The Education of the Southern Belle: Higher Education and Student Socialization in the Antebellum South 9780814728604

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The Education of the Southern Belle

THE EDUCATION OF THE SOUTHERN BELLE Higher Education and Student Socialization in the Antebellum South

Christie Anne Farnham

NEW YOR K UNIVERSIT Y PRES S N E W YOR K A N D L O N D O N

Copyright © 199 4 b y Christi e Ann e Farnha m All right s reserve d Library o f Congres s Cataloging-in-Publicatio n Dat a Farnham, Christi e Anne . The Educatio n o f th e souther n bell e : higher educatio n an d studen t socialization i n th e antebellu m South/Christi e An n Farnham . p. cm . Includes bibliographica l reference s (p . ) and index . ISBN08147-2615-1 1. Women—Educatio n (Higher)—Souther n States—History—19t h century. 2 . Education , Higher—Socia l aspects—Souther n States -History—19th century . 3 . Education , Higher—Souther n States -Curricula—History—19th Century . 4 . Iterpersona l relations -History—19th century . 5 . Women—Souther n States—Socialization -History—19th century . I . Title . LC1757.F37 199 4 376'.975—dc20 93-569 0 CIP New Yor k Universit y Pres s book s are printe d o n acid-fre e paper , and thei r bindin g material s ar e chose n fo r strengt h an d durability . Manufactured i n th e Unite d State s of Americ a 10

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To CHRISTINE SUTTON FARNHAM graduate of a Southern woman's college

Contents

Acknowledgments i x Introduction i PART ON E Academic Life i. What' s i n a Name? Antebellu m Femal e College s n 2. Fro m Embroider y t o Greek : Raisin g Academi c Level s 3 3 3. Educatin g a Lady: Th e Forma l Curriculu m 6 8 PART TW O The World of the Female School 4. Th e Yanke e Dispersion : Facult y Lif e i n Femal e School s 9 7 5. Tryin g t o Loo k Ver y Fascinating : Th e Informa l Curriculu m 12 6. Sisters : The Developmen t o f Sororitie s 14 7. Lovers : Romanti c Friendship s 15

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8. Queens : Ma y Da y Queen s a s Symbol an d Substanc e 16 Epilogue: Th e Endurin g Imag e o f th e Souther n Bell e 18 Notes 18

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Select Bibliograph y 22

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Name Inde x 24 7 Subject Inde x 25 3 All illustration s appea r a s a group followin g p . 11 6 vii

Acknowledgments

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m H E gestatio n o f thi s stud y ha s bee n lon g an d laborious . Begu n JL wit h a more restricted focus in the late seventies, i t was frequentl y waylaid b y th e demand s o f teaching , administration , an d family . I n th e long ru n thi s ha s prove n t o b e a blessing , becaus e th e vas t numbe r o f studies o n relate d theme s publishe d durin g th e intervenin g year s ha s deepened m y understandin g o f th e issue s tha t mus t b e addresse d i n an y study of higher educatio n fo r women . Such an extended perio d o f researc h leave s m e indebte d to individual s and archives too numerous to mention. However , m y debt to the follow ing merits special thanks: John Hope Frankli n first introduced m e to this topic an d supervise d m y dissertatio n a t th e Universit y o f Chicag o o n female seminarie s i n North Carolina . Th e American Counci l o f Learne d Societies and the Indiana Universit y Women' s Studie s Program awarde d me postdoctora l trave l grant s fo r th e purpos e o f enlargin g m y stud y t o the entire antebellum South . Variou s portions of this work hav e benefite d from th e evaluatio n o f commenter s an d audience s a t meeting s o f th e History o f Educatio n Society , th e Wester n Associatio n o f Wome n His torians, an d the Southern Women' s Histor y Association . Several scholar s hav e generousl y accorde d m e th e benefi t o f thei r expertise: Mar y Bet h Norton , Jacquelin e Jones, an d Nanc y Naple s rea d chapters o n earl y educationa l institutions , faculty , an d romanti c friend ships, respectively . Joa n Hof f wa s a continuin g sourc e o f encourage ment. M y colleague s a t Iow a Stat e University—especiall y Clai r Keller , Alan I . Marcus , Georg e Mcjimsey , Adrej s Plakans , Rober t Schoefield , and David Wilson—rea d draft s o f chapter s on college curricul a an d the socialization o f th e Souther n belle . Doroth y A . Ga y an d Marth a S . Stoops kindl y share d thei r knowledg e o f th e source s with me , an d Keit h Melder share d a draft o f his study of the seminary movement . Leo n Ap t referred m e t o comparativ e work s i n Europea n history . I a m especiall y IX

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

indebted t o numerou s archivists , o f who m I woul d lik e t o singl e ou t Patricia J . Albrigh t o f Moun t Holyok e College , fo r trackin g dow n information o n som e o f thei r earl y graduates . Specia l thank s als o g o t o several anonymou s reviewer s wh o provide d m e with meticulou s reading s of th e manuscript . Althoug h I a m unabl e t o thank the m b y name , I hop e that the y wil l recogniz e th e fruit s o f thei r effort s o n m y behalf . I n th e last analysis , o f course , an y error s remainin g o f fac t o r judgmen t ar e mine. Finally, I wis h t o than k thos e individuals , withou t whos e war m an d unstinting suppor t ove r th e years , I woul d no t hav e bee n abl e t o brin g this projec t t o fruition . M y forme r colleagu e i n th e Afro-America n Studies Department a t Indian a University , Willia m Wiggins , an d Phyl lis Marti n o f Indiana' s histor y departmen t wer e especiall y supportive . The famil y o f Dr . Samue l Putna m graciousl y offere d my famil y th e us e of thei r hom e durin g on e stin t a t th e Souther n Historica l Collectio n an d made n o complaints whe n al l o f th e pe t gerbils an d hamster s entruste d t o our car e died , on e b y one . M y mother , Christin e Sutto n Farnham , provided m e wit h a compute r an d printe r a s wel l a s companionshi p t o the Louisian a Stat e University' s archives . Sara h Haydoc k Pope , a main stay o f ou r family , ha s encourage d my wor k fro m it s inception . M y daughters an d sons—Dulan y Lucett a Pope , Delani e Penros e Pope , Whitney Bancrof t Pope , an d Norwoo d Braxto n Pope—althoug h dislik ing bein g force d t o ta g alon g o n researc h trip s o r t o tak e u p th e slac k i n my absence , hav e alway s believe d i n th e project . Thei r father , Whitne y Pope, deserve s th e mos t thanks , becaus e h e mad e th e mos t sacrifice s enabling m e to write thi s book .

The Education of the Southern Belle

Introduction

r~i D U C A T I O N i s power—th e powe r t o inculcat e a worldview o r to M JI empowe r a viewe r o f th e world . Yet , th e subjec t o f women' s education ha s receive d muc h les s attentio n tha n it s importanc e a s a ke y aspect o f women' s changin g statu s dictates. A s lat e as 1984 , Ann e Firo r Scott complaine d o f " a curious myopia " that afflicted revisionist s a s well as traditionalists . Fo r bot h group s o f historian s educatio n mean t eithe r the instructio n o f me n o r of childre n whos e se x was unspecified. 1 Recen t studies ar e beginnin g t o challeng e thi s erasur e o f women' s experiences ; however, mos t of the ne w scholarship focuse s on elite eastern institution s and pioneerin g wome n educator s o f Ne w Englan d birth. 2 Implici t i n much o f this researc h i s the view tha t these institution s an d educators are the measur e o f women' s education . Inasmuc h a s th e histor y o f highe r education fo r wome n i n th e antebellu m Sout h i s largel y uncharted, 3 generalizations draw n fro m recen t scholarshi p hav e ye t t o b e systemati cally tested against the Southern case. There ar e severa l reason s fo r thi s historiographica l lacuna e i n South ern scholarship. Th e tw o mos t significan t factor s wer e th e absorptio n o f historians of th e Sout h i n th e stud y o f race , a s a consequence o f th e civi l rights movement , an d the preoccupatio n o f historians of women wit h th e idealogy o f separat e spheres, a s the mos t engaging metapho r fo r explain ing th e changin g statu s o f whit e wome n i n th e northeast . Wherea s Southern historian s tende d t o ignor e women' s acces s t o education, wom en's historian s employe d a paradig m designe d t o explai n th e emergenc e of middle-clas s women i n the northeast. 4 The unconsciou s assumptio n tha t researc h o n educatio n i n th e Nort h can stan d fo r th e experienc e o f th e Sout h als o stem s fro m conventiona l academic wisdom , whic h define s Souther n educatio n a s bot h derivativ e and deficient whe n compare d t o that of th e North . O n th e fac e o f it , thi s view appear s to be accurate. Facult y wer e draw n largel y fro m th e Nort h 1

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INTRODUCTION

and Souther n institution s an d curricul a wer e consciousl y modele d afte r prominent Norther n schools . I t wa s Northerners , ofte n wome n lik e Emma Willard , wh o were prominen t i n upgradin g curricul a an d North ern institution s lik e Moun t Holyok e tha t ha d th e highes t reputatio n fo r intellectual rigor . Th e page s that follow , however , challeng e thi s view a s too simplistic . Like mos t thing s Southern , educatio n wa s importe d fro m elsewhere ; but i n it s incorporation int o Southern life , i t took on additiona l function s and meanings . Th e idea l o f th e Souther n lad y an d it s adolescent counter part, th e Souther n belle , d o no t exemplif y a ne w se t o f role s resultin g from th e growt h o f industrializatio n an d urbanization , fo r th e Sout h remained tie d t o commercia l agriculture . Instead , the y represen t a ro manticization o f whit e dominatio n i n a slav e society . B y mergin g th e lady o f separat e sphere s ideolog y bein g articulate d ou t o f th e moderniza tion experience s o f th e Nort h wit h notion s draw n fro m chivalr y an d a glorification o f myth s o f Anglo-Saxo n culture , th e hierarchica l similari ties betwee n lad y an d ser f an d lad y an d slav e wer e reinforce d an d extended. Souther n school s utilize d bot h th e forma l curriculu m o f th e liberal art s an d th e informa l curriculu m o f instructin g i n ladylik e value s and etiquett e acquire d fro m th e Nort h t o inculcat e thi s Souther n versio n of femininity . If derivative doe s no t entirel y characteriz e th e borrowin g o f Norther n educational institution s b y th e South , neithe r doe s the ter m deficient fully explain th e stat e o f educatio n i n th e region . I t i s tru e tha t th e poo l o f students prepare d t o d o advance d wor k wa s smal l an d tha t man y o f th e students wer e les s intereste d i n th e educatio n bein g offere d tha n i n othe r aspects o f th e studen t experience . Yet , th e Sout h evidence d th e greates t interest i n femal e college s o f an y regio n o f th e nation . Th e explanatio n for thi s seemin g anomal y i s t o b e foun d i n th e Northerners ' fea r tha t a college educatio n woul d becom e th e mean s fo r mountin g a n attack o n th e sex segregatio n o f th e professions , i n contras t t o th e Southerners ' desir e for a classical educatio n a s a marker o f gentility . Pioneering wome n educator s i n th e North , althoug h trainin g man y women o f th e uppe r classes , designe d thei r studie s fo r middle-clas s women wh o migh t hav e t o wor k befor e marriag e o r afte r th e death s or financial reversal s o f thei r husbands . The y utilize d th e metapho r o f separate sphere s a s a rationalizatio n t o legitimat e th e professionalizatio n of teaching , ironicall y breachin g th e boundarie s o f occupationa l se x

INTRODUCTION

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segregation while maintainin g that woman's place is in the home. Becaus e of th e ver y rea l threa t tha t women' s educatio n presente d t o Norther n society i n terms of th e potential fo r openin g othe r profession s t o women, educators attempte d t o minimiz e resistanc e b y cloakin g thi s advanc e i n the languag e o f separat e spheres . Thi s meant , however , tha t i n practic e they becam e ke y disseminator s o f thi s restrictiv e cultura l idea l rathe r than advocate s o f equa l educationa l opportunit y t o women . Indeed — with th e exceptio n o f Catharin e Beecher , wh o favore d collegiat e educa tion whil e opposin g th e emphasi s o n a curriculu m take n fro m men' s schools—pioneering wome n educator s publicl y oppose d collegiat e edu cation fo r women . In th e South , with fe w exceptions , only th e daughter s o f planters , prosperous farmer s ownin g som e slaves , prominen t ministers , an d well to-do urba n busines s an d professiona l me n coul d affor d t o remai n i n school lon g enough to prepare for advanced seminary or college training . However, the y and their parents never intended for them to work outside the home . Challenge s t o occupationa l segregatio n wer e no t salien t t o Southern society ; an d thus, resistanc e t o higher educatio n wa s less effec tive there. Instead, a college educatio n becam e emblemati c o f class , a means to a type o f refinemen t tha t labele d on e a lady worth y o f protection , admira tion, an d chivalrous attention . A s a result, th e South, no t feelin g it s way of lif e threatene d b y highe r educatio n fo r women , displaye d a greate r self-conscious interes t i n th e developmen t o f femal e colleges . Thi s is , indeed, a paradox and perhaps one reason why the South's position on the question o f collegiat e educatio n fo r wome n ha s bee n overlooked . Th e South, whic h vilifie d th e strong-minde d woman , nevertheles s attempte d to offe r Souther n wome n a n educatio n explicitl y designe d t o b e th e equivalent o f that offered t o Southern men . Given tha t mostl y Norther n mal e an d femal e facult y attempte d t o duplicate i n th e Sout h th e education availabl e i n th e North , wh y wa s the outcome s o a t varianc e wit h th e intent ? Mos t educationa l historie s focu s on the institution s an d thei r facult y an d not on th e individual s fo r who m such arrangements were made in the first place. Yet , i t was these individ uals, i n thei r effort s t o succee d withi n th e socia l syste m i n whic h the y found themselves , wh o modifie d wha t the y wer e offere d t o mee t thei r own circumstances . Students , ministeria l president s an d principals , an d women facult y wer e al l engage d i n th e projec t o f producin g educate d

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INTRODUCTION

ladies. Nevertheless , i n man y way s their s wer e competin g agendas . Th e evangelical clerg y wer e inten t o n creatin g piou s Christia n wome n note d for thei r benevolen t activitie s withi n th e domesti c sphere . Th e wome n teachers wer e als o motivate d b y a n evangelica l worldview , bu t thei r missionary zea l wa s focuse d o n manner s an d morals . Sufferin g fro m what ma y b e terme d culture shock, they denigrate d th e emphasi s o n sociability, leisur e pursuits , an d fashionabl e clothin g tha t emanate d fro m an aristocrati c Souther n culture , attemptin g t o substitute , instead , wha t they considere d t o b e a morall y superio r emphasi s o n sobriety , serious ness, frugality , an d th e wor k ethic . The politic s o f thes e differen t meaning s o f th e educationa l experienc e worked themselve s ou t i n th e crucibl e o f studen t life . Lik e boardin g school student s elsewhere , Southerner s develope d a vibran t studen t cul ture tha t mirrore d th e hierarchica l societ y fro m whic h the y came . The y developed th e first colleg e sororitie s an d participate d i n th e cultura l practice know n a s romanti c friendships . Unlik e th e North , a lesbia n culture faile d t o spread amon g thes e women, becaus e they wer e unabl e t o parlay thei r education s int o occupation s tha t coul d provid e independen t incomes sufficien t t o permi t th e developmen t o f communitie s o f women . Because o f th e gentry' s cultura l hegemon y i n th e Sout h an d Souther n society's commitmen t t o traditiona l view s o f honor , educate d Souther n women di d no t wor k outsid e th e hom e unles s force d b y necessit y t o d o so. I n th e North , however , wher e middle-clas s value s obtained , occupa tions lik e teache r an d late r settlemen t hous e worke r wer e admired , facil itating th e maintenanc e o f suc h all-femal e communities . Southern women , a s a consequence, looke d t o marriage , whic h inten sified th e importanc e o f th e idea l o f th e Souther n belle . Societ y pro scribed initiatin g courtships ; therefore , women' s avenue s fo r affectin g the outcom e o f thi s mos t importan t lif e decisio n wer e highl y circum scribed. Th e Souther n belle , b y mean s o f he r coquettis h way s an d "magical spells, " provide d a proactiv e approac h t o courtshi p tha t man y young wome n foun d empowering . Historians hav e accepte d th e criticis m o f critic s an d th e portraya l o f authors o f fiction wh o hav e judged th e Souther n bell e negatively. 5 Thi s study examine s th e imag e o f the Souther n bell e fro m th e poin t o f vie w of the student s themselve s who , cognizan t o f thei r lac k o f powe r i n court ship rituals , develope d a n idea l tha t empowere d the m b y mean s o f a se t of stylize d behaviors . B y constructin g a n imag e o f th e sought-afte r

INTRODUCTION

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woman wh o left a trail o f broke n hearts , wome n enhance d thei r value b y making demand appea r to outrun supply , thereb y increasin g thei r powe r vis-^-vis me n i n the courtship process . Women i n this study refer s primaril y t o whites. Eve n elementar y educa tion fo r African-America n female s wa s eithe r explicitl y prohibite d o r customarily discourage d prio r t o th e Civi l War , althoug h b y th e 1830 s some academie s fo r African-America n girl s ha d bee n establishe d i n Washington, D . C . , an d Baltimore . Thes e school s wer e largel y th e ef forts o f fre e African-America n wome n an d wome n o f colo r wh o immi grated t o th e Unite d State s fro m Sant o Doming o an d taugh t unde r th e auspices o f th e Catholi c church . No r wer e ther e man y opportunitie s fo r Native America n females , with th e exception o f a few missionar y effort s to establish seminarie s for elites among the Christianized Cherokee—fo r example, th e Cheroke e Seminar y a t Par k Hall , Arkansas , whic h wa s established i n 185 1 o n the plan of Moun t Holyoke. 6 The cor e source s o n whic h thi s stud y rest s ar e th e privat e correspon dence an d journal s o f facult y (bot h sexes ) an d thei r students ; schoo l catalogues; program s fo r publi c examinations , musica l performances , and socia l events ; scrapbooks ; studen t friendshi p books ; an d publishe d reminiscences o f forme r student s an d faculty . Althoug h th e minute s o f meetings o f board s o f trustees , newspape r report s o f femal e schools , contemporary periodical discussion s o f women' s education, an d the writ ings and speeches o f educator s hav e also been examined, thi s work i s not intended t o be an institutional histor y of educatio n and , therefore , leave s the stud y o f th e achievement s o f presidents , th e erectio n o f buildings , and the precariou s financial position o f thes e fledgling school s to others. 7 There i s a vast literatur e chroniclin g th e live s o f individua l institutions ; however, thi s study i s mor e concerned wit h situatin g the development o f Southern women's education within th e context of antebellum societ y and analyzing it s impac t o n th e cultura l constructio n o f femininit y amon g antebellum Souther n elit e women. Because s o littl e ha s bee n writte n abou t Souther n education , detaile d descriptions o f dail y routines , clothing , food , amusements , an d the like , as well as the particulars of the general operation of schools, are included. Additionally, withi n th e narrativ e a numbe r o f minibiographie s ar e provided t o giv e th e reade r a sense o f wha t i t wa s lik e t o b e engage d i n the antebellum educationa l enterprise .

