xcava t ion o f t h is i n terest ing a rchaeo log ica l s i te h as n o t y et b een c oncluded s o , i n t he a bsence o f t he n ecessary f i gures, i t i s i mposs ible t o p resen t h ere a s im ilar ly f u l l a na lysis.

From o ur p resen t

k now ledge o f t he Varna a nd Devnya n ecropo l ises i t may b e i n ferred t hat t he s oc ial d i f feren t iat ion among men w as c ons iderably more r . 7 ) nounced h ere t han i n t he i n ter ior o f t he c oun try.

As ide f rom t he a bove- men t ioned sma l l g roup

o fb ur ia ls i n w h ich t he f unera l o f fer ings w ere g reat ly i n e xcess o f w ha t t he d eceased m igh t h ave b een s upposed t o s tand i n n eed o f a nd , i n s ome c eno taphs amoun ted t o a ctua l t reasures, t here w as a s econd a nd l ower r ung i n t he s oc ia l l adder , a lso a ccorded r ich b ur ials ( grave 1 8 , Devnya ), 154 t he g i f ts i n wh ich , h owever , w ere n o t i n e xcess o f t he d eceased 's n eeds. Th is w as n o t an umero us g roup e i ther, b u t w as o bv iously more p r iv ileged t han t he r est o f t he p opu lat i on , w hose b ur ia ls h ard ly d if fered f rom t hose o f t he i nhab itan ts o f t he o rd inary t r iba l c om mun ity s et t le ment s t hroughou t t he c ount ry. The o n ly d i f ference i s t hat e le ment s o f i nc ip ien t p atr iarchal r e lat ions may c learly b e s een i n t he c oasta l c o mmun it ies. I fw e s hou ld c ompare t he i nvest iga ted n ecropo l ises i n t he E thnocu l tural Area o f t he Thrac ian Eneo l ith ic, i tw i l l b ecome e v iden t t hat t he a rea 's t rad it i ona l s oc ial s tructure a s r ef lected i n t he b ur ia ls , r e ma ined i n tact i n s p ite o f t he p ro found c hanges a t t he c lose o f t he e poch b rough t a bou t b y t he meta l b oom a nd t he r ap id e conom ic a dvance. I tw as o n ly o n t he B lack S ea c oast t hat , b ecause o f t he more f avourab le c ond it ions , t he e conom ic f actors a cted w ith g rea ter f orce a nd l ed t o t he emergence o f q ual itat ively n ew e le ment s i n t he s oc ia l s tructure. T he i nfor mat ion o bta ined f rom t he n ecropo l ises i s a lso h elp fu l i n f o l lowi ng u p e thn ic p rocesses.

A longs ide t he a n thropo log ica l ma ter ia l wh ich s heds 7 7

l i gh t o n t he r ac ial t ype o f t he b ur ied ( see Chapter I V) , e thn ic i n for mat ion may a lso b e g leaned f rom t he p os it ion o f s ke letons i n t he g raves. Four p os it ions a re k nown f or t he S tone-Copper Age i n Bu lgar ia : I- c on tracted p os it ion o n t he l e ft s ide I -c on tracted p os it ion , c hest d own ( f ace d own ) I I -c on tracted p os it ion o n t he r igh t s ide I V -s tretched o u t o n t he b ack Table 2 8 s hows t hat t hese t ypes o f b ur ia l d o n o t o ccur i n ad i f feren t r at io f or men a nd women , a nd t hat t hey may b e g rouped t err itor ia l ly a s f o l lows : t ypes Ia nd I a re t o b e f ound i n t he i n ter ior o f N orth-eastern Bu lgar ia , a nd t ypes I I a nd I V, o n t he B lack S ea c oast. Excep t ions a re n o t r u led o ut . Th is t err itor ial d iv is ion a ccord ing t o t ypes o f b ur ia l s trong ly s uggests t ha t t here e x isted e thn ic d if ferences b etween t he B lack S ea l i t toral a nd t he c oun try 's i nt er ior , d i f ferences t hat w ere d iscussed i n C hap ter V a nd V I a nd t hat may d ist inct ly b e f o l lowed u p i n t he a rchaeo log ica l a nd a n thropo log ica l ma ter ia l . I n t he i n ter ior , t he r at io i n p ercen tage b etween t he d i fferen t t ypes o f b uria l i s a s f o l lows : men

w omen

c h ildren

o n t he l e f t s ide

2 1%

2 5%

c on tracted p os it ion o n t he l e f t s ide , c hest d own

2 7%

1 .5%

4%

-

1 .5%

_

c ont racted p os it ion

c on tracted p os it ion o n t he r igh t s ide

2 0%

The p icture o n t he B lack S ea c oast i s t he f o l low ing :

men s tretched o ut o n t he b ack

5 0%

w omen 8 .4%

c h ildren 1 6.6%

c on tracted p os it ion o n t he r igh t s ide

8 .4%

1 6.6%

c on tracted p os it ion o n t he l e f t s ide

The a bove d ata p o in t t o d i f ferences i n t he e thn ic c o mpos it ion o f t he p opu lat i on i n t he i n ter ior o f t he c oun try a nd o n t he B lack S ea c oast . What i s more , t he d a ta o n T ab le 2 8 may a lso b e u sed a s as ource o f i n for mat ion o n f am ily a nd mar ita l r elat ions, a s w e l l a s o n t he c on tacts b etween t he e thnocu l tura l a reas s te m m ing f ro m t hese r elat ions. They make i tp la in t ha t t he c on tracted p os it ion o n t he l e f t s ide w as t he p redom inan t t ype o fb ur ia l i n N orth-eastern Bu lgar ia. T he c ases o fb ur ial i n ac on tracted p os it ion o n t he r igh t s ide a re a n o bv ious i n f il trat ion f rom t he B lack S ea l i t tora l a nd a s t hey c oncern w o men , t he ir p resence s uggests t ha t 7 8

aw oman g iven i n marr iage , j o ined

h er h usband 's f am ily a nd t r ibe.

( I n o ur

i n terpretat ions w e p roceed f ro m t he a ssu mpt ion t hat e veryone w as b ur ied a cc ord ing t o t he r i tes o f t he t r ibe h e c a me f rom.) I ti s o n ly f or men f rom N orth-eastern Bu lgar ia t hat a c on tracted p os it ion o n t he l e ft s ide , c hest d own , o ccurs i n ah igh a nd s table p ercen tage. O bv iously , i ti s aq uest ion h ere o f me mbers o f o ne a nd t he s a me t r ibe , b u t p erhaps t he d eceased c a me f rom o ther t han l oca l f am il ies a nd s o w ere b ur ied w ith l ess s o l ic itude t han t he me mbers o f t he c om mun ity t o w h ich t he ' n ecropo l is b e longed. I fs o , w e a re f aced w ith a c ase o f the men j o in ing t he ir w ives' f am ily a nd t r ibe a f ter marr iage. W ith r egard t o t he B lack S ea c oast , h owever , a no ther r at io i s i n f orce. H ere t he p reva il ing f or m o fb ur ial f or men i s t o b e s tretched o u t o n t he ir b acks , wh ich i s a lso t rue i nt he c ase o f c h ildren .

D ivers ity o fb ur ia ls may b e o bserved

i n t he c ase o f women t oo , b u t t he c on tracted p os it ion o n t he r igh t s ide i s t he p redom inan t t ype.

Departures f rom t h is p a t tern may b e r egarded a s v ar ian ts

i n mar i ta l r elat ions , wh ile t he c on t rast b etween t he g roup o f s ke letons s tretched o u t o n t he ir b acks ( 5 8 p er c en t ) a nd t hose i n ac on tracted p os it ion may b e t aken a s e v idence f or t he m ixed e thn ic c o mposit ion o f t he l oca l p opu lat ion , a s w el l a s f or t he g row ing n u mber o f w omen j o in ing t he ir h usbands ' f am il ies a nd t r ibes a f ter marr iage i n t h is a rea. The s im i lar it ies a nd d ispar it ies b etween t he B lack S ea l i t toral a nd t he h in ter land may b est b e s een o n T able 2 6.

7 9

CHAPTER I X S P IR ITUAL CULTURE OF ENEOLITH IC MAN

Archaeo log ica l mater ia l , t he most i mpor tan t o f w h ich a re t he f i nds f rom t he n ecropo l ises , h as p ut o n r ecord t he v ersat i le a ch ieve men ts o f t he Eneo l it h ic p opu lat ion i n t he Bu lgar ian l ands i n t he s phere o f s p ir i tua l c u lture.

I t

t el ls t he s tory o f a n e labora te c u l t o f t he d ead a nd t he b el ief i n a f terl ife. T he n ecropo l ises a re t he o n ly s phere t he i n for ma t ion f ro m wh ich c omes t o u s d irect ly a nd n o t v ia t he works o f a rt. For a l l o ther c u ltural a ch ieve men ts w e d raw o ur i n for mat ion f rom t he a rtefacts w h ich h ave c ome d own t o u s. Preh istor ic a rt i s r ich i n i t s i deo log ica l , a esthet ic a nd c u ltura l c onten ts. I t s s tudy h as s hed l i gh t o n importan t a spects o f t he w or ld o ut look o f p reh ist or ic man .1 55 I tw as n o t a n a rt f or a rt 's s ake , b u t w as e n l isted i n t he s erv ice o f c u l ts , b e l iefs a nd mag ic p ract ices. Though i tw as i n tended f or c u lt p urposes , Eneo l ith ic a rt a lso m in istered t o t he a esthet ic r equ ire men ts o f t he p reh istor ic p opu lat ion i n or l ands , w ho o bv iously h ad a f ondness f or b eau t ifu l o b jects. I n t he f ar m ing a nd c at t le-breed ing o rgan izat ion o f Eneo l ith ic e conomy , a f ore most p lace w as a l lot ted t o t he c u l t o f t he s un , t he moon a nd t he n a tura l e le ment s wh ich p layed a n i mportan t r o le i n t he s p ir itua l l i fe o f man . A c u lt s cene ,

1 56

w h ich w as u ncovered i n ab urn t h ouse a t t he O vcharovo s et t le men t

mound , a nd wh ich may b e i n terpreted a s a n Eneo l ith ic s hr ine , p rov ides e v id ence f or t he n ature o f t h is c u lt .

T he f ind c on s ist s o f t hree f l at c lay a l tars

s haped l ike t he p ed i men ted f acade o f ah ouse , f our c lay f e male i do ls w ith t he ir a r ms r a ised i n w orsh ip , t hree smal l l ow t ables w ith t hree s too ls e ach , t hree o blong d rums, t hree m in iature v essels w ith l i ds a nd t wo l arger d ishes.

A l l

o b jects w ere d ecorated w ith r ed m inera l d ye , a pp l ied o ver a k ao l in g round. T he s igns o f t he s un ( concen tr ic c irc les w ith r ays ), t he moon ( concen tr ic c ircles w ithou t r ays ) , o f p lan ts ( t r iang les ) , s p irals a nd a l i gh tn ing f l ash o r s nake ( Pl . V I I I , 2 -5 ) w ere p icked o u t o n t he a l tars w ith t he s a me d ye. Fe male c lo th ing c ons ist ing o f al ong-sleeved s h ir t , ab od ice a nd s hort t rousers i s d iscern ible o n t he i do ls l ike a n o rna men t. The s cene i s d ated t o t he b eg inn ing o f t he L ate Eneo l ith ic , p hase Io f t he K od jader men-Gu melaqa-Karanovo V I c u lture o n Bu lgar ian t err itory . I t s d iscovery h as made i tp oss ible t o e stabl ish t he e x istence o f a n e laborate c u lt o f t he s un , t he moon a nd t he n atura l e lemen ts. a l tars h ad b een d ed icated.

I tw as t o t hem t ha t t he t hree

T hus t he g reater p art o f t he s cu lpted Eneo l ith ic

i do ls, r egarded s o f ar a s i mages o f v ar ious d e it ies s uch a s t he Great Mo ther , t he d e it ies o f f ert il ity a nd s o o n , w ere g iven a c orrect i n terpretat ion .

I t

t urned o u t t hat t he s tand ing a nd h a l f-seated f e ma le c lay i do ls w ith t he ir a r ms

8 0

r a ised i n w orsh ip , w ere i n a c tua l f act i n ter med iar ies ( supp l iants , p r iestesses , e tc.) 15 7 b etween t he d e it ies i n t he s un 's p an theon a nd man . There a ppears t o h ave e x isted a n o t i ncons iderable h ierarchy a t t he v ar ious l eve ls o f p reh is tor ic c u l ts.

T h is p at tern o f Eneo l ith ic b el ie fs i s a lso r ef lected i n p reh istor ic a rt ,

d eter m in ing a s i td oes i t s s ub jec t- mat ter a nd means o f e xpress ion . T he p r inc ipal i conograph ic t ypes o f t he s cu lp ted i do ls —seated ( Pl. X IV, 5 ) , h al f-seated , s tand ing ( P l. X I I , 6 ; P l . X IV, 3 , 4 ; P l. XV, 3 ) , c y l indr ica l , b usts o f i do ls ( P l. XV, 1 , 2 ) , i do ls-symbo ls ( P l . XV, 4 ), a n thropo morph ic v essels ( Pl. XV, 6 ) , a nd s cu lpted z oo morph ic f i gures ( P l. X IV, 1 , 2 , 6 ; P l. XV, 5 )—appeared i n ar ud i men tary f or m a s e ar ly a s t he N eo l ith ic a nd w ere e xecu ted i nt he c haracter ist ic s chemat ic s ty le w h ich , h owever , c hanged n o t icea bly b efore c opper w as u shered i n . Dur ing t he L a te N eo l ith ic t he s hape a nd t ypes o f s cu lpted i do ls a nd , c onseq uen t ly , t he i deas t hey c onveyed w ere much e nr iched. T h is was e xpressed i n ' human iz ing ' t he f i gurines. T he s tand ing c lay i do ls w ere s cu lpted w ith g rea ter a t ten t ion t o d eta il. The h ead n o l onger merged w ith t he t orso a nd w as g iven a r ound o r o va l s hape. The f ace w as model led f rom t wo f l at s urfaces a t a n a ng le a nd a t t he s a me t ime d e l inea t ing t he n ose, e yebrows , e ars a nd c heeks. T he e yes a re e ither h in ted a t l ike e l l ipses i n r el ief o r a re a l together m issing. Regard less o f whether t he f i gur ines h ave e yes o r n o t , t hey s ee m t o h ave t he p ower o f s ight.

Most o f t he m h ave h a ir-sty les a nd t he ma le i do ls

( wh ich n ow make t he ir a ppearance f or t he f i rst t ime ) h ave b eards a s w e l l. The d if feren t w ay o f model l ing t he f aces t ends t o l end t he m d i f feren t e xpressions. More o f ten t han n ot , t he ir e yes a re r a ised u p t o t he s un . The b ody i s w el l mou lded a nd s hapely . There o ccur f i gures o f p regnan t w o men , b u t n ot e xagg era ted ly s o. I n c on trast t o e arl ier f i gures , t he b od ies a re n ow c overed w ith i nc ised o rna men ts s uggest ing a c ostume.

T h is f urther e nhances t he d ecora-

t ive efec t o f t he f i gur ines. Imbued w ith much d yna m is m , t he i do ls , a l though s ta t ic i np ose , l ook a n i mated. Th is k nack o f b reath ing l i fe i n to i nert mat ter was o ne o f t he r e markab le a ch ieve ments o f p reh istor ic s cu lpture a t t ha t s tage. The f l ower ing o f t he a rt o f s cu lpted i do ls , w h ich b egan i n t he L ate N eo l it h ic , c on t inued d ur ing t he Eneo l ith ic a s w el l t o r each a p eak i n p reh istor ic a rt ist ic c rea t iv ity n ot o n ly i n Bu lgar ia , b u t a lso t hroughou t t he w ho le o f S ou the astern Europe.

S evera l i conograph ic t ypes o f f aces a nd f i gures w ere e vo lved

d ur ing t he Eneo l ith ic. The most f requen t ly o ccurr ing i s t he s che mat ica l ly r endered t hree-edged o va l h ead p inched i n f ron t t o f or m t he n ose a nd e ars. The e ars a re p ierced f or e arr ings. The u pper p art o f t he b ody i s g iven a f la t model l ing , a sma l l b oso m a nd a n o u tgrow th o n e ach s ide i nstead o f a r ms w ith h o les i n t he m s o t hat t hey may b e s uspended i n a n a tt itude o f worsh ip. T he l ower p art o f t he b ody i s c arefu l ly s haped , t he p roport ions a re o n ly s l igh t ly e xaggera ted , a nd t he h ips a re , a s ar u le , s trongly emphas ized. a re e i ther s tra igh t o r s l igh t ly b en t a t t he k nees.

T he l egs

The b ody i s c overed w ith a n

i nc ised o rna men t , w h ich i s i nvar iably r epeated o n a l l f igur ines, s uggest ing a c ostume r ich ly d ecora ted w ith s p ira l meander mo t ifs. T he s cu lpted i do ls o f t he Ear ly Eneo l ith ic make a n impress ion w ith t he ir d ecorat ion r ather t han w ith t he ir s tereotype f or ms, w h ich v ary o n ly t o t he d egree o f t he s cu lptor 's s k il l.

T he p red i lect ion f or l av ish d ecorat ion w h ich c harac ter ized t he Early

Eneo l ith ic

w as l a ter a bandoned a nd more a ustere f or ms w ere a dopted.

8 1

I nt he s ty le o f t he L ate Eneo l ith ic i tw as t he f or m w h ich t ook p recedence o ver t he o rna men t . Th is a esthet ic p r inc iple i s a lso a pp l icab le t o t he s cu lpted i do ls , i n wh ich a v ar iety o f f or ms a t t he e xpense o f d ecorat ion i s t o b e o bserved. Wi th t he a dvance o f c u l ture d ur ing t h is p er iod , more a nd more s cu lpted i do ls b egan t o b e made , b u t n o t s eated o nes.

T h is s uggests t hat i do ls , f rom a f a-

m ily p ossess ion i n t he p rev ious p er iods, h ad n ow b ecome p r iva te , h ence t he ir e nhanced p roduct ion . The most a nc ien t p art o f t he b el ie fs o f Eneo l ith ic man i s a ssoc iated w ith t he s eated c lay f igur ines, whose i conography p recludes a ny l i nk w ith t he c u lt o f t he s un . The a r ms o f t hese i do ls a re n ot r a ised i n a n a t t itude o f w orsh ip , n or a re t he ir f aces t urned t owards t he s un ; c on te mp lat ion o f t he w orld .

t hey a re a bsorbed i n as erene

T hese f igur ines a re most o ften i mages o f e lderly

w omen- mothers. Th is i s n o t t o b e s een i n t he ir o vers i mp l if ied f aces , b u t i s emphas ized e ither b y t he ir e xaggerated s teatopygous f or ms o r , q u ite n atura li st ica l ly , b y t he f labb iness o f t he a g ing b ody .

T he a rms a re c arefu l ly model-

l ed , t hey a re e i ther f o lded a t t he w a ist o r o ne o f t he m i s p laced a t t he w a ist a nd t he o ther s upports t he t h igh. The a dvanced a ge a nd s erene p ose s uggest t ha t i n a l l p robab il ity t he s eated f igur ines p ortrayed t he d e if ied f orbear o f t he t r iba l c o mmun ity . T he l im ited n umber o f t hese s tatuet tes ( no t more t han 1p er c en t o f t he t o ta l ) , t he ir l arge p roport ions a nd masterfu l e xecut ion p o in t t o ac u l t o f p r i mary i mpor tance t o t he who le t r iba l c om mun ity . T hough t rad it iona l b y t he c lose o f t he Eneo l ith ic , i tw as n o t o f a mass c haracter. On ly i n N orth-eastern Bu lgar ia d id t h is c u l t b ecome w idespread. S evera l r e markable s cu lp ted i do ls d ated t o t he i n it ia l p hases o f t he L ate Eneo l ith ic h ave b een f ound. o rna men ts.

They a re d ecorated w ith p a in ted , a nd n o t i nc ised ,

I nt he s ubsequen t p hases o f t he L a te Eneo l ith ic b o th t he p a inted a nd t he i nc ised o rna men ts g radual ly d isappeared f rom t he f i gur ines. T he i do ls , e ither s tand ing o r h a lf-seated , w ere s cu lpted i n t he n ude w ith h ard ly a ny e xa ggera t ion , t he ir b ody s hape b e ing v ery l i t t le r e moved f rom r eal ity. T h is l ine o f a rt ist ic d evelop men t r esu l ted i n t he c reat ion o f r e markab le w orks o f p reh istor ic a rt .

Bu t i tw as n o t t he o n ly o ne t o b e f o l lowed.

r eached a p eak .

There a re f i gur ines w h ich h ave o n ly t hose p arts o f t he

wo man 's b ody model led t hat c onvey t he i dea o f f ert il ity .

S ymbo l is m a lso

Thus t here a ppeared

h ead less f i gures w ith a n e nor mous b el ly f or t he ir l ower p art .

Among t he

h igh ly s ty l ized works o f a rt a re t he f l at b one i do ls worn a round t he n eck l ike amu lets, t he marble s tatuet tes a nd t he g o ld a n thropo morph ic o b jects. The s o-cal led c y l indr ical i do ls o r v ot ive f i gur ines o f p regnan t w omen a re c rudely model led ;

t hey must h ave b een u sed i n mag ic p ract ices.

T he b usts

o f i do ls a re p robab ly f i gures o f men . T hey c ou ld v ery p oss ibly h ave b een t he p erson if ica t ion o f t he s p ir it o f s ome r enowned a ncestor , whose v irtues t he owner w ished t o p ossess. An thropo morph ic v essels , w h ich a re i n ac lass w ith t he s cu lpted i do ls a re o f s evera l k inds : I .

Mass ive i do l-vessels , 1 5-18 cm t al l , model led i n t he o u t l ines o f a

8 2

p lump y oung wo man ( Pl . XV, 6 ) .

T he mask-l ike f ace r ests o n t he

c hest w ithou t a n i n terven ing n eck . i s o n t he t op o f t he h ead.

T he o pen ing f or p ouring i n l i qu ids

Among t hese v essels a re s ome amaz ing

w orks o f a rt , i n w h ich a s tr ik ing a r t ist ic e f fect h as b een a ch ieved w i th g reat e conomy o f means. 2 .

There i s al arge n umber o f h o l low i do ls w ith r ound s cu lpted h eads a nd n o n ecks , w hose w ide o pen mou ths w ere u sed f or p our ing i n l i qu ids.

3 .

O rd inary v essels w ith s uggested a n thropomorph ic e lemen ts; i n terest ing among t he m i s t he o ne f ound i n Hotn itsa.

t he most

An thropo morph ic v essels p robably h ad a r o le t o p lay i n p r im it ive mag ic , t he o b ject o f wh ich w as t o g uaran tee p rosper ity . By g rat ify ing t o t he f u l l h is l i tt le i do l , p reh istor ic man h oped t o e arn h is g oodw il l a nd h elp f or t he t r iba l c o mmun ity.

An thropo morph ic v essels w ere t he r epos itor ies o f ' mag ic ' f ood.

T he s cu lptor 's a t ten t ion w as c h ief ly f ocused o n t he p elv ic-fe mora l r eg ion o f t he b ody a nd , t o a much l esser e x ten t , o n t he f ace w h ich h ad n o e ssen t ia l r o le i n t hat a rt .

Th is w as d ue t o t he u ndeveloped s oc ia l r elat ions a nd t he i n-

d iv idual 's s ubord inate e cono m ic p os it ion i n t he t r ibal g roup.

I tw as t he l a tter

w h ich t hough t , a cted , p roduced a nd d istr ibuted t he g oods. Dur ing t he N eo l ith ic a nd i n t he e arly s tages o f t he Eneo l ith ic , t he i nd iv idua l d id n ot c oun t f or much. T h is f eature o f t he p r im it ive c o mmun i ty s yste m i s b est i l lustrated i n a rt b y t he manner i n w h ich t he h ead w as t reated.

I tw as model led s che mat ica l ly , s o

much s o t ha t i tw as c ons idered n o l oss i fi tw ere l e f t o u t a ltogether.

Even i n

t hose c ases w hen t he s cu lptor h ad c learly made a n e f fort t o model t he f ace , h e n ever w en t f urther t han p resen t ing a g enera l ized t ype , t hough s o met i mes d ep icted i n al i vely a nd e xpress ive manner. T he s t rong t rad it iona l is m o f t he t r iba l c ommun it ies w as b roken w ith t he r ise o f me ta l lurgy.

A t t he e nd o f t he Eneo l ith ic , matr iarcha l t r iba l r elat ions

d isin tegra ted a nd t he i nd iv idua l b egan t o p lay a n e ver g reater p art i n c o mmun it y l i fe.

T h is w as a lso r ef lected i n t he s cu lp t ing o f i do ls.

Feeble a tte mpts

w ere made a t p ortray ing i nd iv idua l c haracter ist ics o r a t l end ing e xpress ion t o t he f aces. The f i rst e xa mp les o f t h is k ind h ave c ome d own t o u s f ro m t he L ate N eo l ith ic , w hen a d ist inct a n i mat ion w as i nheren t i n t he o therw ise a nonymous f aces o f t he f i gur ines. I n c on trast , a t t he c lose o f t he Eneol ith ic t he i nd iv idua li zat ion i s p urely e xterna l ;

w r ink les, g r i maces, a c rooked sm ile a re i nd icated ,

b u t n o t h ar mon ized w ith t he s t il l s trong ly s ty l ized f ace. I n v ery f ew c ases o n ly a t a len ted p reh istor ic s cu lptor h as b een s uccessfu l i nb reak ing t he f e t ters o f m il lenn ia-long t rad it ion a nd p ortray ing t he h uman f ace r ea l ist ical ly .

