The Encyclopedia of Sustainable Tourism 1780641435, 9781780641430

Table of contents :
Cover
The Encyclopedia of Sustainable Tourism
Copyright
Contents
Foreword
Acknowledgements
Introduction
Sustainable Tourism
Author Affiliations
List of Authors’ Initials
A
Aboriginal tourism
Access
Accessibility
Accommodation
Accounting
Accreditation
Further reading
Acculturation
Action research
Adaptation
Adaptive architecture
Adaptive co-management
Advanced wastewater treatment system (AWTS)
Adventure Activities Licensing Authority (AALA)
Adventure, Cultural and Ecotourism (ACE) tourism
Adventure tourism
Further reading
Adventure Travel Trade Association (ATTA)
Advocacy
Aesthetics
Agenda 21
Agritourism (Agrotourism)
Aid
Airline
Airport
All-inclusive resort (AI resort)
Alternative tourism
Amenity migration
Angling
Animal ethics
Further reading
Annapurna Conservation Area Programme (ACAP)
Antarctic tourism
Appreciative inquiry
Approach distance
Appropriate development
Appropriate tourism
Aquaculture
Aquarium
Architecture
Arctic tourism
Artificial reef
The Aspen Institute
Assessment
Association of Arctic Expedition Cruise Operators (AECO)
Astrotourism
Auditing
Australian Eco-Certification Program
Australian Research Institute for Environment and Sustainability(ARIES)
Authenticity
Aviation
Award
AWTS
B
Back boiler
Backpacker
Further reading
Backwash effects
Balance
Balance of payments
Baseline
Beach
Benchmarking
Benefits (in marketing sense)
Benefits (social and psychological)
BEST EN
Best practice
Bilateral agreement
Biodiversity (biological diversity)
Biofuel
Biomass
Birdwatching
Blue Flag
Border
Brand
Brazilian Standard NBR ABNT 15.401 – Sustainable Managementfor Accommodations
BRICs
Brundtland Report
Budget airline
Business tourism
C
Calypso
Camping
Capacity building
Capacity development
Capital
Carbon footprint
Carbon management
Carbon offsetting
Career
Caribbean Alliance for Sustainable Tourism (CAST)
Carrying capacity
Cartagena Convention
Centre International de Recherches et d’Etudes Touristiques (CIRET)
Certificate for Sustainable Tourism (CST), Costa Rica
Certification
Further reading
Change management
CITES
Citizen science
Climate change
Climbing
Co-creation
Co-management
Code of conduct (guidelines)
Code of ethics
Further reading
CollaborationA process in which two or
Colonialism
Combined heat and power (CHP)
Commercialization
Commodification
Common pool resource
Communication
Community
Community agency
Community-based natural resource management (CBNRM)
Community-based tourism
Further reading
Community benefits agreement
Community capacity
Community development
Community mapping
Community of practice (CoP)
Further reading
Community resilience
Community well-being
Compact cities
Conferences
Conflict management
Conservation
Conservation tourism
Conspicuous consumption
Case study: Mountain gorilla tracking, Rwanda
Consultation
Further reading
Consumptive (extractive) and non-consumptive tourism
Contingent valuation method (CVM)
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species(CITES)
Cooperative Research Centre for Sustainable Tourism (CRCST)
Coral bleaching
Coral Cay Conservation (CCC)
Coral reef
Core-periphery (centre-periphery)
Corporate social responsibility (CSR)
Couchsurfing
Countryside
Couran Cove Resort
Creativity
Crime
Crisis
Criteria
Critical friend
Cruise tourism
Cultural capital
Cultural relativism
Cultural tourism
Case study: The land divers of Pentecost
Culture
Culture shock
Customs
Cycle tourism
D
Dark tourism
Decision making
Deforestation
Degradation
Degrowth
Demand management
Demonstration effect
Dependency
Further reading
Desalination
Destination branding
Destination management
Further reading
Destination marketing
Destination marketing organization (DMO)
Development
Further reading
Digital technology
Direct marketing
Disability
Discrimination
Disneyfication
Distributive justice
Dive tourism
Diversification
Domestic tourism
Downsizing
Drive tourism
Dutch disease
E
Earth Summit
EarthCheck
Ecocamping
Ecocentric
Ecochic
Ecoclub
Ecoguide
Ecolabel
Eco-leisure
Ecolodge
Ecological footprinting
e-commerce
Economic growth
Economic impact
Economic impact assessment
Economic regeneration
Economic valuation
Economy of scale
Ecosystem
Ecosystem services
Ecotourism
Further reading
Ecotourism Australia
Ecotourism Society
Ecovillage
EDEN
Education
Education for Sustainability (EfS)
Educational tourism
EMAS
Emissions (carbon emissions)
Emotion
Empowerment
Enclaves
End Child Prostitution in Asian Tourism (ECPAT)
Endemic species
Energy management
Entrance fees
Environment
Further reading
Environmental consciousness
Environmental education
Environmental ethics
Environmental health
Environmental impact
Further reading
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
Environmental management
Environmental management system (EMS)
Environmental non-governmental organization (ENGO)
Environmental policy
Environmental quality
Environmental supply
Environmentalism
Equitable Tourism Options (EQUATIONS)
Equity
Erosion
Ethical tourism
Further reading
Ethics
Further reading
Ethnic tourism
Europe 2020 Strategy (EU-2020)
Priority 1 – Smart growth
Priority 2 – Sustainable growth
Priority 3 – Inclusive growth
Further reading
European Centre for Ecological and Agricultural Tourism (ECEAT)
European Destinations of Excellence (EDEN)
European Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS)
European Habitats Directive
European Master in Tourism Management (EMTM)
European Tourism Day
European Tourism Forum
European Tourism Indicator System
European Tourism Policy
European Union
Further reading
European Year of Tourism (1990)
Eutrophication
Event
Experience economy
Experiential education
Externality
Eye on the Reef Program
F
Fair trade
Fair-trade tourism (FTT)
Fair Trade Tourism South Africa (FTTSA)
Farm tourism
Feasibility study
Film tourism
Further reading
Fishing
Food miles
Food tourism
Further reading
Foreign direct investment (FDI)
Free independent traveller (FIT)
Free trade
Friends of the Earth (FoE)
G
Gaia Hypothesis
Gaze
Gender
Case study: Intrepid and gender equality
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
Generation
Gentrification
Geographical Information System (GIS)
Geological time
Geopark
Geotourism
Further reading
German Agency for International Cooperation (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ))
GIS
Global Code of Tourism Ethics
Global dimming
Global-local nexus
Global Partnership for Sustainable Tourism
Global Sustainable Tourism Council
Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria
Global warming
Globalization
Further reading
Governance
Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA)
Further reading
Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (GBRWHA)
Green energy
Green Flag International
Green Globe (formerly Green Globe 21)
Green guides
Green issues
Green jobs
Green Key
Green Paper on the Role of the Union in the Field of Tourism (COM(95)97 final of 04.04.1995)
Green Seal, USA
Green tourism
Green Tourism Business Scheme (GTBS)
Greenhouse gases (GHGs)
Greenpeace
Greenwashing
Grey nomad
Grey water
Growth fetish
Growth management
H
Habitat
Hard tourism
Health and safety
Further reading
Health tourism
Heritage
Cold War heritage (and) tourism: a case study of Kelvedon Hatch Secret Nuclear Bunker
Heritage tourism
Further reading
Hiking
Holidays Forever
Homestay
Hospitality
Host/guest
Hotel
Human capital
Human Development Index
Human resource management (HRM)
Human rights
Further reading
Hunting
I
IAATO
ICM, ICZM
Impact
Impact assessment
Inbound tourism
Independent travel
Indicator
Further reading
Indigenous people
Indigenous tourism
Informal employment
Information technology (IT)
Informed consent
Innovation
Integrated coastal zone management (ICZM)
Integrated quality management (IQM)
Integrated resort
Integrated rural tourism
Integration
Intellectual property
Interest group
Intergenerational equity
Intergovernmental organization (IGO)
International Air Transport Association (IATA)
International Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions(IAAPA)
International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO)
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution fromShips (MARPOL)
International Coral Reef Action Network (ICRAN)
International Council for Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS)
International Ecotourism Society
International Federation of Tour Operators (IFTO)
International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW)
International Hotels and Environment Initiative (IHEI)
International Hotel and Restaurant Association (IHRA)
International Labour Organization (ILO)
International Polar Year (IPY)
International Social and Environmental Accreditation and Labelling Alliance
International Task Force on Sustainable TourismDevelopment(ITF-STD)
International tourism
International Tourism Partnership (ITP)
International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
International Year of Ecotourism (IYE, IYE 2002)
International Year of the Mountains (IYM)
International Year of the Ocean (YOTO)
International Year of the Reef (IYOR 2008)
Interpretation
Further reading
INTERREG
Involvement
Island tourism
Further reading
Case study: Maldives
ISO 14001
IUCN Red Data Book
J
Journal of Ecotourism
Journal of Sustainable Tourism
Justice tourism
K
Knowledge
L
Labour
Labour turnover
LAC
Landscape
LEADER
Leakage
Learning organization
Leisure
Leisure class
Leisure Specialization Continuum
Less-developed country (LDC)
Life cycle (of people)
Life cycle (of tourism products)
Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC)
Lindblad Expeditions
Linkingthinking
Livelihood
Lobbying
Low-carbon tourism
Low-cost aviation
Luxury
M
Malé Declaration on Sustainable Development
Mangroves
Marine Ecotourism for the Atlantic Area (META)
Marine protected area (MPA)
Mark-up
Market segmentation
Marketing mix
MARPOL
Marrakech Process
Mass tourism
McDonaldization
Further reading
Meetings, incentives, conferences, and exhibitions (MICE) tourism
Metaproblem
MICE
Microbusiness
Microfinance
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
Mining
Mitigation
Mobility
Further reading
Modernization theory
Monitoring
Moral geography
Motorcycle tourism
Mountain biking
Mountaineering
MPA
Multinational company (MNC)
Multiplier
N
National Audubon Society (‘Audubon’)
National park
National tourism authority (NTA)
National tourism organization (NTO)
Native species
Nature
Nature-based tourism
The Nature Conservancy (TNC)
Nature park
NEAP
Network
New Environmental Paradigm (NEP)
New peasantry
Newly industrializing countries (NICs)
NGO
Niche tourism
Further reading
Non-consumptive tourism
Non-governmental organization (NGO)
Not in my backyard (NIMBY) syndrome
O
Outbound tourism
Outdoor recreation
Outreach
P
Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA)
Package tour
Participation
Participatory action research
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)
Further reading
Partnership
Partnership for Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria
Peace through tourism
Peak oil
Peripherality
Permits
PEST Analysis
Philosophic practitioner
Philosophical tourism
Philoxenia Programme
Pilgrimage
Place
Planeta
Planning
Further reading
Planning for Real
Pleasure periphery
Polar tourism
Policy cascade
Political ecology
Further reading
Political economy
Further reading
Politics of tourism
Polluter pays principle
Pollution
Portion control
Post-colonialism
Post-tourism
Postmodern society
Poverty alleviation
Further reading
Power
Further reading
Precautionary principle
Preservation
Pressure group (interest groups, lobby groups)
Price management
Privatization
Pro-poor tourism (PPT)
Further reading
Procurement
Product
Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI)
Profit margin
Project AWARE (Aquatic World Awareness, Responsibility
and Education)
Promotion
Protected area
Protection
Public goods
Q
Quadruple bottom line (QBL)
Quality of life
Quality tourism
Québec Declaration on Ecotourism
Quiet enjoyment
R
Radiative forcing
Railway
Rainforest Alliance
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands
Rapid Rural Appraisal
Reclamation
Recreation
Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS)
Recycling
Red Data Book
Reflection
Regeneration
Relationship marketing
Religious tourism
Renewable energy (green energy)
Reporting
Representation
Further reading
Resilience
Resort
Resource
Resource management
Respectful travelling
Responsible tourism
Revenue management
Right of way
Rinjani Ecotrek Program
Rio Declaration on Environment and Development
Rio +20
Risk
Risk assessment
Risk management
Rocky Mountain Institute (RMI)
Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB)
Rural tourism
Further reading
S
Sacred
Safety
Scale
SCUBA
Sea Kayak Operators’ Association of New Zealand (SKOANZ)
Sea-level change
Seasonality
Second-home tourism
Further reading
Segmentation
Self-actualization
Self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA) diving
Further reading
Sense of place
Sex tourism
Further reading
The Sierra Club
Ski tourism
Skills
SKOANZ
Slow cities (Cittáslow)
Slow tourism
Further reading
Small-to-medium-sized enterprise (SME)
SMART objective
Smart Voyager
SNV
Social and cultural impact
Further reading
Social capital
Social ecology
Social impact assessment
Social networking
Social tourism
Further reading
Socio-economic transformation
Soft tourism
Solar power
Soundscape
Spa tourism
Space
Space tourism
Further reading
Spatial reorganization
Special-interest tourism
Specialization
Spiritual tourism
Further reading
Sport tourism
Spread effects
Stakeholder
Start-up costs
Staycation
Steady-state tourism
Stewardship
Strategic planning
Strong sustainable development
Sun, sea and sand (3S) tourism
Surf break
Surf break protection
Surf Life Saving Australia
Surf tourism
Surfing
Sustainability
Sustainability performance evaluation
Further reading
Sustainability transition
Sustainable development
Further reading
Sustainable Livelihood Approach (SLA)
Sustainable marketing
Sustainable Tourism Certification Network of the Americas
Sustainable Tourism Eco-Certification Program (STEP), USA
Sustainable Tourism Stewardship Council (STSC)
SWOT Analysis
System
T
Technological fix
Technology
Terrorism
The International Ecotourism Society (TIES)
Third Way (TW)
Further reading
Time
Timeshare
TNC
Total Quality Management (TQM)
Tour guide
Tour operator
Tour Operators Initiative for Sustainable Development
Tourism
Tourism Area Life Cycle (TALC)
Tourism Concern
Tourism development
Tourism Educational Future Initiatives (TEFI)
Tourism for Tomorrow Awards
Tourism Impact
Tourism management
Tourism planning
Further reading
Tourism policy
Tourism satellite account (TSA)
Tourism Sustainability Council (TSC)
Tourism Sustainability Group (TSG)
Tourism system
Tourist Board
Tourist information centre (TIC)
Tourist trap
Traditional Livelihood
Tragedy of the Commons
Training
Tramping
Transnational company (TNC)
Transport
Further reading
Travel 2.0
Travel agent
Travel blog
Travel Career Ladder
Travel Foundation
Traveller (Traveler)
Trekking
Triple bottom line (TBL)
Turnover
U
United Nations (UN)
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD)
United Nations Department for Policy Coordination and Sustainable Development
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO)
Urban ecotourism
User fees
V
Values
Further reading
Viabono
Virtual tourism
Visiting friends and relatives (VFR) tourism
Visitor Activity Management Process (VAMP)
Visitor centre
Visitor impact management (VIM)
Visitor management
Voluntary Initiatives for Sustainability in Tourism (VISIT)
Volunteer tourism
Further reading
Volunteering
W
Waste management
Water
Further Reading
Water cycling (hydrological cycle)
Water quality
Weak sustainable development
Welfare
Well-being
Wellness
Wellness tourism
Whale-watching
White Water to Blue Water (WW2BW)
Wilderness
Wildlife management
Willingness to pay (WTP)
Wind energy
Wine tourism
Women’s Agrotourism Cooperatives (WAC)
Work
Work Life Balance
Worker-run/recuperated hotels
World Bank
World Committee on Tourism Ethics
World Ecotourism Summit (WES)
World Heritage
World Leisure Organisation (WLO)
World Summit on Sustainable Development
World Surfing Reserves
World Tourism Organization
World Trade Organization (WTO)
World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC)
World Wildlife Fund (WWF)
WWOOF (WWOOFing)
WW2BW
X
Xeriscape
Y
Year of Ecotourism (2002)
Year of the Mountains (2002)
Year of the Ocean (1998)
Year of the Reef (1997)
Yield management
Youth tourism
Z
Zoning
Zoo
References
Index
Back_Cover

Citation preview

The Encyclopedia of Sustainable Tourism

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Which way for sustainable tourism?

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The Encyclopedia of Sustainable Tourism

Edited by

Carl Cater, Brian Garrod and Tiffany Low Aberystwyth University, Wales, UK Editorial Board:

John Hull, Thompson Rivers University, Canada Joseph Mbaiwa, University of Botswana, Botswana Claudia Ollenburg, Bond University, Australia Scott Richardson, Blue Mountains Hotel School, Australia Caroline Scarles, University of Surrey, UK Jinchin Wang, Aletheia University, Taiwan Editorial Advisory Board:

Professor Ralf Buckley, Griffith University, Australia Professor David Fennell, Brock University, Canada Professor James Higham, University of Otago, New Zealand Professor Andrew Holden, University of Bedfordshire, UK Professor John Tribe, University of Surrey, UK Professor Linsheng Zhong, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China

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CABI is a trading name of CAB International CABI Nosworthy Way Wallingford Oxfordshire OX10 8DE UK Tel: +44 (0)1491 832111 Fax: +44 (0)1491 833508 E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.cabi.org

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© CAB International, 2015. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronically, mechanically, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owners. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library, London, UK. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Encyclopedia of sustainable tourism / edited by Carl Cater, Brian Garrod and Tiffany Low.    pages cm   Includes bibliographical references and index.   ISBN 978-1-78064-143-0 (alk. paper) 1.  Sustainable tourism--Encyclopedias.  I. Cater, Carl, editor. II. Garrod, Brian, editor. III. Low, Tiffany, editor. IV. Title: Encyclopedia of sustainable tourism.   G156.5.S87E63 2015  338.4'79103--dc23    2015000781 ISBN-13: 978 1 78064 143 0 Commissioning editor: Claire Parfitt Assistant editor: Alexandra Lainsbury Production editor: James Bishop Typeset by Spi, Pondicherry, India. Printed and bound in Malta by Gutenberg Press Ltd, Tarxien, Malta.

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In memory of John Dobson 1970–2012 This encyclopedia is dedicated to the memory of John Dobson, a Senior Lecturer in Tourism at Cardiff Metropolitan University (formerly University of Wales Institute Cardiff). In his life John was a true champion of sustainable tourism, combining his passion for the subject with a dedication to student-centred learning. He researched and published on marine tourism, and was an expert on shark tourism. He was always keen to collaborate with others on issues of sustainable development, global citizenship and ethics, was coordinator for Centre for Visioning Sustainable Societies (CViSS) and a member of the Wales Sustainable Tourism Forum. He took students on field courses to places such as The Gambia to help them to consider issues of sustainable tourism in practice. Although he passed away before this volume was published, John has made several contributions to this encyclopedia through edited pieces of his published works, and his work goes on to have lasting impact in how we understand a sustainable future.

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Contents Foreword 

ix

Acknowledgementsxi Introductionxiii Sustainable Tourism

xvii

Author Affiliations

xxv

List of Authors’ Initials Alphabetical Entries

xxxi 1–556

References557 Index605

vii

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Foreword Leaders, stakeholders and travellers around the world recognize that tourism that is planned, carefully designed for the environment and resources of the locale, provides direct economic benefits and is sourced locally can make a significant contribution to sustainable development (United Nations, 2012a). Among the most critical developments that have taken place in recent years – not only within the travel and tourism industry but also in the business community at large – is the growing realization that sustainability makes business sense (Esty and Winston, 2006). In 2010, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) solidified the business case for sustainable tourism development in the Green Economy Report: The key aim for a transition to a green economy is to enable economic growth and investment while increasing environmental quality and social inclusiveness. Critical to attaining such an objective is to create the conditions for public and private investments to incorporate broader environmental and social criteria. In addition, the main indicators of economic performance, such as growth in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) need to be adjusted to account for pollution, resource depletion, declining ecosystem services, and the distributional consequences of natural capital loss to the poor (UNEP, 2011, p. 16).

The business case for sustainability has taken on increased significance with the global economic downturn, with renewed and increasing interest in the new opportunities that a green economy can bring. Sustainable tourism businesses that have successfully incorporated sustainability practices into their operations and enhanced their financial bottom line through sustainable business models are seen as industry leaders at the forefront of the growth of today’s ‘green collar economy’. As in many forums, we are seeing an increase in operators and resorts hiring specifically for positions such as Environmental Program Coordinators and Sustainability Managers to help achieve sustainable management and development goals (Schendler, 2009). Concurrently, efforts to address sustainability opportunities through business operations have moved into evaluation of the supply chain, thus forging new and diverse partnerships in developing ‘business-to-business’ relationships. Because sustainable tourism is human resource intensive, with estimates of 8% of the global workforce directly or indirectly employed, the spin-off impact is enormous, with about 1.5 additional or indirect jobs created for every job in the primary tourism industry (UNEP, 2011). Further, sustainable developments have demonstrated a clear connection to reducing costs of water and energy, while enhancing biodiversity, ecosystems and cultural heritage (UNEP, 2011). All of these aspects increase the complexity and linkages to larger societal endeavors. For those involved in sustainable tourism – whether as a professional, volunteer or traveller – a plethora of terms, movements, organizations, accords, treaties, institutes, guidelines, criteria, technologies, summits, strategies and awards currently exist. These are utilized in the daily lexicon of sustainable tourism, creating a cacophony of jargon, and making it difficult for any reasonable human to track all associated ideas

ix

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and terms used today. For example, the work I am involved in from an academic, non-government and tour-operator perspective, has associated challenges in staying abreast of the most pertinent issues and language accompanying this complex field of study. For all that we address in a multifarious and diverse world, this encyclopedia will assist the work and challenges faced through its many contributions, as well as shed light on misconceptions and misunderstandings of schemes, terms, organizations, awards and technical issues in sustainable tourism. The Encyclopedia of Sustainable Tourism also recognizes the promotion and widespread use of recognized standards for sustainability, such as the Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria, which can help businesses and destinations improve their sustainability performance, including resource efficiency, and can assist in attracting additional investment and customers. Addressing concepts relative to destination stewardship, the text addresses terms used in approaches to tourism development in which local communities, government agencies, NGOs and the tourism industry are dedicated to taking a multi-stakeholder approach to maintaining the cultural, environmental, economic and aesthetic integrity of their country, region, state or town through sustainable policy and management frameworks. The Encyclopedia of Sustainable Tourism is the source to address these issues and concepts methodically and comprehensively: it is a state-of-the-art resource for all stakeholders connected by sustainable tourism. The editors have not only compiled a text inclusive of the major relevant topics but they have also worked with experts globally, providing not only a definition of terms but also the current state of associated complexities, successes and on-going challenges in creating a sustainable future. I commend the work compiled by Carl, Brian and Tiffany, and the contributors who have provided clarity to this multifaceted field through this encyclopedia. Congratulations to all those engaged in the peaceful struggle for the health of our planet. Sincerely,

Dr Kelly Bricker Professor, Department of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism, University of Utah Chair, Global Sustainable Tourism Council Chair, The International Ecotourism Society

xForewordx

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Acknowledgements Compiling such a collaborative work necessarily involved inputs from a huge number of people. We can but mention a few here, and we apologize if we have missed anyone. Although our many contributors are acknowledged in these pages, we would like to thank them on a personal level for their input into this project. Many made suggestions to the original list of entries, and we would like to thank them for providing such a broad perspective on sustainable tourism globally. We would particularly like to thank those who coordinated a group of authors or provided missing entries at the last minute; these included Kathy Velander and Erica Wilson. The lengthy editing process required some patience and we hope that they feel that the wait was worth it! Our editorial board have assisted with this process, but we would especially like to acknowledge John Hull and Scott Richardson for their commitment to the project. Likewise the ‘great and good’ of our editorial advisory board Ralf Buckley, David Fennell, James Higham, Andrew Holden, John Tribe and Linsheng Zhong provided much support and direction from its inception, as has Kelly Bricker. Staff at CABI have been equally patient in waiting for the final product, but their support for a quality publication in this area has been unwavering. Sarah Hulbert originally proposed the title following the success of the Encyclopedia of Tourism and Recreation in Marine ­Environments and although she has now moved on from CABI, she should be credited with the idea. Alexandra Lainsbury has been very forbearing in the delivery of the manuscript and complied a huge number of author contracts that often needed chasing up. Claire Parfitt has also supported us in this and other projects for CABI. We feel fortunate to work in a field that, beyond all its problems, has a genuine ability to make both hosts’ and guests’ lives better. We count both colleagues and practitioners as friends who are passionate about travel and tourism and its potential for sustainable outcomes. Micha Lück blazed the trail for us in many ways, providing the model for this encyclopedia in his marine tourism compilation, but also providing advice on administration processes. At Aberystwyth colleagues Ian Keirle, Peter ­Merriman, David Dowell, Ben Hopkins, Wyn Morris and Amanda Talbot have provided support to us in many ways over the years. We also continue to learn much from our undergraduate and postgraduate students, especially Ming Feng Huang, Greg Dash and Olga García Hernández. Colleagues worldwide who have supported us in this and other projects include Truls Engstrøm, Sally Everett, Dan Funk, Glen Hornby, Gayle Jennings, Reidar Mykletun, Young-Sook Lee and David Weaver. We continue to be inspired by those that straddle the academic/practitioner divide, for example Antonis Petropoulos (Ecoclub) and Ron Mader (Planeta), making sure that the message gets ‘out there’. Likewise those who are at the coalface of sustainable tourism associations and operations such as Chris Doyle, John Gray, Steve Hartley, Pete Raines, Katrine Solhaug, Shannon Stowell and Sybille Reidmiller are a beacon to the rest of us. Of course in addition to the ‘family’ of sustainable tourism, our own families have supported and shaped our hopes for a sustainable future. Erlet Cater in particular

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provided much to this field over four decades of academic work, but we must also thank John, Alison, Lydia, Drew, Nick, Lindsay and Jane. Sustainability can only be something that we can achieve together, so the family metaphor is particularly pertinent as we aim towards cross-cultural solidarity and understanding. The late Pope John Paul II articulated this sentiment well on World Tourism Day in 2004, and we believe that this must be the foundation of sustainable tourism worldwide: Much of the violence that humanity suffers in our times is rooted in misunderstanding as well as in the rejection of the values and identity of foreign cultures. Tourism improves relationships between individuals and peoples; when they are cordial, respectful, and based on solidarity they constitute, as it were, an open door to peace and harmonious coexistence.

xiiAcknowlegements

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Introduction The intention of this encyclopedia is to provide a reference resource of theories, concepts and terminology relevant to understanding the principles and practices of sustainable tourism. Emerging from concerns about how best to manage tourism’s environmental, economic and social impacts, the concept of sustainable tourism has received significant academic attention in recent times, as shown by the great number of publications on the subject, including numerous books and even a dedicated journal. There has also been considerable regulatory and industry interest, as evidenced by the plethora of certification schemes for sustainable tourism being introduced in particular destinations and for specific types of tourism. This reached a climax in 2012 with the release of the Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria by the Global Sustainable Tourism Council. All of this activity, which now dates back more than two decades, has resulted in the introduction of a wide range of technical terms. To date, however, there has been no publication that has had the explanation of these terms as its mandate. It is hoped that the publication of this volume marks a watershed and that it will be useful to a broad audience, from students and academics at all levels, to governments, certification bodies and industry practitioners. We have been very fortunate in that our initial call for contributions to the encyclopedia was answered by academics and practitioners from every continent. As listed on page xxiii, this volume contains contributions from 163 people in 28 countries. From the outset, it was envisaged that the encyclopedia would aim to represent the worldwide state of knowledge regarding sustainable tourism. While it is not possible to include every organization and mechanism engaging with sustainability in the tourism domain, it is hoped that the flavour is very much global. We do recognize that this volume is first published in the English language, but we hope that our many contributors have assisted us in ensuring that it does not reflect a purely Anglo-Saxon understanding of sustainable tourism. The broad list of participants also creates a certain polyphony, which it is hoped reflects the myriad dimensions in which sustainable tourism is articulated. Although there was a lengthy period of editing, with at least two members of the editorial board peer reviewing each entry, we hope that this has not diluted this compilation of global expertise. Indeed, we deliberately selected a pool of emerging international researchers from five continents, each with considerable expertise in their sub-fields, to serve on the editorial board. This was intended to encourage the dissemination of state-of-the-art approaches to sustainable tourism, while acknowledging existing knowledge through an editorial advisory board of established experts in the field of sustainable tourism who provided oversight of the project. An initial list of entries formulated by the boards was considerably expanded through the call for contributions and suggestions from the academy via email lists. Contributors were asked to write the entries with the premise of how do these terms help us understand and implement sustainable tourism? This task is easier, and more obvious, with some entries, while others rely on a more implicit reading.

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Entries are listed alphabetically in a traditional encyclopedic format, and in various lengths depending on the complexity and relevance of the term. Initially, contributors were set three different lengths of entry: basic, standard and extended. Basic entries are for terms that need dictionary-type definitions and highly condensed summaries of minor topics, for example entries on general tourism terms. Standard entries provide concise, factual accounts of specific topics and terms. Extended entries provide discursive, essay-style overviews of major topics, for example entries on key topics such as ecotourism, corporate social responsibility, empowerment and ethics. These longer entries are important scholarly contributions, many from acknowledged experts in the field, but their contributions nevertheless rely on the more numerous shorter entries that they include as cross-references. These lengths may not be immediately apparent, as the work has necessarily evolved into a more fluid collection over time. However the reader will find that many of the longer entries include in-text citations of important texts and suggestions for further reading at the end. In view of the information age in which we now live, we have also included many website addresses, and have endeavoured to ensure their accuracy and currency. We apologize if any are out of date. Entries are categorized with a symbol as: a Type of tourism or facility; a Term related to sustainable tourism; an Organization involved in the planning, promotion or management of sustainable tourism; a Scheme or partnership encouraging the development of sustainable tourism; an Award or certification standard for sustainable tourism; a Treaty or agreement related to sustainable tourism; a Technical aspect or process of sustainable tourism implementation; or an Abbreviation of a term or organization. Of course some of these categorizations overlap to some degree. Cross-references to other entries are indicated in bold font at their first occurrence in an entry, with other relevant entries being suggested using a ‘see also’ format at the end. In order to maintain the flow of the entries, cross references are included for all declensions of the same word. Contributors are indicated with initials (which are explained in the contributor list) rather than with their full names, in an effort to preserve the polyphonic but collaborative nature of this volume. While tourism scholars often fret about the immaturity of their subject area, they can be proud of being at the forefront of both academic discourse and industry practice when it comes to their engagement with sustainability. The publication of Our Common Future in 1987 was swiftly followed by work in the early 1990s on sustainability and tourism. These included publications such as Tourism Planning: An Integrated and Sustainable Development Approach (Inskeep, 1991), Ecotourism: A Sustainable Option? (Cater and Lowman, 1994) and the launch of the Journal of Sustainable Tourism in 1993. Many of the tools initially developed for assessing tourism impacts are now widely used in planning practice more generally. Certification schemes originally created for sustainable tourism, such as Green Globe, have been extended to places wishing to recognize their commitment to sustainability in broader terms, beyond their remit as a tourism destination. The study of sustainable tourism has therefore contributed significantly to the academic understanding of sustainability as a whole. Likewise, we hope that the broad approach taken in this volume makes the encyclopedia useful as a best-practice reference source for tourism in all its forms. There are two core challenges that nevertheless confront an investigation of sustainable tourism. Firstly, it is unlikely that, in its purest form, true sustainability can ever be achieved in the tourism context. Secondly, we would never know if it was, for sustainability, as a future-based concept, will always involve a degree of crystal-ball xivIntroduction

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gazing that sometimes sits uncomfortably alongside scientific approaches to tourism. These issues may be articulated in two important facets of sustainability: complexity and time. Sustainable tourism is inherently complex, representing the archetypal example of a ‘meta-problem’, cutting across so many domains of scale and influence that it is virtually impossible to ensure that all are covered. Despite its broader contributions, tourism scholarship has nevertheless been somewhat guilty of having a silo mentality, whereby tourism has tended to be considered in isolation from the other activities that take place around it and to which it is necessarily connected. The last decade has nevertheless seen a growth in interdisciplinary initiatives, and a look at the affiliations of our contributors confirms an acceptance that we cannot meaningfully consider sustainability in one sector alone. Holistic thinking is therefore a central tenet of the enterprise of sustainable tourism. We are therefore taking a broad perspective on sustainability, recognizing the importance of triple-bottom-line approaches and adding more into the sustainability ‘mix’, such as concerns about ethics, responsibility and justice. The other significant challenge to any evaluation of sustainability is that of variable time horizons, an issue which surfaces many times in this volume. An assessment of sustainability over months or even years may be necessary for it to be meaningful, but we will inevitably struggle to do this in a tourism system that is highly dynamic when it comes to decades or even centuries. It may seem paradoxical, but change is actually a fundamental part of both sustainability and tourism, and neither will ever remain static. Sustainability should not be confused with conservation or preservation alone, even though it must take elements of these concepts on board. Likewise, tourism has been recognized as a mobile, interactive and dynamic development phenomenon since the early descriptions of destinations by Christaller (1963). This dynamism does pose some problems, for example while there is much current rhetoric about the changing patterns of tourism demand from emerging economies, there is very little that can be said with any real certainty about how these will influence patterns of tourism by mid-century. What we can be more certain of is that community-based tourism, as the foundation of sustainable tourism, takes many years to implement effectively, requiring long periods of consultation and capacity building prior to its implementation. These timescales do not necessarily fit with the priorities of the short-termist capitalist economy or the political time horizons of modern democracies. This discussion of complexity and time horizons may make the reader feel that the task of this volume is of little ultimate value. However, the editors (and presumably the contributors) would like to argue the very opposite: what is vital in response to all of these unknowns is an interrogation and articulation of what we do know, so that we can move toward a greater understanding of the sustainable tourism meta–problem, if not actually to solve it. Given its broad scope, and the many contributions included, we would like to suggest that the compilation of this volume has been a substantial learning exercise for the editors: perhaps as substantial as it will be for the reader. However, we might attempt to highlight some of the trends that can be observed from the process. As already noted, sustainable tourism has come of age, and this is best illustrated by the raft of new organizations, schemes, awards and indicators that are described in this volume. On one hand, this illustrates the political and societal importance of sustainability in tourism. On the other, some concern has been expressed that the explosion of these over the last decade has diluted their relevance. While this volume cannot Introductionxv

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hope to cover all of those that exist, it does sketch out the common ground and thereby provide an overview that will, it is hoped, further our understanding. Linked to the growth of sustainable tourism partnerships is a growing awareness of the importance of collaborative approaches to understanding and implementing sustainable tourism, and allied concerns of participation, capacity building and networking. These may also be seen as important challenges to entrenched power structures that threaten the long-term viability of tourism. Indeed, the reader will find that there are entries both from more-critical and less-critical perspectives on this subject. Again, this spectrum is important, as it creates a dialogue between accepted truths and those that seek to present alternative futures. Also in evidence is the presence of a mobility paradigm that seeks to understand how tourism, as one of the most influential mobility phenomena, has the ability to shape cultures, places and practices. Importantly, this ‘mobility turn’ serves to underline the importance of local context in any individual case of tourism development, rather than to detract from it. This is perhaps a warning, that while the terms in this volume are presented in relatively generic ways (albeit often with examples), the local articulation of sustainability will always be context-dependent. While this encyclopedia will fill many gaps in knowledge, it does still leave some important questions for the next generation of researchers. The most significant of these is how to deal with the problem of growth. For decades, the tourism industry has pursued growth above all other indicators of success. However, growth is a challenge to sustainability, for the latter is neither infinitely possible, nor infinitely desirable, when the essentially limited nature of resources is brought into the equation. We must therefore begin a more meaningful engagement with steady-state solutions for tourism development. There has been much discussion of a sustainability transition in the literature, through which society moves progressively towards lower-impact forms of tourism. However, the ultimate sustainability transition will be to rid ourselves of the ‘growth fetish’ that pervades the current structures of tourism, and look towards positive examples of community-based tourism (at all scales) that rearticulate the host–guest relationship symbolic of our sector.

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Sustainable Tourism The editors are tempted to suggest that defining ‘sustainable tourism’ would be a pointless, even self-defeating undertaking. The concept is so expansive and so complex that to try to summarize it would be counter-productive: at best it would fail to do justice to the concept; at worst it would mislead the reader into believing that it can be presented in a condensed form that can be read and understood within a brief period of time. We believe that it cannot. As such, we would like to suggest that if the reader wishes to understand what the term ‘sustainable tourism’ means, they would be best advised to begin working their way through this encyclopedia: start with the entry on ‘tourism’, then move on to ‘tourism development’ and work their way through more entries by following the cross-references. With careful and persistent reading, we are confident that the reader will develop a deep and thorough understanding of what ‘sustainable tourism’ means, both in principle and in practice. We suspect, however, that some readers will find this advice unsatisfying and that they would prefer a succinct definition that summarizes how the essence of the concept of ‘sustainable tourism’ is generally understood by academics and practitioners. The remainder of this section attempts to meet this demand. The first thing to note when seeking a definition of sustainable tourism is that there is not one but many in existence (see Garrod and Fyall, 1998). As Buckley (2012, p. 534) suggests, despite several decades of research a ‘single quantitative measure of sustainability in tourism remains elusive, because of difficulties in definition, accounting, and analysis’. Definitions are often competing, although many share a number of common components including: 1.  A temporal dimension – recognizing that today’s (and yesterday’s) tourism has impacts that are generated today but will be experienced in the future, e.g. the contribution of holiday air travel to global climate change (Cohen and Higham, 2011); 2.  A spatial dimension – recognizing that tourism’s impacts may benefit some people (e.g. guests from the tourism-originating countries) to the cost of others (e.g. hosts in the tourism destination countries) (Mbaiwa, 2011); 3.  A fairness dimension – recognizing that the temporal and spatial impacts of tourism are often inequitable, or unfair (Schellhorn, 2010); 4.  An impact media dimension – recognizing that the benefits and costs of tourism may be expressed as impacts in the economic, environmental and sociocultural media (or, typically, all three of these media at the same time) (Miller et al., 2010); 5.  An intervention dimension – recognizing that governments have a duty to intervene in the above situation, which will not resolve itself without external intervention (Dinica, 2009); 6.  A stakeholder dimension – recognizing that sustainable tourism will be difficult, even impossible to implement without the cooperation of various stakeholder groups, including tourists, tourism businesses, host communities, etc. (Jamal and Stronza, 2009). xvii

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Clearly not every definition of sustainable tourism includes or accepts all of these components (Saarinen, 2006). For example, some definitions of sustainable development argue against the need for regulatory intervention, suggesting that market forces are sufficient in themselves to effect the required modifications in human behaviour (on the part of tourists and/or tourism businesses). These definitions are consistent with the ‘very weak’ approach to sustainable development (Hunter, 1997). At the other end of the spectrum, proponents of the ‘very strong’ approach to sustainable development argue that the free operation of market forces is inimical to the achievement of sustainability, which requires alternative (i.e. non-market) governance systems to be established in place of the free-market economic system. The impact media dimension is also contested. While many definitions are underpinned by a ‘triple-bottom-line’ condition for sustainability, in which impacts in each of the three impact media – economic, environmental and sociocultural – are all intrinsically important, others recognize only the environmental dimension, or perhaps the environmental and sociocultural ones (Butler, 1999). Some definitions, meanwhile, prioritize one medium over the others. Indeed, many definitions fail to recognize the economic dimension at all (Low, 2013). For example, there has been a tendency in some parts of the world to distinguish between sustainable tourism and ‘ecologically sustainable tourism’, the latter being held to represent genuinely sustainable tourism because it prioritizes ecological (or environmental) considerations over economic ones (Butler, 1999). This approach is predicated on the belief that many instances of tourism have proven unsustainable because they have allowed economic considerations (the generation of profits, incomes and jobs) to trump ecological ones. The extent to which sociocultural considerations do or do not enter into the ‘ecologically sustainable tourism’ framework is, however, something of a moot point. The above discussion suggests that sustainable tourism is an ‘essentially contested’ concept (Hall, 1998), meaning that it is flexible enough to be interpreted in a number of different ways, according to the use to which the interpreter requires it to be put (Hughes, 1995). This flexibility has caused misuse and misappropriation of the term, and arguably the slow pace at which the sustainable tourism agenda has been adopted. Interpretations are often conflicting, sometimes they are even diametrically opposed. Arguably, however, none of them is fundamentally ‘correct’ or ‘incorrect’: they simply denote different perspectives on how best (and, by inference, for whom) tourism should be developed, planned, regulated, managed and/or marketed. The understanding of sustainable tourism is thus highly contextual (Saarinen, 2006). This means that the local expression of power relations is fundamental to understanding how sustainable tourism is perceived and pursued. McKercher (1993) exemplifies this point in his discussion of rural tourism in parts of Canada and Australia. Although the balance of power relations was very different in the two destinations, one emphasizing free markets, the other more interventionist, the policies and practices being implemented served to threaten the sustainability of tourism in both destinations. In Canada, the sustainability of tourism was being threatened by the unfettered development of resource-hungry tourism, while in Australia the development of tourism was under threat of being limited by strict conservation laws. Both situations might be considered ironic, in that those holding the balance of power in both destinations truly believed they were acting in pursuit of sustainable tourism. The solution to such difficulties in defining sustainable tourism might be to go back to basics, i.e. to start with the simplest definition possible. To this end, the following xviii

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­ efinition is proposed: ‘sustainable tourism is tourism that is in keeping with the prind ciples of sustainable development’. This leaves us with three queries: (i) what is ‘tourism’?; (ii) what is ‘sustainable development’?; and (iii) how and when can the former be undertaken so that it is compatible with the latter? Consensus on the first two queries is far from complete, but it can be argued that in-depth discussion of the contentions involved is beyond the remit of this introduction. Suffice it to say that a number of different and conflicting definitions of both ‘tourism’ and ‘sustainable development’ exist. Each is an ‘essentially contested’ concept in its own right. As such, it seems unlikely that academics or practitioners will ever achieve consensus within their respective communities, let alone reach an overall consensus on the meaning of the composite term, ‘sustainable tourism’. With regard to the third query – how best to merge the two constituent concepts – perhaps the simplest solution would be to modify the basic definition of sustainable development outlined in the Brundtland Report (WCED, 1987) to make it apply to tourism. Thus, sustainable tourism might be defined as ‘tourism that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’. This seems, at first sight, to represent a very good solution to the problem of combining the concepts of ‘tourism’ and ‘sustainable development’. Arguably, however, it generates more problems than it solves. It raises a number of further queries that must be answered before the definition becomes meaningful in principle and useful in practice. Some of these can be summarized as follows: 1.  Intention or achievement? The definition suggest that tourism should actually meet the needs of present generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own, but there will always be uncertainty about how far and in what ways the impacts caused by today’s generation of tourists will affect future generations. As such, it is not entirely tenable to judge any contemporary instance of tourism on its achievements; rather, it must be judged on its intentions. To describe any contemporary instance of tourism as ‘sustainable tourism’ is thus difficult to justify. At best, it might be possible to argue that a given instance of tourism is ‘sustainable tourism, so far’. 2.  What do we mean by ‘needs’ and whose needs? The definition refers to the ‘needs’ of current and future generations, but what do we mean by ‘needs’ when even simple forms of tourism would be considered a luxury by much of the world’s current population? Moreover, it would seem that the definition is referring to different ‘needs’ for different people in the short and long term. For the current generation, tourism will be meeting the needs of tourists by providing them with satisfying tourism holidays, the needs of tourism destination communities to earn incomes from tourism, and so on, but in the long term, it is the broader needs of the general population that may potentially be compromised, the need for access to basic resources, food and water security, and so on. Clearly, tourism activities generally have broader impacts, impacting on those who are not directly related to the tourism industry as well as those who are (the impacts of holiday air travel on global climate change would be a good example, see Becken and Patterson, 2006). The definition assumes that the needs of present and future generations are somehow commensurate but this is clearly a highly controversial assumption. 3.  Sustainable tourism or part of sustainable development? The foregoing debate leads directly to another controversial issue, which is whether we should be seeking Sustainable Tourism

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tourism that is sustainable in itself or tourism that contributes to broader sustainable development. The two may in many cases be tantamount to one another, but they need not be. For example, tourism in a particular destination may be considered sustainable in itself, in that it meets the (presumably touristic) needs of people in today’s generation, without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own (presumably general) needs, but it has negative impacts on another sector of the economy, which may prevent it from meeting this same criterion. An example would be where effluent from a tourism resort pollutes the groundwater reserves used for water supply to a local town. This might not compromise the sustainability of tourism in the destination, which could have its own sources of drinking water, but it will surely compromise the ability of future generations in the local area to meet their freshwater supply needs (Cole, 2012). 4.  What is to be sustained? The next question, therefore, is to consider what it is we intend to be sustained (McCool et al., 2001). If the desired answer is tourism, then as Butler (1999) notes, there are many examples of destinations that maintained a vibrant tourism industry for many decades. For example, Niagara Falls on the US– Canada border and Blackpool in England have both existed as tourism destinations since at least the 19th century. But surely this does not mean that they are exemplary of sustainable tourism? It would be a simple exercise to list the many negative environmental, economic and sociocultural impacts of tourism in such destinations, which must surely affect future generations for the worse. Presumably, then, the objective of sustainable tourism is to ensure that the ability of future generations to meet their needs is maintained. This equation might not include tourism as a means of fulfilling those needs. However, these examples may also be useful for examining sustainable tourism as steady-state tourism (Hall, 2010). 5.  What is meant by ‘compromise’? The definition requires that today’s tourism does not compromise the ability of future generations to meet their needs, but what do we mean by ‘compromise’? If the condition is that tourism should not detract from the ability of future generations to meet their needs, then very few contemporary instances of tourism would be able to meet that criterion. Presumably, then, the definition requires that the tourism activities of the present generation do not prohibit any future generation from meeting its needs: in other words, future generations may find meeting their needs more difficult because of the way tourism has been conducted in the past but they are not prevented from doing so. The problem with this interpretation is that we cannot know what will prevent future generation from meeting their needs: thus, any determination of what we mean by sustainable tourism in today’s generation must involve a significant amount of speculation. With speculation comes disagreement about what we have to do to practice sustainable tourism. 6.  How far into the future? The definition refers to ‘future generations’, but this begs the question of which future generations we are referring to. If we mean the next generation, then how do we define that: the next 30 years perhaps? What, then, of impacts that are generated by today’s tourism but might not become apparent until perhaps 100 years into the future? These will not affect the ‘next’ generation, so they would be immaterial to the achievement of sustainable tourism if this timescale was chosen; tourism that resulted in this kind of impact would be considered sustainable. Presumably, then, the definition means that the interests and values of all future generations need to be taken into account: not just the following generation but all generations into the future (Benckendorff et al., 2010). This introduces yet further xx

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speculation into the equation, in that in order for tourism to be considered sustainable in today’s generation we need to ensure that it does not compromise the interests of generations that may exist far into the future. 7.  Direction of travel or state of being? All of the above raises the question of whether sustainable tourism should be considered to be a direction of travel, in that it constitutes a process through which particular instances of tourism are made progressively more sustainable over time, aiming towards the ideal of sustainability, or a state of being that a given instance can be said to have already achieved (Garrod and Fyall, 1998). The former might be considered to be a more realistic approach, in that any instance of tourism is likely to exhibit shortcomings in terms of its sustainability that can be addressed though regulation and/or management, thereby improving the opportunities for future generation to meet their needs. Other commentators maintain, however, that it is possible to describe a particular instance of tourism as being sustainable. This would tend to assume that the instance of tourism has no deficiencies in sustainability terms, which seems unlikely. Presumably acceptance of this view would also imply that a given instance of tourism could lose its status as sustainable tourism if for some reason it failed to meet whatever criteria are being used. 8.  A type of tourism or a general approach? The foregoing discussion suggests that sustainable tourism may either be seen as a specific type of tourism or as a general approach that can (and presumably should) be applied to any form of tourism. Some authorities argue that sustainable tourism is a distinct form of tourism with particular characteristics, which would include, for example, the minimization of the negative environmental impacts of such tourism. Others argue that sustainable tourism is best understood as an approach that can be applied to any form of tourism, even mass tourism. Indeed, it might be argued that it applies especially to mass tourism in that one of the deficiencies of mass tourism is that it represents by far the largest proportion of tourism at both the national level and globally. Such deficiencies must surely be addressed if sustainable tourism is to have any impact as a social agenda. Figure 1 illustrates how sustainable tourism might best be considered an approach to tourism, rather than as a type. The diagram comprises a series of concentric circles, the largest being tourism generally. Smaller circles represent increasingly niche forms of tourism, beginning with natural-area tourism (Newsome et al., 2002), and continuing with nature-based tourism (Orams, 1996). The latter can be considered a subset of the former insofar as it involves tourists interacting closely with nature (e.g. hunting for rare plants, geotourism – see Dowling and Newsome, 2006), while the latter simply involves tourists being in natural areas, which may not involve substantial interaction with nature (e.g. hang-gliding, off-road motorcycling). The inner circle represents wildlife tourism (Shackley, 1996; Higginbottom, 2004; Newsome et al., 2005), which focuses specifically on interactions with wild animal species (e.g. birdwatching, whale-watching), i.e. one distinct component of nature with which tourist interactions take place. Mass tourism would be located in that part of the largest circle, marked ‘tourism’, that is not occupied by any other circle. These are all forms of tourism. Superimposed over these concentric circles are ‘sustainable tourism’ and ‘ecotourism’, the superimposition denoting that these are not forms of tourism in themselves but approaches that can be applied to many different forms of tourism. ‘Sustainable tourism’ thus applies to all of the forms of tourism shown in the diagram, including mass tourism, insofar as it represents a set of principles which can be applied generally to Sustainable Tourism

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Sustainable Tourism

Tourism NaturalArea Tourism NatureBased Tourism

Wildlife Tourism

Ecotourism

Fig. 1.  Relationship between sustainable tourism, ecotourism and some of the main forms of tourism.

tourism, rather than constituting a form of tourism in itself. Non-sustainable forms of tourism are located in those parts of the largest circle, marked ‘tourism’, which are not occupied by the circle marked ‘sustainable tourism’. ‘Ecotourism’, meanwhile, overlaps with the nature-based and wildlife tourism circles, in that ecotourism is usually defined as constituting a sustainable approach to developing, planning, managing and marketing such forms of tourism (Fennell, 2008a) but would not apply to other forms of tourism such as those that are only natural-area tourism or even mass tourism. Given that ecotourism practices are intended to be (increasingly) sustainable, it lies entirely within the circle marked ‘sustainable tourism’. Whilst scoping boundaries, this representation of approaches and typologies of tourism highlights the importance of interdependence inherent in the system (Hall and Butler, 1995). Cater and Cater (2007a) have demonstrated the way in which the existence of ecotourism is heavily dependent on practices outside the sector. Similarly, whilst the entire travel industry can learn from the principles and practices of sustainable tourism, other – often competing – tourism activities are frequently prejudicial to its very existence, as is the global context in which it is cast. Thus we should consider sustainable tourism as a holistic approach that must take a broad perspective. As this discussion has shown it is highly contextual, and as Hall (2008, p. 262) has maintained, ‘it is highly political . . . the goal of sustainability is not a given . . . it is a contested concept that we need to be arguing for’. In a recent review of research on sustainable tourism, Buckley assesses the progress of sustainable tourism research and practice influence along five dimensions of population, peace, prosperity, pollution and protection. Here he highlights the disparities between industry priorities and different areas of the academy in their interpretation of the term. Overall he identifies a general lack of progress with a sector ‘not yet close to sustainability’ (Buckley, 2012, p. 528). While the editors would agree that we still have a long way to go, this only makes our work in this area all the more important. Indeed, the stance of Bramwell and Lane (1993a, p. 3) still holds in that ‘efforts directed towards making tourism more sustainable are much more likely to produce benefits than problems, particularly if they are developed as a result of sound research and an informed debate’. Perhaps some of this debate has obscured the meaning of sustainable tourism, with some authors suggesting it is an overloaded concept (Sharpley, 2012a). Therefore we would concur with xxii

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Buckley (2012, p. 537) in that ‘the terminology of sustainability, as well as the practicalities of social and environmental management, will remain critically important in tourism research as well as reality’. This volume interrogates and elucidates this terminology, with the aim of gaining an improved understanding of sustainable tourism in theory and practice: one that will bolster the arguments we are making as academics, policy makers and practitioners.

Sustainable Tourism

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Author Affiliations   Ehsan Ahmed

University of New South Wales, Australia Alisha Ali Sheffield Hallam University, UK György Ängelkott Lund University (LTU), Sweden Bocz Michaela Czech University of Life Sciences Antoušková Prague Mário Passos Haaga-Helia University of Applied Ascencao Sciences, Finland Sibel Mehter Aykin Akdeniz Üniversitesi, Turkey Kenneth F Clemson University, USA Backman Sheila J. Backman Clemson University, USA Susanne Becken Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia David Beirman University of Technology Sydney, Australia Tim Bentley Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand Rosemary Black Charles Sturt University, Australia Sylvie Blangy CEFE - CNRS, Montpellier, France Karla Boluk University of Ulster, UK Kelly Bricker University of Utah, USA Rob Briers Ralf Buckley Karolina Buczkowska Richard Butler Christian Byczek Ana Cláudia Campos Carl Iain Cater Erlet Cater Alessio Cavicchi Heather Clyne

Edinburgh Napier University, Scotland, UK Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia Cultural Tourism Journal, Poland University of Strathclyde, Scotland, UK Tourism researcher, Indonesia University of the Algarve, Portugal Aberystwyth University, Wales, UK University of Reading, UK University of Macerata, Italy Sustainable Travel International

[email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] mariopassos.ascencao@ haaga-helia.fi [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]. edu [email protected] [email protected] turystykakulturowa@ interia.pl [email protected] christian.byczek@ googlemail.com [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] heather.c@ sustainabletravel.org

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Omer Coban Ali Coghlan Stroma Cole Billy Collins Noga CollinsKreiner James Crabbe Greg Dash Jackie Dawson Danuta de Grosbois Karen Diele Kay Dimmock John Dobson Holly Donohoe Ross Dowling Lauren Duffy Erol Duran Larry Dwyer Deborah Edwards Eke Eijgelaar Sally Everett Julia Fallon William Feighrey Dave Fennell Sonia Ferrari Harald Friedl Joo Ee Gan Olga García Hernández Brian Garrod Wouter Geerts Monica Gilli Stefan Gössling xxvi

Batman University, Turkey Griffith University, Australia University of West of England, UK Thompson Rivers University, British Columbia, Canada University of Haifa, Israel

[email protected]

University of Bedfordshire, University of Oxford, UK Aberystwyth University, Wales, UK University of Ottawa, Canada Brock University, Canada

[email protected]/ [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Edinburgh Napier University, UK Southern Cross University, Australia Cardiff Metropolitan University, Wales, UK University of Florida Gainesville, USA Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia Clemson University, USA Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi, Turkey University of New South Wales, Australia University of Technology Sydney, Australia NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences, Netherlands Anglia Ruskin University, UK Cardiff Metropolitan University, Wales, UK The Research Methods Laboratory, Switzerland Brock University, Canada Università della Calabria, Italy FH Joanneum University of Applied Sciences, Bad Gleichenberg, Austria Taylor’s University Malaysia Aberystwyth University, Wales, UK Aberystwyth University, Wales, UK Euromonitor International, UK University of Milano-Bicocca, Italy Lund University, Sweden

[email protected] [email protected]

[email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

[email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] deborah.edwards-1@uts. edu.au [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Author Affliations

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Åsa Helen Grahn Ulrike Gretzel

University of Stavanger, Norway University of Queensland, Australia Bryan Grimwood University of Waterloo, Canada Gul Gunes Atilim University, Turkey Rob Hales Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia Mark Hampton University of Kent, UK Anne Hardy University of Tasmania, Australia Serhat Harman Batman University, Turkey Ian Harris Aberystwyth University, Wales, UK Claire HavenCardiff Metropolitan University, Tang Wales, UK Inge Hermann Saxion University of Applied Sciences, Netherlands Freya Higgins University of South Australia, Desbiolles Australia Andrew Holden University of Bedfordshire, UK Patrick Holladay Troy University, USA Robert Hood Thompson Rivers University, British Columbia, Canada Ben Hopkins Leicester University, UK Debbie Hopkins University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand Ming Feng Dongbei University of Finance & Huang Economics, China John Hull Thompson Rivers University, British Columbia, Canada Leo Jago University of Surrey, UK John Jenkins Southern Cross University, Australia Gayle Jennings Imagine CGI, Australia Sydney Johnsen Thompson Rivers University, British Columbia, Canada Angela Kalisch University of Gloucestershire, UK Azilah Kasim Universiti Utara Malaysia Ozan Kaya Mugla Sitki Kocman University, Turkey Ian Keirle Aberystwyth University, Wales, UK Ian Kelly International Institute for Peace through Tourism Brian King The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong Can Deniz Akdeniz Üniversitesi, Turkey Köksal Dimitris University of Patras, Greece Koutoulas

Author Affliations

[email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] chaven-tang@cardiffmet. ac.uk [email protected] freya.higginsdesbiolles@ unisa.edu.au [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] debbie.hopkins@otago. ac.nz [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

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Sonja Sibila Lebe Stuart Levy Alan Lew Jasmine Chen Yar Li Tiffany Low Michael Lück Dagmar LundDurlacher Patrick Maher Esther MartínezGarcia Joe Mbaiwa Scott McCabe Annabelle McLarenThomson Karen McNamara Barbara McNicol Okan Mercan Tanja Mihalič Graham Miller James Miller Patrizia Modica Pedro Morais Jasmine Moreira Gianna Moscardo Jan Mosedale Dieter Müller Vikneswaran Nair Jan-Henrik Nilsson Steve Noakes

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University of Maribor, Slovenia

sonjasibila.lebe@guest. arnes.si George Washington University, USA [email protected] Northern Arizona University, USA [email protected] Taylor’s University, Malaysia [email protected] Aberystwyth University, Wales, UK [email protected] Auckland University of [email protected] Technology, New Zealand Modul University, Austria dagmar.lund-durlacher@ modul.ac.at Cape Breton University, Nova [email protected] Scotia, Canada Universitat de Girona, Spain [email protected] University of Botswana, Botswana University of Nottingham, UK University of St Andrews, UK James Cook University, Australia Mount Royal University, Canada Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi, Turkey University of Ljubljana, Slovenia University of Surrey, UK FH Joanneum University of Applied Sciences, Austria Università di Cagliari, Italy Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain Universidade Estadual de Ponta Grossa, Brazil James Cook University, Australia University of Applied Sciences HTW Chur, Switzerland Umeå University, Sweden Taylor’s University, Malaysia Lund University, Sweden Griffith Institute for Tourism, Griffith University, Australia

[email protected] scott.mccabe@nottingham. ac.uk [email protected] karen.e.mcnamara@gmail. com [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] jasminecardozo@gmail. com [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] jan-henrik.nilsson@ism. lu.se steve@pacificasiatourism. org

Author Affliations

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Noelle O’Connor Limerick Institute of Technology, Ireland Roselyne Okech Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada Claudia Bond University, Gold Coast, Ollenburg Australia Ferah Ozkok Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi, Turkey Emrah Ozkul Duzce University, Turkey Paul Peeters NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences, Netherlands Antonis Ecoclub Petropoulos Katja Poguntke Aberystwyth University, Wales, UK Bruce Prideaux James Cook University, Cairns, Australia Marlene Proctor Dublin Institute of Technology, Ireland Pete Raines Coral Restoration Foundation International Carleigh Randall Vancouver Island University, Canada Dirk Reiser Rhine-Woal University of Applied Sciences, Germany Hamish Rennie Lincoln University, New Zealand Scott Richardson Harold Richins Matthias Ripp Volker Rundshagen Jarkko Saarinen Hanisdah Saikim

[email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] bruce.prideaux@jcu. edu.au [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] voyageur1966.de@gmail. com hamish.rennie@lincoln. ac.nz scott.richardson@ bluemountains.edu.au

Blue Mountains International Hotel Management School, Australia Thompson Rivers University, [email protected] British Columbia, Canada City of Regensburg, Germany [email protected] Cologne Business School, Germany [email protected]

University of Oulu, Finland James Cook University, Cairns, Australia Nichola Salmon National University of Ireland, Maynooth, Ireland Cristina Santini Università San Raffaele, Italy João Sarmento University of Minho and Lisbon, Portugal Gunjan Saxena University of Hull Caroline Scarles University of Surrey, UK Regina Scheyvens Massey University, New Zealand Richard Sharpley University of Central Lancashire, UK Greg Shaw California State University Sacremento, USA

Author Affliations

[email protected]

[email protected] hanisdah_fiffy@hotmail. com [email protected] [email protected] j.sarmento@geografia. uminho.pt [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

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Shalini Singh Susan Slocum Nancy Stevenson Amanda Talbot Faye Taylor Steve Taylor Tatjana Thimm Andy Thompson Dallen Timothy John Tribe Kathy Velander Serena Volo Patrick Vrancken Chinchin Wang Paul Ward Stephen Wearing Clare Weeden Gregory Willson Erica Wilson Jie Zhang Linsheng Zhong

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Brock University, Canada George Mason University, USA University of Westminster, UK Aberystwyth University, Wales, UK Nottingham Trent University, UK University of Highlands and Islands, Scotland, UK Hochschule Konstanz University of Applied Science, Germany Otago Polytechnic, Dunedin, New Zealand Arizona State University, USA University of Surrey, UK Edinburgh Napier University, Scotland, UK Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, Italy Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, South Africa Alethia University, Taiwan Edinburgh Napier University, UK University of Technology Sydney, Australia University of Brighton, UK Edith Cowan University, Australia Southern Cross University, Australia Centre for Regional and Tourism Research, Denmark Institute of Geographical Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China

[email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] patrick.vrancken@nmmu. ac.za [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]. au [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Author Affliations

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List of Authors’ Initials Initials Author

Initials Author

AA AC ACA ACO AG AH AK AL AMT  ANH AP AT ATH AZK BC BG BGR BH BK BM BP CB CHC CHT CIC CK CO CR CS CSA CW DB DDG DE DF DH DK DLD DM

DRE DT EA EC ED EE EMG EO EW FHD FO FT GAB GD GG GJ GJE GM GMI GS GSA GW HC HD HF HR HRE HS IHH IHN IK IKE JC JCY JD JDA JF JH JHN

Alisha Ali Alessio Cavicchi Ana Campos Ali Coghlan Åsa Helen Grahn Andrew Holden Angela Kalisch Alan Lew Annabelle McLaren-Thomson Anne Hardy Antonis Petropoulos Amanda Talbot Andy Thompson Azilah Kasim Billy Collins Brian Garrod Bryan Grimwood Ben Hopkins Brian King Barbara McNicol Bruce Prideaux Christian Byczek Chinchin Wang Claire Haven-Tang Carl Iain Cater Can Deniz Köksal Claudia Ollenburg Carleigh Randall Caroline Scarles Cristina Santini Claire Weeden David Beirman Danuta de Grosbois Deborah Edwards Dave Fennell Debbie Hopkins Dimitris Koutoulas Dagmar Lund-Durlacher Dieter Muller

Dirk Reiser Dallen Timothy Ehsan Ahmed Erlet Cater Erol Duran Eke Eijgelaar Esther Martínez-Garcia Emrah Ozkul Erica Wilson Freya Higgins Desbiolles Ferah Ozkok Faye Taylor György Ängelkott Bocz Greg Dash Gul Gunes Gayle Jennings Gan Joo Ee Gianna Moscardo Graham Miller Greg Shaw Gunjan Saxena Gregory Willson Heather Clyne Holly Donohoe Harald Friedl Harold Richins Hamish Rennie Hanisdah Saikim Ian Harris Inge Hermann Ian Kelly Ian Keirle James Crabbe Jasmine Chen Yar Li John Dobson Jackie Dawson Julia Fallon John Hull Jan-Henrik Nilsson

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Initials Author

Initials Author

JJ JM JMB JMI JMO JS JSA JT JZ KB KBR KBU KD KDI KFB KMN KP KV LD LDU LJ LZ MA MFH MG MH ML MPA MPR MR NCK NO NS NSA OC OGH OK OM PEM PH PM PMO PP

PR PV PW RB RBL RBR RBU RD RES RH RHO RO RS SB SC SE SF SG SH SJ SJB SL SLO SMA SMC SN SR SS SSL ST SV SW SYB TAM TB TL TTH UG VNS

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John Jenkins Jasmine Moreira Joe Mbaiwa James Miller Jan Mosedale Jarkko Saarinen João Sarmento John Tribe Jie Zhang Karla Boluk Kelly Bricker Karolina Buczkowska Kay Dimmock Karen Diele Kenneth F Backman Karen McNamara Katja Poguntke Kathy Velander Larry Dwyer Lauren Duffy Leo Jago Linsheng Zhong Michaela Antoušková Ming Feng Huang Monica Gilli Mark Hampton Michael Lück Mariopassos Ascencao Marlene Proctor Matthias Ripp Noga Collins-Kreiner Noelle O’Connor Nancy Stevenson Nichola Salmon Omer Coben Olga García Hernández Ozan Kaya Okan Mercan Pedro Morais Patrick Holladay Patrick Maher Patrizia Modica Paul Peeters

VR WF WG

Pete Raines Patrick Vrancken Paul Ward Ralf Buckley Rosemary Black Rob Briers Richard Butler Ross Dowling Regina Scheyvens Rob Hales Robert Hood Roselyne Okech Richard Sharpley Susanne Becken Stroma Cole Sally Everett Sonia Ferrari Stefan Gössling Serhat Harman Sydney Johnsen Sheila J. Backman Stuart Levy Susan Slocum Sibel Mehter Aykin Scott McCabe Steve Noakes Scott Richardson Shalini Singh Sonja Sibila Lebe Steve Taylor Serena Volo Stephen Wearing Sylvia Blangy Tanja Mihalič Tim Bentley Tiffany Low Tatjana Thimm Ulrike Gretzel Vikneswaran Nair Sehkaran Volker Rundshagen William Feighrey Wouter Geerts

List of Authors’ Initials

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A    Aboriginal tourism See Indigenous tourism

 Access The act of making use of something or going somewhere. Access may be limited by a number of factors, including legal restrictions, such as restrictions on access to private property and physical features, for example a person with a physical disability may find it difficult to access a building that has many steps. Accessibility can be defined as the ease and/or extent to which something or somewhere can be accessed. Access is also an important consideration in research methods and participatory techniques such as action research. BG

 Accessibility The ease and/or extent to which something can be engaged with or somewhere can be entered or passed through. The degree of accessibility a thing or place has will depend on a variety of factors, including legal restrictions, the physical features and personal characteristics. All of these are important in the tourism context. Legal restrictions might include, for example, lack of access by tourists to beaches owned privately by hotels for the exclusive use of their guests. The physical features of a place may limit people’s ability to use it, for example a mountain summit (see Mountaineering) may be inaccessible to anyone other than professional climbers with suitable equipment. Accessibility may also depend on whether a person has some form of disability, for example a person with poor hearing may find it difficult to listen to a tour guide’s commentary while someone with poor sight may find it difficult to engage with a museum exhibit that is housed in a glass case. In both cases, the object of interest will be inaccessible to the tourist. Multiple disabilities will make access even more difficult. It is estimated (Darcy and Dickson, 2009) that 30% of people will have access requirements at some point in their life. Accessibility can be related to either the ease of use or extent of use. A person who uses a wheelchair may find it difficult to negotiate steps leading to a particular building, making it inaccessible to them. Alternatively, the person might be able to access much of the building in his or her wheelchair but is prevented from visiting certain rooms due to the presence of steps, in which case the site is only partly accessible. The individual who finds such a building physically inaccessible need not, of course, be a wheelchair user: many elderly people find steps difficult to negotiate, as do younger people pushing their children in prams or pushchairs. © CAB International 2015. The Encyclopedia of Sustainable Tourism  (eds C. Cater, B. Garrod and T. Low)

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In many contexts, tourism providers will be obliged to ensure a specified degree of accessibility by law, for example public institutions such as museums and galleries are often required by law to ensure that their premises can be easily accessed by people with physical disabilities. In other cases, corporate ethics will be the driver, for example many visitor attractions use Braille on their directional signs or provide audio guides for those who have limited eyesight. Many tourist attractions also provide layered interpretation that will enable those with learning disabilities to access information and educational materials at a level that is appropriate to them. Interpretation is an excellent means of increasing accessibility more generally. For example, a museum exhibit may be intellectually inaccessible to the general visitor unless it is well interpreted. BG

 Accommodation A venue that offers temporary lodgings for visitors. There are a number of different types of accommodation available for tourists ranging from camping in national parks to five-star resorts by the beach. Some of the more widely found types of accommodation include guest houses (Fig. H4), where rooms are provided within a larger home, with breakfast and evening meals usually available (see Homestay). Bed and breakfast establishments (B & Bs), meanwhile, offer lodging within a private home including breakfast. Hotels range from small (fewer than 10 rooms) to large (300 or more rooms), usually serve breakfast, lunch and dinner, and will quite often have a liquor licence. Self-catering accommodation has cooking facilities for guests, which are often located within the room. Serviced apartments are usually self-contained and provide a cleaning service to the guest. Lodges are usually located along major roads or within city centres and tend to provide relatively limited services. Inns are B & B lodging within a traditional inn or pub. Hostels are a form of lodging often used by backpackers, whereby guests pay for a bed and may have to share their room with others (Fig. A1). Holiday parks offer holiday homes, touring and camping pitches. Camp grounds, in contrast, are holiday parks that only have facilities for people to pitch a tent. When assessing the size of the accommodation sector it can be seen that in Australia at the end of June 2013 there were 4,237 hotels, motels and serviced apartments operating 230,064 rooms, with takings in excess of AUS$9 billion (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2014). The sector is also a significant employer, with 108,073 people employed by accommodation businesses in Australia at the end of June 2013 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2014). These statistics do not take into account other accommodation providers such as backpackers, homestays, B & Bs, campgrounds or holiday parks. In China, Yang (2011) reports that according to the Intercontinental Hotels Group (IHG), in terms of hotel rooms, China’s hotel market will surpass the USA as the biggest in the world by 2025, at which time there will be more than 6.1 million hotel rooms in China. Yang (2011) further reports that there are more than 1,500 new hotels being built in China each year. By 2015, IHG and Starwood will more than double their 2010 number of hotels operating in China. As the increase in hotel construction continues in Asia and throughout the world, one of the key issues facing governments and developers is to ensure that these new 2Accommodation

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Fig. A1.  Beachfront accomodation on Koh Rong, Cambodia (Carl Cater).

constructions are environmentally sustainable. One hotel group that is focused heavily on sustainable resort development is the Six Senses Group. All Six Senses Resorts are intricately aligned with the company’s values that aim to ensure that each resort positively impacts local communities. All Six Senses Resorts are fully committed to ensuring that they preserve the environment in which they operate by implementing sustainable operations. According to the Six Senses website (Six Senses, 2014), the company is at the forefront of sustainable tourism best practices and the company is widely recognized as being among the first hospitality-related companies to establish sustainability benchmarks for the industry. Each Six Senses Resort is committed to preserving the environment through sustainable operations in all aspects of the business. Some of the initiatives practised by Six Senses Resorts are: ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

energy saving initiatives; reuse water for secondary applications; recycle waste materials; using eco-friendly chemicals; purchasing food and beverage products from local producers; all packaging kept to a minimum and all being reusable or recyclable; bio-preservation and restoration projects; allowing guests to contribute to offset their carbon footprint; and only dealing with suppliers who share Six Senses commitment to the environment (Six Senses, 2014).

Accommodation3

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The Six Senses group is just one example of the focus that most hotels are now placing on environmental sustainability. See also Second home tourism, Couchsurfing, Worker-run/recuperated hotels   Six Senses www.sixsenses.com/about-us/about-us. SR

 Accounting Reporting of asset flows, usually monetary, through identifying, recording and summarizing business activities. In most conceptualizations of sustainable accounting, social and environmental considerations are also included alongside economic ones. One example is the ‘CSR Tourism’ label awarded to tourism enterprises fulfilling social and ecological requirements beyond legal provisions in their core business. Certification criteria include economic aspects such as the share of tourism-related income remaining at the destination (TourCert, 2012) (see Leakage). The technical perspective on accounting shows its vital role in providing such information to internal and external decision makers. The former are mainly managers and supervisors who plan, organize and run the business (Weygandt et al., 2012). The business function of providing internal data is usually referred to as ‘managerial accounting’. External users of accounting data include investors, suppliers, banks and government agencies. The function targeting that audience is called ‘financial accounting’. To provide meaningful, comparable and transparent financial statements, these activities have to follow harmonized rules. More than 130 countries, including the European Union member states, follow the International Financial Reporting standards, or IFRS, whereas most companies in the United States of America follow Generally Accepted Accounting Principles, or US-GAAP (Weygandt et al., 2012). Despite regulation, deceptive and manipulated financial reports cause substantial harm to business stakeholders. ‘Billions of dollars are lost each year by investors who base their investment decisions on misleading reported numbers’ (Pratt, 2011, p. 3), and there have been numerous scandals in the corporate world with dire consequences for employees and retirees losing their income. Therefore, ethical issues have moved into focus, and ‘accountants have a special responsibility to ensure that managers act with integrity and that the information disclosed . . . is accurate’ (Horngren et al., 2012, p. 43). This social perspective on accounting reveals it also as a social practice contributing to the construction of reality. At a micro level, accounting constitutes an enterprise, and it makes information more clearly definable (through financial statements) than legal entity approaches. This is because businesses typically create dispersed and partly virtual networks of suppliers, employees and outsourced business units (Chiapello, 2009). At a macro level, however, accounting is an instrument to disembed the enterprise from the system of social relations. Through the provision of a ‘language of business’ (Horngren et al., 2012), accounting enables economic discourses in which concepts come into being once they can be expressed in accounting terms, which in turn contributes to disembedding the economy from other dimensions of society (Chiapello, 2009). As a consequence, calls for a more holistic approach are intensifying. The concept of triple-bottom-line accounting, requiring business reports on ­social and environmental as well as economic performance, represents an attempt to  reconcile 4Accounting

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accounting with the philosophy of sustainability; possibly even to re-embed the economic sphere in society. Although social and environmental performance are difficult to measure, at least by means of current accounting language, there are a multitude of interesting and useful efforts being undertaken (Weygandt et al., 2012). See also Sustainability performance evaluation VR

 Accreditation The process of approval by an authoritative (accreditation) body of a certification body’s competence to certify organizations and individuals to a recognized standard. The Global Sustainable Tourism Council is an example of an international sustainable tourism accreditation body, and examples of sustainable tourism and ecotourism certification programs are Green Globe, the European Blue Flag label, PAN Parks, the Nordic Ecolabel and the Australian Eco-Certification Program. Fundamentally, accreditation bodies undertake a process of approval that formally recognizes that a certifier or certification program is competent to certify organizations to a recognized standard. This procedure can be qualifying, endorsing and licensing entities that perform certification of businesses, products, processes or services. An accreditation body is an independent entity that operates in conformity with specified standards and that is technically competent to accredit certification programs to perform conformity assessment using a recognized standard. In contrast, certification is a voluntary, third party procedure that sets, assesses, monitors and gives written assurance that a product, process, service or management system conforms to specified requirements and norms. To date, all the certification programs in the tourism industry are voluntary, in contrast to other industries such as the construction industry, in which there are government-required certification programs. A certification body verifies that specified requirements relating to a product, process, system, person or body are fulfilled. The body gives written assurance to the consumer and the industry in general. The outcome of certification is a certificate and usually the use of an ecolabel. Unfortunately in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Fiji and some other countries the term accreditation has been used synonymously with certification causing confusion within the tourism industry and among consumers (Black and Crabtree, 2007). Over the past 20 years there has been a growing focus on quality assurance in the tourism industry, primarily to ensure its long term viability, competitiveness and economic and environmental sustainability (Black and Crabtree, 2007). There has been an emphasis on increasing the professionalism and quality of the industry, and maintaining and enhancing the unique natural and cultural environments on which the industry depends. One way to ensure quality assurance is to apply one of a number of measures that are part of a quality assurance continuum including accreditation, certification, professional certification of individuals, licensing, benchmarks and auditing. Certification and accreditation programs ensure that products and services are genuine sustainable tourism or ecotourism, and not just ‘green washing’ or ‘ecotourism light’ (Honey, 2002; Black and Crabtree, 2007). These programs seek to measure the tangible benefits for conservation and the local communities, as well as socio-economic and environmental criteria. Globally in 2002 there were about 260 voluntary tourism Accreditation5

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initiatives, including tourism codes of conduct, ecolabels, awards, benchmarking and best practices. Of these initiatives, 104 were ecolabelling and certification programs offering logos, seals of approval, or awards designed to signify socially and/or environmentally superior tourism practices. Today these certification programs cover tourism professionals such as tour guides, as well as businesses, products, attractions, destinations and services (Honey, 2002). Since the 1990s, accreditation and certification of operators and their programs has been one of the most intensely examined areas of ecotourism and sustainable tourism, including discussions and debates of the benefits, challenges and potential of ecolabels, certification and accreditation (Black and Crabtree, 2007). A number of sources (UNEP, 1998; Font and Buckley, 2001; World Tourism Organization, 2002) have provided detailed lists and descriptions of this multitude of certification schemes or ecolabels that exist at a range of levels. The majority of certification programs are national, regional or local. Much has been written about the benefits and effectiveness of accreditation and certification (Wearing, 1995; Black and Crabtree, 2007; Wearing and Neil, 2009). Suffice to say, these programs can benefit businesses, consumers, governments, the environment and local communities (Black and Crabtree, 2007). Supporters of certification programs argue that businesses participate in these programs to reduce costs, gain a ‘green’ reputation and respond to environmentally conscious investors. Critics argue businesses engage in these programs to conceal their inferior environmental performance, avoid frequent and in-depth environmental monitoring, pre-empt future mandatory environmental regulations and create barriers of entry to new competitors. Currently, there are a number of problems with certification programs. There are too many programs; they are unclear of their potential consumers; they are often run at a small scale and frequently by environmental organizations with limited environmental management expertise; they are under pressure to increase the number of participating companies; and most were generally not self-funding, relying on external funding and support. The benefits of accreditation are that it ensures the certification process professionally, fairly and genuinely assesses sustainability, and has the capacity to strengthen the confidence, consistency and performance of certification programs (Black and Crabtree, 2007). Core to the work of the Global Sustainable Tourism Council are the Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria (GSTC), a set of 37 voluntary standards providing a framework for the sustainability of tourism businesses around the world. These criteria are the minimum requirements that any tourism business should aspire to meet to protect natural and cultural resources while ensuring tourism meets its potential as a tool for conservation and poverty alleviation. The GSTC accreditation model involves the GSTC council engaging with certification bodies around the globe at international, national or local levels. These certification programs have their own sustainable tourism standards and certifying procedures, with some using national or regional standards. Once a certification scheme has been assessed and determined to comply with the GSTC standard and accreditation criteria, it has the right to use the ‘GSTC accredited’ mark alongside its own certification logo. Businesses certified by an accredited certification body can also use the GSTC approved language and seal for businesses and may get market advantages. Broadly, this means that the GSTC has recognized that the standard used for certification is aligned with the Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria (GSTC recognized) and that the accreditation body has determined that the certification procedures meet international 6Accreditation

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standards for transparency, impartiality and competence. GSTC accredited status is a reliable and cost-effective way to ensure confidence and credibility of sustainable tourism certification, and worldwide acceptance. RBL Further reading Issaverdis, J.-P. (2001) The pursuit of excellence: Benchmarking, accreditation, best practice and ­auditing. In: Weaver, D. (ed.) The Encyclopedia of Ecotourism, CAB International, Wallingford, UK, pp. 579–594. Jarvis, N., Weeden, C. and Simcock, N. (2010) The benefits and challenges of sustainable tourism certification: A case study of the Green Tourism Business Scheme in the West of England. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 17(1), 83–93.

 Acculturation The process of borrowing between cultures. Acculturation is discernible by continuous transmission of elements and traits between people from different cultures and generally results in a symbiosis of blended cultures. It is at its most obvious in the modification of host destination cultures in less-developed countries through direct and prolonged contact with tourists and tourism from advanced capitalist societies. The host destination culture provides social spaces for individual tourists’ experiences, related, among other things, to leisure expectations, host–guest relationships and interactions with community members, which change both the tourist and the host community member and their respective cultures. Operations of power between the culture of the tourist and that of the host enable hegemonic constructions of the host’s culture for the tourist who can then take away a part of the culture such as a photo, a sexual encounter, a special feature or landscape and assimilate it into their experience/ culture. SW

  Action research A collective and iterative research approach in which a group of people sharing a common interest regarding an issue act together to design a change-based research agenda to address that issue. Action research is particularly associated with implementing changes to experiences, services, practices, strategies, programs and processes. It is an iterative process that involves planning changes, implementing those changes, then reflecting and evaluating the outcomes of those changes. This last stage generates a further cycle of action research. Subsequently, one cycle of research informs the next. The aim of action research is to address issues associated with common interests to make changes and improvements. There are a number of types of action research, for example, participatory action research, action inquiry and cooperative inquiry. These examples are based on a problem-solving approach, sometimes referred to as a deficit-based model of viewing Action research7

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the world. An alternative approach, which advocates the adoption of a positive approach, is appreciative inquiry. This approach draws on the individual experiences of the research group participants to develop changes and improvements that are then implemented and evaluated. Regardless of approach, all approaches view the world as being co-created and that knowledge is generated from experiential learning with others in association with self-reflexive actions. This knowledge is practice-based and transformational. The ­ethical purpose of action research is to facilitate positive change. Research agendas may incorporate quantitative, mixed methods and qualitative methodologies. As a research approach with its emphasis on solutions, action research is a useful tool for sustainability studies and projects focused on facilitating changes in praxes and practices to affect positive change. Because action research processes are participatory in nature and situated within real-world contexts, its outcomes have immediate applicability. Importantly, it directly incorporates the various interests of participants as stakeholders in research process planning, implementation and outcomes so that participants have ownership of those processes and outcomes. GJ

 Adaptation Processes, practices and structural changes undertaken in response to actual or expected changes in climatic parameters (IPCC, 2007c). Adaptation can reduce the adverse effects of climate change and may also lead to new opportunities that capitalize on the changing climatic conditions. Importantly, adaptation not only relates to changes in average conditions, but those related to variability and extreme events. While adaptation measures often require an up-front investment, there is increasing evidence that investing in planned adaptation, especially win–win measures, will generate long-term benefits. Tourism research has explored the implications of climate change for tourism for over 25 years (Wall et al., 1986), and analyses have become more diverse, sophisticated and focused on a wide range of geographic areas. A particular focus of research has been on winter sports and adaptation measures for ski tourism fields and destinations to ensure ongoing viability of their industries (Dawson et al., 2009; Falk, 2009; Hoffmann et al., 2009). Coastal tourism has also received increasing attention, in particular risks associated with sea-level rise, coral bleaching, beach erosion and environmental changes (Perch-Nielsen, 2009). A considerable number of studies have sought to model adaptive behaviour of tourists in response to changing climatic conditions, e.g. higher temperatures (e.g. Hein et al., 2009). There is an increasing recognition that an enabling environment and broader adaptation policies greatly assist proactive adaptation. Policies may relate to land-use planning, integrated coastal zone management, disaster management or sustainable tourism development (Becken and Clapcott, 2010). Often, such policies are not designed by tourism stakeholders but by other Government departments (Becken and Hay, 2012), and tourism is a ‘policy taker’. A recent OECD/UNEP (2011) report highlighted that tourism climate-change adaptation policies are still in their infancy. See also Mitigation SB 8Adaptation

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  Adaptive architecture A system which adapts to its environment, the requirements of the users or objects within. In practice it most often describes buildings but can also concern the construction of IT or of a business. Schnädelbach (2010), besides offering other adjectives describing the same type of architecture, e.g. smart, interactive, intelligent, dynamic, etc. also highlights the importance of IT, which Ravetz (2008) names as the greatest potential area of development for building stock. In the building context, adaptive architecture can apply to both new build and reused property, where Hall’s (2008) description of ‘layers’ or ‘skins’ having different lifespans is useful. Adaptation may be passive, e.g. as the result of one-time action (such as planning the location of a new building to fit into its surroundings), or active, a continuous-interactive type adaptation. Depending on the driving force behind this continuous adaptation process, it can be either anthropocentric, eco-centric (Fig. E3) or having the building in focus. In practice, the adaptation may be either controlled directly by the user or occur automatically, as an intervention of computer-controlled sensors, controllers and actuators, e.g. in form of electronic, pneumatic or hydraulic subsystems. The adaptation may mean changes in the behaviour of subsystems (e.g. lighting, ventilation, heating), the morphological characteristics or in resource utilization (energy). In a sustainable tourism context, adaptive architecture offers many advantages. These include reduced impact on the environment, e.g. through efficient resource use (energy, water), better landscape integration, more user-friendly inner milieu, enhanced economic performance and educational potential. As an example, Bocz et al. (2012) point out the advantageous use of adaptive architecture in building reutilization in rural tourism, as long as the authentic character of buildings is kept. GAB

  Adaptive co-management A governance approach for complex social-ecological systems that integrates the learning dynamics of adaptive management and the collaborative multi-stakeholder focus of co-management (Armitage et al., 2007). Emerging from the resource management literature, the central intention of the adaptive co-management process is to increase the well-being of people and communities while conserving natural resources (Fennell et al., 2008). Accordingly, adaptive co-management accepts complexity and uncertainty as inherent within a given system, encourages stakeholder participation across scales, and promotes social networking through effective leadership, trust and social capital. BGR

  Advanced wastewater treatment system (AWTS) A tertiary treatment of water from waste sources. The main aim is to eliminate remaining nitrogen and phosphorus after a secondary phase of treatment, and at the same time, to stabilize the oxygen demand of substances in the wastewater. The management of wastewater is a complex process in which physical and biological techniques are implemented. The two first stages are focused on removing the majority of suspended solids and organic material, using screens and sedimentation tanks and bacteria to consume the organic parts, respectively. However it is not enough to restore the adequate quality Advanced wastewater treatment system (AWTS)9

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of water, therefore AWTS may use a range of additional tertiary techniques. These include several physical-chemical separation techniques such as carbon absorption, flocculation/precipitation, membranes for advanced filtration, ion exchange, dechlorination and reverse osmosis. Recent advances in micro filtration membranes such as that used in life saver systems are targeted towards water poverty reduction. OGH   Life Saver Systems www.lifesaversystems.com/

  Adventure Activities Licensing Authority (AALA) A UK body sponsored by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) to license commercial activity providers for young people under the age of 18 years. Concern with the growing commercialization of adventure activities in the UK led to the introduction of adventure activities licensing in April 1996. Licensing is applied to caving, climbing, trekking and watersports when they are done in remote or isolated places. There has been a steady growth in the number of license holders, with 1,235 in the UK in 2011. UK government proposals in 2012 suggested an abolition of the AALA in the review of health and safety legislation, Common Sense, Common Safety. This suggested replacing the current licensing requirement with a code of practice within existing HSE requirements. To some extent this corresponds to best practice and healthy reporting cultures identified by Bentley et al. (2010). However, following review of the proposal, and responses from devolved administrations, this proposal has been put on hold. CIC   Adventure Activities Licensing Authority www.hse.gov.uk/aala/

  Adventure, Cultural and Ecotourism (ACE) tourism An acronym, as conceived by Fennell (1999) to encompass three types of tourism: adventure, cultural and ecotourism. Depending on the product, ACE expands or contracts to represent different concentrations of these three types. Operators sharing the same localized space – whether it is terrestrial, marine or both – can differentiate their products from competitors on the basis of how much adventure, culture or nature they offer in comparison to other operators. One operator can offer mostly culture with some nature and adventure, while another can offer mostly nature with some culture and adventure. This is rather like carving out one’s own nature-based niche within a community. DF

  Adventure tourism A tourism sector providing activities with an element of perceived or real risk, usually with a nature-based component. Adventure tourism is an industry sector that has seen 10Adventure

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significant global growth as outdoor recreation opportunities have become increasingly commodified. While adventure tourism does not have sustainability deeply linked to its definition (as in ecotourism for example), its location, often in fragile and remote locations, requires attention to sustainable outcomes. Further, a concern with injuries in adventure tourism means that sustainability of the activities themselves is achieved through appropriate risk management strategies, such as risk assessment, health and safety procedures and licensing such as the Adventure Activities Licensing Authority in the UK. Adventure tourism includes a great diversity of activities from those with little actual risk such as bungee jumping, to those posing quite significant challenges to participants, such as high-altitude guided mountaineering. Adventure tourism differs from adventure travel, with the former being centred on risky activities and the latter being on extended journeys, although the two are frequently linked. Authors agree that adventure tourism activities include specific elements such as skills and competence in which the outcome is influenced by the participation. However, increased commodification of the adventure experience has involved transfer of risk responsibility to commercial operators. In this realm, the experience may become overloaded with high expectations, especially if the setting and perceptions of the organizer differ from that of the tourist. Attempts to categorize adventure have recognized that there is a scale in its interpretation, and terms like ‘soft’ and ‘hard’ have often been used to distinguish different levels, while models include ‘Adventure, Cultural and Ecotourism (ACE) tourism’. There have also been a variety of models proposed to describe the adventure experience, many of which have focused on the interplay between risk and competence, following the work of Mortlock (1984) in The Adventure Alternative: for example the Adventure Experience Paradigm (AEP) of Priest and Bunting (1993) or the Adventure Tourism Process (ATP) of Morgan (2000). More recently, however, Varley (2006) has shown the context-dependent nature of adventure tourism in his Adventure Commodification Continuum. It is important to note the voluntary aspect of an adventure, at least at the entry point, which will lead to what has been called a peak experience, or the pleasurable feeling that someone feels when they are performing to their physical and sensory potential (see Self-actualization). However, there are clearly many individual definitions and levels at which adventure may operate and perceptions of adventure based on previous experience may often be dramatically different across individuals and cultures. As Cater (2006) has shown, real and perceived notions of risk in adventure tourism are frequently incongruous. There are large numbers of people engaging in adventurous activity, demonstrated by statistics from certifying agencies such as scuba diving. In 2011, PADI issued almost a million new certifications, illustrating the rate of growth of scuba diving tourism. Extreme adventure tourism such as guided mountaineering is also significant: in Nepal nearly 500 tour operators are members of the Nepal mountaineering association. The growth of this sub-sector has been dubbed Skilled Commercial Adventure Recreation in Remote Areas (SCARRA) by Buckley (2006). In addition, the older-­ person market for adventure will become increasingly important as their numbers, health and desire for experiences grows. Despite these inclusions, there are very real concerns over broad socio-economic access, particularly over access to adventure activities for host populations in less-developed countries. Because of the technical requirement for skilled personnel, there are also issues with host populations having the required Adventure tourism11

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training to provide adventure activities. In less-developed countries, guides for kayaking or scuba diving, for example, are often expatriate workers of Western origin. One consequence of the commercialization of adventure has been the growth of destinations, often ski tourism resorts or outdoor recreation hubs that have sought to diversify their product offerings into adventure tourism. Queenstown, New Zealand, with its many opportunities for adventure activities, markets itself as the ‘adventure capital of the world’ (Cater, in Buckley, 2006). Building on an existing ski and outdoor tourism industry, and a high youth tourism profile, this was allied to the development of iconic adventure tourism products. Early development of jet-boating and whitewater rafting in the 1960s and 1970s was augmented by the first commercial bungee jump site, established at Kawarau bridge in 1988 (Fig. A2). A wide range of other adventure activities are available. Many other destinations have imitated this ‘adventure capital’ identity in their destination branding, for example Fort William in Scotland as OCUK (Outdoor Capital United Kingdom). As with ecolabelling, the term ‘adventure’ has been loosely used by the industry, with Varley (2006, p. 174) suggesting that it has seemingly become an ‘infinitely variable, malleable construct’. Some destinations have been successful in using an interest in events to raise the profile of adventure in a destination. In Voss, Norway, the annual ‘extremsports veko’ (extreme sports week) combines adventure spectation of activities such as base jumping, downhill mountain biking, skydiving and kayaking, with softer adventure tourism experiences during a ‘try-it’ program. All of this is combined with a festival atmosphere with musicians and other liminal experiences, such as tasting the local delicacy of boiled sheep’s head (smalahove) (Mykletun, 2009). Adventure film making has also reached a zenith, with adventure film festivals becoming increasingly popular,

Fig. A2.  The original Bungy Jump, Kawarau Gorge, Queenstown, New Zealand (Carl Cater). 12

Adventure tourism

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often shown in adventure capitals. One of the longest established, the Banff Mountain Film Festival, now embarks on an annual world tour with stops in around 285 communities and 30 countries (in 2012). Emerging economies, while always having been locations for adventure travel, are also now developing as locations and markets for adventure tourism. South Africa is emerging as an adventure tourism destination popular with both international and domestic tourists. Likewise Action Asia is a dedicated high-end magazine aimed at the adventurous tourist within the Asian region. Despite a notionally lower emphasis on sustainability, adventure operators and associations have recently taken the push for more sustainable tourism onboard. The Adventure Travel Trade Association has been particularly active in promoting sustainable practices, recognizing that adventure tourism has potential to both positively and negatively influence livelihoods in frontier locations. CIC

Further reading Buckley, R.C. (2006) (ed.) Adventure Tourism. CAB International, Wallingford, UK. Buckley, R.C. (2010) Adventure Tourism Management. Elsevier, Oxford, UK. Swarbrooke, J., Beard, C., Leckie, S. and Pomfret, G. (2003) Adventure Tourism: The New Frontier. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, UK. Varley, P., Taylor, S. and Johnston, T. (2012) Adventure Tourism: Meaning, Experience and Education. Routledge, London, UK.

  Adventure Travel Trade Association (ATTA) A global tourism trade association for the adventure tourism industry. Originally established in 1989 in parallel to the Adventure Travel Society, this organization grew rapidly and celebrated a tenth world congress on adventure travel and ecotourism in Anchorage, Alaska, in 2000. However, by 2004 the membership and direction of ATTA had waned, and was relaunched with new ownership later that year. Taking the world summit overseas for the first time in 2010, to Aviemore, Scotland, heralded an international focus for the organization, with an emphasis on sustainable adventure tourism. Ethics, responsible tourism and community principles are central to the current organization’s values statement, the stated purpose of which is to ‘nurture and professionalize the responsible and sustainable development of the adventure travel industry’ (ATTA, 2013). ATTA operates within a North American, trade-focused model of adventure tourism, with relationships between suppliers, outfitters and wholesalers being core to adventure tourism on that continent. CIC   Adventure Travel Trade Association www.adventuretravel.biz

 Advocacy Public support or recommendation by an individual or group for a particular cause or policy. In the context of sustainable tourism, those individuals or groups aim to influence Advocacy13

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public policy decisions and/or resource allocations. Stakeholders that play an important role in sustainable tourism advocacy are governments, non-governmental organizations, tourists, businesses, industry associations and local people including indigenous peoples. Non-government organizations, including research institutions, can play an integral part in advocating sustainable practices and solutions in tourism management and development. CO

 Aesthetics A set of principles that concern the appreciation of beauty. In sustainable tourism, this may relate to the visual appeal or the sense of place that derives from a visual appeal of a destination, and how this sense of place can be preserved despite the increasing need for development. Tourism has had a long association with the pursuit of aesthetically ‘beautiful’ places and peoples, but this is socially constructed and temporally contingent (see landscape). GD

  Agenda 21 See Earth Summit, Millennium Development Goals, Sustainable development

  Agritourism (Agrotourism) Tourism that is activity and directly connected to agricultural production, where the suppliers of the product engage directly in agriculture. Agritourism has developed extensively in recent decades and satisfies the growing needs of tourists, tour operators and agricultural suppliers. It is sometimes combined and confused with rural tourism. Although agritourism occurs in rural space, it refers only to activities in and around sites of agricultural production. Visits coincide with agricultural activity, enabling the public at large to learn, observe, spend time or become closer and more familiar with production processes. Visitors can also purchase agricultural products from the source (see Direct marketing). Agritourism can contribute to the welfare of the local community and to the development of sustainable tourism. NCK

 Aid A term used to refer to the voluntary transfer of resources from one country to another or from one individual to the other. That is, aid may be given by individuals, private organizations or governments. Aid can also be in any form, e.g. equipment, skills, funding, etc. In less-developed countries, much of the aid comes from developed countries in the form of trained personnel or funding for particular projects. There are 14Aesthetics

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many criticisms of the effectiveness of aid in terms of its misappropriation, tying to other forms of business (arms deals for example) and reinforcement of dependency relationships. JMB

 Airline The commercial operator of aircraft for the purposes of conveying passengers and/or freight (Fig. A3). Because of the very high financial costs involved in establishing and operating air transport systems, many airlines began as state-owned and/or state-run companies. These airlines operated according to fixed flight schedules and are hence generally known as ‘scheduled airlines’. Their aircraft often displayed the national flag prominently: hence the term ‘flag carrier’ has often been applied to scheduled airlines, even those that have been privatized as part of the worldwide deregulation of the aviation sector. This, in turn, means that scheduled airlines now increasingly compete on their routes with other airlines, particularly ‘budget airlines’ (see Low cost aviation). Such airlines aim to keep ticket prices low by continually trimming their operating costs. A ‘charter airline’ is one that operates outside normal schedules by hiring aircraft to fly specific routes. Airlines play a vital role in sustainable tourism, insofar as around half of all international tourism travel is by air. Air travel is associated with a wide range of environmental impacts, ranging from emissions of carbon dioxide due to the combustion of aviation fuel, to the production of food waste and litter associated with in-flight meals, to the generation of noise around airports during take-off and landing. Studies using ecological footprinting analysis reveal that the tourist’s journey to and from the destination typically accounts for the substantial majority of the footprint of the trip. This presents itself as a difficult conundrum for tourism destinations: the effectiveness of any efforts they make to reduce their own ecological footprint depends primarily on the decisions made by airlines. The issue of apportionment of responsibility is also important insofar as it is unclear whether responsibility for creating the footprint, and thus reducing it, should fall upon the origin country, from where the tourists came, upon the destination country, which attracted them to visit, or upon the airline, which simply served as an intermediary in facilitating their journey (Becken, 2002). Airlines have nevertheless taken steps to reduce their environmental impacts, for example many have been introducing lighter and more fuel-efficient aircraft to their fleets. The airline industry has also been at the forefront of award schemes, a prominent example being British Airways’ early involvement in the Tourism for Tomorrow Awards. Ultimately, however, tourism sustainability may simply require fewer people to use air travel for their holiday travel. This will require substantial demand management, given that the demand for air travel would appear to be highly inelastic in the face of the introduction of such measures. Indeed, tourists have been accused of ‘binge flying’ (Cohen and Higham, 2011) and ‘promiscuous mobility’ (Weaver, 2011) in the recent academic literature. The future of tourism and air travel would appear to be strongly wedded, implying that airlines can be expected to play a vital part in the sustainable tourism arena for the foreseeable future. See also International Air Transport Association (IATA) BG Airline15

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Fig. A3.  First commercial flight from Yushu Airport (YUS), Tibetan Plateau, Qinghai, China (Carl Cater).

 Airport A location from which aircraft take off and land. Many modern airports are large inter-modal businesses that employ thousands of people in a plethora of jobs. For example, Frankfurt Airport (FRAPORT) in Germany employs more than 70,000 people, representing the highest number of people employed in one location in Germany. With an increasing demand for environmental consciousness and resulting policies and laws, many airports have made sustainable operations a core component of their overall business strategies (Graham, 2003) (Fig. A4). These strategies include the implementation of comprehensive environmental management systems and the close cooperation with airlines and other tenants. Examples include the continuous strive to shorten taxi times, take-off and approach procedures, and the use of birds of prey to control the presence of other birds and rodents. Environmental performance and ­impact assessments are standard requirements for any new construction, including the review of existing environmental policies, procedures, impacts and performance indicators (Table 1). Many airports seek certification according to the International Environmental Management system standards, set out by ISO 14001. In addition to the environmental performance, sustainable airport development includes social aspects, such as the responsible management of its employees. This includes health and safety policies, security, insurance and retirements benefits, social activities, and community outreach and support. Lastly, large airports are usually publicly traded companies, 16Airport

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Fig. A4.  Environmental sustainability communication display at Manchester Airport (Carl Cater). Table 1.  Impacts of airports. (From Graham, 2003.) Impact

Performance indicator

Noise

Population within specified noise contour Number of noise limit infringements Number of engine testing rules infringements Proportion of aircraft on track CO2 and NOx emissions per passenger (and other emissions) Fixed electrical power usage Number of spillages per 1000 atms Water consumption per passenger Waste per passenger Proportion of waste recycled Proportion of waste going to landfill sites Energy consumption (gas, electricity, fuel) per passenger Proportion of passengers using public transport Proportion of staff using public transport Ethnic origin of staff Gender split of staff Number of complaints Response time for complaints

Emissions Water Waste Energy Transport Social policy Community relations

and thus responsible for a sound economic performance, creating an acceptable return on investment for its shareholders. As such, the economic management of an airport completes the triple-bottom-line approach to the sustainable management of a business that the general public often has difficulties to associate with sustainability. ML Airport17

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  All-inclusive resort (AI resort) A tourism destination complex at which all of the elements of the stay – such as accommodation, meals and drinks – are sold in a bundle at a single price. Many AI resorts also include free access to leisure and entertainment activities or other related services. Some are aimed at general tourists but others cater for niche forms, such as golf tourism, health tourism, ski tourism and casinos. Some all-inclusive resorts are aimed at adults only and some at couples only, while others are family orientated. The concept of the AI resort was pioneered by Club Med and has become increasingly popular in recent years. Other prominent chains of AI resorts include ‘Sandals’ and ‘Beaches’ resorts in the Caribbean. The growth in the number of AI resorts worldwide has been accompanied by criticism of their economic impacts, which are considered to be lower than conventional resorts due to their enclave nature, which tends to produce smaller multiplier effects. Criticism has also been directed at the negative social and cultural impacts of AI resorts, particularly the tendency for there to be a lack of integration between the resort and the local community (Pattullo, 2005). AI resorts are also alleged to have many harmful environmental impacts, such as the appropriation of local fresh water resources to fill swimming pools and irrigate golf courses. Proponents of AI resorts, on the other hand, indicate the considerable economic benefits they generate, including employment and foreign currency earnings. BG

  Alternative tourism Forms of tourism that challenge the orthodoxy of mass tourism. The word ‘alternative’ logically implies opposition. Alternative tourism is therefore contrary to that which is seen as negative or detrimental about conventional tourism: it is characterized by its attempt to minimize the perceived negative environmental and social cultural impacts of people at leisure in the promotion of radically different approaches to conventional tourism. The terms ‘alternative’ and ‘mass’ tourism are thus mutually interdependent, each relying on a series of value-laden judgments that themselves structure the definitional content of the terms. In this way, the concept of alternative tourism can itself be as broad and vague as its diametrical opposite, with many divergent leisure types being classified as alternative tourism, including adventure tourism, ecotourism, ­hiking holidays or the solitary journeys undertaken by globe trotters. Some authors even go so far as to suggest that anything other than mass tourism qualifies as alternative tourism. A primary aim of alternative tourism may be to establish direct personal/cultural intercommunication and understanding between host and guest. Additionally, it is seen as a process that promotes a form of travel that is equitable between members of different communities, while seeking to achieve mutual understanding, solidarity and equality among participants. The stress here is on the facilitation and improvement of contacts between hosts and guests, especially through the organization of well-prepared, special-interest tours, rather than on actual development of facilities. 18

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Another body of literature dealing with tourism typologies gives greater attention to particular variations in terms of tourism classifications, often with a particular tourism form being placed in three or more categories. However, ‘alternative tourism’ rarely occurs specifically as one of the classes in the typology literature, which reflects the often disparate and very broad characteristics it may encompass. See also Niche tourism, ACE tourism SW

  Amenity migration The movement of people to places, permanently or temporarily, principally because of their perceived higher environmental quality and cultural differentiation. The concept was developed and initially used by Laurence Moss in 1994 and is a new form of migration that includes the relocation of people, capital, knowledge and values. Amenity migration includes the movement to a community for permanent residence, the use of a second home or cottage residence, the economic migrant that moves to high-amenity places for economic opportunities, retirees, or the movement of recreationalists to experience an enhancement of lifestyle. The concept can be linked directly to tourism mobility and hence the often used ‘second-home resident’ label of amenity tourism migrant. The main goal of the amenity migrant is to reside for a period of time rather than to visit the destination solely as a tourist. Amenity migration is based upon seeking out places perceived to possess extraordinary natural and cultural resources that were not available within the previous (or permanent) places of residence. For instance, coastal and mountain landscapes have proved magnets for amenity migration in North America. It has been suggested that some attractive attributes are important in all destinations, such as the beauty of natural scenery and surroundings. At the same time, some perceived amenities that have attracted and increased a permanent resident population over time are proving different in type than many attributes that are attracting an influx of second home owners. Often these amenity-rich areas see substantial and rapid population growth culminating in the need for growth management strategies to curb the associated community and environmental impacts that may result. One of the commonly described outcomes of high amenity migration is a rise in real-estate prices associated with tourism gentrification while a common outcome in small resource communities is displacement of small town values with newer urban-­ oriented views. BM

 Angling Fishing with a hook, line and usually a rod, which may have a reel. This is not necessarily straightforward to do but participation levels in recreational angling often exceed those for other participant sports throughout the world. The activity uses its own terminologies and is subdivided into categories and these are coarse, game and sea, Angling19

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where anglers use different approaches to catch. Coarse fishing refers to freshwater fishing and for fish other than game fish such as salmon, trout and grayling. Accommodating culinary tastes for game fish like salmon has led to commercial fisheries in stocked natural and man-made lakes where recreational angling is also allowed. Each angling category brings challenges. Whether solitary or match participant, anglers will need to know their fish and understand their equipment and location. While carbon fibre rods have brought both lightness and strength to the sport there are different stages of baiting, playing and landing the fish that requires an appreciation of tackle, bait, water tides and types plus recognition of any required licensing and permits. The skills required have led to competitiveness encouraging many to go in search of the biggest or most unusual. Fishing in this way encourages people to spend time on the sea, near or in lakes or rivers and by man-made stretches of water. Being close to the water and fish is described as elemental by some, and the draw of the natural world and its challenges is appreciated by many including those that seek the remotest places by abseiling to isolated spots and using high speed jet-skis to access fishing spots at sea. Angling may be considered a form of slow tourism. Critical for angling success and enjoyments are varieties of healthy fish in unpolluted and natural waters. Twenty-first century anglers have become far more aware of the need to be sympathetic to their environment and their catch is often returned in circumstances known as catch and release, designed to prevent as little stress to the fish as possible and to promote conservation, preservation and protection of fish stocks. See also Fishing, Animal ethics JF

  Animal ethics The branch of moral philosophy devoted to the interactions between human and (non-human) animals. It is based on theory drawn from rights and justice (Regan, 2004), utilitarianism (Singer, 2009), animal welfare (Fraser, 1999), ecofeminism (Adams, 1990), ecocentrism (Callicott, 1988), contractarianism (Tucker and MacDonald, 2004) and cognition (Allen and Bekoff, 2007). These theories help to identify the criteria that are often used to assign moral value to animals, including consciousness, sentience, equal consideration of interests and rights. If we extend moral consideration to animals, we owe them certain duties, not unlike the duties we owe to other humans. Some scholars argue that it matters not whether animals are equal to humans along cognitive lines (or other metrics). Instead, what matters is that there are non-instrumental reasons for caring about animals that have more to do with respect than with animals as means to our personal and organizational ends (Schmidtz, 1998). Despite the vast number of ways in which the tourism industry uses animals, such as wildlife viewing, fishing, hunting, zoos (Fig. A5), circuses, horse-racing, dog-racing, animals as workers, animals as food, and so on, tourism researchers have historically been silent on moral issues tied to such use. This trend is in the process of changing through efforts by writers such as Fennell (2000) on the ethics of billfish angling (see case study following), Hughes (2001) on welfare and rights issues tied to the UK dolphin industry, Garrod (2007) on marine wildlife tourism and ethics, Shani 20

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Fig. A5.  Advertisement for captive whale shark at aquarium, Dalian, China (Carl Cater).

and Pizam’s (2008) ethical framework on animal-based attractions, Fennell and Nowaczek’s (2010) overview of consumptiveness and ethics linked to different forms of fishing, and Wearing and Jobberns’ (2011) work on ethics and zoos. In 2011, the Journal of Ecotourism, published a special edition on animals and ethics, and the journal Tourism Recreation Research published a series of papers on tourism and animal ethics in 2012 and 2013. Fennell’s (2012) Tourism and Animal Ethics emerged as the most comprehensive treatment on the subject to date, solidifying the importance of the topic. From this point forward, tourism studies needs to keep pace with the innovations in research on animal ethics taking place outside of our field: an area of research said to be ‘bounteous, diverse, and sophisticated’ (Burgess-Jackson, 1998, p. 159; see also Cohen, E., 2009, in a tourism context). Failing to keep pace with this knowledge would seem to indicate that animals have little value because they are conceived at best simply as attractions. With this mindset, it is not such a stretch to argue that our use of animals in tourism is another example of how our need for pleasure, entertainment and financial gain has advanced faster than our ethics. DF Further reading Fennell, D.A. (2012) Tourism and Animal Ethics. Routledge, New York (city).

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Case study: The ethics of billfish angling The debate on the ethics of billfish angling (fishing for marlin and sailfish) between Holland et al. (1998, 2000) and Fennell (2000), as summarized by Fennell (2013), is an excellent example of how different ethical approaches can be applied to the same tourism activity and draw significantly different conclusions. The debate centred on the claimed legitimacy of billfish angling as a form of ecotourism in the paper by Holland et al. (1998). The crux of the argument set out by Holland et al. is that billfish angling qualifies as an example of ecotourism because it meets, to a significant extent, some of the criteria that have been proposed for ecotourism. In particular, billfish angling takes place in the natural environment and attracts a clientele who are similar in many respects to ecotourists, tending to be more highly educated, having higher disposable incomes and being highly dedicated to their chosen leisure pursuit. Furthermore, there is a widespread (albeit largely tacit) code of ethics among billfish anglers encouraging lower catch limits (often one fish per angler), catch-and-release practices and tagging fish for conservation research purposes. It is also recognized that the sport angling industry and angling membership organizations both contribute money to marine conservation purposes, indicating pro-environmental attitudes and behaviour. Meanwhile, evidence suggests that billfish angling contributes more to the local economy than other forms of resource use, as well as creating jobs and entrepreneurial opportunities for local people. Fennell’s (2000) response, while not seeking to question the veracity of the paper’s claims about the situational context and economic contribution of the activity, illustrates the complexity of applying ethical reasoning in the context of tourism. His arguments relate to four main considerations: harmful intent, animal pain, consumptiveness and values. First, while acknowledging that billfish anglers do not intend to cause harm to the fish they catch, merely to catch them, the probable outcome is that they do. Fennell argues that ecotourism should proactively seek to avoid harm, rather than simply to accept that there is a probability it may happen. Second, and related to the issue of harm, recent studies in fish biology tend to agree that fish do indeed feel pain; they may also die as a result of their encounter with billfish anglers. This, he argues, is problematic given the aim of ecotourism to make a neutral or preferably positive impact on the environment in which it operates. Third, with regard to the question of consumptiveness, Fennell argues that in spite of the willingness of anglers to release fish once they have been caught, weighed and photographed, the physical insult this inevitably causes can result in the death of the fish. To all intents and purposes, therefore, billfish angling is a resource-consumptive activity, in spite of anglers’ good intentions. Fourth, Fennell argues that while the characteristics of billfish anglers being similar to ecotourists in terms of education, income and dedication to the pursuit, their broader motivations are oriented toward sport. As such, billfish angling might be better understood as a form of adventure tourism. Fennell’s (2013) overall conclusion on the debate is that Holland et al. appear to have adopted a different set of ethical principles to their arguments to that which many would consider appropriate given the sustainability aims of ecotourism. Indeed, Holland et al. appear to adopt an ‘environmental ethics’ approach, which focuses on the health and wellbeing of the environment as a whole, rather than on particular components of it. In other words, provided an action does not compromise the ocean environment as a whole, and as long as billfish stocks remain sufficiently robust to maintain themselves in the long run, the activity can be considered sustainable and hence an instance of ecotourism. Meanwhile, the emphasis on the human benefits of the activity (for example incomes and jobs) is suggestive of ethical reasoning that is constructed largely Continued

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Case study.  Continued. from an anthropocentric viewpoint. Fennell argues that this ethical perspective is reminiscent of the orientation of resource management professionals, who tend to argue that the best approach to managing natural resources is to give human interests priority while ensuring that the resource-base remains healthy, or sustainable. He goes on to argue, however, that this orientation is less useful in characterizing the ideals of ecotourism than what he calls a ‘mid-green’ ethic (Fennell, 2013, p. 198), in which the responsibilities of the billfish anger are linked more closely to the rights of individual animals than to the population of animals as a whole or their habitat. BG

  Annapurna Conservation Area Programme (ACAP) A community-based sustainable development programme with a significant emphasis on trekking tourism associated with a protected area in Nepal (Fig. A6). The Annapurna Conservation Area (ACA) has been acknowledged from different sources (including winning the British Airways ‘Tourism for Tomorrow Award’ in 1991 and the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) Conservation Merit Award in 2000), as an exemplar of  how tourism can be used for nature conservation and community

Fig. A6.  Annapurna Conservation Area Project office, Birethanti, Nepal (Carl Cater). Annapurna Conservation Area Programme (ACAP)23

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­development. The  ACA was established in 1986 in response to deforestation that was generally attributed to tourism development and was integrated within the Annapurna Conservation Area Project (ACAP), run by the non-governmental organisation (NGO), the King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation now re-named the National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC). Aiming to integrate sustainable development, emphasis is placed upon the participation of village peoples in development decision making and capacity building to realize self-directed opportunities and eventual self-management of ACA. Partnerships between ACAP and village representatives have subsequently been established, for example with village development committees (VDCs), lodge management committees (LMCs) and women’s development committees (WDCs). Alongside sustainable tourism management, other ACAP programmes include: natural resource conservation; alternative energy use; conservation education; community development; women’s development; and heritage conservation programmes. Tourism has a specific economic role in contributing to the financing of these programmes, raising monies from entry permits into ACA (see User fees) and through direct tourist expenditure in the area. This ‘bottom-up’ and participatory philosophy of planning for tourism development has led to ACAP being cited extensively as an example of successful community development through tourism. See also Backboiler AH

  Antarctic tourism Tourism that occurs south of 60°S latitude, thus it is inclusive of the land/sea defined as the Antarctic Treaty area. As a result of its remoteness, lack of federal sovereignty and lack of permanent settlements, the industry, governance regimes and tourists themselves all approach the Antarctic from afar. Antarctic tourism is largely based upon cruise ships; beginning first with expedition size vessels (100 passengers or so), but now including larger liners (thousands of passengers) and smaller commercial yachts (tens of passengers). Antarctic tourism is also very regionally focused on the Antarctic Peninsula (south of South America). The Antarctic Peninsula is the most accessible destination for the primary visitor markets, such as the USA, who fly to South America and then board a cruise ship to the continent. There are other regions visited by tourists (the Ross Sea, the continental interior, the Weddell Sea), but all of these regions pale in comparison to the numbers on the Peninsula. One of the issues is that a cruise ship may take 10 days to cross the Southern Ocean from New Zealand to the Ross Sea and thus expenses and length of such a vacation are considerably higher. The Antarctic plateau (the continental interior) is of particular interest for adventure tourism seeking to ‘ski the last degree’ or perhaps cross the continent. These pursuits have grown exponentially in recent years – leading up to the 100th anniversary of Amundsen and Scott’s race to the pole (1911/12). Overall tourist numbers to the Antarctic are well tracked by IAATO and stood at approximately 33,824 for the 2010/11 season. This includes all tourists – whether they land or not, whether they enter or exit by ship or by plane. As a destination, Antarctica is in demand. The supply is an endless suite of awe-inspiring 24

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scenery, tremendous exploration history, unique animals, and for visitors from some nations – an opportunity to experience cutting-edge science at government research stations. There are often conflicts between scientists and the Antarctic tourism industry. When the Antarctic Treaty was signed in 1959 placing the continent in the hands of an international regime, science and peace were the key drivers. However, today more tourists visit than those from any other sector (i.e. scientists, base personnel, government officials). Tourism is supported by some nations, despised by others, and also used as a political tool. The Antarctic Treaty System (through 50+ years of meetings) now recognizes tourism and manages it (to some degree) with the help of the industry itself. IAATO’s self-regulation since 1991 through bylaws and guidelines has guided the Treaty Parties to a workable co-existence. See also Polar tourism PM

  Appreciative inquiry A process of discourse that begins with a positive approach towards understanding a particular context or situation that can be improved or built upon. The aim is to ­elevate organization members’ motivation level and desire to leverage on their own strengths and cultural values. Appreciative inquiry often involves qualitative inquiry of organizational members to assess a situation and room for improvement. In sustainable tourism, appreciative inquiry can be used at the development planning level to assess the sustainability of a particular hotel or resort. If the hotel and resort has been operating in manners inconsistent with the sustainable tourism concept, then appreciative inquiry can be utilized to engage the hotel’s management and stakeholders in what should be done to improve the situation. AZK

  Approach distance The closest distance one should approach wildlife and maintain appropriate behaviour while doing so. In order to minimize the negative impacts on wildlife species, approach distances have been defined and recommended for sustainable wildlife viewing. Areas and times of breeding, birthing and nursing are commonly the most vulnerable for wildlife, and at the same time the most interesting for wildlife viewing. Consequently, approach distances are designed to facilitate a safe operation for the species in question, the tourists and the tour operators, with the minimum possible disturbance to wildlife. Such minimum approach distances are often set in legislation (such as marine mammal protection acts in various countries; see Fig. A7a) or in voluntary codes of conduct, and are applicable to both commercial operations and private recreationists. However, in practice the operation of approach distances often becomes fluid, due to the ability of the animal to dictate presence. See also Wildlife management ML Approach distance25

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Fig. A7a.  This whale-watch operator off the coast of Ponta Delgada, Azores, follows the regulations by observing the minimum approach distance between vessel and a sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) (Michael Lück).

Case study: Whale shark tourism The elusive whale shark is the largest fish in the ocean, and yet very little is known about these animals, which can grow up to 12 metres in length (Colman, 1997). However, reasonable numbers of juvenile males regularly visit the reefs of North Western Australia between April and June each year coinciding with the coral spawning that occurs at the same time. They come to the surface periodically for up to 20 minutes, before diving to feed. Predictably, the opportunity to swim with these behemoths has in recent years been a significant factor in a booming tourist industry in the North West Cape, centred on the town of Exmouth and Ningaloo reef. The reef is Australia’s largest fringing reef, stretching some 290 km from North West Cape to Red Bluff in the state of Western Australia. Dive charters have been offering the chance to encounter whale sharks in their natural environment since the early 1990s, although the first dedicated operator did not commence until 1993. During that season fourteen boats handled approximately 1000 visitors, increasing to over 2000 by 1995 (Davis et al., 1997). It is estimated that some 500 interactions with sharks take place each year, although it is likely that many of these are with the same individuals. Activities surrounding this highly specialized marine ecotourism experience are estimated to contribute AUS$12m to the local economy. Despite their size, a remarkable camouflaging combined with the fact that, unlike true whales, they do not need to broach the surface, means that sighting the whale shark is far from easy. Consequently spotter planes are used to assist with the location Continued

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Case study.  Continued. procedure, and on sighting an animal, tourist boats are directed to intercept. Typically these boats will hold up to 20 tourists with snorkel gear, who will be split into waves and enter the water with a guide from the company in the path of the shark. These groups then split to allow the shark to travel, while the snorkellers swim alongside for up to 5 minutes. In some cases another wave will be dispatched from the boat, to replace that already in place, or another operator will arrive to deposit their charges. The rare nature of these interactions means that operators are able to charge a significant premium, with most day outings costing over AUS$300. The increased popularity of the experience led the then Western Australian Conservation and Land Management (CALM) agency (now known as Department of Environment and Conservation) to introduce management of the operators. As most of the interactions take place within the Ningaloo Marine Park, established in 1987, the agency was able to license the operators from the outset. Initially these were issued for only one year, but from 1995 this term was extended to three years for 13 operators based in Exmouth. In the same year an AUS$15 levy per person was introduced to allow CALM to meet the costs of bringing their own vessel, crewed by Wildlife Officers, to Ningaloo Marine Park in order to monitor the industry (Davis et al., 1997). Unlike other taxes, for example on the Great Barrier Reef, tourists are made aware of this contribution through the provision of a high quality souvenir validation pass. The fee currently stands at AUS$20. In addition licenses are to be used a minimum of 50% of the time, to ensure that a cartel cannot emerge. Comprehensive guidelines have also been developed by CALM in order to ensure the whales’ natural behaviour is not disturbed (Fig. A7b). The most significant is that only one boat is allowed to be ‘in contact’ at any one time. It is worth noting that this is likely to be safer for tourists as well as less stressful for the animal. In 1995 swimmers were required to maintain a minimum distance of at least 1 metre from the head or body of a shark and 4 metre from its tail (Davis et al., 1997). The minimum distance from head or body has now been increased to 3 metres, principally to avoid accidental contact with the shark. This is an example where impacts are largely managed by the operators, although they are still under the regulations set and enforced by CALM. The author observed that there was a high level of cooperation between operators to provide the best experience for visitors. For example, although the CALM guidelines allow one boat to be ‘in contact’ for up to an hour and a half, in practice several boats may stagger their interactions by leapfrogging each other, allowing for more efficient trips. Furthermore tourist operators have provided a great deal of recent knowledge on the animals, particularly through a logbook that is provided by CALM, in which statistics for each interaction are recorded including sex, estimated size and behaviour (Fig. A7c). Scientific analysis through this record suggests, for example, that the average size of whale sharks visiting the reef is declining, and also has informed us that the visiting population is mostly male. To date there is no suggestion that the industry has impacted severely on the whale sharks. However, whilst 500 interactions may not sound a lot, within a compressed three month timescale, this is actually nearing capacity, as borne out by CALM observers. Davis et al. (1997) suggest that in the late 1990s, a large number of tourists engaging in the experience were Japanese (some 40% of the sample). The authors own observations in 2004 would suggest that this figure is not currently representative. It is acknowledged that the survey figure may have been skewed by the fact that the Continued

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Case study.  Continued. (b)

Exclusive Contact Zone Maximum speed within the zone is 8 knots No other vessels permitted in the zone

Diving tender

minimum 30 m

Vessel in contact (max 90 minutes) Vessel and tender approach from ahead of the whale shark’s direction of travel

Al

0

25

s tre

m

e

lo

th

er 40 ves 0 se m ls et m re in s

im um

Whale shark’s direction of travel

Fig. A7b.  Whale shark approach guidelines (CALM). ­ perators surveyed did target the Japanese market, although an alternative explano ation may lie in the overall drop in Japanese visitors to Australia in the new millennium. However, the global reputation of the site means that a majority of participants are still international. On individual trips to visit the whale sharks, there are likely to be a large number of repeat visitors, as frequently they are not sited at all, particularly in the shoulder periods. Most operators offer a free second trip in this case, meaning that on the observed outing approximately half of all individuals were repeating. It is important to set the whale shark operations within a booming tourism industry context in the North West Cape. The pristine nature of Ningaloo reef itself, the only extensive system anywhere to fringe the west coast of a continent (Collinsa et al., 2003), brings increasing numbers of tourists, not all of them ecologically minded. Controversy raged in the late 1990s under a proposed marina resort to be built at Mauds Landing at the southern end of the reef (Morton, 2003). Public resistance and astute political capital garnering by the incumbent government eventually stopped the construction of the resort, which would have had disastrous consequences for the health of the reef. Nevertheless, the threat of such developments remains. Re-zoning of the marine park in 2004 (CALM, 2004) sought to tighten up the management of the Cape’s recreational opportunities. There are a wide number of diving and snorkelling opportunities in the marine Continued

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Case study.  Continued.

Fig. A7c.  The interaction log filled out by the whale shark operator after each encounter, Ningaloo, Western Australia (Carl Cater). park, including that at Navy Pier, part of the support structure for a US military listening post. The fringing nature of the reef itself allows drift snorkelling opportunities directly off the beach, unavailable in sites such as the Great Barrier Reef. Whilst clearly being very popular, as they do not require the hiring of boats, management of increasing numbers of visitors becomes a problem. To date, marine tourism activities seem to have been managed sustainably at Ningaloo, but the growing reputation of the region for world-class experiences, coupled with increased access opportunities to what is a very remote location will put stresses on this fragile environment. SR/CIC

  Appropriate development An approach to development that takes into account prevailing economic, social and environmental factors so as to determine the path of development most suitable to local resources and needs. In contrast, inappropriate development according to Tickell (1991, p. 6) is characterized by ‘wrong ideology, wrong technology, a wrong industrial base, wrong agriculture, and wrong – usually alien – thinking’. Appropriate development emerged from the concept of appropriate technology, which in turn resulted from a growing recognition Appropriate development29

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that applying the industrial model of development, typical of developed countries, to developing countries (see Less-developed countries), did not lead to the hoped-for results. In other words, it was recognized that technological requirements of developing nations differ from those of developed countries, and for technology to be conducive to local development, its appropriateness to local requirements must be reassessed (Henry, 1976). It is evident that establishing the ‘appropriateness’ of any form of development will depend on the judgement of those producing the plans. Key to deriving an appropriate form of development is to consider the opinions of those who will be affected by the development. However, as pointed out by Jéquier (1976), appropriateness is a fickle concept. What is appropriate for some may not be appropriate for others and rightfully, one might ask: who in the end has the right to decide that something is appropriate for someone else? As such, it is vital that those who are on the receiving end of any development plan must be involved in the evaluation of any development’s ‘appropriateness’. Arguably, a participatory approach lends itself well to deriving at such an appropriate form of development (see Participatory action research). Advocates of appropriate development dismiss the idea that raising economic prosperity will necessarily lead to an increase in quality of life, while conventional development proponents typically encourage the increase of a nation’s gross domestic product (Trainer, 2002) (see Growth fetish): To critical or appropriate development theorists it is precisely the commitment to growth and market forces which constitutes the fundamental fault in conventional development theory and practice and which explains most about the very unsatisfactory record of development. (Trainer, 2002, pp. 59–60)

Furthermore, as pointed out by Trainer (2002), conventional development favours those with the most capital: in the current market-based economy, resources are allocated to the highest bidder rather than according to social or ecological priorities. The poorer a nation or region in economic terms, the less power it will have to decide on its own development path and the more likely it is that development will not be appropriate to local resources and needs, but instead cater to those of the already more powerful. In comparison, appropriate development seeks to counter market forces by allocating resources to those most in need. A further aspect that distinguishes appropriate development from conventional development is that it allows for a more holistic appreciation of development needs and also considers non-economic development goals. Modern examples of appropriate development are ecovillage developments. Appropriate development is only rarely referred to in academic literature, and it can be argued that the concept has been subsumed by the more elaborate and advanced concept of sustainable development. Applied to tourism, appropriate development calls for tourism development that is adapted according to local circumstances and needs, involving right from the initial planning stages those who will be affected by the development and taking into consideration also other, non-economic goals as possible outcomes. Just like the development or introduction of a specific technology to a community or region might be considered inappropriate, a certain type of tourism development, e.g. mass tourism, might be considered inadequate for a tourism destination. Alternatively, another option might be to adapt the mass tourism model according to local circumstances, resources, needs and carrying capacities. See also Appropriate tourism AMT 30

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  Appropriate tourism A form of development that takes careful consideration of the context into which tourism is placed. It is a contested expression involving a value judgment on the part of the user on what is ‘appropriate’? Some critics (notably Boorstin, writing over 50 years ago) have criticized mass tourism as a highly industrialized phenomenon, practised mindlessly by tourists on pre-ordained circuits (Fig. A8). Such critics have generally idealized smaller-scale tourism, of the kind that is more consistent with Schumacher’s (1973) ‘small is beautiful’ philosophy. This approach favours small-scale nature-based tourism that is strong on interpreting the natural environment and also has a strong community dimension. However, critics of the Schumacher philosophy have argued that it is an elitist perspective, typically predicated around the stylistic travel preferences of its proponents. By discouraging the presence of the ‘masses’, it implies that elites will continue to enjoy pristine and exclusive environments. There is, however, an argument that separation between the ‘masses’ and elite simply perpetuates long-­ established class-based behaviours. Critics argue that environmental improvements have the best prospect of success when promulgated by larger-scale, internationally based operators, which have a better resource base. According to this view, small-scale, nature-based tourism operators will never be in a position to bring about the systemic and larger-scale changes that are necessary to address the global environmental crisis. Appropriate tourism is closely associated with community-based activities that seek to promote an equilibrium between hosts and guests and more equitably

Fig. A8.  Inappropriate tourism? Bar advertising, Gili islands, Lombok, Indonesia (Carl Cater). Appropriate tourism31

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distributed benefits among the host population. It has also been closely associated with the concept of ‘good tourism’, advocated by writers such as Popsescu (2009) and Horne (1992). Proponents of this view have argued that advocating good tourist behaviours encourages respectful dialogue between people of different cultures. This philosophy has roots in the work of Krippendorf (1984), who argued for a better integration of humanistic values within tourism. BK

 Aquaculture The deliberate farming or culture of aquatic organisms for consumption, direct use or harvesting of byproducts. Aquaculture may take place in closed or flowthrough systems on land or in cages or similar structures within waterbodies. A wide range of organisms have been brought into aquaculture including fish, crustaceans, molluscs, seaweeds and microalgae. A distinction is often drawn between extensive aquaculture, where production is dependent on levels of resources available naturally, and intensive aquaculture where higher production is achieved through additional feeding or enhancing levels of nutrients. RBR

 Aquarium An attraction displaying captive marine species for visitors. Much like zoos, aquaria have trodden an uneasy line between justifying their existence on conservation and education principles and criticisms of animal welfare for human entertainment. Aquaria in particular come in for criticism because they can never replicate the open ocean system and have high death rates. Confinement has resulted in the life expectancy of marine mammals, such as orcas and dolphins, to be significantly shorter compared to those of the same species in the wild. Concerns regarding the suffering of marine animals kept in aquaria extend beyond marine mammals; as Dobson (2008) noted, similar problems with keeping pelagic shark species in aquaria. Whale sharks, the world’s biggest species of fish and known to migrate over thousands of miles, are kept in a number of aquaria around the world, which clearly cannot meet their needs (Fig. A5). Further, Lück and Jiang (2007) summarize the problems relating to the education provided at marine parks. They highlight research that questions the quality of educational content and the provision of anthropomorphic portrayals of human-­ animal relationships (e.g. trainers riding and kissing orcas, etc.) (Fig. A9). Recently, aquaria have started to develop experience-based products enabling interaction with species, blurring the line between watcher and watched (Cater, 2010). JD

 Architecture The practice of designing and construction of buildings; also a generic term for the built infrastructure itself. It is a significant area of investment for the tourism 32Aquaculture

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Fig. A9.  Anthropomorphization of captive dolphins. Sea World, Queensland, Australia (Carl Cater).

­enterprise (Hall et al., 2009), forming part of its image and potentially even working as an attraction in itself, particularly in heritage tourism (Fig. A10). Architecture is an important arena for implementation of sustainability principles through the choice of design solutions, building and furnishing materials, and construction technology. See also Adaptive architecture GAB

  Arctic tourism All tourism that takes place in the Arctic; an area defined by the Stefansson Arctic Institute as, all of Alaska, Canada north of 60°N together with northern Québec [Nunavik] and Labrador [Nunatsiavut], all of Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and Iceland and the northernmost counties of Norway, Sweden and Finland . . . [in Russia] the Murmansk Oblast, the Nenets, Yamalo-Nenets, Taimyr, and Chukotka autonomous okrugs, Vorkuta City in the Komi Republic, Norilsk and Igsrka in Krasnoyarsky Kray, and those parts of the Sakha Republic whose boundaries lie closest to the Arctic Circle. (Stefansson Arctic Institute, 2004, pp. 17–18) Arctic tourism33

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Fig. A10.  Majestic Theatre, Singapore, built in 1928 with a mixture of Western and Chinese architectural styles (Carl Cater).

Thus it is geographically a very broad term and perhaps even a contested idea as a result of its scope. For example, some might also include visits to attractions ‘associated’ with the Arctic as being part of Arctic tourism – for example visiting displays at the Scott Polar Research Institute in Cambridge, UK or learning to carve soap stone with Inuit masters at the North House Folk School in Grand Marais, Minnesota, USA. If we focus on the geographical definition, by its very nature, tourism in the Arctic must strive to be sustainable. The ecosystems in this region are fragile due to short growing seasons and harsh conditions. The cultures may still be in transition from subsistence/nomadic lifestyles to the globalized connected commons, but in most cases communities are at the very least remote and on national peripheries. Peoples of the Arctic have unique cultural stories, there is a plethora of historical attractions (especially related to explorers – the exploits of Nansen, the loss of Franklin), and the scenery is stunning, especially when combined with iconic species such as polar bears and walrus. Perhaps more so today (after the most recent International Polar Year) the region has also been inundated by a plethora of media interest. So there is delicate supply, yet growing demand. A few examples of Arctic tourism numbers showcase the growing demand. In 1998 cruise tourist numbers to Svalbard (Fig. A11) reached just under 20,000 annually after years of slow steady growth, however, since 2000 numbers have been around 30,000 and stable. Alaska’s tourist volume was more than 1.5 million visitors in 2011. This is an increase of 2% over the previous year, and even with the global economic downturn it is only 5% below 2006 levels. The Arctic is clearly now a known 34

Arctic tourism

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Fig. A11.  Arctic tourism. Longyearbyen, Svalbard (Tiffany Low).

destination, and one that tourists want to explore. How they do so respectfully and sustainably is the responsibility of industry (through organizations such as the Association of Arctic Expedition Cruise Operators); government (partially through federal agencies like Parks Canada); and partially the responsibility of the tourists themselves, with the help of visitor codes of conduct (such as those developed by the WWF Arctic Programme and SMART). See also Antarctic tourism, Polar tourism PM

  Artificial reef A man-made underwater structure that creates a habitat for marine wildlife. The term ‘artificial reef’ is deliberately vague and takes into account a broad variety of man-made structures that have been purposefully placed in the aquatic realm. Wrecks, jetties, beach-erosion barriers, walls, groynes and a variety of other structures are testament to human endeavour in the marine environment. Many artificial reefs have been placed in the marine environment by accident, for example with ship wrecks, war ­remains (Fig. A12) and discarded industrial equipment. However, artificial reefs are increasingly being developed on purpose for habitat development and conservation, protection from coastal erosion (for example Borth, Wales and Narrowneck, Australia) and for tourism and leisure purposes. Artificial reefs begin to aggregate Artificial reef35

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Fig. A12.  Artificial reef: Japanese 'Zero' from WWII, Kimbe Bay, Papua New Guinea (Carl Cater).

fish and other mobile marine organisms very quickly after deployment and, given time, also host fixed life forms like algae, barnacles, soft and hard corals, mussels and sponges. In fact, ‘established’ artificial reefs have the potential to sustain a greater density and/or variety of biota (particularly fish species) than nearby natural reefs (Stolk et al., 2005). Artificial reefs are popular for fishing (as they increase fish stocks) and for scuba diving. The economic impact of the latter has prompted many locations to deliberately sink decommissioned naval warships as dive sites, for example the HMAS Brisbane in Moreton Bay, Australia. The ‘value’ of these artificial marine resources can be significant. Research undertaken in southeast Florida estimated that spending associated with artificial reefs as a recreational resource was approximately one third of all expenditure related to reefs in the region (Johns et al., 2001). In a state so reliant on marine tourism resources, this slice of the pie is considerable. This same report estimated that south east Floridian reefs were the reason behind $873 million (€692 million) of residents’ annual expenditure. Fishing was a $499 million (€396 million) industry, snorkelling $167 million (€132 million) and scuba diving was worth $207 million (€164 million) annually. Furthermore, users would be willing to pay some $26.7 million (€21.2 million) annually to invest in and maintain new artificial reefs. However, this is only suitable when a thorough environmental impact assessment has already been carried out to avoid pollution. See also Coral bleaching CIC

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Artificial reef

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Case study: You sunk my battleship In the last decade four ex-navy destroyers have been deliberately sunk around the coastline in Australia to form scuba-diving attractions for tourists. An abandoned 1.8 kilometre jetty in Busselton, Western Australia was restored in 2001 specifically for its recreational potential, both for diving and other marine pursuits. In 2005, the HMAS Brisbane, a destroyer decommissioned from the Australian navy was deliberately sunk as a dive tourism site off the Sunshine Coast in Queensland. This followed an extensive period of preparation, wherein a site was carefully selected and the vessel converted for deliberate sinking. In particular, significant marine pollutants had to be removed, such as any heavy metals, batteries, fuels, oils grease and any loose items. A 35 hectare conservation park was set up around the wreck, with strict controls on diving activity in the area. Three local dive operators were issued with licenses to run trips to the ship and guide dive tourists around the vessel. By 2006, significant numbers of aquatic species had already colonized the vessel. A code of conduct is in place to ensure that new divers to the wreck are properly guided and that a minimum number of dives must be logged before penetration of the vessel is allowed. However, the project very nearly failed to ‘sink’, as there was a long period of negotiation between various authorities following decommissioning of the vessel in 2001. In particular, there was the issue of the public-liability insurance for ‘creating’ such a dive tourism attraction. Eventually the federal government paid the estimated US$1.7m (€1.35m) cost of sinking the ship and the Queensland state government agreed to cover the annual insurance costs of the dive attraction. However, by most accounts the project has been relatively successful. An estimated 10,000 divers (Environmental Protection Agency, 2006) experienced the site in its first year of operation and one operator was planning a ‘James Bond’-style heli-dive experience, where divers are dropped at the site by helicopter. It seems likely that a number of other destinations will follow suit. Indeed it now seems, in Australia at least, that coastal locations are clamouring for these vessels to be sunk off their shores.

  The Aspen Institute An educational and policy studies organization based in Washington, DC. The Aspen Institute was founded in 1950 by a Chicago businessman in conjunction with architect Herbert Bayer and oil industry entrepreneur Robert Anderson. They worked to develop an environment where creative, innovative and diverse thinkers, artists and musicians may meet and interact. The institute provides seminars, young-leader fellowships, policy programs and public conferences and events. Key issues of focus of the institute include: community and family prosperity, culture and communication, economy, education, energy and environment, health, justice and equity, philanthropy and social enterprise, and security and global affairs. More than 60 years after its inception there are now over 20 initiatives that are a priority and focus of the Aspen Institute, many with a focus on critical global issues such as sustainability, ethics and poverty reduction. HR   Aspen Institute www.aspeninstitute.org

The Aspen Institute37

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 Assessment The evaluation or appraisal of a given subject or situation to gain a better understanding of it. In sustainable tourism, an environmental impact assessment is a crucial tool which allows potential developers and decision makers to assess the ecological sensitivity of a given site to possible intrusion and physical changes to the site. Assessment can be conducted through a quantitative approach (for example, surveying potential loss of habitats) or qualitatively (for example, by interviewing local villagers about their local environment) or both. The outcome of the assessment is fundamental in decisions to continue with the development or not. Assessment can also be used to measure social factors, such as community support of sustainable tourism, quality of sustainable tourism products and quality of tourism services provision. AZK

  Association of Arctic Expedition Cruise Operators (AECO) An industry association for cruise tourism operators in arctic regions. Founded in 2003, the members of this association epitomize sustainable tourism as they all agree to conduct and promote expedition cruises in the Arctic with respect for the vulnerable natural environment, respect for local cultures and cultural remains, as well as respect for the challenging safety hazards at sea and on land. AECO has a suite of strategies to meet these objectives and is governed by operational guidelines discussed at their annual meetings. As of May 2012, AECO has 14 member companies, all of whom operate under the agreed upon set of guidelines. See also Arctic tourism PM   Association of Arctic Expedition Cruise Operators www.aeco.no

 Astrotourism Tourism activity that takes place beyond 100 km (62 miles) from the earth’s surface and is a subset of space tourism (Fig. A13). This boundary is the internationally recognized boundary between the earth’s atmosphere and space, and is called the Karman Line. Government and military personnel who travelled beyond this boundary are recognized as astronauts. In 2001 Dennis Tito became the first astrotourist when he funded his own trip to the International Space Station. Astrotourism includes sub-orbital tourism, orbital tourism and (as yet not achieved) beyond-orbital tourism. Recent developments of sub-orbital astrotourism by Virgin Galactic have paid attention to sustainability by using a hybrid rocket motor that will have carbon emissions per passenger, per trip, less than a one-way flight from London to New York. The purpose-built Spaceport America in New Mexico has also incorporated sustainable building design practices. CIC   Virgin Galactic www.virgingalactic.com   Spaceport America www.spaceportamerica.com 38Assessment

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Fig. A13.  Space tourism, Kennedy Space Center, Florida, USA (Carl Cater).

 Auditing The process of inspection by an assessor. Auditing is an important part of transparency and business ethics, and should be included in the planning process along with monitoring and evaluation. Auditing may be used in certification schemes, as well as in reporting and health and safety, for example the Adventure Activities Licensing ­Authority. CIC

  Australian Eco-Certification Program A certification program for nature and ecotourism businesses in Australia. Originally known as NEAP (National Ecotourism Accreditation Program) this program was a world first when launched under this name in 1996. It is now referred to as the EcoCertification program and is an initiative and business product of Ecotourism Australia. Quality control programs, including certification, are crucial in setting and verifying industry standards and fostering companies to strive for best practice. They are also critical in gaining consumer confidence. The EcoCertification program is based on a self-assessment model followed by a third party, independent auditing Australian Eco-Certification Program39

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process. The program certifies three types of nature tourism and ecotourism products: accommodation, tours and attractions. A product can receive certification at one of the three levels: nature tourism, ecotourism and advanced ecotourism. The certification process is based on the triple-bottom-line approach and addresses the three areas of economic, environmental and social sustainability. Those spheres are assessed through principles. Nature-based tourism products are assessed using the following six principles: business management and operational planning/business ethics; responsible marketing; customer satisfaction; natural area focus; environmental management and climate change action spanning across the fields of economic and environmental sustainability. Ecotourism and advanced ecotourism certification need to address four principles in addition to the six above, including interpretation and education; contribution to conservation; working with local communities; and cultural respect and sensitivity. The latter two principles refer to the social sustainability sphere. Each of the principles is broken down into a number of business practices. Advanced ecotourism needs to satisfy 100% of the core criteria like ecotourism certification and a further 75% of advanced criteria. Credibility of the certification program is maintained through an independent third party on-site auditing process, reviews of customer feedback and continuous improvement of the principles to reflect on-going world’s best practices in the sector. Certification is available for businesses that are members of Ecotourism Australia. CO

  Australian Research Institute for Environment and ­Sustainability (ARIES) A not-for-profit academic consultancy centre based at Macquarie University in Sydney. According to its website, ARIES is ‘a research, consultancy and education centre . . . that supports change for sustainable development within government, business and the community’. ARIES was initiated by the Australian Federal Government and opened in 2003 under the founding leadership of Professor Daniella Tilbury and her team at Macquarie. Since that time, ARIES has published a number of sustainability-based reports and academic papers for the education, business, community and government sectors. One of the Institute’s core foci during the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable Development has been on Education for Sustainability (EfS). EW   Australian Research Institute for Environment and Sustainability www.aries.mq.edu.au

 Authenticity The ‘reality’ or otherwise of tourism products, authenticity critiques credibility of the tourist experience. In tourism studies, the use of this concept relates to work that ­argues the tourist experience is driven by the search for the authentic, a genuine ­experience that remains out of reach to the tourist. With increasing commodification of tourism experiences, authenticity has come into question (Fig. A14). The first and 40

Australian Research Institute for Environment and ­Sustainability (ARIES)

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Fig. A14.  Authenticity at Disneyland California – note the European medieval suit of armour and the old-fashioned US postbox next to each other! (Brian Garrod).

major use of the authenticity concept is found in the work of Dean MacCannell (1973), where, building on the anthropological front and back-stage performative concepts of Erving Goffman he proposes a plurality of ‘regions’ that define the arrangement of tourist settings. MacCannell’s regions (or stages) have been applied as a descriptive tool by researchers, for example Chalfen (1979) draws on this work when studying photographs to analyse tourists’ attempts to enter ‘back stages’; or in analyses to reveal how host communities mediate tourist experiences and retain their identity through the use of staged authenticity (Buck, 1978). GD

 Aviation See Airlines

 Award The outcome of a competition or a desired initiative, denoting appreciation and recognition of an accomplishment. In sustainable tourism, the concept of green hotels is encouraged by awarding those that have successfully integrated the concept into their hotel management with a green hotel award. Malaysia and Macao are two tourism Award41

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destinations that have started to award hotels that develop leadership and best practice in environmental management. There is also a Green Hospitality Award in ­Ireland, which awards businesses that reduce their carbon footprint via resource saving, stewardship and other environmentally-friendly measures. See also Certification AZK

 AWTS See Advanced wastewater treatment system

42AWTS

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B   Back boiler An energy-efficiency initiative introduced in the Annapurna Conservation Area ­Project (ACAP) in Nepal. Instead of using a separate fireplace for heating water, this fuelwood-­ saving device feeds water pipes connected to a tank (frequently a disused oil drum) into the cooking hearth. The water, thus heated, returns through convection to this back boiler. This simple, appropriate technology-fix means that during cooking, water can be simultaneously heated for trekking showers and other purposes. Its introduction has resulted in a 675 kg reduction per month per lodge of fuelwood consumption during the tourist season. Its overall significance is indicated by the fact that ACAP opted to subsidise 50% of the cost of the boiler’s circulatory parts. EC

 Backpacker A predominantly (but not exclusively) young tourist (typically 20–40 years old) who travels on a lower budget and for a longer period than a conventional mass tourist. Also called ‘independent’ or ‘budget’ travellers. Backpackers often travel in less-developed countries, especially in Asia and Latin America, but many of them travel around wealthier destinations in Australasia and Europe. The study of the backpacker market has only relatively recently emerged as a sub-field within tourism discourse. Traditionally thought of as frugal and thus of little importance to tourism economies, a recognition that the longer stay characteristics of this group actually boosts their overall importance has brought interest from academics and industry alike. Although research suggests that backpackers come in all shapes and sizes, their age profile is still dominated by the youth travel market. Furthermore the increased significance of the gap year in many Western economies over the last decade, with an overseas travel component as a major part of this, makes this market quite significant. Indeed, this phenomenon has taken on an almost wholesale adoption by Generation Y as an accepted rite of passage, and even credible qualification for the subsequent world of full-time employment (Desforges, 1998). For example, although relatively rare in the UK in the 1980s, the 1990s saw significant growth in the gap year and current estimates suggest that up to 250,000 young people take a gap year each year (DfES, 2004). The backpacker emerged as a distinct tourist type in the 1980s and has some similarities with the earlier ‘hippy’ overlander of the 1960s and 1970s. Backpackers are often young Western travellers, typically educated to college level, but there are growing numbers of young Asians and Latin Americans travelling around their own regions. Aging Western populations have also generated some older ‘greypackers’ (see Grey nomads). South-east Asia (especially Thailand, Malaysia, Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam)

© CAB International 2015. The Encyclopedia of Sustainable Tourism  (eds C. Cater, B. Garrod and T. Low)

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is one of the oldest established backpacker destination regions (and is also one of the largest in volume) (Fig. B1). South Asia (notably India and Nepal), Latin America and southern Africa also host significant numbers. Many government planning agencies, especially in less-developed countries, have shown limited interest in the backpacker segment, with the prominent exceptions of Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Fiji and Malaysia. However, a higher proportion of the backpackers’ expenditure is retained in local communities than mass tourism with significant economic impact particularly, lower economic leakages and stronger economic linkages. Probably one of the earliest and most widely accepted definitions of a backpacker is that suggested by Pearce (1990b), who identifies these common characteristics: ● ● ● ● ●

a preference for budget accommodation; an emphasis on meeting other travellers; an independently organized and flexible travel schedule; longer rather than short holidays; and an emphasis on informal and participatory holiday activities.

Indeed, in the work that has been conducted to date on this sector, the search for experiences is one characteristic that is particularly important. As Richards and Wilson found in their extensive survey of backpackers carried out in 2002, via the International Student Travel Confederation, they were ‘highly oriented towards experiencing as much as possible during the trip’ (2004, p. 25). Furthermore, although they may be interested in value for money, they are not adverse to spending significant

Fig. B1.  Backpackers and local transport, Siem Reap, Cambodia (Carl Cater). 44Backpacker

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amounts on signature experiences where they meet that value (Loker-Murphy and Pearce, 1995). As a result, youth travellers may have considerable power in shaping the characteristics and development of tourism destinations. Desforges (1998, p. 183) points out, ‘young travellers have the power to determine which places are brought into the tourist economy (and which places are excluded), which put simply means incorporating those places which conform to notions of authenticity’. In addition ‘young travellers determine the terms by which peoples and places are included in the tourist economy’ (Desforges, 1998, p. 183). Backpacker tourism seems to be fragmenting into three forms: ‘mass’ backpackers, ‘hard-core’ backpackers and ‘flashpackers’. Mass backpackers appear little different to general youth tourists, following well-defined routes, travelling in specialist transport with other backpackers. Increasingly such backpackers travel from enclave to enclave, such as from Bangkok’s iconic Khao San Road (Fig. E8) to the southern islands to experience the large, commercialized ‘full-moon’ parties held there. In comparison, ‘hard-core’ backpackers attempt to find new, more remote (‘untouristy’) places. ‘Flashpackers’, meanwhile, demand authentic but higher-standard accommodation, travelling for shorter periods and having higher daily expenditures. This may include more comfort; perhaps the best expression of this sector was Accors’ introduction of ‘sanctuary’ floors into its hostels in Australasia, where for a premium charge female guests could get such relative luxuries as clean towels. MH Further reading Hampton, M. (2013) Backpacker Tourism and Economic Development. Perspectives from the Less ­Developed World. Routledge, London, UK.