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INTRODUCTION

The boo k ha s tw o parts . Th e first concern s academi c life , beginnin g with a n analysi s o f th e antebellu m femal e colleg e t o asses s it s claim s t o the statu s o f college . A compariso n o f colleg e curricula , a s wel l a s a n analysis o f th e plac e o f classic s i n America n education , argu e i n favo r o f the antebellu m femal e college . Th e secon d chapte r analyze s th e processe s by whic h advance s i n women' s educatio n hav e bee n mad e t o demonstrat e that th e antebellu m femal e colleg e fel l withi n thi s historica l pattern . Chapter 3 examine s th e contradictio n involve d i n usin g a male-define d curricula t o educate a female an d explore s th e wa y educators denie d thes e incongruities. I t als o detail s publi c examination s an d closin g exercise s i n an effor t t o situate th e school s i n th e socia l lif e o f th e community . Part 2 explore s th e institutiona l lif e o f th e femal e school . Beginnin g with a loo k a t th e faculty , chapte r 4 analyze s th e divisio n o f labo r b y gender an d it s impac t o n educationa l aims . I t als o explore s th e reason s behind th e hig h turnove r o f wome n facult y b y investigatin g thei r view s of Souther n culture , i n general , an d slavery , i n particular . Chapte r 5 details th e dail y lif e o f students , focusin g o n routine s an d regulations . The nex t tw o chapter s ar e concerne d wit h th e emotiona l lif e o f th e students: Chapte r 6 analyze s th e importanc e o f affectio n i n Souther n lif e to provid e th e backgroun d fo r a discussion o f the developmen t o f sorori ties. Romanti c friendship s ar e analyzed i n chapte r 7 in terms of essentialist an d constructionis t perspective s i n lesbia n histor y t o determin e wha t place the y hel d i n Souther n studen t life . Chapte r 8 describes th e crown ing o f th e Ma y Da y quee n an d analyze s thi s cultura l practic e i n term s o f its symbolis m an d it s influenc e o n th e concep t o f th e Souther n belle . I t also explore s attempt s b y evangelica l principal s an d president s t o alte r this idea l typ e t o eliminat e th e threa t i t pose d t o femal e educatio n an d t o bring i t mor e i n lin e wit h evangelica l image s of the Christia n lady . The Epilogu e conclude s wit h a brief sketc h o f th e impac t o f th e Civi l War o n th e school s an d som e o f thei r forme r student s wh o wer e force d to become teacher s out o f financial necessit y an d the n too k o n mor e activ e public roles . I t conclude s b y viewin g th e Souther n bell e a s emblemati c of whit e supremacy . By focusing o n th e competin g interest s o f the mal e faculty , th e femal e faculty, an d th e femal e student s an d examinin g th e differentia l powe r wielded b y eac h grou p an d th e inevitabl e congruence s an d conflict s produced b y thei r competin g agendas , thi s boo k highlight s th e proces s

INTRODUCTION

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by which basicall y conservative agenda s produced a n advance in women's education. More importan t tha n th e continue d existenc e toda y o f a handfu l o f schools with antebellum antecedent s is the impetus that the South, despit e its conservative view s of women, gav e to the position that women deserv e access t o th e sam e educatio n availabl e t o me n o n th e colleg e level . Th e antebellum Sout h wa s a n innovato r i n collegiat e educatio n fo r women , which wa s explicitly designe d t o be the equivalent o f men's colleges. Th e legacy o f th e South' s pioneerin g rol e i s that i t becam e th e pathwa y to the present.

C H A P T E RI

What's in a Name? Antebellum Female Colleges Girls can learn, an d they deserve to be taught. Adop t enlightened plan s of instruction — grant sufficient time—affor d th e necessary facilities, and though there will be no struggle for supremacy , ther e wil l b e advancemen t correspondin g i n grade , an d equivalen t i n effort t o anything eve r realize d fro m th e mos t generous arrangement fo r th e "Lord s of Creation." —Bishop George Foster Pierce !

"T m H E projec t i s novel ; i t stand s ou t o n th e ma p o f th e world' s - X . histor y alone—isolated— a magnificen t exampl e o f publi c spiri t and Catholi c feeling—o f devotio n t o literature , an d o f zea l fo r Femal e Education," wrot e Georg e F . Pierce, 2 th e first presiden t o f Georgi a Female College , wh o woul d g o o n t o becom e a Methodis t bisho p an d president of wha t i s now Emor y Universit y i n Atlanta. No t i n England , not i n France , no t i n Italy—indeed , nowher e i n Europe o r th e res t o f the worl d ha d suc h effort s bee n mad e t o establis h a college fo r wome n that ha d it s own professor s holdin g advance d degree s wh o were unaffili ated wit h an y men' s institution . I t is , perhaps , reasonabl e t o imagin e such a development occurrin g i n th e North , wher e advance s i n women' s education ha d bee n takin g plac e sinc e th e mid-eighteent h century . Bu t the first self-conscious effor t t o erect a n institutio n a t the collegiat e leve l —whose state d goa l wa s to provid e a n education fo r wome n identica l t o that available a t the highes t level s fo r me n an d to us e th e ter m college i n doing so—took plac e in 183 9 * n Macon, Georgia , a small tow n that still exhibited frontie r characteristics , a Southern tow n committe d t o slaver y secured b y a conservative vie w o f whit e womanhood . I t i s indee d para doxical tha t th e first publi c effor t t o establis h a college fo r wome n too k place at a crossroads of the rura l South . 11

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Higher educatio n i n the for m o f efforts t o provide wome n wit h studie s that ha d som e equivalenc e t o men' s coursewor k ha d bee n developin g fo r more tha n a decade and woul d continu e t o do so, as some female seminar ies an d th e collegiat e institute s tha t followe d i n th e 1850 s adde d course s designed t o b e simila r t o thos e offere d t o freshme n an d sophomore s a t men's colleges . Primaril y boardin g schools , thes e institution s ofte n in cluded preparator y (i.e. , elementary) , academ y (i.e. , secondary) , an d collegiate (i.e. , junio r college ) department s or , mor e commonly , prepa ratory (i.e. , secondary ) an d collegiat e (i.e. , junio r college ) divisions . However, th e us e o f th e ter m college indicate d a t leas t th e goa l o f providing mor e tha n junio r colleg e work . Suc h institutions , whic h sprea d across th e countr y i n th e 1850 s bu t wer e foun d predominantl y i n th e South, commonl y offere d four-yea r programs , terminatin g i n the award ing o f degree s i n th e libera l arts , a s authorize d b y act s o f stat e legisla tures. Georgia Femal e College , know n toda y a s Wesleya n College , an d th e antebellum femal e colleges , bot h Nort h an d South , hav e bee n dismisse d by scholars . Considere d college s i n nam e only , the y ar e see n merel y a s experiments doome d t o failur e unti l afte r th e Civi l Wa r whe n Vassa r (1865), Wellesle y an d Smit h (1875) , an d Bry n Maw r (1884 ) wer e founded. Thes e late r college s an d women' s educatio n i n th e northeas t have bee n extensivel y studied , bu t th e antebellu m femal e college s hav e been largel y neglecte d b y contemporar y scholars . Curren t assessment s o f these school s reflec t no t onl y a northeaster n bias , bu t als o a relianc e o n the researc h o f scholar s publishin g i n th e earl y par t o f thi s century whos e measure o f a college wa s based primaril y o n comparisons with th e classics taught a t th e bes t men' s college s o f tha t period. 3 Another reaso n th e effort s o f th e Sout h t o institut e femal e college s have bee n overlooke d i s th e widel y recognize d inabilit y o f Souther n institutions t o mee t th e increasingl y hig h standard s fo r colleg e trainin g in th e earl y year s o f th e twentiet h century . Th e Civi l Wa r ha d lef t th e region bot h backwar d lookin g an d economicall y il l equippe d t o compet e in th e are a o f highe r education . Beginnin g i n 1886—8 7 th e U.S . Burea u of Education' s report s divide d women' s college s int o "Divisio n A, " which wer e "organize d an d conducte d i n stric t accordanc e wit h th e pla n of th e art s college, " an d "Divisio n B, " whic h include d seminarie s an d collegiate institutes . N o Souther n colleg e appeare d i n "Divisio n A " unti l the repor t o f 1890-91 , whe n th e Woman's Colleg e of Baltimore (Goucher )

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was added . O f th e n o institution s name d i n "Divisio n B " i n 1907 , 6 8 percent wer e locate d i n th e South. 4 The fac t tha t Southern college s wer e slow t o recove r fro m th e impac t o f th e Civi l Wa r and , t o som e extent , have continue d t o suffe r fro m regiona l disparitie s i n economi c develop ment hav e mad e i t reasonabl e t o assum e tha t Souther n institution s hav e always lagged behin d thos e i n the rest of the nation. Suc h an assumption, however, overlook s th e South' s pioneerin g effort s t o giv e wome n th e right to an education equal t o that of men. In 181 9 whe n Emm a Willar d propose d tha t a school b e establishe d b y New Yor k Stat e tha t woul d prepar e wome n t o teac h a s wel l a s b e homemakers, sh e reassure d legislator s an d th e genera l publi c tha t sh e was not proposing a female college, fo r that would have been an "obvious absurdity." Instead, he r school woul d "b e as different fro m thos e appropriate t o th e othe r sex , a s th e femal e characte r an d dutie s ar e fro m th e male." Althoug h th e legislatur e turne d dow n he r request , he r view s became widely influentia l throug h th e publication of he r proposal as "An Address to the Public." 5 Public opinio n o n th e "absurdity " o f a college educatio n fo r wome n was widespread nationally . A n effectiv e mean s of perpetuatin g thi s vie w was by trivializin g th e idea . Th e Raleigh Register lampooned th e subjec t with a mock advertisement fo r a "Refined Femal e College" in June 1831 . Headed b y "Madam e Walk-in-the-Water, " i t offere d course s i n "scold ing an d fretting, " "ballin g an d gaddin g i n th e streets, " "talkin g idly , and dressin g ridiculously, " "spinnin g stree t yar n (ver y fine)," "backbit ing you r friends, " "lacin g yoursel f int o th e shap e o f a n hourglass, " and "how t o kee p fro m wor k whe n yo u retur n home. " Th e "Frenc h & Italian Department " offered "wearin g wig s an d fals e curls, " "wearing 2 tuck an d 1 0 sid e combs, " "wearin g ou t 1 0 pai r of shoe s pe r year takin g evening promenades, " "behavin g lik e a monke y i n a chin a shop, " an d "running you r fathe r int o deb t ever y yea r fo r finery, cologn e water , pomatum an d har d soap , dancin g an d frolicking. " Suc h a parod y indi cates, however , tha t the idea of colleges for women was gaining attention. The 183 4 Boston Transcript reprinte d a spoo f abou t a "Youn g Ladie s College" i n Kentucky , whic h ha d originall y appeare d i n th e New York Transcript, demonstratin g tha t th e Sout h wa s alread y mor e intereste d than th e Nort h i n suc h institutions . Th e articl e suggeste d tha t mor e suitable degree s fo r wome n tha n those bestowe d i n th e liberal art s would

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be "Mistres s o f Puddin g Making , Mistres s o f th e Scrubbin g Brush , Mistress o f Commo n Sense. " Honorar y degree s woul d includ e R . W . ("Respectable Wife" ) an d M . W . R . F . ("Mothe r o f a Weil-Regulate d Family"). Eve n Braxto n Craven , presiden t o f Norma l Colleg e (no w Duke University) , wa s capabl e o f ridiculin g school s fo r youn g women , insisting tha t "smile s ar e grade d b y th e angle, blushe s ar e colore d t o sui t the emotio n pretended , lispin g i s taught wit h a s muc h syste m a s French , salutation i n s o many steps , forward-march , an d adie u i s to show a ring , a pretty hand , an d ben d whalebone." 6 The questio n o f highe r educatio n fo r wome n wa s debate d i n periodi cals of th e tim e an d muc h o f th e oppositio n wa s base d o n th e superficia l nature o f it s mastery , no t o n th e subject s t o b e studied . Th e highl y respected DeBow's Review, whil e commendin g specifi c efforts , lik e th e Comatz Femal e Institut e i n Ne w Orlean s an d th e importanc e o f femal e education generally , objecte d t o th e shallownes s o f muc h tha t passe d fo r female education . I n additio n t o thi s oft-repeate d charg e wa s th e fea r expressed abou t sendin g daughter s awa y t o school . Danie l Hundley , author o f wha t i s considere d t o b e th e nation' s first sociologica l treatise , insisted tha t "whateve r ma y b e sai d i n prais e o f Public , o r Free , o r High, o r Selec t schools , o r an y othe r kin d o f school , w e maintai n ther e is one greater . . . . T H E FAMILY. " H e rhapsodize d o n th e resultin g product, a woman "simpl e an d unaffecte d i n th y manners, pur e i n speec h as thou ar t i n soul , an d eve r blesse d wit h a n inbor n grac e an d gentlenes s of spirit lovel y t o look at." 7 Such conservativ e voice s competed agains t thos e questionin g no t whethe r but how . Fo r fort y year s th e mos t popula r magazin e amon g Souther n women wa s Godey's Lady's Book, a strong proponen t o f highe r educatio n for women . Th e Sout h als o ha d it s ow n female-edite d periodical , th e Southern Rose, whic h supporte d women' s highe r education ; i t wa s begu n in Charlesto n b y a transplante d Northerner , Carolin e Howar d Gilman . Next t o Godey's, periodicals edite d b y Methodis t clerg y wer e mos t popu lar. Th e Methodist Quarterly Review carrie d frequen t article s debatin g women's educatio n i n th e 1850s , a s did th e Southern Ladies' Companion, edited fro m 184 7 t o ^ 5 4 b y Rev . H . M . Henkle , Methodis t clergy man i n Nashville . Th e rapi d sprea d o f numerou s hig h grad e seminarie s and college s fo r women , however , demonstrate s bette r tha n th e argu ments o f thei r proponent s tha t women' s highe r educatio n ha d wo n th e day. A s Rev. A . J. Battl e proclaime d i n his 185 7 commencemen t sermo n