1 58

I n t he v ery l ast p hases o f t he L a te Eneo l ith ic , an ew t ype o f i do ls o f a r ather u nusua l s hape made t he ir a ppearance; w ith t he b el ie f i n s p ir its.

t hey s ee m t o h ave h ad a l ink

These a re t he s o-ca l led f l at i do ls i n w h ich t he

a n thropomorph ic f eatures a re o n ly h in ted a t .

F lat b od ies , n o n ecks, h eads

w ith h uge e yes : t hese a re t he c haracter ist ics o f t he f i gur ines , w h ich w ere e n t irely c overed w ith r ed o chre. O ver 9 0 p er c en t o f t he Eneo l ith ic i do ls a re r epresen tat ions o f wo men . Male f i gures w ere a r are o ccurrence i n t hat f e ma le r ea l m. Woman w as t he d om inan t s ub ject- mat ter i np reh istor ic a rt , a s s he p erson if ied f ert il ity.

8 3

For

a s l ong a s s oc iety r e ma ined a t s uch a l ow l eve l o f d evelopmen t t hat f ert i l ity— o f e arth , a n i ma ls a nd p eop le—was a ma tter o f l i fe a nd d eath , t he r o le o f wo man c ou ld n o tb u t b e p ree m inen t. S cu lpted i do ls a re t he ma ter ial e xpression o f t he f unda men ta l i deas a nd c oncepts o f t he world , a nd a lso o f t he a esthet ic p r inc ip les o f p reh istor ic man . What i s more , t hese p urely s p ir itua l c ategor ies f or mu lated a nd l ost m il lenn ia a go , b eco me more o r l ess c omprehens ible t o u s t hrough t he p owerfu l med ium o f a rt . F igura t ively s peak ing , i ti s t he o pen w indow w h ich a l lows u s t o g l i mpse i n to t he p syche o f Eneo l ith ic p eop le. The r epet it ion o f s pec if ic mo t ifs o n v essels , s cu lpted o b jects a nd a l tars s uggests t hat Eneol ith ic o rna men ts d id n o t o n ly h ave a d ecora t ive p urpose , b u t a lso c arr ied e xp l ic it i n for mat ion o f ar e l ig ious a nd mag ica l n ature w hose mean ing w as q u ite p la in t o p reh istor ic man . T he i dea c on ten t o f t he i nd iv idu a l o rna men ta l mot ifs i s l inked w ith t he c u lt o f t he s un a nd t he n atura l e lemen ts , i .e. w ith t he a nc ien t c os mogony .1 59

The o rna men ts w ere t he o n ly d escr ip t ive

w ay o f r ecord ing a nd p ass ing o nf ro m o ne g enerat ion t o a no ther r el ig ious i n forma t ion , w h ich p reh istor ic man h ad k nown a nd u sed s ince t he e nd o f t he L ate P a laeo li th ic . T hey r epresen ted , s o t o s peak , ac o mpend ium o f i deo log ica l c oncep ts .

T he c ons iderable n u mber o f t ab le ts w i th s igns a nd s igns o n v esse ls ,

u ncovered i n r ecen t y ears i nS ou th-eastern Europe , h as s hed a g rea t d ea l o f l i gh t o n t he p roble m g iv ing r ise t o l i ve ly d iscuss ions i n s c ien t if ic c ircles. N orth-western

1 60

lfpr ia i s a lso i ncluded i n t he t err itor ies w here s uch

t ab lets h ave b een f ound , a nd t he o bservat ions a dvanced h ere a re a c on s idera ble c on tr ibu t ion t o t he s o lu t ion o f t h is h o t ly d eba ted p rob le m. I ft he f acts a t o ur d isposa l a re s u m med u p , t he f o l low ing p icture emerges : T he i nc ised o rna men t w as e spec ia l ly p rom inen t d ur ing t he L ate N eo l ith ic i n t he K a laoyanovets , Vadastra , Hotn itsa , Oussoe I a nd V inCa B c u ltures , a nd d ur ing t he E arly Eneo l ith ic i n t he Mar itsa , S ava , P o lyan itsa , V idra , V in a C i a nd G radeshn itsa c u l tures. During t hese t wo p er iods , t hat i s t o s ay , a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he 5 th m i l lenn ium B .C. ,a s et o f c onstant ly r epea ted mot ifs w ith o bv ious ly a s pec if ic mean ing may b e o bserved . These mo t ifs i nvar iably r ecur i n e ach i nd iv idua l o rna men ta l c o mpos it ion o fb o th t he i nc ised a nd t he p a in ted l inear mo t i fs, a nd t hey a re : 1 .

t he s p ira l ,

2 .

t he s p ira l meander ( and i t s v ar ian ts —the s i mp le t he i n terconnected S -shaped mo t i f ) ,

3 .

S -shaped mot i f a nd

t he a ngu lar meander ( and i t s v ar ian ts—the s i mp le mo t if a nd t he i n terconnected

a ngu lar S -shaped

a ngu lar S -shaped mot if , t he Fshaped

mo t i f ) , 4 .

s ect ions o f t he a bove mot ifs,

5 .

h atched o r i nscr ibed t r iang les ,

6 . 7 .

ad o t i n t he c en tre o f t he c ompos it ion o r d o ts i n i t , t he c ruc ifor m ( or swast ika-l ike ) mot if ,

8 .

i nscr ibed c oncen tr ic c ircles,

9 .

l ozenges ( separate , i nscr ibed o r i n terconnected ) , a nd i nscr ibed r ectang les ,

1 0.

e l l ipses ( s ing le o r i nscr ibed ).

8 4

I n a dd it ion t o t hese mot ifs, t here i s av ar ie ty o f i nd iv idua l e le men ts w hose p urpose i s p urely d ecorat ive , f or w h ich r eason t hey a re n o t d iscussed h ere. A g enera l c haracter ist ic o f t he d ecorat ive s yste m o f t hat p er iod i s t he r hy th m ic al ly s y mmetr ic r epet it ion o f t he a bove mo t ifs w ith in t he l arger o rna men ta l c ompos it ions. H ere a c o mpar ison b etween t he a bove l i sted mot ifs a nd t he s igns o n t he a ltars i n t he c u lt s cene f rom O vcharovo i s r elevan t.

T he c oncen tr ic c ircles

o f t he c en tral a l tar w ith a d o t i n t he m idd le a nd r ays a l l r ound a re o bv iously s ymbo ls o f t he s un .

I den t ica l c ircles a ppear o n b o th s ides o f t he smal lest

a ltar a nd t hey may b e i n terpreted a s r epresen t ing t he moon. T r iang les wh ich a re t he s igns o f p lan ts , may b e s een o n t wo o f t he a l tars. On t he med iums ized a l tar t here i s a lso a s p ira l meander a nd , o n o ne o f t he sma l l d ishes , a s p ira l.

The s p iral may b e l i nked w ith t he c os mogony o f p reh istor ic p eop le ,

wh ile t he s p iral meander may h ave i t s e xp lanat ion i n t he ir i deas a bou t t he c hange o f s easons a nd t he c yc les i n a gr icu l ture a nd i n h uman l i fe. T he s im i lar ity b etween t he s igns i n t he c u l t s cene f rom O vcharovo a nd s ome o f t he p r inc ipa l o rna men ta l mot ifs u nquest ionably s hows t ha t t he l a t ter w ere i n tended t o c onvey a n i dea.

And a s t he p r inc ipa l o rna men ta l mot ifs

d escr ibed a bove a re c haracter ist ic o f t he l arge , S ou th-eastern European f am ily o f c u l tures wh ich u sed i nc ised p o t tery , t he e stabl ish men t o f t he ir i dea c on ten t a pp l ies w ith e qua l f orce t o t hese s ame c u ltures a s w e l l. An e xtens ive b icu ltural a rea may b e s ke tched a t t he ' end o f t he N eo l ith ic a nd i nt he e arly Eneo l ith ic i n t he n orth-western p art o f t he Ba lkan Pen insu la , w here t he e arl iest p ictogra ms i n Europe h ave c ome t o l i gh t. Ever s ince t he d iscovery o f t he T artar ia t ab lets , av ast amoun t o f s im ilar mater ia l h as b een t aken o u t o f t he museu m d epos i tor ies f or r e-eva lua t ion or excavated. A p art icu larly l arge n umber o f t ablets a nd b ot to ms o f v essels w ith s igns o n t hem h ave c ome f rom t he a rea o f t he Early Eneo l ith ic c u l ture o f G radeshn i tsa. 1 61 However, p ictogra ms h ave b een f ound h ere a nd t here a l l o ver t he E thnocu l tural Area o f t he Thrac ian Eneo l ith ic , t he b est k nown o f w h ich a re t he p ictogra ms o n t he c lay s ea l f rom K aranovo V I1 62 a nd t hose o n t he model o f ah ouse f ro m O vcharovo . T hese , h owever, b elong t o t he L ate Eneo l ith ic , w h ile t he p ictogra ms f ro m N orth-western Bu lgar ia a re d a ted t o t he Early Eneo l ith ic ( Tables 2 9 , 3 0 ). T he s o-ca l led monogra ms wh ich o ccur o n ly o n v essels f rom p hase Io f t he G radeshn itsa c u lture r epresen t a n i n terest ing t rans it ion f rom t he o rna men ta l mot ifs w ith a s pec if ic mean ing t o t he a ctua l p ictogra ms. T hey a re p arts o f o rnamen ta l c o mpos it ions a rranged i n metopes o n t he f ron t p art o f s torage j ars a nd c ircu mscr ibed b y s i mp le i nc ised l ines.

They i nclude p arts o f s ome

o f t he a bove l i sted a ngu lar mo t ifs a nd may b e i n terpreted a s s igns c onvey in g as pec if ic mean ing.

Bo th t he monogra ms a nd t he p ictogra ms are t o b e d is-

t i ngu ished f ro m t he o rna men ts i n t hat t hey d o n ot f or m u n in terrup ted , r hy th m ic a rrange men t , b u t a ppear s ing ly . On t he ir p art , t he monogra ms d i f fer f rom t he p ic togra ms i n t hat t hey a re a c o mponen t o f t he o rna men t o r, more p rec isely i t s c en tre , wh ile t he l at ter a re s el f-con ta ined p at terns. I n c ompar ing t he o rna men ta l mot i fs w ith a mean ing , t he monogra ms o n v esse ls a nd t he p ictogra ms o nt ab lets , we s ee t hat i n 2 4.5 p er c en t o f t he c ases 8 5

t he p ictogra ms h ave mot i fs b orrowed f rom t he o rna men ts , i n 2 0.5 p er c en t , mot i fs s im i lar t o t hose o f t he o rna men ts, a nd i n 5 5 p er c en t o f t he c ases t hey r epresen t s igns w h ich h ave n o c onnect ion w ith t he o rna men ts.

What i s more ,

i n t he p ictogra ms , a s w e l l a s i n t he i deogra ms , i ti s t he a ngu lar mo t ifs t hat a re most o f ten b orrowed. T herefore , p art o f t he i deas i nheren t i n t he o rnamen ts i s p assed o n t o t he i deogra ms a nd p ictogra ms.

T hey a re a s tep f orward

i nt he s yste m o f r ecord ing a nd c o m mun icat ing i n for ma t ion , s ince i t s v o lume i n t he m i s c ons iderably i ncreased ( by 5 5 p er c en t ). A r epet it ion , b u t n o t i n e xcess o f 5 -6 p er c en t , may b e e stabl ished i n c omp ar ing t hose s igns , w h ich a re n ot r elated t o t he mot ifs o f t he o rna men ts. Th is a nd a s im i lar ity o f u p t o 4 5 p er c en tb etween t he p ictogra ms a nd t he mot ifs o f t he o rna men ts i s a n e ssen t ia l e v idence t hat t hese a re i deogra ms wh ich c onvey s pec if ic mean ing a nd c oncep ts. I t wou ld b e s uperf luous t o p o in t o u t t ha t , a t t he p resen t s tage o f o ur k now ledge , i ti s i mposs ib le t o a scerta in t he ir mean ing. I tc ou ld o n ly b e c on jec tured t ha t t he s igns w ith a d ot i n t he m idd le a re p roba bly p roperty s igns ( i nd ica t ing t r ibal ownersh ip ) , w h ile t he r est impart i n for mat i on a bou t t he c u lt . Re levan t t o t he w idespread u se o f p ictogra ms b y t he Eneo l ith ic t r ibes o f t he Ba lkan P en insu la a re t he s oc ia l a nd e conom ic c ond it ions w h ich made t he ir a ppearance p oss ib le. They may b e e xp la ined b y t he u nquest ionably h igh l evel o f d evelopmen t o f t he Eneo l ith ic c u ltures i n t h is p ar t o f t he w orld , a t ta ined a s ar esu lt o f t he e arly e xp lo ita t ion o f c opper o re d epos its a nd t he f ar-reach ing s oc ia l a nd e conom ic e ffects o f t h is w as d iscussed i n t he p rev ioui c hapters.

8 6

CONC LUS ION

T he Eneo l ith ic i n t he Bu lgar ian l ands w as a t ime o f v igorous g row th o f t he p roduct ive f orces f o l low ing a m il lenn ia long p er iod o f s tep-by-step a ccumu lat ion o f k now ledge a nd s k i l ls t hat i n troduced a s er ies o f q ua l itat ively n ew f eatures i n t he e conom ic a nd s oc ia l o rgan izat ion o f t he t r iba l c om mun it ies. Many c u l tura l v a lues a nd t echno log ica l a ch ieve men ts w h ich l i e a t t he b as is o f c iv il izat ion t oday , w ere c reated d ur ing t hat r e markab le e poch. O re m in ing a nd meta l lurgy w ere d eveloped p u t t ing t o u se t he most p rogress ive t echn iques o f t he t ime. Even i fi n a n e x tre me ly r ud i men tary f or m , t he p r inc ip les o f p lann ing a nd b u i ld ing f ort if ied t owns w as c once ived t hen.

T rade

d eveloped a nd g rew . P ictograph ic s igns w ere i nven ted. The c u l t o f t he s un , t he moon a nd t he n atura l e le men ts , af orerunner o f t he l a ter s o lar c u lts o f t he a nc ien t w or ld , o r ig ina ted i n t hose r e mo te d ays. I tw as d ur ing t he Eneo l ith ic t hat t he e conomy o f t he t r iba l c ommun it ies w h ich h ad t urned t o p lough f ar m ing , w as f or t he f i rst t ime i n t he p reh istory o f S ou th-eastern Europe i n ap os it ion t o p roduce s urp luses , w h ich w ere a n a bso lute p recond it ion f or t he a ppearance o f t he c raf ts. I n t he more a dvanced p arts o f t he E thnocu ltura l Area o f t he Thrac ian Eneo l ith ic , ad if feren t iat ion among t he p opu lat ion a ccord ing t o p roperty s tatus h ad b egun a nd t he e arl iest s igns o f t he f or mat ion o f t he i nst itu t ion o f c h ief ta ins a ppeared. I n c ompar ison w ith t he t rad it iona l N eo l ith ic s oc ia l s tructures , t hese c hanges w ere most p rogress ive. T hey l ent a s tr ik ing s oc io-econom ic c hara cter t o t he Eneo l ith ic c u l tures i n t he Bu lgar ian l ands , w h ich b e ing among t he most a dvanced a reas o f t he a nc ien t w orld , w ere a lready a t t he t hresho ld o f c iv i l izat ion . T he r e markable a ch ieve ments o f t hese f l our ish ing Eneo l ith ic c u l tures a re w i thou t d oubt a c on tr ibu t ion t o h uman c iv il izat ion .

8 7

ABBREV IATIONS FOR THE REFERENCES AND B IBL IOGRAPHY

I A I

B u l le t in o f t he Archaeo log ica l I ns t i tu te

S A

S ov ie t Archaeo logy

RP KS IA

E xcava t ions a nd R esearch B r ie f N ews o f t he I ns t i tu te o f Archaeo logy w i th t he A cade my o f S c iences o f t he USSR

B ID

Bu lgar ian H is tor ica l S oc ie ty

I B ID

B u l le t in o f t he B u lgar ian H is tor ica l S oc ie ty

I BA I

B u l le t in o f t he B u lgar ian Archaeo log ica l I ns t i tu te

I GD

B u l le t in o f t he B u lgar ian G eograph ica l S oc ie ty

I VAD GN M

Bu l le t in o f t he Varna A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty Yearbook o f t he N a t iona l Museum

GN M P lovd iv

Y earbook o f t he N a t iona l Museum i n P lovd iv

PN

N a ture a nd S c ience

GMPO

Yearbook o f t he Museu ms i n

I MB

Bu l le t in o f t he Museu ms i n Bu lgaria

PSp

P er iodica l J ourna l

MPK

Museu ms a nd Monumen ts o f C u l ture

P lovd iv D is tr ic t

I N M Varna

Bu l le t in o f t he N a t iona l Museum i n V arna

M IA

Ma ter ia l a nd R esearch i n Archaeo logy

GPNB M

Yearbook o f t he P lovd iv N a t iona l L ibrary a nd Museum

G SUIFF

Y earbook o f t he S of ia U n ivers i ty , D epar t men t o f H is tory a nd

KS I MK

B r ie f N ews o f t he I ns t i tu te o n Ma ter ia l C u l ture

I P

H is tor ica l R ev iew

P h i lo logy

AA

Archäo log ischer Anze iger

AAH

A c ta Archaeo log ica Hungar icae

ABSA

The Annua l o f t he B r i t ish S choo la tA thens

AM

M i t te i lungen d es D eu tschen Archäolog ischen I ns t i tu ts

AJA

Amer ican J ourna l o f Archaeo logy

ASPR

Amer ican S choo l o f P reh is tor ic R esearch

AR

Archeo log icke r ozh ledy

BCH

B u l le tin d e C orrespondence H e l len is t ique

BRGK

B er ich t d er R öm isch-Ger man ischen K om iss ion

JRGZ M

J ahrbuch d es R öm isch-Ger man ischen Museu m - Ma inz

JPEK

J ahrbuch f ür p räh is tor ische u nd e thnograph ische Kuns t

MAGW

M i t te i lungen d er An thropolog ischen G ese l ls cha f t - Wien

PBF

P räh is tor ische B ronze funde

PZ

P räh is tor ische Z e i tschr i f t

RA

R evue a rcheo log ique

S CIV

S tud i i s i c ercer tär i d e i s tor ie v eche

S TA

S lovenskä a rheo log ia

U ISPP

Un ion I n terna t iona le d es s ciences p reh is tor iques e t p rotoh is tor iques

WPZ

Wiener p räh is tor ische Z e i tschr i f t

Z fA

Z e i tschr i f t f ür Archäo log ie 8 8

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Arheo log iya XVI , v o l . 4 , 4 f f.

Razkopk ite n a s el ishtnata

mog ila p r i K aranovo.

Posledn ite a rheo log ichesk i r azkopk i v Bu lgar ia , S o f ia , 9 f f. 1 958 . 2 5.

Ku l tura n eo l i ta , e neo li ta ib ronz i v . B u lgar ia , S A 1 , 4 7-50

Georg iev , G ., 1 962.

Az mashkata s el ishtna mog ila k ra i S tara Z agora ,

Arheo log iya , I V-1, 5 9-65. 2 6.

Unpubl ished.

Iowe Mr. M. D im itrov a d ebt o f g ra t itude f or t he

o pportun ity t o s ee t he f inds. 2 7.

R adouncheva ,A., 1 976.

V in itsa-eneo l itno s e l ishte in ekropo l.

S o f ia ,

RP V I. 2 8.

Todorova , H ., 1 976a.

2 9.

Todorova , H ., I vanov , S ., Vass ilev , V ., Hop f , M., Qu it ta , H . a nd K oh l , G ., 1 975.

Ovcharovo .

S o f ia.

S el ishtnata mog ila p r i Go lya mo De lchevo .

Razkopk i i

p rouchvan iya V .S o f ia. 3 0.

Todorova , H ., 1 975a. p lanove.

3 1.

O t p urv ite z h il ish ta d o n a i-rann ite o urban ist ichn i

Arh itek toura 5 , 3 3f f.

Georg iev , Ga nd Ange lov , N ., 1 952.

Razkopk i n a s el ishtnata mog ila d o

Roussd p rez 1 948-1949 , I AI XVI I I , 1 19-195. 1 957.

Razkopk i n a s e l ish tnata mog ila d o Rousse p rez 1 950-1953, L AI

XX I , 4 1-129.

9 0

3 2.

Angelov , N ., 1 958. c hest n a a kad.

S el ishtna mog ila p r i s . Ho tn itsa.

I zsledvan iya v

Dechev p o s loucha i 8 0-god ishn inata mou .

S of ia , 3 89-

4 03. 1 959. 1 961.

Z latnoto s uk rov ishte o t Ho tn itsa.

Ho tn itsa , Turnovsko. 3 3.

Arheo log iya I , 1 -2 , 3 8-46.

Rabo t i ln itsa z a p losk i k osten i i do l i vs el ish tnata mog i la p r i s .

Es in , U ., 1 976.

Arheo log iya 1 1-2, 3 4-38.

D ie An fNnge d er Meta l lverwendung u nd B earbe itung

i n Anato l ien ( 7500-2000 v . Chr.) Co l loque XX I I I , D (e Congres U 1SPPN ice 1 976 , 2 09-245. 3 4.

Todorova , H ., 1 973a.

O rnoto z e medel ie-osnova n a e neo l itna ta r evo ly-

u ts iya.

Arh iv n a s e lskostopansk iya mouze i , I , 1 7-27.

1 975b.

N a i-rann i d ann i z a o upo trebata n a meta l i v Bu lgar ia.

S born ik

d ok lad i o t p urv iya s i mpos iou m p o i stor iya n a m inno to d elo v Yugoi ztochna Evropa. 3 5.

Varna , 5 -13.

Chern ikh , E . N ., 1 975. d o n .e. n a Ba lkanah.

A i-bunarsk i i medn i i r udn ik I V t i syach let ie

S A, 1 32-152.

3 6.

Todorova , H ., 1 973a.

( See N o. 3 4 )

3 7.

Ghet ie , Ba nd Mateescu , N ., 1 974.

L e mou ton d e d eo l ith ique moyen

d e Vadastra ( Rou man ie ) , L 'An thropo log ie , 7 8 , 5 -16. 3 8.

Todorova , H ., I vanov , S ., e tc., 1 975.

3 9.

Chern ikh , E . N ., 1 972.

4 0.

Chern ikh , E . N ., 1 976b.

( See N o. 2 9.)

Metal l-chelovek-vre mya.

Moscow .

N a p oroge n esostoyavshe isya t s iv i l iza ts i i.

P r iroda , 1 976 , 2 , 6 2-69. 4 1.

Todorova , H ., 1 973d.

D ie f r i ihesten Fort if ik at ionsyste me i n Bu lgar ien .

Z e itschr if t f ur Archeo log ie 7 , 2 29-238. 4 2.

Todorova , H ., 1 975a. p lanove.

4 3.

O t p urv ite z h il ishta d o n a i-rann ite o urban ist ichn i

Arh itek toura 5 , 3 3ff .

Todorova , H ., 1 976d .

Das Aneo l ith iku m a n d er w est l ichen S chwrz meer-

k uste , Varna S y mpos iu m I 1 976 ( i n t he p ress ). 4 4.

Georg iev , V a nd N iko lov , B ., 1 970. k o l itnata e poha v n ash ite z em i.

4 5.

S tepanov , V . P ., 1 976.

N achenk i n a p is menost p rez h a l-

Arheo log iya 3 , 1 -9.

P r irodnaya s reda in eko tor ie v opros i i stor i i

c he lovechestva v k o mp lek sno m r ass mo tren i i.

S ovetskaya a rheo log iya

3 , 2 99-302. 4 6.

Georg iev , G ., 1 976.

4 7.

Todorova , H ., 1 976b. e neo l ita.

4 8.

Comsa , E

Dok lad n a I k ongres n a B ID, X 1 976. Bu lgar ia iYugo iztochna Evropa p rez n eo l ita i

S born ik-I I k ongres n a B ID , i n t he p ress. 1 974b.

D ie En tw ick lung , P er iod is ierung u nd r elat ive

Chrono log ie d er J ungste inze it l ichen K u lturen Ru mNn iens

Z f .A. 8 , 1 -

4 4. 4 9.

S ubbot in , L . V ., 1 975. k u l tur i Gu me ln ita.

Bo lgradsk i i l okn .a ln i v ar ian t e neo l it ichesko i

Av toreferat d iserta ts i i , K iev. 9 1

5 0. 5 1.

I b id. Todorova , H ., 1 966.

S tand d er g ingste in ze i tforschung i n Bu lgar ien.

S lovenska a rheo log ia X IV-1, 1 5-48. 5 2.

Georg iev , G ., 1 962.

Az mashk ata s e l ish tna mog i la k ra i S tara Z agora.

Arheo log iya , I V-1, 5 9-65. 1 963.

G lavn i r ezou ltat i o t r azkopk ite n a Az mashkata s el ish tna mog ila

p rez 1 6 1.

I AI XXVI , 1 57-176.

5 3.

Unpub l ished. Iowe a d ebt o f g rat itude t o Mr. M. D im itrov f or t he o ppor tun i ty t o s ee t he f inds .

5 4.

N iko lov , B ., 1 973.

Dye p ra istor ichesk i z h il ishta o t Gradeshn itsa.

Arh itek toura 8 , 3 6-38. 1 974.