Case study: Backpackers and quality The backpacker market is of particular significance to Australia, as it has a well-­ established network of hostels and attractions, potential short-term employment options, especially under the working holiday-maker program for under 30s, and is both far enough away (geographically) and close enough (culturally and linguistically) to appeal to a broad section of Western youth travellers. Partly as a result of the large distance from source markets, backpackers in Australia spend an average of 68 nights in the country (Tourism Research Australia, 2005). On average, international backpackers spent $4,857 each on their travels in Australia (excluding package tours, pre-paid international airfares and other major purchases). This was more than twice the average amount spent by international non-backpacker visitors ($2,272) (Tourism Research Australia, 2005). Indeed, although backpackers only made up 10% of arrivals in 2007, they contributed 20% of tourist expenditure (Tourism Research Australia, 2007). Furthermore, international backpackers participated in twice as many activities as other international visitors travelling in Australia (Tourism Research Australia, 2007). An examination of backpackers’ assessment of quality was undertaken on the Gold Coast in 2007 (Jennings et al., 2010) using interviews and diaries. The findings of what constitutes quality for backpackers are summarized as higher order themes of ­‘personal Continued

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Case study.  Continued. connectivity’, ‘social connectivity’, ‘combining experiences’, ‘experience delivery’, ‘inter-connectivity of the entire adventure travel experience’ and ‘having fun’. However, there was still the prominence of lower order themes concerning ‘value for money’, ‘cleanliness’ and ‘safety’. Perhaps contrary to some myths about the backpacker segment, travellers are very conscious about basic needs such as value for money, cleanliness and especially personal safety. Numerous respondents pointed to the importance of a clean kitchen where they could prepare their own food and would even ‘pay an extra few dollars to have a clean and tidy place’. Thus a few travellers expressed displeasure at some hostels that ‘felt like a prison’, ‘had one poxy fan’ or ‘you could tell that thousands of people had been there before you’. Indeed, having some comfort facilities such as air conditioning, television and internet access was deemed important, the latter especially so in an era where these travellers spend a significant amount of time updating friends and relatives through blogs or social networking sites. Safety was deemed important, not only for adventure activities, where respondents were conscious of appropriate and well-maintained equipment, but also in the hostels where they could feel that their belongings and themselves were safe. Indeed, it is important to note that the hostels often function as a ‘home away from home’, so are much more than just a bed for the night for these individuals. These host locations are thus central to the travel experience itself, and this linked to higher order themes of connectivity. In the higher-order themes, personal connectivity represents a strong interpersonal connection between industry providers and their staff with the Generation Y traveller. This connection is more than good customer service and more than just being friendly, putting ‘personal’ value above commodified experiences. Thus individuals might value the experience of being taken surfing by an accommodation provider over visiting one of the commercial water parks. Social connectivity was associated with the provision of spaces and opportunities for social interactions between travellers, host community members and travel providers as well as various mixes of these. As an information channel for backpacker travellers, ‘word of mouth’ and increasingly ‘word of web’ is an important and trusted source. Thus providers need to be acutely aware of their reputation in these areas, and need to monitor and evaluate carefully the personal and social connectivity as provided and delivered in their adventure travel experiences. In line with this ease of opportunity for social connections is ease of access to experiences or combining experiences (see packaging). As discussed earlier, the popularity of Australia with Western youth backpackers is partly due to a familiar cultural environment, especially for native English speakers. Clustering of experiences facilitates ease of access and provision of multiple connected experiences, which also provides choice and balance between challenge, adventure, fun, relaxation as well as opportunities to socialize. Attention to how that experience is delivered is also important and is associated with component experiences within overall travel experiences. Thus, ‘experience delivery’ links to the ‘inter-connectivity of the entire adventure tourism experience’ and thereby encompasses an overall framing from the first to last contact point of experience delivery. Inter-connectivity of the entire backpacker tourism experience recognizes that quality tourism experiences begin prior to the initial point of contact through to and inclusive of the point of departure and beyond. This interconnectivity is directly related to generating lasting memories of a quality adventure tourism experience. Thus to ensure the inter-connectivity of entire travel experiences, accommodation and experience providers need to ensure that they are adopting a whole of destination approach, which includes working closely with neighbouring destinations. Continued

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Case study.  Continued. Lastly, backpackers highlighted the theme of ‘having fun’, a facet that was especially strong in the diaries. Again, it is important to note that the selected destination has a strong ‘fun’ reputation, but the fact that backpackers were reflexive about the possibilities for this as part of their experience is notable. Those who were intending on undertaking employment under the working holiday-maker program enjoyed the ability for casual work, but were under no illusions about the primary purpose of their trip. For them, quality employment in Australia was ‘like easy come, easy go’, as opposed to their home where ‘it’s like I have a job at home, and it’s like, if you have a job you keep it, yer cause everyone wants it’. As has been shown elsewhere, such travel practices ‘are fundamentally about pleasure and fun . . . to ignore the importance of hedonism is to miss the principal aim of such pursuits’ (Cater and Cloke, 2007, p. 16). Therefore operators should actively reflect on the role of fun in the experience that they are providing. CIC

  Backwash effects The negative impacts of one activity on other activities and sectors at a variety of scales. Gunnar Myrdal first outlined backwash effects in his 1957 Theory of Circular and Cumulative Causation. The concept can be usefully applied in ascertaining prospects for sustainable tourism in a locality as it facilitates a systematic appraisal of contingencies of place which condition prospects for sustainable tourism. Countervailing, negative, backwash effects are set against positive, spread effects at different scalar levels. These range from competing economic activities that impact on the natural environment to global climate change. Fig. B2 illustrates the scales of backwash and spread effects in marine ecotourism (Cater and Cater, 2007a). Fundamentally, structural inequalities, an expression of core-periphery dominance, dictate that, in the periphery, backwash effects are frequently stronger than spread effects and thus militate against sustainable outcomes. EC

 Balance A concept and practice to equilibrate the interaction of diverging components of a system (e.g. organisms of an ecosystem, stakeholders of a region, opposed goals of organizations or conflicting values fitting an ethical dilemma) with the goal of preventing the destructive predominance of one component. As problems in the context of sustainable tourism development are complex and dynamic, balance-orientated solutions allow the monitoring and management of continuous change and help to reduce conflicts (see Conflict management). A popular strategic performance management tool to operationalize balance is the ‘balanced scorecard’ (Kaplan and Norton, 1996). On a personal level, the feeling of balance is an emotional indicator for health in the sense of personal sustainability. Its support by workplace health promotion programs to allow work–life balance is an important aspect of Corporate social responsibility (CSR) in the tourism industry. HF

Balance 47

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GLOBAL

Ecotourism

Backwash effects Activities prejudicial to existence & success of marine ecotourism

Marine ‘nature’ tourism

Spread effects Raising environmental awareness Disseminating good practice

Other marine-dependent tourism market segments Other economic activities dependent upon and/or impacting on the marine environment

CON TEXT

Fig. B2.  Backwash and spread effects in marine ecotourism (Cater and Cater, 2007a).

  Balance of payments An instrument for recording and measuring, in monetary units, the economic transactions (imports and exports) between a country and the rest of the world, during a specific period of time, generally 1 year. Those transactions can be of goods, services, incomes and transfers, as well as financial operations such as investment in the short and long run. Exports (e.g. from inbound tourism) are an inflow of funds for a country, while imports (e.g. outbound tourism) are an outflow of funds. The balance of payments is, by construction, always in equilibrium. However, the different accounts into which it is divided can have deficit or surplus. For example, surplus from tourism can help to compensate a deficit arising from the transactions of other services or a deficit arising from the transactions of goods. See also Satellite account EMG

 Baseline A quantity used for a basis of comparison against future measurements. A baseline is always the first empirical measure for a phenomenon and will act as a benchmark. 48

Balance of payments

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This known value allows calculations to be made to examine increase, stability or decrease of a variable in question. Thereafter, rational decision-making may be used to address factors and trends of concern. Baselines are easily depicted in graph form for visual information and data interpretation. See also Indicators, Assessment PH

 Beach A strip of sandy or pebbly area that connects the land and the sea. A beach has psychological, aesthetic and practical values. It is often a sought-after and appreciated destination for people looking for relaxation and/or beach fun. It has high aesthetic value, making sunsets or sunrises that much more spectacular for the eye. It also serves as a landing place for small boats, canoes and kayaks, and in many less-developed countries and islands is an important byway. Cleanliness, protection from erosion and long-term sustainability are important for beach ecology. Some of the famous tourism beaches in the world include Malibu Beach, Miami Beach, Waikiki Beach (all in the USA), Bondi Beach in Australia, Balneário Camboriú Beach in Brazil and Kuta Beach in Bali. However, many beaches in the long term are running the risk of destruction due to pollution and erosion (Fig. B3). Yet beaches are also dynamic coastal features, and

Fig. B3.  Dune protection, South Stradbroke Island, Australia (Carl Cater). Beach 49

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their form and extent may change as a result of natural processes. Thus many popular beaches such as that on the Gold Coast, Australia, are protected with artificial reefs and sand pumping schemes. As early as 1996, UNESCO introduced an initiative to promote sustainable beach management. Using the discussion outcomes of three groups of islands – the island archipelago, islands heavily dependent on tourism and islands less dependent on tourism, six recommendations were developed to provide a framework for sustaining beach management: additional information, institutional strengthening, awareness, education, planning and legislation, and enforcement. (UNESCO, undated). The framework calls for: (i) continuing beach monitoring and collection of information on selected beach health parameters via the help of NGOs and Geographical Information Systems (GIS); (ii) involving stakeholders in the management process and building greater awareness through networking activities, education and awareness activities; (iii) establishing inter-agency committees to better facilitate government inter-agency networking and collaboration; (iv) educating primary and secondary schoolgoers on beach management; (v) revising legislation of beach protection laws to establish variables setbacks for each beach; and (vi) better regulatory enforcement. In Europe, recreational beaches are scored using the Blue Flag scheme. See also Sun, sea and sand (3S) tourism AZK

 Benchmarking The process of comparing business processes or performance to industry leaders. The purpose of benchmarking is to assess the strengths and weaknesses of a company, organization or practice when compared to best practice in the sector. Even Frydenberg, Vice President of Sixsigma Europe, Africa and Middle East, Starwood Hotels and Resorts claims that: Many of the world’s highest ranked companies regardless of industry, continuously benchmark themselves against competitors and peers from other sectors. . . . this helps fuel their drive for continuous improvement. Not only does it help by indicating how efficient and how effective you are compared to your peers, but it also focuses you on how you could be even better. (GSTC, 2013)

The Global Sustainable Tourism Council states that benchmarking is an important management tool and can assist tourism businesses to identify best practice in sustainable management and development (GSTC, 2013). SR

  Benefits (in marketing sense) Positive outcomes that accrue to a community, business or organization from their involvement in a sustainable tourism enterprise. Such benefits may include, but are not limited to, attaining a competitive advantage in a product, service or destination. These types of benefits may be financial in nature. Financial benefits are likely to occur, as the community becomes more efficient and effective over time. Product selection and 50Benchmarking

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promotion benefits will also accrue, as the sustainable tourism operation is able to focus on products that are consistent with their mission statement and operating o ­ bjectives. KFB and SJB

  Benefits (social and psychological) Positive thoughts, feelings and behaviours accruing to tourists and residents from tourism development. Crompton (1992) and others have identified seven social psychological motives that influence the way individuals select destinations. Tourists have choices with respect to the destination they select, along with the other choices they make on how to allocate their time and money on vacation. Typically, they will select products and services that they perceive will fulfil their social or psychological needs. For example, tourists may select to stay at an ecolodge as accommodation because it uses solar power along with other measures to reduce their carbon footprint. Tourists may seek to visit destinations that they view have balanced the needs of residents with the needs of tourists. From a psychological perspective, tourists fulfil the need for equity and justice. Social and psychological benefits are important to consider from the resident population perspective. To be sustainable, tourism must reduce negative social consequences at destination. For example, crime and disruption of the family social structures is frequently associated with increasing tourism at a destination. Through effective regulation and policy, local destinations can become more sustainable. However, focusing on tourist segments that seek to visit destinations where visitors do not negatively impact locals is becoming a targeted market segment. It is, however, difficult to separate the negative social impacts from tourism from those that occur naturally in many communities. As tourists use opportunities at destinations to relax, rest, socialize and escape, they select these destinations, which fulfil these psychological needs, based on the quality of the environment. To be sustainable, destination managers must be prepared to engage in long-term planning that determines and preserves the desired environment. Tourists also seek to fulfil social needs by demanding access to cultural experiences. There is an increasing demand from ecotourists for opportunities to engage in activities such as cycling, whale-watching and tourist opportunities that reinforce environmental benefits. Today, many tourists seek to select environments that are consistent with their perception of quality tourism. KFB and SJB

  BEST EN An inclusive and collaborative network of tourism academics and practitioners committed to furthering the creation and dissemination of knowledge within the field of sustainable tourism. The acronym BEST EN stands for Building Excellence for Sustainable Tourism – an Education Network. BEST EN aims to provide a platform for information, exchange of ideas, knowledge creation and building links and creating partnerships between academics as well as within the tourism industry. For many years BEST EN has cooperated with the World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) and The International Ecotourism Society (TIES). BEST EN 51

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The network was founded in 1999 with a grant from the Ford Foundation under the name BEST (Business Enterprises for Sustainable Tourism). Housed at the Conference Board in New York, BEST served as an incubator for a variety of activities aimed at encouraging the adoption of sustainable practices. Under the direction of Michael Seltzer until late 2003 (when the grant expired), BEST program activities were concerned with university-level education, travellers’ philanthropy and community tourism. BEST subsequently became a part of the Prince of Wales International Business Leaders Forum (IBLF) in London. At the time the BEST educational group was comprised of a network of educators and researchers, and a few industry professionals, who decided to re-organize as the BEST Education Network (BEST EN) under the leadership of Dr Pauline Sheldon (2003–2005). Dr Janne J. Liburd, University of Southern Denmark chaired the network from 2005–2010 followed by Dr Dagmar Lund-Durlacher who currently serves as the Chair of BEST EN and moved the secretariat to MODUL University Vienna. BEST EN’s signature event is the annual Think Tank hosted by universities around the globe. BEST EN Think Tanks are annual three-day events seeking to push the field of sustainable tourism research and education forward. The Think Tank format uses an open, creative, inclusive process to facilitate exchange and development of ideas between delegates and serves as the hub for knowledge creation. Every Think Tank has a specific theme and seeks to provide vision and cutting-edge insight to the topic at hand. The Think Tank themes cover a broad range of themes such as Corporate Social Responsibility for Sustainable Tourism, Innovations for Sustainable Tourism, Sustaining Quality of Life through Tourism, The Importance of Values in Sustainable Tourism, Mobilities, and Sustainable Tourism. The structure of the Think Tank is twofold: one pillar is delivering cutting-­ edge research; the other pillar is creating knowledge in a collaborative way. Delivering cutting-edge research is done through research presentations subjected to a double blind review process that addresses the Think Tank theme and sustainable tourism in general as well as through keynote speeches that are delivered by key international experts who share their knowledge on topics related to the overall theme of the Think Tank. The Think Tanks are open to academics, educators, researchers, government officials, industry experts, sustainability experts, environmental, economic, community and cultural experts in the tourism field with a passion for the topic of sustainability and the willingness to be creative, to explore new ideas and seek a broader perspective to the field. The other pillar is creating knowledge in a collaborative way that can be used by the academic community. The Think Tanks have been adopting a range of creative tools to develop teaching materials and research agendas including the Nominal Group Technique, mind maps, futures wheels and back casting. Joint, tangible outcomes are produced in the form of a research agenda, teaching modules, case studies and a special journal issue. An Open Industry Forum where practitioners present examples of experiences, challenges and innovations related to the overall Think Tank topic ensures the integration of the industry perspective into the knowledge creation process. Knowledge creation workshops provide an opportunity for participants to highlight and explore topics that will be the focus of sustainable tourism education and of sustainable tourism research in the coming years. Participants develop a research agenda that includes the identification of the specific problems that require research to be undertaken and explore the types of approaches that can be taken to develop ‘cutting-edge’ research in these areas. The teaching module workshop aims to identify key learning objectives and themes, and to develop teaching material to be used by tourism educators around the world. 52

BEST EN

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BEST EN disseminates all materials produced and presented at the Think Tanks free of charge via the BEST EN website. All papers presented at the Think Tank are published in the Conference Proceedings under the Creative Commons License and are available on the BEST EN website. Each year, the BEST EN Outstanding Paper Award is presented to the author(s) of the most excellent paper. Other things available free of charge include case study descriptions, research agendas and teaching materials. The teaching modules and the research agenda that are developed during and after each Think Tank by the participants are freely accessible to the public. To further the dissemination of teaching modules and teaching material, BEST EN collaborates with an online platform called Innotour, which is an interactive open access teaching and communication environment. The BEST EN sustainable tourism lectures consist of video streams, supporting reading material, case studies and other material and allow participants to also engage in virtual classroom activities (joint lectures, e-tivities, etc.). Annual workshops introduce the concept and tools of the BEST EN sustainable tourism lectures to interested educators. BEST EN also has published various books and special journal issues through respected publishers. These include several special issues following each conference in the Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research, in Tourism Review International special editions, and in the Journal of Sustainable Tourism as well as two books: Understanding the Sustainable Development of Tourism and Innovations for Sustainable Tourism: International Case Studies. BEST EN has two governing bodies: the executive committee and the international advisory board. The executive committee elects a chair who is responsible for coordinating the executive committee’s activities. BEST EN has defined several working areas such as knowledge creation, education and communication, Think Tank planning and network development, which are organized in subcommittees and chaired by executive members. The international advisory board, consisting of renowned senior experts in the field of sustainable tourism, gives advice to the executive committee in terms of strategy, publishing, Think Tank topics and locations, and future development of the organization. Each year at the Think Tank – an open meeting is held to discuss the current and future situation of the organization. As an inclusive and open network where it is free for anyone to join, interested academics and practitioners are invited to contribute and take an active role in the development of the network. This could include working in subgroups or committees, helping in finalizing Think Tank materials, contributing in sessions at Think Tanks, etc. In order to ensure a broad geographical representation, the Think Tanks take place in different parts of the world (e.g. South Africa, Costa Rica, Singapore, Jamaica, USA, Austria, France) and the international executive committee members connect with their local academia and industry. DLD   Best Education Network www.besteducationnetwork.org

  Best practice A technique or methodology that is widely recognized to lead to targeted results. By  implementing best practices, organizations can achieve results superior to those Best practice 53

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­ ursued with other means. Best practices are often used as benchmarks and are widely p diffused in health and human services, in business management in general and in policy making. Best practices can be also individuated by self-assessment. In order to become a best practice, a procedure must be: correct, most effective and replicable. An effective implementation of best practices within the firm depends on the characteristics of: the knowledge transfer; the source of knowledge; the context; and the recipient of knowledge. Lack of motivation, knowledge and skills that support the changes arising from the adoption of best practices may be an obstacle to their introduction by a firm’s management. Best practices find a large diffusion in the field of sustainability: they are used for measuring corporate environmental performance, for integrating a sustainable orientation in everyday management decisions and particularly in certification schemes. CSA

  Bilateral agreement A common position about a particular issue that has been reached and formalized between two parties. Such agreements generally refer to government-to-government arrangements but may also apply to non-governmental organizations. Bilateral agreements are prevalent in international aviation, where governments have been unable or unwilling to reach multilateral agreements between multiple parties. They also apply to country-to-country tourist movements, where the governments of generating and receiving countries reach an agreement to ensure orderly market development. The Government of China, for example, has signed bilateral agreements with other governments, thereby granting them so-called ‘approved destination status’. Such agreements sanction a destination to receive approved Chinese tourist groups. BK

  Biodiversity (biological diversity) The variation and variability of organisms in any given environment. The environment can be found anywhere on a continuum of scales from the smallest ecosystem, to an ecoregion, to a biome, to the entire planet. The variation and variability includes both the genetic variants within the same species and the array of genera, families and higher taxonomic levels. The variety of ecosystems includes the communities of organisms within a habitat and the physical conditions therein. Biodiversity should not be confused with species richness, which is simply a count of the number of species in an area, nor with species evenness, which is how close in numbers species are. Biodiversity is important for the health and productivity of ecosystem services. The most biodiverse areas on the planet are in the tropical climates and the most biodiverse animals are invertebrates. Higher levels of biodiversity allow for ecosystems to have greater resilience and to recover following disturbances such as floods or fires. The greatest threats to biodiversity include habitat destruction, invasive species, pollution, human population growth, overharvesting and climate change (Fig. B4). Genetic biodiversity helps with prevention of disease while ecological biodiversity builds a range of environments. Although the concept of biodiversity is well 54

Bilateral agreement

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Fig. B4.  Biodiversity pressures in the Himalaya (ACAP) (Carl Cater).

known, science has not been able to catalogue the entirety of organismal biodiversity on the planet. There may be as many as 100 million species on Earth and a mere 2 million have been identified. PH

 Biofuel Any fuel that is produced from living organisms or from metabolic byproducts (Alternative Energy, 2013). In order to be a biofuel, the energy source must contain over 80% of renewable content. Biofuels are not new: Model T Fords were designed to run on ethanol (National Geographic Society, 2013) until the discovery of huge petroleum deposits, itelf actually an ancient biofuel. Palm oil has long been a significant biofuel in South-east Asia, but is rarely sustainably produced. The use of biofuels has increased in popularity due to the rising cost of fossil fuels and the need to reduce GHG emissions, a major contributor to climate change. The substitution of just 10% ethanol into gasoline reduces GHG emissions significantly and reduces our demand on fossil fuels; the impact varies with technology and biofuel production factors (KD Communications, 2011; Conference Board of Canada, 2013). Modern genetic techniques are developing algae to specifically produce biofuels. However, in order to be an efficient fuel resource, the energy produced from growing plants must be significantly greater than the energy cost of growing biofuels. This has led to some concern over the recent boom in biofuel cultivation and its implication in food crop shortages. SJ Biofuel 55

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 Biomass The quantity of living matter expressed in weight or dry weight per unit area or volume in a particular habitat. This material can be from animals or plants; and from parts of an individual, a whole individual, or communities of a territory. Ecological sciences study the biomass of each ecosystem to analyse its structure and understand its development. The biomass concept has had much recent interest from the energy industry. In this context, this living matter is related to biofuel production and comes from virgin wood, crops, agricultural residues, food waste, industrial or waste and co-products. At present, this energetic resource has become a crucial store in order to guarantee the current lifestyle based on levels of fossil fuel consumption. However, for this usage, it is vital not to exceed the net production of the exploited ecosystem to assure its sustainability. OGH   Biomass Energy Centre www.biomassenergycentre.org.uk

 Birdwatching A specialist subsector of the wildlife tourism industry, itself part of the broader outdoor nature-based tourism and adventure tourism sectors. Many nature tourism destinations advertise either individual iconic bird species or a diversity of bird species more generally as part of their broad appeal. As with many outdoor activities, however, birdwatchers range from beginners (Fig. B5) to highly skilled experts with many years’ experience at home. The latter are amongst the most demanding of tourists, but also the best prepared. It is commonplace for them to: select destinations on the basis of individual bird species they hope to see; pick a tour operator on the basis of internationally renowned birdwatching guides; and prepare for the trip by buying guidebooks, obtaining checklists and learning in advance to recognize bird calls from recorded CDs of bird songs. Many maintain lifetime lists of bird species seen, and there is an element of competition or status related to the length of these lists. To see new species, passionate birdwatchers will pay high prices, make long stays and put up with difficult conditions if need be. Not surprisingly, they represent a highly coveted subsector of the tourism market. See also National Audubon Society, Royal Society for the Protection of Birds RB

  Blue Flag A certification scheme that rates beaches according to water quality, environmental management, safety, environmental education and information, and other services. Beaches are awarded the Blue Flag based on compliance with 32 criteria. Since its beginnings in France in 1985, the Blue Flag Programme has had an impressive development: now it is run by the Foundation for Environmental Education, and there are 3,850 Blue Flags in 46 countries all over the world. Applicants are evaluated by 56Biomass

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Fig. B5.  Birdwatching, Costa Rica (Olga Garcia).

­ ational and international juries. There are now Blue Flag schemes for marinas, boats n and whale-watching operations. AC   Blue Flag www.blueflag.org

 Border The legal or official dividing line that separates political entities or legal jurisdictions such as governments, sovereign states, federated states and other sub-national entities. Most countries have some form of border control to restrict or limit the movement of people, animals, plants and goods across the border (Fig. B6). For the purposes of border control, seaports and airports are also classed as borders. Historically, geographic features that present natural obstacles to transport and communications, such as oceans, rivers and mountain ranges, have served as natural borders. Political borders are historically linked with the formalization of these natural obstacles as official dividing lines. The term ‘boundary’ is sometimes used interchangeably with border, but in geographic usage it is a general term designating definite social, cultural and political differences between contiguous areas or populations. Borders are important sites for tourism (Timothy, 2002a) and cross-border collaboration is essential for sustainable tourism. HD Border 57

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Fig. B6.  Congo-Rwanda border crossing, Rubavu/Goma, Rwanda (Carl Cater).

 Brand A sign or symbol, usually in the form of a logo, that is assigned by companies and is deconstructed and interpreted by consumers through associations of feelings, memories and emotions. Although often thought of interchangeably with trademarks and logos (Fig. B7), the concept of brands goes much deeper than this. Academic definitions of brands include understandings of a brand as ‘a label, designating ownership by a firm, which we experience, evaluate, have feeling towards and build associations with to perceive value’ (Rosenbaum-Elliott et al., 2011, p. 4). The understanding of brands is closely linked with social and consumer psychology, and their successful management is dependent upon understandings of how perceptions are organized, how and by what behaviours are influenced and how they compete for ‘mindspace’ in the marketplace (Corstjens and Corstjens, 1995). According to Rosenbaum-Elliott et al. (2011), the brand can be organized into two realms: the functional and the emotional. The functional realm consists of brand attributes such as keeping promises of performance and are usually associated with low levels of consumer involvement in purchase decisions and low levels of perceived risk (by consumers). In so doing, brands in the functional realm are seen as easy or safe choices by consumers and provide other consumer benefits such as the replicability of satisfaction. The emotional realm of brands spans a continuum ranging from brand attributes of reassurance, personal authenticity to symbolic meaning. Brands which fall within the emotional realm involve increasingly higher levels of involvement in purchase ­decisions, and higher associated levels of risk, due primarily to the social language that the brand will ­portray about the consumer. Other consumer benefits can include o ­ pportunities for 58Brand

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Fig. B7.  A strong educational brand used in travel luggage (Carl Cater).

self-enhancement, self-positioning and for the transformation of experience. In the context of sustainable tourism, branding is most closely aligned with the strategies of ecolabelling and the promotions and communications component of destination marketing. TL

  Brazilian Standard NBR ABNT 15.401 – Sustainable ­Management for Accommodations A Brazilian standard established in 2006, which defines requirements for lodging ­facilities that make it possible to plan and operate activities in accordance with the principles of sustainable tourism. The standard applies to all types and sizes of a­ ccommodation and is applicable to different geographical, cultural and social circumstances. There is particular attention focused on the reality and applicability to small-to-medium-sized enterprises. JM

 BRICs An abbreviation to indicate the four countries: Brazil, Russia, India and China. These countries have been singled out as the economic and population powerhouses of the 21st century, with 40% of the world’s population and 25% of its land area. Their combined economic output is expected to overtake the G7 bloc of industrialised BRICs 59

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Fig. B8.  Russian market for dive tourism, Cambodia (Carl Cater).

countries by 2030. These countries have a growing middle class with a high demand for tourism and leisure opportunities (Fig. B8), posing challenges for sustainable tourism development both within their borders and globally. See also Newly industrializing countries (NICs) CIC

  Brundtland Report A United Nations report published in 1987 by the Brundtland Commission to examine the path of global development and its impacts on the environment, entitled ‘Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future’ (WCED, 1987). Chaired by Gro Harlem Brundtland, the publication of this report provided the blueprint for sustainable development and the foundation for present-day understanding and popularization of the concept. It defined sustainable development as development that ‘seeks to meet the needs and aspirations of the present without compromising the ability to meet those of the future’ (WCED, 1987, p. 34) (see Intergenerational equity). Emerging as a response to the challenge of constructing ‘a global agenda for change’ (WCED, 1987, p. 6), the report reflected public and international governmental recognition of the urgent need to address the key challenges of: reviving growth, changing the quality of growth, meeting essential human needs, ensuring a sustainable level of population, conserving and enhancing the resource base, reorienting technology and managing risk, and merging environment and economics in decision making. See also Growth fetish, Earth Summit, Rio+20 CS 60

Brundtland Report

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  World Commission on Environment and Development (1987) Our Common Future www.un-documents.net/wced-ocf.htm

  Budget airline See: Low-cost aviation

  Business tourism Tourism when the main purpose for the trip corresponds to the business and professional category. It also includes, for example: attending meetings, conferences or congresses, trade fairs and exhibitions; giving lectures, concerts, shows and plays; promoting, purchasing, selling or buying goods or services on behalf of non-resident producers (of the country or place visited); participating in foreign government missions as diplomatic, military or international organization personnel, except when stationed on duty in the country visited; participating in non-governmental organizations missions; participating in scientific or academic research; programming tourism travel, contracting accommodation and transport services, working as guides or other tourism professionals for non-resident agencies (of the country or place visited); participating in professional sports activities; attending formal or informal on-the-job training courses; being part of crews on a private mode of transport, amongst others. Business tourism is divided into domestic and international business tourism according to the origin of visitors and it is also classified into overnight and same-day business tourism depending on whether an overnight stay is required at the visited place. MICE tourism is a special type of business tourism focusing on the Meetings, Incentives, Conventions and Exhibitions markets. Business tourism expenditure is spread over varied products and services, such as accommodation, catering, transport, food and drinks, cultural services, entertainment and shopping. UNWTO recognizes that the consumption of these visitors can be paid for totally or partially by businesses, by government or by non-profit institutions that employ them or on whose behalf they are travelling. In particular, the expenditure on accommodation and transport made by domestic business tourism is considered as part of the intermediate consumption in a country’s national accounts (see Balance of payments, Satellite accounts). Despite its very significant size, the fact that the decision and often costs of travel are often externalized from the individual and individual values, business tourism may create issues for the sustainability of tourism (see Externalities). JZ

Business tourism 61

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C

 Calypso A social tourism scheme launched by the European Commission in 2009. This scheme had a budget of €1 million allocated for the first year of a three-year preparatory action, soon rising to €1.5 million in recognition of its potential to reach disadvantaged groups. The aim of Calypso is to make tourism activities accessible for all strata of the European population, while boosting local economies and employment opportunities and reinforcing European citizenship through touristic exchanges. Calypso aims to address four target groups: people over 65 years of age; young people aged between 18 and 30 years; disabled people; families with economic or social difficulties in accessing tourism services. Furthermore, the Calypso preparatory actions help spread the tourism season more evenly across the year by encouraging travel of these groups in the off-season. SMA

 Camping A form of accommodation using temporary structures. Camping may take place individually, as part of a group or can be a mass activity. Often used by young people, having a tent to stay in may be a very economical form of accommodation or the only means of staying somewhere inaccessible (Fig. C1). Small uncomplicated pop-up tents are now available as shelters from the sun and temporary places of rest for those in fields listening to popular bands at music festival events. Recently there has been a trend towards ‘glamping’ (glamorous camping) in warm carpeted tents, wooden camping pods, Mongolian yurts and Native American tipis. Tents may be bought in all shapes and sizes with varying price tags. Ideally a tent should have sufficient space and adequate ventilation for sleeping and belongings, as well as room to sit up with a ground sheet as flooring material. A general-purpose ridge tent with frame should provide cover from wind and rain and allow sleep. Sleeping overnight in a lightweight shelter having carried all your equipment on your back is the ultimate freedom for those seeking time in the natural world. Choosing an unrestricted location, unfettered by excessive belongings, makes heading into the remotest parts of the world possible. A skillset of navigational and equipment needs is required along with an understanding of the environment, but this can be a rewarding and much sought after experience (see Trekking, Hiking). The strong emphasis on self-sufficiency in camping in wilderness locations may be contrasted with award-winning organized campsites offering designated locations with all amenities. Campsite owners are working with nature to offer tent pitches with scenic views and 62 

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Fig. C1.  Camping, Arthur’s Pass, New Zealand (Carl Cater).

clean, well-maintained facilities near woodland and water. These sites ensure basic needs are met by providing clean, running water and sanitation facilities. See also Backpacker JF

  Capacity building See Capacity development

  Capacity development The process by which individuals, organizations or society develop, strengthen and sustain their ability to foster sustainable tourism initiatives over time. Capacity development has been a cornerstone output for international development work since the 1990s. While its origins lie in this field, it has since been applied to a growing body of diverse sectors, including tourism, natural resource management and health, among others. Given the role of capacity development (also known as ‘capacity building’) across a broad spectrum of disciplines, there are numerous definitions of the term used frequently as a centerpiece for progress and change. Capacity development is a foundation for change in that it drives and manages sustainable transformations Capacity development63

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across three distinct yet inter-woven levels. The first level focuses on the individual. Examples of capacity development at this level might include acquiring and sharing knowledge and skills, or training and mentoring activities to empower and motivate individuals. The second level of capacity development is at the organizational level, which might include fostering change in policies, systems or organizational culture, or improving leadership and systems of management and revenue. The third and final level at which capacity development takes place is society. This might entail, for instance, improving benefits for and involving communities in initiatives. Given the inter-connectedness of these three levels, investing in capacity development – as an endogenous process of change – must consider the impact of such across these three levels for long-term sustainability. See also Community-based tourism development, Participatory rapid appraisal  KMN and BP

 Capital The resources and assets that an individual or group owns or has access to, that can be used to achieve a desired outcome. Capital is linked to production, in that it refers to things that can be used to produce goods and services of value, and to exchange, in that it can be used to obtain goods and services of value (Goodwin, 2003). In economics, capital is one of the three main factors of production, the other two being land and labour. In this sense, the term capital refers to physical objects such as tools and machines that can be used in the production of goods and services that are then sold for a profit (Samuelson and Nordhaus, 2004; Markandya and Pedroso-Galinato, 2007). Capital has three key features: it is both an input and an output of the production process; it can be accumulated and stored; and it can be exchanged to create wealth (Bourdieu, 1986; Cox, 2006). In everyday use it is often associated with financial capital or assets, such as stocks and land, which can be easily converted to money. A number of things other than land and physical objects can, however, also be used in production and exchange, and so a number of different types of capital have been defined and described. Bourdieu (1986), for example, introduced the concepts of cultural capital and social capital. Other recognized forms include human capital, community capital, political capital and natural capital. The different forms of capital have been linked to sustainability, with Lehtonen (2004, pp. 200–201), for example, defining sustainability ‘as the maintenance or increase of the total stock of different types of capital’, and Costanza et al. (2007) arguing that sustainability can only be achieved by adopting a full-world model of economies that recognizes the importance of all types of capital not just built or manufactured, for individual quality of life and community well-being. Natural capital is particularly important to sustainability. Natural capital refers to the assets and resources available in the earth’s ecological systems that support human life and production (Goodwin, 2003). Unlike other forms of capital, natural capital is difficult to produce and cannot easily be substituted and thus its preservation and restoration is a central element in many definitions of sustainability (Dietz and Neumayer, 2007). It has been argued that one way to improve knowledge of tourism and sustainability is to take a capitals approach to assessing the impacts of tourism (Moscardo, 2009). See also Sustainable livelihoods approach GM 64Capital

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  Carbon footprint A measurement of emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) associated with the production or consumption of a good or service, sometimes also referred to as a carbon audit, or carbon accounting. The term originates from the concept of ecological footprints, developed by Mathias Wackernagel and William Rees, which makes an assessment of sustainability by expressing environmental consumption in terms of equivalent land use. Depending on the scope, carbon footprints can be assessed for individual services or activities, travellers, trips, tourism businesses, cities, destinations or whole countries. Carbon footprints specifically measure the amount of CO2 involved in the consumption of a given good or service to relate the activity to its consequences for land use. Often the calculations also include other long-lived greenhouse gases, such as methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), all of which are comparable on the basis of global warming potentials, and expressed as CO2-equivalent amounts. Of importance in the context of tourism is that various short-lived greenhouse gases also make a considerable contribution to the warming caused by emissions from aviation, but because these are difficult to compare to long-lived greenhouse gases they are often excluded in carbon audits. While carbon footprints are useful to understand the carbon intensity of consumption, and to compare performances based on benchmarks, difficulties arise out of the choice of system boundaries. Carbon footprint calculations usually include all tourism, i.e. both domestic and international leisure and business tourism, and tend to be calculated for three subsectors: transport to and from the destination, accommodation and activities. A more comprehensive calculation would also have to include food and beverages, infrastructure construction and maintenance, and retail services. This would ideally be on a life-cycle basis, to account for the energy use embodied in the production of these goods and services. Due to a lack of suitable data, this often constitutes a considerable challenge. Carbon footprint analyses therefore tend to focus on energy throughput only in the most relevant consumption categories. See also Food miles, Low carbon tourism SG

  Carbon management The strategic reduction of energy use and emissions based on economic considerations. Carbon management is relevant for stakeholders, including airlines, railways, cruises and other transport providers, accommodation and activity providers, destination management organizations, as well as travel agents and tour operators. Systemically, the goal of carbon management is to reduce emissions through strategies seeking to reduce travel distances, in particular between markets and destinations; to make use of low-energy transport modes involving trains and buses, rather than aircraft, cars and ships; to increase average length of stay; and to foster low-carbon spending. Furthermore, carbon management seeks to reduce energy use and to increase energy-efficiency, to source renewable energy and sustainable biofuels. Carbon management has a documented economic potential. For example, there is evidence that accommodation providers can reduce energy use by 10–15% through the training of Carbon management65

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employees alone. Carbon management is largely based on the use of benchmarking indicators, such as energy use or emissions per tourist or per market, often in comparison to revenue or turnover (e.g. the ratio of emissions in kg CO2 to € turnover). SG

  Carbon offsetting A reduction in carbon dioxide emissions to compensate for emissions made elsewhere. This exists on two levels, firstly on the international and governmental level (for example under the EU Emissions Trading Scheme) a market has emerged to allow countries to trade carbon emissions, allowing deficits in carbon allowances to be matched with surpluses in other nations through financial swaps. On a smaller scale, businesses or sometimes governments provide opportunities for families and individuals to offset their personal carbon emissions. For example an individual may be able to mitigate for the carbon emissions during their long-haul flight: this may be an additional purchase by the environmentally conscious individual, or can be included as an additional selling point of the product. See also Carbon footprint, Low-carbon tourism GD

 Career See Travel career ladder

  Caribbean Alliance for Sustainable Tourism (CAST) A not-for-profit organization established in 1997 by the Caribbean Hotel Association focused on responsible tourism development in the Caribbean. The goals of CAST are based on Agenda 21 for the Travel & Tourism Industry. The efforts of the organization include tourism certification, standards development, best practices in environmental management, advocacy and targeted fund-raising. In addition, this organization assists in regional capacity building through education and training related to sustainable tourism as well as promoting industry successes and acting as a linkage or focal point among the stakeholders with sustainable tourism interests in the region. PH

  Carrying capacity The maximum number of people that may visit a destination at the same time, without causing destruction of the physical, economic, sociocultural environment and an unacceptable decrease in the quality of visitors’ satisfaction (European Commission, 2002). This definition has two underlying considerations: (i) the ability of a destination to absorb tourism before negative impacts affect the host community; and (ii) the level beyond which tourist flows will decline because of tourists’ perceptions of a destination, 66

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based on life cycle theory (O’Reilly, 1986). The integration of carrying capacity into the Tourism Area Life Cycle (TALC) theory has made it more widely applicable in tourism planning and destination management in theory and practice with an objective to achieve sustainable tourism growth. Carrying capacity is fundamentally linked to sustainable tourism development and recreational visitor management (Fig. C2). It emerged as a management tool with an objective to minimize impacts created by tourism development or recreational use. Carrying capacity is central to the disciplines of conservation and biological sciences. Early applications of the concept in tourism can be traced back to the 1930s when increased visitation to national parks and forests led to a range of impacts and protected area management was looking for ways to measure and minimize those. Carrying capacity can be expressed in a variety of ways. The most commonly used forms are: physical-ecological carrying capacity, social-demographic carrying capacity and political-economic carrying capacity (European Commission, 2002). These forms or components are not mutually exclusive but need to be considered independently when assessing impacts and development of a tourism destination. Each component depends on the individual and unique characteristics of an area, for example: availability and vulnerability of natural resources; local and cultural heritage; population size, dynamics and structure of local society; existing tourism related infrastructure; and history of tourism development to name only a few (European Commission, 2002).

Fig. C2.  Carrying capacity increased through use of a boardwalk, Pudacuo National Park, NW Yunnan, China (Carl Cater). Carrying capacity67

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Most commonly, carrying capacity is expressed as a single number or threshold. This has led to substantial criticism, for carrying capacity may be dynamic and/or perceptual. Other heavily criticized assumptions and restrictions are that the world is considered stable, predictable and the usage to impact ratio can be expressed via a graph that follows a neo-Malthusian population growth pattern. In other words, the concept does not take into account the complexity and dynamics of natural and built environments with a range of cause and effect relationships that take place. Social and political development and interference also have a significant impact on destination development over time. Different stakeholders (tourist as well as the host community) perceive impacts differently. As a response to the criticism the concept of carrying capacity has been succeeded by a number of alternative management tools which are essentially dynamic decision-making frameworks (including Limits of Acceptable Change and Recreation Opportunity Spectrum). Carrying capacity, however, continues to be applied in various areas of tourism research and practice including tourism planning and development and destination management. CO

  Cartagena Convention A convention that aims at protecting and developing the marine environments of the Caribbean adopted on 24 March 1983. The Cartagena Convention consists of an umbrella agreement to develop legal cooperation between regional and national actors regarding the marine environment. Three protocols supplemented the convention: (i) the Oil Spill Protocol; (ii) the Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife Protocol; and (iii) the Land Based Sources Protocol. AZK   The Caribbean Environment Programme www.cep.unep.org/cartagena-convention

  Centre International de Recherches et d’Etudes Touristiques (CIRET) An international centre for tourism and leisure research that acts as a portal and database of publications and researchers. The database contains over 1600 keywords related to tourism, as well as authors, publishers and a geographical index. CIC  CIRET www.ciret-tourism.com/

  Certificate for Sustainable Tourism (CST), Costa Rica A certification programme of the Costa Rican Tourism Board. CST is regulated by the Costa Rican National Accreditation Commission that was designed in 1997 to distinguish businesses of the tourism sector based on the degree to which they conform with 68

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a sustainable model. This model considers the interaction with natural and cultural resources, the improvement of quality of life within local communities, and the economic contribution to other programmes of national development. The scheme uses a scale of five ‘levels’ of sustainable tourism achievement for tourism-based companies and hotels. The classification depends on the percentage of positive actions that the company is developing in terms of sustainability. For tourism companies, the four criteria evaluated include: physical-biological parameters, infrastructure and services, external clients, and the socio-economic environment. For hotels, evaluation focuses on physical-biological parameters, hotel facilities, customers and the socio-economic environment. VNS

 Certification A procedure used to verify whether a particular facility, product, process or service meets specified criteria (see Honey, 2002). Black and Crabtree (2007, p. 20), meanwhile, define it as ‘a voluntary procedure that sets, assesses, monitors and gives written assurance that business, product, process, service or management system conforms to a specific requirement’. The process generally comprises auditing of the applicant based on set criteria, for example health and safety requirements or sustainability. Candidates meeting the criteria, or passing a sufficient number of them, are then considered to be certified, usually for a set period of time such as a year. An appropriate logo (sometimes described as a seal or quality mark) may be awarded, enabling the successful applicant to communicate their certified status to their various stakeholders. For example, the logo can be placed on the packaging of a leisure product, on the home page of a travel agent’s web site, or on the cover of a tour operator’s holiday brochure. When the certification procedure is concerned with assessing a combination of the organization’s environmental impacts, sociocultural impacts and/or economic impacts, in other words its sustainability credentials, the logo is often known as an ecolabel. The ecolabelling of tourism products has become increasingly accepted and its popularity is growing. As such, the practice of certification is strongly associated with categories of tourism such as green tourism, sustainable tourism, ecotourism and responsible tourism. In order to enhance its credibility among stakeholders, the certification process associated with an ecolabel is often carried out by third-party organizations. While the terms certification and accreditation are often used synonymously, writers sometimes find it helpful to distinguish between them, arguing that ‘accreditation’ should refer to the procedure by which a person is verified as competent to carry out the certification task. Honey and Stewart trace the history of certification in the leisure and tourism industries back to the publication of travel guidebooks by companies such as Michelin, which published its first ‘Red Guide’ in1900. Initially such guidebooks employed visitor feedback to identify particular restaurants, hotels, garages and service stations, linking them together into recommended itineraries. Since 1945, however, Michelin has used on-site inspectors to rate the quality of restaurants and hotels in its guidebooks. Originally just covering France, the geographical coverage of their guidebooks gradually increased to include much of the European continent. Since 1926, the company has also operated a three-star gastronomy rating system for restaurants. Certification69

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Certification of the leisure and tourism industries followed in a similar manner in the United States, with the American Automobile Association playing a central role. Certification schemes are now recognized in most countries of the world. They are also commonplace across all sectors of the leisure and tourism industries, particularly among accommodation establishments, airlines, cruise tourism companies, tour operators and travel agents. Certification schemes can either be process-based or performance-based, although some include an element of both. The former approach seeks to verify that the applicant is maintaining the various quality-management systems that are deemed necessary to meet with the benchmarks, standards or other quality criteria specified by the certification programme. Examples include the International Standards Organization’s ISO 14000 series of environmental quality management standards and the European Union’s Eco-Management and Audit System (known as EMAS). The latter approach is to assess how well the applicant is performing against set targets. Applicants meeting the targets, or perhaps a pre-determined proportion of them, will be awarded certified status within the programme. A prominent example of a performance-based certification scheme is the Blue Flag scheme in Europe. Each beach is inspected against a raft of criteria, with only those beaches that meet the criteria being permitted to fly the flag. A good example of a certification programme that adopts elements of both the process-based and performance-based approaches is the Nordic ecolabel for hotels. The scheme, which was started in 1989 by the Nordic Council of Ministers, applies across Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden. It combines criteria related to the environmental management system operated by the organization with others based on the performance of the product or service concerned. BG Further reading Black, R. and Crabtree, A. (2007) Quality Assurance and Certification in Ecotourism. CAB International, Wallingford, UK. Font, X. and Buckley, R. (eds) (2001) Tourism Ecolabelling: Certification and Promotion of Sustainable Management. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.

  Practical Steps for Marketing Tourism Certification www.responsibletravel.org/resources/documents/reports/Ecotourism_Handbook_III.pdf

  Change management An organizational process involving the transformation of individuals, groups and/or institutions from their current circumstances towards a future desired state. Constant and accelerating change is a symptom of contemporary life that tourism managers must navigate. International tourism has grown relentlessly throughout the period following the Second World War to become a mass phenomenon. It has experienced periods of turbulence, particularly since the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks,

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which were a reminder of the vulnerability of tourism to external shocks. The attacks prompted the adoption of tightened security arrangements, particularly in airports. The capacity of tourism leaders to manage change is also challenged by the pace of technological, social and environmental transformation. Web-related technological advances have, for example, challenged long-held assumptions about tourism product distribution, with the onset of disintermediation. Meanwhile the previously highly regulated airline sector has been transformed by the advent of so-called ‘open skies’ policies and the growth of low cost aviation. The continuing need for effective change management has accelerated with the rapid rise of outbound tourism from newly industrializing countries such as China and India. The transformation of populous and previously underdeveloped countries is challenging previously held assumptions about how markets evolve and the products that that are favoured by tourists from these places of origin. The challenge of managing change also resonates in small communities that experience tourist visitation. An influx of tourists from Western, developed countries can positively or negatively transform the lives of local and indigenous people. Such transformations require the exercise of strong leadership from within communities if negative tourism impacts are to be minimized. Where residents lack an understanding of and empathy for tourists the change management process may involve cross-cultural negotiations. BK

 CITES See Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species

  Citizen science The use of members of the public to collect data for synthesis, analysis and publication. It is increasingly being employed in the life sciences in fields as diverse as ecology, behaviour, taxonomy and palaeontology. Citizen-science activities can take many forms, including: helping to gather data that will be analysed by professional researchers; helping to analyse data that has been gathered by professional researchers; volunteering at a research centre or joining a research expedition, such as those organized by the Earthwatch Institute; building and operating their own instruments to gather data for their own experiments or as part of a larger project; and travelling to areas that are seldom visited by professional researchers. Citizen science may be performed by individuals, teams or networks of volunteers. Citizen scientists often partner with professional scientists to achieve common goals. Large volunteer networks often allow scientists to accomplish tasks that would be too expensive or time-consuming to accomplish through other means. Many citizen-science projects are now taking advantage of mobile phones and other consumer electronic devices with recording capabilities for easy data collection. However, despite clear advantages, citizen science approaches have potential drawbacks related to, amongst other things, the reliability of data (especially when members of the public identify species

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themselves) and the statistical issues that can arise from analysis of presence-only data (i.e. because species absences are not usually recorded except in full scientific surveys). As the field advances, it is necessary to evaluate the role and potential of citizen science and volunteer-based projects for the collection of publishable data. With many different groups taking on citizen-science projects, with varying levels of success, many lessons are being learned locally. However, the difficulty of publishing negative results, or studies that are more informative about the approach than the results, means that such lessons may not be being shared. Research shows that tailoring the scientific project to the ability of the participants is vital, as is validation of data collection. JC

  Climate change Alteration of the long-term average weather experienced on a global scale. Climate change has been an issue for tourism for over a quarter of a century, although research focus in this area has intensified in the last ten years. A recent review of the knowledge domain of ‘tourism and climate change’ by Becken (2013) generated a database of 430 research publications. Most of these focused on climate change impacts on tourism and adaptation (51%). Papers focusing on energy use and greenhouse-gas emissions (i.e. mitigation) made up 33% and publications with a focus on policy and integrative papers each contributed 8%. The majority of impacts and adaptation research focuses on ski tourism, typically in North America and the European Alps (e.g. Elsasser and Messerli, 2001), but increasingly in other parts of the world (Hennessy et al., 2008; Tervo, 2008). Vulnerability assessments and exploration of adaptation measures have become sophisticated (e.g. the use of weather derivatives, Bank and Wiesner, 2011) and biophysical research is now complemented by studies on tourist behaviour (Pickering et al., 2009). Relatively less research addressed coastal tourism, although there has been a recent focus on ‘disappearing destinations’ (e.g. Lemelin et al., 2010) and the vulnerability of island tourism (e.g. Moreno and Becken, 2009). A small number of studies addressed climate change impacts on special-interest tourism, for example golf (e.g. Scott and Jones, 2007), or nature tourism (e.g. Hadwen et al., 2011). Changing climatic parameters and destination attractiveness, as well as the physical comfort of tourists (i.e. ­biometeorology), have also been of great interest to researchers in this field (e.g.  Matzarakis and Amelung, 2008; Endler et al., 2009). Recently, adaptation research has begun to investigate how to involve tourism businesses and other stakeholders in climate change adaptation (Nicholls and Holecek, 2008), especially when one of the key barriers is that stakeholders see no urgency in addressing climate change (Bicknell and McManus, 2006). Across four case studies in Australia, Turton et al. (2010) found that the tourism sector is not yet ready to invest in climate change adaptation because of the perceived uncertainties in the magnitude of climate change and related environmental impacts, and responsibility was seen to rest with the public sector and not with the industry. The contribution of tourism to climate change through fossil fuel consumption and carbon-dioxide emissions became only fully apparent in the last decade with an increasing number of analyses of tourism’s emissions. A global level study estimated tourism’s 72

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contribution to man-made carbon dioxide emissions to be about 5% (UNWTO, UNEP and WMO, 2008). A number of other analyses have provided ‘carbon footprint’ estimates at the country level (e.g. Dwyer et al., 2010; Perch-Nielsen et al., 2010) and for tourist destinations (e.g. Walz et al., 2008), sub-sectors (e.g. Dawson et al., 2010) and events (e.g. Otto and Heath, 2009). In response to tourism’s carbon intensity, researchers have explored a wide range of mitigation responses, for example in relation to aviation emissions (e.g. Sgouridis et al., 2010), other transportation such as cruise ships (e.g. Howitt et al., 2010), and other forms of tourism such as ‘slow tourism’ (e.g. Dickinson and Lumsdon, 2010). A number of studies have focused on the accommodation sector (e.g. Priyadarsini et al., 2009), including operators’ perceptions of energy use (e.g. Bohdanowicz, 2006) and potential for the greater use of renewable energy sources in tourism (e.g. Dalton et al., 2008). Tourist attractions and recreational activities have received limited attention in relation to their climate change impacts (e.g. Aall, 2011; Becken and Simmons, 2002). Tourists’ awareness of climate change and their willingness to contribute to mitigation have been at the heart of mitigation research (e.g. Lassen, 2010). Results indicate that the environmentally aware and educated tourists are amongst the most frequent travellers (McKercher et al., 2010). Moreover, it appears that when on holiday people’s propensity to engage in climate mitigation is reduced compared with every-day life (Barr et al., 2010). Higham and Cohen (2011), however, discussed the possibility of a ‘social tipping point’ that might result in a decreasing popularity of long-haul travel due to its climate impact. The role of carbon offsetting as a means to reduce emissions from tourist travel has received significant attention (e.g. Gössling et al., 2007; Brouwer et al., 2008). Climate change is a real-world issue for those involved in tourism, and it is important that theoretical understanding is translated into policy and practice for implementation of more effective climate change adaptation and mitigation (Becken and Hay, 2012). Clearly, tourism stakeholders are becoming more and more involved in planning for, and responding to, climate change. This is evident in a growing number of applied reports (e.g. commissioned by governments or industry associations), industry events and guidelines for operators. Systematic research on tourism policy related to climate change, however, is still sparse and our understanding of ‘what works and what does not’ is limited. A recent analysis of relevant policy in New Zealand and Fiji highlighted that national climate change strategies are often poorly integrated with the tourism sector and communication among different government departments is limited (Becken and Clapcott, 2011). The lack of an enabling environment is likely to reduce the propensity of businesses to invest in climate change adaptation or mitigation initiatives. See also Carbon footprint, Carbon management, Geological time, Radiative forcing SB

 Climbing The use of one’s hands or feet to ascend steep rock. While rock climbing is an important component of mountaineering it began as a sport in its own right in Europe in the late 19th century in locations including the Lake District (UK) and the Dolomites. Climbing73

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Traditional climbing is still one of the main forms of climbing practised today. It involves the lead climber ascending on a rope while the second person belays them. The leader has to seek out and place protection such as removable nuts into natural features on the rock face and clip the rope into these so that should they fall the second person can exert friction on the rope to break the fall. Climbing takes place in a variety of rural locations including: sea-cliffs, mountain-faces, rock-outcrops and disused quarries. Climbs can consist of single or multi-pitches. The appeal is exploration, risk and self reliance. Traditional routes led by pioneering climbers are logged in guide-books and assigned a grade making them accessible to a wide range of climbers. Sport climbing relies on permanent anchors and bolts fixed into the rock for protection which removes some of the risk and puts the focus of climbing on gymnastic ability. Sport climbing emerged in France in the 1980s/1990s as much of the rock is not suitable for traditional climbing. However there is an on-going dilemma on the over-use of bolts in some areas of the world and how this compromises the exploration and risk element upon which climbing was traditionally founded. Bouldering also became popular in the 1980s/1990s. Bouldering is climbing on small rock outcrops without a rope often over a crash pad (Fig. C3). It focuses on strength, dynamics and problem-solving moves. The 1990s/2000s saw a growth in the development of artificial climbing and bouldering walls moving climbing into urban

Fig. C3.  Bouldering, Nant y Moch, Wales (Tiffany Low).

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areas and making it accessible to a wider population. Many walls have programmes for beginners, women and children and also host climbing competitions. Participation in climbing has grown rapidly over the past couple of decades partly due to the growing ways in which people can participate and the growth of adventure tourism. Climbing can bring health and social benefits for participants and economic benefits to hosting communities through the provision of tuition and guiding, equipment retail and hospitality. Climbing has provided an out-of-season market in many Mediterranean areas, for example Kalymnos in Greece, and put other places on the map as climbing destinations. While climbing can be an activity with a small environmental footprint, the large number of people that descend on popular crags can have negative impacts on the natural environment and the climbing experience. Such impacts include: erosion (ground and rock), vegetation trampling, overcrowding, littering, human-waste and the disturbance of wildlife. Such problems need to be managed. In the UK, the British Mountaineering Council (BMC) works with stakeholders such as landowners and conservationists to address climbing related issues. For example the BMC works with the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) to impose climbing bans during nesting periods on rock faces where rare birds breed. AT

Case study: Impacts of rock climbing in protected areas In concert with increased popularity of outdoor activity in general, rock climbing and related pursuits have seen global growth in the number of participants. The latest results to emerge from the National Survey on Recreation and the Environment in the United States suggests that 9.8 million Americans climbed at least once in 2005–2009 (Cordell, 2012), accounting for a total of 44.7 million recreation activity days, many of which would be spent in that nation’s parks and protected areas. This increase in participation has resulted in rope-based activities being more formally controlled through management plans in protected areas. Increasingly popular activities rely on permanent fixtures in the rock to aid enjoyment and access that makes the sport more attractive to a wider range of people. Bolting has become the norm in the climbing community whereas it was not so common 25 years ago. This is quite possibly the greatest factor contributing to the increase in the overall impacts of rope-based activities, creating a great deal of controversy and debate within and surrounding the sport. Clearly there are impacts that climbing may have on rock faces themselves. Although more resilient rock types are favoured, for obvious reasons, the potential for high levels of use to destroy the aesthetic or physical structure of the cliff face cannot be ignored. Although frowned upon, the practice of ‘chipping’ the rock for better holds is one that may occur. In addition, the placing of permanent bolts can be damaging to the long term stability of the rock, and may also be a visual eyesore. In the Joshua Tree National Park in the United States, the Park Service is encouraging the use of rock coloured bolts to ameliorate this latter effect. Existing research into human activity on rock faces suggests a significant impact on vegetation cover. Plants will tend to grow in areas where conditions are more favourable, Continued

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Case study.  Continued. for example in the myriad of crevices that might cover a cliff. The so-called ‘edge effect’ (Reckess, 2000) means that biological diversity is often the highest at the boundary of two or more different geological regions. Unfortunately these lines of weakness are those that are also exploited by climbers as handholds and suitable places for technical equipment. When first establishing a route, climbers will often remove plants from these regions, and often the miniature relic ecosystems that go along with them. These practices have an undeniable impact on the plant cover in these areas. A number of studies have investigated the extent to which climbing can damage vegetation cover on cliff faces (Kelly and Larson, 1997; Camp and Knight, 1998; McMillan and Larson, 2002; Muller, Rusterholz and Baur, 2004). Plant species richness, numbers of individual plants and overall plant cover all decreased with increased climbing use. There is also the possibility that climbers may introduce alien species to the cliff face, by transporting seeds from previously climbed routes. Quite apart from the removal of habitat, animals such as snails may also be subject to disturbance from climbing activity (McMillan et al., 2003). As an important part of the food chain, it may be assumed that the impacts on gastropod communities may go far wider into the ecosystem. Cliff-based megafauna may also be threatened by the presence of rock climbing in their habitat. Studies of populations of the Spanish Ibex, which are still classified as vulnerable in the Pyrenees, indicate that human mountain leisure activities, such as climbing, may often exclude ibex from regular and favourable feeding habitats (Perez et al., 2002). Similar impacts are suggested for the bearded vulture in this habitat (Margalida et al., 2003), as well as influences on breeding success. Indeed, the use of cliff faces as nesting sites for a wide range of bird species makes them particularly susceptible to human activity. Studies on the peregrine falcon in North America indicate that reaction to human disturbance is highly variable amongst individuals, but is acute during breeding periods (Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, 1987). It is suggested that these raptors seem to be more sensitive to disturbances occurring above or at the same level as cliffside eyries, than to disturbances occurring below eyries. Impacts from climbing are not solely confined to the environmental sphere. Wilderness locations may have supported human populations in the past and often contain a variety of valuable heritage that needs to be protected from detrimental activity. A dispute between American Indians and rock climbers over the appropriate use of Devils Tower National Monument in northeast Wyoming was resolved through the imposition of a voluntary ban by the United States Department of the Interior’s (USDI) National Park Service (NPS) on climbing during the month of June in deference to American Indian cultural and religious practices. Despite this, some climbing groups attempted to challenge this policy in the courts, although all subsequent court rulings upheld the NPS policy (Dustin et al., 2002). Exclusion and zoning is a more appropriate way of managing the impacts of such activity. In this way areas of special interest can be protected, limited use can be granted in acceptable areas, and minimal restrictions may be in place in more resilient sites. It is only with the information from such studies as those discussed above, however, that adaptive management regimes like this may be put into practice. The clearest form of management intervention concerns the use of different forms of technology in rock climbing areas. More specifically this relates to the use of fixed bolts discussed above, as hand drills are banned in most protected areas. In June 1998 the United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service (USFS) banned the use of fixed anchors, which includes bolts, in congressionally designated wilderness areas, but this was only in Continued

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Case study.  Continued. ­ peration for two months due to public response. Some work carried out in the United o Kingdom suggests that reducing access for climbers may have an impact on the popularity of sites. Realizing that simple entry fees to parks were not a useful barrier, Hanley, Alvarez-Farizo and Shaw (2002) tested the implications of introducing car parking fees and measures to increase access time at three popular sites in Scotland. However, it was identified that knock-on effects would be felt at other, substitute sites.  CIC and RH

 Co-creation The process of both organizations and consumers generating value through experiences that are personalized and unique to individual consumers. As such, the construct challenges traditional notions of market, value creation and consumption experience. Pine and Gilmore’s (1999) The Experience Economy highlighted the importance of personalized and memorable experiences as a source of meaning to consumers and of competitive advantage to businesses. In tourism, the experience itself is the object of value, thus co-creation relates to the active participation of the tourist in the incorporation of personal feelings, thoughts and creative ideas in the experience. Demonstrated in the influential ‘Co-Opting Customer Competence’ (Prahalad and Ramaswamy, 2000) the co-creation of value has become an important consideration for the tourism industry, exemplified in the manner with which today’s consumer, termed ‘prosumers’ (Tofler, 1980), expect to contribute and define their interactions and experiences for service delivery. In a narrower context it has been explained that the changing nature of the consumer–company interaction as the locus of co-creation (and co-extraction) of value redefines the meaning of value and the process of value creation (Prahalad and Ramaswamy, 2004). Essentially, co-creation alters the reality of value creation, the market and the consumption experience. For tourism this means the emergent service dominant logic outlined in ‘Evolving to a New Dominant Logic for Marketing’ (Vargo and Lusch, 2008) must address the needs of the consumer. This is achieved through the construction of new network models that involve the end consumer and that are focused on addressing the extrinsic and intrinsic parameters that facilitate the ‘outer interactions and inner reflections’ of the creative experience (Tan et al., 2013). Thus, a consumer-directed paradigm shift in power occurs with their needs, and the design of solutions to meet those needs, being foremost and collaboratively produced. In effect this is discernable as transformative co-production with an attendant fundamental shift in power and responsibility away from the business. By contrast, the traditional paradigm was that tourism companies and their supply chain/value chain both defined, and were limited by, their value chain structure in producing the experience a customer would receive. The emergence of service dominant logic (S-D logic) has shifted the emphasis of value creation to the entire network of stake-holders (Cabiddu et al., 2013) This has implications throughout the lifecycle for the way in which the product/service is consumed and evaluated.

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Within members of a value network, there can sometimes be confusion over what co-creation is; often it is confused with similar, but contextually different consumer centricity theories that include Mass-, and Craft-Customization, Customer Centricity, Customer Focus initiatives and One-to-One Marketing. The predominant difference between co-creation and the aforementioned is the central, strategic and interactive role the consumer takes in defining, participating in and evaluating the value of the co-created experience. The growing adoption of co-creation in the tourist industry brings important benefits to firms. Whilst communicating with, and developing value for end consumers, the following benefits may be experienced (Dervojeda et al., 2014): ● Tangible benefits: increased speed to market; reduced costs of product and/or service definition; improved product or service quality; greater customer satisfaction; and reductions in failed innovation. ● Intangible benefits: improved attitudinal loyalty; an increase in the perceived value of, and enhanced future participation in, co-creation; improved positive word of mouth (WOM) and other forms of customer to customer communication. Hyde (2008) notes that the emergence of the social web, facilitated by information and communications technology (ICT) ‘introduced unprecedented direct-to-­ consumer processes and created new distribution channels’ – in effect dis-intermediating the established value chain and creating very different value webs. At a structural level ICT has historically been important for innovation within the tourism industry. Initially used for technology-enriched dis-intermediation, ICT has ameliorated many of the bottlenecks associated with the consumption of the tourism product and led to more effective delivery of value. This is exemplified by the introduction by United Airlines of e-ticketing in 1994 (IATA, 2013), and its universal adoption by 2008. Consumers are happy to participate in the process of co-creating ticket distribution because of its convenience and the industry saves significant costs through this shared responsibility. It is also noted that the emergence of co-creation has brought fundamental implications for the way travel is planned (Buhalis and Law, 2008) and has, and will, continue to influence the way that (tourism) value is created and consumed (Prahalad and Ramaswamy, 2004). With the emergence and universal adoption of smartphones, tablets and mobile internet, the tourism experience and its attendant value is further shaped by technology. One example of this mobile technology enhanced capability allows consumers to heighten and extend their experience and to move to ‘roam and receive’ modes of consumption from the established fixed internet ‘sit and search’ (Pihlström, 2008). Travel experiences may now be co-created dynamically, and arbitrated by an ever-growing technology infrastructure. The emergence and extension of mainstream mobile Web 2.0 applications and their consumption over mobile data networks reinforces the importance of the mobile dimension to producers seeking to generate value from co-created experiences. For example, the Visit Korea App for android smartphones is now in its third iteration and while it contains immature content, the facilitating framework exists by which visitors to Korea may co-create and co-experience. By contrast TripAdvisor, a global example of ICT arbitrated tourism has been downloaded onto approximately 100 million smartphones; and is frequently used by a large proportion of that app base. 78Co-creation

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In tourism, some of the exemplars of co-creation have already suffered the fate of technological obsolescence, with overarching Web 2.0 (social media) technologies replacing existing ‘niche’ value networks designed by producers in conjunction with consumers. An example of this is the Community of Sweden, proposed by Neuhofer et al. (2012) as ‘an online exemplar of co-creation between members of a value web that allows the consumer to interact and share experiences with other consumers about their destination’. By 2013, the Community of Sweden ceased to function as a live community and the domain has been parked as a list of Facebook, Twitter, Flickr and Pinterest links; a direct result of the value required by consumers being better met by the aforementioned universal, established and global social media providers. This structural way that ICT impacts the co-creation of value for tourism has been recently elaborated in an important paper by Neuhofer et al. (2012). Identifying three stages where ICT impacts value co-creation, and exploring how it mediates communication between the consumer and the service delivery firms as: ● pre-travel: virtual experience co-creation; ● on-site destination: physical and virtual experience co-creation; and ● post travel: virtual experience co-creation For the value webs of tourism organizations it can be difficult, expensive or even impossible to co-create without the appropriate supporting culture and infrastructure. The tangible and intangible benefits of co-created value outlined by Dervojeda et al. (2014) require an appropriate innovation/creation infrastructure and the presence of customer centric understanding and competence. Spencer et al. (2014), identifies a waterfall model to provide organizational support to aid in the development of this co-created value; its form follows a classical structure: ● ● ● ● ● ●

identification of the initial team of stakeholders; define, and share the assets needed (skills, abilities, influences, connections); co-create the vision (what is the goal? what is the outcome?); co-design the solution (through creative innovation); co-deliver (with attendant support systems); and co-evaluate (is it meeting the objectives?)

It is noted that sufficiently robust soft skills and competences are required throughout the six stages to ensure the effectiveness of the output. Thus, skilled facilitators are necessary along with processes that support the solid development of trust and commitment to the practice, and the strategic overarching orientation of, the value network. Ultimately, the onward trajectory of co-creation will be determined by the tourism industry’s embrace of the intrinsic economic value it provides principally as a differentiator of member services, which must be offset against the transformational organization restructuring/reskilling necessary to sustainably deliver. For any tourism organisation it means that their market will be transformed from the classical segmenting, targeting and positioning (STP) strategy where goods are produced against an anticipated demand curve into the concept of a ‘market as a forum’ suggested by Prahalad and Ramaswamy (2004) where while goods and services are still consumed, they are supplanted with the additional overhead of contextual demand. IHH Co-creation79

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 Co-management A process-oriented and decentralized approach to governance involving the collaboration of multiple partners who share the rights and responsibilities associated with management. The concept emerged in the early 1990s to reflect interests in participatory and democratic approaches to managing natural resources (Plummer and Fitzgibbon, 2004). The term is often used synonymously with collaborative management and joint management: terms that Borrini-Feyerabend et al. (2006) distinguish as co-management subtypes with lesser or greater degrees of power sharing. Indeed, as Notzke (1995) explains, co-management is best understood as a continuum of institutional arrangements and decision-making practices. This does not suggest an absence of core characteristics in the co-management process. Indeed, these include: clearly identified interests that are shared and respected by all partners; complex, inclusive and adaptive institutional structures and rules of partnership; social engagement, encounter and learning; acknowledgment of the diverse capacities and complementary roles played by different actors; and consensus building for joint decision-making and power sharing (Plummer and Fitzgibbon, 2004; Kothari, 2006). While co-management has been applied in various contexts, it is an increasingly common approach used in protected area governance (Kothari, 2006). Actors from national, sub-national and local government agencies engage with indigenous and local community representatives, user groups and private landowners or entrepreneurs to negotiate and establish protected area plans, assume conservation responsibilities, share costs and benefits, and engage in relevant institutional structures. Co-managed protected areas are established in many ways. In some areas, co-­ management arrangements were the result of protests and conflicts with concerned stakeholders. In other contexts, such as Canada’s north, co-managed protected areas are enacted in legislation or comprehensive land claims settlements and are brokered through boards consisting of federal, aboriginal, territorial and often other local interests (Slocombe and Dearden, 2009). Whichever the case, the process of co-management must entail ongoing review and improvement such that the principal outcome is a partnership capable of responding to changing circumstances, priorities, and needs. BGR

  Code of conduct (guidelines) A list of recommended behaviours towards achieving sustainability that can apply to tour operators or tourists. According to Mason (2007) guidelines and tourism codes are often combined together but are not identical. Codes of conduct tend to be sets of rules for behaving in certain circumstances, whereas guidelines are usually based on well-considered precepts, indicating a course of action to be followed with the reasoning behind it. Examples of codes of conduct/guidelines include the Antarctica Treaty Guidelines for Visitors to the Antarctic, Ceredigion Marine Heritage Coast Code of Conduct and the WWF Code of Conduct for Arctic Tourists. Codes of conduct (also known as codes of practice) differ from codes of ethics as the latter are informal in nature. Once a code of ethics has been endorsed by an 80Co-management

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organization or industry operators it is normally described as a code of conduct. A system of monitoring and reporting is usually introduced at this stage to make the code more meaningful. The growth of environmental concern in the 1980s was reflected in the tourism industry with an associated new environmental ethics focusing on environmental impacts caused by tourism. This concern led to the development of a range of quality control tools and mechanisms to address the negative effects of tourism such as ecolabels, environmental management systems, codes of conduct, certification and accreditation and professional certification of individuals. Over the last 10 years there has been a proliferation of codes of conduct within the sustainable tourism and ecotourism industries. Tourism codes of conduct have been developed by governments, non-governmental organizations, local, regional and national tourism industry groups, tour guide associations, tour operators, local communities or a combination of some of these stakeholders. The codes can be aimed at visitors or tourists, hotels, tourism operators and tour guides. The majority of codes of conduct are developed by governments. They have a number of options to address tourism impacts along a spectrum ranging from imposing command and control regulations at one end to supporting and encouraging operators and tourists to adopt more responsible forms of behaviour at the other. Codes of conduct fall midway between the two extremes as they are essentially semi-formal, voluntary measures. In contrast to command and control measures such as government regulations and legislation, codes of conduct are primarily enforced by ethical obligation and peer pressure. Sometimes they are used to fill the regulatory void while more formal regulations are being developed and introduced. The advantage of codes of conduct is that they can be developed and introduced relatively quickly and easily and fill the regulatory gap. If codes of conduct are introduced before formal regulations they can be used to inform the development of the final regulations or the codes can be used to support the final regulations to achieve minimum standards. A good example of a voluntary code of conduct supplementing formal regulations is the Whale Watch Operators North West. This code has been adopted by several dozen tour operators in Canada and the USA that share the same population of orca (see case study). Most codes of conduct are voluntary and difficult to monitor (Font and Buckley, 2001; Issaverdis, 2001). They are considered a rudimentary quality control mechanism and often criticized for being vague, voluntary and based on a system of self-regulation, but are also supported for providing moral advice for adherents and for providing broad directives for recipients in an unthreatening manner (Weaver, 2001a). However, there are some successful examples such as the Guidance of Visitors to the Antarctic Code of Conduct, which targets the tour operators. To date, most of the codes of conduct have been targeted at the operator or visitor, rather than the guide (Black and Weiler, 2005) (although see efforts by SKOANZ). Examples of general tour guide codes of conduct indicate they generally refer to conduct relating to safety, personal presentation, interpretation, punctuality, knowledge and other ethical issues. Some examples of ecotour/nature guide codes of conduct are Australian EcoGuide Program and Savannah Guides Ltd. However, these tour guide codes generally only raise the awareness of the recipients, as opposed to guaranteeing high standards of service. Codes of conduct have their limitations, for example in the case of whale-watching codes they are good at regulating commercial whale-watching but have more Code of conduct (guidelines)81

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limited effect on non-commercial activities (Garrod and Fennell, 2004). Voluntary codes have some advantages, such as flexibility of response, efficiency of implementation and ability to garner peer pressure to improve compliance; however there are also some disadvantages. These include less certainty regarding the effectiveness of the rules and problems establishing a critical mass of operators who will follow the code and exert meaningful peer pressure on other operators. For compliance to occur, the target audience of the code needs to understand and believe they are worthwhile. It has been suggested that for codes to be effective the target audience of the code needs to have a sense of ownership and be involved in planning and developing the code. All relevant stakeholders should be involved from the inception of the code’s development. An example of a code where there was insufficient ownership among stakeholders was the Dolphin Space Program code of conduct developed by Scottish Natural Heritage (a government agency) in the mid1990s. Although initially adopted by local whale-watching tour operators it was considered by them to be too science and conservation-biased, rather than reflecting the interests of the whale-watching industry. The scheme collapsed three years after its introduction. In an analysis of 58 whale-watching codes of conduct, Garrod and Fennell (2004) found there was considerable variability among the codes around the world. There was a strong geographical bias towards the Americas and Europe with codes in the Americas tending to be non-voluntary and those in Europe being voluntary, variability of provisions and a lack of consistency of rules. See also Green guides RBL   Guidelines for Visitors to the Antarctic www.iaato.org/visitor-guidelines   Rainforest Alliance Code of Conduct for Tour Operators www.rainforest-alliance.org/tourism/training/codes   Code of Conduct for Arctic Tour Operators www.panda.org/downloads/arctic/codeofconductfortouroperatorsinthearctic(eng).pdf

Case study: Pacific Rim National Park Reserve, Canada: Voluntary Guidelines for Marine Tourism Operators The Pacific Rim National Park Reserve is on the west coast of Vancouver Island, British Columbia, comprising beaches, an island archipelago, old growth coastal temperate rainforest, and significant archaeological sites. While the Reserve extends offshore to include a marine component of approximately 155 sq. km, management had little control over marine tourism operators in the area although it is part of the park reserve. Staff could only provide ecotourism and other commercial operators with recommendations and guidelines. Their aim was to develop guidelines for the commercial tourism industry to assist in managing the natural resources of the area, particularly its wildlife. There were a number of management challenges including operators wanting more access, greater numbers or uses considered inappropriate for the park by agency staff, some operators were unwilling to adapt to change, or accept that the creation of park, insufficient park management resources and visitor pressures increasing as the off-­ season gained in popularity. Continued 82

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Case study.  Continued. A collaborative approach to developing cooperation was adopted to influence the activities of tourism stakeholders, and solve or prevent potential problems. Staff worked with marine operators to develop a package of voluntary guidelines. They were particularly concerned because the area is recognized as being vulnerable, unique and ecologically sensitive. The aim of the proposed guidelines is to provide strong protection to essential habitats, and to minimize disturbance to whales foraging in high and low tide conditions. Guidelines were developed for a range of marine wildlife including seabirds, seals, orca and other whales. The Pacific Rim Guidelines cover wildlife viewing in general as well as detailed aspects in relation to marine wildlife viewing such as: Getting into Position; Viewing; Leaving the Area; Distance Viewing; and Waiting. The voluntary initiative resulted in a set of documents related to key sensitive species in the region, and to a sensitive habitat. Not all the problems have been solved, for example the location of group camping areas and the identification of outfitting services to maintain the wilderness character and visitor experience. However, the collaboration has generated cooperation between agency and operators, and between operators themselves, developed a willingness among visitors to adhere to the viewing guidelines and codes of conduct on a voluntary basis and initiated regular communication between operators and park staff.  Adapted from Eagles et al. (2002). RBL

  Code of ethics A set of guidelines on expected behaviour. For example, a code of ethics might be used to advise tourists on how they should behave in order to avoid damaging the natural environment or to guide tourism operators about how to conduct a nature tour in order to minimize their impact on the various wildlife species concerned and their habitats. Codes of ethics are fundamentally voluntary, being neither enforced by formal regulations nor indeed capable of such. They differ from codes of conduct (also known as ‘codes of practice’) in that they are essentially informal in nature. Once a code of ethics has been adopted by industry operators, it is normally described as a code of conduct. A system of monitoring and reporting is usually introduced at this stage, in order to make the code more meaningful. Tourism codes of ethics usually focus on attempting to reduce the impacts of tourism on the natural environment, although many are also concerned with minimizing cultural and human impacts. Thus, for example, some codes are intended to encourage tourists to respect local customs, religious practices and modes of dress. Others aim to eliminate human exploitation through tourism and protect human rights. Many codes of ethics cover potential tourism impacts across the natural, cultural and human environments, and these are often brought together under the unifying concept of sustainable development or sustainable tourism. Tourism codes of ethics may be developed by governments, non-government organizations, tourism industry operators, local communities or a combination of these stakeholder groups. They may be aimed at any or all of these groups. However, those with a sustainable development focus tend to be developed through a process of stakeholder collaboration and be aimed at the entire range of interested parties. Code of ethics83

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Codes of ethics (or conduct) for tourism typically seek to address the following aims: to serve as a catalyst to encourage dialogue between all tourism stakeholders; to raise awareness among industry, of good practices, by governments, of sound policies and planning, and by tourists, of responsible behaviour; and to encourage greater co-operation among industry sectors, governments, NGOs and host communities, in achieving the above. The first code of ethics to be introduced in the leisure and tourism context is generally held to be the UK’s Country Code, which was introduced in 1951. Since that time, a great number of codes of ethics relating to leisure and tourism have been implemented, many overlapping in terms of their focus and scale of application. Much of the impetus for the introduction of these codes came from their inclusion in Chapter 30 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. The remarkable growth in popularity of environmental codes of ethics more generally also undoubtedly reflects the increasing tendency for government policy to rely on voluntary approaches to regulation. An example of a tourism code of ethics is the Pacific-Asia Tourism Association (PATA) ‘Code for Sustainable Tourism’, which was introduced in association with the Asia Pacific Economic Co-operation (APEC) countries in 2001. The code is aimed at tourism industry organizations. Its main provisions concern: conserving the natural environment, ecosystems and biodiversity; respecting and supporting local traditions, cultures and communities; maintaining environmental management systems; conserving and reducing energy, waste and pollutants; educating and informing others about local environments and cultures; and co-operating with others to sustain environments and cultures. PATA argues that by adhering to the code of ethics, tourism organizations will be demonstrating their commitment to a responsible vision of tourism growth, while respecting the natural environments, social needs and cultural sensitivities. They will also position themselves to deal more effectively with environmental regulations, standards and accreditation schemes. Another prominent example of a tourism code of ethics is the Word Tourism Organization’s ‘Global Code of Ethics for Tourism’. Launched in 2001, this code is global in scope and applies principally to WTO member states and their national tourism organizations. The code of ethics is based on ten principles under which expected standards of ethical behaviour on the part of the various stakeholders in tourism are set out. While the code of ethics is not legally binding on its signatories, Article 10 provides for a voluntary implementation mechanism that recognizes the World Committee on Tourism Ethics (WCTE) as an arbiter to which stakeholders may voluntarily refer if they have concerns regarding the application and interpretation of the code. Several member countries have now adopted the WTO code of ethics into their tourism legislation or regulations and a growing number of cases have been referred to the WCTE. See also: ethics BG Further reading Fennell, D. (2006) Tourism Ethics. Channel View, Clevedon, UK. United National Environment Programme (1995) Environmental Codes of Conduct for Tourism, Technical Report No.29, United Nations Environment Programme, Paris, France.

  Word Tourism Organization’s Global Code of Ethics for Tourism ethics.unwto.org/en/content/global-code-ethics-tourism 84

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 Collaboration A process in which two or more organizations work together to address shared problems (Gray, 1989). Many writers consider collaboration to be conceptually synonymous with cooperation, both terms signifying joint working between organizations with the intention of solving shared problems. Others argue that collaboration takes place at a deeper and more fundamental level than cooperation. Instances of collaboration among airlines are often known as ‘alliances’. A ‘partnership’ usually refers either to collaboration between organizations within a tourism destination or to collaboration between destinations. A ‘consortium’, meanwhile, normally refers to collaboration among organizations in the accommodation sector. Collaboration is commonplace in the leisure and tourism industries, and is particularly important in the context of sustainable tourism, where it is widely recognized that achieving sustainability requires all stakeholder groups to work together (Fyall and Garrod, 2005). Traditionally, collaboration has been most popular among organizations in different industry sectors, for example a destination marketing organization collaborating with local transport companies and some visitor attractions to fund an advertising campaign. Increasingly, however, collaboration in leisure and tourism is taking place among organizations working within the same industry sector. For example, a group of visitor attractions located in the same tourism destination may collaborate through the use of joint-ticketing arrangements. See also Networks BG

 Colonialism An enduring relational process of subjugation and dispossession usually associated with the oppression of indigenous people by a minority of agents exercising power, self-interest and assumed superiority in the name of a European or American empire. Colonialism is commonly understood as an attribute of imperialism, whereby a group’s experience of invasion and territory loss at the hands of a state-centred power is coupled with the devastation of their social, political and economic systems and their surrounding environs. Associated losses of control and ownership of local systems, livelihoods, norms and resources has led to external political control, economic dependence upon colonizers and encounters with overt racism (Chilisa, 2012). The pinnacle of such brutal exploitation was reached in the 20th century when European empires spanned the globe. Complicit in this domination were the mostly positivistic methods used by colonizers to produce and represent knowledge about colonized subjects, a realization that spurred awareness of how research is a social and political practice with real world effects. But colonialism is not only a political or economic relationship legitimized through particular racial, Eurocentric or capitalist ideologies (Gregory, 2004). Rather, in the words of Thomas (1994, p. 2): Colonialism has always, equally importantly and deeply, been a cultural process; its discoveries and trespasses are imagined and energized through signs, metaphors and Colonialism85

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narratives; even what would seem its purest moments of profit and violence have been mediated and enframed by structures of meaning. Colonial cultures are not simply ideologies that mask, mystify or rationalize forms of oppression that are external to them; they are also expressive and constitutive of colonial relationships in themselves.

Accordingly, colonialism is not a relic of the past but is continuously enacted and embedded in contemporary social and material arenas. It is in this vein that contemporary tourism and tourism research might be understood as expressions of neo-colonialism. Palmer’s (1994) account from the Caribbean is exemplary as it demonstrates how the tourism industry’s reliance on certain colonial images perpetuates ideologies that prevent host communities from creating their own self-determined national identity. More recently, tourism researchers have made strides at unravelling the inherently colonial relationships between tourists and destination communities. In Tucker’s (2009) case, for example, attention to the emotional, bodily and reflexive dimensions of touristic encounters revealed positive potentialities for disrupting tourism and the study of tourism as colonizing forces. See also Post-colonialism BGR

  Combined heat and power (CHP) Co-generation of both heat energy and power energy, which is a more efficient form of fuel use. In the production of electricity (either through burning fossil fuels or more renewable sources) waste heat is generated. However, in co-generation this waste heat can be put to use, for example to heat hot-water systems or to provide household heating for district energy systems (as is often seen in Scandinavian countries). As well as providing a cost saving to the household or business participating in the scheme, combined heat and power systems offer a more efficient solution to energy generation, and thus a more environmentally friendly option in the face of growing global environmental crisis. In Iceland, the largest geothermal plant, the Hellisheidi Power Station, as well as utilizing naturally occurring geothermal energy to provide electricity operates a combined heat and power system that provides hot spring water used for heating for the city of Reykjavik. GD

 Commercialization The process of making an object tradable in such a way that it makes money or profits. The object, in a tourism sense, may refer to a destination, heritage site, event or culture, etc. It usually occurs when the site is made more comfortable for tourists by standardizing tourists’ experience. It is often mentioned as a negative impact of tourism because, by inappropriate use and increased number

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of ­visitors, it degrades the environment and threatens the integrity and authenticity of the object. See also Commodification MA

 Commodification The process by which goods, services and experiences are packaged and sold as objects of consumption. The commodification of tourism involves the production of commodities for exchange through the market as opposed to direct use by the producer, so travel is marketed as being to far-distant places and as ‘paradise gained’. Tourism then becomes a freely chosen leisure activity to be consumed. In the tourism context, the concept of ‘otherness’ is often employed to describe the power relationship in which Western developed countries use their economic resources to construct tourist destinations as places for exotic voyeurism of a different and inferior culture. Through the commodification of these places and the use of their indigenous inhabitants as servants in the commercialized process, the tourist endeavour then eventually becomes both a commodified one and ‘cannibalistic’ one (see Authenticity). The tourist culture assumes the form of a powerful hegemony that submerges, ingests and eventually eclipses the other culture of the host nation. What began as a commodified attraction due to its difference and otherness becomes merely more of the same dominant culture with its identities and values. SW

  Common pool resource A general term often used in economics and environmental studies to describe a wide range of natural or man-made resources that have no private ownership. Yet in contrast to public goods, the value of a common pool resource can be reduced through exploitation or overuse. This is because the resource cannot be continually replenished and consequently where more is consumed than is replenished, scarcity and degradation occurs. Overuse of common pool resources can result in a tragedy of the commons scenario. Common pool resources can be connected to tourism offerings as well as being depleted by tourism activities. The sustainability of tourism activities where common resources are depleted is under question, examples of this can be golf in water-scarce regions and carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere from aeroplanes (see Airlines). DH

 Communication The process of interaction between two or more stakeholders by using verbal or nonverbal forms of expression in order to coordinate their behaviour within a specific context. The ultimate purpose of any communication is to cope with conceptual or practical problems.

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The main problem with any act of communication is its condition of ‘fallibility’ because the sender of a message can never know for sure if the receiver understands it exactly in the same way as it is meant. The reason for that problem of uncertainty is based on the fact that any ‘speech communication consists of a chain of events linking the speaker’s brain with the listener’s brain’ (Denes and Pinson, 1973, p. 6). Ultimately it is the brain of a person that is either the ‘sender’ or the ‘receiver’ of any message: a fact determining any condition of communication. The widespread linear model of communication is based on Berlo’s (1960) idea of a sender who creates a message and sends it through a channel directly to the desired receiver through the use of specific symbols. The main problem with this concept is the problem of how the meaning of a sender’s message should get out of the brain and how it should be de-coded in the ‘right’ way. According to the biological brain structure, any message is a phenomenon involving an electrochemical process of cross-linked neurons. The specific neuronal structure of a person’s brain as the result of a personal life experience determines the specific ‘meaning’ in the message (Maturana and Varela, 1987). This means that the receiver’s brain constructs the necessary meaning of a message by referring to itself, there being no direct connection to the sender’s brain. Any signal from ‘outside’ reaching the brain is ‘decoded’ by adapting it to the brain’s structure, a process that can be conceptualized as ‘understanding’ (Foerster, 2003). Signals that do not fit into the brain’s structure are ignored in order to maintain the brain’s consistency. When the irritation of non-compatible signals exceeds a certain level, the brain is forced to modify its structure in order to re-establish a consistent balance (see Emotion). This process can be conceptualized as ‘learning’, as indeed it is increasingly being recognized in the field of educational science (Shell et al., 2009). The practical consequence of this constructivist model of cognition and communication, further developed by Watzlawick et al. (2011), is crucial. When a stakeholder can see the ‘reality’ and ‘understand’ a message only according to his personal experience, then any act of communication must be conceptualized as a process of fallible interaction. As such, it can be evaluated as successful when the involved stakeholders express signals of satisfaction, but there is no guarantee to be sure. In the context of sustainable tourism, the constructivist concept confirms the necessity of participation of all stakeholders as a fundamental principle of sustainability. Only by integrating all stakeholders, e.g. tourists and locals, into a communication process, can a critical situation be avoided or de-escalated (see Conflict management) in order to reach a certain consistent balance (see Tour guide), wherein tourism development can support the good life of all stakeholders instead of undermining it. See also Metaproblem HF

 Community In basic terms community is often defined in geographic terms; as the location of ­village, town or city (Frank and Smith, 2006; Beeton, 2006). Community is a term derived from the Latin communitas, inferring that a group of people can share a sense of shared spirit and structure (Beeton, 2006). Community residents may share their everyday issues, livelihoods, religion, philosophy and history (Murphy and Murphy, 2004). 88Community

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As Antita Roddick (2000, p. 55) suggests, ‘community comes from the word communion, to share a common task together. And it’s in the sharing of that task that people do bigger things than they knew they were capable of. Then there is really something to celebrate’. The dictionary definition of community is ‘a social group of any size whose members reside in a specific locality, share government and have a cultural and historical heritage’ (Delbridge and Bernard, 1988, p. 185). Community combines residents and their surrounding environment to affect reciprocity and interaction on community issues, such as ‘intent, belief, resource, preference, needs and a multitude of other conditions’ within community members (Beeton, 2006, p. 6). More importantly, a sense of community is the most significant element of community itself, which may include ‘empowerment, the existence of mutual interdependence among members; having a sense of belonging, connectedness, spirit, faith and trust, possessing common expectations, shared values and goals’ (Beeton, 2006, p. 11). Communities are always the location and hence the hosts for the practice of tourism, for ‘tourism relies on visiting place and people, it cannot exist outside a community’ (Beeton, 2006, p. 16). Thus the tourism industry uses community as a ­resource, as it sells it as a product and affects resident’s lives in the process (Murphy, 1980). Hence the interest in community-based tourism as a development tool, self-defining ‘based on a sense of shared purpose and common goals’ (Joppe, 1996, p. 475). This should reflect common interests, some responsibility, social cohesion, encouraged participation and government assistance in the process of community building (Murphy and Murphy, 2004). Thus tourism is one of the important tools of community development for indigenous, remote and rural communities (Beeton, 2006). In sustainable tourism, community-based tourism development must provide self-determination to the local organization or association in regard to controlling the operation, marketing and managing of the resources and facilities in the local community (WWF, 2001). It is clear that community is used in many different ways by many different groups, for example, by politicians, social commentators, religious leaders, academics and media reporters (Beeton, 2006). However, it is important that community members are able to establish their own goal and programmes (Timothy, 2007). They may accept assistance and encouragement from government leaders or NGOs, but any external involvement has to be limited to roles alongside relevant local decision makers (Logan and Morseley, 2002). It is widely recognized that interpretations of community in cultural anthropology and  the social sciences are fluid, and have highly political dimensions (Beeton, 2006).  What is needed is a greater autonomic political mechanism, allowing decision-making on sustainable tourism development, particularly in indigenous and minority communities (Swain, 1989; Altman, 1989; Hall, 1996), leading to community empowerment. Thus, community is simultaneously both geographically and politically defined (Beeton, 2006), but also possesses a range of other contextual dimensions related to the local cultural and natural environment. More importantly, community residents have some common issues related to community identity, trust networks, moral judgments and interaction norms that define this sense of community and facilitate group actions to achieve community goals (Zhan, 2004). However, if a community is not especially isolated, this sense of community must also be taken as fluid, and should be seen in relation to multiple other entities. Community members are aware of how Community89

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their notion of community only makes sense when understood in relation to other types of interaction. See also Sustainable livelihood approach CHC   World Wildlife Fund Guidelines for community-based ecotourism development. awsassets.panda.org/downloads/guidelinesen.pdf

  Community agency The construction of local relationships that increase the adaptive capacity of people within a common locality as they relate to achieving capacity-building goals. It involves inter-organizational networks, which may range from formal structured alliances, partnerships and joint ventures, to informal information gathering, referral and support. It is through the reciprocal links, supportive interactions, overlap with other networks, the ability to form new associations, and cooperative decision-making processes that allow networks to enhance and support goal-oriented changes in a community (Goodman et al., 1998). It is through these open channels of communication between the members who link these networks together that community efforts become effective (Longstaff, 2005). SLO

  Community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) An incentive-based conservation philosophy that links conservation of natural resources with rural development (Twyman, 2000; Mbaiwa, 2004; Swatuk, 2005; Blaikie, 2006). The basic assumption of CBNRM is that for a community to manage its natural resource base sustainably, it must receive direct benefits arising from its use. These benefits must exceed the perceived costs of managing the resources. The assumptions have three conceptual foundations: (i) economic value: giving a resource such as wildlife a focused value that can be realized by the community or land owner; (ii) devolution: emphasizing the need to devolve management decisions from government to the community or local land users in order to create positive conditions for sustainable wildlife management; and (iii) collective proprietorship: whereby a group of people are jointly given use rights over resources, which they are then able to manage according to their own roles and strategies (Fig. C4). These assumptions, when community livelihoods are improved through CBNRM, mean that such a community would be obliged to conserve natural resources. JMB

  Community-based tourism A tourism approach that is intended to conserve biodiversity, empower local communities and bring economic development. It is a type of tourism which is presented as a win–win approach, in that it involves and benefits local communities and conserves the biodiversity. This type of tourism is commonly practised in developing countries of 90

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Fig. C4.  Community-based natural resource management, Banteay Srey, Cambodia (Carl Cater).

Africa, Latin America and Asia. In community-based tourism, local communities, who are mostly villagers, host tourists in their villages or communities, manage the tourism operation communally and then share the tourism revenue. In community-based tourism, local communities (often rural, poor and economically marginalized people) form cooperatives or trusts that then invite tourists to visit their communities with the provision of overnight accommodation in ecolodges. In this way, community-based tourism enables tourists to learn of local habitats and wildlife, celebrates and respects traditional cultures, rituals and wisdom. In this regard, community-based tourism affords tourists an opportunity to experience local communities first hand. The local community is often aware of the commercial and social value placed on their natural and cultural heritage through tourism, and this will foster community-based conservation of these resources. Community-based tourism is distinctive in that it provides an alternative form of development that is sustainable, giving the rural and poor communities an additional source of income. JMB Further reading Reimer, J.K., and Walter, P. (2013) How do you know it when you see it? Community-based ecotourism in the Cardamom Mountains of southwestern Cambodia. Tourism Management 34, 122–132. Sebele, L.S. (2009) Community-based tourism ventures, benefits and challenges: Khama Rhino Sanctuary Trust, Central District, Botswana. Tourism Management 31, 136–146.

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Case study: Community-based ecotourism in Cambodia The Cardamom Mountains are the second largest intact rainforest in South-east Asia and one of the last seven remaining elephant corridors and large predator ranges in the region. The Cardamoms’ nearly 2 million hectares of continuous forest cover includes 16 different ecosystems, ranging from dense evergreen rainforests and, lowland swamps, all the way to coastal mangrove ecosystems and beaches on the coast. The Cardamoms and their rivers and estuaries host 14 globally endangered and threatened species, among them Asian Elephants, Indochinese tigers, Malayan sun bears, pileated gibbons, Siamese crocodiles and many of Cambodia’s bird species. During the many years of civil war in Cambodia, this forest was an important livelihood source for local communities. However, with increasing development this exacerbated illegal logging, land encroachment and the illegal wildlife trade. Following the end the Khmer Rouge regime in the 1980s, the forest around Chiphat was subject to heavy logging, hunting of wildlife, extraction of non-timber forest products, charcoal production, and slash and burn swidden agriculture. In 2002, the Wildlife Alliance instigated the Southern Cardamoms conservation development project to try to save this global biodiversity hotspot by promoting its natural, cultural and biodiversity attributes to make the area a world-class sustainable tourism destination. At this time, local villagers and outsiders were encroaching on protected land, destroying the forest through illegal logging and hunting endangered animals for local consumption and for sale on the black market. Rather than excluding people from the land, the project was based on involving communities in developing alternative, sustainable incomes that rely on the non-extractive use and appreciation of natural resources in their area. The project involved sharing the benefits of tourism development with the community as a whole, through community-managed funds and is based on the central themes of interpretation, education, participation and conservation. The 500 families of the village of Chi Phat, a central timber and wildlife trading centre, were chosen as the initial location for a pilot project. Chi Phat is located in the foothills of the Southern Cardamoms on the bank of the Phipot river and is surrounded by waterfalls, caves and cultural artefacts. The area is crisscrossed by numerous trails heading to distant villages, and there are plentiful birdwatching opportunities in the area. Since January 2007 Wildlife Alliance has worked with the Chi Phat community to develop Community Based Tourism (Fig. C5). A committee of 14 elected representatives was established to assess positive and negative impacts (including contact with Western tourists!), set goals and manage the project. Many of those who joined as stakeholders were former loggers and wildlife traders. The community has developed mountain biking, hiking and traditional boating trip options. Local service providers offer eco-guides, homestay accommodation and a communal cooking group for tourists. There are single and multiday trip options available. With the inclusion of Chi Phat in the Lonely Planet guide, adventurous tourists are arriving, bringing much needed support to the community-based ecotourism development, and therefore to the development of alternative incomes. Reimer and Walter (2013) provide an assessment of the effectiveness of communitybased tourism development in Chi Phat using Honey’s (2008) analytical framework for ‘authentic’ ecotourism. They found that it fully met five of seven criteria; involving travel to natural destinations; minimizing environmental and cultural impact; building environmental awareness; providing financial benefits and empowerment for local people; and respecting local culture. Two further goals were attempted but perhaps not fully realized to date, as although the project also provides indirect financial benefits for conservation, there is no direct levy from tourism activity. However, as a result of the project, local people are no longer engaging in as much logging and hunting as before and there is a greater awareness of environmental issues. While the project implicitly supports local Continued 92

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Case study.  Continued.

Fig. C5.  Community-based tourism project in Chi Phat, Cardamom Mountains, Southwestern Cambodia (Carl Cater) (see Reimer and Walter, 2013). human rights and democratization, these authors note that indigenous and other forest dwellers should be ‘brought more actively into the project, taking into account their particular history, land rights, livelihood practices, cultures, and generally marginal socio-­ economic status’ (Reimer and Walter, 2013, p. 131). However, local culture is being documented, valued and taught to others, and there are significant livelihood gains for CBET members and the community as a whole. Nevertheless, a conclusion from the study was that greater attention needed to be paid to the gender burden of community-based tourism development, as it often places greater demands on female community members without an equivalent share of the benefits (Reimer and Walter, 2013, p. 131): In the Chi Phat project, there is a clear gender division of labor in ecotourism, and traditional gender roles are intensified. All of the cooks employed by project are women, and at all homestay and guesthouse locations, it is the women who also clean, do the wash, make the beds and undertake much of the ‘emotional labor’ of hosting guests. Although earning more income through the ecotourism project, women now have a ‘double burden’ of cooking and cleaning, first in the project, and then again at home after work. The majority of other paid work generated by the ecotourism project in Chi Phat is taken up by men: they act as guides, accountants, administrators, patrollers, boat drivers, motorcycle drivers, ox-cart drivers, garbage collectors, construction workers, porters, and furniture-­ makers. At one time, one of the Chi Phat project’s 12 guides was a woman; however, she was relegated to leading day-trips as she was considered ‘too weak’ to conduct longer bike tours or to lead groups through the jungle on overnight excursions. CIC

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  Community benefits agreement A legally enforceable contract signed by a developer and community groups, in which the developer agrees to shape a development project to provide specified community benefits. Similarly, the community group agrees to support the proposed project before government bodies that provide the necessary permits and subsidies. Generally, community benefits include local hiring and training programmes, living wages, provision of health benefits, public transit access, the preservation of open space, environmental remediation and funds for community programmes. OK

  Community capacity The ability of localities to utilize their social, natural and historical resources through the cultivation and use of transferable knowledge, skills, systems and resources that affect community- and individual-level changes and provide economic activities for community members (Fig. C6). It is the process through which a community utilizes social capital and can become adaptive capacities when they are robust, redundant or rapidly accessible. The concept of community capacity can be extended to include: community participation and leadership, skills, resources, social and inter-organizational

Fig. C6.  Community tourism, Chitwan national park, Nepal (Carl Cater). 94

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networks, sense of community, understanding of community history, community power, and community values needed to succeed in economic development. SLO

  Community development The practices of civic bodies, leaders, activists, involved citizens and experts who are engaged in attempting to improve the quality of life for communities by empowering them and providing them with the skills they need to effect change. Christenson et al. (1989, p. 14) define community development (CD) as ‘a group of people in a locality initiating a social action process (i.e. an intervention) to change their economic, social, cultural, or environmental situation’. Accordingly, as an intervention approach, CD is characterized by three main pillars – healing, empowerment and growth – to ensure the direct involvement of ordinary people in the creation of developmental tools that bring about societal transformation and empower them to influence policies aimed at the (re) creation of a well-functioning social fabric (Midgley, 1986; Anckermann et al., 2005). Ostrom (1994) suggests that any CD initiative that establishes direct links between individual well-being, collective action and progress has a better chance of changing the practice of living to more participatory social actions, leading to locally based economic advancement and community welfare. A key message inherent in the approach is that psychosocial healing and community empowerment are necessary for strengthening capacities (see Community capacity) for joint problem-solving and action, revolving around shared initiative and collaboration in a present–future perspective. Thus, CD has the potential to put communities at the helm of development processes, improve their confidence and self-determination, reduce geographic and social isolation and restore a more stable demographic structure (Shortall and Shucksmith, 2001). According to Hawe (1994), the term represents different project types, such as community-based initiatives, community consultation and community participation with varying degrees of public involvement. A number of approaches to achieve CD have been applied focusing on economically and ecologically sound development, capacity building, improving aspects of social capital, in particular influencing the cognitive elements (e.g. community values, attitudes and beliefs towards an issue), fostering political participation and enabling nonviolent direct action. Within the context of planning and research, ­notions such as community-based planning (CBP) and community-based participatory research (CBPR) (see Participatory Rural Appraisal) have been adopted as a means to provide opportunities for institutional learning and adaptation and present the necessary economic incentive and returns for sustained initiatives. The value of resident-oriented practices also stem from the need for economies (like China, traditionally restrictive of community autonomy) to become more market-oriented and to embrace decentralization and political reforms to warrant foreign investment (Xu and Chow, 2006). In the 1930s and 1940s, Gandhi embraced CD as a means to ascertain economic interdependence at grassroots level throughout India. In recent years, Putnam’s (2002) work on social capital that refers to connections among individuals (e.g. social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them) has led to the emergence of CD as a tool to critique ‘top-down’ government programmes. Theoretically, CD embodies two different meanings: denoting an increase in resources and productivity in the developing world, and involving an equitable allocation of assets and power in the more affluent societies in the West (Bregha, 1970; Raco, 2000). Community development95

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In the former context, the emphasis is upon ensuring adequate amount of participation through mediation and advocacy, while in the latter context, the stress is more on individualism, provision of transparent information and achieving behavioural change among policy makers and funding bodies. In both contexts, however, CD projects, embracing the logic of homogenous and democratic equality, are more likely to disadvantage poorer sections of society. This is because the ones who participate are typically those who can afford to invest the time, the effort and the necessary funds to fall back upon if they fail (Esman and Uphoff, 1984; Cohen, 2001). This underlines the complex and contentious nature of the concept that captures both benevolent forms of elite domination and the more pernicious types (Mansuri and Rao, 2004). Okten and Osili (2004) point out that the more ethnically diverse a community is, the lower the levels of participation. Schulenkorf (2012) suggests one key pathway to improve social cohesion and community empowerment in culturally or ethnically divided societies lies in embracing sport-for-development projects that can contribute to intergroup togetherness. For instance, the ‘Games for Peace’ sport programme in post-Tsunami and post-war Sri Lanka is attempting to contribute to lasting CD and reconciliation between disparate Sinhalese, Tamil and Muslim communities (see Asian German Sports Exchange Programme). Thus strategic integration of people from diverse backgrounds in designing CD obtains their increased dedication and participation, which Kenny (1999, p. 64) describes as the ‘engine of community life’. Overall, a successful CD framework is essentially democratic working on the premise that when people are given the opportunity to work out their own problems, they find solutions that have a more lasting effect than when they are not involved in such problem solving. Future research needs to further empirically test and validate CD as a viable methodology to aid community empowerment and growth through both qualitative and quantitative studies so that a sound basis can be prepared for community-focused initiatives. See also Poverty alleviation, Pro-poor tourism, Social capital GSA   Asian German Sports Exchange Programme www.agsep.com

  Community mapping Sketch maps are a useful tool for getting community stakeholders to express their understanding of place, and are often used in tourism planning, for example in the Planning for Real method. The principal method for public participation used in the Rinjani Ecotrek Program, Lombok, Indonesia was a community mapping exercise. This was carried out in 2000/2001 in the two main gateway communities, the purpose being to identify the views of major stakeholders. Different mental maps of the Rinjani region were developed with farmers, village residents, national park representatives and tourism operators, as well as across different gender groups. These maps reflected the beliefs, interests and issues of most concern to these different sectors, and were developed in focus groups and workshops. For example, indigenous female residents were most interested in where their crops and water sources were located (Fig. C7a), whereas parks authority representatives took a much more scientific approach to the landscape (Fig. C7b). These sketches were then combined to create a regional map 96

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Fig. C7a.  Community map for indigenous female residents, Senaru, Lombok, Indonesia (RTMP/Carl Cater).

Fig. C7b.  Community map for parks authority employees, Senaru, Lombok, Indonesia (RTMP/Carl Cater). Community mapping97

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Fig. C7c.  Tourist map created from iterations of community mapping exercises, Senaru, Lombok, Indonesia (RTMP/Carl Cater).

that would act as the focal point for tourist information (Fig. C7c). The evolution of this map, from community to publication, now forms an exhibit in the Visitor Centre at Senaru on Lombok. CIC

  Community of practice (CoP) Groups of people who share a concern, a set of problems or a passion and deepen their knowledge and skills in an area of mutual interest by interacting on an ongoing basis (Wenger et al., 2002). A CoP can be classified along three dimensions: (i) profile: nature of mutual ties that bind members together; (ii) purpose: that is, jointly understood and continually (re)negotiated by its members as they progress from being novices to specialists; and (iii) the shared repertoire: or the communal resources (routines, sensibilities, artefacts, vocabulary and styles) that members have developed over time. Duguid (2008) argues for a distinction between a CoP and networks of practice as the former is characterized more by the tacit nature of learning among individual members and the latter by practice-sharing within large and decentralized organizations. Essentially, a CoP is anchored in collaborative sharing and learning. Informally, bonds induce an environment of well-being and trust among members. Typically, it places greater emphasis on community rather than individual capabilities, and embodies different levels of expertise, multiple sources of learning that overlap, reinforce and sometimes conflict, depending on the relationship among members (Johnson, 2001; Aubry et al., 2011). The idea is to invite different levels of participation and create value, which is significant given that CoPs are now entering the virtual mode, inviting members’ input 98

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through webinars, blogs and Facebook. Indeed, online CoPs, formed around different folk music genres, including Bluegrass, Irish Traditional and Old Time (OT) music, are fostering creative exchanges between different expert communities (Waldron, 2009). The Liverpool Culture Company is a CoP that is a meta-team led by ‘visionaries’ to steer the city’s cultural programme through themed events and street festivals organized at and around the local galleries, theatres, cathedrals, museums and sporting fixtures. Thus, a CoP takes shape through intermittent negotiation of meaning and evolves gradually as individuals interact with each other (either face-to-face or virtually) within the context of a mutually shared commitment to an issue. GSA Further reading Wenger, E. (1998) Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning, and Doing. Cambridge University Press, New York (city).

  Community resilience The ability of a community to adapt to shifting environmental patterns characterized by change, uncertainty, unpredictability and surprise (see Change management). It involves the utilization of adaptive capacities, such as the existence, development and engagement of community resources, in the face of external forces that influence rural development patterns, and cause stress on communities and traditional industries. Rather then returning to a previous steady state, community resilience helps communities to find a new equilibrium that is strengthened from a traumatic experience. While resilience can be viewed as a strategy to facilitate recovery after a traumatic event, it can also be used as a preventative measure and as a way to avoid poor outcomes (Ahmed et al., 2004). SLO

  Community well-being A concept that refers to the conditions existing in a community that contribute to its members believing that they have the possibility of enjoying a good life. Community well-being is also sometimes referred to as quality of life. The idea of a good life emerges from three different philosophical approaches (Diener and Suh, 1997), each with different implications for the way community well-being is described. The first tradition argues that people have good life if they perceive themselves as happy. In this approach, community well-being is defined by aggregating the happiness levels of its individual members. The second tradition argues that people have a good life when they are free to make choices and to pursue their individual preferences and this is facilitated by wealth. This approach gives rise to the use of measures such as income, employment and levels of savings. In this approach, community well-being is again defined by aggregating these financial measures across the individual members. These measures are dominant in political debates and these narratives typically extend the idea of community well-being to include structures and services provided to the communities to support Community well-being99

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the development of financial wealth. The third tradition argues that people have a good life when they are part of a good society that is safe, healthy, orderly, equitable and just. In this tradition, community well-being is defined by the extent and quality of services, facilities, environments and social interactions. There has been an increasing recognition that sustainability is linked to community well-being and that it is important to think of community well-being as encompassing aspects of all three traditions (Costanza et al., 2007). More recently, discussions of community well-being have argued that it is derived from the stocks of different forms of capital, particularly social capital, human capital, natural capital, built capital, political capital and cultural capital (Emery and Flora, 2006). A number of tourism researchers have also argued that an alternative way to assess the sustainability of different forms of tourism is to use a capitals approach to community well-being (Macbeth et al., 2004; Moscardo, 2009; McGehee, et al., 2010). See also Sustainable livelihoods approach GM

  Compact cities A planning concept promoting higher-density urban design. The term was first proposed in 1973 by two American mathematicians, George Dantzig and Thomas L. Saaty, to explain how efficient use of resources makes urban areas more liveable. Compact cities aim to implement sustainable development within the urban area and propose a framework to reduce negative environmental, social and economic impacts of urban sprawl. The main characteristics of compact cities include mixed land uses with high-density, efficient transport systems (less dependency on cars), and infrastructure that encourages walking and cycling. OK

 Conferences See Business tourism, Meetings, incentives, conferences and events (MICE)

  Conflict management A holistic and integrative approach to conflict resolution, used by international organizations as an important strategic tool to support an effective peace-building process and lasting outcomes in order to allow and promote sustainable development. The lack of balanced dynamics between ecosystems, social modes of behaviour, economic interests and the lack of participation, caused by demographic change, competition for natural resources, developmental pressures and structural injustices, can often be the basis of unsustainable patterns. These in turn may lead to non-violent conflicts and disputes, which are fundamental constraints to natural resource management and sustainable regional development at the community level. The holistic systems perspective and decision-making framework of conflict management helps to identify causes and drivers of the conflict in order to find common ground both internally and externally. 100

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The final goal should be to help strengthen the capacity of stakeholders to manage conflict without violence, which is seen as a foundation for sustainable development. As contexts of complex conflicts are manifold, there is no perfect strategy for managing conflict. Adopted strategies must be at least highly practicable according to available resources and capabilities of the conflicting parties and local implementing agencies, determining the availability of viable conflict mitigation options. Finally, issues of safety and security have to be integrated. As an alternative to adversarial forms of stakeholder negotiation, often determined by structural inequalities, consensus building is seen as a key strategy. This seeks to build the capacity of stakeholders to develop a dialogue with each other, transforming former conflictive positions into mutual gains for all parties with the minimum of compromise and trade-off (‘win–win’). This process can be facilitated by an impartial third-party mediator playing an active part in the process as intermediary by advising all involved groups and suggesting possible solutions. Important milestones of conflict management are: (i) conflict analysis, including the identification of involved stakeholders with their underlying fears and needs, leading to the draft of conflict mapping; (ii) prioritization of conflict aspects, leading into a conflict management plan; (iii) measures to build confidence in order to build capacity; (iv) negotiations; and (v) implementation of negotiated results. HF

 Conservation The protection of resources and the environment, both natural and human. The idea of conservation is a somewhat alien practice in neoliberal societies dominated by the marketplace and consumer values. The conservation of land to be used freely by society directly opposes capitalism's ideology of private ownership, production and ­capital accumulation. However, it was this idea of an opposing force (a buffer against the greed and other ills of capitalism) that inspired the conservation movement and the first political act to enshrine in legislation the protection of wild places. To understand the term conservation more fully it is worth contrasting it with a similar, yet distinct term, preservation. Preservation means to protect an area in its ‘primordial state’: that is to keep something as it was before the impact of humankind. Conservation, on the other hand, means to ‘sustain’ and ‘manage’ a natural resource (Fig. C8). As a result of the designation of Yellowstone National Park (the first of its kind in the world) in 1872, outdoor recreation began to grow at an amazing rate, particularly with the advent of the automobile in the early 1900s. The Royal National Park in Australia was established on the southern outskirts of Sydney in 1879, this became the world’s second national park. The emphasis upon the recreational use of national parks dates from the original Yellowstone Act of 1872, in which it is stated that the Park should be dedicated and set apart as a pleasure ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people. Research indicates that outdoor recreation is the start of most individuals’ movement towards conservation values, and is seen by many as the greatest single value derived from national parks and wilderness areas. Outdoor recreation’s various lobby groups have been instrumental in the formation of national park systems and national park policy worldwide. In the early 1900s, groups in the United States began to seize on the concept of preservation as the most appropriate form of conservation (the concept of ‘preservation’ had been used initially as the underlying Conservation101

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Fig. C8.  Panda, Chengdu, China (Carl Cater).

principle for the conservation of public lands: however as park management systems evolved so did the underlying principle of conservation, ‘preservation’ was replaced with other more progressive principles such as ‘multiple use’ and ‘sustained yield’). Parks in the United States were eventually conserved and managed in a variety of ways, for example the national forest system is sustained for ongoing timber production and recreational use. Out of this multiple land use philosophy there grew a desire for the conservation of lands purely to preserve them in their existing pristine state and to have them remain so forever. In the United States, the wilderness movement was led by Bob Marshall and Aldo Leopold, who with a number of other activists supported the preservation of wilderness by founding the Wilderness Society in 1935. Leopold (1949) maintained that it offered the individual freedom and regarded these areas as a series of sanctuaries for the primitive act of wilderness travel. His concept of people–nature relationships involved people not being conquerors, but a part of an ecological system. This ethic reflected the existence of an ecological conscience with a conviction of individual responsibility and broadening rationale from the strictly economic to the ethical and aesthetic. Wilderness has an important place in this land ethic as a form of ecological perfection. Urbanization and capitalist lifestyle have altered the environment so drastically that wilderness can assume significance as a base-datum of morality. John Muir furthered these thoughts, believing natural things were earthly manifestations of God. Transcendentalism (people– God–nature) enables the individual to connect to God through nature. Muir argued that transcendentalism should become the essential philosophy for interpreting the value of wilderness thereby putting it on a spiritual plane (Nash, 1967). One of the most contentious issues in the history of the United States has been the ambivalent attitude towards the land. The United States was a nation that had carved 102Conservation

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out its prosperity from the taming and subduing of the ‘savage’ wilderness. In many ways, the practice of conservation reflects this taming and subduing of the land by managing it to provide society with ongoing resources. On the other hand, many held a romantic view of the land, a reverence towards untouched wilderness and a belief that it should be preserved in its pristine state forever. The ‘utilitarian conservationist’ and ‘preservationist’ views created a great deal of tension and this is no better reflected than in the challenge Leopold’s A Sand County Almanac posed to the Pinchot (Gifford Pinchot is a former Director of the U.S. Forest Service) school of progressive conservation, which proposed the efficient conservation of land for human use (Macnaghten and Urry, 1998). The political pressure applied by the preservationist movement in the United States eventually led to the Wilderness Act of 1964. This Act created a yardstick by recognizing the cultural values of wilderness in law and in doing so allowing for its protection. There are a number of key concepts that define wilderness under this Act: it recognizes that it is an area where the earth and its community of life are untrampled by man, where man himself is a visitor and does not remain; it is an undeveloped area retaining its primeval character and influence without permanent improvements or human habitation; and it is protected and managed so as to preserve its natural condition. As the world economy shifts into a new post-industrial phase, so too will society’s view and value of conservation begin to shift. In a hyper-capitalist society, culture, which was once viewed as the last remaining independent sphere of human activity, will itself be commodified (Rifkin, 2000). How then will this affect the cultural values inherent in the protection of national parks and wilderness: values such as independent thought, freedom, primitivism, inspiration and spiritual uplift? More and more people will come to prize these values, and will subsequently seek experiences (i.e. outdoor recreation) that allow them to express them in undeveloped natural areas. The desire for outdoor recreation in national parks and wilderness will continue to grow as the world becomes increasingly urbanized, polluted and flooded with advertising images. Thus future threats to conservation will centre almost entirely on the issue of ‘access’. SW

  Conservation tourism Tourism which yields a net gain for conservation (Buckley, 2010). This implies: (i) that it is feasible to determine both the conservation gains and the conservation impacts or losses from individual tourism ventures or operations; and (ii) that some form of ­accounting approach is available to weigh one against the other, so as to determine which is of greater significance in ecological terms. The most widespread forms of conservation tourism involve a variety of commercial tours and lodges, contributing to conservation through different mechanisms which depend principally upon land tenure. A closely related term, ‘conservation volunteer tourism’ (Grimm and Needham, 2012), refers to a much more specific type of tourism, wherein volunteers take part in on-ground conservation projects. Examples include removing weeds to restore native plant communities and monitoring wildlife populations. In public and national parks, tourism can contribute to conservation either by providing political capital, which assists in obtaining government funding, or by generating Conservation tourism103

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operating revenue directly, through various fees and charges (see User fees). Since the generation of political capital is itself a hidden and politicized process, its significance has not been quantified. In a number of less-developed countries where government funding for protected area systems is limited, some national parks agencies now rely on tourism to cover more than half of their total operating costs. In developed nations, the proportion is far smaller and often zero, depending on national policies (see Public good). Tourism to national parks, however, also imposes very substantial visitor management costs on the parks agencies. In most parks these outweigh the direct revenues. Both on communally owned lands and on public lands, such as forests and rangelands that are zoned for primary production or multiple uses, the key contribution of tourism to conservation is to generate relatively low-impact income streams, which may persuade landowners or land management agencies to move to more conservation-oriented land-use and management practices. The same mechanism may also operate on private land, but generally with greater flexibility to convert the entire landholding to a private conservation reserve and invest in tourism facilities sufficient to support it. As outlined by Buckley (2010, 2011, 2012), different models of conservation tourism have been adopted, with different frequencies and degrees of success in different countries. This produces regional signatures, associated with differences in environments, cultures, demographics, socio-economics and legal and political factors. For example, the overall economic status of individual nations strongly influences the level of government funding for conservation. Geopolitical factors, such as safety and security, and the level of infrastructure development affect a country’s ability to sustain a viable inbound tourism industry. The bundles of legal rights associated with different forms of land tenure and the ownership or otherwise of native wildlife differ greatly between nations, and even quite subtle differences can exert significant influence on the viability of conservation tourism approaches. Relatively few private tourism enterprises can legitimately claim to make a demonstrable net contribution to the conservation of threatened species, but there are many cases where tourism is an important component in a mix of land users and funding streams that contribute to conservation (Fig. C9). As many plant and animal species come under increasing threat from human population growth, intensification of land use and climate change, it seems likely that conservation tourism will become an increasingly important component in global conservation efforts. Equally, as opportunities to see rare and charismatic plant and animal species in the wild continue to decrease, the commercial opportunities for conservation tourism are likely to increase correspondingly. RB

  Conspicuous consumption An artifice for positioning oneself in competition with others, as well as providing hedonistic enjoyment of products themselves. It is often thought to be motivated by the social meaning and distinctions that consumer products confer. In consumer culture, the holiday can be expressed as a form of conspicuous consumption through the symbolic investment in, for example, where one goes, how expensive it is, the status of the destination or the mode of travel. This can then be used to solidify one’s cultural capital and class position. Furthermore, the trumpeting of this position, i.e. one’s enhanced 104

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Fig. C9.  Panda conservation tourism, Chengdu, China (Carl Cater).

Case study: Mountain gorilla tracking, Rwanda Viewing the mountain gorilla in the Virunga Mountains of Rwanda is a highly exclusive ecotourism activity, given that there are an estimated 800 individuals in the wild. These are located primarily in the Volcanoes National Park, which straddles the Rwanda and DR Congo border, and the Bwindi National Park in Uganda. Ironically, the region was one of the first protected areas in Africa, as the Belgian government designated the area as the Albert National Park in 1925. However, ongoing civil wars in the region, deforestation and poaching have all served to put the species on the IUCN critically endangered list. Since the story of Dian Fossey’s work with the species in the 1970s dramatized in Gorillas in the Mist, this region has become a popular destination. Tourism was involved early in the conservation effort, in combination with a local education and anti poaching project in 1979. Despite permit fees being only US$20, gorilla tourism was raising $10 million by the mid 1980s, making it Rwanda’s third highest earner of foreign revenue (Briggs, 2012). However the genocide and civil war in the early 1990s put a halt to any tourist arrivals, and gorilla tracking did not resume on a permanent basis until July 1999. In 2013, the cost of a gorilla tracking permit (Fig. P3) was US$750, including park entrance, but this does not include any tour elements. Most tourists do so through an organized tour. Tourists are split into groups of approximately eight people based on ability, allocated to each of the eight habituated gorilla family groups, meaning a maximum of 64 permits are available on any given day (there are a further nine non-habituated groups in Rwanda). In peak tourist season, permits are booked up many months ahead. Continued Conspicuous consumption105

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Case study.  Continued. As gorilla family groups are relatively sedentary, moving less than 1 km a day, it is rare that visitors would not be able to see the animals. Visitors are accompanied by guides and rangers and spend approximately one hour observing the gorillas in the wild. Participants are allowed an approach distance of no less than 7 metres, although in practice this sometimes becomes difficult to achieve (Fig. C10). In addition to significant employment in the parks service, gorilla tracking creates a significant number of jobs and opportunities in the local tourism industry. Local villagers queue to become ‘porters’ at each individual trailhead, and their use is encouraged by the parks staff. An annual naming ceremony Kwita Izina is an event attracting tourists, and local attractions such as the Iby’Iwacu Cultural Village also rely on the number of tourists visiting the gorillas. This venture was set up in 2004 as part of a project to provide livelihoods to local communities. The village has a replica of a traditional Rwandan palace and displays of traditional medicine, dancing and agriculture, as well as hunting demonstration with Batwa pygmies. The cultural village is owned by local communities and the fee is split so that 40% goes to community members who perform at the village, while 60% goes to a fund providing support for education, agriculture and other charitable functions. CIC   Iby’Iwacu Cultural Village www.cbtrwanda.org

Fig. C10.  Conservation tourism gorillas in Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda (Erlet Cater).

freedoms through consumer sovereignty and choice to be able to do this for longer or at more cost, constitutes the fundamental basis of conspicuous consumption, which is material comfort over necessity. This leaves aside the rationality based on fulfilling a reasonable standard of living that sustainability might represent and shifts us to the 106

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overwork and spend culture which currently dominates the West, driven by a desire to increase personal consumption. See also Leisure class SW

 Consultation The process of working openly with stakeholders, who are likely to have an interest in and be impacted upon by a process, in order to provide opportunities for their views and preferences to have input into the planning and decision-making process. Consultation is undertaken to ensure that local factors are reflected in the planning process and to avoid generalization and inappropriate development (see appropriate development). Sustainable tourism is best achieved when a community shares a vision for its economic, physical and social character. Four major stakeholder groups are concerned with tourism within any destination: government authorities, which have responsibility for planning the resources and maintenance of basic municipal infrastructure; local businesses, which derive an income from the operation of commercial enterprises; the local community, who share their area with each other and with visitors; and visitors, who make tourism viable and who desire a positive experience. These stakeholder groups have different members with different values, aspirations and needs. The consultation process requires an understanding of the need for cooperation and possible compromise among all stakeholders at all levels and in all sectors. There is an extensive range of methods for involving stakeholder’s including, inter alia: ● surveys of community attitudes to tourism in general, for example their needs, types of tourism development, alternatives for local, design and scale; ● public meetings; ● focus groups and workshops; ● personal contact; ● press releases; ● brochures and fact sheets; ● information booths; ● websites; and ● social media. The consultation methods that are most successful are those that are: tailored to the particular local context; culturally appropriate; considerate of local sensibilities; and undertaken at a pace and on a scale that is appropriate to a community’s resources and skills. Ideally, tourism planners should spend extensive time in a community to understand the local culture. Allowing adequate time for consultation is essential as community groups and individuals operate on different schedules. A long time frame may conflict with the shorter political agenda of governments and the private sector initiating tourism development. However, adherence to strong planning principles can ensure adequate timing is factored into the planning process. See also Planning for real  DE and LD Consultation107

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Further reading Dwyer, L. and Edwards, D. (2010) Sustainable tourism planning. In: Liburd, J. and Edwards, D. (eds) Understanding the Sustainable Development of Tourism. Goodfellow Publishers, Oxford, UK, pp. 19–44. McCool, S.F. and Moisey, R.N. (2008) Introduction: Pathways and pitfalls in the search for sustainable tourism. In: McCool, S.F. and Moisey, R.N. (eds) Tourism, Recreation and Sustainability: Linking Culture and the Environment, 2nd edn. CAB International, Wallingord, UK, pp. 1–16. Moscardo, G. (2008) Building Community Capacity for Tourism Development. CAB International, Wallingford, UK. Scheyvens, R. (2003) Local involvement in managing tourism. In: Singh, S., Timothy, D.J. and Dowling, R.K. (eds) Tourism in Destination Communities. CAB International, Wallingford, UK, pp. 229–252.

  Consumptive (extractive) and non-consumptive tourism A perspective of analysis focused on the use of tourism resources, embracing economic, environmental and sociocultural viewpoints, taking account of respective waste and impacts produced. Despite the mostly intangible nature of tourism products, the assumption that tourism is mainly economically driven, implying abundant resources, and is managed according to luxury and squandering principles, leads to a consumptive activity with significant impacts on the planet. Of all forms of tourism, ecotourism attracts tourists with the highest level of environmental sensitivity to the use of natural resources and is usually a form of non-consumptive tourism (Fennell, 2008a) (although see debates about fishing). From the indispensable use of transport to the food and beverage supply and even the use of more intangible resources such as cultural features, almost all tourist activity is based on resource consumption and, as stated by McKercher (1993), tourists are mainly consumers. Understanding the consumption chains and considering both direct and indirect impacts give us an outline of the intensity of resource use for each component of tourism. Even souvenir production (Fig. C11), involving particular products or materials removed from the natural environment (i.e. artefact collecting, hunting, fishing, minerals and other resources), entails irreversible impacts, for instance on biodiversity. Furthermore this consumption viewpoint matches the sustainability concept since the intensive use of almost all tourist resources is threatening the future of tourism, and reducing the quality of activities and their potential for future developments. Therefore, a current and important challenge for sustainable tourism is to shift from very consumptive forms of tourism into non-consumptive ones consistent with the real values of a tourist experience. Unawareness of the value of natural and cultural resources, the scarcity of environmental competencies in the tourism sector, and an old model of tourism development (see Mass tourism) tend to produce a very consumptive performance in tourism. The ratio between environmental degradation and the associated economic profits reveals new possibilities relating to the consumption of natural resources. To measure the types and impact of consumption there are tools such as ecological or carbon footprint, the life cycle assessment (LCA) and tourism indicators. LCA can support decision-making, such as on the transport facilities, accommodation, and management of hospitality structures (Castellani and Sala, 2012). A switch from consumptive tourist products to non-consumptive ones can be illustrated by some successful examples such as hunting to birdwatching or photographic 108

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Fig. C11.  Consumptive tourism: seashell seller, Dalian, China (Carl Cater).

safaris in Africa (Novelli et al., 2006), sea-turtle-based tourism in Australia (Wilson and Tisdell, 2001) or the use of traditional whale hunting equipment in the Azores that have been converted into whale-watching activities for tourists. This case shows that it is possible for a society to recognize that whales do not have to be killed to provide jobs and income for locals (Ellis, 2009). We can also find several examples illustrative of tourist activities with very low consumptive impact: the contemplation of a mountain landscape; a smelling trail across an aromatic garden; surfing and kayaking, cycling or nature-watching activities, as instances of valuable experiences that improve the sustainability of modern tourism. PEM

  Contingent valuation method (CVM) A method for estimating the use and non-use value of environmental amenities. The basic principle of CVM is that people have preferences in relation to all goods, including those that are not available in any existing market. People are asked the maximum amount of money they are willing to pay (or willing to accept as compensation) for a hypothetical change in the quantity or quality of an environmental feature. It is assumed that this professed willingness to pay would equate to actual willingness if a real market for the good did exist. The method is called ‘contingent’ valuation because Contingent valuation method (CVM)109

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people are asked to state their willingness to pay (or accept), contingent upon a specific hypothetical scenario and description of the environmental amenity. By this means, CVM can be used to put money values on non-market values of various features of natural environments. LD

  Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) An international agreement providing a legal framework for action on biodiversity. It was established by the United Nations and opened for signature on 5 June 1992 at the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) (see Earth Summit) in Rio de Janeiro and entered into force on 29 December 1993 according to international law. The CBD is made up of 42 Articles, which set out a programme to conciliate economic development with the need to preserve all aspects of biological diversity. The three goals of the Convention are to promote the conservation of biodiversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources. It requires countries to develop and implement strategies for sustainable use and protection of biodiversity, and provides a forum for ongoing international dialogue on biodiversity-related issues through the annual Conferences of the Parties. GG

  Convention on the International Trade in Endangered ­Species (CITES) The convention that regulates the international trade in species of animal and plant that are threatened with extinction. Also known as the Washington Treaty, this convention was passed in 1973 and allocates species to one of three appendices. Trade in Appendix 1 species is banned, while trade in Appendices 2 and 3 species is regulated. Only countries that agree to become signatories are bound by the regulations. See also IUCN Red Data Book PW

  Cooperative Research Centre for Sustainable Tourism (CRCST) An organization established by the Australian Government to enhance the interaction between university researchers, industry practitioners and government policy and planning experts. The outcomes were used to underpin decisions made by industry and government for the sustainability of the tourism sector. It was the largest tourism research organization in the world and involved a tripartite partnership between government, industry and universities built upon seed funding provided by the federal government. It was initially funded for seven years from 1997 and its application for a second seven years of funding was approved in 2002. Partners in the STCRC included 16 universities from all states and territories of Australia, 12 state government agencies, 110

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all key tourism industry associations and some private companies such as Qantas. Its charter was to undertake longer-term research essential to underpin the sustainability of Australia’s tourism industry and its research program comprised three key themes, namely, sustainable destinations, sustainable enterprises and sustainable resources. LJ   Cooperative Research Centre for Sustainable Tourism www.crctourism.com.au   Sustainable tourism online www.sustainabletourismonline.com

 

Coral bleaching

A process whereby coral expulse their photosynthetic algal symbionts, usually as a result of stress caused by increasing light levels or water temperature. In some cases, the symbionts may return to their coral host tissues, in others they do not, causing the coral to ‘bleach’ and die shortly after. Mass bleaching events have been noted with increasing frequency around the world, probably linked to climate change. Scientists believe that corals’ thermal tolerance levels will be exceeded on a regular basis in the coming decades, leading to more frequent, intense and possibly devastating bleaching events. ACO

  Coral Cay Conservation (CCC) A not-for-profit conservation organization dedicated to providing resources to help protect coral reefs and tropical rainforests throughout the developing world. Initially established in 1986, CCC pioneered a ‘citizen-science’ approach to conservation work by using international volunteers to assist in the collection of scientific data. CCC works within communities in tropical countries to develop and implement grass-roots conservation solutions. Their work has three key components: (i) collection of scientific data to produce habitat maps and other outputs that can be used to inform sustainable management plans; (ii) capacity building within host countries through direct training of local stakeholders in skills required for the sustainable management of natural resources; and (iii) raising awareness of environmental issues both within host countries and beyond, through direct community engagement in addition to wider publication and outreach. CCC only works in countries at the invitation of governments and international NGOs and they collaborate with stakeholders to produce mutually beneficial solutions to conservation problems. This requires a large quantity of data to be collected and CCC’s citizen-science method enables this. International volunteers are provided with all the training they need to collect reliable scientific data from coral reefs or tropical forests, which is then used in the development of sustainable conservation solutions. Volunteer contributions are CCC’s primary source of funding and in return the volunteers receive a number of benefits including: recognized diving, scientific and first aid qualifications, experience of new cultures, a unique chance to make a valuable contribution to an on-going conservation project and the opportunity to meet new people and forge life-long friendships. Coral Cay Conservation (CCC)111

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Since its establishment, CCC has run over 20 successful conservation projects in more than ten countries around the world involving more than 10,000 volunteers, training several hundred local scholars and publishing more than 300 scientific papers. Particularly notable achievements include contributing to the creation of the UNESCO World Heritage Site in Belize, being a key driving force in the establishment of the Danjugan Marine Reserve and Wildlife Sanctuary in Negros, Philippines, and leading the development of the Limasawa Community Managed Marine Protected Area in Southern Leyte, Philippines. PR   Coral Cay Conservation www.coralcay.org

  Coral reef See Coral bleaching, International Coral Reef Action Network, Scuba diving

  Core-periphery (centre-periphery) A relationship between a powerful centre and geographically, economically and/or politically distant and marginalized areas. The classical core-periphery model relates to the central place theory, which aims to explain the number, scale and location of settlements and trade in spatial structures. Friedmann (1966) was one of the pioneering scholars who used the model to explain an uneven polarization process in regional development. His core-periphery model of regional development was based on four stages – pre-industrial, transitional, industrial and post-industrial – which emerge interlinked with the development of transportation systems over space. In the model, the core locations are characterized by a high population density and knowledge and i­ nnovation capacities, and access to capital and communication networks, while peripheries are marginalized and fragmented in socio-economic, political organizational and spatial terms. Thus, the core supplies the periphery with services and higher-technology products, while the periphery provides the core with raw materials and other commodities based on natural resources. In addition, peripheral areas are often also culturally marginalized or have a lower status compared to the core. In tourism, one of the best known applications of the core-periphery model is Britton’s (1982) core-periphery enclave model, illustrating a two-tier dependency that exits between developing countries dependent on metropolitan countries located in the developed world, and, within developing countries, between their urban centres and peripheral rural areas. Both international and national core-periphery systems and related dependency and economic leakages currently create a major challenge for sustainable tourism development. See also Colonialism JS

  Corporate social responsibility (CSR) Any action by a corporation which: (i) creates benefits for people beyond its owners and shareholders; and (ii) it is not legally compelled to adopt. However, in practice 112

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CSR is rather vaguely defined but is commonly taken to include actions that create social benefits by reducing impacts on the natural environment. There is wide-ranging debate both about what components a definition of CSR should or should not include, and about the reasons why corporations might decide to adopt CSR approaches. A key distinction for both these questions is between: (i) actions that generate an immediate gain in corporate profits as well as social benefits; and (ii) actions that incur short-term costs in pursuit of a longer-term payoff in reputation. In addition to the corporate scale, social responsibility can also be considered ­either at individual scale, or at government or national scale. The former reflects changes in behaviour in response to social or environmental concerns. The latter reflects public, political, legal and economic attention to human and environmental welfare, and to issues such as government corruption, human rights and environmental protection. At the corporate scale, CSR commonly includes approaches such as: donations to charitable causes and voluntary organisations; improved working conditions for employees; and improved environmental management. All of these are commonly considered in comparison with immediate competitors, in the same industry subsector and geographic region. In tourism, as in other industry sectors, various attempts have been made to evaluate whether CSR improves profitability or share price. The main focus has been on large hotels in southern Europe, as reviewed recently by Buckley and Pegas 2013. As in other industry sectors, exactly what is considered to constitute responsible behaviour by a tourism corporation differs enormously between countries. In nations with lax enforcement of social and environmental regulations, even partial compliance is taken to indicate responsibility. In nations with more effective legal systems, only actions which go beyond full compliance are considered relevant. In addition, many corporations claim social responsibility for relatively minor actions in one sphere of operation, while continuing to generate high social and environmental impacts in their core business activities. In the tourism sector, there have been three principal parallel approaches to CSR. The first, which corresponds directly to other industry sectors, covers a broad range of voluntary initiatives related to employment, supply chains, charitable activities, environmental compliance and environmental management. In tourism, this approach has been applied principally in the large-scale mainstream urban hotel, resort and airline industries. The second is the concept of responsible tourism as a subsector of the tourism industry, defined by adherence to CSR principles and codes of practice. The third is the use of social and ecological certification programmes, to distinguish individual products or enterprises which have adopted CSR principles. All of these have proved problematic in practice. Programmes and actions promoted as CSR by large-scale hotel, resort and airline corporations commonly reflect rather minor and superficial modifications to their activities. While individual champions within these corporations may exert enormous and commendable effort to establish social and environmental programmes, these efforts commonly do little to change the corporation as a whole. Indeed, there are several cases where volunteer CSR pro­ grammes have later been co-opted by the corporation, as excuses to justify subsequent actions or developments with high social and environmental impact. The notion of responsible tourism, which perhaps mirrors the earlier ‘Responsible Care’ programme in the chemical industries, was originally a South African marketing initiative. It was later interpreted as a concept falling somewhere between ecotourism Corporate social responsibility (CSR)113

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and sustainable tourism, i.e. as a form of tourism which pays particular attention to its social and community as well as its environmental impacts. The term is not widely used outside southern Africa. There are now over 100 eco-certification programmes in the tourism sector, but none of them have achieved high take-up from tourism enterprises, or high recognition from tourists. Take-up rates are significant only in the particular cases where certification is linked to government permitting programmes. In a purely market sense, certification is not perceived as offering sufficient value for money. Individual tourists apparently do not perceive ecocertificates as a reliable label of environmental perfor­ mance, and largely ignore them. As in other industry sectors, it therefore appears that industry stakeholders in tourism promote voluntary self-regulation, including CSR and certification, as an alternative to government regulation, which relies instead on individual consumer choice. Individual consumers, however, do not wish to be responsible for such choices: instead, they prefer that social and environmental aspects of corporate performance should be determined by government regulation (Mair and Jago, 2010) See also Ecolabel, Greenwashing, Reporting, Sustainability performance evaluation RB

 Couchsurfing An alternative, participatory and consensual hospitality form typically involving accommodation in a living-room (couch) or a spare room. A website was launched by Casey Fenton in 2003 as an online non-profit hospitality directory/social network. This became a for-profit corporation in August 2011 and announced plans to go public. Members may publish eponymous, typically positive, references about CouchSurfers hosts and guests. A credit card profile verification system is available and this, rather than advertising, constitutes the principal revenue source with some 327,000 verified users (as of May 2012) out of a total of nearly 4.3 million registered profiles, a fifth of which were from the United States and two thirds were aged 18–29. The practice could be described as VFR tourism between strangers or as a reversed volunteer tourism where the host does the voluntary work. AP  CouchSurfing www.couchsurfing.org

 Countryside A territorial entity that, alongside the rural, normally refers to non-urban spaces. Its perception, evaluation and policy proposals vary according to different social and cultural settings. In the capitalist and industrialized West, the dominant post-agricultural countryside – a consequence of the move from ‘productivist’ to ‘postproductivist’ societies – still tends to evoke images of harmony and consensus, and the countryside is perceived as an ideal place (see Sense of place) for leisure and tourism activities. These transformations meant that the notions of the countryside as a resource for agricultural production, as an aesthetic landscape to be conserved, and as a place for recreation, had to be 114Couchsurfing

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reconfigured. Until recently, recreational and tourism activities in the countryside were closely associated with its rural character, and were passive and relaxing (see Quiet ­enjoyment). Lately, new demands and expectations have brought more challenging and active tourism (see Adventure tourism), requiring new approaches to the management and planning of the countryside. See also Rural tourism JSA

  Couran Cove Resort An award-winning eco-resort located on South Stradbroke Island at the northern end of the Gold Coast in Queensland, Australia. The eco-resort was developed in the 1990s by American billionaire philanthropist Chuck Feeney, and financed by his Bermuda-­ based charity foundation Atlantic Philanthropies. The resort concept was developed with former Olympic runner and future mayor of the Gold Coast, Ron Clarke. The resort was successful in winning more than 25 international tourism and environment awards between 1998 and 2003. The resort featured more than 100 rooms ranging from marine facing rooms through to four-bedroom nature lodges, and was heavily focused on nature and sustainability. Unfortunately, due to increasing running costs and low visitor demand, the resort was placed into receivership and ceased trading on 31 May 2011. See also Ecolodge SR

 Creativity The human individual capacity to capture relations between phenomena or ideas in new ways, or to formulate insights outside habitual or traditional theoretical frameworks (Chimirri, 1992). In a similar way, Florida (2004) speaks of a synthesis act of bits and pieces of stimuli that, put together in a new arrangement, allow the deconstruction and transcendence of existing frameworks. Chartrand (1990) relates creativity to three dimensions: action (doing), production (making) and thinking (knowing). The ever-increasing interest in creativity – from both the scholars’ and practitioners’ perspectives – is seen as an effect of major social, technological and economic changes in capitalist societies, in which ‘the driving force of the economy is not simply technological or organizational, but human’ (Vanolo, 2008, p. 370). In fact, creativity, as part of our everyday-life environments (Richards and Wilson, 2007), ascended to the condition of being a research topic in many different areas: including education, urban development and planning, cultural industries and tourism, just to mention a few. Today’s affluent societies have been called ‘the experience economy’ (Pine and Gilmore, 1999), ‘the support economy’ (Zuboff and Maxmin, 2002), ‘the knowledge-­ based economy’ or ‘creativity-based economy’ (Durmaz et al., 2010). Such expressions denote shifts in technology, structures of production, labour markets and agglomeration dynamics, both the fact is that human needs and wants have also changed. As basic needs became, in general terms, fulfilled, individuals found the opportunity Creativity115

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to consume more, ascend to higher educational levels, as well as higher-order needs. In the process, access to information and knowledge acquisition framed today’s skilled and sophisticated consumers. One of the reasons why creativity has become so important to both individuals and groups in society – urban planners, cultural creatives, policy makers, marketers, tourism businesses and destination management organizations – is, on one hand, the need for self-development (Richards and Wilson, 2006) and, on the other, the belief that creativity, not labour input or raw materials, is the basis of economic growth and dynamics (Vanolo, 2008). In tourism, findings have shown that tourists are seeking more engaging experiences, in search of self-development, and to experience authenticity and meaningfulness. Participative and transformative forms of consumption are shaping a new tourist and a new type of tourism ‘which offers visitors the opportunity to develop their creative potential through active participation in courses and learning experiences which are characteristic of the holiday destination where they are undertaken’ (Richards and Raymond, 2000, p. 16) (see Co-creation). The origins of creative tourism have been closely related to cultural tourism, a form of tourism particularly appealing to wealthy and educated tourists. In a first stage of development, cultural tourism meant the experience of cultural heritage (such as museums, monuments and related assets) but then, due to its own success and the perceived negative impacts of the serial reproduction of culture (Richards and Wilson, 2007; Richards, 2010), it evolved into experiences of ‘small-scale, less visited places that offer a taste of “local” or “authentic” culture’ (Richards, 2010, p. 15). Creativity is then a challenge for tourists, who are to get involved with local people and their cultures in the production process of the tourism experience, but also to destinations, which must provide and develop the adequate experience environment for tourist creativity to happen. ACA

 Crime An act committed in violation of a law forbidding it or omitted in violation of a law commanding it. Not all crime that takes place within a tourism destination will be the result, even indirectly, of tourism. Ryan (1993) identifies five distinct linkages between tourism and crime: ● ● ● ● ●

Type 1: tourists as incidental victims; Type 2: tourist location as a venue for crime; Type 3: tourism as a provider of victims; Type 4: tourists as generators of demand for criminal activities; and Type 5: tourists and tourists’ resources as specific targets of crime.

In the first case, tourism and crime are not linked: the fact that the crime has taken place in a tourism destination and/or the tourist is a victim of the crime is purely incidental. In the remaining four cases, the tourist may be either an incidental or deliberate victim of the crime, and the relationship may be due to values either inherent or extrinsic to tourism and tourists. The following matrix (Table 2) illustrates this: 116Crime

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Table 2.  The tourism/crime matrix (Ryan, 1993) The tourist as

Touristic values

Incidental victim

Deliberate victim

Inherent

Type 4 Self-indulgence Loosening of responsibility

Extrinsic

Type 2 Open access Freedom of movement

Type 3 Relaxed Off guard Leisure oriented Type 5 Threat to national culture Perceived as a threat

Type 4 suggests that tourists may be a perpetrator as well as a victim of crime. Tourists may, for example, take illegal drugs while on holiday or, perhaps due to the consumption of excess alcohol, become involved in violent incidents with locals or with one another. Type 5, meanwhile, describes incidents of terrorism. While tourists are less likely to be victims of terrorism acts than of crime (De Albuquerque and McElroy, 1999), such incidents tend to be more newsworthy and hence more likely to persuade people to cancel their holiday bookings or to not choose the destination concerned in the first place. Indeed, those charged with the task of tourism management in destinations are mostly concerned about crime because of its potential impact on tourism demand. There are also likely ramifications for the reputation of the industry among the host community, resulting in less local support for tourism to operate in the destination and for its further development in the area. Host–guest relations may deteriorate in circumstances in which an increase in crime rates is attributed, rightly or wrongly, to the growth of tourism in the area. Appropriate steps need to be taken to address or, preferably, forestall such impacts. Bierman (2003), for example, describes how the tourism management organizations in South Africa successfully managed a growth in crime (or ‘crime wave’) in the second half of the 1990s. Pizam (1999) provides a detailed classification of criminal acts and violent incidents at tourism destinations. This is based on: (i) five attributes of the criminal act (motive, victim, location, severity and frequency); (ii) three attributes of effect (i.e. magnitude, expense and duration); (iii) methods and parties responsible for prevention; and (iv) methods and parties responsible for recovery. A study of more than 300 crime reports was then investigated. Among the main findings were that crimes with political motives tended to have the most intense, widespread and long-lived effects, while those with personal motives tended to have the lowest. Terrorism and acts of mass violence tended to be the most intense, expansive and durable. For minor crimes, those committed in tourism areas tended to have bigger effects, while crimes against property tended to have the least effects. Crimes committed against tourists, meanwhile, tended to have a bigger effect on tourism demand than those committed against residents or prominent figures. BG

 Crisis A set of circumstances in which there are significant actual or potential impacts that require immediate decision making. ‘A crisis is an undesired, extraordinary, often unexpected and Crisis117

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timely limited process with ambivalent development possibilities’. According to Glaesser (2006, p. 14), ‘it demands immediate decisions and countermeasures in order to influence the further development again positively for the organisation (or destination) and to limit the negative consequence as much as possible’. Booth (1993) describes a crisis situation as one in which stress is faced due to a sudden change, with the group or organization involved being unable to employ normal processes to overcome that stress. Other authors have developed different definitions (Pauchant and Mitroff, 1992). Faulkner (2001) presents a synthesis of the basic definitions of various authors (those being Weiner and Kahn, 1972; Fink, 1986; Keown-McMullan, 1997), in which the defining characteristics of crisis are a triggering event, intense threat, urgency, a short time for decision making, an inability to deal with the situation among those directly affected, a turning point involving both positive and negative change (Keown-McMullan, 1997), and an unstable and dynamic situation (Fink, 1986). The concept of ‘crisis’ was first used in the context of the national economic cycle. Business administrations faced with crisis events must know how to adapt the crisis concept to determine and deal with an unknown situation (Glaesser, 2006). Most crisis situations come about unexpectedly, prompting management to make decisions in contexts that are often concerned with competitive advantage or other significant business goals. Thus, a crisis situation is generally recognized as a negative event (Booth, 1993). However, Faulkner (2001) and Laws et al. (2007) point out that crises can have potential positive impacts, as transformations emanating from crisis events can sponsor innovation or create new markets, quite separate from the negative impacts. For example, the Mexico City earthquake of 1985 brought opportunities to create new options in recycling and market progress (Berman and Roel, 1993). Crisis events in tourism can be divided into two main types: those with natural causes and those stemming from human actions. Natural causes include tropical cyclones, storms, extreme tides, floods, avalanches, volcanic eruptions and earthquakes (Faulkner, 2001; Glaesser, 2006). There have been some case studies involving ­Taiwan’s as earthquake, the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami (Fig. C12a), the eruption of Mt Etna in 2001, and Japan’s earthquake and tsunami in 2011 (Ritchie and Campiranon, 2014). Other crisis events in tourism are the result of diseases or epidemics such as SARS (Fig. C12b), avian flu and other diseases of concern to the World Health Organization (WHO) (Page et al., 2006; Glaesser, 2006). In contrast, the human causes of crises include wars, riots, terrorism, political and economic upheaval, and transportation issues. Examples include 9/11 and other terrorism attacks, the Arab Spring, the Fijian Coups in 1987, 2000 and 2006, and the boycott of Austria after right-wing electoral success in 1997. Parsons (1996) categorizes the three types of crisis as: immediate crises (which have no planning period before the crisis); emerging crises (where there is still time to prevent or limit the situation, slowing down its development); and sustained crises (where the situation remains in crisis). Fink (1986) developed a model to explain the life cycle of a crisis. This includes the prodromal stage, the acute stage, the chronic stage and the resolution. Roberts (1994), meanwhile, presents the crisis life cycle as consisting of a pre-event phase, an emergency phase, an intermediate phase and a long-term phase. These stages are organized according to the crisis lifecycle, which allows the decision maker to adopt whichever strategy is best suited to the circumstances. Faulkner (2001) integrates both Fink’s and Roberts’s models in designing a sixstage tourism disaster management framework, the stages being: pre-event; prodromal 118Crisis

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Fig. C12a.  Boxing Day 2004 Tsunami Memorial, Phuket, Thailand (Tiffany Low).