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at th e Judso n Femal e Institute : "I t i s no longe r a question , whethe r woman shoul d b e educated . I t i s n o longe r doubte d tha t sh e i s endowe d with an intellect, capabl e of indefinite expansio n an d improvement." 8 The North , however , remaine d war y o f femal e college s lon g afte r they became prevalent i n the South. Writin g i n the 1930 s on the place of Wheaton Colleg e i n th e histor y o f women' s highe r education , Louis e Schutz Boa s explaine d tha t "eve n wher e thes e [Southern ] school s com pared favorabl y with th e masculin e college s i n thei r vicinity , th e Nort h found thei r standard s lowe r tha n it s own. " He r sentiment s o f sectiona l superiority, whic h reflecte d widel y hel d opinion , ar e reveale d i n he r statement tha t "sinc e th e Nort h di d no t giv e degree s t o women, i t wa s a matter of jest that the South did." 9 The South' s specia l interes t i n buildin g femal e college s wa s the resul t of incrementa l addition s t o th e curricul a an d subtl e shift s i n rationales , which ar e examined i n mor e detail i n the next chapter. Suffic e i t to say at this poin t tha t b y th e secon d quarte r o f th e nineteent h centur y man y Southern school s were in a position t o raise their level o f offerings b y the addition o f a few college-leve l courses . I n s o doing the y would refashio n Willard's disclaime r b y insistin g tha t certai n colleg e course s were , in deed, appropriat e fo r women , becaus e th e subjec t matte r woul d prov e useful t o th e live s the y wer e expecte d t o lead followin g graduation . Th e 1855 catalogu e o f Alabama' s prestigiou s Judso n Femal e Institut e i n Marion, modeled o n Lyon' s Moun t Holyok e an d heade d by Rev . Mil o P. Jewett—wh o woul d late r becom e instrumenta l i n th e foundin g o f Vassar—explained tha t th e curriculu m "is , substantially , a College course , substantially, fo r i t is not pretended that our Course of Study i s identica l with tha t pursue d i n ou r College s an d Universities. " Indeed , t o d o s o would b e "undesirable, " becaus e o f th e intellectua l an d physica l differ ences betwee n th e sexes . Fo r thi s reaso n Judso n substitute d Lati n o r French an d Englis h literature , belle s lettres , aesthetics , music , hygiene , the scienc e o f domesti c economy , an d s o on , fo r Gree k an d highe r mathematics.10 This understandin g o f gende r difference s reflecte d a majo r shif t i n American perception s o f th e femal e intellect . Th e nearl y universa l vie w of th e colonial perio d tha t women's brain s were inferio r t o men's under went a dramatic shif t durin g th e first quarter o f th e nineteent h century , decentered b y th e republica n vie w o f motherhood. 11 Ther e wer e som e who feare d fo r th e succes s of th e ne w republi c becaus e the immensit y o f

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its are a an d populatio n prevente d th e firsthand knowledg e o f characte r that forme d th e basi s o f th e ancien t republics ; thei r anxietie s wer e ease d by th e concep t o f republica n motherhood , whic h base d it s argumen t o n the widel y hel d belie f tha t wome n wer e th e first teacher s o f children , molding thei r character . A s a consequence , mother s wer e presume d t o play a crucia l rol e i n th e developmen t o f tha t civi c virtu e o n whic h th e viability o f th e ne w natio n depended . Proponent s o f thi s positio n argue d that, becaus e mother s wer e th e first teacher s o f futur e citizen s an d na tional leaders , the y neede d a n educatio n t o equip themselve s fo r th e task . This vie w appeare d persuasive , give n tha t educatio n wa s hel d t o b e fo r the purpos e o f character buildin g rathe r tha n vocationa l training . Reinforcing republica n motherhoo d b y th e secon d quarte r o f th e nineteenth centur y wa s th e ideolog y o f separat e spheres , als o know n a s the cul t o f domesticit y an d cul t o f tru e womanhood. 12 Th e deepenin g sexual asymmetry o f American lif e resultin g fro m change s in the market place le d t o a reorderin g o f th e value s foun d i n th e socia l constructio n o f gender. On e consequenc e wa s to focus o n the bipolar spli t between publi c and private , betwee n th e world an d th e household , whic h wa s made mor e palatable t o women b y an emphasi s on th e enhancemen t o f their authorit y in th e hom e an d thei r mora l influenc e ove r men . In addition , th e commitmen t t o equalit y growin g ou t o f th e fermen t of th e revolutionar y year s continue d t o gai n i n strength , a s become s increasingly clea r b y Andre w Jackson's presidency ; yet , it s impac t o n th e ideology o f separat e sphere s ha s receive d scan t attention . Centra l t o th e image o f "th e quee n o f th e home " wa s th e projectio n o f som e notio n o f equivalence wit h tha t o f th e mal e sphere . Patriarch y wa s erode d b y th e removal o f th e husban d fro m th e hom e durin g th e workday , leavin g hi s wife i n charge . Thus , wome n an d me n ha d differen t realm s i n whic h t o rule. Althoug h separat e sphere s i s a limitin g ideology , i t embrace d within it s rhetorica l constructio n a n increas e i n femal e autonomy , whic h provided th e basi s fo r strategie s t o renegotiat e th e boundarie s tha t pre vailed betwee n th e sexes. Wit h th e existence of separate sphere s ideology , the commitmen t t o egalitarianis m flowing fro m th e libera l ideolog y o f the America n Revolutio n coul d find expressio n i n th e notio n o f "equalit y of difference." B y the 1850 s th e ide a tha t me n an d wome n wer e equa l i n intellectual gift s bu t tha t those gifts foun d differen t expressio n wa s widely held. Dr . Elia s Marks , principa l o f a collegiate institut e i n Sout h Caro lina, exemplifie d thi s opinio n i n hi s 185 1 Hints on Female Education

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when h e denie d "tha t ther e exist s an y differenc e betwee n th e sexes , a s it regards th e su m o f intellect, " whil e insistin g tha t "th e intellectua l char acter of woman i s unquestionably peculiar , an d is intended by the Author of natur e t o fit he r fo r tha t statio n i n society , whic h sh e i s destine d t o fill."13 As mor e an d mor e o f th e mos t ambitiou s seminarie s an d institute s began t o offer som e classe s on th e colleg e level , a few bega n t o rais e th e argument t o it s logica l conclusio n b y espousin g equa l opportunit y wit h men. Virginia' s Richmon d Femal e Institut e insiste d i n 185 6 tha t "th e fairer se x ough t t o enjoy advantage s fo r libera l cultur e equa l i n grad e t o that afforded th e other , assuming a position analogou s t o that whic h ou r noble stat e university doe s with regar d to young men. " It i s not surprising, then , tha t a fe w courageou s individual s woul d attemp t t o pu t thi s egalitarian argumen t int o practice . Th e Circular of Georgia Female College, 1842-43 proclaime d tha t "the object o f the founder s o f the Colleg e was to give ou r daughters as good a disciplinary educatio n as was offere d by th e bes t college s fo r ou r sons. " A 185 6 catalogu e o f th e Holsto n Conference Femal e Colleg e i n Asheville , Nort h Carolina , informe d parents that their's was not a high class finishing school; rather, thei r goal was "elevatin g th e standar d o f Femal e Education , t o furnis h t o female s advantages fo r menta l disciplin e an d th e acquisitio n o f knowledge , no t inferior t o those enjoyed b y the other sex in the best American Colleges. " Indeed, b y the 1850 s the egalitarian projec t had become widespread, a s a look a t nam e change s o f Georgi a institution s demonstrates : LaGrang e Collegiate Seminar y becam e Souther n an d Wester n Femal e Colleg e i n 1852, Forsyt h Femal e Collegiat e Institut e becam e Monro e Femal e Col lege i n 1856 , Madiso n Collegiat e Institut e becam e Georgi a Femal e College i n 1850 , an d LaGrang e Femal e Institut e becam e LaGrang e Female Colleg e i n 1851 . Thi s phenomeno n wa s no t restricte d t o th e South. Th e 185 5 charte r o f Elmir a Femal e Colleg e i n Ne w Yor k re quired tha t n o degre e b e conferred withou t a course o f stud y equivalen t to that pursued "i n the state's other [men's ] colleges. " H Wesleyan Femal e Colleg e i n Cincinnati wa s one of the earliest North ern femal e colleges , bu t i t offere d only a three-yea r cours e o f stud y i n 1842-43, althoug h i t di d requir e som e Lati n an d Gree k fo r admission . It wa s a n outgrowt h o f Catharin e Beecher' s work , wh o unlik e othe r pioneering wome n educators , encourage d femal e colleges . He r efforts , however, di d no t focus o n elevating th e curriculum s o much as ensuring

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the permanenc e o f institution s b y mean s of endowments, offerin g teache r training, an d organizin g th e facult y o n a coequal rathe r tha n hierarchica l plan. Indeed , sh e fel t tha t th e bette r school s "to o closel y copied " th e curricula o f mal e college s an d faile d t o educat e wome n i n "feminin e employments" an d "domesti c habits. " Mar y Lyon' s Moun t Holyok e remained a three-yea r institutio n unti l 1861 , lackin g Gree k an d th e upper level s o f Lati n an d mathematics , an d di d no t becom e a colleg e until 1881 . Emm a Willard' s institutio n a t Tro y stil l exist s a s the Emm a Willard School. 15 In additio n t o Wesleyan i n Cincinnati , numerou s other femal e college s dotted th e North . Als o i n Ohi o wer e Oxfor d (1852 ) an d Ohi o Wesleya n (1853). Illinoi s Conferenc e Femal e Colleg e (1851 ) an d Davenpor t La dies Colleg e (1855 ) wer e locate d i n th e Midwest . Furthe r eas t wer e Elmira Femal e Colleg e (1855 ; formerl y Aubur n Femal e University , 1852), Ingha m Universit y (1857 ) i n N e w York , a t leas t thre e femal e colleges i n Pennsylvania , an d on e i n Delaware . Althoug h Ne w Englan d had rigorou s seminaries , femal e college s wer e looke d o n wit h disfavo r there. Ne w Hampshire , however , chartere d Ne w Hampshir e Confer ence Femal e Colleg e i n 1852. 16 Th e fac t tha t charter s permittin g th e granting o f degrees ha d t o pas s state legislature s underscore s th e fac t tha t the ide a o f collegiat e trainin g fo r wome n ha d becom e widel y accepte d b y the 1850s . The South , however , fa r outdistance d th e res t o f th e natio n i n th e founding o f femal e colleges . On e schola r claim s tha t betwee n 185 0 an d 1859 thirty-tw o o f th e thirty-nin e chartere d femal e college s wer e i n th e South. Accordin g t o statistic s presente d b y Gov . Joh n Elli s i n i860 , North Carolin a ha d thirtee n femal e college s an d jus t si x mal e colleges . Georgia ha d a t leas t te n femal e colleges ; Tennesse e ha d five. O f th e Southern state s onl y Florid a ha d n o femal e colleges . I n additio n t o Alabama's femal e colleges , th e Alabam a Femal e Institut e i n Tuscaloos a arranged fo r student s t o atten d mathematic s an d natura l scienc e lecture s at th e Universit y o f Alabam a i n 183 3 an d fo r a fe w year s thereafter , foreshadowing th e institutio n o f coordinat e college s lik e Radcliff e an d Barnard i n th e latte r par t o f the century. 17 The first coeducationa l colleg e i n th e nation , Oberlin , opene d i n Ohi o i n 1833. However , wome n wer e enrolle d onl y i n th e preparatory , tha t is , secondary, departmen t unti l 1837 . Althoug h coeducatio n wa s seldo m

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considered appropriat e i n the South, th e ide a that women deserve d equa l opportunities with me n i n highe r educatio n ha d begu n t o gai n convert s there a t abou t th e sam e time . I n th e mid-1830s , Danie l Chandle r ad dressed th e Demosthenia n an d th e P i Kapp a Societie s o f th e Universit y of Georgia , callin g i t a "disgrace" that of th e nation' s sixty-one colleges , "not on e i s dedicate d t o th e caus e o f femal e education. " H e urge d legislation t o "giv e th e femal e th e sam e advantage s o f instructio n with the male." Five thousand copies of the speech were printed. I n Decembe r 1836, th e legislatur e wa s willin g t o vot e t o charte r th e Georgi a Femal e College (no w Wesleya n College) , grantin g i t th e privileg e o f bestowin g degrees.18 The colleg e originate d i n a fashion commo n t o th e foundin g o f mos t Southern academie s an d seminaries . A fe w like-minde d friend s me t i n the summe r o f 183 5 t o discuss th e foundin g o f a female college . Whe n their plan s mature d the y calle d a publi c meetin g i n Maco n a t whic h a resolution wa s passe d t o rais e th e necessar y funds . The y als o resolve d t o submit thei r pla n t o th e Georgi a Annua l Conferenc e o f th e Methodis t church i n th e hope s o f gainin g patronage . Th e conferenc e accepte d th e offer t o appoin t trustee s i n accordanc e wit h th e citizens ' pla n an d t o designate Macon' s Methodis t pastor , Elija h Sinclair , a s agen t fo r th e school. Th e positio n o f agen t require d travelin g throughou t th e stat e i n search of support and students. 19 Having receive d it s state charter and having constructed an impressive building, th e colleg e opene d o n 7 Januar y 1839 , wit h a presiden t an d four professors (for mathematic s and astronomy, natura l sciences, ancien t and moder n languages , an d music) . Th e facult y als o include d on e tutor , two assistant s i n music , an d on e teache r o f drawin g an d painting ; a preparatory departmen t ha d a principal an d one assistant. Thre e teacher s were women an d six o f th e remainin g seve n me n hel d th e A.M. degree . The studen t bod y o f ninet y wa s housed i n a fifty-six-room edifice, whos e central sectio n wa s fou r storie s hig h wit h three-stor y wing s o n eithe r side. Thi s compare d favorabl y with men' s school s lik e Harvar d an d Hampden-Sidney.20 The curriculu m fo r 183 9 t o 184 2 i s unavailable, bu t the effects o f the Panic of 183 7 clearl y resulte d i n the ambitious goals of the college bein g scaled back . Pierc e admitte d tha t "th e cours e o f stud y adopte d b y th e Faculty ha s been regulate d b y the necessities of th e case, rathe r than by a rigid judgment o f wha t i s specifically appropriat e t o a Collegiate institu -

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tion." Admissio n standard s ha d t o b e lowere d i n orde r t o provide a large enough enrollmen t t o suppor t th e financial obligation s o f th e college . Nevertheless, th e inten t wa s at some poin t t o advertise admissio n require ments o f suc h stringenc y tha t the y woul d serv e t o provid e parent s wit h a plan o f stud y fo r thei r daughters , thereb y increasin g th e poo l o f student s prepared t o undertak e college-leve l studies . Havin g a sufficientl y larg e population o f student s prepare d t o do advance d wor k wa s a problem tha t would continu e t o plagu e educator s int o th e postbellu m period , eve n i n the North . I n Massachusett s onl y thirt y o f th e initia l thre e hundre d Wellesley student s me t th e standard s fo r colleg e work , forcin g Henr y Durant t o maintai n a preparatory departmen t fo r a decade. 21 In Jul y 1840 , a yea r an d a hal f afte r th e colleg e opened , Catherin e Brewer receive d th e first degree . Th e forme r hea d o f the Clinto n Femal e Seminary, Rev . Thoma s Bo g Slade , ha d close d hi s institutio n an d take n his student s wit h hi m t o Wesleyan . Brewe r wa s on e o f thes e students , and inasmuc h a s th e colleg e wa s a four-yea r institution , mos t o f he r higher educatio n woul d hav e to have been take n elsewhere. He r diploma , in English , proclaime d tha t sh e ha d complete d th e regula r cours e an d bestowed o n he r th e "Firs t Degree. " Althoug h th e Lati n ter m Artium Baccalaureata was no t used , th e first degre e wa s commonly understoo d t o refer t o the bachelor' s an d th e secon d t o the master's. 22 Rev. Pete r Dou b als o ha d th e ide a o f openin g a colleg e fo r wome n about thi s time, an d h e founde d th e Greensbor o Femal e Schoo l i n Nort h Carolina i n 183 2 wit h th e ai m o f buildin g i t int o a college. Th e nee d fo r such a n institutio n ha d bee n discusse d a t severa l Methodis t conference s and withi n thei r socia l circles . I n 183 7 th e Virgini a Conferenc e (o f which Nort h Carolin a wa s a par t unti l th e connectio n wa s severed a t thi s same meeting ) approve d a petition t o establis h a female colleg e i n Nort h Carolina. Greensbor o Femal e College , th e secon d femal e colleg e t o b e chartered i n th e Sout h an d th e nation , wa s incorporate d i n 1838 ; how ever, th e deleteriou s effect s o f th e Pani c o f 183 7 adversel y affecte d i t a s well, postponin g th e opening unti l 1846. 23 The nation' s bes t antebellu m candidat e fo r th e hono r o f bein g th e first women's college , i f educatio n i n th e classic s i s take n a s th e determinin g factor, wa s als o a Souther n institution . Mar y Shar p College , founde d i n Winchester, Tennessee , i n 1853 , na o! a four-year cours e requirin g Latin , Greek, an d highe r mathematic s fo r graduation . Organize d i n 185 0 a s