G rad ,eshn i tsa .

S o f ia .

Radouncheva , A ., 1 969.

P ra istor ichesk i mater ia l i o t r azkopk ite n a

P ern ishkata k repost p rez 1 960-1961. Todorova , H ., 1 968. b u lgar ien ).

B ID XXVI I , 2 13-232.

D ie v orgesch ich t l ichen Funde v on S adovec ( Nord-

J ahrbuch d es Röm ischger man ischen Z en tral museu ms.

Ma inz 1 5 , 1 5-63. 5 5.

K ovacheva , M . a nd V . N acheva-Ka lcheva , 1 975a .

Arheo magn i tn ie

i ss ledovan iya mnogos lo inoge p ose len iya Ovcharovo , S evernaya B o lgar iya , o tnosyashchegosya k o v re men i e neo l i ta .

G eo magne t iz m

ie rgono m iya , 5 . K ovacheva , M. a nd Velyov ich , D .,1977. Arheo magn i tn i i zsledvan iya n a p ra istor ichesk i o bek t i o t Bu lgar ia iYugoslav ia. Arheo log iya . I n t he p ress. 5 6.

Qu it ta , H ., a nd K oh l , G ., 1 975.

Mog ilata Go lya mo Delchevorad iovug le-

r odn i d a t i ia bso lyu tna h rono log iya , RP V , 3 25-331. 5 7.

Todorova , H , 1 976b. e neo l ita.

5 8.

S born ikI I k ongres n a B ID , i n t he p ress.

Va jsova , H ., ( Todorova ) , 1 963. o t K ir il- Metod ievo.

5 9.

Bu lgar ia iYugo iztochna Evropa p rez n eo l ita i

Poz it ivnayat o rna men t v-u rhou s udovete

Mouze i ip a me tn its i n a k ou l toura ta , 4 , 8 -15.

Radouncheva , A ., 1 976.

V in itsa-eneo l itno s e l ishte in ekropo l .

S o f ia ,

RP V I. 6 0.

Todorova , H ., 1 975a. p lanove.

O t p urv ite z h il ish ta d o n a irann ite o urban ist ichn i

Arh itek toura 5 , 3 3f f .

6 1.

Todorova , H ., 1 976a.

6 2.

Todorova , H ., I vanov S t ., e tc. ( See N o. 2 9 ).

6 3.

Georg iev , G ., 1 962, 1 963.

6 4.

Unpub l ished , e xcava t ions M. D im itrov .

6 5.

Radouncheva , A ., 1 976.

6 6.

T odorova , H ., I vanov , S ., e tc. ( See No . 2 9.)

6 7.

Todorova , H ., 1 975a. p lanove.

Ovcharovo.

S o f ia.

( See N o. 5 2.)

( See N o. 5 9.)

O t p urv ite z h il ish ta d o n a i-rann ite o urban ist ichn i

Arh itek toura 5 , 3 3f f . 9 2

6 8.

Todorova , H ., 1 976a.

6 9.

Radouncheva , A ., 1 976.

7 0.

Ovcharov , D ., 1 963.

Ovcharovo.

S of ia.

( See N o. 5 9 ), p p. 6 9-98.

Eneo l iten n ekropo l d o s . L ilyak , Turkov ishko.

Arheo log iya V-1, 5 3-56. 7 1.

Todorova , H ., I vanov , S ., e tc.

7 2.

Todorova , H ., 1 971a.

( See N o. 2 9.)

K usneoneo l itn iyat n ek ropo l k ra i g r. Devnya.

I NM Varna V I I , 3 -40. 7 3.

Georg iev , G ., 1 959a.

O tnosne d atouvaneto n a p urvob itn ite s el ishte p r i

Madara , K o larovgradsko . 7 4.

I AI XX I I I , 2 9-39.

Mikov , V ., D ja mbazov , N ., 1 960.

Deve tashkata p esh tera , S of ia.

( The

ma ter ia l p ubl ished u nder t he g enera l h ead ing o f Early Bronze Age i s o f d if feren t p er iods.) 7 5.

Unpubl ished r esearches o f De janova , M.

7 6.

Unpubl ished w orks.

7 7.

Unpubl ished works.

7 8.

Unpub l ished works.

7 9.

Todorova , H . a nd Toncheva , G ., 1 975. l ung b e i Ezero im Varnasee.

8 0.

I vanov , I . S ., 1 974.

D ie N neo l ith ische P fah lbausied-

Ger man ia 5 3 , 3 0-46.

Eneo l itn iyat n ekropo l p r i Varna.

MPK , v o l. 3 -4,

4 4-47. 1 975a.

Razkopk i n a Varnens id .ya e neo l iten n ekropo l p rez 1 972.

I NM

Varna X I ( XXVI ), 1 -18. 1 975b. 8 1.

Eneo l itn iyat n ekropo l p r i Varna.

Todorova , H ., 1 971a.

Vekove , 1 ;

1 06-111.

K isnoeneo l itn iyat n ek ropo l k ra i g r. Devnya.

I NM Varna V I I , 3 -40. 8 2.

N iko lov , B ., 1 974.

8 3.

P etkov , N ., 1 950c.

8 4.

Mikov , V ., 1 948a.

G radeshn itsa.

S o f ia.

S el ishtnata mog i la Oke l g lava.

I AI XVI I , 1 57-170.

P red istor icheskoto s el ishte d o K r ivodo l , Vrachansko ,

RP I , 2 6-62. 8 5.

Boev , p ., 1 972.

D ie Rassen typen d er Ba lkanha lb inse l u nd d er O stä-

g älschen I nse lwel t u nd d eren Bedeun tung f ür d ie H erkun f t i hrer Bevö lker ung , S o f ia. 8 6.

I b id., p p. 4 3-45.

8 7.

N iko lov , B ., 1 974.

G radeshn i tsa , S o f ia.

8 8.

V lassa , N ., 1 972.

C ea ma i v eche f aza a c o mp lexu lu i c u ltura l S tarcevo-

Cr isin Ro man ia , AMN , C lu j, I X , 7 -28 , F ig. 2 1, p p. 8 -9. 8 9. 9 0.

Boev , P ., 1 972 ( See N o . 8 5 ). N ekrasev , 0 . I . , Chr istescu , M., Max im il ian C . a nd D . N ico laescuP lop9or , 1 959a.

S tud i i a n tropo log ice a le s che letelor n eo l it ice d escoper ite

9 3

a C •e rnavoda. i n c in a it iru l p re istor ic d e J

P roble me d e a n tropo log ie I V,

2 1-45. 9 1.

Vel ik a ,nova , M . S ., 1 975. mezhdurech iya , Moscow.

9 2.

Beev , P ., 1 972.

9 3.

I b id., 2 02-205.

9 4.

I b id., 2 07-210.

9 5.

Georg iev , V ., 1 955.

Paleoan tropo log iya p rou tsko-dnestrovskogo

( See N o . 8 5 ) , p p. 8 9-96.

Z a p ro izhoda n a d revno te n ase len ie o t s overo izto-

c hnata c hast n a Ba lkansk iya p o louostrov. 9 6.

Boev , P ., 1 977 ( i n t he p ress ).

9 7.

K ondova , N ., 1 976.

9 8.

Georg iev , G , 1 961.

I AI , X IX , 3 21f f.

K u l turgruppen d er J ungste in u nd d er K upferze it i n

d er Ebene v on Thraz ien ( S i ldbu lgar ien ) L 'Europe ä l a f in d e l ' äge d e l a p ierre. Praha , 4 5-100. 9 9. 1 00.

D im itrov , M., 1 969. Todorova , H ., 1 974c. Tärgov iste.

1 01.

I MB, 1 .

Ku l tszene u nd Haus model l a us OvCarovo , Bez.

Thrac ia I I , 3 9-46.

Co m p . , E ., 1 957a. c u l tur i Bo ian .

1 02.

K ou ltourata K aranovo I V vS tarozagorsko.

S tad iu l c ercetar ilor c u p r iv ire l a f aza G iu lelt i a

I n S CIV , 8 , 1 957 , 2 7-47.

Co m e , E ., 1 957 1 3.

Quelques d onnes r elat ives ä l a p er iod isat ion e t ä

l ' evo lu t ion d e l a c iv i l isat ion d e Bo ian , Dac ia I , 6 1-71. 1 03.

Todorova , H ., 1 973c.

N ovaya k u ltura s rec lnego n eo l ita v S evere-

Vostochno i Bo lgar i i , S A, 4 , 2 f f. 1 04.

I b id.

1 05.

Todorova , H . a nd Toncheva , G ., 1 975. l ung b e i E zere im Varnasee.

1 06.

D ie N neo l ith ische P fah lbausied -

Ger man ia 5 3, 3 0-46.

Passek , T . S . a nd Chern ikh , E . K ., 1 970. mor iya.

K a menn i i v ek n a t err itor i i S SSR.

N eo l it s evernogo P r ichernoMoscow , 1 30-145.

S ub-

b o t in , L . V ., 1 975 ( see No . 4 9 ). 1 07.

Todorova , H . a nd N acheva , V ., 1 971.

P sevdof irn isova k era m ika o t

e neo l itno to n ako lno s e l ishte k ra i Ezerovo , Varnenske.

Arheo log iya 2 ,

6 6-75. 1 08.

Mikov , V . a nd D ja mbazov , N ., 1 960 .

1 09.

French , D . H ., 1 961. a nd t he Aegean . 1 964.

10.

( S ee N o . 7 4 ) .

L ate Chalco l ith ic Pot tery i n N orth-west Turkey

Anato l ian S tud ies X I , 9 9-141.

Preh istor ic Pot tery f ro m Macedon ia a nd Thrace.

Berc iu , D ., 1 961.

PZ XL I I , 3 0.

Con tr ib e i d e l a p roble me l e n eo l it icu lu ii n

Ro män ia i n l um ina n o iler c ercetär i , Bucurest i, 1 961, p . 5 1. 1 11.

I b id., p p. 1 60-161.

9 4

1 12.

Masson , V . M., 1 971.

Poselen ie Je itun , MIA 1 08. Moscow .

Dyakonov , I . M., 1 959.

O bsh testven i i ig osudarstven i i s tro i d revnego

Dvurechya , Moscow . 1 13.

Masson , V . M., 1 974. Vopros i s o ts io log ichesko i i n terpretats i i d revn ih z h i l ishch ip oselen i i. Rekonstruk ts iya d revn ih o bshchestvenn ih o tnoshen i i . L en ingrad , 5 -7.

1 14.

Todorova , Ha nd Toncheva , G ., 1 975.

1 15.

Georg iev , G . I . , 1 957.

( See N o. 7 9 ) , p . 4 6.

I z z h ivo ta ik ou ltourata n a p urv i te z e medelsko-

s ko tovudn i p le mena v Bu lgar ia.

Arheo log ichesk i o tkr it iya v Bu lgar ia ,

S o f ia , 3 1-60. 1 16.

Devey , E . S ., 1 960.

T he Hu man P opu lat ion . S c ien t if ic Amer ican , v o l.

2 09 , N o. 3 . 1 17.

B ib ikov , S . N ., 1 965. T r ipo l ie.

1 18.

Hozya istvenno-ekono m ichesk i i k o mp leks r azv itogo

S A, 1 965.

Masson , V . M., 1 976.

E cono m ika is o ts ia ln i i s tro i d revn ih o bshtestve

L en ingrad. 1 19.

Ren frew , C ., 1 972.

1 20.

Todorova , H ., I vanov , S ., e tc., 1 975.

1 21.

Raduncheva , A ., 1 976.

1 22.

Hop f , M., 1 975. Delchevo.

The Emergence o f c iv i l isa t ion .

L ondon , 1 972.

( See N o. 2 9 ), 6 9-100.

( See N o. 5 9 ) , p . 1 01f f.

Rast iteln i n aho c lk i o t s el ish tnata iog ila Go lya mo

RP V , 1 975 , 3 03-315 , p . 3 14.

1 23.

Radouncheva , A ., 1 976.

1 24.

B ib ikov , S . N ., 1 953. n a Dnestre.

( See N o. 5 9 ) , p . 1 00. Rannet r ipo lskoe p oselen ie L uka-Vrub levetskaya

MIA, S SSR , 3 8 , p . 1 06.

1 25.

Masson , V . M., 1 971.

Pose len ie J e itun , M IA 1 08 , Moscow , p . 1 03.

1 26.

Todorova , H ., I vanov , S ., e tc., 1 975.

1 27.

Masson , V . M., 1 971.

1 28.

E s in , U ., 1 976. D ie An enge d er Meta l lverwendung u nd Bearbe itung i n Anato l ien 7 500-2000 v . Chr. Co l loque2 a I I I , D Ze Congres U ISPP-

( See N o. 2 9 ), p . 7 5

( See N o. 1 25 ) , p . 1 03.

N ice 1 976 , 2 05-208. 1 29.

Ren frew , C ., 1 969. Age.

1 30.

T he Au tono my o f t he S ou th-East European Copper

P roceed ings o f t he Preh istor ic S oc iety X IC (V, 1 2-39.

Merpert , N . J ., a nd C hern ikh , E . K ., 1 972. e ksped its iya. 1 973.

Bo lgaro-sovetskaya

Arheo log ichesk ie o tkr it iya 1 971, Moscow , 5 53-554.

Rabo ta b o lgaro-sove tsko i e ksped its i i 1 972.

S born ik Arheo lo-

g ichesk ie o tk r it iya 1 972, Moscow , 5 00-902. 1 974.

Bo lgaro-sovetskaya a rheo log icheskaya e ksped its iya.

Vopros i

i stor i i , v o l. 6 . 1 31.

Chern ikh , E . N ., 1 976b.

N a p pr o ge n esos toyavsheisya t s iv i l iza ts i i .

P r iroda , 1 976 , 2 , 6 2-69.

9 5

1 32.

Cherr ykh , E . N ., 1 976c. Chr. i n d er U dSSR. 1 977.

1 33.

Metal lurg ische Bere iche d es 4 -2 J ahrh. v .

CoHogue XX I I I , I X Congres U ISPP , N ice , 1 77-208.

Gornoe d elo ime ta l lurg iya v d revne ishe i Bogar i i , i n t he p ress.

J ovanov ic , B ., 1 971a.

Meta lurg i ja e neo l it iskog p er ioda J ugoslav i je ,

Beograd. 1 971b. Ear ly Copper Meta l lurgy o f t he C en tra l Ba lkans.

Actes d u V I I Ie

Congres i n terna t iona l d es s c iences p reh istor iques e t p ro toh istor iques , t . I , Beograd , 1 31-138. 1 975. P r i mary M in ing i n t he Cen tra l B a lkans.

Reports o f t he I st

S y mpos iu m o n t he h istory o f t he m in ing i n S ou th-eastern Europe , Varna , 4 0-57. 1 34

Chern ikh , E . N ., 1 976b.

( See N o. 1 31 ), p . 6 6.

1 35.

Chern ikh , E . N ., 1 976b.

( See N o. 1 31) , p . 6 2.

1 36.

Todorova , H .,

R ind ina , N . V . a nd Chern ikh , E . N ., 1 977.

Eneo l it i-

c hesk i i meta l l i z Go lya mo Delchevo , S A, I , 1 5-27. 1 37.

Chern ikh , E . N ., 1 976b.

1 38.

Chern ikh , E . N ., 1 976a. S SSR.

Chern ikh , E . N ., 1 972.

1 40.

I vanov , I . S ., 1 975a.

1 41.

Drevnaya meta l loobrabo tka n a Yugo-Zapade

Moscow , 1 7-21.

1 39.

1 972.

( See N o. 1 31), p . 6 3.

Metal l-che lovek-vre mya.

Moscow , p . 9 .

Razkop i n a Varnensk iya e neo l iten n ek ropo l p rez

I NM Varna X I ) 00 7I , 1 -18 , Tab. V I I.

I vanov , I . , 1 970.

N a i-star iya t p lava te len s ud v Bu lgarsk ite z em i.

K orabostroene ik orabop lavane , I . 1 42.

Gou mnerova , M., 1 969.

Tukan i o t l en ik onop v Smo lyansko.

Rodopsk i

s born ik , I , 1 31-145. 1 43.

Todorova , H . a nd N acheva , V ., 1 971.

P sevdof irn isova k era m ika o t

e neo l itno to n ako lno s e l ishte k ra i E zerovo , Varnensko.

Arheo log iya 2 ,

6 6-75. 1 44.

Georg iev , G . a nd Ange lov , N ., 1 952.

Razkopk i n a s e l ish tna ta mog ila

d o Russe p rez 1 948-1949 , I AI XVI I I , 1 19-195. 1 957.

Razkopk i n a s e l ish tnata mog ila d o Russe p rez 1 950-1953, I AI ,

XX I , 4 1-129. 1 45.

Todorova , H . a nd I vanov , S ., e tc., 1 975.

1 46.

Todorova , H ., 1 976a.

1 47.

Radouncheva , A ., 1 976.

Ovcharovo.

( See N o. 2 9 ), 5 3-63.

S of ia , p . 3 1.

V in itsa -eneo l i tno s e l ishte in ekropo l.

S of ia ,

RP V I , p . 9 7. 1 48. 1 49.

Unpub l ished.

Excava t ions b y t he a u thor.

Todorova , H ., 1 971a.

K usnoeneo l itn iya t n ekropo l k ra i g r. Devnya.

I NM Varna V I I , 3 -40. 1 50.

I vanov , I . S ., 1 974. 4 4-47.

Eneo l itn iyat n ek ropo l p r i Varna.

9 6

MPK , v o l. 3 -4 ,

1 975a.

Razkopk i n a Varnensk iya e neo l iten n ekropo l p rez 1 972.

I NM

Varna X I XXVI , 1 -18. 1 975b.

Eneo l itn iyat n ekropo l p r i Varna.

1 976. 1 51.

Oun ika .lnoe o tkr it ie.

Ovcharov , D ., 1 963.

Vekove, I , 1 06-111.

Varna-revyu , 3 1.

Eneo l iten n ekropo l d o s . L ilyak , Turgov ishko.

Arheo log iya V-I , 5 3-56. 1 52.

M ikov , V ., a nd D ja mbazov , N ., 1 960.

Devetashkata p esh tera, S of ia.

The ma ter ia l p ubl ished u nder t he g eneral h ead ing o f Early Bronze Age i s o f d ifferen t p er iods. 1 53.

I vanov , I . S ., 1 976.

Oun ikalnoe o tkr it ie.

1 54.

Todorova , H ., 1 971a.

Varna-revyu , 3 1.

K usnoeneo l itn iyat n ek ropo l k ra i g r. Devnya. I NM

Varna V I I, 3 -40. 1 55.

Todorova , H ., 1 972b. k a menna ta e poha.

1 56.

N ov i d ann i z a m irogleda n a c hoveka p r i n ovo-

F iloso fska misu l I , 6 0-69.

Todorova , H ., 1 974c. Targov iste.

Ku ltszene u nd Haus mode l l a us OvC 'arovo , Bez.

Thrac ia I I , 3 9-46.

1 57.

Todorova , H ., 1 974c.

( See N o. 1 56.)

1 58.

Todorova , H ., 1 972b.

( See No. 1 55.)

1 59.

R ibakov , B . A ., 1 965.

K os mogon iya imifo log iya z em ledel tsev e neo-

l i ta. 1 60.

S ovetskaya a rheo log iya 1 965, I , 2 4-47 a nd 2 , 1 3-33.

V lassa , N ., 1 963.

Chrono logy o f t he N eo l ith ic i n T ransy lvan ia i n t he

L igh t o f t he Tartar ia S et t le men t S trat igraphy .

Dac ia , N .S. 7 , 1 963,

4 85-494. Makkay , J ., 1 967.

D ie i n Tär Cr ia g efundenen p ictograph ischen Tafeln

u nd d ie j ungere S te inze it S üdosteuropas.

K t i lönnyo mat a mora Ferenc

Museu m Evkönyve , S zeged , 2 1-24. 1 969.

The L ate N eo l ith ic Tordos Group o f S igns.

Abhand lungen A lba-Reg ia. Milo je fe , V ., 1 965.

Tanu l- m Lyok-

Anna les X , 9 -49.

D ie Ton tafeln v on Tartar ia u nd d ie a bso lu te

Chrono log ie d er mitteleuropN ischen N eo l ith iku ms, Ger man ia XL I I I , 2 61-268. 1 61.

N iko lov , B ., 1 974.

Gradeshn itsa.

S of ia.

Tabl. 1 10 , 1 11, 6 8, 6 9,

7 0 , 7 1. 1 62.

Georg iev , V ., 1 969.

P is men ite z natsi v urhou p echa ta o t K aranovo.

Arheo log iya I , 1 0-12.

9 7

B IBL IOGRAPHY

A lad jov , D ., 1 974.

S el ish ta , p a me tn itsi , n ahodk i.

A lexandrescu , A ., 1 961.

H askovo.

0v toro i f aze d okuku tensko i k u ltur i.

Dac ia V , 2 1-

3 7. Angelov , N ., 1 958. n a a kad.

S el ishtna mog ila p r i s . Hotn itsa.

I zsledvan iya v c hest

Dechev p o s loucha i 8 0-god ishn inata mou.

Angelov , N ., 1 959.

Z latno to s ukrov ishte o t Hotn itsa.

S of ia , 3 89-403.

Arheo log iya I , 1 -2,

3 8-46. Angelov , N ., 1 961.

Rabot iln itsa z a p losk i k osten i i do l i vs e l ish tnata mog i la

p r i s . Hotn itsa , Turnovsko.

Arheo log iya I I2,

3 4-38.

Arheo log iya U kra insko i RSR , T . I , l üev , 1 971. Arnaudov , N ., 1 939. S i idbu lgar ien .

P f lanzenreste a us e iner p räh istor ischen S ied lung i n O sterre ich ische b o tan ische Z e itschr.

8 8 , 1 , 5 4-57.

Berc iu , D ., 1 937a. S UA tur ile d e l a Petru Rare ( 1933 a nd 1 935 ). Bu let inu l Muzeu lu i J udetu lu i V laeca , 2 , 1 937 , 1 -30. Berc iu , D ., 1 937b.

I n

Co lect,i a d e a n t ich it k i " Gh. Georgescu-Corab ia."

C erc kar i s i s äpätur i a rheo log ice , Caraca l , 1 937 , 1 -17. Berc iu , D ., 1 959a. S ur l es r gsu l tats d u c on trb le s trat igraph ique ä T angiru e t d e P etru Rare9 ( 1956-1957 ) , Dac ia N .S . I I , 5 9-78.

i

S äpä tur i le d e l a T an dru e P etru Rare .

Berc iu , D ., 1 959b.

I n Mater iale

V I , 1 37-145. Berc iu , D ., 1 959c.

S äpä tur ile d e l a Verb itia .

Ma ter ia le V I , p . 8 5.

Berc iu , D ., 1 959d.

Apä tur ile a rheo log ice d e l a Tangtru .

I n Mater iale , 5 ,

1 959 , 1 43-152. Berc iu , D ., 1 960.

Quelques p roble mes c o m munes d e l a p rjh isto ire d e l a

Rouman ie e t d e c el le d e l a Bu lgar ie , I AI ) 0 ( I I I , 2 61-268. Berc iu , D ., 1 961.

Con tr ib t4 i i d e l a p rob le me le n eo l it icu lu i f h Ro m^ a n ia i n

l um ina n o i lor c ercetär i , Bucureet i, 1 961. Berc iu , D ., 1 962.

A z oo morph ic " scep tre" d iscovered i n t he P eop le 's

Republ ic o f Bu lgar ia a nd i t s c u ltura l a nd c hrono log ical p os it ion , Dac ia V I , 3 97-409. Berc iu , D ., 1 966a.

Cu l tura Ha mang ia.

Berc iu , D ., 1 966b.

Z ori le i stor ie i I n Carp e 9i l a Dunare , Bucurest , 1 966 ,

4 1-49.

9 8

N o i c on tr ib e i , I .

Bucureet i.

Berc iu , D . a nd Berc iu , I ., 1 949. Apu la m , 2 -3;

S äpätur i

ic ercetär i r n a n i i 1 944-1947.

I n

1 947-1949 , A lba I u l ia , 1 -42.

5 a n t i e ru l

Berc iu , D . a nd Mor in tz, S ., 1 957.

a rheo log ic Cernavoda.

I n :

Mater ia le , 3 , 1 957 , 8 3-91. B ib ikova , V . I . , 1 965. men ta.

0p ro ishozhden i i mez inskogo p aleo l it icheskogo o rna-

S ovetskaya a rheo log iya , 1 , 5 -8.

B ib ikov , S . N ., 1 953. Dnestre.

Ranne tr ipo lskoe p oselen ie L uka-Vrublevetskaya n a

M IA, S SSR , 3 8.

B ib ikov , S . N ., 1 965. T r ipo l ie.

Hozya istvenno-ekono m ichesk i i k o mp leks r azv itogo

S A, 1 965.

Bognar-Ku tz ian , I . , 1 963.

T he Copper Age Ce metery o f T iszapo lgar-

Basa tanya , Budapest 1 971. t he Ba lkans.

P reh istor ic Rela t ions b etween Hungary a nd

L ethnogenese d es p eup les b a lkan iques , S of ia 1 971, 1 39-

1 48. Bognar-Ku tzian , I . , 1 972.

The Early Copper Age T iszapo lgar Cu lture i n t he

Carpa th ians , Budapest , 1 972. Bognar-Ku tzian , I . , 1 973a.

T he Beg inn ing a nd Pos it ion o f t he Copper Age i n

t he Carpatho-Pannon ian Reg ion .