Fig. C12b.  Fight cancellations durng the SARS outbreak, 2004 (Carl Cater). Crisis119

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(i.e. when a disaster appears); emergency (i.e. when the crisis threatens people and/or property); intermediate (i.e. once normality is restored in the community); long-term recovery; and resolution stages (i.e. when routine is re-established). Knowledge of how crises develop through each of these stages can be used to develop strategies that can cope with the impacts of crises. For example, Miller and Ritchie (2003) apply a sixstage crisis model to the 2001 Foot and Mouth disease outbreak in the UK in order to understand how the crisis played out and to further develop the theoretical framework for crisis management. Most studies focusing on crises, however, adopt a simplified model involing pre-crisis, crisis and post-crisis/long-term recovery stages. In managing crises, time pressures, degree of control, the magnitude and intensity of the crises and contexts of high uncertainty are all important variables, with correctly identifying the stage of the crisis often being highly challenging (Burnett, 1998). For example, during the Foot and Mouth disease outbreak in the UK, the emergency, intermediate and resolution stages coincided with the complicating disease crisis, whose effects were transferred from a farming crisis to one affecting the tourism industry (Miller and Richie, 2003). It is important to design planning strategies for handling and control in different crisis situations within time pressure and threat level stages (Burnett, 1998). Additionally, Page et al. (2006) highlight two important basic points: firstly, the timescale of each stage needs to result in planning and management that will suit the different strategies and response situations; secondly, the transition has to be understood in terms of the trigger points, which tend to indicate either an exaggerated stage, or the point at which the crisis changes to a recovery or a post-crisis stage. CHC

 Criteria See Certification

  Critical friend An adviser to the research or planning process who has no stake in the outcome of a project. A critical friend is normally supportive of the aims of a project and may be aware of the project scope, but is able to stand at a distance and bring their expertise to bear in assisting the project team without becoming directly involved. Critical friends are often used in action research processes to assist in reflection between stages. CIC

  Cruise tourism The activity involving travellers taking voyages on ships. Cruise tourism is a successful and dynamic subsector of the global tourism industry (Weeden et al., 2011). Cruise ships are often called floating resorts, and highly regarded by passengers for providing quality accommodation and a range of food, drink, entertainment and sport facilities. The market is dominated by Carnival Corporation and Royal Caribbean Cruise Lines (RCCL), who together with Genting (Hong Kong) supply 88% of all cruises. Of the 120Criteria

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19 million cruise holidays sold in 2011, the US was the largest source market, followed by the UK and Germany (Key Note, 2012). The Caribbean is currently the most popular destination, although the new powerhouse economies of Brazil, China and India (see NICs) have stimulated commercial opportunity and novel itineraries in South-east Asia, Australasia and South America. Intensive competition in Europe and North America has created a trend for bigger ships, the largest of which carry 6296 passengers and more than 2300 crew (RCCL’s Oasis of the Seas; Allure of the Seas). Such developments have generated increased anxiety over the significant social and economic impacts of cruise tourism (Fig. C13), although it is its impact on the environment that causes the greatest controversy. Indeed, the sector is currently facing its ultimate challenge: increasingly stringent environmental legislation. The International Maritime Organization (IMO), the UN agency charged with regulating the world’s oceans, sets strict guidelines for all vessels, including cruise ships, through the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL). In response to growing concern over the environmental impact of shipping, the IMO is implementing progressively reductive regulations governing discharge of all pollutants, including oil, chemicals, sewage, grey water, garbage and air emissions. In the face of expanding emission control areas (ECAS) and an almost total sulphur cap, the cruise industry is being forced to fulfil its environmental obligations through greater investment in energy-efficient ship design and new fuel technologies. CW

Fig. C13.  Concrete jetty built for the arrival of the cruise ship Queen Elizabeth II in 2004, Pentecost, Vanuatu (Carl Cater). Cruise tourism121

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  Cultural capital The value of a tourism experience in narrative and identity terms. The work of French sociologist, Pierre Bourdieu, is important in understanding cultural capital as he describes how things may have societal value beyond a fixed financial value (Beames and Telford, 2013). There is a powerful force towards establishing one’s individual identity through travel, in ‘doing’ things that may distinguish one from the average ‘tourist’, or ‘traveller’, so the experience can be presented as ‘more than just a holiday’ (Mowforth and Munt, 1998, p. 146). For example a trekking holiday in the Himalayas may have greater cultural capital than a package holiday to the Mediterranean. In order to claim the desired cultural capital, the experience ‘must be sufficient in distancing itself from supposedly inactive or inert forms of tourism’ (Mowforth and Munt, 1998, p. 146). However, there is a critique of the relationship of cultural capital to power, whereby those with power decide what and how it is valued. Ecotourism and sustainable tourism may be implicated in this process, with some authors such as Wheeller (1994) going so far as to rename ecotourism ‘egotourism’. Nevertheless, what constitutes cultural capital is also dynamic, being subject to change from trends in fashion, technology and, especially, social networking. Alternatively, the measure of a community’s cultural assets in the sustainable livelihoods approach. CIC

  Cultural relativism The view that all beliefs, customs and ethics are relative to the individual within their own social context. What is considered moral in one society may be considered immoral in another, and, since no universal standard of morality exists, no one has the right to judge another society’s customs. Thus, ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ are culture-specific, in that ‘different cultures have different moral codes’ (Rachels, 2007, p. 199). Donnelly (1984, p. 400) states that ‘radical cultural relativism would hold that culture is the sole source of the validity of a moral right or rule’. Cultural relativism is relevant to understanding human rights, particular human beliefs and specific activities. It also is presented in a variety of ways and according to a number of views. Thus, Rachels (2007, p. 120) provides five propositions that are central to cultural relativism, those being: 1. ‘Different societies have different moral codes. 2. The moral code of a society determines what is right within that society; that is, if the moral code of society says that certain action is right, then that action is right, at least within that society. 3. There is no objective standard that can be used to judge one society’s code as better than another’s. In other words, there is no ‘universal truth’ in ethics; there are no moral truths that hold for all people at all times. 4. The moral code of our own society has no special status; it is but one among many. 5. It is mere arrogance for us to judge the conduct of other people. We should adopt an attitude of tolerance toward the practices of other cultures.’ These five propositions above appear to link together, but they also work independently. CHC 122

Cultural capital

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  Cultural tourism A form of tourism with the principal aim of experiencing culture. Cultural tourism is considered a tourism phenomenon and started to be recognized as a distinct segment from the late seventies (McKercher and du Cros, 2002). This phenomenon brings into contact people who are not only strangers to one another, but who are also members of different cultural groups. Even if it has been argued that all types of travel involves some elements of culture, some have argued that culture many times has been transformed into a set of things which are a symbol of the Western quest of the exotic ‘Other’ and as the commodities of modernization (Featherston, 2007). This has also been stated by Smith (2003), who recognizes that cultural tourists’ interest comes from a desire for diversity and curiosity about how people live in environments different from one’s own. One can say that this tourism alternative draws upon a sense of place, a collection of artefacts and history, and commodities in which to remember experiences by (McKercher and du Cros, 2002). These things combined are very appealing and offer the traveller a perspective of life unique to their own, and draws on the desire to experience diverse cultural landscapes and forms (McKercher and du Cros, 2002; Smith, 2003). It also allows access to the past, showcasing artefacts from a different place and time (Garfield, 1997; McKercher and Ho, 2005). There are many ways of defining cultural tourism, for example, the European Association for Tourism and Leisure Education’s (ATLAS) conceptual definition of cultural tourism is: ‘the movement of persons to cultural attractions away from their normal place of residence, with the intention to gather new information and experiences to satisfy their cultural needs’ (Richards, 2005, p. 24). Cultural tourism is difficult to define, as there are many different aspects of this type of tourism activity, but there are two basic approaches among the definitions of cultural tourism: the ‘sites and monuments’ or descriptive approach, and the experimental or conceptual approach (Bonink, 1992, cited in MacDonald, 2004). The former is focused primarily on the attractions visited while the latter chooses to focus on visitors’ motivations and perceptions rather than on specific site attributes (Zeppel, 2002). This experimental or conceptual approach tends to emphasize the motivation and experience and may be seen as useful since it is not restricted to any type of list of cultural activities like the descriptive approach. Smith (2003, p. 37) shows that cultural tourism can attract a wide variety of tourists including: ‘heritage tourists, arts tourists, creative tourists, urban cultural tourists, rural cultural tourists, indigenous cultural tourists, and popular cultural tourists’. The tourist’s experience has been seen as central for many and this is evident in the definition provided by Borley who states that cultural tourism is ‘an activity which enables people to explore or experience the different ways of life of other people, reflecting the social customs, religious traditions and the intellectual ideas of a cultural heritage which may be unfamiliar’ (cited in MacDonald, 2004, p. 22). This indicates that cultural tourism encompasses a tremendous amount of the tourism industry. It is apparent that a cultural experience can be explained by several topics and this is being manifested in the statement by MacCannell (1992) who believes that all tourism is a cultural experience and Urry (1990) goes so far as to say that tourism is culture. By noting this, it is evident that cultural tourism is an extremely powerful phenomenon, as unique cultures can be a medium for meaningful, educational and eye-opening Cultural tourism123

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experiences. ‘Tourists want to observe a “cultural mosaic” where destinations provide a variety of experiences ranging from those that are based on tourist wants and needs to those that are left untouched and authentic’ (Boniface, 1995, p. 48). However, cultural tourism has been critically discussed and one major impact on the culture of a destination, according to Mathieson and Wall (1982), is this transformation of the material and non-material forms of local culture, which are called revitalization or commoditization. Tourism can turn local cultures into commodities when religious rituals, traditional ethnic rites and festivals are reduced and sanitized to conform to tourist expectations, resulting in what has been called ‘reconstructive ethnicity’. Destinations also risk standardization in the process of satisfying tourists’ desires for familiar facilities. Based on this, it is extremely important that cultural tourism is planned and managed in line with the principles of sustainable tourism so that overconsumption of the culture does not occur. It is the fact that it is the extent of the cultural consumption being consumed (Richards, 2007) that many times is problematic of this type of tourism. In order to fight these mass tourism impacts, cultural tourism should be seen as a tourism alternative that preferably consists of learning and understanding as key motivating factors for travel (Ritchie, 2003). See also Philosophical tourism, Commodification AG Case study: The land divers of Pentecost World famous as the origins of ‘bungee-jumping’, the land divers of Pentecost island, Vanuatu are a truly unique form of cultural heritage. During the ceremonies, or Naghol, conducted from April to June each year, males must leap from a tower over 20 metres in height, with only two vines attached to their legs. The ritual has strong mythological origins, with male community members reclaiming their honour through the ceremony. It is a risky endeavour, and injuries and even deaths are common, as ‘tied to the divers’ ankle is a carefully measured liana vine that breaks his fall, just as his forehead brushes the ground . . . if the vine is too short the diver is thrown into the tower, too long and his neck is broken, his skull crushed’ (Bevan, 1990, p. 152). Being such a unique spectacle, the ceremony has attracted interest from anthropologists, documentary film makers and more recently, tourists. Greater awareness came with David Attenborough’s documentaries and book ‘People of Paradise’ which describes a ceremony on Pentecost in 1960. In 1974, Queen Elizabeth II visited the islands and witnessed a ceremony on a tour of the region on the Royal Yacht Britannia. From the late 1970s these cultural displays became favoured by tourists, although relatively few managed to see the ceremony due to its remoteness and relative cost. As Thomas contends, ‘since 1978 the people of south Pentecost seem to want to exploit their full tourist potential, and full planes are chartered every year at the end of April and the beginning of May when hundreds of tourists come to see the famous Naghol’ (Thomas, 1980, p. 147). By 1990 these trips were of the order of US$275 for a day charter from Port Vila (the capital), or US$75 for those who just wished to view the ceremony. These jumps were promoted by ‘a joint venture between the South Pentecost Tourism Council, The National Tourist Office of Vanuatu and Tour Vanuatu – plus of course the people of Pentecost’ (Tour Vanuatu, 1993), although there is no mention of the stake that the latter have in the use of their ceremony as a tourist attraction. Indeed it is ‘interesting to note that the image of a jumper taking the first plunge is one of the pictures most frequently used to promote Vanuatu, despite the fact that the ritual is one Continued 124

Cultural tourism

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Case study.  Continued. of the least seen by tourists’ (Douglas, 1996, p. 196). Thus it is clear that the national tourism agency felt from an early stage that they had ownership over the spectacle as a cultural tourist attraction. Further, they attempted to market the exclusivity of the ­experience through promising no more than 50 tourists at each ceremony and the ­opportunity to be ‘one of the few to experience the event that makes headlines all over the world’ (Tour Vanuatu, 1993). In addition there are historical reports that suggest that independent travellers who did not book through the travel agencies found it difficult to view the ceremonies. As Douglas and Douglas (1986) reported in their travel guide to the region: except for the period of the land dives, when hundreds of tourists converge upon the island, Pentecost attracts few travellers, which is unfortunate because it is an undeniably beautiful place. Visitors hoping to attend the diving ceremonies are now obliged to make their arrangements through Tour Vanuatu, which has a virtual monopoly on the activity. Independent arrivals, including yachtspeople, have been made to feel unwelcome. (p. 115)

Despite its popularity, there has been little direct community benefit from using the land diving ceremonies as a cultural tourist attraction, despite over 30 years of paying visitors. This was recognized after the first decade, as ‘a meeting of the Pentecost chiefs in 1990 expressed their ambivalence at the ongoing use of their ceremony as a tourist attraction . . . they felt that after 10 years, when something in the vicinity of US$200,000 had been paid to Tour Vanuatu by tourists who witnessed the jump, the Pentecost communities involved had very little to show for it because of a lack of accountability by those who administered the monies’ (Douglas, 1996, p. 194). Thus it would appear that the development of land diving tourism is a case of the Imposed Development form described by Timothy (2007), where the local people are the objects of development not subjects and actively part of the process. This situation has continued, if not become exacerbated by the introduction of cruise tourists visiting the island and their interest in seeing the ceremonies. Since 2004, P&O have included the island as a stop on their itinerary for the ships Pacific Dawn and ­Pacific Sky during the land-diving months. In 2009 this included four visits of approximately 2000 people at a time, a considerable impact for an island with very limited infrastructure. This extends to the host–guest relationship as there was a degree of sadness when an elderly cruise ship visitor was taken seriously ill in 2008 (pers. comm., 2009). The community at Pangi, who hosted the Queen’s visit, and has a small jetty, became the site for these jumps and a large area was prepared with benches and simple latrines for the visiting tourists. Initially the cruise ship operator paid a flat fee of one million vatu (about US$10,000) to the land diving organizer (notably based in Port Vila), but from 2006 this was renegotiated to approximately US$75 per tourist watching the ceremony. However, only a limited amount of this trickles back to the host community, amounting to some US$30,000 in 2009. According to local sources this goes towards paying the local guides and the jumpers themselves, who after all are taking considerable risks in the display. However, little, if any, ends up contributing directly to community development. Indeed infrastructure on the island is almost non-existent, with limited sanitation facilities and water coming only from rainfall collection. Dirt track roads are frequently washed away by rain, and the beach becomes the most reliable highway for the limited vehicular traffic. A new runway was constructed in 2008 at Lonore for flights from Port Vila, which has helped to improve access, as the previous strip was frequently flooded. However, it might be argued that this development is as much to benefit the tourists, viewing the land diving taking place nearby, as it is for the local community. The most significant Continued Cultural tourism125

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Case study.  Continued. barrier to community development is the lack of opportunity for any extra income from the tourists. The cruise ship brings its own staff and refreshment outlets onshore during the ceremony, and there are no opportunities to buy local handicrafts or souvenirs. The promise of tourism has led to a boom in construction of guesthouses on the island; however, there is a significant excess of supply, meaning that occupancies are very low. Thus the opportunities for direct involvement and benefits from tourism are minimal. Although the impacts of such small numbers of tourists are currently limited, there are some negative elements that can be observed, and without any tangible benefits, these become all the more problematic. Several incidences of inappropriate cultural behaviour have been reported, many related to gender roles in traditional culture. There was significant community displeasure at Western women drinking Kava (the local narcotic) and standards of dress. A visiting journalist lamented the arrival of tourism, and hence a monetary culture, which had changed the social networks of the island. For example the Nakamals, a free community shelter present in most small villages for visiting guests, had suddenly become fee-paying. One can also dispute the contemporary authenticity and place of the land diving ceremonies at the centre of Pentecost culture as they have become commodified for tourism. It is interesting to note that in the photographs taken by Attenborough in the 1960s the community were wearing shorts during the jumps. However, at modern tourist ceremonies the male jumpers wear grass belts and penis sheathes in an attempt at tourist ‘authenticity.’ CIC

Fig. C14.  Unique cultural tourism – the ‘Naghol’ or land-diving ceremony, Pentecost, Vanuatu (Carl Cater).

126

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 Culture A set of beliefs, practices and traditions common to a group of people. The word was originally associated with rurality and land, meaning the activity of making the soil fertile and nurtured (Fig. C15). It is in the context of Roman civilization that ‘culture’ expands its original meaning, denoting a vast set of activities and practices related to care, such as performing duties to please the gods, exercising the body for health maintenance, or engaging in some specific activity, for instance, philosophizing (Lewis and Short, 1966). From Cicero (106–43 BC) onwards, ‘culture’ stood for education and training, bearing a subjective meaning, but also the highest forms of knowledge human societies are capable of (i.e. the sciences and fine arts). The 19th century in Europe was a time of major change and achievements, particularly technological, scientific and, more generally, intellectual ones. The social sciences began to develop, and with them the technical perspective on culture (Hell, 1981). Ethnology and cultural anthropology achieved academic status, and E.B. Tylor’s (1832–1917) works played a decisive role in the process. Tylor’s definition of culture encompasses collective phenomena, i.e. social facts beyond individuals and their perceptions. On the other hand, it comprises the set of intangible, spiritual, cognitive and affective aspects that characterize the dynamic life of human communities, contributing to its originality and authenticity (Hell, 1981). Subsequent research

Fig. C15.  Traditional farming techniques in an Amish community, Intercourse, Philadelphia, USA (Tiffany Low). Culture127

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brought new insights, approaches and conceptualizations. Franz Boas (1858–1942), Ruth Benedict (1887–1948) and Margaret Mead (1901–1978) are prominent scholars who followed Tylor’s earlier attempts to establish the foundations of a new scientific field (cultural anthropology) by postulating a specific research object (human cultures) and specific methods. More recently, culture is understood as a series of collective phenomena embedded in social life (Hofstede, 1991; Richardson, 1994; Bueno, 1996; Broncano et al., 2001; Chiavenato, 2004), and there is general agreement on its being the basis of human originality and differentiation (Hell, 1981; Hofstede, 1991; Saraiva, 1993). As a set of patterns, i.e. common ways of thinking, feeling and behaving, culture is acquired by the individual in contact with the social environment through the process of socialization (Hofstede, 1991; Broncano et al., 2001; Baskerville, 2003; Chiavenato, 2004). These patterns impact on both human groups and individuals, thus becoming the condition (Hell, 1981) under which human beings build knowledge and reinforce behaviours and attitudes. Elements of culture are institutions, man-made objects and production processes, recreational, utilitarian, artistic and intellectual activities, as well as shared interpretations on life’s ultimate goals, information and knowledge, beliefs, value systems and traditions. Culture, both in terms of human material and immaterial productions and of specific ways of life – heritage and ethnicity – is acknowledged as a major motivation for travel and tourism consumption but also as the ground for destinations to develop tourism and market themselves as unique and distinctive. See also Cultural tourism, Ethnic tourism, Heritage tourism ACA

  Culture shock The confrontation of tourists with new cultures, which leads to internal distance that tourists create towards the encountered otherness and unfamiliarity. It may be accompanied by the feeling of loss, weakness, chaos and sometimes even anger, apparent aversion and desire to go home. Tourists experience the biggest problems because of unfamiliarity with the local cultural codes concerning the language, traditions and customs. It may have many different effects, time spans and degrees of severity. Culture shock appears rarely among cultural tourists (cultural tourism), who are generally well-prepared for the trip, who are well-read in the visited place, equipped with specialist literature, open to people and to ‘the new’. Frequent travelling decreases the phenomenon of cultural shock. KBU

 Customs Patterns of behaviours that are required and correct, and accepted in a society or culture (Barth, 1967). These may be exemplified as a set of traditional rules applied to the unique traditions or ways of life of a particular group of people. All cultures have their own legal rules based on their own customs, and local customs may be explained as the local people’s intrinsic values to their way of life. Customs may also be an expression of power in host communities. 128

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Tourism may bring both positive and negative benefits for communities and often the positive economic benefits are favoured among tourism developers. However, economic benefits, if not carefully managed, may act as an external force to change many original social systems, where cultural and ethnic minorities are being pushed out (Xie, 2011). As a result of this, important rituals and customs of cultures, adapted for tourists, may be significantly changed from their original meaning or even be lost and forgotten about. The unique land diving ceremonies of Pentecost Island, Vanuatu, are one example (see Fig. C14). On the other hand, sustainable tourism, can play a vital role for restoring economic health and pride to a region when connecting people to past and present local customs and practices to tourists. This may allow communities to reassert their identity as well as retain population and income levels. Interactions between tourists and locals entail much more than economic benefits, it involves the exchange of expectations and expressions of ethnicity and culture. See also Cultural tourism AG

  Cycle tourism Touristic activity where cycling is an important part of the holiday. This definition excludes people who cycle for recreational purposes but not domestic cycle tourists (Ritchie, 1998); commensurate with traditional definitions of tourism, Faulks et al. (2007) highlight the general qualification of travellers being away from home for at least one night. An important distinction within this definition is made between those who only use the cycle as a mode of transport on their holiday, typified by a circular tour, and those who base themselves in one location and make daily excursions upon the bike (Fig. C16). It may also include tourists watching cycle events such as the Tour de France (Fig. S9). While some enthusiasts might exclude the latter in their own definition, Simonsen et al., 1998 believe that the two key elements of cycle tourism are the use of a cycle as a mode of transportation on holiday, and where the cycling is a key component of the trip. While the purists form one end of their cycle tourist continuum, and those for whom cycling is an occasional, fair weather, option on holiday form the other, the great majority are considered to lie between these extremes (Simonsen et al., 1998). Ritchie’s (1998) research on cycle tourists in New Zealand, however, suggests that most visitors err towards the enthusiasts’ end of the spectrum, due to, for example, the often long length of stay in the country and the participants’ own motivations. Although these holidays can be part of a commercialized tour, usually with transport support, it is recognized that the majority of trips are still independently organized, where people use their own equipment, create their own itinerary and book their own travel and accommodation (Faulks et al., 2007). Cycle tourism excursions can be both on-road or on mountain biking terrain. Many other countries have developed ­infrastructure that caters for cycle tourists, and recreationists, of which the UK’s National Cycle network is one of the best known: 13,400 miles of marked on- and off-road trails across the country, supported by mapping and trail guides (SUSTRANS, 2012). While cycle tourism is a niche tourism sector, it is Cycle tourism129

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a­ cknowledged as an important revenue source in the often remote areas where many routes are sited (Faulks et al., 2007). See also Adventure tourism, Right of way, Special interest tourism ST

Fig. C16.  Cycle hire, Center Parcs, UK (Brian Garrod).

Case study: Cycle trails – the Ystwyth Trail There is increasing interest in developing cycle trails as a form of sustainable activity tourism. Many of these have been developed on abandoned railway lines, for example the Rail Trail in Otago, New Zealand or the Ystwyth Trail in Wales. The extensive preparation and favourable gradient of railway lines makes them ideal as accessible cycle paths. The 34 km (21 mile) Ystwyth Trail connects Aberystwyth, on the shore of Cardigan Bay, with Tregaron in the northern Teifi Valley. Much of the trail follows the track of the old Great Western railway line, built in 1867 by the Manchester and Milford Railway company. The line crossed Cors Caron, one of the largest peat bogs on mainland Britain, and today is an important protected wildlife habitat. The railway line eventually closed in 1965, but in 2008 the Ystwyth Trail was established by Ceredigion County Council with grant support from the EU Objective 1 and Welsh Assembly Government funding assistance, using the former railway line. Despite a cost of £1.7 million, the trail remains incomplete, as several sections of the former railway line were not purchased Continued 130

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Case study.  Continued. to create the trail. There was some lobbying by local councillors against the trail, as existing landowners and farmers objected to the construction of the trail. However, most users only access certain stretches of the full path, with some sections being also suitable for mobility scooters and horse riders. Increasing interest in cycling holidays is likely to encourage the development of more cycle trails, as they can make use of existing infrastructure and are seen to encourage healthy recreation, while having minimal impact. CIC   Otago Rail Trail www.otagorailtrail.co.nz   Ystwyth Trail www.discoverceredigion.co.uk/English/what/cycling/Pages/Ystwyth-Trail.aspx

Cycle tourism131

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D   Dark tourism Travel to sites of death, disaster or the seemingly macabre. Dark tourism has been studied in an academic setting since the early 1990s (Sharpley, 2005), although some argue the practice of dark tourism has carried on much longer (e.g. Seaton, 1996). In its earliest inceptions, the study of dark tourism was considered by Rojek (1993) to be tourism ‘black spots’ whereby there is commercial development at sites of sudden or violent death and/or destruction. Rojek’s early work attempted to classify dark tourism into two analytically discrete categories of ‘nostalgic sites’ (for example, ­national and metropolitan cemeteries) and ‘post-modern spectacles’, that involve repeated reconstructions and the use of audio-visual media to maintain their continued popularity (Rojek, 1997). Subsequent to Rojek’s work, Lennon and Foley (2000) assert that dark tourism is ‘an intimation of post-modernity’ (p. 11). Examples of such post-modern spectacles are provided by Rojek including tourists visiting the site where James Dean died in a car crash in 1955; the annual candlelight vigil held by Elvis Presley fans at Graceland in Tennessee; and the anniversary of JFK’s assassination in Dallas, Texas. The complexities in understanding dark tourism are further complicated by Blom (2000) who notes the duality of dark tourism being on the one hand a phenomenon that focuses on sudden death and the attraction of large volumes of tourists, and on the other hand being concerned with artificial morbidity. A number of variables have been highlighted which contribute further to the complexity of dark tourism: ●

the immediacy and spontaneity of visits to dark sites of contemporary death vis-à-vis premeditated visits to organized sites or events related to historical occurrences; ● the distinction between purposefully constructed attractions that interpret or recreate events and artificial sites that have become tourist attractions by accident (e.g. churches, graveyards and memorials); ● the distinction between an interest in death (either by witnessing the death of others or to dice with death in dangerous places) is the dominant motivating factor for visiting such sites; and ● why and how dark sites/experiences are produced or supplied.  (Sharpley, 2005, p. 217–218) As noted earlier, the practice of dark tourism is perhaps older than the term. Dark tourism has also been referred to as thanatourism (referring to the contemplation of death), and can be traced as far back as the Middle Ages, but intensified during the Romantic period of the late 18th and early 19th centuries (Seaton, 1996). Early examples of so-called thanatourism include visits to graves, prisons and public executions as well as tourists flocking to Pompeii and the battlefield of Waterloo. Seaton’s initial conceptualization of dark tourism suggested that dark tourism is essentially

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a behavioural phenomenon influenced predominantly by tourists’ motives, rather than on characteristics of particular sites; and that thanatourism is not an absolute form, rather there exists a continuum of intensity dependent upon both tourist motivations and their relative interest in death as being of a general nature or person-specific. ­Importantly, Lennon and Foley (2000) highlight the central role the media has played in the growth of tourism to such dark sites. Aside from these definitional aspects, a number of authors have attempted to classify dark tourism sites as well as develop typologies for dark tourists. For example, Dann (1998) classifies attractions under five principal categories (perilous places, houses of horror, fields of fatality, tours of torment and themed thanatos), whereas Seaton (1996) proposes five categories of dark tourism activities (travel to witness public enactments of death, travel to see sites of individual or mass deaths after they have occurred, travel to memorial of internment sites, travel to see evidence or symbolic representations of death, and travel for re-enactments or simulation of death). Sharpley (2005) subsequently proposed a typology for the consumption of dark tourism through the application of Holt’s (1995) typology of consumption practices. In doing so, Sharpley categorized dark tourism as being an experience, as being play, as integration and as classification. His typology further contrasts the supply of dark tourism (from ‘accidental’ to ‘purposeful’) and the demand for dark tourism (from palest to darkest). This results in the four categories of pale tourism, grey tourism demand, grey tourism supply and black tourism. In addition, Stone (2006) proposes a continuum of dark tourism with ‘sites of death or suffering’ being the darkest form to ‘sites associated with death or suffering’ being the lightest form of dark (see Fig. D1). The former has higher political influence and ideology, while the latter may have more tourism infrastructure and entertainment orientation. Although there are many historical examples of dark tourism, such as battlefield tourism or holocaust sites, it has received more popularity recently in examples such as slavery tourism or more recent genocide sites such as Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Rwanda (Fig. D2). These sites, which are largely still in their infancy in development terms, may be illustrative of the so-called process of ‘phoenix tourism’ (Causevic and Lynch, 2011). Here, post-conflict tourism, rather than being located in the context of economic enhancement, is located in the context of social renewal of the destination and its inhabitants, resulting in conflict issues being developed into a new heritage (Causevic and Lynch, 2011). In turn, this kind of phoenix tourism may help in the facilitation of reconciliation at thanatoptic sites, thereby promoting sustainable development where destinations nurture and protect all aspects of their culture. However, the complexity of politics, legacies and emotions surrounding death may create some contested terrain, particularly when death is commodified as a tourist product. Sustainability of dark tourism in terms of authenticity, reconciliation and community impact should be considered. TL   Institute for Dark Tourism Research dark-tourism.org.uk

  Decision making See Empowerment Decision making133

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Higher Political Influence and Ideology

Lower Political Influence and Ideology

‘Sites of Death and Suffering’

‘Sites Associated with Death and Suffering’

Darkest

Darker

Dark

Light

Lighter

Lightest

Education Orientation

Entertainment Orientation

History Centric (Conservation/ Commemorative)

Heritage Centric (Commercial/ Romanticism)

Perceived Authentic Product Interpretation

Perceived Inauthentic Product Interpretation

Location Authenticity

Non-Location Authenticity

Shorter Time Scale to the Event

Longer Time Scale from the Event

Supply (Non-Purposefulness)

Supply (Purposefulness)

Lower Tourism Infrastructure

Higher Tourism Infrastructure

Fig. D1.  Continuum of dark tourism (Stone, 2006, p. 151).

 Deforestation The decrease in native tree cover that has been accelerating since the dawn of agriculture, particularly in respect of the farming of livestock. Much of the world was previously covered by extensive forests, especially in the temperate and tropical zones. Wales, for example, was almost entirely covered by trees in the pre-Neolithic Age. Although tourists often appreciate the recreational value of forests, tourism may also be implicit in some of its destruction. This may include the cutting down of trees for fuel in areas with limited fuel supply, for example the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal, or in the removal of mangroves for resort development. Apart from habitat removal and biodiversity loss, deforestation may lead to other environmental problems such as erosion, disruption of water supply and climate change (Fig. D3). Some countries have embarked on significant reforestation programs: China, for example, has planted more than 4 million hectares of new forest each year since the 1990s (Xu, 2011). 134 Deforestation

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Fig. D2.  Genocide tourism, Kigali memorial centre, Rwanda (Carl Cater).

Fig. D3.  Deforestation education leaflet, Indonesia (Carl Cater). Deforestation135

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However, there are concerns that this program has not always considered using native species, threatening the efficacy of ecosystem services provided by forests. CIC

 Degradation Decline in quality of resources that occurs when usage is not complemented with care and protection. It is synonymous with destruction, albeit at a slower pace. Beach degradation, for example, may occur over many years or even decades, but the outcome is always negative and inconsistent with the concept of sustainability. Tourism may be less competitive in a degraded environment because such environment runs contrary to what tourists seek when they travel. Thus sustainable tourism requires that all ­environmental, social and economic environments be protected from degradation. A sustainable tourism destination that manages to convince tourists that it is environmentally friendly and is caring to the local community can command attention and demand from tourists and be economically sustainable in the long run.     AZK

 Degrowth An economic concept advocating the downscaling of production and consumption in reaction to the perceived consequences of maximized economic growth within a world of limited resources. These include environmental impacts, social inequality and concentrating wealth at the expense of non-industrialized regions. In opposition to sustainable development, which is based in mainstream development ideas, ‘degrowthists’ aim to maximize happiness and well-being through non-consumptive means, e.g. volunteer work, co-housing and local currencies, eliminating huge infrastructures and public advertising. Related to a concept of the ‘simple life’, it is rooted in the anti-industrialist and emancipist ideas of John Ruskin (1994), Henry David Thoreau (1956), Leo Tolstoy (2010) and Mohandas Gandhi (1968). Proposed by the Club of Rome think tank during the 1970s, concepts to realize degrowth were further developed by the economists Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen (1971) and Serge Latouche (2007). Indeed, many radical proponents of degrowth are keen to stress that it is not a theory of contraction in opposition to growth, rather a fundamental reassessement of post-­development and ‘right sizing’. See also Growth fetish, Steady-state tourism     HF

  Demand management The management of tourism demand to capture and distribute demand throughout the year. This management practice characterizes capacity-constrained service firms, such as airlines, hotels, cruise lines, restaurants and spas, and is usually associated with the managerial system of revenue management. Demand characteristics and demand levels are managed and controlled depending on customers’ desired time, required service and price to achieve tourism profitability and clientele satisfaction. 136 Degradation

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Demand management also allows demand to be shifted from busy to slow periods for customers who prefer to take advantage of a discounted rate. The management of customer demand has a scientific foundation in the economic theory of elasticity of demand towards price. Customers with low willingness to pay are allowed to purchase at discounted rates at off-peak times. Peak periods are cleared for those customers who can pay the highest rate and are usually sensitive to the time of service consumption, not to the price of services. The sustainability of tourism at a destination level requires the management of tourist demand in relation to tourist flows and impacts on the natural, social and economic environment. This is the case, for example, of the Mediterranean coastal destinations characterized by high seasonality in the summer months from June to September. Within revenue management, demand management in the hospitality industry can stimulate the distribution of tourists throughout opening periods and prolong the tourism season (Modica, 2012). This management practice can be advantageous for the sustainability of tourism destinations, with important effects on the limitation of tourism seasonality and consequent negative impacts. Specifically, this practice benefits the economic aspect of sustainability as a result of its positive effects on the employment of permanent staff in the tourism industry as well as by reducing human pressure on the natural environment and the congested use of public services caused by tourists during busy periods (see carrying capacity). The use of revenue management in the hospitality industry can be encouraged and promoted through a combined public and private approach as a good practice for the sustainability of tourism at destinations. See also Price management     PMO

  Demonstration effect A concept that has been used to describe the copying or imitating of tourists’ consumption or behavioral patterns by members of the host community (McElroy and De Albuquerque, 1986; Fisher, 2004). There is some uncertainty of the absolute origins of the term, but it is generally agreed that the definition was borrowed from economics as it is a popular concept within the field. The demonstration effect suggests that in order to improve their social status, people copy consumption patterns of those higher up the social scale (see conspicuous consumption). Likewise, early tourism r­ esearchers had argued that members of the host community also imitate the behavioral patterns of tourists (Turner and Ash, 1975; de Kadt, 1979). Thus, the term can be used to describe both the consumption and behavioral imitations that are a result of the interactions or observations between the hosts and tourists (Fig. D4). Further, it is often perceived to be a negative social and cultural impact that is a natural consequence of tourism because it challenges established cultural values. The demonstration effect is a concept that regularly appears in the tourism literature, though there is seemingly little evidence to support it. It is conceptually weak and fails to identify what is being demonstrated and to what extent the demonstration occurs. One of the major difficulties faced by researchers investigating the demonstration effect is that tourism is not the only cause of cultural change. There are other forces of modernization, such as television, films and advertising, and so it is difficult to separate the effects of tourism from these other forces of acculturation Demonstration effect137

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Fig. D4.  Demonstration effect, Papua New Guinea (Carl Cater).

and globalization. Similarly, it is difficult to identify the demonstration effect because all cultures are in a continual process of change (Fisher, 2004). Fisher (2004) has provided one of the more recent attempts to provide further conceptual clarity. He suggested that for the demonstration effect to occur there must be existing behavioral differences between the tourists and the hosts, some type of transfer of these patterns from one group to the other, and those that are imitating the other group must maintain the behavioral changes. He also argued that the demonstration effect is not unidirectional, but tourists may also copy the behavioral patterns of the host community. Fisher also proposed that the process of the demonstration effect can be broken down into four forms: exact imitation, deliberately inexact imitation, accidental inexact imitation and social learning. These forms offer more clarity in understanding how decisions are made to copy or imitate behavior as a result of contact with a different cultural group and distinguish tourism from other influences of change.     LDU

 Dependency In the developmental context, a situation whereby economic growth in one (peripheral) country is dependent upon or conditioned by the development and economic growth of another (core) country. Dependency theory, the roots of which are usually associated with the work of Raúl Prebisch and the Economic Commission for 138 Dependency

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Latin America (ECLA) in the 1940s, became popular in the 1960s as a critique of more traditional economic growth models of development epitomized by modernization theory. Contrary to the stages model of modernization, which proposes that any country’s inevitable path to development can be accelerated through investment in an economic sector, such as tourism (Fig. D5), or other forms of intervention, the proponents of dependency theory argue that both the internal and external political and economic conditions of less-developed countries maintain them in a dependent position relative to developed countries. In other words, global political-economic relations are such that wealthy, industrialized nations (the ‘centre’) are able to exploit weaker, developing nations (the ‘periphery’), thereby maintaining the latter in a condition of underdevelopment (see core-periphery). Consequently, dependency theorists propose that peripheral nations need to reduce their connectedness to global markets in order to pursue development and self-reliance (Hettne, 1995). Dependency theory emerged from two distinct schools of thought. On the one hand, the structuralist school, manifested in the work of the ECLA, suggested that it was the structure of trade between different nations, reflecting different levels of industrialization that results in dependency. Hence, domestic policies such as protectionism and import substitution were seen to be the route to self-reliance and economic development, albeit a form of dependent development. On the other hand, the neo-Marxist school, notably André Gunder Frank (1966), adopted the position that development and underdevelopment are two sides of the same coin. That is, within a global capitalist system wealthy nations achieved economic growth and development

Fig. D5.  Dependency of trilingual Gran Canaria (Brian Garrod). Dependency139

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through their ability to exploit the human and natural resources of less-developed countries, a process that had been in evidence for a number of centuries and that, by the 20th century, had defined the structure of the global economic system. Hence, from the neo-Marxist perspective, it was their dependent position within the global capitalist system that not only impoverished peripheral, less-developed countries but maintained their condition of underdevelopment. Other influential contributors to the neo-Marxist school include Furtado (1969), Amin (1976) and Wallerstein (1979), the latter introducing the concept of world systems theory and the argument that the world’s economic system comprises not two but three zones: the core, the periphery and the so-called semi-periphery which acts as a mediator between rich and poor countries. Dependency theory has been criticized for a number of reasons, not least its focus on external forces and its overly pessimistic perspective on development. It is seen as offering few positive suggestions in terms of policy, whilst critics also point to the fact that a number of countries, particularly in Asia, have achieved significant levels of economic growth and prosperity in recent decades. At the same time, the concept of dependency has been indirectly challenged by the argument that a country’s continuing underdevelopment may reflect ineffective national governance rather than its position in the global economy. That is, in some countries it is the so-called ‘failing state’ (Torres and Anderson, 2004) that lies at the heart of a lack of progress towards growth and development. Equally, the relevance of the dependency thesis has diminished as the structure and inherent power relations of the contemporary global political-economy have transformed. In particular, increasing global inter-connectedness, or the globalization of trade, investment, communication and politics, as well as environmental challenges such as climate change, have arguably served to reduce the role of the nation state and, hence, the relevance of relationships (and dependency) between nations. Nevertheless, tourism development has long been critiqued within the dependency paradigm, the allegedly unequal power relations that exist between destinations and tourism-generating regions in general and the organization/ownership of the production of tourism in particular being considered the foundation for many of the negative consequences of tourism (Bianchi, 2002). By its very nature, tourism is inherently dependent, such dependency being amplified by the susceptibility of tourism demand to factors and events beyond the control of the destination. However, international tourism has long been described as a form of imperialism or neo-colonialism (Nash, 1989a), the dominance of foreign ownership within the tourism production system representing a centre-periphery model of tourism development (Høivik and Heiberg, 1980) in which the economic benefits of tourism flow back to the centre in the form of leakages. In particular, the notion of dependency is seen to be of relevance to smaller, more vulnerable destinations, specifically islands, although larger continental countries may also be susceptible. International tourism development may also result in cultural dependency, whereby tourism policy and planning reflects external, Western ideals. The concept of ecotourism, described as a Western construct (Cater, 2006), may be considered one example of such cultural dependency. Though typically discussed within the context of international tourism, dependency theory is also of relevance to domestic tourism, where peripheral regions with a dominant tourism sector may become dependent on metropolitan centres. However, in the context of both domestic and international tourism there is a danger in over-­ emphasizing the role of dependency in defining the nature of tourism development. The majority of businesses that comprise the tourism sector are typically small, locally 140 Dependency

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owned enterprises (SMEs) while the existence of international organizations, such as hotel chains, in the destination does not necessarily imply a lack of local ownership or control. Equally, the power of intermediaries in the tourism production system has been diminished by increasingly widespread use of the Internet by tourists to book their travel independently, while the emergence of new markets and a more diverse international ownership of tourism production further challenges the traditional centre-­ periphery model that has been applied to tourism.     RS Further reading Bianchi, R. (2011) Tourism, capitalism and Marxist political economy. In: Mosedale, J. (ed.) Political Economy of Tourism: A Critical Perspective. Routledge, Abingdon, UK, pp. 17–37. Vernengo, M. (2006) Dependency theory. Available at: www.econ.utah.edu/~vernengo/papers/princeton. pdf

 Desalination The act of eliminating salt from ocean water. The result of this process is that the water can be used for normal drinking and washing purposes. Desalination of sea water is widely practised in countries that do not have bountiful or reliable source of fresh water. Singapore, Malta, Saudi Arabia, Yemen and many Middle Eastern countries are among the countries that depend heavily on the desalination of sea water for their consumption. As water is essential in day-to-day lives and in tourism, unresolved water availability problems can cause conflict between tourism providers and the local community. Desalination provides a solution to avoid such conflict. That is why many island tourism destinations and resorts choose desalination as a way to ensure water availability for their consumption. However, desalination is very energy intensive and has environmental impacts and may not necessarily be regarded as a sustainable solution.     AZK

  Destination branding The process through which destinations develop a unique identity and ‘personality’ in order to become distinctive and therefore gain advantage against competing destinations (Morrison and Anderson, 2002). Blain et al. (2005) define the construct from a marketing point of view, stating that it consists of a complex set of marketing activities meant to: (i) develop a brand for the destination (including name, symbol, logo and/or word mark); (ii) generate expectations of memorable travel uniquely related to the destination; (iii) reinforce the emotional connection between the visitor and the destination; and (iv) reduce visitors’ search costs and perceived risk. Its overall purposes are to build a positive image of the destination (Cai, 2002; Mundt, 2002), able to influence consumer choice (Blain et al., 2005), capture its essence and communicate unique added value to visitors (Morrison and Anderson, 2002). The process may also Destination branding141

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serve the objective of re-positioning the destination (Gilmore, 2002) or rebuilding its image (Hall, 2002). Although branding is a very important tool in the marketing of the destination (Morgan and Pritchard, 2002; Morgan et al., 2004), there is consensus on the challenge the process represents to marketers. Destinations are complex entities made of different and often divergent groups of stakeholders, which may compromise the delivery of a consistent and unique brand message to consumers. On the other hand, the destination itself comprises a mix of elements, from tangible (attractions, facilities, infrastructure, transportation systems and hospitality resources) to intangible ones (experiences and feelings), which may cause perception difficulties and confusion for consumers. In addition, due to destination fragmentation, marketers do not have control over all elements of the mix. Destination branding is intended to be more than the managing of tangible signs and symbols, and the use of marketing communication tools. It has been argued that the process may assist in the achievement of social goals, such as the improvement of the community quality of life (Park and Petrick, 2006), in addition to economic ones. See also Representation     ACA

  Destination management The strategic planning and management of the component parts of the destination for the maximization of the benefits for stakeholders and the minimization of the costs. Tourism is multi-disciplinary, complex and non-linear in operations (Miller and Twining-­Ward, 2005) and comprises a multitude of stakeholders in the public and private ­domain who work together to satisfy the needs of the tourists. This dynamic nature of the tourism industry necessitates a carefully organized approach in how destination development is planned, managed, controlled and marketed in order to ensure the destination is a success. For this to occur, destination management is ­necessary. The concept of destination management can be thought of as a contemporary approach whereby a macro-level view is adopted to coordinate the micro-level activities that occur at the national, regional and/or local levels in which tourism stakeholders carry out their individual and organizational responsibilities. It is an over­arching term that envelops the planning and control of tourism, visitor management, the provision of infrastructure, the organization of the local resources such as land-use planning, standard setting and monitoring, a synchronized approach to marketing and promotion, managing and uniting stakeholder relationships, local business support and other activities at a destination (Tourism Sustainability Group (TSG), 2007). Destination management therefore involves organization and coordination of the different components and actors that comprise the tourist destination (Manente, 2008). Destination management came to the fore in order to balance the rapid growth of the tourism industry alongside natural resources and the needs of the host community but at the same time boost the benefits for tourists and other stakeholders. A coordinated approach to the delivery of the destination product is essential while keeping abreast with changes in the competitive marketplace. Moreover, destination management activities can become intricate, as destinations are complex and unique entities, which 142  Destination management

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vary in size, product offer, location, tourists and local communities. Easterling (2004) commented that for destination management to be effective it must consider both a destination’s actual and potential supply and demand when planning, while stakeholders must also be involved as part of this process. Ritchie and Crouch (2003) developed a model of destination competiveness in which several components of destination management are identified. These are organization, quality of service/­experience, information/research, human resource development, finance and venture capital, visitor management, resource stewardship and crisis management. Destination management is crucial with regard to the sustainable development of tourist destinations. The quality of the environment is a crucial component of the attracting power of a successful destination and therefore an important concern for destinations (Mihalic, 2000). Ensuring that the destination is sustainable for the visitor, the host society, the industry and other stakeholders is critical. For a visitor, the attractions and experiences should fulfil their aspirations, provide value for money and sustain their appeal. Destination management ought to ensure that tourism is socially sustainable, in that there are peaceful and understanding relationships between the visitor and the host community, and that tourism is not seen as a threat to the local environment or cultural identity. Tourism should also facilitate economic development for the destination and for local tourism businesses and warrant that investments generate sufficient return in order to encourage further business enterprise. Destination management must manage, co-ordinate and promote a tourist destination for economic prosperity but at the same time maintain its social, cultural, environmental and economic assets (see community capital). Dwyer et al. (2004) commented that destination management activities are under­ taken by both the public and private sector. Examples of public-sector activities are the national tourism plan, marketing by tourist boards and local programmes for tourism development, while private-sector actions would include the work of tourism/ hospitality associations, industry involvement and training programmes. Destination management is critical for both established and emerging destinations, and for many destinations the lead for these activities usually comes for the destination management organization. Many destinations are now introducing a destination management system (DMS) to help them to achieve their strategic objectives. A DMS can be defined as an enabling structure that assists the destination’s management organization to integrate the various components of the destination product. Increasingly this takes the form of an information technology system that handles pre-trip enquiries, in-trip information delivery, and post-trip feedback. Such systems typically include a customer database, booking and payment services, and a customer-­facing website. Increasingly they also integrate various social media such as Facebook, Twitter and Flickr. The benefits of DMSs for the destination management organization and its stakeholders include the opportunity to attract more tourists as well as to target particular tourist segments with appropriate information, marketing messages, discounts and so on. By providing access to information, electronic communication and various virtual work platforms, a DMS can also assist the component destination stakeholders to collaborate more effectively with each other. In this way, the DMS may assist the destination management organization and its various stakeholders to meet their objectives: for example to contribute to their triple bottom line.     AA and BG Destination management143

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Further reading Ritchie, R.J.B. and Crouch, G. (2003) The Competitive Destination: A Sustainable Tourism Perspective. CAB International, Wallingford, UK. World Tourism Organization (2007) A Practical Guide to Destination Management. World Tourism Organization, Madrid, Spain.

  World Tourism Organization’s Destination Management Site destination.unwto.org/en

  Destination marketing The set of continuous and coordinated activities and processes in order to attract visitors to a specific location while meeting their demands (Elbe et al., 2009). Destination marketing consists of decisions on product, branding, positioning, price, market segmentation, promotion and distribution (Terzibasoglu, 2004). Wang (2008, p. 151) stresses the fact that it is about a collective effort requiring destination organizations and businesses to ‘harmoniously work together to achieve a common goal’. It is very difficult to successfully implement the marketing of destinations (Fyall and Leask, 2007), due to their fragmented and complex nature. However, it has been deemed crucial in an era of global competition and imminent societal challenges, and thus decisive in the achievement of competitiveness and sustainability in a highly demanding business environment. The need to manage effectively the tourism system at the destination level has been seen as a motive to create destination marketing organizations (DMOs) (Bornhorst et al., 2010). Although not all destinations develop and market themselves under a DMO, these organizations are important in the achievement of their success (Terzibasoglu, 2004; Morgan et al., 2009). In terms of content, destination marketing usually revolves around what the destination has to offer (King, 2002), its physical attributes or attractions (Lichrou et al., 2008), with promotion (Prentice and Andersen, 2007; Bornhorst et al., 2010) and advertising as chief functions (Morgan et al., 2009). From the point of view of its purpose, it aims at increasing visitation by attracting more and more visitors to the destination (see Growth fetish; Elbe et al., 2009), possibly at the expense of treating tourism as a commodity (Buhalis, 2000) and neglecting the needs of the community (Lichrou et al., 2008). Yet it has been argued that the primary role of a tourism destination should be ‘to enhance the social and economic well-being of the residents who live within its boundaries’ (Bornhorst et al., 2010, p. 572). Tourism at a destination level consists of providing the opportunities for a range of activities and experiences to take place in order to satisfy the needs of the community; thus tourism is, first of all, a means of achieving a social goal (i.e. well-being). Accordingly, marketers are urged to depart from a product view on the destination and adopt a community and holistic perspective, more suited to integrating societal concerns and dealing with current problems in destination marketing (Lichrou et al., 2008). See also Sustainable marketing     ACA 144  Destination marketing

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  Destination marketing organization (DMO) An entity that has an official designation for marketing the attributes of a destination whether at the regional, national, supra-national or sub-national level. Since the various sectors of the tourism industry tend to be fragmented, DMOs play an important co-ordinating role by providing coherence for the collective efforts of the suppliers located within a particular jurisdiction. While the planning and management functions are important at a destination-wide level, marketing offers a co-ordinated and coherent approach to the collective activities of large and small tourism enterprises (see small-to-medium sized enterprise (SMEs)) across the public and private sectors. DMOs receive variable support and funding from official sources and many occupy an intermediate position between the public and private sectors.     BK

 Development The process and outcome of enhancing an individual’s or society’s well-being. Though long considered to be a desirable outcome of tourism, ‘development’ continues to defy precise definition, not least because of the semantic ambiguity surrounding the term. On the one hand, it refers descriptively to a transformative process through which societies change from one condition to a different, implicitly better one; it is a process of ‘good’ change. On the other hand, it is used to refer normatively to the goal of that process, to ‘a vision, description or measure of the state of being of a desirable society’ (Thomas, 2000, p. 29). Thus, development is, as Goulet (1968) observes, both a journey and the destination of that journey. Moreover, not only is that destination dynamic, being subject to different and evolving interpretations, philosophies and ideologies (Goldsworthy, 1988), but also it is never reached: a ‘developed’ society continues to change, progress or, indeed, regress. Nevertheless, ‘development’ is a condition that is considered to characterize a ­minority of the world’s nations, the ‘developed countries’. By definition, therefore, the majority of countries in contrast remain ‘developing’, ‘less-developed’ or ‘under-developed’, albeit to varying degrees: currently, 48 countries are formally categorized as ‘least developed’, suffering the most severe challenges to development, including a high incidence of poverty, low levels of education, literacy, nutrition and health care, and a variety of economic vulnerabilities. Prior to the mid-20th century there was little recognition of development as a policy objective on a global scale. Rather, it was considered a historical process through which all societies ‘progress’, usually in terms of the transformation of a society from being ‘traditional’ to ‘modern’, as reflected in the modernization of Western societies and economies from the early 1800s (or, for Marx, a process from a primal stage, through feudalism and capitalism, to communism). However, rapid de-colonialization and the need to rebuild the global economy following the Second World War demanded proactive intervention on the part of governments to stimulate development both nationally and internationally. Initially, such development, conceived of both as a process and goal, was seen to be synonymous with economic growth: that is, during the 1950s and 1960s, it was believed that social, political and economic modernization would inevitably follow an increase in average incomes. Thus, if a country was achieving economic Development145

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growth it was considered to be experiencing development and, as a consequence, international development policy focused on Keynesian interventionism. However, aside from the explicit Western-centrism of such policies, it became evident that economic growth alone had not only failed to solve social and political problems but, in some cases, had exacerbated them. Though economic growth targets may have been realised, the quality of life for many people remained unaltered or diminished. As a consequence, by the 1970s there were calls for the ‘dethronement of GDP’ (Todaro, 2000, p. 14) as the objective of development and for a refocusing of policy away from economic development towards human development. This is not to say that economic growth was abandoned as a development objective: economic development is not only essential to eradicate the ‘pollution of poverty’ in particular, but is fundamental to development more generally (Sen, 1994). Indeed, within the much-cited Brundtland Report on sustainable development (WCED, 1987), significant global economic growth is controversially recommended. Economic growth also remains an indicator of development. The World Bank lists 70 countries as ‘high-income economies’, although only half of these are more generally classified as developed in the broader sense of the word. Nevertheless, commentators such as Dudley Seers (1969) questioned whether development could occur if levels of poverty, unemployment and inequality were not reduced. In other words, development came to embrace a number of social development objectives, collectively referred to by Mabogunje (1980) as distributive justice. Subsequently, Seers (1977) added self-reliance (or freedom from dependency on others) as a condition of development. Development should thus no longer be controlled or influenced by either wealthier Western nations or by local elites. In this way, the concept of development became a multi-dimensional goal focusing not only on economic growth and the satisfaction of social needs, such as health, education and employment, but also on cultural self-determination and political freedom. Indeed, for Sen (1999), freedom in its broadest sense lies at the heart of development: freedom being equated with human capability. Thus, development may essentially be seen as the development of human capabilities or, as summarized in the UNDP’s 2010 Human Development Report (UNDP, 2010, p. 22), ‘the expansion of people’s freedoms to live long, healthy and creative lives; to advance other goals they have reason to value; and to engage actively in shaping development equitably and sustainably on a shared planet’. In contrast, the ‘post-development’ school argues that international development as a global process and objective is fundamentally flawed, inherently unjust, and has never worked (Rahnema and Bawtree, 1997). Simply stated, the post-development school claims that ‘development’ on a global scale cannot exist. Although a number of countries have experienced rapid economic and social development, such as the ‘Asian Tiger’ economies, not only were the 1980s in particular considered to be a ‘lost decade’ of development for many developing countries but also, and more generally, the imposition of developmental targets, expectations and processes by Western institutions are seen to reflect Western-centric economic and social philosophies that have destroyed indigenous cultures and created a sense of inferiority amongst the populations of developing countries. In short, from the post-development perspective, development is a manifestation of Western hegemony over the less-developed world. Hence, for post-development theorists, the desire and direction of change should emanate from people themselves, free from Western intervention. Though radical and criticized for being regressive, romantic and overlooking the economic growth and social development that has been achieved in many developing 146 Development

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countries, the post-development school does point to the limitations of meta-theories of development and the need to focus on specific developmental needs, such as those espoused in the Millennium Development Goals. Indeed, development is now more often defined in terms of indicators and the goals that underpin ‘good change’, such as poverty alleviation, global security, promoting equality and human rights, rather than in terms of overarching objectives such as sustainable development. Similarly, optimistic claims about the role of tourism as an agent of change or development also demand scrutiny, for not only are the debates surrounding development in general relevant to tourism in particular, but also a causal relationship between tourism and development, as opposed to economic growth, has yet to be established. See also Socio-economic transformation     RS Further reading McGillivray, M. (2008) What is development? In: Kingsbury, D., McKay, J., Hunt, J., McGillivray, M. and Clarke, M. (eds) International Development: Issues and Challenges. Palgrave Macmillan, Houndmills, UK, pp. 21–50. Rahnema, M. and Bawtree, V. (1997) The Post-development Reader. Zed Books, London, UK.

  Annual Human Development Reports (United Nations Development Programme) www.undp.org   UN Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States. For criteria and list of least developed countries unohrlls.org   World Bank development data data.worldbank.org

  Digital technology See Information technology

  Direct marketing The practice of selling directly to the public without using an intermediary. Within the context of sustainable tourism, it is most important in connection with agritourism and refers to farmers’ attempts to ensure higher profit margins by selling their goods directly to visitors to the farm or to farmer’s markets. Customers of direct farm marketing operations are often at least as interested in gaining a ‘farm experience’ as they are in the products they are purchasing per se, and they typically are also very interested in sustainable agriculture. Because tourists typically travel to the direct farm marketing venue by private car (see drive tourism), ways to minimize the associated negative environmental effects need to be explored to make this form of tourism more sustainable. See also Farm tourism     JMI Direct marketing147

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 Disability An impairment of a person’s physical, sensory, mental, emotional and/or developmental capabilities. It may be present from birth or arise during that person’s lifetime. Under law, disability is normally defined in terms of it being ‘substantial’, in that it has a major impact on the person’s ability to lead their daily life, and ‘long-term’ in that it is a more than a transitory phase, such as an illness. It is estimated that around 15% of the UK population have disabilities (Shaw and Coles, 2004). United Nation’s estimates range from 5% to 20% of the world population (Yau et al., 2004). This number is expected to increase as lifespan increases. For example, there are projected to be up to 100 million disabled people in the USA by 2030 (Yau et al., 2004). Disability is relevant to tourism insofar as it may limit or even prevent a disabled person’s participation, partially or wholly, in particular tourism activities. Such involvement may be physical, in that the person’s disability may limit or prohibit the accessibility of certain places to them, such as certain beaches, accommodation or visitor attractions. Alternatively, the involvement may be developmental, in that a person with learning difficulties may find it difficult to understand interpretation provision. Disability thus presents barriers to people’s enjoyment of and satisfaction from engaging in tourism: the needs and desires of tourists with disabilities are at least equivalent to those of any other tourist. Laws may be needed to encourage tourism sector organizations to adapt their provision to make it more accessible to disabled people. In the UK, for example, the 1995 Disability Discrimination Act makes it illegal to discriminate against people with disabilities, requiring businesses to make reasonable adjustments to ensure the accessibility of their provision to disabled people. Where laws are not in place, corporate ethics may drive such actions. Meanwhile the disabilities of some potential tourists may be such that taking a holiday would be very difficult with expensive assistance, in which case social tourism may be the only way in which they can meaningfully engage with tourism.     BG

 Discrimination The act of purposely excluding something or someone, without justifiable reason. In tourism, this discrimination can occur in many forms. A hotel’s hiring policy can discriminate against people with disability, as has happened in some hotels in Bali, Indonesia (Yahoo, 2012). Hiring policy can also discriminate against race age, sexuality and gender. Discrimination in pay scales can happen to female workers, as they are often disadvantaged by the structures of patriarchal societies. This is despite the fact that women work equal hours, shoulder the same responsibilities, have to abide to similar organizational expectations and often need to carefully juggle their career with their home responsibilities. Promotion policy can also discriminate against women, giving men more opportunity for career development than women. Another form of discrimination in tourism is discrimination against certain types of tourists. In Kenya, certain tourism sites do not welcome domestic tourists due to their ethnicity (The Star, 2012). In Malaysia, domestic tourists sometimes receive poorer treatment compared to international tourists, particularly the Mat Salleh 148 Disability

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(white folks). For sustainable tourism to exist, workers should not be left unhappy, while tourists should never feel discriminated against. Thus, awareness on all possible forms of discrimination should be nurtured, and strategies to avoid or minimize them should be developed among service providers in a sustainable tourism destination. The concept of corporate social responsibility, if fully embraced, can assist tourism service providers to be fair to workers, customers and all other relevant stakeholders. AZK

 Disneyfication A term used to describe the transformation of something to resemble a Disney theme park (Fig. D6) by making the area or product more marketable by removing anything that could be seen as offensive or divisive. This term is quite often used in a derogatory way to describe a heritage or culturally significant site that has lost its feel of authenticity. SR

  Distributive justice The fair distribution of power, services and goods within and between societies. It  presumes that the benefits of any economic activity, such as tourism, should be

Fig. D6.  Disneyfication: Popeye village theme park, Malta (Tiffany Low). Distributive justice149

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a­ llocated fairly and equitably, providing a return for the public investment made to accommodate tourist needs, and to reduce the gap between rich and poor by raising the standard of living of the poorest in the community. This is of particular importance in an environment where resources such as land, water and food are scarce, and where the presence of tourists risks encroaching upon the basic amenities and social structures of local residents. Distributive justice raises questions about who benefits, who makes the decisions on who benefits and which measure is used to allocate the benefits fairly. AK

  Dive tourism See Professional Association of Diving Instructors, Self-contained underwater breathing apparatus tourism

 Diversification The diversion of resources such as land, labour and other assets from a core activity to a supplementary activity, commonly used to describe the introduction of non-­ traditional agricultural activities on farms (Ilbery, 1991). On-farm diversification can be divided into two categories: agricultural diversification, which includes the production of organic food and alternative livestock and crops; and non-agricultural diversification, which includes food processing, retailing, leisure and tourism, environmental management, non-agricultural contracting and land and building rentals. Off-farm diversification refers to using farm resources such as labour outside the farm to generate an income. Off-farm diversification and non-agricultural diversification are also referred to as pluri-activity (Evans and Ilbery, 1992). Farm diversification is a common response from farms across the world to changing policy and market conditions. In the developed world agricultural policy has undergone a radical shift since the Second World War from policies that increased production and protected markets towards those, in more recent years, that have increased exposure to the market (Sharpley and Vass, 2006). This includes the de-linking of agricultural subsidies from production as typified through the introduction of the Single Farm Payment in the European Union (EU) in 2003 (Rude, 2008). Climate change provides another challenge particularly in the developing world where shifting weather patterns are forcing many farmers to seek alternative incomes. Many farmers have found these changes a challenge and while some have adapted, others have been driven out of business. Not all farms will have the skills, resources or access to institutional support to enable them to diversify successfully. Farm diversification initially started as a grassroots initiative (McNally, 2001) with the aim of providing additional income streams to build the economic resilience of the farm and farm household and enable the continuation of farming. Diversification can also provide farmers with multiple income streams making them less dependent on agricultural commodity markets. Farm diversification was adopted as policy in the EU in the 1990s through the Common Agricultural Policy’s Rural Development Plan with the aims of addressing the challenges facing the farming 150  Dive tourism

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community and developing more diverse and sustainable rural and regional economies. This approach has supported a lot of small farms in the EU in adapting to serve the market. Farm diversification is not a new phenomenon: in the 19th and early 20th century it was common for farmers to deploy their resources in many activities in order to support the farm household. Cater and Ram (2003) noted that activities included: haulage, retail, distribution and farmhouse accommodation. In addition to this, small farms, particularly those located in less favourable farming areas have always had to follow diverse income strategies to survive (Bateman and Ray, 1994; Lopez-i-­ Gelats et al., 2011) (see New peasantry). It is estimated that around 50% of farms in the EU are engaged in some form of farm diversification (Ploeg, 2008) and with more liberalized market conditions farm diversification is again a popular strategy. The concept of diversification is applicable in both the developed and developing world. In the latter it is normally referred to as livelihood diversification. See also Agritourism, Farm tourism, Rural tourism AT

  Domestic tourism Travel within the national borders of residents of that country for leisure purposes. Domestic tourism is interpreted as a culturally stylized form of travel and, as such, has more or less retained its appeal for the masses who continue to perpetuate it through generations. Usually, such home-grown modes of travel and visitation have great economic, cultural and environmental significance. A distinguishing feature of domestic tourism is that it displays people’s ability to negotiate interchanges based on their own value judgements of the lived-in realities of their everyday environments. This negotiation not only enables an understanding of the aspirations and traditions of hosts, but also delineates the changes and continuities in value systems that impart character to social groups. Involvement and participation of locals in tourism processes provide the most desirable contexts for localized interpretations of sustainable progress of people and places. In most countries, domestic tourism is vastly more significant than international tourism in terms of numbers of tourists and impacts, and yet paradoxically it has attracted far less academic or government attention to date. The current popularity of the ‘staycation’ and emphasis on low-carbon tourism may alter this trend. SS

 Downsizing A deliberate policy of reducing the size of a company or endeavour. The immediate effect in a company would be to reduce expenditure, which may improve financial stability. This may be a result of a decline in demand for the service or a requirement for more efficient management if the organization is over staffed. Downsizing may ­involve a re-organization of company structure, change in company operations or alternative use of resources. Downsizing may be used as a temporary method to reduce payroll employees during a recession. Further, when prosperity returns, companies rehire or provide more employment opportunities. Many tourism businesses undertake regular Downsizing151

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downsizing as a strategy to cope with seasonality. For example, the tourism industry in a hotel or destination needs to adpot a temporary strategy to hire different levels of part-time employees for service quality in the off-season or busy season.     CHC

  Drive tourism Travel for leisure purposes using motorized passenger transport by road (Prideaux and Carson, 2010), usually excluding travel in buses and coaches for large groups. The term has become particularly prevalent in places where access is sought to remote locations (Fig. D7) but it should be noted that it also represents the experience of the form of transport. The motor vehicle has been described as an extension of home. This applies to those that own or rent their vehicles such as motor homes. People relax in the enclosed space and this influences travel behaviours, leading to day trips, weekend breaks and short stays as an alternative to being at home in addition to longer periods touring or even wintering overseas. Enjoyment comes from the travelling and observations made, without necessarily having close contact with the natural features of the places visited. Using a car for tourism and leisure is now the dominant form of transport in the developed world. This mode of travel has become affordable partly because of public policies and the availability of (relatively) cheap fuel. While there are rules of the road, technological advances in production of a wide range of motorized vehicles, has allowed a spontaneity and flexibility to the travel experience. Car manufacturers

Fig. D7.  Drive tourism, Uluru, Australia (Tiffany Low). 152  Drive tourism

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also build on the notion of the travel experience being enhanced by their brands and encourage the use of backdrops and holiday packages for their cars usage. Improved infrastructure creates access, and in the UK organizations like the Automobile Association (AA) encouraged drive tourism and touring by endorsing and suggesting places to stay en route either in hotels or for those towing caravans or camping. It has been suggested that interactions at destinations is different in owned vehicles, often fostering greater familiarity and more personal relationships. Drive tourism has also contributed significantly to local economies in places like Arizona, through purchases of essentials like fuel. However the environmental impacts of drive tourism may be considerable. JF

  Dutch disease A situation of reduced competitiveness due to an appreciating currency. Initially used to describe the economic consequences of the 1959 discovery of offshore natural gas fields in the Netherlands, the ‘Dutch disease’ caused a rise in the value of the Dutch currency, making exports of manufactured goods and service sector industries, including inbound tourism, less competitive in international markets. The concept provides an explanation of natural resource exploitation triggering ‘de-industrialization’, or a decline in non-tradable sectors. It could be also caused by non-extractive industries such as advanced technologies, large-scale aid flows or foreign direct investments into a country. The relationship between ‘Dutch disease’ and tourism has typically revolved around the impact of foreign direct investment in developments such as major resorts and other infrastructure projects in less-developed countries. SN

Dutch disease153

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E   Earth Summit A United Nations conference held in 1992. The ‘Earth Summit’ is officially titled the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) and was convened in Rio de Janeiro as an outcome of one of the proposals of the Brundtland Report. Its significance for the environmental movement is emphasized by it being the largest gathering of heads of governments for any type of international conference up to that time. The official title of the conference emphasizes recognition of the symbiotic relationship between the environment and development. Despite many criticisms of the summit as greenwashing, its global media coverage raised public environmental consciousness of the challenges faced by global society. A range of conventions were also adopted, including the Framework Convention on Climate Change, which was the forerunner to the Kyoto Protocol, and Agenda 21 that emphasizes a ‘bottom-up’ approach to sustainable development centred upon the participation of communities, citizens and non-governmental organizations. AH

 EarthCheck A benchmarking, environmental management and certification programme for the tourism industry. It helps a range of industry sectors to monitor environmental, sociocultural and economic impacts in several key performance areas, including greenhouse gas emissions reporting. The environmental management system component is based largely on the ISO 14001 standard, however the programme also covers the social and economic dimension and may thus be understood as a tool for corporate social responsibility. Performance is measured against industry best practices in comparable operations in the respective sector. After the completion of such benchmarking, continuous improvements lead to certification. Depending on the classification of the operation in view of its risks, independent, third-party audits are an additional requirement for certification. The EarthCheck brand is affiliated with EC3 Global, which offers consulting services in fields such as destination planning and marketing, risk management and various sustainability solutions for enterprises, destinations and communities. CB

 Ecocamping A non-governmental organization (NGO) based in Germany that certifies ecofriendly camping sites through an environmentally friendly management system. Ecocamping 154 

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focuses not only on sustainability, but is also committed to the systematic improvement of quality services, environmental protection and safety for its partners. Ecocamping offers training for campsite owners in Europe to adopt the Ecocamping label. In addition, the NGO also provides consulting services to other stakeholders in tourism such as hotels, restaurants or transport carriers. The Ecocamping management approach focuses on maintaining a clean environment, providing benefits for customers, working with partners to improve their image, reducing operational costs and maximizing benefits, improving strategic planning efforts, supporting human resource management and operational safety. The organization provides an integrated approach towards comprehensive management. TTH  Ecocamping www.ecocamping.net

 Ecocentric The view that all elements of nature have intrinsic worth and humans must live in harmony with nature. Ecocentrics believe humans have simple material needs, the earth’s resources are finite and the preservation of nature is more important than consumerism. It is a view considered to be in contrast with the dominant worldview, where humans have dominance over nature and the natural environment is a resource to be exploited. GW

 Ecochic Luxury tourism enterprises with above-average, or at least heavily advertised, attention to environmental design and technology (see Adaptive architecture). The term ecochic is little used either in academic research or in popular conversation, occuring principally in the pages of upmarket travel magazines. There are certainly game-watching lodges that qualify both as ecochic and as conservation tourism, but there are also many that qualify as one or the other, but not both. Despite its derivation, ecochic seems to be an Anglophone rather than Francophone term. Perhaps paradoxically, the Italian literature seems to use the English term ‘ecoluxury’ instead. In either case, the defining features are chic or luxury first, eco- second. Clearly, this introduces a significant risk of greenwashing. Perhaps in consequence, tourism enterprises promoting themselves as ecochic may be particularly keen to obtain eco-awards and eco-certificates, whose logos can then be used in marketing. See also Certification, Ecolodge RB

 Ecoclub A social network and portal specializing in ecological and socially just tourism. Founded in 1999 in Athens, Greece, members mainly comprise individual ecotourism Ecoclub155

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practitioners, academics and students, as well as ecolodge proprietors. The website offers various specialist resources, including worldwide vacancy and consultancy opportunities, thematic and geographical directories of ecotourism-related services, and an alternative rating system for ecolodges. AP  Ecoclub ecoclub.com

 Ecoguide A tour guide for nature-based tourism (Fig. E1). Ecoguide is a commercially wellused term but there is little consensus on a definition. In Australia, guides that have worked in the industry for a period of time or have a formal guiding qualification can be assessed and certified as ecoguides through Ecotourism Australia. This is a unique program that allows guides to gain recognition and endorsement beyond generic guiding skills (e.g. group management, communication skills, occupational health and safety and risk management) for ecotourism specific tours. These ecotourism-specific skills include planning and implementing minimal-­ impact practices and delivering an authentic cultural experience with respect and sensitivity. CO

Fig. E1.  Ecoguide, Preah Shianouk Ream National Park, Cambodia (Carl Cater). 156Ecoguide

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Case study: Wild Scotland’s Wilderness Guide Training Programme A recognition that guides do not always have the additional non-technical skills required to function in a highly competitive service/experience led environment such as tourism led the Scottish Wildlife & Adventure Tourism Association (Wild Scotland) to set up the Wilderness Guide Training Programme in 2012. Nature-based tourism businesses identified a lack of structured and coherent training for guides around the non-technical areas of knowledge and awareness in adventure and nature-based tourism. There was therefore a need to develop high-quality guides who would be sought after by any guiding operation both in the UK and internationally. Training would focus on soft skills which are either unavailable or not considered relevant elsewhere, in a structured modular training programme. The programme aims to: prepare guides to facilitate and inspire clients about cultural heritage, natural history and conservation; increase awareness of sustainable tourism best practice leading to improved practice in the field; increase awareness of what constitutes sustainable tourism and communication of this to clients and other partners; recognize and value the important role of the informal curriculum that exists in adventure and nature-based tourism experiences; and create guiding perspective and practice, which offers the highest level of customer experience (Wild Scotland, 2014). CIC   Wild Scotland’s Wilderness Guide Training Programme www.wild-scotland.org.uk/industry/courses-training-qualifications

 

Ecolabel

A means of award or certification that provides recognition that a tourism-related business has taken steps to meet predetermined criteria (established by the awarding body) relating to the sustainability of business operations and practices (Fig. E2). As there are no regulatory limits that determine if tourism-related businesses are sustainable in their operations and practices, there has been the emergence of over 100 ecolabels across the world. With significant debate surrounding determining appropriate, measureable and feasible criteria, it is a very difficult area to regulate with the consequence that many ecolabels create confusion and uncertainty amongst both industry and tourists alike. However, examples of globally recognized labels include: The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC), Tourism for Tomorrow, Green Globe and Blue Flag awards. See also Greenwashing CS

 Eco-leisure Ecologically oriented leisure. A set of activities based on contact with natural environments that includes sports, science, educative or even tourist visits. Using the complexity of our ecosystems and setting people close to the natural world, these onsite experiences have a high potential for producing educational results that encourage people to achieve more sustainable ways of living. Eco-leisure activities can be Eco-leisure157

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Fig. E2.  Ecolabels in Wales (Brian Garrod).

self-developed and support structures that can be designed to reach specific groups. These may include visitors to natural areas or can involve environmental activities for students, children or even families. Heritage interpretation, interpretative visits, visitor centres and other recreational or entertainment-based environmental activities have a significant role in this. This concept is primarily expected to apply to local communities; its development into a more tourist-oriented perspective may achieve outcomes linked to the ecotourism concept. PEM

 Ecolodge An environmentally friendly type of accommodation that also has economic benefits for the surrounding community. Although there is a clear trend towards environmentally friendly accommodation there seems to be little consensus on the criteria that classify an ecolodge. The term emerged in the early 1990s and was linked to the phenomenon of ecotourism. Various perceptions and definitions of the term ecolodge exist in the belief of consumers and the academic literature. The spectrum ranges from less specific descriptions such as ‘accommodation for ecotourists who are seeking an intimate contact with nature’ to more clearly defined ones that make reference for example to their purpose, architecture, history, size and surroundings (Fig. E3). Metha et al. (2002, p. 2) proposed a comprehensive definition stating that: 158Ecolodge

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Fig. E3.  Ecolodge architecture, CHICOP, Zanzibar (Erlet Cater).

an ecolodge is a 2–75 room low-impact nature-based financially sustainable accommodation facility that helps protect sensitive neighbouring areas; involves and helps benefit local communities; offers tourists an interpretative and interactive participatory experience; provides a spiritual communion with nature and culture and is planned, designed, constructed and operated in an environmentally and socially sensitive manner.

CO

 

Ecological footprinting

A technique for assessing the environmental impact of a particular activity or location (also known as eco-footprinting) that is closely related to carbon footprinting. It is defined as the total area of productive land that would be required to provide the resource consumption and waste assimilation requirements of the activity or location. By converting the various environmental impacts into the same units of measure, known as ‘area units’, the technique provides a single, easily comprehensible measure of the sustainability of the activity or location in question. The footprint is then compared with a benchmark, known as the ‘fair earthshare’. This is the average amount of productive land available to each person, calculated by dividing the total amount of pro­ ductive land available on the planet by the global population. In 2003 this was about 1.8 gha (global hectares) per annum. Ecological footprinting159

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Using fair earthshare as a benchmark not only enables the ecological footprint to be put into perspective but also facilitates direct comparison with other activities or locations. The ecological footprint can also be used as a practical tool to develop improvement scenarios. For example, various footprints can be calculated according to varying assumptions about the way in which it is produced and consumed, thereby allowing the most environmentally friendly alternative to be identified. Ecological footprinting has most often been applied either at the global level or at the level of particular countries or regions within countries. However it is increasingly being used to assess the sustainability of particular activities. The technique has been applied in the analysis of the environmental impacts of tourism, where it is commonly known as ‘holiday footprinting’. A study undertaken by WWF-UK (2002) calculated ecological footprints for two 2-week holidays chosen from a Thomson’s brochure: a family holiday from the UK to Majorca, staying in a four-star self-catering apartment; and a couple’s holiday from the UK to Cyprus staying in a four-star hotel. The study calculated that the former accounted for 0.37 gha and the latter 0.93 gha: equivalent to spending 20% or 50% of their fair earthshare in just 4% of the year. Improvement scenarios were then developed for each of the holidays, which identified practical and effective actions for reducing the ecological footprint of each holiday. Ecological footprinting is by no means without its critics. While the technique is capable of taking in a wide range of environment impacts, the economic impacts and sociocultural impacts of tourism are effectively ignored. The technique is not therefore capable of making a full assessment of an activity’s sustainability implications. Critics also point out that the technique is only appropriate for assessing the sustainability of existing activities. BG

 e-commerce An abbreviation for electronic commerce, or the buying and selling of products or services over electronic systems namely via the Internet or any computer networking infrastructure. e-commerce relies on the use of data and fund transfer technologies, which include electronic funds transfer, supply-chain management, Internet marketing, online transaction processing, electronic data interchange (EDI), inventory management systems and automated data-collection systems. e-commerce generally encompasses three stages of transaction: pre-transaction (designing of the website and other platforms for carrying out the business); during transaction (payment validation and processing); and post-transaction (customer relationship management). See also Relationship marketing VNS

  Economic growth The growth of real output in the economy over time. It is usually measured in terms of an increase in real gross domestic product (GDP). Tourism’s ability to contribute to economic growth (the so-called tourism-led-growth hypothesis) has long been recognized, yet it is also criticized. Indeed, when the first visitors come to (what is to be) 160e-commerce

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a destination, costs are incurred by the local community, without the benefit of any purpose-built tourism structures to satisfy the needs of those tourists. Certainly, tourism businesses do contribute to economic growth, yet earnings in this first stage are typically not substantial. As the number of visitors and consequential opportunities for tourism businesses increase, tourism development is promoted and supported with investment. However, due to the time lag between the invested inputs and generated outputs in the form of tourism earnings, the country’s economic growth rate slows down. For this reason, other benefits of tourism development are promoted, such as improvements in the host population’s quality of life in terms of new infrastructure or the opportunity for cultural exchanges with visitors, and the multiplier effect of tourism consumption, where the indirect effects of tourism consumption on non-tourism sectors are stressed. A new stage of tourism development is reached when tourism’s contribution to GDP increases on account of the benefits of the past investment and due to current innovations and improvements in the quality and range of tourism products. Ideally, higher tourism GDP is achieved through an increase of daily tourism consumption per visitor, with the number of visitors being unchanged. Yet, in many cases, a rise in tourism GDP is achieved by increasing the number of visitors by promoting mass tourism and the related advantages of large-scale production. However, such an emphasis in volume might lead to social and environmental damage that, in turn, expressed in monetary values, would decrease the tourism GDP. There is much evidence to suggest that many destinations have attempted to overcome their lack of financial resources with the help of resources from governments, international organizations and foreign capital. There is no doubt that foreign direct investment gives rise to extra income and growth but, at the same time, it unfortunately generates leakages. This is because profits are remitted to the parent company, more foreign staff are usually employed and more imported goods may be used to support the tourism business. At the same time, it is evident that the economically favourable third stage of tourism development may not be reached as easily as theory suggests. A destination's ability to increase the daily tourism consumption per visitor without much new capital investment depends on many factors. For example, the host economy’s level of development is an important factor. Further, developed countries may develop other, non-tourism sectors that make a greater contribution to overall economic growth than is possible through tourism. Nevertheless, for some less-developed countries or regions, tourism may remain the best economic growth opportunity and contributor to poverty alleviation. TAM

  Economic impact Positive and negative economic outcomes as a result of tourism development. Tourism development is dependent upon substantial labour resources to operate and support the industry, and it is this employment that is generally acknowledged as the most important economic impact. For example the direct economic benefits of ecotourism development accrue from creating employment opportunities, such as interpretation services for natural and cultural history, accommodation and local food. Furthermore, local residents can be trained to produce the best ecotourism guides. Therefore, Economic impact161

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the employment opportunities thus derived help to increase their economic resources and revenues. Further, local people involved in the ecotourism sector can sell local food or drink, handicrafts (Fig. E4), accommodation and transportation services with particular emphasis on interpretive services (Wearing and Neil, 2009; Hong et al., 2003). In addition, ecotourism is located mostly in remote destinations that need to invest in and work on improving relevant infrastructure facilities, such as electricity and hydroelectric power, road construction and so forth. These facilities allow local communities to develop economic opportunities. For example, according to Sirakaya and McLellan (1998); ecotourism, or tourism to natural areas, continues to be of interest to tourism professionals because it is considered a sustainable alternative tourism to mass tourism or other forms of economic development (see also Jacobson and Robles, 1992; Prosser, 1992; Buckley, 1994; Lee et al., 1998). Thus the indirect economic benefits from ecotourism are present in the creation of more lucrative economic development for nearby areas. Researchers have used input/output-modelling techniques to account for the indirect and induced consequences of the multiplier effect (Weaver and Oppermann, 2000). However, ecotourism located at a particular destination can attract mass tourism if the wildlife-based viewing phenomenon has significant cachet (Weaver, 2001b). Other indirect benefits are that the funding for supporting and protecting cultural heritage and natural areas can be extracted from ecotourism (Weaver, 2001c). In contrast, Weaver (2001c) points out that there are negative impacts on the purchase of land, establishment of infrastructure and services such as interpretation trails, visitor centres and parking facilities in the early developmental stage. For an ongoing

Fig. E4.  Economic opportunity for local gemstone sellers, Shigatse, Tibet (Carl Cater). 162

Economic impact

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period, the main expenses comprise maintenance of land and facilities, labour costs and marketing (Weaver, 2001c). The cost factors depend on the size and distribution of developments. Lindberg et al. (1996) used an economic perspective in an examination of an ecotourism development case in Belize to establish whether residents there met the economic benefits requirement. The intention was to test three ecotourism objectives: ‘generation of financial support for protected area management; generation of local economic benefits; and generation of local support for conservation’ (Lindberg et al., 1996, p. 543). Although ecotourism brings financial support for protected areas, it can produce financial costs as well. Unfortunately, most of the negative ecological or sociocultural impacts in Belize did not include an evaluation of financial costs. Therefore, the analysis of the impact of ecotourism developed in the local area could not produce an understanding of whether or not positive impacts were generated overall. CHC

  Economic impact assessment See Impact assessment

  Economic regeneration The development of business opportunities in economically distressed areas in order to increase employment and business activities. Economic regeneration is a response to economic decline, social and economic changes and environmental destruction. One of the aims of economic regeneration is to encourage, support and assist local people in creating new jobs and wealth. Other aims of economic regeneration are to increase jobs, skill levels, enterprise in deprived areas and community confidence. Meeting these goals requires specific programmes for skills and training, business establishment and supporting projects, and other programmes in growth areas such as tourism, culture and creativity projects. By providing employment, economic regeneration improves the employment rate and helps to build a stronger local economy. In theory economic regeneration aims to complete social and environmental regeneration projects, as well as to develop sustainable and inclusive communities, and to compete against social exclusion, although in practice not all of these goals may be realized. See also Gentrification FO

 

Economic valuation

The process of assigning quantitative values to the goods and services provided by environmental resources, whether market prices are present or not. Economic valuation of a natural resource or an area aims to determine its socio-economic value for all its alternative uses in monetary terms. It can be used to support decision-making, and its methods are used to calculate total economic value, including use values as activities and services as well as intangible non-use values that are absent in private market transactions. Cost–benefit analysis (CBA) generally uses such valuations. Economic valuation163

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­ dditional methods used in economic valuation are market prices, replacement cost A and preventive expenditure, proxy/substitute products, opportunity cost, travel cost, hedonic pricing and contingent valuation methods. FO

  Economy of scale The relationship between a firm’s production and long-run costs. Also referred to as returns to scale, firms enjoy internal economies of scale when a given percentage increase in all inputs leads to a larger percentage increase in the firm’s output. This reduces the firm’s long-run average costs as output increases. The magnitude of economies of scale can be important in determining the size of firms in a tourism sector. In addition to experiencing internal economies of scale, a firm may also be the beneficiary of external economies of scale. These arise for groups of firms or a whole industry rather than an individual firm. External economies of scale refer to the cost-saving benefits of firms being located or organized closely together, thus reducing the costs of production for all the firms involved. LD

 Ecosystem A community of plants and animals living in a particular environment, such as a pond or a forest, and includes physical and chemical components such as soil and water that support the organisms. PH

  Ecosystem services The role of biotic and abiotic components of the landscape in creating a healthy environment. Any ecosystem provides a service as a process that provides something of value. These services provide positive benefits to human beings and may be large or small and direct or indirect. There are four major categories of ecosystem services: provisioning, regulating, supporting and cultural services (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA), 2005). A provisioning service provides a benefit extracted from nature such as food and food security, drinking water, and medicines or pharmaceuticals. Regulating services include carbon sequestration, climate regulation, pollination and erosion control. Supporting services are nutrient cycling, the water cycle, soil formation, photosynthesis and primary production. Cultural services are non-material benefits of the environment to people such as art, spirituality, well-being, discovery, recreation and tourism. Ecosystem services are negatively impacted by runoff, pollution, invasive species, overharvest, habitat destruction, erosion, deforestation and human development. Economists and others have attempted to value ecosystem services at various dollar amounts but the complexity of the services makes economic valuation difficult. PH 164

Economy of scale

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 Ecotourism A sustainable form of nature-based tourism. A well-established but still poorly defined term, ecotourism means different things to different people. Definitions by NGOs, governments, research organizations and multilateral agencies such as the United Nations have coined a wide variety of different wordings, but most of them share four principal features. The first is a nature-based product, attraction or setting: ecotourism is a subsector of the broader outdoor nature and adventure tourism industry. The second is active management for minimum environmental impact, often referred to under the broad heading of sustainability. The third is an educational component, so that ecotourists expect to learn something about the natural environment as well as gazing upon it. The fourth is a contribution to conservation of the natural environment, e.g. by changing land-use practices or funding operational conservation management. If the contribution to conservation is sufficiently significant to outweigh negative environmental impacts, the much more restrictive term conservation tourism applies. Definitions vary as to the degree to which local communities may benefit from ecotourism. However, this has arguably been one of the major driving forces behind the adoption of the concept, with international lending and bilateral development agencies such as the World Bank, USAID, DFID (UK) and GTZ (Germany) focusing their attention on ecotourism as one of the few options open to rural communities to develop natural resource uses that are sustainable and, fundamentally, as a means of enhancing local livelihoods. The high ground claimed by ecotourism, in terms of its contribution to development, is that, in principle, it offers much enhanced prospects for local involvement compared with conventional tourism. Major international environmental non-governmental organizations placed ecotourism projects high on their agenda, and this degree of universal attention was ultimately reflected in the United Nations declaration of 2002 as the International Year of Ecotourism (IYE). This designation flew in the face of the fact that, despite extravagant claims to the contrary concerning its global significance (see, for example, the various estimates cited by TIES) the World Tourism Organization estimated that ecotourism constituted only 2–4% of global tourism (WTO, 2002). Early approaches towards community involvement in ecotourism were largely tokenist, involving manipulative, passive, consultative or for-material-reward participation, none of which bring enduring effects on people’s lives (Pretty, 1995). The Quebec Declaration, however, stresses the need for much more active participation in decision making right from the outset. Hence the last decade has seen the development of many examples of community-based ecotourism (CBET), but the most successful of these are those that have moved slowly to allow communities to articulate their vision of inclusive development effectively (Reimer and Walter, 2013). Much has been made of the potential for ecotourism to empower marginalized elements of communities, particularly women (Scheyvens, 2000). However, in their recent study of community-­ based ecotourism development in Cambodia, Reimer and Walter (2013) identified the significant extra workloads placed on female community members in the operation of homestays and guesthouses relative to males engaged in ecotourism. Some industry stakeholders use the term ecotourism in a much broader sense, essentially synonymous with nature-based tourism more generally. Even where the other three criteria are recognized, there is enormous variation in how they are interpreted Ecotourism165

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in practice. Many rather minor measures are promoted as sustainability or responsibility. Most tours have tour guides or leaders, but there are enormous differences in the levels of environmental interpretation they can provide. Even contributions to conservation are claimed by some enterprises on a very tenuous basis, such as the possibility of political changes in previous clients. Such claims are likely to remain widespread as long as it costs nothing to make them, there is no penalty for doing so, and they are seen to provide even a small potential market advantage. There have been many attempts to improve the reliability of such claims through methods such as eco-certification, but these have not proved very successful. Overall, the lack of clear differentiation between tourism products, enterprises and destinations that label themselves as ecotourism, and those which do not, dilutes and weakens the value of the term for businesses and customers alike. This is commonplace for many ecolabels (Fig. E2), which reflect broad social goals rather than the quality of the product for the individual consumer. There are several published compilations of ecotourism case studies, some of them academic (Buckley, 2003) and others by tourism industry associations and multilateral tourism organizations. Only some of these compilations, however, applied screening criteria to separate valid from unjustified claims; and of these, even fewer tested those claims through direct audits. Currently, therefore, while we can have confidence that there are at least some tourism companies that do indeed meet all the criteria for ecotourism, we do not have reliable data on the overall proportions of tourism enterprises that meet one or more criteria for ecotourism, nor on how well the criteria are met. While many companies offer nature-based products with skilled guides and at least some measures to reduce environmental footprints, relatively few meet the more stringent criterion of contributing to conservation (Buckley, 2010). Tourism companies such as andBeyond, Wilderness Safaris, Taj Safaris and Great Plains Conservation do indeed make significant contributions, but it remains to be seen whether their approaches can be replicated successfully in other continents. One key consideration is that there are quite significant regional and cultural differences in public understanding of ecotourism and analogous terms. In many countries, ecotourism is perceived by tourism enterprises as a confusing and less marketable synonym for long-established terms in the broader nature and adventure sector. Examples include outfitters in the USA and safaris in Africa. In other countries, which do not have such strong prior traditions, ecotourism has been adopted more broadly, but with local cultural modifications. An example is reported from China, where the local term shengtai luyou translates literally as ecology tourism, but in fact is perceived within China as including broader cultural and health-related components, in addition to environmental aspects. A more critical perspective on ecotourism, as constructed by the West, argues that it attempts ‘to force people everywhere into the same cultural, economic, and political mould’, which ‘is bound to generate insecurity, resentment, conflict, and even ecological degradation’ (Vivanco, 2002, p. 26). This question of ethnocentricity may even create schisms between seemingly consensual viewpoints. Hinch (2001) surmises that, at first sight, the ecocentric world view of ‘true’ ecotourists should be congruent with that of indigenous cultures who tend to see themselves as being one with the land. However, he highlights potential discord should the ecotourists witness the hunting or trapping of species that may be an essential component of traditional livelihoods. It is also undeniable that traditional cultures frequently constitute an important component 166Ecotourism

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of the composite ecotourism attraction for the Western visitor. The view that outsiders may have of traditional lifestyles may also be viewed as patronizing. In the same way that anti-developmentalists romanticize the lifestyles of indigenous peoples (Corbridge, 1995) so, too, may Western-constructed ecotourism assume an artificial, ‘zooified’ lifestyle on local populations, simultaneously assuming that the poor are happy as they are. Another aspect of misappropriation is that ecotourism appropriates and commodifies both nature and culture (Fig. E5). This is problematic for three major reasons. First, indigenous peoples voice their concern that outside interests have no right to expropriate local resources in this way; second, as Hinch (2001, p. 347) points out ‘Indigenous people have a much deeper connection with the land than non-indigenous peoples. Because they do not see the land as a possession, they are very wary of treating it as a commodity, even in the purportedly benign context of ecotourism’. The complex nature/culture relationship means that cultural erosion may result in the disintegration of social mechanisms governing resource use and allocation. Further, it is rarely indigenous populations who develop and own ecotourism development, as there are many cases of in migration of outsiders who facilitate and benefit from ecotourism development. Witness for example the description of marginalization of indigenous inhabitants in Lombok, Indonesia (Schellhorn, 2010) or the appropriation of Dai culture by Hani incomers for tourism purposes in Xishuangbanna, Yunnan, China (Walter, 2004). Absence of cultural identity may lead to an individualistic approach to property rights that eventually leads to resource commercialization. The inevitable commodification of nature and culture with Western-envisaged ecotourism, whereby a financial value is attached to natural and cultural resources, may have a serious knock-on effect. This is that, once a financial value has been attached in this way, should ecotourism present an unattractive investment prospect because of market disincentives, or even fail because of unfair competitive advantage, there is the clear danger that ecotourism entrepreneurs will look towards other more financially advantageous investment options with reduced consideration of environmental and cultural impacts, the expectations that are thus raised might push local populations into other, less sustainable, livelihood options. Furthermore, we are frequently talking of the commodification of natural and cultural resources by outside interests which reinforce Western hegemony. Ecotourism remains a valuable term despite these difficulties. It summarizes approaches that are indeed taken by a small number of leading tourism enterprises, and which can provide targets and success stories for policymakers and regulators aiming to improve the social and environmental performance of the tourism sector more broadly. It is also a useful shorthand term in the study of tourism, encompassing a range of research approaches on the environmental impacts, monitoring, management, performance and economics of the tourism sector. See also The International Ecotourism Society, Urban ecotourism RB and EC

Further reading Buckley, R.C. (2003) Case Studies in Ecotourism. CAB International, Wallingford, UK. Buckley, R.C. (2009) Ecotourism: Principles and Practices. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.

Ecotourism167

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Fig. E5.  Ecotourism frog pavillion and interpretation centre, Taomi, central Taiwan (Carl Cater).

  Ecotourism Australia A peak national body for the ecotourism industry in Australia. The incorporated non-profit organization was formed in 1991. According to Ecotourism Australia, ecotourism is considered to be ‘ecologically sustainable tourism with a primary focus on experiencing natural areas that fosters environmental and cultural understanding, appreciation and conservation’. The organization is well known for its Nature and Ecotourism Accreditation Program (NEAP) and EcoGuide Certification Program. CO   Ecotourism Australia www.ecotourism.org.au

  Ecotourism Society See The International Ecotourism Society

 Ecovillage A small-scale, goal-oriented, usually intentional community, focusing on implementing ecological principles through ecological building, alternative energy, 168

Ecotourism Australia

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Fig. E6.  Ecovillage visitor centre, Taomi village, central Taiwan (Carl Cater).

permaculture, self-sufficiency, education, consensus decision-making, non-­hierarchical structures and cooperative living (Fig. E6). With roots in 19th century utopian socialism, early 20th century pacifist and 1960s intentional communities, notably Findhorn in 1962, today there are ecovillages in over 70 countries, most in rural areas although a few are in inner cities (Jackson, 2004) and many of which belong to the Global Ecovillage Network (GEN), with over 570 villages. Many ecovillages accept ecotourists and volunteer tourists. GEN was established after a meeting at Findhorn ecovillage in Scotland, in 1995, also the seat of the influential Findhorn Foundation. Other famous ecovillages and eco-communities include Gaviotas in Colombia, Zegg in Germany and Auroville in India. AP   Global Ecovillage Network gen.ecovillage.org   Findhorn Foundation www.findhorn.org   Friends of Gaviotas www.friendsofgaviotas.org

 EDEN See European Destinations of Excellence EDEN169

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 Education The acquisition and provision of knowledge and skills. Education is critical for empowerment and for community residents to determine whether they are able or willing to join in the decision-making process. ‘Education theory argues that knowledge is power, and advocates of community empowerment contend that increased levels of community and individual awareness about tourism lead to levels of all types of empowerment’ (Friedman, 1996, cited in Timothy, 2007, p. 209). Empowerment of communities therefore requires effective education and training programs, often with the involvement of scholars and other experts (Scheyvens, 2002; Sofield, 2003; Telfer, 2003; Tosun and Timothy, 2003; Timothy, 2007), such as those provided by NGOs. Local residents must acquire a mastery of professional-level concepts and knowledge of the surrounding ecology, and the skills to convey this understanding for the environmental education of tourists (Niesenbaum and Gorka, 2001). Business skills are also vital in tourism, for use in areas such as home-stays and catering, operation, and management (Cole, 2005). Above all, education and training programs are critical in the success of community-based tourism development. Stronza and Gordillo (2008) note that opportunities for educational training programs could catalyse personal growth, give people working as guides greater interaction skills and confidence to deal with tourism problems, and in turn create new skills and ways of thinking. This may in turn lead to producing novel ideas about tourism management projects for community residents. See also Environmental education, Experiential education, Interpretation CHC

  Education for Sustainability (EfS) An approach to sustainability education that embraces participation and mutual learning. In contrast to education about sustainability, education for sustainability moves beyond the idea of instructor as expert and relies on a participative and reflective approach to develop understanding of sustainable practice with local context. EfS often uses action research processes to help academics, communities and businesses to develop their own interpretations of sustainability. EfS may also be referred to as Education for Sustainable Development (ESD). EfS approaches were adopted by the Australian Research Institute in Education for Sustainability (ARIES) as well as by the Higher Education Academy in the UK (Atfield and Kemp, 2013). CIC

  Educational tourism A form of alternative tourism in which a person travels with the objective to learn as either the primary or a secondary purpose of the trip, regardless if the motivation to learn is driven either internally (learning for personal fulfilment) or externally (learning for academic credit). The Grand Tour attracted diplomats and scholars to cultural centres across Europe for educational experiences during the 17th and 18th centuries, which is considered to be one of the earliest documented forms of tourism. Educational 170Education

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tourism is a growing, complex market that has been conceptualized in various ways. According to Ritchie et al. (2003, p. 18), educational tourism is ‘tourist activity undertaken by those who are undertaking an overnight vacation and those who are undertaking an excursion for whom education and learning is a primary or secondary part of their trip’. As such, they suggested that educational tourism may be separated into two travel markets. The first of these identifies those who take part in general travel for education, where education or learning is a key component of the tourism experience. The second is that of university students or school children, where education and learning is the primary objective and the tourist experience is a resulting aspect. Both of these groups are considered tourists and both have direct tourism-related impacts and needs. Educational tourism can also be defined as ‘a program in which participants travel to a location as a group with the primary purpose of engaging in a learning experience directly related to the location’ (Bodger, 1998, p. 28). Gibson (1998) provides a description of educational tourists who have been identified as those who participate in a study tour or attend workshops to learn new skills or to improve existing ones while on vacation. Educational tourists can also be motivated to travel without the enticement of academic credit, but to enhance their knowledge for personal fulfilment. Common types of learning experiences include learning a foreign language, studying local traditions or learning how to make local handicrafts (Fig. E7). See also Volunteer tourism LDU

Fig. E7.  Basketweaving demonstration, Lombok, Indonesia (Carl Cater). Educational tourism171

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 EMAS See European Eco-Management and Audit Scheme

  Emissions (carbon emissions) The release or discharge of something. In relation to carbon, it would be the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, gas and oil, which in turn leads to the release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Carbon emissions result in an imbalance in the natural carbon cycle and a surplus of carbon in the atmosphere, which contributes to global warming, also known as climate change. As a result of global climate governance structures such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), programmes to reduce carbon emissions have increased in number. Although there is a move for more sustainable sources of alternative energy, fossil fuels are the primary source of the world’s energy. Systems such as the Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS) have been put in place by some countries to monitor and regulate industry-based emissions. Carbon footprint calculators have also proliferated. These offer individuals and businesses the opportunity to see their own contributions and discover ways to become more sustainable. Tourism-­ based carbon emissions are predominantly focused on travel and transport, although the wider industry, including accommodation and attraction businesses, are taking some steps towards more sustainable behaviours. Certification schemes have emerged for tourism businesses to promote their environmentally friendly strategies, often including their carbon emissions. Many tourism businesses have set aspirational targets of becoming carbon-neutral; however, the calculation of neutrality has been widely critiqued. DH

 Emotion Pleasant or unpleasant feelings or a mental state with physiological, cognitive and behavioral components. Emotions may be evoked by internal body states, such as hunger, or by appraisal of scenarios fed by environmental stimuli (e.g. smelling food), motivating behavior aimed at maintaining the body’s internal milieu at its ideal state of well-being. Emotion is organized in the limbic system of the human brain, performing the evaluation of any perception in order to enable orientation. This concept is crucial to understand the motivation of the post-consumer society – for example, a LOHAS (Lifestyle of Health and Sustainability) – to gain sustainable and healthy products and for ‘authentic experience’ as a strategy for maximizing good emotions as an indicator for ‘good life’. Therefore, strategies to promote sustainable forms of tourism have to take into account the tourist’s search for emotional well-being as a crucial condition for success. HF

 Empowerment The practice of providing individuals or groups with the power to make decisions about personal or collective situations. There has been much written about the importance 172EMAS

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of empowerment in ensuring a healthy and productive workplaces and communities. In recent years, scholars such as Lashley (1995) and Chow et al. (2006) have written about the benefits to hospitality organizations of empowering employees. Hancer and George (2003) have described empowerment as the self-generated exercising of judgement by staff, with staff being given authority to make everyday decisions. One of the main proponents of using empowerment to generate positive feelings in employees is Lashley (1995, 1999, 2000, 2001). Lashley (2000) claims that to make empowerment happen, employees should be more involved in the management process. He claims that this form of empowerment should include ‘some development of personal efficacy and engagement in service performance, but which involves limited decision making apart from that required of their role in service performance’ (p.  791). Jones and Davies (1991) further claim that the idea of empowering employees is to encourage them to be responsible for their own performance and its development. Empowerment will also encourage staff to best utilize their skills and strive to increase their skill set and it has been claimed that by empowering employees, organizations will find that the level of client satisfaction will increase and this increase in customer satisfaction will lead to additional sales and improved profits (Plunkett and Fournier, 1991). Lashley (1999) and Cook (1994) claim that empowerment is one of the best strategies to help reduce labour turnover. Barbee and Bott (1991) claim that empowered employees will take responsibility for the customer service encounter and respond more rapidly to the changing needs and tastes of customers and will deal more effectively with customer complaints. An organization that empowers employees will also enjoy higher staff morale and their employees will take responsibility for their own performance and its improvement (Barry, 1993). Empowerment is also vital in community-based tourism development, but may face barriers such as gender and politics of tourism. SR

 Enclaves Territories wholly surrounded by the territory of another entity. The concept was originally developed in geopolitics, but in today’s world it refers to a myriad of cases (Vinokurow, 2007), including: sovereign enclaves (e.g. the Vatican), hard territorial enclaves (surrounded by states with no sovereignty over them but with no direct connection to the mainland), soft enclaves (distinguished by language, economic, cultural, ethnic or religious differences) and non-territorial enclaves (which may be jurisdictional or administrative). The term is widely used within urban, migration and tourism studies, due to its implied notions of borderland, barrier and contact zone. In the context of tourism, the term refers to strongly enclosed spaces that are highly manipulated, surveilled and segregated. They may have various forms, sizes, functions, degrees of exclusivity and permeability, and may materialize in the form of a backpackers’ hostel or area (Fig. E8), a theme park, a cruise ship (see Cruise tourism), an offshore or free zone, an ethnic urban ghetto, a medieval town or, most commonly, an enclave resort (see Integrated resort, All-inclusive resort). While also found in mountainous, countryside, rural and insular environments (see Island tourism), enclave resorts are ubiquitous in coastal zones. Often perceived as the most appropriate form of development by politicians and large companies, especially in less-developed countries, Enclaves173

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Fig. E8.   The backpacker enclave of Kho San Road, Bangkok, Thailand (Carl Cater).

they are frequently operated by global capital and transnational organizations, associated with substantial overseas leakages of tourism earnings, lack of articulation with other domestic economic sectors, limited economic benefits in the host communities, low multiplier and spread effects, and widening spatial and social inequalities. Enclaves may reinforce enduring (neo)colonial (see Post-colonialism) social and spatial patterns built upon certain ideologies of consumption that regulate tourists’ performances. JSA

  End Child Prostitution in Asian Tourism (ECPAT) A global network of organizations working together to achieve the elimination of child prostitution, child pornography and the trafficking of children for sexual purposes. The network engages in research and campaigning activities to ‘encourage the world community to ensure that children everywhere enjoy their fundamental rights free and secure from all forms of commercial sexual exploitation’ (ECPAT, 2013). The network consists of a range of different organizations from large NGO coalitions through to small groups of individuals. Each covers a range of diverse issues relating to the sexual exploitation of children. Throughout the last two decades, ECPAT International has grown significantly in international presence from 17 groups in 1996, to 53 groups in 1999 and over 80 groups in 70 countries by 2007. ECPAT groups engage in a series of different activities from actively campaigning government for changes in 174

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the laws relating to child sex exploitation crimes and travelling sex offenders, to providing workshops and educational forums, technical support and information, as well as training and education for children who have been victims of sexual exploitation. See also Sex tourism CS   End Child Prostitution in Asian Tourism www.ecpat.net

  Endemic species A species that is restricted or located to a particular habitat, area or region in the word, but range can be variable. An endemic species is can be a site endemic, a national endemic (i.e. just found in one country such as Australia), a geographic range endemic (i.e. included neighbouring countries with similar habitats such as the Himalayas) or political region endemic (as in Central America). Endemic species could be an animal, a plant, a fungus or a micro-organism. Endemic species are often endangered species and may be part of biodiversity protection in a given environment. See also Native species CHC

 

Energy management

The planning and operation of energy-related consumption and production, ensuring that distribution and use of energy meets required environmental and economic objectives. These objectives include environmental concerns linked to environmental management, such as conservation and climate change mitigation. Cost effectiveness also plays a key part and has led to the focus on certain market-ready renewable energy technologies such as wind energy. It is important to involve tourists themselves in energy management strategies (Fig. E9). GD

Fig. E9.  Guest water consumption displayed on room TV monitor, Couran Cove, Australia (Erlet Cater). Energy management175

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  Entrance fees Entrance fees are also known as gate fees. This refers to a charge paid by a visitor for admission. The entrance fee is paid in exchange for services provided in a particular area. It is common in tourism destinations particularly protected areas, e.g. visitors at Moremi Game Reserve or Chobe National Park in Botswana pay entrance fees or gate fees when they visit these protected areas. Often entrance fees are differentially priced for local and foreign tourists. In Botswana citizens pay $1.25 while foreigners pay $20.00. JMB

 Environment Fundamentally, the sum of all living, or ‘biotic’, entities (e.g. plants, animals, fungi) and non-living, or ‘abiotic’, ones (e.g. water, soil, rock, weather variables). Together they form a system. Environment can be understood as including the entire world from ecosystems to biosphere, but also the human-built constructions as well. The environment encompasses our immediate and distant surroundings, and this can include the environment in which businesses operate at a local and/or global level. However, the term is most commonly used to denote a natural system (see Nature). In terms of philosophical or traditional approaches to understanding the environment, there are three prevailing approaches: environment as dominant, humans as dominant or a mutual dependence. It is important to note none are exclusive to one particular time period because how we think about the environment often varies depending upon where we live or the various cultural or political contexts in which we live, as opposed to just the chronological passage of time. Historically (and to some extent, currently), the environment was viewed as sacred, powerful and something beyond human control or management, as something distinctly separate from society. Many early societies revered nature and the environment and sometimes feared it. Attributes of the natural environment were given god-like or spiritual status. For example, Hawaiians believe(d) volcanic eruptions on the islands were caused by Pele: an unhappy goddess of fire. The Maori of New Zealand identify themselves through references to non-human elements of the environment, such as mountains and rivers (Holden, 2008). The environment has influenced the development of human societies through time. It can determine the most suitable place to establish a new settlement, for example. The philosophy of environmental determinism emerged from this viewpoint, proposing that human development and activity is shaped and controlled by the surrounding environment and related stimuli. While the environment influences human societies in a multitude of ways, it is continuously changing and some of this environmental change is induced by the human interactions with it. Indeed, imposition by humans on their surroundings has altered the environment enormously. The environment is mediated by human intervention, through societal processes and institutions such as government and religion. With the advancement of a Judeo-Christian tradition, human dominance of the natural environment became a widespread belief. Thus a second prevailing view towards the environment is one where human societies hold power over the environment (Singer, 1993). Humans have reshaped and altered the natural environment through exhaustive use of its resources to satisfy societal demands for particular goods and services (e.g. timber, 176

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fur, oil, food crops). Much of this demand and exploitation began as populations grew exponentially, as Thomas Malthus envisaged in 1798 (Ehrlich, 1968). With the expansion of capitalism and a globalization of the political economy, humanity’s relationship with the environment has resulted in this domineering approach, which has led to much exploitation and depletion of resources (Knox and Marston, 2004). As Europeans began colonizing other parts of the world, they extensively used the resources in those new environments (e.g. spices, teas, plants) (see Colonialism). In addition, over the last century the world has seen significant development: economically, politically, culturally, socially, technologically and environmentally. These developments have reshaped many facets of the environment as it has come under increasing pressure and stresses. Impacts include deforestation, ozone depletion, glacier retreats, desertification and a warming of the planet in general (IPCC, 2007a). Colonization and later capitalism saw the emergence of private property rights and what were collective ‘commons’ became sites of ownership. Instrumental or monetary value was placed on resources and often conflict occurred over environmental resources. A utilitarian tradition emerged, whereby environmental resources should be used for practical purposes, for the greater good of the majority (Connelly and Smith, 2003), and supporting the use of resources for profit-making or to support economic activity. Utilitarianism is anthropocentric at its core and therefore does not sit readily with conscious environmental ethics. Today, environmental resources are still being over-used in many areas to satiate societal demand and this is impacting on the quality of those environments. Over-use and reliance on fossil-­ fuels as sources of energy has resulted in global climate change as increasing greenhouse gas emissions result in a warming of the planet (IPCC, 2007a). This approach views the environment as an inexhaustible entity designed for consumption and exploitation. As the 20th century began, the notion of no limits to environmental exploitation began to alter as it was challenged by the third core understanding of the environment. An understanding where environment and society are seen as co-dependent, each a crucial part of the overall system as their interactions shape and support each other. Actions in one part of the system affect conditions in the system elsewhere (Lovelock, 1979) (see Gaia hypothesis). Stemming from human interference and exploitation of the natural environment and from a concern for the limits of ecological sustainability, an ethos of environmental justice and sustainable development emerged. George Perkins Marsh in his early text, Man and Nature (1864) was among the early writers who highlighted the damaging approach society had to the environment. Carl Sauer led influential discussions on Man’s Role in Changing the Face of the Earth (Williams et al., 1956). Later, Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (1962) stirred environmental consciousness on the effects of pesticide residues on bird life and The Limits to Growth report also extended the discussion (Meadows et al., 1974). These texts are further underpinned by international agreements on environmental management systems (e.g. those within the Kyoto Protocol) and public participation in addressing environmental concerns (e.g. Agenda 21). This philosophy draws on the notion of protection, preservation, conservation and ultimately, stewardship of our environment. The moral tradition of stewardship refers to the notion of humans caring for the environment, holding it on trust for future generations (Connelly and Smith, 2003). We do not own it; we merely use it responsibly, without exploitation. This belief system challenged the instrumental value mode of thinking to one where intrinsic value was applied to environmental resources. It is important to understand humans are not separate from the environment but an integral part of it (Knox and Marston, 2004). Environment177

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The environment is not a means to human ends and thus requires rational usage to maintain its integrity for the good of the environment as an entity in itself. The concept of sustainable development as outlined in the Brundtland Report (WCED, 1987) has emerged from this third and most recent way of thinking about the environment. It can be applied in a tourism context also. The environment has been highlighted as a key resource for tourism through use of various leisure environments and scenic landscapes (Wall & Mathieson, 2006; Holden, 2008). While a high-quality environment is a key asset for tourism, tourism can have negative impacts. These have been outlined in several international conferences (e.g. in Djerba, 2003 and Davos, 2007). Williams (2009) highlights tourism as an agent of change. This has been particularly evident with the onset of mass tourism trends from the 1970s (Mathieson & Wall, 1982). Overuse of an environment for tourism or recreation can result in a reduction in the quality of the space and reduced visitor satisfaction with the destination. Williams (2009) outlines three characterizations that can be used to understand the relationship between the environment and tourism: co-existence, conflict and symbiosis. ‘Co-existence’ implies environment and tourism are not fully compatible but at the same time, one does not impact negatively on the other. As the effects of mass tourism became more evident, tourism impact studies emerged more frequently and this led to the idea of a ‘conflict’-orientated relationship between the two. In some destinations reliant on tourism activity, a dual relationship has emerged where conservation practices have been implemented to maintain the integrity of the environment being utilized. National parks and safari parks are excellent examples of this ‘symbiosis’, where both the environment and the tourism benefits in theory (Romeril, 1985). Symbiosis and interdependence emerged from global-scale environmental thinking as proposed by Lovelock’s Gaia hypothesis (1979). From a sustainable tourism context, it would appear this state of ‘symbiosis’ is our goal, although tourism more commonly experiences a conflict and co-existence relationship within some environments. Tourism is impacting negatively on many environments but the advent of developing sustainable tourism practices such as ecotourism and slow tourism are encouraging greater appreciation and conservation of the environment’s facilitation for tourism activity. Ultimately, sustainable use of the environment requires a strong moral ethic where appreciation of, respect for and value toward the environment is central. As society moves forward and changes, approaches to using and understanding the environment will also change to reflect this. ­ ragedy See also Carrying capacity, Environmental impact, Environmental quality, T of the commons NSA

Further reading Connelly, J. and Smith, G. (2003) Politics and the Environment: From Theory to Practice. 2nd edn. ­Routledge, London, UK. Holden, A. (2008) Environment and Tourism. 2nd edn, Routledge, Oxford, UK. Lovelock, J. (1979) Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) (1987) Our Common Future (the Brundtland Report). Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.

  United Nations Environment Programme www.unep.org/ 178Environment

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  Environmental consciousness The propensity of an individual to engage in environmentally friendly behaviours. Although it is accepted that people are becoming more environmentally aware in understanding the impacts of human activity on the natural environment, environmental consciousness refers to the extent to which they take positive actions to mitigate such impacts by engaging, for example, in recycling or ‘green consumption’. However, environmental awareness may not always be translated into environmental consciousness: hence the value–action gap. This is particularly evident in tourism where either stated intentions to engage in responsible tourism consumption are not manifested in practice or where the consumption of ‘green’ experiences, such as ecotourism, is not motivated by environmental values. See also Environmentalism RS

  Environmental education Formal, organized educational activities that aim to increase student awareness of, and concern for, environmental conservation issues and behaviours. The primary goal of environmental education is to develop an environmentally literate citizenry who are aware of environmental issues, have knowledge of human-environment interactions and how environmental problems arise from these interactions, develop high levels of environmental concern, and translate these into actions focused on solving environmental problems (UNESCO, 1978). The term was first defined in 1969 (Stapp et al., 1969), further extended and formalized in the UNESCO (1978) Tbilisi Declaration of 1977 and linked to education for sustainability in the UNESCO Thessaloniki Declaration of 1997. Although it is most commonly associated with formal educational institutions such as schools and colleges (Knapp, 2000) the approach has also been adapted for use with community groups. This shift reflects a change in focus from enhancing individual awareness and knowledge of environmental issues and problems to improving community capacity to identify and solve environmental problems (Jickling and Arjen, 2008). Environmental education is usually distinguished from interpretation by its connection to formal education with structured curricula and organized activities (Ham, 1992). It can be distinguished from outdoor education by its emphasis on environmental issues and learning rather than personal development and health (Adkins and Simmons, 2003). GM

  Environmental ethics A type of applied ethics concerned with conveying and sorting out the most appropriate ways for people to conduct themselves in relation to other species and systems existing on Earth. As an area of study, environmental ethics emerged in the 1970s as one response to human-induced environmental atrocities associated with modern industrial society. Pojman (2001, p. 1) specified that environmental ethics analyses ‘humanity’s Environmental ethics179

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relationship to the environment, its understanding of and responsibility to nature, and its obligations to leave some of nature’s resources to posterity’. Conventional debates call attention to a range of anthropocentric and non-anthropocentric positions; the former gives priority to the instrumental (or human use) value of nature and the latter implies a respect for the intrinsic (or inherent) value in nature (Fox, 1990). Environmental ethicists have been notably engaged in crafting explanations for how and why nature ought to be valued as an end in and of itself. Resulting from this philosophical work is a diversity of intrinsic value theories premised upon the sentience of a being or its capacity to self-maintain and reproduce, or upon the interdependence of all species, including humans, within a web of relationships, ecosystem, or cosmology (Fox, 1990). Also prominent are debates between monistic and pluralistic environmental ethics, which echo tensions between relativistic and absolutistic moral extremes. The diversity in these perspectives is bridged by the aspiration to justifiably conceive a community of beings where moral worth is extended beyond the realm of humanity. In tourism contexts, however, the pervasiveness of a conservation ethic has impeded opportunities to think about and practice human–nature relationships in ways that go beyond simply caring for environment as an essential backdrop to supply and development (Holden, 2003). Opposition to this norm can be found in the philosophical tenets of ecotourism and the recent integration of animal ethics in tourism studies (Fennell, 2012). BGR

  Environmental health A wide-ranging field of concern and activity covering all physical, chemical and biological factors that can have an impact on the physical and mental well-being and welfare of mankind and society United Nations (1992). Historically, the term has been associated with ensuring food safety, access to clean water and air, the provision of shelter and the facilitation of waste disposal. This evolved from the realization of the link between the availability of clean water and the control of communicable diseases, which resulted in the introduction of national public health regulatory controls. Today the World Health Organization International Health Regulations are used to minimize the global spread of diseases associated with international travel and trade. Environmental health shows vibrancy as a field of academic and professional pursuit. It is pervasive and shares cognate concerns with public health, environmental management and sustainable development. The understanding and practice of environmental health is increasingly science-dependent and risk-based with an expanding research literature. The complexity of the environment-health interface, especially that relating to multiple-contaminant exposures, is recognized as is the potential impact of new developments in the natural sciences and social environments. There is also a growing awareness of the need to factor environmental health considerations into public sector policy making and to ensure effective public communication in this regard. As economies develop the focus of society expands to include quality of life aspects and the provenance as well as the provision of infrastructural needs while the original concerns for clean water and air, safe food and shelter remain – as dramatically highlighted in times of natural and man-made disasters. MPR 180

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  Environmental impact Positive and negative outcomes on the environment, for example from tourism. Mass tourism has been blamed for a wide variety of negative environmental impacts such as habitat destruction, reduction in biodiversity, deforestation (particularly of mangroves), introduction of non-native species, erosion, pollution, water use, climate change and ­reduction of wilderness values. Ecotourism has been promoted by academia and government and industry as a solution to some of the environmental impacts of mass tourism. An implication of this for the natural environment is greater contribution to incentives for protecting natural habitat and conservation work against environmental degradation from tourists’ recreational activities (Sirakaya and McLellan, 1998). Positive natural impacts establish the purposes and values of developing ecotourism, and also reinforce sustainable development. Weaver (2001c, p. 99) states that the direct and indirect benefits which ecotourism has for natural issues include: ‘incentive to protect natural environments; an incentive to rehabilitate modified environments; ecotourists assist with habitat maintenance and enhancement; exposure to ecotourism fosters environmentalism (see Environmental consciousness); and areas protected for ecotourism provide environmental benefits’. These concepts, all significant contributions to natural capital, can facilitate local people’s protection of sensitive environmental places and promote more understanding about the conservation of local environmental resources (Buckley, 1994, 2003). This can often be directed through existing local environmental knowledge as rural people generally have a greater regard for ecological conservation than visitors do. It is suggested that this is the case (or perhaps ‘was’, given increasing contemporary and global public concern about environmental sustainability) because traditional cultures follow values and beliefs that prevent hunting without rules and which effectively prohibit the over-use of flora and fauna. Advocates for ecotourism claim that developing ecotourism has more environmental benefits or positive impacts than potential negative impacts (Department of Tourism (DoT), 1994; Hvenegaard, 1994; Queensland Department of Tourism, Small Business and Industry (QDTSBI), 1997). For example, providing environmental education or interpretation services is a significant success factor regarding ecologically sustainable or natural-settings (Beaumont, 1998). Environmental benefits accrue as host communities are persuaded to protect natural environments in order to sustain economically viable tourism (Ceballos-Lascurain, 1990). Therefore, ecotourism and its high-use value can play an important role as an incentive for protection. Nevertheless, negative environmental impacts still threaten ecotourism development and can bring about a situation of un-sustainability. Weaver (2001c) asserts that recreational activities and behaviours of tourists entail negative natural impacts such as: disturbing wildlife and habitat; crushing or clearance of vegetation; stresses; erosion (Simons, 1988; Tyler, 1989; Tallantire, 1993; Buckley, 2004); soil compaction (Boo, 1990; Buckley, 2004) and vegetation damage (Liddle, 1997; Buckley, 2004); and the introduction and subsequent penetration of exotic species (Dickson et al., 1987; Buckley, 2004). Other problematic human activities include high impact adventure tourism activities; increasing noise from machinery, vehicles and voices; pollution from human wastewater; and traffic congestion (Buckley, 2004). Modern facilities which may be essential for business development, such as expanding accommodation cabins and car parks, may disturb visual enjoyment of the facility and further reduce habitat. CHC Environmental impact181

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Further reading Weaver, D. (2008) Ecotourism, 2nd edn. Wiley, Milton, Australia.

  Sustaining tourism www.sustainabletourism.net/

Case study: Impacts of off-road vehicles in protected areas in Australia Four-wheel-drive (4WD) vehicles, trail bikes, quad bikes and other off-road vehicles (ORVs) are commonplace in Australia. They are permitted in a few areas in a few national parks, largely on formed roads but in some states also on beaches. While the broad types of impacts that ORVs can produce are well documented, these impacts can vary in intensity and ecological significance by orders of magnitude between different ecosystems. In particular, one major impact of off-road vehicles in many Australian ecosystems is the spread of the plant dieback fungus Phytophthora cinnamomi, which is spread via spores on vehicle tyres (Buckley, 2001b). Off-road vehicles typically cause a range of environmental impacts including: soil erosion and/or compaction; damage to vegetation and soil animals; road-kill and noise disturbance to birds and other wildlife; air and water pollution; introduction of weeds and pathogens; increased fire frequency; slopewash and similar impacts from ORV tracks (Fig. E10); and secondary impacts through increased number of visitors. Off-road vehicles cause many times more damage than hikers. Typically, ORV tyres exert 10–100 times as much pressure as a boot, especially if the vehicle is turning or braking; and cause 5–30 times as much damage to vegetation. Impacts can occur even at very low levels of use. A single passage by a trail bike causes measurable compaction in desert soils. Even the distant sound of vehicle engine, at a noise level similar to a library reading room, is sufficient to drive away songbirds and small mammals. Impacts can last a long time. Where vehicles fracture cryptogamic crusts on desert soils, they may take hundreds of years to recover. Impacts can be intense. In marsh environments, 40 ORV passes reduce vegetation cover to zero. On sandy beaches, 100 passes can kill 98% of ghost crabs. Sand dunes crossed by ORV tracks can suffer soil erosion at up to 25 cm depth per year (0.25 cm3/m2 yr−1). In some cases, the degree of impact increases proportionally with the number of passes, e.g. for compaction under ORV tracks in dry sandy soils. In most cases, however, the first few passes cause the most damage, so the best management strategy is to restrict vehicles entirely to a small number of narrow well-maintained tracks well away from ecologically sensitive areas, and prohibit off-road use within parks. For ORV users, and tour operators in particular, practical management recommendations have been compiled and distributed extensively in the Green Guide for 4WD Tours (Buckley, 2001b). For park management agencies, the principal management recommendations included: ● Off-road vehicles should be restricted to special-use zones or to a small number of narrow well-maintained tracks, preferably not crossing between catchments. Continued

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Case study.  Continued.

Fig. E10.  Environmental impact of off-road vehicles (Tiffany Low). In closed-canopy forest, the canopy should be maintained above the track wherever possible. ● Tracks should be separated from ecologically sensitive areas by a wide buffer zone so that vehicle engines are not audible beyond the buffer. ● Where tracks cross creeks, crossing points should be fixed and if necessary maintained. ● Maintenance of tracks should aim to minimize secondary impacts such as spread of weeds, reduction of canopy cover, etc. ● Signs requiring ORV drivers to keep to tracks should be prominent and ­plentiful. ● In general, ORVs should not be allowed on wet areas, steep terrain or on dunes and beaches. ● If ORVs are permitted to drive along beaches, they should be allowed only on wide sandy beaches, only in the intertidal zone and only at low tide, and entry and exit from the beach should be at designated access points only. Signs at access points should require that all vehicles must be removed from the beach at high tide and may not use the dunes or supralittoral areas. ● Beaches may also be completely closed to vehicles during exceptionally high tides. ● The possibility of mandatory ORV driver training and licensing programs as a precondition of ORV use in public lands, should be investigated. RB ●

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Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

The process of identifying, describing and evaluating the potential direct and indirect impacts of a project on human beings, fauna and flora, soil, water, air, climate and landscape, and assessing how these factors interact with material assets and the natural and cultural heritage (see European Council EIA Directives 97/11/EC, 2003/35/ EC, 2009/31/EC). It is an important part of the decision-making process ensuring the environmental impacts of all new projects are assessed. It also enables the public as well as government agencies and other organizations to input into the procedure in order to enhance the quality and effectiveness of the process. EIA begins with screening based on national and international thresholds set for project types (e.g. transport networks, carbon storage and capture, power stations), followed by scoping to identify real and perceived potential impacts. A description of the project or development is provided, the environmental baseline defined and alternative processes or projects are considered as well as presenting the ‘no action’ option where the project idea is abandoned. Key impacts are described, their significance assessed and mitigation measures are introduced to avoid, reduce, remedy or compensate for any significant adverse impacts. The Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) details the results of the process and should include: a non-technical summary, an impact scoping matrix, methodology, background to the proposed development and the perceived and actual environmental impacts of the project. It should also suggest measures to reduce or mitigate impacts, consider alternative processes and locations. Socio-economic impacts are assessed in many but not all EIAs, depending on their type and scale. See also Impact assessment KV and KDI

 

Environmental management

The management of the living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) environment to minimize or reduce impacts caused by anthropogenic and natural causes in order to conserve natural resources including species, habitats and ecosystems. Management techniques include: legislation and non-legislative practices (e.g. codes of conduct), education and physical intervention (e.g. infrastructure, conservation management, exclusion zones, etc.). KV and KDI

 

Environmental management system (EMS)

A systematic process with the purpose of implementing and auditing environmental measures. The system should be transparent and implemented company-wide, and result in clear goals, policies, practices and responsibilities. An EMS generally follows a standard cycle, consisting of the development of an environmental policy, converting this into an EMS, implementing the EMS, checking the system and making changes where needed. It is a continuous cycle, as the system needs continuous revising and goals need constant improvement. The purpose of an EMS is to align the company with its environmental policy, and to show the company’s commitments to others 184

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through certification. The world’s leading EMS is the ISO 14001 standard, which is a voluntary EMS for which companies can receive certification. OC

  Environmental non-governmental organization (ENGO) An entity that consists of focuses on preserving the environment and addresses environmental problems. These organizations contribute to environmental policy-making on regional and global basis. Environmental NGOs are organizations that do not usually accept donations from governments or corporations. Among the most well-known environmental non-governmental organizations are Greenpeace, Friends of the Earth and the World Wildlife Fund. The most widely used methods to achieve the goals by the organizations are direct action and lobbying. The campaigns launched against nuclear energy, climate change, preservation of the rainforests, genetically modified organisms (GMO) and overfishing, are examples of their campaigns. Some ENGOs are significant policy advisers and stakeholders in sustainable tourism development, for example WWF’s work on the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area and The Nature Conservancy in Papua New Guinea. OC

  Environmental policy Strategies developed to preserve natural, historic and cultural resources for future generations, and to expand urban and rural economic development opportunities through fostering environmental and cultural travel and tourism. It is difficult for a country or a sector to introduce effective plans for tourism development without having a guiding strategy. For example, preventing littering of the natural environment and cities and controlling and reducing pollution from car exhaust fumes and waste oil from ships are necessary to maintain clean water for recreation, fauna and flora of wetlands, seas and lakes. These are all areas of critical concern to the quality of life of local residents, the protection of the environment and cultural heritage of the people, as well as the health of the tourism industry. Diplomatically stated dos and don’ts are frequently part of visitor orientation at environmentally fragile and culturally sensitive tourism destinations (see Codes of conduct) (Walker and Walker, 2011). In the environmental policy arena, problems are typically not defined in commonsense language but using expert terms. This is particularly evident for global environmental problems, such as climate change, biodiversity loss and desertification. Articulating environmental problems beyond local evidence of, for example, degradation of lakes, soil, groundwater or forests, requires conceptual frameworks and analytical capacities. In their article on ‘does discourse matter’, Feindt and Oels (2005) state that environmental problems are not self-evident: they imply complex and systemic interdependencies, and they often build up over long time intervals and large spatial areas. In other words, environmental problems, and therefore environmental policymaking, are ‘socially constructed’, building on expert language and concepts, research practices and available technology (see metaproblem). For example, on a local and national level, toxic substances ­became an issue only after the development of analytical technologies and health ­research (Feindt and Oels, 2005). RO Environmental policy185

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  Environmental quality A science-based standard for the quality of atmospheric, aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems relative to the requirements of one or more biotic species and/or to any human need or purpose. Air, soil and water quality are commonly measured against standards or targets at which human health and environmental risks are significantly reduced. Quality standards are science-based goals established by international, national or local agencies and indicator-based performance measures are commonly used to quantify and benchmark compliance. For example, the Canadian Environmental Protection Act is the principal legislation for the regulation of environmental contaminants in Canada. It establishes standards for contaminants such as air pollutants, allows the government to monitor and regulate their concentration in the environment, and provide state-of-the-environment reporting. HD

  Environmental supply The supply of natural features, attributes, management initiatives and/or governance policies that influence the environmental conservation of tourism landscapes. Environmental supply will include the ecosystems of the tourism destination, visitor ­education and interpretive programs, zoning and access, environmental impact assessment (EIA) procedures, policies and guidelines, and any other characteristics and initiatives that impact the conservation and/or preservation of nature at a tourism-­ centered site. Sustainable tourism is dependent on environmental supply, which includes the natural environments, natural resources and flow resources (such as water and energy) of the tourism system. How tourism developers, commercial operators, planners and managers respond to and manage these for environmental protection will determine tourism sustainability at the destination. Evaluating environmental supply is one facet of environmental planning and management that concentrates on impact assessment as a way of understanding the negative consequences of visitor-­ environment interactions. BM

 Environmentalism Concern about society’s relationship with the natural environment. However, while this is the core theme of environmentalism, this has often been referred to as a ‘light green’ approach (Cudworth, 2003), highlighting a range of political and interpretive complexities that are associated with the society and natural environment nexus. This underlying tension is represented in a range of dualisms, including: ‘ecocentric and technocentric’; ‘deep and shallow ecology’; and ‘radical and reformist’. Referring to the roots of these divisions three decades ago, O’Riordan (1981) makes a differentiation in environmental ideologies between the ‘ecocentric’ and ‘technocentric’. The former emphasizes the value of nature independent of human existence, subsequently arguing for reverence, humility, responsibility and care in our interaction with it, ­favouring a code of behaviour that seeks permanence and stability based upon 186

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ecological laws. There is an associated distrust of large-scale technology, political elites and bureaucracy, and a disdain for materialism (Pepper, 1996). In contrast, the technocentric ideology favours a solution to environmental challenges that lies in improved environmental management and technological solutions, aiming to either achieve unlimited economic growth or at least mitigation of problems, with a minimum of inconvenience to the existing political economy and associated lifestyles. The debate on society’s values and needs was embedded in the earlier seminal work of Naess (1973), making a distinction between ‘deep’ and ‘shallow’ ecology. Akin to Leopold’s (1949) ‘land ethic’, deep ecology rejects Cartesian dualism of humans and nature, viewing humans and nature as a holistic entity. It also recognizes the intrinsic value of nature, independent of any value placed on it by humankind, thus rejecting anthropocentrism. Deep ecology emphasizes a change in individual consciousness, to promote values, attitudes and lifestyles that are compatible with nature (Pepper, 1996). However, it also recognizes the link between science, in the form of ecology and philosophy. Thus it can be argued that human participation in nature will involve some element of killing, an action argued by Naess as being ethically acceptable so long as it was conducted to satisfy essential needs (Nash, 1989b). Naess (1973) identifies seven key tenets of deep ecology: a relational, total-field image; biophysical egalitarianism; principles of diversity and of symbiosis; anti-class posture; fight against pollution and resource depletion; complexity not complication; and local autonomy and decentralization. It is the emphasis on consideration of all of these seven points that separates deep ecology from shallow ecology, with the emphasis of the latter resting on the fight against pollution and resource depletion, without necessitating the acceptance of the other six themes. The correlation of shallow ecology with environmentalism can be understood within Dobson’s (2000, p. 3) definition: ‘environmentalism argues for a managerial approach to environmental problems, secure in a belief that they can be solved without fundamental changes in present values or patterns of production and consumption’ (emphasis in original). The term therefore has political implications, a much less radical alternative to environmental problems than ‘ecologism’, which argues for a radical restructuring of the values we recognize in nature, our behaviour towards it and reforms of the system of political economy. Any environmental discourse must position itself in opposition to industrial society and subsequently distinguish itself from all other political discourses that have suppressed environmental concern, including those of liberalism, conservatism, socialism, Marxism and fascism (Dryzek, 1997), all of which can be understood as advocating the rightness of economic growth and the conquest of nature. Such a departure may be ‘reformist’ or ‘radical’, and environmentalism belongs very much to the former rather than the latter camp. Emphasis is subsequently placed upon: reforms to the economic system to be able to reflect environmental values; mitigate negative environmental externalities and resource scarcity; legislation for environmental protection; enhanced environmental management; and the development of green technologies. These reforms are becoming increasingly embedded into the economic, social and cultural contexts of our lives, in turn influencing our belief systems, moral positions, judgements and behaviour about the rights and wrongs of how we interact with nature. An example of the influence of environmentalism on tourism is the change in focus of safari tourism during the last 100 years, from one of shooting to kill as many animals as possible, to one of observation and conservation. Such a change is recognition of the influence of how advancements in ecological understanding Environmentalism187

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and environmental philosophy have combined in changing the collective beliefs of how we value nature. See also Green issues AH

  Equitable Tourism Options (EQUATIONS) An Indian non-governmental organization that conducts research, campaigns and advocacy for sustainable tourism. Founded in 1985, EQUATIONS studies the social, cultural, economic and environmental impacts of tourism on local communities. It has particular concerns with the distribution of benefits from tourism and promotes propoor forms of tourism development. CIC   Equitable Tourism Options www.equitabletourism.org/

 Equity An ethical approach of caring about the consequences of the present generation’s actions for other members of the same generation, as well as for those who follow, and who have the same right to enjoy and benefit from the earth’s resources. Since sustainability rests on the balance between the three pillars of social, environmental and economic development, equity needs to be considered in relation to all three. The goal of equity is thus central to the concept of sustainable development and sustainable tourism, in relation to both interand intragenerational equity, as set out by the Brundtland Commission in 1987. Equity is contingent on social justice (and thereby distributive justice). It is often used interchangeably with equality. However, whereas equality conveys sameness, equity presumes that there may be different levels of investment and development needs that require different responses and returns. These should, however, be dealt with in a fair and just manner, recognizing internationally agreed principles of equality of opportunity and human rights. Equity in tourism addresses the impacts of tourism on the economy, environment and social groups in destinations and tourism industry organizations in respect of fair competition and access to markets through fair trade. Finally, though not exhaustively, equity concerns accessibility to tourism for all groups of people, such as ‘social tourism’, particularly those that are economically and physically or mentally vulnerable, irrespective of economic standing, gender, race, age and creed. The aspiration towards equitable tourism assumes an ethical and social consciousness on the part of all concerned stakeholders with a view to redressing injustice. It requires collaboration for strategic ethical governance and policy intervention, with a view to fostering human rights and social justice goals. This is a serious challenge in many countries with a legacy of historical economic disadvantage, where globalized tourism power structures tend to cause or exacerbate extreme inequity in terms of economic leakage, displacement of indigenous people, aggressive appropriation of land and water for tourist developments and child sex tourism. AK 188

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 Erosion A process by which soil, sand, rock and other sediments are broken down into smaller particles and subsequently displaced from the Earth’s surface through natural processes such as wind or water flow, snow and frost and then carried and deposited to other areas. Although erosion is considered as a natural process, human activities can increase the rate at which erosion is occurring globally (Fig. E11). FT

  Ethical tourism All forms of tourism that seek to generate beneficial exchange relationships and to provide genuinely positive experiences for all involved. Ethical tourism is sometimes the subject of confusion and often used interchangeably with responsible tourism, ecotourism and sustainable tourism, all of which advocate an ethical approach to planning, developing and managing tourism. Since the inception of mass tourism in the 1950s, demand for leisure travel has seen unparalleled growth, and now there are more than 4.8 billion international and domestic tourists travelling the world each year (UNWTO, 2012). While many stakeholders have welcomed tourism’s continued success, not everyone benefits equally from its activities or tourist expenditure. Capable of facilitating economic benefit if developed sustainably, tourism has the potential to reinforce social and economic inequalities (Cleverdon and Kalisch, 2000); its characteristic style of development validates a business model that preferences high-volume,

Fig. E11.  Erosion prevention, Cradle Mountain, Tasmania, Australia (Carl Cater). Ethical tourism189

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low-price tourism, which results in excessive economic leakage and little long-term benefit to the local or regional economy (Curtin and Busby, 1999). Criticisms such as these have led to calls for all travel stakeholders to exercise a greater sense of responsibility in planning and developing tourism, and to adopt ethical guidelines in all parts of their operational activities. Of course, such aspirations are challenging to implement: not only is it difficult for tour operators to provide an ethical holiday due to the complexity of the industry’s supply chain and the pragmatics of an intensively competitive marketplace, but it is also unclear whether holidaymakers are interested in being ‘ethical’ tourists (Weeden, 2014). Unfortunately, many travellers remain indifferent to their responsibilities in demanding an ethical industry, and while some tour operators genuinely pursue this standard, further sustained effort is required to ensure that all stakeholders work cooperatively to deliver an ethical future for tourism. CW Further reading Weeden, C. (2001) Ethical tourism: An opportunity for competitive advantage? Journal of Vacation ­Marketing 8, 141–154.

 Ethics The consideration of the potential for harm to others. Concern over the impacts of tourism on destinations and their inhabitants stems from work during the 1950s, which intensified through the 1960s and 1970s in places like Acapulco, Gozo, Goa and the Balearic Islands (Fennell, 2006). Early scholarly work by Doxey (1975), Budowski (1976), Krippendorf (1977), Britton (1977) and Butler (1980) was important in calling attention to the various economic, environmental and sociocultural impacts that occurred from tourism that was poorly planned and implemented. In spite of this early recognition of the harms of tourism, ethics was not a topic of interest among tourism scholars until the early 1990s, after an initial foray into the topic by scholars in hospitality (see Whitney, 1990, in reference to codes of ethics). A flurry of new studies emerged in tourism during the early 1990s as a result of the International Association of Scientific Experts in Tourism congress in Paris in 1992, as well as the Rio Earth Summit of the same year. These meetings catalysed a number of publications that emerged from 1993 onwards, including, for example, Lea (1993), D’Amore (1993), Wight (1993a, 1993b), Ahmed et al. (1994) and Fennell and Malloy (1995). Major works that galvanized tourism ethics in the tourism field include Smith and Duffy (2003), Fennell (2006) and Fennell and Malloy (2007). These works have been complemented with numerous articles appearing in a range of different tourism academic journals over the ensuing years. If ethics has been defined as what is good or bad, or right or wrong in/for people, tourism ethics can be defined as what is good or bad, right or wrong in/for tourism (Fennell, 2006). This means that all of the issues discussed from the context of the ­impacts platform in tourism over the years are also, and perhaps more importantly, ethical issues. For example, attempts to build sustainability and responsibility into newer types of tourism (Fig. E12) or approaches to tourism (e.g. responsible tourism), are ­perhaps better situated from the perspective of ethics, even though the vast majority 190Ethics

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of work in these areas has taken place in the absence of such. Said differently, we might yield more meaning and application from ideas like responsible tourism if scholars were prepared to engage with the more than 2500 years of discourse on ethics. Avoiding this literature, because of arrogance or ignorance, narrows and flattens our ability to navigate through these difficult issues. This means that because tourism is an applied field of endeavour, theories of ethics are deemed useful in identifying morally suitable pathways to follow in specific real-world situations. Tourism ethics suffers from the same issues that business ethics does, namely the dilemma of how the company can compete in a competitive business environment while at the same time maintaining high ethical standards. Placing the interests of others (e.g. the environment, other groups) ahead of one’s own interests, as individuals or organizations, is difficult because of self-interest and the profit motive. This has a cross-over effect in tourism research, as tourism ethics has not generated overwhelming interest among scholars. This may be because of the uneasy alliance that ethics has with industry, under the belief that ethics is bad for business and productivity. It may also be the case that there are fewer scholarly grant opportunities in this area. See also Corporate social responsibility, Ethical tourism, Moral geography DF Further reading Fennell, D.A. (2006) Tourism Ethics. Channel View, Clevedon, UK.

Fig. E12.  Ethics? Feeding the dolphins at Tangalooma, Moreton Island, Australia (Tiffany Low). Ethics191

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Case study: Teaching ethics and responsible practice to tourism students With the increasing importance of supervising of research students and field work courses, there are a great diversity of ethical and responsible practice issues facing students. Indeed, ethical problems are an integral part of all professions and academic disciplines (Clarkeburn, 2002). However, it is recognized that the increasing application of ICT skills by students in gathering information is not always matched by consideration of legal and ethical aspects (HEFCW, 2007). Clarkeburn (2002, p. 310) stresses that ethics courses should aim to provide students with an appreciation of ‘ethical facts, rules and problems’, and the ‘skills to recognise, understand and solve them’, rather than on ‘attitudes, behaviours or characteristics’. A review of literature on ethics teaching reveals a diversity of approaches advocated and used by different academic disciplines but the two most commonly mentioned teaching techniques are participatory, being case studies and role plays. According to Winston (2000), the use of narrative cases can assist students to develop skills in perception, decision making, logical argument and analysis. Roleplays are advocated as a means to ‘sharpen critical thinking and develop an appreciation of the subtleties of research ethics’. Rosnow (1990, p. 179). There is also an argument for ‘pervasive’ ethics teaching, whereby ethics is ‘infused’ into the curriculum, which helps to avoid the impression that ethics is a separate field, but rather an important part of daily life. Many authors support the notion of using a combination of methods to teach ethics. In the Tourism, Hotel and Event Management programs at an Australian university, students received education and training to ensure they can carry out a project following ethical principles including adhering to National Health and Medical Research Council guidelines and Australian Code for the Responsible Conduct of Research requirements (Hornby et al., 2008). This teaching team developed a suite of resources to assist academics in delivery of education and training on the principles of ethics and responsible research practice. The resources which contribute to key attributes of graduate work readiness included: a framework for ethical thinking; principles of ethical conduct in human research; areas of ethical consideration and responsible practice in the design and conduct of research; and strategies for how to conduct human research while adhering to the governing ethical and responsible practice principles. The resources provided to academics included: a literature review on best practices in teaching research ethics to students; PowerPoint presentations on topics such as a background to ethical thinking and the need to be aware of cultural differences; a framework for constructing context-based scenarios, with a bank of references; examples of ethical and responsible practice issues, and strategies for dealing with these, including 19 context-based scenarios that outline ethical and responsible practice dilemmas. Students identified the major ethical and responsible practice issues associated with these hypothetical scenarios; a bank of test questions on ethics and responsible practices, to ensure that students understand the issues before conducting fieldwork. These include guidelines for Course Convenors on how to assess student understanding; and an ‘accreditation’ process for students conducting fieldwork, used to certify students before allowing them to conduct fieldwork. CIC

192Ethics

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  Ethnic tourism A type of tourism based on the attractiveness of cultural activities (e.g. festivals), traditions, heritage and lifestyles of an ethnic group. What this means in theory and practice depends on how we understand ethnic groups (ethnicity). Although in general an ethnic group refers to people who consider themselves as having a common ancestry and who share distinctive cultural elements, in practice the distinctive ethnicity in tourism is often linked to cultural and ‘exotic’ minorities alone: e.g. ‘European’ Australians are not usually considered a target and a cultural base for ethnic tourism, while Aboriginal Australians are. Thus, there is a sense of exoticism involved with ethnic tourism. Some scholars make a distinction between ethnic tourism and indigenous tourism. Smith (2003), for example, indicates that the latter refers to the lifestyles and traditions of tribal groups (Fig. E13) living within fragile and remote environments in developing countries, while ethnic tourism is based on the attractiveness of the arts and culture of ethnic groups living largely within Western societies. However, as Smith further states, it is quite difficult to distinguish the two related concepts: while it is obvious that while all indigenous people form an ethnic group, not all ethnic groups are indigenous. Ethnic tourism can be approached from motivational (tourists) and/or a supplier (ethnic group members) perspective (Harron and Weiler, 1992). In order to use ethnic groups and ethnicity in the context of sustainable tourism, both perspectives and the related needs

Fig. E13.  Ethnic tourism, Botswana (Carl Cater).

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and expectations should be c­ onsidered equally. In addition to host–guest relations, the involvement of facilitators (middlemen, brokers and guides), often representing the mainstream tourism industry either directly or indirectly, highlights the role of ethics and the need for sustainability in ethnic tourism. See also Cultural tourism JS

  Europe 2020 Strategy (EU-2020) A ten-year growth strategy, endorsed by the European Council in its meeting on 17 June 2010, deemed to help the European Union (EU) turn into a smart, sustainable and inclusive economy delivering high levels of employment, productivity and social cohesion, and expected to turn into a reality by governance at both European and national levels. In an effort to reinvigorate the former Lisbon Strategy that stipulated the strategic goal ‘to become the most competitive and dynamic knowledge based economy in the world, capable of sustainable economic growth with more and better jobs and greater social cohesion by 2010’ (EU-2020), the Union has set out a new strategy for the next decade, by putting forward three ‘policy priorities’ encompassing smart, sustainable and inclusive growth aspects of the European social market economy, five ‘headline targets’ that are to be translated into national targets taking the national circumstances into account and seven ‘flagship initiatives’ to be taken at the European level so as to ease delivery of the goals defined. Priority 1 – Smart growth Smart growth policy aims at developing an economy based on knowledge and innovation. Key targets for smart growth theme are as follows: ●

75% of the population aged 20-64 should be employed through the greater involvement of women and older workers and the better integration of migrants in the workforce. ● 3% of the EU's gross domestic product (GDP) should be invested in research and development (R&D) while developing an indicator which would reflect R&D and innovation intensity. ● The share of early school leavers should be under 10% and at least 40% of the population aged 30–34 should have a tertiary degree. The above given key targets for smart growth are to be achieved through the following three initiatives taken at European level: 1. ‘Innovation Union’ is designed to improve framework conditions and access to finance for research and innovation so as to ensure that innovative ideas can be turned into products and services that create growth and jobs. 2. ‘Youth on the Move’ is designed to enhance the performance of education systems and to facilitate the entry of young people to the labour market. 3. ‘A Digital Agenda for Europe’ is designed to speed up the roll-out of high-speed Internet and reap the benefits of a digital single market for households and firms. 194

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Priority 2 – Sustainable growth Sustainable growth policy aims at promoting a more resource efficient, greener and more competitive economy. Key targets for sustainable growth theme are as follows: ●

The ‘20/20/20’ climate/energy targets should be met (i.e. reducing greenhouse gas emissions by at least 20% compared to 1990 levels or 30% if the conditions are right; increasing the share of renewable energy sources in final energy consumption to 20%; a 20% increase in energy efficiency).

The key targets for sustainable growth are to be achieved through the following two initiatives: 1. ‘Resource Efficient Europe’ is designed to help decouple economic growth from the use of resources, support the shift towards a low-carbon economy, increase the use of renewable energy sources, modernize the transport sector and promote energy efficiency. 2. ‘An Industrial Policy for the Globalization Era’ is designed to improve the business environment, notably for SMEs, and to support the development of a strong and sustainable industrial base able to compete globally.