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the Tennesse e an d Alabam a Femal e Institute, i t opene d a year later . I n honor o f a monetar y gif t fro m Mar y Sharp , wh o wa s intereste d i n freedom fo r bot h Africa n American s an d women , th e school' s nam e wa s changed. It s president , a Vermonter name d Z . C . Graves , claime d tha t Mary Shar p Colleg e wa s "o f a higher grad e tha n an y previousl y know n to exis t . . . a college wher e ladie s ma y hav e th e privileg e o f a classical education."24 What's i n a name? Are th e critic s righ t t o claim tha t the femal e college s were college s i n nam e only ? Even so , wha t woul d th e widesprea d us e o f the ter m signif y i n Souther n society ? T o answe r thes e question s i t i s necessary t o compar e thei r curricul a t o tha t o f men' s college s o f th e times, a s wel l a s t o measur e the m agains t genera l standard s o f tyhat constitutes collegiate studies . This i s a difficult task , becaus e wha t constitute d college-leve l course s in on e perio d i s frequentl y demote d i n th e next , a process that continue s to the present . I n mos t of the better-known antebellu m men' s colleges all of th e instructio n i n mathematic s an d scienc e i n 180 0 wa s containe d i n two books ; b y 182 5 th e numbe r ha d doubled , an d b y 185 0 i t wa s contained i n a minimu m o f ten . Mat h progresse d fro m th e present-da y eighth-grade equivalen t t o second-yea r colleg e leve l betwee n 182 0 an d 1850. I n addition , th e age-graded , systematize d curricul a o f toda y wa s still i n th e future . Th e educationa l pictur e wa s considerably mor e fluid, with som e college-leve l course s being offered i n a variety of institutiona l settings—like theologica l seminaries , medica l schools , academies , semi naries, technological institutes , manua l labo r schools, an d adult education enterprises, whic h include d lyceums and scientific societies . A s academies and seminaries upgrade d thei r curricul a b y adding colleg e courses , thes e subjects wer e demote d t o entranc e requirement s b y th e colleges . Yale , for example , taugh t arithmetic , geography , an d Englis h gramma r unti l the 1830s . B y 183 4 arithmeti c an d geograph y wer e entranc e require ments at the University o f Georgia. Thus , th e overlap between academies and college s wa s th e sit e o f continuou s tension , makin g i t difficul t t o demarcate th e two . Indeed , a s lat e a s 1900 , Willia m Raine y Harper , president o f th e Universit y o f Chicago , estimate d tha t one-fourt h o f al l colleges i n th e natio n wer e reall y secondar y schools . Althoug h thi s esti mate i s probabl y high , give n tha t Harpe r wa s an educational reformer ,

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it wa s undoubtedl y th e cas e tha t th e educationa l leve l o f mos t colleges , male o r female , wa s no t a s rigorous a s that whic h obtaine d a t the nation' s best-known institutions. 25 The definitio n o f libera l art s i s also problematical an d ha s continued t o be s o t o th e present . Th e hear t o f colleg e trainin g fo r me n i n th e antebellum perio d wa s the classics—Gree k an d Lati n an d highe r mathe matics. I n th e colonia l period , gramma r school s prepare d boy s t o rea d the classica l author s i n college . Harvar d freshme n an d sophomore s i n 1690 studie d logic , rhetoric , an d languages , especiall y Virgil , Homer , the Gree k Testamen t an d grammar , an d Hebre w grammar . B y 177 8 Yale's freshme n wer e studyin g Virgil , Cicero , th e Greek Testament , an d arithmetic; th e sophomore s wer e tacklin g th e Gree k Testament , Horace , English grammar , logic , geography , an d mathematics . B y 182 2 Prince ton freshme n wer e studyin g Mair' s introductio n t o Latin, Horace , Livy , Xenophon, Ovid , Dalzel' s Collectane a Graeca , arithmetic , geography , English grammar , algebra , an d composition. 26 Thomas Wood y ha s compare d th e stud y o f th e classic s a t th e Georgi a Female Colleg e an d Mar y Shar p i n th e South , a s well a s Oxford Femal e College an d Elmir a i n th e North , finding non e whos e cours e offering s in ancien t language s wer e th e equivalen t o f th e bette r men' s colleges . Even th e languag e requirement s o f th e highl y regarde d Mar y Shar p were little bette r tha n th e admission requirement s o f some men's colleges. Female college s varie d considerabl y i n th e leve l o f instruction ; thos e i n areas newl y opene d t o plantation s generall y wer e force d t o accep t les s preparation tha n wa s commo n i n th e older , settle d area s o f th e South . Mansfield Femal e Colleg e i n Louisian a i s typical o f man y femal e college s built i n area s tha t wer e recentl y frontie r settlements . I n 185 7 i * offere d Virgil fo r freshmen , Cicer o fo r sophomores , Horac e an d Juvena l fo r juniors, an d Liv y fo r seniors , plu s fou r year s o f Greek . Abou t a decade earlier, i n 1846 , Greensbor o Femal e Colleg e ha d offere d th e stud y o f Buillon's Lati n grammar , Libe r Primus , Lati n reader , Sallust , Virgil , Horace, an d Cicero . I n Gree k Buillon' s gramma r wa s used , alon g wit h Greek Delectus , Anabasis , Euripides , an d th e Gree k Testament . How ever, th e Universit y o f Georgi a ha d mad e Cicero , Virgil , an d th e Gree k Testament par t o f thei r entranc e requirement s a s early a s 1820. 27 Is th e lowe r leve l o f coursewor k i n ancien t language s foun d i n th e female college s sufficien t ground s fo r excludin g the m fro m th e categor y of college ? T o answe r thi s questio n i t i s usefu l t o plac e th e stud y o f th e

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classics i n perspective . B y 182 5 thei r stud y ha d peaked , havin g t o compete fo r a plac e i n th e curricul a wit h th e introductio n o f numerou s new course s resultin g fro m th e impac t o f utilitaria n innovator s an d th e expansion o f a college's raison H 9 26. Lond a Schiebinger , The Mind Has No Sex? Women in the Origins of Modern Science (Cambridge: Harvar d Universit y Press , 1989) , 37—41 . 27. Emanue l D . Rudolph , "Wome n i n Nineteent h Centur y America n Botany : A Generall y Unrecognize d Constituency, " American Journal of Botany 6 9

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(September 1982) : 1346-47 ; Mari a M . Edgeworth , Letters for Literary Ladies. To Which Is Added an Essay on the Noble Science of Self-Justification (George Town : Joseph Milligan , 1810) , 39 ; Jennifer Bennett , Lilies of the Hearth: The Historical Relationship between Women and Plants (Camde n East, Ontario : Camden Hous e Publications , 1990) , 105 . 28. Rossiter , Women Scientists, 6-7; A . H . L . Phelps , Lectures to Young Ladies: Comprising Outlines and Applications of the Different Branches of Female Education (Boston : Carter , Hendee , 1833) , 2 ° 8 ; Debora h Jea n Warner , "Science Educatio n for Wome n i n Antebellu m America, " Isis 6 9 (Marc h 1978): 64 . 29. Thi s brie f sketc h o f Andrew s i s take n fro m Charlott e A . Ford , "Eliz a Frances Andrews , Practica l Botanist , 1840-1931, " Georgia Historical Quarterly 7 0 (Sprin g 1986) : 6 3 - 8 0 . Som e women , especiall y thos e fro m New Englan d an d th e Middl e Atlanti c states , maintaine d thei r interes t i n science afte r the y completed thei r schooling. Thei r contribution s hav e bee n underrated. Se e Sall y Gregor y Kohlstedt , "I n fro m th e Periphery : Ameri can Wome n i n Science , 1830—1880, " Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 4 (1978) : 8 1 - 9 6 , an d Rossiter , Women Scientists, chap . 1 . Rossiter was able to locate a number of female science clubs, like the Female Botanical Societ y o f Wilmington , Delaware , i n th e 1840s , bu t non e wer e located i n the South (75) . 30. Edgefiel d Femal e Institute , Circular, 1850 , Sout h Carolinian a Library , University of South Carolina, Columbia , S.C. ; Chesapeake Female Colleg e [Va.], Circular, 1856 , 7 ; Holsto n Conferenc e Femal e Colleg e [ N . C . ] , Circular and Catalogue, 1856 , 13 . Suc h expensiv e scientifi c apparatu s wa s common i n norther n femal e school s as well. See , Warner , "Scienc e Educa tion." Men' s school s mad e scienc e a prominen t requiremen t b y th e 1830 s and invested i n expensive scientifi c equipment . Se e Guralnick, Science. 31. Spart a Female Mode l School , Circular, 1833 , Departmen t of Archives and Manuscripts, Louisian a Stat e University, Bato n Rouge, La . 32. Sall y Gregor y Kohlstedt , "Curiositie s an d Cabinets : Natura l Histor y Mu seums an d Educatio n o n th e Antebellu m Campus, " Isis 7 9 (Septembe r 1988): 410, 422 . 33. Thi s discussio n i s taken fro m M . Susa n Lindee, "Th e American Caree r o f Jane Marcet' s Conversations on Chemistry, 1806-1853, " Isis 8 2 (Marc h 1991): 8 - 2 3 . 34. Ibid . 3 5. Cole , A Hundred Years, 6 2. 26. Bessi e Lacy, Notebook, Drury Lac y Papers . 37. Lind a J. Borish , "Th e Robus t Woman an d the Muscula r Christian : Catharine Beeche r an d Thomas Higginson , an d Their Visio n o f American Soci -

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ety, Healt h an d Physica l Activities, " International Journal of Sport 4 , no . 2 (September 1987) : 139-54 . 38. Isaa c Watts , The Improvement of the Mind: To Which Is Added\ A Discourse on the Education of Children and Youth (London , 1751) ; Wilso n Smith , ed. , Theories of Education in Early America, 1655-1819 (Ne w York : Bobbs Merrill, 1973) , 98-99 39. Sloan , "Harmony , Chaos , an d Consensus, " 2 2 1 - 5 1 . Se e als o Guralnick , Science. 40. Cole , A Hundred Years, 105 , 115 ; M. C . Stephen s to Mary An n Primrose , 7 Novembe r 1841 , Marcu s Cicer o Stephen s Papers , Souther n Historica l Collection, Universit y o f Nort h Carolina , Chape l Hill , N . C . ; example s o f embroidery instructio n abound , se e Catalogue of the Mansfield Female College of the Louisiana Conference, 1857-58, 16 , an d An n T . Davi s t o Rober t Davis, 1 Novembe r 1855 , Beal e an d Davi s Papers , Souther n Historica l Collection, Universit y o f Nort h Carolina , Chape l Hill , N . C . , i n whic h Miss R . Thacksto n i s reporte d t o b e teachin g embroider y an d drawin g an d painting t o student s a t Wesleya n Femal e Colleg e i n Murfreesborough , North Carolina . 41. Carolin e Le e Hent z Diary , 8 Februar y 1836 , Hent z Papers , Souther n Historical Collection , Universit y o f Nort h Carolina , Chape l Hill , N . C . ; Mary Kelley , Private Woman, Public Stage: Literary Domesticity in Nineteenth-Century America (Ne w York : Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1984) , 225-26. 42. An n T . Davi s t o Rober t Davis , 1 Novembe r 1855 , Beal e an d Davi s Papers; Catalogue of the Mansfield Female College, 8 , 12 , 13 . 43. Manuscrip t o f Elle n Mordecai , Little-Mordeca i Papers ; Margare t An n Ulmer Diary , Souther n Historica l Collection , Universit y o f Nort h Caro lina, Chape l Hill , N . C . 44. Boyd , Typescript , 4 , Wrigh t Papers ; Young , Study of the Curricula; Cohen, A Barhamville Miscellany, 47 . Fo r example s o f soirees , se e Cohen , A Barhamville Miscellany, 44—57 , an d An n Strudwic k Nash , Ladies in the Making (Hillsborough , N . C : N.p . 1964) , 50 . 45. Th e wor k o f Thoma s Wood y wa s influentia l i n acceptin g th e evaluatio n o f the early reformers . Neithe r music , art , no r fine art s appear i n th e inde x t o Barbara Mille r Solomon' s In the Company, th e mos t recen t histor y o f women's highe r education . 46. " A Tabula r Vie w o f th e Orde r an d Distributio n o f Studie s Observe d i n th e Respective Classe s o f th e Hillsboroug h Femal e Seminary , 1826, " Nort h Carolina Collection , Universit y o f Nort h Carolina , Chape l Hill , N . C . 47. Repor t o f Maragre t Graham , 1843 , Willia m P . Graha m Papers , Souther n Historical Collection , Universit y o f Nort h Carolina , Chape l Hill , N . C ;

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Report o f N . J . Brooke , 1859 , Brook e Famil y Papers , Georgi a Depart ment of Archives an d History, Atlanta , Ga . 48. Delphino r Clas s of the Raleigh Academy , Raleigh Register, 1 1 June 1824 . 49. Adelaid e L . Fries , Historical Sketch of Salem Female Academy (Salem , N.C.: Cris t and Keehlin, 1902) , 18 ; Ralph M . Lyon , "Th e Early Years of Livingston Femal e Academy, " Alabama History Quarterly (Fal l 1975) : 200-201. 50. Matti e Beall t o Mollie Harper , 1 1 Marc h 1854 , Beall-Harpe r Papers . 51. Montgomery , Sketches, 149 ; An n T . Davi s t o Rober t Davi s an d Wilbu r Davis, 2 7 Februar y 1856 , Beal e and Davis Papers; Charlotte E . Harpe r to Mother, 2 3 Februar y 1856 , Beall-Harpe r Papers . 52. Willia m Tunstal l t o Langhorn e Scrugg , 8 July 1859 , Langhorn e Scrug g Papers, Manuscrip t Department , Duk e University , Durham , N.C. ; Enoch Fa w Diary, 17-18 , Duk e University . 53. Barbar a Harris , Beyond Her Sphere: Women and the Professions in American History (Westport , Conn. : Greenwood Press, 1978) . 54. Mar y Harri s t o Marth a Fannin , 2 9 Apri l 1857 , Marth a Fanni n Papers , Georgia Stat e Archives, Atlanta , Ga. ; Boyd, Typescript , 8 . 5$. Valedictor y Address , probabl y o f S . A . Hill , Danie l S . Hil l Papers , Manuscript Department , Duk e University , Durham , N.C . 56. Eliz a C . Edwards , Certificat e i n Chemistry , 1856 , Sout h Carolinian a Library, Universit y o f South Carolina, Columbia , S.C . 57. Raper , Church and Private Schools, 215; Stow , History of Mount Holyoke, 352; Jon L. Wakelyn , "Antebellu m Colleg e Lif e an d the Relations between Fathers and Sons," in The Web of Southern Social Relations: Women, Family, and Education, eds . Walte r J. Fraser , Jr., R . Fran k Saunders , Jr., an d Jon L. Wakely n (Athens : Universit y o f Georgia Press, 1985) , 115 . 58. Zimmerma n Femal e Institute , Circular, 1850 , th e South Carolina Library, Columbia, S.C . 4. The Yankee Dispersion: Faculty Life in Female Schools 1. Sigourney , Letters, 132 . 2. Fletche r Green , The Role of the Yankee in the Old South (Athens: Universit y of Georgia Press , 1972) , vii ; Coulter, College Life, 16 . 3. Delt a Kapp a Gamma, Some Pioneer Women Teachers (N.p.: n.p. , 1955) , 6 . 4. An n Strudwic k Nash , Ladies in the Making: (Also a Few Gentlemen) at the Select Boarding and Day School of the Misses Nash and Miss Kolloch 1859— 1890 (Hillsborough , N . C : N.p . 1964) , 12 , Nort h Carolin a Collection , University o f Nort h Carolina , Chape l Hill , N.C . 5. Susa n Ny e Hutchiso n Journal , 22 , 2 8 Apri l 1815 ; 2 , 3 May , 1815 ,

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Southern Historica l Collection , Universit y o f Nort h Carolina , Chape l Hill, N.C . 6. Ibid. , 9 Ma y 1815 . 7. Ibid. , 2 9 June 1815 ; 1 Jul y 1815 . 8. Ibid. , 1 9 November 1826 . 9. Ibid. , 1 5 April 1827 ; 2 6 June 1827 . 10. Ibid. , 1 August 1827 ; 8 August 1831 ; 2 September 1831 . 11. Ibid. , 2 1 Octobe r 1833 ; 2 2 Octobe r 1833 ; 1 6 Novembe r 1833 ; 1 8 No vember 1833 ; 1 8 Marc h 1834 ; 1 1 Octobe r 1834 . 12. Ibid. , 2 8 Octobe r 1834 ; 1 1 Novembe r 1834 ; 25 Novembe r 1834 . 13. Ibid. , 1 3 January 1836 ; 2 4 Septembe r 1836 ; 4 Octobe r 1836 . 14. Ibid. , 1 9 Octobe r 1838 ; 2 9 Jul y 1839 ; 3 Octobe r 1840 ; 2 3 Novembe r 1840. 15. Ibid. , 2 5 Februar y 1833 ; 22 July 1826 ; 2 6 Octobe r 1837 . 16. Mrs . W . S . Primrose , A Sketch of the School of the Misses Nash and Miss Kollock (Raleigh, N . C : N.p . 1926) , 5 , 17 . 17. Mar y Watters , The History of Mary Baldwin College, 1842—1942 (Staun ton, Va. : Mar y Baldwi n College , 1942) , 5 8 - 6 3 , 66-132 . 18. Joh n A . Logan , Hollins: An Act of Faith for 125 Years (Ne w York : Newcomen Societ y of North America , 1968) , 8-13 . 19. Rev . Basi l Manl y t o Prof . S . S . Sherman , 3 Ma y 1854 , Basi l Manl y Papers, Souther n Historica l Collection , Universit y o f Nort h Carolina , Chapel Hill , N.C . 20. Rev . Basi l Manl y t o Re v M . L . Bickford , 2 3 Ma y 1854 ; Manl y t o H. J . Solomons, 7 July 1854 ; Manl y t o Mis s E . Nelson , 7 July 1854 ; Manl y t o Nelson, 1 5 Jul y 1854 ; Manl y t o Professo r Fuller , 1 6 Ma y 1854 ; Manl y to Sarah O. Stevens , 2 3 Ma y 1854 ; Manly t o Stevens, 2 7 June 1854 , Basi l Manly Papers . 21. J . P . Nelso n t o Governor Swain , 3 1 January 1857 , J o n n Kimberl y Papers. 22. Peas e and Pease, Ladies, Women, and Wenches, 86 . 23. Autobiograph y o f Mari a Florill a (Flint ) Hamblen , 1 , Souther n Historica l Collection, Universit y o f Nort h Carolina , Chape l Hill , N.C . 24. Scott , "Th e Eve r Widenin g Circle, " 3 - 2 5 ; reprinte d i n Invisible Woman, 64-88. 25. Diar y o f Thoma s Bo g Slade , typescript , 4 , 6 , Souther n Historica l Collec tion, Universit y o f Nort h Carolina , Chape l Hill , N.C . 26. An n T . Davi s t o Wilbur Davis , 5 March 1856 , Beal e and Davis Papers. 27. Mari a B . Owe n t o John C . Jacobson, 2 1 Novembe r 1842 ; F. T . Napie r to John C . Jacobson , 1 8 Februar y 1837 . Bot h quote d i n Mario n H . Blair , "Contemporary Evidence—Sale m Boardin g School 1834-44, " North Carolina Historical Review 2 7 (Apri l 1950) : 151 .