Actes d u X I I Ie Congres I n ternat iona l

U ISPP , I , p . 3 00-316. Bognar-Ku tz ian , I . , 1 973b.

The Relat ionsh ip b etween t he Bodrokeresztur

a nd t he Baden Cu ltures.

S ympos iu m ü ber d ie En tstehung u nd Chrono-

l og ie d er Badener K u l tur, Brat islava , 3 1-50. Boev , P ., 1 966. Bu lgar ia. Boev , P ., 1 972.

An tropo log ichesk i p rouchvan iya n a e neo l itn iya c hovek v Av toreferat n a k and idatska d isertats iya. D ie Rassen typen d er Ba lkanha lb inse l u nd d er O stägä ischen

I nselwe lt u nd d eren Bedeun tung V .& d ie H erkun f t i hrer Bevö lkerung , S o f ia. B lahu ta , F

1 959.

Bukovohorskes id l iske v K apusanoch ,

Brukner , B ., J ovanov i6 , B ., Tas ig , N ., 1 974.

P ra istor i ja Vo jvod ine .

N ov i S ad. Can tacuz ino , G . a nd Mor in tz, S ., 1 963. C ern ica ( Bucarest ). Can tacuz ino , G ., 1 967. n eo l it icu l r o mänesc Changova , Y ., 1 963.

D ie J ungste inze it l icher Funde i n

I n : Dac ia , N . S ., 7 , 1 963, 2 7-89. N ecropo la p re is tor icä d e l a C ern ica

il ocu l e i i n

ie uropean , S CIV 1 8/3 3 79-397.

Prouchvan iya n a k repost ta Pern ik .

Arheo log iya V-3,

6 5-73. Chern ikh , E . N ., 1 966.

I stor iya d revne ishe i meta l lurg i i Vostochno i Evrop i.

Moscow . Chern ikh , E . N ., 1 971a. Z one.

Earl iest S tages o f Metal lurgy i n C ircu mpon t ic

V I I Ie Congres i n ternat iona l d es s c iences p reh istor iques e t p roto-

h istor iques, Belgrade 1 971b.

L es r apports e t l es c o m mun ica t ions d e

l a d elega t ion d es a rcheo logues d e PURSS , Moscou 1 971, 1 -11. 9 9

Chern ikh , E . N ., 1 972.

Me ta l l-chelovek-vre mya.

Moscow .

C hern ikh , E . N ., 1 974.

Ob o snovn ih e tapah d revneishei meta l lurg i i medi n a

IV-nacha lo It is l . d o n .e . )I I , 3 79-395 . t err i tor i i B o lgar i i ( A i-bunarsk i i medn i i r udn ik I V t isyach let ie d o n .e .

C hern ikh , E . N ., 1 975 . n a Ba lkanah .

32-152 . S A , 1 Drevnyaya me ta l loobrabotka n a Yugo-Zapade S SSR .

Chern ikh , E . N ., 1 976a . Moscow , 1 7-21. C hern ikh , E . N ., 1 976b .

N a p oroge n esos toyavsheisya t s iv i liza ts i i .

P r i-

r oda , 1 976, 2 , 6 2-69 . Chern ikh , E . N ., 1 976c . i n d er UdSSR .

Me ta llurg ische B ereiche d es 4 -2 J ahrh .

v . C hr .

C ol loque XX L II , I X C ongr s U ISPP , N ice , 1 77-208 .

C hern ikh , E . N ., 1 977.

G ornoe d e lo imeta l lurg iya v d revne ishei B o lgari i

( i n t he p ress ). Chern ikh , E . N ., R adouncheva , A ., 1 974 . S tara Z agora ( prel im inary r epor t ). Ch i lde , V . G ., 1 937.

S tar i te medn i r oudn i ts i o kolo g r . Arheolog iya X IV , 1 , 6 1-66.

N eo l i th ic B lack Ware i n G reece a nd o n t he Danube ,

ABSA XXVI I , 1 936/1937 , 2 5-35 . Ch i lde , V . G ., 1 950 .

The Dawn o f European C iv i lisa t ion , L ondon .

C h i lde , V . G ., 1 956.

Ana to lia a nd Thrace.

S o me Bronze Age R e la t ions .

Ana to lian S tudies V I , 4 5-48 . C h i l ing irov , A . 0 ., 1 908 .

I z p ra is tor iya ta n a Bu lgaria .

s elish te v s . Kre m ikov ts i , S of i isko . Ch i ling irov , A . 0 ., 1 910 .

S tupa ln i k os tn i i do l i o t p rais tor icheskoto s e lish te

vs . S ou ltan , P opovsko . Ch i l ing irov , A . 0 ., 1 911a . T i mok d o V i t .

I BAD I , 1 05-110 .

P red is tor ichesk i n ahod ish ta k ra i Dourmva , o t

I BAD I , 1 47-174 , 1 63-164 , 1 64-167 , 1 48 , 1 55-163 .

C h i ling irov , A . 0 ., 1 911b. I BAD I ,

P rais tor ichesko

PSp XX-69 , 2 00-216.

P losk i k os tn i i do li o t Racheva ta mog i la p r i Ya mbol .

8 1-84.

Ch i l ing irov , A . 0 ., 1 915 .

Zwe i Mar mor f iguren a us Bu lgar ien , PZ V I I ,

2 15-220 Ch i l ing irov , A . 0 ., 1 926.

R apor t v urhou i zouchavan iya ta mou n a p red is-

t or iche s k i te s e lish ta v S everoiztochna Bu lgar ia . Chr is tescu , V ., 1 925 .

GN M I , 6 8-76.

Les s ta tions p rgh is tor iques d u L ac d e B oian , Dacia

I , 2 49-303 . C lark , D . L ., 1 968 . C ogha ln , H . H ., 1 951.

Ana ly t ica l Archaeology.

N otes o n t he P reh is tor ic Meta l lurgy o f C opper a nd

Bronze i n t he O ld Wor ld . C o l lignon , M ., 1 901.

L ondon .

6 3 f .

Rappor t s ur l es f ou i l les e x cu t es p ar M . D egrand

d ans l a v a l lte d e l a T ond ja e n Bu lgar ie .

C o mptes r endus d e l 'Acadb m ie

d es I nscr iptions e t Be l les l e t tres , 5 53-802 ;

1 00

1 903 , 6 43-646.

C om p . , E ., 1 954 .

C onsidera I i i a supra e vo l i4 ie i c u l tur i i Boian .

I n :

S C IV ,

5 , 1 954 , 3 -4 , 3 61-392. C om p , E ., 1 955 .

S tad iu l c erce tär i lor d espre v ia a o a men i lor d in f aza

B o len t ineanu a c u l tur i i B oian . C om p , E ., 1 956.

I n :

R ezu l ta tele s onda je lor d e l a Dud e i

a le n eoli t icu lu i d e l a s ud d e C arp * . C om p . , E ., 1 957a . B oian .

I n :

SC IV , 6 , 1 955 , 1 -2 , 1 3-43 .

I n :

iu nele p rob le me

S CIV , 7 , 1 956, 1 -2 , 4 1-49.

S tad iu l c ercetnr i lor c u p r iv ire l a f aza G lu lee t i ac u l tur i

S C IV , 8 , 1 957 , 2 7-47.

C om a , E ., 1 957b .

Quelques d onn s r e la t ives ä .l a p &r iodisa t ion e t äl ' gvo lu-

t i on d e l a c iv i l isa t ion d e B oian , Dad a I , 6 1-71. C om p . , E ., 1 958 .

Despre c u ltur i le n eoli tica d in Bu lgar ia .

I n :

S CIV , 9

1 958 , 2 , 4 74-477. C omp . , E ., 1 959a .

S äpä tur i d e s a lvare l a B oga ta § i B oian .

I n :

Ma ter ia le ,

5 , 1 959 , 1 15-123. C omp . , E ., 1 959b .

Be trach tungen f i ber d ie L inearbandkera m ik a uf d em

G ebie t d er RVR u nd d er a ngrenzenden L änder .

I n :

Dacia , N . S ., 3 ,

1 959 , 3 5-57. C om p . , E ., 1 959c . I n :

La c iv i l isa t ion C r i

s ur l a t err i toire d e l a R .P . R ou man ie .

Ac ta Archaeolog ica C arpa th ica , 1 , 1 959 , 2 , 1 73-190.

C om p , E ., 1 960 .

C onsiderag i c u p r iv ire l a c u l tura c u

t er i tor iu l R .P. R .

id in r eg iun i le v ecine .

I n :

e ra m icä , l in iarä p e

S CIV , 1 1, 2 , 1 960 ,

2 17-242 . C om p , E ., 1 961. G u me lnidt a .

Kv oprosu o p erehodno i f aze o t k u l tur i B oian k k u l tur i I n :

C om p , E ., 1 962 .

Dacia , N . S ., 5 , 1 961,

3 9-68 .

Kv oprosu o b o tnos i te lnoi h rono log i i io r azv i t i i n eo-

l i t ichesk ih k u l tur n a y ugo-vos toke Ru man ia in a v os toke Bo lgar i i .

I n :

Dacia , N . S ., 6 , 1 962 , 5 3-85 . C ornea , E ., 1 963a .

K v oprosu o p er iod iza tsi i n eol i t ichesk ih k u l tur n a s evero-

z apade Ruman i i . C omp . , E ., 1 963b .

I n :

Dacia , NS ., 7 , 1 963 , 4 77-484.

Unele p rob le me a le a spec tu lu i c u l tura l A lden i I ( Pe

b aza s äpä tur i lor d e l a Drägä ne . e i-Tecuci ). C om p . , E ., 1 965 .

Cu ltura B oian i n Trans i lvan ia .

I n :

SC IV 1 6, 1 963 , 1 , 7 -26.

I n :

S CIV , 1 6 , 1 965 , 4 ,

6 29-645 . C om p , E ., 1 967.

Une le d a te c u p r iv ire l a s f lu i tu l p er ioadei d e t recere d e

l a e poca n eol i t icä l a e poca b ronsu lu i i n s ud-es tu l O l ten iei , S C IV , 18/2 , 2 07-220. C om p . , E ., 1 971. 2 , 1 95-249 . C ornea , E ., 1 972a .

Donn6es s ur l a c iv i l isa t ion Dude t i .

I n :

PZ , 4 6, 1 971,

Da te c u p r iv ire l a r äspind irea c o mun i ap lor f azei d e

t ranz izl ie d e l a c u l tura B oian l a c u l tura G u meln ip . , p e t er i tor iu l Dobrogei . I n :

P on t ica , 5 , 1 972 , 3 9-44 .

1 01

Co m a , E ., 1 972b.

Que lques p robr e mes r elat ifs a u c o mp lexe n eo l ith ique d e

Radovanu , Dac ia XVI , 3 9-51. Co m a , E

1 973a.

P arures n do l ith iques e n c oqu il lages mar ins d dcouvertes

e n t err ito ire r ou ma in , Dac ia XVI I , 6 1-76. Co m a , E

1 973b.

Que lques c ons iderat ions c oncernan t l a c hrono log ie r ela-

t ive d es c u l tures n eo l ith iques l im itrophes d u N ord d e l a pdn insu le Ba lkan ique.

Dac ia XVI I , 3 17-321.

Co m a , 1 974a.

I stor ia c omun itäg lor c u ltur i i Bo ian , Bucure§t i.

Co r

D ie En tw ick lung , Per iod is ierung u nd r e lat ive Chrono log ie

p , 1 974b.

d er J ungste inze it l ichen K u lturen Ru mNn iens. Dan i lenko , V . N ., 1 955.

Z f . A . 8 , 1 -44.

0r ann ih z ven iyah r azv it iya s tepn ih v ostochno-

e vrope isk ih k u ltur s hnourovo i k era m ik i. Dan ilenko , V . N ., 1 959.

K S IA, 4 , 1 26-128.

Arheo log ichesk ie i ss ledovan i i 1 956 v Ch ig ir insko m

r a ione. K S IA, 8 , 1 4. Dan ilenko , V . N ., 1 969.

N eo l it U kra in i , K iev .

Dan ilenko , V . N ., Eneo l it Uk ra in i , K iev. Dennel l , R . W., 1 974.

The Econo m ic Deve lopmen t o f Bu lgar ia f rom t he

N eo l ith ic t o t he Early Bronze Age , Thrac ia I I , 3 3-37. Detev , P ., 1 942.

S el ish tnata mog ila v s . S v. K ir ilovo , S tarozagorsko.

GNM V I I , 2 37-243. Detev , P ., 1 946.

S el ishtna mog i la S v. K onstan t in p ri Bran ipo le.

I BAI XV,

1 76-180. Detev , P ., 1 948a.

N ovoo tkr it i p red istor ichesk i s e l ish ta v Yuzhna Bulgar ia.

GN M P l. I , 1 72-181. Detev , P ., 1 948b. I , 1 -14.

S el ish tnata mog ila Yassatepe v P lovd iv .

GNM P lovd iv ,

Detev , P ., 1 950a.

N ovootkr it i p ra istor ichesk i s e l ish ta in ahodk i .. P lovd iv , I , 2 38-242.

Detev , P ., 1 950b.

GNM

S el ishtnata mog ila Buzouneka p r i s . Graf I gna t ievo , I AI

XVI I , 2 21-327. Detev , P ., 1 950c.

P loskata mog ila p r i s . O r izovo.

I AI XVI I , 2 27-231.

Detev , P ., 1 950d.

S el ishtnata mog ila Banya ta p r i K ap itan D im itr ievo GN M

P lovd iv , I , 1 -23. Detev , P ., 1 951. 3 27-330.

S el ishte Donchova mog i la p r i B ikovo v Bu lgar ia.

Detev , P ., 1 952.

P loskata mog ila p r i s . Z lat i t rap.

1 02

AR I I ,

I AI XVI I I , 3 31-341.

Detev , P ., 1 954.

S elshtna ta mog ila p r i s . B ikovo.

GMPO 1 , 1 51-197.

Detev , P ., 1 959.

Mater ia l i z a p ra istor iyata n a P lovd iv.

GN M P lovd iv , I I ,

3 -80. it z a r azl ichavane n a n eo l itn ite b radv i o t d letata , t esl ite , Detev , P ., 1 960a . Op mot ik ite ip a leshn its ite. GN M P lovd iv I V, 6 1-77. Detev , P ., 1 960b. 1 959.

Razkop i n a s e lshtna ta mog ila Yassatepe v P lovd iv p rez

GN M P lovd iv I V, 5 -59.

Detev , P ., 1 960c.

S el ish tnata mog ila H issarya p r i s . Malko Turnovo , S taro-

z agorsko . Arheo log iya I -1, 3 4-36. Detev , P ., 1 962a. Razkopk i n a mog i lnoto s e l ishte p r i s . L enovo , P lovd ivsko. Arheo log iya W-3, 4 9-53. Detev , P ., 1 962b.

Pra istor ichesko s e l ishte v s . H issarya , P lovd ivsko.

Arheo log iya , I V-2 , 5 3-55. Detev , P ., 1 963a.

P ra istor ichesk i n ak it i vP lovd ivsk iya h aroden a rheo log i-

c hesk i mouze i.

GNM P lovd iv V , 4 1-60.

Detev , P ., 1 963b.

S t rat igraf iya n a s el ish tn ite mog il i v Yuzhna

Detev , P ., 1 963c.

Mater ia l i z a p ra istor iya ta n a T rak ia.

GN M P lovd iv V ,

1 43-152. Detev , P ., 1 963d.

Ima i k a lupest t i p n eo l itn i b radv i?

Arheo log iya V-4 ,

4 3-47. Detev , P ., 1 966.

Pra istor ichesk i s e l ish ta v P lovd ivsk i o k rug.

Arheo log ichesk i

p rouchvan iya z a i stor iya ta n a P lovd iv iP lovd ivsk iya k ra i. Detev , P ., 1 969.

P reg led n a p ra istor ichesk ite p rouchvan iya v s evern ite

s idonove n a Rodop ite. Detev , P ., 1 972.

Rodopsk i s born ik I , 2 59-275.

L a c era m ique

Devey , E . S ., 1 960.

"ma me lons" e n Thrace.

The Human Popu lat ion .

Thrac ia I , 2 9-41.

S c ien t i f ic Amer ican , v o l. 2 09 ,

N o. 3 . D im it r iev ic, S ., 1 968.

S opo tsko-Lendelska K u ltura , Z agreb.

D im itrov , M., 1 962. z agorsko.

K ostena c hoveshka f i gourka o t s . L ovech , S taro-

Arheo log iya T VI , 6 5-68.

D im itrov , M., 1 968.

G l inena c hoveshka f i gourka o t Chata lka.

I AI XX I I I ,

S born ik D im itrov. D im itrov , M., 1 962. z agorsko.

K ostena c hoveshka f i gourka o t s . L ovech , S taro-

Arheo log iya , I VI , 6 5-68.

D im itrov , M., 1 969. D ja mbazov , N ., 1 963.

K ou ltourata K aranovo I V vS taro-zagorsko. L oveshk i p eshter i.

I AI XXVI , 1 95-241.

Do luhanov , P . M., a nd T i mo feev , V . I . , 1 972.

Abso lyutnaya h rono log iya

n eo l ita Evraz i i ( po d ann im p ad ioug lerodnogo me toda ). a bso lyu tnogo d at irovan iya v a rheo log i i. Dum itrescu , V ., 1 925.

P rob le m i

Moscow , 1 972, 2 8-75.

Fou i l les d e Gu me ln ila.

1 03

I MB, 1 .

Dac ia I , 2 9-102.

Du m itrescu , V ., 1 931.

Cera m ica p icta tä e neo l it icä d in S ud-Estu l Europe i.

Bu let inu l oc om is iun i i monumen telor i stor ice XX IV, 7 0-77. Du m itrescu , V ., 1 937.

The p a in ted d ecora t ions o f t he p ot tery f ro m t he e neo-

l i th ic s tat ion n ear A tmageana-Tä tärascä ( Dep . Durostoru m ).

Anna ls

o f Archeo logy a nd An thropo logy XX IV, 1 -2 , 3 -17. Du m it rescu , V ., 1 941.

L a s tat ion p reh istor ique d e T ra ian , Dac ia I X-X , 1 941-

1 944, 1-114. Dum itrescu , V ., 1 954.

5 a n t ie ru l

a rheo log ic T ra ian .

I n S CIV, 5 , 1 954, 1 -2,

3 5-63. Du m itrescu , V ., 1 957a.

Con tr ib e i l a p roble mä o r ig in i i c u ltur i i Precucu ten i.

I n S CIV, 8 , 1 957 , 5 3-69. Dum itrescu , V ., 1 957b.

L e d epot d 'ob jets d e p arure d e H äb 4 W i e t l e

p roble me d es r apports e n tre l es t r ibus d e l a c iv i l isa t ion d e Cucuten i e t l es t r ibus d es s teppes Pon t iques. Du m itrescu , V ., 1 959.

Dac ia I , 7 3-96.

S . an t ieru l a rheo log ic T ra ian .

I n Mater ia le 5 , 1 959 ,

1 89-199. Du m itrescu , V ., 1 961. Connect ions b etween t he Cucu ten i-Tr ipo l ie c u ltural c o mp lex a nd t he n e ighbour ing Eneo l ith ic c u ltures i n t he l i gh t o f t he u t i l iza t ion o f g o lden p endan ts. Dum itrescu , V ., 1 963.

O r ig inea

I n Dac ia , N .S ., 5 , 1 961, 6 9-93.

ie vo luga c u l tur i i Cucu ten i-Tr ipo l ie.

I n

S CIV, 1 4 , 1 963, 2 , 2 85-304. Du m itrescu , V ., 1 964. Cons ide rat ions e t d onnees n ouve l les s ur l e p robre me d u s ynchron is me d es c iv il isat ions Cucu ten i e t Gu me ln i a. I n Dac ia , N .S ., 8 , 1 964, 5 3-66. Dum i trescu , V ., 1 965a.

P r inc ipa le le r ezu lta te a le p r i me lor d ouä c a mpan i i

d e s äpä tur i d in a sezarea n eo l it icä t i rz ie d e l a Cäsc ioarele.

S CIV, 1 6/2 ,

2 15-234. Dum itrescu , V ., 1 965b. L ower Danube.

Cäsc ioarele ,

A L ate N eo l ith ic S et t le men t o n t he

Archeo logy , 1 8/1, 3 4-40.

Du m itrescu , V ., 1 966.

N ew D iscover ies a t Gumeln i p.

Archeo logy , 1 9/3,

1 62-172. Dum itrescu , V ., 1 967. Du m itrescu , V ., 1 968a.

Häb 4e§t i.

S atu l n eo l it ic d e p e Ho lm , Bucure t i.

Kp rob le me p ro ishozhden iya d okuku tensko i k u ltur i.

Ma ter ia l i ii ssledovan iya p o a rheo log i i y ugozapada S SSR iRum insko i n arodno i r espubl ik i , 3 5-45. Du m itrescu , V ., 1 968b.

Be trach tungen z ur c hrono log ischen Ansetzung d e

Cucu ten i Ku ltur im Verhältn is z u d en N achbarku l turen .

S tud i jne z vest i

1 7 , 8 7-103. Du m itrescu , V ., 1 970a. Ro g an ia.

Cu p r iv ire l a c ea ma i v eche c u l tura n eo l it icä d in

I n S CIV, 2 1, 1 970 , 2 , 1 87-199.

Dum itrescu , V ., 1 970b.

The Chrono log ical R elat ion b etween t he Cu l tures o f

t he Eneo l ith ic L ower Danube a nd Anato l ia a nd t he N ear East . AJA, 7 4, 4 3-50. 1 04

Du m itrescu , V ., 1 970c.

Ed if ice d est ine a u c u lte d ecouver t d ans l a c ouche

Bo ian-Spa eov d e l a s tat ion-te l l d e Cäsc ioarele , Dac ia X IV, 5 -24. Dum itrescu , V ., 1 972.

Quelques a spects d es s ynchron is mes d es c u l tures

no-eneo l ith iques e t d e l a p er iode d e t rans it ion v ers l ' äge d u b ronze d e l 'Europe S ud-Or ien ta le e t l e monde

e ge r o-anato l ien .

Actes d e Ie

Congres i n ternat iona l d es E tudes d u S ud-est Europ6en , I , A thenes , p p. 2 5-51. Dum itrescu , V ., 1 974.

Arta p re istor icä r n Ro man ia , Bucurest i.

Dyakov ich , V ., 1 908.

Mog i lata Topra Asar p r i s . S ala l in .

P Sp. ) 0 (-69 ,

3 62-392. Dyakonov , I . M., 1 959.

O bshchestvenn i i ig osudarstvenn i i s tro i d revnego

Dvurechya Moscow . E itk in , M . D ., 1 963. Engels, F ., 1 974. h avara.

F iz ik a ia rheo log iya.

Moscow.

P ro izhod n a s e me istvoto , c hastnata s obstvenost id urz-

S of ia.

Engels , F ., 1 969.

Posleslov ie k um I I t o rn n a K ap ita la.

K . Marx.

K ap i-

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Z u d en Ton t afe ln a us T är tär ia.

Ger man ia , 4 3, 1 965,

2 69-273. F ilkov , L ., 1 933.

Pred istor ichesko to s el ishte p r i s . Vrach , V id insko .

PN

I V-2, 1 933-1934 , 1 8-19. F ilov , B ., 1 934. Fo l , A ., 1 972.

N adgrobn ite mog i l i p r i Douvan l i , P lovd ivsko. Po l it icheska i stor iya n a t rak ite.

F re iberg , L . A ., 1 975.

S o f ia.

Vozn iknoven ie ir azv it ie r odovogo s troya.

b itnoe o bshchestvo. French , D . H ., 1 961. t he Aegean .

S of ia.

Pervo-

Moscow , 4 9-87.

L ate Chalco l ith ic Po t tery i n North- West Turkey a nd

Anato l ian S tud ies X I , 9 9-141.

French , D . H ., 1 964. XL I I , 3 0.

Preh istor ic Po ttery f ro m Macedon ia a nd T hrace.

PZ

Galbenu , D ., 1 962.

Asezarea n eo l it icä d e l a H irsova.

Galbenu , D ., 1 966.

N ouve l les d onnees c oncernan t l e d ebu t d e l a c iv il isat ion

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S CIV X I I I , 2 85-304.

Dac ia X , 3 21-328.

C i teva p roble me a le p er iodade i d e t recere d e l a n eo l it ic

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H rono log i ja V i ri Canske Grupe, L jubl jana .

Garagan in , M., 1 951b.

S vet i K ir ilovo-sl iv Mar ice imorayska Do l ina.

S tar inar I , 1 3-20.

1 05

Garagan in , M., 1 958.

N eo l ith ikum u nd B ronzeze i t i n S erb ien u nd Makedon ien .

3 9 , BRGK , 1 -130. Garagan in , M., 1 963.

Thrak isch- makedon ische Wohnhügel funde i n d er S a m-

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No mades d es s teppes e t a u tochtones d ans l e s ud-est

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Pra istor iya S rb i je , v o l . Ia nd I , Belgrade.

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S tud ia

S o f ia , 9 -14.

N ova i zkopavan ja n a Vel iko j Humsko j

S tar inar D (-X , 1 958-1959 , 2 43-255. The Vadastra Cu lture o f t he L ower Danub ian Area.

Man

XL , 6 8-73. Gau l , J . H ., 1 942. Pen insu la.

Poss ib il it ies o f Preh istor ic Metal lurgy i n t he East Balkan

AJA, XLVI.

Gau l , J . H ., 1 948.

The N eo l ith ic Per iod i n Bu lgar ia.

Georg iev , G . I . , 1 948.

ASPR 1 6.