Priority 3 – Inclusive growth Inclusive growth policy aims at fostering a high-employment economy delivering social and territorial cohesion. Key targets for inclusive growth theme are as follows: ●

75% of the population aged 20-64 should be employed through the greater involvement of women and older workers and the better integration of migrants in the workforce. ● The share of early school leavers should be under 10% and at least 40% of the population aged 30-34 should have a tertiary degree. ● The number of Europeans living below the national poverty lines should be ­reduced by 25%, lifting over 20 million people out of poverty. The key targets for inclusive growth are to be achieved through the following two initiatives: 1. ‘An Agenda for New Skills and Jobs’ is designed to modernize labour markets and empower people by developing their skills throughout the life cycle with a view to increase labour participation and better match labour supply and demand, including through labour mobility. 2. ‘European Platform Against Poverty’ is designed to ensure social and territorial cohesion such that the benefits of growth and jobs are widely shared and people experiencing poverty and social exclusion are enabled to live in dignity and take an active part in society. Aligning the EU-2020 Strategy and the Stability and Growth Pact (SGP), the Union has introduced a new governance model to ensure greater consistency and effectiveness in policy coordination and surveillance. The newly introduced model is based on three integrated strands, namely: (i) ‘macroeconomic surveillance’ with Europe 2020 Strategy (EU-2020)

195

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the aim of establishing a stable macro-economic environment conducive to growth and employment creation; (ii) ‘thematic coordination’ with the aim of monitoring growth enhancing reforms focusing on structural reforms in the field of innovation and research and development, resource efficiency, business environment, employment, education and social inclusion; and (iii) ‘fiscal surveillance’ under the SGP with the aim of strengthening fiscal consolidation and fostering sustainable public finance. What is unique in the new governance model is the ‘European Semester’ of policy coordination. Fully introduced in 2011, the European Semester is a six-month period in an annual policy cycle, when member states’ budgetary, macro-economic and structural policies are coordinated in the first half of the year so as to allow member states to incorporate the European perspective at an early stage of their policy making and national budgetary processes. Under the new model, the headline targets and the integrated guidelines on economic policy and employment serve as a policy framework for the member states to develop National Reform Programmes (NRPs), while the SGP provide a framework for the establishment of Stability and Convergence Programmes (SCPs) at national levels. At the EU level, the EU-2020 Strategy is monitored and guided through a number of tools and measures such as Commission’s Annual Growth Survey, Annual Policy Guidance rendered through Council opinions on fiscal policies and recommendations on macro-economic surveillance as well as on thematic issues, and Commission’s Policy Warnings. Tools specially designed for the EU-2020 Strategy are further reinforced by key EU levers for growth and jobs such as the single market, trade and external policies and the EU budget. See also Policy cascade SMA Further reading European Commission (2010). Communication from the Commission: EUROPE: 2020: A Strategy for Smart, Sustainable and Inclusive Growth. COM(2010)2020 final of 3.3.2010.

  Governance, Tools and Policy Cycle of Europe 2020 ec.europa.eu/europe2020/pdf/annex_swd_implementation_last_version_­15-07-2010.pdf   Europe 2020 ec.europa.eu/europe2020/index_en.htm

  European Centre for Ecological and Agricultural Tourism (ECEAT) An industry network of small-scale rural tourism operators in Europe established in 1994. ECEAT promotes sustainable tourist services that contribute to local communities and protect the environment. ECEAT also provides accreditation and a quality-­ assurance logo to its members, as well as providing consultancy and advice to sustainable tourism development projects in Europe. CIC   European Centre for Ecological and Agricultural Tourism www.eceat.org/ 196

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  European Destinations of Excellence (EDEN) An award granted to emerging tourism destinations in the EU-27 and candidate countries on the basis of unique sustainable tourism assets that they have in line with the specific themes chosen by the European Commission in close cooperation with national tourism organizations. Launched in 2006, the EDEN preparatory action aims at promoting sustainable tourism development models across the European Union, by enhancing the visibility of emerging European destinations, creating a platform for sharing best practice across Europe and promoting networks among awarded destinations. Remarkable by their picturesque sites, protected areas, traditions and cultural life, there are almost 98 European Destinations of Excellence as of 2011. SMA

  European Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS) A voluntary environmental management instrument developed by the European Union for companies and other organizations to evaluate, report and improve their environmental performance. Now in its third revision, EMAS III, the foundation of the scheme is ISO 14001, but EMAS incorporates additional elements of continuous improvement in best practice. Currently, more than 4500 organizations and approximately 8150 sites are EMAS registered worldwide, among them are many multinational enterprises, smaller companies as well as public authorities. CIC   European Eco-Management and Audit Scheme www.ec.europa.eu/environment/emas/

  European Habitats Directive The convention that (in association with the Birds Directive) provides the basis of European policies for nature conservation. The directive utilizes a dual approach in which both species and habitats are protected. Protection of specific ‘habitat types’ is effected through the Natura 2000 network that identifies special types of habitat that are important in the European context. Overall, more than 1000 species of animal and plant and in excess of 200 specified habitats are currently protected. The enlargement of the European Union in 2004 (with ten new member states being added) required changes to the directive to allow inclusion of the new natural richness that these countries host – species and habitats that were mostly unrepresented prior to the inclusion of the new members. Importantly, an extra biogeographic region (Pannonian) was added to the six original (Continental, Mediterranean, Alpine, Atlantic, Macronesian, Boreal) regions included under the Natura 2000 system. The primary aim of the Habitats Directive is to promote biodiversity by requiring that member states actively protect and/or restore natural habitats and species that are listed in the Directive’s Annexes at a suitable conservation status. It is a requirement that such protection/restoration includes economic, social and cultural considerations in addition to aspects of local and regional character. The basis of the Natura 2000 network are designated protected areas – Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) European Habitats Directive197

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that address the habitats and species listed in Annexes I and II (respectively) and Special Protection Areas (SPAs) classified by the Birds Directive (Article 4). Together SACs and SPAs constitute a coherent ecological network of protected sites across Europe. It is a requirement of Article 17 of the Directive that, every six years, implementation reports are submitted by member states and that these reports include assessments of the conservation status of the habitats and species listed by the Annexes to the Directive. PW

  European Master in Tourism Management (EMTM) A two-year joint master’s programme in English providing an integrated knowledge from multiple disciplines and paradigms concerned with tourism sustainability. The EMTM programme is also informed by the Tourism Educational Future Initiatives (TEFI) as presented in the book Understanding the sustainable development of tourism (Liburd and Edwards, 2010). The EMTM is hosted by three European universities from Denmark, Slovenia and Spain. Students follow a mandatory mobility scheme, starting the first semester in Denmark at the University of Southern Denmark, where they are introduced to the conceptualization of tourism development with particular attention to sustainability. Moving next to the University of Ljubljana, in Slovenia for the second semester, students learn about instruments, indicators and management tools for sustainable tourism policy. Spending the third semester at the University of Girona in Spain, students are exposed to and enhance their competences in implementing tourism with emphasis on tourism management, innovation processes and new tourism products. The fourth semester is devoted to the completion of the master’s thesis. After completion, students are awarded a joint diploma. The programme has run since 2007/2009, and since 2010/2011 the programme has been awarded Erasmus Mundus quality brand and funding from the European Union. TAM

  European Tourism Day A scheme developed by the European Commission as a tool for tourism policy coordination, which rests within the competence of member states, each year foregrounding a particular theme of priority. The first European Tourism Day was held on 7 October 2008 in Brussels, during which events provided an opportunity to discuss the ‘agenda for a sustainable and competitive European tourism and centralized EU financial instruments supporting tourism’. This was followed by a second Day on 8 October 2009 on which ‘the role of networking in development of European sustainable tourism’ was the focus. ‘The role of European heritage and cultural itineraries in the renewed European tourism policy’ was the focus in 2010, while 2011 highlighted ‘industrial heritage: differentiating the European tourism offer’ and 2012 examined ‘seasonality – maritime and coastal tourism’. European Tourism Day is now held on the same day as World Tourism Day, on 27 September each year. SMA 198

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  European Tourism Forum A dialogue developed by the European Commission as a tool for tourism policy coordination resting within the competence of member states (see Policy cascade). Held annually since 2002 as a result of the communication from the European Commission on ‘Working together for the future of European tourism’ (COM(2001) 665 final of 13.11.2001), the forum aims at raising competitiveness of European tourism by addressing the challenges faced by the industry and strengthening the interface between European tourism stakeholders. Bringing together leading representatives of the tourism industry, social partners, civil society, European institutions, national and regional authorities and international organizations, each year the Forum deals with a specific theme on the top of the agenda, such as quality, sustainability and competitiveness. SMA

  European Tourism Indicator System A locally-owned and led process for monitoring, managing and enhancing the sustainability of European tourism destinations. It has been developed as a result of lessons learned from previously existing indicator system initiatives and fine-tuned as a result of feedback collected from field testing, in a number of different destinations in Europe. The system is made up of a set of indicators, a toolkit and a dataset. It is drawn up as an instrument that any destination can pick up and implement without any specific training. It can be a useful way to track destination performance and make better management decisions, as well as influence adequate policies. The present system has a structure of 27 core and 40 optional indicators that fall under the following headings: destination management, economic value, social and cultural impact and environmental impact. These can be used on a voluntary basis, together with, or integrated into, existing destination monitoring systems. The system can be expanded or contracted to meet the needs of the destination, the interest of local stakeholders and the specific sustainability issues that the destination faces. The basic principle of the indicator system is that destination responsibility, ownership and decision-making is shared. Engaging a group to come together and work together to collect and report information is a powerful way to undertake effective destination management. The System was developed by the University of Surrey, Sustainable Travel International and the INTASAVE Partnership as a deliverable of the European Commission’s ‘Study on the Feasibility of a European Tourism Indicator System for Sustainable Management at Destination Level’. It evolved from the development of the Tourism Sustainability Group (TSG) indicators and testing their feasibility in two previous NECSTouR (Network of European Region for a Sustainable and Competitive Tourism) project and EDEN (European Destinations of Excellence) destinations. The European Commission aims to move towards more comprehensive, inclusive and sustainable ways of working, by providing an indicator system for destinations to use on a voluntary basis. This will ultimately improve the information available to tourism stakeholders and add value to the European tourism experience. The long-term aim is that the system will serve as a European Tourism Indicator System199

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guide to policy makers and other destination stakeholders for the improved management of tourism destinations across European Union. See also Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria GMI and HC

  European Tourism Policy Efforts to set up a Common European Tourism Policy date back as far as the 1980s, when a number of directives and recommendations protecting consumers were passed. Declaring 1990 to be the European Year of Tourism, putting the Tourism Action Plan of 1992 (92/421/EEC) into effect and inserting an article (3/t) into the Maastricht Treaty, envisaging that the activities of the Community shall include measures in the sphere of tourism to achieve the overall aims defined in the Treaty, have been prominent steps forward in emphasizing tourism among the other policy areas of the European Union (EU). However, these attempts have been inadequate to provide a proportionate stance for the tourism industry in the internal market. Both the Green Paper on the Role of Union in the Field of Tourism, as well as the failed Philoxenia Programme, sought ways for establishing a common approach at the European level, serving the interests of tourism undertakings. Restoring the European Union’s tourism policy deficit, the Treaty of Lisbon put the tourism entrepreneurs on an equal footing with consumers and environmental and cultural enthusiasts. Article 195 of the Treaty mandates that the Union shall take complementary actions to ensure competitiveness of tourism undertakings in the internal market by way of creating a favorable environment and promoting cooperation among stakeholders through sharing best practices, while respecting the diversity of member states’ attitudes and their individual areas of competence. It also stipulates that the measures taken by the EU to complement the actions of Member States will be resolved with a qualified majority vote in line with the ordinary legislative procedure. With the momentum created by the provisions of Lisbon Treaty, the Commission has issued a strategy paper (COM(2010)352 final of 30.06.2010) outlining the priorities of the new political framework for tourism in Europe, which envisages that the notion of sustainable, responsible and high-quality tourism will be promoted, an integrated European image of sustainable and high-quality destinations will be created, and the EU’s financial instruments will be utilized for the benefit of the tourism industry. SMA

  European Union The economic and political integration among 28 European countries, covering much of the continent of Europe (over 4 million km2) and affiliating more than 500 million people under European citizenship with 24 official languages. Initially, the European integration project was an attempt to overcome nationalist conflicts, especially the opposition between Germany and France, so as to ensure that any other war within the continent would be ‘materially impossible’ (Schuman Declaration, 9 May 1950). It was envisaged as a step forward to unite the European nations under a single scheme in order to foster economic prosperity and strengthen solidarity among the member 200

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states. Inspired by the ideas of Jean Monnet, on the 9 May 1950 the French foreign minister Robert Schuman proposed the creation of a European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), the members of which would confer their powers to supranational institutions. Signed by the EU-6 (France, Germany, Italy and Benelux countries) in 1951, the Treaty of Paris established the ECSC among parties with the aim of achieving economic growth, expansion of employment and a high level of living standards through the creation of a common market for coal and steel. This then led to creation of two more communities, namely the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) and the European Economic Community (EEC), the former of which aimed at coordinating the member states’ research programs for the peaceful use of nuclear energy, and the latter creating a customs union among the EU-6 by 1968. With its aspiration to create ‘an ever closer Union between the peoples of Europe’ (Treaty of Rome, 1957, preamble), the EEC proved to be not merely an economic integration but a political one as well. Successful completion of the customs union in due course, coupled with an economic boom, attracted new states to join the EEC. In 1973 Britain, Ireland and Denmark joined the original six; then in 1981 Greece and in 1983 Spain and Portugal became members. With the enlargement of EEC to reach 12 members, it became difficult to make decisions through unanimous voting, calling for further amendments in the founding Treaty. Defining the notion of a ‘common market’ for the first time, the Single European Act (SEA) of 1986 provided a schedule for the completion of single market, while looking towards creating economic and monetary union, and driving forward the agenda for political union. With the amendments made in the former Treaty, the SEA provided a mechanism for passing laws through ‘qualified-majority voting’, remedied the ‘democratic deficit’ by strengthening the power of the European Parliament and laid the basis for a European foreign policy. The SEA also officially included a ‘comitology procedure’, in which committees formed of national experts as in the case of Advisory Committee on Tourism worked in close cooperation with the Commission to develop and implement European policies. The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the reunification of Germany were symbolic of the ambition of the European Community (EC) to achieve a deeper integration within the continent. Renaming the EC as the European Union (EU), the Maastricht Treaty of 1992 set a timetable for creating an Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) by 1999, yet aspired a deeper integration by granting European citizenship and assuming new roles in the field of foreign and domestic policy. Creating a new model for the Community based on ‘three pillars’, namely economic relations, foreign affairs and home affairs, the Maastricht Treaty widened the responsibilities of the EU even to cover an article on tourism (Article 3/t). Another amendment in the founding Treaty was made by the Amsterdam Treaty (1997), which attempted to tie up the loose ends left over from the Maastricht Treaty, yet failed to include a separate chapter on tourism as proposed by Declaration No. 1 to the Treaty. The succeeding amendment was made by the Nice Treaty (2000), which prepared the Union for the prospective enlargement of the EU. Members adhering to the convergence criteria based on fiscal discipline and financial stability formed the Euro Zone by 1999 and Euro banknotes and coins have been in circulation since 2002. Complying with the Copenhagen Criteria, envisaging alignment with the political and economic norms of the EU, as well as adoption of the acquis communautaire, Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slovenia, Slovakia, Cyprus, Malta, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania joined the Union in 2004, while Romania and Bulgaria became members in 2007, and Croatia in 2013. European Union201

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The Treaty for the Establishment of a Constitution in Europe, drafted by a convention under the leadership of Valery Giscard d’Estaing, was rejected by the French and Dutch electorates in 2004, causing the project of establishing a political union in the continent to stall. Nevertheless, reforming the originally rejected EU Constitution, the Treaty of Lisbon came into force on 1 December 2009. Abolishing the pillar structure, the Lisbon Treaty granted the EU a legal personality and created a post of permanent EU Presidency for a mandate of renewable two and a half years. The Treaty also created a single foreign policy post and extended the power of the European Court of Justice into home affairs to strengthen the political aspect of the EU. It removed the member states’ right to veto from most policy areas, while granting new powers to the European Parliament and assigning new roles to the national parliaments in the decision-making process. The Treaty empowered European institutions to harmonize their national legal systems, and introduced a European Tourism Policy for the first time, as defined in Article 195, Title XXII. In doing so the Treaty of Lisbon clarified the distribution of competences between the EU and member states, defining three categories of competences: exclusive competence, shared competence and the competence to carry out actions to support, coordinate or supplement the actions of the member states, with tourism falling under the third category. Delivering 60 years of stability, peace and economic prosperity through various policies defined by the European laws, the European Union has achieved results that would not have been possible by individual efforts of the member states acting on their own, yet there is still room for further improvements. Adhering to the motto ‘United in Diversity’, introduced by the Lisbon Treaty, the Union aspires for smart, sustainable and inclusive growth with a good economic governance for the next decade as identified in the EU-2020 strategy. SMA Further reading Leonard, D. (2010) European Union. The Economist. London, UK. Mehter Aykın, S. (2012) A Common Tourism Policy for the European Union: A Historical Perspective. In: Moufakkir, O. and Burns, P.M. (eds) Controversies in Tourism, 1st edn. CAB International, Wallingford, UK, pp. 23–40. Schuman, R. (9 May 1950) The Schuman Declaration. Available at: http://europa.eu/about-eu/basic-­ information/symbols/europe-day/schuman-declaration/index_en.htm

  European Year of Tourism (1990) The theme-year of the European Union dedicated to tourism in 1990. Proposed by the European Parliament, the idea of celebrating 1990 as the European Year of Tourism was approved by the Council of Ministers, and a total of 5 million ECU was allocated to fund projects addressing the priorities defined in the Council Decision 89/46/EEC of 21 December 1988. The European Year of Tourism was geared towards two road targets: ‘to prepare for the establishment of the large area without frontiers, turning the integrating role of tourism to account in the creation of people’s Europe, and to stress the economic and social importance of the tourism sector, inter alia in regional policy and job creation’ (Article 2 of 89/46/EEC). To achieve these ends, coordinated 202

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actions involving tourism awards, awareness-raising activities, and cultural, rural and social tourism initiatives were taken. SMA

 Eutrophication The enrichment of freshwater or marine waterbodies by excess nutrients, chiefly inorganic forms of nitrogen or phosphorus. This can be a natural process, but is most commonly caused by anthropogenic inputs. Eutrophication generally leads to enhanced growth of algae and other photosynthetic organisms and can result in increased frequency or extent of algal blooms. When such blooms decompose, the oxygen content of the water can be significantly reduced, affecting other organisms. See also Pollution RBR

 Event A temporary experience created by organizers through unique combinations of timing, location, theme, design and coordination (Goldblatt, 2002; Getz, 2012). Events are held for any one or a combination of celebration, competition, fun, entertainment, business and socializing, to attract participants and spectators for some social, community, industry and/or monetary benefit. Historically, events have been categorized according to their scale and size, such as mega-events, hallmark events, major events and community events. Mega-events are so large that they affect whole economies and reverberate in the global media (Allen et al., 2010). Hallmark events are those events that have become synonymous with a specific town, city or region, affording the place with widespread recognition and awareness. Major events are those which because of their scale and scope can attract significant media coverage, visitor numbers and economic benefits. Community events are themed public occasions that originate from within a community and are designed to occur for a limited duration to celebrate valued aspects of a community’s way of life (Small et al., 2005) (Fig. E14). More recently the term ‘events’ is used in discourse to encapsulate any planned event in an integrated approach (Getz, 2012). There are many different types of events. These can include, inter alia, cultural (i.e. festivals, carnivals, commemorations, or religious), political and state (i.e. summits, royal occasions, civic or VIP visits), arts and entertainment (i.e. concerts, music festivals or award ceremonies), business and trade (meetings, conventions, expositions or consumer and trade shows, fairs, markets), educational and scientific (i.e. conferences, seminars or clinics), sport competition (i.e. amateur/professional, spectator/­ participant, recreational sport or games for fun) and private events (i.e. weddings, parties or socials). Depending on the size and nature of the event, a variety of individuals and enterprises will be engaged in its development and may include all or some of the following: the host community, host organization, various levels of government, venue owners and operators, regulatory bodies, funding agencies, sponsors, media, participants and accompanying persons. Events require a variety of specialized facilities and services including scoping, marketing and communications, financing, timing, Event203

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Fig. E14.  Whale shark festival, Ningaloo, Western Australia (Carl Cater).

design, risk, procurement, human resources and insurance. Specific components of the sector include event suppliers, venues and associations. As interest in sustainability has grown globally, concerns about the social, economic and environmental impacts that events may have on the communities and destinations that host them have also increased. Consequently, governments worldwide are requiring robust evaluations of the projected impacts of events before committing funds to their support. Initially, event evaluation focused on the relatively easy-tomeasure economic dimension due to the economic benefits an event could bring to event stakeholders, the community and the destination. With the realization that events can have positive and negative outcomes, which can be both tangible and intangible, a broader perspective has been adopted to encompass the social, cultural and environmental outcomes. More recently there has been a rise in the certification of events to assess an event’s performance on sustainability credentials such as the British Standard BS 8901: 2009, the International ISO 20121 Events Sustainability Management System, EcoLogo (North America) and A Greener Festival (UK) (Allen et al., 2010). As this emphasis on sustainable events grows in importance many events are now ‘greening’ their event. For some events their sustainability focus is the key marketing tool for the event. Some examples of events that have employed a sustainability focus include the Shell Houston Open (SHO). In 2013, the SHO implemented a zero waste challenge that, according to Waste Management Sustainability Services (WMSS) (2014), had the goal of diverting 75% of all waste materials away from landfills. WMSS worked with the organizers of the SHO to develop a waste management plan 204Event

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to produce less waste and focus their sustainability goals on their stakeholders and local community. Together the organizers and WMSS developed a list of sustainability goals (WMSS, 2014, p.1), which covered the following aspects: ⦁ ⦁ ⦁

⦁ ⦁ ⦁ ⦁

introducing a new waste container and bag strategy, limiting all waste to just two streams: recycling or compost; enhancing diversion programs targeting the collection and separation of glass, cardboard, food waste/organics and single stream recycling; increasing communication with vendors, fans and volunteers to ensure that all materials entering tournament grounds, including give-aways, met the guidelines of acceptable materials that can be recycled or composted locally; coordinating with the City of Houston’s Reuse Warehouse for donation of carpet and scrim; designing and implementing an on-site waste material sorting program, including all waste generated throughout the tournament; increasing focus on volunteer and tournament staff education and training; and new focus on public-facing signage and sustainability-related messaging.

Through the development of these goals the 2013 tournament was able to achieve its main goal and achieved an overall waste diversion rate of 87.3%. Another example of sustainability being at the forefront of the thinking of the organizers of events was evidenced at the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games. For these games, all Olympic venues were encouraged to implement BS8901, a ‘British Standard specification for a “sustainable event management system” developed to help the events industry to operate in a more sustainable way’ (The Green Blue, 2014, p. 1). According to Action Sustainability (2014) BS8901 uses a plan-docheck-act approach used in a variety of different management system standards and has three main phases: Planning, Implementation and Check/Review. Action Sustainability (2014) claims that there are three main commercial benefits that can be achieved by undertaking this type of certification. These benefits are: ⦁

provides assurance to stakeholders, customers and anyone else involved that the event has been planned and implemented in a sustainable manner; ⦁ helps differentiate an organization from its competitors, helping to win new business, improving reputation and brand image; and ⦁ helps reduce carbon emissions and waste, and improve resource efficiency of the entire event supply chain. The London Olympic Games was one of the key drivers to develop BS8901 to help showcase the London Olympic and Paralympic Games as two of the most sustainable major events ever held (The Green Blue, 2014). Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy (WPNSA), the venue for the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic sailing events, saw the benefits of obtaining BS8901 and put a number of sustainability actions in place to ensure the venue could meet the sustainability goals of the certification. According to the Green Blue (2014, p. 1) the venue realized that the following benefits could be achieved by working towards BS8901 including: ⦁ ⦁ ⦁

promote the sport of sailing and its association with the environment; understand and maximize the positive socio-economic impact of sailing events; respond to the Sustainable Sourcing Code for the 2012 Games;

Event205

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⦁ ⦁

promote WPNSA as a ‘green’ conference venue and attract more business; consider the environmental impact of WPNSA’s activities and minimize any negative effects; and ⦁ consistently operate in line with the well-established ‘One Planet Living’ principles of sustainable development. As such, the venue developed their sustainable development principles on the ‘One Planet Living’, an initiative developed by the World Wildlife Fund and BioRegional, based on ten principles for sustainable living and sustainable development (see oneplanetcommunities.org). For each of these 10 principles, WPNSA developed one objective and one related key performance indicator to monitor and measure their sustainability progress (The Green Blue, 2014). As a result of these initiatives WPNSA was the ‘first sailing venue in the world and the first Olympic and Paralympic venue to achieve BS8901’. The Green Blue (2014, p. 1) state that the venue has seen numerous benefits from their sustainability focus including being seen as a green conference facility, and reductions in utilities such as water, waste and electricity. DE, LD and SR

  Experience economy A term used to describe a post-service economy phase in which the focus is on the production and consumption not of services but of memorable experiences. Although experience as the object of consumption had previously been considered, most notably by Holbrook and Hirschman (1982), the concept of the experience economy was first proposed in an article by Pine and Gilmore (1998) and subsequently expanded upon in their book (1999) The Experience Economy: Work is Theatre and Every Business a Stage. They suggest that, as the service economy has become more widespread and deeply rooted in contemporary societies, services themselves have become homogeneous commodities. Consequently, in order to differentiate themselves and, hence, enhance their competiveness, service providers need to create added value by selling memorable experiences to their customers. For Pine and Gilmore, experiences are distinct from services; they are the final output of the service-production process. The creation of memorable experiences – that is, experiences that are remembered long after the event – requires the emotional engagement of the consumer. Therefore, service providers should see themselves not as producers but as stagers of events, their staff taking on the role of actors who interact with consumers to personalize their experience according to their individual needs and expectations. Thus, the consumer becomes a guest who participates in a ‘play’, albeit a play that is ‘stage managed’ by the experience provider. From a geographical perspective, it has been noted that destinations generally offer experiences at isolated points (e.g. attractions, restaurants, hotels, etc.) rather than as a networked offering (Pechlaner et al., 2012).They go on to suggest that for destinations to be memorable and to compete in the experience economy ‘destinations are forced to provide emotional experiences along the entire tourist service chain’ (Pechlaner et al., 2012, p. 2). Thus, the challenge for tourist destinations is to provide a joined-up service chain, which results in memorable experiences. Potential to achieve this may exist in the burgeoning field of virtual and augmented reality (AR). 206

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Perhaps the most significant application of the experience economy to the sustainability agenda is the role of information and communication technologies (ICT) in engineering augmented and virtual tourist experiences. A framework of components for positive (desired) augmented tourism experiences has been developed, but recognises that ‘for AR technology to be useful, attractive, engaging and proactive for visitors to unfamiliar environments, the provided content needs to fit within the wider spatio-temporal, personal and technical context where the system is used’ (Yovcheva et al., 2013, p. 32). With the differentiation between services and experiences underpinned by the creation of memorable interactions, augmented tourism experiences may offer one pathway to more rewarding and sustainable forms of tourism. Examples of the applied use of the experience economy concept in tourism are evidenced in the areas of wine tourism (e.g. Quadri-Felitti and Fiore, 2012), creative tourism (e.g. Tan et al., 2013), cultural events (Pechlaner et al., 2012) and in cross-cultural settings (e.g. Pearce et al., 2013). Indeed the use of the experience economy concept goes beyond tourism, and overlaps the sustainability realm in industries such as agriculture and food (e.g. Swinnen et al., 2012) where it is argued that ‘consumers are willing to pay premium prices for products and services that provide additional intangible “experiences”’ (Swinnen et al., 2012, p. 29). Indeed, one of the criticisms levelled at the concept of the experience economy is that the consumer or ‘guest’, though engaging with actors within the staged event, remains the recipient of supplied experiences. Consequently, the concept of the experience economy has been superseded by the notion of co-creation, that all services and experiences are co-created by the interaction of suppliers and consumers. Moreover, it is also argued that the concept of the experience economy is of limited relevance to tourism. Not only has it long been accepted that tourists consume neither products nor services but experiences, and that the tourist experience is largely determined by tourists themselves, but also that the study of tourism as experience significantly predates Pine and Gilmore’s work on the experience economy. One final consideration of the experience economy, and related closely to augmented tourism experiences, is the issue of authenticity. The authenticity of performativity was discussed initially by MacCannell (1973) and later Cohen (1988), among others, who write about the desire of tourists to enter the ‘back’ regions of the places they visit because of the authenticity of experiences (MacCannell, 1973). The intimacy these ‘back’ regions hold for tourists contribute towards the creation of memorable experiences, and simultaneously draws into question the usefulness of regimented ‘experience design’ as it diminishes the intimacy of unplanned experiences. RS and TL

  Experiential education A pedagogical philosophy and practice that values and consciously integrates the experience of learners into the learning process. Experiential education views learners as agents in the architecture of their own education, the education of others and the welfare of the communities in which they participate (Carver, 1996). Experiential education207

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It takes a holistic approach by acknowledging learners in their entirety as affective, physical, spiritual, cognitive and social beings, and by attempting to engage the multidimensional aspects of these experiential domains. As such, the process is much more complex and recursive than implied by lay synonyms like ‘learning by doing’ or ‘hands-on learning’. For example, Kolb (1984) conceptualized an experiential learning cycle whereby learners continuously transition through four stages: concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization and active experimentation. Each stage builds upon the previous one to the point where learners are prepared to extend the meanings, understandings or applications ­derived from one experience to another. While such an ordered and sequential representation is not without limitations (Seaman, 2008), it has helped enable experiential education to become an organizing principle for a wide array of learning-centred contexts related to tourism. These include job-training internships and apprenticeships, environmental education, service learning and advocacy, art or media education and production, and community-based support programs. Perhaps the most direct application of experiential education in tourism occurs in alternative modes of adventure tourism and ecotourism, where guiding and interpretation are prominent. See also Action research, Learning organization, Philosophic practitioner BGR

 Externality An impact that the actions of a decision-maker can have on the welfare of others. Such impacts are not taken into account in people’s production or consumption decisions and are thus ‘external’ to the market. Externalities can be related to either production or consumption decisions and can have either positive or negative welfare implications (see Table 3). Often there is a substantial time lag between an externality being created and it having an impact: the activities of one generation can impact negatively or positively on the interests of another. These are known as ‘intergenerational externalities’. Managing such impacts effectively is at the heart of sustainable develop­ment, given its principal objective of achieving development for today’s generation without compromising the ability of future generations to achieve their own development. BG Table 3.  Typology of external costs and benefits

Production externality

Consumption externality

Negative (external cost)

Positive (external benefit)

Damage to old buildings caused by tourist vehicle exhaust fumes Hill trekking participants dropping plastic bottles along trails

Hotels landscaping their grounds, thus making the area more attractive Visitors having fun at an amusement park enhancing its ambience for others

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  Eye on the Reef Program

Fig. E15.  Reef environmental education, Agincourt Reef, Great Barrier Reef, Australia (Carl Cater).

An operator-focused monitoring program initiated by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA). Given the enormous task of monitoring the health of such a large area, and recognizing that tourism and leisure users have both presence and an interest in the health of the reef, the GBRMPA actively uses them in the collection of data on reef condition. Methods include a Sightings Network, Eyes and Ears Incident Reporting, Rapid Monitoring, Reef Health and Impact Surveys and Tourism Weekly Monitoring. Notably the former two require no prior training, allowing everyday tourism and leisure users to collect valuable information about reef health (Fig. E15): a form of citizen science. See also Coral bleaching CIC   Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority www.gbrmpa.gov.au/managing-the-reef/how-the-reefs-managed/eye-on-the-reef

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F   Fair trade A market-based poverty-alleviation mechanism, taking the form of a social movement that advocates innovative conditions of trade reflecting the key principles of sustainable development. Fairtrade labels on commodities are typically associated with consumer buycotting campaigns. Hence, fairtrade products provide opportunities for ethical consumption and encourage consumers to demonstrate their consumer power through boycotting non-fairtrade certified products. Written as one word (‘Fairtrade’), it refers to products certified by the Fairtrade Labelling Organization (FLO). The FLO is responsible for prescribing the standards and monitoring them to ensure the principles are upheld. Fair trade places emphasis in three identifiable areas. Firstly, it ensures the payment of consistent prices (despite a fluctuating market) to producers in the less-­developed countries. Thus, fair trade advocates economic independence. Specifically, it encompasses a commitment to the achievement of social and environmental standards. This is accomplished through the payment of fair compensation for products and labour. Secondly, fair trade aims to alleviate poverty through trade, seeking to harness sustainable development by way of offering better trading conditions with marginalized communities and producers in the Majority World. Fair trade adopts sustainable environmental practices, the provision of social services and investment in local economic infrastructure. As such, it is concerned with empowering producers and thus recognizing the importance of shared community decision-making. Accordingly, fair trade promotes a democratic organization of the economy, wherein producers exercise control through the ownership of land and democratic associations such as cooperatives. Fair trade redresses the inequality in economic relations, specifically focusing on the human element. It therefore strives to provide a safe working environment, a living wage and the protection of human rights and dignity. Thirdly, fair trade is concerned with encouraging participation in the wider fair trade movement in an effort to achieve greater equity in intercontinental trade. Such advocacy is recognized through campaigns such as offering Fairtrade coffee in cafes and on university campuses, Fairtrade certified universities, the promotion of Fairtrade towns and cities, the Fair Hotels Ireland scheme and Fair Trade Tourism South ­Africa certification. The cohesive relationship between a few key stakeholders is imperative to successfully achieve the outcomes of fair trade. Such stakeholders include: (i) producers, which should be democratically organized; (ii) importing organizations, which should focus on improving market access for their trading partners by campaigning, providing wholesale ordering forms and selling products through fair trade shops; (iii) fair trade labelling initiatives, which should guarantee to consumers that the fair trade standards have been achieved (such as The Max Havelaar Label, Fairtrade Foundation Label, Cafedirect, FLO-Fairtrade Labelling Organization); (iv) fair trade shops or 210 

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Importing Organizations

Producers

Fairtrade Labelling Initiatives

Consumers

Fair Trade World Shops

Fig. F1.  Fair trade’s dependence on stakeholder activity.

‘world shops’, to sell Fairtrade products, organize joint campaigns with the importing organizations to promote and raise the profile of fair trade such as Oxfam, Ten Thousand Villages, and Trade Aid; and (v) consumers, who support the fair trade movement by consuming Fairtrade products, and/or speak out about the injustices in trade. Fig. F1 illustrates the interconnected relationship between the five stakeholders described above. The arrows in the image demonstrate that each stakeholder is reliant on the next to successfully achieve the desired outcomes of fair trade. KB

  Fair-trade tourism (FTT) Application of the principles of fair trade to the tourism industry. The notion of fair-trade tourism (FTT) has emerged from some of the fundamental tenets of pro-poor tourism (PPT) and ecotourism. Where PPT attempts to act as a catalyst to provide direct benefit to aid in poverty alleviation and empowerment of the poor; ecotourism is concerned with environmental conservation, as well as improving the general well-being of host communities. FTT is embedded in the fair trade movement and similarly concerned with addressing imbalances in trade. It is primarily focused on the extent to which the application of fair trade – with regard to trading partnerships, consumer awareness and certification – can inform tourism development at tourism destinations and overseas (Kalisch, 2001). FTT attempts to apply the principles and philosophies of fair trade: a poverty-alleviation mechanism based on dialogue, transparency and respect, and an equal trading partnership (see Equity). As such, FTT has emerged as a mechanism to protect host countries and communities participating in tourism from governments, big businesses and environmental exploitation. Thus FTT employs fair trade practices as a way to guarantee living wages for employees. Fair trade has emerged as a way to readdress the sustainability, inequality and exploitation issues that exist within the hospitality and tourism industry. Fair-trade tourism (FTT)211

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The first-working definition of FTT emerged from Tourism Concern in 1999/2000. This was informed by various international development experiences in the Majority World, wherein poverty and inequality were recognized as a result of active power relationships. As such, Tourism Concern had a number of countries in mind for implementating FTT. One of the countries was South Africa, which is currently the only country in the world to have developed a certification scheme applying fair trade to tourism: Fair Trade Tourism South Africa. Tourism Concern facilitated an international network on FTT, demonstrating their initial attempt to discuss the application of fair trade principles to tourism. The definition identified three significant areas of focus, including the overlap between FTT and sustainable development in tourism, an interest in maximizing benefits from tourism for all stakeholders involved, and ultimately supporting the rights of indigenous peoples and host communities implicated and/or affected by tourism-related activities (Tourism Concern, 2009). Thus, FTT is recognized as a progressive way forward for sustainable tourism. KB

  Fair Trade Tourism South Africa (FTTSA) A fair-trade tourism certification scheme. South Africa was the first, and currently the only country in the world to implement such an initiative. FTTSA emerged in 2002 and was a consequence of recognizing the success of the fair trade mark as applied to agricultural commodities, the recognition of tourism in South Africa as a ‘missed opportunity’, a prospect to move forward in the country’s new democracy, and decisive action demonstrated by a few key stakeholders. FTTSA certification is based on a three-stage process including a self-assessment, on-site assessment and an adjudication process. There are currently 63 certified FTTSA businesses, ranging from safari lodges and game reserves, mountain and lakeside lodges, to hostels and day tours. The goal of FTTSA is to contribute to positive transformation, fostering improved conditions and promoting shared benefits. Thus, there is a specific focus on certifying black/community-owned businesses in an effort to support the tenets of sustainable tourism development. KB   Fair Trade Tourism South Africa fairtradetourism.wordpress.com

  Farm tourism A niche tourism product that has been widely promoted as an income alternative for rural landholders in an effort to maintain predominantly small-scale farming enterprises and sustain rural lifestyles (Marsden, 1999; Lobley and Potter, 2004). Particularly in Europe, where it often has a long history, farm tourism has received considerable political attention as a vehicle to maintain traditional rural farming landscapes (Hjalager, 1996). Farm tourism products and activities vary widely depending upon the geographical location, the goals, interests and skills of the owner, and the natural and financial resources available. A number of features are similar across the world but there are also distinct regional differences (Ollenburg, 2008). 212  Fair Trade Tourism South Africa (FTTSA)

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Farm tourism products and services can be broadly divided into off-farm and on-farm ones. A further distinction can be made in regards to the accommodation component. The vast majority of farm tourism products include some form of on-farm accommodation with or without activities. The stereotypical farm tourism experience is the farmstay, a short visit to a family farm with farmhouse or separate cottage accommodation and the opportunity to take part in some farm activities (Ollenburg, 2008). Activities can include horse-riding, tractor rides, hay rides, campfires and those targeted at children (milking a cow, collecting eggs, petting zoos and others) (Fig. F2). There is often limited opportunity to participate in farm duties due to the nature of hard labour and insurance issues related to this kind of work. Some farm tourism enterprises provide the opportunity for visitors (on additional charge) to take part in a cattle muster or stock work. Other operators have expanded into adventure-based activities (e.g. rock climbing, 4WD and quad-bike riding, hunting and fishing) or nature-based activities (e.g. bush walking, birdwatching). In North America direct farm marketing initiatives such as pick your own fruit and Christmas tree farms are very popular on-farm activities (McGehee and Kim, 2004), as well as farm restaurants (Fig. F2). Farm tourism can also evolve around technical on-farm tours or specialized workshops (e.g. cheese making; permaculture). Despite long-standing attention there appears to be little consensus on a definition of farm tourism. Terms such as farm tourism, agritourism, agrotourism and rural tourism continue to be used interchangeably throughout the literature. This can be partly attributed to different language backgrounds and geographical locations (Ollenburg, 2008). A large number of definitions, however, can still be found for each term. Phillip et al. (2010) identified key characteristics including a ‘working farm’ environment, ‘the nature

Fig. F2.  Farm tourism, Gozo, Malta (Carl Cater). Farm tourism213

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and contact between tourist and agricultural activity’ and ‘the degree of authenticity in the tourism experience’ as critical in an attempt to classify farm tourism activities and products. Each of those characteristics allows for a broad degree of discrimination between agritourism activities and products, but require further clarification in itself. Key concerns are the contact (direct or indirect) tourists have with a genuine agriculture environment. The question remains if the latter can only be portrayed through a full-time working farm. Busby and Rendle (2000) proposed a continuum from ‘tourism on farms’ to ‘farm tourism’ based on the increasing financial contribution tourism offers to the overall business. A greater revenue stream from tourism, however, is likely to result in a less authentic farm tourism product (Busby and Rendle, 2000). Ollenburg and Buckley (2011) alluded further to the fact that a significant and increasing proportion of farm tourism operators are lifestyle amenity migrants with little or no farming background. These often highly educated operators with an urban background are educating people about farming. If this trend continues the public will become increasingly estranged from the reality of modern farming (Ollenburg, 2007). Research on farm tourism has been approached from a rural studies perspective and tourism business perspective. The rural studies perspective appears to dominate the literature to date. From a rural studies point of view, farm tourism has been investigated as an on-farm diversification option for farmers who are increasingly under pressure to run viable farm enterprises due to a range of external and internal factors (Marsden, 1999; Lobley and Potter, 2004). In this context a large number of studies are concerned with entrepreneurial characteristics of farm tourism operators and in particular their original motivation to start up a farm tourism operation (Pearce, 1990a; Weaver and Fennell, 1997; Nickerson et al., 2001; McGehee and Kim, 2004; Ollenburg and Buckley, 2007; Tew and Barbieri, 2012). Farm tourism benefits can be economic (e.g. generation of additional income and employment of family members) or social (e.g. companionship with visitors and guests). There is a predominance of economic motivations in the literature but social benefits cannot be neglected, particularly in more isolated locations (Pearce, 1990a; Ollenburg and Buckley, 2007). An increasing number of studies are also concerned with the social identity of farm tourism operators (Brandth and Haugen, 2011; Ollenburg and Buckley, 2011; Nilson, 2002). From a tourism business perspective, farm tourism provides an interesting case study. The majority of farm tourism businesses can be classified as family businesses (Getz and Carlsen, 2005). They are, however, distinct in that they incorporate two interrelated dimensions – the family farm and the farm tourism business. Farm tourism can be an adjunct to a core farming business or farming can be an adjunct to a core farm tourism business. In either case, however, farm tourism has to satisfy personal and family needs as well as the needs of the farm business (Ollenburg, 2007). There are strong interactions between family needs and business needs, which often put a strain on family dynamics. One of those conflicts relates to the continuity of the farm tourism business into succeeding generations (Getz and Carlsen, 2005; Ollenburg, 2007). There is evidence (Garcia-Ramon et al., 1995; Iakovidou and Turner, 1995) that the participation of women in farm tourism is critical to the survival of family farms and the success of farm tourism businesses. The integration of women into economic activities is a crucial component of the rural restructuring process (Ollenburg, 2008). Interestingly, very little research has been dedicated to the demand side of farm 214  Farm tourism

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tourism. There is a need to fill this gap, which will have significant implications for marketing and business management. See also Agritourism, Direct marketing, New peasantry, WWOOF CO

  Feasibility study A study that attempts to determine if any investment will record gains or losses. It is an economically, financially and technically detailed process that can help entrepreneurs in decision making, in evaluating alternatives and in taking advantage of investment incentives. In undertaking a feasibility study, investors must obtain detailed information about all aspects of the investment. One can be undertaken either for a new investment or for the expansion or renovation of existing facilities. It usually consists of five main studies: a market study, a place of investment study, a financial study, a technological study and a legal study. A feasibility study would normally be undertaken in parallel to an environmental impact assessment (EIA) in order to assess environmental impacts. OM

  Film tourism Travel to sites connected with film making, which has developed a growing body of academic research that has emerged over a relatively short time frame. It appears to be a niche activity connected with a few key destinations namely Australia, Ireland, the UK and the USA. Up to now, much film-related research has been published (Beeton, 2005; Kim, 2012) but little has been integrated with the communications, culture, film and media research. Connell (2012) suggests that film tourism is tourist activity induced by the viewing of a moving image, and is accepted as encompassing film, television, pre-recorded products (e.g. Blu-Ray/digital media/DVD/video) (see Hudson and Ritchie, 2006). O’Connor and Bolan (2008) suggest that film tourism can be defined as a phenomenon of tourist visits to a destination (O’Connor et al., 2010) because of it being featured in cinema or television (Fig. F3). Film tourism is often called film-induced tourism, in that tourist visits are induced or stimulated by viewing a film location on-screen-which is the definition that is used in the tourism related literature (Connell, 2012). Many films have generated unprecedented demand for international tourism destinations such as the Lord of the Rings (2001–2003), which emphasizes the unique and picturesque beauty of New Zealand, or Crocodile Dundee (1986), which highlighted Australia as an adventurous and amazing destination. In turn, Bollywood themed films have increased the popularity in the filmed destinations namely Slumdog Millionaire (2008) and India. Rural communities that are located near such film site areas are using tourism to revitalize their economies (Jurowski, 1996). The host community is doing this because film-induced tourists can help create jobs, tax revenues and income for the community. When tourists visit a destination they purchase items in the local shops, restaurants and stay in the local hotels, which are all beneficial to the local economy (see Multiplier). Film tourism can also provide many job Film tourism215

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Fig. F3.  Film tourism, Phi Phi Leh, Thailand made famous in the film The Beach (Tiffany Low).

opportunities as the television and media companies filming in the area will be looking for many people to help out in production of the film and/or television series. Beeton (2005) states that to understand the effects of such films (Singh and Best, 2004) on a host community, a study of research needs to be taken over a large period of time. It is not until after the film has being filmed, produced and aired in cinemas around the world that the tourists start to visit the site as a result of film tourism (Beeton, 2005). Film tourism creates both positive and negative impacts for a destination, which in turn develops into both opportunities and threats in the future but if managed properly, will have minimal drawbacks. From identifying the growth and future priorities for the key film and tourism stakeholders in a destination, there are many opportunities for this phenomenon to flourish. Finally, promoting a destination through film is an innovative and potentially cheaper approach as it is viewed by a potentially massive audience which could not be reached by normal marketing methods. However, destinations do not necessarily have control over how they might be portrayed. NO Further reading Beeton, S. (2005) Film-induced tourism. Channel View Publications, Bristol, UK.

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 Fishing The catching of aquatic life forms. This may include fishing for recreational or tourism purposes, often by: angling; subsistence or commercial fishing for human consumption; or industrial fishing for fishmeal/oils used for a variety of industrial and agricultural purposes. Although the latter two would not seem to directly impact on tourism, concerns have been raised as to the damage that commercial and industrial fishing has inflicted on the marine environment, and hence its potential to support sustainable tourism. The recent documentary The End of the Line documents grave concerns with overfishing, waste and bycatch that have decimated stocks of fish worldwide. Governments may be implicit in this, supporting economically unviable fishing industries, as it was estimated that in 2006 global fish production was estimated to cost US$124 billion while providing only US$70 billion in revenue (Davenport and Davenport, 2006). The growth of aquaculture is also an activity that may conflict aesthetically and in employment terms with tourism. Tourism may also put extra stresses on fish stocks, particularly in island tourism locations such as the Maldives where there is high demand for fresh seafood, which may not be able to be met sustainably from local supplies. Indeed at the Scuba Junkie resort on Mabul Island, Sabah, fish for guests is deliberately not sourced from local island communities due to unsustainable fishing methods. Tourism often presents a double-edged sword in this way. for example, while an interest in marine tourism may highlight concerns with shark finning, how much shark fin soup is consumed by Asian tourists wishing to celebrate their holidays with highly prized delicacies? However, sustainable fishing as tourist activity has received much recent attention, particularly in relation to consumptive and non-consumptive forms of tourism. Zwirn et al. (2005) make a strong argument for recreational fishing to be viewed as sustainable, providing it is pursued responsibly and is confined to healthy populations that can support small-scale extraction in ways that will not diminish future population health. Zwirn et al. (2005) cite major advances in angler ethics such as the National Marine Fisheries Service Code of Angling Ethics, which was developed with the participation of both angling groups and conservationists (NMFS, 1999). This code of conduct limits catch to desired species and size, using techniques to minimize injury to fish before they are released. Indeed, there has also been growth in sustainably managed catch and release fishing tourism. Post-release mortality rates are estimated to be 10% for bait fishing, 3% for lures and 1% for fly-fishing (Zwirn et al., 2005) and high survival rates for billfish have been reported (Holland et al., 1998). These authors argue that properly managed and practised recreational fishing might not only be environmentally sustainable, but also have the potential to contribute positively to conservation (by participating directly in monitoring of fisheries and research, as well as by incorporating educational and interpretive elements), and to contribute to local economies. Indeed, Halpenny (2002) itemizes good practices in release fishing and examines how it helps promote conservation and economic opportunities in the Toledo district of Belize. CIC   The End of the Line documentary endoftheline.com/

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Case study: Charter boat fishing in Australia Charter boat fishing is distinguished from commercial fishing, or taking fish for sale, and recreational fishing, where fish caught are not sold, by combining elements of the two. Charter boat operators, however, are paid for taking other people fishing, whether the catch is subsequently sold or not. This generally, but not always, involves charter boat fishing operators taking recreational anglers fishing, hiring out their boat, equipment and knowledge. It is estimated that there are over 1000 charter fishing boats in Australia taking tourists on commercial tours (Gartside, 2001). Fishing for inshore and coastal reef species, fishing for game fish species and ecotourism charters are the most common activities. The marine charter boat fishery is highly seasonal in nature in many locations. This may be due in part to climatic factors such as the wet season in tropical northern Australia, winter storms in southern Australia and seasonal fisheries like the marlin fishery off Cairns. In terms of regulation, charter fishing sits between both the fishing and tourism industries and has different regulations by state. However, some charter operators in Australia, and particularly the game fishing boats in Cairns, are developing world leading best practice in their fishing operations. They have increased angler awareness of the issues and responsibilities and promoted catch and release techniques that set new standards that other sectors of the industry may find valuable. One initiative is to provide trophies for anglers who catch and release large game fish, which in the past would have been landed. Gartside (2001) notes issues for fisheries raised by charter fishing are exploitation of stocks, lack of regulation, management costs, baseline data collection, bag limits and dual use operators (with both commercial and charter boats). Tourism issues include seasonality, crowding, service delivery, marketing and promotion, satisfaction and varying standards. CIC

  Food miles A measure of how far food travels between its production and the final consumer; the average distance travelled by food from farm to plate (Pretty et al., 2005; Weber and Matthews, 2008). Researchers point out that there is a growing interest in the environmental effects and sustainability of transporting foodstuffs in industrialized countries from production through processing to retail outlets and finally to the point of consumption (Pretty, 2002; Lang and Heasman, 2004). Increased international trade in food is resulting in the transport of food over longer distances, resulting in negative impacts on the environment and human health. Evidence is mounting that these farm-to-plate transport costs could be substantial. In addition, there is growing interest in local and regionalized food-supply systems and the potential social and environmental benefits they could bring. Agricultural systems are acknowledged as providing a number of goods and services, such as recreation and amenity value to the landscape, water retention, carbon sequestration, wildlife habitat and increased biodiversity, and support for rural communities (Pretty, 2004; Dobbs, 2004). Food that has travelled long distances is perceived to use more energy, cost more economically and result in a more harmful environmental impact, having an increased ecological footprint (Saunders et al., 2006). Environment advocates argue that there is a need to move towards policies 218  Food miles

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that support a localization of the global food supply network to promote more sustainable farming and food distribution systems. The growth of organic and locally grown food in the US and European Union shows that consumers are taking more notice of how their food is produced and where it comes from (Weber and Matthews, 2008). The future sustainability of global food systems requires consideration of the following issues: (i) that there are differing production practices across countries and regions; (ii) that buying locally requires increased storage needs through all seasons; and (iii) that there is a need to have an understanding of the type of farm technologies and distribution systems available, as well as the quality and types of food that are consumed (Pretty et al., 2005; Weber and Matthews, 2008). Researchers point out that there are a number of perspectives on measuring the sustainability of food that include: (i) energy accounting; (ii) economic valuation of non-market goods and services; (iii) ecological footprinting; (iv) carbon accounting; and (v) use of indicators (Pretty et al., 2005). Tourism poses particular challenges and opportunities for this issue (Gössling et al., 2011), as importing food for Western diets has long been a source of significant leakage, prompting recent interest in locally based food production and food tourism. See also Fair trade JH

  Food tourism A place-based activity motivated by the desire to engage with distinctive, high-quality and local foodstuffs and/or food production. The food tourism paradigm draws on agriculture, culture and tourism to cover food production and processing, food service, food retail, tourism destinations, food festivals and food-related events, e.g. farmers’ markets, so as to achieve sustainable competitive advantage by providing distinctive, high quality and local food experiences. ‘Spatial fixity’ (Hall and Sharples, 2003, p. 10) is key to food tourist classifications, as tourists must travel to the production source to consume the local produce. Hall and Mitchell (2001, p. 308) define food tourism as ‘visitation to primary and secondary food producers, food festivals, restaurants and specific locations for which food tasting and/or experiencing the attributes of specialist food production regions are the primary motivating factor for travel’. Others (Hall and Sharples, 2003; Ignatov and Smith, 2006) discuss different food tourism markets and motivations, e.g. cuisine tourism, gourmet or gastronomic tourism, and culinary tourism. Ignatov and Smith (2006, p. 238) define culinary tourism as ‘tourist trips during which the purchase or consumption (including beverages), or the observation and study of food production (from agriculture to cooking schools) represent a significant motivation or activity’. This demonstrates the diversity of food as attractor/motivator and sustainable competitive advantage for tourism businesses, tourists and destinations. Visit Wales (2009) promote the use of local food and 76% of visitors to Wales believe that it is important to sample local food and drink, claiming that they are willing to pay more for Welsh/local food. This approach can differentiate tourism businesses, demonstrate the importance of local food in the tourism offer, emphasize quality, provide links to the locality and enhance destination experiences. At the destination level, supporting local food producers creates networks and preserves local ‘foodscapes’ Food tourism219

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through positive perceptions of local food. However, food tourism also contributes to sustainable competitive advantage in other ways, e.g. destination development, cultural identity, sense of place, exports and linkages through the food value chain. From a destination development perspective, food tourism presents new opportunities as tourists seek a true taste experience (Welsh Assembly Government, 2009). Aligned to this is food traceability and provenance as tourists want to understand and appreciate the origin of their food (Groves, 2001). Consequently, many destinations have developed food tourism strategies to reinforce the competitiveness and sustainability of the destination, e.g. Australia, Canada, Hong Kong, Ireland, Scotland, South Africa, Wales (Ignatov & Smith, 2006; Mason and O’Mahony, 2007; Welsh Assembly Government, 2009). However, ‘it is not just a question of wine and food, but also of a suitable infrastructure’ (Hjalager and Corigliano, 2000, p. 292), i.e. sustainable and competitive destinations also require supporting factors and resources (Ritchie and Crouch, 2003). In an increasingly competitive marketplace, destinations are realizing the need for sustainable competitive advantage to differentiate themselves from other destinations. Cultural distinctiveness is one way of differentiating and tourist activities associated with cultural tourism now include sampling local food and drink (Bessière, 1998; Ilbery and Kneafsey, 1998; Hjalager and Corigliano, 2000; Ignatov and Smith, 2006). Food represents cultural identity (Bessière, 1998; Hall and Sharples, 2003); which differentiates destinations, illustrates sociocultural and economic backgrounds (Kuznesof et al., 1997) and promotes destination branding, e.g. ‘Guinness has boosted Ireland’s image internationally, whilst the Scottish food brand has virtually been built on having unique products, such as haggis’ (Hemsley, 2004, p. 6). Food tourism is therefore a niche market; a subset of cultural tourism, with local food being a product of the local culture and the natural environment. Consequently, local food encompasses flavours synonymous with the destination, making it fundamentally important to creating sense of place and providing tourists with distinctive experiences. Tourist experiences can be enhanced if tourism businesses are knowledgeable about food in the destination, e.g. local food outlets (Fig. F4a), working farms (Fig. F4b), vineyards, micro-breweries. Hjalager and Corigliano (2000) suggest that food tourism and associated events raise awareness and reinvigorate traditional/ historical food traditions/production, e.g. Welsh food festivals generate an estimated direct impact of £7 million (Miller Research, 2011) and the success of organic food, premium and specialist products has seen a revival in small-scale artisan food production. However, unlike other tourism products which are characterized by inseparability, local produce does not have to be consumed at source (Hall and Sharples, 2003). Like film tourism, developing distinctive identity and culture through food tourism presents export opportunities, as illustrated by Joe Hockey, the former Tourism Minister of Australia: ‘Australia sells thousands of bottles of wine a minute around the world, and if we can turn them into liquid postcards just imagine the benefits for Australia and its image overseas. . .’ (cited in Lee and Dennis, 2004). Therefore, although food tourism is a distinct tourism product, it plays an important role in understanding and implementing more sustainable forms of tourism by creating linkages with other tourism suppliers and economic sectors inside and outside the destination. Sourcing through local food supply networks can provide sustainable competitive advantage for tourism businesses and economic benefits for the destination, as linking producers and customers facilitates connectedness, provides traceability and reduces  

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Fig. F4a.  Food tourism, Tasmania, Australia (Tiffany Low).

Fig. 4b.  Food tourism, Gozo, Malta (Gozo Adventures). Food tourism221

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food miles. Additionally, ensuring food and drink authenticity means that producers add value by developing enthusiasm for locally produced, regionally distinctive food. However, economic benefits can only be realized if imports are minimized. Sourcing non-local produce creates leakage in the local economy, e.g. the ‘Danish bacon-effect’, whereby food products are selected on price, rather than quality and provenance. Hence, developing local food supply networks strengthens the food value chain, benefits local communities and illustrates the integral role of food producers in sustainable and competitive destination development. Food is essential, not just because of nutritional necessity, but because it emphasizes cultural distinctiveness. ‘Local cuisines represent a core manifestation of a destination’s intangible heritage, and through its consumption, tourists can gain a truly authentic cultural experience’ (Okumus et al., 2007, p. 253). This interaction creates destination images, identity and experiences that underpin destination competiveness and sustainability, benefitting their food and tourism industries through value-added products (Quan and Wang, 2004; du Rand and Heath, 2006). Food tourism experiences should create a lasting impression on tourists and facilitate the competitiveness of food tourism businesses in an economic, sociocultural and environmentally sustainable way. See also Agritourism, Farm tourism CHT Further reading Croce, E. and Perri, G. (2010) Food and Wine Tourism. CAB International, Wallingford, UK. Sidali, K.L., Spiller, A. and Schulze, B. (2011) Food, Agri-Culture and Tourism: Linking Local Gastronomy and Rural Tourism: Interdisciplinary Perspectives. Springer, Berlin, Germany.

  The World Food Travel Association worldfoodtravel.org   Slow Food – international movement for local food cultures and identities www.slowfood.com

  Foreign direct investment (FDI) International capital flow across borders, either by establishing a firm in a foreign country or a parent company growing by financing a foreign business named as a ‘subsidiary’, ‘foreign capital firm’, ‘related company’ or ‘division’. A crucial feature of FDI schemes is that they possess the proprietary of related companies (partly or wholly), and control their management. The subsidiary has the ability to utilize technology, business secrets, management know-how, trade name and other facilities of the parent firm, possessing, partly or wholly, the profit made in exchange. FO

  Free independent traveller (FIT) An individual or small group of travellers who are not part of any organized group. These travellers usually buy all the elements of their travel products individually and 222  Foreign direct investment (FDI)

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organize all aspects of the trip themselves. Traditionally this would have been purchased through a travel agent, however in recent times the Internet has become an important source for free independent travellers to access information and also book elements of their tourism experience. SR

  Free trade An economic policy that states that foreign trade should be carried out entirely without government interference. The free exchange of products among countries depends on an international trade system without the obstacle of customs. In such a system, locally manufactured products and imports compete indiscriminatingly with each other. The philosophy of free trade emerged in the 18th century, and was first mentioned in Wealth of nations, a work by Adam Smith. Smith’s opinion was that the international division of labour increases negotiation, prolificacy and production. This theory was further developed into the theory of comparative advantage by David Ricardo. However, there are many views advocating that governments should interfere with trade for economic and non-economic reasons. Economic reasons given by those against free trade include the protection of new industries, the improvement of domestic industry and preservation of foreign trade rates. See also Economic growth FO

  Friends of the Earth (FoE) An international environmental network and advocacy organization, integrating 76 national member groups with many local activist groups. Approximately 90% of the organization’s income is provided by donations from more than two million individuals. The vision of the organization emphasizes ‘a peaceful and sustainable world based on societies living in harmony with nature’. Therefore, the organization strives to promote solutions that will help to create environmentally sustainable and socially just societies. Campaigns of Friends of the Earth include focus on climate change and energy, forests and biodiversity, food sovereignty, economic justice and resisting neoliberalism (see Free trade). OC   Friends of the Earth www.foe.co.uk/

Friends of the Earth (FoE)223

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G   Gaia Hypothesis The controversial view first proposed by James Lovelock in the 1970s (Lovelock, 1979) that the Earth should be thought of as a self-regulating, living system. Although opposed by many biologists, the theory became popular with the environmental movement and has contributed to holistic perspectives on sustainability. CIC

 Gaze The way in which people view the world. The term ‘tourism gaze’ refers to a way of looking at the tourism phenomenon that simultaneously forms what is seen and is the way of seeing (Fig. G1). Urry (1990) was the first to compare the tourist gaze to clinical observation, in which the individual is the object of the medical gaze in order to find tiny anomalies not visible to the lay person. Similarly tourists, in a position of power, place a set of expectations on local populations and tourism workers when they participate in tourism. The tourist gaze is dynamic and structured; in fact, there is no one single tourist gaze. The gaze varies by, and is dependent on, social group and historical period. See also Authenticity NCK

 Gender Most commonly and simply, a person’s sex, i.e. ‘male’ or ‘female’. Also a more complex construct widely attributed to second-wave feminism. In this way, ‘gender’ moves beyond a mere focus on biological sex and the differences between male and female, towards the idea of gender as a social construction (Oakley, 1972; Aitchison, 2005). In a sociological sense, then, gender refers to the descriptors of ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’, not as fixed structures but as constantly changing categories shaped by social and cultural factors (Lather, 1991). De Beauvoir’s (1989/1949, p. xii) assertion that ‘one is not born, but rather becomes, a woman’ famously reflects that the idea of gender is a social construction. This sex/gender distinction stands as an important hallmark of the contemporary feminist movement, as women’s disadvantage and the gendered division of labour continue to be explored (Curthoys, 1994). In the context of sustainable tourism, gender is also referred to in these two key ways. That is, research on sustainable tourism may focus on differences between men and women as sustainable tourists, or as a demographic variable that can be used to test for such differences. For example, research shows that women seem to be more prominent than men in their desire for adventure travel (Swarbrooke et al., 2003), 224

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Fig. G1.  An obsolete gaze? Kodak picture spot at Disneyland, California (Brian Garrod).

ecotourism (Weaver, 2001c), solo travel (Wilson and Little, 2005) and educational tourism (Gibson, 1998). Other studies show how men and women may hold different values towards acting ‘sustainably’ in their tourist experiences (Dolnicar and Leisch, 2008; Skanavis and Sakelleri, 2008), or that hard-core ecotourists are more likely to be female (Weaver, 2002). Such conceptualizations are indeed important in better understanding tourists interested in sustainable or eco-forms of travel, or for market segmentation purposes. However, as a sociological and feminist concept, gender means much more than this in the sustainable tourism context. Gender scholarship in tourism focuses more broadly on how women’s and men’s experiences are related to a broader societal context. Gender scholarship signals a progression from mere observations about differences in sex, to analysis and interpretation of why gendered differences or inequalities of power exist (Aitchison, 2009). Gender scholarship insists that ‘women’ or ‘men’ should not be studied without considering the interactions of both sexes together against the backdrop of a wider social and gendered milieu. Four important works produced in the mid1990s brought gender issues to the forefront of the tourism research agenda. These were a literature synthesis prepared by Norris and Wall (1994) called Gender and Tourism, a special edition on gender and tourism in the journal, Annals of Tourism Research, edited by Swain (1995), and edited books by Kinnaird and Hall (1994, Tourism: A Gender Analysis) and Sinclair (1997, Gender, Work and Tourism). These gender scholars have called for tourism researchers to consider the importance of gender and power when studying the social complexities of tourism-­related activity. While emphasizing women’s experience as producers and consumers of tourism, these publications also pointed to Gender 225

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the interaction of gender with other important social factors, such as ethnicity, class and race. As such, these seminal works brought awareness to gender in the context of the host, rather than merely the tourist (Gibson, 2001). Research on the gendered host tends to concentrate on two streams of thought (usually in the context of less-developed countries). The first is that mass tourism development is merely an extension of the dominant Western imperialist/colonialism paradigm, serving to reinforce gender inequities by keeping women in unstable, lower-­ paid positions, while at the same time expecting that they continue the burden of domestic work (Cukier et al., 1996; Sinclair, 1997; Robson, 2002). The other stream of thought is that more sustainable and responsible forms of tourism (see Responsible tourism) can enhance women’s status and access to paid employment, creating a sense of empowerment and financial independence that otherwise might not have been achievable (Scheyvens, 2000; Henrici, 2002). While these studies, as well as more recent explorations of gender in tourism, have raised awareness of issues of gender, women and power, there is still a paucity of research on the interactions of gender with sustainable tourism. See also sex tourism EW

Case study: Intrepid and gender equality Australian adventure travel operator Intrepid has long-standing relationships with many host communities around the world, employing more than 2000 people, many in less-­ developed destinations. Apart from satisfied travellers, Intrepid also aims to contribute towards sustainable community development through tourism business opportunities that support local economies and employment and facilitate empowerment of local people. However, demand from customers to contribute further to the places they visited led to the establishment of the Intrepid Foundation in 2002. By often match-funding contributions from tourists, the foundation has since distributed AUS$3.5 million to over 75 organizations. The foundation deliberately supports NGOs based in the local communities working in the areas of: health care, education, human rights, child welfare, sustainable development, environmental and wildlife protection. A recent initiative has been a three year global gender equality project called SAMA (meaning ‘equal’ in Bahasa), which aims to improve the lives of communities and help bridge the gender gap through education. The primary goal of SAMA is to raise awareness around the importance of gender equality. This advocacy program educates staff, passengers and the broader travel community about the issues, and getting them inspired to take action or support our initiatives. SAMA’s secondary aim is to raise funds for projects around the world that address gender inequalities. In two years the Intrepid Foundation has raised $150,000 for ten projects, including education projects run by Plan International. These have included supporting 11,000 girls to attend school in Laos, and providing access to quality early education programs for nearly 3000 girls in Uganda. Furthering the need for broad engagement on the issues of gender inequality, the founders of Intrepid and the foundation supported the making of the documentary, I Am A Girl, which highlights the issues facing contemporary young women worldwide. CIC   Intrepid project SAMA www.intrepidtravel.com/sama/overview

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  General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) A treaty adopted in 1947 that, in its 1994 version, is the principal framework agreement on trade in goods under the Marrakesh Agreement of that year establishing the World Trade Organization (WTO). The fundamental principles enshrined by GATT include the most-favoured-nation principle (Article I), the national-treatment principle (Article III), the principle of elimination of quantitative restrictions (Article XI) and the principle of gradual reduction of customs duties by way of bilateral or multilateral rounds of negotiation (Article XXVIII). The principles of trade in tourism services are contained in the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). Notably, tourism commitments have been made by over 125 WTO members, more than in any other service sector. See also Free trade PV

 Generation The length of time between the birth of parents and the birth of their offspring. Prior to the 1900s the average generation was between 16–18 years. However, as the role of women within society has changed, so has the length of generations. According to the OECD (2011), in most OECD countries in the 1970s the mean age of the first birth of one’s first child was in one’s early twenties. However, by 2009 that had changed to the late twenties in most countries. Meanwhile, the average mean age of women at the birth of their first child also varied significantly across OECD nations from 21.3 years in Mexico to 30.5 years in New Zealand (OECD 2011). There are currently five generations that are commonly referred to in the literature, and while exact years differ slightly, the majority of researchers tend to agree that the Veterans generation refers to those born prior to the end of World War II (1945), Baby Boomers are those born post-World War II (1945–1962), Generation X were born from 1962 to 1980, Generation Y from 1980 to 1997 and Generation Z from 1997 to the present. Researchers suggest that societal attitudes towards issues such as commodification, community, environmental consciousness and social networking differ between generations, and this has implications for the relative meaning of sustainability. The current composition of Generation Y tourists includes those below 34 years of age. With extended years in full-time study, many of these individuals may not have entered permanent employment work, and if they have, their position on the career ladder may dictate more budget-oriented forms of travel. However, this market segment has been at the forefront of driving what might be termed the experiential imperative, whereby service industries such as tourism are expected to provide out of the ordinary travel interactions that can form powerful holiday narratives. At first sight then, this might seem like a case of ‘having your cake and eating it’, as these tourists wish to undertake highly memorable tourism experiences, while paying reasonable prices for them. Thus considerations of quality become highly important as Generation Y travellers seek increasing bang for their buck. Generation Y travellers are highly informed, making the most of the great variety of information sources they can access, but are critical and reflexive about Generation 227

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the delivery of those experiences. Generation Y travellers are connected and they want their tourism to be, although not in a traditional packaged sense, as they have individualized needs. They value integrity and honesty highly in their assessments of quality, are voracious in their appetite for experiences but also happy to relax when it suits them. Indeed themes of fun and play, on terms which suit them, are strong. SR

 Gentrification A process whereby new urban gentry occupy and transform working-class quarters in urban areas. Defined in the 1960s by sociologist Ruth Glass, it has evolved rapidly in scale and diversity. It encompasses the transition of inner-city quarters from relative poverty and restricted property investment to commodification and reinvestment. Not only is it associated with a distinctive landscape of urban renovation and renaissance but it is a significant dimension of contemporary urbanism. It is commonly associated with the establishment and rise of festive (see Events), leisure and tourism space, but may in turn exclude poorer urban residents. JSA

  Geographical Information System (GIS) A computer-based mapping application program and tool used to display, interpret, analyse and model geographically referenced information. Seen as an advancement of traditional cartography, GISs emerged in the 1960s (Goodchild, 2009) and evolved during a digital transition in technology over the next decades to combine computer cartography and data collection (Curran, 1984). The digital transition meant maps were no longer static and gradually became more intuitive and interactive. GIS is concerned with core geographical concepts such as space, location, distance, accessibility and spatial interaction. It has also altered the scope of research problems as ‘technical advances have been so advanced that the problems we can think about have changed’ (Macmillan, 1998, p. 257). A GIS utilizes a layer-based geographic information model (Fig. G2) for characterizing and describing our world (Esri, 2012b). Goodchild (1992) understands the use of GIS as using geographic location as a common key to link data. Data can be in the form of point features (e.g. tourism attractions), linear features (e.g. transport routes), polygonal features (e.g. resorts), raster imagery (e.g. terrain) and attribute tables (e.g. visitor numbers). Relationships, patterns and trends can be identified (Esri, 2012b), as multiple layers of data, with accompanying statistical/descriptive/ attribute databases, can be integrated to produce a comprehensive interactive geovisualization and representation of a situation: essentially spatial data analysis. GIS output is easily communicable through a variety of 2D and 3D maps and other views. GIS are now used in many everyday products, for example GPS-based systems in navigation products and the Google Earth website application. GIS have become an important support tool for academics, planners, environmentalists, businesses and governments alike, as they can quantitatively aid the decision-making process 228Gentrification

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Streets

Land Use

Administrative Areas

Hydrography

Elevation

Imagery

Fig. G2.  Layers in Geographical Information Systems. (From ESRI, 2012.)

(e.g. location of a new holiday destination resort based on accessibility, terrain, climate, amenities, population and so on). GIS has also become a key tool in disaster response or Participatory Rural Appraisal techniques. A key critique of GIS output is the interpretive issue: the producer is in control of what data and variables are included or excluded. As with all cartographic productions, it cannot provide a complete and fully accurate picture of a real-life situation, only a mediated representation. Another critique of GIS is the ethical issues of privacy and personal information as data resolution improves. Popular GIS tools include the ArcGIS package from Esri and open-source software such as Quantum GIS (QGIS) from the Open Source Geospatial Foundation (OSGeo). NSA

  Geological time A chronological division of changes in the earth’s history involving major changes to climate, landscapes and flora and fauna. These time scales are tremendously long, with the earth estimated to be 4.54 billion years old, yet the earliest humans emerging only two million years ago, and Homo sapiens only migrating out of Africa 70,000 years ago. One of the smaller categories of the geological timescale is an epoch, such as the current Holocene, which account for tens of millions of years. Considering geological time forces us to evaluate what we mean by time horizons in sustainability, when ­humans are so insignificant in the geological record. Yet ­somewhat Geological time 229

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­ aradoxically, h p ­ umans have had major impacts on climate, landscapes and flora and fauna in these few thousand years, leading some commentators to suggest a new epoch of the ‘Anthropocene’, in which human activity is the major change agent on the Earth. CIC

 Geopark A clearly defined area with geological heritage of significance that fosters environmentally appropriate, socio-economic sustainable development. Geoparks use their heritage to promote awareness of key issues facing society in the context of the dynamic planet we live on. Geoparks promote awareness of geological features (through conservation, information and education) and geological resources (through geotourism and sustainable development) (Fig. G3). Geoparks are not a legislative designation, although the key heritage sites within a geopark should be protected under local, regional or national legislation as appropriate. The Geoparks initiative was established by UNESCO in 1998 and today there are four levels of Geopark (Aspiring, National, Regional and Global) in a series of networks at different scales. In 2013 the Global Geoparks Network (GGN) has 90 members in 26 countries. See also Protected areas RD

Fig. G3.  Geopark promotion at ITB Berlin (Carl Cater). 230Geopark

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 Geotourism A form of tourism that specifically focuses on geology and the landscape. It promotes tourism to geosites, the conservation of geodiversity, the protection of geoheritage and an understanding of earth sciences through appreciation and learning. This is achieved through visits to geological features (Fig. G4), use of geo-trails and viewpoints, guided tours, geo-activities and patronage of geosite visitor centres (Newsome and Dowling, 2010). Geotourists can comprise both independent travellers and group tourists, and they may visit natural areas or urban/built areas, wherever there is a geological attraction. Geotourism may occur in a diversity of natural and built environments in a range of settings that include urban environments (see Urban ecotourism), peri-urban locations, quarries and mine sites, agricultural land, remote natural areas and protected areas such as national parks, nature reserves and national monuments. Natural sites include places like the Grand Canyon (USA), Uluru (Australia) and the Giant’s Causeway (Northern Ireland), all of which have been tourism (now geotourism) destinations for more than 100 years. More recently, geotourism has been the focus of sustainable development in Geoparks. An important part of geotourism is its specific interpretation aspects of geoheritage consisting of the development of pre-visit and on-site pamphlets; viewpoint and geosite panels; self-guided trails (supported by books, printed guides, marked points and panels); geological gardens; guided tours (e.g. cave tours, volcanic tours) and interpretive/ visitor centres (comprising audio-visual content, interactive displays, collections of rocks, lectures, film shows, etc.). Increasingly important is the role of multimedia information on GPS-supported digital tours, utilizing smart phones and tablet computers. In a global context, geotourism is viewed as a synergistic form of tourism in which the elements of the landscape and landforms together create a tourist experience that

Fig. G4.  Geotourism, Bald Rock, New South Wales, the second largest rock monolith in Australia (Carl Cater). Geotourism 231

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is richer than the sum of its parts, appealing to visitors with diverse interests. It also involves the community when a combination of local businesses and civic groups work together to promote and provide distinctive, authentic visitor experiences. Geotourism should also provide economic and other benefits to local residents such as job creation and income generation as well as added services, products and supplies. When the local community understands the beneficial role of geotourism it becomes an incentive for wise destination stewardship. RD

Further reading Newsome, D. and Dowling, R.K. (2010) Geotourism: the tourism of geology and landscape. Goodfellow, Oxford, UK.

  German Agency for International Cooperation (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ)) A German overseas development agency. GIZ is a company owned by the German Federal Government established in 2011 through a merger of the German Technical Cooperation (Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit, GTZ), the German Development Service (Deutscher Entwicklungsdienst, DED), and InWent Capacity Building International (InWent Internationale Weiterbildung und Entwicklung). Headquartered in Bonn and Eschborn, the state-owned enterprise, in the legal form of a limited liability company (GmbH) is active in more than 130 countries and has more than 17,000 employees. The organization’s guiding principle is the realization of sustainable development considering political, economic, social and ecological aspects. It works for the benefit of the public with profits being reinvested into its projects. The forerunner of GIZ, German Technical Cooperation (Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit, GTZ) was particularly involved in sustainable development projects in less-developed countries, many with a tourism component. With its core competency of international capacity development, the GIZ operates in a broad range of fields. It provides management services of various kinds for public-sector organizations and consultancy in the areas of rural development, agricultural policy, agricultural standards and resource management. It engages in sustainable infrastructure development, including water, energy and transport, crisis prevention, reconstruction and peace building, and in cases of disaster or catastrophes it runs emergency relief and refugee programmes. Its social development services include health issues such as drug control, promotion of children and the youth, HIV/AIDS prevention, education sector development and social security systems development. GIZ offers a range of services with regards to governance and democracy, including services to establish rule of law, human rights, counter-corruption measures, gender equality and consultancy with regards to decentralization and urban development as well as public governance and finance. It engages in environmental protection and conservation policy, including water-, energy and waste-management and climate change mitigation. In the field of economic development and employment promotion, the GIZ provides policy advice, financial systems development, vocational training and private-sector 232

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support. Through the provision of its services, the GIZ realizes technical cooperation programmes and projects through consulting, funding, development services, setting up of lead partners, provision of material and equipment and the conduct of surveys and expert assessments, as well as the establishment of public–private partnerships. It also despatches specialists and aid officials to partner countries. Important clients are the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development, other ministries, the Federal Foreign Office, the federal states, municipalities and further public and private clients such as the governments of other countries, the European Union, the United Nations or the World Bank. Partners are supported on local, regional, national and international level in the strategic and conceptual realization of their political goals. Tourism is neither a specific sector among the products and services offered by the GIZ, nor is it a sector targeted by official German development aid policy. However, it is understood as a cross-spanning topic of GIZ, which is currently implementing about 50 projects with a tourism component or potential to promote tourism. These are usually active in environmental protection and natural resource conservation, economic development and structural poverty alleviation or ecological and social standards. CB   German Agency for International Cooperation www.giz.de/en/html/index.html

 GIS See Geographical Information System

  Global Code of Tourism Ethics A set of ten ethical principles covering the economic, sociocultural and environmental components of travel and tourism. The code was designed by the UNWTO in 1999 as a fundamental frame of reference for responsible and sustainable tourism. Its purpose is to guide key-players in tourism development, such as governments, the travel industry, communities and tourists. It aims to help maximize the sector’s benefits while minimizing its potentially negative impact on the environment, cultural heritage and societies across the globe. Acknowledged by the UN in 2001, the Code features a voluntary implementation mechanism through its recognition of the role of the World Committee on Tourism Ethics (WCTE), to which stakeholders may refer matters concerning the application and interpretation of the document. HF   Global Code of Tourism Ethics ethics.unwto.org/content/global-code-ethics-tourism

  Global dimming The reduction in sunlight reaching the Earth’s surface, global dimming is a less wellknown but real and controversial phenomenon. It was first brought to public attention Global dimming 233

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in 1989 by Atsumu Ohmura, a researcher of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology who studied levels of sunlight around Europe, and then confirmed in 1992 by Gerald Stanhill, an English scientist working for Israel’s Agricultural Research Organisation. Stanhill measured how strongly the sun shone over Israel in order to help to design irrigation schemes. In his evaporation measurements he discovered a reduction of evaporation and concluded that the sun was dimming and thus named this effect global dimming. Dimming appears to be caused by air pollution. Burning fossil fuels produces not only invisible carbon dioxide – the principal greenhouse gas responsible for global warming – but also tiny airborne particles of soot, ash, sulphur compounds and other pollutants. This visible air pollution changes the optical properties of clouds that make them reflect more sunlight back into space, preventing it from reaching the earth’s surface. Scientists are now worried that global dimming may be disrupting world rainfall patterns. It has been suggested that dimming was behind the droughts in sub-Saharan Africa in the 1970s and 1980s. A heated debate is also going on concerning how global dimming relates to global warming. TAM

  Global-local nexus A connection and interaction process of different actors and organizations at global, national, regional and local scales. A diverse set of actors, such as tourists, local communities, hotels, regional development agencies, government ministries, NGOs, multinational companies and international institutions, operates at and between these different scales. There are also many related processes, such as globalization, global change and localization, which influence and guide the global-local nexus and the relationships between different actors. Although the global-local relations can be characterized by inequalities typical of core-periphery systems, the local scale and actors are not passive recipients of global forces and changes but are able to respond differently to globalization. This complexity of interactions between different scales and actors makes the global-­local nexus, as well as the related economic, social, cultural and political elements, arenas and outcomes, a challenge to study, understand and manage in sustainable tourism development. See also Metaproblem, Policy cascade JS

  Global Partnership for Sustainable Tourism A global initiative launched in 2011 to inject sustainability principles into the mainstream of tourism policies, development and operations. It emerged as a more permanent successor to the International Task Force on Sustainable Tourism Development (ITF-STD). The Coordinating Office is hosted by the United Nations Environment Programme, Division of Technology, Industry and Economics (UNEP-DTIE). CIC   Global Partnership for Sustainable Tourism www.gpstourism.com 234

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  Global Sustainable Tourism Council A global, multi-stakeholder membership organization dedicated to increasing the reach, awareness and recognition of sustainable tourism practices through large and small enterprise operations through endorsement of the principles of the Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria (GSTC). Born as a strategic coalition of partners under the umbrella of the United Nations (UN), and the strong support of the UN Foundation, the UN Environmental Programme (UNEP) and the UN World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), the GSTC brings together businesses, governments, non-governmental organizations, academia, individuals and communities engaged in, and striving to achieve, best practices in sustainable tourism. Established as a membership council, the GSTC serves as the international body for promoting education, understanding and adoption of global sustainable tourism practices. The GSTC compiles, reviews, adapts and develops tools and resources to foster sustainable tourism practices and increase the demand for sustainable tourism products and services. At the core of its work are the GSTC Criteria, which were publicly launched in October 2008 after an extensive public consultation. The GSTC Vision is that tourism fulfils its potential as a vehicle for the conservation of destinations and their natural and cultural heritage, and the generation of socio­economic benefits for all stakeholders. Thus, the mission of the GSTC is to be an agent of change in the world of sustainable travel and tourism by fostering the increased knowledge, understanding, adoption and demand for sustainable tourism practices. The GSTC is a membership-based not-for-profit, non-governmental organization, which represents diverse stakeholders in tourism, through its Membership Council (Fig. G5). The Membership Council is made up of sustainable travel and tourism stakeholders, including for-profit organizations, non-profit organizations and individuals. Organizational members designate one representative to act as the liaison between the organization and GSTC, and represent the organization at the Membership Council as well as during voting procedures. A Board of Directors manages the GSTC and is responsible for governance oversight of the council’s mandate, program of

Membership Council

Ambassadors Council

Board

Secretariat

Accreditation Panel

Working Groups

Fig. G5.  The Global Sustainable Tourism Council Organizational Structure. Global Sustainable Tourism Council 235

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work and operations (including staffing, budget and administrative affairs). There are 19 available board seats: ● ● ●

12 elected seats – these seats are filled by those elected by the GSTC membership through an election process. Seats are open to any GSTC member in good standing. Two permanent seats – these seats are filled by UNWTO, a United Nations agency and UNEP, a UN program. Five appointed seats – these seats are appointed by the board and are based on the individual’s experience and potential financial contribution to the organization.

The Board of Directors may also designate observer status to individuals or a category of individuals as required. They have a voice but not a vote. The semi-autonomous accreditation panel is chaired by an expert who is not part of the GSTC Board, and manages the Recognition, Approval and Accreditation Program. Working groups, with representation by a board member, manage the strategic planning and implementation of each of the program areas. The organization is managed by a Secretariat that leads and coordinates the implementation of the objectives and initiatives of the organization. The operation and governance of the organization is detailed in two documents: the by-laws of the organization and an operational manual. The organizational objectives include: ● ●

creating universal principles of sustainability for all types and scales of tourism; promoting sustainable tourism through a common language: the Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria; ● promoting the widespread adoption of global sustainable tourism standards; ● ensuring the tourism industry continues to drive conservation and poverty alleviation; and ● making destinations more sustainable. The primary activities of the GSTC include: ● ● ● ● ● ●

developing and maintaining the Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria for different sectors; assisting destinations in approaching sustainability; promoting market access for certified businesses and destinations; increasing knowledge: courses and training; recognition of compatible standards; and awarding ‘GSTC-Approved’ name and logo to credible certification bodies and their certificate holders.     KBR

  Global Sustainable Tourism Council www.gstcouncil.org

  Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria A set of global guiding sustainable tourism principles. The criteria represent the minimum requirements necessary for any travel and tourism business to reach in order to protect and sustain the world’s natural and cultural resources while ensuring tourism meets its potential as a tool for conservation and poverty alleviation. They can be 236

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adapted and expanded to the specific conditions of each region of the world and each industry sector, as the key issues for sustainability will have different emphasis under differing conditions. They are also applicable for urban, rural and natural areas, and consider traditional and indigenous communities. The criteria form the foundation of the Global Sustainable Tourism Council GSTC-Recognized, GSTC-Approved and GSTCAccredited programs. They were created with the input of experts, groups and companies from around the world; and were widely consulted in both developed and less-developed countries, in several languages. The Criteria define sustainable tourism in a way that is actionable, measurable and credible. The framework for developing the global criteria had its origins in 2000, when the concept for developing global guidance for all sustainable tourism and ecotourism certification programs was unanimously adopted at the conclusion of an international workshop convened by the Institute for Policy Studies with support from the Ford Foundation and several certification representatives. The workshop was held at the Mohonk Mountain House, New Paltz, New York on November 17–19, 2000. The Mohonk Agreement set the stage for developing the global criteria that exists today. Early on, it was recognized that tourism certification programs need to be tailored to fit unique geographical regions and sectors of the tourism industry. however, it is also generally agreed that there are certain universal components that must frame any ecotourism and sustainable certification program. The Global Sustainable Tourism Council is a non-governmental organization that developed and continually evaluates and disseminates the criteria through the International Social and Environmental Accreditation and Labelling Alliance (ISEAL) standard setting process, built on years of work and experience from around the world. Even though the criteria have applicability to all sectors of the tourism industry, to date, specifically two sets of criteria have been developed for hotels and tour operators and destinations. GSTC announced the second version of the Criteria for Hotels and Tour Operators in March 2012. After over three years of review and public comment on version 1, the new set of criteria developed through a collaboration between tourism organizations, stakeholders and individuals. As part of the ISEAL process, the GSTC will continue to accept comments on the criteria during each year, and the criteria will be updated according to the guidelines. The Criteria for Destinations was designed to guide destination specialists, managers, communities and businesses towards the steps needed to sustain natural and cultural attractions, while economically benefitting local communities and businesses (GSTC, 2013). The draft version went through the same consultation process as the criteria for hotels and tour operators, using ISEAL. As of April 2012, the destination criteria were pilot tested in an Early Adopter program in several geographical contexts, from small island destinations to communities, national parks to regional destinations. See also European Tourism Indicator System KBR

  Global warming See Climate change Global warming 237

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 Globalization A multi-dimensional process of social change facilitated by technological advances that has compressed space and accelerated time (Harvey, 1989; Robertson, 1992). This has resulted in an increase of global interconnectivity across time and space through the extension or stretching of social relations and also in an intensification of these social relations. Although globalization is essentially a wide-ranging and integrated process, three main dimensions of this process are frequently discussed: economic, political and cultural. The extent and impact of globalization on society is still under discussion, but three main theories of globalization have been identified: traditionalism, globalism and transformationalism. ‘Traditionalists’ or ‘sceptics’ view globalization as an unachievable end-state of global internationalization and maintain that current economic developments are merely an extension and intensification of historical internationalization processes that have previously occurred during colonial and imperialist periods and the golden age prior to the First World War (Hirst and Thompson, 1999). ‘Globalists’ consider the process as an inevitable, homogenizing force that will ultimately lead to a border-free world in which global forces regulate economic, political and cultural processes thus heralding the ‘end of geography’ (Ohmae, 1990). Unhindered flows of capital, people, information, culture and so on, will lead to a homogenization of places to the extent that everywhere will be the same (Friedman, 2006). Economic globalization denotes an increasing integration of the economy through the disassembly of trade barriers (see Free trade), leading to footloose capital and the creation of a global marketplace for products and services. Economic transactions are interconnected and companies are integrated into multinational companies (MNCs) and transnational companies (TNCs), which reposition production processes in order to obtain a competitive advantage. Due to the connectivity of the economy, national economies are interdependent and economic events in one economy have the potential to cause ripple effects across the globe. Similarly, political globalization is characterized by an increasing connectivity of nation states and also a shift in the location of regulatory power to transnational institutions such as the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The footloose nature of capital and production typified by transnational corporations further erodes the power of nation-states as they seek to exploit differences in national regulations (economic and social, e.g. labour laws) to gain competitive advantage. The stretching of social relations has also resulted in an amplified exchange between cultures (e.g. through migration, tourism, media, etc.) and an increase of flows of global cultural products and practices. Ritzer (1993), for instance, draws on the transnational fast-food chain, McDonalds, to describe a force of cultural homogenization (‘McDonaldization’) that extends across the globe (Fig. G6). Extending his theory to tourism (‘McDisneyization’), Ritzer and Liska (1997) argue that the global mass production and replication of tourism services and products leads to place-less destinations and repetitive experiences consumed by tourists that are reluctant to engage in differentiated experiences (see Authenticity, Disneyfication). ‘Transformationalists’ argue for a view of globalization as a dynamic (on-going) and differentiated process, which transforms the structures and practices of contemporary societies. Their approach offers a nuanced analysis of the globalization process as being influenced by contradictory forces and with multiple possible outcomes, 238Globalization

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Fig. G6.  Globalization or localization? McDonalds poster in Singapore (Carl Cater).

r­ ather than a fixed trajectory, leading to a borderless world (Held et al., 1999) (see Global-local nexus). Large, transnational firms may be considered by globalists to consist of footloose capital scouring the globe for competitive advantage, not tied to specific places and thus disembedded from social and cultural contexts. Yet there are significant costs associated with shifting operations to take advantage of more beneficial regulations elsewhere. Transnational corporations are embedded in local, formal and informal networks of trust, cooperation and knowledge transfer (so-called ‘untraded interdependencies’). Economic action and institutions are constructed through the activation of these social networks, which are embedded in local contexts and conditions (Granovetter and Swedberg, 1992). With the stretching of political relations, political power has extended beyond the boundaries of the nation-state and regulatory powers have been transferred to the international and global scale. Yet, while international and transnational institutions have obtained responsibilities formerly held by national governments, powers have also been devolved to subnational scales (re-regulation). This ‘hollowing out of the state’ (Jessop, 2000, p. 352) has resulted in a new order of multi-level governance based on collaborative governance (Shaw and Williams, 2004) with nation states left to assume new coordinating roles (Church et al., 2000). Global brands such as Coca Cola, global events such as the FIFA Football World Cup, and social communication brands such as Facebook are all manifestations of cultural globalization. These cultural symbols, images and practices represent the global reach of culture and the stretching of social networks across space leading to an increase in cultural exchange. Yet, at the same time, new cultural hybrids emerge as global products are adapted to local markets (e.g. McDonalds), and there has been a resurgence of both support and consumption of local culture and products, particularly in rural festivals (Andrews and Leopold, 2013) (see Food tourism). Globalization 239

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As can be seen in the transformationalist view on economic, political and cultural globalization presented above, the main contradictory issue is between global and local forces. Yet, it is too simplistic to focus solely on ‘the global’ and ‘the local’, as the spatialities of globalization do not correspond to an essentialist understanding of geographic scale. Instead, transformationalists view the world as both spaces of places and flows that cross notions of geographic scales. It is important to realize that to unravel the complexities and changing nature of globalizing processes, it is necessary to understand how globalization processes (i.e. increased flows of capital, tourists, knowledge, etc.) affect and transform places and how in turn places shape and transform these flows (Henderson et al., 2002). The relationship of tourism and globalization is reciprocal. On the one hand, tourism is influenced by globalization: the economic aspect of globalization is manifested in the rise of transnational corporations, such as hotel groups or integrated tourism corporations, due to an increasing level of international or global capital flows through foreign direct investment. The growing mobility of people and new communication technologies result in increasing social interconnections and in turn closer cultural relations. On the other hand, tourism contributes to the increasing connectivity between people and places as it ‘is also helping to create, recreate and distribute images and objects around the world’ (Shaw and Williams, 2004, p. 6). Flows of images and symbols stem from tourists themselves in the form of souvenirs, stories, blogs, postcards, photographs and so on, or from tourism firms or tourist boards that actively engage in destination marketing for consumption through, for example, adverts or trade shows. These flows of representation create changing spatial patterns of consumption leading to new touristic practices and the emergence of new destinations (Meethan, 2001). JMO Further reading Meethan, K. (2001) Tourism in Global Society: Place, Culture, Consumption. Palgrave, ­Basingstoke, UK. Shaw, G. and Williams, A.M. (2004) Tourism and Tourism Spaces. Sage, London, UK.

 Governance The broad system of policy making and its influence on development, that takes into account the influence of groups in society outside that of elected government. During the 1990s there was a shift in the understanding of tourism planning to recognize the importance of actors outside of state structures. These may include communities, non-governmental organizations and the tourism industry itself; but governance is shaped by the relative power of different groups. Work on governance often draws on political economy approaches, which are concerned with how economic activities are socially and politically structured and have social and political consequences. An interest in governance coincides with the decline of the role of the nation-state and third way approaches to tourism planning. Hall (2011) identifies four governance types: hierarchies, markets, networks and communities. CIC 240Governance

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  Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA) The Australian Commonwealth government agency that oversees the management of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. The GBRMPA head office is based in Townsville, with extension offices throughout the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) region from Rockhampton in the south to Cape York in the north. The Great Barrier Reef Act, which sets out the mandate and management principles of the GBRMPA, was established in 1975. According to this Act, the GBRMPA’s role is to conserve the GBR, while allowing reasonable use and regulating activities that exploit the resources of the Reef and ensure that no drilling or mining occurs within the marine park. The Agency is structured into four main branches, including Marine Park Management, Environment and Sustainability, Communication and Policy Coordination, and Corporate Services. The Agency employs a range of ecologists, biologists, fisheries scientists, climatologists, hydrologists, social scientists, industry and community engagement officers, statisticians and geographers. Its management of the reef focuses on four main areas, including water quality and coastal development, tourism and recreation (Fig. G7), ecosystem conservation and biodiversity, and indigenous issues. These are the focus of Reef Advisory Committees (RACS) whose principal role is to advise the GBRMPA in relation to actions that can be taken to address the risks to the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park. As a natural resource management agency, GBRMPA champions an ‘adaptive co-management’ and ecosystems-based approach to its activities, often collaborating with other Commonwealth and Queensland government agencies, local industry, schools and communities, both indigenous and non-indigenous, and setting up advisory groups and public consultation efforts. For example, much of the day-to-day management of the reef and island national parks is undertaken by the Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service. The GBRMPA operates through a zoning plan that determines what activities are allowed to take place in different zones throughout the reef. Most reasonable activities, including tourism, recreation, scuba diving, boating and fishing are allowed throughout the park, with certain areas set aside for scientific research, as well as no-go zones, to preserve special and unique areas in their natural state. The zoning plan, which has been in existence since the creation of the park, was updated in 2004, after an extensive six-year exercise involving the collation of existing data about the reef and public consultation exercise to develop a Representative Areas Program. This new program affords greater protection to the biodiversity of the reef, by increasing the number and size of ‘green zones’, i.e. areas fully protected from consumptive practices. As a result of this rezoning process, the proportion of the reef that is fully protected was increased from 4.5% to 33%. Enforcement of the Zoning Plan has been identified as a major issue, with substantial resources being allocated to ensure compliance with the plan through aerial surveillance and public information campaigns. Management also relies upon a number of Special Plans of Management for high use areas such as the area around Cairns and the Whitsunday Islands, and Special Management Areas to assist in the protection of certain species such as the Dugong Protection Areas. The on-going health and resilience of the reef is of high ecological, social and economic importance and preserving the reef from existing and future threats is a key priority for the Agency. A review of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act 1975 recommended that a regular, five-yearly assessment of the Agency be prepared for the Minister for Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities. In the period leading up to 2009, the Agency prepared the first of these reports, The Great Barrier Reef Outlook Report 2009, a ‘stock-take’ of its state of knowledge, management practices, the health of the reef e­ cosystem and Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA) 241

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the socio-economic factors that influence the ecosystem. It also included a risk-based assessment of the long-term outlook for the region. The findings highlighted some of the threats faced by the reef include sediment and chemical run off from agricultural, urban and industrial areas, overfishing pressure, shipping incidents, non-native species (e.g. through the discharge of ballast water), habitat damage by vessels (including trawling and anchor damage), predation as a result of crown-of-thorn starfish outbreaks and coral bleaching from climate change. Climate change poses one of the most significant threats to the long-term health of reef, as a result of rising sea temperatures, sea-level change, ocean acidification and increasingly frequent severe weather events. The effects of climate change will most likely be felt throughout the whole socio-ecological system (species, local communities and industries). Adaption to climate change may be the greatest challenge facing the Agency in the coming years, and along with its Climate Change Action Plan, the GBRMPA is working with a range of partners to ensure the on-­going resilience of the reef. ACO Further reading Dobbs, K., Day, J., Skeat, H., Baldwin, J., Molloy, F., McCook, L. and Kenchington, R. (2011) Developing a long-term outlook for the Great Barrier Reef, Australia: A framework for adaptive management reporting underpinning an ecosystem-based management approach. Marine Policy 35(2), 233–240. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (2009) Great Barrier Reef Outlook Report. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, Townsville, Australia.

  The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. www.gbrmpa.gov.au

Fig. G7.  GBRMPA guide briefing on impacts to tourists, Great Barrier Reef, Australia (Carl Cater). 242

Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA)

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  Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (GBRWHA) A World Heritage area that covers approximately 347,800 km2 of Australia’s eastern seaboard, stretching from Rockhampton in the south to Cape York in the north. It was declared a World Heritage Area in 1981 in recognition of its outstanding natural universal values, in particular its biodiversity and opportunities for conservation. It is home to an estimated 1500 species of fish, 300 species of hard corals, 4000 mollusc species and 400 species of sponges, as well as cetaceans, dugongs, turtles and seabirds. For these reasons, it is considered one of the world’s premier nature-based tourism attractions (Fig. G8).     ACO

  Green energy See Renewable energy

  Green Flag International An award of an international environmental education program designed to involve schools in sustainable development. Carried out by the Foundation for Environmental

Fig. G8.  Great Barrier Reef tourist pontoon, Quicksilver tours, Great Barrier Reef, Australia (Carl Cater). Green Flag International 243

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Education, this NGO enhances academic curriculum through Eco-Schools program. The methodology consists of implementing a guide with seven steps where the participative and evaluative processes are central. The main aim is to implement a battery of key topics such as water, biodiversity, litter or transport by the Eco-Committee. Energy is the only compulsory term which is a core of a school’s plan in order to reduce its emissions and save money, moderating energy consumption. At present, 58 countries are committed to this initiative where all educative agents, government, teachers, students and communities, are integrated as a network to achieve this international recognition which consists of three levels, medals or stars, being the Green Flag symbol of excellence. OGH  Eco-schools www.eco-schools.org

  Green Globe (formerly Green Globe 21) A certification programme developed with the aim of assisting organizations in the tourism industry to achieve sustainable tourism. Green Globe was originally developed by the World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC) following the Earth Summit in 1992. It is currently ‘owned’ by Green Globe International Inc. and licensed to a number of other regional partners. It is run as a commercial, for-profit enterprise, and has a global remit. It presently offers four environmental benchmarking standards against which participating organizations may audit their environmental management system (EMS): one for travel and tourism companies in general; another specifically for ecotourism businesses; a third for tourism destination communities; and a fourth for the design and construction of tourism facilities (see Architecture). The certification system emphasizes energy use, pollution and waste management – over 70% of Green Globe’s indicators are focused on environment and energy measures – and is based largely on the ISO 14001 environmental management standard. Since 1999, Green Globe has employed an independent, third-party organization to certify compliance with its standards. There are three levels of membership, each with its own ‘tick’ ecolabel: affiliate membership for those wishing to align with the system and learn more about it; benchmarked status for those who have undertaken the initial benchmarking audit; and certified status for those that have raised their environmental performance to meet the benchmarks. Members are entitled to use the Green Globe’s logo appropriate to their level of membership to identify their products. Green Globe has been criticized for using an aggressive expansion strategy to achieve a dominant market position: the organization has put significant effort into expansion into emerging economies such as China. Further criticism has focused on its failure to publish and make explicit the requirements for applicants to achieve initial certification (Honey and Rome, 2001). Indeed, it was not until 1998 that Green Globe introduced an explicit set of standards. There has also been much confusion over whether the ecolabel should be seen as a marketing tool or as a genuine measure of sustainable practice. This has been compounded by the continued lack of consumer awareness of tourism ecolabels.  CIC and BG   Green Globe greenglobe.com/ 244

Green Globe (formerly Green Globe 21)

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  Green guides An informal name for a manual or code of environmental practice relating to a ­particular activity. Many such guidelines have been produced. Some were compiled by national parks agencies, others by tourism industry associations, some by non-­ governmental organizations and private education enterprises, and some by university research teams. Other terms, such as minimal-impact guides and the proprietary term, Leave No Trace, are also in use. Minimal-impact environmental guidelines for various types of outdoor recreation, specifically under the name green guides, were compiled and published in the early 2000s by the International Centre for Ecotourism Research in Australia. RB

  Green issues Topics that have arisen from the global environmental movement. They are based on a scientific reality that there are limits to growth set by the carrying capacity of the Earth’s natural environment. As a political concept, green issues address the anthropogenic effects of humanity’s negative impacts on the environment in an effort to benefit people, the economy and the environment. Green issues include but are not limited to global warming, corporate social responsibility, fair trade, organic farming, energy efficiency, renewable resources, human rights, recycling and ecolabelling. Green issues also refer to a particular lifestyle or worldview aimed at supporting a triple-bottom-line economic model that integrates social and economic justice, environmental restoration, and financial sustainability. JH

  Green jobs Employment associated with development of ‘green economies’. The International ­Labour Organization defines ‘green jobs’ as ‘decent jobs’ that reduce consumption of energy and raw materials, limit greenhouse gas emissions, minimize waste and pollution and protect and restore environments. Green jobs in the tourism sector are from certain employment created directly and indirectly in the provision of tourism goods and services. These ‘green tourism jobs’ reduce impact, contribute to environmental sustainability and deliver decent work opportunities for women and men to obtain productive work in conditions of freedom, equity, security and human dignity. SN

  Green Key An international voluntary ecolabel that promotes sustainable tourism through certification. Founded in Denmark in 1994, Green Key currently has a presence in 28 countries, but is still predominantly Europe-based. Since 2002, the programme Green Key 245

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is part of the Foundation for Environmental Education, a non-governmental organization promoting sustainable development through education. Certification is available for hotels, campsites, attractions and restaurants. Criteria are slightly different in each country, with international criteria accounting for 80%, while 20% are national additions based on country specifics such as the climate. Criteria focus on environmental management (energy, water, waste, use of chemicals), food sourcing, guest awareness and staff involvement. Another certification scheme is operational under the name Green Key Global, which is predominantly based in North America. There is no connection between the two programmes. WG

  Green Paper on the Role of the Union in the Field of Tourism (COM(95)97 final of 04.04.1995) A document published by the European Commission to stimulate discussion at European level on the intervention level of the European Union (EU) in the field of tourism, which failed to give rise to further legislative procedures. Following the meeting of tourism ministers held in 1994, the European Commission submitted a green paper and invited all stakeholders to participate in the consultation process. The Green Paper was composed of three sections: an assessment of the European tourism sector in the first section; the second section discussed potential advantages to be gained if a tourism policy were established at European level. The third section proposed four options of different intervention levels by the EU, ranging from non-EU intervention to granting competence to EU institutions. Failing to reach a consensus by EU-15, the consultation process did not result in establishing a common European Tourism Policy. SMA

  Green Seal, USA A certification scheme created in 1989 in the USA with the main purpose of promoting sustainability of products and services. The work of this non-profit organization consists of encouraging, orientating and supporting enterprise, institutions and customers in order to implement socio-environmental friendly practices. Green Seal is a voluntary program where the participating activity is assessed under the philosophy of green economy and with an approach based on scientific knowledge. This process covers the whole life cycle of the product or services and reviews other elements such as generation of data and the commercialization strategy (labelling, marketing, promotional materials). Many firms, universities and private institutions have opted for this ecolabel, the Green Seal Mark, whose maintenance requires regular monitoring. Green Seal is international, being co-founder of the Global Ecolabelling Network (GEN) and meeting guidelines like the International Organization for Standardization (ISO 14020 and 14024). OGH   Green Seal www.greenseal.org 246

Green Paper on the Role of the Union in the Field of Tourism

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  Green tourism Tourism that embraces sustainability and green issues. The concept of a green product is one that is easier to use than to define. In loose terms, a product or service can be said to be green when it is beneficial to the producer and consumer without harming the ­environment (Font and Tribe, 2001). Each consumer will decide on their ‘shade of green’, depending on how important good environmental performance is to their purchase behaviour (Fig. G9) (see Strong sustainable development). According to Dodds and Joppe (2001), the green tourism concept can be broken down into four components: Environmental responsibility—protecting, conserving and enhancing nature and the physical environment to ensure the long-term health of the life-sustaining ­ecosystem; ● Local economic vitality—supporting local economies, businesses and communities to ensure economic vitality and sustainability; ● Cultural diversity—respecting and appreciating cultures and cultural diversity so as to ensure the continued well-being of local or host cultures; and ● Experiential richness—providing enriching and satisfying experiences through ­active, personal and meaningful participation in, and involvement with, nature, people, places and cultures. ●

Furqan et al. (2010, citing Middleton and Hawkins, 1998), noted that the tourism industry uses green tourism certification or environmental awards as trademarks or logos to communicate the environmental qualifications of a company, with the hope that customers develop positive attitudes toward their product or service. In the marketplace,

Fig. G9.  Green tourism guide for turtle watching tourists, Costa Rica (Olga Garcia). Green tourism 247

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this type of strategy can give companies a differential advantage over their competitors. The use of green tourism certification issued by a respected body is usually intended (Sasidharan et al., 2002): (i) to control tourism’s negative environmental impacts on the natural resource base of destination areas by encouraging tourism enterprises to achieve high environmental standards; (ii) to educate tourists regarding the impacts of their actions and decisions; and (iii) to develop standards for environmentally friendly tourism products and services. The utilization of green tourism certification in developing countries would slot in with policies relating to natural resource management, environmental conservation and protection, and pollution control while conforming to the concept of environmentally friendly tourism development (Erdogan and Tosun, 2009). See also Ecotourism RO

  Green Tourism Business Scheme (GTBS) A UK-based certification for tourism activity that operates under sustainable principles. At present, GTBS constitutes the only national plan that counts for validation of the International Centre for Responsible Tourism (ICRT); and works as representation of VisitEngland, VisitWales and the Northern Ireland Tourist Board; and with support of VisitScotland and Failte Ireland. Its classification system, based on obtaining medals (Bronze, Silver or Gold), is welcomed by businesses, understanding this assessment as an improvement process that permeates by diverse range of areas such as water efficiency or biodiversity. This network has grown to attract a wide spectrum of tourism organizations – accommodation providers, visitor attractions and corporate offices, among others – increasing considerably the opportunities of loyalty to this mark by customers. OGH   Green Tourism Business Scheme www.green-tourism.com/

  Greenhouse gases (GHGs) Collection of natural and anthropogenic gases present in the Earth’s atmosphere associated with warming processes. Some of the Earth’s outgoing long-wave, infrared, terrestrial radiation is trapped by GHGs in the lower atmosphere. These gases trap heat similar to a greenhouse and so have been given the name greenhouse gases. GHGs include water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH2), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and others. GHGs naturally occur in the atmosphere helping to regulate Earth’s temperature. Without GHGs, the Earth’s average temperature would be approximately 33°C colder (i.e. −19°C) so they act as temperature regulators. GHG concentrations have increased significantly since 1750, far exceeding pre-industrial levels (IPCC, 2007b) (Fig. G10). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report a global average warming of 0.74°C over the past 100 years. This increase in global average temperatures is ‘very likely’ (i.e. >90%) due to the observed increases in anthropogenic GHG concentrations (IPCC, 2007a) (Fig. G10). See also Climate change, Emissions, Geological time NSA 248

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Concentrations of Greenhouse Gases from 0 to 2005 2000

400

1800

Methane (CH4)

350

1600

Nitrous Oxide (N2O) 1400 1200

300

CH4 (ppb)

CO2 (ppm), N2O (ppb)

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

1000 800

250

0

500

1000 Year

1500

2000

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Fig. G10.  Greenhouse gas concentrations. (From IPCC, AR4, FAQ 2.1, FIG. 1.)

 Greenpeace An environmental non-governmental organization seeking to promote the implementation of green issues. Greenpeace, whose international main office (Stichting Greenpeace Council) is located in Amsterdam, has 28 national and regional offices worldwide. The organization is a civil structure and accepts no donations from companies, governments or any political parties. Thus, the organization gets its financial support from its almost three million supporters. Its main target is to ‘ensure the ability of the earth to nurture life in all its diversity’. Greenpeace uses a number of different methods to achieve this goal such as direct action, advocacy, lobbying and research. The organization heavily focuses on global warming, deforestation, overfishing, commercial whaling and anti-nuclear issues. It is known for its non-violent and creative activities (actions) all over the world. OC  Greenpeace www.greenpeace.org

 Greenwashing A portmanteau of ‘green’ and ‘whitewashing’ (Fig. G11). It describes the public relations (PR) strategy employed by some organizations to promote an environmentally friendly agenda that may have questionable aims. The term greenwashing was coined by New York environmentalist Jay Westervelt in a 1986 essay regarding the hotel industry’s practice of placing placards in each room promoting reuse of towels ostensibly to ‘save the environment’. The term has since been applied to the PR strategies of multinational companies such as British Petroleum’s rebrand as ‘beyond petroleum’. GD Greenwashing 249

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Fig. G11.  Greenwashing of dive operation, Cambodia (Carl Cater).

  Grey nomad An independent traveller, typically aged 50 or over and often retired, who travels for extended periods of time in motor vehicles equipped with living space and amenities (caravans, motor homes, campervans) (Onyx and Leonard, 2005). They may also be referred to as ‘RVers’, ‘caravaners’ or ‘snowbirds’. Grey nomad travel combines drive tourism with camping and frequently includes volunteering, sometimes in return for free camping. It can be a highly seasonal form of travel, in that grey nomads often spend their winters in warmer regions and return to cooler environments in the summer. Some grey nomads, so-called full-timers, permanently live in their motor vehicles (Counts and Counts, 2001). Social interactions are central to grey nomad experiences (Gretzel et al., 2005). They gather in campgrounds, regularly travel in groups and often organize large rallies. They also take extensive advantage of information technology to exchange information and create and maintain social bonds (Hardy et al., 2012). Like other nomadic groups, they are often stigmatized (Hardy and Gretzel, 2011). Their travel lifestyle is associated with negative impacts on communities in that they do not spend money on accommodation but consume public resources and cause traffic problems. It is also often perceived as an environmentally unsustainable form of travel due to the fuel consumption of the vehicles and the need to dump waste (sewage and grey water) in camping areas, which are often in pristine natural areas. Further, grey nomads are perceived as negatively 250

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­impacting the soundscape in national parks and campgrounds due to noise emissions from their vehicles and from generators used to power amenities. In contrast, Simic et al. (2008) found that a considerable portion of grey nomads have an environmental consciousness and actively try to reduce their carbon footprint by using solar power and bio-degradable cleaning products. They also see their visitation to and volunteering in national parks as important contributions to furthering the protection of natural resources.  UG and ANH

  Grey water A type of waste water that stems from kitchens, baths or laundries and which, in contrast to sewage or so-called ‘blackwater’, is not mixed with toilet water containing human excreta. This allows for easier recycling or re-use on site (Fig. G12), for example for landscape irrigation. Grey water usually contains high concentrations of easily degradable organic material like fat, oil, nutrients and surfactants as well as certain levels of pathogens, heavy metals and toxic pollutants. The composition of effluent from domestic or industrial sources varies, depending on consumer lifestyles and production methods. Despite significantly reduced hygiene problems, grey water still requires treatment before it may be returned to nature. While in rural areas, small

Fig. G12.  Water recycling, Nant yr Arian, Wales (Brian Garrod). Grey water 251

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volumes and low concentrations of hazardous substances in grey water is seldom a problem, treatment becomes more important in urban areas or concentrated tourism destinations and locations, such as cruise ships, where higher volumes are produced and the use of chemicals is more common. CB

  Growth fetish The worship (hence fetish) of growth. The term was first proposed by the Australian social commentator Clive Hamilton to explain contemporary society’s obsession with global consumption. As Hamilton (2003, p. x) states: Despite several decades of sustained economic growth, our societies are no happier than they were. Growth not only fails to make people contented; it destroys many of the things that do. Growth fosters empty consumerism, degrades the natural environment, weakens social cohesion and corrodes character.

Hamilton thus criticizes both the way that metric measures of growth are constructed and our obsession with them. He examines issues and notions surrounding well-being, consumerism, progress, politics, work and the environment, and how growth has permeated all of these spheres. In opposition, he draws on the Aristotelian concept of eudemonism, ‘the politics of happiness [,] a political ideology that argues for an organization of society that promotes the full realization of human potential through proper appreciation of the sources of wellbeing’ (Hamilton, 2003, p. 209). This is relevant to the sustainable development of tourism on two fronts. Firstly, the tourism community is currently among the worst offenders for being obsessed with growth, as is evident in almost every government policy, industry report, conference agenda, ­organizational objective and strategy. In addition, recent research on social tourism recognizes its role as one of the principal providers of human well-being for both guests and hosts. Yet, Hamilton argues against the Disneyfication and ritual structuring of the tourism industry which ‘deprives (people) of opportunities for festivity and human interaction’ (2003, p. 73). The recognition that the tourism industry is overly focused on growth can be theoretically extended by Hall’s (2009, 2010) consideration of steady state tourism and strategies of degrowth. See also Economic growth, Human Development Index CIC

  Growth management The management of changes of population growth and the associated growth and development of services and infrastructure within communities. Growth management focuses on specific management tools and techniques that seek to identify, evaluate and monitor for the sustainability of tourism communities that are undergoing rapid and, sometimes, unwanted change. Growth management manifests as a planning procedure, which results in a strategy focusing on a balanced community (economic, social and environmental) and a consensus-based process to manage growth for the future. A growth management plan is further motivated by a need to understand stakeholders 252

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range of views and concerns about demographic change, tourism influx, commercial operations and resort developments. Key to a sustainable growth management process is local and resident participation that highlights the importance of integrating community-based considerations. The plan is used to measure and monitor the impacts that new growth will have on the community. Management tools are identified that will work to offset and mitigate such impacts. These can include land use zoning, implementation of fees or taxes, environmental assessments or the development of policies and regulations to protect heritage, affordable housing for residents, commercial businesses or the surrounding natural landscape. Growth management is an extension of the carrying capacity concept that seeks to understand ‘acceptable changes’ within a sustainable tourism management framework. Tourism destination communities that are amenity-rich and attractive to second home growth and recreation properties often require growth management planning and action. BM

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H  Habitat An environment with significant biotic and abiotic factors in which species may live in any of their development phases. It normally refers to a natural habitat, which means terrestrial or aquatic areas distinguished by geographic, abiotic and biotic features, whether entirely natural or semi-natural (Article 1, European Commission’s Habitats Directive). It is also used to describe an environmental area in which an organism (fauna, flora or human) lives in its physical (natural or ecological) environment, or where a specific species can normally be expected to live (e.g. Arctic regions for polar bears, Montmartre in Paris for artists, the Habitat 67 in Montreal as a specific city dwelling place, etc.). SSL

  Hard tourism 1. Large-scale mass tourism developments that are generally externally owned and   limited local linkages socially, culturally or environmentally. In some cases, these have developments may be focused on quick economic returns, undermine local culture and cause widespread environmental impacts. Tourists to these developments generally seek replication of their own culture in institutionalized settings, with little authentic cultural or environmental interaction with locals. Viewed as the antithesis of soft tourism, examples include many resort developments that have created a tourist enclave that is highly dependent on tourism for its well-being. 2. A form of activity or adventure tourism that has higher levels of physical activity and risk taking. 

GW and CIC

  Health and safety The cross-disciplinary area concerned with prevention of physical and psychological harm. The term ‘health and safety’ is usually applied to the occupational context, and is generally referred to as ‘occupational health and safety’. Increasingly, the scope of occupational health and safety has been broadened to include all aspects of the worker’s well-being, including psychosocial factors such as stress and fatigue alongside physical injury and disease. Non-occupational disciplines in the field of health and safety include public health, concerned with protecting and enhancing the health of the community. Used in the tourism sense, health and safety generally refers to the health, safety and well-being of tourists, although health and safety also relates to tourism staff and others affected by tourism operations. 254 

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Health and safety concerns have become a major factor in individual travel decisions and a major sustainability issue for tourism operators, destinations and countries facing the potential negative impacts of tourism health and safety failures (see Crisis). These include reduced visitor numbers, loss of reputation and litigation. Therefore, a key issue for tourism operators and destinations is to provide healthy and safe environments and safe activities as part of the tourist experience. Through managed and sustainable interaction with natural environments and local communities, tourism operators must seek to provide a positive experience while minimizing exposure to risk of harm. Advancements in understanding of tourist health have been largely driven through the field of travel medicine, a branch of medicine concerned with disease and injury acquired during travel. Travel medicine is concerned primarily with the impacts of tourism on the health of tourists and seeks to prevent illness and injury to travellers going abroad as well as those returning to their own country following travel overseas (Leggatt et al., 2002). Much of the focus in the field of travel medicine is on exposures to disease and injury risk not present in the tourist’s own country or domestic region, with key health and safety concerns including: infectious diseases, exposures to natural hazards (Fig. H1), food safety, vehicle safety, water safety and exposure to hazardous activities and leisure pursuits. Primary principles of travel medicine include the provision of specialist medical advice to travellers and information regarding behaviour when travelling to certain areas and participating in certain activities, and the assessment of risk associated with known travel hazards (Page, 2009).

Fig. H1.  Health and safety. Jellyfish warnings, Northern Queensland, Australia (Olga Garcia). Health and safety255

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Other contributions to the multidisciplinary domain of tourism health and safety have come from the fields of tropical medicine, epidemiology (disease and injury patterns, trends and causes), safety science and psychology, health promotion, law, management and tourism studies. The first major attempt to provide an interdisciplinary study of medical and social science research in the field of tourism health and safety came in the form of Clift and Page’s (1996) landmark book, Health and the International Tourist. Later edited books, notably Wilks and Page (2003), Managing Tourist Health and Safety; Wilks et al. (2006), Tourism in Turbulent Times; and Mansfeld and Pizam (2006), Tourism Security and Safety: from Theory to Practice, consolidated advances in the tourism health and safety field. These contributions broadened the span of focus to include issues of increasing importance to the international tourism industry and a range of topical health and safety concerns, including SARS, risk perception and risk management, adventure tourism safety, water and surf safety (see Surf Lifesaving Australia), insurance, litigation and security. A wide range of tourism health and safety problems have been documented. One approach to providing a framework for such problems has been to present each on a continuum in terms of the level of harm incurred and the magnitude of the outcome (Page, 2009). Minor incidents and health issues (for example, slips, trips and falls, traveller’s diarrhoea) are most prevalent and not life threatening. Medium-scale incidents (e.g. road traffic accidents, skiing injuries, tropical diseases) are likely to cause more serious health and safety outcomes for the tourist but occur less frequently than minor incidents. Major incidents are those resulting in mortality, and include terrorism, natural disasters such as earthquakes and tsunami, and drownings, fatal falls and other serious incidents involving adventure and recreation tourism (Page, 2009). An important health and safety priority is to understand the causes of injury among tourists so effective prevention can be implemented at government, industry and operator level. Broad explanations for increased injury risk among overseas travellers include: exposure to unfamiliar road, marine, mountain, wilderness and built environments; increased time spent engaged in activities for which there is a risk of injury; exposure to unfamiliar activities such as driving on the other side of the road, marine tourism, adventure tourism; and relaxed attitudes towards risk and reduced inhibitions when on holiday (Bentley et al., 2001). The relationship between contributory factors for tourist injury in the adventure tourism context have been modelled by Bentley and Page (2008). The conceptual model demonstrates the complex nature of the tourism health and safety problem, with natural, societal, cultural, organizational (operator) and client factors interacting in incident causation. This broad systems approach to the identification and analysis of health and safety risks for tourists is argued to be necessary if narrow explanations for tourist incidents, such as the careless tourist or inexperienced guide, are to be avoided and the role of upstream management and cultural factors recognized in tourist injury aetiology. While much can be learned from an understanding of the different hazards and types of incidents and disease to which tourists are exposed, the key focus for travel medicine and health and safety more generally is the prevention of injury and disease. At government level, prevention often takes the form of the provision of health information and travel advice, although government intervention through legislated codes of practice and other regulations are also evident in some countries. For example, in New Zealand a recent government review of risk management and safety in the 256

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adventure and outdoor commercial sectors has resulted in the development of the Health and Safety in Employment (Adventure Activities) Regulations, requiring all operators to obtain a safety audit and register with the Department of Labour (see also UK Adventure Activities Licensing Authority.) Occupational health and safety legislation in most Westernized countries places a duty of care to staff and clients on the tourism operator (employer). A major requirement of this legislation is to identify, assess and control hazards in the workplace that may cause harm to employees, contractors, visitors and others affected by the work of the organization. For tourism operators, this risk assessment exercise should consider hazards across the broad operating system, including those related to the natural and built environment, organization/administration of the operation, activities the clients engage in, transport of clients, and factors related to staff/guides and clients (Bentley and Page, 2008). Risk management should be implemented as part of a wider occupational health and safety management system (OHSMS) to promote safety and prevent harm to staff, clients and others affected by the tourism operation. A comprehensive tourism OHSMS should include the following: a health and safety policy; a hazard management plan; safe work/operating procedures; training for staff/guides; safety inspections; incident, accident and disease investigation; health and safety meetings; first aid and emergency management; and health and safety record keeping and monitoring. A key feature of an effective OHSMS is involvement of the entire workforce in continually improving health and safety performance. TB ­

Further reading Quinlan, M., Bohle, P. and Lamm, F. (2010) Managing Occupational Health and Safety: A Multidisciplinary Approach, 3rd edn. Palgrave Macmillan, South Yarra, Australia. Wilks, J. and Page, S. (2003) Managing Tourist Health and Safety in the New Millennium. Pergamon, Oxford, UK. Wilks, J., Pendergast, D. and Leggat, P. (2006) Tourism in Turbulent Times: Towards Safe E ­ xperiences for Visitors. Elsevier, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.

  Health tourism The sector of the tourism industry related to the delivery of health and well-being services. This type of tourism can be traced back to the ancient Romans with the popularity of thermal spas (Fig. H2). This is a growing sector of the tourism industry with many travellers now incorporating some form of health services into their travel plans. Other tourists are travelling for the specific purpose of obtaining health services that can be obtained at a fee much lower or in a timelier manner than in the tourist’s home country. Many Asian countries, particularly the Philippines, Malaysia, Thailand and India, now have health tourism as one of the key strategic focuses for developing the tourism industry in these countries. The types of services offered vary greatly and can range from spa treatments (massage, facials, etc.) and cosmetic surgery through to highly specialized dental and surgical procedures. See also Wellness tourism SR Health tourism257

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Fig. H2.  Health tourist using traditional natural hot springs, Southern Qinghai, Tibetan Plateau, China (Carl Cater).

 Heritage A contemporarily used, inherited and selected cultural and/or natural element from the past. According to Graham et al. (2000), the time dimension is central to the heritage concept: heritage refers to the past, it is used and valued in the present and the aim is to pass it on to future generations. Heritage elements can be divided into tangible and intangible resources (Prentice, 1993). The former refers to architectural structures, for example, while the latter involves non-material elements, such as ceremonies and customs. In addition, tangible resources can be classified as movable (e.g. books and documents in archives) and immovable (e.g. buildings and mountains) elements. There are several detailed classifications of heritage based on the type of elements, attractions and sites, for example, but perhaps the most well-known distinction is the one used by UNESCO (1972) in the context of world heritage conservation. UNESCO classifies heritage on both a cultural and natural basis. Cultural heritage includes: monuments (e.g. architectural works and monumental sculptures); groups of buildings (e.g. groups of separate or connected buildings); and sites (e.g. areas including archaeological sites), which are of outstanding universal value from the point of view of history, art or science and/or an aesthetic, ethnological or anthropological point of view (Fig. H3). Natural heritage involves natural features consisting of physical and biological formations or groups of such formations; geological and physiographical formations (see Geotourism) and precisely delineated areas which constitute the habitat of threatened species; and natural sites or precisely delineated natural areas of outstanding universal value from the point of view of science, conservation or natural beauty. UNESCO’s classification relates to the creation and conservation of world 258Heritage

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Fig. H3.  Ancient Wuzhen water town, Hangzhou, China (Carl Cater).

heritage sites that are increasingly used as tourist attractions. As these sites represent an outstanding universal value, their sustainable use and management in tourism ­development is crucial (Fig. P9). In addition to the world heritage sites implying a global scale value, heritage resources can involve national, regional/local and personal significance. See also International Council for Monuments and Sites JS

Cold War heritage (and) tourism: a case study of Kelvedon Hatch Secret Nuclear Bunker For most of the second half of the 20th century the world’s political map was divided by the Cold War, a name given to the 40-year long standoff between two ‘superpowers’ – the United States of America (USA) and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). During this period, the world was fragmented along political, cultural, social and economic borders set by the ‘superpowers’ and their allies. What sets this conflict apart from other major conflicts that occurred throughout the centuries, besides the expanded time frame and its geographical scale, is the fact that, above all, it was a battle that was fought by intelligence services. Although the military pressure was high, it, fortunately, never turned into an actual battle, except in substitute wars far away from the actual Continued

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Cold War heritage (and) tourism.  Continued. stage of the conflict. Although the general public only saw the tip of the iceberg of this ‘placeless’ and ‘battleless’ conflict, nevertheless for those who lived at that time, on either side of the fence, the war seemed real enough. In this sense, the Cold War was both a highly secret and, at the same time, a public war. Due to its geographical location, worldwide abundance of clandestine networks and installations, and strong alliance with the United States, Britain was at the ‘frontline’ of the Cold War. Additionally, due to its involvement in World War II, there was already a large presence of US armed forces that used former British bases and built uniquely American-designed buildings, ironically called ‘little Americas’. With the growing presence of US military personnel and staff, concerns for the possibilities of Brittan being attacked were used to justify an increasing focus on the British nuclear strategy. Subsequently, the remnants of the Cold War in Britain, together with and originating from World War I and II, are nowadays assessed at more then 10,000 grid references. Together with the understanding that, due to a rapid turnover of personnel and technological developments, a site could be used for multiple purposes and the (current) issues of official secrecy and obsolescence of large number of previously active sites have caused great concern for experts, heritage managers and policy makers when cataloguing and preserving the various structures, complexes and other remains (Hermann, 2011). As part of a wider evaluation of 20th century defence structures in Britain, English Heritage has conducted several studies regarding Cold War remains, although these are mainly concerned with aerial mapping and technical accounts. Partly caused by the practical challenges exceeding the managing capacity of authorized institutions, it appears that the way of governing Cold War heritage by English Heritage, and other bodies of ‘experts’, relies heavily on placing it within the category of ‘accepted neglect’ (Hermann, 2013). Cold War sites in this regard are, therefore, not qualified as ‘old’, ‘grand’, ‘monumental’ or ‘aesthetically pleasing’, and instead the ‘power of ignoring’ is put in place; putting in place beliefs of ‘benign neglect’ and ‘natural decay’ to justify the lack of scheduling and active conservation legislations. Within a tourism context, Cold War attractions occupy a similarly odd position in the niche of war tourism; they qualify on grounds of composition, structure and purpose (Laws, 1998), but are not yet fully regarded as aesthetically ‘qualified’ as essential forms of war heritage within the rural-historic landscape and, ultimately, the English national identity. Although military heritage sites are becoming more popular, from both a public and ‘official’ perspective, only a limited number of sites are transformed, predominantly by private and local initiatives, into tourism attractions. An indicative of this growing interest can be found in the rather unexpected initiative from local farmer and market gardener G.J. Parrish and the Kelvedon Hatch Secret Nuclear Bunker. The Kelvedon Hatch Secret Nuclear Bunker is one of many secret bunkers in Britain, located in the county of Essex some 40 miles to the north-east of London. The bunker is the biggest and deepest Cold War bunker open to the public, situated under a ‘harmless’ looking bungalow near the town of Brentwood. The bunker was intended to accommodate up to 600 ‘key’ staff members, including the Prime Minister, for at least three to four months with the purpose of organizing the survival of the human population in the aftermath of a nuclear war. The bunker had three military usages during the Cold War, starting as an RAF Rotor Station, then a civil defense center and, within its most recent life, as the Regional Government Headquarters. After the collapse of the Soviet Union the bunker was decommissioned in 1992 and six years later, in 1998, re-opened as a tourist attraction by the ‘new’ owners, the Parrish family. It had taken 45 years ­b efore G.J. Parrish received £2410 from the British government for the enforced Continued

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Cold War heritage (and) tourism.  Continued. acquisition of this part of his property for the construction of the bunker. The land and the bunker are now back with the family and managed by Parrish’s grandson, Mike. In its brochure, website and at the actual bunker, descriptions and representations are largely in ambiguous terms, reflecting its three different military uses and display of various Cold War artifacts, many of which have been taken from other sites. This ambiguity seems to reflect a desire to turn away from the ‘official’ or ‘national’ representation and towards a more ‘personal’ and ‘private’ proprietor explanation. In doing so, the Cold War is not only represented through a profane tangible site; the bunker also emphasizes the imminence and inevitability of a World War III (Deery, 2000). Opening the site for visitors can, therefore, be regarded as a way of generating income for maintenance, repairs and the preservation of objects and artifacts, with the ultimate goal to provide a shelter for the Parrish family and ‘selected’ acquaintances. Heritage, in this regard, becomes a personal discourse about how, and through which, meanings, values and identities are constructed and l­egitimized, leaving little room for the active role and engagement of visitors in the construction and negation of meanings of the past. IHN

  Heritage tourism Visitors experiencing built heritage, living culture and contemporary arts and folklore. Its resources are both tangible and intangible elements of the inherited past and can be found in rural or urban settings. Some of the most common resources that provide the foundations of heritage tourism include ancient and modern buildings, music and dance, sacred sites and religious practices, foodways and agricultural practices, industrial archaeology, literary places, museums, indigenous cultures, arts, festivals and cultural landscapes. Some of the earliest forms of tourism known today can be traced back to people visiting cultural heritage sites in ancient and medieval times. Religious pilgrimages and the Grand Tour are two of the most often-cited predecessors of ­contemporary heritage tourism. People are motivated to visit cultural heritage attractions for a variety of reasons, including education, socialization, curiosity, self-discovery or a passion for a hobby. It is a vast phenomenon that almost all regions of the world have begun to focus on in their tourism development efforts. By nearly all accounts, heritage tourism is one of the most pervasive forms of tourism in the world today, with many countries or regions focusing most of their development and promotional efforts on their cultural resources. Some estimates suggest that between 50% and 80% of domestic and international tourism entails visits to heritage sites or cultural events (US Department of Commerce, 2005; UNWTO, 2006). Academic research on heritage sites and heritage tourism began several decades ago but gained prominence in the late 1980s, particularly with regard to understanding visitor characteristics, categorizing types of heritage places, and describing conservation and interpretation techniques. The majority of past research has focused on descriptions of the ancient built environment as a tourism resource and visitors’ demographic characteristics and experiences at heritage sites. Since the 1980s, heritage Heritage tourism261

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studies have become more sophisticated and have begun looking beyond simple supply and demand elements to include more critical studies of local and national meanings of heritage, social and personal identities, conflict and other socio-political implications. One salient argument is that a resource does not necessarily have to be old to be heritage. Even modern architecture and living cultures are important heritage attractions throughout the world, and places that were once reluctant to capitalize on their inherited recent past are now actively promoting it as a viable tourism resource. Similarly, scholars now realize that because heritage refers to all that humankind inherits from the past and utilizes today, heritage tourism includes intangible and living cultural components as well. Several trends have emerged in recent years that have an important bearing on the direction of heritage tourism research and how the industry is framed. Only a few are highlighted here. One prominent trend is to understand not only the heritage of the aristocracy but also the heritage of the ordinary. This is a result of the current demand for heritage managers and public agencies to tell a more accurate and balanced story that includes the lives and activities of peasants and commoners rather than just the upper classes of bygone days. Castles, cathedrals, fortresses and other such grand structures have been the backbone of heritage tourism for centuries. Now, however, there is a more pervasive interest in the lives of everyday people, with their heritage being a focus of conservation efforts and tourism development. This has resulted in the placement of such items as farming (see Farm tourism and Agritourism) and indigenous food tourism within the realm of heritage tourism as agricultural heritage and heritage cuisines are becoming more important parts of the tourism experience. Another trend is that while most research to date has focused on the impacts of heritage visits on the visitors in terms of education, emotion and experience, scholars and communities are beginning to delve more deeply into the socio-economic outcomes of heritage tourism in the communities where it takes place. Given the salience of heritage as a tourism resource, there has been a recent surge of economic impact studies to assess how these resources impact local economies. Other studies illustrate how communities can utilize heritage tourism as a tool for building solidarity and creating ethnic and regional identities for social empowerment. Heritage dissonance, or heritage in conflict, has also become a focus of much attention as of late. Different groups share overlapping resources but interpret them differently. In some cases, one group desires to exploit the past for tourism, while another wishes to prevent the utilization of cultural resources for tourism. There are many other manifestations of dissonance and heritage being manipulated as a political tool by parties in positions of power. A related concept with power implications is authenticity. Authenticity has been a focus of heritage studies for several years, but scholars are now suggesting that it can be viewed as a subjective construct, contingent upon the visitor’s own personal baggage or intimate connection to a site. Others argue that there is an objective authenticity associated with historic places, peoples and events, which can be measured and evaluated. All of these theoretical debates, and many more, have real management implications for historic sites and centers of culture. Heritage tourism is a rapidly-evolving component of the tourism industry, which continues to gain importance. As long as this happens, scholars will continue to develop new ideas to help understand heritage tourism and assist in managing it sustainably. See also Cultural tourism DT 262

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Further reading Garrod, B. and Fyall, A. (2001) Heritage tourism: A question of definition. Annals of Tourism Research 28(4), 1049–1052. Poria, Y., Butler, R.W. and Airey, D. (2003) The core of heritage tourism. Annals of Tourism ­Research 30(1), 238–254. Timothy, D.J. (2011) Cultural Heritage and Tourism: An Introduction. Channel View, Bristol, UK. Timothy, D.J. and Boyd, S.W. (2003) Heritage Tourism. Prentice Hall, London, UK. Timothy, D.J. and Nyaupane, G. (2009) Cultural Heritage and Tourism in the Developing World: A Regional Perspective. Routledge, London, UK.

 Hiking Walking for recreational purposes. The activity can have, however, a range of characteristics which formulate perceptions about it and differentiate it from mere walking. Walking generally is of great significance to tourism, as it is the single most popular recreational activity (Kay and Moxham, 1996). There is a wide range of terms that are ostensibly synonymous with hiking, albeit with subtle differences in meaning or purpose: for example, trekking, tramping, hill-walking, yomping, rambling and trail-walking. The term hiking is often imbued with a sense of distance. Long-distance walking as a touristic activity, whether on the English Coast-to-Coast (C2C) or along the Appalachians in the USA, is a very popular vacation activity. It is estimated that annually 17,000 people complete the well-known West Highland Way in Scotland, and a further 50,000 use it for day hikes (den Breejen, 2007). Although for some going for a hike may be as much about the journey as the destination, it can also be less an end in itself but as a means to a range of experiences (Kay and Moxham, 1996). Wylie (2005) informs us that there are a number of aesthetic and philosophical avenues that are traditionally associated with walking in the countryside. Hiking has connotations of enjoyment in natural environments, from peri-urban forests to mountain ranges, where the landscape is appreciated both for its inherent beauty and for the opportunities it offers for quiet enjoyment (Miller et al., 2001), and as an escape from everyday life (Edensor, 2000). Hiking, in its most basic form, is also a relatively accessible recreational pastime, without necessarily requiring either a great deal of time or planning or much of the costly paraphernalia that accompanies many other outdoor pursuits. It is available to anyone with a basic level of fitness, and the physical and psychological benefits of walking are generally acknowledged (Pretty et al., 2007). There are many hiking organizations and commercial companies worldwide offering accompanied hikes, GPS routes and trail guides, but hiking for many people can be as simple as a ‘stroll in the countryside’ (Edensor, 2000, p. 81). ST

  Holidays Forever A list of sustainable tourism commitments by tour operator TUI under its Thomson and First Choice brands in the UK. TUI has made 20 commitments in 2011 for Holidays Forever263

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c­ompletion in 2014 under the areas of reducing carbon footprint, taking care of ­destinations, living our values and inspiring customers. The last includes engaging over 200,000 school children in sustainable travel environmental education in the UK and overseas. See also Travel Foundation CIC   Holidays Forever www.holidaysforever.co.uk

 Homestay A form of accommodation where guests stay with families in their own home (Fig. H4). Guests may eat with hosts and experience some of the actions and rhythms of their lives. Homestays require little additional investment and are popular in community-based tourism initiatives in less-developed countries and in farm tourism in developed countries. They usually have low impact and low leakage but may require additional training and promotion by an NGO, association or destination marketing organisation. Tourists seeking homestay experiences are often seeking cultural tourism and some experience of local customs. CIC

Fig. H4.  Homestay, Pentecost, Vanuatu (Carl Cater). 264Homestay

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 Hospitality The act of being hospitable. While this is the simplest definition of hospitality, there are a number of different definitions provided by the literature. Some of these include ‘receiving guests in a generous and cordial manner’, ‘creating a pleasant or satisfying environment’, ‘satisfying a guest’s needs’, ‘anticipating a guest’s desires’ or ‘generating a friendly and safe environment’, but all of these definitions relate to the overall principle of being hospitable (Chon and Maier, 2010). The hospitality industry comprises many service-oriented sectors of the broader tourism industry. These sectors include accommodation, restaurants, bars, clubs, pubs, theme parks, cruise lines, meetings and events, gaming, entertainment and transportation, as well as other tourism-related businesses. According to Chon and Maier (2010), the hospitality industry dates back more than 4000 years to the overnight lodging provided along the Middle East trade and caravan routes. Today, the hotel industry alone worldwide consists of more than 632,000 businesses, has revenues of approximately US$580 billion and employs more than 4 million staff (IBISWorld, 2012). SR

 Host/guest An important branch of studies that focuses on the relationship between locals and tourists discussed in Smith’s (1977) book Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism. In the 1970s and the 1980s attention was turned to the negative impacts of tourism on the fragile economic and socialcultural balances on local host communities in the third world. This was then extended to all touristic contexts and this dynamic was recognized in tourist destinations in complex modern societies too. Investigative themes were also gradually extended: from reciprocal perceptions and attitudes right through to the governance of touristic processes in terms of their social sustainability. MG

 Hotel A building used for accommodation purposes for business or leisure travellers. Depending on their size, hotels also usually offer a range of facilities and services including: food and beverage outlets (some may also provide room service); conference and event facilities; leisure, health and fitness facilities including swimming pools, gyms and spas; concierge services for tour bookings; and business services including computer access, printing and services for sending and receiving facsimiles. Hotels are often classified through grading systems. Some suggest that hotel grading and classification systems are responsible for causing confusion not only for guests, but also for the industry (Cooper et al., 2008; Cser and Ohuchi, 2008). Inconsistencies and variances both domestically and internationally among grading schemes are responsible for varying degrees of (dis)satisfaction where such grading schemes can also be seen as responsible for providing an expectation of not only the level of quality to be provided, but also of the level of hospitality, or type of experience (Ariffin and Maghzi, 2012). Hotel265

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In the context of sustainable tourism, grading and classification schemes often take the form of ecolabels. Often, such schemes are lambasted around issues of trust, reliability and authenticity. Buckley (2001a) points out however that the amount of weight consumers will place on ecolabels are influenced firstly by how much the consumer cares about the environment, and secondly how realistic the differences are between labelled and unlabelled products and services. The proliferation of ecolabels and certification schemes has led to confusion among consumers and tourism operators over the past decade (Font and Buckley, 2001) and when such labels are added to other hotel grading and classification schemes such confusion is only magnified. Hotel chains have instigated a number of initiatives in this area. Bohdanowicz and Zientara (2008) review the significant place of corporate social responsibility in top hotel chains operations in Europe, and suggest that the entire sector can in fact be held up as a model of responsible behaviour. Low (2013), however, notes the need for greater guidance and engagement from policy makers in developing legislative frameworks that support the efforts of hoteliers towards sustainable development, rather than simply pandering to the requirements of property developers and politicians. TL

  Human capital The knowledge, skills and abilities that an individual possesses in order to pursue a livelihood. According to McShane et al. 2009, human capital is an important source of competitive advantage over rivals in any organization. If human capital is not managed correctly, when key people leave the organization they take important skills and knowledge with them that could decrease a company’s effectiveness and profitability. Human capital can help organizations meet their goals and maximize opportunities that may arise, although human capital is generally in short supply and cannot easily be duplicated. This creates both advantages and disadvantages for organizations. The advantage is that if a company develops its human capital effectively then it will gain a competitive advantage over rivals, as they will not be able to easily duplicate the knowledge and skills employees bring to the workplace. However, the disadvantage is that if staff members leave the organization it is not easy to acquire new staff members who possess the same level of skills and knowledge (McShane et al., 2009). One of the key goals of managing human capital is to ensure the preservation of the intellectual capital held by the staff (see Intellectual property). Companies can achieve this by retaining staff and by systematically transferring knowledge between employees. When knowledge is shared between employees the level of human capital increases minimizing the organization’s exposure to staff turnover (see Labour turnover). Many of these organizational aspects of human capital apply also to communities and destinations. See also Sustainable livelihoods approach SR

  Human Development Index An indicator of development. The issue of how to assess levels of ‘development’ and to make comparisons between and within countries is a challenge for development 266

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economists and policy makers. While income measures permit an indicative comparison they are only one measure of economic prosperity and quality of life. In an attempt to broaden the measure of development, the late Pakistani economist Mahbub ul Haq, in collaboration with Amartya Sen, produced a composite index of three key indicators for the first Human Development Report produced by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in 1990. The chosen indicators reflect three basic dimensions of human development in the Human Development Index (HDI): a long and healthy life measured by life expectancy; being educated, measured by adult literacy and the percentages of the population enrolled at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels; and a decent standard of living, measured by purchasing power parity (UNDP, 2006). Using these three indicators comparisons can be made between countries of the expectancies of an average citizen. In 2011, citizens of Norway, the highest ranking country in the HDI, could expect to live for 37 years longer than those in the Democratic Republic of Congo; spend four times more time in school; and enjoy a Gross National Income (GNI) 170 times higher (UNDP, 2010). However, while the HDI marks advancement in recognizing the multidimensional character of development, it has been criticized for not incorporating a wider range of indicators and being more representative of the variations of human development capabilities and deprivations. It has also been criticized on the basis that the three variables are not independent but multi-collinear, e.g. good health improves educational attainment, which improves employment and income opportunities. See also Millennium Development Goals AH   Human development report hdr.undp.org

  Human resource management (HRM) The design of formal systems in an organization to ensure effective and efficient use of human capital to accomplish organizational goals. The Human Resource Department plays a significant role in any organization as this department is quite often the link between employees and management. Some of the main activities undertaken by HRM specialists include: HR planning and analysis; ensuring compliance with Equal Employment Opportunity legislation; conducting employee appraisals; hiring and ­terminating staff; HR development and training; managing compensation and benefits; ensuring the health and safety and security of staff and clients; and managing employee relations. HRM specialists must be able to undertake many roles in the organization. These many roles undertaken by HRM professionals include administrative roles such as payroll or drafting position description and person specifications. They must also be the ‘champion’ for employee concerns whereby they address any work related issues that staff may have. HRM professionals must also play an operational role related to new staff selection, promotions and development of staff development and training programs. To increase the likelihood that an organization will be successful, it is paramount that human resource management plays a strategic role in the operation of business. SR Human resource management (HRM)267

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  Human rights A minimum ethical expectation of the rights of an individual as a human being. Human rights are enshrined in the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the assembly in 1948. Although developed in response to the atrocities of the Second World War, the principles of freedom and the implicit limits to state control are still relevant. Notably travel and tourism is also a feature of the declaration, as Article 13 states that ‘everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each state’ and ‘everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country’. Principles of equity and justice between humans also feature strongly and are and can be seen in the more recent Millennium Development Goals. Under the UDHR states have an obligation to protect the rights of their citizens through domestic legislation. In addition there are a growing number of international human rights instruments if national-level legislation that should protect against abuse is weak or unenforced. Tourism has a poor record when it comes to abuses of human rights. As Eriksson et al. (2009, p. 5) describe, tourism is a competitive, resource-hungry industry, which is often highly exploitative. International hotel chains and operators jostle to expand and out-price each other, and cash-strapped governments compete to attract business by offering cheap land and tax free investment, often complemented by weak labour laws. This places constant pressure on those at the bottom of the tourism supply chain – the maids, porters, cooks and drivers, as well as the inhabitants of the land and ecosystems earmarked for tourism development. Given this scenario, it is imperative that governments, including the UK Government and industry players, incorporate and explicitly address the human rights implications of tourism in policy dialogues and debates on sustainable development.

Key human rights issues in tourism outlined in a report by Tourism Concern (2011) include: labour conditions and a living wage; land rights and forced displacement; the rights of indigenous peoples; the right to water and sanitation; the right to life and health; the right to dignity and privacy; economic exploitation; cultural exploitation; child labour; sexual exploitation; and the right to participate. Typically, impacts are hardest felt by the poorest and most marginalized people in society, which means the human rights abuses they endure remain hidden. The UN has moved to make the case for businesses to engage with the human rights agenda with the publication of the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights in 2011. These guiding principles set out a baseline of three components for businesses: having a human rights policy; undertaking human rights due diligence; and establishing remediation processes. These align with the human rights framework for states to protect, companies to respect and access to remedy for victims of abuse. However, Tourism Concern (2011) laments the lack of engagement by the tourism industry with the guiding principles to date, despite the fact that there has been previous support for a human rights approach to tourism. The Federation of Tour Operators’ Travelife Sustainability Handbook includes reference to human rights and cites major UN rights declarations and the International Labour Organization’s (ILO) four core conventions as relevant international standards. Tourism human rights issues, such child sex tourism, have been addressed by the International Tourism Partnership as part of the International Business Leaders Forum since the 1990s. The UN World Tourism Organization’s (UNWTO) 268

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Global Code of Tourism Ethics also makes considerable reference to human rights and is based upon international human rights conventions. A more critical perspective on the relationship between human rights and tourism is advocated by Bianchi and Stephenson: The manifold social, cultural and environmental consequences to tourism raise a number of concerns regarding the relative balance of power between the rights of tourists to pass freely into particular territories to consume a range of tangible and intangible resources, and the development rights of the individuals and communities who encounter and serve tourists locally (2014, p. 5).

These authors examine the contradictions of a contemporary global order that seeks to maintain the right to travel for a privileged few, while simultaneously restricting labour, immigrants and refugees, and a lack of distributive justice in tourist host communities. CIC   United Nations Declaration of Human Rights www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/ Further reading Bianchi, R. and Stephenson, M. (2014) Tourism and Citizenship: Rights, Freedoms and ­Responsibilities in the Global Order. Routledge, Oxford, UK.

Case study: Tourism Concern and trekking wrongs: porters’ rights One of Tourism Concerns successful campaigns has been to improve working conditions for mountain porters in trekking destinations (Fig. H5). In contrast to their well-heeled clients, porters often face lack of shelter, inadequate clothing and food, and low pay. Nepalese porters, who are often poor farmers from lowland areas – unused to high altitudes and harsh mountain conditions – are four times more likely to suffer accidents and illnesses than Western trekkers, facing frostbite, altitude sickness and even death. There are many reports of porters being abandoned by tour groups when they fall ill or being abandoned in life-threatening blizzards while trekkers get rescued by helicopter. In April 2014, 12 ­Nepalese guides were killed in an avalanche on Everest while preparing the route for commercial clients. Many porters and guides feel that the highly physical nature of the job and the menial task makes operators and tourists treat them as ‘beasts of burden’, with limited rights. Tourism Concern sought to address this issue by working with the trekking industry and tour operators to address porters’ rights and working conditions. This included developing a code of practice with minimum standards of working conditions that could be used as a basis for policies on porters’ rights. They also campaigned publicly on this issue to raise awareness among trekkers and mobilise their support for improved industry practice, and by 2009, 49 out of 79 UK operators had policies on porters. In ­Tanzania, the code of conduct has been used by the Kilimanjaro Porters Assistance Project (KPAP) to develop its own Guidelines for Proper Porter Treatment. In addition KPAP has provided proper mountain climbing gear for 4782 porters and has sponsored classes in first aid and HIV/AIDS awareness. In Peru there is now a US$8 a day minimum wage for porters and tighter control over agencies that fail to comply with the regulations. CIC

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Fig. H5.  Porters and tourists, Annapurna trek, Nepal (Carl Cater).