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28. Dr . A . J . d e Rosse t t o Kat e d e Rosset , 9 Decembe r 1848 , D e Rosse t Papers, Souther n Historica l Collection , Universit y o f Nort h Caro lina, Chape l Hill , N.C. ; Diar y o f Carolin e Le e Hentz , 1 1 Februar y 1836. 29. Elia s Marks, M.D. , Hints on Female Education (Barhamville , S.C. : N.p . 1851), 5 . Rev . Charle s Forc e Deems , What Now? (Ne w York : M . W . Dodd, 1852) , 68. 30. Catalogue of the Mansfield Female College, 4 ; Goldsbor o Femal e College , Circular, 1857, John Kimberly Papers. 31. Nash , Ladies in the Making, 53-54; Manly Wade Wellman, The County of Warren North Carolina 1586—1917 (Chape l Hill : Universit y o f Nort h Carolina Press, 1959) , 100 . 32. Eleano r Wol f Thompson , Education for Ladies, 1830-1860 (Ne w York : King's Crown Press, 1947) , 92; Marks, Hints, 24. 33. An n T . Davi s t o Rev . J . H . Davis , 2 9 Apri l 1858 , Beal e an d Davi s Papers. 34. Carri e Holt, An Autobiographical Sketch of A Teacher*s Life (Quebec: James Carrel, N.p. 1875) , 9. 35. Eliz a Annie Dunstan to Joseph Belknap Smith, 31 December 1859 , Joseph Belknap Smit h Papers , Manuscrip t Department , Duk e University , Dur ham, N.C. 36. Autobiograph y of Hamblen. 37. Mrs . A . W . Fairbanks , ed. , Mrs. Emma Willard and Her Pupils or Fifty Years of the Troy Female Seminary 1822-1872 (Ne w York , 1898) , 273 , 429-30. 38. Quote d in Scott, "The Ever Widening Circle," 9. Scot t traces the influence of Willard on women's education in the antebellum period. 39. Calculation s are made from handwritten notes of Henry Campbell Davis in the Sout h Carolinian a Library , Universit y o f Sout h Carolina . H e adde d information fro m newspape r clipping s an d other source s to data in Fair banks's, Willard and Her Pupils, whic h was a compilation of material from questionnaires sen t b y a n alumnae committe e t o every forme r pupi l the y could locat e an d t o friend s an d descendant s o f thos e wh o ha d died. Th e questionnaires ar e hel d i n th e Archive s o f th e Emm a Willar d School , Troy, N.Y . 40. Kathry n Kis h Sklar , "Th e Foundin g o f Moun t Holyok e College, " i n Women of America: A History, eds . Caro l Rut h Berki n an d Mar y Bet h Norton (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1979) , 177-201 . 41. Stow , History of Mount Holyoke, 127 , 130 , 122 . 42. Scott , "The Ever Widening Circle." 43. Bessi e Lacy to Horace Lacy, 1 2 January 1847 , Drury Lacy Papers.

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44. Bessi e Lac y t o Rev. Drur y Lacy , 2 1 Septembe r 1847 , Drur y Lac y Papers; Ann Davi s t o John Davis , 3 0 Novembe r 1857 , Beal e and Davis Papers. 45. Eliz a Anni e Dunsto n t o Josep h Belkna p Smith , 9 Octobe r 1859 , 1 8 December 1859 , 3 1 Decembe r 1859 , Joseph Belkna p Smith Papers . 46. Sigourney , Letters, 132 ; Holt, An Autobiographical Sketch, 7—8. 47. Ishbe l Ross , Child of Destiny: The Life Story of the First Woman Doctor (New York : Harpe r an d Row, 1949) , 75 , 93 . 48. Sara h Furbe r t o Thoma s Furbe r o f Boston , 7 Ma y 1844 , Sara h Furbe r Letters, Department of Archives and Manuscripts, Louisian a State Univer sity Library , Bato n Rouge , La . Despit e Victoria n notion s o f modesty , planters dresse d youn g slaves , eve n thos e goin g throug h puberty , onl y i n long shirt s or shifts. Underwea r wa s not commonly worn . 49. Mario n A . Hawk s to Nancy S . Everett , 2 0 July 1840 , Mar y Lyon Papers, Mount Holyok e Colleg e Library/Archives , Sout h Hadley , Mass . Fo r Beecher's views , se e Kathry n Kis h Sklar , "Catharin e Beeche r (1800-1878), " in Portraits of American Women: From Settlement to the Present, eds . G . J . Barker-Benfield an d Catherin e Clinto n (Ne w York : St . Martin s Press , 1991). 50. Manl y Wad e Wellman , The County of Warren North Carolina 1586-iQij (Chapel Hill : Universit y o f North Carolin a Press, 1959) , 112 ; Montgomery, Sketches, 146; Catalogu e o f Greensbor o Femal e Academy , Duk e Uni versity Library; Montgomery , St. Mary's, 9 . 5. Trying to Look Very Fascinating: The Informal Curriculum 1. Wilbu r J . Cash , The Mind of the South (Ne w York : Alfre d A . Knopf , 1940,972. Richar d T . Brumb y t o An n Eliz a Brumby , 3 Apri l 1858 , Richar d T . Brumby Papers , Souther n Historica l Collection , Universit y o f North Car olina, Chape l Hill , N.C . 3. Agne s Le e t o Mother , 2 1 Marc h 1857 , in Mar y Custi s Le e deButts , ed. , Growing Up in the 1850s: The Journal of Agnes Lee (Chapel Hill : Universit y of Nort h Carolin a Press, 1984) ; Charles A. Raper , "Prominen t Student s at Salem,yy Duke Universit y Library , Durham , N . C ; Richar d H . Battle , An Historical Sketch of St. Mary's School (Charlotte, N . C : Observe r Printin g House, 1902) , Nort h Carolin a Collection , Universit y o f Nort h Carolin a Library, Chape l Hill , N . C ; Cohen , A Barhamville Miscellany, 20-23 ; Margaret Richards , "Thes e Man y Years" ; 2 4 Reminiscence s wit h , 63, ,> Wesleyan Alumnae (April 1925) : 13 ; "Memories," Mrs . Ell a Burto n Scar borough (Jul y 1925) , "Th e Histor y o f Wesleyan Scrapbook " (n.a., 1925) , Wesleyan Colleg e Archives , Macon , Ga .

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4. Danie l Hundley, Social Relations in Our Southern States (New York: H. B . Price, i860) , 100 , 72. 5. "Minde n Femal e College, " typescript , 3 , Departmen t o f Archive s an d Manuscripts, Louisian a Stat e University , Bato n Rouge , La. ; Margare t Graham to Frances Graham, 20 May 1843 , William P. Graha m Papers. 6. Joh n Dudle y Tatu m to Anna Tatum, 1 9 Februar y 1857 ; l 9 Apri l 1859 ; 12 February i860 , John Dudley Tatum Papers, Souther n Historical Col lection, Universit y of North Carolina Library, Chapel Hill, N.C . 7. Hinto n Rowa n Helper , The Impending Crisis (New York , i860) , 397 . Margaret Anne Ulmer's diary is typical, providin g numerous examples of the incorrect form o f the verb, t o do. Kat e (Catherine) Gill t o Mother, 6 March i860 , Gil l Family Papers, Manuscript Department, Duke University, Durham, N.C. 8. Cohen , Barhamville Miscellany, 20-23 . 9. Ibid. , 27,33 . 10. Type d description o f the Select School, fro m Nas h Papers, Souther n Historical Collection , Universit y o f Nort h Carolina , Chape l Hill , N . C ; Mollie t o Sister , 2 4 Augus t 1855 ; Molli c t o Mother , 1 1 Augus t 1855 , Beall-Harper Papers ; Luc y Leinbac h Wenhold , "Th e Sale m Boardin g School Betwee n 180 2 an d 1822 , North Carolina Historical Review 2 7 (April 1950) : 36; Adelaide Fries, Records of Moravians in North Carolina, vol. 6 [Raleigh , N . C : Edward s and Broughton , 1946] , 2779 ; Virginia Streeter t o Arabella Clark , 2 7 Augus t 1838 , Henr y Tool e Clar k Papers, Manuscript Department, Duke University, Durham , N.C Cole , A Hundred Years, 81 . 11. Montgomery , St. Mary's, 18 ; Journal o f Ella Gertrude Clanton Thomas, 11 April 1851 , Ella Thomas Papers, Manuscript Department, Duk e University, Durham , N.C ; Margare t Ann Ulmer Diary, 29 ; Cole, A Hundred Years, 84 . 12. Moll y Beall to Brother, 2 9 November 1849 , Beall-Harper Papers; WyattBrown, i n Southern Honor, delineates th e cause s an d consequence s o f in dulging children, especially males. See page 231 for the impact on women. Harriet Stap p to Bud Stapp, 1 1 Ma y 1856 , Joseph Stapp Papers, Manu script Department , Duk e University , Durham , N . C ; Kat e (Catherine ) Gill to Mag Gill, 1 8 February i860 , Gil l Famil y Papers; Katherine Batts Salley, ed. , Life at St. Mary's (Chapel Hill : Universit y of North Carolina Press, 1942) , 27. 13. Manual of St. Mary's School (Raleigh , N . C : Carolin a Cultivato r Office , 1857), I2 *> Hatti e Monro e t o Natha n Munroe , 1 4 Apri l 1851 , Joh n Mcintosh Kell Papers; Sigourney, 89 ; Cohen, Barhamville Miscellany, 34 . 14. Taylor , "Regulations," 16; Salley, St. Mary's, 14.

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15. Mar y Harpe r t o Mollie, 2 7 Octobe r 1853 , Beall-Harpe r Papers ; Diary o f Susan McDowall , 2 7 Januar y 1856 , Duk e University ; Matti e Gaithe r t o Mary Harper , 1 1 Marc h 1854 , Beale-Harpe r Papers . 16. Nash , Ladies in the Making, 50 ; Cohen, Barhamville Miscellany, 48 . 17. Copyboo k an d diar y o f Margare t An n Barnhardt , vol . 6 , 1 0 Novembe r 1845, Josep h Adolp h Lin n Papers , Souther n Historica l Collection , Uni versity o f Nort h Carolina , Chape l Hill , N.C. ; Margare t Ann e Ulme r Diary, 7 Marc h 1858 , 10 , Souther n Historica l Collection . 18. Emm a Kimberl y t o father, 2 0 Marc h 1858 ; Lizzie Kimberl y t o Father, 2 January 1857 , J o n n Kimberl y Papers ; Salley , Saint Mary's, 25 ; Copybook and diary of Margare t Ann Barnhardt, 1 0 November 1845 , Joseph Adolp h Linn Papers . 19. Diar y o f Susa n McDowall , 2 6 January 1856 , Duk e University ; Harrie t S . Stapp to Brother, 1 1 Ma y 1856 , Joseph Stap p Papers; Caroline E . Harpe r to Mother , 2 3 Februar y 1856 ; An n T . Davi s t o Son, 2 8 Decembe r 1855 ; Anne T. Davi s to John Davis, 2 8 December 1857 , Beal e and Davis Papers; Invitation o f Lenoi r Collegiat e Institut e addresse d t o Mis s M . E . Sugg , Lewis Sug g Papers , Manuscrip t Department , Duk e University , Durham , N.C. 20. Coulter , College Life, 81 ; Cole, A Hundred Years, 75 . 21. Hughe s Bayne Hoyle, Jr., "Th e Early History of Queens College to 1872 " (Ph.D. diss. , Universit y o f Nort h Carolina , Chape l Hill , 1963) , 175 ; Diary o f Susa n McDowall , 6 Januar y 1856 ; Taylor , "Regulations, " 2 6 27. 22. Scott , The Southern Lady, 25 ; Jane Turne r Censer , "Parent s an d Children: North Carolin a Plante r Families , 1800-1860 " (Ph.D . diss. , John s Hop kins University , 1981) , 6 3 - 6 4 , 137—96 ; Pete r Hall , "Famil y Structur e and Clas s Consolidatio n amon g Bosto n Brahmins " (Ph.D . diss. , Stat e University o f Ne w Yor k a t Buffalo, 1973) , tabl e 6 , 170 , cite d i n Wyatt Brown, Southern Honor, 203 . 23. Goldsbor o Femal e College , Circular, Kimberl y Papers , Souther n Histori cal Collection ; Taylor , "Regulations, " 29 ; Cole , A Hundred Years, 93 ; Williana Lac y t o Bessi e Lacy , 1 0 Septembe r 1845 , Drur y Lac y Papers ; Emilie Elliot t t o Carolin e Elliott , Elliot t an d Gonzale s Famil y Papers , Southern Historica l Collection , Universit y o f Nort h Carolina , Chape l Hill, N.C . 24. Ann e Davi s t o John Davis , 1 January 1858 ; Postscrip t b y Ann e Davi s t o letter of Olin Davis to John Davis, 1 6 January 1858 ; Anne Davis to Robert Davis, 2 5 January 1858 , Beale-Davi s Papers . 25. Quote d i n P. L . Ford , ed. , The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, vol . 1 0 (Ne w York, 1892-99) , 104 .