Eneo l itnoto s el ishte d o s . K o lena , S taro-zagorsko ,

R . P . 1 , 6 3-74. Georg iev , G . I . , 1 955a.

Mra morna s tatouetka o tB lagoevo , Razgradsko.

S born ik Gavr il K a tsarov I T AT XCX , 1 -13. Georg iev , G . I . , 1 955b.

K ou ltourata n a p urv ite z e medelts i vn ashata r od ina.

P r iroda I V-3, 6 3-65. Georg iev , G . I . , 1 957. I z z h ivo ta ik ou l tourata n a p urv ite z e medelskos ko tovudn i p le mena v Bu lgar ia. Arheo log ichesk i o tkr it iya v Bu lgar ia , S of ia , 3 1-60. Georg iev , G . I . , 1 958a. l i ta v Bu lgar ia.

Z a n yako i o rud iya n a p ro izvodstvo o t n eo l ita ie neo-

I zsledvan iya v c hest n a a kad.

D im iter Dechev , S of ia ,

3 69-387. Georg iev , G . I . , 1 958b.

Ü ber e in ige P roduk t ionswerkzeuge a us d en N eo l ith i-

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I n h onore m Acad. D . Decev ,

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O tnosno d atouvane to n a p urvob itnoto s el ishte p r i

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T AI XXI I T , 2 9-39.

O stank i o t p urvob itno s e l ishte v t sen tura n a S o f ia.

I AI2 (X I I , 3 29-332. Georg iev , G . I . , 1 960.

G lavn i p er iod i o r r azv it ieto n a k ou ltourata p rez n eo l ita

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S vyatov it XXX I I I. Ku lturgruppen d er J ungste in u nd d er K upferze it i n

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P raha , 4 5-100.

1 06

L 'Europe a l a f in d e l tA a ge d e

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A z mashka ta s el ish tna mog i la k rai S tara Z agora .

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G lavn i r esou ltat i o t r azkopk i te n a A z mashka ta

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Prouchvan iya n a k ou ltoura ta n a s el ish tn i te mog il i .

Arheolog iya , I V-3 , 5 9-67. G eorg iev , G . I . , 1 965.

T e l l A z mak Mound i n S ou thern Bu lgar ia .

An t iqu i ty

XXX IX , 6 ff . G eorg iev , G . I . , 1 966a .

Mnogos loinoe p ose len ie A z mashka mog i la b liz

S taroi Z agor i/Bo lgar iya/KS I A 1 06 , 3 f f . Georg iev , G . I . , 1 966b. i1 965.

Razkopk i n a D ipsizkata s el ishtna mog ila p rez 1 964

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B ei träge z ur E r forschung d es N eo l i th iku ms u nd

d er Bronzeze i t i n S t ldbu lgar ien . G eorg iev , G . I . , 1 969.

Archeolog ia Aus tr iaca 4 2 , 9 0-144.

D ie ä naeo li th ische Ku ltur i n S t idbu lgar ien im L ich te

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S tudi jne z ves t i ,

1 7, 1 41-158 . G eorg iev , G . I . , 1 970 .

Ü ber d ie S tra t igra fie u nd C hrono log ie d es N eol i th i-

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Das N eo li th iku m u nd Cha lko l i th iku m i n d er t hrak ischen

T ie febene ( S t ldbu lgar ien ) .

P rob le me d es h eut igen Forschungstandes.

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S tra t igraf iya ip er iod iza ts iya n a n eol i ta ih a lko li ta

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S ofia , 2 1-35 .

G eorg iev , G . I . , 1 976.

D ok lad n a Ik ongres n a B ID , X 1 976.

G eorg iev , G ., Angelov , N ., 1 952 .

Razkopk i n a s e lish tna ta mog i la d o

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R azkopk i n a s el ish tna ta mog i la d o

R oussg p rez 1 950-1953 , I A I XX I , 4 1-129. G eorg iev , G ., Merper t , N . J ., Ka t incharov , R . e t a l ., 1 977. mog i la E zero - b ronzova e poha . G eorg iev , V ., 1 950 . z nan iyu .

S e l ish tna ta

I n t he p ress .

I ss ledovan iya p o s ravn i te lno-is tor ichesko mu y azi lo-

Moscow .

G eorg iev , V ., 1 955 .

Z a p roizhoda n a d revnoto h aselen ie o t s everoiztochna ta

c has t n a Ba lkansk iya p o louos trov .

1 07

I A I , X IX , 3 21f f .

G eorg iev , V ., 1 969.

P is men i te z na ts i v urhou p echa ta o t Karanovo .

Arheo log iya 1 , 1 0-12 . G eorg iev , V ., 1 972.

Dneshno to s us toyan ie n a t rako log iya ta .

Arheolog iya

X IV/4 , 1 -2 . G eorg iev , V ., 1 976.

Trak i isk iya t e zik .

Trak iya ( P l.) 1 976 , v o l . 3 , 1 37-

1 55 . G eorg iev , V ., N iko lov , B ., 1 970 . e poha v n ash i te z e mi .

N achenk i n a p is menos t p rez h a lkol i tnata

Arheolog iya 3 , 1 -9 .

G het ie , B ., Ma teescu , N ., 1 974.

L e Mou ton d e n 6o li th ique moyen d e

Vädas tra ( Rou man ie ) , L 'An thropo log ie , 7 8 , 5 -16. G ähr ig , M ., 1 972.

Zu e in ige G rundsa tzfragen d er Dendrochrono log ie a nd

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E thnograph isch-archäo log ische Z ei tschr i f t 1 3 , 3 9-67. D ie Dendrochrono log ie .

C hrono log ie d er Urgesch ich te. G ou mnerova , M., 1 969.

Wege z ur Da t ierung u nd

B er l in , 8 1-97.

Tukan i o t l en ik onop v Smolyansko .

R odopsk i

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Aus n eo li th ischen S ied lungen b ei L ar issa .

Anh . M .

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Bräi l i Ia , B ra i la .

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S äpä tur i le a rheolog ice d e Brä i l i Ia .

Ma ter ia le I I , 1 29-144. H aupt man , H ., 1 964.

D ie Kera m ik d er D im in i- u nd Lar issa-Zei t a us d en

Magu len Arapi , Arg issa u nd O tzak i . Haupt man , H ., 1 969 .

V . Mi lo j

W .

D ie Funde d er f rühen D im in i-Zei t a us

d er Arapi- Magu la Thessa l ien . Haupt man , H ., 1 974 .

D isser ta t ions a rbei t , H e i ldelberg .

B onn .

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An kara ,

1 974. H er mann , J ., 1 975a .

S puren d es P ro metheus .

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Me thodische P roble me d er s ozia lökono m ischen

Ana lyse a uf d er G rund lage a rchäo log ischer Quel len .

Moderne P roble me

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C a mbr idge .

D ie G räber d er ä l teren Ockergrabku l tur zwischen d en

Ura l u nd Dnepr . H äus ler , A ., 1 975 .

P reh is tor ic Macedon ia .

B er l in .

Zur P rob le mat ik d er G räbersoziolog ie.

Moderne

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D ie G räber d er ä l teren Ockergrabku l tur zwischen

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B er lin .

The Tär tär ia t able ts .

1 968 , 3 0-37.

1 08

S cien ti f ic Amer ican , May

H op f , M., 1 973.

Frühe Ku l turpf lanzen a us Bu lgar ien .

J ahrbuch d es

R öm isch-ger man ischen Z en tra l museu ms Mainz , 2 0 , 1 -48 . H opf , M ., 1 975 .

Ras t i teln i n ahodk i o t s e lishna ta mog i la G o lya mo De lchevo.

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A lba J u lia

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Wehran lagen d er j üngeren S te inzei t .

" Ausgrabungen

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J üngere S teinzei t u nd S teinkupferzei t i n J . N arr .

Handbuch d er Urgesch ich te , München . I vanov , I . S ., 1 974.

Eneo l i tn iya t n ekropo l p r i Varna .

MPK , v ol . 3 -4 ,

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D ie Dendrochrono log ie.

C hrono log ie d er Urgesch ich te. J ero me , P ., 1 901a .

Vekove , 1 , 1 06-111.

Varna-revyu , 3 1. Wege z ur Da tierung u nd

B er l in , 8 1-88 .

L 'gpoque n do li th ique d ans l a v a l l6e d u Tonsus ( Thrace ) ,

RAI I , 3 28-349. J ero me , P ., 1 901b.

L ' eoque n 6o li th ique d ans l a v a l l6e d u Tonsus ( Thrace ) ,

C os mos , n ouv . s 6r ie N o 8 34 , 8 35 , 8 1f f , 1 16f f . J ovanov ic , B ., 1 971a .

Meta lurg i ja e neoli t iskog p er ioda J ugos lav i je , B eograd .

J ovanovic , B ., 1 971b .

Ear ly C opper Meta l lurgy o f t he C en tra l B a lkans .

Ac tes d u V i l le C ongres i n terna t iona l d es s c iences p r6h is tor iques e t p ro toh is tor iques , t . I , B eograd , 1 31-138 . J ovanov ic , B ., 1 972 . B a lkana .

Techno log i ja r udarska u r ano m e neol i tu C en tra lnog

S tar inar Xx ii i , 1 -14 .

J ovanov ic , B ., 1 975 .

P ri mary M in ing i n t he C en tra l Ba lkans .

R epor ts o f

t he i s t S y mpos iu m o n t he h is tory o f min ing i n S ou th-eas tern E urope , Varna , 4 0-57. Ka licz , N ., 1 969.

E in ige P roble me d er L engyel-Ku l tur i n Ungarn .

S tud i jne

z ves ti 1 7, 1 77-206. Ka l icz , N ., 1 970 .

Das N eoli th iku m u nd d ie Kupferzei t i n Ungarn ;

G öt ter

a us T on . Ka licz , N ., 1 973 . Ungarn . Ku l tur . 1. 1 3Zev , M.,

t ber d ie c hrono log ische S te l lung d er B ala tongruppe i n

S y mpos iu m f i ber En ts tel lung u nd Chronolog ie d er B adener Bra t is lava , 1 31-166 . Fou i l les d u t el l p res d u v i l lage S ad ievo , d epar t . d e S l iven

( i n t he p ress ). Ka ta log , 1 975 .

G oldschä tze d er Thraker .

1 09

Thrak ische Ku l tur u nd Kuns t .

Ka t incharov , R ., D ja mbazov , N .

( D ja mbazov , N ., Ka t incharov , R .) , 1 974.

Razkopk i vp esh terata Magoura ta p rez 1 971. Ka tsarov , G . I . , 1 912. Kacarov , G . I . , 1 914. b u lgar ien ).

I A I XXX IV , 1 07-138 .

R azkopk i vS v . K ir i lovo , L A I I I , 3 10-314 . Vorgesch ich t l iche Funde a us S ve t i-K ir i lovo ( S i l t i-

PZ V I , 6 7-88 .

Kacarov , G . I . , 1 918 .

Vorgesch ich t liches a us Bu lgar ien .

PZ X , 1 81-184.

Kacarov , G . I . , 1 925 .

Vorgesch ich t l iches a us Bu lgar ien .

WPZ X I I , 3 7-39 .

Kacarov , G . I . , 1 928a .

Vorgesch ich t l iches a us Bu lgar ien .

PZ X IX

3 05-

3 07. Kacarov , G . I . , 1 928b . XV ,

N eue n eol i th ische Funds tä t te i n Bu lgar ien .

WPZ

3 5-38.

Kacarov , G ., I ., 1 930 .

Pred is tor ichesk i n ahodk i o t s . Daou t li i .

I BA I V ,

1 928/29 , 3 19-320 . Kacarov , G . I . , 1 946. P irdop.

Pred is tor ichesk i n ahodk i o t P irdopsko iime to n a

I BAI XV , 1 67-169 .

Khazarov , A . M., 1 975 .

Razlozhen ie p ervobi tno-obshch innogo s troya i

v ozn iknoven ie k lassovogo o bshches tva .

Pervobi tnoe o bshches tvo ,

Moscow , 8 8-139 . Khazarov , A . M. ( wi th L .E . Kube l a nd S . A .

S ozina ) , 1 975 .

p er i fer iya d okapi ta lis tichesk ih o bshches tv .

P ervobi tnaya

Pervobi tnoe o bshches tvo ,

Moscow , 1 40-204 . Ko ichev , N ., 1 959 .

N eobnarodvan i p a metn i ts i o t N ovozagorsko .

Arheo log iya

I -1, 2 , 9 3-95 . Ko lch in , B . A ., V i tv inkas , T . T ., 1 972 . n ol ig i i .

S ovre menn ie p rob le m i d endrohro-

Proble mi a bso lyu tnogo d a tirovan iya v a rheo log i i .

Moscow ,

1 972 , 8 0-92 . Korobkova , G . F ., 1 965 .

Pr i menen ie me toda mikroana liza k i suche n iyu

f unk ts i i k a menn ih ik os tyan ih o rudi i .

Arheolog iya ie s tes tvenn ie n auk i .

MLA , No 1 29 , 1 93-194. Korobkova , G . F ., 1 969 . S rednei A zi i .

Orud iya t ruda ih ozya is tvo n eol i t ichesk ih p le men

MIA , No . 1 58 .

Kos tov , R ., 1 912.

B ei träge z ur Vorgesch ich te Bu lgar iens .

PZ I V , 8 8-113.

Kos tov , R ., 1 913 .

D ie Ausgrabungen i n d er H öh le "Mak la ta P odl isza" b ei m

Dor fe B el jakovec , u nwei t d er S tad t T irnovo ( Nord-bu lgar ien ).

PZ V ,

4 49-460 . Kos tov , D ., 1 925 .

Predis tor icheska ta mog i la d o R ouss .

GN M I V , 1 922-25 ,

5 7-71. Kovacs , J ., 1 944 .

A Marosdecse i r 6skor i t e me t6 , Közle menyek , C lu j I V ,

1 -2 , 3 -20 . Kovacheva , M., 1 975a . S i tes i n Bu lgar ia .

Archaeo ma t ic I nves tiga t ions o f S o me P reh is tor ic Archaeo me try ( i n t he p ress ).

1 10

Kovacheva , M., 1 975b.

Archaeo me tr ic I nves tiga tions i n Bu lgar ia :

I n tens i ty Deter m ina t ions . magne t ic I n tens i ty.

F ield

Proceedings o f t he S y mpos iu m o n P leo-

G renob le .

Kovacheva , M., N acheva-Ka lcheva , V ., 1 975a .

Arheo magn i tn ie i ss ledovan iya

mnogos loinogo p ose len iya Ovcharovo , S evernaya B o lgar iya , o tnosyas hchegosya k o v re men i e neol i ta .

G eo magnet iz m ie rgono m iya , 5 .

Kovacheva , M., N acheva-Ka lcheva , V . B ., 1 975b.

F irs t R esu l ts o f Arch -

a eo magne t ic I nves t iga t ion o f aP reh is tor ic S i te i n Bu lgar ia .

C o mptes

r endus d e l 'Acad . Bu lg . d es S ci ., T . 2 8 , N o. 7 . Kovacheva , M ., Ve lyov ich , D ., 1 977.

Arheo magn i tn i i zs ledvan iya n a

p rais tor ichesk i o bek ti o t Bu lgar ia iYugos lavia .

Arheolog iya .

I n t he

p ress . Kr icevsk i j, J . J ., 1 940 . e pohu .

I z i s tor i i d una jskogo p on izov ja v n eol i t icesku iu

KZ HMK V I I I , 4 9-62 .

Kunchev , K ., 1 973 .

Z a o brabotka ta ii zpo lzvane to n a k os t tä p rez n eoli ta ,

e neol i ta ib ronzova ta e poha . Ku tzian , I . B ., 1 955 . B asa ).

Arheolog iya , XV , v o l . 2 , 1 0f f .

D ie a usgrabungen i n T lszapo lgar-Ba tsa tanya ( Gehö f t

C on fgrence a rchgo log ique d e l 'Acade m ie H ongroise d es s ciences ,

Budapes t , 6 9-87. Ku tzian , I . B ., 1 958 . k up ferzei t .

e ber s üd l iche B eziehungen d er u ngar ischen H och-

AAH L X , 1 05-190 .

Lagodovska , 0 . F ., Makarev ich , M . L ., 1 962 .

Miha i livske p ose len iya ,

K iev . Lapin , V . V ., 1 974.

Ob o snovn ih t enden ts iyah v r azv i t i i z h i loi a rh i tek tur i .

Rekons truk ts iya d revn ih o bshches tvenn ih o tnoshen i i . Leonhard , F ., 1 928 .

L en ingrad , 89 .

Z u d en F rauen idolen d es v orderas iat ischen Ku l turkreises .

MAG W LV I , 3 93-406. L ibby , W. F ., 1 960 . 1 960 .

Rad iokoh lens tof f-Da t ierung .

N obe lvor trag am 1 2.12.

Angewandte C he m ie 1 3 , 2 25-252.

L ichardus , J ., 1 964 .

B ei trag z ur L inearbandkera m ik i n d er Os ts lowake i .

AR XV I , 8 41-881. L ichardus , J

V ladar , J ., 1 964.

P rob le men d er Ludan ice G ruppe , SCA

X I I , 6 9-157. L is i ts ina , G . N ., Pr ischchepenko , L . V ., 1 977.

P a leoe tnobotan ichesk ie

n ahodk i K avkaza iB lizhnego Vos toka . L is i tsina , G . N ., 1 965 . Makkay , J ., 1 967.

Oroshae moe z e mede l ie Turk men i i .

Moscow .

D ie i n Tär tär ia g efundenen p ictograph ischen Ta feln u nd

d ie j ungere S teinzei t S üdos teuropas .

Kü lönnyo ma t a möra F erenc

Muzeu m Evkönyve , S zeged , 2 1-24. Makkay , J ., 1 969 .

The L a te N eo li th ic T ordos G roup o f S igns .

Abhand lungen A lba-Reg ia .

Anna les X , 9 -49.

1 11

Tanu l mgnyok-

Margos , L ., 1 953 .

Orudiya n a t rouda o t n eo l i tna ta e poha o t S ta l insko .

I VAD I X , 1 23-124. Margos , A ., 1 961a . e zero .

W AD X I I , 1 26-127.

Margos , A ., 1 961b. e zero .

Prais tor ichesk i n ahodk i o t o ko lnos ti te n a Varnenskoto

O tkr i ti s ledi o t n ov i n akoln i s e lish ta v uv Varnenskoto

I VAD X I I , 1 28-131.

Margos , A ., 1 961c .

Kum v uprosa z a d a t irane to n a n akoln i te s e l ish ta v uv

Va rn ne n sk o to e zero. Margos , A ., 1 961d .

I VAD X I I , 1 -5 .

P ra is tor ichesk i o rud iya n a t rouda o t Varnensko .

W AD X I I , 1 25-126. Margos , A ., Toncheva , G ., 1 962 . s . E zerovo , V arnensko . Mar inescu-B i lcu , S ., 1 964 .

P rais tor icheskoto n ako lno s el ish te p r i

I VAD X II I ,

1 -16.

R ef le ts d es r appor ts e n tre l es c iv i l isa tions d e

Ha mang ia e t d e Prgcucu ten i d ans l a p las t ique p rgcucu ten ienne d e T irpe t i .

Dacia V II I , 3 07-312 .

Mar inescu-B i lcu , S ., 1 972.

Ap ropos d es i n f luences d e l a c u l ture P recucu ten i

s ur l a c u l ture d e H a mang ia , al a l u m Mre d e q ue lques d ecouver tes i ned i tes d e Dobrogea .

Dacia XV I , 5 3-73.

Mar inescu-Bi lcu , S ., 1 974 .

C u l tura P recucu ten i p e t er i tor iu l R o män ie ,

Bucure ti . Markevich , V . I . , 1 965.

I ss ledovan iya n eo li ta n a s redne m Dnes tre .

I n :

KS IA AN S SSR , 1 05 , 1 965 , 8 5-90 . Markev ich , V . I . , 1 968 .

N eo li t Moldav i i ( Pa mya tn ik i b ugo-dnes trovskoi

k u ltur i ) , Moscow , 2 8 f f . Markev ich , V . I . , 1 970 .

Mnogos loinoe p ose len ie N ov ie Rusesh ti I , KS IA,

1 23 , 5 6-67. Markev ich , V . I . , 1 973a .

Pa mya tn ik i e poh i n eo li ta ie neol i ta v Mo ldav i i ,

K ish inev . Markev ich , V . I . , 1 974.

Bugo-dnes trovskaya k u ltura .

Markev ich , V . I . , 1 973b .

P a mya tn ik i e poh n eol i ta ie neol i ta .

Arheo log i-

c heskaya k ar ta S SR , Marx , K ., I z r ukopisnogo n as leds tva K . Marxa , F . Enge ls .

S ochenen iya

2 nd e di t ion , Moscow , v o l . 1 2 , 7 93 N abrosk i o tveta n a p is mo V . M . Z asu l ich .

K . Marx .

F . Enge ls , S ochenen iya , 2 nd e d i tion , Moscow ,

v ol . 1 9 , p . 4 11. Marx , K ., 1 948 .

K ap i ta lu t , v o l . I , S of ia .

Masson , V . M., 1 964 .

S rednyaya A ziya iDrevn i i Vos toc .

Moscow ,

Len ingrad . Masson V . M ., 1 967.

Protogradskaya t s iv i l iza tsiya y oga S rednei A zi i , S A ,

No . 3 , 1 73-176. Masson V . M., 1 970 . d ann ih a rheo log i i .

Proble ma n eo li t ichesko i r evolyu ts i i vs vete n ov ih VDI , 1 970 , v o l . 6 , 7 3-88 . 1 12

Masson , V . M ., 1 971.

P ose len ie J ei tun , MIA 1 08 , Moscow .

Masson , V . M., 1 974 .

Vopros i s ots iolog icheskoi i n terpre ta ts i i d revn ih

z h i l ishch ip oselen i i . s hen i i .

R ekons truk ts iya d revn ih o bshchestvenn ih o tno-

L en ingrad , 5 -7.

Masson , V . M., 1 976.

E cono m ika is ots ia ln i i s troi d revn ih o bshches tv .

Len ingrad . Mä tasa , C ., 1 976 .

Fru m 4 ica .

Ma teescu , C ., 1 959.

S ibiu . Ma ter ia le , 6 ,

S äpä tur i a rheo log ice l a Vädas tra .

1 959 , 1 07-114. Ma teescu , C ., 1 961a .

S äpä tur i a rheolog ice l a Vädas tra .

I n :

Ma ter ia le 7 ,

1 961, 5 7-62 . Ma teescu , C ., 1 961b .

La p lus a nc ienne p hase d e l a c iv i lisa t ion d e Vädas tra ,

Vädas tra I , äl a l um i re d es n ouve l les f ou i l les d e Vädas tra . Ber ich t

A ber

g esch ich te.

I n :

d en V . I n terna tiona len K ongress f ür V or- u nd F rühH a mburg , Ber lin , 1 961, 5 29-534 .

Ma teescu , C ., 1 962 .

Spä tur i a rheo log ice l a Vädas tra .

Ma ter ia le V I I I ,

1 87-191. Ma teescu , C ., 1 965 .

C on tr ibu tion ä Pgtude d e l a c iv i l isa t ion d e Vädas tra :

P hase Vädas tra I .

I n :

A t t i d e l V I C ongresso I n ternaziona le d el le

S c ienze P reis tor iche e P ro tois tor iche , 2 , R o ma , 1 965 , 2 58-263 . Ma teescu , C ., 1 969 .

S äpä tur i a rheolog ice l a Vädas tra .

I n :

Ma ter ia le ,

S äpä tur i a rheolog ice d e Vädas tra .

Ma ter ia le I X ,

5 , 1 959 , 6 1-72 . Ma teescu , C ., 1 970 . 6 7-75 . Me l laar t , J ., 1 960 .

Anatolia a nd t he Ba lkans .

An t iqu i ty =

Me l laar t , J ., 1 975 .

The N eo l i th ic o f t he N ear Eas t .

IV , 2 70-278 .

L ondon .

Merper t , N . J ., The E zero Mound i n S ou theas t Bu lgar ia .

An t iqu i ty XL ,

-3 3-37.

Merper t , N . J ., 1 963 .

P ervi i g od r abo t s ove tsko-bolgarskoi e ksped i ts i i ,

KS IA 9 3 , 2 4-33 . Merper t , N . J ., 1 965a .

0 s vyazah S evernogo P r icherno morya iB alkan v

r anne m b ronzovo m v eke . Merper t , N . J ., 1 965b. , v 1 963.

KS IA ,

1 05 , 1 4f f .

Arheo log ichesk ie i ss ledovan iya v Yuzhnoi B o lgar i i

KS IA , 1 00 , 1 9-28 .

Merper t , N . J ., 1 969 .

Rann i i b ronzov i i v ek Yuzhno i B o lgar i i .

Actes d u I

C ongr s i n terna tiona l d es e tudes B alkan iques e t S ud-es t Europgennes , I , 2 35-254. Merper t , N . J ., 1 970 .

Rabot i b o lgaro-sovetskoi e ksped i ts i i .

Arheolog ichesk ie

o tkr i t iya 1 969 , Moscow , 4 40-443 . Merper t , N . J ., 1 974 . r echya .

Drevneish ie s kotovodi v o lzhskc-ura lskogo mezhdu-

Moscow.

1 13

Merper t , I . J ., C hern ikh , E . K ., 1 972 .

Bo lgaro-sovetskaya e k sped itsiya.

Arheolog ichesk i o tkr i tiya 1 971, Moscow , 5 53-554 . Merper t , N . J ., C hern ikh , E . K ., 1 973 . d i ts i i 1 972.