 Hunting The killing of wild animals for food, recreation or trade. In the contemporary era, where most animal protein is sourced from domesticated animals, hunting is either for recreation, to supply demand for traditional medicines or as a supplementary food source. In a limited number of regions, hunting is still undertaken to supply protein for traditional hunter-gatherer cultures. Three classes of hunting can be described: legal hunting, where a government authority sanctions hunting of specific species; ­illegal hunting for species that are protected by law; and poaching, which may be described as the illegal hunting of wildlife in wildlife reserves. Legal hunting is practised in many countries and often involves participants being required to have a permit that may restrict hunting activity in a number of ways including total take numbers, restrictions on the areas where hunting may take place and seasonal restrictions. Targeted species are often referred to as game, and in many cases are mammals such as deer and kangaroos, vermin or, in the case of birds, may be migratory species such as ducks or non-migratory gamebirds such as pheasants. Commercial hunting, sometimes described as safari or trophy-hunting, is permitted in parts of Africa, usually in private game reserves. Controlled hunting, if managed effectively may have little impact on the ecosystem. However, illegal hunting, particularly poaching, poses a major threat to biodiversity in many regions (Fig. H6). Three types of poaching can be observed: local communities hunting for food; the killing of animals to supply the traditional medicine market or for ivory; and commercial poaching for ‘bush’ meat that is sold for food, usually in the black market. In recent decades poaching has increased rapidly, fuelled by growing rural populations, the availability of firearms, growing demand for bush meat in many parts of Africa, Asia and parts of South America, and the demands of the traditional 270Hunting

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Fig. H6.  CITES display, Chitwan National Park, Nepal (Carl Cater).

medicine trade. Large-scale poaching, often on a semi-commercial basis, has the potential to decimate animal populations, in some cases leading to local extinction and may also have adverse impacts on the human communities that rely on hunting wildlife for protein. Poaching also alters population distribution, density and demography, which can have flow-on effects including changes in seed dispersal, predation, competition and other impacts on community dynamics. Changes of this nature can lead to invasive species moving into a heavily poached area to fill vacated positions in the ecosystem. Other changes that may occur include changes in the distribution and abundance of key species of fauna and flora. In parts of Borneo, extensive poaching has created ‘empty’ forests where forests are largely devoid of higher-order animals including primates. In 1989, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) introduced a ban on ivory trading after reports of a fall in African elephant numbers from 1.3 million in 1979 to 600,000 in 1989. A recent report by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) found that Southern ­Africa has continued to suffer from extensive poaching with gangs targeting National Parks such as Kruger National Park. See also Consumptive (extrative) and non-consumptive tourism BP and HS

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I  IAATO See International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators

  ICM, ICZM See Integrated Coastal Zone Management

 IFAW See International Fund for Animal Welfare

 Impact The influence that the presence of tourism activity can have on places and people. The impacts of tourism development, or tourist activity, can be extremely many and varied, and context dependent. As different types of tourists place different demands upon the resources of the destination, so the impacts and effects will vary in type, in location and in significance. Where the aim is to achieve and maintain sustainable tourism development, it is useful to classify these impacts under four headings: economic, social, cultural and environmental. Under each heading, the impacts may be positive or negative in their influence. Positive economic impacts of tourism development and tourist activity include: stimulating local production contributing to household incomes and standard of living; generating investment in new businesses; growth of local businesses and business profits; increasing employment opportunities; increasing the government’s tax base; expanding an economy’s export base and generating foreign exchange earnings; and serving as a catalyst for economic development, particularly in remote areas. Negative economic impacts are associated with: increased prices and shortages of goods and services; increased price of land and housing, perhaps beyond affordability for local people; increased demands on public services and facilities; higher cost of living/property taxes; increased economic dependency on one industry; decline of other industries as resources flow into the tourism industry; and higher levels of public indebtedness and/or higher taxes to pay for increased infrastructure and services. The term, ‘social and cultural impacts of tourism’, refers to the manner in which tourism development and activity changes collective and individual value systems, ­behaviour patterns, community structures, lifestyle and quality of life. Positive social impacts include: tourism’s potential to promote better understanding among peoples 272 

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and positive social change; increased availability of recreation facilities/opportunities for locals; encouragement of civic involvement and local pride in a destination; and a supportive force in helping to help avoid urban relocation by creating local jobs. Negative social impacts may include: social tensions; increased crime and other anti-social behaviour; negative host–guest relationships; competition; and conflict between tourists and residents for available services, facilities and recreational opportunities. Conventional tourism can cause change or loss of local identity and values, and brings this about by several closely related influences. Elements of culture include handicrafts, language, traditions, gastronomy, dress, art, architecture, leisure activities, music, dance, belief systems and types of work engaged in and technology used. Positive cultural impacts of tourism include: enhanced intercultural understanding and global communication; improved understanding and image of different communities and cultures; the promotion of cultural exchange; a revival of indigenous cultures, cultural arts and crafts; preservation and revitalization of local ethnic and cultural identity. Erosion or loss of local identity and values can result from several closely related influences related to tourism. These include turning local cultures, events, arts and crafts into commodities when religious rituals, traditional ethnic rites and festivals are reduced, sanitized and performed on demand to conform to tourist expectations, destroying their value to both hosts and guests (known as ‘staged authenticity’; see also Commodification). This can also lead to a de-skilling of traditional craftspersons. ­Destinations also risk standardization in the process of satisfying tourists’ desires for familiar facilities. Damage to cultural resources may arise from vandalism, littering, pilferage and illegal removal of cultural heritage items. Degradation of cultural sites may occur when historic sites and buildings are unprotected from tourism developments. Certain types of society (small, unsophisticated, isolated) are much more vulnerable than others to the pressure for cultural change brought about by tourism. The quality of the environment, both natural and man-made, is essential to tourism. However, tourism’s relationship with the environment is complex. Tourism can be a relatively ‘clean’ and ‘green’ industry with little pollution. It can also foster conservation and preservation of natural resources, can encourage community revitalization and beautification, and can raise revenues for establishing administrative and planning controls to maintain the quality of the environment. On the negative side, tourism development involves many activities that can have adverse environmental impacts relating to: water quantity, quality and use; air quality; waste production; greenhouse-gas emissions; degradation of landscapes and degraded quality of natural sites; introduction of non-native species, toxics and pollutants; habitat destruction; and direct impact on individual flora and fauna. Many of these impacts are linked with the construction of general infrastructure, such as roads and airports, and of tourism facilities, including resorts, hotels, restaurants, shops, golf courses and marinas. Tourism transportation generates a large carbon footprint. The negative impacts of tourism development can gradually destroy the environmental resources upon which it depends. The factors determining the nature and extent of tourism-related impacts on a destination can usefully be divided into four groups. First, factors relating to the characteristics of the destination (e.g. its environmental and heritage features, stage of economic development, attitudes of resident communities, physical and social carrying capacity). Second, factors relating to the characteristics of tourists (e.g. numbers of tourists and length of stay, relative economic status of residents and tourists, visibility Impact273

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and activities of tourists). Third, factors relating to the type of tourism development (e.g. size and spatial characteristics of tourist developments, type of tourism products supplied, degree of local involvement in ownership and operation of tourism facilities). Fourth, factors related to rules, regulations and practices concerning environmental management in both the private and public sectors (e.g. zoning laws, occupational health and safety requirements, environmental protection policies). Interrelationships between the elements of these characteristics determine the types of impact, their scale, and whether, on balance, they are positive or negative in their effect. Knowledge of the sources of impacts is crucial to tourism planning and management. It can assist in the formulation and implementation of guidelines for types and sizes of developments appropriate for particular destinations and in the formulation of measures to mitigate tourism’s adverse impacts. Two global movements hold out a promise to better address tourism’s impacts and to promote sustainable tourism development. On the one hand, increasingly, local communities are demanding a greater role in tourism planning so that the impacts of tourism can be addressed at the local level. The ‘community approach’ to tourism can empower communities and afford them opportunities to avoid the destructive influences of mass tourism. Community approaches to tourism planning help to control the pace of development, integrating tourism with other activities and producing more individualistic products that are acceptable to local residents. Local involvement can provide an ongoing forum for the sharing of ideas, communicating positive examples and reinforcing behaviour of operators, businesses and agencies in an area, as well as facilitate the preparation of codes of conduct for key stakeholders including businesses/operators, governments, community members and visitors. On the other hand, many tourism stakeholder groups have established voluntary initiatives involving professional and individual codes of conduct. Industry codes of conduct articulate types of behaviour that support planning for sustainable tourism. Adherence to industry professional codes of conduct renders firms and other organizations more accountable for the manner in which they do business, reducing the adverse impacts of their operations. They help to ensure that organizational policies and behaviour reflect a more ethical approach in relation to the economic, environmental and social performance of business operations. Such codes can also communicate to tourism enterprises the importance of management practices that lead to visitors acting in a sustainable manner: learning about and respecting the human and natural heritage of the host communities, including the geography, history, customs and current local concerns; to act responsibly through respect for national laws, cultural values, social norms and traditions and following environmental regulations in natural and cultural heritage areas; to travel in a culturally and environmentally responsible manner, choosing operators that are ethical and environmentally sensitive, and refraining from behaviour that negatively affects the host community or degrades the natural environment; and to refrain from purchasing or using those products, services and transportation that endanger the local ecology, society or culture. Management of tourism’s impacts requires that they be identified, evaluated and controlled. Depending on the context, these requirements may be difficult or even impossible to fulfil. Ultimately, the positive benefits of tourism should be facilitated and if possible enhanced, while the negative impacts should be minimized and measured against the benefits that tourism brings. However, impact analysis generally suffers from: lack of data; problems of measuring actual impacts as opposed to perceived 274Impact

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i­mpacts; potentially conflicting interests of various stakeholders; and difficulties in distinguishing tourism-related impacts from other causes. LD

  Impact assessment Analysis conducted to determine the actual or projected economic, social and environmental effects of alternative tourism plans, proposals and policies. The analysis suggests who and what may be positively and adversely impacted by the proposed developments, including the trade-offs, and helps the community decide which, if any, of alternative plans should be adopted, modified or abandoned. A useful classification of measurement techniques is under three headings: economic impact assessment, ­environmental impact assessment and social impact assessment. ‘Economic impact assessments’ examine how tourist expenditure represents an injection of ‘new money’ into a destination. The expenditure injection has three types of impacts: direct, indirect and induced. The indirect and induced effects may set off a process of successive rounds of purchases by intermediate firms, plus further consumption, adding to gross domestic product and employment. Input–output modelling, with its restrictive assumptions, generally exaggerates the impacts of tourism shocks. For any tourism destination, economy-wide effects must be taken into account in determining the effects of a change in tourism demand on economic variables such as output, gross domestic product and employment. Although an increase in tourism demand may, in part, be met by a net increase in domestic output, it will also tend to ‘crowd out’ other sectors of domestic economic activity, reducing output and employment in other sectors. The extent of these ‘crowding out’ effects depends, in turn, on the workings of labour markets, changes in prices and the real exchange rate, and the fiscal policy context. These mechanisms can only properly be taken into account using computable general equilibrium (CGE) models. Economic impacts are different from economic benefits. The ‘net benefits’ of tourism development (policy, proposal) are a measure of the gain in economic activity less the costs of enabling this extra activity. The real costs of allocating resources to tourism are the value of the output that could have been obtained from their use in other sectors of the economy. Judging the costs and benefits of the proposed plan includes assessment of distribution effects (who gains and who loses). For policy guidance, tourism planners must go beyond economic impact analysis to undertake cost–benefit analysis, which attempts to measure all of the costs (including environmental and sociocultural costs) and all of the benefits of tourism development to all residents. An ‘environmental impact assessment’ (EIA) is the process of identifying, predicting, evaluating and mitigating the biophysical, social and other relevant effects of development proposals prior to major decisions being taken and commitments made. In a tourism context, EIA would be used to integrate environmental management with the approvals process for tourism-related plans, proposals and policies. EIA is intended to: (i) ensure that proponents assume primary responsibility for protection of any environmental values that may be affected by their proposals; (ii) address environmental management for the expected life of proposals; (iii) contribute to decisions on whether a proposal should proceed, and if so, decide what environmental management and monitoring conditions should apply; and (iv) incorporate community and stakeholder views Impact assessment275

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in assessment and decision-making processes. Although the focus is  on biophysical issues, social impacts and economic impacts are also considered. In particular, economic analysis is essential to evaluating the environmental impacts, rather than simply identifying them. ‘Social impact assessment’ (SIA) includes the processes of analysing, monitoring and managing the intended and unintended social consequences, both positive and negative, of planned interventions (policies, programs, plans and projects) and any social change processes invoked by those interventions. Its primary purpose is to bring about a more sustainable and equitable biophysical and human environment. It is important to gain information on the perceptions of tourism’s impacts from major groups: industry operators, suppliers to the tourism industry, other industry sectors, government and community. SIAs provide information on host population perceptions of effects of tourism on the physical, ecological, social or cultural environments, and host population’s acceptance of visitors. Specific techniques useful in SIA include published data and reports, attitude surveys, use of key informants, interviews, expert opinions and participant observation. While summary evaluations may be based on weighted averages of the subjective plus and minus ratings, it is important to realize that different stakeholders will have different perceptions of the gains and losses resulting from any given tourism development plan, proposal or policy. For most tourism contexts, the different assessment techniques have two objectives in common. The first is to anticipate the likely future impacts associated with a proposed development. The second is to help develop policies that will guide proposals so that positive impacts are enhanced and negative impacts are minimized, if not completely avoided. As this implies, an important part of the assessment process is to evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed safeguards to mitigate adverse impacts and to recommend actions to ensure the construction and operational phases of a project can be managed in an environmentally sound manner. These techniques encourage rational decision-making by determining the range of impacts of a range of alternative proposals, from which decision-makers can select the most appropriate proposal for implementation. Assessment processes vary greatly from one place to another but the techniques identify the nature of the proposed development and activities that are likely to be generated by the tourism plan. Impact analysis generally suffers from: lack of data; problems of measuring actual impacts as opposed to perceived impacts; potentially conflicting interests of various stakeholders; and difficulties in distinguishing tourism-related impacts from other causes. While the economic assessment of tourism is relatively straightforward (­although inevitably subject to data problems and assumptions that can be questioned), it is impossible to measure tourism’s unique impact on the natural and social environments due to the complexity of interacting factors, many of which are unrelated to tourism. Evaluation should also consider how impacts are distributed between members of the impacted community. Attitudes to tourism development will differ according to who gains and who loses. Moreover, community perceptions of impacts can be different from actual impacts. Evaluation of each of the development alternatives should identify the option that is most appropriate. It is at this point that strategies to enhance tourism’s positive impacts and avoid and/or mitigate negative impacts should be developed. LD 276

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  Inbound tourism The activities of a non-resident visitor within the country of reference on a tourism trip. Residents and non-residents are often taken as synonymous with nationals and foreigners of that country respectively. However, this is problematic as there may be both significant numbers of resident non-nationals and non-resident visiting nationals to a destination. See also Outbound tourism EMG

  Independent travel See Free independent traveller

 Indicator A measure of the existence of some issue or phenomenon of interest, used to describe an aspect of a society, macro-societal activity or geographical area, or to point out changes in these factors. Indicators are synthetic tools aimed at providing information to decision-makers. According to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD, 1997, p. 14), an indicator ‘is an empirical interpretation of reality and not reality itself’. Derived from a series of observed facts, indicators signal changes or identify trends and can be used to measure performances and reveal relative performance of entities (e.g. a given geographical area) on a variety of factors. Indicators are best understood as being one of two types depending on the number of input variables from which the indicator is constructed: simple or individual indicators are constructed from a single input variable, while composite indicators are constructed from multiple input variables. Individual indicators can be quantitative or qualitative in nature. Raw data, ratios and percentages are quantitative measures that allow for easy comparisons of the studied phenomena over time. Among the qualitative type category indices, normative indicators, nominal and opinion-based indicators are examples. To be useful, an indicator must possess at least two fundamental properties: validity (does the indicator really point to what it claims to point to?) and reliability (does the indicator yield the same, or a more or less invariant, result on repeated computations under similar conditions?). Individual indicators can sometimes be useful, but they usually cannot capture the full picture in complex economic and social systems. Well-formulated composite indicators can be very useful to developers of social and economic policy as they can render a holistic picture of the phenomena under observation. Currently, the most authoritative and most extensive treatise on the development of composite indicators is that found in the Handbook on Constructing Composite Indicators: Methodology and User Guide published by the OECD (Giovannini et al., 2008). As this publication reveals, the construction of composite indicators requires a clear theoretical framework and is heavily reliant upon a wide range of statistical methodologies for assuring and evaluating their validity and reliability. The key steps in achieving a useful and valid composite indicator include the selection of input variables, a multivariate analysis to evaluate the information potential and contribution of the candidate input variables, the normalization of variables to make direct Indicator277

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c­ omparison across variables possible, weighting of the input variables or clusters of them according to their predictive potency, and an evaluation of the robustness and sensitivity of the composite indicator. The main difficulties associated with constructing a valid composite indicator that is useful to social and economic planners and policy-makers lie in the unavailability of complete and comparable data over time and geographical regions, and in the organic nature of social and economic systems and technological change, all of which can render past models not descriptive of newly emerging social and economic structures or conditions. Sustainable tourism indicators refer to measures that point to the ability of a defined realm of tourism activity, referenced usually, though not necessarily, to a defined geographical area, to proceed unabated over time given the tourism-activity-affecting conditions anticipated for the area over the time horizon for which the sustainability is being considered. Indicators of sustainable development for tourism are those indicators conveying information that are essential for the destination policy-makers to take informed decisions, to identify emerging issues as to allow for preventive or corrective actions and to better plan strategies for sustainable development of destinations. Among the most used indicators there are: indicators aimed at measuring the current state of the tourism industry, early warning indicators and impact indicators. International organizations such as the European Environmental Agency (EEA), the OECD, the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) and EUROSTAT have developed indicators to measure sustainable tourism. The most authoritative initiatives on identifying indicators to help the sustainable development of destinations are those of the World Tourism Organization in 1993, 1996 and 2004). The WTO (2004) guidebook Indicators of Sustainable Development for Tourism Destinations presents a 12-step procedure to identify individual indicators aimed at supporting the tourism sector decision makers – at various levels of planning and management (e.g. at the national, regional, destination and tourism sites level as well as at the individual company and tourism establishment levels) (see Policy cascade). The guidebook provides a long list of indicators addressing environmental, socio-­economic and managerial issues to be used as a reference at the discretion of the policy-makers. Furthermore, a shorter list of ‘baseline indicators’ is included as the suggested minimal set for destinations to consider. Among these there are, for example: (i) the number of local people employed in tourism and the ratio of tourism employment to total employment as indicators of the economic benefits of tourism; (ii) occupancy rates for licensed accommodation by month and number and percentage of permanent jobs in the tourism industry as indicators of tourism seasonality; (iii) the ratio of tourist to local inhabitants and the percentage of locals believing that tourism has contributed to the development of new services and infrastructures as indicators of the effects of tourism on communities; (iv) levels of satisfaction by visitors and percentage of return visitors as indicators of tourism quality and tourist satisfaction; and (v) water use per tourist per day and percentage of water saved, recaptured or recycled as indicators of water availability and conservation. Another effort to provide a core set of indicators for sustainable tourism development is the manual of EUROSTAT (2006) Methodological Work on Measuring the Sustainable Development of Tourism, which proposes a slimmer set of 20 core indicators grouped into five main categories, namely driving forces, pressure, state, impact and response (also known as the DPSIR framework). Several studies have attempted to use sustainable tourism indicators (e.g. Coccossis and Parpairis, 1996; Garcia and Staples, 2000; Choi and Sirakaya, 2006; Castellani 278Indicator

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and Sala, 2010; Blancas et al., 2010). Their role in assisting tourism planners and decision makers in evaluating performances, setting targets and forecasting future scenarios has been widely acknowledged by scholars (Butler, 1998a; Gahin et al., 2003). In addition to these studies, there is a plethora of attempts to build, classify and use sustainability indicators in tourism destinations, but most of these studies fail in recognizing the complex and holistic nature of tourism and tend to underestimate the cumulative effects of various impacts (economic, social, environmental, technological, political) on the destination. In order to overcome the limitations of single indicators, a few authors have proposed composite indicators for sustainable tourism development with the aim of simplifying the measurement of sustainability and facilitating comparisons among countries. Using the WTO guidelines as a starting point, Blancas et al. (2010) proposed a composite indicator applied to Spanish coastal destinations and proposed a novel two-stage aggregation methodology to build the composite indicator that included economic, environmental and social dimensions. Castellani and Sala (2010) propose a ‘sustainable performance index’ applying the European Charter for Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas (1995) to a northern Italian region. Many existing indicators are useful for certain narrow planning and development purposes in a restricted range of settings, though none performs well for all such purposes and in all such geographical settings. There are trade-offs in developing indicators: those that contain the most information (in the technical sense of information) and that are most effective for large-scale, integrated planning and development, tend to require the most varied, and often time-unavailable, set of standardized input data, the most advanced statistical processing of those data, as well as the most expertise to translate into practical purposes. Yet they typically cannot or do not take into account some uniquely local attribute that is critical to the planning and development needs of the specific geographical area. The challenge remains to achieve methodologically sound indicators that accomplish the best balance of the trade-offs without sacrificing relevance and validity to the particular geographical area, circumstances or goals of the area to which, or the time horizon over which, they are being applied. See also European Tourism Indicator System SV

Further reading Bell, S. and Morse, S. (2008) Sustainability Indicators: Measuring the Immeasurable. Earthscan Publications, London, UK. Miller, G. and Twining-Ward, L. (2005) Monitoring for a Sustainable Tourism Transition: The Challenge of Developing and Using Indicators. CAB International, Wallingford, UK. World Tourism Organization (2004) Indicators of Sustainable Development for Tourism ­Destinations. A Guidebook. WTO, Madrid, Spain.

  OECD and Composite Indicators www.oecd.org/std/leading-indicators/   EUROSTAT and measuring the sustainable development of tourism ec.eurostat.eu.europa.eu Indicator279

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  Indigenous people A generic term used by the United Nations and governments to denote the tribes, first peoples/nations, aboriginals and ethnic groups that have inhabited a land or country prior to colonization. It is a highly contested term because of the implications for sovereignty (Butler and Hinch, 2012). Although it is important to denote who actually is an indigenous person from an international human rights or international law perspective, and from a national perspective when land rights are concerned, it is equally important to ascertain who is defining an indigenous person. From an international rights perspective self-identification is more important than externally defined criteria, especially in nation states where the indigenous people may be discriminated against (United Nations, 2007). Based on this premise the United Nations has not offered a definition of who is an indigenous person although nation states need to do this in order to determine land-rights claims and other benefits to indigenous people arising from sovereignty claims. Despite this ethical approach, the United Nations (2012b) has outlined characteristics as guidance as to who are indigenous people. Indigenous people may have the following characteristics: ● ● ● ● ● ● ●

self-identification as indigenous peoples at the individual level and accepted by the community as their member; historical continuity with pre-colonial and/or pre-settler societies; strong link to territories and surrounding natural resources; distinct social, economic or political systems; distinct language, culture and beliefs; form non-dominant groups of society; and resolve to maintain and reproduce their ancestral environments and systems as distinctive peoples and communities.

Issues facing indigenous people are important to sustainable tourism because significant areas of land that are used for tourism purposes are owned or administered by indigneous people. Additionally, there has been considerable growth in indigenous tourism or aboriginal tourism in which either non-indigneous people or indigenous people themselves provide tourism experiences. See also Cultural tourism, Colonialism, Post-colonialism RH

  Indigenous tourism Tourism that is based on the attraction of indigenous people and their societies (Fig. I1). Given that the term indigenous people is problematically defined, as noted in variations of the term and because of issues surrounding self-identification, the term indigenous tourism is also fraught with commensurate philosophical and applied ethical issues (Hollinshead, 2012; Butler and Hinch, 2012). If self-identification is held as the primary axiom, then indigenous tourism must be considered as a tourism activity that is determined by and inclusive of indigenous people themselves. However because tourism branding and representation is often simplistically played out in tourism production systems, issues of knowledge and power in the enactment of indigenous tourism may or may not serve the interests of these groups and thus reflect post-colonial relationships in contemporary society (Hall, 2012). 280

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Fig. I1.  Indigenous tourism, Cairns, Australia (Tiffany Low).

Despite the issues of commodification of culture (Ryan and Aicken, 2005), the benefits of tourism to indigenous people have occurred through poverty alleviation (Goodwin, 2007), valuation of traditional ecological knowledge (Butler and Menzies, 2007), as a strategy for community development (Mapunda, 2001), and a potential mode of cross-cultural understanding (Hinch and Butler, 1996; Sofield et al., 1996; Ryan and Trauer, 2005). Indigenous tourism has the potential also for world-making or cultural change through the reappraisal of people, places and pasts (Hollinshead et al., 2009; Hollinshead, 2012). As a way to enhance the ethical practice of indigenous tourism, global principles relating to economic and social development have been adopted by sections of the tourism industry. The Larrakia Declaration on the Development of Indigenous Tourism was accepted in March 2012 at the first Pacific Asia Indigenous Tourism Conference in Darwin, which considered the traditional lands of the Larrakia people. The principles are based on the United Nations Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous People (United Nations, 2007) and guide the development of indigenous tourism. Delegates from 16 countries representing indigenous communities, government agencies, the tourism industry and supporting bodies resolved to adopt these principles. See also Cultural tourism, Ethnic tourism RH   The Larrakia Declaration on the Development of Indigenous Tourism www.winta.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/The-Larrakia-Declaration.pdf Indigenous tourism281

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  Informal employment Employment over which there is little or no official control. These positions are also known as cash-in-hand positions. Quite often the rate of pay in these positions is much lower than the relevant minimum wage and no taxes are paid. Informal employment can include childminding, domestic cleaning, hawkers and bar tending. In less-developed countries, it is reported that informal employment can account for more than 60% of the total workforce. SR

  Information technology (IT) A collection of technological artefacts, processes and services used to capture, organize and communicate information electronically. In the context of sustainability, IT is seen as both a contributor and a solution to environmental issues (see Environmentalism) (Climate Group, 2008). IT products and services consume natural resources and energy and produce enormous quantities of toxic e-waste. At the same time, IT innovations can reduce the need for transportation, can monitor energy consumption and can enable environmentally friendly practices. The potential of IT for sustainable tourism has been outlined by Ali and Frew (2008) and Gretzel (2009) in shaping environmental attitudes through IT-supported communication and interpretation, transforming organizational processes, and reducing travel through the provision of virtual experiences. It can also support social dimensions of sustainability in giving underrepresented groups opportunities to organize and communicate, and in providing travellers with new ways to obtain information and interact with their local hosts. See also Social networking UG

  Informed consent A decision arrived at upon proper evaluation of all pertinent facts, particularly costs, risks and adverse implications. Mere knowledge of the facts does not automatically give rise to an inference of informed consent. There must be clear understanding of the facts, and the resultant interplay between them, before one can infer informed consent. Where participation or cooperation of a community (especially indigenous people) is required in a tourism development, the stakeholders should be told of the social, environmental and cultural impact of tourism in order to facilitate their informed consent (Dredge and Jenkins, 2007). GJE

 Innovation The process of making changes to products, processes and services that results in something new. These changes can range from incremental to disruptive, and are often associated with desirable economic growth or enhanced consumer value from an 282

Informal employment

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­ rganizational perspective. Innovations can be driven by nascent technologies, new o ideas, actions of competitors or exogenous environmental changes. In contrast with inventions, innovations tend to be market driven. Innovations in tourism have been classified as product, service, process, managerial, marketing and institutional (Hjalager, 1997, 2010), frequently based upon challenging current ways of thinking (Moscardo, 2008a). Sustainable tourism innovations have traditionally been ecologically related, given the environmental underpinnings of the sustainable development movement. These include tourism approaches including ecotourism and agritourism/farm tourism, energy saving guestroom temperature sensors, and green certification programs. However, volunteer tourism, travelers’ philanthropy and responsible tourism awards programs have broadened the concept of innovations within this realm. In addition to suggesting that sustainable tourism is itself an innovative concept, Bramwell and Lane (2012) encourage more innovation within sustainable tourism research with the intention that these ideas can effect real-world change through diffusion and application. SL

  Integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) A system of principles, planning and resource management approaches forming an overarching framework, which can be applied to manage a coastal region. ICZM principles may be procedural, strategic or local in their focus (McKenna et al., 2008). Within the overarching framework smaller projects are undertaken. Using science and research ICZM seeks sustainable management of coastal resources negatively ­impacted by human use (Fig. I2). ICZM recognizes multiple stakeholders interested in the same coastal region will have conflicting interests about how a region is used. Developmental, recreational, economic and residential priorities can conflict over use patterns and impacts in coastal zones. ICZM aims to find solutions and a point where divergent views and approaches can meet. ICZM can benefit a region by: 1. facilitating sustainable economic growth based on natural resources 2. conserving natural habitats and species 3. controlling pollution and the alteration of shorelands and beachfronts 4. controlling watershed activities that adversely affect coastal zones 5.  controlling excavation, mining and alteration of coral reefs, water basins, and sea floors 6. rehabilitating degraded resources 7. providing a mechanism for rational resource allocation (Clark, 1994). One coastal example where ICZM is proposed as a long-term strategy relates to beach erosion. The cyclic process of problem recognition, planning, implementation and monitoring responses to coastal erosion can ensure decisions remain appropriate to sustainable management of the coastal zone, which is the resource supporting activities including coastal tourism (Phillips and Jones, 2006). Principles of ICZM have been applied to regions of Europe (Fig. N1), the Caribbean, China and southern Africa (Kannen, 2004; Wall, 2007; Sarda et al., 2009; Duvat, 2010) Integrated coastal zone management (ICZM)283

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Fig. I2.  Sea Turtle protection in Florida (Erlet Cater).

where intensive use patterns including tourism have negatively impacted coastal resources (Clark, 1994). ICZM is an important planning and management tool that has replaced ad hoc approaches to dealing with challenges of contested coastal areas (Daniel and Abkowitz, 2003; Kannen, 2004). KD

  Integrated quality management (IQM) See Total quality management (TQM)

  Integrated resort A self-contained tourism complex providing a range of different hospitality and entertainment facilities. Definitions vary considerably in different parts of the world and in some destinations legally endorsed definitions have been drafted to encourage and manage developments. For example in Mauritius, an integrated resort scheme is basically a legal concept for the development and sale of luxurious residential units to foreigners. In Queensland, Australia the Integrated Resort Development Act 1987 gives a comprehensive prescription of what is required. In this case an integrated resort often includes strata-titled (condominium) residential and holiday-letting units/apartments, recreation and sporting facilities such as a golf course and one or more resorts for holidaymakers. In South-east Asia, an Integrated Resort would most likely include 284

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all the above plus a casino, and significant precincts for shopping, entertainment and attractions such as museums and galleries. SN

  Integrated rural tourism An approach to sustainable rural development that focuses on marketing rural life and culture as a tourism product in a collaborative way. Over the last decade the concept has gained increased currency in the rural tourism literature (Jenkins and Oliver, 2001; Comen, 2006; Saxena et al., 2007). Within the European Union, the proliferation of the concept has gone hand in hand with efforts to preserve small-scale agriculture and viable rural communities. A key element of this approach is tapping the natural, human, economic, social and cultural resources of rural regions in an integrated way through effective network-building and collaboration between local producers and providers. The focus on integration presumes a shift away from competition among tourism providers as a driver of development toward cooperative projects that harness the strengths of local providers. It assumes a holistic approach to development and favors a large number of small providers over a small number of large ones, with a clear preference for endogenous actors, although exogenous facilitators, often affiliated with NGOs, may be involved, especially in the initial planning process. Smaller-scale, low-investment projects are generally preferred over large ones, and education plays a central role in order to equip local providers with the skills they need to become more effective in providing tourism products. Empowerment is therefore also a central concept in integrated rural tourism, as local actors determine for themselves the direction and scope of development. It is thus very closely linked with the concept of sustainable rural tourism development, and indeed in many ways the two terms may be used interchangeably. The chief differences are ones of emphasis rather than fundamentals. Networks, whether of an informal or formal nature, are at the heart of integrated rural tourism, especially in their capacity to promote information-sharing and systems of mutual support. See also Community-based tourism JMI

 Integration An act or movement of combining two or more destinations, businesses or organizations in economic, financial or social fields with the aim of carrying out common policies. The main purposes of undertaking integration are: delivering better services, making more profit, using common technologies, spreading the risks and increasing market share and competitiveness. There are two main types of economic integration: vertical and horizontal integration. In the former, one corporation takes over the ownership and controlling mechanism of another that is in the same field (e.g. a chain hotel making an acquisition of a different hotel). In the latter, one corporation takes over the ownership and controlling mechanism of another corporation that is in a different field, but may have shared customers (e.g. an airline making an acquisition of a hotel, or a bank making an acquisition of a travel agent). OM Integration285

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  Intellectual property An intangible asset as opposed to land or chattel. Intellectual properties are broadly divided into copyrights (musical, literary and artistic works), trademarks (words, phrases, symbols and designs), and patents (discoveries and inventions). Registration with the patent and trademark office is vital to deter and/or prosecute infringements. Intellectual properties can be licensed for another’s use. In the hospitality industry, for instance, brand owners franchise their names, logos and systems of business to other parties in return for fees. Business names such as Hilton, Sheraton, Marriott, McDonald’s and Subway are all trademarks of the respective owners, franchised to operators worldwide. GJE

  Interest group See Pressure group

  Intergenerational equity A concept that calls for the equitable allocation of resources between current and future generations, regardless of class and nationality, without compromising the ability of either to meet their needs. The concept is based on the principle that we are stewards of the earth and that it is our responsibility to pass it on to the next generation in a state that allows them to develop according to their own, future needs. See also Sustainable development AMT

  Intergovernmental organization (IGO) An international organization comprised of sovereign states. Usually established by treaty, they vary in their scale, scope and membership criteria. With regard to scale, some intergovernmental organizations operate at the global level while others are regional. With regard to scope, some are concerned with the promotion of culture, language or religious values, others have an economic remit (such as the promotion of free trade), while for others the primary focus is educational. One of the most prominent intergovernmental organizations in the sustainable tourism context is the United Nations, which includes a number of specialist agencies including the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNECSO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), each of which is highly influential in advising policy-makers, administering research and development programmes, and implementing international conventions. BG 286

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  International Air Transport Association (IATA) An international trade body created in 1945 to represent the interests of airlines globally. Currently IATA represents approximately 240 airlines from 126 countries from all regions of the world – representing more than 84% of total air traffic. IATA lobbies relevant decision makers in the interests of their members. IATA’s main priority is safety and is continually striving to improve standards within the industry. IATA also provides its members with professional support services such as training, publications and consulting services. More recently IATA has recognized the importance of sustainability in the aviation industry, particularly in the use of biofuels. SR   International Air Transport Association www.iata.org

  International Association of Amusement Parks and ­Attractions (IAAPA) An international trade organization founded in 1918 to represent permanently situated amusement facilities worldwide. IAAPA currently represents more than 4300 members from almost 100 countries. According to IAAPA their mission statement is ‘to serve the membership by promoting safe operations, global development, professional growth, and commercial success of the amusement parks and attractions industry’ (IAAPA, 2013). SR   International Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions (IAAPA) www.iaapa.org

  International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO) A membership organization founded in 1991 to advocate, promote and practice safe and environmentally responsible private-sector Antarctic tourism. IAATO has been instrumental in the sustainable management of all tourism to Antarctica, which as an industry has been growing exponentially since the early 1990s. The association operates under a suite of member bylaws, and is governed by an executive committee connected to a secretariat located in Rhode Island, USA. IAATO has become a global leader for industry self-regulation, but also a role model for their pioneering work with the ­governance regime of the continent, the Antarctic Treaty System. As of 2012, IAATO has more than 100 members within a number of full and affiliate membership categories. PM   International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO) www.iaato.org

  International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) A United Nations specialized agency established by the 1944 Chicago Convention with the objective ‘to develop the principles and techniques of international air International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)287

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navigation and to foster the planning and development of international air transport’ (Article 44). The main organs of the ICAO are the Assembly, the Council and the Air Navigation Commission. The Council has extensive functions and powers of a legislative, quasi-­judicial and administrative nature. Among them is the adoption of international safety standards as well as recommended practices and ­procedures. PV   International Civil Aviation Organization www.icao.int

    International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) A set of international regulations aimed at preventing and minimizing accidental and/ or operational pollution from ships. The convention came into force in 1983, and is controlled by the International Maritime Organization (IMO). MARPOL 73/78 currently covers six technical Annexes: Annex I: Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Oil Annex II: Regulations for the Control of Pollution by Noxious Liquid Substances in Bulk Annex III: Prevention of Pollution by Harmful Substances Carried by Sea in Packaged Form Annex IV: Prevention of Pollution by Sewage from Ships Annex V: Prevention of Pollution by Garbage from Ships Annex VI: Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships See also Cruise tourism CW

  International Coral Reef Action Network (ICRAN) An international partnership established to reverse the current decline in health of the world’s coral reefs (such as coral bleaching) after the call to action by the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) in 2000. This alliance gathers the main scientific and conservation organizations that are working for this crucial ecosystem over the world, developing a strong technical framework in its monitoring and management. Taking the fluid and dynamic ecology of coral reefs into account, actions are carried out in local, regional and global spheres. Socio-economic implications in local communities are considered so that traditional knowledge accumulated is part of this new strategy. Consequently, ICRAN has assumed the task of building appropriate capacity among communities in order to implement sustainable management plans related to their marine and coastal resources. The network acts according to regular reviews of ICRI’s Framework for Action. Activities under ICRAN concluded in 2012. OGH   International Coral Reef Action Network www.icran.org 288  International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL)

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  International Council for Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) An international network established in 1965 to facilitate the interdisciplinary exchange of knowledge on the conservation, protection, use and enhancement of historic places. ICOMOS has approximately 11,000 individual members with expertise in architecture, history, archaeology, art history, geography, anthropology, engineering and town planning. Its 110 National Committees provide members with a framework for discussion and knowledge exchange, while its 27 International Committees bring world experts together on specialized subjects. ICOMOS is one of the two Advisory Bodies of the World Heritage Commission tasked with evaluating applications for World Heritage Site status. It also plays a role in implementing the Hague Convention on the protection of historic properties in the event of armed conflict, and in championing international efforts to protect underwater sites and intangible heritage. Various ICOMOS charters establish international standards for the conservation and management of historic places (e.g. Fig. I3). See also Heritage tourism BG   International Council for Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) www.icomos.org/en/

  International Ecotourism Society See The International Ecotourism Society

Fig. I3.  Terracotta warriors, Xian, China (Carl Cater). International Ecotourism Society289

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  International Federation of Tour Operators (IFTO) An association representing tour operators from Europe specialized on package tours, lobbying for the reduction of travel barriers, the enforcement of health, safety and hygiene standards, environmental management and responsible tourism. Its agenda was overtaken in 2010 by the Destinations and Sustainability Committee of the European Travel Agents’ and Tour Operators’ Associations (ECTAA), representing the national associations of travel agents and tour operators of 29 European countries, altogether some 80,000 enterprises. HF

  International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW) An international not-for-profit animal welfare and conservation organization founded in 1969. The organization’s activities evolve around three different areas: reducing commercial exploitation of wild animals, protecting wild habitats and providing emergency relief to animals in distress. The organization is a strong advocate for whale-watching tourism as an alternative to whale hunting. CO

  International Hotels and Environment Initiative (IHEI) A non-profit organization founded in 1992 by HRH The Prince of Wales and leaders from the hotel industry. The initiative developed tools like Benchmarkhotel (now discontinued) and the Green Hotelier publication. In 2004 the IHEI evolved into the International Tourism Partnership. WG

  International Hotel and Restaurant Association (IHRA) An international trade association for the hospitality industry. Founded in 1947, the IHRA originated as the International Hotels Association and adopted its current name in 1997 when membership was extended to the restaurant sector. Based in Lausanne, Switzerland, since 2008, membership of this umbrella trade association includes chain and independent hotels and restaurants as well as national associations. As described on the IHRA website, it aims ‘to protect and defend the private sector . . .’. Prominent in its scope are representation and lobbying on behalf of the hotels and restaurant sector worldwide. Its initial preoccupation with member profitability has extended progressively into an interest in issues such as sustainability, heritage and child protection. BK   International Hotel and Restaurant Association www.ih-ra.com 290

International Federation of Tour Operators (IFTO)

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  International Labour Organization (ILO) A United Nations agency established in 1919, that deals with labour and work issues, and is a member of the United Nations Development Group. It has a tripartite governing structure, representing governments, employers and workers. The four strategic objectives of the ILO are stated as being: to promote and realize standards and fundamental principles and rights at work; to create greater opportunities for women and men to decent employment and income; to enhance the coverage and effectiveness of social protection for all; and to strengthen tripartism and social dialogue. As of 2013, 185 member states of the United Nations are members of the ILO, and the current Director General is Guy Ryder of the United Kingdom. The ILO received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1969. BH   International Labour Organization www.ilo.org

  International Polar Year (IPY) A collaborative, international research effort designed to better understand the Polar Regions (Arctic and Antarctic). IPY is organized by the International Council for Science (ICSU) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), and was held from 2007–09, following those held previously in 1882–83, 1932–33 and 1957–58. Sustainable tourism is recognized within IPY as important sector that requires additional research and policy attention considering its increasing economic importance in both poles. Climate change and global conditions have influenced an increase in tourism activity in the regions, particularly expedition-based cruise tourism. See also Antarctic tourism, Arctic tourism and Polar tourism JDA

  International Social and Environmental Accreditation and Labelling Alliance A non-governmental organization dedicated to safeguarding social justice and environmentally friendly procedures through standard systems used over the world. Its main aim is to promote these criteria as effective tools for achieving sustainability targets. This alliance works with its own codes of good practice that show best practice to guarantee positive impacts of this type of framework in areas such as agriculture, fishing, water and carbon management, among others. ISEAL stakeholders implement four lines of action: ● ● ● ●

demonstrate and improve impacts of standards; improve the effectiveness of standards; define credibility for sustainability standards; and increase the adoption of credible sustainability standards.

International Social and Environmental Accreditation and Labelling Alliance291

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Other stakeholders are welcome as non-members, for example governments, researchers and private sector organizations, who are encouraged to use these credible standards and share learning lessons. OGH   International Social and Environmental Accreditation and Labelling Alliance www.isealalliance.org

  International Task Force on Sustainable Tourism ­Development (ITF-STD) An initiative arising from the Marrakesh process and the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD). The ITF-STD, chaired by France, helped support nearly 40 projects between 2006 and 2009 and had a membership of 18 countries and 25 organizations. The members of this task force recommended establishing a broader institutional and financial base to continue and expand its work and build on its momentum. This led to the Global Partnership for Sustainable Tourism. CIC

  International tourism Travel for leisure that takes place across international borders. Although international tourism is much less significant numerically than domestic tourism, it has generally commanded a much greater share of attention from government, industry and academic research. Government interest stems from the contribution that international tourism can make to balance of payments, while the tourism industry has greater control over packages in international tourism. The largest flows of international tourism still take place within Europe with approximately half of all international tourism. However, this is influenced by a high number of smaller countries with a longer tradition of international travel, and this is being challenged by international travel between the newly industrializing countries of Asia. CIC

  International Tourism Partnership (ITP) A global programme of the International Business Leaders Forum, bringing together leading organizations in the tourism and hospitality industry to collaborate on environmental and social sustainability. In 2004, the partnership originated from the International Hotels and Environment Initiative (IHEI), as a response to calls for a tourism-wide approach. To date, however, the member base largely consists of hotel companies. At present, 14 major tourism companies collaborate in the partnership, having a collective reach of over 22,000 properties worldwide. ITP brings competitors from the tourism industry together, and has them participate in developing working policies and frameworks. This is done by showcasing best practice, engaging with organizations like UNWTO and WTTC, and by providing a range of programmes. Most notable programmes are the guide for environmental management of hotels and 292

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publication of the Green Hotelier magazine. The Environmental Management for ­Hotels guide is a manual for hotels to implement environmental practices. It is not, however, an environmental management system that achieves certification when certain standards are met. The Green Hotelier is a magazine providing information about current issues in the industry. As part of a focus on social impacts of the tourism industry, the ITP also provides six-month educational programmes to disadvantaged youth through its sister organization Youth Career Initiative. Although the partnership is attempting to broaden its spectrum of members, a criticism of the ITP is its major focus on the hotel industry and companies from Western countries. WG   Green Hotelier magazine www.greenhotelier.org

  International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) An international organization based in Gland, near Geneva, Switzerland, committed to resolving the most pressing environmental and development challenges. IUCN, set up in 1956, compiles information from other networks of conservation organizations and publishes the IUCN Red List to determine the endangered species. IUCN’s basic working principle is to work hand in hand with the local community. With assistance from six commissions, IUCN assess the status of the world’s natural resources. These commissions include those on: (i) Education and Communication; (ii) Environmental, Economic and Social Policy; (iii) Protected areas; (iv) Environmental Law; (v) Ecosystem Management; and (vi) Species Survival. IUCN is also responsible for the management categories into which protected areas are classified based on conservation requirements and management objectives. In addition, IUCN also addresses global challenges to biodiversity in the context of global warming, achieving sustainable energy, improving human well-being and building a green economy. VNS

  International Year of Ecotourism (IYE, IYE 2002) A United Nations (UN) official observance year, taking place in 2002. Led by the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) and the United Nations ­Environment Programme (UNEP), the aims of the IYE 2002 were to: (i) create awareness of the contribution that ecotourism can make to the conservation of the world’s natural and cultural heritage; (ii) disseminate methods and techniques for planning, managing, regulating and monitoring ecotourism in order to ensure its sustainability; (iii) promote exchange of experiences in implementing successful ecotourism; and (iv)  widen the opportunities for the sustainable marketing and promoting of ecotourism products in domestic and international markets. The tangible outcomes of the IYE 2002 include the Québec Declaration on Ecotourism and the official report on the World Ecotourism Summit (WES), both of which were taken on to be discussed at the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburg later that year. Follow-up activities include a partnership project with the International Ecotourism Society and the Rainforest Alliance on the effective implementation of tools for monitoring and evaluating ecotourism, and a project conducted in partnership International Year of Ecotourism (IYE, IYE 2002)293

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with Conservation International and the International Institute for Environment and Development on the ecological footprinting of ecotourism holidays. The IYE 2002 has received much criticism (see Tepelus, 2008). Some have argued that the year was organized in such a top-down manner that it meant that non-­ governmental organizations (NGOs) and indigenous people groups were prevented from participating effectively. Others have argued that by hosting IYE 2002, the UN effectively gave its endorsement to ecotourism without there first being a proper evaluation of its benefits and costs. BG   International Year of Ecotourism sdt.unwto.org/en/content/international-year-ecotourism-2002-0

  International Year of the Mountains (IYM) An initiative to increase international awareness of the global importance of mountain ecosystems, proclaimed by the United Nations in 2002 (UNSA, 2002). The IYM was partially a response to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) study on the threat posed by global warming (see climate change) to alpine glaciers. As ‘water towers’ of the world, mountains are essential to life on earth. Yet, globalization, urbanization and mass tourism pose a threat to mountain communities and their natural resources that many rely upon in order to sustain livelihoods both there and in the lowlands (UNEP, 2012c). BC

  International Year of the Ocean (YOTO) A declaration of the United Nations to highlight the important role that oceans carry out towards the health of the planet including human life. In 1998, International Year of the Ocean was promoted through UNESCO as the UN agency chosen to implement this designation and led by its Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission. Numerous activities were held all over the world: international conferences, public events and educational activities. Noteworthy among all of them was the International World’s Fair ‘Expo 98’ with the theme ‘The Oceans, a Heritage for the Future’, which took place in Lisbon, Portugal. This joint effort, YOTO, showed the general public the alarming state of the oceans due to human alterations and possible impacts on the whole earth system. At the same time, a wide range of stakeholders was involved and encouraged to take part in its sustainable management. However, this awareness movement was not reflected in decisive measures and policies to revert the tendency for degradation of the oceans. See also Fishing OGH

  International Year of the Reef (IYOR 2008) A year-long celebration intended to increase global awareness of coral reefs and associated ecosystems, and to persuade people worldwide to take simple actions that benefit coral reefs. It followed from the first International Year of the Reef in 1997, which was organized by the International Coral Reef Initiative, and which helped lead to establishment of the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force in 1998. IYOR 2008 provided an 294

International Year of the Mountains (IYM)

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opportunity for anyone interested to join in coral reef conservation, even those people who lived far from coral reefs. There were many events worldwide, including interactive lectures and talks, museum exhibits, magazine articles, television documentaries, aquaria and zoo activities, and school activities. See also Coral bleaching JC

 Interpretation A process that aims to communicate ideas and feelings that help enrich people’s understanding and appreciation of their world and their role within it. It is sometimes known as heritage interpretation and environmental interpretation. Interpretation is one of a number of communication disciplines that seeks to increase understanding and appreciation of our natural and cultural environment. The word ‘interpretation’ derives from the Latin interpretari that means to explain or translate. There is no universally accepted definition of interpretation. Box 1 provides a number of different definitions of interpretation. These definitions focus on interpretation being a communication process, educational, enhancing the visitor experience, contributing to conservation, explaining inter-relationships and conveying feelings or values. Historically, the practice of interpretation began in the United States in the 1920s. Enos Mills used the term ‘nature guiding’ to describe his work in the Rocky Mountains and later used the term ‘interpret’ to describe nature guiding activities. By the 1930s the term was used increasingly within the US National Parks Service. In 1957 Freeman ­Tilden, considered to be the father of interpretation, defined the basic philosophy and guiding principles of interpretation in his book Interpreting our Heritage. Tilden defined interpretation as ‘an educational activity which aims to reveal meanings and relationships through the use of original objects, by first-hand experience, and by illustrative media, rather than simply to communicate factual information’ (1977, p. 8). The term interpretation is now widely used across government agencies such as national park services, museums, zoos, aquaria, wildlife sanctuaries, non-profit organizations, and in the private tourism sectors such as sustainable tourism, ecotourism and nature-based tourism.

Box 1.  Definitions of interpretation A learning experience which seeks to enrich the meaningful relationships we hold with our world, and to foster and build a set of values which supports those relationships (Pastorelli, 2003). A mission-based communication process that forges emotional and intellectual connections between the interests of the audience and meanings inherent in the resource (NAI, 2006). Interpretation is primarily a communication process that helps people make sense of, and understand more about, your site, collection or event. (Association for Heritage Interpretation, 2012). Any communication process designed to reveal meanings and relationships of cultural and natural heritage to the public, through first-hand involvement with an object, artifact, landscape or site (Interpretation Canada, 1976).

Interpretation295

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Interpretation can play an important role in natural resource management and conservation as well as meeting the goals of sustainable tourism. Knudson et al. (1995) identified six key objectives for interpretation of cultural and natural resources: 1. to increase the visitor’s understanding, awareness, and appreciation of nature, of heritage and of site resources; 2. to communicate messages relating to nature and culture, including natural and historical processes, ecological relationships and human roles in the environment (Fig. I4); 3. to involve people in nature and history through first hand (personal) experience with the natural and cultural environment; 4. to effect the behaviour and attitudes of the public concerning the wise use of natural resources, the preservation of cultural and natural heritage, and the respect and concern for the natural and cultural environment; 5. to provide an enjoyable and meaningful experience; and 6. to increase public understanding and support for an agency’s role, its management objectives and its policies. According to a number of authors (Bramwell and Lane, 1993b; Moscardo, 1998; Ham and Weiler, 2006) interpretation can play a valuable role in meeting the goals of sustainable tourism. These authors suggest interpretation can assist in the development of more sustainable forms of tourism through: 1. Visitor management – influencing visitor movement in both time and space. 2. Local economic benefit – attracting visitors to places they would not have visited, enhancing the quality of the visitor experience and encouraging their continued

Fig. I4.  Interpretation of Aboriginal sites, West McDonnells, Australia (Carl Cater). 296Interpretation

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interest in a place or activity, thus benefitting the local economy and creating ­employment. 3. Local environmental benefit – securing long-term conservation benefits by managing visitor impacts and enhancing the visitors’ understanding of a place and local community so they value it and support its long term protection. 4. Community involvement – if visitors value a place and culture there will be less exploitation and more positive encounters between visitors and host communities and minimal impacts. 5. Modify human behaviour – appropriate to the area so heritage resources are better protected and supported. There is increasing evidence that interpretation can influence visitors’ attitudes and behaviour (Tubb, 2003). Interpretation can assist in enhancing the visitor experience in sustainable tourism by providing information on alternatives and options; providing information to encourage safety and comfort; and creating the actual experience. In terms of managing visitors and their impacts interpretation can assist in influencing where visitors go, providing a substitute experience, informing visitors about appropriate behaviours and developing visitor concern (Moscardo, 1998). Interpretive media or tools can be divided into two types: personal interpretation that involves a person delivering the interpretation that includes slide shows, guided walks and talks, art and craft activities, roving interpreters, historical re-enactments, demonstrations; and non-personal or static interpretation that includes displays, brochures, signs, audio devices, visitor centres, interactive displays, self-guided trails, videos and DVDs, websites and wayside panels (Fig. I4). All these interpretive media have their advantages and disadvantages relating to factors such as budget, level of expertise available, flexibility, maintenance, ability to present a simple or complex message, distribution, and ability to reach large or small and diverse audiences. For example, brochures are relatively inexpensive, whereas major interpretive centres are expensive to construct and operate. Effective interpretation needs to have a key message or theme. Ham (1992) promotes thematic interpretation that can help organize and structure information and make it more interesting to the visitor. He suggests that effective interpretation has four key qualities: 1. interpretation is pleasurable; 2. interpretation is relevant; 3. interpretation is organized; and 4. interpretation has a theme or key message. Effective and successful interpretation needs to be carefully planned and implemented, yet some of the literature suggests that some interpretive planning is inadequate (Black and Thwaites, 2011). Many interpretive planning models exist (Knudson et al., 1995; Brochu, 2003) with most including the eight basic phases: determining objectives, taking an inventory, analysing data, synthesising alternatives, developing the plan, implementing the plan, evaluating the plan and revising the plan. The evaluation of interpretation is critical to determining the effectiveness of the program or service though is infrequently undertaken. RBL Interpretation297

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Further reading Brochu, L. (2003) Interpretive Planning: The 5-M Model for Successful Planning Projects. National ­Association for Interpretation, Fort Collins, Colorado. Brochu, L. and Merriman, T. (2002) Personal Interpretation: Connecting Your Audience to Heritage ­Resources. National Association for Interpretation, Fort Collins, Colorado. Regnier, K., Gross, M. and Zimmerman, R. (1994) The Interpreter’s Handbook: Techniques for ­Programs and Presentations, 3rd edn. UW-SP Foundation Press, Inc, Stevens Point, Wisconsin. Widner Ward, C. and Wilkinson, A.E. (2006) Conducting Meaningful Interpretation: A Field Guide for Success. Fulcrum Publishing, Golden, Colorado.

  Best practice interpretation principles www.snh.gov.uk/policy-and-guidance/heritage-­interpretation/   Interpretation Australia www.interpretationaustralia.asn.au/   The National Association for Interpretation www.interpnet.com/

 INTERREG An initiative of the European Union to promote cooperation between European regions across national lines. Launched in 1989, it has been financed under the European ­Regional Development Fund. The present program runs out in 2013, but a successor is planned. At least two member states always had to participate in INTERREG-funded projects, and many initiatives funded by the program were in the field of sustainable development, including sustainable tourism development. JMI

 Involvement See Leisure Specialization Continuum

  Island tourism Tourism that takes places in islands, typically comprising international mass tourism from North America and Europe to the pleasure peripheries of Caribbean and Mediterranean islands. More recently, growing prosperity in the Asian and Latin American newly industrializing countries is changing the tourist mix to some islands. Other islands are mainly domestic or regional destinations (such as Hawaii in the USA, the Isle of Wight in the UK and Jeju in South Korea). Some islands are iconic destinations and international brands (such as Hawaii, the Bahamas, the Maldives (Fig. I6) and Bali) and these tend to be located in the tropics. Tourism is, however, also very important in islands with a Mediterranean-type c­ limate, such as Lanzarote, Malta and Jeju. There is also increasing tourism to cold-water 298INTERREG

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i­ slands such as Prince Edward Island in Canada, the Isle of Skye in Scotland, Bornholm in Denmark and Tasmania in Australia. Island tourism has two main forms: land-based (stay-over tourists who spend at least one night in accommodation) and cruise tourism. The former can range from small bed-and-breakfast, backpacker or eco-lodge type establishments to large, integrated resorts (such as in Bali and Phuket) and all-inclusive developments (such as in St Lucia). The local economic leakages and linkages can vary according to the size of establishment and ownership, but typically island economies have higher economic leakage from tourism than other destinations due to their reliance on imported goods for the tourists (Fig. I5), and in some cases building materials and hotel apparatus such as kitchen equipment, elevators and so on. In some smaller islands, even hotel furniture and furnishings, such as curtains, are imported. Some islands, such as Jamaica, have been able to develop backward linkages to local farmers to supply some agricultural products but in many islands this has not proved possible due to problems with quality, quantity and consistency of supply. Some seafood may be sourced locally but normally much of the demand for food and beverages is met by costly imports. Labour can also be an issue for island tourism and some destinations rely heavily on immigrant labour to staff their tourism industry, which may cause local social problems.

Fig. I5.  Importing tourist supplies to islands, Gili Islands, Lombok, Indonesia (Carl Cater). Island tourism299

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Cruise tourism has been encouraged by many government planners and attracts many visitors to islands, especially in the Caribbean and Europe, and increasingly in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. However, large cruise ships require capital-intensive infrastructure, such as piers and passenger terminals, and the onshore expenditure of their passengers, despite the volume, is significantly lower per head than it is for land-based tourists. Cruise ships’ economic impacts are similar to land-based all-inclusive resorts, having minimal linkages to the local economy. There are also significant negative environmental impacts, including damage to coral reefs and sea-grass areas from dredging deep channels and harbours for the ships, overcrowding at attractions when the cruise ships disembark at the same time as each other, and issues of grey water, waste disposal and pollution in international waters en route to the islands. In addition, employment opportunities are limited for island people since typically cruise lines employ few islanders, tending instead to employ crew members from less-developed countries such as Indonesia and the Philippines. Tourism is highly significant for many island economies creating direct employment and contributing to foreign exchange earnings, overall national income and government revenues. In some islands, especially small island developing states, tourism can contribute more than 70% of gross national income. Islands typically have structural limitations due to their small land area and population size, tiny internal markets and high land and real-estate prices. In addition, high transport costs add to the high cost of production. Opportunities to develop alternative economic activities are therefore limited, so that for many islands tourism has become crucially important. In addition to the more obvious issues of environmental and economic impacts in islands (land-use, water and solid waste issues), the political economy of island tourism is complex and raises some questions over the long-term social impacts of such tourism activities. Serious questions can arise over ownership and local elites’ undue political influence. This is sometimes exacerbated by island politics, powerful interest groups and typically a lack of free press or public discourse. What would perhaps be a robust, evidence-based discussion in larger countries, can descend to the politics of the personal in islands, some of which are intolerant of dissent. In islands with other industries, such as agriculture or offshore finance, tourism may face severe competition for land, labour and capital and may experience ‘crowding out’ or a type of Dutch disease, with both economic and political implications. MH

Further reading Baldacchino, G. (ed.) (2006) Extreme Tourism: Lessons from the World’s Cold Water Islands. Elsevier, Oxford, UK. Gössling, S. (2003) Tourism and Development in Tropical Islands: Political Ecology Perspectives. ­Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, UK. Graci, S. and Dodds, R. (eds) (2010) Sustainable Tourism in Island Destinations. Earthscan, London, UK. Hampton, M.P. and Christensen, J. (2007) Competing industries in islands: A new tourism approach. Annals of Tourism Research 34, 998–1020. UNWTO (2012) Challenges and Opportunities for Tourism Development in Small Island Developing States. UNWTO, Madrid, Spain.

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Case study: Maldives The island Archipelago of the Maldives is a country that both relies upon and may be destroyed by international tourism. The country is made up of 26 separate atolls and over 1000 islands, although only about 200 are inhabited. International tourism started in the 1970s and the number of resorts increased from two in 1972 to 92 by 2007. Tourism accounts for 28% of GDP and more than 60% of the Maldives’ foreign exchange receipts. Over 90% of government tax revenue comes from import duties and tourism-related taxes, meaning the economy is highly dependent on tourism. The Indian Ocean Tsunami in 2004, had a significant impact on tourism, and hence the economy. Island economies are often distorted by the extra cost of getting goods and services to them, and the Maldives are no exception (Fig. I7). Most visitors arrive at the international airport adjacent to the capital island of Male, but are whisked immediately to island resorts by either speedboat or light aircraft, as the government has followed a policy whereby tourist accommodation is located on non-inhabited islands. Consequently the majority of tourist resorts are in the higher end, and rely on significant numbers of foreign labour. In 2008 there were more than 70,000 foreign employees, chiefly from Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and Nepal, comprising 1/3 of the Maldivian population. Locating resorts on such small islands has created problems with pollution and waste d ­ isposal. A recent trend for ‘over water’ bungalows favoured by Western tourists, has meant damage to reef structures and shading of underwater ecosystems. Sea level change caused by global warming is one of the biggest threats to the nation. In 2009 president of the Maldives and his 12 cabinet ministers held a government meeting in scuba diving gear 5 metres underwater to highlight the threat of climate change to the islands. CIC

Fig. I6.  Island resort, Maldives (Tiffany Low).

Continued

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Case study.  Continued.

Fig. I7.  Waste collection, Maldives (Carl Cater).

  ISO 14001 A standard and environmental management system developed by the International Standardization Organization (ISO). ISO is a worldwide federation of national standards organizations known as the ISO member bodies. Founded in 1947 and headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, the ISO defines worldwide proprietary, industrial and commercial standards. Technical committees, along with representatives of member bodies and in cooperation with the ISO and international governmental and non-­ governmental organizations, develop the standards, norms and systems. The ISO 14001 standard belongs to the ISO 14000 family of international standards. ISO 14001 as well as ISO 14004 focus on environmental management systems and are considered to be the authoritative reference in the field. The other standards in the family focus on specific environmental aspects such as life-cycle analysis, communication and auditing. Their aim is to foster environmental protection. As all kinds of organizations are increasingly concerned with their environmental impacts, the ISO 14001 standard helps them to establish an environmental policy as well as a structured and standardized environmental management system. The purpose is to measure performance in a systematic, planned and documented manner against the stated targets and to demonstrate conformity with the standard's requirements, which also take into account legal compliance and information about significant environmental aspects to its stakeholders. 302

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In view of the applicability to different kinds of organizations and ways of production with diverse environmental conditions, the standard does not set any absolute requirements for environmental performance beyond the commitments stated in the organization’s environmental policy, legal compliance and other requirements the organization subscribes to. Instead, it envisages the iterative four-step Plan-Do-CheckAct (PDCA) management cycle. Based on its environmental policy, the management cycle enables an organization to make the required continuous improvement of processes and products. ‘Planning’ in this context refers to the setting of objectives and processes to bring performance in accordance to the stated policy. ‘Doing’ refers to the implementation and operation of the process. ‘Checking’ is the monitoring and measurement of processes against the policy, its stated objectives and targets, legal compliance and other requirements that the organization subscribes to. It also includes the recording and reporting of results. ‘Acting’ refers to the managerial review of the processes and the corrective adaptations to the process that may need to be done in order to bring the performance in accordance with the organization’s environmental policy. This cycle is supposed to trigger continuous improvement of the environmental management system as well as of the environmental performance of the organization. Like other international standards, ISO 14001 does not intend to create non-tariff trade barriers and its utilization is voluntary. ISO 14001 can be audited through independent third-party organizations as requirement for certification. The benefits of working with an environmental management system such as ISO 14001, apart from the intrinsic value of environmental protection, can include reduced costs through the saving of resources and an improved corporate image among stakeholders, such as clients or the public. The standard does not remain without critique. As Boiral (2007) points out, some organizations may apply it mainly for the legitimization of their existence and thus may build a parallel ‘auditable’ structure that does not correspond to the real practices in every-day operations of the certified entity. CB

  IUCN Red Data Book A comprehensive inventory of the global conservation status of biological species, ­integrating several series of Regional Red Lists, produced by countries or organizations. Founded in 1963, and officially known as the ‘IUCN Red List of Threatened Species’, it assesses the risk of extinction to species within a country according to precise criteria aiming to convey the urgency of conservation issues to the public and policy makers. The Red List of 2012, presented at Rio +20 Earth Summit, assessed 19,817 species out of a total of 63,837 threatened with extinction. See also International Union for the Conservation of Nature HF

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J Journal of Ecotourism A refereed journal first published in 2002, to address the varied issues around the booming phenomenon of ecotourism. It aims to advance the field of tourism by publishing articles, research notes and book reviews about the social, economic and ecological aspects of ecotourism. Governed by an international editorial board, it invites papers covering empirical, conceptual and theoretical research investigating our relationship with the natural environment, including nature-based tourism, parks and protected area tourism, risk management, ethics, marketing, interpretation and education. With three issues per year, including occasional themed special issues, it has established itself as the leading journal in the field of ecotourism, has become an essential reading for stakeholders concerned with tourism, and complements the Journal of Sustainable Tourism. ML   Journal of Ecotourism www.tandfonline.com/loi/reco20

Journal of Sustainable Tourism An academic periodical first published in 1993 by Channel View Publications. The journal was published biannually in its inaugural year and quarterly from 1994 to 1999, increasing to six issues per year from 2000 and eight issues per year from 2010. The scope of the journal is broadly on green tourism, alternative tourism, naturebased tourism, ethical tourism, community-based tourism, tourism in protected areas and other articulations of the principles of sustainable tourism, which is defined in the editorial to the inaugural edition as ‘a positive approach intended to reduce the tensions and friction created by the complex interactions between the tourism industry, visitors, the environment and the communities which are host to holidaymakers’ (Bramwell and Lane, 1993a, p. 2). The journal also publishes papers specifically on the subject of ecotourism, and continues to do, despite of the launch in 2002 of its sister journal, the Journal of Ecotourism. The journal website also makes it clear that the submission of papers on the subject of how mass tourism can embrace the principles of sustainable is welcome, and the journal has published a number of such papers. The journal was bought by the Taylor and Francis Group in 2008 and is now published as a Routledge imprint. The purpose of the journal, as stated in the editorial to the inaugural edition, is ‘to foster both research and practice in sustainable tourism to help develop both a theoretical base for the subject and reliable empirical evidence of its results and impacts’ (Bramwell and Lane, 1993a, p. 3). The editors also emphasize their intention to ­publish papers that consider the management implications of sustainable tourism for 304 

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the benefit of practitioners. The journal particularly welcomes submissions of an interdisciplinary nature and is explicitly international in focus. The degree of success achieved by the journal in meeting these ambitious aims can be debated and there is no universally agreed way of measuring this. However, it can be noted that the journal has a Thomson Reuters impact factor of 1.929 and is ranked fourth in the hospitality, leisure, sport and tourism group. It has also published a number of widely read papers in the area of sustainable tourism. The top five, in order of article views (Taylor & Francis Online, 2013) are: Lee et al. (2010), Sharpley (2000), Liu (2003), Weaver (2011) and Clarke (1997). It has also published a number of significant special editions, such one on ‘Scenario Planning for Sustainable Tourism’ and another on ‘Tourism and Poverty Reduction’, both in 2012. BG   Journal of Sustainable Tourism www.tandfonline.com/loi/rsus20

  Justice tourism A form of alternative tourism in which the central goal of the travelling is to make a positive contribution to the communities visited, also known as solidarity tourism. Justice tourists have a commitment to social justice and promote equity and human rights and even a ‘fundamental transformation of the contemporary global order’ (Higgins-Desbiolles, 2011, p. 151). The tours provide social networks and consciousness-raising, and foster social solidarity leading to global citizenship. Justice tourism is not a new phenomenon: the Nicaragua Solidarity Campaign, for example, have been running brigades and study tours since 1984 to build mutual solidarity with Nicaraguan organizations committed to social and economic justice. As with many justice tours it is hoped participants get involved in solidarity work on their return home. Justice tours are frequently organized by NGOs and not-for-profit organizations that hope not only to educate the tourists but also encourage them to take the issues home and become social justice activists. According to Scheyvens (2002), justice tourism includes tours where historically oppressed communities have a chance to share their stories with visitors: tours that improve tourists’ knowledge of poverty alleviation issues and voluntary work undertaken by tourists. Thus, there is an overlap with other forms of alternative tourism including volunteer tourism. However, only a small proportion of volunteer tourism could be considered justice tourism. At the extreme end of the justice tourism spectrum is transnational solidarity activism, such as driving in the Viva Palestina aid convoy or volunteering for the international solidarity movement. One of the most well-known justice tourists is Rachel Corrie, who was killed by an Israeli ‘Defense’ Force bulldozer while trying to prevent it from demolishing a house in Gaza in March 2003. SC

Justice tourism

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K  Knowledge What can be known or understood. Philosophically, the study of knowledge is called epistemology and philosopher Plato characterized knowledge as ‘justified true belief’, which has become the most recognizable conceptualization of knowledge. This tripartite definition of knowledge recognizes that beliefs about the world do not amount to knowledge about the world without due justification. Thus, for a true belief to become knowledge it must also have justification, warrant or evidence: three terms used interchangeably by philosophers. Plato and subsequent researchers have suggested that in order to be knowledgeable about a subject, the three conditions – justification, truth and belief – must be met. Types of knowledge have been distinguished between propositional knowledge or ‘knowledge that’, ‘ability knowledge’ and ‘knowledge by acquaintance’. Knowledge also incorporates both explicit and tacit knowledge, the latter describing an intuitive way of knowing. There are various types of knowledge which are more or less incorporated into academic study. Scientific knowledge, for example, is embodied by notions of truth, objectivity and scientific method. This can greatly differ from local knowledge, which is place-embedded and intuitive. Academic studies use rigorous research methods to generate new empirical knowledge and hence develop the body of knowledge about a particular subject matter. DH

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L  Labour See International Labour Organization

  Labour turnover The number of staff that resign from an organization during a particular timeframe. Some of the factors that result in high labour turnover in tourism include low remuneration levels, unsociable conditions of employment, low entry barriers, a limited pool of skilled applicants and a poor perception of the industry in the eyes of potential employees. High turnover rates place economic pressure on an organization as: productivity will drop when the employee departs; the company loses the capital investment spent on training the departing staff member, as well as having the burden of recruiting and training a new staff member; lost productivity associated with training the new staff member; and the negative impact high labour turnover has on other employees’ morale. See also Human capital, Seasonality SR

 LAC See Limits of Acceptable Change

 Landscape Etymologically deriving from the Dutch ‘landschap’, landscape can be understood as a specific morphology, arrangement, style, look or view of the land or countryside and its representation. Traditional understandings are confined to a pictorial depiction via perspectival techniques for representing depth and space, implying materiality, separation and observation. Consequently, the concept has a strong association and tradition related to visual art, to the rural and to natural scenery. In the last 30 years, in the context of the cultural turn within the social sciences at large, advances in the way the concept is understood have been made (see Cosgrove and Daniels, 1988). Landscape not only is something we see but also a way of seeing; not only is an artistic genre but also a text that requires inter-textual or hermeneutic readings; not only is it the visible features of an area of land but also a particular gaze (Fig. L1). Whereas the attractiveness and quality of landscapes are the principal attributes of many ­destinations,

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Fig. L1.  Landscape signage at mountain resort complex, near Beijing, China (Carl Cater).

tourism is one of the main agents that transforms and reconfigures landscapes. At various scales and in different degrees tourism has contributed to landscape degradation and loss of attractiveness. Furthermore, often through destination marketing and destination branding, tourism constructs specific ways of viewing, experiencing and practising landscapes, by legitimizing certain cultures of landscape, images, memories and gazes. Time and again it also participates in the construction of stereotypical landscapes, such as the pristine tropical beach, homogenizing particularities and differences. These processes are frequently part of cultural strategies that reinforce tourists’ familiarity with the landscapes of the ‘other’. Nevertheless, tourism can also have an important role in the regeneration of landscapes, contributing not only economically and socially to places and regions, but also to the renaissance and aesthetical quality of landscapes. See also Authenticity, Countryside JSA

 LEADER A European Union (EU) community initiative, created as a bottom-up means of facilitating and implementing local rural development. An acronym for ‘Liaison Entre Actions de Développement de l'Economie Rurale’, it is loosely translated as ‘Links between Activities Developing the Rural Economy’. The programme is predicated upon the idea 308LEADER

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that rural development is more effective if decided and applied by local people at the local level (European Commission, 2006). The LEADER programme was launched in 1991 and since then ‘has been working to provide rural communities in the EU with a method for involving local partners in steering the future development of their area’ (European Commission, 2006, p. 5). The aim of the programme is to help local communities in rural areas to develop their skills and knowledge, and to encourage and facilitate networking, co-operation and innovation to tackle recognized local development objectives (Scottish Government, 2012). The programme is principally aimed at small-to-medium-sized projects, across a range of topics that can help to revitalize these local communities and help them to become progressive economies (Highland LEADER, 2012). Since 1991, there have been four LEADER Programmes: the LEADER 1, 2 and LEADER+ initiatives were the predecessors of the current programme, which runs from 2007–2013. The budget of LEADER 1 was €442 million (European Commission, 2006), rising to €9.2 billion of the current programme (European Commission, 2011). As of summer 2012, the status of LEADER beyond 2013 remains unclear. The EU’s Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) acknowledges the importance and diversity of rural landscapes, areas and identities, as major assets, and rural development is an important component of CAP (European Commission, 2006). LEADER was introduced to address some of the weaknesses of previous rural development programmes, which were acknowledged as being both too sectoral and ‘top down’, with delivery at a national or regional level, which often ignored the needs of stakeholders at a local level. LEADER therefore became seen as an experiment to evaluate new ways to bring together local people, projects and ideas to shape their own development (European Commission, 2011). LEADER was initially introduced as a community initiative financed through the EU Structural Funds. While the first three programmes were stand-alone, in financial terms, the 2007–2013 programme differs in being integrated with rural development policy, forming one of four rural development ‘axes’ (European Commission, 2006). In Scotland, for example, the current LEADER programme is part of the Scotland Rural Development Programme (Scottish Government, 2012). The LEADER approach has seven key features (European Commission, 2006): 1. Policy is implemented using an area-based approach, using homogenous and socially-cohesive areas. 2. It employs a ‘bottom-up’ approach, so local actors set the local priorities and get involved in the strategic decision-making. 3. A local action group (LAG), comprising at least 50% private partners and associations, develops and implements local strategy and manages the local programme and budget. 4. LEADER should stimulate innovation in local rural development, from new, or transferred, products and processes to the development of new markets. 5. Local LEADER implementation should be multi-sectoral, linking different actors and spheres of activity. 6. The dissemination of experiences and knowledge between different areas and ­organizations, whether directly involved in LEADER or not, should be a key output of the programme. 7. LEADER encourages and facilitates co-operation, with both other regions and countries, which can add value to activities and helps to develop more effective solutions to shared problems. LEADER 309

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While the majority of activity is in local development projects, there are two additional types of co-operation funding available: for inter-territorial co-operation, between different rural areas within a single member state, and transnational, between groups from a minimum of two member states, or with groups in third countries with similar agendas (European Commission, 2006). See also Rural tourism ST   The LEADER gateway on the European Commission’s web site enrd.ec.europa.eu/leader/en/leader_en.cfm

 Leakage The failure of tourism spending to remain within the destination economy (Sandbrook, 2010). This occurs as money is progressively withdrawn as it is spent and re-spent in the economy concerned. According to economic theory, withdrawals can take three forms: taxation, savings and imports. The latter is particularly important in the context of mass tourism, where multinational companies (MNCs) and transnational companies are especially active. Such companies have often pursued aggressive strategies of vertical integration, implying that the tourist’s needs are met at almost every stage by the MNC or TNC. The resulting profits then tend to be repatriated to the country or countries in which the company is headquartered. Rates of revenue leakage can also be high when the destination economy is poorly developed, such that it is unable to supply tourists’ demands sufficiently at all times. This is especially likely in less-developed countries and rural tourism destinations, where local supplies may be irregular. Tourism service providers are forced, as a result, to import products to ensure that their guests are well looked-after. Leakage may also be reinforced by the tourist’s consumption preferences. For example, hotel owners may believe that tourists prefer to drink internationally branded carbonated beverages as opposed to locally produced equivalents (Pattullo, 2005). Claims about the high rates of leakage from tourism have contributed to it being criticized for being a poor sustainable development option. Indeed, high rates of leakage will necessarily result in smaller economic multipliers, so that additional spending in an economy as a result of tourism activities taking place there will have a more limited final impact on the economy as a whole. Reliable and up-to-date estimates on the rate of leakage from tourism destinations simply do not exist. However, Boo (1990) claims that 55% of tourism spending in less-developed countries leaks back to the more developed countries. Meanwhile, at a local level, much higher leakage rates are reported (Sandbrook, 2010). BG

  Learning organization A company or entity that is adaptable to changing conditions and facilitates continuous learning of its staff. A learning organization has five main elements: systems thinking, personal mastery, mental models, shared vision and team learning (Senge, 1990). A learning organization has been likened more to a community than a company, where 310Leakage

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members feel a commitment to the organization and a willingness to adapt to change and work towards best practice. See also Linkingthinking, Change management CIC

 Leisure A widely contested term which ‘originates from the Latin licere’ (which means to permit), and from which arose the French word loisir (meaning free time) (Kando, 1975, p. 22). Leisure is a term with a wealth of meanings, and its relationship to different cultures (Lynch and Veal, 2006) and to tourism (and indeed recreation and outdoor recreation) (e.g. Lynch and Veal, 2006; Pigram and Jenkins, 2006) have been extensively documented. Although an important element of contemporary western society, Lynch and Veal (2006, p. 48) argue leisure as a separate category of behaviour is not reflected in Aboriginal culture, with ‘playfulness being woven into and around the activities of everyday life’. Leisure’s most enduring characteristic is the relative freedom a person can experience, and the state of mind that can be attained for those who engage in it (see Self-actualization). In particular, a person’s immersion in leisure and play can lead to a state of flow (e.g. Csikszentmihalyi, 1975), as one’s undivided attention is given to an activity. This also leads to a higher state of awareness. Walmsley and Jenkins (2003, p. 279) summarized the leisure context this way: Leisure is an important component of most people’s lives and is fundamental to quality of life concerns. Viewed holistically, leisure brings a degree of balance to spirit, mind and body, is critical to personal development, and is perhaps more important than work in how some people perceive themselves and life generally.

The application of the term leisure in western society has been widely based on three key premises: free time activities; state of mind; and activity (Lynch and Veal, 2006). However, it is widely acknowledged that: there are no easy or clear distinctions between leisure and work; time not spent at work or on other obligations is not all leisure time; and leisure is socially and culturally constrained and increasingly commodified (Fig. L2). Although leisure activities, in the forms of sport, recreation and tourism are often the foundations of big business, and the economics of leisure and sport is now an important consideration for governments, as evidenced in major sporting events such as world cups and the Olympics, the social and environmental dimensions of leisure are now widely documented. For example, leisure, in the form of tourist activities and experiences, is promoted as an economically important part of local and regional economies through local festivals, events and sporting activities; but, the relationships between these activities and the social and environmental dimensions of communities are no less importantly recognized and considered in the light of developing sustainable communities. JJ

  Leisure class Those in society engaging in conspicuous consumption and contributing little to economic productivity. The concept is closely associated with American sociological Leisure class 311

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Fig. L2.  Beijing Olympic store, 2008 (Carl Cater).

economist, Thorstein Veblen who wrote the Theory of the Leisure Class in 1899. Veblen provided a social critique that proposed that society was divided into classes; those ‘lower’ and working classes who provided clear economic contributions to society, and those occupying a higher and more superior status (the Leisure class) who were perceived to be relatively free from economic structures and societal obligation. Such distinctions have become increasingly permeable as class structures dissolve and people have more leisure time to pursue increased modes of conspicuous consumption that include increased engagement in touristic and leisure activities. SE

  Leisure Specialization Continuum Created by Bryan (1977), the concept of leisure or recreation specialization seeks to ‘explain diversity among participants in an activity’ (Scott and Godbey, 1994, p. 275), placing outdoor recreation participants on a continuum, in distinct classes, according to their behaviour and orientation. This ranges from those with relatively low involvement and a general interest in the activity to those who are highly specialized, with a high degree of involvement and ‘particular’ interest. Although Bryan originally applied the theory to trout anglers, it has subsequently been applied to a range of recreational pursuits, including backpacking, boating and canoeing. 312

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Bryan postulates that for any recreational activity, these different classes of participants have very distinct attitudes, orientations and behaviours that are core to their identity in the activity (Bryan, 2000) and characterize their participation (Scott and Godbey, 1994). These are reflected in the skills that they possess, the equipment they use and their past experience (Miller and Graefe, 2000). Position on the continuum is also influenced by recreationalists’ preferences for settings, their attachment to the activity, attitudes towards management styles, the social scene pertinent to one’s involvement (Bryan, 1977) and even one’s choice of vacation (Bryan, 2000). Subsequent research has examined and supported Bryan’s (1977) theory by finding significant distinctions between different points on the specialization continuum for a variety of these characteristics (Salz and Loomis, 2005). As a result of Bryan’s conceptualization and research, the term specialization also came to refer to this process in which participants become more committed to their activity (Tsaur & Liang, 2008); Bryan (1977) found that trout anglers do tend towards specialization over time. Tsaur and Liang (2008) commented on the conceptual links between Bryan’s work and Stebbins’ (1992) work on ‘serious leisure’, whereby specialists can centre elements of their lives and the formation of their identity around their activity, commensurate with two particular characteristics of serious leisure: having a strong identity with the pursuit and the development of a career, or leisure path, within it (see Travel Career Ladder). ST

  Less-developed country (LDC) A country with low levels of Gross National Income (GNI) relative to other countries, typically measured in US dollars per capita. Sometimes known as developing, underdeveloped or ‘Third World’ countries, or collectively as the ‘Global South’. Sometimes confused with ‘Least Developed Countries’, a United Nations classification of countries with the absolute lowest GNI per capita. The World Bank collates income data and produces country rankings by GNI per capita. Other measures of state of development include income distribution indicators, such as Gini Coefficients that illustrate how wealth is distributed within countries, and ‘quality-of-life’ indicators, such as infant mortality rates or doctors per thousand of population. See also Human Development Index MH

  Life cycle (of people) The stages of life that a human being goes through from conception until death. There is no widely held definition of what the exact stages of the human life cycle are. Most of the literature describes five stages: prenatal, child, adolescence, adult and death. Among this literature a number of authors also add a sixth stage: retirement. The prenatal stage refers to the time the person spends in the womb from conception until birth. The child stage begins at birth and finishes on the child’s 13th birthday, where the child moves into the adolescence stage. This stage precedes the adult stage of life, which most authors argue starts at the age of 21, however some authors claim this stage begins at 18 years Life cycle (of people) 313

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of age. The adult stage comprises the person’s entire working life and finishes when the person retires from the full-time workforce. Retirement (which may still involve some form of work), is an increasingly important stage for tourism, accounting for growing sections of the population in developed countries, before the inevitable final stage for all humans of death. Many tourism models, products and destinations rely on an association or interpretation of human life cycles, for example the Travel Career Ladder (Pearce and Caltabiano, 1983) or the phenomenon of grey nomads. See also Generation SR

  Life cycle (of tourism products) The belief that products move through a sequential, pre-determined pattern of development. The product life cycle (PLC) consists of five distinct stages: development, introduction, growth, maturity and decline. The speed of movement through stages will vary, but it is held that every product has a limited lifespan (Fig. L3). The life of a product may be extended, although the majority of products have a finite period of existence. The nature of expectations of consumers change over time thereby changing the marketing strategy adopted at each stage of the PLC. The PLC does not apply to all products in the same way, and can apply to product class (e.g. computers), product

Fig. L3.  Great Keppel Island resort after closure, now planned for major redevelopment, Queensland, Australia (Carl Cater). 314

Life cycle (of tourism products)

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form (e.g. laptop) or a brand (e.g. Apple). In a tourism context, Butler (1980) conceptualized the idea of a Tourism Area Life Cycle (TALC), which can be applied to most tourism and hospitality products. SR and TL

  Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) A tool for assessing the impacts of an activity. The LAC framework or system provides reasonable answers to the questions such as: Has tourism already surpassed critical environmental and social thresholds? Is tourism endangering the ecological well-being of physical environments in destination areas? (Mbaiwa et al., 2008). The LAC framework was developed by Stankey et al. (1985) to help better manage increasing demands and impacts by hikers and backpackers in the US wilderness system. It assesses the probable impact of an activity, decides in advance how much change will be tolerated, monitors what is happening systematically and regularly, and determines what actions are appropriate if agreed-upon quality standards are surpassed. The LAC framework as developed by Stankey et al., involved nine planning steps. However, Glasson et al. (1995) reduce it to six, contained within identification of issues, goals, standards and inventory. The LAC system has proved itself to be a valuable management tool in several wilderness areas and tourism destination areas. For example, in the US, the LAC system is mostly used by the Forest Service. JMB

  Lindblad Expeditions Originally founded as Lindblad Travel in 1958 by Lars-Eric Lindblad, this adventure tourism company has more than 50 years’ experience in leading expedition travel to the most exotic parts of the globe. Lindblad Travel pioneered some of the first trips in Antarctic tourism, the Galapagos Islands and Alaska. The company provides distinctive and exclusive encounters with the unique cultural and natural aspects of some of the world’s wild places through customized, small-group itineraries led by leading experts. The company’s mission is to convert vacationers into active and engaged explorers through environmentally responsible travel experiences, with a particular emphasis on education. In 2000, Lindblad Travel was renamed Lindblad Expeditions and in 2004, the company joined forces with the National Geographic Society to inspire people to explore and care about the world. JH   The Lindblad Legacy of Respectful Tourism www.expeditions.com/Our_Story100.asp

 Linkingthinking A group exercise that encourages participants to think holistically. Linkingthinking promotes a systems understanding of the world and the increasing interconnectedness of our actions (see Mobility). Linkingthinking has been developed as an educational and reflective Linkingthinking 315

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tool by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF, 2005). Analytical thinking and reductionist thinking tries to understand things by taking them apart. Linkingthinking complements this with a problem-solving approach that looks at the whole picture and tries to understand connections. One advantage of a Linkingthinking approach to a problem is that there is no ‘right’ answer, only interpretations of the relationships the group identifies. Individuals can set the boundaries of the system in different ways and can bring their own priorities to bear. See also Action research CIC  Linkingthinking assets.wwf.org.uk/downloads/linkingthinking.pdf

 Livelihood The means to which community members achieve their economic goals. Livelihoods are important to understand when dealing with tourism in rural destination areas, especially in less-developed countries. The assumption is that when rural livelihoods are better and improved especially through tourism development, the rural population will be obliged to use natural resources in their local environment sustainably. Such natural resources may happen to be the tourism product that happens to attract tourists in that destination area. According to Chambers and Conway (1992, p. 7) ‘a livelihood comprises the capabilities (stores, resources, claims and access) and activities required for a means of living’ (Fig. L4). Ellis (2000, p. 19) also points out that ‘a livelihood comprises the assets (natural, physical, human, financial and social capital), the activities and the access to these (mediated by institutions and social relations) that together determine the living gained by the individual or household’. Chambers and Conway (1992, p. 5) note that, “a livelihood in its simplest sense is a means of gaining a living”. An understanding of livelihoods shows how in different contexts and through different strategies, people support themselves through access to a range of resources or assets (Fig. S12) (natural, economic, human and social capitals) (Chambers and Conway, 1992; Scoones, 1998). See also Sustainable livelihoods approach JMB

 Lobbying An act of trying to influence public officials for or against a particular cause. Lobbying can be conducted by individuals and groups. In sustainable tourism local residents or businesses can lobby governments for or against a particular tourism development. On a more organized level, industry organizations (e.g. alliances, associations) are critical in lobbying the government on behalf of the tourism industry. See also Pressure group CO

  Low-carbon tourism A form of tourism with a low energy intensity, which ensures that the carbon footprint produced by tourism transport, accommodation and activities is kept to a minimum. 316Livelihood

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Fig. L4.  Livelihood options, Annapurna Conservation Area Project, Nepal (Carl Cater).

The development of low-carbon tourism is urgently required in the light of increasing tourism emissions and contradicting mitigation targets proposed by climate researchers, governments and tourism organizations to avoid dangerous climate change. The term is directly linked to a low-carbon future. Shorter distances and the use of low-carbon transport modes (train, bus) and, to a lesser extent, low-carbon accommodation, are key parts of low-carbon tourism products. Currently, low-carbon products tend to be relatively expensive and high-carbon products to be relatively cheap. Government regulation or taxes may correct this situation, for instance by taxing kerosene or carbon, or through inclusion of airline transport in carbon trading. This may stimulate tour operators and destinations to play a key role in low-carbon tourism development. Carbon labelling, changing packages, adjusting prices in a way that they also represent the carbon footprint of a tourism product, and changing destinations and transport modes are effective tools for tour operators. Destinations can look at de-marketing of high-carbon forms of tourism and markets, and social marketing (Peeters et al., 2009). An example of low-carbon tourism is the product offered by the Alpine Pearls Association. This network of 27 communities (as of 2012), spread over all six countries of the European Alps, focuses on soft mobility, i.e. environmentally friendly transport and recreational activities, and reduced-traffic town centres. Low-carbon tourism 317

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­Climate and environmental protection are specific goals. Origin-destination travel by train or bus is both guaranteed and promoted, also through holiday packages, and it is encouraged to leave the car at home. EE

  Low-cost aviation A form of aviation run by comparably new airlines following a business model concentrating on reducing costs and whose main competitive advantage is their low ticket prices. Low-cost aviation developed as a direct result of deregulation of aviation, starting in the US domestic market in the 1970s, in Europe in the 1990s and globally in the 21st century. The European market was volatile from the start, but Easyjet and Ryanair have stayed market leaders since the late 1990s. Low-cost airlines run very simple operations compared to those of the traditional network airlines. By only running point-to-point routes they avoid costs associated with network operations, i.e. transfer of passengers and luggage at hubs, connection management, revenue dilution, etc. However, their competitive advantages are based on measures taken in all fields of airline management, operational and non-operational. Cost reducing measures are an important part of the low-cost carriers’ efforts to gain advantages, but the business model is aimed at increasing revenues. The area where low-cost carriers have had the most innovation is in distribution. By using ‘simple’ one-way, single-class tickets, they made it possible for customers to purchase tickets directly from the airline, encouraged through innovative web interfaces. Agents and global distribution systems could be circumvented. Higher seating densities (smaller spaces between seats) are their most important cost reducing effort. Promotion of in-flight sales is another example of making cost reductions into revenues. Catering is not offered for free: instead, people have to pay for food and drinks. Nonticket revenues are getting increasingly important for low-cost carriers. Moreover, low-cost carriers use more innovative price information than other airlines. The low-cost business model sometimes includes the use of secondary, regional, airports as a means to reduce costs. In Europe, this strategy has been adopted to a varying degree by different airlines. Ryanair almost exclusively uses secondary airports; other airlines tend to use a mix of hubs and secondary airports. Secondary airports offer a number of advantages, primarily lower costs of operation, i.e. lower landing charges and cheaper handling of passengers and luggage. Another reason for the lower costs at airports, apart from cheaper facilities, is an over-supply of airport capacity in Europe, which make airports and host destinations compete with one another. For consumers the introduction of low-cost aviation has not only meant increasing price competition and lower prices on flights by legacy airlines; the number of connections has increased as well. However, not all destinations have benefitted, and core-periphery relationships have been reinforced. For some secondary destination regions, low-cost connections have opened up entirely new markets. In many rural regions, prices of real estate have increased significantly as a result of improved low-cost connections to metropolitan markets (see Rural tourism). Weekend travel to major cities has also increased. Traditional airlines have suffered from low-cost competition, resulting in bankruptcies and mergers. Because of radically reduced fares, 318

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overall demand of air travel has increased significantly, putting additional pressure on the environment, mainly through increasing greenhouse-gas emissions. JHN

 Luxury A term that is seen to encompass a wide range of values including superiority, uniqueness, exclusivity and being iconic and expressive; with wide ranging contemporary applications and implications. Luxury has been subject to scholarly enquiry in many disciplines including economics (Kemp, 1998) and econometric modelling, history, psychology, marketing and consumer behaviour (Dubois et al. 2005; Vigneron and Johnson 2004). The luxury sector is undoubtedly economically significant, for in 2009, Bain & Co. estimated total luxury revenues to be worth some €160 billion (Kapferer, 2010). In a tourism and travel context, Kiessling et al. (2009) estimated that in 2007 approximately 25 million trips per year were attributed to luxury travel globally, with an average spend of between €7,000 and €14,000 per trip. However, it has been suggested that unless consumers engage in a conscious recognition of luxuriousness, their perceptions of the same will be different (Bernstein, 1999). That is, luxury brands may be open to (perceived) brand inequalities, if consumers do not perceive them to hold sufficient levels of luxuriousness. In the context of sustainable tourism, scholars have largely accepted prima facie that the objectives of the sustainable development agenda is in opposition to the core principles of luxury. While there is strong historical evidence that this may be the case, there are now examples of luxury tourism establishments making genuine attempts at reconciling these concepts (e.g. Six Senses Resorts), not least because both concepts may well have qualities such as longevity, quality, rarity and beauty at both of their cores (Kapferer, 2010). See also Ecochic TL

Luxury 319

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M   Malé Declaration on Sustainable Development A declaration on the sustainable development of tourism arising from the Asia-Pacific Ministers’ Conference on Tourism and Environment, organized by the United Nations World Tourism Organization. This conference, with the theme ‘Tourism 2000: Build­ ing a sustainable future for Asia-Pacific’, was held on the 16 February 1997 in Malé in the Republic of Maldives. It was attended by 27 states, affiliate members, international and regional organizations and observers from the Asia Pacific region. Its goals were ‘to clarify and define the linkage between tourism and environment, as well as to consider the responsibility of States and the private sector for achieving a high degree of sustainable tourism development’ (Asia-Pacific Ministers’ Conference on Tourism and Environment, 1997, 1). It followed the vision articulated by the 1987 Brundtland Report and the 1992 Rio Declaration at the Earth Summit. DRE

 Mangroves Coastal forests commonly found in the tropics and subtropics. The term ‘mangrove’ stands for the plants adapted to live in the tidally influenced transition zone between land and sea as well as for the respective ecosystem (Tomlinson, 1986). Mangroves are highly productive forests with important ecological and socio-economic transformation roles such as: coastline protection; carbon sequestration; provision of timber and firewood; nursery grounds for coastal fish and crustaceans; and sustaining significant small-scale-fisheries important for securing local livelihoods. Mangrove functions and services are globally threatened by land-use changes such as through urbanization, aquaculture and salt production. Action is urgently needed on a global scale to assure mangrove conservation and sustainable use. Mangroves are also increasingly important sites for ecotourism (Fig. M1). KV and KDI

  Marine Ecotourism for the Atlantic Area (META) A research project funded by the INTERREG IIc spatial planning programme of the European Union. The project commenced in 2001 and was completed in 2002. It set out to clarify the principles of ecotourism in the marine context, to provide a series of practical toolkits for ecotourism planning and policy development purposes (Garrod et al., 2001), and to provide a step-by-step ‘blueprint’ for the sustainable marketing of ecotourism (Bruce et al., 2001). BG 320 

© CAB International 2015. The Encyclopedia of Sustainable Tourism (eds C. Cater, B. Garrod and T. Low)

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Fig. M1.  Mangrove swamp tours, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA (Carl Cater).

  Marine protected area (MPA) An umbrella term for a protected area that covers a wide variety of marine components. MPAs are defined by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as, ‘Any area of intertidal or sub-tidal terrain, together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by law or other effective means to protect part or all of the enclosed environment’. Thus there is often confusion, as other terms such as marine park, marine nature reserve or marine conservation areas are also used (Fig. N1). The essence is conservation of marine ecosystems, however, that will always occur within a given context. This may be a balance between: a representative network of protected areas; protected areas that cover migration patterns; protected areas that cover a single unique feature; or protected areas that allow all activities, or prohibit certain activities either partially or completely. The connection of marine protected areas to sustainable tourism is quite strong; Bonaire Marine Park in the Caribbean is an example where tourism revenues support protection. MPAs may be an attraction in their own right, but certainly some of the species and ecosystems protected are an attraction to tourists (Fig. M2). Depending on the country or management agency MPAs are often thought of as a system or network-­ designed to protect representative ecosystems or species. As of 2010, there were an estimated 5880 MPAs globally. These encompass a wide scope of protection measures, but gave protected status to approximately 1.2% of the world’s oceans. Marine protected area (MPA)321

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Fig. M2.  Marine protected area. Tourists watching for dolphins in the Cardigan Bay special area of conservation (SAC), Wales (Olga Garcia).

While the US has a system of over 1600 MPAs, from small fully-protected reserves to large multi-use areas, many critics believe the world-wide system is largely a paper exercise. Critics are also wary of MPAs being used for broader political purposes, as is the case with the Chagos Archipelago in the Indian Ocean. High-profile MPAs (again with diverse terminology used) include: the Phoenix Islands Protected Area in Kiribati, the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary in the US, the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in Australia, and Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area in Canada. PM   National Marine Protected Areas Center marineprotectedareas.noaa.gov   UK marine protected areas www.ukmpas.org   National marine conservation areas www.pc.gc.ca/eng/progs/amnc-nmca/index.aspx

 Mark-up The difference between the cost of a product or service and its selling price; generally described as the percentage of cost. This approach is named as cost-plus approach 322Mark-up

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since the predetermined percentage of mark-up is applied to the cost in order to ­determine a potential selling price. Selling price = Total cost + (Percentage of mark-up × Total cost) FO

  Market segmentation The process of dividing the market, either consumer or industrial, into homogenous groups. It rests on the assumption that homogeneity in characteristics, values, lifestyle, attitudes and/or activities means similar needs and benefits are sought, thus generating similar behavioural responses in individuals. Segmenting the market appeals to marketers and managers for two main reasons: first, it supports the decision for a market positioning strategy, and second, from an operational point of view, it is the basis of marketing-mix planning. Popular variables used to segment the market are geographic (regions, neighbourhoods), socio-­ demographic (age, gender, social class) and psychographic (lifestyle, personality traits). ACA Case study: Adventure tourism segmentation Wilderness Scotland is a specialist adventure travel company established in 2001 offering tourism experiences in the most remote regions of the Scottish Highlands and Islands. The company focuses on high quality nature-based tourism experiences, with a high level of service and commitment to sustainable tourism. They aim to provide ‘provide inspiring, memorable and high quality adventure travel experiences, which benefit local environments and communities’ (Wilderness Scotland, 2014). This mission is achieved through objectives of: sustainability and responsibility; knowledge and passion; excellence in customer service; high quality and added value; innovation in product service and business practice; and a progressive team and stakeholder environment. This commitment has been recognized in many awards over the years including the Best Green Tour Operator in the World Travel Awards, a Highly Commended placing in the World Responsible Tourism Awards and the only adventure travel company to achieve Gold status in the Green Tourism Business Awards. Wilderness Scotland recently undertook a segmentation exercise to ensure a great customer experience and help guides understand their customers. There is a particular focus on using Emotional Intelligence to develop guide and leader success. For not only are technical and intellectual competency important, but emotional, social and interpersonal qualities are essential among good guides. This knowledge has also assisted the development of the Scottish Wildlife & Adventure Tourism Associations Wilderness Guide Training Programme. This is a comprehensive training programme for professional outdoor guides developing both knowledge and practical skills, leading to an increased awareness of sustainable tourism and best practice. The training has been developed specifically to complement existing national governing body awards. It is the first course of its kind in the UK offering structure and coherent training for wilderness guides around the non-technical areas. CIC   Wilderness Scotland www.wildernessscotland.com

Market segmentation323

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  Marketing mix The set of marketing tools that a company controls in order to implement its overall marketing strategy (target customers, product and service differentiation and positioning) and build competitive advantage in the marketplace (Kotler et al., 1999). This involves the planning of key variables, originally known as ‘the four Ps’, product, price, promotion and place. ‘Product’ is anything that an organization can offer to a market for acquisition and consumption as a response to consumers’ overt or latent needs. The definition is broad enough to include objects, services, persons, places, organizations, ideas, activities and experiences. ‘Price’ refers to the amount of money consumers pay to acquire the product, and their willingness to pay depends in some degree on the perception of its value and benefits exchanged. ‘Promotion’ is the set of all activities the organization performs in order to communicate the product to consumers and inform them of its characteristics, benefits and distinctiveness. Traditional communication methods used to promote the company’s products and services are advertising, public relations, personal selling and sales promotion. Complementary methods include product placement, endorsement, sponsorship and advergaming. ‘Place’ is both the sum of activities the company carries out and the structure (distribution channel) it develops, so that its products are made conveniently available to consumers. The marketing mix construct dates back to the 1950s when a major concern of managers was creating demand for the company’s products and services. The product was by then the focus of marketing efforts and related variables were meant to reinforce its intended positioning – to set the right price for it, to promote and distribute it conveniently to the target market (Kotler et al., 2010). Traditional marketing-mix evolved to a more complex mix of variables as an effect of changes in the business environment, such as the growth of the service sector, the rise of the sophisticated and skilled consumer, and the increase of competition. Marketing gained strategic meaning in addition to the tactical one, and the consumer became the centre of marketing decisions and activities. More recent variables of the marketing mix include those related to services such as tourism, namely people, process and physical evidence (Zeithaml and Bitner, 2000). ACA

 MARPOL See International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships

  Marrakech Process A global initiative to encourage sustainable consumption and production that emerged from the World Summit on Sustainable Development. It had three goals: to assist countries in their efforts to green their economies; to help corporations develop greener business models; and to encourage consumers to adopt more sustainable 324

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l­ifestyles. These goals were developed over a 10 year period to 2011 through seven task forces, one of which was focused specifically on sustainable tourism (see International Task Force on Sustainable Tourism Development). CIC   Marrakech Process esa.un.org/marrakechprocess/

  Mass tourism A form of tourism associated with large visitor flows to one destination, the volume of which is dependent on destination characteristics, such as population size, (tourism) infrastructure and environmental sensitivity. Early forms of mass tourism were medieval p ­ ilgrimages with millions of ordinary people travelling to Rome or Santiago de Compostela. Modern mass tourism emerged with the introduction of rising incomes, paid leave and fast and cheap (airline) transport (Aramberri, 2010). Mass tourism is often associated with major impacts on destinations, as opposed to small-scale or alternative tourism. As mass tourism is by far the most common form of tourism (Fig. M3), logic dictates that sustainable tourism is only possible if sustainable mass tourism develops. Sustainable mass tourism has been suggested as the desired and impending outcome for most destinations (Weaver, 2012). However, sustainable mass tourism destinations do not necessarily

Fig. M3.  Mass tourism, Gran Canaria (Brian Garrod). Mass tourism325

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support sustainable mass tourism as a whole, as low local environmental impacts might still be overshadowed by those caused through the tourism transport to the destination, for example emissions, energy use and noise. The only future for tourism will be in sustainable forms of mass tourism defined from a holistic point of view, thus including the impacts of all elements of tourism and travel. From global scenario studies it appears that a sustainable tourism future will have to supply low-impact accommodation, be less dependent on air transport and more on sustainable modes of transport like coach and rail (e.g. Peeters and Dubois, 2010). As a consequence, current strong growth of medium and long-haul tourism will have to be reduced to the benefit of short and medium haul. As the railways initiated modern mass tourism, a revival of rail tourism, now of the fast form, may be a key to sustainable mass tourism development. See also Sun, sea and sand (3S) tourism PP

 McDonaldization A term proposed by the sociologist, George Ritzer, in 1993 in his book McDonaldization of society, to explain the globalizing change in business operations using the model of the fast food giant, McDonald’s. This company has achieved global success by employing a Fordist method of breaking down every single task into the smallest possible tasks, in order to rationalize the most efficient method of completing the task. Four

Fig. M4.  McDonald’s restaurant, Xian, China (Carl Cater). 326McDonaldization

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primary components are practised: where quantifiable (‘calculability’) performances are managed (‘control’) through optimal working methods (‘efficiency’) to achieve consistency (‘predictability’); something widespread among organizations worldwide. This sociological phenomenon is of anthropological concern in tourism with its homogenization of cultures throughout the world (Fig. M4), and a loss of uniqueness for destinations. See also Commodification, Globalization JCY Further reading Ritzer, G. (2002) McDonaldization: The Reader. Pine Forge Press, Thousand Oaks, California.

  Meetings, incentives, conferences, and exhibitions (MICE) tourism A particular type of business tourism in which large groups, usually planned well in ­advance, are brought together for some particular purposes. MICE tourism is classified as: (i) ‘business and trade’: meetings, conventions and trade shows or exhibitions (Fig. M5); (ii) ‘educational’: conferences and seminars; (iii) ‘political’: summits and political events; and (iv) ‘corporate events’ such as incentives arrangements. It usually includes a well-planned agenda centred on a particular theme or topic, such as a profession trade show, a special interest group for discussion or an educational topic. Such tourism has often a specialized area with its own association for organizing conferences/congresses or special ­exhibitions. The location of MICE events are normally bid for by specialized convention bureaus located in particular countries and cities, and established for the purpose of bidding on MICE activities. The process of marketing and bidding is normally conducted well in advance of the actual event, often several years. MICE tourism is known for its extensive planning and demanding clientele. A  growing number of professional conference or exhibition organizers envolved into MICE tourism arrangement. MICE tourism has grown more rapidly in recent decades and it has been an industry trend towards using the term meetings industry to avoid confusion from the acronym MICE. Expenditures made by MICE tourism spread over varied products and services, with high multiplier effects hence its interest by destinations. Expenditure by meetings organizers is categorized into venue hire, food/beverage, equipment/technical costs, administration, advertisement/promotion, insurance, transport, speaker and other personnel costs, etc. Expenditure by delegates is the same as other business consumption components, such as accommodation, catering, transport, food/drinks, cultural/­entertainment and shopping. JZ

 Metaproblem While a problem is an obstacle or any situation inviting a resolution contributing t­ owards a known purpose or goal, a metaproblem is a problem behind a problem. It arises when generally used solutions for usual problems produce additional unwanted effects instead of finally eliminating an apparent deficiency. An example in the context of Metaproblem327

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Fig. M5.  Convention centre under construction, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia (Carl Cater).

s­ ustainable development is the usual approach to solve the problem of limited resources through technological progress in order to increase efficiency, which finally leads to the opposite result of a growing overall consumption of resources. This so called ‘rebound effect’ is caused by falling costs of production and consumption of resources-­consuming good, which allows access to a growing number of people to those goods. Recognizing a metaproblem means to accept a problematic situation, consisting of a desired outcome, an obstacle and its causes, as socially constructed rather than objectively obvious. This necessarily indicates that there can be inconsistencies in the common way of looking upon the problem. As Albert Einstein said, ‘Our thinking has created problems which cannot be solved by that same level of thinking’ (Goodstein and Pfeiffer, 1985, p. 185). Thus metaproblems raise new questions in order to regard old problems from a new angle, which requires creative imagination known as ‘reframing’ or triple-loop learning. It puts into question ‘paradigmatic’ assumptions, such as: (i) why something should be considered as important instead of something else; (ii) how the circumstances of the situation could be seen; (iii) which possible ways to reach the goal could be considered; (iv) what are the costs and benefits of these ways; (v) how these costs and benefits should be distributed; and finally (vi) how are those questions answered? In this way, the metaproblem focuses on aspects of power, putting into question established ways of decision-making. In the context of sustainable tourism, this way of reframing was analysed by Saarinen (2006) on the example of the nature of the limits of growth (see Degrowth, 328Metaproblem

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Economic growth). He was able to show ‘how these limits are approached and evaluated in discussions on a local scale. The purpose is to recognize that behind the different understandings of them lie distinct traditions that are different in their focuses. These are referred to as resource-, activity-, and community-based traditions of sustainability’ (Saarinen, 2006, p. 1121). In the resource-based approach, nature is seen as a limited resource that has to be protected and conserved as the overall goal. The decision-making power was normally in the hands of experts and politicians. The focus of the activity-based approach lies on the tourism industry as a source of economic prosperity. Its goal is to maintain the long-term growth of the industry, while the protection of nature is only an instrument to serve the industry. Decisions are taken usually by economic experts. The community-based approach, instead, reframes the question for the final goal of tourism development as well as any economic activity, answering with the support of the well-being of the community. In consequence, decisionmaking power is distributed among all stakeholders concerned with tourism develop­ment in order to make decisions in a participative way (see Empowerment). HF

 MICE See Meetings, incentives, conferences and exhibitions tourism

 Microbusiness See Small-to-medium-sized enterprise

 Microfinance Refers to the provision of credit through loaning small amounts of money, usually USD$100–500, to small enterprises in agriculture, distribution, crafts, trading and similar activities. While the notion of lending and borrowing and the general provision of credit has a much longer history, the term microfinance only came to prominence in the 1970s through the success of small-scale lending programmes such as the Grameen Bank of Bangladesh. The participatory nature of microfinance projects, together with its emphasis on women entrepreneurs and employment creation, have raised hopes of poverty alleviation. See also Community-based tourism, Gender, Pro-poor tourism, Small-to-medium sized enterprise TL

  Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) A set of development objectives identified by the United Nations. Created out of the United Nations Millennium Declaration at the 2000 World Summit in New York, the  MDG’s are quantified targets for addressing poverty and promoting gender equality, education and environmental sustainability. Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)329

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Eradicating extreme poverty continues to be one of the main challenges of our time, and is a major concern of the international community. Ending this scourge will require the combined efforts of all, governments, civil society organizations and the private sector, in the context of a stronger and more effective global partnership for development. The Millennium Development Goals set time-bound targets, by which progress in reducing income poverty, hunger, disease, lack of adequate shelter and exclusion – while promoting gender equality, health, education and environmental sustainability – can be measured. They also embody basic human rights – the rights of each person on the planet to health, education, shelter and security. The Goals are ambitious but feasible and, together with the comprehensive United Nations development agenda, set the course for the world’s efforts to alleviate extreme poverty by 2015. (United Nations Secretary – General Ban Ki-Moon)

The MDGs express the unprecedented commitment of global leaders to address key development priorities through a set of specific goals and targets, which include the following (see United Nations, 2011; Bricker et al., 2012): ⦁ ⦁ ⦁ ⦁ ⦁ ⦁ ⦁

⦁

MDG 1: ERADICATE EXTREME POVERTY AND HUNGER Target: Halve the proportion of people living on less than a dollar a day and those suffering from hunger. MDG 2: ACHIEVE UNIVERSAL PRIMARY EDUCATION Target: Ensure that all boys and girls complete primary school. MDG 3: PROMOTE GENDER EQUALITY Target: Eliminate gender disparities in primary and secondary education set for 2005, and all levels set for 2015. MDG 4: REDUCE CHILD MORTALITY Target: Reduce by two-thirds the mortality rate among children under five. MDG 5: IMPROVE MATERNAL MORTALITY Target: Reduce by three-quarters the ratio of women dying during childbirth. MDG 6: COMBAT HIV/AIDS, MALARIA AND OTHER DISEASES Target: Halt and begin to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS and the incidence of malaria and other major diseases (Fig. M6). MDG 7: ENSURE ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY Targets: 1 – Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programs and reverse the loss of environmental resources; 2 – Reduce by half the proportion of people without access to safe drinking water; 3 – Achieve significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers. MDG 8: GLOBAL PARTNERSHIP FOR DEVELOPMENT Targets: 1 – Develop further an open trading and financial system that includes a commitment to good governance, development and poverty alleviation – nationally and internationally; 2 – Address the least developed countries’ special needs, and the special needs of landlocked and small island developing states; 3 – Deal comprehensively with developing countries’ debt problems; 4 – Develop decent and productive work for youth; 5 – In cooperation with pharmaceutical companies, provide access to affordable essential drugs in developing countries; 6 – In cooperation with the private sector, make available the benefits of new technologies – ­especially information and communication technologies. KBR

  United Nations Millennium Development Goals www.un.org/millenniumgoals/ 330

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Fig. M6.  AIDS education, Papua New Guinea (Carl Cater).

 Mining Extraction of minerals and resources from the earth. The relationship between mining as an extractive industry and tourism is poorly understood. While there are some synergies, most notably in the development of industrial heritage tourism (Ruiz Ballesteros and Hernandez Ramirez, 2007) and infrastructure development in remote areas (Buultjens et al., 2010), there is also increasing conflict between mining and tourism. This is a result of two sectors competing for land, investment and labour (Tourism Research Australia, 2011), and the environmental impacts of mining in environmentally sensitive areas. Becken (2011) has explored the wider implications of fossil fuel exploitation for society and tourism. SB

 Mitigation An act of lessening the force or intensity of something. In sustainable tourism mitigation is often related to reducing the environmental, social and economic impacts tourism creates. In fact, sustainable tourism is defined by the contribution it makes to Mitigation331

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reducing negative impacts on the environment, the people and the economy. More recently mitigation in the context of reducing the impacts associated with climate change has become increasingly popular and relevant. See also Adaptation CO

 Mobility The movement of people, ideas and commodities through space. Mobility has been the focus of much geographic discourse, and indeed tourism research, in recent years. Enhanced by processes of globalization, the World Wide Web, free trade and the growth of tourism, mobility refers to these increased connections. Mobilities geographers have recently attempted to conceptualize movement as not occurring simply in or across spaces, but as a means of actively shaping, producing (and influencing) multiple, dynamic spaces and times (Merriman, 2012). However, just like processes of globalization, mobilities are not new and mobile processes do not work evenly across space. However, an interest in mobilities does broaden our understanding of sustainable tourism, encouraging us to consider both tourisms’ influence on space, and perhaps more importantly, the influence of other mobile practices on tourism. Thus, ‘tourism is (only) one dimension of our “connections” with the world ranging across many different localities...no longer are peoples activities disconnected and within distinct spaces, rather everyone is networked and connected’ (Cooper et al., 2008, p. 12). CIC Further reading Hall, C.M. (2005) Tourism: Rethinking the Social Science of Mobility. Pearson Education, Harlow, UK. Merriman, P. (2012) Mobility, Space, and Culture. Routledge, London, UK.

  Modernization theory A theory that views socio-economic development as an evolutionary and linear path from a traditional society to a modern one, combining economic growth with political modernization and national benefits (Pieterse, 2010). While its origins lie in a variety of different perspectives applied by non-Marxists to less-developed countries in the 1950s and 1960s, it is often associated with the writings of Walt Rostow, an economic policy advisor to President Johnson of the USA. The non-Marxist stance of modernization theory is emphasized in the title of his most influential work, Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto, published in 1960. The political emphasis is a consequence of the context of the times of the de-colonization and new found independence of many African and Asian countries, raising Western concerns of whether they would ally themselves to the capitalist or communist ideologies (see Colonialism). Rostow (1960) presented modernization theory as a linear development model in  five stages, which would transform societies from the ‘traditional’ into ones of ‘mass  consumption’. Given its explicit capitalist and Western ethnocentric biases, 332Mobility

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­ nsurprisingly modernization theory has received several criticisms. These include u that the unidirectional path of development suggested in Rostow’s model is incorrect, as later developing countries can learn from other more developed countries and subsequently leap a stage or two. For example, a less developed country may plan to use tourism as primary economic agent for development as a replacement or accompaniment to heavy industry. Modernization theory has also been criticized for its inherent cultural superiority and patronizing attitudes that traditional values are not compatible with modernity, instead of focusing on what can be learnt from traditional societies. It is also evident that if every country in the world followed the West’s pattern of development it would be environmentally unsustainable. AH

 Monitoring The recording of information on the state of a specific phenomenon or process at specific regular points in time. Eagles et al. (2002, p. 151) define it as ‘the systematic and periodic measurement of key indicators of biophysical and social conditions’. The most common purpose is to enable changes in the dimensions of the specific phenomena to be recorded and compared to past measures. This can be as simple as the numbers of people passing a specific point or entering an area or in a more complicated form such as the erosion of a footpath or the loss of ground cover in a campsite. Other phenomena commonly monitored in a recreation and tourism context are wildlife populations, such as nesting birds, breeding populations or sightings of particular species (see Birdwatching). Monitoring can help to identify positive and negative ­effects of strategies, establish trends, and provide feedback for management (Directorate-­ General for Enterprise Tourism Unit, 2002). Monitoring became commonly used from the 1960s onwards in outdoor recreation areas as user levels began to cause visible impacts and changes in the natural environment. USDA Forest Service researchers were at the forefront of the early research, with investigations of the quality of trails, campground and portage sites in wilderness areas and the response of the natural environments of such areas to ever increasing user pressure and impact (e.g. Cole, 1983). Since the early years, methods of monitoring have become increasingly sophisticated and often remote, using a variety of generally electronic sensors such as infra-red beams, pressure pads and GPS records to identify user-presence and levels of use (Hornback and Eagles, 1999). In recent years monitoring has become an essential element in the implementation of sustainable development and sustainable tourism in particular. When targets have been established, e.g. percentage of ground cover or biodiversity, it has proved essential that the state of key indicators need to be monitored in order to ascertain if a phenomenon is becoming closer to its stated target (more sustainable) or further away (less sustainable) (Miller and Twining-Ward, 2005). Monitoring in such a context also covers economic, social and cultural aspects in a given setting as well as natural or ecological features, given that sustainable development involves a triple bottom line of environmental, economic and sociocultural elements (Twining-Ward and Butler, 2002). See also Carrying capacity, Eye on the Reef Program, Limits of Acceptable Change     RBU Monitoring333

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  Moral geography The study of interconnected moral and geographical arguments. Evident in this body of scholarship are commitments to understanding how moral beliefs are distributed across space, and how morality is performed in particular contexts (Smith, 2000). Work in moral geography also examines the ways in which ‘assumptions about the relationships between people and their environments may reflect and produce moral judgements, and how the conduct of particular groups or individuals in particular spaces may be judged appropriate or inappropriate’ (Matless, 2009, p. 478). Sack’s (2003) work, a definitively prescriptive approach to moral geography, is devoted to constructing a framework for enhancing our capacities as moral geographical subjects. Most writings, however, often fuse empirical observations with contextual interpretations to create a ‘thick’ descriptive ethics (Proctor, 1999), which draws attention not only to the embodied or lived experience of ethics but also to the relations of power that produce and reproduce a sense of moral order through environmental and spatial practices. Such a place-based approach to ethical inquiry fleshes out the abstraction found in much moral philosophy. Although moral geography has received little direct attention in the study of tourism ethics, its application as a critical and interpretive lens for understanding environmental politics (e.g. Proctor, 1996), as well as circumstances within a touristic region (e.g. Matless, 1994), is indicative of its promise to valuably inform future tourism research.     BGR

  Motorcycle tourism Tourism where the main form of transport is via two-wheeled vehicle. Motorcycle tourism may be seen by some as a subsector of the drive tourism market. This sector is increasingly important for rural destinations in developed countries. However, it has fallen out of favour with research and destination organizations as promotion of motor-based tourism is unpopular due to concerns with fossil fuel use. However, since most motorcycles use less fuel than the average car, there is potential here to promote motorcycle tourism as a more sustainable form of drive tourism. Motorcycle tourism differs from drive tourism in respect of a much greater attachment to the vehicle itself, an increased likelihood of travelling in groups, and a greater emphasis on the journey aspects of the experience rather than the destination per se. Whereas car drive tourists will enjoy scenic aspects of the tour on the way to tourist sights, it is likely that motorcyclists have a much higher involvement in the driving experience itself. However, motorcyclists may also need to make frequent stops due to limited range, and physical discomfort on the bike. There is a typology of bikers that may be broadly suggested as sports bikers (newer and faster bikes), cruisers (more comfortable touring bikes), classic bikers (vintage and heritage models) and trail bikers (off road motorcyclists (Fig. M7)). The latter is often tarnished as having high environmental impact and conflict with other user groups. However, there are many organizations promoting sustainable offroad motorcycling, such as the Trail Riders Fellowship in the UK. There are links between the motorcycling sector and the adventure tourism sector. Both of these sectors may share an attraction of perceived risk. On road motorcycling’s engagement with the natural environment is based largely on the scenic qualities 334

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Fig. M7.  Motorcycle tourism, Siem Reap, Cambodia (Carl Cater).

of the landscape through which the participant travels, and a much higher feeling of immersion in that landscape, due to the lack of a body around them. The engagement with the environment for a motorcyclist is skills-based, has a high degree of physical and mental challenge and relies on constant risk assessment. In this sense, then, motorcyclists are adventure seekers, and it may be appropriate for marketing organizations to cross target this sector.     CIC   Trail Riders Forum www.trf.org.uk/

Case study: Motorcyle tourists in Wales Research with motorcyclists (Cater, 2011) has shown that the majority of motorcycling tourists are over 45 years of age, illustrating that the motorcycle tourism market is older and likely has more time and more money to spend on this pursuit. The majority are male but there are a growing number of female riders. Among those who used motorcycles for recreation, they used them for leisure and tourism purposes 75% of the time. They often travel in groups and frequently carry a pillion passenger. Over three quarters of motorcycling tourists take over ten day trips a year, and on average 4.7 overnight trips by motorcycle per year, sometimes overseas. Motorcyclists identify strongly with Continued Motorcycle tourism335

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Case study.  Continued. the activity, 41% were members of a motorcycle organization, either a local club, a national or bike specific club or lobbying group. When planning a trip they use other group members, their own knowledge and biker specific websites. Seventy percent of respondents read motorcycling publications, but they are lower users of generalist motoring or tourism websites. When selecting a destination, winding roads in good condition were important, as well as scenic stopping points, easy parking and a place to meet other bikers, indicating their strong social orientation. They were frequent users of catering facilities, but less of tourism attractions. When selecting accommodation, secure parking, proximity to restaurants and pubs, being easy to find and having helpful hosts were deemed the most important. There is also a very significant motorcycle event sector. Over three quarters (76%) of those surveyed had been to some form of motorcycle event in the past year. Wales has strengths in providing guided motorcycle tourism experiences overseas and domestically. A variety of businesses and organizations promote and encourage considerate trail biking in Mid Wales, and provide a unique tourism product. Average daily expenditure on meals was £21, travel £30 and accommodation was £48 per night. A conservative estimate of motorcycle related tourism expenditure is £975.30 per motorcyclist per year. Direct expenditure on motorcycle tourism (without multipliers) is estimated to be worth a minimum of £70 million to the Welsh economy per year. Greater targeting and servicing of this tourism sector is required, as well as partnership with road safety organizations to ensure education of all road users. CIC

  Mountain biking A recreational and touristic pursuit or sport that generally involves riding purpose-­ built bicycles off-road, mountain biking is one of the world’s most popular contemporary adventure sports (Koepke, 2005). It has traditionally been defined by the nature of the terrain being ridden and by the composition of the bike: off-road cycling, in hilly or mountainous terrain, on a bicycle with a heavy frame and wide tyres (Creyer et al., 2003). Technological advances, however, have made mountain bikes considerably lighter and more capable – and while climbing and/or descending are generally considered core attributes of the pursuit – the development of mountain biking, from a pursuit for enthusiasts (see Leisure Specialization Continuum) to a more family-friendly activity, has made less-demanding terrain an important recreational setting. In theory, mountain biking can take place anywhere off-road, but most riding is done on dirt tracks or single track; the latter are the narrow, often winding, trails that are the apogee of mountain biking to experienced riders. With approximately 50 million mountain bikers over the age of 16 in the USA alone (IMBA and Shimano, 2008), it is a far cry from the sport’s generally-accepted roots, in the hills of Marin County, USA in the 1970s, when Gary Fisher and his contemporaries are said to have modified road bikes for off-road use (Ruff and Mellors, 1993). These pioneers raced heavy 1950s’ road bikes down hiking paths and dirt roads, before modifying them to make them more rideable (Patrick, 1988). As the word spread, Fisher started to produce the bikes (Hoger and Chavez, 1998), although the first commercial mountain bike, the Stumpjumper, was not launched, by Specialized, until 1982 (Jacoby, 1990). 336

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Over the past decade, mountain biking has developed a number of sub-cultures, from downhill and freeride to dirtjumping and trials, many with their distinctive praxis, dress code and argot. Cross-country, involving riding on a variety of terrain types and both climbing and descending, remains the most popular category, although this has evolved in further niches that are defined by the type of trail or setting, for example all mountain or trail riding. Racing, in many of these disciplines, is very popular in many countries; its popularity as a sporting activity is exemplified by the inclusion of cross-country as an Olympic sport. Many mountain destinations, particularly ski tourism resorts, have developed mountain biking tourism over the last decade in order to make better use of infrastructure and deal with seasonality. See also Cycle tourism     ST

Case study: Mountain biking tourism Mountain biking tourism and recreation has become a significant part of the activity sector in Wales. The Welsh Assembly government suggest that cycle tourism as a whole may be worth over £90 million to the Welsh economy, with much of this impact in rural areas of the country. Mountain biking activity is the major component of this sector, further ensured when Forestry Commission Wales opened five world-class mountain biking centres in 2003, which is now extended to nine purpose built locations. Specific destinations are seeking to promote activity tourism market mountain biking tourism and supporting services and see the tourism potential of mountain biking as part of an activity tourism strategy and significance in the broader tourism offered. Given the large number of English visitors to Welsh mountain biking destinations, there are positives in the form of economic opportunities, but also concerns wih sustainability. The activity has a variety of implications regarding land use access and conflict with other users, and may be seen as a conflicting or complementary activity to other users of the countryside (Cessford, 2003). Recent changes in legislation and strategy of land managers have influenced access for mountain biking activity, and these may need to adapt with future changes to rural space and increased popularity. There has been some research on how activity participants follow or modify trails provided for them and how this differs with experience or demographic profiles (Newsome and Davies, 2009). There is also a significant trail designer sub-sector who plan components of trail design, provision of flow experiences and reduction of risk. Rantala (2010) has examined the specifically mobile nature of mountain biking and its connections to body and landscape. There is some examination of the extent to which mountain biking can or cannot be seen as a sustainable activity. Although human powered there is some concern from land managers that visitors travel a significant distance by car to take part in the activity (Pickering et al., 2010). Mountain biking can contribute to improved health of populations, and has been targeted as a key component of the Climbing Higher strategy to encourage healthy outdoor recreation. However, we must note the importance of risk management in this process (Bentley et al., 2007). Locally developed mountain bike trails in the area around the Welsh town of Machynlleth are a good example of people power. Local mountain bikers and business people formed a community group known as Dyfi Mountain Biking, who aimed to publicize the mountain biking in the area and boost tourist income for accommodation, pubs, cafes Continued Mountain biking337

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Case study.  Continued. and other activities. The group successfully fundraised to waymark routes called Mach 1, 2 and 3 on rights of way all starting from Machynlleth. These proved very popular with both locals and visitors, so they wanted to develop a new route in the Dyfi Forest north of the town and to make it accessible without having to travel by car, therefore reducing traffic congestion in the town and helping to reduce carbon emissions. They approached Forestry Commission Wales who managed the forest with an initial idea to waymark some existing trails but these were not suitable. So, in 2004 they applied for funding from the joint Countryside Council for Wales and Wales Tourist Board regeneration fund, the European Regional Development Fund, the Forestry Commission and the Dyfi Enduro event committee (a competitive mountain bike competition held in May each year). Trails were built in only 16 weeks by a dedicated trail-making company EcoTrails. The cli-machx trail (Fig. M8) is a 15 km round trip, with 9 km of built single track with an array of challenging technical aspects. The last descent is the longest in Wales and features rocky jumps and the ‘eye of the needle’ – a huge jump with a narrow landing between two trees on the other side. The finale is a sequence of eight huge swooping corners following quickly after each other. The cli-machx was opened in 2005 and two extra sections were built in 2006 with financial assistance from WCVA and Powys County Council as part of a youth employment project. The Dyfi Trails Mountain Biking Project is managed by community company Mach Off Road Limited with help from a steering committee. This includes representatives from the Forestry Commission, local regeneration company ecodyfi and the local activities providers’ consortium. The Forestry Commission have a scheme that will keep the different user groups separate on the approach to the car park and trails. Although there is a car parking area at the start of the trail, it is accessible from Machynlleth by bike. Both the main town car park and the local bike shop provide maps of how to cycle from town to the start of the trail. The route to cli-machx from Machynlleth is a quiet country lane and the route indicated for bikes is not open to cars and other traffic.     CIC

Fig. M8.  Mountain biking cli-machx trail map, Machynlleth, Wales (Carl Cater).

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  Dyfi Trails Mountain Biking Project www.dyfimountainbiking.org.uk  Ecodyfi www.ecodyfi.org.uk/   Mountain Biking Wales mbwales.com

 Mountaineering The activity of climbing, hiking or skiing in mountains. Mountaineering was born in the Alps in the late 18th century with the first ascent of Mount Blanc. Mountaineers require a range of technical skills dependent on their goal. Skills might include: route finding, navigation, rock and ice climbing, and the ability to negotiate hazards such as crevasses. Mountaineering can be classified as soft tourism or hard tourism (Hill, 1995). Soft mountaineering activities entail low levels of risk, minimum commitment and beginner-­level skills. Examples include: undertaking less challenging mountain routes independently; taking part in activities led by experienced guides, e.g. trekking abroad; or participating in a mountaineering course to develop technical skills and enable progression to greater goals. Hard mountaineering activities include rock climbing, mountaineering expeditions and strenuous treks (Millington et al., 2001). Risk, challenge and exploration are the appeal. While competent mountaineers may undertake these activities unaided for example in the UK mountains, logistical support and guiding is often required for bigger goals such as peaks in the Greater Ranges (Fig. M9). Mountaineering provides plenty of scope for participation at different levels and is growing in popularity. One quarter of the earth is covered by mountains and 12% of the human population live in them. Mountain-based tourism can bring economic benefits to areas with few other economic opportunities and can have a significant impact on the host community. Mountaineering can provide opportunities for local people including: guiding and logistical support, retailing equipment and hospitality. It can also result in development benefits. An example of this is from the Khumbu area of Nepal, a major trekking and mountaineering destination. In 1953, when Hillary first passed through the area on his way to summit Everest, he reported high levels of poverty amongst the indigenous mountain Sherpa. Today, however, in Namche Bazaar, the main settlement of the region, there are not only many shops and lodges but also schools, sewerage, healthcare, electricity and street lighting. While mountaineering can be a low-impact activity, in areas such as the Khumbu, which attracts large numbers of mountaineers on multi-day commercial expeditions, it can have a negative impact on the mountain environment. The main problems on the mountain include littering and human waste. In recent years, action has been taken to address these problems and the situation has somewhat improved. For example, there are organized clean-ups on major peaks retrieving rubbish from past expeditions; expeditions are now fined if they do not carry out their rubbish; and local environmental non-governmental organizations are campaigning for the installation of toilets at Everest base-camp. In recognition of the impacts that mountain-based tourism can have on mountain environments and communities there are global campaigns for improved management Mountaineering339

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Fig. M9.  Qomolangma/Mount Everest base camp, Tibet (Tiffany Low).

of mountain areas. One example is The International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation’s (UIAA) ‘Mountain Protection Award’. The award recognizes best practice in mountain tourism in ways that offer long-term benefits to the global mountain tourism industry as well as to the local mountain people and their environment particularly in less-developed countries. AT and MFH

 MPA See Marine protected areas

  Multinational company (MNC) Any business enterprise that concurrently operates subsidiaries in more than one country. The subsidiaries report to a centralized headquarters. Also known as a multinational corporation (also MNC) or multinational enterprise (MNE). An example of an MNC operating in the tourism industry is Air France-KLM, which is the result of a merger of the two major airlines in 2004. Its headquarters are in Paris but it also has offices elsewhere in France and in the Netherlands. 340MPA

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A transnational company (TNC) or transnational corporation (also TNC) can be distinguished from multinational company because it does not have a specific home country, having headquarters in a number of countries where the executives try to make decisions on a global basis. According to the Economist magazine (2012), the largest TNC in the world is the US conglomerate General Electric which has $500 billion of foreign assets, representing 70% of its total worth. It also employs around 300,000 workers outside of the USA. MNCs and TNCs are significant in sustainable tourism because of the immense market power they are often able to wield. MNC and TNC tour operators, for example, typically have contracts with a great number of hotels in different countries and are able to switch tourists between them with relative ease. This has the effect of squeezing the profit margins of the hotels concerned, making it difficult for them to pass on the costs involved in introducing more sustainable practices to their guests. The dominance of MNCs and TNCs in tourism markets can also have the effect of increasing rates of leakage of tourist expenditures from the destination economy, as profits are expatriated to the country or countries in which the company is headquartered. Mowforth and Munt (2003, p. 173) note the growth of MNCs and TNCs in three important sectors of the tourism industry – hotels, airlines and tour operators – which implies that ‘most of the finance paid into the industry by the tourist is controlled and retained’ by interests from outside of the tourism destination.     BG

Fig. M10.  Multiplier effect for local shops catering to tourists, Tingri, Tibet (Tiffany Low). Multinational company (MNC)341

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 Multiplier Increased economic activity in a destination as a result of increased visitor expenditure, investment or government spending. An injection of ‘new money’ into a destination from tourism increases economic activity through three types of effects. The ‘direct effect’ includes sales revenues to businesses for goods and services sold to tourists (Fig. M10), salaries and wages to households for tourism-related employment, and revenues to the government through tourism-related taxation and fees. ‘Indirect effects’ result from ‘upstream’ effects when direct suppliers purchase inputs from other firms at the destination, which, in turn, purchase inputs from other firms and so on. ‘Induced effects’ arise when the recipients of the direct and indirect expenditure spend their increased incomes ‘downstream’ on the consumption of goods and services. This process continues and money is circulated around the economy until it leaks away through retained earnings, taxes and imports (i.e. ‘leakages’). This ripple effect in an economy is termed the ‘tourism multiplier’. Algebraically, multipliers can be expressed as the ratio of total impact (on sales, output, income, value added or employment) to the original expenditure impact. The size of the multiplier in each case depends on the strengths of the business linkages between tourism and other sectors. See also Economic impact LD

Case study: Marine multipliers – local economic impacts of dolphin watching, New Quay Area, Wales. Cetacean watching activity as a touristic activity is steadily increasing; its economic benefit has been estimated at over US$2.1 billion globally (Hoy and Parsons, 2014). However, there have been few studies examining the real contribution that this sub sector can make to the revitalization of peripheral and regional tourism destinations. This project examined the paths of expenditure in a local economy with a strong marine wildlife tourism product. New Quay, a Welsh village located in Cardigan Bay Special Area of Conservation, in the county of Ceredigion, West Wales, shelters one of only three resident populations of bottlenose dolphins in the UK. Due to the presence of this charismatic species, in recent years the dolphin-watching tourism industry has shown a significant increase. Using the methodology called ‘Local Multiplier 3’ (LM3) developed by New Economics Foundation (NEF), this project sought to work out a multiplier ratio that will explain how much this touristic activity contributes to economic development of the host community. This multiplier effect is calculated in three stages: the first one involves dolphin-watching tourists, asking them how and where they spent their holiday budget. Having identified the starting amounts and located the entry points into the local economy of New Quay, the second phase is addressed to the local businesses that have been noted by the tourists as places where they have spent their money. The final stage is focused on the consumer habits of staff members of these businesses. From this grassroots approach to understanding the contribution to the regional economy, it contributes to promotion of a cross sectorial low carbon economy and also towards best practice in spatial planning, to ensure the most sustainable local economic outcomes.     OGH

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N   National Audubon Society (‘Audubon’) An organization best known for its work on birds and bird conservation. The ­Mission of the National Audubon Society (‘Audubon’) is: to conserve and restore natural ecosystems, focusing on birds, other wildlife, and their habitats for the benefit of humanity and the Earth’s biological diversity (Audubon, 2013a). The Society was named after John James Audubon (1785–1851), an early American author and illustrator of the famed book Birds of America: a life-sized illustration of 435 birds. The Society is well known for: the annual ‘Christmas Bird Count’, where ‘citizen scientists’ collect information on birds; their nature centres and wildlife sanctuaries; and their conservation magazine, Audubon. Audubon’s 500 Chapters have identified, prioritized and protected approximately 2500 designated ‘Important Bird Areas’ across the United States, which protect the habitat of one or more bird species (­Audubon, 2013b). See also RSPB, Birdwatching SJ   National Audubon Society www.audubon.org

  National park A reserve of land, either completely natural or in various states of development, that is set aside by a sovereign government for the purposes of ecological preservation and/or the benefit and enjoyment of its people. Typically, a national park will have a number of defining characteristics, although it should be noted that individual nations have their own definitions of what constitutes a national park. National parks are generally large areas of land, but may also include associated marine areas (Fig. N1). National parks are usually characterized by having a unique ecosystem that remains intact and mostly unaltered by human hands, has been declared so by the highest authority of the land and protected from exploitation by the same power, and whose greater purpose is to provide inspirational, educational, and recreation opportunities for visitors (IUCN, 2012). Although the national park concept is now a worldwide phenomenon, it was a distinctly American idea to begin with. The world’s first national park was established by the US Congress and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant and created at Yellowstone in 1872 (NPS, 2012). The idea spread quickly with national parks being created in Australia (Royal National Park, 1879) and Canada (Banff National Park, 1885) soon after. The development of the national parks in North America is closely tied

© CAB International 2015. The Encyclopedia of Sustainable Tourism  (eds C. Cater, B. Garrod and T. Low)

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Fig. N1.  National Park, Cinque Terre, Italy (Tiffany Cater).

to both the development of the transnational railways and the tourism industry. Yet perhaps the most important outcome of the creation of the national parks model was that it coincided with the formation of the conservation movement led by wilderness prophet, poet, essayist, nature writer and activist John Muir, who founded the Sierra Club in order to fight the development of the Hetch Hetchy Dam in Yosemite National Park (Sierra Club, 2012). According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) approximately 14% of the Earth’s surface is now some form of protected area (IUCN, 2012). See also Public good, Quiet enjoyment BC

  National tourism authority (NTA) That part of government responsible for tourism policy and for the tourism-­related part of a country’s legislation (e.g. quality standards like hotel classification and tourism services labelling, consumer protection). An NTA is responsible for tourism development strategies and for tourism statistics (involving the cooperation with the national statistical office, central bank and immigration authorities collecting and processing tourism-related statistics, including tourism satellite ­accounts). Since 2001 (the International Year of Eco-tourism), many NTAs have

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­integrated sustainability as a leading development doctrine supporting their tourism development policies. SSL

  National tourism organization (NTO) A national tourism body responsible for raising tourism demand on all levels: regionally, nationally and internationally. It may be part of government associated with a national tourism authority or it may be a membership based quasi-autonomous non-governmental organization (QUANGO). NTOs provide guidelines for creating quality tourism products based on research of the current and future market trends. They define priority source markets and segments (see Market segmentation) of a country as destination. On this basis, they define the policy for imaging, positioning and branding of a country. The NTO formulates detailed marketing and promotional plans for the tourism industry and is responsible for the strategic positioning of the country. It is in charge of distributing promotional materials (e.g. distribution of catalogues and brochures, servicing tourism fairs and managing e-marketing) and promoting its industry by providing valuable and reliable information. SSL

Fig. N2.  Native species management at Orokonui Ecosanctuary for native wildlife, Dunedin, New Zealand (Carl Cater).

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  Native species A species that is living and is adapted to a specific ecosystem (Fig. N2). It exists in this natural environment without human influence. The habitats or range areas are influenced by factors such as climate, territory and food. CHC

 Nature The totality of physical things considered distinct from the influences, activities and constructions of humanity. It is a complex concept with multiple meanings, but in contemporary popular discourses, nature is most often understood and used in one of three ways (Castree and Braun, 2001; Demeritt, 2002). ‘External’ nature refers to what is perceived to be the original and inherent material aspects of the world: the self-evident and so-called natural environment, inclusive of non-living and living (­albeit non-human) components. In this view, nature is raw and pristine, autonomous from society and associated with conventional distinctions such as rural/urban, country/ city and wilderness/civilization. ‘Intrinsic’ nature refers to an unchanging essential quality or attribute that is discernable in some thing or some being. This conception of nature finds expression in references to the inherent characteristics of an entity, such as human nature, or an event, such as a hurricane or earthquake, which tend to be cited as natural disasters dictated strictly by physical processes. The third common meaning, ‘universal’ nature, implies that nature is a holistic and integrated force guiding worldly processes. In this meaning, nature refers to the ‘natural’ order of things and is represented in notions like ‘the laws of nature’ or James Lovelock’s (1979) widely debated Gaia hypothesis. Notwithstanding these contemporary meanings, nature is not a timeless or universal idea, nor is it a politically innocuous one. In fact, various social science and humanities scholars have traced how the meanings of nature change over time, evolve from particular contexts, and enact a great deal of worldly effects (e.g. Glacken, 1967; Coates, 1998; Braun, 2002). For example, the idea of nature as strictly biophysical space, which in its most pristine state stands for ‘wilderness’, is widely ­regarded as a product of the Western Enlightenment tendencies to categorically distinguish human society from other environmental phenomena. Along this trajectory, nature has been both feared and revered, and perceived as a place that is sinful, harsh, unproductive, resource-rich, sacred and intrinsically valuable (Peterson, 2001). Over the last century, wilderness ideology has been instrumental to the development of protected areas and other conservation/preservation initiatives designed to ensure patches of pure nature remain free from human use, occupation, and degradation (Nash, 1967). The view of nature as something ‘out there’, or external to modern lifestyles, has nevertheless been challenged extensively. Much of this wide-ranging critique has transpired in the wake of Cronon’s (1995) provocative essay, which argues that conventional ideas of nature/wilderness dissuade us from engaging responsibly with the diversity of ‘wild’ spaces that we inhabit in our daily lives. From the purview of many disciplines in the social sciences and humanities, the unconditional acceptance of any of the three aforementioned meanings of nature is certain to 346

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draw criticism. Primarily, for the external, intrinsic and universal meanings, the social dimensions of nature are ignored, including the biases and political interests embedded within taken-for-granted ‘facts’ about nature. As Castree and Braun (2001, p. 9) have argued, the ‘truth’ of n ­ ature depends on the perspectives of the analyst as ‘statements about nature say as much about who is doing the talking, and what their individual group interests are’. Scientists, for example, often sponsor views of an external or universal nature, which provides them with an exclusive hold on explaining nature with predictive properties or laws discovered through methods designed to be value-free and objective. For Fitzsimmons (1989), these are issues of power and persuasion, and echo other forms of structural domination, such as capitalism. Accordingly, if we do not explore the socially embedded aspects of nature, ‘we abandon them to those who use Nature to justify not only the domination of nature by humans, but also the domination of h ­ umankind itself’ (Fitzsimmons, 1989, p. 117). Several critically informed understandings that see nature as inescapably entangled with social and cultural realities have surfaced in recent decades. Broadly conceived as the social construction of nature, or as a ‘social nature’ orientation, these critical perspectives have drawn on various feminist, post-structural, post-colonial, Marxist, phenomenological and relational philosophies (Evernden, 1992; Castree & Braun, 2001; Demeritt, 2002). Common among these theoretically informed accounts is a sceptical insistence that things are not as clear as they seem; ‘that what we once accepted as self-evidently pre-ordained and inevitable is in fact contingent and might conceivably be remade in some other way, if only we would try’ (Demeritt, 2002, p. 776). Supporters thus identify social nature as opening up analytical and political possibilities for a radical environmentalism. They find social nature useful because it implies that humans have the capacity to improve current environmental circumstances by understanding, producing and practising different versions of nature and in ways that are more responsible and socially just. Within tourism studies, Franklin and Crang (2001) have argued that theory has been preoccupied with an unproblematic acceptance of the object of ‘nature’ and travellers’ desire for that nature. This continues to be noticed, for example, in alternative styles of tourism that endorse nature conservation and attempt to quench travellers’ thirst for authentic experiences. Similar assumptions are exercised in research accounts that flesh out the motivations, patterns, and development opportunities of nature-based tourism (e.g. Hall and Boyd, 2005; Mehmetoglu, 2007; Luo and Deng, 2008). However, since Franklin and Crang’s critical remarks, a number of tourism researchers have engaged various social nature perspectives (e.g. Brookes, 2001; Grenier, 2004; Saarinen, 2005). Particularly innovative approaches by Mullins (2009) and Reis and Shelton (2011) have invoked a ‘dwelling perspective’ to depict nature as deeply relational places in which humans, like other creatures, are embedded as active, skilled and perceiving bodies. The blurring of nature/human boundaries has been pushed even further by others who have employed ‘hybrid’ ontologies to explore how tourists’ sensuous and emotional experiences are intermingled with material objects and nonhuman agency (Cloke and Perkins, 2005; Waitt and Cook, 2007). Despite these conceptual advances, the extent to which the multiplicity of nature will affect the operations of the tourism industry remains very much in doubt. BGR Nature347

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Fig. N3.  Nature tourism marketing, Northern Territory, Australia (Daniel Funk).

  Nature-based tourism Tourism based on natural or wildlife attractions. There are a number of different meanings and interpretations of the term nature-based tourism. These meanings range from simple interpretations to more complex understandings of the phenomenon. In this entry the various interpretations of the term will be outlined in the order of simple to more complex ways of understanding. It must be noted that the simplicity of understandings or interpretations does not mean that these definitions are any less valid. Scholarly literature and government departments throughout the world have defined and described nature-based tourism because of the importance of nature as either the setting or attraction of tourism activity (Fig. N3). The importance of nature as a natural resource for a large proportion of the world’s tourism activity means that the maintenance of this resource has become important from both a conservation perspective and an economic one (Buckley, Pickering et al., 2004). In simple terms nature-based tourism is any activity that occurs away from the home and happens in nature, based on the accepted definitions of tourism. Thus there is guidance on the tourism side of the term nature-based tourism definition but nature is more difficult to define. From a normative perspective the term

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nature in nature-based tourism can be considered as some form of natural area found in parks as either a private reserve or governed by the state as well as open space that is governed by the state with limited human modification. Examples of the sites of nature-based tourism include: national parks; forest lands protected by the state; indigenous ­protected areas; game parks; conservation private reserves, municipal parks, beaches and their foreshore, and the ocean itself (Fig. N4). Under this definition other forms of tourism can be included such as the three S’s (sea, sand and sun) tourism, adventure tourism, ecotourism, consumptive tourism and health tourism (Lawton and Weaver, 2001). In each of these forms of tourism there are various relationships between the tourist and the natural environment, which can be described as a dependent, enhancive or incidental relationship. Confusion can arise over the definition of nature-based tourism and ecotourism in particular because the latter term is not simply an activity conducted in natural environments. The sustainability of tourism activity and the inclusion of educative elements in the tourism experience delineates ecotourism from nature-based tourism. In nature-based tourism the activities of tourists and tourism providers do not have to be sustainable and there does not have to be an educative element in nature-based tourism (Blamey, 1997; Fennell, 2001). More complex understandings of the concept of nature highlight the reasons why nature-based tourism is difficult to define from the perspective of its contribution to economic development of a country or region. While there is little doubt over the importance of nature as a motivation for tourism activity the actual contribution of nature to tourism activity is problematic (Hall, 2005) because of the variations in the social construction of nature (Castree and Braun, 1998; Demeritt, 2002) in culturally embodied tourism experience and how it is studied (Reis and Shelton, 2011). Despite the limitations of boundaries in defining nature-based tourism there are indications of the growing importance of this form of tourism in global tourism. The continued per capita growth in visitation to protected areas as surveyed in 20  countries highlights the global economic importance of this form of tourism despite a decrease in per capita visitation in the USA and Japan (Balmford et al., 2009). The decrease is most likely offset by increased international travel by people from Japan and USA to international destinations that could be classified as naturebased tourism. The potential benefits of nature-based tourism to conservation, economic and social outcomes have not been fully realized throughout the world (Wells, 1997; Scheyvens, 1999). In order to realize the potential benefits, four areas of development need to be addressed if nature-based tourism is to become more sustainable. Firstly, capturing more of the net economic benefits at the site of tourism activity needs to occur. Secondly, greater contribution to local economic development through local participation is needed. Thirdly, with increased global visitation mitigating environmental impacts is becoming paramount. Lastly, ensuring that the services of the natural environment are factored into tourism production in order to have positive biodiversity and conservation outcomes and to help maintain and enhance the resource of nature-based tourism. RH

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Fig. N4.  Nature-based tourism, Newquay, Ceredigion, Wales (Olga Garcia).