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26. Rev . Willia m Hooper, An Address on Female Education: Delivered before the Sedgwick Female Seminary, February 27 , 184-7 (Raleigh , N.C.: Weston R. Gales, 1848) , 23 ; Diary o f Susan McDowall , 4 January 1856 , 9 . Steve n M. Stowe , "Th e Not-So-Cloistere d Academy : Elit e Women' s Educatio n and Famil y Feelin g i n th e Ol d South, " i n The Web of Southern Social Relations: Women, Family, and Education, ed . Walte r J. Fraser , Jr. , R . Frank Saunders, Jr., an d Jon L. Wakely n (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1985) , 98 , analyze s how novel s were used as sources for courtship rituals. Kelley , i n Private Woman, discusses th e work s o f Carolin e Le e Hentz an d other novelist s a s being thematicall y simila r i n portrayin g the villain a s the seducer wh o betray s women's idea l o f romanti c love . Cath y N. Davidso n i n Revolution and the Word: The Rise of the Novel in America (New York : Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1986 ) als o point s t o th e linkag e between nove l readin g an d students ' imitatio n o f it s languag e an d style . Scott reports on popular reading by southern women and also discusses two southern novelists , Carolin e Le e Hent z an d August a Evan s Wilson ; se e The Southern Lady, 75—76. 27. Nel l Flin n Gilland , "Alumn a o f Ol d Barhamvill e Seminar y Tell s o f Her School Days Before the War," The State, 12 May 1929 , Sout h Carolina Femal e Collegiat e Institut e Papers , Sout h Carolinian a Library, Uni versity o f Sout h Carolina , Columbia , S.C. ; Journal s o f Ell a Gertrud e Clanton Thomas, Duk e University ; quoted in deButts, Growing Up, 131 ; Kate D e Rosse t t o Magdale n M . D e Rosset , 4 Apri l 1845 , D e Rosse t Papers. 28. Montgomery , St, Mary's, 22. For an excellent discussion of parents' views on taste, see Fox-Genovese, Within the Plantation Household, 212-16 . 29. Taylor , "Regulations, " 26 ; "Manua l o f St . Mary's, " Sadi e Rober t Ro bards's, Scrapbook , St . Mary' s Archives, Raleigh , N.C. ; Raleigh Register 14 January 1852 ; quoted in deButts, Growing Up, 135-36 . 30. Drur y Lacy to Bessie Lacy, 1 0 July 1845 , Drur y Lacy Papers. Elizabet h Fox-Genovese delineates the difference between extravagance and restrained elegance a s a clas s marke r amon g wome n o f th e gentry ; se e Within the Plantation Household, 212-13 . Kat e Gill t o Mother, 6 March i860 , Gil l Family Papers ; Lizzi e Kimberl y t o father , 1 4 Novembe r 1858 , Joh n Kimberly Papers. 31. Quote d i n Taylor , "Regulations, " 25 . Mar y McAlile y t o Samue l Mc Aliley, 1853 , report s th e expulsio n o f tw o student s fro m Barhamvill e without explanation . Se e Cohen , Barhamville Miscellany, 43 . Copyboo k and diary of Margaret Ann Barnhardt, 1 0 November 1845 , vol. 6 , Joseph Adolph Linn Papers. 32. "Hillsboroug h Academ y Rules, " Raleigh Register, 11 Decembe r 1818 ;

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Margaret M . Graha m t o William P . Graham , 2 9 Octobe r 1842 , Willia m P. Graha m Papers. 33. Quote d i n Hoyle , "Queen' s College, " 96 ; quote d i n Nash , Ladies in the Makingy 13 ; Catalogu e an d Circula r o f th e Greensbor o Femal e Academy , r855, Duk e University . 34. Quote d i n Cole, A Hundred Years, 74 ; Higher Education, 255 . 3 5. Catalogue of the Mansfield Female College, 1858,9 ; Marth a Hauser to Aunt, 9 Marc h 1853 , Jone s Famil y Papers ; Smedes , "Manua l o f St . Mary's, " 34,38. 36. Montgomery , St. Mary's, 12 ; Mary Harpe r t o Brother, 2 2 January 1851 , Beall-Harper Papers . 37. Frederic k Rudolph , The American College and University (Ne w York : Vin tage Books , 1962) , 83 ; Godbold, The Church College, 55; Coulter , College Life, 9 5 - 9 6 , 102-3 , I Q 8; David F . Allmendinger , Jr. , "Th e Danger s o f Ante-Bellum Studen t Life, " Journal of Social History 7 (Fal l 1973) : 76 . Allmendinger analyze s th e mo b action s tha t too k plac e throughou t th e nation. H e attribute s the m t o th e appearanc e o f olde r student s wh o n o longer live d i n school , erodin g facult y control . Administration s me t thi s challenge b y enlistin g th e hel p o f parent s throug h grad e report s an d com petitions fo r prizes . M y readin g o f th e evidenc e show s tha t significan t numbers o f student s alway s boarde d i n town , wher e facult y influenc e wa s tenuous. Se e als o Dre w Gilpi n Faust , A Sacred Circle: The Dilemma of the Intellectual of the Old South, 1840—1860 (Baltimore : Johns Hopkin s Uni versity Press , 1977) , 9 . 38. Journa l o f Ellen Mordecai , 2 7 Februar y 1816 , Little-Mordeca i Papers . 39. Se e especially , Schwager , "Educatin g Women, " 333-72 ; Solomon , In the Company; and Horowitz, Alma Mater. 40. Eliz a Anni e Dunsto n to Joseph Belkna p Smith, 1 2 December 1859 , Joseph Belknap Smit h Papers ; Ann e Davi s t o Rober t Davis , 1 Ma y 1855 , Beal e and Davis Papers ; Cohen, Barhamville Miscellany, 31—32 ; Holt, An Autobiographical Sketch, 12 . 41. Ann e Davi s t o Rober t Davis , 1 Ma y 1855 , Beal e an d Davi s Papers ; Journals of Ell a Gertrud e Clanto n Thomas , n Apri l 1851 , Duk e Univer sity Library . 42. Marth a Harri s t o Martha Fannin , 2 9 Apri l 1857 , Marth a Fanni n Papers ; William Elliot t t o Emilie Elliott , 2 8 Februar y 1844 , Elliot t an d Gonzale s Family Papers. 43. Baco n quote d i n Georg e C . Rable , Civil Wars: Women and the Crisis of Southern Nationalism (Urbana : Universit y o f Illinoi s Press , 1989) , 278 ; Margaret An n Ulme r Diary , 58 , 65-, Diary o f Susa n McDowall , 8 - 9 January; Eliz a t o Laura Nelso n Covert , 1 and 4 Apri l 1836 , Barhamvill e

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Academy Papers , Sout h Carolinian a Library , Universit y o f Sout h Carolina, Columbia, S.C. 44. Drur y Lac y t o Bessi e Lacy , 1 3 June 1845 ; Willian a Wilkinso n Lac y t o Bessie Lacy, 2 8 Novembe r 1845 ; Bessie Lacy to Drury Lacy, 2 6 January 1847; Bessie Lac y t o Drury Lacy , 1 9 September 1846 , Drur y Lac y Papers. 45. C . Alic e Ready Diary, 2 1 Marc h i860 , 4 July i860 , Souther n Historical Collection, Universit y o f Nort h Carolin a Library , Chape l Hill , N.C. ; Mary to Brother, 2 2 January 1851 , Beall-Harper Papers. 46. Fo r a discussion of this debate, se e Nancy Green, "Femal e Education and School Competition: 1 8 20-18 50," History of Education Quarterly 1 8 (Summer 1978): 129-42 . 47. Charle s Force Deems, What Now? (New York: M. W . Dodd, 1852) , 6 4 67; Pope, "Preparatio n fo r Pedestals," chap. 9 , discusse s the role of competition in seminary life. 48. Drur y Lacy to Bessie Lacy, 1 3 June 1845 , Drury Lacy Papers. 49. Cohen , Barhamville Miscellany, 27 , 31 ; Salley, St. Mary's, 21 ; Diary o f Susan McDowall, 1 1 January 1856. 50. An n Davis to John Davis, 1 2 April 1858 , Beal e and Davis Papers; Boyd, Typescript, Jesse D. Wrigh t Papers ; Rev. Levi n Reichel, The Moravians in North Carolina (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1857) , 129 . 51. Rev . Drur y Lac y t o Bessi e Lacy , 1 3 Jun e 1845 , Drur y Lac y Papers ; Letters from James A. Norco m t o Mary Norcom, James A. Norco m and Family Papers, Nort h Carolina Collection, Universit y of North Carolina, Raleigh, N.C. ; Boilin g Hal l t o Poll y W . Hall , 3 0 June 1813 , Boilin g Hall Papers, Department of Archives and History, Montgomery , Ala. 52. Drake , Higher Education, 242 ; Nash, Ladies in the Making, 69 ; Montgomery, Sketches, 141 ; Montgomery, Old Warrenton, 16 ; F. Garvi n Davenport, Cultural Life in Nashville on the Eve of the Civil War (Chapel Hill : University of North Carolina, 1941) , 42.

6. Sisters: The Development of Sororities 1. Margar y A . Bollinger , "Introduction " to he r albums , Henr y A . Davis , Barhamville Notes , III , 151 , Southcarolinian a Library , Universit y o f South Carolina, Columbia, S.C. 2. Sara h Penn t o Elizabeth Penn , 2 7 Marc h 1847 , Elizabet h Seawel l Hair ston Papers; Catherine Gill to Mother, 6 March i860 , Gill Family Papers; Diary o f Susa n McDowall , 4 January 1856 ; Mary Harpe r t o Molly, 2 7 October 1853 , Beall-Harper Papers.

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3. Mar y Beal l t o Brother , 2 9 Novembe r 1849 , Beall-Harpe r Papers ; Diar y of Susan McDowall , 1 6 January 1856 . 4. Mar y Beall t o Brother, 2 9 Novembe r 1849 , Beall-Harpe r Papers ; Journal, 11 Apri l 1851 , Ell a Gertrud e Clanto n Thoma s Papers . Althoug h Virgini a Ingram Burr' s editio n o f Thomas' s journal ha s omitted som e o f th e entrie s during he r school years , i t provides a good descriptio n o f life a t Wesleyan. In addition , th e "Introduction, " b y Nel l Irvi n Painte r i s usefu l i n provid ing biographica l informatio n tha t situate s Thoma s withi n th e contex t o f women's histor y generally ; se e The Secret Eye: The Journal of Ella Gertrude Clanton Thomas, 1848-1889 (Chape l Hill : Universit y o f Nort h Carolin a Press, 1990) . 5. Autograp h Boo k o f Harrie t Cook , 1852 , Marth a F . Fanni n Papers. 6. Coulter , College Life, 149-67 ; James McLachlan, "Th e Choice of Hercules: American Studen t Societie s i n th e Earl y Nineteent h Century, " i n The University in Society, ed . Lawrenc e Ston e (Princeton , N.J. : Princeto n University Press , 1974) , 449-94 . 7. Kat e Clopton t o John Clopton , 2 2 Novembe r 1857 , J o n n Clopto n Papers , Manuscript Department , Duk e University , Durham , N.C . 8. Berth a t o Bonni e Law , 2 7 Ma y 1844 , Willia m August a La w Papers , Manuscript Department , Duk e University , Durham , N . C ; Marth a Hau ser to Aunt, 9 March 1853 , Jones Famil y Papers . 9. Th e descriptio n o f Limeston' s Sigourne y Societ y i s take n fro m "Minute s and By-Laws, " Sigourne y Society , Femal e Hig h School , Limeston e Springs , 1848-1852, typescrip t o f origina l i n Charlesto n Fre e Library , Sout h Car oliniana Library , Universit y o f Sout h Carolina , Columbia , S.C. ; Sigour ney Clu b Records , Souther n Historica l Collection , Universit y o f Nort h Carolina Library, Chape l Hill , N.C . 10. Ibid. , By-Laws . 11. Ibid. , 16 . Scott' s classic study, The Southern Lady, document s the pervasiv e discontent of antebellum souther n wome n wit h thei r limited rol e and incul cated acceptance of patriarcha l authority . Se e especially chapters 1 and 3. 12. "Th e Oldes t Sororit y Make s a Gif t t o th e Oldes t College, " The Wesleyan Alumnae, 2 6 July 1925 , i n "Th e Histor y o f Wesleyan Scrapbook," January 1925, Wesleya n Colleg e Archives , Macon , Ga. ; Virginia Le e Nelson , ed. , Loyally: A History of Alpha Delta Pi from the Founding of the Adelphian Society in 1851 at Wesleyan Female College, Macon, Georgia, through 1964, vol. 1 (Atlanta, Ga. : N.p. , n.d.) , 1-12 . 13. Journal s of Ella Gertrud e Clanto n Thomas, 5 April 1851 . 14. Ibid. , 7 April 1851 ; 8 April 1851 . 15. Nelson , Loyally, 8 ; The State, 1 5 Marc h 1903 . 16. Nelson , Loyally, 10-12 , 19 .

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17. Ther e ar e n o comprehensive historie s of th e Greek syste m i n th e Unite d States. Helen Lefkowitz Horowitz provides a brief discussion of the importance of thes e group s t o student cultur e a t the Seve n Sister s college s (se e Campus Life: Undergraduate Cultures from the End of the Eighteenth Century to the Present [New York : Alfre d A . Knopf , 1987] ) bu t ther e i s n o difinitive treatmen t o f sororitie s an d thei r plac e i n women' s collegiat e experience. 18. Fo r brie f historica l sketche s of Gree k lette r fraternities , se e the followin g frequently update d referenc e work : John Robson , ed. , Bairds Manual of American College Fraternities (Menasha, Wis.: Baird's Manual Foundation, 1977). Ther e exist s no recent historical overvie w o f th e Greek system . A very brie f descriptio n i s give n i n Horowitz , Campus Life, 29-31 . Sh e places the establishment of "female fraternities that gradually and intermittently too k th e nam e sororities" in th e lat e nineteenth-centur y an d claims their origins among middle-class women. See, Coulter, College Life, 103 33, 257 , and 271-73, fo r southern men's experiences. 19. Othe r sororities began as literary societies, like the firstto become a national sorority, P i Bet a Phi, whic h began in 186 7 a t Monmouth, Illinois , as the I. C . Sorosis Club. The greatest period of sorority founding was at the turn of th e century. Th e differenc e b y this time betwee n literar y societie s and sororities wa s well established , an d sororities founde d i n thi s perio d took Greek letter names from the beginning. Althoug h some were established in the South (Alpha Sigma Alpha, Longwoo d College in Virginia, 1901 ; Chi Omega, Universit y o f Arkansas, 1895 ; Delta Gamma, Lewi s School near the Universit y o f Mississippi , 1873 ; Kapp a Delta , Longwoo d College , 1897; Sigm a Sigm a Sigma , Longwoo d College , 1898 ; Zet a Ta u Alpha , Longwood College , 1898 ) mos t wer e institutionalize d i n th e Nort h a t Boston University , Ne w Yor k University , Barnard , Syracuse , Cornell , Colgate, DePauw , Monmouth , an d Butler . Thre e sororitie s fo r African American women were all founded at Howard (Alpha Kappa Alpha, 1908 ; Delta Sigma Theta, 1913 ; Zeta Phi Beta, 1920) . 7. Lovers: Romantic Friendships 1. Anni e Regena s t o Brother , 1 8 Novembe r 1855 , Anni e Regena s Papers, Manuscript Department, Duke University, Durham, N.C. 2. Se e Jeffrey Richards' s discussion of the love of men who considered themselves to be best friends in "Manly Love and Victorian Society," in Manliness and Morality: Middle-Class Masculinity in Britain and America, 1800— 1940, eds . J . A . Manga n an d Jame s Walvi n (Manchester , England : Manchester University Press, 1987) , 93 ; also, Anthony E. Rotundo , "Ro-

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7 . LOVER S mantic Friendships : Mal e Intimac y an d Middle-Clas s Yout h i n the North ern Unite d States , 1802-1900, " Journal of Social History 2 3 (Fal l 1989) :

I 25 ~ ' 3. Fo r a n explicatio n o f this vie w se e Nanc y F . Cott , "Passionlessness : A n Interpretation o f Victoria n Sexua l Ideology , 1790-1850, " Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 4, no . 2 1 (1978) : 219-36 , esp . 233 . 4. Caro l Lasse r foun d man y nineteenth-centur y example s o f same-se x friend ships expresse d i n fictive ki n terms . Thes e examples , however , ar e draw n from th e North . Althoug h younge r student s wer e sometime s paire d wit h older studen t mentor s i n wha t were terme d mother-daughte r relationships , my research does not support the use of sororal imager y i n friendships. See , '"Let U s B e Sister s Forever' : Th e Sorora l Mode l o f Nineteenth-Centur y Female Friendship, " Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 1 4 (Autumn 1988) : 158-81 . Postscrip t b y Bonni e Munro e t o lette r b y Julia Munroe t o Natha n Munroe , 1 4 Apri l 1851 , Joh n Mcintos h Kel l Papers ; Annie Regena s t o Brother , 1 8 Novembe r 1855 , Anni e Regena s Papers ; Diary o f Susan McDowall , 4 January 1856 . 5. Drur y Lac y to Bessie Lacy, 3 0 August 1845 , Drur y Lac y Papers. 6. Anni e Demut h t o Brother, 1 8 Novembe r 1855 ; Annie Demut h t o brother, 1 December 1855 , Anni e Regena s Papers. 7. Emm a Su e Gordo n t o John Kimberly , 2 9 Apri l 1858 ; Laura E . Bake r t o Annie R. Maney , 2 9 December 1857 ; Jo n n Kimberl y Papers . Fo r comparisons wit h th e lat e nineteent h an d earl y twentiet h centurie s durin g whic h the sexua l componen t o f th e youn g woman/olde r woma n crus h wa s mor e central, see , Marth a Vicinus , "Distanc e an d Desire : Englis h Boarding School Friendships, " Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 9 (Summer 1984) : 600-22 . 8. Margare t An n Ulme r Diary , 2 8 Februar y 1858 ; Lizzie Kimberl y t o John Kimberly, 1 8 Marc h 1857 , J o n n Kimberl y Papers . 9. Luc y Catharin e Moore , "Memoria l t o Dr . Alder t Smedes, " St. Mary's Muse 1 0 (April 1906) : 7 . 10. Diar y o f Susan McDowall, 2 January 1856 . 11. Fo r a histor y o f th e changin g positio n o f singl e wome n befor e th e perio d under discussion , se e Le e Virgini a Chambers-Schiller , Liberty, A Better Husband: Single Women in America: The Generations of 1780—1840 (Ne w Haven, Conn. : Yale Universit y Press , 1984) . 12. Debora h Tannen , You Just Don't Understand: Women and Men in Conversation (New York : Morrow , 1990) ; Bessie Lac y to Drury Lacy , 1 1 Februar y 1847, Drur y Lac y Papers. 13. Example s of analyses of the ideology of separate spheres that trace its origins to industrializatio n an d urbanizatio n ar e ubiquitous . See , fo r example ,