R abota b olgaro-sove tsko i e kspe-

S born ik Arheolog ichesk ie o tkr i tiya 1 972 , Moscow ,

Merper t , N . J ., C hern ikh , E . K ., 1 974 . k aya e ksped i ts iya .

5 00-502.

B o lgaro-sove tskaya a rheolog iches-

Vopros i i s tor i i , v ol . 6 .

Merper t , N . J ., G eorg iev , G . I . , 1 973 . P ose len ie E zero ie go mes to s redi p a mya tn ikov r annego b ronzovogo v eka S rednei Evropi . S y mpos ium f i ber d ie En ts tehung u nd Chrono log ie d er B adener Ku l tur , Bra t is lava , 2 15-258 . Michael , H . N ., R a lph , E . K ., 1 970 .

C orrec t ion f ac tors a ppl ied t o Egypt ian

r ad iocarbon d a tes f ro m t he e ra b efore C hr is t .

Proceedings o f t he

Twel f th N obe l S y mpos iu m , U psa la , S weden , Augus t 1 1-15 , 1 969 . A l mqu is t a nd Wiksel l , S tockho lm , 1 09-120 . M ichae l , H . N ., R a lph , E . K ., Hau , M . C ., 1 973. R ea li ty.

Radiocarbon D ates a nd

App l ied S c ience C en ter f or Archeology , Masca , N ews let ter ,

I X-1, 1 -19 . Mikov , V ., 1 924.

Ma ter ia li z a p rouchvane n eo li t ichna ta k u l tura v Bu lgaria .

I A I I , 2 18-225 . Mikov , V ., 1 925a .

Mog i la ta p r i s . S ou l tan , P opovsko ( Nevsky ).

GN M I V ,

1 922-25 , 2 3-48 . Mikov , V ., 1 925b .

Mog i la ta p r i s . B a lbo l i mr .

E s tes tvoznan ie ig eograf iya ,

I X , 1 924/1925 , 3 40-345 . Mikov , V ., 1 925c .

P r inos k um n eo li t ichna ta k ou l toura o u n as .

I BA I

2 35-236. Mikov , V ., 1 927.

S e lishna ta mog i la p r i s . B a lbounar .

I BAI I V , 1 92 6 /27 ,

2 51-284. Mikov , V ., 1 929a .

Pr inos k um p red is tor icheska ta k ou l toura o u n as .

I BA I

V , 1 92 8/29 , 3 09-318 . Mikov , V ., 1 929b.

L ovchansko v p redis tor ichesko v re me .

L ovech iL ov-

c hansko , I . Mikov , V ., 1 931.

S e l ishna mog i la v s . G abarevo , Kazan lushka o kol iya ,

GN M V , 1 926-27, 8 4-113 . Mikov , V ., 1 933a .

Ma ter ia l i o t p red is tor icheska ta e poha v Bu lgar ia .

S el ishna ta mog i la p r i s . G orna Manas t ir i tsa , Be lensko ( Chouk mak-tepe ). I BA I V I I , 1 932-1933 , 3 58-368 . Mikov , V ., 1 933b. Mikov , V ., 1 934.

Pred is tor ichesk i s el ish ta in ahodk i v Bu lgar ia .

S of ia .

I do lna ta p las t ika p rez n ovoka menna ta e poha v Bu lgar ia .

I BA I V II I , 1 83-214. Mikov , V ., 1 937a .

S el ishna ta mog i la d o Karanovo , N ovozagorsko .

1 57-173 .

1 14

I GD V ,

Mikov , V ., 1 937b .

S el ishna ta mog i la p r i Yuna ts i te , P azard jishko .

GPNB M ,

1 937/39 , 5 5-84 . Mikov , V ., 1 938 .

P r inos i k um p red is tor icheska ta e poha o u n as .

n o medna e poha . Mikov , V ., 1 939a .

K a men-

I BM X I I , 3 84-396.

S e l ishna mog i la o t b ronzova ta e poha d o s . Vesse l inovo .

I BM X I I I , 1 95-227. M ikov , V ., 1 939b .

S e l ishna ta mog i la p r i Yuna ts i te , P azard jishko , GPNB M ,

1 937-39 , 5 5-84 . M ikov , V ., 1 939c .

( Karanovo B u lgar ia ) , An t iqu i ty X I I I , 3 45-349.

Mikov , V ., 1 946.

Bu lgarsk i te z em i vk raya n a n eo l i tna ta e poha .

G SU IFF

X I I I , 1 946-47, 1 8 . M ikov , V ., 1 948a .

P red is tor ichesko to s e l ish te d o K r ivodo l , Vrachansko ,

RP I , 2 6-62 . M ikov , V ., 1 948b .

P red is tor ichesko to s e l ish te d o s . Miha l ich , S v i lengradsko .

RP I , 7 -25 . Mikov , V . , 1955 . R azkopki te n a s el ish tna ta mog i la p r i K aranovo . a rheo log ichesk i r azkopk i v Bu lgar ia , S o f ia , 9 f f .

P os ledn i te

Mikov , V ., 1 958 .

Ku l tura n eo li ta , e neo l i ta ib ronzi v Bu lgar ia , S A 1 , 4 7-50 .

Mikov , V ., 1 959 .

The P reh is tor ic Mound o f K aranovo .

Archaeo logy 1 2 ,

8 8 f f . M ikov , V ., 1 961.

S e l ishna ta mog i la d o s . Z ave t , B ourgasko .

IM XXIV ,

2 69-296. Mikov , V ., 1 969.

N adpisu t v urhou k rug l iya p echa t o t K aranovo - n a i-

d revna ta p is menos t vE vropa . Mikov , V ., D ja mbazov , N ., 1 960 .

Arheo log iya 1 , 4 -7. D evetashka ta p esh tera , S o f ia ( The

ma ter ia l p ub l ished u nder t he g enera l h ead ing o f E ar ly B ronze Age i s o f d i f feren t p er iods ) . M i lo gi6 , V ., 1 949a . o f S erbia .

ABSA XL IV , 2 58-306.

Mi lo j W , V ., 1 949b . o s teuropa .

S ou th-eas tern E le men ts i n t he P reh is tor ic C iv i l iza t ion

C hrono log ie d er j üngeren S te inze i t Mi t te l- u nd S üd-

B er l in .

M i lo j6 i6 , V ., 1 950 . G e fäss for men .

D ie Askoskanne u nd e in ige a ndere a ga isch-ba lkan ische Mi t te i lungen d es D eu tschen a rchäo log ischen I ns t i tu ts

( Ber l in ) , 1 07-118 . M i lo jöi6 , V ., 1 953 .

E in G o ld fund d er Kupferze i t a us Ungarn .

G er man ia

3 1, 7 -11. M i lo je id , V ., 1 955 .

V orber ich t V ber d i V ersuchsgrabung a n d er A zak i-

Magu la b ei L ar issa .

AA , 1 57f f .

M i lo jC i6 , V ., 1 959 . Ergebn isse d er d eu tschen Ausgrabungen i n Thessa l ien ( 1 953-1958 ) . J ahrbuch RGZ M 6 , 1 -56.

15

Mi lo g i6 , V ., 1 962 .

J . B oessneck u nd M . H opf , D ie d eu tschen Ausgrabungen

a u f d er Arg issa- Magu la i n Thessa l ien .

I . Das p räkera m ische N eo-

l i th iku m , s owie d ie T ier- u nd P f lanzenres te . Mi lor 6 i6 , V ., 1 963 .

Bonn .

D . B erciu , C on tr ib q i i l a p rob le mele n eoli t icu lu i i n

Ro m in ia i n l um ina n oi lor c ercetar i , Rezens ion . Mi lo jC iC , V ., 1 965 .

G er man ia 4 1 , 3 95-399.

D ie T on ta feln v on Tä där ia u nd d ie a bsolu te C hronolog ie

d er mi t teleuropH ischen N eo l i th iku ms , G er man ia XL II I , 2 61-268 . Mi lo jv c i6 , V ., 1 967.

D ie Absolu te C hrono log ie d er J üngs teinzei t i n S t ido-

s teuropa u nd d ie Ergebn isse d er Rad iocarbon Methode.

JRGZ M , Ma inz

1 4 , 1 2f f . Mi lo jv c ib , V ., 1 970 .

D ie a bso lu te C hronolog ie d er J üngs teinzei t i n S üdos-

t europa u nd d ie Ergebn isse d er R adioncarbonmethode , JRGZ M , Mainz 1 4 , 9 -37. Mirchev , M., 1 961.

Tr i p ogreben iya o t e neol i tnata e poha .

I VAD X [ I , 1 17-

1 25 . Mirchev , M., Z la tarsk i D ., 1 960 .

S e l ishnata mog i la p r i s . S ava .

I VAD X E ,

1 -26. Mongei t , A . L ., 1 973 . Mor in tz , S ., 1 959 .

Arheolog iya Z apadnoi E vropi , Ka menn i i v ek .

Moscow .

SW a tur i le d e l a S pan tov ( I . Asezarea n eol i t icä ) I n :

Ma ter ia le 5 , 1 959 , 1 63-167. Mor in tz , S ., 1 963 .

S ee

C an tacuzino G ., Mor in tz , S .

Mor in tz , S . a nd I onescu , B ., 1 968 .

C erce tär i a rheolog ice i n impre jur im i le

o rasu lu i O l ten i ta ( 1 958-1967). Mor in tz , S ., a nd Mi t t , 1 955 .

I n :

SC I V , 1 9 , 1 968 , 9 5-125 .

S an t ieru l a rheo log ic C ernavoda .

I n :

S C I V ,

6 , 1 955 , 1 -2 , 1 51-160. Mor in tz , S ., P reda , C ., 1 959.

S a. p äit ur i le d e l a S pan tov .

Ma ter ia le V , 1 63-

1 67. Mor in tz , S ., Ro man , P ., 1 968 .

Aspek te d es Ausgangs d es Äneo l i th ikums

u nd d er Ü bergangss tu fe z ur Bronzeze i t im Rau m d er N iederdonau .

I n :

Dacia , N .S ., 1 2 , 1 968 , 4 5-128 . Mor in tz , S ., R o man , P ., 1 973.

Ü ber d ie Ü bergangsper iode v o m Äneo li th ikum

z ur Bronzeze i t i n Ru mNn ien .

S y mpos iu m f i ber d ie En ts tehung u nd Chrono-

l og ie d er Badenerku l tur , Bra tis lava 1 973 , 2 59-296. Mov e , T . G ., 1 961.

0 s vyazah p le men Tr ipolskoi k u l tur i s tepne m i p le men-

am i mednogo v eka .

SA , 2 , 1 86-199.

Mt i l ler-Karpe , 1 968 .

Handbuch d er V orgesch ich te I .

Mt i l ler-Karpe , 1 974.

H andbuch d er Vorgesch ich te I I .

Narr , K . J ., 1 975 .

Handbuch d er Urgesch ich te .

Nechaeva , T . B ., 1 972 .

Bern- München , 1 62-208 .

Osnovn ie p roble m i a rheo- magn i tnogo d a t irovan iya .

Proble m i a bsolyu tnogo d a tirovan iya v Arheolog i i .

1 16

Moscow , 1 22-132 .

N ekrasov , 0 . I . , M. Chr is tescu , C . Max im i l ian e t D . N icolaescu-P lopsor , 1 959a .

S tud i i a n tropo log ice a le s chele te lor n eoli tice d escoper i te i n

c im i t iru l p reis tor ic d e l a

e rnavoda .

P rob le me d e a n tropolog ie I V ,

2 1-45 . N ekrasov , 0 ., C hr is tescu , M ., 1 965 .

Donnees a n thropo log iques s ur l es

p opu la t ions d e Page d e l a p ierre e n R ou man ie.

H o mo 1 6, H f . 3 , 1 29-

1 61. Ne me jcovä-Pavukovä , V ., 1 964. Hrädku .

S id l isko b o lerässkeho t ypu v N i tr iansko m

S lA X I I-1, 1 63-268 .

N e me jcovä-Pavukovä , V ., 1 966.

An merkungen z ur r e la tiven Chrono log ie

d es Äneol i th iku ms i n M i t tel- u nd S t idos teuropa . N es tor , I . , 1 928 .

BRGK .

Z ur Chronolog ie d er r umän ischen S te inkup ferzei t .

I n :

PZ 1 9 , 1 928 , 1 10-143 . N es tor , I . , 1 934.

Der S tand d er V orgesch ich ts forschung i n Ru män ien .

2 2 , BRGK 1 1-181 ( D ie B o ian A-Ku l tur , 5 4-61 ). N es tor , I . , 1 940 . z ei t .

I n :

Zur S te llung C ernavoda 's i n d er r u män ischen J ungs tein-

Bd . C . S chuchhard t F es tschr i f t , Ber lin 1 940 , 1 0-23 + 2 Ta f .

N es tor , I . a nd Z ahar ia , E ., 1 968 .

S ur l a p gr iode d e t ransi t ion d u n eoli th ique

a Page d u b ronze d ans l ' re d es c ivi l isa t ions d e C ucu ten i e t d e Gumeln i ta .

I n :

Dacia , N .S ., 1 2 , 1 968 , 1 7-43 .

N eus tupny , J ., 1 960 .

P ravek C eskos lovenska .

Praha .

N eus tupny , J ., 1 968 .

Abso lu te C hrono logy o f t he N eo li th ic a nd Aeneo li th ic

P er iods i n C en tra l a nd S ou th-eas t Europe .

S lA X IV , 1 9-56.

N eus tupny , J ., 1 969.

The täreär ia Tablets .

An tiqu i ty XLII I , 3 2-35.

N eus tupny , J ., 1 970 .

A N ew E poch i n Radiocarbon Da t ing .

An t iqui ty 4 4 ,

3 8-49 . N eus tupny , J ., 1 973 .

D ie B adener Ku l tur .

u nd Chronolog ie d er B adener Ku l tur . N ikolov , B ., 1 962 .

S y mpos iu m d oer d ie En ts tehung B ra tis lava , 3 17-352 .

Pra is tor ichesk i s e l ish ta v uv Vrachansko .

Arheolog iya

I V-4 , 6 5-71. N iko lov , B ., 1 968 . o krug .

Pra is tor icheskoto s el ish te p r i s . Ohoden , Vrachansk i

Arheo log iya 1 , 6 5-75 .

N ikolov , B ., 1 970 .

Pra is tor ichesko s e lish te p r i s . Baourene , Vrachansko.

Arheolog iya 2 , 3 6-42. N ikolov , B ., 1 973 .

Dye p ra is tor ichesk i z h il ish ta o t G radeshn i tsa .

Arh i tek-

t oura 8 , 3 6-38 . N ikolov , B ., 1 974 .

G radeshn i tsa .

S of ia .

N ikolov , B ., 1 975 .

Z am ine ts .

N ikolov , B ., 1 976.

Mog i ln i p ogreben iya o t r anna ta b ronzova e poha p r i

S of ia .

Turnava iKnezha , Vrachansk i o krug .

1 17

Arheolog iya XVI I I , 3 , 3 8-51.

N iko lov , B ., 1 977.

Dgve loppe men t d u C ha lco li th ique e n Bu lgar ie d e l 'Ouest

e t d u N ord-Oues t ( i n t he p ress ) . N ov ikov , Y ., 1 976.

Os torozhno , TERRA I Moscow .

N ovo tnä , M ., 1 970 .

D ie Ax te a nd B e i le i n d er S lowake i , PB I X , 3 , München .

N ovotnä , M ., 1 976.

B eg inn d er Me ta l lverwendung u nd Verarbei tung i n

ö s t l ichen M i t teleuropa .

C ol loque XX [ I I .

L es d ebu ts d e l a mgtal lurg ie ,

I X C ongr s U ISPP , N ice , 1 18-134. N ovotny , B ., 1 958 .

S lovensko v mladse j d obe k a menne j.

Ovcharov , D ., 1 963 .

Brat islava.

Eneo li ten n ekropo l d o s . L i lyak , Turgov ishko .

Arheo-

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D ie r ela t ive C hronolg ie d er j üngeren S teinzei t i n MYkren .

WPZ I , 2 56-277. Passek , T ., 1 935 .

La c gra m ique t r ipol ienne.

Passek , T . S ., Kr ichevsk i , E . Y ., 1 946.

Moskau .

Tr ipo lskoe p ose len ie K olo m i ish-

c h ina ( opi t r ekons truk tsü ) , KSL I MK , 2 a 1 1 . Passek , T . S ., 1 949.

P er iod iza ts iya t r ipolsk ih p oselen i i .

Passek , T . S ., C hern ikh , E . K ., 1 970 . Ka menn i i v ek n a t err i tor i i S SSR . Pa tay , P ., 1 973 .

MIA , 1 0 .

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Prob le me d er B eziehungen d er Bodrogkereszturer u nd

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S y mposiu m ü ber d ie En ts tehung u nd C hronolog ie

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B ra tis lava , 3 53-366.

Pa tay , P ., K i m mer , Z ., S zabo , Z ., S inay , G ., 1 963 .

S pek tograph ische

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Ac ta Archaeolog ica Hungar ica , S . 1 5 .

Pavük , J ., 1 964.

G rab d es i e liezovce-Typus i n Dvorny n ad Z i tavou .

S lA

X [ I-1, 5 -68 . P avük , J ., 1 969. Ku l tur .

An tei l d es Z 9e l iezovce-Typus a n d er G enes is d er Lengyel-

S tudi jne z ves t i 1 7, 3 43-360 .

Persh i ts , A . I . , Mongei t , A . L ., A lekseev , V . P ., 1 974. b i tnogo o bshches tva . P e tkov , N ., 1 931.

I s tor iya p ervo-

Moscow .

Mog i la ta Oko l g lava p re s . Gn i lyang .

GN M V , 1 926-

1 931, 1 15-145. Pe tkov , N ., 1 929 . k ot lov ina .

P redis tor icheska b oyad isana k era m ika o t S of i iska ta

GPNB M 1 928/1929 , 1 85-198 .

P e tkov , N ., 1 934a .

Pred is tor ichesk i i zs ledvan iya n a S of i isko to p ole ib liz-

k i te mou o ko lnos t i . Petkov , N ., 1 934b. v Bu lgar ia.

GN M V I , 1 932-1934 , 4 03-423.

Ma ter ia l i z a p rouchvane n a p red is tor icheska ta e poha I BAI V I I I , 4 29-434.

1 18

Pe tkov , N ., 1 939a . Bu lgar ia .

Ma ter ia li z a p rouchvane n a p red is tor icheska ta e poha v

I BAI XVI I , 3 07-309.

P e tkov , N ., 1 939b .

Mog i ln i n ekropo li v S of i isko iTroyansko.

I BA I X I I I ,

3 09-315 . P e tkov , N ., 1 948a .

S el ishna ta G inova mog i la d o C helopech .

GN M P lovdiv

I , 1 59-171. P etkov , N ., 1 948b .

G inova mog i la d o s . C he lopech , P irdopsko.

RP I ,

7 5-81. P etkov , N ., 1 950a .

Ma ter ia l i z a p rouchvane p redis tor iya ta n a Bu lgar ia .

I A I XV II , 2 10-213 . Pe tkov , N ., 1 950b . s ka ta o blas t . P e tkov , N ., 1 950c . Pe tkov , N ., 1 957.

K las i f ika ts iya n a p losk i te k os tn i i doli v Ba lkano d ounavGNM P lovdiv I , 2 5-37. S e l ishna ta mog i la Okol g lava .

Z h ivotinsk i d ekora t iven e le men t ve neol i tna ta k era m ika

o t G orn i P asare l . Pe tkov , N ., 1 959a . S ofi isko .

I A I XVI I , 1 57-170 .

I AI XX I , 2 91-294.

Prais tor ichesk i ma te na h

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I A I ) 0 ( I I , 4 1-56.

Pe tkov , N ., 1 959b.

Neol i tno s el ish te p r i s . S la tina .

Arheolog iya I , 1 -2 ,

1 00-105 . P e tkov , N ., 1 960 . p o le .

P rinos k um p rouchvan iya ta n a p ra is tor iya ta n a S of i isko to

Arheolog iya 1-4 , 4 4-58 .

P e tkov , N ., 1 961a . o krug .

Edno s i mvol ichno p ogreben ie p r i s . P ek lyuk , S ofi isk i

Arheo log iya I I-4 , 6 7-70 .

P e tkov , N ., 1 961b.

Nov i d ann i z a n eoli tna ta k ou ltoura k rai S ofia .

Arheo-

l og iya I I-3 , 6 4-73 . Pe tkov , N ., 1 961c .

Prais tor icheska i dolna p las t ika o t S ofi isko p o le .

I zs led-

v an iya v p a me t n a Kare l § korpi l , 3 87-396. P e tkov , N ., 1 962 .

R isouvan iya t o rna men t p rez n eoli ta v S of i isko to p ole i

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Arheolog iya I V-3 , 4 3-49.

P ek lyuk - p ra is tor ichesko s e l ish te p r i s . Gu lubov tsi ,

I A I XXV I , 1 77-194.

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G runcharska p esh t o t e neol i tno to s e l ish te p r i s . G u lu-

b ov ts i , S ofi isko .

Arheo log iya V I-1, 4 8-60 .

Pe trescu-Di mbov i ta , M., 1 953.

C et e l ia d e l a S toican i .

Ma teria le I , 1 3-

1 05 . P e trescu-Drmbov i ta , M., 1 945. c arpa tho-balkan ique .

Ba lcan ia V I I I , 1 92-215 .

P e trescu-Dimbov ia , M., 1 966. P iggo t t , S ., 1 972 .

N ouve l les d onn es c oncernan t l a n bol i th ique

Cucu ten i .

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1 19

Bucure e i . München , 1 05-213 .

P opov , R ., 1 908 .

P r inos k um p red is tor iya ta n a Bu lgaria :

p r i s . S a l manovo , S hou mensko .

mog i la ta B akad ji

PSp XX-69, 6 41-669.

P opov , R ., 1 909.

K od jader menska ta mog i la .

P opov , R ., 1 911.

k iol i iz h ivo tinsk i f igour i o r p redis tor icheska ta mog i la p r i

Kod jader men . P opov , R ., 1 913a .

PSp XX I-70 , 5 03-562.

I BAD I , 7 0-80 . R azkopk i vp esh tera ta A i lorov i tsa .

I BAD I I , 1 912-1913 ,

2 63-290 . P opov , R ., 1 913b. Madara .

Ma ter ia li z a p rouchvane n a s el ish teto P od g rada p r i

I BAD I I , 1 912-1913 , 9 0-107.

P opov , R ., 1 914.

P red is tor icheska ta Deneva mog i la p r i S a l manovo .

I BAD

I V , 1 48-225 ( t he r eference i s t o P a lyova mog i la ). P opov , R ., 1 918 .

K od jader menska ta mog i la p r i g r .

P opov , R ., 1 919.

P esh tera ta Morov i tsa .

S hou men .

I BAD V I .

Es tes tvoznan ie ig eogra f iya I V ,

4 24-440 . P opov , R ., 1 923. S of ia .

P redis tor ichen o tdel , Vodach z a N arodn iya mouzei v

S o f ia , 5 0-115 .

P opov , R ., 1 925a .

P red is tor ichesk i k ou l tov i b radv i .

S born ik Dyakov ich ,

r v ,

1 922-1925 , 7 2-115 .

1 03-109. P opov , R ., 1 925b.

Mog i la ta Deve Bargan .

GN M

P opov , R ., 1 925c.

Pred is tor ichesk i mra morn i i doli h a meren i v Bu lgar ia .

I BA I I I , 9 1-110 . P opov , R ., 1 930 .

K ou l toura iz h ivot n a p red is tor ichesk iya c hovek v Bu lgar ia .

S of ia , 1 2-26. P opov , R ., 1 938a . s t ir .

R azkopk i vG o lya ma ta p esh tera p r i Dryanovsk iya mana-

PN V II I , 1 937-1938 , 8 -10 .

P opov , R ., 1 938b .

G o lya ma ta ima lkata p esh tera p r i Dryanovsk iya manas tir .

I BAI X II , 3 14-340 . P opovi6 , V ., 1 964. Na t ionales . Qu i t ta , H ., 1 967.

L e c ha lco l i th ique t hrace a u Musbe d es An t iqu i ts An t iqu i t s Na t iona les I , f asc. I I e t I V. R ad iocarbonda ten u nd d ie C hrono log ie d es mi t tel- u nd

s t Idos teuropY ischen N eol i th iku ms . Qu i t ta , H ., 1 975.

D ie C 14 Methode.

d er Urgesch ich te .

Ausgrabungen u nd Funde , 1 23f f .

Wege z ur Da t ierung u nd C hrono log ie

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Qu i t ta , H ., Koh l , G ., 1 969.

N eue Radiocarbonda ten z um N eol i th iku m u nd

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Z fA 3 , 2 23-

2 55 . Qu i t ta , H ., Koh l , G ., 1 975 .

Mog i la ta G o lya mo Delchevo - r ad iovug lerodn i

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P ra is tor ichesk i ma ter ial i o t r azkopk i te n a P ern ish-

k a ta k repos t p rez 1 960-1961.

B ID XXVI I , 2 13-232. 1 20

Radouncheva , A ., 1 973 .

D ois tor iches i coe i sskus tvo v B olgar i i ( V-I I h i lya-

d o let ie d .n .e .) , S o fia . Radouncheva , A ., 1 976.

V in i tsa - e neoli tno s el ish te in ekropo l.

S ofia ,

RP V I . R einecke , P ., 1 942 .

Z u n eueren Funden a us d em S üdos ten .

WPZ XX IX ,

9 1-107. R en frew , C ., 1 969 .