Case study: Shengtai Luyou – nature-based tourism in China In mainland China nature-based tourism is referred to as Shengtai Luyou, loosely translated as ecological tourism. However, there are distinct cultural differences in the practice of nature-based tourism in China as opposed to the West. Most of those papers that have discussed issues of nature-based tourism in China are based on the Western paradigm of ecotourism and have paid little attention to some long-established Chinese values dating back over millennia, which relate to contemporary nature-based tourism development in the country. In response Buckley et al. (2008) compare the Chinese construction Shengtai Luyou with Western interpretations of ecotourism and naturebased tourism. The Chinese word for ‘nature’, which is pronounced ‘Da Ziran’ (Sofield and Li, 2001), could be translated literally as ‘everything coming into being’ and expresses the totality of mountains, rivers, plants, animals and humans, all bound up in their five elements: fire, water, earth, wood and metal. During a long history coexisting with nature, Chinese people have accumulated a culture preferring to be harmonious with nature, typically represented by the idea of a sentiment of consanguinity between persons and nature (Shaner, 1989). This idea was advocated by Confucianism, which is a complex system of moral, social, political and religious thought that has had a tremendous influence on the history of Chinese civilization. As a number of authors have suggested, half a century of Communist ideology did little to dampen the influence of such heritage (Sofield and Li, 1998). Confucianism aims for harmony between the ­natural and the human worlds through the enthusiasm and initiative of people, and, Continued 350

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Case study.  Continued. ­ ecause nature is imperfect, man has a responsibility to improve on nature. Thus it is b not unusual to see physical improvements in natural areas or it being acceptable to adorn rock faces with Buddhist script or quotes from Chinese literature (Fig. N5). This is somewhat different from a Western Cartesian division between nature and humans, which views nature ideally as free from artificiality and human intervention (Franklin, 2003). Confucian thought maintains that the landscape of nature reflects the virtue of the human being (Zheng, 2000). Through such links to nature, Chinese people have a strong bond to natural places, and would take action to protect them. This kind of attitude is embodied in historical examples of nature-based outdoor activities in China. For instance, Zhu Li, who was one of the emperors in the Ming Dynasty (1368– 1644 AD), prohibited deforestation around all temples (Zheng, 2000). As a result many wildwoods around old temples have been largely protected. In a major difference to Western practice, many Chinese people visiting scenic spots attach symbolic expectations from traditional cultural influences. In order to watch the sun rising over Mount Tai of Shandong Province, located in the east of China, for example, many old and young Chinese wait in the chilly darkness for hours. What they are really looking for is not simply the scene of the sun rising from the clouds but the experiences and reflections which have been memorialized again and again in Chinese poetry over centuries. This poetry, written by Du Fu (712–770 AD), described the feeling of Climbing Mount Tai as ‘One day I shall climb clear to the summit, see how small surrounding mountain tops appear as they lie below me’. While landscape poetry in the West is most clearly demonstrated in Wordsworth’s depictions of the Lake District, and these were certainly important in early travel to these natural places, we would suggest that their anchoring in contemporary Western culture is significantly weakened (Franklin, 2003). As Sofield and Li suggest, ‘when Western tourists look at the Yangtze, they see a river; the Chinese see a poem replete with philosophical ideals’ (1998, p. 367). Investigation illustrates that there is a strong motivation of Chinese tourists to experience nature. According to the study of visitors to Dinghushan Nature Reserve of Guangdong Province in 1995 by Lindberg et al., the motivation of appreciating nature is the most important (Yang et al., 2000). Similar results were found with a study of Wuyishan world heritage of Fujian Province in 2003 (Wu and Hu, 2004). This study found that the motivation of 66.2% of tourists is to enjoy nature, to know and understand nature, and to experience nature. In addition, the market study done by DAMA and TQ (2005) also showed that a very large percentage of those defined as Chinese ecotourists were looking for activities such as: ‘seeing wildlife in natural surroundings’ (79%); ‘visiting environmental/ecological sites’ (68%) or ‘walking in untouched countryside or natural environments’ (60%) in a long haul holiday. In Chinese definitions there is an acknowledgement that participation in naturebased tourism can lead to improved health and well-being of those who do so. This is a factor that is largely missing in Western discourse, but has profound importance as societies worldwide look to maintain the well-being of their ageing populations. Therefore practical implementation of Western ecotourism principles may differ when placed in a Chinese context. For example, some aspects of human construction inside a nature reserve in China may be culturally appropriate – pagodas, pavilions, temples, inns, stairways cut into rocks, boulders carved in many different forms and so on – while these are less tolerated within the Western paradigm. As Sofield and Li (1998) suggest, such man-made features have been intrinsically part of natural landscapes in China for centuries. Calligraphy inscribed into cliff faces is not seen as graffiti (a Western perspective) but an artistic expression that captures and enhances the characteristics of a natural site, whether a mountain, a gorge, a cave or some other geological formation. Thus it is suggested Continued Nature-based tourism351

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Case study.  Continued. that Shengtai Luyou is not just a substitute for Western ecotourism ideals, as it is combined with specifically Chinese philosophical interpretations of the philosophy. This has important ramifications when we consider the applicability of sustainable solutions in a variety of bottom-up examples of nature-based tourism development worldwide. LZ/CIC

Fig. N5.  Rock face carvings, Huang Shan, China (Carl Cater).

  The Nature Conservancy (TNC) An international not-for-profit environmental organization with over 1 million members founded in 1951. The organization aims to protect habitat (land and water) around the world. The Nature Conservancy has protected more than 119 million acres and 5000 miles of river worldwide. The organization uses a collaborative scientific approach in selecting the areas of land for preservation. The Nature Conservancy works together with a wide range of stakeholders including large companies, private rural landholders and indigenous communities. The areas selected for conservation are not only ones of high biodiversity value but all natural areas that sustain life in an attempt to double the rate of effective conservation worldwide in the next 10 years. The Nature Conservancy is particularly recognized for their pioneering efforts in conservation on private land through conservation easements in North America and debt for nature swaps in less-developed countries. Beyond habitat-specific programmes the organization works in areas of sustainable development and climate change. CO   The Nature Conservancy www.nature.org/ 352

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  Nature park A protected area characterized by a landscape formed by long-term human interaction with the environment. In a nature park the main focus is on maintaining the cultural landscape in its present form by promoting sustainable use, particularly for agriculture and tourism. It is this emphasis on sustainable use that distinguishes a nature park from a national park, where the emphasis is typically more on wilderness preservation. A legal framework for the establishment of nature parks exists in many European countries, but is less common in other parts of the world. JMI

 NEAP See Australian Eco-Certification Program

 Network A collection of nodes (actors) and their relationships (ties) (Wasserman and Faust, 1994). Nodes can be human or institutional, but do not have to be, even in networks that represent social relationships, as Bruno Latour convincingly argues in his writings on actor network theory (Latour, 1993). Networks differ in size and structure, and can be represented mathematically using graphical theory concepts. Network science is an interdisciplinary field concerned with the study of representations of technological, biological or social networks, with the ultimate goal of developing predictive models (Börner et al., 2007). This takes advantage of network analysis as a method that is concerned with describing and predicting structural properties using graph theory and matrix operations, as well as data visualization techniques. In contrast to other analysis methods, network analysis focuses on the characteristics of relations and overall structural patterns, rather than attributes of nodes, and assumes interdependencies rather than independent observations. Network science is guided by social theories such as  contagion, homophily, critical mass, semantics, social exchange, balance theory, ­resource dependency and collective action (Monge and Contractor, 2003), trying to explain why certain relationships are formed and not others, and how relationships will evolve over time. Network theory recognizes the connectedness of organisms, artefacts and so on, and the interdependencies of structure and action. It has been applied in diverse contexts such as search engines (Google algorithm), infectious disease, collaboration, diffusion of innovation, citation patterns, understanding terrorism and infamously to describe the Hollywood film industry (‘Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon’). Networks studied in the context of tourism include travel patterns, the link structure of tourism websites or businesses within a destination (Fig. S6), local policy networks and the tourism academy. Network is also often used to describe a decentralized way of coordinating activities that differs from markets and hierarchies in that it involves interdependent but operationally autonomous agents and informal rather than contractual relationships (Powell, 1990). See also Social networking UG Network353

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Case study: Networks in adventure tourism On Australia’s Gold Coast, an industry group was formed to create network opportunities for hostels and adventure activity operators. Since 2002, Gold Coast City Council, Gold Coast Tourism and the local backpacker industry have been working cooperatively to develop the region’s backpacker product and improve the Gold Coast’s position in the Australian backpacker marketplace. As a mass tourism destination, the region had struggled to reconcile a party image with certain segments of the experience-seeking backpacker sector. In working towards this objective, the council’s Tourism Branch commissioned the Gold Coast Backpacker Analysis Report and then the Gold Coast Backpacker Industry Development Plan to assess the current position of the Gold Coast as a backpacker destination and identify opportunities for future development. In 2004, the initiative received Australian Government Regional Partnerships funding to implement this plan. This project included activities such as ‘establishing a peak industry body for the Gold Coast backpacker industry, developing appropriate branding and marketing collateral for the backpacker market, creating an Internet presence, building industry networks, and developing quality backpacker product’ (GCCC, 2005). Creating a strong network of business operators was a foundation of this group, having monthly management meetings and quarterly membership functions. The group also developed an ambassador program in partnership with the local university to use students, who were a similar age as backpackers, to promote the local product using both face to face methods and social media. Apart from targeting sustainable growth of the backpacker market on the Gold Coast, one of the stated aims of establishing a peak industry group was to develop quality backpacker product in the region. The initiative was relatively successful, as in 2007, 122,435 international backpackers visited the Gold Coast, up from 86,000 in 2002 (GCATG, 2007), a growth that outpaced other Australian backpacker destinations. However, there were some key lessons learnt from this project regarding networks in tourism. When developing strong industry clusters there is a need to focus on the broader tourism industry rather than a particular niche. This allows bringing together experienced operators (in this case hostel owners/managers) with partners that may have product suitable for backpackers but have not previously considered this market. As a result, a value-­ chain of products and services is created that builds the internal strength of the industry and the overall product offer of the destination. Secondly, partners in the project must be actively involved and buy into the outcomes of the project. This particularly relates to jointly funding and implementing initiatives. The development of quality relationships built on trust and mutual understanding are important to encourage this engagement. Not every person involved needs to have their say on every decision, however all partners must be kept informed and have the opportunity to input into the direction of the initiatives. Establishing a management committee of 12 representatives to make the strategic decisions worked well in this project to ensure initiatives were rolled out in a timely and efficient manner. Lastly the importance of a facilitator was highlighted by this project. This role was principally undertaken by Gold Coast City Council who didn’t have a commercial stake so was able to provide a non-biased approach to the implementation of the project and facilitated the discussion between various industry stakeholders who had varying interests and perspectives. In addition, having motivated individuals to push and promote the network was deemed paramount. CIC

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  New Environmental Paradigm (NEP) A framework for understanding attitudes towards environmental issues, developed into a measurement scale by Dunlap and Van Liere (1978). The aim of the scale was to support research into levels of environmental concern. The framework argues that attitudes in the 1970s were changing away from the prevailing view of the environment as an unlimited resource for humans, to a new paradigm in which the environment was seen as fragile and valuable in its own right. While it has become a very commonly used measure in environmental attitudes research (Dunlap, 2008), widespread awareness of environmental issues have raised concerns about its continued relevance (Wise, 2010). GM

  New peasantry The small or family farmer’s struggle for survival and autonomy in the context of marginalization and dependency resulting from capitalist farming systems and globalization (Ploeg, 2008). In 2010, Ploeg re-instated ‘the peasantry’ as a theoretically meaningful concept in the European Union (EU), arguing that the peasantry describes the process of agricultural restructuring not only in less-developed countries but is also a key trend in European rural development today. ‘Peasant agriculture’ refers to an agricultural development trajectory built on ecological capital and the farmer’s own resource base. This is in contrast to the modern agricultural trajectory promoted post-Second World War, which is built on industrial capital and focuses on specialization, intensification and scale enlargement in farming. Many farms, particularly smaller ones in less favourable areas for agricultural production, are unable to compete effectively in primary agricultural commodity markets in capitalist, globalized markets. As a result, they are increasingly following peasant agricultural strategies including: farming more efficiently (cost reduction and creation of own inputs), employing resources (land, labour, capital and other assets) in different activities (see Diversification) and forging new market relationships in order to survive and prosper. Research by Oostindie et al. (2002) found that 80% of farmers in the EU are following peasant agricultural strategies with 51% engaged in diversification, 60% engaged in cost reduction and 27% engaged in off farm employment. The term ‘new peasantry’ acknowledges that while farmers may be returning to the past by employing their resources in different activities, they are not the peasants of the past. The term is a positive one, which highlights that a capable group of farmers exist that are able to respond to emerging market opportunities by transforming their resources and using modern technology to access markets in order to generate new income streams. The result is that farmers are operating multi-functional enterprises, are less dependent on primary agricultural commodity markets and have increased autonomy on how they conduct their business. The concept also recognizes that these farmers play an important role in terms of environmental management, food quality and rural vitality, which are all factors that society values and that are lost under modernized farming systems (Ploeg, 2008). One of the key market opportunities that farmers have responded to over the years is the demand for rural leisure. For example, in Wales 25% of farmers are engaged in providing some form of farm tourism or leisure activity (Welsh Rural Observatory, 2010). Farm-based tourism and leisure can be based upon the farm experience, farm New peasantry355

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produce, the hospitality of the farming family and the local environment and culture. These are all resources available to farmers to create their product. Farm-based tourism and leisure activity focusing on the use of the farms’ resources not only has the potential to sustain the farm household but can also support local agricultural production, promote the local culture and countryside and revitalize the rural economy. See also Rural tourism AT

  Newly industrializing countries (NICs) An acronym to indicate countries with emerging economies. As middle classes in these countries develop, there will be a significant shift in patterns of demand for tourism, which will have profound implications for sustainable tourism. Interpretations of environment, society and culture may differ in many of these societies to the Western hegemony that has dominated to date. For example Cochrane (2006, p. 979) acknowledges, as that domestic users of national parks in Indonesia often have differing ‘cognitive interpretations of nature’ to Western users. See also BRICs CIC

 NGO See Non-governmental organization

  Niche tourism A form of tourism defined as being in diametric opposition to mass tourism in terms of its concept and practices. As such, niche tourism has much in common with alternative tourism. Robinson and Novelli (in Novelli, 2005) suggest that the term has essentially been drawn from the discipline of marketing, where the term ‘niche marketing’ has long been used to refer to a specific market segment in which the consumers are distinguished by their specialized needs and interests, and by their strong affinity with the product. The size of a niche can vary, although to be viable it must be large enough to attract a number of specialist suppliers, yet small enough to be overlooked by their direct competitors. Suppliers in the niche market survive and prosper because they possess the knowledge required to identify potential customers, to meet their specific needs and to maintain an on-going relationship with them (see Relationship marketing). Novelli identifies three broad categories into which examples of niche tourism can be grouped: (i) special-interest tourism, which includes for example photographic tourism, geotourism, youth tourism, dark tourism (or ‘thanatourism’), genealogy tourism, gastronomic (food) tourism and transport tourism; (ii) tradition- and culture-based tourism, which includes tribal tourism, cultural and heritage tourism, tourism in peripheral areas and research tourism; and (iii) activity-based tourism, which includes small-ship cruise tourism, sport tourism, wildlife tourism, volunteer tourism and adventure tourism. This classification can be contested. For example, some writers on the subject of wildlife tourism have pointed out that tourist encounters with wildlife can and often do occur within the 356

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context of mass tourism. As such, it could be argued that the above examples may count as niche tourism under some circumstances but not others. Robinson and Novelli attempt to resolve this conundrum by arguing that there is in fact a spectrum of niche tourism, with ‘macro-niches’ at one end, examples of which could be said to include cultural tourism and sport tourism. Such forms of tourism provide the tourist with alternative product formulations to mass tourism, but they are still relatively large segments of the market. Such macro-­ niches are, however, capable of being broken down into further niches, which Robinson and Novelli term ‘micro-niches’. Examples of the latter could be said to include gastronomy tourism or cycle tourism. Such micro-niches occupy the opposite end of the spectrum of tourism niche market segments and cannot practically be further divided. The tendency for niche tourism to be defined in terms of its opposition to mass tourism has often given it a moral legitimacy that is has not always deserved. While the tendency has been for niche tourism to involve small-scale operators and the participation of local communities, as well as to appeal particularly to more highly educated and ethically sensitive tourists, such features tend to be incidental to the formulation and delivery of the product. Niche tourism is not therefore to be considered synonymous with ethical tourism, responsible tourism or sustainable tourism. Furthermore, there is no precondition for niche tourism to be small in scale: while the product is often delivered by a network of specialist, small-scale operators, it may equally well be delivered by large, mass tour operators through the use of expert information systems. The relationship between niche tourism and sustainable tourism still requires further investigation and debate. BG Further reading Lew, A. (2008) Long tail tourism: New geographies for marketing niche tourism products. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing 25, 409–419. Millington, K. (2006) Niche market tourism. Travel and Tourism Analyst, August, 1–47.

  Sustainable Tourism Online: Growing Niche Markets www.sustainabletourismonline.com/business-operations/product-development/product-­ and-experiences-development/growing-niche-markets

Case study: Genealogy tourism in Scotland Genealogy is the process in which information about births, marriages, deaths and other formal records is linked together to form a person’s family tree. The term is considered to be interchangeable with ‘family history’. While there are many professional genealogists who can be commissioned to trace a family tree, the vast majority of genealogists are amateurs. The number of amateur genealogists has grown immensely as a result of growing access to the Internet, coupled with the increasing number of records that have been digitized for the Web, including many countries’ national censuses. Many amateur genealogists like to go further than simply to trace their family tree and this may include a desire to visit the places where their ancestors lived, worked, spent leisure time, fought in battle and/or died. The purpose may be to conduct further research on their ancestors, for example to meet and interview other family members or the people their ancestors knew, or it may simply be to see for themselves the places their ancestors Continued Niche tourism357

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Case study.  Continued. knew. Genealogy tourism, then, can be considered a niche form of tourism in which an individual or group (for example, a whole family) travels away from their home to visit, and stay at least one night, in a place connected with their family history. Some destination management organizations have recognized the importance of genealogy tourism for inbound tourism and have developed initiatives designed to stimulate such tourism. The intention of such initiatives has partly been simply to attract more tourists, but mixed in with such motivations is the desire to capture more alternative tourists, on the basis that this is more likely to contribute to the destination’s sustainable tourism goals. In particular, genealogy tourism is considered to be less seasonal than many other forms of tourism, and as such may be useful to help fill out the shoulder and ‘low’ tourism periods at a destination with high seasonality. Scotland is a good example of a destination that has attempted to stimulate genealogy tourism. Birtwistle (in Novelli, 2005), notes that from as early as 2000 the Scottish Tourism Board, which was the destination management organization (DMO) for Scotland at that time, had developed a four-part strategy for building this niche: (i) linking genealogy websites to its Web portal; (ii) developing and promoting Scots heritage events overseas; (iii) the use of direct marketing campaigns; and (iv) promotions in specialist expatriate publications. This was followed in 2001 by the launch of the ‘Ancestral Scotland Initiative’. This strategy was built on the recognition of two major enabling factors and two motivating factors underpinning demand to visit places connected with one’s family tree. The enabling factors were: (i) access to the technology, increasingly in people’s own homes, to facilitate researching one’s family tree; and (ii) the growth of online resources that can be used for genealogical purposes. Scotland has unrivalled access to such digital resources, making it relatively easy for Scottish diaspora to track their family trees back to Scotland. This enables, in a sense, a ‘virtual homecoming’ that can motivate a real homecoming in the form of a trip to Scotland. Further motivation comes from: (i) increasing globalization has resulted in growing feelings of ‘placelessness’ and a lack of sense of belonging, which stimulates the desire to ‘find ones roots’; and (ii) growing disaffection with mass forms of tourism and the desire to experience more ‘authentic’ holiday times. In 2009, VisitScotland, the present DMO for Scotland, and EventScotland held a series of events linked together under the banner of ‘Homecoming Scotland’. The programme was organized around five main themes: Robert Burns (2009 being the 250th anniversary of his birth), whisky, golf, great Scottish minds and innovations and Scotland’s culture and heritage. The programme was partly funded by the European Union’s Regional Development Fund. It had four main aims: (i) to raise additional visits and revenue worth at least £44m; (ii) to deliver 50,000 new customer prospects; (iii) to achieve an approval rating at events of at least 70%; and (iv) to deliver a programme of at least 100 events with maximal media coverage. The total marketing budget for the initiative was around £8.4m. The outturn was that an additional £53.7m of tourism revenue was generated, some 200,000 new names were added to the VisitScotland database, the approval rating among Scots for the linked events was 75%, while in total some 400 events took place, achieving an estimated £28m of media coverage. More recently, 2014 was also designated the ‘Scottish Year of Homecoming’. As well as a number of major world class events happening in Scotland during the year, including the Commonwealth Games in Glasgow and golf’s Ryder Cup, various ancestry-themes events have been scheduled, including a festival to mark the 700th anniversary of the Battle of Bannockburn, a ‘Highland Homecoming’ event for Gaelic speakers and a number of special clan gatherings. These are linked to annual events such as the Highland Games. There are also a number of special ancestral itineraries available and the opportunity to follow some established trails, such as the Castle Trail and a well-established Whisky Trail. BG

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  Non-consumptive tourism See Consumptive tourism

  Non-governmental organization (NGO) Formal entities that are neither private profit-making enterprises nor part of the state. NGOs vary in size and scale, are very numerous and diverse, from self-help groups to political organizations. There are over 30,000 international NGOs affiliated to the United Nations, and the number of local or national NGOs operating in the United States is estimated between one and two million, while India may have more than three million. These organizations exist outside the direct involvement of government and attempt to affect political issues from the view of civil society, although they frequently work alongside state structures (Princen and Finger, 1994; Wallace and Lewis, 2000; Hilhorst, 2003). NGOs should (in theory) take a neutral role in empowerment issues in assisting the local community. Therefore, in many cases, especially in less-­ developed countries, NGOs play a significant role in assisting rural communities develop sustainable tourism, particularly in the provision of education and training programmes. NGOs are often concerned with the environment (see Environmental non-­ governmental organization) but also with people’s well-being and development (Butcher, 2007), depending on their specific aim. In the area of environmental issues, for example, WWF is the largest NGO concerned with conservation and integrating this with community benefits in the world; SNV (Stichting Nederlandse Verijwilligers), a Dutch-based development agency concerned with well-being and development, has been active in developing sustainable tourism in less developed countries (Butcher, 2007). Doyle and McEachern (1998, p. 52) identify NGOs by their ‘size, their principal aim, their character (e.g. campaigning, industry body, membership); and their relationship to the private and government sectors’. The different characteristics of NGOs are reflections of very different relational contexts, including ‘a diversity of funding resources, (and) work with commercial, governmental and other NGOs on relevant issues of development and conservation’ (Butcher, 2007, p. 15). Notably, NGOs often have quite strong individual ideological attributes which underlie the organization, and they conduct their activities with these attributes in mind. Scheyvens (2002) categorizes NGOs as being either ‘operational’ or ‘advocacy/ lobbying’, with the former implementing projects and programmes, and the latter organizing demonstrations and political activity (see Tourism Concern). However, both types may engage in fund-raising, administration (including having a headquarters), mobilizing efforts of supporters, cultivating the media and organizing special events. For tourism, the role of NGOs is usually that of facilitators in the community – ‘they bring to bear expertise and advice, and bring together the relevant stakeholders – but essentially are facilitating a process in which the community is central, rather than being the driving force in this process’ (Butcher, 2007, p. 85). NGOs act in the role of consultants, facilitators and educators offering their professional knowledge, concepts and skills for use in community-based tourism ­development. Non-governmental organization (NGO)359

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However, problems often arise when it comes to the issue of empowering community residents to exercise control over development of their tourism industry. Empowerment implies that the community acquires an ability to exercise power or control, and the NGOs’ role is to assist the community to engage with empowerment issues, acting as ‘catalysts for community democracy, rather than exerting a powerful external influence on the direction of development’ (Butcher, 2007, p. 84). Successful empowerment depends on how well-founded the trust relationship, communication and cooperating mechanisms between the NGOs and community all are. Being people-centered, NGOs probably exert their greatest influence in the sphere of human capital of the Sustainable Livelihood Approach, through providing the tourism development with skills, knowledge and strategies and thereby helping with poverty alleviation in rural or remote communities. The NGOs’ influence naturally extends beyond this and also influences all the other forms of capital because human capital inevitably interacts with and affects financial, physical, social, cultural, natural and political aspects of tourism development. It is, however, in the educational realm that NGOs are often tasked with providing the most immediate influence on empowerment of communities, often an area that can bring about lasting changes. NGOs not only play a significant role in education and training, but also often provide consultants to assist tourism planning and policy. Hall (1994, p. 34) indicates that ‘planning for tourism occurs in a number of forms (development, infrastructure, promotion, and marketing); structures (different government organizations); and scales (international, national, regional, local, and sectional)’. Moreover Heeley (1981, p. 61) points out that ‘planning for tourism tends to be an amalgam of economic, social, and environmental considerations which reflects the diversity of factors which influence tourism development’. In addition Fennell (2003, p. 103) indicates that ‘tourism and ecotourism policy encompasses a broad spectrum of concerns related to the implementation of tourism programmes around the world, including social, ecological, and economic relationships’. Thus, tourism planning and policy is not only highly political, but reflects financial, physical, social, cultural, natural and human assets at a variety of scales. However, Chambers’ (1997) approach suggests that professional planners and consultants are often unable to explore and implement the more in-depth indigenous knowledge. As a result, NGOs often play a better role if they seek to establish and work with local agencies and institutions that can help provide good plans and policies and guide the local community over the long-term. NGOs can also play a significant role in creating biodiversity policy and planning for tourism processes (see Coral Cay Conservation). Their role is often to provide the initial funding, policy and planning strategies for tourism development, which can assist rural and indigenous people establish their own policy and planning, particularly regarding the biodiversity resource (Holtz and Edwards, 2003). Generally NGOs provide grants, loans and policy-making for tourism projects in local communities, thereby often having a more direct influence than government policy (Sofield, 2003; Holtz and Edwards, 2003). Thus, NGOs play a significant role indeed in providing tourism education and training programs to guide local residents, not only in acquiring essential skills and knowledge, but also in local capacity-­ building initiatives. See also Pressure group CHC 360

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  Not in my backyard (NIMBY) syndrome The ‘not in my backyard’ syndrome (with the acronym NIMBY), coined in the early 1980s, describes the behaviour of residents (‘nimbies’) who are convinced about the usefulness of a project, for example, a chemical plant, incinerator, waste dump or new road, but oppose its planning or development in their neighbourhood. Their reasons may vary from reluctance to change, incomplete knowledge about the project, ideological opposition, resentment of outsider imposition, and mistrust of authorities, to conviction that the project would harm local communities and the health of residents. Nimbies usually join together, often as NGO or lobbying groups and are unified by a common attitude against something. However, they also often represent those with power in planning systems. More radical variations on NIMBY are: NOPE (not on planet earth); BANANA (build absolutely nothing anywhere near anyone); and NIABY (not in anyone’s backyard). AC

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  Outbound tourism Defined by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA, 2008, p. 15) as ‘the activities of a resident visitor outside the country of reference, ­either as part of an outbound tourism trip or as part of a domestic tourism trip’. The term ‘visitor’ embraces both tourists, who by definition make at least one overnight stay in the destination, and same-day visitors (sometimes known as ‘excursionists’), who do not. Outbound tourism will generally consist of people travelling away from their country of residence to a foreign destination. However, the overseas travel may technically be part of a domestic tourism trip. For example, if a resident of New York, USA, was to spend time in Toronto, Canada, on his or her way to Los Angeles, USA, the portion of the stay taking place in Canada would count as outbound tourism, even if the trip as a whole was essentially a domestic one (i.e. a USA resident travelling to a destination that is in the USA). See also Inbound tourism BG

  Outdoor recreation Outdoor recreation is recreation that takes place outdoors in urban and rural environments, and it is a leisure activity in which almost all individuals engage (Pigram and Jenkins, 2006). Outdoor recreation is an important aspect of many people’s lives, encompassing passive to extreme/adventure leisure activities across diverse environmental settings. Outdoor recreation has been studied extensively in Western economies, but less so in developing ones. The most prolific research has been in the disciplines of the social sciences and psychology, with work informed by the natural sciences (e.g. impacts on flora and fauna) having strong emphasis in the United States from the 1970s and 1980s and later being taken up around the world, particularly with respect to research in sensitive and protected areas. Indeed, outdoor recreation is widely considered a form of activity that involves a complex intersect of resource planning, management, consumption and impacts, with interactions between recreationists and some ‘element of nature’ often a particular feature of activities (e.g. Cloke and Park, 1985; Ibrahim and Cordes, 1993). The extent and nature of recreational participation and personal travel have been affected by many factors, such as: population growth (including immigration in many countries/regions); changes in population characteristics – improved health care and diets, longer life spans and ageing populations; changing family structures; shorter and/or more varied ‘working weeks’; increased holiday entitlements; increased mobility; urbanization and suburbanization; commercialization of recreational activities; 362

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Fig. O1.  Prevention of feeding, Costa Rica (Olga Garcia).

links between obesity, activity and health and fitness programmes; a growing focus on human services and the needs of special groups; and tourism development (see Pigram and Jenkins, 2006). The growth and expansion of outdoor recreation and tourism present challenges to the development of sustainable communities and regions, especially with regard to physical impacts on protected areas and sensitive access zones such as beach fronts, and social impacts on communities in the form of congestion, noise and crowding of resources. Even in the most inaccessible and remote or wild places, a person’s presence can dramatically affect other participants’ experiences, cause changes to a species of animal’s feeding (Fig. O1) or breeding behaviours, or irreparably damage vegetation with low resistance to trampling (see Carrying capacity). The sustainable development of tourism arising from outdoor recreation activities presents complex planning challenges, but has led to many innovative planning and management solutions, and an array of planning and management frameworks (e.g. Pigram and Jenkins, 2006; Manning, 2011). See also Recreation opportunity spectrum JJ

 Outreach The ‘act of reaching out’ or the extending of services or assistance beyond current or usual limits, and is often used in education or community-based tourism examples. Outreach363

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Sustainable tourism examples include: Tourism Cares, a not-for-profit organization supported by the travel industry. Their ‘Global Outreach Plan’ provides funding, organization of tourism volunteer products, scholarships and educational program (Tourism Cares, 2013). Boma Africa is a self-sustaining non-profit expedition company offering outreach adventures throughout Tanzania with the goal to generate funds for community projects (Boma Africa, 2013). SJ

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P   Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA) A regional tourism association working to promote tourism in the Asia Pacific. PATA was initially established as the Pacific Area Travel Association at its inaugural conference held 10–15 January 1952 in Waikiki, Hawaii, but became the Pacific Asia Travel Association from 1986. It draws its membership base from the public and private sectors across the Pacific Asia region. In the 1970s, the PATA Development Authority promoted the need for heritage conservation, education and training and environmental enhancement: the early days of a sustainable tourism approach. In the 1980s, the newly formed PATA Foundation focused on sensitive cultural, heritage and environmental project funding. The 1991 annual conference in Bali called for the promotion of ecologically responsible travel and tourism leading to the PATA ‘Code for Environmentally Responsible Tourism’. Also in the 1990s, PATA established a Sustainable Tourism Committee within its board committee structure. In 2005, PATA’s Mission Statement was amended to include the words ‘responsible development’ and ‘sustainable growth, value and quality of travel and tourism to, from and within the region’. SN

  Package tour A tour made up of a pre-paid bundle of products and services, typically including travel to and back from the destination, overnight accommodation and other related services, such as those of a local tour representative. Not all of the services a tourist desires will necessarily be part of the package (see All-inclusive tour). Hence, while some meals will be pre-paid, others will not and the package tourist must pay for these locally. Similarly, local excursions may or may not be pre-paid as part of the package. Such tours are also known as ‘package holidays’ or ‘inclusive tours’. Package tours are put together by tour operators and normally retailed to the public by travel agents, although it is increasingly possible for the public to book package holidays directly with tour operators. Many authorities ascribe the concept of the package tour to Thomas Cook, who in 1841 chartered a train to take temperance campaigners from their home town of Leicester, UK, to a rally in Loughborough, UK. The first mass tourism package is widely held to be the one organized by Vladimir Raitz, co-founder of Horizon Holidays, from the UK to Palma in 1952. The growing popularity of the package tour may be seen with reference to the UK market. While only 1% of all UK residents had ever travelled overseas in the 1950s, package tourism in the 1960s and 1970s saw many tourists travel abroad for the first time, particularly to the rapidly growing Mediterranean resort destinations. By 1980, some 6.8 million overseas package tours were sold in the UK, rising to over 18.5 million in 2005. Since 2000, however, the UK overseas package tour market has stagnated relative to the © CAB International 2015. The Encyclopedia of Sustainable Tourism  (eds C. Cater, B. Garrod and T. Low)

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growth of outbound tourism as a whole. While in 2001 some 55% of overseas UK holidays were package tours, by 2013 this had fallen to 47%. Much of the explanation for the declining fortunes of the package tour relates to the increasingly popular practice of ‘self packaging’. This involves the tourist booking the individual elements of their holiday themselves. Although not exclusively an e-commerce phenomenon, self-packaging has been greatly facilitated by the increasing use by tour operators of the internet, when the practice is known as ‘dynamic packaging’. See also Integrated resort, Mass tourism BG

 Participation Involvement in decision-making, the benefits of such decisions, or both. Participation in the mechanisms and institutions of sustainable tourism typically implies community involvement, and as such is synonymous with community participation. Participation, like sustainability, is fundamentally concerned with addressing valued elements and dynamics that are the lifeblood of a community. Nonetheless, scholars of sustainable tourism have reported substantive evidences that lead to an understanding of the nature and the successes and failures of community participation. Conceptually, community participation is understood to be both multidimensional and multidisciplinary. By way of definition, community participation refers to a form of voluntary action in which individuals confront opportunities and responsibilities of citizenship. Community participation is used to design and develop in such a way that intended beneficiaries are encouraged to take matters into their own hands, to participate in their own development through mobilizing their own resources, define their own needs and make their own decisions about how to meet them (Fig. P1). This may imply community participation as a development strategy is based on community resources, needs and decisions. Hence, community is the main actor in the development process, whereby opportunities for such participation would include joining in the process of self-governance, responding to authoritative decisions that impact on one’s life and working co-operatively with others on issues of mutual concern. According to some studies, the nature of participation is a manifestation of a community’s inherent cultural elements that are fortified by the resilience and resolve of its members who, in turn, thrive on the abstract idealism and esoteric abstraction of their particular collective identity. Other scholars posit community participation as a requisite for any change in an ‘in-situ’ circumstance. Innumerable permutations of community participation modes/formats thus emerge in response to variations of the internal and external influences over time. Furthermore, community participation is known to empower local people to take greater control over development of tourism-related projects. This is often presented as an antidote to a lack of sensitivity to the needs of the local community, and a lack of any serious consultation with them, on the part of government and big business. Community participation also suggests itself as part of a democratic agenda: enhanced choice, empowerment and control all evoke a greater degree of democracy in development. It has at its heart a promotion of the agency of the popular majority, usually within a locality. These arguments suggest that community participation (engagement and exchange) is indeed the only way for the realization of people’s aspirations. By implication, then, community participation is an expression of 366Participation

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Fig. P1.  Community and tourist meeting, Annapurna, Nepal (Carl Cater).

a desire to avoid using traditional bureaucratic paternalism, according to which agencies believe that they are close to the ideas of members of the community, and they know best what is good for people in the community. Furthermore, it is notable that community participation is often viewed by its advocates as ‘alternative’ or as radical, as a counter to overbearing governments and the rhetorical free-market agenda associated with the big global financial institutions, the World Bank and the IMF. Activists tend to argue that true ‘grassroots’ participation is necessary as part of the construction of ‘an alternative “new world order” in which people themselves, rather than outside interests, determine and control their lives’ (Pleumaron, 1994, p. 147). Given the above perspectives, scholars have argued in favour of community participation as desirable, because of its preventive and remedial possibilities in tourism growth, planning and development. But it is for these very reasons that community participation has been heavily criticized. Many scholars contend that community participation is far from being an ethical approach to development, particularly in tourism industry practices. Much evidence points to the tendency for community participation to mask some rather less than progressive assumptions about the destinations in question. Empirical evidence indicates that the democratic credentials of participation, seen in a slightly wider context, are illusory. Many critics have questioned the efficacy of community participation along these lines, regarding it as either tokenistic, or a cover for commercial or preservationist schemes. It is unlikely that any tourism situation where a clearly defined community exercises real control, takes the initiative, makes Participation367

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all decisions on the basis of consensus, promotes a sustainable local natural environment and indigenous economy, supports traditional culture, retains most economic benefits internally, allows these benefits to be distributed equitably and is financially self-sustaining, actually exists anywhere or is likely to emerge. Participation exists in a spectrum of myriad hues, ranging from citizen power to manipulation; it can vary from minimal involvement as in the case of information exchange (surveys, handouts, questionnaires and the like) to comprehensive and impactful forms emerging from community control. Presently, three typologies of community participation in the tourism development process have been documented through, and employed in, empirical investigations. These include the typologies of Pretty (1995), Arnstein (1969) and Tosun (1999). Each of these typologies present a range of participation that are fairly comparable, in that the range depicts a minimum or pseudo-participation and a maximum, or an ideal, level of involvement. For example, Pretty’s seven levels of participation feature ‘manipulation’ at one end and ‘self-mobilization’ (ideal) at the other. Arnstein’s ladder of participation shows non-participation by way of manipulation to the maximum limit of citizen control. Whereas, Tosun (2000) identifies coercion at the lower level and spontaneous participation at the upper most rung.     SS

  Participatory action research A methodology situated within the family of action research, with a focus on participatory and democratic processes, which allows for the inclusion of practical knowledge in order to address social problems and lead to some type of social action or change. Participatory action research (PAR) is rooted in liberation theology or neo-Marxist theoretical approaches and emerged from the ideas of Paulo Freire’s (1970) Pedagogy of the Oppressed, in which he used a methodology that encouraged marginalized populations to examine and analyse the structural reasons for their oppression. From these early beginnings, PAR developed as a methodology and is now a framework that allows researchers to work in collaboration with communities. Participants are included in all stages of the research process, from identifying the research question to designing the study, to gathering and analysing data, and are beneficiaries from the research conducted (Whyte, 1991). In practice, PAR takes form as a series of self-reflexive cycles in which both researchers and participants engage as a learning experience. Kemmis and McTaggert (2005) laid out seven key characteristics that are important to PAR. First, it is a social process that acknowledges the realm between the individual and the social. Second, it is participatory and recognizes the various forms of knowledge. Third, it is practical and collaborative where the researchers work with the participants to reconstruct their social interactions. Fourth, it is emancipatory and focuses on enabling people through awareness of self in society and recognizing the social structures that oppress them. Fifth, it is critical in that it facilitates a re-examination of social processes and relationships that are unjust. Sixth, it is reflexive or a dialectical process in which emancipation is found through self-critical action. Seventh, it should aim to transform both theory and practice by understanding the perspectives or standpoints of those within the situations or contexts that are under study. There are a number of variants of PAR, including Participatory Rural Appraisal, Rapid Rural Appraisal, Critical Action Research, Community-based Participatory 368

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Research and Participatory Community Research, which all have a focus on the reconfiguration of power structures. PAR is a highly political process in which negotiation of power is central. As such, PAR has been considered a vehicle in which participation can be achieved in tourism development projects. See also Empowerment, Linking thinking, Reflection     LDU

  Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) Approaches and methods that facilitate local people to share, enhance and analyse their knowledge of day-to-day living, jointly plan and assume responsibility and practise critical self-awareness. PRA is applied mainly in the fields of anthropology, ecology and research on farming systems in the Global South. Theis and Grady (1991, p. 23) define PRA as an ‘intensive, systematic but semi-structured learning experience carried out in a community by a multidisciplinary team which includes community members’. According to Pratt and Loizs (1992), PRA as a tool is an upgraded and reformed form of RRA (Rapid Rural Appraisal), which also underlines ‘public participation’. In contrast, PRA stresses the transition of project ownership from researchers, experts and policy-makers to the communities themselves. Mascarenhas (1991) identifies the three basic components of PRA as being: (i) methods, e.g. role reversals and feedback sessions following the focus group discussions and semi-structured interviews; (ii) behaviour, i.e. empowering communities to articulate their understanding, conduct their own analysis and assert their own priorities while facilitators listen and learn; and (iii) sharing, i.e. locals share knowledge among themselves and with ‘outsiders’ or facilitators, while facilitators themselves share what they learn with each other and with locals. Thus it is common for researchers applying PRA techniques to use seeds, pebbles, stones, crops and other easily identifiable and accessible local resources to undertake visual diagramming. Such an approach acts as an equalizer, builds rapport among participants and helps in eliciting information, support and input of community members with little or no formal education. Although not widely used in tourism studies, PRA can be effectively applied in both urban and rural contexts to assess communities’ expectations, plan joint action and propose regulations that seek to mitigate the impacts of mass tourism. For instance, the CAMPFIRE (Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources) initiative in Africa, which used PRA methods, illustrates an attempt to develop non-consumptive tourism, with cultural interaction as a central focus (Parpart, 2000). In future, for PRA techniques to effectively challenge established power divisions, especially along gender lines, they need to incorporate more nuanced understandings of how communities are structured, particularly the connection between power, voice/silence and gender.     GSA

Further reading Chambers, R. (1994a) The origins and practice of Participatory Rural Appraisal. World Development 22, 953–969. Chambers, R. (1994b) Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA): Analysis of experience. World Development 22, 1253–1268.

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 Partnership A relationship that arises when two or more individuals or organizations agree on shared issues and achieving an objective. In a business partnership, there are some specific qualifications. Firstly, the number of people who set up a partnership must be more than one. Secondly, partners have to have a common objective. Thirdly, to achieve the common objective, partners have to sign an agreement. Lastly, to achieve the common objective, partners have to put in money, goods or labour. Three partnership forms exist: general partnerships, limited partnerships and limited liability partnerships. In a general partnership, two or more partners carry out business together. They share equal rights and liabilities in connection with management of the business, while all partners share all of the liabilities and debts. In a limited partnership, each partner is allowed to restrict their liabilities to the amount of their business investment. Partners in a limited partnership do not always participate in management decisions. In limited liability partnership, meanwhile, a partner still offers the partnership tax benefits, but also offers liability protection for its partners. A partner in a limited liability partnership is not responsible for the wrongful acts of the other partners.     OM

  Partnership for Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria A partnership established in 2007 by 27 public, not-for-profit and private organizations including the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the United Nations Foundation, the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) and the Rainforest Alliance (Klintman, 2012). Its vision is to develop a common understanding of sustainable tourism and to provide minimum sustainability criteria that any tourism businesses should aspire to. These criteria are centred around four pillars: effective sustainability planning; reducing the negative impacts to the environment; enhancing cultural heritage; and maximizing social and economic benefits for the local community. In 2009, the GSTC partnership officially merged with the Sustainable Tourism Stewardship Council (STSC) to launch the Global Tourism Sustainability Council (GTSC) in 2010 (Rainforest Alliance, 2009).     DRE

  Peace through tourism The proposition that interactions associated with tourist activities can contribute to more harmonious intercultural relationships. The concept was introduced in 1986 by Lou D’Amore, founding president of the International Institute for Peace through Tourism. A theoretical foundation is provided by contact theory (Allport, 1954), which submits that positive intergroup attitude change results from contact situations in which certain conditions are met: equality of status among participants; intergroup cooperation; common goals; and support by authorities, laws or customs. Opportunities for personal acquaintance and the development of intergroup friendships were later additions to the list. 370Partnership

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The proposition also argues that appropriately managed tourism can address a number of factors contributing to conflict (e.g. Moufakkir and Kelly, 2010). Extension of the hospitality ethic among the broader host community, bringing together people with shared interests and the provision of information about each other, can alleviate the anxieties associated with unfamiliarity. Attractions devoted to reconciliation can help reduce lingering hostilities among former adversaries. Pro-poor and fair trade tourism measures tackle the problem of poverty through diversification of the economic base, provision of training and education, expansion of local employment opportunities (especially for women), community involvement, use of local suppliers and infrastructure development. An emphasis on development of local resources can counter the standardization and loss of identity associated with globalization. The economic value of tourism is recognized in campaigns to boycott destinations administered by despotic regimes. Awareness of tourism’s peace potential is promoted through reminders such as: peace poles, parks and gardens; codes of ethics and conduct; poverty tourism; and tourism education. It is recognized that there are aspects of tourism that do not contribute to the peace objective. These include fleeting and insubstantial host–guest contacts, dishonest and unsafe practices (see Crime), an exclusivist focus on cultural differences, lack of community consultation, exploitation (especially of women and children) and failing to respect human rights. The need to combat these through sound management is reflected in the principles of responsible tourism.     IK

  Peak oil The conceptualization of oil as a finite resource in a market economy, in which extraction will grow, peak and then decline. Due to mankind’s reliance on crude oil, peak oil is forecast to have great implications for global economic and social systems, bringing an end to the age of cheap and readily available oil. As the more easily accessible oil is depleted, the economic and environmental costs of extraction increase. The date at which peak oil will occur is contested: pessimistic standpoints believe peak oil has already occurred, thus the decline has already begun. More optimistic forecasts suggest that the decline in global oil extraction will begin in the 2020s. In terms of tourism, peak oil will have implications for transport and travel costs along with other societal shifts resulting from behavioural transformations. See also Carbon management, Energy use     DH

 Peripherality Remoteness from a key market as a result of location and/or access factors. Peripheral areas are generally geographically remote from key markets, and in many cases may have reduced political and economic control over their resources, because decisions that affect their welfare are usually made in the administrative core. Contextualizing peripherality is difficult because it involves more than spatial factors and in Peripherality371

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many instances includes ease of access, visitor perceptions, the scale of isolation and measurement of the degree of peripherality that may range from near to far. In some cases, accessibility may be more significant than distance. In the case of Papua New Guinea on a national scale, high impenetrable mountains close to Port Moresby, the national core, are more difficult to reach than coastal cities that are located much further away but are within easy air access. On an international scale, Port Moresby is a peripheral destination and these mountain areas therefore become a ‘periphery of a periphery’ for overseas visitors. The degree of peripherality generally results in high destination costs, access problems and in most cases infrastructure deficiencies. However, the isolation conferred by peripherality may also be a major selling point. The ability to attract tourists to peripheral areas rests on being able to overcome the twin inhibitors of high additional cost and time spent on travel by offering an attraction that is unique. In Australia, Uluru, the world’s largest stand-alone monolith, is located in a largely uninhabited desert region (Fig. P2) at the centre of the country. Access from many east coast destinations by road may take up to 4 days but only 3 hours by air. The uniqueness of Uluru is its key selling point with visitors willing to incur additional travel costs and forfeit time at other destinations to encounter the iconic experience offered by the destination. See also Core-periphery, Mining, Spatial reorganization     KMN and BP

Fig. P2.  Peripherality on Oodnadatta Track, South Australia (Tiffany Low).

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 Permits The term permit refers to a written order granting special permission to do something or have something in a particular place. It is also known as a license. In Botswana’s tourism destination areas, tourism businesses are given permits or licenses to do business in a particular area. These include protected areas such as Moremi Game Reserve, Okavango Delta and Chobe National Park. Research permits are given to tourism researchers to do tourism research in those particular areas. There are also permits to view particular species, such as whale sharks in Australia or gorillas in Rwanda (Fig. P3), or work permits for expatriate workers.     JMB

  PEST Analysis A framework broadly used by firms for strategic analysis and prior to formulating a firm’s strategy. It can also be of use for other units or agents, such as regions or destinations, before delineating strategies such as a strategy for sustainable tourism development. It consists of an analysis of the key external elements of the firm or unit, which have been conventionally divided into political, economic, social and technological (PEST), which affect the whole industry, sector or region. See also SWOT analysis     EMG

Fig. P3.  Permit for gorilla tracking, Rwanda (Carl Cater).

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  Philosophic practitioner A philosophic practitioner (see Fig. P4) is a particular kind of tourism graduate advocated by Tribe (2002). Initially Tribe develops the concept of curriculum space that he defines as the realm of all possible contents of a curriculum. Through this, a curriculum for mere vocational action is exposed as an excessively narrow framing. Philosophic practice is offered as a more comprehensive frame, building on a critique of Schön’s (1991) idea of the reflective practitioner. Schön stressed the importance of adding reflection in and on action to professional education. He advocated the cultivation of a continual dialectic between the vocational world as theorized about and the world as encountered, so as to develop what he termed professional artistry. Tribe argued that Schön’s framing, though important, did not go far enough. It did not challenge the curriculum to engage with the wider world in which professionals practice. So while reflective practice focuses on effective vocational action informed by continual reflection, philosophic practice adds the new dimensions of liberal reflection and liberal action. Liberal reflection encourages professionals to be sceptical about given truths, sensitive to hidden ideology and power, and to reflect about what constitutes ‘the good life’ in the wider world affected by their work. Liberal action is putting the ideas of liberal reflection into practice. In this way, philosophic practitioners should not only demonstrate professional competence in their careers in tourism but would also take responsibility for stewardship and the ethical and aesthetic development of the wider world of tourism. The concept has become particularly relevant since the financial crisis where an excessively narrow education has proved to be dysfunctional, encouraging highly individualistic behaviour based on short-term profit taking at the expense of the long-term well-being of society and the planet. See also Action research, linkingthinking     JT

  Philosophical tourism A kind of travelling that is motivated by the desire for intellectual stimulation, authentic encounter and personal development. Philosophical tourism adopts the Socratic method of maieutic (bringing a person’s latent ideas into clear consciousness), assisted by a competent tour guide, who plays a significant educative role in order to reflect perceptions and experiences during a trip. Stance

Reflection

Action

Reflective Liberal

Liberal Action

Ends Liberal

The Philosophic Practitioner Vocational

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Reflective Vocational

Vocational Action

Fig. P4.  The philosophic practitioner. (From Tribe, 2002.) Philosophic practitioner

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This new and growing tourism trend among better educated customers is a consequence of individualization of living conditions and lifestyles. The permanent and accelerating social change is also conceptualized as ‘mobilities’ (Urry, 2000), describing a world where everything and everybody is on the move in order to struggle for life. Such conditions progressively destabilize the spiritual, political and social authority of formerly powerful institutions like churches, social classes or political parties, as their concepts of truth cannot offer any more credible solutions for new kinds of crises such as climate change, global poverty and economic disasters (see Degrowth). In consequence, classical education as cultural capital and a device to cope with modern life is losing its value. This may explain the decline of traditional forms of educational tourism. While in the past, well-educated tour guides used to ‘teach’ their attentive audience official versions of historical ‘truth’ about attractions, nowadays the experienced client is well-equipped with electronic remedies for interpretation and needs a different quality of education in order to compensate the ideological or spiritual vacuum of post-modern complexity. In such times of disorientation, fundamental questions about human existence are becoming highlighted, as satisfying answers can help to re-establish orientation. These questions are, according to the philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804): ● ●

What can I know? – Epistemology What should I do? – Ethics ● What may I hope? – Religion ● What is Man? – Anthropology The growing importance of those questions can explain the booming demand for products and services certified as organic, ethically fair or sustainable. On the symbolic level, these consumer goods promise to offer ‘deliverance’ by ‘saving the world’, which is a strong moment of existential orientation for people believing in it. However, any concept, whether sustainability or fair trade, can be deconstructed as intellectual concepts, which are ways to interpret the world rather than representing ‘truth’. In consequence, the crucial competence in order to cope with the stress and adversity of disorientation is resilience. Fostering this ability is a constitutive objective of philosophical journeys beside conventional intentions such as visiting interesting attractions or enjoying impressive landscapes and having remarkable ­experiences. The specific philosophical approach, practised by tour guides playing the role of a mental ‘coach’ rather than a teacher, allows customers to reflect their perception and possibly to recognize it as the expression of their personal lifestyle. This moment of awareness understanding that any ‘reality’ is nothing but a personal point of view (see Communication) opens both the risk of feeling deeply lost or, on the contrary, of feeling released from external determination. The latter experience is a fundamental step on the way to an autonomous, self-determined, thus empowered relationship with the ‘reality’ guided by the insight that anything in life is finally a personal decision that can be autonomously changed by changing oneself. This perspective allows experiencing attitudes like respect, ethical responsibility, sustainability and frugality as empowering instruments to cope with the inconsistency of ‘reality’ rather than austerity. In this sense, philosophical tourism is the tourism correspondent of UNESCO’s principles of Education for Sustainable Development.     HF Philosophical tourism375

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  Philoxenia Programme A proposal by the European Commission for a Council decision on a first multiannual programme to assist European tourism. Planned for a 4-year period (1997–2000) with a budget of 25 million ECU, the Philoxenia Programme (COM(96)0168 final of 31.07.1996) aimed at improving the quality and competitiveness of European tourism in order to contribute to growth and employment by taking into account the balanced and sustainable development of the sector, the satisfaction of the tourists’ needs and the rational use of the natural, cultural and infrastructural resources. Despite the favorable opinion of the European Parliament, Economic and Social Committee and of the Committee of Regions, meeting on 26 November 1997 the Council could not reach a consensus on the Philoxenia Programme, thus the Commission had to withdraw its proposal.     SMA

 Pilgrimage Travel to places of significance for reasons of religion or belief. Tourism has often been likened to pilgrimages and, as such, religious pilgrimages are an age-old phenomenon that visibly manifests peoples’ faith through their journeys. Tourism is also acknowledged as a kind of secular pilgrimage by which alienated Westerners worship at the temples of modernity. Pilgrimages and tourism are hence represented and accepted as the two extremities of a faith-based travel continuum. In this context, tourism is rationalized as secular pilgrimage, by virtue of which tourists enact or participate in touristic rituals and rites of passage. Visitors to religious places are usually guided by their quest for shrines and locales where they seek historical and cultural meanings. Tourists, with greater expectations, and less spiritual direction, are more aware of their itinerary than the meaning of their surroundings. In contrast, the sense of place in pilgrims is heightened because of which they experience fulfilment. Furthermore, the emergent sense of reverence in secular destinations has given rise to secular pilgrimages, quasi-pilgrimages and environmental pilgrimages. Hence, spiritually meaningful experiences can be afforded through a spectrum of alternative tourism, such as solidarity trips, educational tourism, dark tourism, volunteer tourism, New Age and/or post-modern travel. Consistent with their quest, the depth of meaning of such pious journeys varies from complete immersion and conversion of the self (existential), to transient transformation (experiential) and hence participants tend to experience an inward change. Traditional pilgrimages, by their very nature, were designed to be sustainable in terms of resource use, visitor behaviour and attitudes, and people-place relationship. These and many other scenic sites and historical-cultural artefacts today constitute sacred centres, many of which have been woven into route-based pilgrimages and circuits, commonly found in practically every continent and country. Both religious and secular pilgrims are known to be a formidable force for change, and appear to be increasing in numbers and influence as they crusade for a sustainable future through their reverential engagements with the everyday and the ordinary. Pilgrims’ sense of piety (Fig. P5) is shown to reproduce a transcendental society of equals: a ‘communitas’ with meaningful networks of communes developing off-site and post-pilgrimage as well. Also, collaborative actions are directed by their faith with 376

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a view to engendering a sustainable future of community living, enhanced awareness of ecological issues, encouraging co-operation and providing sustainable livelihoods. Nonetheless, recent past trends in the attitude and interactions of pilgrims with the pilgrimage settings are indicative of sacrilege. Pilgrims are known to increasingly adopt the ‘package-tour’ model of travelling and sightseeing that combines secular visitations with an obligatory obeisance. Empirical investigations of religion and tourism document the insensitivity of tourists, and unsustainable irrationalities of modern tourism, at sacred and religious sites. Even when places hold sacred meaning to natives and visitors, development agents tend to offend the sense of place through their commercial exploits. See also Spiritual tourism     SS

Fig. P5.  Pilgrims prostrating on the road to Lhasa, Tibet (Tiffany Low).

Case study: Pilgrimage tourism in Kevelaer Kevelaer is, with 25,000 residents, a small town in the county of North Rhine Westphalia in West Germany. The town is not even 8 kilometres away from the Dutch border and yet is the most visited Catholic pilgrimage location within north-western Europe. More than 1,000,000 pilgrims visit Kevelaer every year (Brockhaus, 2011). At Christmas time in 1641 a simple trader named Hendrik Busmann heard three times the mysterious call: ‘At this point you should build a little chapel’, as he prayed at a cross that was positioned at a crossroad near Kevelaer. Then, a month before Pentecost, his wife Mechel Continued Pilgrimage377

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Case study.  Continued. dreamed of a little chapel and in it a small picture she had noticed some time ago in the hands of two soldiers. Even though Busmann was poor he carried out the order and his wife requested the picture. The picture of grace was set in the shrine in 1642 and is still there. Immediately many locals came to the holy house and it was witnessed that some miracles happened, for example the blind could see again and the paralysed could walk again (Dohms, 1992). The first procession took place in 1643, when a large group of pilgrims travelled on foot from Rees to Kevelaer (30 km), singing and praying along the way. Since the day in 1642 when the chapel was built, Kevelaer attracts more and more visitors every year. Pilgrims are not restricted to Catholic faith as every year over the summer there is one weekend of Tamil processions in Kevelaer. The annual Tamil pilgrimage brings yearly 12,000–15,000 Catholic and Hindu believers to the ‘Grace chapel’ in Kevelaer. The Tamil pilgrimage in Kevelaer started in 1987 when 50 Tamils from the town of Essen in North Rhine Westphalia travelled for the first time to Kevelaer. In a short span of time it has become the largest gathering of Tamils outside of India and Sri Lanka. Nowadays busloads from London, Paris and Copenhagen as well as Holland and Belgium come to this annual event. For over 25 years now, Kevelaer has also hosted a motorcycle pilgrimage. In 2009 over 1400 motorcyclists and more than 7000 spectators came from all over the world to Kevelaer for this special event, to take part in the processions, to get to know new people with the same interests and to feel accepted while living their religions (Motorradwallfahrt Kevelaer, 2009).     KP  Kevelaer www.kevelaer.de

 Place See Sense of place

 Planeta A web portal set up by Ron Mader in 1994 as a community and information resource for environmentally conscious travellers. It has been an important site for those interested in sustainable tourism for over 20 years and has won numerous awards in this time. Planeta.com has also hosted more than 20 online conferences during this time and promotes slow tourism forms.     CIC   Planeta, Think Smart, Travel Slow www.planeta.com

 Planning The process that brings together the interests and concerns of a diverse group of stakeholders in a strategic way. Tourism not properly planned and managed can leave 378Place

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permanent footprints on the physical, social, cultural and economic environments of destinations. Tourism development can be alienating to local residents, overcrowded, noisy, architecturally tasteless and place pressures on infrastructure. Inappropriate types and scales of development may arise due to laissez-faire tourism policies and a lack of national, regional or local planning and regulation. According to Gunn (1994) the focus of planning is to generate income and employment, conserve natural, cultural and built resources and ensure traveller satisfaction. Sustainable tourism does not just happen, it occurs only as a result of explicit decision-making processes that consider what futures are plausible and desirable and the pathways leading to them (McCool and Moisey, 2008). Planning for sustainable tourism requires an understanding of the meaning of sustainable development and the guiding values for promoting sustainable tourism. Sustainable tourism planning is an approach that is sensitive to environmental, social and cultural attributes of the destination, provides quality tourism and leisure experiences valued by visitors, residents, business, government and the community. Since tourism development impacts the place in which it is being undertaken, the knowledge, attitudes and desires of the public are important considerations in the planning process. Sustainable tourism planning requires that communities be made sufficiently aware of and understand the tourism industry and its impacts, both positive and negative, as well as the various processes to integrate and engage all stakeholders in participatory planning, consensus building and conflict resolution. There are several guiding principles that underpin sustainable tourism planning, including: responsibility, commitment and leadership, cooperation, education, social creativity and freedom (Dwyer and Edwards, 2010). There are a significant number of publications that guide planning for the sustainable development of tourism. See also Consultation, PEST analysis, Policy cascade, SMART, Strategic planning, SWOT, Tourism planning     DE and LD

Further reading Gunn, C.A. (1994) Tourism Planning: Basics, Concepts, Cases, 3rd edn. Taylor and Francis, Washington, DC. Innskeep, E. (1991) Tourism Planning: An Integrated and Sustainable Development Approach. Routledge, London, UK. McCool, S.F. and Moisey, R.N. (eds) (2008) Tourism, Recreation and Sustainability: Linking Culture and the Environment, 2nd edn. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.

  Planning for Real A community engagement process that directly involves local people, enabling them to identify and articulate their aspirations and develop a plan for their area. It is designed to be socially inclusive, gathering a wide range of community views including those that are rarely heard. Workshops are held and use a mixture of digital and non-digital visual materials including maps, plans and models. These methods are used to empower a wide range of people to become involved and enable them to discuss and articulate their aspirations. For example people might be asked to pin Planning for Real379

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flags onto a 3D model, draw pictures to illustrate their ideas, take photographs or post comments or ideas onto a digital Planning for Real® model. Planning for Real facilitates community participation because it enables engagement in a relatively informal setting and actively develops the capacity of the community to articulate their needs. See also Consultation, Planning, Tourism planning     NS   Planning for Real www.planningforreal.org.uk/what-we-do/

  Pleasure periphery Places on the margins that cater for the tourism and leisure industry. The pleasure periphery is linked to the work of dependency theorists who state that the world is divided into two principal development components of the global capitalist system: a dominant, developed, industrial centre and a subordinate, underdeveloped periphery (see Core-periphery). In a context of tourism, the pleasure periphery initially represented tourism destinations that were both physically and psychologically close to the main origin markets of Europe and North America that included the countries in the Mediterranean and Caribbean regions. These destinations were increasingly accessible due to advances in air travel, were located in less-developed regions with relatively lower living costs, attracted a growing number of experienced international travellers and integrated innovative marketing strategies as a result of the efforts of a number of global tour companies based in the industrial centre. With the expansion of the global tourism industry, the pleasure periphery has grown over time as tourists interested in exoticism and adventure have identified new destinations to explore that include Africa, the Asia-Pacific (Fig. P6), the polar regions and the final frontier of space. Researchers point out that one of the main challenges resulting from the spatial, economic, social and political impacts of tourism development in the pleasure periphery is a growing ‘cultural dependence’ on countries of the industrial centre that threatens to irreversibly alter the local way of life and the sustainability of tourism. See also Colonialism, Peripherality     JH

  Polar tourism The practice and study of tourism occurring in relation to the Arctic and Antarctic regions. While initially conceived in terms of pleasure and adventure travel within polar regions (Hall and Johnston, 1995), more recent and nuanced views take into account the multiple ways that the Arctic and Antarctic can be delineated, as well as a greater diversity of experiences and activities (Fig. P7), such as visiting polar topic exhibits in non-polar regions or kayaking programs that focus on cultural connections to Inuit (Maher et al., 2011). Current growth in polar tourism activity and research is a function of mounting awareness that rapid environmental and social changes are affecting the very nature of the poles.     BGR 380

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Fig. P6.  Pleasure periphery and mass tourism, Phuket, Thailand (Tiffany Low).

Fig. P7.  Polar tourism on snowmobiles, Svalbard, Arctic Norway (Carl Cater). Polar tourism381

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  Policy cascade The relationship between different scales of policy-making in the tourism planning process. Every level of policy-making is to some extent restricted by those policies made at a higher level, making the planning process nested like Russian dolls, with effects cascading down the hierarchy. In order to cope with the different degrees of context at different levels, policy tends to be broad and generalized at higher levels, and local and specific at lower levels. However, as Hall (2008) identifies, policy relationships are not purely vertical (over different levels of governance), as policy-making related to tourism is also likely to need to interact with other policies in different areas horizontally (within specific regulatory space). Thus, the policy cascade, as a representation of the governance framework for tourism planning and policy, relies on ‘constant interactions between (and across) the various components of the system from the individual to the global’ (Hall, 2008, p. 109).     CIC

  Political ecology A political current, philosophy and social science field that explores the linkages, interactions and conflicts between the ecosystem and the political, economic and social systems and activities, including tourism. As a social science approach it has a normative tendency, in that it seeks to develop alternative policies that would avoid or minimize those conflicts and promote sustainability. Its origins can be traced to the works of Democritus, Epicurus (Foster, 2000), Hobbes, Adam Smith, Malthus, Ricardo (Greenberg and Park, 1994), Marx, Darwin, Kropotkin and Haeckel, who gave it the term, ‘Oecologie’, in 1866. The coining of the term, ‘political ecology’ is attributed to Frank Thone, an American science editor, in 1935, but the term only became mainstream in the 1970s and 1980s, along with the rise of the green movement and the realization that the environmental impacts of economic growth could no longer be ignored. A milestone is the 1972 article of the anthropologist Eric Wolf ‘Ownership and political ecology’ in the Anthropological Quarterly, although Murray Bookchin’s essay ‘Ecology and revolutionary thought’ predated it by 8 years. Other influential works include Andre Gorz’s (1975) Ecology as Politics, Cornelius Castoriadis’ (1981) From Ecology to Autonomy, Piers Blaikie’s (1985) The Political Economy of Soil Erosion in Developing Countries, Raymond Bryant and Sinead Bailey’s (1997) Third World Political Ecology and John Bellamy Foster’s (2000) Marx’s ecology. The launch of the online, open-access Journal of Political Ecology in 1994, signified its maturity as an academic field. Political milestones include May of 1968 in France, the first Earth Day in 1970, the publication of The Limits to Growth by the Club of Rome in 1972, the first UN Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in 1972, the two Oil Shocks of 1973 and 1979, the two nuclear accidents of Three Mile Island and Chernobyl in 1979 and 1987, the founding of the first green parties in Europe in the late 1970s, the establishment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in 1988, the entry of the German Greens in a coalition government in 1998 and the drafting of the Global Greens Charter in 2001. A universally recognized or cohesive definition has been elusive, due to political ecology’s interdisciplinary background and approach, bridging nature and society, 382

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natural and social sciences, mainly ecology and political economy, but also political science, anthropology, sociology and development studies. Scholars advocate wide research and policy agendas and political affiliations (neo-Malthusian to neo-Marxist to post-anarchist, environmentalist to radical ecological, anthropocentric to biocentric, social ecology to ecosocialism to deep ecology) and focus (local vs. global, rural vs. urban, ‘third-world’ vs. ‘first world’). Political ecology’s political goals are also varied and sometimes hotly contested as it does not constitute a coherent, grand theory with a unique one-size-fits-all ‘mission’. This flexibility and versatility is a possible advantage for analysing an increasingly complex and multipolar world (see Metaproblem), and a global economy in crisis. At the same time, both as a research field and as a political theory, political ecology seems under-theorized compared to ‘older’ alternatives. Ecological wisdom, social justice, grassroots/participatory/direct democracy and nonviolence are common tenets (or ‘pillars’) of green parties worldwide, although political ecology is also advocated by a growing number of left/left-green/ecosocialist parties mainly in Europe, which fuse political ecology with various Socialist currents. See also Social ecology     AP Further reading Stonich, S.C. (1998) Political ecology of tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 25(1), 25–54.

  Global Greens Charter www.globalgreens.org/globalcharter   Journal of Political Ecology: Case studies in history and society jpe.library.arizona.edu/

  Political economy A critical social approach towards studying societies’ structures and values concerning the production, exchange and consumption of commodities and services as well as analysing how the resulting capital is distributed. In contrast to neoclassical economists, political economists hold the view that economics cannot and should not be seen in isolation from wider social forces (e.g. political, geographical, sociological factors). Yet how this is interpreted differs across the various political economy approaches. ‘Marxian political economy’ focuses on the relational social processes that frame production and consumption. The intent of Marxian political economists is to highlight the unequal nature of the capitalist economy (see Bianchi, 2011, for a discussion); in Marx’s case, economic exploitation of the working class and the domination of labour by capital (leading to revolution). Yet Marxian political economy has been contested and has consequently been adapted to explain the persistence and continued stability of capitalism (regulation theory), to reduce the deterministic tendency (poststructural political economy) and to incorporate culture and nature (cultural political economy and political ecology respectively). ‘Regulation theory’ is concerned with the continued reproduction of capitalism despite the inherent tensions (between labour and capital) and contradictions (continuous Political economy383

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growth). Regulationists thus endeavour to explain the structures of capitalist economies, which comprise the systematic organization of production, distribution, exchange and consumption (regime of accumulation) as well as the mode of regulation (institutions, rules, social practices and norms) that ensures the stability of the process of accumulation (Cornelissen, 2011). As the regime of accumulation becomes unstable over time resulting in economic crisis, stability will only be achieved with implementing regulatory fixes (e.g. a changing organization of production and consumption and/or the creation of new institutions or practices) thus leading to a new mode of regulation. ‘Comparative political economists’ analyse these changes in modes of regulation over time and compare the diversity of political-economic systems of governance and regulation by analysing different systems of capitalism (Webster et al., 2011). A ‘poststructural political economy’ has been developed as a response to the perceived over-determination of structure in Marxian political economy, with the aim of highlighting the discursive dominance of capitalism and of presenting alternative or parallel discourses in order to create a space for agency within the structures of capitalism (Gibson-Graham, 1996, 2006). As ‘the economy’ is both abstract and socially constructed it offers opportunities for deconstruction and for reconstructing a pluralist understanding of economies that is inclusive of a variety of economic practices (Mosedale, 2011). Rather than an abstract notion and a structural system that controls our actions, ‘the economy’ becomes constituted and shaped by our own actions. ‘Cultural political economy’ is a response to the almost exclusive focus on materiality within production and consumption processes of Marxian political economy and the relative neglect of culture as a determining factor. With the advent of the cultural turn in the social sciences, conceptions of the economy have changed to incorporate culture as intertwined with what is generally called the economy. Not only because cultural products are increasingly being commodified (produced, circulated and consumed) and some even determined by economic factors, but also because economic practices are embedded in the societies in which they occur (e.g. public holidays) and because the representation and discourse of the economy are culturally determined. A cultural political economy has emerged that recognizes the importance of the cultural dimensions of the economy and politics, emphasizing agency and social relations over structural determination. Of particular importance is the analysis of material transformations during the production process and the associated changing meanings of the product but also shifting meanings during consumption processes. For instance, Ateljevic and Doorne (2003) follow the production and consumption of a tie-dyed fabric from China to New Zealand in order to unveil the different meanings attributed to the product by the Chinese artisan, the tourist purchaser and the recipient of the gift, thus demonstrating the importance of the cultural context in production and consumption.     JMO

Further reading Mosedale, J. (ed.) (2011) Political Economy of Tourism: A Critical Perspective. Routledge, London, UK.

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  Politics of tourism The governance arrangements, political ideologies and decision-making practices that shape and direct tourism development and administration in different places. Governments, often in association with other organizations, determine the allocation of resources, the level and nature of tourism infrastructure, the role of the state in tourism and its relationship with private enterprise and the regulation of tourism activity. Political ideology and the practice of politics shape social and economic relations, as well as the networks and affiliations between countries. Political alliances between countries can encourage people to invest in and visit some places and limit their ability to travel to others. Governments can impose direct economic sanctions upon other countries as a way of putting pressure on them. In this case, tourism is discouraged or forbidden: an example of this is the embargo against Cuba by the US. Governments can also issue travel warnings to discourage people from visiting places that are perceived to be dangerous (Kim et al., 2007). Travel warnings are a product of not just the danger in a particular country but also the relationships between the governments of countries, for example recent travel advisories concerning Egypt. Politics influence government decisions about how and whether to engage in tourism. Governments can choose to restrict the movement of people by requiring visas and travel permits, or limit tourism development and investment within their country. An extreme example of this is North Korea, which restricts the tourism industry and the activities of tourists. Politics also play a part in the way that destinations choose to portray themselves. Decisions about which histories are portrayed in heritage attractions and which are excluded reflect the dominant political ideology and power structures in different countries. Mega-events can be used to provide a platform from which countries can disseminate messages about their leadership, power and political systems. Both heritage tourism and events can be used to promote and build national identity. For example the Queen’s Diamond Jubilee events in 2012 provided an opportunity to present British patriotism and support for the monarchy.     NS

  Polluter pays principle A regime that ensures that creators of pollution are the ones that pay for cleanup or mitigation strategies. Polluter pays differs from user pays, which would put the emphasis on the user of the final product. The former is more effective in reducing levels of pollution as it targets the source of pollution encouraging the polluter to reduce costs through reducing pollution, rather than just passing any costs onto the consumer. There are many polluter pays strategies involved in carbon management.     CIC

 Pollution Discharge of liquid, solid or gaseous substances into the environment that are damaging to ecosystems. Pollution may be air pollution (Fig. P8), water pollution or solid pollution, as well as less obvious forms such as noise or light pollution. Water pollution may Pollution385

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come from accommodation in tourist resorts, particularly from sewage disposal and other water pollution. Sewage and other liquid wastes are particularly problematic if the area is not served by waste treatment infrastructure. A high risk of eventual groundwater contamination is associated with the use of septic beds and biological toilets if these are not sited and designed with great care (Weaver, 2001c). Other pollutants from tourism facilities could include food scraps, exhaust from power generators, leakage of lubricants and other chemicals, or increased wood smoke. Longer term there may also be impact on geology and degradation of soils. Cruise ships are big polluters of the marine environment. The International Maritime Organization estimates that each passenger on a large cruise ship produces 3.5 kg of garbage and solid waste per day. In addition, a typical cruise ship discharges around 1 million litres of ‘black water’ (sewage) during a 1-week voyage (Davenport and Davenport, 2006). The exchange of ballast water, while not always directly polluting, may result in the transmission of alien, possibly harmful, species (it has been estimated that around 3000 species are transported around the world in all ships’ ballast water each day (WRI, 1996)) (see Native species). Air pollution can also be a problem associated with tourism, particularly from carbon-based transport. There is the obvious pollution from cars and buses, as well as the very significant but less obvious pollution from air transport (see Airlines). There has been concern regarding pollution from proposed airport expansion in the UK. Aviation fuel is exempt from tax under many international agreements, meaning that the full costs of pollution are not charged to users and suppliers. It is estimated that this may subsidize the UK aviation industry by up to £7 billion a year and give it unfair advantages over other forms of transport. The Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution in the UK identified cycling as being a transport mode that is sustainable and has minimal pollution. Research in New Zealand indicates that 80% of energy use on an ecotourism tour goes on transport (Becken and Simmons, 2002). They calculated that a typical 22-day 3773-kilometre ecotourism driving circuit in New Zealand releases 430 kg of carbon dioxide and Weaver (2001c) reports that recreational visits to the Rocky Mountain National Park in the USA is responsible for 1.1 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions. Less obvious noise pollution can come from tourist nightclubs or airports for example, while nocturnal light pollution can be a problem for nesting turtles for example, which mistake lights for the setting sun. Pollution can be a particular problem in areas that are sparsely populated (as there is little infrastructure) and ecologically fragile areas (highly sensitive to impacts). Mitigation policies available to the tourism industry include: reducing energy use, e.g. encouraging changes in destination choice, transport mode, length of stay; improving energy efficiency, e.g. new technology to reduce energy use in aviation; increased use of renewable energy, e.g. solar power in accommodation, biofuels in transport; sequestering carbon through sinks, e.g. through ‘carbon offsetting’ arrangements. However, the tourism industry has a challenging task ahead if it is to reduce its emissions as much as other sectors. See also Eutrophication     CIC

  Portion control The careful rationing of the amount of food included in a standard serving. Hospitality companies use portion control primarily as a cost-efficiency measure: ensuring that they get the maximum number of servings from the ingredients they have purchased 386

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Fig. P8.  Extreme pollution measures: a smokers’ shed, Pudacuo National Park, NW Yunnan, China (Carl Cater).

helps them to maintain their profit margins. In so doing, portion control also helps to avoid food waste occurring during preparation and to reduce leftovers of uneaten food on guests’ plates. As such, it can also be a useful component of a hospitality company’s sustainability strategy. Some fast-food chains have found that offering customers the opportunity to ‘supersize’ (i.e. upgrade their order to include larger portions of low-value foods such as fries and carbonated drinks) can be a highly profitable selling strategy but they have received criticism for using it on the basis that it is believed to result in increased levels of obesity in society. See also Food tourism     BG   ‘Supersize Me’ documentary trailer www.youtube.com/watch?v=I1Lkyb6SU5U

 Post-colonialism The critical study of societies in countries that were historically occupied by colonizing nations. The term post-colonialism refers to both a phenomenon described by scholars and critics as well as a method of academic social inquiry. It is related to the terms colonialism and imperialism. Unlike imperialism, colonialism refers to how a population when transferred to another country or region dominate the people residing there Post-colonialism387

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with the colonial population maintaining political allegiance to the country of origin. Imperialism occurs with or without the transfer of population and sovereign control. Confusion about the meaning of post-colonialism occurs because of the reference to the conditioning term ‘post’. As such, post-colonialism can erroneously be thought of as a chronological phenomenon: something that occurs after colonialism. However, this is not the meaning of the term. Various definitions of post-colonialism can be found. The most widely accepted is that after colonialism there is a continuation of the logic of colonialism in the intellectual, religious and cultural practices with commensurate power structures and social hierarchies, allowing continued domination of the original colonizing population. A fundamental paradigm that is perpetuated in this regime is the ‘us-them’ binary distinction, which helps to further subjugate the colonized subjects by ensuring they are excluded from power structures. Post-colonial theory has been used extensively to examine the ways Western and European tourism perpetuates post-colonial relations in countries that have had colonial rule (Craik, 1994; Akama, 2004; d’Hauteserre, 2004; Hall, 2004; Burns, 2008). Critical studies highlighting the emancipatory potential of a post-colonial analysis of tourism reveals the role of identity (Saldanha, 2002; Hall, 2004; Tucker, 2009), gender (Aitchison, 2001), the politics of poverty (Scheyvens, 2007), construction of heritage (Saldanha, 2002; Meskell, 2003; Waters, 2006; Winter, 2007) and world-making (Hollinshead et al., 2009) in how post-colonial readings of tourism production and consumption can be used to destabilize dominant discourses that perpetuate post-colonial relations.     RH

 Post-tourism The evolution of tourism in the post-modern era. Tourism has been transformed to reflect the cultural and social changes that affect society. Tourism becomes a commodity, and it is differentiated into various tourisms, in which the space of realization is often a ‘non-place’ (Augè, 1992) and a ‘hyper-reality’ (Eco, 1986). The first scholar to speak of ‘post-tourists’ was Feifer (1985), who identifies three of their characteristics: (i) they do not have to leave their home to ‘gaze’ on tourist sites, thanks to information and communication technologies and the mass media; (ii) they are happy to have a wide choice of activities and motivations available to them; (iii) they live the tourist experience as a game, an activity that is an end in itself, and know that this is not the only and authentic experience (Urry, 2002). The post-tourist accepts and appreciates a highly mediated environment, and combines reality, imaginary space and the virtual world to shape the tourist experience in a creative and non-passive manner.     SF

  Postmodern society Transformations in the cultural sphere and in lifestyle, with particular reference to those which have occurred since the 1970s. ‘Postindustrial’ is often used to trace the changes that take place in the social-economic field, the term ‘postmodern’ was originally most 388Post-tourism

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commonly used in order to define a certain style in architecture, but also defined broader changes to societies and cultures under globalization. It is characterized by a ‘time-space compression’ (Harvey, 1989), which was helped by dramatic developments in communications and transport. Spatial compression is the result of a radical broadening of the limits of individual action. Mobility has become an everyday action (commuting, travelling and tourism) and is seen either positively, as dynamic and cosmopolitan, or negatively, as disorientating and ‘disembedding’ (Giddens, 1991). Temporal compression stems from a speeding up of all processes and ‘life cycles’, including those related to products (which become obsolete extremely rapidly) and especially those related to single individuals (the tendency to jump ahead, in search of immediate gratification, to live the present without planning the future). This ‘compressed’ condition creates seemingly opposing phenomena: the loss of historical meaning but also the ‘hunger for history’, i.e. searching in the past for the roots of one’s own identity (from whence the great development of heritage and cultural tourism of recent decades). Other consequences in the touristic sphere include the disappearance of borders between the user and the producer of culture and, more generally speaking, between original and copy. Assisted by technology, these have become increasingly similar in terms of status. This has led to an evolution in the relationship between tourist and touristic goods, which has gone from passive deference to active participation. See also Co-creation, Representation     MG

  Poverty alleviation Although the use of tourism for poverty reduction may appear an incongruent concept it is indicative of both the spatial growth of tourism and an increasing emphasis on poverty alleviation as part of international policy. An evident trend in the international tourism market is one of increasing international arrivals to developing countries especially the less-developed countries (LDCs) and the growth in domestic tourism in developing countries. Both these trends offer potential opportunities for the involvement of the poor in tourism and the creation of livelihood opportunities. The significance of domestic tourism for poverty reduction is that domestic tourists are more likely to display a higher propensity of utilizing tourism enterprises initiated by the poor than the majority of international tourists, as they are familiar with local quality standards of service and produce. The potential use of tourism for poverty alleviation has been recognized by the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) through the ‘Sustainable Tourism–Eliminating Poverty’ (ST-EP) initiative and in the ‘pro-poor tourism (PPT)’ concept that originates from the United Kingdom’s Department for International Development (DFID). Essential to both approaches is the focusing of development policy through Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) on the poor, rather than the emphasis being on macro-economic growth and trickle-down effects, and integrating tourism into poverty reduction policy. Integral to both approaches are environmental sustainability and participatory approaches that actively and meaningfully involve the poor in the decision-making process of development, akin to Agenda 21. While the use of tourism for poverty has potential, it is at an early stage of development and empirical data to evaluate its usefulness is scarce. However, it is evident that generic barriers Poverty alleviation389

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to the involvement of the poor in the tourism industry exist including: deficiencies in education and training; a lack of capital; and lack of access to the market, emphasizing the need for capacity building for the poor to be involved in the tourism industry.     AH Further reading Scheyvens, R. (2011) Tourism and Poverty. Routledge, London, UK.

 Power A measure of influence or authority of an individual or organization. Although appearing as a basic construct in much historical tourism research (Church and Coles, 2007), the exercise of power has implications for the path of tourism development and sustainability. Power relations in tourism are central to the way in which the social practices of global patterns of production and consumption are constituted. Because tourism involves the creation, allocation and distribution of benefits (and costs) to winners and losers in the tourism system, it will continue to be implicated in the articulation of power. Inasmuch as the sustainability transition requires a shift from the behaviours of the past, it presents a challenge to entrenched power structures. Historically, studies of power have often examined hierarchies, for example Gramsci (1971) who identified how the ruling capitalist class establishes and maintains its control through a hegemonic culture. This hegemony propagated its own values and norms so that they became the ‘common-sense’ values of all in society, thus people with less power identified their own good with the good of the ruling class, and helped to maintain the status quo rather than changing the power structure. Although this may seem abstract, the norms of our relationships to tourism and the environment are examples of this hegemony today. The location of power in communities is clearly important in the sustainable development of tourism. Different socio-political traditions may have very entrenched power structures, with concentration of that power in traditional elites, often with a gender dimension. This is not limited to less-developed countries, as so called ‘old-boys clubs’ are still powerful in the Western world. Patriarchal societies worldwide tend to belittle the place of women and minorities in decision-making. Tourism is often complicit in this marginalization, with a large low skill or informal sector filled by these groups. These employment types often limit their participation in the benefits from tourism or decision-making processes. On Lombok, Indonesia, Schellhorn (2010) describes how the peasants involved in the Rinjani Ecotrek program were marginalized, with the long-term residents of the village less equipped to deal with the cash economy, and outsiders and migrants having power over the business of tourism. Here, indigenous residents had a number of distinct barriers to greater involvement in decision-making and benefit-sharing, which are suggested to be a lack of education, a lack of understanding of tourism, high levels of competition and the spatial distribution of traditional settlements relative to tourist access routes. Thus sustainable tourism is often concerned with challenging power structures and ensuring empowerment of marginalized employees and residents. If not given 390Power

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opportunity to engage in decision-making early on, their positions may become marginalized even further by the growth of tourism. Stakeholders’ capacity to participate in decision-making demands equitable consideration with respect to their opinions, concerns and questions regarding the tourism venture. Contemporary studies note that ‘real’ empowerment rarely exists (Timothy, 2007), and that tokenistic empowerment is frequently the best outcome achieved. Organizational leadership and relationships to power structures play critical roles in employing democratic ways to encourage wider resident participation in decision-making processes. Residents can assist in building social capital by catalysing local organizational leadership in order for residents to translate economic benefits into wider aims (Stronza and Gordillo, 2008). However, leadership is itself a highly political phenomenon, usually based on some degree of values expression. Therefore power, as a manifestation of values, is linked to the politics of tourism. In political terms, the aim in getting the community involved is that we move towards a representational democracy where residents can raise opinions and voice concerns about development. The community’s political structure provides a representational forum through which people can raise questions and concerns pertaining to tourism initiatives (see Consultation). Agencies initiating or implementing the tourism ventures seek out the opinions of community groups and individual community members, and provide chances for them to be represented on decision-making bodies. Hopefully this political representation continues beyond the scope of the tourism development. However, sustainable tourism development may also need to respect entrenched power hierarchies, which may be part of social capital in the sustainable livelihoods approach, and require harnessing. For example, working with traditional power structures may be important in many community-based tourism development initiatives, and here close attention needs to be given to time and change management in the tourism development process.     CIC Further reading Church, A. and Coles, T. (eds) (2007) Tourism, Power and Space. Routledge, London, UK.

  Precautionary principle A logical principle that advocates a proactively cautious approach to decision making in the presence of uncertainty regarding the consequences of a proposed action. The principle was first conceived in Germany in the 1970s and was introduced to the international arena in 1984 at the First International Conference on the Protection of the North Sea (Fennell and Ebert, 2004). The term has since been incorporated into national and international environmental policy by more than 40 countries. The term became popularized by its inclusion in Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, which states that: In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be widely applied by States according to their capabilities. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation. Precautionary principle391

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This definition has received a mixed response from academics. While many applaud its intent, it is often argued that the presence of some rather loose phrasing allows countries, organizations and individuals to evade their responsibilities. Other organizations have defined the precautionary principle in subtly different terms. The International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), for example, has defined it as ‘to modify the manufacture, marketing or use of products or services or the conduct of activities, consistent with scientific and technical understanding, to prevent serious irreversible environmental degradation.’ Arguably this interpretation is precisely the reverse of what is implied in the version that appears in the Rio Declaration in its recommendation of an essentially reactive approach – one that waits for scientific understanding to be reached before taking action – as opposed to an anticipatory approach that acts in advance of conclusive scientific evidence.     BG

 Preservation To maintain resources in their existing state, advancing the notion that resources must be preserved regardless, rather than simply conserved. It has been suggested by Eckersley (1992) that preservation seeks to protect natural resources from development while nature conservation aims to facilitate human development through promoting more

Fig. P9.  Heritage preservation using a temporary roof at – Hag˙ar Qim temples (circa 3200 BC), Malta (Carl Cater). 392Preservation

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sustainable use of them. Notably sustainability definitions identify equality of opportunity across generations – not equality of resources – thus allowing for change. A preservationist stance looks to relieve pressure on resources and views humans as the prime agents of biodiversity destruction. Carried to the extreme, such a preservationist view has resulted in militaristic intervention, particularly in nations of the periphery. It can also be partly blamed for the ‘parks versus people’ dialectic within such nations, whereby the rapid growth in wildlife tourism has given a financial incentive to preserve at all costs. See also Conservation tourism, Environment, Environmental consciousness     EC

  Pressure group (interest groups, lobby groups) Groups consisting of non-governmental actors and agencies organized around common interests, either formally or informally (Dredge and Jenkins, 2007). Pressure groups endeavour to influence people who make decisions, but do not themselves seek political office. Traditionally, their actions have been focused on influencing government policy and legislation but changing power structures arising from emerging governance arrangements and globalization have meant that pressure groups increasingly attempt to influence multinational corporations as well. Pressure groups are diverse and vary in terms of their size, organizational structure, scope and the scale (see Policy cascade) at which they operate. They exert pressure and influence in different ways. Insider groups are perceived to have specialist knowledge and can strongly influence decision-making. Traditionally they have been consulted by government or provided research to inform government decisions but the partnership relations associated with governance sometimes lead to direct participation in decision-­ making. Outsider groups are less well connected to governments and seek to influence decisions through a variety of methods from letter writing, to political lobbying and demonstrations. Pressure groups sometimes make alliances and lobby together to achieve common interests. An example is the recent proposals for airport expansion in the south-east of England, where national and international environmental and wildlife pressure groups worked with local community groups to lobby government. Pressure groups can have formal or informal structures and working arrangements. A recent phenomenon is the growth in spontaneous protests such as the ‘Occupy’ movement, which is a broadly framed protest against global capitalism. It is constituted by alliances of people and groups in different countries and is characterized by diffuse leadership and organic/fluid structures. The spontaneity of this group is facilitated by the Internet and changes in digital technology. See also Non-governmental organization     NS

  Price management The management of price related to products/services offered by the tourism industry to attract tourism demand with various levels of sensitivity to price. As a strategic lever, Price management393

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it is also part of the revenue management system. Prices based on customer demand represent a key aspect to be managed in tourism activities that suffer from unstable demand and are an important aspect of achieving triple bottom line sustainability. See also Demand management     PMO

 Privatization The sale and transfer of state-owned business enterprises and property to private persons and institutions, which can also include private/public partnerships. This practice aims to decrease public sector activity in the national economy for economic, financial, social and political reasons. Since government-owned enterprises are seen as less productive in most developing countries, they impose a burden on government budgets. Hence, the view that they should be sold to the private sector began to be widely accepted in the 1980s as part of neoliberal agendas. Privatization has economic, financial, social and political aims. The foremost aim and motive of privatization as stated by its advocates is an economic one, which involves making management more productive and profitable by operating in the market economy. The other aims are the enlargement of wealth to large masses; to reduce charges by selling equity shares of public enterprises to small savers, employees and managers; to create a source of alternative finance; to provide a source of revenue to the government; and to incentivize the inflow of foreign capital, technological expertise and new investments. The main reason for privatization in developing countries is to implement a free trade economy model. Privatization is mostly done involuntarily, but with the International Monetary Fund and World Bank institutions promoting and encouraging the privatization process. These institutions believe that privatization is a part of the process of liberalization to provide the required stability of a market economy to these countries. Stabilization programmes by the IMF and World Bank promote private sector enterprises as the impetus for expansion and development, and have proposed selling public enterprises and not making public investments in the economy except for infrastructure. As the balance of international payments and government budget deficits increase, support for the privatization of these two organizations also increases. The World Bank gives credits to developing countries, half of which is given in return for improvement of public institutions, and the other half is given in return for privatization of Public Enterprises, reduction of public expenditures and liberalization of public services. However there has been much critique of privatization, particularly in its abuse of power and its association with the growth fetish.     FO

  Pro-poor tourism (PPT) An approach to tourism that seeks to ensure that a greater share of the benefits of tourism reaches the poor. While other approaches, such as ecotourism or community-­ based tourism, may also have a stated interest in benefiting poorer peoples, pro-poor tourism is the only approach that has poverty-alleviation as its core focus. Proponents of PPT want to ‘ . . . “mainstream” pro-poor tourism so that it is a business approach 394Privatization

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across the industry, rather than a niche market’ (Ashley and Ashton, 2006, p. 3). They suggest that to achieve poverty alleviation, it is more constructive to work through large-scale, mainstream tourism businesses than small-scale and well-intentioned alternative tourism operations. Academic views on the relationship between poverty and tourism have varied widely over the past half century. While in the 1950s tourism was identified as a modernization strategy that could help newly-independent less-developed countries to earn foreign exchange, in the 1970s and 1980s many social scientists were very critical of tourism arguing that vulnerable environments were being exploited and that poor people from non-Western countries were typically excluded from or disadvantaged by what tourism can offer. There was a concerted push towards a reversal of this thinking in the 1990s, coinciding with development agencies’ move to establish poverty alleviation as the number one development agenda. ‘Pro-poor tourism’, coined to mean ‘tourism that generates net benefits for the poor’ (Ashley and Roe, 2002, p. 62), was first used in the development literature in 1999 (in Deloitte & Touche, 1999). It emerged from UK-sponsored research on sustainable livelihoods in southern Africa and comparative studies of tourism, conservation and sustainability issues in protected areas in Asia and Africa. The British delegation to the 1999 meeting of the UN Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD7), then used this research to get tourism as a means of poverty alleviation on the agenda (Goodwin, 1998). After CSD7, governments were urged to ‘maximise the potential of tourism for eradicating poverty by developing appropriate strategies in cooperation with all major groups, indigenous and local communities’ (IIED, 2001, p. 41). Tourism has been identified as a promising economic sector through which to develop poverty alleviation strategies thanks to some persuasive statistics. Less-developed countries now have a market share of 40% of worldwide international tourism arrivals, up from 34% in 2000 (UNWTO, 2007). For over 50 of the world’s poorest countries tourism is one of the top three contributors to economic development (World Tourism Organization, 2000, cited in Sofield, 2003). Furthermore, it is suggested that the approximately $68 billion given in aid annually pales in significance compared with revenues of around $153 billion from tourism (Ashley and Mitchell, 2005, cited in Christie and Sharma, 2008). Such figures have encouraged a wide range of stakeholders to make commitments to pro-poor tourism, from govenments to donors, tourism industry associations, NGOs, research centres/universities, conservation organizations and multilateral agencies, including the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). Mitchell and Ashley (2007) suggest three ‘pathways’ by which tourism can positively impact on the lives of the poor: 1. Direct effects of tourism on the poor: e.g. employment, small enterprises, lease monies paid to communities. 2. Secondary effects of tourism on the poor: e.g. indirect earnings from related sectors that supply goods and services to tourism (such as sale of fruit and vegetables to ­hotels). 3. Dynamic effects on the economy: e.g. impacts on entrepreneurisalism, training and skill development, opportunities to interact with ‘outsiders’ and gain access to markets, improvement of infrastructure (e.g. roads, communication, water supply) or the natural environment. Pro-poor tourism (PPT)395

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While tourism definitely can benefit the poor, there have been questions about the strength and validity of some of the claims made about PPT. There could be a danger that, like a number of trends before it (e.g. ecotourism in the 1990s), PPT is something of a fad, a new way of dressing up the tourism industry to reclaim its credibility not just as an engine of growth but also as a ‘soft’ industry that is both socially beneficial and environmentally benign. In reality, where inequalities are particularly entrenched, where human rights violations go unchecked by the ruling powers, and where existing structures preclude the empowerment of the poor, it will be difficult for any forms of tourism to contribute effectively to poverty alleviation: ‘PPT will not “cure” corruption and cronyism, nor can it rid a place of patriarchy and racism. As a tool, tourism is overly burdened with ideals it cannot realise’ (Chok et al., 2007, p. 51). A key challenge remaining is to ascertain how tourism can contribute not just to the economic well-being of the poor, but how it can challenge poverty more generally by reducing the vulnerability of the poor, helping them to gain more control over resources, empowering them and assisting them to claim their rights. In addition, for PPT to be effective, strenuous efforts will be needed to develop the capacity of communities and partner governments to manage tourism programmes appropriately, and to encourage a wide range of mainstream tourism businesses to be driven by something beyond the profit motive.     RES Further reading Mitchell, J. and Ashley, C. (2010) Tourism and Poverty Reduction: Pathways to Prosperity. Earthscan, London, UK. Mowforth, M. and Munt, I. (2009) Tourism and Sustainability: Development and New Tourism in the Third World, 3rd edn. Routledge, London, UK. Scheyvens, R. (2011) Tourism and Poverty. Routledge, New York (city). Telfer, D.J. and Sharpley, R. (2008) Tourism and Development in the Developing World. Routledge, London, UK.

  Practical advice and examples of how tourism can be used to benefit the poor. www.propoortourism.info/

 Procurement The acquisition of goods and services from a supplier. Procurement plays a vital role in the tourism industry as tourism organizations rely heavily on their ability to procure goods and services in a timely manner in order to service their guests. These goods and services must also be acquired at an appropriate price in order for the business to remain profitable.     SR

 Product A good or service – or a combination thereof – that coveys certain benefits to its consumers. For consumers, products are the means to satisfy their needs thanks to the 396Procurement

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benefits that products incorporate. For businesses producing or providing them, products are the only means for achieving income by selling them to consumers. In the case of tourism, products may be the output of a productive process such as the accommodation services provided by a hotel but may include so-called free or public goods such as natural attractions and historic sites.     DK

  Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI) The world’s largest scuba-diving certification organization based in the United States, but operational globally. PADI has been a core structure in the growth of scuba-diving tourism, providing a globally recognized framework for training and qualification. This has worked particularly well for short-term tourists in destinations with warm water and corals (Fig. P10) relative to the existing national clubs in origin countries. Since 1967, PADI has issued in excess of 20 million certifications, with almost a million new certifications in 2012 (PADI, 2013). PADI trains about half of all divers worldwide, while other major global diving organizations include the British Sub Aqua Club (BSAC), National Association of Underwater Instructors (NAUI) and Scuba Schools International (SSI). Although PADI’s primary goal is the safe practice of scuba diving, ensured through a hierarchy of ascending recreational (for a one-off fee) and professional (for an annual subscription) qualifications, it has considered the environmental impact of its activity.

Fig. P10.  PADI dive training, Great Barrier Reef, Australia (Carl Cater). Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI)397

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Basic ‘open water’ students are exposed to training that explains and encourages no contact behaviour and close attention to buoyancy control. Later qualifications such as ‘underwater naturalist’ promote an understanding of subsea ecosystems. Since 1992, PADI has also maintained its Project AWARE, which promotes sustainable interaction and monitoring of marine environments.     CIC   PADI – Professional Association of Diving Instructors www.padi.com

  Profit margin See Mark-up  

Project AWARE (Aquatic World Awareness, Responsibility and Education)

A diver education initiative by the Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI), initiated in 1989. Project AWARE aims to ‘conserve underwater environments through education, advocacy and action’ and achieves this by developing and disseminating educational materials and creating public awareness campaigns amongst its many activities (Nimb, 2003). Some of the project fundraising comes from divers selecting a bespoke Project AWARE certification card at each stage of qualification. The Project AWARE foundation was refocused in 2012 as a separate registered non-profit organization from PADI, and now raises its own funds and defines its mission and goals. These goals now focus on ocean protection, specifically species decline and marine debris, and providing a policy focus on these issues. Notably, Project AWARE aims to ‘emphasize the role that diving and tourism plays in a nation’s economic wellbeing’. PADI continues to support the organization in-kind and operationally.     CIC   Project AWARE www.projectaware.org

 Promotion One of the four elements of the marketing mix comprising those tools that allow an organization to communicate its offerings to the market. Promotional activities aim at persuading consumers to buy a product or to embrace an idea or a concept.     DK

  Protected area Internationally recognized areas that exist principally for the conservation of biodiversity and nature, and that also provide a foundation for the management of ecosystems and species. Within protected areas are found a range of goods and services that are 398

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fundamental to the sustainable use of natural resources (see Ecosystem services). Many nations have extensive networks of protected areas that have grown up over time but all nations have at least one designated protected area (Fig. P11). The universally recognized purpose of these areas is the restriction of exploitative extraction of natural resources and the limitation of human occupation. Nonetheless, differences in legislative, financial and institutional support coupled with national needs and priorities of individual countries lead to substantial variety in the protected area system from country to country. The most widely accepted definition of a protected area is that applied by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN); any area submitted for inclusion on the World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA) must, in order to be designated, conform to this definition. The most recent version was given by the IUCN at the World Conservation Congress in 2008 and reads: A protected area is a clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values (Dudley, 2008, p. 8)

In the establishment of a protected area, application of this definition is the first step (followed by categorization); this definition is now relevant to all types of protected area and thus supersedes all preceding IUCN definitions including those of marine protected areas (MPAs). The concept of a protected area is not new and, in the modern sense, can be seen as having evolved from traditional conservation of special places. In the UK, William

Fig. P11.  Protected area, Transborder National Park, Costa Rica (Olga Garcia). Protected area399

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the Conqueror set aside the New Forest as a Royal Hunting Area as long ago as 1079: an area that was formally designated into the current definition in 2005. Nonetheless, the birth of the modern protected area is generally seen as a consequence of European settlers discovering areas of (what they perceived as) outstanding beauty and unspoiled wilderness in North America. Such areas were inspirational to early conservationists and led to the declaration of Yellowstone National Park, by an act of Congress, as the world’s first such area in 1872.     PW

 Protection A broad term for activities aimed at obtaining full respect for the human rights of all individuals in accordance with international law. This includes international humanitarian, human rights and refugee law, regardless of age, gender or social, ethnic, national, religious or other background. The protection includes any activities that: prevent or put a stop to a specific pattern of abuse and/or alleviates its immediate effects; restores people’s dignity and ensures adequate living conditions through reparation, restitution and rehabilitation; and fosters an environment conducive to respect for the rights of individuals in accordance with the relevant bodies of law.

Fig. P12.  Protection of aboriginal art heritage, Carnarvon Gorge, Queensland, Australia (Carl Cater). 400Protection

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Protection activities include responsive action, remedial action and environment-­ building, which can be carried out concurrently.     ED

  Public goods Services and goods that are owned and provided by the public sector. In contrast to private goods, public goods have two characteristics. First, the quantity of the commodity is not reduced by its consumption by any individual (non-exclusivity). Second, it is impossible to exclude everyone from enjoying the whole supply (non-rivalry). Tourism examples include wilderness areas, marine parks, fireworks displays and street lighting. The ‘public good’ aspect of many environmental resources implies that they will be underprovided by the private sector since suppliers are unlikely to be able to recover the full costs of their provision, as individuals can generally escape paying for their use (the ‘free rider problem’). Collective action is needed to provide public goods in sufficient quantities usually through the government taxing the general public to fund their supply.     LD

Public goods401

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Q   Quadruple bottom line (QBL) An approach to assessing the aggregate economic, environmental, social and cultural sustainability performance of an entity. QBL stems from the work of Wight (1993a) and Elkington (1998) who argue that corporations should focus not just on the economic value they add, but also on the environmental and social value they add – and destroy. QBL states that when businesses assess their performance they should consider their economic, environmental, social and cultural sustainability. QBL is a planning and reporting mechanism and decision-making framework used to achieve sustainable development in both private and public sector organizations – an internal management tool as well as an external reporting framework. QBL reporting aims to extend decision making and disclosure so that business decisions explicitly take into consideration the impacts on society and the environment, as well as on profit (Dwyer, 2005; Robins, 2006). QBL is an important means by which both the private sector and government bodies in tourism at all levels can demonstrate responsibility for sustainable development.  DE and LD

  Quality of life A multi-dimensional construct sometimes applied in the evaluation of health-care settings, the environmental impact assessment of economic development and the formulation of policy in relation to societal issues such as injustice, poverty and conflict. The understanding, meaning and interpretation of the concept of quality of life may incorporate cultural, religious and ethical perspectives as well as lifestyle choices, personal behaviour and work and recreation balance. In a sense these contexts in total or in part provide the indicators against which quality of life is perceived. MPR

  Quality tourism A descriptor and/or measure of the perceived and/or assessed value of tourism applied by an individual, group, business, organization, association, industry, government or not-for-profit entity. The term may also be further defined using additional qualifiers, such as, ‘good’ quality tourism or ‘high’-quality tourism, each of which requires further definition of what ‘good’ and ‘high’ mean. Across time, peoples and spaces, definitions of quality tourism have morphed in response to the situatedness of the users of the term. Subsequently, there is a multiplicity of definitions. Among the definitions, references are made to value for money, degrees of satisfaction, expectations being exceeded, 402 

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­ nexpected value-adding, perceived authenticity of interactions, personal and social u connectivity, perceptions of excellence, overall interconnectivity of elements of tourism service and experiences, standards of products, services and experiences, as well as positive affective domain outcomes. Given this diversity of referents, a standard definition does not exist and is highly unlikely to exist since quality is a subjective term. A critical element in defining quality is that it needs to be user-defined. Such definitions are influenced by the term-user’s age, gender, life cycle stage, social, cultural, ethnic, political and environmental backgrounds and values, as well as overall tourism experiences. Further achievement of a standard definition of quality tourism is compounded by the lack of a unilaterally agreed definition of tourism. Despite the difficulty in achieving agreement on definitions of quality tourism, people, organizations and entities continue to attempt to define it. To confound the issue further, some also semantically reframe the concept of quality tourism as in the case of the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), which constructed the term ‘quality in tourism’ as follows: . . . the result of a process which implies the satisfaction of all the legitimate product and service needs, requirements and expectations of the consumer, at an acceptable price, in conformity with mutually accepted contractual conditions and the underlying quality determinants such as safety and security, hygiene, accessibility, transparency, authenticity and harmony of the tourism activity concerned with its human and natural environment. UNWTO Quality Support Committee at its sixth meeting (Varadero, Cuba, 9–10 May 2003) (UNWTO, 2012b)

The intent here was to couple quality with sustainability. By introducing the elements of ‘human and natural environment’, the UNWTO was attempting to explicitly link quality with sustainability. Elsewhere, it has been recognized that quality and sustainability are interconnected terms albeit not mutually inclusive terms (Jennings, 2006). For example, a five-star luxury experience may not be imbued with sustainability principles. Similarly, a sustainable tourism experience may not be a quality one. For the UNWTO, the terms are inextricably connected with quality representing the ‘face’ of sustainability. Specifically, quality influences tourism experience provision and sustainability provides the backing policy and management principles to support the continued provision of those tourism experiences. Despite the difficulty in defining quality tourism, over time, a number of approaches have been and continue to be taken to gain insights into its meaning. Academics and researchers have used qualitative approaches, drawing on emic (insider) perspectives, to capture the multiple meanings of the term. Such research associates with determining in-depth, holistic understandings of the quality of tourism and related experiences. On the other hand, quantitative and mixed methods approaches, drawing on etic (outsider) perspectives, aim to determine the specific variables related to the term. These are then used in the development of standards for the measurement of quality tourism, usually, the provision of products and services. Dating from the late 1980s, measurement extended to experiences. One of the main foci of quantitative and mixed methods research has been service quality, specifically, SERVQUAL (Parasuraman et al., 1985) and its permutations. SERVQUAL is founded primarily on gap theory: the expectation/performance disconfirmation paradigm (Parasuraman et al., 1985). SERVQUAL provides criteria to measure service quality related to the dimensions of tangibles, reliability, responsiveness, Quality tourism403

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assurance and empathy. To counter the Western-centric focus of this measurement of service quality, Raajpoot (2004) developed PAKSERV for Asian cultural contexts. Globally, in the tourism industries, the notion of quality tourism agendas at the local, regional, national and international levels remains focused on measurement and assessment of quality in order that consumers may be guided by national and cross-national accreditation processes. Such processes are reputed to provide consumers with assurances of receiving a quality tourism product, service or experience. There are a variety of standards that have been developed to provide measures at the various levels. Most national and some international standards aim to ensure quality can be homogeneously applied and measured. Accreditation or standards, like the UNWTO definition of quality in tourism, have a twin aim to ensure sustainability of the tourism industries by offering quality products, services and experiences. Examples of accreditation schemes include: T-QUAL Accreditation, an Australian Government quality assurance scheme; Qualmark, New Zealand’s official quality assurance organiza 2012); the Quality Tourism Services (QTS) Scheme in Hong Kong, managed by the Hong Kong Tourism Board (HKTB), which accredits service providers based on assessment of service excellence and quality of products. Each of the accreditation schemes differs from each other. This is to be expected given the varying temporal, social, cultural, economic, political and environmental contexts that pervade the construction of definitions, standards and schemes associated with quality tourism. See also Total quality management GJ   Quality Tourism Service Scheme http://www.discoverhongkong.com/nz/plan-your-trip/qts-scheme/index.jsp  Qualmark http://www.qualmark.co.nz/   T-QUAL Accreditation http://www.tourism.australia.com/en-au/industry/T-QUAL-Accreditation.aspx

  Québec Declaration on Ecotourism A statement on the principles of ecotourism, agreed at the World Ecotourism Summit in 2002. While not a negotiated document, the Declaration was discussed at 18 preparatory conferences taking place all around the world, as well as at the Summit itself. It begins by acknowledging that ecotourism embraces the principles of sustainable tourism, having regard for its economic impacts, sociocultural impacts and environmental impacts. However, it goes on to distinguish ecotourism from the wider concept of sustainable tourism in that it: (i) contributes actively to the conservation of natural and cultural heritage; (ii) includes local and indigenous people in its planning, development and operation, as well as contributing to their well-being; (iii) includes interpretation of natural and cultural heritage to tourists; and (iv) lends itself better to free independent travellers and smaller-sized organized tours. The text of the Declaration begins by recognizing the growing interest that people have in ecotourism, along with the potential of such activities to result in impacts, both positive and negative on the economic, sociocultural and natural environments in which they take place. It goes on to identify the leadership role that ecotourism has 404

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in addressing such impacts and the relative scarcity of funding available for the conservation and management of the areas in which ecotourism tends to take place. The text affirms the potential for all forms of tourism – but especially ecotourism – to contribute positively to meeting the needs of local and indigenous people, provided that it is sensitively developed and well managed. The Declaration also recognizes that for the benefits of ecotourism to be equitably shared there needs to be effective participation on the part of local and indigenous communities, including the right to opt out entirely. Finally, the Declaration places the responsibility on tourists to act in a sustainable manner through the travel choices they make, the activities they participate in and how they behave while they are on holiday. The Declaration then goes on to set out a series of recommendations for national, regional and local governments, for private-sector organizations involved in the promotion and delivery of ecotourism, for non-governmental organizations, community-­ based groups and academic and research institutions, for intergovernmental org­anizations, international financial institutions and development-assistance agencies, for local and indigenous communities, and for the World Summit on Sustainable ­Development at Johannesburg, to which the Declaration was presented later in 2002. BG   Québec Declaration on Ecotourism http://www.unep.fr/shared/publications/pdf/WEBx0078xPA-EcotourismSummitEN.pdf

Fig. Q1.  Guide explains the benefits of quiet enjoyment, John Grays SeaCanoe, Phuket, Thailand (Carl Cater). Québec Declaration on Ecotourism405

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  Quiet enjoyment A situation in which a person can reach and maintain a satisfying mental state (see Emotion) caused by the benefit expected out of a specific right, e.g. using a property or consuming a product, without interference or disturbance unusual to the local environment (see Customs). Tourism activities allowing the quiet enjoyment of a place’s qualities are necessarily respectful and ethically sensible as intending to minimize negative impacts, e.g. walking, hiking, birdwatching (Fig. Q1), slow tourism, taking photographs in a cautious manner or interacting with locals according to their customs. Quiet enjoyment is an important principle of national parks legislation in the United Kingdom (Dale, 2000). HF

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R   Radiative forcing A term used in climate sciences. Radiative forcing is the difference (measured at the tropopause in units of watts per square metre of Earth’s surface) between the radiative energy received by the Earth from the Sun and the energy radiated back into space. Hence, it refers to an imbalance between incoming solar radiation and outgoing infrared radiation that causes the Earth’s radiative balance to move from its normal state. Radiative forcing determines the earth’s average temperature. Factors that influence the radiative balance are reflectivity of clouds or gases, absorption by various greenhouse gases and intensity of solar energy. Any of these changes is a radiative forcing and can result in different average temperatures. See also Climate change     CO

 Railway Transportation using a fixed track, railways are a transport link for millions of people around the world. Travelling by train may be part of a daily commute, general use of the scheduled public transport system or as a means to reach distant places. Railways have been instrumental in the development of tourism since the era of industrialization, but now are often a heritage tourism attraction in their own right (Fig. R1). Investment in the infrastructure determines the places accessible by rail but there are engineering feats throughout the world that have made travel and sites possible to many. There are therefore different types of railway to overcome problematic access, like that seen on Mount Snowdon in Wales. Here, a rack railway, based on a Swiss design was started in 1897, and offered trips to the peak. Creating such railways in the past was a hard physical task requiring the wielding of pick-axes and shovels to dig difficult terrain and many lives were lost especially in tunnel blasts. Now there are many who appreciate these efforts to build, by preserving the historic railways. These are usually particularly scenic routes and in the case of the preserved railways, they are usually single track branch lines for limited traffic. Many travellers on a preserved line see their travel as a romantic experience, with the landscape passing by in such a way that allows sights not possible on other forms of transport. Consequently the emotions aroused can be nostalgia for the past alongside a contrast with more modern modes (Halsall, 2001). Further, in some locations such as Wales and New Zealand the favourable gradient of disused railway lines have been converted to cycle paths for an alternative tourism attraction. The railway is not just about the past. While air travel has eroded the numbers of overnight services there are still advantages seen by taking a train that arrives in a © CAB International 2015. The Encyclopedia of Sustainable Tourism  (eds C. Cater, B. Garrod and T. Low)

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Fig. R1.  The Ghan train, which bisects Australia from Adelaide to Darwin (Carl Cater).

central location and is not hindered by congestion. Speed has always interested railway engineers and high speed links are now allowing much faster travel but there is a cost in that they consume more fuel. However, in comparison to travel by air or road, train travel has become the preferred option for those that are concerned about the environmental impact of their travel.     JF

  Rainforest Alliance A non-governmental organization founded in 1987 by environmental activist Daniel Katz in an attempt to draw public attention to the large scale deforestation of rainforests. The Rainforest Alliance has a number of programs in sustainable forestry, sustainable agriculture, education, carbon verification and sustainable tourism. The latter was launched in 2000 and provides a training program on best management practices to tourism businesses which can use the Rainforest Alliance Verified™ mark for marketing purposes after completion. In an effort to link tourism businesses and consumers the Rainforest Alliance has developed and is managing an online marketing tool for recommended, third-party certified or Rainforest Alliance verified sustainable tourism businesses in Latin America and the Caribbean. See also Certification, Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria     CO 408

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  Ramsar Convention on Wetlands An intergovernmental treaty adopted in the Iranian city of Ramsar in 1971 to protect wetlands. The Convention draws a framework for national action and international cooperation for sustainability and ‘wise use’ of wetlands. Wise use refers to the maintenance of their ecological character, achieved through the implementation of ecosystem approaches, within the context of sustainable development. The Convention was signed by the delegates from 18 nations the day after its text was agreed on 2 February 1971. According to the Convention’s official web site, the number of nations agreeing to the convention has reached 168, and the number of protected area wetlands under the treaty has reached 2144, covering over 200 million hectares. Many Ramsar sites are important areas for birdwatching and ecotourism.     SH

  Rapid Rural Appraisal See Participatory Rural Appraisal

 Reclamation The conversion of waste land, wetland, coastal and desert areas into land suitable for habitation or cultivation. Also the recovery of useful materials from waste products. Land reclamation is the process of creating new land from ocean, riverbeds, lake or waste mine sites and may often be related to tourism development. These disturbed areas are restored or transformed into more valuable lands or improved states. These new lands are used in habitation, agriculture, beach restoration and landfill. For example, the habitation is created from land reclamation, such as a man-made beach, artificial island or city central district, such as those seen in Dubai. For beach restoration, sand or mud from inland is often used to repair beaches. However, land reclamation may have some negative impacts through environmental impact and damage. For example, the ploughing work is adapted by the farmer from the draining wetland, which may destroy the wetland habitat. Soil liquefaction is a highly sensitive issue in reclaimed land, affecting buildings and infrastructure during earthquakes.     CHC

 Recreation A type of leisure activity undertaken for enjoyment, where leisure is time free from work (Smith and Godbey, 1991). Recreation is derived from the Latin ‘recreare’, meaning to create again or renew. It is suggested that it involves using one’s free time to recreate and find one’s self (Ryan and Glendon, 1998), where meaning is derived from an escape from work, this act of recreation refreshing and recreating a person for work (Smith and Godbey, 1991). As Mead (1957, p. 13) opines: ‘man must work, then weary and “take some recreation” so he may work again’. Rojek (2000) argues, however, that there is a blurred distinction between recreation, or leisure, and work, as Recreation409

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recreation can occur during work, a lunch break for example, and vice versa. Often antithetical to the reasons why people work, recreational activities cannot always be rationalized, as ‘feelings and fun’ are not goals bounded by logic but are often hedonistic experiences (Holbrook and Hirschman, 1982) (see Emotion). These activities are often undertaken as forms of play, and play is the ‘antidote to all the mundane duties of adulthood’ (Roberts, 1995, p. 35, emphasis in orignal). Over the past 50 years, considerable research has been undertaken on both recreation and leisure (Dillard and Bates, 2011), with some studies conceptually unifying the two activities. Without differentiating the two concepts, Dillard and Bates (2011) identified four principal motivations for leisure/recreation. Their research concluded that people participate along two axes: first, they participate with motivations that are either self-directed or with/against other people, and second, benefits can be attained, in terms of the experience or the results. As a consequence, the principal motivations are identified as: escape (getting away), developing relationships (enhancing social contact), mastery (competing against oneself) and winning (competing with others). With often different motivations to people’s participation in tourism, attempts have been made to identify the key components of recreation. Identifying recreation as an activity undertaken in leisure time, Gunn (1990) described it as a pleasurable or enjoyable activity, which could be active or passive. Surveys have attempted to classify recreational activities; one American study divided it into four different classes: sports; outdoors/hunting; winter and water activities; and resort activities (Lankford et al., 1999).     ST

  Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) An opportunity spectrum in the context of outdoor recreation resource management and the interplay between user information and behaviour. The concept of the recreation opportunity spectrum was developed by Clark and Stankey, two researchers with the US Forest Service in 1979, building on earlier research by Brown et al. (1978). The original reference was a publication of the USDA Forest Service (Clark and Stankey, 1979), in which the authors outlined the basic rationale followed, namely that ‘quality in outdoor recreation is best assured through provision of a diverse set of opportunities’ (Clark and Stankey, 1979, p. 41). The purpose of the spectrum was to provide information to managers and potential users of outdoor recreation opportunities about the nature of the resources available at specific sites, with the idea that such information would enable potential users to match suitable sites to their desired recreation activity (Fig. R2). People who selected a suitable site would, in principle, maximize their satisfaction and enjoyment when engaging in their chosen activity at such a site. The spectrum contained six ‘setting attributes’ that were considered to affect recreation behaviour and have significance for management: access (degree of difficulty and means allowed); other non recreational uses of resources (compatibility with recreation activities); on-site management (modification of setting, awareness of intervention and facilities); social interaction (intensity of use and various space requirements); level of regimentation (degrees and nature of controls over recreation use); and level 410

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Fig. R2.  Interpretation of the ­recreational opportunity spectrum, Fraser Island, Australia (Carl Cater).

of visitor impacts acceptable (in different opportunities). These settings, particularly the sixth, are related to the Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) model subsequently developed by other US Forest Service researchers (Stankey et al., 1985). The opportunity spectrum approach has also been developed in the context of a Tourism Opportunity Spectrum (Butler and Waldbrook, 1991) and later into an Ecotourism Opportunity Spectrum (Boyd and Butler, 1995), using different setting parameters. As in the original spectrum, quality of experience is a value judgement and will inevitably vary with the individual user. As with the management of carrying capacity, the most critical limiting factor will vary with the setting and the uses anticipated. Impacts from recreational use may be the primary factor in some cases, in other situations it may be other uses or management activities. The spectrum approach is still utilized in a variety of forms in outdoor recreation management, ­particularly in the US.     RBU

 Recycling A waste-management process that involves turning the waste generated by production or consumption activities into a supply of useful materials that can be re-­ deployed. Usually this re-deployment is in a different production process to the one in which the waste was generated. For example, it would be too expensive to use ­recycled plastic drinks containers to make new plastic drinks containers (hygiene Recycling411

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regulations alone tend to make the costs prohibitive), so that when the plastic from drinks bottles is recycled it tends to be used to make other products (such as textiles for use in the clothing industry). All production and consumption processes involve some form of waste generation, so the potential for recycling is always present. Popular materials for use in recycling include paper, glass, plastics and metals. These can be taken by the consumer to a recycling station (or centre) (Fig. R3) or collected from the final consumers’ homes. Recycling is not, however, the ideal means of ­reducing natural resource use, coming only third in the ‘reduce, reuse, recycle’ hierarchy (Fig. R4). Recycling is an important tool of sustainable tourism in that as it leads to less consumption of fresh materials and/or energy usage. In doing so, it may also reduce the pollution that can be associated with the emission of waste materials. The latter can be especially important in natural environments and protected areas, which can be very sensitive to the pollution associated with waste material emissions. Recycling on the part of business organizations operating in the tourism sector can be encouraged through education or by providing collection services. In some cases, the price of recycled materials may be such that it is in the organization’s direct ­financial interests to collect waste for recycling. Tourists can also be encouraged to deposit their waste in receptacles placed in their accommodation or at popular tourist sites.     BG

Fig. R3.  Recycling area, Center Parcs, UK (Brian Garrod). 412Recycling

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Fig. R4.  Reused bottle greenhouse, National Botanic Gardens, Wales (Carl Cater).

  Red Data Book See IUCN Red Data Book

 Reflection The act of taking time to consider actions taken and proposed, in order that a holistic perspective of consequences can be achieved. It can be undertaken individually or by an organization or group, is an important part of sustainable planning and is an important stage of action research and community-based tourism development. It may require a catalyst through use of a facilitator or focus groups. It may include asking questions such as where are we now (auditing) and where do we want to go (goal-­ setting) and how will we get there (best practice). Reflection itself is closely linked to reflexivity, a process by which individuals monitor and evaluate their place in the world. Some commentators have argued that there has been both a societal and academic ‘reflexive turn’ in the past few decades, in which we are more cognisant of the consequences of our actions. Under reflexive modernization, Lash and Urry (1994) suggested that people are able to monitor and evaluate society and its place within the world both historically and geographically, a process that has accelerated under ­globalization and trends such as social networking.     CIC Reflection413

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 Regeneration An action or process of physical and/or economic renewal or invigoration. A process that restores, renews or revitalizes sources of energy and materials (in regeneration of nature) and in the revitalization of local areas and the built environment (in urban regeneration), creating sustainable economic systems that integrate the needs of society with the integrity of nature.     FT

  Relationship marketing A holistic business approach departing from the traditional marketing perspective that is focused only on sales transactions and advertising communication. As a management process, relationship marketing consists in creating, developing and sustaining reciprocally beneficial relationships with stakeholders, especially customers, after discrete transactions expire. The rationale of relationship marketing is the belief in the value of long-term relationships, customer retention and satisfaction, as well as in its contribution to marketing and service costs reduction. It develops according to specific organizational activities (database marketing and data mining, for instance) and with the support of information technologies that facilitate the organization of activities. See also Destination marketing, Social networking     ACA

  Religious tourism Many religions attach spiritual importance to particular places and require travel to locations, such as places of births and deaths, spiritual awakenings, or where miracles were performed, for example. This helps people to verify and reinforce their religious beliefs. The journey to and the visit of these places is called pilgrimage. The main religions performing pilgrimages are Buddhism (Fig. R5), Hinduism, Judaism, Islam and Christianity, with Christianity being the world’s biggest religion with 31%. It is suggested that more than 35% of all international tourist travel is for the purpose of ­religion (Jackowksi, 2000). The growth in the general tourism industry and the growth of religious tourism growth are interconnected and it is not understood why pilgrimage is one of the most understudied areas in tourism research (Vukonic, 1998). Rinschede (1992) states that there are two different forms of religious tourism: 1. Short-term religious tourism, which could be excursions to nearby pilgrimage centres or religious conferences; and 2. Long-term religious tourism, where participants take part in religious tourism for several days or weeks, nationally as well as internationally. Organizational factors can be distinguished by a variety of different characteristics, such as by the number of participants, by the form of transport they choose, by the season they travel in and by social structures (Rinschede, 1992). However, there are some issues regarding the development of religious tourism. Burns and Holden (1995) recognize that: ‘What started as pilgrimage has been transferred 414Regeneration

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Fig. R5.  Potala Palace, Lhasa, Tibet, an important pilgrimage site for Tibetan Buddhists (Carl Cater).

into a global consumer product in much the same way that Pepsi-Cola, McDonalds etc. have all been a standardized, rationalized global phenonemenon’. Ritzer (1999) also states that ‘tourist attractions have become the modern cathedrals of consumption’, which supports Burns and Holdens comment. It means that tourism used to be travelling for religious beliefs and has now turned into an act of consumption. Nolan and Nolan (1992) argue that many tourists visiting religious centres are nowadays uninformed about the religious meanings and use it for consumption reasons only. See also Spiritual tourism     KP

  Renewable energy (green energy) Energy derived from a continually replenished source (such as sunlight, wind, geothermal, tides, or water flow (Fig. R6)). Renewable energy offers greater sustainability in light of depleting stocks of carbon-based fuels such as oil and coal. In the 1970s, early support in the technology was often the interest of fringe environmentalist groups but it has since become a key interest of world governments facing economic challenges under the growing threat of climate change. See also Biofuels, Carbon management, Combined heat and power, Solar power     GD Renewable energy (green energy)415

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Fig. R6.  Micro hydroelectric turbine, Ghandruk, Nepal (Carl Cater).

 Reporting The disclosure to the public of sustainability related (or corporate social responsibility related) information by companies. It can refer to disclosure of information related to sustainability efforts and initiatives undertaken by a company and also to its sustainability performance. Reporting sustainability initiatives and performance by tourism companies is an important component of sustainable tourism. It is increasingly demanded by stakeholders who look for greater transparency and accountability on the part of tourism product providers. There are no globally accepted international regulations regarding corporate social responsibility (CSR) disclosure and, as a result, ­reporting CSR is mostly voluntary. However, since the 2000s the number of laws mandating CSR disclosure has been increasing. Most notably regulations under the European Modernization Directive were introduced in 2003. These regulations require all member countries to create legislation obliging companies to publish a ‘balanced and comprehensive’ analysis of their development and performance during the financial year. The relevant legislation has been introduced among others in France in 2001, Spain in 2005, Germany in 2005, Greece in 2006, Italy in 2007 and Denmark in 2009. At the same time significant progress has been made in development of global standards for non-financial reporting, such as the Global Reporting Initiative (created in 1997), the UN Global Compact and the voluntary International Standard, ISO 26000: 2010 Guidance for social responsibility. The trends in legislation, the growing p ­ ressure 416Reporting

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from stakeholders and the realization of benefits that can be derived through reporting (e.g. improved company image, customer satisfaction), resulted in a notable growth in CSR reporting among companies in many sectors. The current trends in reporting practice include: increased use of reporting guidelines produced by external bodies, quantification of environmental impacts, establishment of quantifiable targets against which to assess progress, and inclusion of third party veri­ fication statements to improve credibility. Still, the current reporting practice is criticized for lack of universally accepted criteria, lack of clear boundaries, selective presentation of information, differing reporting structures and lack of standardized measurements.     DDG

 Representation The process by which members of a culture use language (in its broadest sense) to produce, or give, meaning. It is constitutive of our understandings of both ‘tangible’ and ‘intangible’ cultural resources. Three distinct approaches to the study of representation have emerged: the ‘reflective’ approach (how language reflects meaning), the ‘intentional’ approach (meanings imposed by the author/speaker) and the ‘constructionist’ approach (the constructed nature of meaning). The practice of representation is concerned with both ‘encoding’ and ‘decoding’ meaning (of objects, persons, ideas or events). Under postmodernity, representation has assumed increasing importance in the critical analysis of sign value.     WF Further reading Hall, S. (1997) Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices. Sage, London, UK.

 Resilience The long-term capability of a self-organizing, dynamic system to withstand pressure, disturbance and change. The concept of resilience emerged originally from the ecology literature in the 1960s and early 1970s (Holling, 1973; Folke, 2006). Over time, the concept has been extended and applied to social systems (Adger, 2000). Resilience can incorporate multiple dimensions: physical, social, economic, institutional and natural. Therefore, a resilient system (e.g. a society, business, individual, forest, ecosystem) can be understood as one which can manage change through adaptive transformation and development, while maintaining its original function, structure or identity (Folke, 2011; Walker et al., 2004). Resilience can be reduced or even lost through slow processes of gradual change, such as changes in climate, land use, human policies, economic crises, values and belief processes. Most prevalent today, climate change can generate greater risk and vulnerability levels across human societies and natural ecological systems. Related to the capacity-of-response component of vulnerability (Gallopín, 2006), low resilience Resilience417

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levels may result in a system experiencing irreversible change and transformation into a different system. Taking the case of low resilience within an ecosystem, change and a new state may be undesirable and may have lasting impacts on the ecosystem, and perhaps on related tourism activity in that area. For example, as a result of a warming climate and warming oceans, coral reefs in particular parts of the world (e.g. Caribbean, Australia) have been transformed, in parts, into algae-rich areas (see Coral bleaching). This has altered the existing reef ecosystem to an alternative one: one perhaps less desirable by tourists. Indeed, the United Nations World Tourism Organisation advocates the maintenance of strong environmental resilience by minimizing tourism impacts on natural environments in order to sustain important natural barriers to climatic impacts (e.g. reefs and mangroves) and therefore contribute to the natural resilience of ecosystems. A history of past exposures to pressure, disturbance and change may be important in building and improving resilience (Holling, 1986). Resilience can be augmented through education, awareness-raising, knowledge sharing, provision of mitigation and/or adaptation tools and finances. In a sustainable tourism context, resilience can be enhanced through a diversification of activities to ones more in tune with the locale. Ultimately, resilience involves a level of preparedness to cope with hazards, impacts and disruptive events through adaptability. The UNWTO suggests the resilience of tourism destinations and resources should be improved, meaning shocks can be absorbed and tourism functionality maintained into the future (Folke, 2006).     NSA

 Resort See Integrated resort

 Resource A natural, man-made or human asset that can be used to provide a livelihood. Natural resources remain integral to the livelihoods of billions in developing countries, providing food, fuels, water, biodiversity, raw materials, spiritual fulfillment and more; they are also vital for the development prospects of many countries (Heltberg, 2010). In this regard, sustainability requires that successive generations face no greater constraints on the use of natural resources than are experienced by the current generation. This may seem impossible, given that some natural resources are effectively depleted with use (Fig. R7). If any of these resources are used by the present generation, then they are unavailable for future generations. The problem is to maintain productive or consumption potential over time, and literature on this has concentrated on arguments about whether natural capital (of which natural resources are an important part) can be substituted by human-made assets to leave a constant capital stock (Jowsey, 2009). Traditionally, natural resources are divided into two categories, renewable and non-renewable. Renewable resources are capable of regeneration within a relatively short time span, so that using them does not deplete them forever. Non-renewable resources are created over long time periods and, as a result, they are often regarded as fixed stock resources. The literature has identified different channels through which 418Resort

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Fig. R7.  Resource use public education, Tingri, Tibet (Carl Cater).

natural resources can restrict growth (Vittorio, 2011). First, windfall gains generate volatility in government revenues that, if not correctly managed, can lead to inflation and boom and bust in public spending. Second, a boom in natural resource exports can lead to real exchange rate appreciation, decreasing the competitiveness of the manufacturing sector: the so-called Dutch disease. Third, resource rents reduce incentives for economic reforms and diversification, favouring consumption more than investment, and leading to a misallocation of production factors (Vittorio, 2011). In addition, as highlighted by a number of studies, natural resources can produce detrimental effects on institutions and politics. The bulk argument of this literature is that conspicuous resource rents tend to increase voracious and rent-seeking behaviour, corruption or, more generally, to cause a deterioration in the quality of institutions and governance. See also Environmental supply     RO

  Resource management The efficient and effective deployment of an organization’s resources when they are needed. Such resources may include financial resources, equipment and human skills. In the case of natural resource management in a particular country, the term resource management refers to a set of practices pertaining to maintaining the integrity of natural systems. This form of management may include: air resource management, soil conservation, forestry, wildlife resource, water resource management, etc.     JMB Resource management419

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  Respectful travelling A style of travelling in an attentive, ethically acceptable way. The concept was developed in the early 2000s in reaction to the Global Code of Tourism Ethics, the abstract principles of which were considered unable to help guide individual tourists in pursuing their intention to maximize their travel’s benefits while at the same time minimizing their potentially negative impacts. As tourists usually have little familiarity with the destination they are travelling to, and are often overwhelmed by new and complex impressions, they are in a crucial need of orientation on how to behave in a contextually adequate manner. While organized tourists should be able to count on the support of ethically sensible tour guides, individual tourists are personally responsible for the ethical consequences of their activities. This is why respectful travelling can be understood as the individually applied form of ethical tourism (Fennell, 2006) supporting sustainable tourism development. The overall principle for this way of travelling is respect, giving a positive feeling (see Emotion) of esteem, deference or a sense of the worth for a person, a personal quality or any elements of the living space travelled to (e.g. social groups, religions, economic interests, cultural patterns or ecosystems). Respect is always related to specific actions and conduct representing that esteem. Nevertheless, as respect is necessarily directly related to the personal experience of the respectful travellers representing their own ethical systems of reference, a conduct meant to be respectful could be perceived as rude by visited people due to their different sociocultural background. Therefore, the most important applied rule of respectful travelling is to look for adequate information about the desired destination before starting the journey, in order to prevent unintended harm. Already acquired basic language skills as well as essential rules of conduct help travellers to express their respect for the visited culture. Further crucial issues are where and how to travel (see Transport), general rules of politeness like adequate ways to greet and to take photographs of persons. Respectful travellers take their time for a talk instead of hurrying through continents (see Slow tourism). They invest their money prudently in order to maximize regional income instead of supporting international tourism companies (see Multinational corporations), e.g. by lodging in locally owned and built ­accommodation, enjoying locally grown food (see Food miles) and buying regionally produced souvenirs. They are careful with charity, following local patterns, instead of giving sweets to any begging child coming along (see Poverty tourism). And finally they ‘take only photographs and leave only footprints’ in natural areas (see Ecotourism). A fundamental condition to able to behave in a respectful manner is to have self-respect, as without a feeling for someone’s own intrinsic worth, positive feeling of esteem for others is impossible. Consequently, respectful travelling has also direct positive effects for the traveller himself, such as inspiring experiences, touching encounters with new friends, lower culture shock and risk of crime, and finally the satisfying feeling of supporting the sustainable development of the visited destination. See also Responsible tourism     HF

  Responsible tourism A conceptually distinctive approach to all forms of tourism practice whereby accountable and respectful relationships with natural, sociocultural and economic environments are given priority. Over the past two decades, it has become progressively relevant 420

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within the tourism industry and academic community, particularly for its contributions to ethical tourism development and tourists’ self-fulfilment (Smith and Duffy, 2003; Sharpley, 2012b). Following Hall and Brown (2006), this contemporary interest might be attributable to at least four factors: global social, economic, and political processes that aim for equitable distribution of tourism related costs and benefits (e.g. ethical consumerism, fair trade); ● growing awareness that tourism-dependent livelihoods are vulnerable to economic downturns, terrorism and disease outbreaks; ● increasing ethical concern among travellers, which effects travel motivations and consumption patterns; and ● paradoxical recognition that tourism spoils the resources upon which it is based. ●

As Fennell (2006, p. 108) explains, responsibility is relevant to these contemporary issues because it ‘relates to our efforts to be as accountable and ethical as possible in our touristic behaviour’. In other words, by encouraging responsibility among tourism-related actors, researchers and practitioners encourage possibilities for shifting practices at multiple scales towards sustainability (Bramwell et al., 2008). Debate does, however, circulate among scholars about what constitutes responsible tourism. There is reason to consider responsible tourism as a product (e.g. on par with wildlife tourism) delivered to a socially, environmentally and economically conscious market segment (Weeden, 2014; Frey and George, 2010). Yet most proponents concur with Husbands and Harrison (1996) that responsible tourism is best understood as a way of ‘doing’ tourism planning, policy and development. In such applied contexts, responsible tourism prioritizes equitable distribution of benefits among stakeholders, sustainable resource management and local community control and planning (Reid, 2003; Blackstock et al., 2008; Mowforth et al., 2008). The adoption of responsible policies and practices by operators functions as a form of corporate social responsibility, with the potential to enhance the organization’s competitive advantage (Hudson and Miller, 2005; Frey and George, 2010). Such a vision underwrites the Cape Town Declaration on Responsible Tourism, the first formal policy document to specify the characteristics of responsible tourism (see Box 2).

Box 2.  Characteristics of responsible tourism. (From Sharpley, 2012b.) Responsible tourism: ● minimizes negative economic, environmental, and social impacts; ● generates greater economic benefits for local people and enhances the well-being of host communities, improves working conditions and access to the industry; involves local people in decisions that affect their lives and life chances; ● makes positive contributions to the conservation of natural and cultural heritage, to the maintenance of the world’s diversity; ● provides more enjoyable experiences for tourists through more meaningful connections with local people, and a greater understanding of local cultural, social, and environmental issues; ● provides access for physically challenged people; and ● is culturally sensitive, engenders respect between tourists and hosts, and builds local pride and confidence.

Responsible tourism421

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Another understanding of responsible tourism reflects renewed interest in the existential aspects of tourism behaviour (Steiner and Reisinger, 2006; Kim and Jamal, 2007). This literature marshals attention to the meaning of responsible tourism as a matter of being or becoming (see Philosophical tourism, Respect). Fennell (2008b), for example, has argued that the concept of responsibility must be grounded in philosophical frameworks for it to contribute to the promises of alternative tourism. Drawing on Danish philosopher Soren Kierkegaard’s interrelated notions of self-­knowledge and selfless acts of love for others, Fennell illustrates how an introspective consciousness can structure shifts towards responsible individual action and communities of ethically oriented selves. Fennell’s (2008b) suggestion here is that ontological questions of being (i.e. meaning) will lead to ontologies of becoming (i.e. transformation). In other words, attempts to understand the meaning of responsibility will find value only if translated by tourism stakeholders into responsible tourism practices. Recent efforts that position tourists at the centre of responsible tourism debates may prove fundamental to these aims (Stanford, 2008; Puhakka, 2011). The conventional lack of attention to tourists is likely a reflection of the contentious perception that they are part of the problem rather than the solution; that tourists are on vacation and, therefore, are not concerned with responsibility, nor ought to be (Butcher, 2003). But the consideration of tourists as a starting point for responsible tourism should not be definitely discarded. If tourist identities are (or can be) constructed in relation to individual responsibility, then possibilities exist for trickle-up effects through the industry (Fennell, 2008b).     BGR

  Revenue management A managerial method that optimizes revenues and profits in the tourism industry. It was initially applied to the major United States airline companies in the 1970s and called yield management. Four strategic variables must be managed to achieve the objective of profitability and long-term performance: customer demand, price, time and capacity. Revenue management is based on consumer behaviour prediction derived from accurate knowledge of clientele segments. The appropriate use of available units of inventory combined with a system of variable prices, depending on tourist demand and related characteristics, supports revenue maximization in the tourism business and improves services and perceived value by customers. Within revenue management, demand and price management can influence tourist choices, attract tourists during slow periods, and contribute to reducing seasonality and favouring sustainability in destinations worldwide.     PMO

  Right of way The right to travel unhindered along a particular route, irrespective of land ownership or other legalities. Generally, the term refers to the legal right of people to travel along a route, even if they pass over privately owned land. It also refers specifically to access (an easement) granted to a strip of land for transport purposes, such as roads or ­railways. In England and Wales, in particular, rights of way are designated routes established under common law, the public use of which is constrained by category. For example, 422

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only travel by foot is permitted on footpaths, whereas bridleways may also be travelled on horseback or bicycle. Moreover, it is the duty of the landowner to ensure that access along the route is maintained. In contrast, a freedom to roam, such as ‘Allmanrätten’ in Sweden, allows access over any land unrestricted by route, irrespective of ownership.     RS

  Rinjani Ecotrek Program A community-based tourism project focused on the volcanic peak Mount Rinjani on Lombok, Indonesia (Fig. R8). Originally funded by NZODA, the program sought to implement participatory techniques such as community mapping (Fig. C7a,b,c) to develop the sustainable tourism product beyond a pre-existing trekking product. These included community cooperatives, training of female guides and homestays. Despite the development of community capital through the efforts of the Rinjani Trek Management Board, there are numerous challenges in achieving sustainable tourism development alongside significant local pilgrimage (Cater, 2012a) and in-migrants who control the tourism industry (Schellhorn, 2010). See also Power     CIC   Rinjani Trek Management Board www.lombokrinjanitrek.org

Fig. R8.  Trekking management, Gunung Rinjani, Lombok, Indonesia (Carl Cater). Rinjani Ecotrek Program423

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  Rio Declaration on Environment and Development A statement emerging from the United Nations Conference on Environment and ­Development or ‘Earth Summit’ in Rio in 1992. This reaffirmed the Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, adopted at Stockholm in 1972, with the goal of establishing a new and equitable global partnership through the creation of new levels of cooperation among states, key sectors of societies and people. This 1992 declaration worked towards international agreements which respect the interests of all and protect the integrity of the global environmental and developmental system, recognizing the integral and interdependent nature of the Earth. This declaration included 27 principles which included: Principle 1: Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable development. They are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature. Principle 5: All States and all people shall cooperate in the essential task of eradicating poverty as an indispensable requirement for sustainable development, in order to decrease the disparities in standards of living and better meet the needs of the majority of the people of the world. Principle 7: States shall cooperate in a spirit of global partnership to conserve, protect and restore the health and integrity of the Earth’s ecosystem. In view of the different contributions to global environmental degradation, states have common but differentiated responsibilities. Principle 21: The creativity, ideals and courage of the youth of the world should be mobilized to forge a global partnership in order to achieve sustainable development and ensure a better future for all. Principle 22: Indigenous people and their communities and other local communities have a vital role in environmental management and development because of their knowledge and traditional practices. Principle 25: Peace, development and environmental protection are interdependent and indivisible.     JM

  Rio +20 The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, Rio +20, held from 13 to 22 June 2012, in Rio de Janeiro. It is known as Rio +20 because it marked the 20th anniversary of the United Nations Conference on Environment and ­Development (Earth Summit) in 1992, and should help define the sustainable development agenda for the coming decades. The objective of the conference was to renew political commitment to sustainable development, through the assessment of progress and gaps in the implementation of decisions made at the major summits held on the subject, and through the discussion of new and emerging issues. The Conference had two main themes: green economy in the context of sustainable development and poverty alleviation, and the institutional framework for sustainable development.     JM   Rio+20 Conference www.rio20.gov.br

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 Risk The possibility of loss. Although everyday risk has been progressively lowered over time, Ulrich Beck reminds us in his 1992 book, Risk Society, that risk as a concept is built into virtually everything we do, including decisions on insurance, medicine, property and investment. The decision to travel is also a risky one, as it involves leaving the familiar world of home for the unknown. Risk may be ‘real’ or ‘perceived’: an important distinction for operators of adventure tourism businesses (Cater, 2006). Thus tourism destinations and businesses need to pay attention to risk management strategies, which may include risk assessment.     CIC

  Risk assessment An evaluation of the potential for loss or harm in an activity. Risk assessment is the conscious process applied to the identification of hazards and the risks associated with them, and the subsequent identification and implementation of a series of control measures to minimize the risk highlighted (Barrow, 2004). Risk assessment is a requirement of workplace legislation in many countries, as tourism operators have a duty of care to both employees and clients as employers and persons controlling a place of work or work area. Risk assessment is also a legal requirement for commercially organized outdoor activities for under-18s in the UK (see Adventure Activities Licensing Authority). A risk assessment often develops a matrix of various risks, with an evaluation of severity, likelihood and mitigation strategies to be implemented. It may also distinguish hazards, as anything that can cause harm, and risk as the chance, high or low, that somebody could be harmed by these. Control measures may be identified to eliminate or ameliorate a particular risk. It is important that risk assessment is a continuous ongoing process, not one that ends with a risk assessment form. Risk assessment is a ‘living process’ (Barrow, 2004) and therefore stakeholders and participants should be involved in the assessment, as this will increase commitment and awareness of the threats. Indeed the UK Health and Safety Executive lists five steps in risk assessment: (i) identify hazards and associated risks; (ii) identify who is at risk and how; (iii) identify precautions and control measures; (iv) record your findings; and (v) review the risk assessment periodically. Risks may be client-related (tourists’ knowledge, behaviour and understanding), task and equipment-related (the actual activity and equipment required), environment-related (weather, terrain and animal hazards) or organizational/management-related (leadership, training, communication, etc.). However, as Jenkins (2011) has shown using the example of avalanche management, risk assessments are not infallible, and a degree of preparing for the unexpected is an important element of risk management. However, Barrow (2004) notes that risk assessments should not be ‘cluttered with minor concerns’ as this reduces the usefulness of the risk assessment. A broader area of risk management that has had recent focus is that related to climate change, with risks to human life, property and capital. Economic concerns dominate much of the current risk debate for climate change adaption. Risk assessments also require an evaluation of how much risk is acceptable, and this may depend on who is assessing the risk within the industry. Jenkins (2011)

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Communicate and consult

Establish the context

Identify the risks

Analyse the risks

Evaluate the risks

Treat the risks

Objectives

What can happen?

Review controls

Evaluate risks

Identify options

Likelihoods

Rank risks

Stakeholders Criteria Define key elements

How can it happen?

Consequences Level of risk

Select the best responses Develop risk treatment plans Implement

Monitor and review Fig. R9.  The risk management process in the Australia/New Zealand standard (adapted from AS/NZS 2004).

also highlights the problems with using catastrophe models based on single event sets and dynamic models that attempt to forecast the elements of an almost infinitely complex system, calling for a close attention to context in risk modelling. Globally, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) released an international Risk Management Standard in 2009 (ISO 31000:2009). This was largely based on an earlier risk assessment standard developed by Australian and New ­Zealand standards organizations in 2004 (Fig. R9). In this diagram risk assessment can be thought of as the three central stages of risk identification, risk analysis and risk evaluation. Notably communication is a central feature of all stages of risk management in this model. Later revisions of the standard at an international level have sought to modify the concept of risk itself, with a greater emphasis on assessing the effect of uncertainty on objectives. See also Crisis     CIC

  Risk management A process of planning for the possibility of risk. Risk management deals with the ­prospect or probability of negative actions or events impacting on subsequent loss to ­either visitation, business income or reputation of a tourism business, attraction or destination. Insurers statistically calculate the probability of negative events when assessing risk and calculating premiums. In tourism, risk management involves identifying and prioritizing potential threats to tourism enterprises, attractions or destinations. Risk management involves analysis and implementation of contingency or remedial policies and operational approaches to either minimize vulnerability to identified risks or the implementation of timely and effective responses. Risk may arise from either internal management failure or external factors.     DB 426

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  Rocky Mountain Institute (RMI) A non-profit organization, which has focused on providing alternative innovative means of driving efficient and restorative use of resources, established in 1982 by Amory and Hunter Lovins. With locations in Snowmass and Boulder, Colorado, RMI’s eight guiding principles include: advanced resource productivity, whole-systems design, positive action, market-oriented solutions, end-use/least-cost approach, biological insight, corporate transformation and the pursuit of interconnection (RMI, 2013). Founded as a small research institute with a commitment to alternatives to US energy, the institute has been built on scientific, interdisciplinary and reflective thinking while expanding the view of economic-based capitalism within a comprehensive framework of natural capitalism (RMI, 2013). Though highly advocacy based, as the RMI site indicates: ‘RMI’s style is non-adversarial and trans-ideological, emphasizing integrative design, advanced technologies, and mindful markets’ (RMI, 2013). Important publications have influenced the development and focus of the Rocky Mountain Institute, including: (i) the 1999 book: Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution (Hawken et al., 2010), which presents how leading-edge companies may practice ‘a new type of industrialism’ and which provides for increased efficiencies and profit while also committing to progressive environmental and employment practices; and (ii) the more recent 2011 publication Reinventing Fire (Lovins, 2011), which focuses on comprehensive energy reduction and alternative solutions of ‘defossilizing’ fuels in four key industry areas, most of which relate directly and indirectly to tourism: transportation, buildings, electricity and manufacturing (see Renewable energy).     HR   Rocky Mountain Institute www.rmi.org

  Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) A UK-based charity dedicated to the conservation of birds. Founded in 1884 as The Society for the Protection of Birds to counter the trade in Great Crested Grebe and Fulmar plumes used on women’s hats, it received Royal Charter in 1904. It now has over a million members, a staff of 1300 and over 18,000 volunteers. In 2011, the net income was £94.0 million with two thirds being raised from membership, with legacies and grant aid making up the other third. The RSPB’s stated aim is to speak out for birds and wildlife and to tackle the problems that threaten the environment. As such its breadth of policy and operations is broad. It owns and manages over 200 nature reserves in the UK, covering 130,000 hectares of some of the most threatened habitats for birds. These reserves not only provide havens for birds and other wildlife, they also provide the public with access to wild areas for recreation. Site infrastructure in the form of visitor centres, walks and bird hides enables over 2 million visitors annually to experience birds and wildlife close at hand. Many reserves such as Minsmere, Leighton Moss, Loch Garten and Ynys Hir, are high profile sites that attract a large number of visitors and provide important elements of the tourism offering in their areas. Reserves also offer opportunities to provide education about birds and the conservation issues impacting upon them. However, managing reserves only protects a small area of the countryside and so the RSPB is active in seeking to protect the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB)427

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wider environment outside of its reserves. As such, it is an active lobbyist of government as well as being an adviser on the official conservation status of UK birds. It also seeks to protect farmland birds through lobbying for changes in farming policy and through working directly with the farming community through education and the Futurescape project. It is active in the planning system through interacting with local authorities in the development of local planning documents and through commenting on, and objecting to, developments that will have a damaging impact on wildlife and birds. Examples of this work include campaigning against the Severn Barrage and the proposal for a new London Airport in the Thames Estuary. The RSPB extends its efforts outside of the UK, working in many countries in association with national conservation agencies, in particular Birdlife International.     IKE   Royal Society for the Protection of Birds www.rspb.org.uk

  Rural tourism A concept often viewed as synonymous with sustainable tourism development with value assigned to the ‘countryside’ and arguments to sustain the natural, social and cultural heritage of the rural idyll, and value assigned to its increasing role in sustaining the livelihoods of rural dwellers. Sharpley (2007, p. 178) qualifies the challenge of defining rural tourism: despite its virtual ubiquity in industrialised countries, rural tourism is manifested in a multitude of forms, reflecting the fact that the characteristics of rural tourism in different countries are culturally, economically, politically and geographically determined. . . . In short, there is no single ‘rural tourism’ or rural tourism development context.

The definition, stated from an industrial worldview, is expressed in a manner to inform, help understand and implement sustainable tourism. The definition suggests that rural tourism in its current form is ideally understood and practiced according to principles of sustainable tourism development and grounded in dimensions of the triple bottom line (see Sanagustín Fons et al., 2011). Despite efforts to define rural tourism more clearly (Lane, 1994), the concept varies and has evolved in response to rural socio-economic transformation. The evolution is effectively described by approaches to tourism development and the scholarly study of tourism in the latter half of the 20th century: from the advocacy phase to cautionary phase to adaptancy phase (Jafari, 1988, cited in Gartner, 2004). The advocacy phase was dominated almost exclusively to promoting the benefits of tourism, primarily economic. The cautionary phase introduced alternate forms of tourism such as ecotourism, thereby encouraging tourism that is more sensitive to environmental and cultural concerns. The adaptancy phase introduced models of tourism development that were less intrusive to host communities thereby encouraging compatibility with local needs and interests and greater reliance on local capital. Essentially, the approach to rural tourism development, and study of rural tourism has evolved parallel to the understanding and practice of sustainable tourism development, and its ambiguities. Rural tourism today is further understood as a product of population growth, globalization and population migration to the urban (George et al., 2009). These trends 428

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are likely factors in increased leisure travel to experience greater connection to what so often characterizes ‘rural’ – natural and cultural heritage – or escape from what often characterizes ‘urban’ – congestion and industrial pollution. Understanding travel to ‘rural’ destinations will become more complex in light of technological innovation that enables access to any and all parts of the earth’s geography and evolution of the human experience from, for example, agrarian to post-industrial societies. Long and Lane (2000) noted the following as signs of demand for rural tourism: (i) growing interest in heritage, tradition, authenticity and rural life; (ii) taking multiple holidays per year with a desire to take a second short break in a rural area; (iii) increasing health consciousness giving a positive appeal to rural lifestyles and values such as fresh air, activity opportunities and stress-free situations; (iv) market interest in high performance outdoor equipment from clothing to mountain bikes and high-tech climbing equipment; (v) search for solitude and relaxation in a quiet natural place (see Quiet enjoyment); and (vi) an aging but active population retiring earlier but living and travelling far into old age. These signs confirm the arguments to sustain the natural, social and cultural heritage of the rural idyll, while integrating new tourism experiences that accompany rural transformation. They signal growth in the volume and type of tourism in rural areas, and the potential role of tourism to help sustain rural communities that subsequently elicited the ‘sustainability imperative’ (Hall, 2000, cited in Sharpley, 2007). As Sharpley suggests (2007, p. 127), tourism has become increasingly viewed as an effective means of addressing the ­socioeconomic challenges facing the countryside, sustainability – both optimising the developmental benefits of tourism and satisfying the needs of tourists within strict environmental parameters – has become a dominant principle and objective.