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Nancy F . Cott , The Bonds of Womanhood: Women's Sphere in New England 1780-1835 (Ne w Haven , Conn. : Yale University Press, 1977) . Th e quote is take n fro m th e germina l articl e b y Carrol l Smith-Rosenberg , "Th e Female Worl d o f Lov e an d Ritual : Relation s betwee n Wome n i n Nine teenth-Century America, " Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 1 (Autumn 1975) : 14 . Th e field o f women' s histor y opene d i n th e earl y seventies wit h attempt s to recover femal e worthie s and to write oppositiona l histories o f group s tha t ha d bee n eliminate d fro m mainstrea m histories , e.g., ordinar y women , lesbians , minorities , third-worl d women , etc ; se e Lise Vogel , "Tellin g Tales : Historian s o f Ou r Ow n Lives, " Journal of Women's History 2 (Winte r 1991) : 8 9 - 1 0 1 , whic h dispute s th e commonl y held vie w tha t earl y historie s wer e onl y concerne d wit h th e live s o f white , middle-class women . Th e paradig m use d t o elucidat e th e historie s o f thes e women mirrore d th e approac h o f th e women' s movemen t a t tha t tim e b y positing a basi c equalit y betwee n th e sexe s an d explainin g thei r differin g life experience s i n term s o f women' s oppressio n b y men . Barbar a Welter' s classic article, "Th e Cult of True Womanhood, " set the discussion i n terms of victimizatio n frame d withi n th e ideolog y o f separat e spheres . B y th e mid-seventies, amids t a conservativ e reactio n i n th e natio n an d unabl e t o achieve equality , historian s o f wome n bega n t o questio n th e notio n o f equality itself , arguin g tha t i t privilege d a male standard—tha t is , aggres siveness, competitiveness , an d individuality—whil e denyin g thos e charac teristics formerl y associate d wit h women , lik e nurturanc e an d community . The publicatio n o f Smith-Rosenberg' s essa y i n th e premie r issu e o f Signs marked a watershe d i n women' s history , demarcatin g a paradig m shif t t o interpreting women's histor y i n terms of women's culture b y valorizing th e characteristics of the "true woman." 14. Th e Southern Index quoted i n Drake, Higher Education, 259-60 ; Catharin e Buie t o Kate , 4 Septembe r 1857 , Catharin e Jane Bui e Papers , Manuscrip t Department, Duk e University , Durham , N.C. ; M . E . Baile y t o Eliz a Penn, 8 February 1843 , Elizabet h Seawel l Hairsto n Papers . 15. Diar y o f Susa n McDowall , 9 Apri l 1856 ; 1 1 Apri l 1856 ; 1 2 Apri l 1856 ; 27 Apri l 1856 . 16. Mar y Beal l t o Rober t Beall , 2 7 Novembe r 1850 , Beall-Harpe r Papers ; Maggie Morga n t o Bessie Lacy, 1 5 Septembe r 1849 , Drur y Lac y Papers. 17. deButts , Growing Up, 83 . 18. Wyatt-Brown , Southern Honor, chaps . 4 , 8 , an d 9 , provide s a n indept h analysis o f souther n childrearin g practice s an d thei r impor t fo r souther n society, usin g th e concep t o f hono r a s the ke y fo r understandin g souther n uniqueness. Danie l Blak e Smit h shows tha t th e affectionat e famil y wa s th e vogue amon g elite s i n bot h eighteenth-centur y Britis h an d Chesapeak e

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society; see Inside the Great House: Planter Family Life in Eighteenth-Century Chesapeake Society (Ithaca , N.Y. : Cornell Universit y Press , 1980) . Ja n Lewis look s a t gentee l familie s i n The Pursuit of Happiness: Family and Values in Jefferson's Virginia (Ne w York : Cambridg e Universit y Press , 1983), esp . chaps . 4 and 5 , finding indulgen t childrearin g patterns . 19. Josep h H . Ingraham , Not a "Fool's Errand": Life and Experiences of a Northern Governess of the Sunny South (New York : G . W . Carleton , 1880) , 226-27. 20. Lesbia n historiograph y i s discusse d i n Estell e Freedman , "Sexualit y i n Nineteenth-Century America : Behavior , Ideolog y an d Politics," Reviews in American History 10 , no . 4 (1982) : 196-215 , an d Marth a Vicinus , "Sex uality and Power: A Revie w of Current Work i n the History o f Sexuality, " Feminist Studies 8 (Sprin g 1982) : 147-51 . Adrienn e Rich' s classi c article , "Compulsory Heterosexualit y an d Lesbia n Existence " dilute s th e meanin g of th e ter m lesbian by includin g al l woman-identifie d women ; se e Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 5 (Summe r 1980) : 631—60 . Als o of relevanc e i s Lillia n Faderman , "Th e Morbidificatio n o f Lov e betwee n Women b y Nineteenth-Centur y Sexologists, " Journal of Homosexuality 4, no. 1 (1978): 73—90 , an d Surpassing the Love of Men: Romantic Friendships and Love between Women from the Renaissance to the Present (Ne w York : William Morrow , 1981) , bot h o f whic h minimiz e sexualit y i n romanti c friendships. Fo r a discussio n o f essentialis m versu s constructionism , se e Anja va n Koote n Nieker k an d The o va n de r Meer , "Homosexuality , Which Homosexuality?, " an d Carol e S . Vance , "Socia l Constructio n The ory: Problem s i n th e Histor y o f Sexuality? " in Homosexuality, Which Homosexuality?, eds . Denni s Altman , Carol e Vance , Marth a Vicinus , e t al . (Amsterdam: Shorer , 1989) . 21. A concis e discussio n o f th e historiograph y o f lesbian s i s th e introductio n t o Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past, eds . Marti n Duberman, Marth a Vicinus , an d Georg e Chauncey , Jr . (Ne w York : Me ridian, 1989) . A usefu l historiographica l discussio n i s als o containe d i n Estelle B. Freedman' s revie w o f Lillian Faderman' s Odd Girls and Twilight Lovers: A History of Lesbian Life in Twentieth-Century America, "Missin g Links," Women's Review of Books 9 (Octobe r 1991) : 15-17 . 22. Teres a d e Lauretis, "Quee r Theory: Lesbian an d Gay Sexualities, a n Introduction," Differences 3 , no . 2 (1991) : iii—xviii ; Chery l Kade r and Thomas Piontek, "Introduction, " Discourse: Theoretical Studies in Media and Culture 15, no . 1 (Fall 1992) : 7 - 8 ; Caro l LeMasters' s revie w of Closer to Home: Bisexuality and Feminism, ed . Elizabet h Reb a Weis e (Seattle , Wa. : Sea l Press, 1992) , "Gende r Blenders, " Women's Review of Books 1 0 (Octobe r 1992): 11-12 .

8. QUEEN S

225

23. Steve n Stow e compare s th e emotiona l ton e o f letter s fro m Bessi e Lacy' s roommate at Edgeworth wit h those of her fiance;see "The Thing No t It s Vision': A Woman' s Courtshi p an d He r Spher e i n th e Souther n Plante r Class," Feminist Studies 9, no. 1 (Spring 1983) : 113-30 . 24. Faderman , Odd Girls, 13. 25. Wyatt-Brown , Southern Honor, 251 . 8. Queens: May Day Queens as Symbol and Substance 1. Susa n Nye Hutchison Journal, 1 May 1837 . 2. Burto n Alva Konkle , John Motley Morehead and the Development of North Carolina 1796-1866 (Philadelphia : William Campbell, 1922) , 367-68 . 3* Ann e Davi s to Robert Davis , 4 Apri l 1856 , Beal e and Davis Papers; A. Elizabeth Marshall , ed. , "Pe n Pictures, " no . 2 , Sout h Carolinian a Li brary, Universit y of South Carolina, Columbia , S.C. ; Susan Nye Hutchison Journal, 1 May 1837 , 1 May 1840. 4. Quot e fro m th e Lucy Southgat e Diary, cite d i n J. C . Cooke , "Memorie s of Day s o f Lon g Ag o Recalled, " Nashvill e Banner, 1 3 Septembe r 1931 ; Konkle, Morehead, 367-68. Fo r a discussio n o f th e implici t contrac t between southern white men and women and the impact on it of the Civil War, see Drew Gilpin Faust, "Altars of Sacrifice: Confederate Women and the Narrative s o f War, " Journal of American History 76 (Marc h 1990) : 1200-28.

5. Marth a A. Leac h to Mary Lyon, 1 3 December 1839 , Mary Lyon Papers, Mount Holyoke College Library/Archives, South Hadley, Mass. 6. Se e Seidel, "The Southern Belle," 387-401. 7. Emili e Elliot t to Mother, 1 3 October 1845 , Elliot t an d Gonzales Family Papers; Emm a t o Father , 1 8 Septembe r 1857 , Joh n Kimberl y Papers ; Harriet Stapp to Brother, Joseph Stapp Papers; Bessie Lacy to Rev. Drury Lacy, 31 December 1846 , Drury Lacy Papers. 8. Mar y Ellis to Emma Lee, 21 April 1852 , Ransom Lee Papers, Manuscript Department, Duk e University , Durham , N.C. ; Lizzi e Kimberl y t o Father, 1 4 February 1857 , Jo n n Kimberl y Papers. 9. The State, 15 March 1903 ; Nell Flinn Gilland, "Alumnae of Old Barhamville Seminary Tells of Her School Days Before War," The State, 12 May 1929. 10. Margare t Graha m t o Mother , 2 0 Decembe r 1843 , Willia m P . Graha m Papers. 11. Margare t Ann e Ulme r Diary , 34-35 , Margare t Ann e Ulme r Papers ; Journals of Ella Gertrude Clanton Thomas, 8 April 1851 , 1 9 April 1851. 12. Journal s of Ella Gertrude Clanton Thomas, 1 1 April 1851.

2 26

8 . QUEEN S

13. Ann e Davis t o Robert Davis, 5 December 1855 , Beal e and Davis Papers. 14. Wilbu r Davi s t o Rober t Davis , 2 January 1856 , Beal e an d Davi s Papers ; Ella Gertrud e Clanto n Thomas Journals, 8 April 1851 , 8 April 1855 . 15. See , especially , Josep h F . Kett , "Adolescenc e an d Yout h i n Nineteenth Century America, " Journal of Interdisciplinary History 2 (Autum n 1971) : 283-98. 16. Edgewort h studen t t o Mary , 1 6 Augus t 1856 , Beall-Harpe r Papers . Th e trauma occasione d b y th e sudde n onse t o f househol d responsibilitie s i s discussed i n Scott , The Southern Lady, 2 7 - 4 4 . 17. Carrol l Smith-Rosenber g see s a fundamenta l inconsistenc y i n th e require ment o f middle-clas s me n tha t their wive s b e elegant an d nonproductiv e i n order t o demonstrat e thei r statu s wit h thei r suspicio n o f thes e qualitie s i n the aristocrac y who m the y opposed ; se e "Domesticatin g 'Virtue' ; Coquette s and Revolutionarie s i n Youn g America, " i n Literature and the Body: Essays on Populations and Persons, ed. Elain e Scarr y (Baltimore : John s Hopkin s University Press , 1988) , esp . 160-68 . Thes e generalizations , however , make littl e sens e i n the South , wher e th e cultura l hegemon y o f th e planter s was well-nig h complete , fo r ran k an d it s attendan t characteristic s wer e highly valued . 18. Alder t Smedes , She Had Done What She Could, or the Duty and Responsibility of Woman (Raleigh, N.C. : Seato n Gales , 1851) , 13-14 ; Deems , What Now?, 51—52 . Man y o f thes e pamphlet s wer e th e printe d commencemen t addresses given b y their authors at female schools . 19. Battle , Piety, 16 ; Smedes, She Had Done, 5 . 20. Hooper , Address, 23 . 21. Davi d A . Barnes , "A n Address Delivered t o the Students of the Warrento n Male Academy , Jun e 1850, " Nort h Carolin a Collection , Universit y o f North Carolina , Chape l Hill , N.C. , 7 , 18-19 ; Battle , Piety, 11 . 22. Willia m Porche r Miles , "Woma n 'Nobl y Planned,* " i n True Education (Columbia, S.C. : Presbyteria n Publishin g House , 1882) , 1 ; Deems, What Now?, 67 . 23. Deems , What Now?, 42 . 24. Journa l o f Ella Gertrud e Clanto n Thomas, 1 3 June 1852 . 25. Ulric h Bonnel l Phillips , Life and Labor in the Old South (Ne w York : Grosset an d Dunlap , 1929) ; Genovese , Roll, Jordan Roll; Herber t G . Gutman, The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom, 1750—1925 (Ne w York: Pantheon, 1976) ; Willie Le e Rose , "Th e Domestication o f Slavery, " in Slavery and Freedom, ed . Willia m W . Freehlin g (Ne w York : Oxfor d University Press , 1982) ; Alla n Gallay , "Th e Origin s o f Slaveholders ' Paternalism: Georg e Whitefield , th e Brya n Family , an d th e Grea t Awak ening i n th e South, " Journal of Southern History 5 3 (Augus t 1987) : 369—

EPILOGUE

227

94; Joan Cashin, A Family Venture: Men and Women on the Southern Frontier (New York: Oxford Universit y Press, 1991) , 5. 26. Maternalism is a term being increasingly employed by historians of women, but its meaning varies among authors. Used here, it refers only to the view common amon g mistresse s that slaves were perpetua l childre n who would perish withou t thei r constan t car e an d supervision , an d t o th e resultin g sense of obligation to provide such oversight. 27. Example s of thes e reaction s are commonplace. See , fo r example, Leo n F . Litwack, Been in the Storm So Long: The Aftermath of Slavery (New York: Vintage, 1979) , esp . 108 , n o , 116 , 144 , 157 , 158 ; Scott, The Southern Lady, chap. 3. Epilogue: The Enduring Image of the Southern Belle 1. Valedictor y Address of S. L. Hill , Louisbur g Female Seminary, Daniel S. Hill Papers. 2. Young , Study of the Curricula, esp . 196 . 3. Adelaid e L . Fries , Historical Sketch of Salem Female Academy (Salem , N.C.: Cris t an d Keehlin , 1902) ; Cohen, Barhamville Miscellany, 58-67 ; Young, Study of the Curricula, 26 . 4. W . Buc k Yearn s an d John G . Barrett , eds. , North Carolina Civil War Documentary (Chape l Hill : Universit y o f Nort h Carolin a Press , 1980) , 237; Augusta Daily Constitutionalist [Georgia] , 1 4 May 1863 ; Faust, "Altars of Sacrifice," 1216-17 ; Rable, Civil Wars, 129-31. 5. Scott , The Southern Lady, 92. 6. Rable , Civil Wars, 277-788; O . Rob e to Margaret Caroline Broyles, 1 7 March 1866, Maverick and Van Wyck Families Papers, South Caroliniana Library, Universit y o f Sout h Carolina , Columbia , S.C. ; Met a Morri s Grimball Diary , 8 December 1866 , Souther n Historical Collection , Uni versity o f Nort h Carolina , Chape l Hill , N.C. ; Scott , The Southern Lady, 93, 96 ; Report of the Senate Committee on Education and Labor (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1885) , 48t h Cong., 2 d Sess., 4: 203; A. D . Mayo, "Souther n Wome n i n th e Recen t Educationa l Movemen t i n th e South," Bureau of Educational Circular, no . 1 (Washington , D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1892) , 38-39. Statistic s compiled by Amy Friedlander wit h th e hel p o f Da n Emor y indicat e tha t th e percentag e o f whit e southern women teaching in the South changed very little in the 1860 s and 1870s, contemporar y observers to the contrary. Thes e statistics are consistent with those for seven southern cities cited by Claudia Goldin in "Female Labor Force Participation: The Origi n of Black and White Differences, " Journal of Economic History 37 (1977) : 95 . Thi s woul d indicat e tha t fe w

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seminary an d femal e colleg e alumna e wen t int o teaching . Th e bi g shif t appeared i n th e 1880s , whe n women' s participatio n jumped t o 6 0 percent . By 190 0 ther e wa s littl e differenc e betwee n th e Nort h an d th e Sout h i n terms of percentages of teachers who were women . 7. Catherin e Brewe r Benson , "Th e Firs t Colleg e Day s o f th e Firs t Colleg e Women," rea d a t th e Semi-Centennia l Reunio n o f Wesleya n Colleg e Al umnae, Jun e 1888 , i n "Th e Histor y o f Wesleya n Scrapbook, " Wesleya n College Archives . 8. Diamon d Jubile e o f Ph i Mu , 1917 , "Th e Histor y o f Wesleya n Scrap book," Wesleya n Colleg e Archives ; Scott , The Southern Lady, i n , 148 ; Rebecca Latime r Felton , Country Life in Georgia in the Days of My Youth (Atlanta, Ga. : Inde x Printing , 1919) , esp . 6 2 - 6 3 , 7 1 - 7 3 ; Virgini a I . Burr, " A Woma n Mad e t o Suffe r an d B e Strong : Ell a Gertrud e Clanto n Thomas, 1834-1907, " i n In Joy and in Sorrow: Women, Family, and Marriage in the Victorian South, 1830-1900, ed . Carol e Bleser (New York : Oxford Universit y Press , 1991) ; "Minde n Femal e College, " typescript ; Ida V . Goodwill , "Minde n Femal e College, " Minden Democrat [La.] , 3 0 August 1907 . 9. Catalogues of the Mansfield Female College, 1857-5 8 an d 1867-68 . 10. Powell , Higher Education, 220-22 . 11. Quote d i n Woody, Women*s Education, vol . 2 , 187 . 12. Elizabet h Turne r Waddell , St. Mary's Muse 1 3 (June 1908) : 18 . 13. Reprinte d i n Catalog, 1925-26 , quote d i n Woody , Women's Education, vol. 2 , 150 .