The Au tono my o f t he S ou th-eas t E uropean C opper Age.

P roceedings o f t he P reh is tor ic S ociety XXXV , 1 2-39. R en frew , C ., 1 971.

C arbon 1 4 a nd t he Preh is tory o f Europe.

S cien ti f ic

Amer ican 2 29 , 6 3-71. R en frew , C ., 1 972 .

The Emergence o f C iv i l isa t ion .

Ren frew , C ., 1 973.

The Aegean a nd t he Balkans a t t he C lose o f t he Neo li th ic

P er iod ( t he E v idence o f S i tagroi ) .

L ondon , 1 972.

S y mpos iu m ü ber d ie En ts tehung u nd

Chrono log ie d er B adener Ku l tur Bra t is lava 1 973 , 4 27-439 . R ibakov , B . A ., 1 965 .

Kos mogon iya imi fo log iya z em ledel tsev e neo li ta .

S ovetskaya a rheolog iya 1 965 , 1 , 2 4-47 a nd 2 , 1 3-33 . R indina , N . V ., 1 971.

Drevneishee me ta loobrabo t ivayushchee p roizvods tvo

V os tochno i E vrop i .

Moscow .

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Ers ter I dI

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R o man , P ., 1 964a .

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Gume ln4a S i s e mn i f icap .a e i , SCIV , X IV/1, 3 3-50 . R o man , P ., 1 964b.

Despre u nele a specte a le p er ioadei d e t recere d e l a e poca

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S truk turänderungen d es End neol i th iku ms im Donau-

Karpa ten-Rau m . R o man , P ., 1 974 .

Dacia XV , 3 1-169.

Das Prob le m d er " Schnurverzier ten" Kera mik i n S l id-

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C o mplexu l Or lea-Sadovec.

Roset ti , D . V ., 1 934.

S CIV , XXVL I/2 , 1 47-160 .

S äpä tur i le d ela V idra - R appor t p rgli m inaire s ur l es

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S te inkup ferzei t l iche P las t ik a us e ine m Wohnhügel b ei

JPEK 1 2 , 2 9-50 .

Roset ti , D . V ., 1 961. R ousseva , P ., 1 950 .

Shä tur i le d e l a V idra .

Ma ter ia le V II , 7 0-76.

Ma ter ia l i o t s el ish tna ta mog i la d o s . Oryahov i tsa .

I A I XVII , 2 14-215 . Rusu , M ., 1 971.

Cu l tura T isa .

I n :

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1 21

S a m melband , 1 975 .

Moderne Proble me d er Archäolog ie .

S avoy , S ., Margos , A ., 1 969. S born ik , 1 960 .

B er lin .

H ora ta o t n ako ln i te z h i l ish ta .

S of ia .

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i ss ledovan i i .

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S tu t tgar t .

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1 960 AA 2 , 1 05f f . S ch lette , F ., 1 975 .

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s ch ich t l ichen Chrono log ie .

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B er l in ,

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PZ

XV , 9 -27. S corpan , C ., 1 969 .

Un n ou o bject d e c u l t d in n eoli t icu l d obrogean .

R ev .

Muz . V I , 4 45-447. S e menov , S . A ., 1 968 .

R azvi tie t ehn ik i vk a menno m v eke .

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9 0 , 1 07, 3 52. S e menov , S . A ., 1 974.

P roishozhden ie z e mede l iya .

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R anne tr ipolsk i i k lad u s . Karbuna .

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L en ingrad . S A , 1 , 1 25-134 .

Exp lora t ion d e q uelques t el ls d e l a Thrace .

BCH XXX , 3 59-432. S evereanu , G ., 1 937.

A Mycenaean G old Ob ject F ound i n D obrogea .

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T ipolog ichesk i i me tod v a rheologü is ta t is t ika .

Dok ladi

a rheo logov S SSR n a V I I k ongresse MAPP-Be lgrade- Moscow . g iska , S ., 1 964.

P ohrebisko t iszapo lgarskei j k u l tury v T ibave.

S 1A X I I-2 ,

2 99-356. g iska , S ., 1 973.

D ie L a n ny -Ku l turgruppe i n d er Os ts lowakei .

f i ber d ie En ts tehung u nd C hrono log ie d er B adener Ku l tur .

S y mpos ium Bra t islava

1 973 , 4 53-464. g korpi l , H . a nd K ., 1 898 .

Mog i li .

P lovdiv , Arch iv n a H . a nd K . g korp i l ,

BAN .

1 22

S oudsky , B ., 1 956.

K r ela t ivn i c hrono log i i v o lu tove k era m iky .

AR V I I I ,

4 08-412. S oudsky , B ., 1 966.

By lany .

P raha .

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Lepensk i V ir .

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D ie g ene tischen u nd c hronolog ischen Beziehungen d er

B e lgrade .

V inCa u nd d er L engyel G ruppe .

S tud i jne z ves t i 1 7, 3 83-392.

S tancheva , M., G avr i lova , M., 1 961. s e lish te v S o fia .

Choveshk i g l inen i f igourk i o t n eol i tnoto

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P r irodnaya s reda in eko tor ie v opros i i s tor i i c he lo-

v eches tva v k o mpleksno m r ass motren i i .

S ove tskaya a rheolog iya 3 ,

2 99-302. S ubbot in , L . V ., 1 975 . G u meln i t,a .

B o lgradsk i i l oka ln i i v ar ian t e neo li t icheskoi k u l tur i

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D ie E ichung d er Radiocarbonuhr .

B i ld d er Wissen-

s cha f t 6 , 1 21-127. S uess , H . C ., 1 970 .

Br is t lecone p ine c a libra tion o f t he r adiocarbon t ime-

s ca le 5 200 B . C . t o t he p resen t .

P roceed ings o f t he Twel f th Nobe l

S y mpos ium , Upsa la , S weden , Augus t 1 1-15 . S uess , H . C ., 1 969b .

A l mqu is t a nd Wiksel l , S tockhol m ( W i ley I n terscience

D iv is ion , J ohn Wi ley a nd S ons , N ew York ) , 3 03-311. S uess , H . C ., 1 973. S ynos , G ., 1 973 .

N a tura l Radiocarbon .

Endeavour 3 2 , 3 4-38 .

D ie v ork lassische S ied lung i . md wohnung i n G r iechen land .

B onn . Teleg in , D . Y ., 1 . 968 .

Dn ipro-Donetska k u ltura .

Te leg in , D . Y ., 1 973 .

S erednyo-s tog ivska k u ltura e poh i mid i .

Te leg in , D . Y ., 1 976.

Ob o snovn ih p os i tsiyah v p o lozhen i i p ogrebenn ih p er-

v obi tno i e poh i e vropeiskoi c has t i S SSR .

K iev . K iev .

Eneoli t ib ronzov i i v ek Ukrain i ,

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AGR I/R .

4 8 , 9

Dece mber 1 976 — E cono m ic C omm iss ion f or Europe , G en ve . Theoch .ar is , D ., B oekoeny i , S ., Theochar is , M., Ren frew , J ., Ren frew , C ., S akel larak is , J ., H our mouzidis , G ., 1 973 .

N eo li th ic G reece.

N a tiona l Bank o f G reece . T ichy , R ., 1 972.

K o tazce " pis ma" v mlads i d obe k a menne.

" Schr i f t" i n d er j üngeren S teinzei t . 2 0aV.

1 23

Z ur F rage d er

V las t ived e v es tn ik moravsky ( VV M )

T i tov , V . S ., 1 969 .

N eo li t G re ts i i .

T i tov , V . S ., 1 974 .

Prob le ma h ronolog i i n eo l i ta ie neol i ta Yugo-Vos tochnoi

Evropi .

Moscow .

SA , 4 , 2 3-48 .

T odorova , H . ( Va jsovä ) , 1 966.

S tand d er angs teinzei t forschung i n Bu lgar ien .

S lovenska a rheolog ia X IV 1, 1 5-48 . Todorova , H . ( Va jsovä ) , 1 967. Bu lh .arsko .

Archeo log icke Rozh ledy X IX 3 , 3 29-352.

T odorova , H . ( Va jsovä ) , 1 968 . ( Nordbu lgar ien ) . museums .

Kera mika t ypu V arna v S everovychodno m

D ie v orgesch ich t lichen Funde v on S adovec

J ahrbuch d es R t im isch-ger man ischen Z en tra l-

Mainz 1 5 , 1 5-63 .

Todorova , H . ( Va jsovä ) , 1 969. Ku l tur G u me ln4a . T odorova , H ., 1 971a .

Ü ber e in ige Fragen d er Chrono log ie d er

S tudi jne z ves t i 1 7, 4 81-495 . Kusnoeneoli tn iyat n ekropo l k rai g r . Devnya .

I NM

Varna V II , 3 -40 . Todorova , H ., 1 971b . N yakoi p roble m i n a n a i-ranno to z e mede lie v Bu lgar ia va vet l ina ta n a a rheolog ichesk i to ma ter ia l i . Arh iv n a s elskos topansk iya mouzei , I , 4 4-53. Todorova-S i meonova , H ., 1 971c .

L a c iv i l isa t ion T zonevo - l e p lus a ncien

c o mplexe nkd i th ique a u N ord-Es t d e l a P en insu le Ba lkan ique .

Vor trag

am V I I Ie C ongr s I n terna t iona l d es S ciences Pr a is tor iques e t P rotoh is tor iques , B eograd 1 971. Todorova-S i meonova , H ., 1 971d . t he Te l l G o l ja mo De l tschevo.

Typo log ica l p rocess ing o f t he f inds f ro m Mathe mat ics i n t he Archeolog ic A a nd

H is tor ica l S ciences , E dinburg , 4 60-469. Todorova-S i meonova , H ., 1 972a .

N ai-rannoto p or tre tno s kou lptourno i zo-

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•

N ov i d ann i z a mirog leda n a c hoveka p r i

F i losofska misu l 1 1 , 6 0-69 .

Todorova-S i meonova , H ., 1 973a . r evolyu ts iya .

I zkous tvo , 6 , 3 2-33 .

Orno to z e medel ie - o snova n a e neol i tna ta

Arh iv n a s elskos topansk iya mouzei , I , 1 7-27.

Todorova-S i meonova , H ., 1 973b. n a n ov i te o tkr i t iya .

I do lna ta p las t ika v Bu lgar ia v s ve t l ina ta

I BID XXIX , 5 -20 .

Todorova-S i meonova , H ., 1 973c .

N ovaya k u l tura s rednego n eo li ta v S evero-

Vos tochno i B o lgar i i , S A , 4 , 2 f f . Todorova-S i meonova , H ., 1 973d. g ar ien .

D ie f rühes ten F or t i f ika tionsys te me i n Bu l-

Z ei tschr i ft f ür Archeo log ie 7 , 2 29-238 .

Todorova-S i meonova , H ., 1 973e . z ur Bronzezei t i n Bu lgar ien . Todorova-S i meonova , H ., 1 974a . v an iya v Bu lgar ia .

Z ur Frage d es Ü bergangs v o m Äneo li th iku m S tud i jne z ves ti 1 9 , 4 65-468 . Tr idese t g odin i p rais tor ichesk i p rouch-

Vekove , I L I , v o l . 4 -5 , 8 4-93 .

1 24

Todorova-S i meonova , H ., 1 974b. i n N ordos t-bu lgar ien .

D ie N neo li th ische S ied lung u nd Wohnung

N ov i-Sad S y mpos iu m W 1 974 ;

Todorova-S i meonova , H ., 1 974c . Bez.

rargovis te .

Ku l tszene u nd Haus model l a us O aarovo ,

Thracia I I , 3 9-46.

Todorova-S i meonova , H ., 1 975a . b an is t ichn i p lanove .

O t p urv i te z h i l ish ta d o n ai-rann i te o ur-

Arh i tek toura 5 , 3 3 f . f .

Todorova-S i meonova , H ., 1 975b. v Bu lgar ia .

N a i-rann i d ann i z a o upotreba n a me ta li

S born ik d ok lad i o t p urv iya s i mpos iou m p o i s tor iya n a min-

n oto d e lo v Yugo-iztochna E vropa . Todorova-S i meonova , H ., 1 975c . t or iya .

Varna , 5 -13.

Ak toua ln i p roble m i n a b u lgarska ta p ra is-

I P .

Todorova-S i meonova , H ., 1 975d . z em i .

( i n t he p ress ).

P rais tor icheskoto i zkous tvo v n ash i te

S of ia .

Todorova-S i meonova , H ., 1 976a .

Ovcharovo.

Todorova-S i meonova , H ., 1 976b.

Bu lgar ia iYugoiztochna . E vropa p rez

n eol i ta ie neoli ta . Todorova , H ., 1 976c .

S of ia .

S born ik — U k ongres n a B ID , i n t he p ress . Das N eo li th iku m N ordos tbu lgar ien ( Résu mé ) I X C on-

g rs U ISPP , N ice. Todorova , H ., 1 976d .

Das * . A .neo li th iku m a n d er wes t l ichen S chwarz meer-

k üs te , Varna S y mpos iu m I 1 976 ( i n t he p ress ) . Todorova , H ., 1 976e .

Actua l Proble ms o f Bu lgar ian P reh is tory .

L ingu is t-

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S el ishna ta mog i la p r i G o lya mo De lchevo.

Razkopk i ip rouch-

v an iya V . Todorova , H ., N acheva , V ., 1 971.

P sevdof irn isova k era m ika o t e neol i tnoto

n ako lno s e l ish te k ra i E zerovo , Varnensko.

Arheolog iya 2 , 6 6-75 .

Todorova , H ., R indina , N . V ., C hern ikh , E . N ., 1 977.

Eneol i tichesk i i

metal l i z G o lya mo De lchevo , S A , 1 , 1 5-27. Todorova , H ., Tonceva , G ., 1 975 . E zero im Varnasee .

G er man ia 5 3 , 3 0-46.

Toncheva , G ., Margos , A ., 1 959. s . E zerovo , Varnensko . Tsoun tas , e h ., 1 908 . Vaisova , H ., 1 963 . Me tod ievo .

D ie f neol i th ische P fah ibaus ied lung b ei

Prais tor icheskoto n akolno s el ish te p r i

Arheo log iya 1 -1-2 , 9 6-99.

D im in i k ai S esk lo .

A thbne .

P ozi t ivn iya t o rna men t v urhou s udovete o t K ir i l-

Mouze i ip a metn i ts i n a k ou l toura ta , 4 , 8 -15 .

Va jsovä , H . ( Todorova ) , 1 964.

V yvo j e neol i t ickey k era m iky v j uzno m a

s everovychodno m Bu lharsku . Va jsovä , H . ( Todorova ) , 1 966.

N i tra , D isser ta t ionsarbei t .

S tand d er J t ings teinzei t forschung i n Bu lgar ien .

S l . A . X IV-1, 1 5-48 .

1 25

Va jsovä , H . ( Todorova ) , 1 967. Bu lharsku .

Kera m ika t ypu Varna v s everovychodno m

AR 1 3 , 3 29-351, 3 81-382.

Va jsovä , H . ( Todorova ) , 1 969. G u meln i ta Ku l tur .

E in ige Fragen ü ber d ie C hrono log ie d er

S tud i jne z ves t i 1 7, 4 81-495 .

Vas i& M., 1 932.

P reis tor iska V in & I . B eograd .

Vas iZ , M., 1 936.

P re is tor iska V inda I I .

Vav i lov , N . I . , 1 965 .

B eograd .

Tsen tr i p roizhozhden iya k u l turn ih r as ten i i .

I zbr .

t r . V , M-L . Vel ikanova , M . S ., 1 975 .

P a leoan tropo log iya p rou tsko-dnes trovskogo mezh-

d urech iya , Moscow . V lassa , N ., 1 963 .

C hrono logy o f t he N eo li th ic i n Transy lvan ia i n t he L igh t

o f t he Tar tar ia S e t t le men t 's S trat igraphy .

I n :

Dacia , N . S . 7 , 1 963 ,

4 85-494. V lassa , N ., 1 964.

C on tr ibuV i l a c unoa eerea c u l tur i i B odrogkeresztur I n

Trans i lvan ia .

I n :

V lassa , N ., 1 967.

S CIV , 1 5 , 1 964 , 3 , 3 51-367.

Une le Proble me a le n eoli t icu lu i Trans i lvan iei .

I n :

Ac ta Musei Napocens is , 4 , 1 967 , 4 03-423. V lassa , N ., 1 972 .

C ea ma i v eche f azä a c o mplexu lu i c u l tura l S tarcevo-

C r i r in R o mania , AMN , C lu j , I X , 7 -28 . Vodach , Arheo log ichesk i mouzei P lovdiv ( Ima mova d oupka ) , S of ia , 1 957, 1 0 . Vu lpe , A ., 1 970 .

Äx te u nd Bei le i n Ru män ien I , PBF I X , 2 , München .

Vu lpe , A ., 1 975 .

Ä x te u nd B ei le i n Rumän ien I , PBF I X , 5 , München .

Vu lpe , A ., 1 976. Ru män ien .

Zu d en An fängen d er Kup fer- u nd Bronze me ta l lurg ie i n C o l loque XX LI I .

Les d tbu ts d e l a me ta l lurg ie .

I X C on-

ice , 1 34-176. g res U ISPP , N Vu lpe , R ., 1 956.

P roble mele n eo li t icu lu i c arpa to-n iprovianIn l um ina s hpä-

t ur i lor d e l a I zvoare . Vu lpe , R ., 1 957.

I zvoare .

I n :

S CIV , 7 , 1 956 1 -2 , 5 3-93.

Bucure e i .

Wace , A . J . B ., Tho mpson , M . S ., 1 912.

P reh is tor ic Thessa ly .

C a m-

b r idge . Wa tson , R . A ., 1 972 .

The " New" Archaeology o f t he 1 960s .

An t iqu i ty ,

XLVI , 1 83 , 2 10-215 . Weinberg , S ., 1 965 . Yakhot , 0 . 0 ., 1 961.

The S tone Age i n t he Aegean .

CAH I , X , l f f .

Kv oprosu o s tat is ticheskoi z akono mernos t i .

U chen .

z ap . p o s tat is tike , v ol . 6M , AN S SSR , 1 0 . Yanushev ich , Z . V ., 1 976.

Ku l tUrn ie r as ten iya y ugo-zapada S SSR p o p a leo-

b o tan ichesk im i ss ledovan iya m .

K ish inev .

Yanushev ich , Z . V ., Markev ich , V . I . , 1 970 .

Arheo log ichesk ie n a .hodk i

k u l turn ik z lakov n a p ervobi tn ih p oselen iya Pru tsko-dnes trovkogo mezhd urechya .

I n troduk ts iya k u l turn ih r as ten i i . 1 26

K ish inev 1 970 , 8 3-109 .

Yavashev , A ., 1 925.

O tche t i n a r azgradsko to a rheo log ichesko d rouzhes tvo

1 922-23 , 1 -10 . P rob le mn ie s i tua ts i i va rheo log i i , SA , 4 , 3 -16.

Z aharuk , Y . N ., 1 973. Z ervos , C h ., 1 962 .

L a N a issance d e l a c iv i l isa t ion e n G rece .

Z ervos , C h ., 1 964 .

N a issance d e l a c iv i l isa t ion e n G rece .

Z inkovsk i i , K . V ., 1 973 .

I , P ar is .

I , P ar is .

N ov ie d ann ie k r ekons truk ts i i t r ipo lsk ih z h i lishch .

S A 1 , 1 37-149 . Z inkovsk i i , K . V ., 1 976. 0 me todah i zuchen iya d o mos tro i tels tva p le men t r ipo lskoi k u l tur i . Ma ter ia l i p o a rheo log i i s evernogo P r icherno mor iya 8 , 3 6-94 . Zweck , E . V ., 1 974 .

Kv oprosu o b o trazhen i i vp ose len iyah s oc ia lno i s truk-

t un io bshches tva .

R ekons truk ts iya d revn ih o bshches tvenn ik o tnoshen i i .

L en ingrad , 2 5-26 .

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V

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The Ba lkan-Carpath ian me ta l lurg ica l p rov ince a nd t he d istr ibu t ion o f i t s p roducts

r I

m i c z t S

i 9 c :

g

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E

l

. " . .

.e

, .e

. C7 DI

. .... c y ze Lf3

E . 1

; 1

E 4

''

P late I

Vessels a nd z oo morph ic a l tars o f t he Mar itsa c u lture , Thrace, p hase I -1, 5 , 6 , p hase 1-2, 3 , 4

I

4

P late I

Pot tery s herds o f t he Mar itsa c u lture , Thrace-3 , 4 , 5 ;

a nd o f t he

Gradeshn itsa c u l ture , N orth-western Bu lgar ia -1, 2 , 6 , 7 , 8

2

7

P late I I

Vessels a nd l i ds o f p hase Io f t he K od jadermen-Gume ln i la-Karanovo V I c u lture f rom t he Ovcharovo s et t le men t mound , North-eastern Bu lgar ia-1-5 , 7 ; 6 , 8 -10

a nd o ft he Po lyan itsa c u l ture f rom t he s a me s i te -

2

4

5

6

1 0

P late I V

Vessels o f t he Mar itsa c u lture, Thrace , p hase I V -1;

o f t he

Kod jader men-Gume ln ila-Karanovo V I c u l ture, p hase 1-2, p hase 1 -3-6 , 8 ; Bu lgar ia -7

a nd o f t he K r ivodo l-Sa lcu la c u l ture , N orth-western

2

P late V

Vessels , l ids a nd s tra iners o f t he K od jader men-Gu meln ita-Karanovo V I c u lture , p hase I I-1, 2 ; o f t he S ava c u l ture , B lack S ea c oast , p hase 1-4 , p hase I I -5 , 6 , p hase I V -3;

a nd o f t he K r ivodo l-

S a lcu ta c u lture , N orth-western Bu lgar ia -7 , 8

8

P late V I

Vessels o f t he S ava c u lture , B lack S ea c oast , p hase 1-1-3, p hase I V -4

2

P late V I I

L ids o f t he S ava c u lture , B lack S ea c oast , p hase 1-2-5 , p hase 1 V -1

-

5

P late V I I I

Vessel o f t he S ava c u l ture , B lack S ea c oast , p hase I -1;

t he

a l tars f rom t he c u l t s cene o f Ovcharovo ( reverse ), p hase Io f t he K od jader men-Gu me ln i ›- Karanovo V I c u lture -2-4; s cene f ro m Ovcharovo -5

t he c u l t

1

2

4

5

P late I X

C lay models o f o vens f rom v ar ious a reas 1 -3;

model o f t he

i n ter ior o f ah ouse f ro m t he Ovcharovo s et t le men t mound , p hase Io f t he K od jader men-Gu meln itu-Karanovo V I c u l ture -4

P la te X

Bone i mp le men ts :

1 -9 —far m t oo ls;

1 2 —stone a dze w ith a h orn h and le;

1 0 , 1, 1 3, 1 4 —harpoons; 1 5-24 —aw ls, n eed les a nd

a rrow h eads ; 2 5-27 —sp ind le whor ls

8 1 3

1 5 1 6

2 0 2 1

1 7

2 2

1 8

2 3

1 9

2 4

P late X I

Copper o b jects :

1—axe-ha m mer o f t he Devnya-Varna t ype;

2—loop f ro m a n e arr ing ; w ith a d ouble s p iral ;

3—aw l w ith a b one h and le;

5—wedge;

6 -8 —axe-wedges;

a xe-wedge o f t he Mar itsa c u lture , Thrace; t he V idra t ype;

4—p in 9—oval

1 0 —axe-ha m mer o f

1 1 —axe-ha m mer o f t he Coka-Varna t ype

2 3

a

P late X I I

l a a nd b—f l in t a rrow h eads;

2—f l in t k n ives;

3 , 4—Late En .eo l ith ic

v essels o f p hase I I o f t he K od jader men-Gume ln ita- K aranovo V I c u lture;

6— marble i do l f rom B lagoevo , s a me p er iod ;

5—s ma l l

r ectangu lar a l tar d ecorated i n t wo c o lours f ro m p hase I V o f t he Mar itsa c u lture , Thrace

a

2

1

b

3

P late X I I I

S tone i mp le men ts : 1 1-18—adzes

1 -6 w edges;

7 -10 b ack p arts o f a xe-ha m mers;

4

1

2

1

1 2

1 6

1 3

1 7

1 4

1 8

P late X IV

S cu lpted i do ls :

1 , 2—zoo morph ic l i ds i n t he s hape o f ab ird 's h ead ,

a nd 7—o f ad eer 's h ead f rom t he Go lya mo Delchevo s et t le men t mound , Varna d istr ict ;

3 , 4—stand ing i do ls f ro m t he s a me s ite;

5—sea ted c lay i do l f rom t he O vcharovo s et t le ment mound ;

6—zoo-

morph ic v essel w ith a g raph ite o rna men ted h ead o f p hase I L Io f t he Mar itsa c u l ture , Thrace

1

P late XV

An thropo- a nd z oomorph ic s cu lptures :

1 -2 —bone b usts o f i do ls ;

3—stand ing i do l w ith a r ectangu lar c ross-sect ion ; 4— ido l-symbo l ; 5 a a nd b—ho l low c u lt v essel i n t he s hape o f ap rone d og ; b—cu l t v essel i n t he s hape o f ap lu mp wo man ;

6 a a nd

t hese o b jects a re

f rom t he Go lya mo De lchevo s et t le ment mound , Varna d istr ict , a nd a re r eferred t o t he S ava a nd Varna c u l tures o n t he B lack S ea c oast

L IST OF ABBREVIAT IONS I N THE TABLES

E .E.