More recently, integrated rural tourism (IRT) was designed to foster environmental, economic and sociocultural tourism sustainability, and contribute to the sustainability of the wider rural system. Seven features characterize IRT: (i) an ethos of promoting multidimensional sustainability; (ii) the empowerment of local people; (iii)  endogenous ownership and resource use; (iv) complementarity to other economic sectors and activities; (v) an appropriate scale of development; (vi) networking among stakeholders; and (vii) embeddedness in local systems (Cawley and Gillmor, 2008). Therefore, IRT acknowledges the potential complexity of rural environments, competing human interests in those environments, and presumably how to succeed at rural tourism while contributing to a sustainable environment (natural, social and economic). Indeed, rural tourism has moved beyond simply being noted as human travel and visitation to a rural area defined by a level of population density to connect with nature and/or the heritage of past human activity. See also Farm tourism, New peasantry     RHO Further reading Bramwell, B. (ed.) (1994) Rural tourism and sustainable rural development. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 2(1/2), [Special issue]. Clarke, G. and Chabrel, M. (eds) (2007) Rural tourism in Europe. Tourism Geographies 9(4), [Special issue].

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George, E.W., Mair, H. and Reid, D.G. (2009) Rural Tourism Development: Localism and Cultural Change. Channel View Publications, Bristol, UK. Koster, R. (ed.) (2010) Rural tourism and recreation in Canada. Journal of Rural and Community Development 5(1/2), [Special issue]. McAreavey, R. and McDonagh, J. (2011) Sustainable rural tourism: Lessons for rural development. Sociologia Ruralis 51(2), 175–194. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (1994) Tourism Strategies and Rural Development. Available at: www.oecd.org/industry/tourism/2755218.pdf Roberts, L. and Hall, D. (2001) Rural Tourism and Recreation: Principles to Practice. CAB International, Wallingford, UK. Sharpley, R. and Roberts, L. (eds) (2004) Rural Tourism: 10 Years on. International Journal of Tourism Research 6(3), [Special issue].

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S  Sacred The bestowing of places and artefacts with extraordinary power through cultural or religious meanings. Through the centuries, people – indigenous and migrant settlers – have endowed places, events and people with conceptions of the sacred, perpetuating their beliefs through a consciously cultivated way of life and travel (Fig. S1). Travel was hence interpreted as a ‘journey to sanctuary’ and watching became synonymous with (­sacred) ‘sightseeing’. Consequently, sacred centres have been a major draw for people, and journeying to a sacred centre (see Pilgrimage) is a way of finding release for suffering within the Japanese Buddhist tradition; the Hajj for the Muslins is an act of submission to the ways of Allah; the Surot of the Naciremas (North American ethnic group) is undertaken with the hope of enlightenment (tsiruot) and happiness; most Hindu pilgrims travel to Varanasi with the objective of being closer to the sacred, particularly at the time of death (for nirvana), while others may wander in the sacrosanct Himalayas for a darsan (sacred vision or contemplation) or moksha (liberation); most New Age pilgrims seek individual autonomy from religious institutions through the creation of their own space. The magnetic power of sacred centres is usually perceived as an inherent quality that has a potency to quench the seeker’s quest. Nature, in the form of elements, landscapes and living and non-living things, has been (and is) an undeniable source of spiritual quest and quench. The sacred drama of the movement of wind, sun, water and fire affords an initiate access to secret sights in the ‘mysteries’ that may be off limits to the ordinary pilgrim (Goodrich, 1998). Nature has its own ways to connect and communicate its spirit to the human soul. Such travels are premeditated undertakings that are known to awaken sensibilities. Embedded within the theme of geo-religion (see Geotourism) is the aspect of geopiety that typically relates to the sense of reverence (pious emotion) and attachment, and hence protection in terms of exalted reciprocity between man and nature. See also Spiritual tourism, Wilderness     SS

 Safety See Health and safety

 Scale See Policy cascade

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Fig. S1.  Protection of sacred area, Kata Tjuta, Central Australia (Carl Cater).

 SCUBA See Self-contained underwater breathing apparatus

  Sea Kayak Operators’ Association of New Zealand (SKOANZ) An organization established in 1992 by New Zealand sea kayak company owners and staff employed as sea kayak tour guides for the governance of kayak rentals and guiding (Fig. S2). A catalyst for change was the death of a sea kayak rental client in 1989 and other tragedies with recreational sea kayakers over the early 1990s (Carr and Thompson, 2008). The organization agreed that every member would be required to adhere to the association’s code of conduct. Key to this code were the interests of sea kayak operators within a framework of the highest possible standards of safety, environmental care and social responsibility, and the development of sea kayaking skills and standards within the industry. A draft guide qualification was also established with sea kayak assessments held in October 1993. In 1997, SKOANZ identified common guidelines to assist owner/operators making pivotal decisions about trips going ahead or not. A need was also identified for a set of guidelines to be produced that would assist operators in writing operational plans for their businesses. In 2006, SKOANZ entered negotiations with the New Zealand Outdoor Instructors Association 432SCUBA

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Fig. S2.  Sea kayaking in Abel Tasman National Park, New Zealand (Carl Cater).

to administer the sea kayak guides award. By the end of the year this process had started and the two organizations continue to work together, paving the way for a smoother assessment process for candidates and better managed national guiding qualification.     ATH

  Sea-level change Change in the average datums of sea level. Scientific data supports the argument that sea levels around the world are currently rising. The two main causes of sea-level change are attributed to the melting of terrestrial snow and ice reserves, and the thermal expansion of ocean water. Sea-level rise is commonly presented as one form of evidence for global warming and climate change. Sea-level change is measured as: (i) absolute (or eustatic) change, which is a change to the global sea levels; and (ii) relative (local mean levels), which is sea-level change measured with respect to a land mark, averaged over a period of time. Future sea-level change projections depend on a complexity of factors. The effects of sea-level change vary significantly according to geographic location. Low-lying countries are particularly at risk of large-scale population displacement. Low-lying areas in major coastal cities could experience significant infrastructure loss and destruction.     CO Sea-level change433

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 Seasonality ‘A temporal imbalance in the phenomenon of tourism, which may be expressed in terms of such elements as numbers of visitors, expenditure of visitors, traffic on highways and other forms of transportation, employment and admissions to attractions’ (Butler, 2001, p. 4). It has both natural and human-made aspects and varies in the case of the former, with location (latitude) on the globe. The movements and declinations of the Earth relative to the Sun are responsible for the natural seasons experienced in the higher latitudes (spring, summer, autumn and winter), and also find reflection in such seasonal occurrences as the monsoons and dry periods. In most areas, recreation and tourist activities increase in volume during the warmer periods of the year, generally peaking in the summer months in both the northern and southern hemispheres. The yearly pattern of climatic variation is also reflected in participation in much outdoor recreation, particularly sports and coastal-related forms of leisure. Seasonality is generally regarded as a problem in the context of recreation and tourism as it prevents maximum use of facilities throughout the year (Yacoumis, 1980). Few locations are truly year-round in respect of their leisure-related activities, and even the major urban centres of the world experience varying and repetitive levels of visitation that reflect temperature and other seasonal climatic variations. In economic terms, seasonality is a problem to be overcome and many government and private agencies have attempted to make the pattern of visitation less variable, with generally limited success at best. To some involved in leisure, the ‘off-season’ is regarded as a boon, allowing residents and the environment (wildlife and vegetation in particular) to benefit from a relief in pressure from human activity and recover and rejuvenate for the next visitor season. Seasonality takes two basic forms, the one being ‘natural’ and the other ‘institutionalized’ (Butler, 1994). The former reflects natural variations in primarily climatic phenomena (temperature, sunlight, precipitation) caused by the movements of the Earth as noted above. These increase in severity with distance from the equator and are mirrored in the northern and southern hemispheres at opposite times of the calendar year. These natural seasons particularly affect those activities that rely on natural elements, snow for skiing, wildlife for hunting and fishing, and large swells for surfing. Seasonality that is ‘institutionalized’ is caused by human actions and policies, often generations or centuries old. It may vary from weekly observance of holy days (precursors of holidays), days free of labour, which may be extended to 2-day periods, as in the weekend, to long holiday periods that reflect earlier societal needs for community tasks such as bringing in the harvest. Of such institutionalized seasons or breaks from work, the summer school holidays, especially in Western societies, are the most significant in terms of outdoor leisure activities and tourism. In many countries, all education establishments are closed for 2 months or more, which tends to constrain families with children in education to taking holidays during that period. As this period also coincides with the most suitable weather for many outdoor activities, it is not surprising that the summer is generally the season of peak demand for most forms of recreation and for visitation to tourist destinations. This pattern of institutionalized periods free from work, apart from religious days, originated in the Industrial Revolution and has remained, quite unnecessarily given the mechanization of agriculture, into the 21st century. Other periods of seasonal activity and inactivity also date mainly from the same period, such as sporting and social seasons, 434Seasonality

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again mostly in the summer, with a few in the spring and autumn seasons, particularly those involving rural sporting activities such as hunting and fishing. Most destinations experience one peak season, where visitation in the busiest periods may exceed that in the quiet season by a factor of ten or more. A smaller number have two true seasons, such as Alpine destinations that have both a summer and a winter (skiing and snowboarding) season. Other areas with this pattern include the Caribbean, where long-haul tourists seek winter sun, while expatriates who travel home tend to do so in the summer, which is the off-season when prices are lower. Very few places have little or no seasonality, and these are mostly urban centres, and particularly those near to the equator where use is often focused on indoor activities. Macau, a gambling centre with many tourists visiting only casinos is one of the best examples, but even here there are fluctuations in visitor numbers, which reflect the seasons in the visitor origin regions. One viewpoint has suggested that the more specialized a destination is, the more seasonal it is likely to be, while others have argued that the more remote a destination, the more likely it is to be highly seasonal in its visitation (Butler, 1998a). It seems likely that one other factor affecting seasonality is inertia on the part of participants in many activities, that is, many people tend to take their holidays and make recreation trips at the same time each year with distinctive repetitious behaviour, often going to the same location as well at the same time. This point was noted by Shaw and Williams (1994) who argued that temporal polarization mirrors and even reinforces spatial polarization. Natural seasonality is very hard to overcome in the context of leisure activities, although climate change may cause some readjustment. Institutionalized seasonality should be possible to overcome if such a change would really be beneficial beyond narrow economic fields. However, despite a wide and long-standing range of attempts to modify seasonality (Butler, 2001), relatively little has been achieved. Often promoting off-season travel has seen an increase in peak season travel as well as a smaller increase in ‘shoulder’ travel, accentuating rather than diminishing the problem of seasonal visitation (Bar-On, 1975). It seems reasonable to assume that seasonality, and with it the peaking of use in recreation and tourist destinations, is likely to remain a feature, if not a problem, for them for some time to come.     RBU

  Second-home tourism A form of tourism that utilizes usually privately owned recreational properties such as accommodation. With roots in the 19th century, second-home tourism developed particularly from the 1960s onward, not least as a result of growing affluence. Besides the Nordic countries, which have a long tradition of second-home living: high numbers of second homes can be found in countries like the US, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, but also in Mediterranean countries. While being previously a form of ­domestic tourism, second-home tourism has increasingly become transnational. Today second-home development is a global phenomenon, not least because of international migration and decreasing air fares (see Low-cost airlines). Since many second homes are used intensively it has been argued that they are at the intersection of tourism and migration, and that they are an expression of a ‘multilocal’ lifestyle of their owners. Thus alternative terms like ‘residential tourism’ are in use. Second-home tourism435

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Second-home development is increasingly seen as umbrella concept for several distinct phenomena that entail different outcomes for receiving communities. Important factors for categorizing second homes relate to whether second homes are purpose-built or converted houses, and whether they are located within the weekend or vacation zones of their owners’ permanent residences. National institutional regimes and regulations further influence impacts of second-home development. Second-home development has been debated considerably as a threat to countryside and coastal settlements. Besides the consumption of natural areas, its impact on local culture and village life has been in the centre of criticism. The displacement of local population owing to a local inflation of prices for housing has been seen as a particular consequence of second-home development. Recently, this position has been challenged in rural settings, where second-home development is understood as an outcome, not a cause, of rural decline. The positive impact of second-home development on local and regional economies is seldom disputed. Therefore second homes are increasingly seen as an important way of developing rural tourism in peripheral areas. Since second-home tourism predominantly is an intra-regional phenomenon it has also been assessed as a rather environmentally sound form of tourism.     DM Further reading Coppock, J.T. (ed.) (1977) Second Homes: Curse or Blessing? Pergamon Press, Oxford, UK. Hall, C.M. and Müller, D.K. (eds) (2004) Tourism, Mobility and Second Homes: Between Elite Landscape and Common Ground. Channel View Publications, Clevedon, UK. McIntyre, N., Williams, D. and McHugh, K. (eds) (2006) Multiple Dwelling and Tourism: Negotiating Place, Home and Identity. CAB International, Wallingford, UK. Paris, C. (2010) Affluence, Mobility and Second Home Ownership. Routledge, London, UK.

 Segmentation See Market segmentation

 Self-actualization A psychological condition at the pinnacle of a hierarchy of human needs, proposed by Abraham Maslow in 1943. It is based upon the assumption that people strive for fulfilment and personal growth. Maslow proposed this hierarchy to describe a sequential pattern that human motivations generally progress through. Self-actualization, at the peak of this hierarchy, pertains to what a person’s full potential is and to realizing that potential. This hierarchy can be divided into basic needs (physiological, safety, belonging) and growth needs, which includes self-actualization and esteem. Selfactualization is deemed an important motivation for adventure tourism but may also be an outcome of empowerment in community-based tourism. See also Philosophical tourism, Reflection     FT 436Segmentation

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  Self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA) diving An activity involving swimming underwater using self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA) (Fig. S3). By the 1940s, refinements to diving apparatus led to equipment being self-contained although time underwater remained short. The modification by Jacques Cousteau and Emile Gagnan in 1943 to diving equipment meant a portable and regulated supply of air was possible for divers underwater. Prior to the development, air transported to divers flowed freely, rather than on demand. The Cousteau-Gagnan discovery opened the way for the commercial development of reliable SCUBA diving equipment soon after the Second World War. Other components of divers’ equipment, including fins and masks, were already available. Since then the activity has become a global form of adventure tourism pursued throughout the world’s marine locations, particularly on tropical coral reefs. Scuba-­ diving provides a chance to witness underwater sights including marine wildlife and threatened species, such as sharks, turtles and rays, in their natural habitats. Divers require training to become certified. International training agencies (including Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI) and Scuba Schools International (SSI)) have certified more than 20 million divers since commercial dive training started in the 1960s. Once certified, divers can travel to new locations and access sites using the services of SCUBA diving centres (Fig. B8). Today there are at least 6100 diving resorts and retail operators throughout the world.

Fig. S3.  Scuba diving interpretation, Sydney Aquarium, Australia (Carl Cater). Self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA) diving437

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SCUBA-diving is often considered a low impact (non-consumptive) activity, yet popular dive sites can be crowded underwater and the impact of swimming with fins near fragile ecosystems, standing or accidentally touching marine flora can cause degradation and diminish experiences for other divers. Recommended sustainable practices include raising environmental awareness in pre-dive briefings (Townsend, 2008), encouraging low-impact diving practices and establishing codes of behaviour in particular locations, including no flash photography near endangered species such as grey nurse sharks. Dive-centre operators juggle the challenges of an unpredictable marine environment where their service is delivered, seeking high-quality underwater sightings for customers and ensuring high health and safety standards, while working to achieve successful business outcomes (Dimmock, 2004).     KD

Further reading Garrod, B. and Gossling, S. (eds) (2008) New Frontiers in Marine Tourism: Diving Experiences, Sustainability, Management. Elsevier, London, UK.

  PADI – Professional Association of Diving Instructors www.padi.com

  Sense of place The compound and often complex meanings assigned to a place by a person or group. The concept has been especially influential in environmental psychology and landscape geography. Indeed, sense of place was chosen by Hanson (1997) as one of her ‘10 geographical ideas that changed the world’, ranking alongside seminal ideas such as the map, the weather chart, geographic information systems, central place theory and the concept of the megalopolis. Sense of place differs from the narrower concept of place attachment by also taking into account the social and geographical bonds that tie a person to a particular place (Hay, 1998). It also focuses particularly on how places are sensed, for example through aesthetics or feelings. Sense of place is enhanced by a person having family links to the area, for example by it being their ancestral home or the place where they were raised. Residential status is also important, with longer-term residents tending to have a greater sense of place than newcomers. First-time tourists will tend to exhibit only a superficial and partial sense of place. If they return multiple times and perhaps even take root there (for example by purchasing a holiday home, see Second-home development), however, they may over time develop a deeper and more complete sense of place. Stedman (2003) argues that the meanings that define sense of place are derived from three major sources: human behaviour, social/psychological process and the physical environment. He goes on to argue that the last of these has often been overlooked: yet there are specifiable mechanisms linking sense of place to the physical environment itself. Of particular importance is the attribution of place meaning through the experiences a person has by interacting directly with the physical attributes of that place, for example by working or recreating in it. As such, Stedman ­argues that sense of place is 438

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Fig. S4.  Airport at Diqing, which renamed itself Shangri La for tourism purposes (Carl Cater).

not entirely a socially constructed concept but is related directly or indirectly to the physical characteristics of that place. Tourism scholars have become interested in the concept of sense of place due to the increasingly apparent potential for tourism development to disrupt sense of place. Insofar as sense of place represents what is important about the place and what people think is worth preserving, it is important that those attempting to pursue sustainable tourism first identify the sense of place of the tourism destination and take steps to ensure that it is preserved. Sense of place is, however, also a highly marketable concept (Fig. S4) and it has been suggested that marketers should attempt to harness sense of place in order to promote places as tourism destinations (Walsh et al., 2001). There thus exists a certain tension between using sense of place to develop tourism and ensuring that tourism development does not destroy sense of place. The task ahead for destination management pursuing sustainable tourism will be to negotiate this nexus.     BG

  Sex tourism Travel that may be directly or incidentally related to sexual activity or sexual voyeurism. Tourism has had a long association with sex, from fulfilling the requirements of soldiers and travellers over millennia to the now established view of holidays as being Sex tourism439

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a liberated period of leisure. Many destinations trade either explicitly (e.g. Amsterdam) or implicitly (e.g. Cancun or Thailand) on associations with sex and its ancillary industries. Although historically associated with male travellers, there has been some examination of the phenomenon of female sex tourists, particularly in African or Caribbean settings (Herold et al., 2001). In many cases, sex tourism presents a challenge to sustainable tourism, as it usually involves articulations of patriarchy and power that subjugate the role of women. Working conditions in the sex industry may sometimes be policed (in countries such as the Netherlands or Australia) but are more often exploitative and dangerous. However, there are some suggestions that some sex workers may accrue some financial and societal freedom by engaging in the industry. The darker side of sex tourism includes human trafficking, child prostitution, drug use and, of course, sexually transmitted diseases. See also Gender, End Child Prostitution in Asian Tourism     CIC Further reading Clift, S. and Carter, S. (eds) (2000) Tourism and Sex: Culture, Commerce and Coercion. Pinter, New York (city). Hall, C.M. and Ryan, C. (2001) Sex Tourism: Marginal People and Liminalities. Routledge, London, UK.

  The Sierra Club The world’s oldest and largest environmental organization; founded in 1892 in ­California. Significantly influenced by the founding president, John Muir, the Sierra Club has advocated for numerous environmental issues for over 100 years, including the founding of a number of national parks within the United States. Significant initiatives where the Sierra Club has played a major role have included: the establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency, the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act, the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, the Clean Air Act, the Clean Water Act, the Endangered Species Act and the National Forest Management Act. Numerous issues in which the Sierra Club has taken a regional, national and international advocacy role have included (Bennett, 2013; O’Neil, 2013): the cleanup of toxic wastes, solid waste disposal, sustainable population and family planning, ozone depletion and global warming. The mission of the Sierra Club includes the following: to explore, enjoy and protect the wild places of the earth; to practice and promote the responsible use of the Earth’s ecosystems and resources; to educate and enlist humanity to protect and restore the quality of the natural and human environment; and to use all lawful means to carry out these objectives. Sierra Club Books, founded in 1960, has had consistent influence through the publishing of significant works focused on environment and sustainability. Since 1901, the Sierra Club has been involved in organizing and providing trips for its club members, now including over 350 trips domestically and internationally with numerous regional and local excursions (Sierra Club, 2013). The key goal topics of the Sierra Club include the following: Beyond Coal, B ­ eyond Oil, Resilient Habitats, Protecting America’s Waters, Youth and Diversity, Beyond 440

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Natural Gas; and ongoing programs of the Sierra Club include: Environmental Justice, Environmental Law, Global Population, International Climate Program, Labor & Trade Program (Sierra Club, 2013).     HR   The Sierra Club www.sierraclub.org

  Ski tourism Travel for the purpose of engaging in activities directly and indirectly related to snow-sliding activities using long narrow planks, runners or boards attached to a person’s feet. The terms, ‘snowsport’, and ‘winter sports tourism’, are more comprehensive and fitting due to the increased diversity of snow-based leisure activities. Travel by skis has been a human activity for close to five millennia (Dickson et al., 2008). ‘Riding on wood’ took place in China over 1400 years ago (Cultural China, 2013), with the earliest use of the word ‘ski’ (from suksi) in Finland close to 6000 years ago (Burov, 1985), and also historically used within the Norwegian language. The oldest skis were found in Russia dating from 6500 years ago. Leisure-based skiing activities began in the 1800s with the development of ski clubs in Trysil in Norway, Glarus in Switzerland, Munich in Germany and La Porta in California, as well as in Australia and the UK (Huntford, 2009; Pearson, 2009). Since the mid-1980s, ski equipment has been technically modified for a variety of specific conditions and skill levels. Ski tourism can be linked to soft or hard adventure tourism for the purposes of leisure or competition. Skiing most commonly takes place within a defined and managed ski area, on groomed and ungroomed terrain (Fig. S5). Skiers use alpine or telemark skis or snowboards in steeper terrain, and cross-country classic or skate skis in flatter areas. The more adventurous skiiers access remote, backcountry ski areas either through motorized transport (e.g. snowcat, helicopter) or self-propelled means utilizing alpine touring or telemark skis. Skiing was first included as a competitive sport in the 1924 Winter Olympics held in Chamonix, France. Competitive ski sports have diversified to include: alpine skiing, freestyle skiing, ski jumping, snowkiting, alpine snowboarding, kite skiing, ski-touring, snowskating, biathlon, mogul skiing, skiboarding, speed riding, boardercross, monoskiing, skibob, speed skiing, cross-country skiing, ski archery, skijoring and Telemark skiing. Destinations able to offer good seasonal snow cover also offer the necessary infrastructure and hospitality services to skiers. These destinations often focus on becoming a four-season resort destination by supporting non-winter activities such as mountain biking, hiking, wellness, golf and festivals and events. Nature conservation, climate change, the need for cost efficiencies and changes in skier demand have prompted efforts and initiatives in utilizing best sustainable practices. Examples include: (i) the National Ski Areas Association’s Sustainable Slopes program, adopted by the ski industry in 2000; (ii) the destination ski tourism based Natural Step program of Whistler Blackcomb and Whistler Municipality, which influenced the ‘Whistler2020: Whistler’s Plan to Achieve Austainability’ (Natural Step, 2009; Whistler, 2013; Whistler Blackcomb, 2013); and (iii) the Sierra Nevada Alliance and Ski Area Citizens’ Coalition (Hansman, 2013; Sierra Nevada Alliance, 2013; Ski Area Citizens’ Coalition, 2013).     HR and SJ Ski tourism441

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Fig. S5.  Ski resort under construction, Yunnan/Tibet border, China (Carl Cater).

 Skills One’s ability to perform tasks to a predefined level of competence. Skills may be divided into two types: transferable and generic. Transferable skills describe those skills that can be easily transferred from one occupation to another, while generic skills relate to those skills that are specific to one occupation (Frogner, 2002). It is generally accepted that the term skills refers to a mixture of both behavioural and technical skills (Green et al., 2001). This is especially true in the tourism and hospitality industries, where, in addition to employability skills such as communication, team work, self-management and planning, employers are seeking individuals with behavioural skills such as commitment, loyalty, honesty and enthusiasm (Taylor, 2005; National Tourism Investment Strategy Consultative Group, 2006). There is some lack of clarity concerning important skills in the tourism industry. Generally speaking, tourism is a people-based industry, where customer service is crucial (Cooper et al., 2008). Good customer service can result in customer satisfaction, higher visitor numbers, greater customer diversity, increased sales, increasing public image, greater competitiveness, more repeat business, more customer loyalty and greater job satisfaction for staff (Hurley, 1998). Taylor (2005) identifies skills that can be developed in the area of customer service including: understanding customer perceptions and expectations, managing customer motivations, effective communication, taking responsibility and improving self-image and attitudes. Green et al. (2001) also recognize the growing importance of skills, such as team-work, self-improvement, ability to use information technology and the application of number, which can all be seen as important skills for the tourism industry. 442Skills

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A skills shortage or skills gap are often identified in tourism employment. According to Frogner (2002, p. 1), skill shortages can be defined as ‘recruitment difficulties caused by a lack of skills in the available labour market’. ‘Skill shortages’ take place when the workforce that is available has fewer skills than those required to achieve the firm’s objectives and meet customer’s expectations (Marchante et al., 2006). ‘Skills gaps’ on the other hand can be defined as ‘deficiencies in the skills of an employer’s existing workforce’ (Frogner, 2002, p. 2). The difference between the skills needed on the job and those possessed by the workforce is a big issue, particularly in the tourism industry in less-developed countries, where employers often react by either not recruiting at all or recruiting expatriate staff (Frogner, 2002; Cole, 2008). Hall (2008b) suggests that there are work, time and cost effectiveness barriers in training locals from scratch, so it is often easier to employ people from other countries. Nevertheless, Frogner (2002) states that skills gaps and shortages can have major consequences for industries, such as delays in developing products and services, difficulties in meeting customers’ demands, increasing operating costs and lack of customer service. Furthermore, it is recognized that human resource management skills are also very important for individuals and society in developing human capital, as skills can have effects on the level of wages and have the ability to achieve better working conditions (Singh et al., 2003; Marchante et al., 2006; Queensland Government, 2006). There are different ways to develop skills, with Freeland (2000) identifying four main steps to effectively develop skills. The first is to identify what skills are currently deficient in the industry. The second step is to develop a strategy to provide training and the third is to employ this strategy. The final step is to evaluate the effectiveness of the programme. There is growing evidence that training does have a positive effect on the overall performance of businesses (Clements and Josiam, 1995; Thomas and Long, 2001). Some of the benefits include increased productivity and customer service levels, reduced staff labour turnover and increased flexibility (Clements and Josiam, 1995; Thomas and Long, 2001). Tourism operators often provide training on-site or invest in local training as a way of contributing to community development, which implies the development of skills and knowledge (Aref and Redzuan, 2009). Non-governmental organizations often play a major role in skill development and the provision of training in less developed countries. An example is the Jambiani Tourism Training Institute (JTTI) run by the ‘Hands across Border Society’ (HABS), an NGO located on the east coast of Zanzibar, Tanzania.     KP   Jambiani Tourism Training Institute www.jtti.org/

 SKOANZ See Sea Kayak Operators Association of New Zealand

  Slow cities (Cittáslow) A network of small towns that started working closely together on developing slow food in 1999. It has its roots in Italy and has only recently spread to other countries. The towns are members through their local governments. The movement concerns Slow cities (Cittáslow)443

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itself with both urban and rural development. The aim of the Cittáslow network is to help towns threatened by depopulation to raise the quality of life for the inhabitants and become visitor friendly. Its main focus is on cultural heritage, to counteract increasingly standardized townscapes. The slow food principles of ‘good, fair and clean’ serve as a framework for local development, through a specified set of criteria. See also Food tourism, Rural tourism, Slow tourism     JHN

  Slow tourism Conceptually, a kind of tourism which promotes an alternative mobility and travel mindset; one which re-values quality leisure time, where there is less distance covered and more time is spent at the destination (and travelling to the destination). The term encapsulates many ways and approaches to slowing down the touristic experience and reducing the impacts and intensity of travel. It is a holistic and wide-ranging concept that covers everything from a literal slowing down of activity (spending more time in each location), to the promotion of alternative non-aviation transport methods (reducing carbon emissions), to spatial escape, to the pursuit of well-being, and an enhanced quality of life for the tourist and receiving communities. In its most recognized form, slow tourism is regarded as the rejection of highly polluting air and car transport in favour of using more environmentally benign forms of overland transport such as walking, cycling, sailing, train travel and other public transport to travel. However, it is a term that clearly covers more than its associated concept, ‘slow travel’, which suggests the emphasis is on the mode of travel, not the wider social and cultural elements (Dickinson and Lumsdon, 2010). Slow tourism is about the pursuit of less-intensive consumption patterns and approaches that promote concepts of immersion, dwelling, value, healthy living, engagement and sustainability. It encapsulates more than just issues of speed, but reflects a state of mind, the mode of travel chosen, alternative engagement with spaces, how time is spent at a destination and issues of environmental consciousness. Slow tourists reject global consumerism, high-impact modes of transport (Dickinson and Lumsdon, 2010), and the rapid (often purely visual) consumption of place. Rather, it is about promoting the gradual accumulation of cultural capital and is evidenced by the growth in niche tourism areas, which are characterized by low impact, more romanticized pursuits, and nourishing and nurturing rather than exploiting and consuming (wildlife tourism, food tourism, sea kayaking, sailing, walking). There is a sense of reverence towards the people and places visited, and the mindset is one of discrimination in how one chooses to engage in activities and pursuits. Lumsdon and McGrath (2011) build on Gardner’s (2009) categorization to provide a simple summary of slow tourism, which presents it as a state of mind; the avoidance of aircraft; where the journey is intrinsic to the tourism experience; where locality is important; slowing down to enjoy the city or the landscape; where cultural engagement is promoted through language and engagement with local people; where one seeks out the unexpected and unusual; and local community benefits are prioritized and considered. The idea and pursuit of slow tourism is certainly now new, despite the term being a relative newcomer to the lexicon of tourism texts, and it is perhaps only in the past 444

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50 years that it has really been necessary to distinguish between ‘fast’ and ‘slow’ travel (which is also increasingly being applied to food, money, living and cities). Certainly, travel was ‘slow’ by its very nature before the development of aviation, high-speed rail links and the automobile. Slower engagement with travel epitomized early religious pilgrimages and also the Grand Tour, where wealthy young men often spent several months in European cities (rather than the now popular 2-day weekend possible with low-cost airline deals), or spent several days in a boat to reach Italy. For example, the early travelogue by Thomas Coryat of Odcombe (1611), Coryat’s Crudities: Hastily gobled up in Five Moneth’s Travels, describes in some detail a journey undertaken by foot in 1608 through much of Western Europe (not ‘hasty’ at all!). Furthermore, seminal tourism academics such as Krippendorf (1984, p. 131) discussed the concept even before it was named, ‘Switch off the time machine. Take off the watch. Get rid of time pressure, the deadline, the agenda. Escape from time’. Certainly, slow tourism has also been associated with the concept of liminality and escape, where one is removed from social positions and organizations. It promotes the pursuit of leisure outside of globalized structures, and the desire to engage in landscapes not bound by time, regulation and rule. Slow tourism can also be further understood within the context of the slow food movement. The slow food movement was founded in Italy by Carlo Petrini in 1986 in response to the opening of a McDonald’s near the Spanish Steps in Rome. Petrini found the opening of a ‘fast food’ place anathema in a country famed for its wonderful food and enjoyment of small producers and quality produce. Promoted as an alternative to fast food where the origins of the raw product is often unknown, Slow food has become a global movement of over 100,000 members in 150 countries, which aims to preserve traditional and regional cuisines, promote education about food while promoting local artisans, local farmers and local flavours at a regional level. Its logo is a snail, which summarizes its approach to food and drink (see Andrews, 2008; and Petrini, 2007). Slow tourism, like slow food, is characterized by a similarly ethical, moral and even political stance. Lumsden and McGrath (2011) suggest that the literature on slow travel and tourism can be categorized into four main themes or attributes: slowness and the value of time; locality and activities at the destination; mode of transport and travel experience; and environmental consciousness. They suggest that slow tourism is seen as a group of associated ideas that describe a mindset about travel rather than a tangible product. In offering a working definition they put forward that: Slow travel is a sociocultural phenomenon, focusing on holidaymaking but also on day leisure visits, where use of personal time is appreciated differently. Slowness is valued, and the journey is integral to the whole experience. The mode of transport and the activities undertaken at a destination enhance the richness of the experience through slowness. Whilst the journey is the thing and can be the destination in its own right, the experience of locality counts for much, as does reduced duration or distance of travel. (Lumsden and McGrath, 2011, p. 276)

Further work on slow tourism includes Dickinson and Lumsdon’s (2010) edited text, which offers several useful cases that illustrate the concept, which include using the Eurostar train, walking the Appalachian Trail, cycling the Euro-Velo network of cycle routes, canoe tours on the Gudena River in Denmark, sea kayaking in British Columbia and the Oz Bus Europe to Australia. More recently, an edited volume from Fullagar et al. (2012) looks at the four key areas of defining and positioning slow Slow tourism445

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tourism (ecotourism, peripheries of pleasure and pilgrimage); the relationship between slow food and travel (taste culture and working on organic farms); slow mobilities (including women’s cycling, hitch-hiking and canals); and slow tourism places (including studies on Canada, rural Japan, Fiji and Indian culture). However, the concept is not without its paradoxes. There is an irony now, where slow tourism can actually be booked very quickly through the Internet (booking train, ecotourism stays, walking holidays). There is also a school of thought that suggests slow tourism may be merely a veneer for sustainability, and provides yet another marketing tool to generate commercial gain for businesses offering new and ‘unique’ experiences (Wheeller, 1994; Weaver, 2007). Despite some cynicism, there is mounting evidence that there is a significant market for slow tourism and growing numbers of people are looking for, and prepared to pay a premium for, alternatives to fast-paced, high-impact and aviation-based holidays and leisure experiences. It is also worthwhile looking at the tremendous success of the ‘Go Slow’ range of travel guides emerging from Alastair Sawday, such as the England and Wales Go Slow guide, which encapsulates the ideas and ‘celebrates life in the slow lane with a hand-picked selection of special places to stay . . . Discover the pleasure of staying with owners who choose to support their community, are passionate about seasonality and home-grown produce, and care about their effect on the environment’. See also Philosophical tourism Further reading Andrews, G. (2008) The Slow Food Story: Politics and Pleasure. Pluto Press, London, UK. Dickinson, J. and Lumsdon, L. (2010) Slow Travel and Tourism. Routledge, London, UK. Fullagar, S., Markwell, K. and Wilson, E. (2012) (eds) Slow Tourism. Experiences and Mobilities. Channel View, Bristol, UK.

    SE   Alastair Sawday: Go Slow Books www.sawdays.co.uk   Low Carbon Travel www.lowcarbontravel.com   Slow Food Movement www.slowfood.com/ or in the UK www.slowfood.org.uk   Slow Travel www.slowtrav.com/

  Small-to-medium-sized enterprise (SME) Small enterprises in the European Union employ fewer than 50 persons and their annual turnover and/or annual balance sheet total does not exceed €10 million. For a medium-sized company the above figures are 250 persons, €50 million or an annual balance sheet at most of €43 million. In the tourism and hospitality industry up to 90% of businesses are classed as SMEs. SMEs often face challenges in resources and skills shortages due to their small size, and require specific support, grants and legislation.     EMG 446

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  SMART objective An acronym used in writing organizational objectives, typically used in management-by-­ objectives action plans, first proposed by Doran (1981). While the exact word used in association with each letter may vary slightly, SMART is most typically an acronym for: specific (with respect to what, who, why, etc.); measurable (a quantifiable amount); attainable (an objective that is within reach of organizational resources); relative (necessary for the agency in relation to its action or master plan); and time-bound (time-frame for achieving and/or evaluating objective). For example, ‘to increase annual park visitation from 2,000,000 to 2,250,000 guests by the end of December, 2013’ (van der Smissen et al., 1999, p. 53).     GS

  Smart Voyager A sustainable tourism certification program for South America, created in 1998, with the aim to minimize the environmental impacts of tourism at all scales. Smart Voyager was developed in Ecuador by the non-governmental organization, ‘Conservación y Desarrollo’ (CyD). In 2002 Smart Voyager was recognized by UNESCO and is a founding member of the Sustainable Tourism Certification Network of the Americas.     CIC   Smart Voyager www.smartvoyager.org/

 SNV See Stichting Nederlandse Verijwilligers

  Social and cultural impact An outcome of tourism development on cultures and societies, normally in host destinations. Anthropologists such as Brosius et al. (1998) and Russell and Harshbarger (2003), ‘have long pointed to the need to pay greater attention to values, social relationship, and institutions, as opposed to just economic changes’ from tourism development (cited in Stronza and Gordillo, 2008, p. 448). Weaver (2001c) addresses the potential sociocultural benefits and costs of ecotourism, and provides a number of suggestions that not only satisfy local community support for ecotourism and environmental benefits, but also bring pleasurable experiences, ultimately providing visitor satisfaction. Positive social impacts of tourism include enhanced employment opportunities and financial capital in the form of income from local economic products. Indirect benefits include improvements in the local quality of life, increasing lifestyle options and reducing the drain on the local population through a positive human capital relationship. Moreover, developing tourism can produce a stable social environment in a community and create friendly interactions between tourists and local people that increase positive awareness of different cultures, contributing to a network of social capital. Social and cultural impact447

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Weaver (2001c, p. 120) asserts that negative social impacts are represented by direct costs, such as intrusion, imposition of an elite alien value system, erosion of local control (e.g. take over by foreign experts; in-migration of job seekers), and local inequalities and internecine disputes; and indirect costs, such as the potential for local resentment or antagonism, and potential tourist opposition to aspects of local culture and lifestyle (e.g. hunting, slash and burn agriculture).

Other such impacts include seasonality and crime. Despite some economic benefits accruing from their investment in ecotourism development, the presence of external investors and operators in the host community, and their activities, can also have negative sociocultural impacts (e.g. see Rinjani Ecotrek Program). External investment increasingly expands accommodation capacity, destroying the harmonious link between local operation and tourism management. The local people then develop resentment of exotic intrusion into local values and ethics. External operators can, for example, cause severe negative impacts through lack of professionalism and lack of familiarity with traditional concepts, and provide visitors with an inferior experience of the demonstration and explanation of local aspects. The above research does report that social impacts involve both benefits and costs, depending on how the host community and local people deal with the factors at play to produce a mutually advantageous ecotourism development. Ecotourism development aims to reduce its negative cultural effects on local people and to retain and recuperate traditional cultural spiritual attachments, such as to land and traditional solemnity (Hinch, 2001). On the one hand, ecotourism development helps local people understand how to improve and maintain traditional culture and heritage values, and establish cultural appreciation of the heritage and customs (constituting cultural capital), while highlighting local pride (Scheyvens, 1999; Ross and Wall, 1999). On the other hand, particularly when visitors arrive in the rural community, negative cultural impacts can emerge as points of conflict centred on mutual lack of understanding of different cultural values and beliefs, between tourists with their characteristics and the host community (Gessner and Schade, 1990; Nash, 1996). MacCannell (1976) also points out that some eco-specialists bring visitors who intrude into long-established and sensitive communities, thereby creating the potential for social and cultural tensions: some sacred places or solemn rites in local indigenous communities do not permit visitor participation or access (Hinch, 2001). Again, the intrusion that visitors impose on remote, unspoiled destinations inhabited by indigenous communities can cause discord in primitive cultures and lifestyles (Munt, 1994; Wheeller, 1994).     CHC

Further reading Weaver, D. (2008) Ecotourism, 2nd edn. Wiley, Milton, Australia.

  Social capital ‘Features of social organization such as networks, norms, and social trust that ­facilitate coordination and cooperation for mutual benefits’ (Putnam, 1995, p. 67). Bourdieu (1986, p. 23) highlights the importance of networks to social capital as 448

Social capital

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‘the aggregate of the natural or potential resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of acquaintance and recognition’. Further, social capital extends from individuals and groups in network forms which ‘have value, as interaction and connections develop shared norms, trust, and reciprocity that in turn, foster cooperation to achieve common ends’ (Ecclestone and Field, 2003, p. 1). Narayan (1999, cited by Harpham et al., 2002) identifies two relationships in social capital: ‘bonding’ and ‘bridging’. The former refers to relationships between community members while the latter refers to the relationship between the role of government and external parties, such as non-governmental organizations. These NGOs may provide assistance as a capable agency (Krishna, 2001). With regard to environmental protection in ecotourism, using social capital can help to improve community capacity in managing natural resources, to create community norms and rules, and to promote trust and reciprocity, which could in turn enhance cooperation for reducing transaction costs (Jones, 2005). However, society is often in an even unequal power relationship, and often there are conflicts in the community (Murphy, 2002). Anderson et al. (2002) suggest that social capital has two dimensions: a horizontal ‘positive network to create a community and association’ and vertical ‘negative network to allot uneven power among members’ (Jones, 2005, p. 306). Building on this, Jones (2005) asserts that social capital has a weakness and is insufficient in explaining power and inequality issues, particularly in its over-emphasizing positive social capital, and not emphasizing negative social capital.     CHC   Definitions of social capital www.socialcapitalresearch.com/

  Social ecology A radical political theory founded by Murray Bookchin (1921–2006). Bookchin merges aspects of political ecology and left-libertarianism, starting with his 1964 essay, ‘Ecology as revolutionary thought’, to create a coherent radical critique of current socio-political problems and environmental issues such as global warming (Bookchin, 1964). He argues that they can be reconstructed through systemic change and non-­ hierarchical, anti-authoritarian, direct democratic politics and a decentralized society (Bookchin, 1993; Tokar, 2009). The Institute for Social Ecology (ISE), was established by Bookchin in 1974 in Vermont and continues the theoretical development of the concept along with applied research in ecological food production, alternative technologies and urban design, and activism against genetic engineering of food and in favour of climate justice. According to Tokar (2009), tourism compatible with social ecology would begin with the genuine needs of the host community, who should necessarily own and manage tourist facilities that reflect the community’s ways of life. Tourists would voluntarily support and participate in community activities, but he recognizes that this may be difficult in a competitive, capitalist economy.     AP   The Institute for Social Ecology www.social-ecology.org/ Social ecology449

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  Social impact assessment See Impact assessment

  Social networking A metaphor for the complex interactions among people in any social setting, but frequently referring to digital platforms such as Facebook and Twitter. In sociology, the birthplace of network analysis, a social network is defined as a specific type of relation (ties) linking a defined sets of persons, objects or events. In this perspective, a social network consists of a set of nodes (usually individuals) and ties representing some relationship (e.g. friendship, kinship) between the nodes. Fundamentally, a network can be described as a set of items, called nodes, with connections between them called edge (Newman, 2003). Using the concept of network analysis identifies relevant nodes, focuses on the connections between the nodes and seeks to model the nature, pattern and implications of the connections between the nodes (Wasserman and Faust, 1994; Scott, 2000). Transferring to tourism theories and practices, tourism elements (e.g. employees, tourism firms, stakeholders, etc.) can be presented by nodes (or actors). Corresponding relationships (e.g. monetary transaction, communication, membership, acquaintanceship, etc.) between the tourism elements can be presented by edges (or links). In this way, tourism nodes and corresponding edges can be aggregated to form a network of relationships (tourism network) and thus be employed to analyse relational properties of the tourism elements embedded within the tourism network. Figure S6 depicts an example of a small tourism network comprising five tourism enterprises (A, B, C, D, and E) and seven corresponding links. In the network, for example, Actor A has direct links with B, C and E but does not have any direct link with D. Again, as we can see in Fig. S6, Actor A has only outgoing ties with B, C and E and D has both outgoing and incoming ties with E. Built around this common or core concept, network analysis can be utilized to investigate and analyse the nature and pattern of links between and/or among the tourism elements (A, B, C, D and E) involved in different types of relationships. In a real-life tourism perspective, Actor A may be a holiday resort, Actor B is a tour operator, and Actor C is a spa and retreat facility receiving special package deals from the resort (Actor A) to attract potential tourists. The tour operator (Actor B) uses the information and attributes of the spa and retreat facilities in its promotional materials. Actor E is the local tourism association where both A and C are members. Actor D is the regional tourism organization (RTO) that looks after the overall tourism development of the region, and in turn charges a membership fee from the local tourism association. In this way a network

D

B A

E

C

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Fig. S6.  A small network with five tourism enterprises (nodes) and seven corresponding links (edges). Social impact assessment

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can represent an infinite number of tourism elements (actors) and a wide range of relationships between the tourism elements embedded in the network. To date, a wide range of concepts and theories are available to study social networks, with many more to be expected in the future. Typically, many of these approaches are crystallized around three interrelated network contexts. These are: (i) actors of relationships; (ii) content/s of relationships (edge); and (iii) form/s (nature and pattern) of relationships. Actors of relationships refer to any entity that forms or has the ability to form connections or linkages with other actors (Knoke and Kuklinski, 1991). This addresses ‘who’ such as individual, group, organization or to some extent non-human elements (e.g. natural environment, seasonality, etc.) have linkages or relationship with others. ‘Content of relationships’ or ‘edge’ refers to the subjective type of relation represented in the connection between actors (e.g. friendship, information and knowledge, power and authority, etc.) (Knoke and Kuklinski, 1991). This addresses the purpose of connection between the actors. Finally, ‘form (nature and pattern) of relationships’ refers to the relational properties (e.g. presence, strength, direction, density, etc.) of the connections between actors (Knoke and Kuklinski, 1991). This addresses how the connections are embedded between and/or among actors of a network. The notion of social networks is clearly relevant in industry analysis and is gaining popularity in tourism research because it has the ability to mimic and analyse the aggregated nature of relationships between various tourism stakeholders (Scott et al., 2008). Theoretical frameworks available in network studies have the ability to inform a wide range of relational forms such as who is connected to whom, the number and direction of connections, the most or least connected elements, and the existence of sub-groups or clusters (Iacobucci, 1996). This information can be used to improve connectivity by intervening to mend broken or indirect links, or reconfiguring the aggregated relationships to be more efficient. Here, the diagnostics can aid several tourism phenomena such as collaboration and innovation (Cooper and Hall, 2008), information and knowledge management (Cooper, 2006; Baggio et al., 2010), policy and planning (Pforr, 2004, 2006; Dredge, 2006), destination governance (Pavlovich, 2001, 2003) and sustainable development (Halme, 2001). The role of social networking from an online perspective has substantially increased in popularity in recent years. In particular, sustainability marketing, a philosophy and range of activities that satisfy consumers’ needs or wants, has presented a favourable position of business in the marketplace by communicating how the business addresses environmental, social and economic concerns. Companies face a number of challenges in successfully marketing their sustainability practices, because they have a limited understanding of their own operations in sustainability terms, they have limited marketing and communication skills, and they do not see sustainability as marketable content (Bonilla-Priego et al., 2011). Social networking can play a vital role in addressing this last point, particularly through the use of viral marketing campaigns and user-generated content. First, viral marketing, which is based on peer-to-peer communications, works on the assumption that consumers will share content that reflects their personal values most often via email or social networking spaces such as Facebook or Twitter (McCabe, 2009). In a tourism context, viral marketing campaigns have been used for example, by Thomson in 2005, although not related to sustainability. The role and impact of such a campaign that is linked to a sustainability agenda could provide a fruitful area for future research. Currently, a major obstacle to viral marketing campaigns is their use of often controversial material, which may conflict with an organization’s core values or Social networking451

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the audience’s image of the brand (McCabe, 2009a). Second, another use of social networking is in relation to user generated content or Web 2.0. This can take the form of blogs, online communities or virtual worlds. There are numerous examples of such sites related to tourism including Trip Advisor.com, WikiTravel.org and Virtualtourist.com where consumers can share experiences, photos/videos and tips about places they have visited. These kinds of sites present one of the fastest growing areas of content on the Internet and can create powerful and trusted message content about brands, destinations and services (McCabe, 2009a). Wang et al. (2002) note that one of the implications of online (user-generated) marketing is that virtual communities can impact sales, product and service development, supplier networks, information quality and distribution management and have particular ramifications on building brand identity. In a study on online travel reviews as forms of persuasive communication, it was found that tourists treat specific information posted by other users as most useful and that their purchase intentions are influenced by overall attitudes towards the organization and their beliefs in its corporate social responsibility (Sparks et al., 2013). Likewise, virtual worlds like Second Life are being used by hotel companies such as Starwood to receive user-generated feedback on yet-to-be-completed hotels. These virtual platforms can provide useful tools for business to gain feedback and insights on consumer opinion, and arguably these could be used to gauge opinion on issues related to sustainability too. The major obstacle to using virtual communities for research purposes however is that organizations do not know who the ‘real’ consumer is behind the avatar identity. Further research in social networking and sustainability is still needed however. First, it is necessary to consider the motivations for acting sustainably in relation to why companies may moralize their behaviour. Although data suggests that sustainability reporting increases trust, customer identification with the company and satisfaction (Martínez and Rodríguez del Bosque, 2013), ‘eco-certification has statistically zero impact on revenue for the hotel industry overall’ (Chong and Verma, 2013, p. 12). Further, there is an inverse relationship between responsible tourism communication and both price and product complexity in volunteer tourism for example (Smith and Font, 2014), which needs problematizing. There is a need to critically understand some of the underlying reasons why companies communicate sustainability the way they do.     EA/TL

  Social tourism A term used to describe the phenomena and relations deriving from the participation of disadvantaged and low-income groups in tourism. Participation is enabled through the provision of some form of support, generally of a well-defined social nature (Haulot, 1982). Although there is some lack of clarity about the concept of social tourism, as it embraces a wide range of diverse approaches and forms, generally it is considered to concern the inclusion of disadvantaged people within tourism experiences. Sometimes this is referred to as ‘tourism for all’. Social tourism originated through the Christian Democratic ideals of Western Europe (Caire, 2007). The history of the development of social tourism aligns with the development of mass tourism and the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The rapidity of the industrialization and urbanization processes, created both great wealth for factory owners and huge inequalities amongst workers (Clarke and Critcher, 1985). Early social 452

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tourism initiatives were established by socio-educational or religious organizations to provide opportunities for breaks for poor workers or their children. As workers’ rights became better defined in the 1920s and 1930s, paid holiday entitlement became established as a norm across the European continent. However, different countries across Europe took different approaches to ensure the provision of opportunities for workers to access an annual holiday away from home. Some countries included provision for holiday accommodation ownership by workers’ councils, whereas others encouraged savings schemes or voucher systems. Others adopted a more laissez-faire approach, which led to the involvement of the third sector in the provision of support for social tourism activities (McCabe et al., 2011). Social tourism initiatives can therefore take a variety of different forms, which has often been linked to the historical role of the social welfare system in different countries. Social tourism can be conceived as a universal benefit. The Cheques Vacances voucher scheme in France is one such approach, whereby all members of society are able to obtain and use vouchers to access a holiday. Other countries adopt a more targeted approach. In Spain, for example, the IMSERSO scheme provides subsidized holidays to around 750,000 senior citizens each year. In the UK, the emphasis is on the third sector. Small charities, dependent on fundraising initiatives or grants from foundations, trusts or the government, allocate support and funding to the most needy in society, generally targeting one group specifically (such as low-income families, families with one or more severely disabled children, children suffering from terminal illnesses and so on). Generally, there are four main beneficiary groups who are the main focus for social tourism initiatives: people with disabilities; low-income families; young people; and senior citizens. Social tourism can also include a range of different types of support: provision of accommodation in holiday resort areas at a differential rate (often owned and managed by the social tourism organization); provision of financial support (direct grant funding of a holiday provided to an individual or family); provision of information and/or other forms of support (help with organization such as packing and transport provision, etc.) (Diekmann and McCabe, 2011). Thus far, the focus has been on visitor-related forms of social tourism. The main underlying rationale for the state or third sector involvement in social tourism in these circumstances is as a complementary aspect of social welfare policies aimed at reducing exclusion and social isolation (Minnaert and Schapmanns, 2009). However, the evidence concerning the effects of these policies on social welfare is weak. There is a range of research emerging that has attempted to identify the individual benefits to tourists derived from participation in tourism, but these have not been fully translated into research on societal outcomes (McCabe, 2009b; Minnaert et al., 2009). Visitor-related forms can be contrasted with host-related forms of social tourism, which can be described as tourism that is aimed at bringing redistributive justice through host–guest relationships (Minnaert et al., 2007). This is more often aligned within community-based tourism initiatives. Social tourism has recently been more closely aligned with the European Union sustainable tourism policy as expressed through the Calypso programme. This programme recognizes that much social tourism activity occurs in places and times of spare capacity in the tourism system. Social tourism generally utilizes capacity in the shoulder season since it is more cost effective. Therefore, social tourism can be used effectively to achieve a number of sustainability goals. Calypso aims to promote tourism in the low season to mitigate some of the effects of seasonality in the European tourism system, through: the generation of new economic activity in tourism resorts; Social tourism453

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reduction of unemployment and creation of more sustainable long-term employment; improvement in the patterns of seasonality leading to a reduction in pressure on the destination infrastructure; an increased sense of European citizenship through opportunities for mobility; and social and personal development.     SMC Further reading McCabe, S., Minnaert, L. and Diekmann, A. (2011) Social Tourism in Europe: Theory and Practice. Channel View, Bristol, UK.

  Calypso Programme ec.europa.eu/enterprise/sectors/tourism/calypso/index_en.htm   ANCV (Agence Nationale de Cheques Vacances) www.ancv.com/   IMSERSO (Instituto de Mayores y Servicios Sociales) www.imserso.es/imserso_01/index.htm

  Socio-economic transformation The creation of a fundamentally new system, wherein the economic, social (including political) and ecological conditions require dramatic and path-altering change from a society. Tourism is an industry that can both intentionally influence transformation and unintentionally cause transformation within a community or region. For example, tourism can be purposefully used as an economic development strategy and if planned, implemented and managed effectively, can help to transform a region with a struggling financial or social economy into one that is more stable and vibrant. However, considering that tourism is an inherently unstable and fickle industry, which is severely influenced by global trends, environmental change, economic transitions, health outbreaks, political factors and business decision-making, and so on, unintended impacts or changes can influence an unwelcome transformation within a local or regional economy and can cause significant socio-economic problems. Butler’s Tourism Area Life Cycle (TALC), combined with Ostrom’s ‘adaptive cycle’, which is more typically used to understand transforming ecological systems, are highly relevant in understanding socio-economic transformation within tourism systems. The basic principles of the TALC (development, stagnation, decline and rejuvenation) can be displayed as a cycle (figure of eight) and conceptualized as a holistic, systems-based progression, which considers aspects of space and time and encourages thinking in terms of change and development (termed the ‘Adaptive Tourism Area Lifecycle’).     JDA

  Soft tourism Forms of tourism that have minimal or no impact on the physical, natural and social environment. The concept of soft tourism began in the European Alps in the 1980s. Often considered the antithesis of hard tourism, tourism businesses are generally small-scale and locally owned: they utilize local products and services, employ local 454

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people, respect local traditions and cultures, and do not place unacceptable stressors on the natural, physical or social environment. Examples include instances of farm tourism and community markets. Soft tourism can also be understood as tourism that is less-physically demanding for participants (see Adventure tourism). See also Alternative tourism, Appropriate tourism, Green tourism     GW

  Solar power The conversion of sunlight to energy, using either photovoltaics (solar panels) or through a system of mirrors that concentrates solar power (Fig. S7). Research into applying small scale concentrated solar power facilities in resorts located in the sun-belt region has found them both economically and technically viable (Georgei et al., 2009). Solar power has also been employed in Gulmarg, Kashmir to support the tourism industry by providing a reliable form of energy in a region that suffers from power cuts due to heavy snowfall.     GD

 Soundscape The aural landscape present in a destination. While attention has usually been reserved for the visual in tourism studies and tourism development (see Aesthetics), sounds

Fig. S7.  Solar power for hot water in use at holiday resort near Huangzhou, China (Carl Cater). Soundscape455

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form an important part of the character of a sense of place. This may include a lack of noise in national parks or wilderness areas (see Quiet enjoyment), very specific sounds in some birdwatching encounters or cultural displays, or a cacophony of noises in city tourism. Sounds are an important part of a destination, and therefore warrant attention in planning and destination management. Noise levels are regularly incorporated in both planning and regulation of resorts, nightclubs and sporting events. However, soundscapes can also be used deliberately as part of a tourism attraction such as a temporary interpretation of the Storr mountain on the Isle of Skye, Scotland, in 2005. Soundscapes can be enhanced through hidden speakers or, increasingly, through mobile technologies. Chinese academics have investigated the influence of soundscapes on tourists using an approach similar to that of air quality.     CIC

  Spa tourism See Wellness tourism

 Space A complex idea that amalgamates an entity, relationship to other entities and a conceptual framework. In its most basic formulation it can be understood as a term that has direction, area, volume, shape, pattern and distance as attributes. Traditionally – and the discussion of space is one of the markers of modernity – space has been conceptualized as the fixed and static ground on which events take place or processes leave their marks. In its Newtonian view, space is absolute; in its Leibnizian view, it is relational. Contrasting with these perspectives that privilege order, completion and rationality, contemporary theorizations within human geography reject space as a neutral entity, as a pre-existing blank sheet waiting for content, and discard an autonomous science of the spatial. Instead, space is understood as always in the making, in formation: thus processes, the mobile and performativity acquire meaningful roles, within a framework of a porous time-space. The concept of space is always interconnected with that of place, and both tend to be mutually defined. It is common to refer that the place is lived space (see Sack, 1997). Different theoretical positions anchor the debates on the concept of space in relation to the notions of materialism, production and capitalism, power, knowledge, representation, performativity and hyperreality. In the recent past, new forms of organization and production, the development in transport and mobility, and the rise of information technologies, have resulted in an intense time-space compression, allowing for new experiences of space and time (Harvey, 1989). Notwithstanding the popularity of ideas of the annihilation of space through time and of a ‘flat’ world, space has recently acquired a reinforced prominence: the less spatial barriers exist, the more sensitivity towards the variations within space and incentive for differentiation must be pushed forward. Tourism is a good example, since the idiosyncratic characteristics of space in a globalized world (see Globalization) are critical for its success. See also Sense of place     JSA 456

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  Space tourism Tourism activity related to extraterrestrial phenomena, encompassing a wide range of space-related travel. Although much media attention has recently been directed towards tourists engaging in astrotourism, for example multi-millionaire trips to the International Space Station, terrestrial space tourism is relatively well established, with visits to space attractions and launch sites, as well as activities like eclipse tours and meteorite collecting (Fig. S8) (see Geotourism). While the former is restricted to the wealthy elite, and largely unsustainable (although there is some research on alternative fuels such as rubber-based propellants), space tourism in general may involve lower impact and sustainable forms of tourism activity (see Table 4). It is notable that Table 4.  A typology of space tourism.

Beyond earth orbit In-earth orbit Non-site specific space tourism

Specific space tourism sites

Atmospheric space tourism Terrestrial Space Tourism

Space Tourism

Astrotourism

Location

Type

Examples

Lunar and Martian voyages

Not yet available (but see Google Lunar X-prize)

Orbital flights (350 km)

Trips to ISS (Space Adventures)

Suborbital flights (100 km)

Virgin Galactic

High altitude jet flights (20 km)

MIG 31 flights (Russia)

Weightless flights

Zero G corporation (USA/Russia)

Simulations

Space shuttle launch simulator (Kennedy Space Center)

Tours of space facilities

Kennedy Space Center (Florida USA), Parkes satellite dish (NSW, Australia)

Edu-tainment

Spacewalker (Gold Coast, Australia), National Space Centre (Leeds, UK)

Space tourism related travel

UFO tours, Meteorite collecting, Eclipse tours, Stargazing tours

Cyber space tourism experiences

Virtual space travel and gaming environments

Popular culture

Space movies related travel

Space tourism457

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Fig. S8.  Space tourism at Tnorala/Gosse Bluff, a meteorite impact crater, Central Australia (Tiffany Low).

space tourism operators recognize a Travel Career Ladder in the so called ‘steps to space’, whereby lower-order activities may develop a travel interest that may be capitalized on in future travel behaviour towards more costly forms of space tourism. Much like adventure tourism, space tourism presents an important philosophical challenge that can be harnessed for sustainability, forcing participants to consider their place in the universe, relationship to other beings, and especially concepts of time.     CIC Further reading Cater, C. (2010) Steps to space: Opportunities for astrotourism. Tourism Management 31, 838–845.

  Spatial reorganization A concept that refers to tourism’s influence on the relative location of places to each other. Transport links and patterns of tourism shape accessibility of places, but this is not a uniform process, and it works at a variety of scales. Popular destinations become relatively and perceptually closer and thus more important to source countries than ones which are not. For example, the tourist resorts of Nadi on Fiji are ‘closer’ to the rest of the world than to the capital of the country, Suva, because of the proximity of the international (tourism) airport. At a smaller scale, resort planning frequently has 458

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an influence on spatial organization (for example the relationship between the resorts of Cancun, Mexico on its coastal spit and the dormitory service town inland). Spatial reorganization is dynamic, as many previously popular stopovers have been leapfrogged by longer-haul travel. Political crises and the threat of terrorism may alter the balance of relative locations over time. However, some of these spatial connections are still incredibly strong, for example the long-established patterns of tourism from European countries to former colonies in Africa and the Caribbean (see Colonialism). See also Core-periphery, Mobility, Peripherality     CIC

  Special-interest tourism A type of tourism that is said to occur as when the traveller’s motivation and decision-making are primarily determined by a particular special interest (Weiler and Hall, 1992). Special-­interest tourism (SIT) has also been defined as ‘the provision of customized leisure and recreational experiences driven by the specific expressed interests of individuals and groups’ (Douglas et al., 2001, p. xvii). Thus, a key element of SIT is that an individual’s travel is motivated by a prevailing interest or involvement in a particular activity, hobby or sport (e.g. cycle tourism; food tourism; ecotourism). Other literature has challenged the concept that SIT is always connected explicitly to a pre-existing hobby, passion or interest. In this way, it is more likely to occur on a spectrum of different types according to an individual’s interest (from low to high) (Hall and Sharples, 2003). Special-interest tourism is also often used interchangeably with the term niche tourism which, like niche marketing, recognizes the increasing heterogeneity of the consumer (and tourist) market and the desire to move away from mass, mainstream experiences and travel modes (Novelli, 2005). Niche tourists can be segmented according to their context or location (e.g. cultural or rural) or around demographic elements (e.g. senior’s travel or women’s travel). Reflective of Poon’s (2003) new tourists, both special-interest and niche tourists generally seek educational, meaningful experiences, that tie them closely to local people and the culture within which they are travelling. For these reasons, SIT/niche tourism has been linked to alternative and sustainable forms of travel. While sharing some tenets and historical roots of alternative tourism, SIT/niche tourism is not always sustainable tourism per se, with potential for negative social and environmental impacts.     EW

 Specialization See Leisure Specialization Continuum

  Spiritual tourism Travel for the purpose of deriving meaning, transcendence and/or connectedness with one’s life. Spiritual tourism generally relates to the active search for spiritual growth through tourism, although much spiritual development occurs subconsciously through travel. Certain scholars assert that all tourism may be considered spiritual, as one cannot Spiritual tourism459

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separate how they derive meaning or connections from their travel experiences. The assertion that all travel is spiritual is, however, strongly debated. Spiritual tourism has traditionally been associated with ‘sacred’ destinations, such as those visited by people on yoga tours, spa escapes, wilderness experiences or visits to shrines or holy places (see Pilgrimage). In recent times, however, scholars have recognized that the secularization of notions of religion has widened scholarly interpretation of what constitutes sacred tourism places and experiences. The three core constructs of spirituality are meaning, transcendence and connectedness. Many individuals use travel as an avenue to seek these constructs, and tourism and spirituality are considered by many to be inextricably linked. Arguably, as spiritual beings, humans have an innate need to seek out meaning, improve themselves through transcendence, and form tangible and intangible connections with people and the world around them. Considered ‘the questing animal’, the search for meaning in life is arguably rooted in humans’ biological, psychological, linguistic and social nature (Hardy, 1979). Many derive deep personal meaning, develop deep relationships and experience transcendent changes in values, attitudes or life-situations through travel. The transcendent element of spiritual tourism concerns the experience of individuals going past the ordinary limits of their body, standing outside of their current sense of time and place and viewing life from a larger, more objective perspective. Transcendence has also been similarly compared with the work of psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, who described optimal human experiences as ‘flow’, whereby people are challenged, experience a loss of self-consciousness and time (Van Ness, 1996) or through Abraham Maslow’s self-actualizing person, who seeks self-improvement and increased knowledge of themselves and people around them (Piedmont, 1999). Tourism is purported to be a rich setting in which individuals can experience transcendence; for many, travel is a powerful experience to be used to reflect upon their lives, and extend their capabilities. People are attracted to sublime landscapes where they feel small and insignificant, but part of an infinite and universal circle. Certainly, many wilderness and natural tourism settings would meet these criteria. Fredrickson and Anderson (1999) also note that people use wildlife and the wilderness to reflect upon their lives, and find solitude; they argue that this is more so in modern times because people no longer take time to look at the stars. Indeed, there is strong evidence to suggest that wilderness, rural tourism and nature-based tourism attractions contain a myriad of spiritual dimensions. Connectedness, the third element of spiritual tourism, can be seen as a harmonious relationship or ‘oneness’ with self, ‘other’ (including other people, animals, the earth, nature, etc.). Connectedness is commonly interchanged with relationship. Travel experiences often present an ideal situation for connectedness to occur. For instance, Craib (1997, p. 160) argues that touristic connections can ‘reach across gender, age, race, class and other social realities if need be’. Further, Harrison (2003) suggests that travel facilitates the human need for connection, but the temporary nature of the association frees people from the need to seek ongoing attachment. Although, sharing the same core constructs of a search for meaning, transcendence and connectedness, spiritual tourism is often incorrectly used interchangeably with the concept of religious tourism. Spirituality differs in that while only some people are religious, all are considered spiritual, although they may not describe themselves this way. Spirituality is also largely free from the institutional element of religion, is associated with few symbols and is largely based upon philosophy and reason; in contrast to religion’s reason, faith and revelation. 460

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Tourism that is spiritually motivated has increased in scale and scope in recent years and represents an important sector of the international tourism market. Increasingly, tourists are demanding deeper, and more personal spiritual experiences through tourism because they feel disconnected with modern society. This demand is being addressed by the tourism industry in many ways; for example, volunteer tourism, in which individuals can experience profound personal meaning through assisting others, and ecotourism, which involves deep connection with nature and local people, are two of the fastest growing sectors of tourism. This increased interest in spiritual tourism is argued to be partly fuelled by feelings of emptiness with modern life that is characterized by high stress, a lack of personal time, isolation, uncertainty, rising fuel prices, climate change and feelings of depression caused by rapidly advancing technology and civilization growth. Modern life issues, such as terrorism, climate problems and diminishing natural resources, are also argued to be creating a growing sense of purposelessness amongst many people, and people are seeking for better ways to live; in short, they are searching for meaning and purpose in their lives. To mitigate the perceived negative effects of society, significant numbers of people are said to be embracing their spirituality as it is said to offer people a source of enduring meaning in troubled times.     GW

Further reading Hardy, A. (1979) The Spiritual Nature of Man. Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK. Sharpley, R. and Sundaram, P. (2005) Tourism: A sacred journey? The case of Ashram tourism, India. International Journal of Tourism Research 7(3), 161–171. Timothy, D. and Olsen, D. (eds) (2006) Tourism, Religion and Spiritual Journeys. Routledge, New York (city).

  Sport tourism Tourism activity that relates to an active or sporting purpose. Sports may be defined as ‘institutionalized competitive activities that involve vigorous physical exertion or the use of relatively complex physical skills by individuals whose participation is motivated by a combination of internal and external factors’ (Coakley, 1994, p. 21). Tourism may therefore be to travel from home in order to practice a sport or to watch sporting events. According to Torkilsden (1994) a major sports event encompasses the following characteristics: clear cut starting and finishing points, fixed and absolute deadlines, one-off organizer, large risks and many opportunities. These characteristics allow for identification of major sporting activities including athletics, soccer, basketball, boxing, cricket, cycling (Fig. C16), golf, weightlifting, horse racing, motor racing, netball, rugby, tennis, volleyball, martial arts and squash. The past decades have been marked by significant rise in the demand for sports tourism throughout the world with focus shifting from the health and fitness benefits of sports to increased use of sports to market destinations (Weed, 2009). The attraction toward sports tourism has gained momentum because in recent times, sport is being recognized as having the potential to make a significant contribution to contemporary society. Many cities organize Sport tourism461

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Fig. S9.  Tourists watching Tour de France, Brittany, France (Carl Cater).

sporting events as they have the potential to offer significant benefits to the city that hosts such events. In the face of this realization, many countries and especially cities have been bidding to host special events like the Olympics, World Cup events, motor rally and special marathons (Henderson et al., 2010; Wadawi et al., 2011). At the same time, integrating sporting events into the mainstay of tourism offers myriad opportunities for stimulating the state’s tourism industry as well as widely impacting on the economic growth of the region (Fig. S9). Sinclair (2005) cites Holder (2003, p. 2) in stating that ‘the economic benefits of such movements of people are considerable, involving transportation, construction, renovation of facilities, creation of employment, cultural exchanges, specific service range of commercial activity involving sports cruises, tours, attractions, use of resorts, etc.’.     RO

Case study: Sustainability and the Olympic Games Sustainability was an important consideration for the London 2012 Organising Committee. The organizers aimed to embed sustainability principles and objectives in all areas of Games planning. The Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park was built on once-contaminated industrial land in east London, and is the largest new urban parkland built in Europe for 150 years. Many of the Olympic venues showcased sustainability credentials and London Continued

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Case study.  Continued. 2012 was also the first Olympic Games to measure its carbon footprint over the entire project term. It was also the first Games to aim to achieve and fulfil a ‘zero waste’ landfill target. In total, Games organizers saved the equivalent of 400,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide thanks to their sustainable practices. All Games operations waste was diverted from landfill, with 62% of that waste being reused, recycled or composted and 99% of the waste from installing and decommissioning the Games venues was reused or recycled. The Olympic Stadium used surplus gas supply pipes to construct the top ring of the venue and the cycling stadium was built with sustainably-sourced timber, while the ‘Copper Box’ sports arena was covered with recycled copper and helped reduce water use by 40% by recycling rainwater. Energy needs were supplied by biomass boilers that burn woodchips and other sustainable fuels to supply heating and cooling to buildings throughout the Olympic Park, and continues to serve the local community post-games. London 2012 also pioneered the development of a sustainability management system standard for events, BS 8901 which now has an international standard equivalent, ISO 20121. This standard has become the international standard for the global event sector in how events are delivered, marking another significant legacy of the Games. Several environmental projects in East London have also benefitted from funding as part of the sustainability legacy of London 2012. These include government grants awarded to civil society and local community groups to provide practical information, and help and advise about sustainable living. All of these projects have encouraged people to adopt more sustainable lifestyles, from growing food to reducing energy to becoming more active by walking and cycling more. In recognition of its achievements, London 2012 won gold in the Environmental and Sustainability category of the 6th International Sports Event Management awards.     CIC   Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park queenelizabetholympicpark.co.uk

  Spread effects The positive impacts, usually of regional economic progress, on other regions’ economies. These involve the expansion of markets for other regions’ products, as well as technical advances. Increased economic activity at the core might trigger a demand for more resources from the periphery, and technological advances in the core region might be applied to other regions. A belief in spread effects underlies the planning of growth poles: that is, the spread effect is the spatial equivalent of trickle-down economics. The narrow focus on economic spread effects often obscures negative backwash effects (see Fig. B2) that may have much more environmental or social impact. See also Core-periphery     FO

 Stakeholder An entity, ranging from an individual to an entire system that affects or is affected by the results of a particular action. Freeman (1984) is generally credited with

Stakeholder463

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popularizing the stakeholder concept in general (Friedman and Miles, 2006), but it is critical to a holistic appraisal of sustainable tourism. There are obviously a multitude of stakeholders involved in tourism but they are often grouped into ‘primary stakeholders’ and ‘secondary stakeholders’. While both of these may have key roles in sustainable outcomes, the former have a direct influence and are immediately and enduringly affected in terms of benefiting, or losing out, from tourism development. The latter, while perhaps wielding considerable power and influence over outcomes, act and/or are acted upon only indirectly. It must be noted that these categories are neither mutually exclusive nor static: an ‘interest’ may be identified as a primary stakeholder in one situation at one point in time, as a secondary stakeholder in another situation or in the same situation at a different point in time. Furthermore, the criticism of subjectivity has frequently been levied at such designations, as their selection and categorization is dependent upon the assessor. Indeed, it has been argued that attempting to fit stakeholders into either of these categories, which are cast in the dynamic and complex interface between humans and the natural environment, runs the risk of marginalizing and possibly excluding some of the stakeholders. Prell et al. (2009) used social network analysis (SNA) (see Social networking) to select stakeholders for participation in the natural resource management of the most heavily visited national park in the UK, the Peak District National Park. They suggest that, although environmental applications of SNA are only just beginning to emerge, the knowledge gained from this exercise was a useful adjunct to other methods and approaches to stakeholder analysis as it facilitates a more objective appraisal of which individuals and categories of stakeholders play a more central role, and those which are more peripheral. It is not surprising that it is the key primary stakeholders that have received most attention in tourism research. These, however, will vary in number and type according to the context under consideration. Byrd (2007), for example, focuses on visitors and the host community, separating each of these into present and future categories, while Zhao and Ritchie (2007), in their study of the role of tourism in poverty alleviation, define six primary stakeholders (the poor, the private sector, tourists, governments, civil society and aid donors). Bearing in mind the issue of subjectivity highlighted above, the most commonly identified key primary stakeholders in the sustainable tourism literature are residents, tourists, tourism entrepreneurs and the natural environment. It is only relatively recently that the last of these has been explicitly recognized as an active rather than passive stakeholder. As Cater (2012b) points out, nature has an agency, manifest in the ability whether or not to ‘cooperate’ or to even ‘push back’. The characteristics of different stakeholders will also vary according to the contingencies of time and place. Ioannides (2001), for example, describes how geographical and historic variations may affect stakeholders’ attitudes towards sustainability. This is significant when we consider the important criteria of intragenerational and intergenerational equity that are central to the concept. It is also important to recognize that there will also be considerable variation between and within stakeholder groups across various dimensions. Zhao and Ritchie (2007, p. 20), for example, highlight how tourists have an ‘indefinite identity in that tourists of a certain destination are a quite fragmented, dynamic and amorphous body with diverse interests’ and suggest that, because of this they are ‘seldom given full consideration in the practical planning and development process’. Host communities are also highly heterogeneous constructs, divided by characteristics such as ethnicity, class, gender, age and access to resources. 464Stakeholder

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Perhaps the most significant aspect of the heterogeneity of stakeholder groups is the question of the unequal distribution of power. Church and Coles (2007) highlight how relationships of power have been relatively neglected in tourism research in general, but it is undeniable that they both reflect and reinforce the influence of stakeholders with ‘differing abilities to influence the agenda and scope of investigations’ (Jamal and Getz, 2000, p. 179). These power differentials are themselves an expression of structural inequalities (consider, for example, the might of the international non-governmental organizations such as The Nature Conservancy with respect to local community groups), as well as demographic and socio-economic characteristics that include education levels, skills, ability and experience. Jamal and Getz (2000) voice the concern that the interests of ‘other’, less affluent, less visible, relatively voiceless segments of the community might not be adequately ­considered, or indeed that they may not even kept informed about the issues. They argue, in particular, that ‘greater effort needs to be directed towards bringing the marginalised voices of hybridised cultures from in-between spaces into the public sphere of community-­based collaborations for destination planning and management’ (Jamal and Getz, 2000, p. 179). Towards this end, the onus of responsibility rests with those key secondary stakeholders who perform intermediary roles in the enactment and exercise of power as initiators, mediators, facilitators, resource allocators and implementers. These range from government departments to service providers, credit unions and aid agencies. It is suggested that collaboration between different stakeholders through tourism partnerships will result in more equitable, and hence more sustainable, outcomes which have far-reaching consequences. Multi-stakeholder partnerships are defined as groupings of stakeholders from governments, International Governmental Organizations (IGOs), civil society groups and businesses organized at local, national, regional and global levels. As Bramwell and Lane (2000, p. 4) suggest, such partnerships are ‘engaged in developing policies and planning that go beyond basic tourism questions: they also deal with broader economic, social and environmental issues’. They include collaboration between private and public sectors, cooperation between government agencies involving different levels of administration (for example, national and provincial), and cross-border cooperation between same level polities such as state to state (Timothy, 2002b). Bramwell and Lane (2000) describe four main ways in which such collaborative approaches should help further sustainable development. First, collaboration among a range of stakeholders including non-economic interests might promote more consideration of the varied natural, built and human resources that need to be sustained for future well-being. Second, by involving stakeholders from several fields of activity, with many interests, there may be greater potential for the integrative or holistic approaches to policy-making that can help to promote sustainability. Third, if multiple stakeholders affected by tourism development were involved in the policy-making process, then this might lead to a more equitable distribution of the resulting benefits and costs. Fourth, broad participation in policy-making could help democratize decision-making, empower participants and lead to capacity building and skill acquisition amongst participants and those whom they represent. De Araujo and Bramwell (2004, p. 272) describe how participation by multiple stakeholders with different interests and perspectives might encourage more consideration of varied cultural, environmental, economic and political issues affecting sustainable development [and] broad stakeholder involvement has the Stakeholder465

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potential to increase self-reliance of the stakeholders and their awareness of the issues, facilitating equitable trade-offs between stakeholders with competing interests and promote decisions that enjoy a greater degree of ‘consensus’ and shared ownership.

See also Empowerment     EC   International Centre for development oriented Research in Agriculture learning materials www.icra-edu.org   Natural Resources Institute Socio-Economic Methodologies Best Practice Guidelines www.nri.org/publications/nri-publications

  Start-up costs Costs that take place before starting a business and are necessary for its operation. They may be of many different types: legal (taxes and fees, notary expenses, etc.), rentals of premises, franchises, licensing fees, information and marketing costs (web, business cards, etc.), computers and software, for example.     EMG

 Staycation A composite of stay and vacation, denoting the practice of vacationing while staying at home or nearby, perhaps travelling to local attractions. It was popularized during the summer of 2008 (Sharma, 2009) at a time of economic crisis in the US and Europe, with rising fuel prices and growing unemployment. Local businesses are the main beneficiaries of staycations and sometimes offer services focused on staycationers, such as catering or cleaning. Staycations are also a by-product of major televised sports events such as the Football World Cup, with vacationers taking holidays so as to watch their favourite team on television.     AP

  Steady-state tourism Tourism that exists at a relatively static volume, without major changes in number of tourists, businesses or attractions. Currently, few places exhibit true steady-state tourism, although some seaside resorts, for example, have remained popular for many years. Steady-state tourism is an important alternative to the growth fetish that dominates the tourism industry. Irrespective of restrictions on travel that may be enforced by concerns with climate change, steady-state tourism is inevitable at an undefined point in the future. Steady-state tourism would seem to fit with most of the principles of sustainability. However, whether this happens organically, or is deliberately managed and promoted, remains to be seen. See also Degrowth     CIC 466

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 Stewardship The concept of looking after various assets without actually owning them. The idea of stewardship is an important principle of sustainability as it seeks to promote the sense that we are merely custodians of the earth for future generations, and our actions should not prejudice their livelihoods. See also Intergenerational equity     CIC

  Stichting Nederlandse Verijwilligers (SNV) A Nertherlands-based, independent development agency concerned with well-being and development, which has been active in developing sustainable tourism in lessdeveloped countries. Originally founded in 1965 under the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs, SNV organized early volunteer tourism of willing participants from Europe to the global South. Over time, the export of individuals became targeted towards using development professionals for capacity building in these countries, the organization ceasing work with volunteers in 1988. In 1993 the organization became the SNV Netherlands Development Organization and in 2002 it became independent of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (although it is still largely funded by the Netherlands government). Although having carried out numerous tourism projects, particularly on community-based tourism and pro-poor tourism, SNV took the shortsighted decision in 2012 to close its tourism development programs to focus on agriculture, renewable energy and water/hygiene (Hummel and Duim, 2012).     CIC

  Strategic planning A holistic approach to planning that focuses on the long-term success of an organization or, in the context of tourism, a destination. The concept emerged in the early 1970s in the private sector as a tool to cope with, and to succeed in the long-term in, the increasingly competitive environment companies operated in (Wilson and Gilligan, 2005). The strategic planning (SP) process typically entails the repeated and constant evaluation of the status quo before the planning process begins and throughout the duration of strategy implementation. All factors, external as well as internal to an organization that may impact upon its success must be examined (Kaufman and Jacobs, 1987). Thus the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT Analysis) that emerge from an internal analysis of the organization, and the political, economic, social and technological environments (PEST) the organization operates in. This stage of evaluation and analysis is followed by the establishment of future objectives and goals, which must be appropriate to and based on the foregoing analysis of external as well as internal factors (Wilson and Gilligan, 2005). The final result of the strategic planning process is a document outlining how the objectives and goals will be reached: the strategy. A key characteristic of strategic planning is the involvement and consideration of all stakeholders during the strategy formulation process so as to trigger a sense of responsibility and ownership among everyone involved (Hall, 2008). Strategic planning467

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In the tourism context, Jamal and Getz (1995) highlight that including all stakeholders in the strategy formulation process is complicated by the fragmented nature of tourism on the one hand and the interdependency of actors within the tourism industry on the other. Nevertheless, considering the holistic approach that SP advocates, it is a popular tool for sustainable tourism planning and, can, but by no means necessarily will, lead to more sustainable forms of tourism development. In other words, it can be more useful for achieving sustainable tourism goals than other non-strategic plans (Hall, 2008).     AMT

  Strong sustainable development One extreme of the sustainable development ideological paradigm (the other extreme being weak sustainable development). This paradigm reflects significantly opposing views on how sustainable development is viewed and interpreted, particularly around issues such as growth, consumption, human well-being, resource use/substitutability and the value of nature. The weak–strong paradigm has also been applied to sustainable tourism (e.g. Hunter, 1997; Weaver, 2005). Strong sustainable development, as opposed to weak sustainable development, challenges the idea that natural capital can be interchanged with human capital. Strong sustainability takes an ecological, biocentric stance, valuing nature in and of itself rather than as a product for economic gain or human consumptive purposes. Those taking a strong sustainability stance have also been termed ‘biocentrics’, ‘deep ecologists’, ‘resource preservationists’ and also ‘radical environmentalists’. See also Ecocentric, Environment     EW

  Sun, sea and sand (3S) tourism A form of tourism based on the joint provision of these three attractions, which can be listed in any order (thus ‘sea, sun and sand tourism’ is also used). Sometimes termed ‘3S tourism’, sun, sea and sand tourism is particularly associated with beach tourism. This form of tourism provided the model for the early development of mass tourism in coastal areas. The formula proved very successful in attracting holidaymakers, particularly from temperate origin countries, who were lured by the promise of dry and sunny climates, sandy beaches upon which to relax and sunbathe, and warm seas in which to swim and enjoy various water sports. These attractions simply could not be relied upon at home and many traditional seaside resorts in the origin countries have suffered an economic decline as a result, losing out to mass tourism destinations overseas. These have typically been planned around providing these attractions to the tourist, although many have sought to diversify their offerings by adding alternative tourism products to their portfolio.     BG

  Surf break A natural or artificial feature that is comprised of swell, currents, water levels, seabed morphology and wind. Hydrodynamic characteristics of the ocean (swell, currents 468

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and water levels) combine with seabed morphology (shape, slope) and winds give rise to a surfable wave. Breaks may be classified by the ability required to surf the waves (nursery, master) or by the geographic context (bar, point).     HRE

  Surf break protection Rules and zones in plans, policies or other formal regulatory mechanisms and informal codes of conduct that prevent the loss of natural or artificially induced characteristics that contribute to: (i) the formation of a surfable wave; and (ii) surroundings that make that surfable wave attractive to humans.     HRE

  Surf Life Saving Australia Australia’s major water safety, drowning prevention and rescue authority. The role of Surf Life Saving Australia is to create a safe environment for all beach users. The organization has more than 150,000 members affiliated with more than 300 surf life saving clubs. Many of these members provide their services voluntarily to patrol the beaches overseen by their clubs (Fig. S10). Surf Life Saving Australia also operates Australia’s largest lifeguard service, contracting to local government and other coastal land managers.     SR

Fig. S10.  Surf lifesaving, Southport SLC Queensland, Australia (Tiffany Low). Surf Life Saving Australia469

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  Surf tourism The activity of travelling to stay temporarily at a location, for at least a night, where the primary motivation is to engage with surfing. This may be either through active direct participation in wave riding or the passive watching of surfing. Surfing is believed to have originated in Polynesia. It achieved its initial fame and spread through the travels of Hawaii’s legendary Olympian Duke Kahanamoku in the early 20th century and flourished in California. Technological advances in the 1940s and 1960s enabled boards to be lighter, more portable and more affordable and opened the activity to a mass market. Surf tourism became an industry in the 1970s, following the popularization of exotic surfing locations in the surfing documentary movie Endless Summer. Specialist surf tours, learn-to-surf schools, fashionable surf apparel, televised professional competitive surf events and pro-tours, specialist surf magazines and websites, and movies featuring surfing sub-cultures signified and drove the expansion of the industry. Surfing became a significant part of the tourism strategies of countries like Australia, re-energized older European resorts like Biarritz, and became linked with sustainable development in South-east Asia and the Pacific. By the 2000s the global population of surfers was estimated at over 20 million. However, by the 1990s, concerns over sustainability of surf tourism had already arisen. Overcrowding of popular surf breaks, coupled with damage and loss of breaks as a result of coastal construction, dredging or pollution, led to surfing activism by organizations like Surfrider Foundation to protect surf breaks and adjacent areas and improve environmental assessment and planning processes. This activism culminated in the movement for World Surfing Reserves and, in 2010, New Zealand emerged as a world leader in protecting surf breaks with a New Zealand Coastal Policy Statement that provided protection for 17 nationally significant breaks and increased the level of consideration that had to be given by regulatory authorities to all other breaks. Attempts have also been made to create new surf breaks through building artificial reefs, either as multi-purpose fishing, shore protection and surfing facilities, or as specific surfing arenas. These were intended to both spread surfing numbers, thereby reducing the pressure on popular breaks, and generate increased numbers of surfers visiting the locations of the artificial reefs. Despite benefits to shore protection resulting from such reefs, construction is difficult and they are generally yet to demonstrate their value as significant surf tourism amenities.     HRE

 Surfing The act of travelling along the face of a wave where the power of the wave provides the forward momentum to the rider of the wave (Fig. S11). The most common form of riding a wave relevant to tourism involves standing on a board that is specifically constructed for that purpose.     HRE

 Sustainability The holistic concept of perpetual intergenerational and intragenerational equity. The concept of sustainability significantly predates the term itself, and is corroborated by 470

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Fig. S11.  Surfing tourists, Byron Bay, Australia (Carl Cater).

many traditional cultures as the desire to maintain a harmonious relationship between humans and their environments. Ideas of organized preservation for the future are evidenced several thousands of years ago where the elite were granted exclusive access to animals and grasslands in protected nature reserves in Mesopotamia (Butler, 1991). These ideas were taken up by Alexander the Great and other Europeans, and subsequently put into practice on the Continent. Hardy et al. (2002) discuss the romantic vision of the 19th century and note the alignment of conservation movements with sustained periods of economic expansion. They note that these occurrences are arguably due to people reacting to materialistic values. Late in the 19th century, not long after European colonization of Australia, the country’s first national park, the Royal National Park, was established near Sydney and provides an example of ‘growing recognition that areas should be preserved for future generations to use’ (Hardy et al., 2002, p. 476). It is widely accepted that the modern concept of sustainability originated as an outcome of the Brundtland Report in 1987 where sustainable development was defined as being ‘development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’ (WCED, 1987, p. 43) emphasizing intergenerational equity. As Liu (2003, p. 460) highlights, the Commission recognized that this definition of sustainability did not hold any implications of a fixed state of harmony, but rather that it should be a ‘dynamic process of changes’. The minimal influence that the Brundtland Report has had, however, is noted by Holden (2009), particularly in relation to decisions relating to the ‘use’ or ‘non-use’ of nature: the supply and demand elements of tourism. The definition proposed in the Brundtland Report brought to the fore two additional elements that had not been duly considered in earlier discussions: ethics and equity (Butler, 1998b). The belief held by many of today’s generation is that the Brundtland definition positioned sustainability as a new and ground-breaking concept, Sustainability471

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perhaps because of its focus on ethics and equity, but more cynically because sufficient time had passed since the environmental movements of the 1960s and 1970s that the term had been forgotten, and hence appeared to be re-born (Butler, 1998b). In attempting to operationalize the definition of sustainable development arising from the Brundtland Commission, many authors have summarized sustainability as a concept that rests on three pillars: economic, ecological and social environments (Pforr, 2001). Bramwell et al. (1996) however, propose a definition with seven dimensions of sustainability: environmental, cultural, political, economic, social, managerial and governmental. The inclusion of dimensions such as political, managerial and governmental pose difficulties however, as these groups of stakeholders are generally held to be at fault for abusing the underlying ethos of the term. A more philosophical approach to defining sustainability, which is supported by a number of authors, it that a holistic and global approach needs to be be adopted (Sharpley, 2000). This implies that sustainability cannot be separated from the value systems of those involved in its implementation and the societies in which they live (Bramwell et al., 1996). This is echoed by Pforr (2001), who notes the value orientation that sustainable tourism represents and believes that greater participation and co-operation between governments, industry, communities and academia will lead to greater legitimacy of political decisions. Some authors have concluded that sustainable development in itself is not something which can be defined, due largely to the fact that the inclusion of the political environment in its definitions leave it open to interpretation by those with political power (Holden, 2000). Over time, models have been developed that attempt to demonstrate a progression towards sustainable development. Baker et al. (1997) offer a ‘Ladder of Sustainable Development’ wherein the first rung is referred to as the ‘treadmill approach’ because it focuses on the accrual of material possessions and pursuing wealth creation. The second rung on the ladder refers to a model of ‘weak sustainable development’, wherein an attempt is made to integrate some environmental concerns into essentially capitalist growth goals. The third rung on the ladder is referred to as the ‘strong sustainable development’ model approach. This advocates that environmental protection should be a precondition of economic development. The fourth and final rung of the ladder is referred to as the ‘ideal’ approach: a kind of enlightenment where it is believed that nature and non-human life have an intrinsic value extending beyond their usefulness to humans. Some difficulties in the interpretation of definitions of sustainability have, however, emerged. Weaver and Lawton (2002) highlight the ‘steady-state’ implications of the idea of sustainability, juxtaposing these against the growth implications inherent with development, as being mutually exclusive (see Growth fetish). Other difficulties arise when efforts are made to translate the concept of sustainability into management and planning actions. In his seminal article, ‘The Tragedy of the Commons’, Hardin (1968) describes a situation, in which individuals all acting independently, solely and rationally consulting their own self-interests, will ultimately deplete a shared limited resource – even when it is clear that it is in no-one’s self interest to do so. This scenario can be applied to the environmental dimension of sustainability, but perhaps it is less clear how it should be applied to the sociocultural and economic dimensions. In a tourism context, it has been argued that the interests of a tourist destination can be loosely grouped into four categories: host population, tourist guests, tourism organizations and the natural environment (Cater, 1993). All four of these stakeholders have a 472Sustainability

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common aim, to ensure long-term sustainable development of their destinations, although the potential for each of these groups to act independently of each other and consult only their own self-interests is likely, and in fact common, which will ultimately be to the detriment of themselves and the other interest groups. Nevertheless, Cater (1993, p. 22) underlines the premise ‘that the major role players in tourism all have a stake in sustainable tourism and that their present and future interests are in many ways tied to one another and to sound environmental practice’. Sustainability has been widely applied to a number of industries with a degree of recklessness that fails to define the term in the context of the industry in question (Butler, 1999). When applied to the tourism industry, it would seem that these attempts have been fruitless and perhaps futile, due to the ability of the term to be ‘variously interpreted or appropriated’ (Sharpley, 2003, p. 325). Sharpley calls for a global and holistic approach to be taken to the implementation of sustainable development in a tourism context, and this notion is enforced by Butler (1998b, p. 28) where the idea of tourism being able to achieve sustainable development ‘independently of other activities and processes is philosophically against the true nature of the concept, as well as being unrealistic’. Further scepticism regarding the application of sustainable development to the tourism industry is brought to the fore by Mowforth and Munt (2003, p. 25), who note that ‘sustainability is to sustain profits of the tourism industry; used by social classes to retain distinctive holidays; and used by host communities to exclude outsiders’. While this somewhat negative approach to sustainable tourism undoubtedly holds, it can be argued that these ‘uses’ are to some extent legitimate. Economic profitability is a widely acknowledged goal of sustainability, and indeed acknowledged by the same authors (Mowforth and Munt, 2003, p. 111) as being ‘not a condition which competes with other aspects of sustainability. Rather, it can be seen as equally important a condition in its own right’. However, the use of sustainability to badge distinctive holidays, refers to the methods used by social classes to differentiate themselves from lesser classes, through both a cultural element and a spatial element (Bourdieu, 1986). That is, it is often considered that in terms of cultural capital, ecotourism is seen as ‘better’ than mass tourism, while in a spatial sense, the Amalfi coast, Italy, for example, has more kudos than, say, the Costa del Sol, Spain. As sustainability becomes a new buzzword, receiving ever-increasing media attention, it too is used as a tool for establishing differentiation among social classes. With regard to host communities, Mowforth and Munt (2003) highlight the widely touted idea of tourism as being a beneficial cultural exchange for all parties involved. Problems arise however where a lack of communication, influencing power relationships between the community and local legislators, as well as between national governments, NGOs and international companies arise. Problems resulting from the imposition of tourism onto host communities include the displacement and resettlement of local communities, as well as the ‘zooification’ of local tribespeople: a process of dehumanization that leaves them with little power or dignity (Mowforth and Munt, 2003). See also Sustainable development     TL   PATA sustainability charter sustain.pata.org/about/charter-travellers-code   UN and sustainability www.un.org/en/sustainability/ Sustainability473

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  Sustainability performance evaluation A process used to assess corporate contributions to sustainability, i.e. contributions that private companies make to support sustainable development, including its economic, social and environmental dimensions. The idea that companies have responsibility to contribute to sustainable development is widely accepted and is captured by the concept of corporate social responsibility. Sustainability performance evaluation is recognized as an important component of corporate social responsibility and a necessary element of an effective sustainability management system in an organization. Sustainability performance evaluation is relevant for companies in order for them to evaluate effectiveness of their sustainability-related efforts and initiatives. It is also relevant for and increasingly demanded by a number of different stakeholders, such as governments, customers, investors and practitioners who want to be able to evaluate companies’ contributions to sustainable development in order to make decisions with respect to what products to buy, what companies to invest in or give funding to, and so on. Additionally, the need for effective tools to evaluate sustainability performance is growing due to direct regulation introduced by governments that, in some cases, mandate disclosure of sustainability performance information, though legislation such as the European Modernization Directive. Despite the agreement regarding the need for and importance (both internally and externally) of evaluating corporate sustainability performance, there is still lack of a widely agreed upon methodology on how to do it. The challenge begins with defining the very concept that is to be measured, i.e. sustainability performance. The concept of ethical and sustainable behaviour of a company towards the society and the environment has evolved over time and has been labelled and defined in numerous ways by different authors. Several frameworks of corporate social performance have been proposed in order to identify all of its relevant components (Carroll, 1979; Wartick and Cochran, 1985; Wood, 1991). As a result, it is widely agreed that sustainability performance is a multidimensional construct and any evaluation of it should not be limited to one issue (e.g. environment, minority relations, corporate giving, product safety) or one stakeholder, but instead should be a comprehensive assessment of a firm’s social and environmental performance. It further needs to encompass performance with respect to different stakeholder groups, i.e. employees, consumers, owners, community and the environment. A number of different frameworks and recommendations have been proposed in order to facilitate corporate sustainability performance evaluation by companies and their stakeholders. They range from measures focusing on individual impacts such as air pollution, energy consumption, waste generation, or water use, through to comprehensive measures and frameworks addressing the overall sustainability performance of the company. Some of these frameworks include, among others, Global Reporting Initiative Framework, Measuring Impacts Framework developed by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD), ecological footprint, carbon footprint, sustainability indices, or diverse certification schemes and awards. For internal purposes, companies can use different sustainability accounting methodologies that help them evaluate their sustainability performance (Wiedmann et al., 2009). These include, among others, triple bottom line accounting, life-cycle analysis and footprint analysis. The triple bottom line concept requires companies to evaluate and report their performance in all three aspects of sustainability: economic, social 474

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and environmental. It involves a number of different indicators (some in monetary units and some in non-monetary units) from each of the three pillars of sustainability. The guidelines developed by the Global Reporting Initiative are the most widely known guidelines for triple bottom line assessment and reporting of sustainability performance. Additionally, the life-cycle methodology for sustainability performance assessment was developed in order to address the fact that the impacts of a given company are not limited to its direct impacts caused by the on-site processes but also encompass the indirect impacts generated in the company’s supply chain. The life-cycle assessment often uses footprint indicators, which capture company’s wider environmental (and increasingly social) impacts. The footprint indicators that gained popularity in ­recent years include the corporate carbon footprint and corporate water footprint. A number of standards have been developed to guide application of footprint indicators, including carbon footprint methodology proposed in greenhouse gas (GHG) Protocol (WRI and WBCSD, 2004), or Carbon Trust standard. More comprehensive tools for measuring sustainability performance have also been proposed, such as Measuring Impacts Framework developed by WBCSD. Some of these efforts have been led by the tourism industry, for example in 2012 the Hotel Carbon Measurement Initiative with 23 member hotel companies developed and published common methodology for measuring and communicating carbon emissions. Externally to companies, there are additional tools for measuring sustainability performance, such as different aggregate indices of sustainability or third-party certification schemes. External assessments of sustainability performance rely mostly on publicly available data that is reported by the companies or on data released by the company to the third party conducting the assessment. Some of the most widely used indices are corporate reputation indices, such as the Fortune magazine’s reputation index rating a corporation’s responsibility to the community and environment. Some of the indices have been developed for the tourism industry or specific tourism sectors, such as for example the Atmosfair Airline Index (Atmosfair, 2011). It uses independent and internationally established data sources, for example from International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). Composite indices used to capture sustainability performance of companies have however been criticized for a number of reasons, including subjectivity in selection of components and weights and use of compensatory aggregation methods. Evaluation of sustainability performance helps to verify whether the efforts aimed at supporting sustainable development are in fact achieving their goal and as such is a very important component of sustainable tourism. However, a number of challenges with the state of the field and the current practice have been identified. The major problems include: the lack of agreement on the conceptualization of sustainability performance and its dimensions; lack of generally accepted sustainability accounting standards; focusing on outcomes while not assessing the process (Agle and Kelley, 2001; Igalens and Gond, 2005); challenges with defining the boundaries of assessment and allocating different impacts and benefits to different companies in the supply chain (Korhonen, 2003). Practitioners and researchers in the field call for greater standardization of methodologies, development of a widely agreed upon set of measures, greater extent of using third-party verification and development of sustainability statements comparable to financial statements that would provide more insight into how certain sustainability measures were calculated.     DDG Sustainability performance evaluation475

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Further reading Lamberton, G. (2005) Sustainability accounting: A brief history and conceptual framework. Accounting Forum 29, 7–26. Wood, D.J. (2010) Measuring corporate social performance: A review. International Journal of Management Reviews 12(1), 50–84.

  Sustainability transition See Time

  Sustainable development Development that ‘meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’ (WCED, 1987, p. 43). Sustainable development has its history in a number of areas, including Carson’s Silent Spring (1962), Hardin’s Tragedy of the Commons (1968), the UN Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in 1972, the UN-sponsored World Commission on Environment and Development report, Our Common Future (WCED, 1987), more commonly known as the ‘Brundtland Report’. Of these, the Brundtland Report was a major political turning point for the concept of sustainable development, becoming very influential in encouraging sustainable initiatives at the local, national and global levels. The Brundtland Report calls for an integrated understanding of development that takes a holistic view of economic, environmental, social and cultural development. However, since its publication hundreds of alternative definitions of sustainable development have been proposed in many different disciplines. In June 1992, as a follow-on to the 1972 UN Conference on the Human Environment, a major conference was held in Rio de Janeiro, variously known as the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), the Rio Summit, the Rio Conference and the Earth Summit. The aim of this conference was to assist governments to rethink economic development, and to find ways to halt the destruction of irreplaceable natural resources and pollution of the planet. Arising from this conference were two significant outcomes: the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (UNEP, 2012b, p. 1), which set out 27 fundamental principles on which ‘nations can base their future decisions and policies, considering the environmental implications of socio-economic development’; and Agenda 21, a 700-page document embracing all areas of sustainable development that sought to reconcile the twin requirements of a high-quality environment and a healthy economy for all people of the world, identifying key areas of social responsibility as well as offering preliminary cost estimates for success. Following Agenda 21, the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) formulated a definition to guide the sustainable development of tourism, which reads as follows: sustainable tourism development is that which meets the needs of present tourists and host regions while protecting and enhancing opportunity for the future. It is envisaged as leading to the management of all resources in such a way that economic, social and aesthetic needs can be fulfilled while maintaining cultural integrity, 476

Sustainability transition

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essential ecological processes, biological diversity and life support systems. In further recognition that uncontrolled tourism development has major negative impacts on the local environment and society, the World Travel and Tourism Council, the World Tourism Organization and the Earth Council launched an action plan entitled, Agenda 21 for the Travel and Tourism Industry: Towards Environmentally Sustainable Development (WTTC, 1995). This document is widely accepted as providing appropriate guidance for priority areas for action to promote sustainable tourism development with defined objectives and suggested steps to achieve them.     DE and LD

Further reading Liburd, J. (2010) Introduction to sustainable tourism development. In: Liburd, J. and Edwards, D. (eds) Understanding the Sustainable Development of Tourism. Goodfellow Publishers, Oxford, UK, pp. 1–18.

  Sustainable Livelihood Approach (SLA) An approach to community assets and their development for vulnerable societies emphasizing that ‘the root of all human development and economic growth is livelihoods – not jobs per se, but the wide, infinitely diverse range of activities people engage in to make their living’ (Tao and Wall, 2009, p. 143). The original concept of a ‘sustainable livelihood’ (SL) was described by Scoones (1998). The approach is a dynamic lens, highlighting the ‘the changes and adjustments people make in their livelihood systems in order to cope under difficult circumstances’ (Helmore and Singh, 2001, p. 3). Significantly, the SLA stresses that using internal capacities and knowledge systems help the development of rural community (Chambers, 1986; Lee, 2008). The SLA model is a useful framework to test the changes wrought by tourism on people’s asset base (Ashley, 2000, cited in Cater and Cater, 2007a). The approach, which aims to reduce poverty in developing countries, makes a systematic evaluation of the variety of assets in a community that might be used and augmented by tourism development (Cater and Cater, 2007a), thus the SLA examines a variety of livelihood strategies. Ashley’s (2000) study, for example, offers two perspectives on rural communities using tourism for their livelihood. Previous tourism developments have often only focused on the contribution to enhancing local employment and income benefits, often to the exclusion of the major social and environmental changes in livelihoods. Under the SLA, the focus is on how to enhance development and the contribution tourism can make, and to reflect on the broad changes to people’s livelihoods consequent to the decision. The approach is a multi-level one and regarded as dynamic for households, community, region, or nation (Cater and Cater, 2007a). According to the SLA there are five types of asset or capital central to people’s livelihoods (Sustaining Livelihoods in Southern Africa, 2002). These are identified as: 1. natural capital (the natural resource stocks upon which people draw for livelihoods); 2. human capital (the skills, knowledge, ability to labour and good health important to be able to pursue different livelihood strategies); Sustainable Livelihood Approach (SLA)477

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3. physical capital (the basic enabling infrastructure, such as transport, shelter, water, energy and communications); 4. financial capital (the financial resources available to people such as savings, credit and remittances); and 5. social capital (the social resources such as networks, membership of groups and relationships of trust upon which people draw in pursuit of their livelihoods). Based upon the five capitals, a study by Lee (2005) adopted the SLA in his examination of pick-your-own (PYO) farms in Taiwan to improve farmers’ livelihood strategies and to assess policies and institutional processes. However, in a global tourism context, where local traditions form both the uniqueness and identity of communities, Cater and Cater (2007a) identify a further asset. This is cultural capital, consisting of the heritage, customs and traditions, which should be considered in any analysis of the characteristics of local livelihoods. It is important to note that this definition of cultural capital differs somewhat from that presented elsewhere in the social sciences, for example that in Bourdieu’s (1986) theory of capital, which is more concerned with exchange and value. Significantly, these six forms of capital are highly interdependent, as depicted in Fig. S12. This shows the building blocks of the sustainable livelihoods approach, where the ground layer, the financial, social and cultural capital, constitutes the community foundation. The second layer, comprising physical infrastructure and human skills, requires the underpinning of the financial, social and cultural capital. The top of the pyramid, the natural capital so central to ecotourism, relies on sustained and sustainable support from all of these forms of capital. If the natural capital itself is eroded, perhaps by external influences, then the viability of other forms of capital in the community is also in doubt. Wang (2010) created political capital in the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach to further explain relationships in community-based tourism development. This has been identified as being related to governance and administrative structures that were somewhat insufficient to explain ecotourism development. Political capital identifies elements of power and benefit sharing issues of concern to community stakeholders. Political capital is a further critical form of capital found to be affecting all the other forms of community capital using a sustainable livelihood approach.     CHC

NATURAL CAPITAL

PHYSICAL CAPITAL

FINANCIAL CAPITAL

478

HUMAN CAPITAL

SOCIAL CAPITAL

CULTURAL CAPITAL

Fig. S12.  The building blocks of the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (From Cater and Cater, 2007b). Sustainable Livelihood Approach (SLA)

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  Sustainable marketing The application of principles of sustainability to the promotion of goods and services. The broadening of the generic marketing concept (Kotler, 1972) has brought a variety of marketing concepts such as ‘services marketing’, ‘destination marketing’, ‘retail marketing’, ‘relationship marketing’, ‘direct marketing’, ‘social marketing’ and ‘green marketing’. Yet despite almost three decades since the publication of the Brundtland Report, ‘Our Common Future’ (WCED, 1987), the marketing discipline has significantly failed to fully embrace the sustainable development debate. Notwithstanding a few attempts to merge marketing and sustainability (e.g. Sheth and Parvatiyar, 1995; van Dam and Apeldoorn, 1996; Fuller, 1999; Carson et al., 2004; Gilmore et al., 2007; Gordon et al., 2011), the prediction of the emergence of sustainable marketing has not materialized. Much the same happened to terms such as ‘social marketing’ and ‘green/environmental marketing’. Despite the overlaps, sustainable marketing should not be confused with social marketing or green/environmental marketing. The need to address sustainability from a marketing perspective is critical, and sustainable development is jeopardized until marketing practice embraces sustainability. Prevailing conceptualizations of sustainable marketing follow the classic APIC (analysis, planning, implementation, control) paradigm, with its central focus on customers. For example, Fuller (1999, p. 4) defines sustainable marketing as ‘the process of planning, implementing, and controlling the development, pricing, promotion, and distribution of products in a manner that satisfies the following three criteria: (i) customer needs are met, (ii) organizational goals are attained, and (iii) the process is compatible with ecosystems’. However, in order to achieve a convergence between economic, environmental and sociocultural goals, sustainable marketing must be collaborative and situation- or context-based. Thus, sustainable marketing is a long-term constructive engagement and should be defined as a context-based collaborative societal process of interactive marketing activities that meet the needs of the present stakeholders with value without compromising the ability of future stakeholders to meet their needs.     MPA

  Sustainable Tourism Certification Network of the Americas A network that brings together entities that promote certification in sustainable tourism. Launched in Brazil in 2004, the network is intended to encourage dialogue among participants (Fig. S13) and to act as a regional clearing-house for information and technical assistance. It stemmed from the Sustainable Tourism Stewardship Council (STSC) feasibility study, coordinated by the Rainforest Alliance, which presented its conclusions in 2003. The Network consists of National Forums, which include members from each country in the Americas. The National Forums each have national liaisons that comprise a General Assembly, along with representatives from certification programs. The network also has a Technical Secretariat, responsible for coordinating the network’s operations.     CIC Sustainable Tourism Certification Network of the Americas 479

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Fig. S13.  Ecotourism operator, Pantanal, Brazil (Olga Garcia).

  Sustainable Tourism Eco-Certification Program (STEP), USA A business product of Sustainable Travel International, a US-based non-profit organization founded in 2002. STEP was launched in 2007 in an effort to create credible and transparent certification and as a response to the increasing ‘greenwashing’ in the sustainable tourism industry. Originally the program was geographically focused on the Americas but is now targeting the global travel and tourism industry. STEP now stands for Sustainable Tourism Education Program (STEP). Certification occurs through a three-step process. The first is a comprehensive online self-assessment that serves as an educational and training program and requires an annual fee. Businesses who have completed Step 1 can apply for Bronze (Baseline) certification in Step 2, which requires additional documentation and review by an accredited assessor and the payment of a one-time fee. Bronze level certification simply recognizes that businesses are legally operating, have drafted a sustainability policy and conducted a triple bottom line impact assessment. It does not verify that businesses actually integrate sustainable practices into their business operation. Bronzelevel certified businesses can apply for further certification in Step 3. This step requires a third party on-site assessment on the basis of which the assessor will recommend Silver (Intermediate), Gold (Advanced) or Platinum (Industry Leader) certification. The implementation of sustainable management practices into the business operation and the positive impact the business creates for its employees, visitors and wider social and natural environment advances with increasing level of certification. 480

Sustainable Tourism Eco-Certification Program (STEP), USA

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The standards of the certification programs are aligned with the Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria in an effort to make the overall certification process more transparent for the consumer. STEP is recognized by the Global Sustainable Tourism Council.     CO

  Sustainable Tourism Stewardship Council (STSC) A forerunner of the Global Sustainable Tourism Council, formed when STSC merged with the Partnership for Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria. The Sustainable Tourism Stewardship Council’s mission was to enhance the sustainability of tourism operations by ensuring better environmental and social performance, and improved economic benefits to local communities and to certified businesses worldwide.     CIC

  SWOT Analysis An organizing framework for auditing the current situation of a business, organization or destination in terms of its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. SWOT analyses are widely used in planning, education and community-based tourism development because of the simplicity and wide application of the categories. ‘Strengths’ and ‘weaknesses’ are internal to the organization, while ‘opportunities’ and ‘threats’ are external. There is a wide variety of alternatives to SWOT that may be more specific, including STEEP (Social/Demographic, Technological, Economic, Environmental and Technological) and PEST (Political, Economic, Social and Technological).     CIC

 System See Tourism system

System481

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T   Technological fix Using technology to solve a problem. In the tourism context, it is well-known as being propagated as a solution for the growing discrepancy between the current rapid growth of tourism transport-related CO2 emissions and the strong reductions required to avoid dangerous climate change. Mitigation methods are favoured by many industry representatives, specifically in aviation, but criticized for neglecting the forecasted growth in tourism volumes, which will likely outpace efficiency improvements. Generally, the effectiveness of technological fixes is over-estimated, while rebound effects and new problems introduced by the technology further reduce and deteriorate the real effects. Also, the laws of physics set limits to what can be achieved with technology (Peeters, 2010). Introducing new technology faces a number of barriers, notably high investments, sunk costs in existing infrastructure and systems, which frequently makes it a medium-to-long-term option. Most likely only a combination of technological improvements and behavioural change, i.e. volume control, can lead to a decrease in tourism emissions. EE

 Technology The designing, inventing, creation and use of knowledge and how this interconnects with society, organizations and the environment for problem solving or to serve a particular need. AA

 Terrorism The threat or use of violence against one target in order to influence the opinions or actions of third party others for political purposes. It is this act of influence on a third party and its political nature that distinguishes it from ordinary crime. Terrorism has had a heightened profile in tourism studies since the attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on 11 September 2001. Tourists and tourism facilities make tempting targets for terrorists in their efforts to influence politics and policy. Terrorism has taken many forms in recent decades. Airports and airlines have been terrorist targets for their symbolic value as a state asset, their high media value and the fact that their transportation capacity can be effectively used. Examples include the attacks on airports such as Israel’s Lod airport in 1972, Athens and Rome airports in 1973 and Madras airport in India in 1984. Terrorists have also attacked planes with bombs and rockets, including an Air India flight over the Atlantic in 1985, 482 

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a Pan Am flight over Lockerbie, Scotland in 1983 and an El Al flight at Mombasa airport, Kenya in 2002. At the height of the terrorism of the late 1960s and early 1970s, terrorists hijacked planes for escape to friendly countries or political leverage against enemy governments; examples include the spectacular event of September, 1970 when the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine held three planes and their passengers at Jordan’s airport. More recently, Al Qaeda turned hijacked planes into potent weapons to wield against the Twin Towers and the Pentagon, which were both actual and symbolic targets. There was also the hijacking of the cruise ship Achille Lauro in 1985, a rarer target for terrorists. Terrorism and other forms of political violence are often discussed in terms of risk management and security. Destinations that are economically dependent on tourism may find themselves vulnerable to the impacts of terrorism as many tourists are risk averse and will choose to travel to places perceived to be more secure. FHD

  The International Ecotourism Society (TIES) A non-profit organization devoted to promoting ecotourism principles globally. TIES provide guidelines and standards, training, technical assistance, research and publications on the development of ecotourism. TIES has successfully built strong linkages and a network of ecotourism professionals internationally. Membership for TIES is open to academics, consultants, conservation professionals and organizations, governments, architects, tour operators, ecolodge owners and managers, general development experts, and ecotourists. TIES in 1990 defined ecotourism as, ‘responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being of local people’. TIES uses ecotourism to unite conservationists, communities and eco-­travellers using the following fundamental principles: (i) minimize impact; (ii) build environmental and cultural awareness and respect; (iii) provide positive experiences for both visitors and hosts; (iv) provide direct financial benefits for conservation; (v) provide financial benefits and empowerment for local people; and (vi) raise sensitivity to host countries’ political, environmental and social climate. In short, TIES is dedicated in the promotion of ecotourism using an international network of individuals, institutions and the tourism industry, in educating tourists and tourism professionals; and influencing the tourism industry, public institutions and donors to integrate the principles of ecotourism into their operations and policies. TIES has been successful in their mission of promoting the ecotourism principles because of strong industry partnership that is used to promote and increase awareness among all stakeholders globally. They include Adventure Media, Adventure Travel Trade Association (ATTA), Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), The BEST Education Network (BEST EN), Global Sustainable Tourism Council, Green Path Transfers, ITB-Berlin, TravMedia, The US Fish and Wildlife Service, International Culinary Tourism Association (ICTA), International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Rainforest Alliance, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), United Nations Foundation (UNF) and United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). VNS   The International Ecotourism Society www.ecotourism.org The International Ecotourism Society (TIES)483

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  Third Way (TW) A term to indicate an alternative to the battle between left (socialist) and right (capitalist) in politics. The term Third Way is long established in the history of political thought. Two distinct strands of TW theory have emerged – the reform socialist approach and the welfare capitalism approach. In the late 19th and early 20th century reform socialists articulated TW ideology in elaborating an alternative to revolutionary Marxism. From the 1950s the transition to ‘welfare capitalism’ was characterized by collaboration between labour and capital spawned by post Second World War political conditions. Both perspectives developed TW theory to explain political ideologies that sought to reconcile egalitarian and individualist policies, and elements of socialism and capitalism. In the contemporary period, and under a complex set of influences associated with globalization, TW-inspired political movements have exhibited an increasingly neoliberal provenance. Yet the most influential intellectual advocate of TW politics, the British sociologist Anthony Giddens, locates his understanding of the concept as a left-of-centre political philosophy concerned with transcending both old-style social democracy and neoliberalism. Critics have highlighted the apparent contradictions inherent in TW philosophies, which they argue simply assert the realization of a harmonious path through the contested space between left and right. The styles of governance associated with TW impulses tend to have different emphases depending on the prevailing political, social and ideological complexion of any given society. Proponents of TW styles of governance embrace markets and economic growth, trade liberalization, looser immigration controls, welfare reforms and public-­ private partnerships associated with job creation and public services. In the field of tourism studies, Burns (2004) provides a useful example of the application TW theory in tourism planning. WF Further reading Burns, P. (2004) Tourism planning: A third way. Annals of Tourism Research 31(1), 24–43. Giddens, A. (1998) The Third Way: The Renewal of Social Democracy. Polity Press, C ­ ambridge, UK.

 Time A chronological measurement. Time is a fundamental concept in sustainability, yet one that is often poorly understood due to its linear nature. Sustainability relies on several time-based issues, for example intergenerational equity, yet timescales are rarely indicated by which these should be measured. Time is also important in planning, yet timescales are often set on short political or financial frames (for example 1, 3 or 5 years) rather than longer periods that may be more appropriate in community, environmental or even geological time. For example, the development of sustainable tourism is not something that can be achieved overnight. In Apo Island, in the Philippines, a Marine Conservation and Development Program was formally implemented in 1984 following 5 years of preliminary 484

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activities. One of the lessons learned from Apo was that community-based coastal resource management is a long and neverending undertaking (Calumpong, 2000) ­requiring sustained commitment. This finding is echoed by Hoctor’s observations of participation in West Clare’s marine ecotourism project in Ireland. The move from a consultative to the self-mobilization level was a long-term process, requiring the sustained commitment of all the actors involved (Hoctor, 2003). Yet this is cast in an overall context where, traditionally, ‘many commercial operators adopt a short-term perspective on tourism, and are essentially driven by the motive of profit more than any altruistic (or indeed commercial) concern for future generations of the environment upon which they depend’ (Southgate and Sharpley, 2002, p. 257). External factors may further complicate the achievement of milestones, as the local or global environment may also alter over the project period. Nevertheless attention to longer time scales is a crucial requirement of the sustainability transition: ­continually evolving, adaptive management of sustainable tourism is likely to be compromised if it is couched in the short term, trying to achieve unrealistic indicators of success set against timescales that are far too short. We must recognize that the co-evolution of social and natural systems, in particular manifested in global environmental change, means that ‘much longer timescales need to be considered if management is to make a difference in the face of such changes’ (Laffoley et al., 2004, p. 47). This requires long-term political commitment, which needs to be enshrined in a legal framework in order to ensure that longer-term and wider benefits are not sacrificed for short-term gains. Somewhat paradoxically this makes attention to the ‘now’ even more crucial. As Cater and Cater (2007a) point out, adaptive management in sustainable tourism also needs to respond to the following facts: not only are we witnessing a formidable ‘speeding up’ of changes (e.g. the adoption of social networking), but also the intensity of such changes is increasing, with an increasing number of tourists from BRICs and NICs now demanding tourism opportunities. CIC

 Timeshare Also known as ‘vacation ownership’, an arrangement by which furnished accommodation, typically in the form of a self-catering apartment, is occupied by a succession of groups over the course of a season. Under a conventional ‘fixed timeshare plan’, each group is entitled to occupy the property for a specific block of time, usually 1 or 2 weeks. Those involved often purchase their timeshare for a number of years, perhaps in perpetuity, and must pay an annual fee to cover their share of maintenance of the property and other charges. The advantage for timeshare owners is that they effectively own a property in the destination of their choice, at which they can take a holiday every year. The disadvantage is that the owner becomes tied to that particular destination and to the particular block of time they own, which usually remains the same from year to year. To overcome such restrictions, ‘timeshare exchange ­companies’ have been established to help timeshare owners trade their blocks of time with one other. This is sometimes known as ‘vacation exchange’. Major timeshare exchange companies include Interval International and Resort Condominiums International (RCI). Timeshare485

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In response to these limitations, different timeshare arrangements have been introduced to make it more flexible and attractive. A ‘float timeshare plan’ permits owners to choose when to utilize their timeslot within specific periods each year. A ‘biennial timeshare’ gives the owner the right to occupy the accommodation for a fixed period every other year, the owner being classed as either an ‘odd’ or ‘even’ owner according to the year in which they own the timeshare. The timeshare concept was first developed in the 1960s in Europe, from where the practice has spread worldwide. The Organization for Timeshare in Europe (OTE) estimates that in 2002 there were 6.7 million timeshare owners in more than 90 countries. The OTE further claims that sales of timeshare totalled US$9.4 billion in 2002 and that the market is set to grow twice as fast as the travel and tourism industry to 2012. The reputation of timeshare was tainted in the 1980s by a small number of unscrupulous companies operating high-pressure sales techniques. During the 1990s many countries introduced legislation to control the selling of timeshare, including requirements relating to the provision of relevant information in the buyer’s own language and a ‘cooling off’ period for buyers. See also Second-home tourism BG

 TNC See The Nature Conservancy

  Total Quality Management (TQM) An organizational quality management process that aims to ensure that all of the actions undertaken by the organization conform to pre-defined performance standards. The mechanisms for monitoring and controlling the activities involved are normally conducted according to a specified system, either of the organization’s own making or one of the many standardized schemes available, such as the International Standards Organization’s ISO 9000 series. The purpose of such a system is to enable the organization to detect and rectify quality shortfalls, enabling it to achieve a continuous cycle of improvement in its performance. The TQM approach can be applied specifically to the pursuit of environmental quality, and a number of standardized schemes exist that are tailored to this need, including the ISO 14000 series and the European Union’s Eco-audit and Management System. Compliance with such systems enables the organization to utilize a logo, which is intended to serve as an ecolabel to identify good environmental practice in the marketplace. These systems tend to emphasize the environmental dimension of sustainable tourism management, with relatively limited concern for its sociocultural and economic dimensions, and to that extent may not be considered ‘total’. The TQM approach also tends to be applied at the level of the individual organization, rather than at the level of local or regional economy, or indeed at the tourism destination level. Integrated Quality Management (IQM), meanwhile, is a term that is often used synonymously with TQM. It can be argued, however, that the requirement for IQM to be ‘integrated’ confers an additional responsibility on the part of the various organizations 486TNC

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operating at the destination level to collaborate together in order to manage the overall quality of their joint provision (Go and Govers, 2000). As such, the IQM approach can be considered to be more appropriate as a tool for the pursuit of sustainable tourism. Indeed, the European Commission’s Tourism Unit (2000) links IQM directly to sustainable tourism by arguing that tourism organizations should be concerned not only with their ‘internal quality’, which refers to the activities it undertakes to produce satisfying experiences for its customers (which is consistent with the TQM approach), but also with their ‘external quality’, which refers to the development of sustainability at the destination level through the joint management of resource use and the control of impacts. See also Sustainability performance evaluation BG

  Tour guide A person who leads visitors around tourism venues, providing combinations of different types of services, including transportation, accommodation and meal arrangement, interpretation (Fig. T1), problem and emergency handling, and the coordination of other activities. The person normally possesses an area-specific qualification, often recognized by an appropriate authority. Finally, a tour guide assists tourists in having safe, enjoyable and rewarding experiences. To be able to interpret the venue’s cultural and natural environments in the language of the visitor’s choice, tour guides need to have a broad range of knowledge in topics such as geography, history, culture and architecture in order to help tourists to

Fig. T1.  Tour guide, Three Gorges, Yangtze River, China (Carl Cater). Tour guide487

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understand a destination’s character. Additional knowledge in sociology, psychology, political science and cultural anthropology, but also emotional intelligence (Min, 2012) allows them to support their clients in finding connections between their immediate experience and their previous expectations. As any journey is a tourist experience into the unknown, the essential challenge for tour guides is to allow their clients to find ‘orientation’ in order to minimize the emotional effects of unfamiliarity, e.g. culture shock. Therefore, as any perception is a self-referential process (see Communication), tour guides have to respect their clients’ image of a tourist venue as the expression of their own culture, by translating the ‘strangeness’ of the visited culture into familiar codes to the visitors’ cultural ‘language’ (see Cultural relativism). With the expending use of iPhones, GPS and other electronic remedies for interpretation and guide services, the traditional role of the tour guide as pathfinder, leader and ‘transmitter’ of information is increasingly changing into that of serving as an interface between the cultures of the local people and the tourists. Like a trainer or coach, the tour guide has to facilitate the tourists’ communication by mediating social interaction. In this context, the tour guide’s interpretation is discussed by Reisinger and Steiner (2006) as an empathic way to accompany tourists’ encounter with the exotic by exploring their personal understanding of it. Travelling, insofar as it is turning away from gazing at locals as attractive objects to approaching them in a respectful and responsible way, favours self-exploration in the search for and development of identity (see Philosophical tourism). Instead of giving too many answers as definitive interpretation, tour guides should therefore ask mind-opening questions in order to encourage tourists to find their own fitting, authentic significance in what they experience (see Philosophical tourism). By stimulating tourists to look for activities allowing quiet enjoyment, treating natural and cultural resources with care, or to consume local and authentic products, tour guides are important facilitators of sustainable development. Furthermore, according to Hua and Wall (2012, p. 80), they have ‘a very high potential as agents of sustainable development as they have a variety of roles to play in response to the ­expectations of the various tourism stakeholders’. HF

  Tour operator Businesses that combine several partial (tourism and hospitality) services into a travel package for a flat rate, in which prices of unique services are no longer easily recognizable (e.g. accommodation, flight, sightseeing, rentals, restaurants, etc.). Tour operators have the role of wholesalers: they sell their packages to travel agencies, which act as retailers selling the packages to customers. Tour operators anticipate the final customer’s taste preparing a spectrum of different offers covering several travel interests, which are often presented in a catalogue (print or online). SSL

  Tour Operators Initiative for Sustainable Development A voluntary, non-profit association that aims to bring together tour operators in order to promote the sustainable development and marketing of tourism. The Tour Operators 488

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Initiative has the support of the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), United ­Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). TL   Tour Operators Initiative www.toinitiative.org/

 Tourism According to the UNWTO, tourism involves an overnight stay away from one’s fixed address (minimum one night, maximum 1 year) for leisure, relaxation and education purposes. Tourism already existed in the pre-modern age, as a niche phenomenon, but then became a mass phenomenon in urban-industrial society as a result of significant social and technological changes that occurred (the emergence of workers’ rights, paid holidays and the development of transport). It is the main way that the urban-­industrial society organizes free time, replacing the tied practices of the farming world. During the modern age, tourism provided rest from the psycho-physical strain of hard labour, yet in the postmodern age it takes on other functions, acting as a status symbol for cultural capital, providing cultural enrichment and helping to construct and narrate our own complex personal biography. MG

  Tourism Area Life Cycle (TALC) A model proposed by Butler (1980) to illustrate the pattern of development common to many tourist destinations. The model has become one of the most cited examples in the tourism literature with over 2400 citations to date, and it is still in current use with new applications appearing in the tourism literature annually. The model uses an asymptotic curve to illustrate the pattern of a tourist destination, with the vertical axis reflecting visitor numbers and the horizontal axis time. It is acknowledged that visitor numbers is a crude measure of the development of a destination but it reflects the only generally available measure in most locations. Overnight visitors are more likely to reflect the true stage of development as day and cruise visitors tend to reflect later stages in a destination’s cycle. The product life cycle, originally developed in the management literature, provides the conceptual base for the model, on the basis that tourist resorts and destinations are themselves products and should therefore follow a common product life-cycle pattern. Butler’s original model listed five stages of development common to all destinations: exploration, involvement, development, consolidation and stagnation, followed by a range of alternative subsequent stages, rejuvenation (rapid and slow), stabilization and decline (rapid and slow), with the argument that management intervention was the deciding factor as to which alternative path would be followed (Fig. T2). The subtitle of the original article was ‘Implications for management of resources’, and it was argued that if appropriate and timely intervention did not occur, then decline was most likely. The model suggested that development beyond the range of critical elements of the carrying capacity of the destination being examined would result in a loss of quality Tourism Area Life Cycle (TALC)489

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Fig. T2.  The Tourism Area Life Cycle: Brighton Seafront, UK (Carl Cater).

(e.g. from overcrowding, increasing costs of land and labour), which would in turn lead to loss of appeal and hence market share, reflected in an end to annual increasing numbers of visitors and investment, and even an actual decline in visitor numbers. The model did not, as some commentators have suggested, argue that decline was inevitable, but that decline would almost inevitably follow a failure of destination management. As others (e.g. Agarwal, 2002) have argued, re-orientation can prevent this happening. Weaver (1988) has suggested alternative initial development pathways, particularly in areas with a previous ‘plantation’ economy, and many other variations on the basic model have appeared in the literature. A number of examples of alternative applications and conceptual developments appear in two volumes (Butler, 2006a, 2006b), which trace the evolution and modification of the model. More recently (Butler et al., 2009) it has been argued that there is more than one curve present at any destination at a particular time, including curves for various elements of supply (accommodation, facilities and services) and also curves reflecting the different forms of tourist demand (activities) present among a destination’s visitors. RBU

  Tourism Concern A UK-based charity campaigning for human rights in tourism. Their vision is ‘a world free from exploitation in which all parties involved in tourism benefit equally and in 490

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which relationships between industry, tourists and host communities are based on trust and respect’ (Tourism Concern, 2013). Advocating a rights-based approach to tourism development, Tourism Concern develops campaigns in response to key needs identified to the organization by communities and organizations at destinations, or by tourists and travellers who have visited destinations and witnessed such issues first-­hand. Tourism Concern was central in the campaign to establish a policy on porters’ rights (Trekking Wrongs: Porters’ Rights), to stop the abuse of porters’ human rights in destinations such as the Himalayas, Peru and Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. The policy is now adopted by the majority of all UK tour operators and has signalled a revolution in the protection of the health, safety and well-being of porters and their families within the tourism industry. An example of a recent campaign is the recently published research on Water Equity and human rights in tourism (Tourism Concern, 2012). Drawing upon research in five case study destinations of The Gambia, Zanzibar, Bali, Goa and Kerala, the report confronts ‘poorly regulated tourism and weak water governance as undermining access to water and sanitation for many people in the global south’ (Tourism Concern, 2013). In conclusion, it offers nine principles of water equity in tourism and a series of recommendations for the tourism industry, Government and civil society. Previous campaigns include: workers’ rights in the Maldives; Sun, Sand and Sweatshops, Zanzibar: the right to natural resources; and Displacement in South Africa, to name but a few. In addition to campaigning, Tourism Concern is committed to working with tour operators, travel agents and volunteer tourism organizations to facilitate collaboration and partnership by sharing information and expertise. Working with industry, they have produced a report on the business case for ethical tourism and have established the Ethical Tour Operators Group (ETOG). The organization is also committed to changing consumer behaviour and providing tourists with the opportunity to understand the issues and possible solutions of protecting human rights in order that they can make informed decisions when booking holidays. In addition to providing a list of ethical tour operators, as outlined above, they also produce the Ethical Travel Guide: a publication that brings together a wide range of grass roots initiatives within destination communities as a guidebook for tourists and travellers visiting the regions. The guide lists over 400 places in over 70 countries and includes a range of accommodation, ­organizations, trips, tours and projects in order to provide ‘a tribute to enterprising people all over the world and a fulfilment of Tourism Concern’s commitment to ensure that people in destinations benefit from tourism’ (Tourism Concern, 2013). Such education is further extended to educational institutions as Tourism Concern provide a series of teaching toolkits and lesson plans, online exhibitions and all reports are available to download. CS   Tourism Concern www.tourismconcern.org.uk

  Tourism development The process of social and economic transformation through the engine of tourism ­activity. Tourism development has been widely identified as an effective way to revitalize the economy of a destination, whether rural or urban. However, tourism relies heavily upon the goodwill of the local residents as their support is necessary for the development’s successful operation, especially for the sustainability of a destination. Tourism development491

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An understanding of local residents’ attitudes towards tourism development and their determinants is essential in achieving a host community’s support for tourism development (Perdue et al., 1990; Yoon et al., 2001; Chen and Chen, 2010). The case for tourism and development is somewhat different from other sectors of the economy: because it does not produce goods, tourism’s contribution to development is indirect through generating revenues. It involves the creation of an infrastructure of attractions, accommodation facilities, travel and transport, and communications that allow visitors to go to the source of an attraction. The argument for tourism as a development strategy is primarily economic although esoteric ideals such as bringing increased understanding among peoples and cultures are invoked. Among the economic factors for developing tourism are generating foreign exchange, employment and government revenues through taxes (Sindiga, 1999). Tourism products are also extremely diverse and may involve extensive land development and the construction of several buildings. Therefore balanced development of travel and tourism noted by Walker and Walker (2011) has a direct impact on the quality of life of residents, local economies and visitors’ experiences. For example, the tranquility and beauty of many public lands attract visitors, but overcrowding and/or lack of adequate infrastructure to support visitor populations can degrade enjoyment. Cascante (2010) highlighted several authors’ views, that while development has become a commonly used concept, its practical applicability has proved to be a difficult task. Political and cultural macro-level complexities make the application of development-guided efforts challenging. Further, threats and opportunities for the fulfillment of society’s basic needs – a primary concern of development goals – are more palpable and consequently amendable at the local level. Because of this, the community level is optimal for the examination of ways in which development-related processes and outcomes are attained. RO

  Tourism Educational Future Initiatives (TEFI) A network established in 2006 which seeks to ‘be the leading, forward-looking network that inspires, informs and supports tourism educators and students to passionately and courageously transform the world for the better’ (TEFI, 2013). It brings together tourism academics and industry practitioners who embrace tourism education as a tool for social change. TEFI values are reflected in four key areas: advocacy for tourism as a field of study and employment; re-shaping tourism scholarship through relevance, meaning and metrics; providing a forum for creative, innovative debate about the impact of future socio-economic trends on tourism education; and facilitation of innovative, values-based learning experiences for students at all levels. CS   Tourism Educational Future Initiatives www.tourismeducationfutures.org

  Tourism for Tomorrow Awards A series of awards aimed at recognizing best practice in sustainable tourism worldwide. The awards were first established in 1989 by the Federation of Tour Operators 492

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and taken over by British Airways in 1992. Initially, the awards were open to all sectors and recognized best practice environmental management (Fig. T3). In 1992, the initial criteria were extended to encompass all aspect of sustainable tourism in an effort to identify industry leaders. Since 2003, the awards are under stewardship of the World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC). They are regarded as one of highest accolades in the world travel and tourism industry. The awards focus on four key areas with the aim of promoting best practice principles to achieve sustainable tourism development. The four award categories are: Destination Stewardship Award, Conservation Award, Community Benefit Award and the Global Tourism Business Award. The latter category targets exclusively the corporate level at larger companies. Candidates are judged through a three-step process by a panel of experts with a wide range of backgrounds in travel and tourism. Once the application has been checked for completeness, the candidates enter the first round of judging. A committee of three judges for each of the four categories evaluates the application using a score sheet based on criteria reflecting sustainable practices for that particular category. Each committee then selects three finalists that enter the second round of judging. The second round includes an on-site visit of the 12 finalists in order to verify the information. It can also include interviews with community members, company employees, government officials and other stakeholders including tourists and guests. A short list of candidates accompanied by the on-site report is provided at the end of this round. In the third and final round a five

Fig. T3.  Protective yacht moorings, Great Barrier Reef, Australia. GBRMPA was awarded the destination category in 2007 (Carl Cater). Tourism for Tomorrow Awards493

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member winner selection committee selects one winner in each award category after consideration and sometimes additional verification of all information provided. The finalists are honoured at the WTTCs Annual Global Summit. CO

  Tourism Impact See Impact

  Tourism management The organization, coordination, supervision and control of tourism in pursuit of pre-defined goals. Such goals could include or comprise sustainability. In tourism, the task of management falls not only on the managers of the tourism businesses comprising a given destination but also on the officials of a number of relevant public-sector organizations, including government departments (such as the local planning department) and, in many cases, a specialist destination management organization (DMO). The tasks involved in tourism management include marketing and planning tourism, operations and strategic management, and managing the various resources needed to produce and sell the tourism product, including human resources, financial resources and physical resources such as facilities and infrastructure. Natural resource management is also becoming increasingly important. Destination management is a cognate term referring to the management of tourism at the destination level. BG

  Tourism planning A socio-political process of actions designed to realize a goal or interrelated set of goals that maximize development benefits through predictable outcomes (Williams, 1998; Mason, 2008). The process occurs at a number of different scales, ranging from the site level, to the community/regional level, to the national/global level, depending on the context. Tourism planning’s origins and drivers are influenced by the ideas, decisions and values of a diverse set of actors, agencies and institutions that include individuals, organizations, businesses, communities or governments representing both the public and ­private sectors (Hall, 2000). The planning process traditionally follows a systematic, step-­ by-step approach that incorporates problem identification, goals and objectives, an inventory of primary and secondary information, analysis, plan creation, recommendations, implementation, monitoring and evaluation (Inskeep, 1991; Gunn, 1994). The goals of tourism planning are to provide enjoyable experiences for visitors and to improve the way of life for local residents by regulating and anticipating change in the tourism system (Murphy, 1985). Tourism planning also provides opportunities to control and coordinate physical patterns of development, conserve scarce resources, destination marketing, and integrate tourism with other sectors in an effort to promote equity and more sustainable forms of development (Mathieson and Wall, 1982; Fennell, 1999; Mason, 2008). 494

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Researchers (Murphy, 1985; Hall, 2000) have identified a number of tourism planning traditions that have developed with the rapid growth and increasing complexity of the tourism industry. These include: ‘boosterism’, where tourism is inherently good bringing economic benefits to the host community; ‘industry-oriented’, where government provides incentives, research and marketing assistance to achieve economic growth and regional development for industry; ‘spatial’, based on the physical capacity of destinations to withstand tourism development; ‘community-based’, emphasizing development in the community through local participation and protection of environmental resources; and ‘sustainable development’, providing secure livelihoods that minimize resource depletion, sociocultural disruption through proper management and local control of resources. However, these traditions are not necessarily sequential nor are they always exclusive. Indeed, recent trends identify that ‘new spaces’, through innovative public-private partnerships, networks and governance structures, are providing opportunities for exchanging information and for decision-­making that are changing traditional views of tourism planning and its practice (Dredge and Jenkins, 2011). See also Policy cascade, Strategic planning JH

Further reading Dredge, D. and Jenkins, J. (2007) Tourism Planning and Policy. Wiley, Milton, Australia. Hall, C.M. (2008) Tourism Planning: Policies, Processes and Relationships, 2nd edn. Pearson Education, Harlow, UK.

  Tourism policy ‘Whatever governments choose to do or not to do with respect to tourism’ (Dye, 1992, cited in Hall, 2008, p. 9). Tourism planning and policy making occurs in a wide variety of contexts, and is influenced by a range of political and historical factors and social values. It is political and is informed by a number of disciplines including economics, spatial planning, geography, sociology, business/management and marketing. It is conceptualized in different ways in different places. Governments make tourism policy to try to capture economic benefits, to limit failures in the market and to reduce negative impacts. Increasingly this is framed within broad notions of sustainability, however the extent to which this draws from economic conceptualizations or the triple or quadruple bottom line varies in different places. Tourism policies commonly offer guidelines or rules for tourism development and the provision of tourism facilities and regulate tourism activity. Tourism policy and planning definitions overlap in that they are future-oriented, can be strategic and involve a process. Tourism planning definitions are more concerned with the process of making a plan or facilitating policy making (Dredge and Jenkins, 2007; Hall, 2008). Tourism policy reflects a broader understanding of the political, societal and human context of public-sector-led decision making. A policy conceptualization includes those interactions and processes associated with making policies, and the continual negotiations required to enact them. These interactions are negotiated and constrained by other decision makers, reflecting wider societal features that shape Tourism policy495

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the environment. Tourism policy involves actions within a complex and changing environment, and involves the interaction between different tourism and non-tourism initiatives and various actors in the process (Stevenson et al., 2008). See also Stakeholder, Strategic planning NS

  Tourism satellite account (TSA) An account that structures the general tourism industry within an economy with its related fields, such as between the demand of goods and services generated by tourism and their supply. The main idea behind the construction of the TSA is to provide macroeconomic aggregates to describe the size and the economic importance of tourism, such as tourism value added and tourism gross domestic product (GDP), consistent with similar aggregates for the total economy, and for other productive activities and functional areas of interest. The TSA is to be seen as a new statistical tool, including concepts, definitions, aggregates, classifications and tables that are compatible with international national accounting guidelines and will allow for valid comparisons between regions, countries or groups of countries, and will also make these estimates comparable with other internationally recognized macroeconomic compilations. CK

  Tourism Sustainability Council (TSC) A global multi-stakeholder membership organization advancing sustainable tourism. The TSC was a coalition of over 40 public, private, non-profit and governmental organizations including the United Nations World Tourism Organization, the United Nations Environment Programme and the United Nations Foundation. The objective of the TSC was the establishment of universal sustainability principles. In order to reach their objective the GSTC Partnership created a set of criteria based of the primary principles of the sustainable tourism theory, which are effective and efficient sustainable planning, to increase the social-economic benefits of the local and tourist communities, and reduce the harmful impact of the tourism industry on local cultures and the environment. Therefore, the TSC advanced the Partnership for Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria (GSTC) and the Sustainable Tourism Stewardship Council (STSC), dedicated to increasing the reach, awareness and recognition of sustainable tourism practices through large and small enterprise operations and to endorsing the principles of the GSTC Criteria. ED

  Tourism Sustainability Group (TSG) A group of experts, selected on the basis of a call for expression of interest, to examine European tourism policy. Set up by the European Commission in 2004 as a result of its orientation towards the sustainability of European tourism (COM(2003) 716 final), the group comprises tourism experts from international bodies, member-state governments, regional and local authorities, the tourism industry, professional bodies, environ496

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mental organizations, trade unions and research and educational bodies who have expertise and experience in the sustainability of tourism. The TSG’s main task is to create a framework for action by the different stakeholders and provide guidance for destination management and for the use of indicators and monitoring systems, to regularly evaluate implementation of the measures set out in the framework for action and to provide value for the actors in the field. The TSG started work in early 2005 and formulated its proposals and recommendations in the form of a report issued in February 2007 (TSG, 2007). The report is entitled ­Action for More Sustainable European Tourism and suggests how to make European tourism more sustainable and to maintain this as a continuous process. It defines eight key challenges for the sustainability of European tourism, suggests mechanisms for its implementation, allocates responsibilities for action and recommends initiatives at the European level. The report also includes a substantial list of tourism sustainability indicators. The report is an important contribution to the definition on the new European tourism policy as outlined in the Commission’s document ‘Europe, the World’s No 1 Tourist Destination – a new Political Framework for Tourism in Europe’ (COM(2010) 252 final), which includes several of its recommendations. This is still being implemented and the TSG is now monitoring its progress while further providing guidance and expert opinion regarding further actions leading to more sustainable tourism. TAM & SMA

  Tourism system The set of elements standing in interrelation to each other that together deliver tourism and travel services. The elements are often grouped into transport, accommodation and (leisure or business) activities. To create one travel product, a large number of stakeholders are involved. Information and communication services are needed to choose travel objectives and destinations, book transportation or find routes, and book accommodation and leisure activities. Bank services supply the traveller with money exchange and transfers. All existing transport modes are involved in letting the tourist travel both from home to the destination, as well as locally at and around the destination. Accommodation, restaurants and cafes deliver a place to sleep, eat and drink. Many companies and enterprises produce and offer tourism-related products and services, varying from outdoor equipment, tents, suitcases, food and maps, to on the road car repair or recovery services and insurances. All these elements function within regulations and taxes set by governments, who themselves are linked to the lobbies and performance of the private tourism sector and are thus part of the tourism system. In the 19th century, Thomas Cook recognized the need for integrating all these elements into organizational packages, issuing the first tour in 1841. Today tour operators sell packages, and travel agents book travel and accommodation or packages at the choice of the tourist. Most of these products serve the mass tourism market, but some are dedicated to niche markets like touring in distant countries and less accessible regions. The tourism system has also been described in terms of regions, namely the tourist-generating, transit and destination regions. These are set within economic, ­environmental and social contexts (Leiper, 1979). Unfortunately, the tourism sector is too often not seen as a coherent system. Generally there is, even in scientific research, a strong bias towards international tourism and air-transport-based tourism, while that covers only some 15% of all tourism in the world, with doTourism system497

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mestic tourism being almost five times larger than international tourism globally. Most tourists use the car for transport and will do so in the medium future. Due to these biases and the failure to understand tourism from a systems thinking perspective, the sustainable development of tourism is seriously hampered. For example, without detailed understanding of the role of transport cost, speed and comfort levels and the very large variance in impacts per holiday, it is difficult to understand why tourism is still increasing its ecological footprint. This leads to the common misunderstanding that technology alone will solve the environmental problems (see Technological fix), and that further reducing impacts always equals a proportional reduction of the tourism economy, both of which are incorrect. PP

  Tourist Board An institution usually established by a government ministry to provide information on the country’s tourism and travel aspects, which may include: travel, accommodation, travel companies, maps, embassies and consulates. In the 20th century tourist boards were actively involved in policy making and may have even owned some tourist infrastructure (e.g. hotels). However, in the current era tourist boards are more likely to focus on the role of being marketing agencies established by governments to market tourism development in a country. See also National Tourism Organization (NTO) JMB

  Tourist information centre (TIC) A clearly labelled, publicly accessible, physical space providing predominantly free of charge information. TICs facilitate and influence travellers’ experiences for the purpose of increasing the economic impacts and reducing negative environmental and social impacts of tourism to the area (Fesenmaier and Vogt, 1993; Pearce, 2004). TICs serve several specific functions (Pearce, 2004): (i) promotion of the area through display and distribution of information and promotional materials; (ii) orientation and visitor experience enhancement through maps and interpretation; (iii) visitor management by controlling access, providing viewing areas, etc.; (iv) information on substitute attractions when resources are inaccessible or scattered; and (v) offering space for local cultural and social events to support community-building. See also Visitor centre UG

  Tourist trap A tourist attraction that may have been artificially created in order to increase expenditure from tourists. The trap is usually a building, an event, a thing or a group of establishments with limited cultural values and authenticity (Fig. T4). However, it is accompanied by commercial hype in advertising, hotel services, gastronomic services and extensive souvenir trade. A tourist trap provides tourists with apparent entertainment with no educational values. Examples of tourist traps are, among others: museums of wax figures, haunted houses, parks of miniatures, copies of well-known buildings and works 498

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Fig. T4.  The ‘tourist trap’ of Casa Del Terror, San Sebastian, Spain (Karolina Buczkowska).

of art, casinos, Western towns (outside the USA), avenues of stars and questionable memorabilia of famous people. The world’s largest concentration of tourist traps is Las Vegas. KBU

  Traditional Livelihood Traditional Livelihood refers to traditional lifestyles and activities such as hunting, gathering, cropping, livestock farming, and fishing. Today, tourism development has evolved as a modernization tool that often leads to a shift from traditional economic systems to those driven by cash. Mbaiwa (2011), using the example of the Okavango Delta, Botswana, suggests that some cultural groups such as Khwai, Sankoyo and Mababe provide an example of how money generated from tourism contributes to the collapse of traditional livelihood activities. As a result, there has been a shift from traditional livelihood practices to more contemporary livelihood methods such as employment in community based tourism establishments like lodges and campsites; selling of wildlife quotas to safari hunting companies, production of crafts for sale to tourists, and collection and sale of thatching grass to other tourism operators in the Delta. Furthermore, Mbaiwa (2011) suggests that the cash economy in study villages affords resident communities to build modern houses, buy foreign foods and modern household equipment such as beds, four-burner gas stoves, kitchen utensils, radios, satellite televisions and DVD players. These new lifestyles confirm assumptions by Traditional Livelihood499

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modernization theorists that tourism is a “development” strategy which transfers technology, increases employment, attracts development capital and promotes a modern way of life with western values (Cater, 2006, Mathieson & Wall, 1982). Changes in lifestyles are also shown by the reluctance or rejection of local culture in favour of western lifestyles particularly by young people.  HD & SYB

  Tragedy of the Commons A theory attributed to an essay of the same name written by ecologist Garrett Hardin in 1968 and published in the journal, Science. Essentially, the ‘tragedy’ is the failure of private motivations to provide adequate preservation of unmanaged and limited public resources, or the ‘commons’. Although the essay itself was focused on population growth, Hardin’s explanation of how livestock overgrazing on community-owned pastures as a result of self-interested individuals, acting independently and rationally, is frequently cited to support the notion of sustainable development. The dilemma arising from the overuse of the commons is primarily an economic one. As each ­individual herder seeks to maximize their yield by adding one more animal to the commons, the marginal utility of that input has two components: the herder receives all of the benefits from the additional animal, while the pasture or the ‘common’ is slightly degraded by each additional animal. Because each individual herder will act in a similar manner in order to maximize their own profits, the resulting sequence of events is predictable, and therefore in Hardin’s estimation is akin to a Greek ‘tragedy’. The common pool resource dilemma stands as a model for many contemporary environmental issues such as oil depletion, overfishing, air pollution and freshwater rights. In the context of tourism, Hardin’s notion can be applied to a number of problems like pollution from air transportation, overcrowding at destinations and misuse of commons like national parks for private profit. Hardin suggests that the solution to the commons dilemma – if there is one – is not purely technical. Rather, it is an ethical resolution that must be collectively agreed upon. He suggests that mutually agreed upon ‘coercive devices’ such as taxing, charges, fees and other public policy tools must balance the approach. BC

 Training See Education, Skills

 Tramping A term used in New Zealand for hiking and camping with a backpack. Limited backcountry facilities in New Zealand promote a self-reliant form of hiking relative to other developed countries. Although certain tracks may be designated and promoted in tourism brochures, they may involve river crossings without bridges and high alpine passes. Accommodation may be in tents or in the network of huts provided by the Department of Conservation (DoC). CIC 500

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  Transnational company (TNC) See Multinational company (MNC)

 Transport Use of a machine to move from place to place, on water, in the air and on land. Water transport includes cruise ships, scheduled passenger ships, ferries and inland waterway use. Technology has influenced both the ferry infrastructure and vessels themselves, for example the building of the Channel Tunnel and the development of high-speed catamarans. Air transport includes scheduled airline services, charter services and scenic flights from small local and large metropolitan airports. Land travel includes the car, bus/coach, caravan/campervan (see Drive tourism), and railway (Fig. R1). Train or rail transport includes scheduled national services and local services for the enthusiasts and sightseers. Varying rail capabilities are seen from country to country, where different gauges sometimes prevent linkages, requiring investment in the infrastructure to improve long-distance networks. All forms of transport should connect and for tourists there is a need for not only transporting tourists from the generating to the host area, but also transport is needed both between host and within host ­destinations. Problems with transportation are also significant for tourism destinations as they influence perceptions. The passenger may not see the fragmentation of the service but think of their journey as a whole, whereas they may have used a number of different forms. To help with understanding the complexities of this system, Faulks (1990) identified the key categories for transport which are ‘mode’, ‘motive power’, ‘carrying unit’, ‘way’ and ‘terminus’, and these help in understanding the complexities of transport as a whole by recognizing the importance of the infrastructure to support, for example road-­building to provide the way for travel. Each of these needs linking hence the importance of systems thinking and an appreciation of the interrelatedness and need for interchanges. Transport demand therefore has economic, operational and management issues. The problems include difficulty in distinguishing between tourist and non-tourist use, management often being fragmented and provision often being by commercially motivated organizations. Furthermore transport relies on an operating system that is often highly susceptible to the state of the economy. Tourist transport use is often in packaged day trips and tours, where transport is added with accommodation and services. However, the car is often the mode of choice because of its flexibility. Cars often become an extension of home and car sales are still predicted to increase although incentives are being offered to buy more environmental models. In 1987, Holiday Autos changed car rental services by offering inclusive packages for tourists. The availability of sophisticated motor homes that offer every home comfort have led some to sell their homes of bricks and mortar and head for a life on the road seeking warmer climes for the winter periods. These over-winterers, or ‘snowbirds’ as they are known in the US, comprise thousands of people committed to life in temporary parking areas in places like the desert of Nevada. Other transport trend developments include larger vessels in cruise tourism, leading to higher carrying ­capacity and greater supply, which has led to diversification in the market for family cruises and younger ages to cruise for shorter periods and cheaper prices. Transport501

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Transport itself arguably adds quality to life. Buchan (1992) identified accessibility as a quality of life objective for all. To achieve this, he saw government responsibility to encourage and provide a transport system that gives people access to jobs, shops and services, to industry and commerce, to facilities like dental practices, leisure and recreation plus other goods and services and to family and friends. Among these requirements is the need for safe, reliable and efficient modes of transport service provision and an expectation that this will be available to all. Along with this is the development of worldwide improved access, allowing the most remote parts of the world to be visited and as technological improvements make it easier for more and more to do so, there is an impact and a cost. Consequently, the effect of these movements has created the need to move towards more sustainable policies and usage. The discussions about tourism transport emissions’ impact upon climate change has impacted upon transport policies. The European Union for example, aims to move European transport further towards sustainability. The approach will be to monitor pricing to ensure that it closely reflects environmental costs, with an aim to move t­ owards efficient and greener road tolls for lorries and reduce noise pollution from rail freight. To do this, technological advances are required and while these lead to increased speed, improved comfort and competitive costs they may also help improve transport energy efficiency and reduce carbon emissions. Motor-racing organizations, such as F ­ ormula 1, now recognize the importance of diversification, and using their role to develop educational tools on road safety and experiment with more sustainable fuels. As innovations in technologies have led to more standard manufacturing styles, modes of transport have become increasingly similar and nostalgia increases for former designs and types (Fig. T5). By purchasing a vintage vehicle there are still rules to be followed in the operation of such forms of transport, and teams of volunteers now

Fig. T5.  Classic transport buses in Malta, now replaced by modern vehicles due to EU emissions standards (Carl Cater). 502Transport

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exist to preserve and restore. The inland waterways in the UK are examples of how a former use for transporting freight in the past has now been transformed into heritage tourism. Interestingly, the drive for sustainability has led to a revival, where ironically speed may now be secondary to less impact and emissions (see Slow tourism). JF Further reading Page, S.J. (2005) Transport and Tourism, 2nd edn. Addison-Wesley-Longman, Harlow, UK.