Early Eneo l ith ic

M.E.

Midd le Eneo l ith ic

L . E.

L ate Eneo l ith ic

L .N .P .

L ate N eo l ith ic P er iod

E .E. P.

Early Eneo l ith ic Per iod

M.E. P.

M idd le Eneo l ith ic Per iod

L .E. P .

L a te Eneo l ith ic Per iod

E .B.A.

Early Bronze Age

M.B.A.

Midd le Bronze Age

E .E. P .

Early Eneo l ith ic Per iod

1 82

CALIBRATED

STEPPE

H I I l

HH H I

H

I1

0 C 4

0

0 t e 1 H I H

° I

I H HH H H I HH H H H I1 H

3ZN01 1 11

O O O 4 '

0 0 0 b r t

U

C

a H

H H

0 H I H

I

I H

H 1 H

I

H H I

H I

DI HJ ,I103 1N3

a

I

H I H

H 1 H

X

H H

TSONEVO

OUSSOE

H I H

SAMOVODYANE

H 1H HH HIH H 1 1 -4

OUSSOE

II

( VARNA PHASE)

V )

HOTNITSA I

II

H

HOTNITSA

POLYAN r r SA

POLYANITSA

C.

H H

H

I

H

0 GUMELNITA

0 1 2 4 t = 1 .

H I H

0 0

KARANOVO

H I H

STEPPE INVASION

0

H I H

VESSELINOVO

f r ,

H IH H IH H

KALOYANOVETS

BULGARIA

HI

)

A GE IN

4 7 4

ERNAVODA I/PEVETS

BRONZE

1

(KARANOVO

EARLY

H i H

INVASION

AND

H

H

KOURILO

KRIVODOL

COTOFENI-KOSTOLAC

ENEGLITHIC

H I 4 H H

> H 1 H H I H H

4

H

0

H H I H

I

e -

a

0

4

I r t i f 100Y 14

a

a

3111 1 , 3 E103N

v z ,

0 0 ( N I

uating by C 14

" I . . . ) r 14 .1

c e0

u$ . 4

i t unTuueTTTm

. 0C

. _ _ _ . .

7 Yugo-

I

Bulgaria

slavia

Romania, Moldavia

c z b i l e d

Soviet

and

others

-

,

1 000 1 250

PuZ

1 250 1 500

1 500 2000

300 1 750 2

t i 4

i 500 r 2000 2

e• • • •• •

i

1

3 000

I if

3000

4 th

2 500 3 250 375 2 750 3

•• mmi t

2250 2 750

i

i 1x xI I

3 750

: 4ff 4

4 000 3 250 4 250

35 0 0

.

?

I

. 4 . 1

, 3 750 4500 „

? 4 000 4 750 50 00 4 250 5 250

tN M

Ii l

43 7 0

0 0 1 I

r t i !i

iIi1

I , .i 0 1 I

iT

Y

4

T

1

{

,

I .

1 4 "it I t t Tt

1

i l

I

'

• 1 TT f t

A l F' - f r

I .T 'I TI

I T

l

a

tt

.

t t

. hEY

Balaton group -0- Vinca D

Polyanitsa Ovcharovo -• - E zero A -G.Delchevo Nova Zagora -*- Hotni t sa -0 - Azma shk a -o -- Bikovo etc

Habaeeeti Salcuea -x --Tripoli eC 1 4 4-Cascioarele

8 - Gumeli iiIa Vulcaneeti

11 —

e 4,4Novi Ruse eti - a- Varaeti char ovo the plateau

T able 2

4

4 , • , 1 f • = . 1

?' i

4 : 1 500 4500 5

0 4 • 4

o 0

1 .

f

+ 2

Mound,

I

11 0i * I I , IL : •

i

1 1

Table 3 Tab le o f a rchaeo magnet ic c urves f or Bu lgar ia a nd Yugoslav ia b etween 6 300-0 B .C. ( a f ter M. K ovacheva a nd Velyovec )

N o.

S ite

Archaeo log ica l d at ing

1 .

Gomo lava

L a T ene

2 .

Gomo lava

L a T ene

3 .

B ougo ino

Early L a T bne

4 .

Go mo lava

L a fene I

5 .

Go mo lava

Early Hal lstat t

6 .

K a . lakacha

Early Ha l lstat t

7 .

Pshen ichevo

Early Ha l lstat t

8 .

P lovd iv

L a te Bronze

9 .

Nova Z agora

M idd le Bronze

1 0.

N ova Z agora

M idd le Bronze

1 1.

K ach itsa

Early Bronze ( Late Neo l ith ic )

1 2.

Gomo lava

Early Bronze

1 3.

Ezero

Early Bronze

1 4.

Go mo lava

Early Bronze

1 5.

Gorna K re mona

End o f Eneo l ith ic

1 6.

D ivost in

Eneo l ith ic

1 7.

Grachan t itsa

Eneo l ith ic

1 8.

Smyadovo

L ate Eneo l ith ic

1 9.

Go mo lava

Early Eneo l ith ic

2 0.

Trasten ik-Stragar i

Eneo l ith ic

2 1.

O vcharovo

L ate Eneo l ith ic

2 2.

Go lya mo Delchevo

L a te Eneo l ith ic

2 3.

P lochn ik

L ate Eneo l ith ic

2 4.

Po lyan itsa

L ate Eneo l ith ic

2 5.

O vcharovo

Midd le Eneo l ith ic

2 6.

E zero

L ate Eneo l ith ic

2 7.

Go mo lava

L ate Eneo l ith ic

2 8.

Po lyan itsa

M idd le Eneo l ith ic

2 9.

Go lya mo Delchevo

Midd le Eneo l ith ic

3 0.

Go mo lava

Midd le Eneo l ith ic

3 1.

Bren it , sa

Early Eneo l ith ic

3 2.

N ova Z agora

L ate N eo l ith ic

3 3.

K azan luk

M idd le N eo l ith ic

3 4.

K ach itsa

Midd le N eo l ith ic

3 5.

Go lya mo Delchevo

Early N eo l ith ic

3 6.

Drenova ts

Early N eo l ith ic

3 7.

K azan luk

M idd le N eo l ith ic

3 8.

S tara Z agora

Early N eo l ith ic

3 9.

Rak itevo

Early N eo l ith ic

4 0.

L ep insk i V ir

Acera m ic N eo l ith ic

The p rel im inary c urves o f v ar iat ion o f D , I , a nd F/Fo f or t he t ime p er iod b etween 6 300 a nd 0B .C. On t he v ert ica l a x is t wo s ca les o f t ime a re g iven : t he l e f t o ne c orresponds t o t he r ad iocarbon d ata ( 5568-year h a l fl ife ) a nd t he r igh t o ne —to t he c a l ibrated r ad iocarbon d ata ( 4 ). S ites a re p laced o n t he t ime s ca le i ndependen t ly o ft he v a lues o bta ined f or D , I , a nd F a nd s o le ly o n t he b as is o f t he ir v ert ica l s trat igraphy ( when d i f feren t l evels f rom t he s a me h i l l a re u sed ) o r o n t he o p in ion o f t he a rchaeo log ists w ho h ave e xcavated t he m. On t he h or izon ta l a x is, s ca les o f D , I , F/Fo a re g iven . The r esu l ts f or D , I , a nd F/Fo a re o nt he s a me h or izon ta l l evels a s t he n u mbers o f t he s i tes s hown o n t he v er t ica l t ime s ca le.

The n umbers c orrespond t o t hose i n T able 1 .

Bars r epresen t t he s tandard e rrors.

in £ *1 II 11

1

WO

CO

09

O L

09

OG

0 1 P

OZ

0 1

A mdb e m•

0

0 1

OZ

OC

« G.

e e

d a tes b . c .

' 1

[ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ' t 1 C 't V I 60 CO A o0

; od /A

j 09

1 OL

1 09 AD

1 OG —

+

L OP

1 1 1 3 01 0 1

1 1 1 t 1 0 01 OZ P A AD

—

0 +.0

AVERAGE THIC KNESS CULTURAL

OF ENEO LITHIC

LAYERS

E:3 PHASE FOR

THE

THRACE

CB NE M O' N W

WHOLE

OF

BULGARIA

AND THE RHODOPES

BULGARIA BULGARIA

I MM . 1

I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

CM

Table 4

CORRELATION

BE TWEEN

THE

NU MBER OF INVESTIGATED ENE OLITHIC SE TTLEMENTS

THRACE NE

BULGARIA

NW

Table 5

BU LGARIA

Table 6

DEGREE

OF

INVES TIGATION PERIOD

THRACE

BY

OF

THE

E

OLITHIC

PHASES

AND

RHODOPES

X e ;By LGAR IA AND BLACK SEA

THE

COAST

NW

I V 1II 2 i 1 EARLY

3 ENE OLITHIC

2 MIDDLE ENE OLITHIC 3 LATE ENE OLITHIC

I V 2

I Inn 3

BU LGARIA

IV I I I I 2 1 3

N 1, 1 BULGARIA

6 NE

- NUMBER

4

101 THE ' WHOLE

9

3

Chelopechan4

59 58

ChelopeCh Sadovets Pernik, the Peklyuk

5 7 56

1 7

- NUMBER

11 -1- 1 3

OF BULGARIA 2 1

60

OF

SITES

1 0

- NUMBER

2 (

26 .

BY

PHASES

6

- NUMBER

THRACE

FOR

S :

7

BULGARIA

5

OF

2

1 4

1 0 OF

SITES

4 OF

1 3 SITES

1 4 2 8

BY

PHASES

1 [/ /4 BY

PHASES

1 9 1 , /// BY

PHASES

6

fort

5 5 Ohoden 54 53 52

Okolglava Krivodol Ihtiman

51 Zaminets 50 Devetaki 49 Gradeshnitsa

4 8 Gor hi Passarel 47 Vodna

4 6 Bouhovo 4 5 Brenitsa 4 4 Shabla 43 Hotnitsa 42 Hissarluka 41 Sokol 4 0 Smyadovo

3 9 s aimanovo 3 8 Sava 3 7 Roussß 36 Radingrad

3 5 Polyanitsa 34

Nevski

3 3 Varna Lakes 32

Koubrat

31 Komounarb 30 Kodjadermen 29 Zavet 28 Dourankoulak 27 Ovcharovo 26 Vinitsa 25 G.Delchevo 24 Yassatepß 23 Yunatsitß 22

Chatalka

21

Stara

20

Stara Zagora m .b .

19

Sadievo

Zagora c1 . 1 , ,

18 Racheva 1 7 Mudrets

Mound

l b

Mechkyur

1 5

Lenovo

13 1 2 1 1 10

Kroumovgrad Kostievo Kolena Kirilovo

1 4 Koukova Mound

9 8 7 6 5 4

Zagortsi Ezero Devebargan Gabarevo Borets

Bikovo 3 Banyata 2 Azmashka

Mound

K ar a nov o

Middle Bronze Age

Late Eneolithic

5th Table 7

Eneolithic

millennium BC

' r 4 4 th mill.BC A

S urvey o f i nvest igated Eneol ith ic s ett le ments by p hases

CHART

OF

SETTLEMENT FORMATION

DURING THE ENEOLITHIC B i

PERIOD

PROCESSES IN

BULGARIA

PHASES

PROCESS

OF

FORMATION

Table 8

A / • / /

i s % / \ / \ \ \

/

.

/•

•

I

%

* * • •

/ \ . . . . . . . . . .

N early

---

N I

I V I midd

" . , • . . . . . . . . .

,

. . ••

late

For the whole country Thrace and the Rhodopes NE Bulgaria and the Black NW

Bulgaria

Sea

coast

Table 9 CHART

OF

ENEOLITHIC

FINAL

STAGES

OF

SETTLEMENTS

IN

BULGARIA

I

I

I

L.E . P.

FOR

THE

WHOLE COUNTRY

THRACE AND THE RHODOPES NE

BULGARIA AND THE

NW

BULGARIA

BLACK

SEA COAST

Table 1 0

CHART OF THE

_ NUMBER

OF

SETTLL MENTS

SETTLEMENT

ENEOLITHIC

NETWORK'S

DENS ITY

, e .

/ i \

/ / ,, • \ \ • n . , . . • .( % ,e . / ‘‘ • // \ • % . ., , . • . / \ ‘ . i / \ % . . , . . . . -• , \ \ 1 / • ‘ t . / ‘ • i, N / \ v / / . / ( • / \ / \ / / * •,/ ‘ / / . / . . • • ' \ \ \/ / \ /• , .N . • • • . V / . . . . . \ / % . 1 \ s i . .. / \ . .. . . .. . . . . . .. . .

I E. E . P.

I I

I I V

M-E . P

r

I

I I -

L. E .P .

FOR ThE 1 %HOLE COUNTRY ThRACE AND THE RH °DOPES NL N 1 ‘

BULGARIA AND BULGARIA

PROBABLE

THE

DEVELOPMENT

BLACK

SEA

COAST

Table 1 2

Table 1 1

AND /after

THE

ENEOLITHIC

PERIOD

CHART

DURING

OF

THE

CRANIA

THE ENEOLITHIC

AND TODAY

TODAY data

COMPARATIVE MOESIA

/after data

by P.Hoev/

by P.

MONGOLOID

0

Beev/

DOLICHOCRANIA

DURING

THE RACIAL TYPES

BRACHYCRANIA

MOESIA

MEDITERRANEAN

OF

CHART FOR

MEDITERRANEAN

COMPARATIVE

M

I DURING THE TODAY

LATE

ENE OLITHIC

PERIOD

1111 1 DURING THE LATE ENEOLITHIC PERIOD

1 1 1 1

TODAY

IN

P ERIOD

Ta ble 1 3 DIAGRAM

VARI OUS

APPEARANCE RACIAL

AND

TYPES

DEVELOPMENT

IN

SoUTH

EUR OPE

( Cro-eagnoid)

( Cro-Magnoid)

EASTERN

30V NONT

5 0 :0 4 0 f e e 0 o f oe . ' 4 . » t er c i 0 F M 1 . 4 PI

0

a

7 4ZKO M7

THE

THE

1

T9V

JE (

OF

NI M•

1

Cr. i l l ague id

SOUTH

NORTH

-

C Table 1 4 0

X 4

COMPARATIVE IN

PERCENTAGE

IN

THE

OF THE

BETWEEN

NECROPOLISES

DELCHEVO 0 X

TABLE

/BLACK

t i l

,Q

IN SEA

THE

PROPORTION RACIAL

DEVNYA AND COAS T/

DEVNYA G. DELCHEVO

1

TYPES G.

Table 1 5

CHART OF THE MORTALITY RATE AMONG THE ENEOLTTHIC POPULATION IN BULGARIA - 5th MILLENIUM BC (ace. to data from the necropolises)

AVERAGE LIFE EXPECTANCY a )the entire population b)mon c )womon d)the adult population ( over e )the able-bodied population

years 24.60 32.37 27.71 1 6)30.04

) ( over 7

1 5

2 0

2 5

3 0 3 5

4 5

5 0 5

6 0

6 5

m

AGE

total

-children

m en

-comparative chart with the early mediaeval necropolis at Devnya( 9th-l Oth centur ies)

women •

4 0

2 7.43

,

TURE

C U L :

,

. 112 1Y3

3Z N ogg

V b 1 1100Y 1 4

IYNOI .LISNYL I , I ,

IA

c .

Z H

( )

N

V1 . 1131YS

3s LY1

R A CHEVA

c ,

K A RA N OVO V

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YS II N I ESSC EY1 19

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K A L OYAN OVE T S

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3 . DEL CHEV O Y — VIII

V A RNA P I LE D W EL LI N GS

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E IK EIA - NYI O NYIOE FY

Y A SSA TEPE

A Z MA SHKA M O U ND

P O L YA Ni TSA

P O L Y ANI TSA

O V CHAROVO V I I—X

D O UR A NK OULAK

E Z ER OV O

S E A C O A ST

W E STE RN B L ACK

S I TE

A .I

B Y ALA S L A TINA

0 1 1 5 IZ 3

K O DJA D ERMEN

R OU SSE

,

M O U ND

OF

rel f lOANYN C 10 ( 1

K A RA NOY 0 V I

S . I . .1 .A3d

M I NERAL B A THS

B U R IAL W Y ULE V CHA

T UR N

C U L -

vixe ns Nap

K O U RIL O

c . A

e ; : . W P i l

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II

r . 0 a c C . 4 4 0 c

S I TE

E N EOL ITHI C

I

P E TRU R ARE S F I NAL

G U MEL NI TA

C A S CIOA RELE

BRATE TI

eERNAVODA

U L M N I

CE R NAV ODA I I

M U NTENIA

CATELU

G REA CA

A L DENI

G ALA T I

VARA TI

C s "

B R ENIT SA

C c -

P L OV D IV

SISAOGYS

C -

S C EPT RE F R OM

O V CH A ROV O , T HE P L A TEAU

S A D OVE TS

B U L GARIA

N O RTH —EA STE RN

S I TE

I YC IOAVe ld 9

z . c .

G RA DESHNI TSA C

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S I TE

0A02 1223

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T U RNAVA

-

C U L .

A N D M A IN A R CH AE OLO GI CA L S I TES O F T I L E E TH N O CU LTURAL A RE A O F T H E T H RA CIAN

-

M A GOU RA

B U L GA R IA

N O RTH — WE STER N

S I TE

T a b l e 1 6 C H R ONOL OGI CAL T ABL E O F T HE C U L TUR ES

[ II

› . k a .

Y2 2 11 +A

Y211 10 C EY fC EON XS le 3

( i t

C

> o

1

3

SM AO t e fX .0 '1 Y 3 1

-

01II I IION

3 ,LY1

d

3DY

DI I LLI1031 4

AZMASHKA MOUND

BULGA 1 1 ( lA

AGE

OF MAR 1TSA

bANYATA

T ONE -COPPER

OF GRAPHITE ORNAMENTATION

CULTUAL

N E ,VSKY

C uu ruk t i ;

s E rr u MENT MOUND

Table 1 8 POLYANITSA

l et

SETTLEMENT MOUND

BUILDING

LEVEL

Table 1 9 POLYANITSA

SETTLEMENT

substruction

0

I

2

3

S

I S.

MOUND

Table 2 0

POLIANITSA

3rd

SETTLEMENT

BUILDING

LEVEL

MOUND

Table 2 1 POLYANITSA 7th

SETTLE MENT MOUND

BUILDING

LEVEL

N

096

o 0

!

. 0 9%

« J P

• •

•• •

r Ei r•-•

:1 4 . / : 7 , ,: ‘ , 41 • • • •

. • • .

•

•• •

•

, •0 .! , •i •

•

r E • • • • ; • : • •• C . : : • • • •, _ • •, • •

• ,? . • • ' o f

* g g • •

o0

'

2

3

Table 22 CHAHT OF PULSATING UEVELOPMENT /after E

M£TALLURGY .N .Chernih and SUJ>p>lements

by the author/

BULGA1-tIA

AGE

E.

5

M.B. L.B.

E. B.

4

3

2

1

BALK.A� RANGE Ar-.1) CARPATHIAN METALLURUICAL AREA

5

O:F'

11 2 4 3 millenni.a BC

Table 2 3

COMPARATIVE TABLE

grave No l

AT G.DELCHEVO,

funeral

-

vessels

454J -1 7ä

I ll 2 . 2 I I .

.

1 i

7! t .

1 9

, .

N o

_ B UI

A

c e _ _ ,1 0

B

1 1 . .

•

.

• • •

•

1•17

• •

•

r 2 7

2

. 00

1 . 1 1 1E li nn

M.

• • • •

• •

I N I ll I M O I

l i

01 1 1 1 2 1

Cu 6, 3

11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 t 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 110 1

1 A IM

2 1 '

j ewell

tools

A

I s

2"

offerings

...

•

1

NECROPOLISES

•

11 11 . 4 1

1

OF THE

VINITSA AND DEVNYA

. 1

o

I

0

. .

0

. 1 • • •

1

• I I I

I I

I

-

4 3 .i 2 4 4 9 4 4 2

. 3 ,

J

i l

l

I

1

• 1 . 1 . •

•

•

•

4 -,

1 I 0

i I I

I

we 4TuTA

l '

4

4-

4 _ 6

9

1 1

•

I l

i 3

g,

: 1 2

4 , 4 1 4 o 3 9 . 4 8 3 6

I

I

3 1 0 1 1 1 1 1

A B

2 2

II

1 2

.

II

II

a

•

I

3 4 ) n 2 3

2 3 3 61 4 , 6

311 1

i

A

0 4 0

BBB

•

—

BBB

4 _

4 -, -

z a Al li n

2 3 3

•

4

B B

' I2 i • 4 1

T 7

3 _

lag

5

4-

__AL

• i

l

1

l

2 1

3

W

2 7

i s

i ll

B

E EN

1 1

3_

. __ a •

2—

0 o •

1 1 1 1 1 1

A

1

,

. -

•

q— 1

4.

A j S 1

, . . .

non. 'M IS I 11 1Z 1 1 1 1 1 t •

d i

. I I M I I I I I i

.

.

•0

1 . 2

1 1 11

O AOIT3 Te e

t i

•1

I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11

I -

4 .

n

1

a ,

A

4

,

A

'

J

-

4,

I

S1

&Eta 1 .children and adolescents 2 .16-40 yrs 3 .over 4 0 yrs 4 .cenotaphs 5 .contracted position on the left side 6 .contracted position, chest down 7 .contracted position on the right side 8 .horizontal position NJwomen enmen m e l probable lo children Di adelescents

Table 2 4 COMPARATIVE FR OM IN

TABLE

ENEOLITHIC

CENOTAPHS

AT

OF

AVERAGE

BURIALS

OF

VINITSA,

QUANTITIES

OF

FINDS

MEN,V OMEN,CHILDREN AND

DEVNYA AND

G.

DELCHEVO 31+ %

3 05

pottery

tools jewellery

m EC M me n I = 1 wome n E l l childre n ce notaphs

l

n o n

copper ochre 1 1 1 1W I

/ I BM total for offerings

Table 2 5 me n women

COMPARATIVE

TABLE

childre n

OF

THE

ce notaphs copper

articles

FINDS G.

IN

OF

THE

CONCE NTRATION

NECROPOLISES

DELCHEV O,VINITSA (G.D.) (V.)

AND

copper

1 4 1 0 G.DELCHEVO

VINITSA

DEVNY A

DEVNY A (D.)

articles

GD.V.D.

0

AT

Table 2 6 DISTRIBUTI ON

OF

FUNERAL

OFFERINGS

BETWEEN

AGE

AND

SEX GROUPS

1—infants 2— c hildren u nder7 3 — 8 15 y rs 4- 1 6-40yrs •

_

men wo men pr obab le

•

j/

5— o ver 4 0yrs

Table 2 7 PERCENTAGE RATIO BETWEEN TYPES OF BURIAL OF MEN AND WOMEN IN NORTH-EASTERN BULGARIA AND THE BLACK SEA COAST

c oo '

1

•

4

3

2 women

in the

interior

on

Black Sea

of

the

men e lm •mu ,

•

1 2 3 4

• M a•

women

the

men

contracted position on the left s ide contracted position on the right s ide contracted position, chest down horizontal

position

coast

country

Table 2 8

COMPARATIVE OF

THE

DIAGRAM

COUNTRY

AND

NORTH-EASTERN

ltwomen,contracted

OF

THE

ON THE

BULGARIA

position

on the left side 2tmen,contracted position on the left side 3tchildren,contracted position on the left side 4tmen,contracted position, chest down 5tchildren,contracted position, chest down 6twomen,contracted position, chest down 7twomen,contracted position on the right side

TYPES BLACK

OF SEA

BURIAL

IN THE

INTERIOR

COAST

BLACK

l tmen,norizontal

SEA

COAST

position

2tmen,contracted position on the right side 3twomen,contracted position on the right side 4twomen,horizontal position 5echildren,horizontal position

Table 2 9

Lilyak

COMPARA TIVE

Ovcharovo

AND THE

Polyanitsa

ENEOLITHIC

V initsa Houssi e . Koubra t , De vnya , Varna , G.

De lchevo

) .

Gumelnita 1 after

I .

Boian

EsCo ine oa

necropolises

in

the

se ttle me nts

>

site of

of

the

necropolises settle me nts

out

DIAGRAM

SITING

OF

ON THE

ORIENTATI ON

NECROPOLISES

SETTLEMENTS

OF

SKELETONS

IN RE LATION TO THE

Table 3 0 ENEOLITHIC

PICTOGRAMS

FROM

GRADESHNITSA

•

r i hble 3 1 PICTOGRAMS

K Ot r ia t o ( 8)

FROM GRADES HNITSA DEKYOVTSI

KARANOVO

( 6)

(15

( 7 ), AND

),

Table 3 2 DIAGRAM Or THE

0

1 0

O VERLAPPING

2 0

O F

3 0

I II I I I i m i l i mr _ -,_

GENERATIONS

0

,

7 0

_ __.4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 13 1 1 1 1 1 M

8 0

WITHIN

9 0

[1 00 I I

I

_ __ _

CENTURY

ye .

„P a

i st 2 nd

3 rd

c m

m

o M P I e . i is mom m i lm I W , __ _ I 5th 1 P 0 1 h 4_ 6t m - -4 1 1 1 1 .1 1 1 1 1 1 .1 P ----7th I __—+ A MMUMM 8th

JI 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 —

ONE

-- _ __

I

4th

s < g n

EARLY CHALC 0LITHICI II

M

IMDE

.M E N

IM M

EARLY CHALCOLITHIC

II

EARLY

I• • '

CHALCOLITHIC

HAC ILAR

I

HACILAR

II-V

.

FAYCM

a IM MO

M