  Travel 2.0 The application of interactive internet applications, generally referred to as Web 2.0, to tourism marketing and tourist experiences. Web 2.0 differs from earlier versions of the Internet because it creates a platform through which two-way interaction and ­collaboration between websites and website users can occur. Users are integral to creating online value for other users. Blogs (including microblogs, such as Twitter. com) and online ­social networking sites (such as Facebook.com), are examples of Web 2.0. Among the more successful Travel 2.0 sites today are TripAdvisor.com and ­Airbnb.com. TripAdvisor is the Internet’s largest hotel and tourist attraction review website and its value comes from its many user reviews and rankings of hotels and

Fig. T6.  Travel agent, Wuhan, China (Carl Cater). Travel 2.0503

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tourist attractions. Airbnb allows private individuals to advertise accommodation of all types for travellers, from a vacation rental home to couch space in their living room. Both of these travel websites are platforms for user created value. Travel 2.0 has become an integral part of destination marketing and travel services. Instead of destination advertising being a one-way presentation, as with traditional print and internet marketing, Travel 2.0 websites strategically incorporate user-­ generated components. These may include reviews, such as those on TripAdvisor, blogs where public users can respond to posts by professionals and employees of a destination organization, and the uploading and sharing of photographs and news stories related to the destination. While this may be done on a destination website, they more commonly occur today through social media websites, such as Facebook and Twitter, which allow online and public dialogue and sharing between local destination services and past, current and potential customers. Although not yet clearly defined, Web 3.0 (and Travel 3.0) is the next stage in Internet development and will likely include location-based services, virtual assistants and biometrics, among other innovations. See also Information technology AL

  Travel agent A commercial intermediary in the travel distribution system that provides travel-­related services to people and organizations on behalf of travel service suppliers (Fig. T6). Due to the diversity of travel suppliers such as railways, airlines, cruise lines, car rentals, hotels, package tours and travel-related services such as information providing, reservation, travel-injury procedures, most of the travel agents specialize in delivering services of a particular type of travel supplier or travel-related service. According to International Air Transport Association’s (IATA) statistics there were around 60,000 IATA member travel agents operating around the world in the year 2012 specialized in selling tickets for airlines. SH

  Travel blog A personalised web page that contains updated entries of events, commentaries and other items such as photos, videos, music and sketches that detail the travel experiences of the tourist. They are usually completed in-trip and can be an online private journal or published for sharing with a wider audience. Blogs are usually arranged with the newest entry first and most allow the reader to leave comments and this makes it interactive. By doing this a travel blog can build social relationships (see S­ ocial networking) with people who have travelled to or plan to visit similar destinations or share related travel interests. AA

  Travel Career Ladder A model explaining destination choice and holiday type for tourists based on travel experience. Proposed by Pearce and Caltabiano (1983), the Travel Career Ladder is based on the needs hierarchy of Maslow. Thus different rungs on the ladder denote different 504

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levels of need: biological needs, safety and security needs, relationship development and extension needs, special-interest and self-development needs, and finally fulfilment or self-actualization needs. Tourism is therefore seen as a kind of career, whereby a tourist moves up the hierarchy as they pass through their life cycle and/or gain experience of tourism. The Career Ladder consists of various rungs, and which rung the tourist is on will, in turn, determine their behaviour, i.e. what they do or where they go. Tourists may start on different rungs and they may move up or down the rungs of the Ladder over their life cycle due to commitments such as job and family. They may also be prevented from altering travel career position by, for example, losing a job or poor health, or they may ‘retire’ from the ladder altogether. In the case of much of the world’s population, they may not take holidays, so they are not on the ladder at all. Although destination and activity choice has been shown to be more complex and dynamic than the travel career might suggest, it is a useful starting point for considering tourist motivation. CIC

  Travel Foundation An independent charity, set up through partnership between the outbound tourism industry, government and non-governmental organizations in the UK. The Foundation aims to ensure that tourism from the UK gives a greater benefit to the people, environment and economy in destination countries. To achieve this, the Foundation works in partnership both with the UK outbound travel industry (for example with TUI) and with consultants to deliver changes in the practices of the industry and its supply chain in both UK and overseas operations. The Travel Foundation comprises a Board of Trustees and an Executive, which manages the work of the Foundation. Under its tourism sustainability campaign the foundation has worked on projects in areas such as water use and local food sourcing (see Food miles) in destinations such as Cyprus, Egypt, Turkey and the Caribbean. See also Holidays Forever CIC   The Travel Foundation www.thetravelfoundation.org.uk

  Traveller (Traveler) A person who (often) travels. UNWTO distinguishes between international travellers (persons crossing at least one state border during their trip) and domestic travellers (persons travelling between two or more places within their country of residence). A sustainable traveller acts responsibly towards the local environment, helping to conserve its natural resources, its cultures (including its heritage and traditions) and trying to leave a positive economic impact in the visited placed/destinations. SSL

 Trekking A journey, normally over more than one day, undertaken on foot, in areas where common means of transport is generally not available. Mowforth and Munt (2009, p. 216) further Trekking505

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state that, ‘trekking is the visiting of off-the-beaten-track locations and involves walking, often but not always in organized parties accompanied by number of porters’. Hiking, normally a one-day activity, is generally about walking in a natural environment, often in the mountains or other scenic terrain for leisure or recreational purposes, whereas trekking is usually multi-day. Motivation for trekking can be wide ranging. Participants trek for leisure and adventure, to experience local culture, view wildlife or go on ­pilgrimages to sacred sites. A key part of the appeal is the challenge. Many treks take place in tough mountainous environments at high altitudes, for example in the Himalayas (Fig. T7) or Andes and can include high mountain passes and peaks. Pobocik and Butalla (1995) found that the majority of those trekking for leisure in the Himalayas were from Europe and North America, and were mostly older male trekkers trekking in groups. As with many other tourism activities, trekking has the potential to bring benefits to local communities. For example in Nepal, in the past two decades, numbers trekking and mountaineering grew from 42,308 in 1991 to 86,260 in 2011 (Visit Nepal, 2011). The impact of this is that the trekking industry of Nepal provides nearly 24,000 full-­time jobs, and approximately 70,000 people are employed as porters on a freelance basis (Mowforth and Munt, 2009), providing incomes in areas where other economic opportunities are limited. However, trekking can also bring negative impacts as large numbers descend on fragile mountain environments that normally sustain only small populations. Key impacts on the environment include: littering, human waste-disposal and excessive fuel-wood consumption. Despite the benefits brought, lowland porters carry extreme loads and are often ill equipped to deal with extreme weather conditions at higher altitudes. In worst cases

Fig. T7.  Trekking, Annapurna circuit, Nepal (Carl Cater). 506Trekking

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they may suffer frost bite and injury jeopardizing their ability to make a living from tourism in the future, prompting action by Tourism Concern. In recognition of these impacts, the Annapurna Conservation Area Project (ACAP) was launched in 1986 to address environmental problems and promote sustainable community development in the Annapurna area of Nepal. Their activities include: forest and wildlife management; the promotion of alternative energy sources to relieve the pressure on the forests (e.g. solar power); strategies to minimize littering (e.g. encouraging tourists to use re-fillable water-bottles and village clean-up campaigns); conservation education and training for trekking lodge operators (Visit Nepal, 2013). The principles of the ACAP have been applied to other trekking destinations throughout the world (see Rinjani Ecotrek Program). Respecting local communities and being environmentally friendly benefits trekkers, local residents and the environment. This is a win–win situation for humans and ecosystems and makes trekking activity more sustainable in the long term. AT and MFH

  Triple bottom line (TBL) An accounting approach that audits the environmental and social aspects of a business, as well as economic dimensions. The idea of sustainable development raises the issue of whether business should be required to report on more than just its financial performance. TBL reporting is the most comprehensive approach to achieving sustainable operations – to integrate economic, environmental and social thinking into core business activities. TBL reporting is an important means by which both the private sector and government bodies in tourism at all levels can demonstrate they are assuming their part of the responsibility for sustainable development. TBL is a planning and reporting mechanism and a decision-making framework used to achieve sustainable development in both private and public sector organizations – an internal management tool as well as an external reporting framework. In practical terms, TBL accounting means expanding the traditional reporting framework to take into account ecological and social performance in addition to financial performance. TBL is a philosophy for business that emphasizes economic, environmental and social goals rather than the narrower financial bottom line. At its narrowest, it is used as a framework for measuring and reporting corporate performance against economic, social and environmental parameters. At its broadest, the term is used to capture the whole set of values, issues and processes that companies must address in order to minimize any harm resulting from their activities and to create economic, social and environmental values (Elkington, 1998). TBL is not merely about measuring and reporting performance but is also about the adoption of ideals that are reflected in the idea of sustainable development. TBL reporting is intended to be prescriptive in capturing the set of values, issues and processes that companies should address in order to minimize any harm that results from their activities and to ensure creation of positive economic, social and environmental value (Robins, 2006). LD

 Turnover See Labour turnover Turnover507

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U   United Nations (UN) A global organization that was founded in 1945 to develop friendly relations among nations, to promote social progress, better living standards and human rights and to maintain international peace and security (Fig. U1) (United Nations, 2012a). It consists of a variety of specialized agencies, funds and programmes of which some have a direct impact on tourism. These include the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) or the Division for Sustainable Development at United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (DESA). Overall, sustainable development is one of the highest priorities for the UN Secretary-General. In this development, sustainable tourism is described as playing an important part. DRE   United Nations www.un.org

  United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) A treaty adopted in 1982 that is widely seen as the constitution of the seas. UNCLOS codifies the basic international-law rules governing the various maritime zones, the straits used for international navigation, archipelagic states, islands, enclosed and semi-enclosed seas as well as the right of access of land-locked states to and from the sea. UNCLOS also sets the framework for the settlement of maritime disputes as well as the regulation of maritime activities such as navigation, the exploitation of marine resources, the protection and preservation of the marine environment, marine scientific research and the development and transfer of marine technology. PV

  United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD) An initiative led by UNESCO to promote education for sustainable development, covering the period 2005 to 2014. DESD has the following goals: fostering peace; fighting against global warming, poverty and the marginalization of women and girls (see Gender); reducing North/South inequalities; and developing a different vision of the world, i.e. sustainable development. It aims to do this through developing appropriate education programmes, educating through information technologies, changing youth lifestyles in the West and enhancing the commitment of cities to these goals. CIC 508 

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Fig. U1.  United Nations General Assembly, New York, USA (Tiffany Low).

  United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD) www.unesco.org/new/en/education/themes/leading-the-international-agenda/ education-­for-sustainable-development/

  United Nations Department for Policy Coordination and Sustainable Development A United Nations department that coordinated a meta-analysis of indicators of sustainable development. The department provided information about the concept, significance, measurement and data sources for each indicator so as to facilitate data collection and analysis in member states. CIC

  United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) The United Nations agency responsible for the promotion of international collaboration through activities in five programme areas of education, natural sciences, social and human sciences, culture and communication and information. Through peaceful collaboration between 192 member states, the eradication of poverty and the enhancement of the exchange between different cultures is promoted. Based in Paris, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 509

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Fig. U2.  UNESCO World Heritage Park boundary, Angkor Wat, Cambodia (Carl Cater).

the organization is made up by the bi-annual General Conference, the decision-making body that determines the policy of UNESCO, approves programmes and the budget. Elected by the general conference and meeting twice a year is the Executive Board that consists of delegations from 58 member countries and follows programme activities. More than 2000 civil servants work in the UNESCO Secretariat under the rule of the Director-General to carry out the activities. One of the most successful international conventions by UNESCO, with important implications for tourism, is the convention concerning the protection of world cultural and natural heritage (see World heritage) (Fig. U2). MR  UNESCO en.unesco.org

  United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) A United Nations agency established in 1972 following the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment. Its mission is to ‘provide leadership and encourage partnership in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing, and enabling nations and peoples to improve their quality of life without compromising that of future generations’ (UNEP, 2013). UNEP is responsible for the United Nations environmental activities and works directly with national and regional Governments, industry and charitable organizations to assist in the development and implementation of environmental 510

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strategies, policies and practices. It has been instrumental in the development of guidelines, treaties and international partnerships that have shaped the changing ideological and ontological relationship between economic development and the environment. The key areas of attention for UNEP are: climate change, disasters and conflicts, ecosystem management, environmental governance, harmful substances and hazardous waste, and resource efficiency as the organization moves to meet the challenges and opportunities of the transition to an ‘inclusive Green Economy in the context of sustainable development and poverty eradication’ (UNEP, 2012a). CS  UNEP www.unep.org

  United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) An agency of the United Nations responsible for the promotion of sustainable, responsible and universally accessible tourism. Embracing the principles of sustainable development, the UNWTO promotes tourism ‘as a driver of economic growth, inclusive development and environmental sustainability and offers leadership and support to the sector in advancing knowledge and tourism policies worldwide’ (UNWTO). Membership extends to 155 countries, six associate members and over 400 affiliate members. The agency promotes sustainable tourism development by addressing the key areas of: improving tourism competitiveness; promoting sustainable tourism development; advancing tourism’s contribution to poverty alleviation and development; fostering knowledge, education and capacity building; and building partnerships. Similar to other United Nations programmes and agencies, the UNWTO works with national and regional governments, the tourism industry, educational institutions and non-­ governmental organizations and charitable organizations to foster collaborative partnerships and opportunities for development within the tourism industry on a global scale. Through such relationships, the UNWTO ‘generates knowledge, promotes competitive and sustainable tourism policies and instruments, fosters tourism education and training, and works to make tourism an effective tool for development through technical assistance projects in over 100 countries around the world’. Such projects and task forces focus upon a wide range of issues such as poverty alleviation, gender empowerment in tourism, the protection of children in tourism. In addition, the agency supports global awareness raising campaigns such as World Tourism Day, provides online access to research publications and statistical reports on tourism trends. Of note, in 1999, the UNWTO produced the first Global Code of Ethics for Tourism. In establishing a series of guidelines on appropriate behaviour and practice, the Code of Ethics provides a framework upon which stakeholders are supported in their efforts to maximize the socio-economic benefits of tourism, while minimizing the potential negative effects of actions. The code is underpinned by the principles of sustainable development and is evidence of the commitment of the UNWTO to ‘promoting tourism as an instrument in achieving the United Nations Millennium Development Goals geared towards reducing poverty and fostering sustainable development’ (UNWTO). CS  UNWTO www.unwto.org United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO)511

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  Urban ecotourism Ecotourism in cities or built up areas. Although used by Hetzer as far back as in 1965 (Fennell, 2008a) the term ecotourism has been used more generally since the early 1980s. Subsequently, many researchers, public bodies and NGOs have attempted to define ecotourism, but there is is still no all-encompassing definition. However, some requirements to qualify as ecotourism appear in most, if not all definitions. Among these is the notion that ecotourism takes place in ‘natural’, ‘undisturbed’, ‘pristine’, or ‘uncontaminated’ areas (e.g. Ceballos-Lascurain, 1987; Ballantine and Eagles, 1994; Weaver, 2001b; Fennell, 2008a). It can be argued that the demand for this setting is a contradiction in terms, because as soon as (eco)tourism takes place, the area in question will no longer be pristine and undisturbed. Indeed, Cater (1993) cautions that prime ecotourism attractions experience concentrated use by visitors, and thus are exposed to overuse and degradation. With this inherent contradiction in mind, Higham and Lück (2002) contend that urban ecotourism might be a viable alternative. It takes place in an already hardened environment, and has very limited impact on the natural resources. In many cases, it takes place on foot, by bicycle or uses public transport. The triple bottom line of sustainable tourism also includes economic viability, which in the case of many ecotourism operations is very difficult to achieve, because they are often small in scale and highly seasonal. Operations in

Fig. U3.  The night watchman gives a guided tour in the historic centre of Wernigerode, Germany (Michael Lück). 512

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urban settings have the ability to reduce these barriers and associated risks. It can also be argued that the required educational component on ecotours is more useful in an urban setting, because the proportion of ‘general tourists’, as opposed to hard core ecotourists, is commonly higher in easily accessible areas, and thus interpreters are not ‘preaching to the converted’. Examples include guided walking tours (Fig. U3), bicycle tours, dolphin and whale-watching tours starting from inner city piers (e.g. Hong Kong, Auckland) and urban wildlife sanctuaries (such as the Karori Wildlife Reserve in Wellington). ML

  User fees A payment required from a tourist or visitor to access a protected area or heritage site (Fig. P3). User fees are the alternative to funding the management of sites of conservation value indirectly through government support due to their public good aspects. User fees may be set through an assessment of willingness to pay of visitors. User fees can also be used to manage levels of visitation under degrowth or demarketing strategies. In many less-developed countries there are differential user fees for international and domestic tourists to take account of relative wealth and willingness to pay. User fees may have many different names such as the Environmental Management Charge used by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. CIC

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V  Values A set of beliefs that govern desired end-states of behaviour, ordered by level of importance and which transcend situations. The formation of values takes its historical praxis from the philosophical line of enquiry of axiology (Perry, 1954; Frankena, 1962; Brightman, 1967; Holbrook, 1999). Concerned primarily with the theory of value (Hartman, 1967), axiology is of particular relevance to the fields of marketing and consumer research, although apparently a field that is largely ignored by marketing scholars (Holbrook, 1999). It is generally acknowledged, however, that values do differ from attitudes, and as such have considerable influences on the decisions we make in daily life. Historical insights into the conceptualization of value-related choices can be drawn from 18th century utilitarian discourses on the balancing of ‘pleasure’ and ‘pain’ (Woodall, 2003), where pleasure and pain act as determinants as to whether or not individuals engage in certain activities, and whether or not those activities are inherently ‘good’ or ‘bad’. However, these insights were limited in terms of telling us how value-related choices might be made. In the middle of the 20th century, Kluckholn (1951) defined a value as a ‘conception, explicit or implicit . . . of the desirable, which influences the selection from available modes, means and ends of action’. Of further interest was the role that object qualities play in our decision-making processes and the ways in which consumers seek out product and service attributes in order to bring about the best advantage to their lives (Frondizi, 1971). Stemming from this, and grounded largely by principles of economics, Woodall (2003, p. 21) describes values as a ‘personal perception of advantage arising out of a customer’s association with an organisation’s offering’. He notes that ‘use value’ and ‘exchange value’ have been found to inform what, for most of us, the concept of value appears to mean. Pivotal to the development of research in this area is Rokeach’s (1973, p. 5) definition of value as ‘an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state experience’ (Fig. V1). This definition hails from the psychology literature, but has also had influences on consumer behaviour and marketing research. Its reference to either personal or social preferences has important implications for studies of consumer behaviour, in particular symbolic consumption practices. By way of extending this definition further, Schwartz and Bilsky (1987, p. 551) describe values as ‘concepts or beliefs [that] pertain to desirable end-states or behaviours, transcend specific situations, guide selection or evaluation of behaviour and events, and are ordered by relativistic importance’. More recent definitions seem to draw from those discussed above where Holbrook (1999, p. 5) refers to consumer value as an ‘interactive, relativistic preference experience’. The study of values has been undertaken in various disciplines including psychology, sociology and marketing, and to a more limited extent, tourism. Given the relatively limited exploration of values in the tourism discipline, little is still understood about their formation, influences and universality across cultures and in particular in the experiential 514 

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Fig. V1.  Values interpretation, Fraser Island, Australia (Carl Cater).

contexts of tourism experiences. The most widely applied theories have been those proposed by Rokeach (1973), Kahle (1983), Schwartz (1994) and Holbrook (1999). The majority of studies attempt to measure value as a multi-dimensional construct, particularly studies carried out in the past decade or so. Boksberger and Melsen (2011, p. 233) conducted a review of the values literature in the context of the services industry and concluded that ‘the perceived value of services is a combined assessment of consumers’ perception of benefits and sacrifices, including quality and price, for a variety of perceived value dimensions with original behavioural intentions and customer satisfaction playing a role in overall evaluation’. They note the importance for future research to investigate the interaction of perceived value with core marketing constructs, and the examination of mediating factors in determining a holistic understanding of perceived value. TL

Further reading Holbrook, M.B. (1999) Consumer Value. Routledge, Oxford, UK. Schwartz, S.H. (1994) Are there universal aspects in the structure and contents of human values? Journal of Social Issues 50(4), 19–45. Sparks, B., Butcher, K. and Bradley, G. (2008) Dimensions and correlates of consumer value: An application to the timeshare industry. International Journal of Hospitality Management 27(1), 98–108. Weeden, C. (2011) Responsible tourist motivation: how valuable is the Schwartz value survey? Journal of Ecotourism (July 2012), 37–41.

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 Viabono A certification association that was founded on the initiative of the German Ministry of the Environment in 2001. It certifies accommodation, restaurants, local authorities, tour operators and parks regarding sustainable tourism. In cooperation with other institutions, Viabono developed different schemes to calculate the carbon footprint of an accommodation or a whole journey. TTH  Viabono www.viabono.de

  Virtual tourism A form of tourism that may exclude travel and is in this sense the ultimate form of sustainable tourism (Bristow, 1999), as it has limited if any impact. It is defined by, and dependent on, the online or offline use of software, multimedia and increasingly smartphones. These provide an interpretation, walk-through, panorama, interactive satellite or aerial imagery with 3D features, or 3D reconstruction of a tourism destination, accommodation facility or site such as a museum or a protected area (Cheong, 1995). These tools may also be used in order to enhance a physical visit in such a site (Fig. V2). A visit to a theme park, a zoo, heritage attraction and non-authentic or stage-managed tourism encounter may also constitute types of virtual tourism that include travel. AP

Fig. V2.  Mobile phone coverage at Everest Base Camp, Tibet (Carl Cater).

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  Visiting friends and relatives (VFR) tourism A form of tourism centred on travelling to see one’s relatives and acquaintances. It is a phenomenon that has been neglected relative to leisure and business tourism by both industry and academics. This is partly because of its complexity: VFR tourists often have multiple reasons for travelling, whether they are visiting their friends or relatives for reasons of recreation or out of obligation. Some VFR trips involve staying in the homes of family and friends, and others are briefer day visits. Historically, VFR has been viewed as generating very modest revenues for the commercial accommodation sector. However, recent research has demonstrated a more complex picture and that understanding the multiple, sometimes contradictory characteristics, of VFR tourists can pay dividends by allowing more accurate measurement of segmented behaviours and expenditures. Because of the extension of the host– guest obligations in VFR tourism, it has important implications for sustainable tourism. VFR tourism is closely associated with migrant-related mobilities. Relocation by families and acquaintances to other localities or countries stimulate travel in both d ­ irections for purposes of reconnecting. This may involve a component of social obligation (attending significant life events such as births, marriages and deaths), or relaxation and pleasure. A social obligation and/or recreational dimension may combine with education-, business- and conference-related motivations. The VFR market tends to be resilient during economic downturns because social obligations stimulate travel independently of financial circumstances, even when the travel involves a recreational component. Stimulating the VFR market is increasingly associated with motivating hosts to learn about nearby tourism attractions. Awareness-raising by local authorities can enhance civic pride and stimulate resident expenditures. In these circumstances, VFR can be closely associated with local communities. BK

  Visitor Activity Management Process (VAMP) A framework oriented towards recreation management in protected areas. It was devised for the Canadian Parks Service (now the Parks Canada Agency). According to Tayler (1990), the framework takes three issues into account: the mandate and policies of the conservation agency; public needs and expectations; and the biophysical environment. Tayler (1990, p. 236) argues ‘A major emphasis throughout each stage of the process is to start by gaining an understanding of who comes to the park, why they come, what they do when they are there, and what their needs are’. The VAMP process uses information from natural and social sciences to offer recreational opportunities and help decision-making in the management of protected areas. The VAMP framework and process includes the following stages: ● ● ●

establishment of visitor activity objectives; generation of the terms of reference; identification of visitor management issues;

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● analysis of the issues identified in step III; ● development of options for visitor activities and services; ● recommendation delivery and approval of plan; and ● implementation.

JMB

  Visitor centre A location for tourists to gain relevant information about the local place or area, often located in a specific attraction or place of interest, such as a town, landmark, national park, state park or zoo (Fig. V3). Some visitor centres provide services such as educational exhibits, display of artifacts (including an area’s natural and cultural history), and may offer film or media display for more detailed information about the local area for visitors or tourists. A visitor centre may also offer tour guides to interpret the environment of the whole visitor centre and region. In North America, visitor centres are often located at a clear entrance or access along an interstate highway or freeway. These visitor centres provide relative information of the place or areas and rest areas, map of destinations, attractions and recommended routes and lodgings. In Australia and many other countries, a visitor information centre is usually located at the central area of a town and used uses the italic ‘I’ as a logo. It provides information and services as maps, local accommodation and tour bookings, and the timetable of flights, bus

Fig. V3.  Visitor centre, Penguin Parade, Phillip Island, Victoria, Australia (Carl Cater). 518

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and trains in the town or region. Visitor centres may be publicly run (often by local councils) or privately run, but either would usually take some form of commission on bookings in order to sustain their existence. They are often seasonal to coincide with busier times of the year. CHC

  Visitor impact management (VIM) The delivery and monitoring of interventions, programmes, frameworks and initiatives that aim to minimize the impact of visitors on destinations before they are either destroyed or require significant levels of restoration and intervention. Many destinations are poorly equipped and resourced to deal with intensive visitation levels and therefore visitor managers must work to prevent and alleviate the undesirable impacts of visitors. Increased pressure on places and communities from increased visitor numbers requires a strategic and research-informed visitor impact management approach. Visitor impacts include a plethora of damaging environmental, cultural and social scenarios including wildlife disturbance, land erosion, cultural dilution, wear and tear, pilfering, trampling, overcrowding, conflict and water pollution. VIM aims to protect resources and fragile locations by reducing the speed at which impacts are occurring, while also preventing the undesirable consequences of excessive visitation impacts such as diminished visitation, decreased revenue and depletion in resources. Certainly, an increase in environment-based touristic pursuits such as naturebased tourism, ecotourism, wildlife tourism and other special-interest nature-based leisure practices (birdwatching, fishing and camping) has placed significant pressure on scenic natural sites and environments (Fig. V4). Likewise, an increase in levels of

Fig. V4.  Tourists at Huangshan Mountain Province, China (Carl Cater). Visitor impact management (VIM)519

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cultural and heritage tourism has increased visitor pressure and its associated negative impacts on historic and fragile towns, villages and cities (e.g. York, Canterbury, Stratford upon Avon and Bath in the UK). VIM seeks to strike a balance between allowing visitors to enjoy sites and promote cultural and natural engagement, while also maintaining livelihoods, cultural assets, biodiversity and ecological life support systems. This balance of visitor use and resource protection is at the centre of VIM and studies such as Farrell and Marion (2002), Garrod et al. (2006) and Marion and Reid (2007) present how this works in practice. Certainly, Marion and Reid’s study of informative educational programmes highlights how VIM approaches need to meet two contradictory requirements that seek to both limit the human impact on environments, while also making them accessible for visitors. After all, ‘without visitors, without satisfied visitors, parks and protected areas will cease to exist’ (Bushell et al., 2007, p. 11). As a management framework, there are a number of concepts associated with VIM, including Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC), ‘carrying capacity’ and Visitor Experience and Resource Protection (VERP). VIM frameworks are increasingly in place to provide resource and social indicators that assist in reporting and managing impacts. Various hard and soft management tools have been employed to mitigate against the irreversible damage of tourism development including innovative interpretation and education programmes, reducing visitor numbers, zoning, developing alternative and resistant environments or spaces, more draconian rules and regulations (with greater enforcement) and promoting spatial concentration over dispersion. In an evaluation of natural area management, Moore et al. (2003) found that ­effective management and reduction of visitor impacts was increasingly being achieved through state-of-the-environment reporting and environmental management systems. Certainly, a key aspect of VIM is reporting by government, managers and organizations on details of visitor management that outline measures taken and report on associated outcomes. This level of reporting is still predominately conducted in North America, using frameworks such as Recreation Opportunity Spectrum, Limits of Acceptable Change and Visitor Experience Resource Protection, and tourism models such as the Tourism Opportunity Spectrum and the Tourism Optimization Management Model. JMB

  Visitor management Controlling tourist behaviour to protected areas, attractions or destinations in order to ensure long-term sustainability of protected areas, provide funding and business opportunities, and enable visitors to obtain worthwhile experiences from their visit. In recent years, however, the global growth of tourism and the impact of unrestricted public access to natural, cultural and built resources in their unmanaged state, has led to growing recognition of the need for visitor management (Middleton and Clarke, 2001). The practice of visitor management has evolved as a means of balancing the needs of tourists, the local community, the place and any other stakeholders in destination areas (Sharpley, 2006). Although the relationship between tourism and protected areas is complex, tourism is always a critical component to consider in the 520

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Fig. V5.  Queue management, Disneyland, California, USA (Brian Garrod).

establishment and management of protected areas (Candrea and Ispas, 2009). All tourists and visitors, knowingly and unknowingly, have impacts on tourism destinations and attractions. Tourism can degrade natural areas, but can also be a reason to protect nature and culture. It can fund nature management and give nature a direct economic value, providing an incentive for local inhabitants and governments to protect nature (UNEP, 2005). The emphasis has been placed on attempting to define a number of visitors that, if exceeded, will result in damage to the environment or to the recreational experience (Masters et al., 2002). To reduce the negative impacts on protected areas four strategic approaches can be seen. These approaches are ‘managing the supply of tourism or visitor opportunities’, ‘managing the demand for visitation’, ‘managing the resources capabilities to handle use’ and ‘managing the impact of use’ (Eagles et al., 2002). Many visitor management techniques can be used, for example regulating access by area, regulating visitation by visitor type, implementing entry or user fees, providing interpretation programmes and facilities, regulating visitor behaviour (Fig. V5) and concentrating on allowing accredited organizations to bring visitors (Hall and McArthur, 1998). EO

  Voluntary Initiatives for Sustainability in Tourism (VISIT) A cross-border European association to promote best practice in ecolabelling of sustainable tourism. It was created as part of a European Union-funded LIFE project on tourism ecolabelling. It is an umbrella collaboration between distinct initiatives Voluntary Initiatives for Sustainability in Tourism (VISIT)521

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working towards achieving sustainability in tourism through the use of standards and certification such as ecocamping. CIC  VISIT www.visit21.net/

  Volunteer tourism Tourism where participants are involved in volunteering. Since the 1980s there has been the growth of new forms of tourism that are small in scale, independent and self-sustaining. It is considered to be very different to the mass packaged tours made popular in the 20th century. It is felt that tourists are now more discerning, and seeking activities and experiences that depend on a high-quality physical and cultural environment. Volunteer tourism applies to ‘those tourists who, for various reasons, volunteer in an organized way to undertake holidays that might involve aiding or alleviating the material poverty of some groups in society, the restoration of certain environments or research into aspects of society or environment’, Wearing (2001, p. 1). However, it is suggested that volunteer tourism must also be wary of not falling into the trap and not evolve or be perceived to be just an exercise that allows the middle classes in developed countries to feel good and guilt-free in their consumption of overseas holidays. In fact, volunteer tourism has been criticized as merely a trendy alternative to mass consumption that only offers an alternative that is just again the commodification of culture. Questions are also raised over what commitment to sustainability volunteer tourism offers and it should be noted that questions arise to what it actually achieves in the ‘real world’. It is felt that volunteer tourism can bring many benefits to both the traveller and the community but needs careful consideration with a central regard for the community and on-going monitoring. There is evidence that small-scale, alternative forms of tourism like volunteer tourism can have similar problems and impacts as mass tourism. Despite this, there appears to be a shift in the way tourism is done, and volunteer tourism is one form that is leading the way, particularly as it is practised in an arguably sustainable and equitable manner and in less-developed countries can be used as an escape from the confines of underdevelopment. We can therefore assume that the evolution of many of the sustainable and alternative types of tourism, which focus on impacts and inclusiveness, might have more successful outcomes, and that one of the success stories of the newer developments in this field has been volunteer tourism. The concept, and to some degree the practice, of volunteer tourism has appeared in part to offer a different outcome to mass tourism in that it is regarded as a form of sustainable tourism that recognizes the inter-dependence of tourism on the host community culture. Additionally, it is maintained that volunteer tourism is enabling and explores ways of enhancing the sustainability of tourism, and goes some way to eliminating or ameliorating negative consequences. In recent years with its growth in popularity it can also be seen as the commodification of altruism with organizations that are engaging in it increasingly from the commercial sector rather than the not-for-profit sector. Currently there are many tour operators, environmental and humanitarian, notfor-profit and for-profit non-governmental organizations and government and academic groups who offer tourists the opportunity to participate in projects that can 522

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assist in a wide range of activities such as community development, scientific research or ecological and cultural restoration. Commodification and the diversification of this market and the interplay between supply and demand have now reshaped volunteer tourism and it can be argued it now fits into another aspect of the holiday market with the balance shifting from assistance to profit. In the future it may become necessary to clearly define and categorize what constitutes volunteer tourism and provide guidelines as to how it should be practised. However, this is not new for the area of sustainable and alternative types of tourism and has been most obvious in area of ecotourism. The practices of volunteer tourism operators are currently under scrutiny and as this occurs this area is turning to the production of mechanisms to ensure its performance can be accountable to measurable standards. A key question for further investigation would be who benefits and to examine how host communities engaged with this form of tourism have benefited and been impacted. Also of interest is how commercial operators provide experiences via ‘cradle-to-grave’ or ‘supply-chain’ mechanisms, which is more enabling for communities that host volunteers. Additionally, for volunteer tourism the influence has been changing with the original promoters and organizers of volunteer tourism being predominantly not-for-profit agencies using a ‘cradle-to-grave’ approach to operating, but this has changed and now commercial providers are predominantly the providers of these experiences. With this change has come a change in the nature of the experiences (commodification) but also in the nature of the practices. Originally the entire experience was provided by the one provider (i.e. a cradle-tograve approach), including the on-site projects with communities. What is now occurring is a division (fragmentation of the supply chain) of this so that separate organizations provide sections of the experiences and in particular the provision of the on-site projects. This has implications in terms of the type of projects being provided and the type of space that is created for the volunteer and community. Given this is the activity that differentiates volunteer tourism from other forms of tourism this provision is a major issue for volunteer tourism and therefore needs examination. See also Coral Cay Conservation, WWOOF SW Further reading Wearing, S.L. (2001) Volunteer Tourism: Seeking Experiences That Make a Difference. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.

Case study: Children are not tourist attractions There has been a big growth in so called volunteer-holidays, many of which revolve around protecting nature or helping communities. In the past volunteers engaged in long term contributions through organizations such as VSO, SNV and Peace Corps. However, there is now a more explicit link to tourism with shorter ‘volunteer’ opportunities. As outlined above there are issues in the dependency relationships created by volunteering opportunities, but also the high turnover and often poor practical skills of volunteers. This has not stopped the significant commercialization of the volunteer sector, both with placement providers in developed countries, and local businesses masquerading as ‘NGOs’ in less-developed destinations. Although there are well respected development Continued Volunteer tourism523

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Case study.  Continued. charities that arrange for professionals to spend 1 or 2 years overseas, many of the volunteering placements being offered by commercial operators are ‘little more than expensive holidays’ (Tourism Concern, 2013). In Cambodia there has been a particular issue surrounding tourists donating their time to volunteering at an orphanage or other child-related organizations. As a result of civil war, Cambodia does have a higher number of orphans than many countries, but many children with parents are encouraged (either with or without their consent) to join ‘orphanages’ as they are popular places for conscience tourists to visit. These have become lucrative businesses, which can endanger the proper care of children rendering them more vulnerable to abuse and exploitation. The number of orphanages in the country rose by 75% in the 5 years to 2011, yet most children living in them (about 77%) are not orphans. These organizations often invite tourists for a specific fee, or through an NGO directly recruiting, to volunteer at an organization. However, these ­organizations do not require candidates to have relevant qualifications or previous work experience in social work or childcare. At worst, some organizations do not require or conduct proper background checks of volunteers before placing them in direct contact with children. Further the short stay of volunteers is highly damaging for the emotional and cognitive development of the children. There is also a fear that the worst orphanages will deliberately ensure that the premises and facilities are kept sub-standard to ensure sympathy and get donations from tourists. CIC  Childsafe www.thinkchildsafe.org/thinkbeforevisiting/

 Volunteering Doing something willingly, especially helping other people, without being paid. Opportunities to volunteer are present both within one’s own community as well as overseas. Indeed, many community-based tourism attractions or visitor centres rely heavily on volunteer staff. Overseas volunteering began on a significant scale in the late 1950s/early 1960s, with Volunteer Service Overseas (VSO) in the UK and The Peace Corps in the USA providing volunteer opportunities overseas. These organizations tend to send skilled volunteers on long-term placements to provide technical support on projects from education to medicine in the developing world. In the 1970s, Earthwatch used fee-paying volunteers to fund its research activities and provide a labour force to conduct its scientific fieldwork of the natural world. This is an approach followed by similar organizations. Such volunteering organized by non-profit organizations with clear developmental goals has the potential to bring about positive sustainable outcomes. For example, VSO’s approach is to use its volunteers to develop the technical skills of their in country partners and not leave them dependent on volunteers (see also SNV). However, not everybody has the time, skills or interest to participate in such forms of volunteering. As a result the ‘volunteer travel’ or ‘voluntourism’ industry emerged in the 1990s as a form of alternative tourism providing the opportunity for ‘travel overseas to do something good’ to a wider population. Those participating in this form of travel usually pay for the cost of their involvement in the project and an organizing fee to the operator. 524Volunteering

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Wearing (2001, p. 240) defines volunteer tourists as those who ‘volunteer in an organized way to undertake holidays that may involve: the alleviating of material poverty for some groups in society; the restoration of certain environments; or research into certain aspects of society or the environment’. Tourists’ stated motivations for participating in volunteer activities include: altruism; travel and adventure; personal growth; cultural exchange and learning; professional development; and the appeal of the individual programme (Wearing, 2001). Volunteer travel is seen to provide a more reciprocally beneficial form of tourism in which both the volunteer and the host communities are able to gain from the experience and as such the concept of volunteer travel has become strongly related to the concept of sustainable tourism. Volunteer travel is a rapidly growing market with an increasing numbers of tour operators offering a wide range of ‘volunteer travel’ packages. However, in parallel with the growth of the sector, questions have also arisen around who is really benefitting: the host community, the volunteer or the tour operators. Poorly organized projects can exploit both hosts and travellers, and can have a variety of negative impacts on host communities for example: creating false expectations, creating a dependency on Western volunteers and taking the paid jobs of local people to name a few. These events have led to the production of voluntary codes of conduct for operators and volunteering guidelines for consumers with the aim of raising standards in the sector. An example is Tourism Concern’s ‘Gap Year and International Volunteering Guidelines’ that it aims to encourage the sector to sign up to. The guidelines aim to promote best practice in international volunteering, maximize the beneficial developmental impacts in the communities where volunteering takes place, minimize the negative impacts and ensure volunteers have a worthwhile experience. AT

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W   Waste management See Recycling

 Water A liquid resource containing hydrogen and oxygen that is essential for life and is widely used in tourism. Freshwater is indispensable for all forms of life and is needed, in large quantities, in almost all human activities. Yet many commentators have suggested that pressures of development, population growth, pollution and climate change will cause increased water scarcity in the 21st century. In many tourism destinations, water supplies are also under increasing pressure due to the demands put upon them by the tourism industry. These include parts of the Caribbean, the Mediterranean, the Middle East, South Africa, East Africa and India. Tourism operators, in particular, play an important role in educating visitors on how to conserve a destination’s increasingly scarce water resources. The impacts of tourism on water availability, equity and quality are serious, especially with desalination coming under greater scrutiny due to its environmental impacts and economic cost. Water itself is also an important tourism attraction, for aesthetic reasons such as with waterfalls or fluvial landcapes in geotourism, ski tourism resorts, which may use limited water resources for snowmaking, or in many sun, sand and sea tourism destinations that offer waterparks as part of their tourist attraction. As large users of water resources these require sustainable intervention. A more sustainable variation on the slides and pools theme was developed in Hervey Bay, Australia, as the ‘WetSide’ water education park, a free ‘info-tainment’ attraction. Built by the local water utility company and the state government, the site provides large areas of water fountains and water playgrounds (without actual pools) interspersed with a variety of interpretative and educational material. Water for the fountains is harvested from stormwater and is treated on site, where the microfiltration unit can be seen in operation. Educational material emphasizes the importance of water conservation and availability and reliability of clean, safe water supplies. The Travel Foundation has also developed and implemented a number of projects aimed at improving hotel practices in relation to water consumption. These include practical, demonstration projects with hotels in Cyprus, Turkey and Morocco (Every Drop Counts), the Caribbean (Switch Off, Save Big) and the 4-year Greening Sri Lanka programme, as well as the production and dissemination of a ‘sustainable accommodations’ pack (Tapper et al., 2011). As well as encouraging water conservation within hotel buildings (Fig. E9) these projects also touch on additional aspects such as pools and development of low water landscaping (xeriscapes).

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However, issues with water supply are not restricted to conservation, as tourism development in less-developed countries may highlight issues of equality in access. These issues are well described by Cole (2012) who highlights that some tropical destinations may not necessarily have a shortage of water, yet populations have limited access to quality water (Fig. W1). In Zanzibar, hotels may have ready access to clean water, but neighbouring local populations may have intermittent access, which has led to local conflict and damage to infrastructure. In Bali tourism development has directly contributed to the degradation of water quality, including a falling water table, salt water intrusion, land subsidence, increased flooding, competition with agriculture, an increase in waterborne diseases and conflicts over water use. Cole (2012) also highlights a gender dimension to water conflict, as it often falls to women to source water, therefore it is them who are most affected by water shortages. Climate change is likely to further exacerbate water issues, particularly with an increased frequency and intensity of high rain events, which paradoxically will put more pressure on water distribution systems. Access to clean water is a basic human right, of much higher consequence than the right to tourism, and is enshrined in the United Nations Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights. Therefore, in a century of water scarcity, sustainable tourism development will need to evaluate this resource carefully. CIC

Fig. W1.  Rainfall water collection, Maldives (Carl Cater). Water527

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Further Reading Cole, S. (2012) A political ecology of water equity and tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 39(2), 1221–1241.

  Wide Bay Water www.widebaywater.qld.gov.au/quicklinks/wetsidewatereducationpark

  Water cycling (hydrological cycle) The sequence of conditions through which water passes: from vapour in the atmosphere, through precipitation upon land or water surfaces, ultimately back into the atmosphere as a result of evaporation and transpiration. Water is linked to the climate system as the presence/lack of precipitation and the presence/absence of large water bodies determines regional climates (Environment Canada, 2013). The sun drives the water cycling process: its heat is trapped in the Earth’s atmosphere by water vapour (a greenhouse gas) and released when water vapour condenses into water droplets and falls to earth as precipitation (Environment Canada, 2013). This continuous cycling of water molecules means that water is a renewable resource, resulting in little change in the amount of water in the world; however, the quality of much of that water will have declined. The conservation of clean, fresh water, ‘the lifeblood of the planet’ (Environment Canada, 2013) is critical to all life. The erroneous perception about the never-ending supply of water, especially in countries with abundant fresh water has led to its wasteful use. In ‘water-stressed’ countries, people already do not have adequate access to fresh, clean water. Rising populations and improved living standards around the world have led to an even increased demand for water (Environment Canada, 2013). The tourism industry’s direct water use at a global level is not well understood (Gössling et al., 2012). However, in countries where water is scarce, increased tourism numbers adds pressure to local supply. There are concerns too around visitors’ disproportionate use of water compared to residents’ level of use (Hickman, 2012). Gössling et al. (2012, p. 15) believe that the tourism industry needs to be encouraged to conserve water with a ‘strong policy environment’ and ‘expanded use of economic incentives’ given the low cost of water compared ‘to other operational costs’. The United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) recognizes the important relationship tourism has with water, theming 2013 World Tourism Day as ‘Tourism and Water’ (UNWTO, 2013). SJ

  Water quality A term used to refer to the chemical, physical and biological characteristics of water in a particular ecosystem or environment. This is the measure of the condition of water relative to the requirements of biotic species and/or to any human need or purpose (e.g. drinking, bathing, etc.). Water quality is used by reference to a set of standards against which compliance can be assessed, for example, World Health Standards or a set of standards used in respective countries. However, the most common standards used in 528

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any country to assess water quality relate to health of ecosystems, safety of human contact and drinking water for example. JMB

  Weak sustainable development One extreme of the sustainable development ideological paradigm (the other is strong sustainable development). Weak sustainable development reflects an anthropocentric view, where nature is valued primarily for its consumptive purposes (Hunter, 1997). It emphasizes a capitalist model; hence those at this end of the spectrum have been termed ‘laissez-faire capitalists’ or ‘technological utopians’ (Weaver, 2005). While strong sustainability advocates tend to hold a pessimistic or cautionary future outlook, proponents of weak sustainability tend to be more optimistic and growth-oriented, enabled by a reasoning that human capital and technology will solve the planet’s resource limitations. EW

 Welfare The standard of living, level of wealth or prosperity experienced by a specified person or group, such as a community or nation. This latter distinction is important insofar as while economic growth enables an increase in the welfare of a country, whether a particular individual’s welfare increases as a result of this will depend on the distribution of this newly-generated wealth. This may in turn be influenced by the taxation system and provision of various welfare benefits in the country concerned. Welfare can be measured in a number of different ways, depending on the uses to which measuring it is intended to be put. Economists tend to prefer measures such as gross domestic product and per capita income. Such measures focus entirely on financial status: how much income the person or group has earned. Incomes allow those earning them access to market goods and services, such as consumer goods, housing, health care, schooling and so on. Those from the broader social science disciplines, meanwhile, tend to prefer a wider definition that directly incorporates consideration of environmental quality and social issues such as standards of health care, education and so on. As further factors are identified and added into the measurement of welfare, the concept becomes increasingly cognate with those of well-being and quality of life. Ultimately, the concept becomes synonymous with the concept of ‘gross national happiness’ (Bates, 2009), which many observers recognize to be the truest measure of welfare. One of the stated aims of sustainable tourism will typically be to increase the welfare of the host community. Tourism activities can both enhance and threaten the welfare of the host (Hall and Brown, 2006), so sustainable tourism management will be concerned with the processes that generate such impacts. The pursuit of welfare also has implications for tourism business’ organizations, insofar as they may wish to conduct themselves in ways that enhance the welfare of their stakeholders groups on ethical grounds. There is also a welfare dimension to the tourist insofar as consumption of the tourism product is intended to increase their welfare. This is the basis for the ethical arguments around Welfare529

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s­ ocial tourism (McCabe, 2009). There is a growing literature on the extent and mechanisms by which tourism results in the psychological state of happiness for tourists. BG

 Well-being A state of being comfortable, healthy and/or happy. The OECD (2012) identify the following aspects that shape a person’s well-being: income, job, housing, health, work/ life balance, education, social connections, civic engagement and governance, environment and personal security. Diener and Seligmann (2004) also argue that well-being must consider: living in a democratic society where material needs are met, having supportive family and friends, engaging in a rewarding job that provides adequate income, being reasonably healthy physically and mentally, having a philosophy that provides meaning to one’s life and having goals related to one’s set of values. Evidence suggests that having clear goals and a sense of belonging to something larger than oneself foster well-being (Hamilton et al., 2008). Researchers (e.g. NEF, 2004; Smith and Puczko, 2009) also point out that well-being involves both short- and long-term considerations where the individual engages in activities that are good for themselves where they are developing as a person and making a contribution to society. Cohen (2009b) points out that achieving well-being follows two distinct but complementary approaches in the evolution of medicine. The first incorporates cosmological, holistic thinking based on Eastern traditions. Perfect health and well-being is achieved through an intuitive, top-down treatment approach by following the path to enlightenment through meditation and other practices. The second incorporates a rational, scientific perspective that adopts reductionist experimentation based on Western traditions through a bottom-up approach that develops treatments to prevent or cure disease. In the context of tourism (Smith and Puczko, 2009), travel is acknowledged as an activity that can promote well-being. The travel industry provides individuals with opportunities to engage in a world of experiences that can change their lives through new insights, personal discoveries, medical treatments and relived memories. Travel is also acknowledged as potentially promoting exaggerated behaviours and experiences that, over the short-term, provide pleasure but which over the long-term can be detrimental to one’s overall well-being and health. See also Growth fetish JH

 Wellness A holistic concept of health focusing on maximizing individual well-being. Originating in the United States in the 1950s and 1960s (Miller, 2005), the concept emphasizes individual responsibility for making the most of available resources in a sustainable way. Wellness is defined in terms of seven dimensions (intellectual, emotional, physical, o ­ ccupational, environmental, spiritual and social), all of which have a bearing on an individual’s health and well-being. The wellness continuum is a key concept in this model, with premature death on one end of the continuum and

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high-level wellness on the other. A person experiencing high-level wellness makes full use of all of the potential available to him or her to achieve maximal well-being. The concept assumes that it is better to promote health than to attempt to restore it once it is lost. This has led in the United States, in particular, to wellness becoming the focus of cost-containment programs by companies suffering under the extremely high cost of health insurance for their employees. Workplace wellness programs attempt to get employees to adopt healthier lifestyles so they cost their employers less money, a rather one-sided approach to an otherwise rather global idea. Wellness tourism in connection with spas began to take off in Europe and elsewhere beginning in the 1990s. With its emphasis on pampering and feel-good offers, wellness tourism also taps into only a very small part of the original concept, and with its high energy expenditure is frequently not very sustainable. In contrast the connection between the original idea of wellness and sustainability is actually fairly direct. The recent addition of environmental wellness as the seventh dimension of wellness recognizes this connection by emphasizing that sustainable individual well-being can only be achieved holistically, within a larger ecological and social context. JMI

  Wellness tourism A sector of the tourism industry that seeks to improve the health and well-being of participants. In general, tourism can make a positive contribution to an individual’s health and well-being (Hallab, 2006), and in the last decades the term wellness has been widely used in tourism. Although predicated on earlier forms of health based tourism motivation (e.g. sea bathing, ‘taking the air’), wellness tourism is positioned as a ‘new’ form of tourism, stirred by an increased need and interest in active tourism experiences and focus on the self. The term is frequently used interchangeably with health tourism, well-being tourism, medical tourism and holistic tourism, and to increase complexity, terms such as happiness, quality of life and sustainability are often associated with wellness tourism. Hettler (1984, p. 14) defines wellness as ‘an active process through which people become aware of, and make choices towards a more successful existence’, while Myers et al. (2000, p. 252) define it as ‘a way of life oriented toward optimal health and well-being, in which body, mind, and spirit are integrated by the individual to live life more fully within the human and natural community’. Wellness is subjective/perceptual, multidimensional (e.g. physical, psychological/emotional, social, intellectual, spiritual, occupational and environmental) and an individual lifestyle choice aiming at a meaningful personal change within a given environment. Bearing the above in mind, wellness tourism is centred on the individual tourist (the wellness tourist is the product as she or he is an aspirant seeking transformation), and the sustainability of the destination environment is of great importance (Lean, 2009) as the tourist attempts to maximize her/his potential in it (Dunn, 1961). Thus, wellness tourism is the sum of all the tourists’ interactions and phenomena resulting from a discretionary journey and staying outside their usual environment for one or more nights but not more than one consecutive year by individuals whose chief motive is to maximize their potential along the dimensions of wellness within the given favourable e­ nvironment. MPA

Wellness tourism531

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 Whale-watching A range of land-, vessel- and air-based activities that focus on viewing whales, ­dolphins and porpoises. Popular destinations for whale-watching include seasonal gathering sites, for example winter calving grounds in Hawaii, feeding grounds such as Alaska and Antarctica, migration routes such as Hervey Bay in ­Australia and Baja California in Mexico. Significant whale-watching industries also exist around resident populations, such as those in the Canary Islands, New ­Zealand and British Columbia in Canada or even river dolphins in the Mekong or Amazon. A range of activities allow visitors to get close to whales, dolphins and porpoises. While most whale-watching occurs from boats (Fig. W2) (commercial and non-commercial), shore-based viewing is offered in Australia and South ­Africa, aircraft viewing is available in New Zealand, kayaking with killer whales is an option in the Pacific North West, swimming with whales is possible in ­Australia and Tonga, and swimming with dolphins occurs in Australia, New ­Zealand and the USA among others. It is also possible to participate in feeding programs in some places. Monkey Mia in Australia is arguably the best known feeding site, although others, such as Moreton Island and Tin Can Bay, have also been granted permits to feed wild dolphins. The whale-watching industry has been growing steadily over the last five decades; in 1981 the industry was estimated to be worth approximately US$14 million with about 400,000 participants globally. More recent figures from 2009 suggest that it is worth $2.1 billion per annum with 13 million participants. This rapid growth, combined with the scientifically recorded impacts on the observed animals’ behaviour, habitat use, distribution and breeding success, has led to concerns for the animals’ well-being and calls for regulations on approach distances

Fig. W2.  Whale-watching, Hervey Bay, Queensland, Australia (Tiffany Low). 532Whale-watching

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and boat handling around the animals. Often however, these are guidelines and codes of conduct that are not binding, or regulations that are hard to enforce. ACO   Whale Watching Worldwide www.ifaw.org/international/resource-centre/whale-watching-worldwide

  White Water to Blue Water (WW2BW) A Caribbean sustainable development initiative, working on all aspects of aquatic management from whitewater rivers to blue water oceans, but with a specific pillar in sustainable tourism. WW2BW is based on a US Government initiative first presented at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa, in 2002. The initiative sought to promote partnerships in support of four main goals. These are: integrated watershed management for activities impacting the watershed such as agriculture, forestry, land use and planning, tourism and wastewater treatment; marine ecosystem-based management to ensure the long-term productivity and sustainability of the living resources and the environment of marine and coastal areas; sustainable tourism to protect the marine environment through this sector; and environmentally sound marine transportation to reduce operational and accidental impacts on the marine environment from boats and ships. CIC   White Water to Blue Water www.unep.org/gc/gcss-viii/USA-IWRM-1.pdf

 Wilderness A synonym for remote, wild and untrammelled natural areas that have not been significantly modified by human activities (Fig. W3). According to Nash (1967), the term is composed of two root words, ‘wild’ and ‘deor’, in etymological terms, and refers to a place that is inhabited by wild beasts and that is beyond the sphere of human control. Although this may no longer constitute the core meaning, as many of the remaining wilderness environments have been explored and converted into administrative management (i.e. conservation) units by people, this kind of distinction between culture and nature in Western societies has largely defined how we have understood what wilderness is and what it is for. However, there have been different ideas of wilderness in different times and among different people. Therefore, it may be challenging to find a consensus for the idea of wilderness between highly urbanized and rural people, or people from developed and developing countries, for example, which are often the related backgrounds in host–guest relations in wilderness tourism. Although the wilderness idea is a contested one, several definitions have been made. The first wilderness legislation was prescribed in the United States in 1964. According to the US Wilderness Act (Public Law, 1964, p. 1), wilderness is placed outside organized society and culture: ‘a wilderness, in contrast with those areas where man and his own works dominate the landscape, is hereby recognized as an area where the earth and its community of life are untrammelled by man, where man himself is a visitor who does not remain’. Thus, the idea of the Act – people as a visitor, i.e. a tourist, who do not remain – is based on the historically constructed Western view of nature in the 19th century and the evolved need for the preservation and ­conservation of the last remaining wild natural areas. Wilderness533

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Fig. W3.  Wilderness, Lake Eyre, South Australia (Tiffany Low).

For example, the world’s first large-scale wilderness preservation, the designation of the Yellowstone National Park in 1872, was based on the premise that the region was reserved and withdrawn from settlement and sale, with an emphasis on public use in tourism. Since then, wilderness areas have attracted an increasing number of tourists globally. This, along with the diminishing wilderness environments, has caused challenges for the carrying capacity of these areas and the sustainability of tourism activities. In many wilderness areas there is an increasing need to set limits to growth in tourism, but the exercise of determining the maximum use levels has turned out to be a complex task in which the identification of the Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) has been one of the main approaches in recreation and tourism in wilderness settings. JS

  Wildlife management The employment of science in an effort to meet the needs of wildlife within a framework that also addresses the needs of people. Under the umbrella of this remit, modern wildlife management includes the areas of wildlife conservation, game management and pest control, and has integrated diverse scientific disciplines such as ecology, mathematics, geography and climatology, alongside other areas such as tourism, policy, e­ conomics and law. The different facets of wildlife management, while all appealing to an essential underpinning of good science, have somewhat different objectives. Wildlife conservation focuses 534

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on halting the current crisis of biodiversity loss through the improvement and preservation of habitats coupled with reinstatement where required. Game management employs the understanding of ecology to the maintenance of high populations of profitable species and often includes habitat enrichment and predator control to meet this aim. In his highly influential 1933 book, Game Management, Aldo Leopold (one of the pioneers of the science of wildlife management) defined it as the art of making land produce sustained annual crops of wild game for recreational use. Pest control serves to manage real or perceived pest species for conservation, game, public health or safety reasons. While purists often view game management and pest control as serving human needs to a greater extent than those of wildlife, it is now becoming more widely appreciated that all three facets of wildlife management serve the conservation goal to similar extents: the conservation of hunting estates managed specifically for profitable species also protect the habitats required by non-profitable and uncharismatic species. Similarly, exotic pest species can represent a serious threat to native species and habitats and their control and removal is an important and desirable objective. Wildlife management in modern times is becoming one of the most important sciences for conservation: the recognition that few (if any) truly natural areas remain has led to widespread understanding that informed management is crucial (Fig. W4). Experiments into the efficacy of ‘passive conservation’ (conservation with no interactive management) have clearly demonstrated its failure as a conceptual basis on which current crises can be addressed. PW

Fig. W4.  Native dingo, Fraser Island, Australia, a location where wildlife management and human conflict has prompted frequent debate (Carl Cater). Wildlife management535

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  Willingness to pay (WTP) A construct based on approaches used to estimate the value of non-market goods for evaluating non-market goods such as permits for national parks. Together with willingness to accept, WTP may be measured by using contingent valuation methods (CVM). Testing WTP results alongside economic theory should create two conditions. Firstly, the percentage of respondents willing to pay a particular price should fall as the price increases. Secondly, the percentage of respondents willing to pay a particular price should increase as the demand for goods increases (Carson et al., 2000). The benefits of WTP studies lie in their interpretation, which are easy to understand, analyse and describe. Monetary values can be presented in terms of mean value per capita or per household, which can be aggregated to total values for the affected population. Even though WTP has been popular for years, controversy remains over whether it really measures people’s willingness to pay for additional provision or to accept compensation for additional provision being denied. Problems may emerge if the respondents are not aware of the goods or services they are supposed to evaluate. Misunderstanding between the surveyor and the respondent may arise when the respondent answers effectively a different question than the surveyor had intended. Strategic bias may occur when a respondent supplies a biased answer with the intent of affecting a particular outcome. WTP is also influenced by the information respondents receive. Respondents should have proper information about the evaluated object. The final value may also be influenced by the elicitation format that has been chosen. These can be divided into four main categories: bidding game, payment card, open-ended and dichotomous choice. The last of these can be further divided into two types: single-bounded (take-it-or-leave-it) choice and double-­bounded dichotomous choice (take-it-or-leave-it with follow up). An extended version of double-bounded dichotomous choice, the triple-­ bounded dichotomous choice, has also been used in some studies (Venkatachalam, 2004). MA

  Wind energy The use of moving air to create power, usually through deployment of turbines. However, a strong correlation between the natural areas favoured by tourists and sites suitable for wind power has led to concern over the impact of wind energy developments on the visitor economy. Despite the press often raising concerns of this nature, the current literature suggests that only a minority of tourists may be disturbed by wind energy developments (Aitchison, 2013). In some areas wind energy developments have been marketed alongside other offerings as part of a sustainable tourism product. For example, wind energy features prominently in the promotional material for Denmark, especially to German markets, which are seen to have an interest in environmental issues and new technology (AUSWEA, 2004). As the site of the world’s first off-shore wind farm, the promotional material for Copenhagen features wind farms prominently; however, in this case wind turbines are not attractions in themselves, but support and function within an environmentally conscious framework. Tourists visiting the city can borrow a bike for free, eat at an organic restaurant and enjoy sustainable accommodation powered by green energy. Around 20% of all energy comes from wind power and a guarantee is provided to the customer that a part of their payment will go towards new investments in wind turbines. 536

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In this context these turbines do not appear as alien and obtrusive but coexist with the place branding of Copenhagen and the expectations of tourists. The turbines are presented as a technological continuation of windmills (and are in fact referred to as ‘windmills’ in the promotional material), representing a modern interpretation of a historically and nationally significant image that is likely to be deemed valuable and interesting to the tourist. Similarly in Scotland, the Whitelee Windfarm (see case study) has also been developed as a sustainable tourism attraction. GD

Case study: Developing a wind farm into a sustainable tourist attraction Approximately 13 miles drive from central Glasgow is Europe’s largest windfarm, sited on Eaglesham Moor. The windfarm is home to 215 turbines that can generate 539 MW of energy, enough to power 290,000 homes and plans are currently underway to extend this development by a further 12 MW, boosting the capacity to cover over 300,000 homes. In addition to the wind turbines, the site houses a visitor centre and 70 km of trails that can be freely accessed by the public. These trails are used for cycling, walking and horse riding and allow visitors to get up close to the turbines that tower over the landscape (Fig. W5a). The site presents an interesting case study as alongside the development of the wind farm, the £2 million visitor centre has become a tourist attraction itself and has recently joined the Association of Scottish Visitor Attractions (ASVA), after recording nearly 250,000 visitors since 2009. Targeting a wide demographic of visitors, the site offers facilities for both children and adults, visiting residents, day visitors and education tourists.

Fig. W5a.  Visitor viewing deck, Whitelee Windfarm, Glasgow, UK (Greg Dash). Continued

Wind energy537

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Case study.  Continued. It was not originally the intention of the operators of the site Scottish Power ­ enewables (SPR) to have a visitor centre or link to sustainable tourism. However, as R the Director of ­Onshore Development noted the idea of a visitor centre evolved over time, during discussions with councils and other stakeholders. The development process for wind farms are very long and Whitelee was probably as much as 10 years in the development process. Early on we could see that this wind farm was quite unique, very large, largest in Europe by a long shot and very close to large centres of population and there was an obvious opportunity to do something different here.

The visitor centre has three distinct areas: a shop and cafe, the learning hub and an exhibition (Fig. W5b). The architecture of the visitor centre is quiet and light, and the wooden beams and structures that overarch the cafe help to create an image of a space that has a clear ecological consciousness. Marketing officer for SPR notes: Ultimately the targets of the site were to make something that was truly sustainable and to give people access to such a unique resource. Everything we did at the centre was done to the highest standard, even the material it was built from – we’ve got natural timber, we’ve got natural ventilation in the building and we use natural lighting. The site has an electric vehicle charging area and we use recycled water and use local supplies in the cafe and shops.

This centre positions itself not only as an extension of what could be considered ‘­natural’, creating and then positioning itself on a spectrum somewhere closer to nature than man-made. The site aims to provide a ‘balanced’ account of the debate surrounding wind turbines and indeed both sides of the debate are represented. Director of Onshore Development said:

Fig. W5b.  Interpretation, Whitelee Windfarm, Glasgow, UK (Greg Dash). Continued 538

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Case study.  Continued. it was there really to provide an impartial educational resource – it is not there to promote the wind farm, which is probably clear from the material you’ve seen online. It’s there to provide a balance to all sides of the debate and wider information around renewable energy and wind farm development.

The exhibition space presents an example of successful science communication. Here an number of attractions are present for visitors to engage with, most notably a quiz where visitors can take a picture of their face to be superimposed on a wind turbine while answering questions. Other activities include hands on engagement with demonstrations of wind energy construction sites, allowing visitors to construct their own ‘wind farm’ and a video played towards the far end of the exhibition links Whitelee with the historical tradition of industrial development in Scotland. This and the other educational aspects of the visitor centre were set up and are managed by Glasgow Science Centre, as SRP were not able to provide these facilities in-house. An education space is present within the visitor centre where schools and visitors can participate in classroom style demonstrations. Demonstrations take a format similar to that seen in other science centres, whereby visitors are given a hands-on taught workshop, building their own wind turbines and engaging with the science in a way that is entertaining. Glasgow Science Centre also run guided bus tours around the wind farm. Whitelee also host its own events at the wind farm including a ‘meet the expert’ series, where visitors can learn from visiting speakers such as RSPB representatives and SPR habitat and biodiversity ecologists. More innovative and unusual use of the site is seen in posters that are positioned throughout the visitor centre, advertising opportunities for turbine t’ai chi within the wind farm (Fig. W5c), and mother and toddler walking groups, utilizing the buggy friendly paths.

Fig. W5c.  Turbine t’ai chi, Whitelee Windfarm, Glasgow, UK (Greg Dash). Continued Wind energy539

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Case study.  Continued. Staff note that the response to the visitor centre has been ‘overwhelmingly’ positive, with visitors travelling from both the local vicinity but also internationally. They note a number of key regular customers often visit throughout the week to enjoy the cafe and the scenery for walking and often families visit during the weekend. SPR Marketing ­Officer suggests that ‘people have really taken ownership of it, especially a lot of local people – they feel it is their windfarm’. Thus the development appears to be tailored to address common concerns over wind energy, targeting those that are often most expressed by anti-turbine lobby groups. The partnership with the RSPB is most notable, reversing the often quoted view that wind turbine developments are detrimental to bird populations, sharing the concerns of the general public on the issue but also positioning Whitelee as an area of conservation. Whitelee presents an interesting case study of what undoubtedly is a successfully operating visitor centre within a wind farm development. The resource provides a site of engagement for local communities in a nearby wind farm project and itself is dependent on these communities for their use of its resources. In addition, the partnership with Glasgow Science Centre allows their educational resources to extend beyond the city and provide an educational resource for local communities that is indeed in the interest of SRP. Indeed the experience in the site is enjoyable and provides a new level of engagement with the wind turbines that surround the centre, however research is required on the visitor experience to greater understand the motives and expectations of visitors, learning outcomes and visiting outcomes. Such research would provide greater understanding of the opportunities the development presents not only for renewable energy developers (e.g. helping to reduce public opposition for future developments) but for the site to operate as a commercially sustainable visitor attraction. GD   Whitelee Wind Farm Visitor Centre www.whiteleewindfarm.co.uk

  Wine tourism A type of tourism based on ‘visitation to vineyards, wineries, wine festivals and wine shows for which grape tasting and/or experiencing the attributes of a grape wine region are the prime motivating factors for visitors’ (Hall and Macionis, 1998, p. 197). Such consumer-focused definitions feature the tourist experience and have been criticized for not extending to broader regional contexts. Wine tourism is more than just visiting wineries and purchasing wine: it consists of unique experiences shaped by the ambience, atmosphere, surrounding environment, regional culture and cuisine, local wine styles and varieties all of which are encompassed in the term ‘wine tourist terroir’ (Hall et al., 2000, p. 9). Wine tourism also occurs away from wineries, such as at restaurants and other tourism attractions, and for this reason some argue the definition of wine tourism should be extended to include private- and public-sector tourism activities influenced by the winescape and the broader region, and encompass destination and firm level planning, marketing and sales strategies (Getz, 2000; Carlsen and Dowling, 2001). Wine tourism, then, can be viewed as a collective of several core components: ‘destination appeal’, encompassing features such as land, scenery, accommodation, transport (Fig. W6), information and sign-posted wine trails; ‘wine product’, encompassing for example wineries, festivals and education; and the ‘cultural product’, encompassing hospitality, accommodation, dining and traditional wine villages (Getz and Brown, 2006). These broader 540

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Fig. W6.  Wine tours, Marlborough region, New Zealand (John Cater).

perspectives of wine tourism recognize the influence of the various elements within the winescape and wider region, and acknowledge the importance of linkages between wine and tourism and the inherent role of all partners in planning for sustainable wine tourism. See also Food tourism, Slow tourism CR

  Women’s Agrotourism Cooperatives (WAC) A collectively-owned, worker-managed and women-managed, form of village B & B accommodation, handicraft production (jams, clothes) and sales developed in Greece with mixed results, since the early 1980s through a top-down process initiated shortly after Greece’s entry into the European Common Market (1981). Two thirds of the WAC funding came through the EU ‘LEADER’, ‘NOW’ and ‘EQUAL’ mechanisms (Karavasili, 2010). The stated aim was to emancipate rural women (Iakovidou, 2002) but it also supported falling farmer incomes during the CAP reform. 1983 saw the launch of the Petra WAC in Lesvos with 24 women as Members who provided B & B in their own houses, handicrafts and jams and collectively operated a taverna. By 1995 there were seven more cooperatives: in Chios, Zakynthos, Kassos islands, Kissamos in Crete and in Zagora, Agios Germanos and Tychero on the mainland. By 2005 there were over 70 active WAC with a total of 1750 members, half of which were earning under 500 euros per member monthly (Aggelopoulos et al., 2008), while in 2009 55% of WAC Members were working part-time (Karavasili, 2010). See also Agritourism, Farm tourism, Gender, Worker-run/recuperated hotels AP Women’s Agrotourism Cooperatives (WAC)541

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 Work See International Labour Organization

  Work Life Balance See Quality of Life

  Worker-run/recuperated hotels Formerly private tourism accommodation facilities that, following a company or national crisis, went bankrupt and were subsequently taken over and collectively run by their former workers, often producing a legal dispute with former owners (Trigona, 2008). The best-known example is Hotel Bauen, a 220-room Buenos Aires (Argentina) landmark that went from a national junta symbol during the Argentina Football World Cup to an international workers self-management symbol in postIMF, post-­bankruptcy Argentina since March 2003. Worldwide there are very few examples of worker-run hotels (with the exception of community-owned ecolodges and small family-owned and managed hotels) compared to other economic sectors. This may be because there is a conflict between the non-hierarchical, libertarian and grassroots culture of workers-self-management, and the top-down, hierarchical, service-oriented/subservient (Higgins-Desbiolles, 2011) hotel culture expected by the public. The latter may be associated with quality of service, by a hostile, corporation-dominated tour operator industry and absence of legal backing (Trigona, 2008). Nevertheless there are challenges for worker-run businesses in rotating workers back and forth from menial, under-remunerated, heavy tasks to lighter, more pleasant, specialized and highly remunerated ones while maintaining equal pay and direct-democratic decision-making. AP   BAUEN Hotel www.bauenhotel.com.ar

  World Bank A global financial institution, established by the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944 (together with the International Monetary Fund) with headquarters in Washington, DC. Its ownership lies with the governments of the member nations. The bank is divided into two different organizations: the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the International Development Association (IDA). The main goal of both institutions is poverty alleviation, especially through the provision of low-interest loans, interest-free credit, grants to developing countries and policy advice as well as technical assistance to the poorest countries, fragile and conflict-­affected states, the Arab world and middle-income countries (World Bank, 2012). The World Bank basis for involvement in tourism projects includes an assurance that they reinforce the ‘right’ kind of tourism (see Appropriate tourism). Supported tourism projects have 542Work

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to be responsible tourism projects that bring benefits of broad-based growth and protect the main tourist attractions by being sustainable. DRE   World Bank www.worldbank.org/

  World Committee on Tourism Ethics An independent and impartial body of the UNWTO General Assembly, founded in 2004 to examine ethics in tourism. Reporting directly to the General Assembly, the Committee’s members, who are chosen by election, are not government officials or national representatives. The Committee’s tasks include: the promotion and dissemination of the UNWTO Global Code of Ethics for Tourism; the evaluation, observation and implementation of the Global Code of Ethics and Conciliation; and the resolution of differences regarding the application or interpretation of the Code of Ethics. Being a part of UNWTO’s ‘Ethics and Social Dimension of Tourism Programme’, the Committee collaborates in activities with the Task Force for the Protection of Children in Tourism. FO

  World Ecotourism Summit (WES) The principal event to mark 2002 as the United Nations International Year of Ecotourism, taking place from 19 to 22 May of that year. The Summit, which was hosted by Quebec City in Canada, was an initiative of the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Its intended purpose was to enable all of the stakeholder groups in ecotourism to come together to share experiences and to exchange ideas. This, it was hoped, would facilitate the agreement of a series of principles for the future development and management of ecotourism, along with a set of priorities for action. The Summit was preceded in 2001 by 18 preparatory conferences, taking place at various locations across the world. More than 3000 delegates attended these conferences, along with nearly 1000 more who took part in a special conference via the Internet. The preparatory conferences considered each of the four main themes of the Summit: (i) ecotourism policy and planning: the sustainability challenge; (ii) regulation of ecotourism: institutional responsibilities and frameworks; (iii) product development, marketing and promotion of ecotourism: fostering sustainable products and services and consumers; and (iv) monitoring costs and benefits of ecotourism: ensuring equitable distribution among stakeholders. A total of 1169 delegates from 132 countries attended the Summit itself. The Summit included: (i) a plenary session in which reports were given on the preparatory conferences; (ii) four parallel working groups sessions covering the themes of the Summit; (iii) a ministerial forum, a business forum and a forum considering ­development cooperation in ecotourism; (iv) a plenary session to consider the findings of the four working groups; and (v) a final plenary session to receive and debate the draft Québec Declaration on Ecotourism. The latter was the main output of World Ecotourism Summit (WES)543

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the Summit and was taken forward to the World Summit on Sustainable Development at Johannesburg later in 2002. BG   About the World Ecotourism Summit www.unep.fr/shared/publications/cdrom/WEBx0139xPA/about/wes.htm

  World Heritage A designation for areas of globally important natural or human significance established in 1975. Sites must be of certain natural/cultural criteria and pass tests of integrity and authenticity. World Heritage designation is awarded by the World Heritage Committee for the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cutural Organization (UNESCO). World Heritage includes important cultural centres (Fig. W7), such as Venice, Rome, Quebec City, Kyoto, and natural sites such as the Great Barrier Reef, Victoria Falls, the Grand Canyon and the Galapagos islands. In 2013 there were 981 properties on the list (759 cultural, 193 natural and 29 with elements of both). While there is no transfer of ownership of protected areas (despite some cases of the media portraying this), there is a significant commitment from national governments who seek World Heritage designation (Fig. U2). For example listing ‘commits the government to refrain from any deliberate measure which might damage directly or indirectly the natural heritage of the park’ (Article 6 (3)) and to ‘take legal, scientific, technical, administrative and

Fig. W7.  Entrance site to World Heritage listed Terracotta Warriors, Xian, China (Carl Cater). 544

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financial measures necessary for its identification, protection, conservation presentation and rehabilitation’ (Article 5d). Protection is both a prerequisite and a requirement of designation (Fig. P9), for the site should have adequate long-term legislative, regulatory or institutional protection . . . the boundaries should include sufficient areas immediately adjacent to the area of outstanding universal value in order to protect the site’s heritage values from the direct effects of human encroachment and impacts of resource use outside of the nominated area. (UNESCO, quoted in Hall, 2000, p. 124)

Sites that do not maintain protection are placed on a World Heritage ‘danger list’ with a view to remedial action rather than removal from the list. In addition to conservation importance, World Heritage has significant tourism value in increased recognition and hence visitation, for the increased recognition and publicity virtually guarantees that an area will become a tourist magnet. As Hall has suggested, World Heritage is a ‘clear and recognisable brand with an international profile’ (Hall, 2000, p. 120). Therefore these sites are often good examples of sustainable tourism management, using tourism as a force for conservation of natural and cultural heritage. See also Heritage, Heritage tourism CIC   World Heritage Committee whc.unesco.org/

  World Leisure Organisation (WLO) An international, non-governmental association founded in 1952 to promote leisure as a way of improving people’s quality of life and individual well-being. WLO lie at the forefront of efforts to raise the profile and importance of leisure as a basic human need and right. Comprising of individuals and smaller associations working in partnership, WLO undertakes and delivers research, training, educational initiatives and advocacy to foster knowledge and disseminate information about all aspects of leisure (including tourism, entertainment, sport, recreation and children’s play). World Leisure Journal is the WLO’s official peer-reviewed journal and primary vehicle for research dissemination. SE

  World Summit on Sustainable Development An Earth Summit convened by the UN in 2002 in Johannesburg, South Africa, 10 years after the first summit, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, which produced the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. One of the objectives of the Summit was to focus on accomplishments since Rio and on areas where further actions were needed to implement the agreements reached in Rio, as well as to address new challenges and opportunities that had emerged during the preceding decade. Another objective of the Summit was to ensure, while striving to reach the Millennium Development Goals, a balance between economic development, environmental protection and social development, which were understood to be ­dependent and mutually reinforcing components of sustainable development. World Summit on Sustainable Development545

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The main outcome of the Summit was the Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable ­Development, which included the Summit’s Plan of Implementation. The Plan focused on poverty eradication; changing unsustainable patterns of consumption and production; protecting and managing the natural resource base of economic and social development; sustainable development in a globalizing world; health and sustainable development; sustainable development of small-island developing States; sustainable development for Africa; other regional initiatives; the means of implementation and the institutional framework for sustainable development. The Plan recognized that: . . . to reverse the current trend in natural resource degradation as soon as possible, it is necessary to implement strategies which should include targets adopted at the national and, where appropriate, regional levels to protect ecosystems and to achieve integrated management of land, water and living resources, while strengthening regional, national and local capacities. (paragraph 24)

Those strategies include, as far as tourism is concerned: . . . [p]romot[ing] sustainable tourism development, including non-consumptive and eco-tourism, taking into account the spirit of the International Year of Eco-tourism 2002, the United Nations Year for Cultural Heritage in 2002, the World Eco-tourism Summit 2002 and its Quebec Declaration, and the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism as adopted by the World Tourism Organization in order to increase the benefits from tourism resources for the population in host communities while maintaining the cultural and environmental integrity of the host communities and enhancing the protection of ecologically sensitive areas and natural heritages. (paragraph 43)

The voluntary multi-stakeholder initiatives contributing to the implementation of the Plan include: the Certification for Sustainable Tourism scheme; the Pacific Umbrella Initiative: Sustainable tourism development for the Pacific; the Partnership for the launch of the Sustainable Tourism Stewardship Council; Promote tourism towards sustainable development; Sustainable tourism for sustainable development in emerging countries and the Travel Foundation. See also International Year of Ecotourism, Global Code of Ethics for Tourism, World Ecotourism Summit 2002. PV

  World Surfing Reserves A global initiative launched in 2009 by a partnership of Save the Waves Coalition, ­National Surfing Reserves Australia and the International Surfing Association to create a global network of surfing reserves through identifying, designating and protecting them. The protection phase involves creating a local stewardship council and a local stewardship implementation plan to attract funding and gain official legally enforceable protection for the surf breaks and their surrounds. HRE

  World Tourism Organization See United Nations World Tourism Organization 546

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  World Trade Organization (WTO) A forum for governments to negotiate trade agreements, established on 1 January 1995 in Geneva, Switzerland following the Uruguay Round negotiations (1986–1994) of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). As of the 10 May 2012, 155 countries are members of the WTO. It operates a system of trade rules that help to organize trade openings, free trade and trade agreements as well as providing a place for member governments to settle their trade disputes. The general principles of trade in tourism services are covered in the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). DRE   World Trade Organzation www.wto.org   World Trade Organization: Tourism and Related Services www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/serv_e/tourism_e/tourism_e.htm

  World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC) A pressure group representing the interests of the world’s leading travel and tourism companies. Formed in 1990, its membership comprises approximately 100 chief executives from across all sectors of the industry. The WTTC works to raise awareness among governments of the economic impacts of travel and tourism; to impress upon business leaders the requirement to balance commercial interests with those of people, their cultures and the environment; and to foster a shared vision of long-term growth and prosperity of the industry. Its activities include organizing an annual travel and tourism summit and various regional meetings with the aim of translating its mission into practical actions through working with governments and local leaders. The WTTC also conducts research into the economics of the travel and tourism industry and has developed a toolkit to assist in the development of tourism satellite accounts. The WTTC is particularly concerned with promoting sustainable tourism policies and practices. In 1994 it helped launch Green Globe, an environmental management system for travel and tourism businesses. In 1996, it published Agenda 21 for the Travel & Tourism Industry in association with the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) and the Earth Council. BG   World Travel and Tourism Council www.wttc.org

  World Wildlife Fund (WWF) A global environmental conservation organization that was founded in 1961. Its founding document is the so-called Morges Manifesto (WWF, 2012a). In the 1970s and 1980s, the organization grew and began to expand its work to conserve the environment as a whole (reflecting the interdependence of all living things), rather than focusing on selected species in isolation. Although they continued to use the well-known initials, WWF’s legal name became the World Wide Fund for Nature (except in North America, where the old name was retained) in 1986 (WWF, 2012b). However, the organization is often simply known as the WWF. Today, the WWF is one of the world’s largest and World Wildlife Fund (WWF)547

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most experienced independent conservation organizations, with over 5  million supporters and a global network active in more than 100 countries (WWF, 2012c). The general mission of the WWF is ‘to stop the degradation of the planet’s natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature’ (WWF, 2012d). This is to be achieved by safeguarding global biodiversity, ensuring the sustainable use of renewable natural resources, and promoting the reduction of pollution and wasteful consumption (WWF, 2012d). Tourism is consequently closely related to WWF’s core business. In general terms, tourism takes place in the natural and sociocultural environment. There tourism often has a variety of positive and more importantly negative impacts, including excessive and inequitable resource use, habitat destruction and fragmentation, social and cultural homogenization and commercialization and economic exclusion (Sano, 2006). Additionally, world tourism has an extremely large environmental footprint with respect to global climate change. Both environments are therefore vitally important for the activities of the WWF such as protection of global biodiversity. Accordingly, the organization ‘has a long history of working with small-scale ecotourism and nature-­ focused tourism operators’ and more recently with large-scale tourism operators ‘to advance best practice and policy on conservation and social issues.’ (WWF, 2012e) DRE   World Wildlife Fund wwf.panda.org

  WWOOF (WWOOFing) Voluntary work on organic farms. WWOOF is an abbreviation initially denoting ‘Working Weekends on Organic Farms’ in England in 1971 (Hallewell, 2009) and currently ‘World Wide Opportunities on Organic Farms’. It describes the practice of voluntary work in organic farms coordinated by a global unofficial network that links volunteers with organic farmers, in exchange for a small fee paid by both hosts and volunteers. Volunteers are not remunerated, while the hosts provide food and accommodation and education about organic agriculture practices and lifestyles. The majority of volunteers may be more interested in the alternative tourism experience itself, rather than in the organic aspects (McIntosh and Bonnemann, 2006). In essence, it is a combination of volunteer tourism, agritourism and ecological tourism. WWOOF hosts are present in around 100 countries and about 50 have national coordinators. AP   WWOOF – World Wide Opportunities on Organic Farms www.wwoof.org/

 WW2BW See White Water to Blue Water

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X  Xeriscape A method of landscaping in hot dry climates that seeks to minimize supplemental water. The concept has been around since the 1980s, and has been particularly developed in dry southern states of the USA. Xeriscaping may include using drought-tolerant plants, efficient drip irrigation and mulching to conserve water. Water conservation may be prioritized over the use of native species. CIC

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Y   Year of Ecotourism (2002) See International Year of Ecotourism

  Year of the Mountains (2002) See International Year of the Mountains

  Year of the Ocean (1998) See International Year of the Ocean

  Year of the Reef (1997) See International Year of the Reef

  Yield management Measures taken by an organization to optimize its revenue and/or its profit. Yield can be described as the average revenue received per unit sold (Inkson and Minnaert, 2012) or as the difference between price and marginal cost (Cooper et al., 2008). Yield management tends to work best in capital intensive service industries such as airlines (where it was developed) or hotels. The key component is the identification of different market segments so that the service can be offered at different prices to them. This practice is constrained by customers’ perception of value for money, income levels and the degree of competition (Cooper et al., 2008), and sometimes also by government regulation (Inkson and Minnaert, 2012). To anticipate customers’ demand behaviour from past data and to react to real-time pricing moves at online portals, information technology-based dynamic pricing strategies are widely used (Abrate et al., 2012). See also Revenue management VR

  Youth tourism The travel-related activities of the younger generation within the wider population. The World Youth Student and Education (WYSE) Travel Confederation defines youth 550 

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travellers as aged between 16 and 29, closely aligning with the parameters of ‘Generation Y’. Other organizations apply a narrower or wider age range (e.g. 16–24 or 16–35). The applicable definitions impact substantially on the alleged dimensions of the ­phenomenon. Those enrolled in full-time study are typically in the lower age bracket (e.g. under 25) and have less disposable income as well as distinct purchasing patterns and behaviours. The United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) estimated that in 2013 young people accounted for 20% of all international tourism movements and generate receipts in excess of US$185 billion, with much of the growth occurring in emerging markets (WYSE, 2013). According to UNWTO estimates there will be 300 million youth tourism trips by 2020. With ageing populations in many tourism generating countries, the number of youth tourists will not increase but it is expected that their spending power will grow (Fig. Y1). Since youth coincides with the early stage of the life cycle, youth travellers have a lifetime of related spending ahead of them and their importance extends beyond direct economic impacts. Though affected by the global economic slowdown, youth tourism has been relatively resilient through economic crises. WYSE estimates that 60% of youth travel expenditures occur in destinations, which magnifies the local impacts and youth travellers have a higher than average length of stay than other tourists (WYSE, 2013). Youth tourism is closely associated with other sectors including the growing phenomenon of international educational tourism. International students are active

Fig. Y1.  Youth tourism centred on dance music, Ushuaia beach hotel, Ibiza, Spain (Tiffany Low). Youth tourism551

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travellers and many bring friends and family members to their place of study. This is indicative of the inter-dependence between youth tourism, international education and visiting friends and relatives (VFR) tourism. Youth travellers also participate within labour markets in destination countries, often in rural and regional locations where earnings from employment support and extend length of stay and associated ­expenditures. BK   World Youth Student and Education Travel Confederation (WYSE) www.wysetc.org/

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Z  Zoning The allocation of different development and activities into different areas. Zoning is a technique for land use planning that is commonly controlled by local governments such as counties or municipalities, though the nature of the zoning regime may be determined or limited by state or national planning authorities or through enabling legislation. The separation of various urban functions into different spaces through land-use zoning was at the heart of mid-twentieth-century urban planning ideas. Common wisdom holds that such zoning was a necessary, if not an inevitable, reaction to the Industrial Revolution, which transformed once-gracious towns into desperate places of congestion and pollution. During that time, industry, commerce and housing were given specific areas; industry was located only in industrial zones, and commercial areas were created in their centers and in the middle of housing projects. It was assumed that dividing the city up in this way would ensure that its inhabitants enjoyed a high quality of life with regard to air, noise, aesthetics, safety and cleanliness. Today, the central principle of standard American zoning is that human activity should be divided into the familiar categories of residential, commercial, and industrial, and each placed in a separate part of the city. Typically, the uses permitted within these categories will have a “cumulative” character; for example, in a district zoned for commercial enterprises, less intensive uses – such as residences, are permitted, while more intensive uses such as heavy industry are not allowed. The traditional view maintains that by creating land use categories and limiting the mixing of land uses, zoning reduced hazards to public health and safety and improved the living and working conditions of millions of people. Zoning is a well-established principle in planning and national park and wilderness management. Zoning of areas for particular land uses in tourism destinations especially in protected areas is considered appropriate in land use management to achieve sustainability. It allows various, potentially conflicting, objectives such as conservation and tourism development to be met simultaneously. Zoning provide a spatial differentiation of protected areas based on different management objectives. Zoning plans often include core preservation zones, areas of low impact tourism activity and areas of higher impact tourist activity, with varying degrees of noise, facilities and consumption or hunting of wildlife (Fig. Z1). Similar zones may be developed in heritage or resort development, and zoning plans may include buffer zones or zones designated for sacrificial development. The recreation opportunity spectrum is often used in national parks to ascertain various zones of management. In the Okavango Delta in Botswana, land is demarcated into three main land uses known as Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs). The three WMAs are further sub-divided into small land concessions known as Controlled Hunting Areas (CHAs), which in turn are leased out to tourism operators. The divisions are based on ecological sensitivity of the areas and land management options and objectives deemed suitable for different ecological areas of the Okavango Delta. For example, in some zones, dry and peripheral areas, safari hunting has been carried out while in prime and wetland areas, only photographic tourism is allowed. Zoning does not always work effectively as some activities in buffer zones may conflict (for © CAB International 2015. The Encyclopedia of Sustainable Tourism  (eds C. Cater, B. Garrod and T. Low)

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Fig. Z1.  Zoning interpretation, Chitwan National Park, Nepal (Carl Cater).

example off road motorcycling and hiking). Thus zoning principles have become more nuanced as scientific understanding of ecosystems has developed, and tourism activity has become more varied. For example the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority moved from a traditional zoning plan to a highly complex Representative Areas Program in 2004, which sought to ensure that there was cross park protection of all types of ecosystems. HD/CIC/JMB

 Zoo A tourism attraction displaying captive wildlife for visitors. Zoos and aquaria are often justified on the grounds of the benefits that they can bring to humans, through economic gains and enjoyment generated through the visit. Education of visitors about the animals that they see (Fig. Z2) and the environment, in general, is also used as an important justification for the existence of zoos. Debates about the educational benefits of zoos and aquaria are extensive between those who argue that education provides a positive c­ onsequence for both visitors and species, and those who argue that zoos and aquaria provide nothing more than entertainment with little or no educational benefits (Figs A5 and Z3) (Dobson, 2011). The educational aspects of zoos and aquaria have played a central role in the redefining of their role in the late 20th century, from sites of curiosity and entertainment to sites of conservation and research. However, there is uncertainty ­surrounding the consequential benefit of education provided at zoos in the impact that such messages have on visitor beliefs and behaviour post visit. For example, research carried out by Smith et al. (2008) illustrated that information provided by zoos on actions to help the conservation of birds had little lasting impact in terms of effecting changes in visitor behaviour. JD

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Fig. Z2.  Zoo interpretation, Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK (Brian Garrod).

Fig. Z3.  Performing monkey at ‘zoo’, Phuket, Thailand (Carl Cater). Zoo555

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Index Pages shown in BOLD show main entries in the index that are also main entries in the text access  1 peripherality 371 accessibility  1–2 disabilities 148 Geographical Information System (GIS) 228 hiking 263 transport 502 accommodation  2–4 all-inclusive resorts (AI resorts)  18 camping 62 cycle tourism  129 disabilities 148 ecolodges 158–159 farm tourism  213 hotels 265–266 mass tourism  326 timeshare 485 tour guides  487 Viabono 516 visitor centres  518 worker-run/recuperated hotels  542 accounting  4–5 triple bottom line (TBL)  507 accreditation  5–7 and certification  69 ECEAT 196 quality tourism  404 acculturation  7 demonstration effect  137–138 action research  7–8 participatory action research (PAR)  368 actor network theory (Latour)  353 adaptation to climate change  8, 72 Great Barrier Reef  242 adaptive architecture  9 adaptive co-management  9 advanced wastewater treatment system (AWTS)  9–10 Adventure Activities Licensing Authority (AALA)  10, 39 Adventure, Cultural and Ecotourism (ACE) tourism  10

adventure tourism  10–13 adventure tourism segmentation, case study  323 Antarctic 24 birdwatching 56 climbing 75 ecotourism 165 environmental impact  181 experiental education  207–208 gender 224 hard tourism  254 Lindblad Expeditions  315 motorcycle tourism  334 mountain biking  336 networks, case study  354 outdoor recreation  362 risk 425 SCUBA diving  437 ski tourism  441 space tourism  458 trekking 506 Adventure Travel Trade Association (ATTA)  13 advocacy  13–14 aesthetics  14 agenda  14 agritourism (agrotourism)  14 direct marketing  147 farm tourism  213 Women’s Agrotourism Cooperatives (WAC) 541 WWOOF (WWOOFing)  548 aid  14–15 air pollution see pollution airlines  15–16 International Air Transport Association (IATA) 287 low cost  71, 318–319 multinational companies (MNCs)  340–341 open skies policies  71 transport 501 airport  16–17 security 71

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all-inclusive resorts (AI resorts)  18 alliances 85 alternative tourism  18–19 economic impact  162 and educational tourism  170 Journal of Sustainable Tourism  304 mass tourism  325 pilgrimage 376 special-interest tourism  459 amenity migration  19 amusement parks, International Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions (IAAPA) 287 angling  19–20 fishing 217 Leisure Specialization Continuum  312 animal ethics  20–21, 180 Annapurna Conservative Area Project/ Programme (ACAP)  23–24, 43, 134, 507 Antarctic regions, Polar tourism  380 Antarctic tourism  24–25 International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO) 287 Lindblad Expeditions  315 Antarctica Treaty Guidelines  80 appreciative inquiry  25 approach distance  25 appropriate development  29–30 appropriate tourism  31–32 aquaculture  32, 217 aquarium  32 ArcGIS package  229 architecture  32–33 Arctic regions, Polar tourism  380 arctic tourism  33–35 artificial reef  35–37 artificial reefs  50 battleship sinking case study  37 arts tourists, cultural tourism  123 Asia Pacific Economic Co-operation (APEC) 84 Aspen Institute  37 assessment  38 Association of Arctic Expedition Cruise Operators (AECO)  35,  38 astrotourism  38–39 space tourism  457–458 auditing  39 accreditation 5 ISO 14001 302

Australian Eco-Certification Program  5,  39–40 Australian Research Institute for Environment and Sustainability (ARIES)  40, 170 authenticity  40–41 and Disneyfication  149 quality tourism  403 tourist trap  498 aviation carbon footprint  65 see also airlines awards  41–42 accreditation 6 ecolabels 157 green tourism  247 AWARE (Aquatic World Awareness, Responsibility and Education)  398 back boiler  43 backpackers  43–47 accommodation 2 Leisure Specialization Continuum  312 Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) 315 and quality, case study  45–47 backwash effects  47–48 balance  47 balance of payments  48 baseline  48–49 battleship sinking, case study  37 beach degradation  136 beach erosion, adaptation  8 beaches  49–50 access 1 blue flag  56–57 disabilities 148 reclamation 409 Surf Life Saving Australia  469 benchmarking  50 accreditation  5, 6 best practice  54 carbon footprint  65 ecological footprinting  159 environmental quality  186 Green Globe  244 hospitality 3 benefits (marketing sense)  50–51 benefits (social and psychological)  51 volunteer tourism  522 BEST EN (Building Excellence for Sustainable Tourism - an Educational Network)  51–53

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best practices  53–54 with CAST  66 in environmental management  42 Tourism for Tomorrow Awards  492 bilateral agreement  54 billfish angling, case study  22–23 biodiversity 90 consumptive tourism  108 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)  110 and endemic species  175 environmental impact  181 European Habits Directive  197 Great Barrier Reef  241, 243 hunting 270 International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)  293 monitoring 333 NGOs interest in  360 protected areas  398 The Nature Conservancy (TNC)  352 biodiversity (biological diversity)  54–55 biodiversity loss deforestation 134 preservation 393 biofuels  55 carbon management  65 biomass  56 birdwatching  56–57 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands  409 soundscape 456 blue flag (beaches)  56–57 accreditation 5 beaches 50 certification 70 ecolabels 157 border  57–58 bouldering 74–75 brain, and communication  88 brands  58–59 destination branding  141 Holidays Forever (Thomson)  263 intellectual property  286 Brazilian Standard NBR ABNT 15.401 Sustainable Management for Accommodations  59 BRICs (Brazil, Russia, India and China)  59–60 British Mountaineering Council (BMC)  75 Brundtland Commision/Report  60–61, 146, 154, 178, 188, 320, 471–472, 476 Bryan postulates on recreational activity  313 budget airline see low-cost aviation

Business Enterprise for Sustainable Tourism (BEST)  52 business tourism  61 meetings, incentives, conferences and exhibitions (MICE) tourism  327 calypso  62 camping  62–63 accommodation 2 drive tourism  153 tramping 500 capacity building  63 goals 90 capacity development  63–64 GIZ 232 capital  64 political economy  383 carbon emissions, transport  502 carbon footprinting  65, 159 consumptive tourism  108 ecological footprinting  159–160 carbon management  65–66 International Social and Environmental Accreditation and Labelling Alliance (ISEAL)  291 polluter pays principle  385 carbon offsetting  66 carbon-dioxide emissions, and climate change 72 career see travel career ladder Caribbean Alliance for Sustainable Tourism (CAST)  66 carrying capacity  66–68 Cartagena Convention  68 case studies adventure tourism segmentation  323 backpackers and quality  45–47 battleship sinking  37 billfish angling  22–23 charter boat fishing in Australia  218 children are not tourist attractions  523–524 China, nature-based tourism  350–352 community-based ecotourism in Cambodia 92–93 cycle trials, Ystwyth Trial  130–131 genealogy tourism in Scotland  357–358 impacts of off-road vehicles in protected areas in Australia  182–183 intrepid and gender equality  226 Kelvedon Hatch Nuclear Bunker  259–261 land divers of Pentecost  124–126

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case studies (continued) Maldives 301–302 marine multipliers - local economic impacts of dolphin watching 342 motorcyclist tourist in Wales, case study  335–336 mountain biking  337–338 mountain gorilla tracking, Rwanda 105–106 networks in adventure tourism  354 pilgrimage tourism in Kevelaer  377–378 rock climbing in protected areas  75–77 sustainability and the Olympic Games 462–463 teaching ethics and responsible practice  192 trekking porters rights  269–270 voluntary guidelines, Pacific Rim National Park Reserve  82–83 whale shark tourism  26–29 Wild Scotland’s Wilderness Guide Training Programme  157 wind energy as a sustainable tourist attraction 537–540 Centre International de Recherches et d’Etudes Youristiques (CIRET)  68 Ceredigion Marine Heritage Coast Code of Conduct 80 Certificate for Sustainable Tourism (CST), Costa Rica  68–69, 546 certification  69–70 accounting 4 accreditation 5 blue flag  56 ecolabels 157 Green Globe  244 green tourism  247 hotels 266 International Tourism Partnership (ITP)  292 ISO  14001 303 Sustainable Tourism Eco-Certification Program (STEP), USA  480 Viabono 516 change management  70–71 charter boat fishing in Australia, case study  218 child prostitution  174–175 children are not tourist attractions, case study  523–524 China, nature-based tourism, case study 350–352

CITES see Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) citizen science  71–72, 209 National Audubon Society (‘Audibon’)  343 climate change  72–73 adaptation  8, 72 and biodiversity  54 and conservation tourism  104 coral bleaching  111 deforestation 134 and dependency  140 diversification 150 and emissions  172 and energy management  175 and the environment  177 environmental impact  181 environmental policy  185 GIZ 232 Great Barrier Reef  242 low-carbon tourism  317 radiative forcing  407 renewable energy (green energy)  415 resilience 417 sea-level change  433 seasonality 435 The Nature Conservancy (TNC)  352 UNEP 511 water  526, 527 World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)  548 climbing  73–77 Adventure Activities Licensing Authority (AALA) 10 mountaineering 339 co-creation  77–79 co-management  80 Co-Opting Customer Competence  77 code of practice, Adventure Activities Licensing Authority (AALA)  10 codes of behaviour, SCUBA-diving  438 codes of conduct (guidelines)  80–83 accreditation 6 Arctic 35 fishing 217 codes of ethics  80–81,  83–84, 190 collaboration  85 social networking  451 colonialism  85–86 post-colonialism 387 combined heat and power (CHP)  86 commercialization  86–87 adventure tourism  12 ecotourism 167

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commercialization of adventure activities  10 commodification  87 and gentrification  228 indigenous people  281 McDonaldization 326 of tourism experiences  40–41 common pool resource  87 communication  87–88 destination branding  142 interpretation 295 relationship marketing  414 communities and customs  129 growth management  252 host/guest 265 human capital  266 informed consent  282 rural communities  285 small 71 community  88–90 and distributive justice  150 and geotourism  232 Planning for Real  379 Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA) 477 welfare 529 community agency  90 community-based ecotourism (CBET)  165 in Cambodia, case study  92–93 outreach 363 Stichting Nederlandse Verijwilligers (SNV) 467 community-based natural resource management (CBNRM)  90–91 community-based tourism  90–94 and education  170 homestay 264 Journal of Sustainable Tourism  304 pro-poor tourism (PPT)  394 Rinjani Ecotrek Program  423 social tourism  453 community benefits agreement  94 community capacity  94–95 community development  95–96 indigenous people  281 skills 443 community dimension  31 community groups, environmental education 179 community involvement, participation  366 community mapping  96–98 community of practice (CoP)  98–99

community resilience  99 community tourism, BEST EN  52 community well-being  99–100 Community-based Participatory Research  368–369 compact cities  100 conferences  100 conflict, peace through tourism  371 conflict management  100–101 balance 47 consensus building, and conflict management 101 conservation  101–103 angling 20 Australian Eco-Certification Program  40 community based  91 and energy management  175 of the environment  177 and environmentalism  187 European Habits Directive  197 fishing 217 heritage 258 impact 273 International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)  293 marine protected area (META)  321 national parks  343 nature 346 nature-based tourism  348 Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA)  365 protected areas  398 The Nature Conservancy (TNC)  352 Visitor Activity Management Process (VAMP) 517 wilderness 533 zoo 554 conservation tourism  103–104 ecochic 155 ecotourism 165 mountain gorilla tracking, Rwanda, case study  105–106 conspicuous consumption  104–107 consultancy, GIZ  232 consultation  107 consumption. carbon footprint  65 consumptive (extractive) and non-consumptive tourism  108–109 fishing 217 contingent valuation method (CVM)  109–110 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)  110 Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)  110, 271

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Cooperative Research Centre for Sustainable Tourism (CRCST)  110–111 coral bleaching  111 coral cay conservation (CCC)  111–112 coral reefs  112 adaptation 8 Great Barrier Reef  242 International Coral Reef Action Network (ICRAN)  288 International Year of the Reef (IYOR) 294 resilience 418 see also self-contained underwater breathing apparatus core-periphery (centre-periphery)  112 corporate social responsibility (CSR) 47, 112–114 BEST EN  52 discrimination 149 hotels 266 reporting 416 responsible tourism  421 cost-benefit analysis (CBA)  163 Costa Rica Certificate for Sustainable Tourism (CST)  68–69 Cost Rican Tourism Board  68 couchsurfing  114 countryside  114–115 landscape 307 Couran Cove Resort  115 creative tourists, cultural tourism  123 creativity  115–116 crime  116–117 respectful travelling  420 social and cultural impact  447 terrorism 482 crime and disruption  51 crisis  117–120 criteria see certification Critical Action Research  368 critical friend  120 cruise ships climate change  73 grey water  251 transport 501 cruise tourism  120–121 island tourism  300 cultural activities, ethnic tourism  193 cultural capital  64,  122 slow tourism  444 sustainability 473

Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA)  478 and well-being  100 cultural events  203 cultural heritage  258 environmental policy  185 cultural relativism  122 cultural services, ecosystem services  164 cultural sustainability, quadruple bottom line (QBL) 402 cultural tourism  123–126 and creativity  116 homestay 264 Niche tourism  356 visitor impact management (VIM)  520 culture  127–128 food tourism  219 heritage tourism  261 hunting 270 impacts 273 intergovernmental organizations (IGO)  286 culture shock  128 cultures and appropriate tourism  32 arctic 34 customs  128–129 cultural tourism  123 cycle tourism  129–130 cycle trials, Ystwyth Trial, case study  130–131 dark tourism  132–134 decision making  133–134 quadruple bottom line (QBL)  402 deforestation  134–136 and the environment  177 environmental impact  181 Greenpeace 249 Rainforest Alliance  408 degradation  136 degrowth  136 demand management  136–137 revenue management  422 demonstration effect  137–138 dependency  138–141 dependency theory  140 impacts 272 new peasantry  355 desalination  141 destination branding  141–142, 308 adventure tourism  12 food tourism  220

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destination management  142–143 carrying capacity  67 destination management system (DMS)  143 European Tourism Indicator System  199 destination marketing  144, 308 homestay 264 Sustainable marketing  479 Travel  2.0 504 destination marketing/management organizations (DMOs)  145 creativity 116 development  145–147 capacity development  63–64 Human Development Index  266 modernization theory  332 socio-economic transformation  454 tourism development  492 development agencies, GIZ  232 digital technology  147 see also information technology (IT) direct marketing  147,  147 Sustainable marketing  479 disability  148 access 1 Disability Discrimination Act (1995)  148 discrimination  148–149 Disneyfication  149 distributive justice  149–150 and development  146 and equity  188 dive tourism see Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI); self-contained underwater breathing apparatus diversification  150–151 farm tourism  214 resources 419 domestic tourism  151–152 downsizing  151 drive tourism  152–153 grey nomad  250 motorcycle tourism  334 Dutch disease  153 resources 419 e-commerce  160 Earth Summit  154 Green Globe  244 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development 424 EarthCheck  154

eco-leisure  157–158 Ecocamping  154–155 ecocentric  155 ecocentrism, animal ethics  20 ecochic  155 ecoclub  155–156 ecoguide  156–157 ecolabels  157 accreditation 6 Green Globe  244 Green Key  245 hotels 266 ecolodges  158–159 community-based tourism 91 ecological footprinting  159–160 International Year of Ecotourism (IYE, IYE 2002) 294 ecological tourism, WWOOF (WWOOFing) 548 economic growth  160–161 and degrowth  136 and environmentalism  187 Europe 2020 Strategy 194 European Union  201 free trade  223 innovation 282–283 welfare 529 economic impact assessment see impact assessment economic impacts  161–163, 272 artificial reef  36 ethics 190 events 204 mitigation 331 World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC)  547 see also impacts economic valuation  163–164 economy of scale  164 ecosystem services  164 ecosystems  164 arctic 34 environment issues  176 environmental management  184 International Coral Reef Action Network (ICRAN)  288 mangroves 320 National Audubon Society (‘Audibon’) 343 native species  346 resilience 418

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ecotourism  165–167 Australian Eco-Certification Program  40 certification  5, 69 and cultural capital  122 and dependency  140 environmental consciousness  179 ethical tourism  189 experiental education  208 International Year of Ecotourism (IYE, IYE 2002) 293 Journal of Ecotourism  304 pro-poor tourism (PPT)  394 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands  409 The International Ecotourism Society (TIES) 483 visitor impact management (VIM)  519 volunteer tourism  523 ecotourism Australia  39–40,  168 Ecotourism Society see International Ecotourism Society (TIES) ecotourists, and ecovillages  169 ecovillage  168–169 EDEN see European Destinations of Excellence (EDEN) education  170 experiental education  207–208 heritage tourism  261 integrated rural tourism  285 Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA) 365 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) 369 peace through tourism  371 poverty alleviation  390 Tourism Educational Future Initiatives (TEFI)  492 United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD) 508–509 zoo 554 Education for Sustainability (EfS)  40,170 environmental education  179 Education for Sustainable Development (UNESCO) 375 education and training, as culture  127 educational events  203 educational tourism  170–171 philosophical tourism  375 pilgrimage 376 youth tourism  551 EMAS see European Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS)

emissions (carbon emissions)  172 airlines 15 carbon offsetting  66 low-carbon tourism  317 emotion  172 empowerment  172–173 community  89, 95 and education  170 heritage tourism  262 integrated rural tourism  285 local communities  90 participation 366 enclaves  173–174 End Child Prostitution in Asia Tourism (ECPAT)  174–175 sex tourism  439–440 endemic species  175 energy management  175 entrance fees  176 environment  176–178 artificial reef  35 conservation 101 consumptive tourism  108 green tourism  247 growth fetish  252 habitat 254 mountaineering 339 New Environmental Paradigm (NEP) 355 NGOs interest in  359 regeneration 414 sustainability 471 sustainability performance evaluation 474 visitor management  521 wind energy  536 World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) 548 see also sustainable development environmental consciousness  179 at Earth Summit  154 grey nomads  251 slow tourism  444 environmental degrowth  136 environmental destruction, from economic regeneration 163 environmental education  179 Green Flag International  243 environmental ethics  179–180 environmental health  180 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)  184 feasibility study  215

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environmental impacts  181–183, 273 adaptive architecture  9 all-inclusive resorts (AI resorts)  18 alternative tourism  18 artificial reefs  36 climate change  72 corporate and social responsibility (CSR) 113 ecological footprinting  159 ethics 190 European Tourism Indicator System  199 events 204 food miles  218 mass tourism  326 mining 331 political ecology  382 quality of life  402 environmental management  184 blue flags  56–57 corporate and social responsibility (CSR) 113 EMAS scheme  197 and energy management  175 Green Globe  244 Green Key  246 impact 274 International Federation of Tour Operators (IFTO)  290 International Tourism Partnership (ITP) 292 new peasantry  355 systems 16 Tourism for Tomorrow Awards  493 environmental management system (EMS)  184 and EarthCheck  154 ISO  14001 302 environmental non-governmental organization (ENGO)  185 environmental policy  185 precautionary principle  391 environmental protection, ECEAT  196 environmental quality  186 impact 273 Total Quality Management (TQM)  486 environmental supply  186 environmental value, quadruple bottom line (QBL) 402 environmentalism  186–188 and nature  347 equitable allocation of resources  286 Equitable Tourism Options (EQUATIONS)  188

equity  188 human rights  268 intergeneration equity  286 Justice tourism  305 erosion  189 beaches 49 deforestation 134 environmental impact  181 ethical consciousness, and equity  188 ethical consumption, Fair Trade  210 ethical perspectives, quality of life  402 ethical tourism  189–190 Niche tourism  357 respectful travelling  420 responsible tourism  421 Tourism Concern  491 ethics  190–192 access 2 accounting 4 action research  8 Adventure Travel Trade Association  13 environmental ethics  179–180 fishing 217 Global Code of Tourism Ethics  233 human rights  268 impact 274 indigenous people  280 moral geography  334 philosophic practitioner  374 teaching ethics and responsible practice, case study  192 Tragedy of the Commons (Hardin)  500 World Committee on Tourism Ethics (WCTE) 543 ethnic tourism  193–194 Europe  2020 Strategy (EU-2020)  194–196 European Centre for Ecological and Agricultural Tourism (ECEAT)  196 European Destinations of Excellence (EDEN)  197 European Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS)  197 European Habitats Directive  197–198 European Master in Tourism Management (EMTM)  198 European Semester  196 European Tourism Day  198 European Tourism Forum  199 European Tourism Indicator System  199–200 European Tourism Policy  200 Tourism Sustainability Group (TSG)  496

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European Union  200–202 GIZ 233 European Year of Tourism  202–203 Europhication  203 event  203–206 experience economy  206–207 creativity 115 experiental education  207–208 externality  208–209 fair trade  210–211 and equity  188 Fair Trade Tourism South Africa (FTTSA)  212 fair-trade tourism  211–212 peace through tourism  371 farm diversification  150–151 farm tourism  212–215 homestay 264 new peasantry  355 soft tourism  455 Women’s Agrotourism Cooperatives (WAC) 541 feasibility study  215 Federation of Tour Operator’s Travelife Sustainability Handbook  268 film tourism  215–216 fishing  217–218 artificial reef  36 charter boat fishing in Australia, case study  218 International Social and Environmental Accreditation and Labelling Alliance (ISEAL)  291 seasonality 434 food miles  218–219 food supply networks, food tourism  220 food tourism  219–222 heritage tourism  262 footprint indicators, sustainability performance evaluation  475 foreign direct investment (FDI)  222 economic growth  161 globalization 240 fossil fuels  55 Framework convention on Climate Change 154 free independent traveller (FIT)  222–223 free trade  223 privatization 394 World Trade Organization (WTO)  547

freedom to roam, right of ways 423 Friends of the Earth (FoE)  185, 223 Gaia Hypothesis  224, 346 gaze  224 gender  224–226 intrepid and gender equality, case study  226 protection 400 sex tourism  439–440 Women’s Agrotourism Cooperatives (WAC) 541 gender equality, GIZ  232 genealogy tourism in Scotland, case study  357–358 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)  227, 547 General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) 227 generation  227–228 Generation Y  43 gentrification  228 Geographical Information Systems (GIS)  50, 228–229 geological time  229–230, 484 geopark  230 geotourism  231–232 space tourism  457 German Agency for International Cooperation (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ))  232–233 Gini Coefficients, less-developed countries 313 GIS see Geographical Information Systems (GIS) Global Code of Tourism Ethics (UNWTO)  233 human rights  268–269 respectful travelling  420 (UNWTO) 511 World Committee on Tourism Ethics (WCTE) 543 global dimming  233–234 Global Partnership for Sustainable Tourism  234, 292 Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC) 5–7, 235–236 Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria 235, 236–237

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global warming  237 Greenpeace 249 International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)  293 United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD) 508 global-local nexus  234 globalization  238–240 and the environment  177 International Year of the Mountains (IYM) 294 McDonaldization 326 peace through tourism  371 postmodern society  389 Third Way (TW)  484 of trade and dependency  140 governance  240 adaptive co-management  9 and co-management  80 and equity  188 Europe 2020 Strategy  194 and globalization  239 host/guest 265 policy cascade  382 politics of tourism  385 Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA)  241–242 externality 209 marine protected area (META)  322 zoning 554 Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (GBRWHA) 185, 243 green energy see renewable energy Green Flag International  243–244 Green Globe accreditation  5 ecolabels 157 Green Globe (formerly Green Globe 21)  244 green guides  245 Green Hospitality Award (Ireland)  42 green issues  245 green jobs  245 Green Key  245–246 Green Paper on the Role of the Union in the Field of Tourism (COM(95)97 final of 04.04.1995)  246 Green Seal, USA  246 green tourism  247–248 certification 69 Journal of Sustainable Tourism  304

Green Tourism Business Scheme (GTBS)  248 greenhouse gases (GHGs)  65, 248–249 carbon footprints  65 global dimming  234 impact 273 radiative forcing  407 sustainability performance evaluation  475 Greenpeace 185, 249 greenwashing  249–250 accreditation 5 Sustainable Tourism Eco-Certification Program (STEP), USA  480 grey nomads  250–251 as backpackers  43 life cycle (of people)  314 grey water  251–252 growth, participation  366 growth fetish  252 privatization 394 growth management  252–253 growth management strategies, amenity migration 19 Guidance of Visitors to the Antarctic Code of Conduct 81 habitats  254 artificial reef  35 and biodiversity  54 and biomass  56 destruction and ecosystem services  164 and endemic species  175 environmental management  184 European Habits Directive  197 Great Barrier Reef  242 International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW) 290 National Audubon Society (‘Audibon’) 343 native species  346 removal by deforestation  134 The Nature Conservancy (TNC)  352 whale-watching 532 wildlife management  535 World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) 548 hard tourism  254 health and safety  254–257 adventure tourism  11 airports 15 human resource management (HRM)  267 SCUBA diving  438

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health tourism  257–258 all-inclusive resorts (AI resorts)  18 wellness tourism  531 heritage  258–261 and culture  128 and Disneyfication  149 eco-leisure 158 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 184 ethnic tourism  193 geoparks 230 Global Code of Tourism Ethics  233 Global Sustainable Tourism Council  235 impacts 273 Kelvedon Hatch Nuclear Bunker, case study  259–261 Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA)  365 World Heritage  544 heritage tourism  261–262 architecture 33 cultural tourism  123 International Council for Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS)  289 mining 331 Niche tourism  356 railways 407 visitor impact management (VIM)  520 hiking  263 camping 62 Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC)  315 tramping 500 trekking 506 Holidays Forever  263–264 Homestay  264 hospitality  265 integrated resort  284 portion control  386 hospitality industry, integrated rural tourism 285 host community, demonstration effect  137 host-guest equilibrium  31–32 host-guest relations and crime  117 impacts 273 social tourism  453 host/guest studies  265 hotels  265–266 see also accommodation human capital  64, 266 NGOs interest in  360 social and cultural impact  447 and well-being  100

Human Development Index  266–267 human resource management (HRM)  267 human rights  268–269 and codes of ethics  83 corporate and social responsibility (CSR) 113 cultural relativism  122 and development  147 and equity  188 Fair Trade  210 GIZ 232 indigenous people  280 Justice tourism  305 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 329–330 peace through tourism  371 protection 400 Tourism Concern  490 trekking porters rights, case study  269–270 hunting  270–271 seasonality 434 wildlife management  535 IAATO see International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO) ICM, ICZM see Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) IFAW see International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW) impact assessment  275–276 impacts  272–275 airports 17 crime 118 domestic tourism  151 on the environment, Brundtland Report 60–61 environmental management  184 film tourism  216 of globalization  238 green issues  245 green tourism  248 hard tourism  254 heritage tourism  262 host/guest 265 hunting 270 impact analysis  274–275 Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC)  315 reclamation 409 visitor impact management (VIM)  519 see also economic impacts

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impacts of off-road vehicles in protected areas in Australia, case study  182–183 inbound tourism  277 Dutch disease  153 inclusive growth, Europe 2020 Strategy  195 independent travel see free independent traveller (FIT) indicators  277–280 Human Development Index  267 for less-developed countries  313 monitoring 333 indigenous cultures ethnic tourism  193 heritage tourism  261 impacts 273 indigenous people  280 colonialism 85 and equity  188 Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria  237 International Year of Ecotourism (IYE, IYE 2002)  294 managing change  71 indigenous tourism  280–281 nature-based tourism  349 informal employment  282 information technology (IT)  282 experience economy  207 grey nomads  250 information and communications technology (ICT)  78–79 relationship marketing  414 skills 442 see also digital technology informed consent  282 infrastructures, and degrowth  136 innovation  282–283 LEADER community initiative  309 social networking  451 Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)  283–284 integrated quality management (IQM)  284 integrated resort  284–285 integrated rural tourism  285 rural tourism  429 integration  285 intellectual property  286 inter/intragenerational equity  188 interest group see pressure group intergenerational equity  286 intergovernmental organizations (IGO)  286 International Air Transport Association (IATA)  287

International Association of Amusement Parks and Attractions (IAAPA)  287 International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO)  287 International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)  287–288 International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) 121, 288 International Coral Reef Action Network (ICRAN)  288 International Council for Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS)  289, 289 International Ecotourism Society (TIES)  51, 289 International Ecotourism Society (TIES) see The International Ecotourism Society (TIES) International Federation of Tour Operators (IFTO)  290 International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW)  290 International Hotel and Restaurant Association (IHRA)  290 International Hotels and Environment Initiative (IHEI)  290 International Institute for Peace through Tourism 370 International Labour Organization (ILO)  291 International Maritime Organization (IMO) 121 International Polar Year (IPY)  34, 291 International Social and Environmental Accreditation and Labelling Alliance (ISEAL)  237, 291, 291–292 International Student Travel Confederation  44 International Task Force on Sustainable Tourism Development (ITF-STD)  234, 292 Marrakech Process  325 international tourism  70, 292 International Tourism Partnership (ITP)  292–293 International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)  293, 344, 399 marine protected area (META)  321 International Year of Ecotourism (IYE, IYE 2002) 165, 293–294, 344, 543 International Year of the Mountains (IYM)  294 International Year of the Ocean (YOTO)  294 International Year of the Reef (IYOR)  294 interpretation  295–298 and geotourism  231

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INTERREG  298 intrepid and gender equality, case study  226 involvement see Leisure Specialization Continuum island tourism  72, 298–302 fishing 217 Maldives, case study  301–302 ISO 14001  302–303 EarthCheck 154 IUCN Red Data Book  303 Journal of Ecotourism  304 Journal of Sustainable Tourism  304–305 justice tourism  305 Kelvedon Hatch Nuclear Bunker, case study  259–261 knowledge  306 and best practice  54 capacity development  64 and education  170 and educational tourism  171 environmental education  179 and globalization  239 human capital  266 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)  369 skills 443 knowledge and culture  127 labour see International Labour Organization (ILO) labour turnover  307 LAC see Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) ‘Ladder of Sustainable Development’ (Baker) 472 Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area, marine protected area (META)  322 land divers of Pentecost case study  124–126 cultural tourism  124–126 landscape  307–308 landscape degradation  308 LEADER (community initiative)  308–310 seven key features  309 leakage  310 learning organization  310–311 leisure  311 eco-leisure 157–158 and gentrification  228 leisure class  311–312 Leisure Specialization Continuum  312–313

less-developed countries (LDC)  313 acculteration 7 aid 14 appropriate development  30 conservation tourism  104 dependency 139 Dutch disease  153 enclaves 173–174 Fair Trade  210 homestay 264 indigenous people  280 informal unemployment  282 leakage 310 livelihood 316 modernization theory  332 new peasantry  355 poverty alleviation  389 pro-poor tourism (PPT)  395 skills 443 Stichting Nederlandse Verijwilligers (SNV) 467 The Nature Conservancy (TNC)  352 user fees  513 volunteer tourism  522 water 527 life cycle (of people)  313–314 life cycle (of tourism products)  314–315 Green Seal certification  246 life cycle theory  67 Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC)  315 Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS) 411 Lindblad Expeditions  315 linkingthinking  315–316 livelihoods  316 human capital  266 mangroves 320 poverty alleviation  389 stewardship 467 Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA)  477 visitor impact management (VIM)  520 Liverpool Culture Company  99 lobbying  316 Greenpeace 249 International Hotel and Restaurant Association (IHRA)  290 not in my backyard (NIMBY) syndrome 361 pressure groups  393 Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) 428

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local communities ECEAT 196 LEADER community initiative  309 London Olympic Games  205 low-carbon tourism  316–318 low-cost aviation  318–319 luxury  319 Maldives, case study  301–302 Malé Declaration on Sustainable Development  320 mangroves  320–321 deforestation 134 Marine Ecotourism for the Atlantic Area (META)  320 marine multipliers - local economic impacts of dolphin watching, case study  342 marine parks, as public goods  401 marine protected area (MPA)  321–322 mark-up  322–323 market segmentation  323 adventure tourism segmentation, case study  323 Niche tourism  356 marketing mix  324 promotion 398 MARPOL  324 Marrakech Process  324–325 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs  436 mass tourism  18, 31,  325–326 economic impact  162 and the environment  178 environmental impact  181 and ethical tourism  189 hard tourism  254 International Year of the Mountains (IYM)  294 leakage 310 Niche tourism  356 social tourism  452 sun, sea and sand (3S) tourism  468 McDonaldization  326–327 meetings, incentives, conferences and exhibitions (MICE) tourism  327 mentoring, capacity development  64 metaproblem  327–329 MICE see meetings, incentives, conferences and exhibitions (MICE) tourism microbusinesses see small-to-medium-sized enterprise (SME) microfinance  329

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 147, 329–331, 545 human rights  268 UNWTO 511 mining  331 mitigation  331–332 mitigation options, and conflict management 101 mobilities, BEST EN  52 mobility  332 postmodern society  389 modernization and dependency  139 development 145 modernization theory  332–333 monitoring  333 accreditation 6 beaches 50 and codes of conduct  81 European Tourism Indicator System  199 International Coral Reef Action Network (ICRAN)  288 ISO 14001  303 moral geography  334 motorcycle tourism  334–336 motorcyclist tourist in Wales, case study  335–336 mountain biking  336–338 adventure tourism  12 case study  337–338 as cycle tourism  129 mountain gorilla tracking, Rwanda, case study 105–106 mountaineering  339–340 adventure tourism  11 climbing 73 International Year of the Mountains (IYM) 294 ‘Mountain Protection Award’ UIAA  340 MPA see marine protected area (MPA) multinational companies (MNCs)  340–341 global-local nexus  234 globalization 238 leakage 310 multiplier  342 economic impact  162 and enclaves  174 film tourism  215 marine multipliers - local economic impacts of dolphin watching, case study  342

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National Audubon Society (‘Audibon’)  343 national parks  343–344 accommodation 2 carrying capacity  67 conservation tourism  103 and the environment  178 green guides  245 grey nomads  251 protected areas  400 soundscape 456 willingness to pay (WTP)  536 national tourism authority (NTA)  344–345 National Tourism Organization (NTO)  345 EDEN 197 Tourist Board  498 National Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC) 24 native species  346 natural heritage  258 nature  346–347 The Nature Conservancy (TNC)  185,  352 nature park  353 nature tourism  72 nature-based tourism  31, 347, 348–352 Australian Eco-Certification Program  40 birdwatching 56 China, case study  350–352 ecoguide for  156 ecotourism 165 Great Barrier Reef  243 Journal of Ecotourism  304 spiritual tourism  460 visitor impact management (VIM)  519 NEAP see Australian Eco-Certification Program networks  353–354 in adventure tourism, case study  354 integrated rural tourism  285 social networking  450 New Environmental Paradigm (NEP)  355 new peasantry  355–356 newly industrializing countries (NICs)  356–357 NGO see non-governmental organization (NGO) Niche tourism  356–357 genealogy tourism in Scotland, case study  357–358 special-interest tourism  459 nominal group techniques, BEST EN  52 non-consumptive tourism see consumptive (extractive) and non-consumptive tourism

non-governmental organization (NGO)  54, 359–360 Ecocamping 154–155 global-local nexus  234 Greenpeace 249 stakeholders 465 not in my backyard (NIMBY) syndrome  361 oceans, International Year of the Ocean (YOTO)  294 Oil Spill Protocol  68 One Planet Living  206 Open Industry Forum, BEST EN  52 Open Source Geospatial Foundation (OSGeo) 229 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)  277 Organization for Timeshare in Europe (OTE) 486 outbound tourism  362 outdoor recreation  362–363 adventure tourism  11 and conservation  101–102 Leisure Specialization Continuum  312 Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS)  410 seasonality 434 outreach  363–364 Pacific Asia Travel/Tourism Association (PATA) 84, 365 package tour  365–366 palm oil  55 PAN Parks accreditation  5 participation  366–368 community development  95 and conflict management  100 disabilities 148 growth management  253 informed consent  282 Planning for Real  379 participatory action research (PAR)  368–369 Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) 368, 369 Geographical Information System (GIS) 229 partnerships  370 collaboration 85 Partnership for Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria  370

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peace through tourism  370–371 peak oil  371 peripherality  371–372 pleasure periphery  380 permits  373 angling 20 PEST Analysis  373 strategic planning  467 philosophic practitioner  374 philosophical tourism  374–375 responsible tourism  422 Philoxenia Programme  376 European Tourism Policy  200 pilgrimages  376–378 heritage tourism  261 mass tourism  325 pilgrimage tourism in Kevelaer, case study  377–378 religious tourism  414 sacred 431 slow tourism  445 spiritual tourism  460 place see sense of place planeta  378 planning  378–379 adaptive architecture  9 compact cities  100 impacts 274 indicators 278 integrated coastal zone management (ICZM)  283 not in my backyard (NIMBY) syndrome 361 strategic planning  467 SWOT Analysis  481 time 484 tourism planning  494 tourism policy  495 triple bottom line (TBL)  507 Planning for Real  379–380 pleasure periphery  380 island tourism  298 Polar tourism  380–381 policy cascade  382 political capital, Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA)  478 political ecology  382–383 social ecology  449 political economy  383–384 and the environment  177 and environmentalism  187

politics of tourism  385 power 391 terrorism 482 Third Way (TW)  484 pollutants, cruise tourism  121 polluter pays principle  385 pollution  385–386 and biodiversity  54 environmental impact  181 environmental policy  185 global dimming  234 Tragedy of the Commons (Hardin)  500 water 526 zoning 553 popular cultural tourists  123 portion control  386–387 post-colonialism  387–388 and indigenous tourism  280 post-tourism  388 postmodern society  388–389 postmodernity 417 poverty alleviation  389–390 and development  147 Fair Trade  210 Fair Trade tourism  211 Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria  236 indigenous people  281 less-developed countries  161 microfinance 329 NGOs interest in  360 UNWTO 511 World Bank  542 poverty reduction, and advanced wastewater treatment system (AWTS)  10 power  390–391 and education  170 and empowerment  172 and equity  188 globalization 239 moral geography  334 philosophic practitioner  374 post-colonialism 388 power sharing  80 privatization 394 stakeholders 465 and tourism gaze  224 precautionary principle  391–392 preservation  392–393 by ecocentrics  155 of the environment  177 impact 273 national parks  343

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preservation (continued) The Nature Conservancy (TNC)  352 Tragedy of the Commons (Hardin)  500 UNCLOS 508 wilderness 533 wildlife management  535 preservation/protection, angling  20 pressure group (interest groups, lobby groups)  393 price management  393–394 revenue management  422 privatization  394 pro-poor tourism (PPT)  394–396 Fair Trade tourism  211 peace through tourism  371 poverty alleviation  395 procurement  396 products  396–397 certification 69 mark-ups 322 precautionary principle  391 promotion 398 recycling 412 Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI)  397–398 see also self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA) profit margins portion control  387 see also mark-up project AWARE (Aquatic World Awareness, Responsibility and Education)  398 promotion  398 tourist information centre (TIC)  498 protected areas  398–400 conservation tourism  104 economic impact  163 EDEN 197 entrance fees  176 European Habitats Directive  197 geoparks 230 governance 80 International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)  293 Journal of Ecotourism  304 marine protected areas  399 national parks  353 nature 346 outdoor recreation  362 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands  409 Visitor Activity Management Process (VAMP) 517

visitor management  520 World Heritage  544 zoning 553 protection  400–401 ISO 14001  302 UNCLOS 508 World Surfing Reserves  546 public goods  401 quadruple bottom line (QBL)  402 quality European Tourism Forum  199 hotels 265 quality assurance, ECEAT  196 quality of life  30, 402 appropriate development  30 and capital  64 with community development  95 and community well-being  99 destination branding  142 and development  146 and economic growth  161 environmental health  180 Human Development Index  267 impact 272 indicators for LDCs  313 local communities  69 slow cities  444 slow tourism  444 social and cultural impact  447 tourism development  492 UNEP 510 wellness tourism  531 World Leisure Organisation (WLO) 545 zoning 553 quality management, Total Quality Management (TQM)  486 quality tourism  402–404 Quantum GIS (QGIS)  229 Québec Declaration on Ecotourism  404–405, 543 quiet enjoyment  406 hiking 263 soundscape 456 radioactive forcing  407 railways  407–408 mass tourism  326 transport 501

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Rainforest Alliance  408, 479 International Year of Ecotourism (IYE, IYE 2002)  293 Partnership for Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria  370 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands  409 Rapid Rural Appraisal see Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) reclamation 409 recreation  409–410 countryside 114–115 Great Barrier Reef  241 hunting 270 Leisure Specialization Continuum  312 national parks  343 outdoor recreation  362 quality of life  402 seasonality 434 visiting friends and relatives (VFR) tourism 517 Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS)  410–411 recycling  411–413 environmental consciousness  179 grey water  251 Red Data Book see IUCN Red Data Book reefs International Year of the Reef (IYOR) 294 see also coral reefs reflection  413 regeneration  414 relationship marketing  414 sustainable marketing  479 religious tourism  414–415 spiritual tourism  460 renewable energy carbon management  65 climate change  73 renewable energy (green energy)  415–416 reporting  416–417 codes of conduct  81 triple bottom line (TBL)  507 visitor impact management (VIM) 520 representation  417 resilience  417–418 resort see integrated resort resource management  419 GIZ 232 integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) 283

resources  418–419 compact cities  100 conservation 101 and distributive justice  150 and downsizing  151 indigenous people  280 for information technology (IT)  282 intergenerational equity  286 mining 331 preservation 392 Tragedy of the Commons (Hardin)  500 UNCLOS 508 water 526 water cycling  528 World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)  548 respectful travelling  420 responsible tourism  420–422 Adventure Travel Trade Association  13 and CAST  66 certification 69 characteristics 421 corporate and social responsibility (CSR) 113 ethical tourism  189 Global Code of Tourism Ethics  233 International Federation of Tour Operators (IFTO)  290 revenue management  422 demand management  136 price management  394 yield management  550 right of way  422–423 Rinjani Ecotrek Program  423 Rio +20, UN Conference on Sustainable Development  424 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development 84, 424, 545 precautionary principle  391 sustainable development  475 risk  425 climbing 74 events 204 hard tourism  254 health and safety  255, 257 motorcycle tourism  334 mountaineering 339 risk assessment  425–426 adventure tourism  11 risk management  426 health and safety  256 Journal of Ecotourism  304 terrorism 483

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rock climbing in protected areas, case study  75–77 Rocky Mountain Institute (RMI)  427 Role of Union in the field of Tourism, Green Paper  200 Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB)  427–428 rural cultural tourists  123 rural livelihoods  316 rural tourism  285, 428–429 agritourism 14 ECEAT 196 farm tourism  213 leakage 310 sacred  431 as a view of environment  176 sacred sites, heritage tourism  261 safety see health and safety sand pumping schemes  50 scale see policy cascade Scotland, Wild Scotland’s Wilderness Guide Training Programme  157 SCUBA see self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA) Sea Kayak Operators’ Association of New Zealand (SKOANZ)  432–433 sea-level change  433 seasonality  434–435 demand management  137 European Tourism Day  198 second-home tourism  435–436 timeshare 485–486 segmentation see market segmentation segmentation, see also market segmentation self-actualization  436 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs  436 spiritual tourism  460 self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA)  437–438 adventure tourism  11 certification 397 Great Barrier Reef  241 Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI)  397, 437 Project AWARE  398 sense of place  438–439 aesthetics 14 pilgrimage 376 soundscape 456 space 456

service dominant logic (S-D logic)  77 services, and distributive justice  149 sex tourism  439–440 The Sierra Club  440–441 Six Senses website/Resorts  3–4 ski tourism  441 adaptation 8 adventure tourism  12 all-inclusive resorts (AI resorts)  18 health and safety  256 seasonality 434 skills  442–443 and best practice  54 and education  170 and educational tourism  171 and empowerment  173 human capital  266 mountaineering 339 SKOANZ see Sea Kayak Operators’ Association of New Zealand (SKOANZ) slow cities (Cittáslow)  443–444 slow tourism  73, 444–446 angling 20 and the environment  178 Planeta 378 small-to-medium-sized enterprise (SME)  446 smart growth, Europe 2020 Strategy  195 SMART objective  447 Smart Voyager  447 SNV see Stichting Nederlandse Verijwilligers (SNV) social capital  64, 94, 448–449 social and cultural impact  447 and well-being  100 social and cultural impact  447–448 European Tourism Indicator System  199 social and cultural impacts all-inclusive resorts (AI resorts)  18 alternative tourism  18 ecological footprinting  160 social ecology  449 social impact assessment (SIA)  276 see also impact assessment social impacts corporate and social responsibility (CSR)  113 events 204 mitigation 331 social networking  450–452 globalization 239 travel blogs  504

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social sustainability, quadruple bottom line (QBL)  402 social tourism  452–454 calypso 62 social value, quadruple bottom line (QBL)  402 socio-economic impacts, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)  184 socio-economic transformation  454 mangroves 320 sociocultural impacts, ethics  190 soft tourism  454–455 solar power  455 soundscape  455–456 spa tourism see wellness tourism space  456 space tourism  457–458 typology 457 spatial reorganization  458–459 special-interest tourism  72, 459 Niche tourism  356 specialization see Leisure Specialization Continuum Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife Protocol 68 Spencer’s waterfall model  79 spiritual tourism  459–461 sport climbing  74 sport tourism  461–463 sustainability and the Olympic Games, case study  462–463 spread effects  463 and enclaves  174 stakeholders  463–466 accounting 4 action research  8 adaptive co-management  9 carbon management  65 consultation 107 power 391 relationship marketing  414 sustainable tourism advocacy  14 standards environmental quality  186 ISO 14001  302 start-up costs  466 staycation  466 steady-state tourism  466 stewardship  467 of the environment  177 geotourism 232 Stichting Nederlandse Verijwilligers (SNV)  467

strategic planning  467–468 strong sustainable development  468 green tourism  247 weak sustainable development  468, 529 sun, sea and sand (3S) tourism  468 surf break  468–469 surf break protection  469 Surf Life Saving Australia  469 surf tourism  470 surfing  470 health and safety  256 seasonality 434 sustainability  470–473 action research  8 beaches, long term  49 degredation 136 Education for Sustainability (EfS)  170 EMTM 198 environmental supply  186 and ethics  190 European Tourism Forum  199 European Tourism Indicator System  199 Gaia Hypothesis  224 geological time  229 green tourism  247 health and safety  255 host/guest 265 information technology (IT) issues  282 International Year of Ecotourism (IYE, IYE 2002)  293 ‘Ladder of Sustainable Development’ (Baker) 472 political ecology  382 portion control  387 preservation 393 quality tourism  403 renewable energy (green energy)  415 resources 418 stewardship 467 sustainability performance evaluation  474–475 The Tragedy of the Commons (Hardin)  472 time 484 Tourism Sustainability Group (TSG)  497 and well-being  100 sustainability and the Olympic Games, case study  462–463 sustainable development  476–477 and codes of ethics  83 compact cities  100 environmental health  180 environmental impact  181

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sustainable development (continued) and equity  188 externality 208 Fair Trade  210 geoparks 230 GIZ 232 Green Flag International  243 Green Key  246 growth fetish  252 hotels 266 indicators 278 innovation 283 leakage 310 Malé Declaration on Sustainable Development 320 metaproblems 328 monitoring 333 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands  409 strong sustainable development  468 The Nature Conservancy (TNC)  352 Tour Operators Initiative for Sustainable Development 488–489 Tragedy of the Commons (Hardin)  500 United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD) 508 United Nations Department for Policy Coordination and Sustainable Development 509 UNWTO 511 weak sustainable development  529 World Summit on Sustainable Development 545 sustainable growth, Europe 2020 Strategy 194 Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA) 122, 477–478 pro-poor tourism (PPT)  395 Sustainable marketing  479 Marine Ecotourism for the Atlantic Area (META)  320 sustainable rural development  285 sustainable tourism  189 ethical tourism  189 Global Code of Tourism Ethics  233 Sustainable Tourism Certification Network of the Americas  479–480 Sustainable Tourism Eco-Certification Program (STEP), USA  480–481 Sustainable Tourism Stewardship Council (STSC) 479, 481, 546 sustainable transition see time

SWOT Analysis  481 strategic planning  467 system see tourism system teaching ethics and responsible practice, case study  192 technological fix  482 technological obsolescence  79 technology  482 terrorism  482–483 and crime  117 and crisis  118 The International Ecotourism Society (TIES)  483 Theory of Circular and Cumulative Causation (Myrdal)  47 Think Tanks, BEST EN  52–53 Third Way (TW)  484 time  484–485 geological time  229, 484 for globalization  238 heritage issues  258 timeshare  485–486 TNC see Nature Conservancy (TNC) Total Quality Management (TQM)  486–487 tour guides  487–488 accreditation 6 and ecotourism  166 visitor centres  518 tour operators  488 package tours  365 Tour Operators Initiative for Sustainable Development  488–489 tourism  489 leisure 311 Tourism Area Life Cycle (TALC)  489–490 theory 67 Tourism Concern  490–491 Fair Trade tourism  212 tourism development  491–492 economic impact  161 environmental policy  185 Global Code of Tourism Ethics  233 impact assessment  275 informed consent  282 lobbying 316 National Tourism Authority (NTA)  344 politics of tourism  385 and quality of life  161 rural tourism  428

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Tourism Educational Future Initiatives (TEFI)  492 Tourism for Tomorrow Awards  15, 23, 157, 492–494 tourism gaze  224 tourism impact see impact tourism management  494 and crime  117 EMTM 198 Total Quality Management (TQM)  486 welfare 529 tourism planning  494–495 impacts 274 policy cascade  382 tourism policy  495–496 tourism satellite account (TSA)  496 Tourism Sustainability Council (TSC)  496 Tourism Sustainability Group (TSG)  496–497 European Tourism Indicator System  199 tourism system  497–498 Tourist Board  498 tourist information centre (TIC)  498 tourist trap  498–499 Traditional Livelihood  499–500 Tragedy of the Commons (Hardin)  500 common pool resource  87 sustainable development  476 training see education; skills tramping 263, 500 transnational companies/corporations (TNCs) 341 see also multinational companies (MNCs) transport  501–503 airline 15 consumptive tourism  108 mass tourism  326 railways 407 trekking 505 travel 2.0  503–504 travel agents  504 free independent traveller (FIT)  223 package tours  365 travel blog  504 Travel Career Ladder  504–505 life cycle (of people)  314 Travel Foundation  505 traveller (traveler)  505 trekking  505–507 Adventure Activities Licensing Authority (AALA)  10 camping 62 mountaineering 339

trekking porters rights, case study 269–270 triple bottom line (TBL) accounting  4, 507 price management  394 turnover see labour turnover United Nations (UN)  508 GIZ 233 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)  154, 476, 545 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)  508 United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable Development (DESD)  508–509 United Nations Department for Policy Coordination and Sustainable Development  509 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 286, 509–510, 544 United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)  235, 286, 370, 510–511, 543 United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO)  235, 278, 286, 370, 389, 395, 418, 476,  511, 543 Malé Declaration on Sustainable Development 320 urban ecotourism  231, 512–513 user fees  513 values  514–515 BEST EN  52 luxury 319 market segmentation  323 Viabono  516 virtual tourism  516 visiting friends and relatives (VFR) tourism  517 Visitor Activity Management Process (VAMP)  517–518 visitor centres  518–519 geotourism 231 tourist information centre (TIC)  498 visitor impact management (VIM)  519–520 visitor management  520–521 conservation tourism  104 tourist information centre (TIC)  498 voluntary codes of conduct  82

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voluntary guidelines, Pacific Rim National Park Reserve, case study  82–83 Voluntary Initiatives for Sustainability in Tourism (VISIT)  521–522 volunteer tourism  103, 522–524 children are not tourist attractions, case study  523–524 with conservation tourism  103 innovation 283 pilgrimage 376 Stichting Nederlandse Verijwilligers (SNV) 467 WWOOF (WWOOFing)  548 volunteering  524–525 grey nomad  250 Volunteer Service Overseas (VSO)  524 volunteers, coral cay conservation (CCC) 111–112 waste management GIZ 232 see also recycling Waste Management Sustainable Services (WMSS) event  204–205 water  526–527 advanced wastewater treatment system (AWTS)  9–10 blue flags  56–57 ecosystem services  164 and environmental health  180 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 184 environmental policy  185 grey water  251 International Social and Environmental Accreditation and Labelling Alliance (ISEAL)  291 resource 418 water cycling (hydrological cycle)  528 water quality  528–529 Great Barrier Reef  241 water supplies deforestation 134 desalination 141 watersports, Adventure Activities Licensing Authority (AALA)  10 weak sustainable development  529 strong sustainable development  468 Web 2.0 see Travel 2.0

welfare  529–530 experiental education  207–208 externality 208 peripherality 371 well-being  530 and capital  64 community development  95 and community of practice (CoP)  98 and degrowth  136 and development  145 and ecosystem services  164 and emotion  172 and environmental health  180 Fair Trade tourism  211 growth fetish  252 hard tourism  254 health and safety  254 health tourism  257 pro-poor tourism (PPT)  396 Stichting Nederlandse Verijwilligers (SNV) 467 Tourism Concern  491 World Leisure Organisation (WLO)  545 wellness  530–531 wellness tourism  531 Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy (WPNSA)  205–206 whale shark tourism case study  26–29 whale-watching  532–533 blue flag schemes  57 codes of conduct  81–82 International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW) 290 White Water to Blue Water (WW2BW)  533 Wild Scotland’s Wilderness Guide Training Programme, case study  157 wilderness  533–534 camping 62 conservation 102 health and safety  256 Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) 315 national parks  353 protected areas  400 as public goods  401 soundscape 456 spiritual tourism  460 Wilderness Act (USA 1964)  103 Wilderness Society  102 zoning 553

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wildlife management  534–535 wildlife tourism preservation 393 responsible tourism  421 willingness to pay (WTP)  536 contingent valuation method (CVM) 109 demand management  137 marketing mix  324 user fees  513 wind energy  536–540 energy management  175 as a sustainable tourist attraction, case study  537–540 wine tourism  540–541 Women’s Agrotourism Cooperatives (WAC)  541 Word Tourism Organization  84 work see International Labour Organization (ILO) Work Life Balance see quality of life worker-run/recuperated hotels  542 World Bank  542–543 GIZ 233 less-developed country (LDC)  313 World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBSD)  474–475 World Committee on Tourism Ethics (WCTE)  84, 233, 543 World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA) 399 world Ecotourism Summit (WES)  404, 543–544 International Year of Ecotourism (IYE, IYE 2002)  293 World Heritage  258, 544–545 International Council for Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS)  289 World Leisure Organisation (WLO)  545 World Summit on Sustainable Development 292, 545–546 Marrakech Process  324 White Water to Blue Water (WW2BW) 533 World Surfing Reserves  470, 546

World Tourism Organization see United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) World Trade Organization (WTO)  547 General Agreement on Tariffs and trade 227 globalization 238 World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC) 51, 547 ecolabels 157 Green Globe  244 indicators 278 sustainable development  477 Tourism for Tomorrow Awards  493 World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)  23 World Wildlife Fund (WWF)  185, 547–548 linkingthinking 316 WW2BW see White Water to Blue Water (WW2BW) WWF Code of Conduct for Arctic Tourists  80 WWOOF (WWOOFing)  548 Xeriscape  549 Year of Ecotourism (2002) see International Year of Ecotourism (IYE, IYE 2002) Year of the Mountains (2002) see International Year of the Mountains (IYM) Year of the Ocean (1998) see International Year of the Ocean (YOTO) Year of the Reef (1997) see International Year of the Reef (IYOR) Yellowstone National Park, designated wilderness 534 yield management  550 youth tourism  550–552 backpackers 45 zoning  553–554 zoo  554–555

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