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Drake, Willia m Earle . Higher Education in NC Before i860. Ne w York : G. W . Carleton , 1964 . Duberman, Martin , Marth a Vicinus , an d Georg e Chauncey , Jr. , eds . Hidden from History: Reclaiming the Gay and Lesbian Past. Ne w York : Meridian , 1989. Epstein, Barbar a Leslie . The Politics of Domesticity: Women, Evangelism, and Temperance in Nineteenth-Century America. Middletown , Conn. : Wesleya n University Press , 1981 . Faderman, Lillian . Odd Girls and Twilight Lovers: A History of Lesbian Life in Twentieth-Century America. Ne w York : Columbi a Universit y Press , 1991 . . Surpassing the Love of Men: Romantic Friendships between Women from the Renaissance to the Present. Ne w York : William Morrow , 1981 . Fairbanks, Mrs . A . W. , ed . Mrs. Emma Willard and Her Pupils or Fifty Years of the Troy Female Seminary 1822—1872. Ne w York , 1898 . Faust, Dre w Gilpin . A Sacred Circle: The Dilemma of the Intellectual of the Old South, 1840—1860. Baltimore : Johns Hopkins Universit y Press , 1977 . Fox-Genovese, Elizabeth . Within the Plantation Household: Black and White Women in the Old South. Chape l Hill : Universit y o f Nort h Carolin a Press , 1988. Friedman, Jea n E . The Enclosed Garden: Women and Community in the Evangelical South, 18so— 1 goo. Chape l Hill : Universit y o f Nort h Carolin a Press , 1985. Fries, Adelaide . Historical Sketch of Salem Female Academy. Salem , N.C. : Cris t and Keehlin, 1902 . Godbold, Albea . The Church College of the Old South. Durham , N.C. : Duk e University Press , 1962 . Gordon, Lyn n D . Gender and Higher Education in the Progressive Period. Ne w Haven, Conn. : Yale Universit y Press , 1990 . Green, Elizabet h Alden . Mary Lyon and Mount Holyoke: Opening the Gates. Hanover: Universit y o f New Hampshir e Press , 1979 . Green, Fletcher . The Role of the Yankee in the Old South. Athens : Universit y o f Georgia Press , 1972 . Guralnick, Stanle y M . Science and the Antebellum College. Philadelphia: Ameri can Philosophical Society , 1975 . Haller, Mabel . Early Moravian Education in Pennsylvania. Vol . 15 . Nazareth , Penn.: Transactions of the Moravia n Historica l Society , 1953 . Handlin, Oscar , an d Mar y F . Handlin . The American College and American Culture. Ne w York : McGraw-Hill , 1970 . Harris, Barbara . Beyond Her Sphere: Women and the Professions in American History. Westport , Conn. : Greenwood Press , 1978 .

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Harris, Seymou r E . A Statistical Portrait of Higher Education: A Report for the Carnegie Commission on Higher Education. Ne w York : McGraw-Hill , 1972 . Horowitz, Hele n Lefkowitz . Alma Mater: Design and Experience in Women's Colleges from Their Nineteenth-Century Beginnings to the 1930s. Boston : Beacon Press, 1984 . . Campus Life: Undergraduate Cultures from the End of the Eighteenth Century to the Present. Ne w York : Alfre d A . Knopf , 1987 . Ingraham, Josep h H . Not a "Fool's Errand": Life and Experiences of a Northern Governess of the Sunny South. Ne w York : G . W . Carleton , 1880 . Ingram, Margare t Helen . "Developmen t o f Highe r Educatio n fo r Whit e Wome n in Nort h Carolin a t o 1875. " E d . D . diss. , Universit y o f Nort h Carolina , 1961. Hill, Samue l S. , Jr. , ed . Religion and the Solid South. Nashville , Tenn. : Abingdon Press , 1972 . Johnson, Guio n Griffis . Ante-bellum North Carolina: A Social History. Chape l Hill: Universit y o f Nort h Carolin a Press , 1937 . Jones, Charle s Edgeworth . History of Education in Georgia. Washington , D.C. : Government Printin g Office , 1889 . Kelley, Mary . Private Woman, Public Stage: Literary Domesticity in NineteenthCentury America. Ne w York : Oxfor d Universit y Press , 1984 . Kerber, Lind a K . Women of the Republic: Intellect and Ideology in Revolutionary America. Chape l Hill : Universit y o f Nort h Carolin a Press , 1980 . Klain, Zora . Quaker Contributions to Education in North Carolina. Philadelphia : Westbrook, 1925 . Konkle, Burto n Alva . John Motley Morehead and the Development of North Carolina 1706-1866. Philadelphia : Willia m Campbell , 1922 . Kowalski-Wallace, Elizabeth . Their Fathers 1 Daughters: Hannah More and Maria Edgeworth and Patriarchal Complicity. Ne w York : Oxfor d Universit y Press, 1991 . Levine, Lawrence . Highbrow/Lowbrow: The Emergence of Cultural Hierarchy in America. Cambridge : Harvar d Universit y Press , 1988 . Lewis, Jan . The Pursuit of Happiness: Family and Values in Jefferson's Virginia. New York : Cambridg e Universit y Press , 1983 . Lide, Ann . "Fiv e Georgi a College s fro m 185 0 t o 1875. " M.A . thesis , Emor y University, 1962 . Lockridge, Kennet h A . Literacy in Colonial New England. Ne w York : W . W . Norton, 1974 . Logan, Joh n A . Hollins: An Act of Faith for 125 Years. Ne w York : Newcome n Society o f Nort h America , 1968 . Loveland, Ann e C . Southern Evangelicals and the Social Order> 1800—1860. Baton Rouge : Louisian a Stat e Universit y Press , 1980 .

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*33

Lutz, Alma . Emma Willard: A Pioneer Educator of American Women. Westport , Conn.: Greenwood Pres s [1929] , 1964 . Martin, Jan e Roland . Reclaiming a Conversation: The Ideal of the Educated Woman. Ne w Haven , Conn. : Yale Universit y Press , 1985 . Mathews, Donal d G . Religion in the Old South. Chicago : University o f Chicag o Press, 1977 . McLeod, Joh n Angus . From These Stones, the First 100 Years. Mar s Hill , N.C.: Mar s Hill, 1955 . Merriam, Luciu s Salisbury . Higher Education in Tennessee. Washington , D.C. : Government Printin g Office , 1893 . Nash, An n Strudwick . Ladies in the Making: (Also a Few Gentlemen) at the Select Boarding and Day School of the Misses Nash and Miss Kolloch, 1859—18go. Hillsborough, N.C. : N.p . 1964 . Neiderer,* France s J . Hollins College: An Illustrated History. Charlottesville : University o f Virginia Press, 1973 . Newcomer, Mabel . A Century of Higher Education for American Women. Ne w York: Harpe r an d Row, 1959 . Norton, Mar y Beth . Liberty's Daughters: The Revolutionary Experience of American Women. Boston: Little, Brown , 1980 . Orr, Dorothy . A History of Education in Georgia. Chape l Hill : Universit y o f North Carolin a Press, 1950 . Papashvily, Hele n Waite . All the Happy Endings. New York : Harper an d Row, 1956. Parker, Leonar d F . History of Education in Iowa. Washington , D.C. : Govern ment Printing Office , 1893 . Parker, Rozika . The Subversive Stitch: Embroidery and the Making of the Feminine. New York : Routledg e an d Kegan Paul, 1984 . Pease, Jan e H . , an d Willia m H . Pease . Ladies, Women, and Wenches: Choice and Constraint in Antebellum Charleston and Boston. Chapel Hill : Universit y of North Carolin a Press, 1990 . Phillips, Ulric h Bonnell . Life and Labor in the Old South. Ne w York : Grosse t andDunlap, 1929 . Plum, Doroth y A. , an d Georg e B . D o well, comps . The Magnificent Enterprise: A Chronicle ofVassar College. Princeton , N.J. : Princeto n Universit y Press , 1961. Pope, Christi e Farnham . "Preparatio n fo r Pedestals : Nort h Carolin a Antebel lum Femal e Seminaries. " Ph.D. diss. , Universit y o f Chicago , 1977 . Powell, Lyma n P . History of Education in Delaware. Washington , D.C. : Gov ernment Printing Office , 1893 . Powell, Willia m S . Higher Education in North Carolina. Raleigh , N.C. : Stat e Department o f Archives and History, 1964 .

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Primrose, Mrs . W . S . A Sketch of the School of the Misses Nash and Miss Kolloch. Raleigh, N . C . : N . p . 1926 . Quillian, Willia m F . A New Day for Historic Wesleyan, 1836—1924. Nashville , 1928. Rable, Georg e C . Civil Wars: Women and the Crisis of Southern Nationalism. Urbana: Universit y o f Illinoi s Press , 1989 . Raper, Charle s L . The Church and Private Schools in North Carolina: A Historical Study. Greensboro , N . C . : Jos. J. Stone , 1898 . Robinson, Mabe l Louise . The Curriculum of the Woman's College. Washington , D.C.: Governmen t Printin g Office , 1918 . Ross, Ishbel . Child of Destiny: The Life Story of the First Woman Doctor. Ne w York: Harpe r an d Row , 1949 . Rossiter, Margare t W . Women Scientists in America: Struggles and Strategies to 1940. Baltimore : Johns Hopkin s Universit y Press , 1982 . Rothman, Elle n K . Hands and Hearts: A History of Courtship in America. Ne w York: Basi c Books, 1984 . Rudolph, Frederick , ed . Essays on Education in the Early Republic. Cambridge : Harvard Universit y Press , 1963 . Rudy, William . The Evolving Liberal Arts Curriculum: A Historical Review of Basic Themes. Ne w York : Teacher s College , Columbi a Universit y Press , i960. Schiebinger, Londa . The Mind Has No Sex? Women in the Origins of Modern Science. Cambridge: Harvar d Universit y Press , 1989 . Scott, Ann e Firor . Making the Invisible Woman Visible. Urbana : Universit y o f Illinois Press , 1984 . . The Southern Lady: From Pedestal to Politics, 1830—1930. Chicago : University o f Chicag o Press , 1970 . Sizer, Theodor e R. , ed . The Age of Academies. Ne w York : Teacher s College , Columbia Universit y Press , 1968 . Sklar, Kathry n Kish . Catharine Beecher: A Study in American Domesticity. Ne w Haven, Conn. : Yal e Universit y Press , 1973 . Smith, Timothy . Revivalism and Social Reform: American Protestantism on the Eve of the Civil War. Ne w York : Harpe r an d Row , 1957 . Smith, Wilson , ed . Theories of Education in Early America, 1655—1819. Ne w York: Bobbs-Merrill , 1973 . Snow, Loui s Franklin . The College Curriculum in the United States. Ne w York : Teachers College , Columbi a Universit y Press , 1907 . Solomon, Barbar a Miller . In the Company of Educated Women: A History of Higher Education in America. Ne w Haven , Conn. : Yal e Universit y Press , 1985.

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236

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Primary Sources ARTICLES, BOOKS , CIRCULARS , NEWSPAPERS , PAMPHLETS , AND SPEECHE S

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Hundley, Daniel . Social Relations in Our Southern States. Ne w York : H . B . Price, i860 . Knight, Edga r W . , ed . A Documentary History of the South before i860. 2 vols . Chapel Hill : Universit y o f North Carolin a Press, 1949 . Manual of St. Mary's School. Raleigh, N.C. : Carolin a Cultivator Office , 1857 . Marks, Dr . Elias . Hints on Female Education. Columbia , S.C. : N.p . 1851 . Mayo, A . D . "Souther n Wome n i n th e Recen t Educationa l Movemen t i n th e South." Bureau of Education Circular No . 1 . Washington , D.C. : Govern ment Printing Office , 1892 . Methodist Quarterly Review. (Jul y 1853) : 340-62 ; (Apri l 1856) : 245-64 ; (October 1856) : 5 0 8 - 2 5 , 572-82 ; (Jul y 1857) : 380-413 ; Qul y 1859) : 389-419. Miles, Willia m Porcher . "Woma n 'Nobl y Planned. ' " I n True Education. Columbia, S.C. : Presbyteria n Publishin g House , 1882 . Montgomery, Lizzi e Wilson . Sketches of Old Warrenton, NC Raleigh , N.C. : Edwards and Broughton, 1924 . . The St. Mary's of Olden Days. Raleigh , N.C. : Bynum , 1932 . Moore, Luc y Catharine . "Memoria l t o Dr., Alder t Smedes. " St. Mary's Muse 10 (April 1906) : 7 . Nelson, Lee , ed . Loyally: A History of Alpha Delta Pi from the Founding of the Adelphian Society in 1851 at Wesley anFemale College, Macon, Georgia, through 1064. Vol . 1 . Atlanta : N.p., n.d . North American Review. 4 (1842) : 3 0 2 - 4 3 . North Carolina Minerva [FayetteviHe] . 3 0 June 1798 . "The Oldes t Sororit y Make s a Gift t o th e Oldes t College. " Wesleyan Alumnae, 26 July 1925 . Pendleton Femal e Academy . Minutes. Boar d o f Trustee s Accoun t Book , 1827 1904. Clemso n Universit y Library . Phelps, A . H . L . Lectures to Young Ladies: Comprising Outlines and Applications of the Different Branches of Female Education. Boston : Carter, Hendee , 1833 . Pierce, Georg e F . "Th e Georgi a Femal e College—It s Origin , Pla n an d Pros pects." Southern Ladies' Book 1 (February 1840) : 6$. Prospectus of the Raleigh Academy and Mrs. Hutchison's view of Female Education. Raleigh, N.C. : Mr . White , Printer , 1835 . Raleigh Register [Nort h Carolina] . 1 9 Augus t 1800 ; 3 0 Decembe r 1805 ; 2 5 August 1808 ; 1 1 December 1818 ; 9 November 1821 ; 1 1 June 1824 . Reichel, Rev . Levin . The Moravians in North Carolina. Philadelphia : J . B . Lippincott, 1857 . Reichel, Willia m C . A History of the Rise, Progress and Present Condition of the Moravian Seminary for Young Ladies at Bethlehem, Pa. Philadelphia , 1874 .

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Reports o f th e Commissione r o f Education . Washington , D.C. : Governmen t Printing Office , 1886-87 , 1890-91 . Richards, Margaret . "Thes e Man y Years : Twenty-fou r Reminiscence s wit h ' 6 3 . " Wesleyan Alumnae (Apri l 1925) : 11-17 . Rush, Benjamin . Thoughts upon Female Education, Accommodated to the Present State of Society, Manners, and Government in the U. S. A. Philadelphia : Prichard an d Hall , 1787 . Sasnett, W . J . "Theor y o f Femal e Education. " Methodist Quarterly Review (April 1853) : 254 . Sigourney, Lydia . Letters to Young Ladies. Ne w York : Harper , 1837 . Smedes, Aldert . She Had Done What She Could, or the Duty and Responsibility of Woman. Raleigh , N . C . : Seato n Gales , 1851 . South Carolina Gazette. 1 1 Ma y 1734 ; 1 7 Ma y 1770 ; 2 9 Jun e 1767 ; 6 Jul y 1767. Southern Index. July 1850 . Southern Ladies* Book. 1 (February 1840) : 65 . Southern Literary Messenger. 1 (May-August 1835) : 621 . Spectator [Newbern , N . C . ] . 1 6 December 1836 ; 4 January 1839 . St. Mary's Muse. i 3 Q u n e 1908) : 18 . Stow, Sara h D. History of Mount Holyoke Seminary, South Hadley, Mass. during Its First Half Century, 1837-1887. Sout h Hadley : N.p . 1887 . Virginia Gazette. 2 7 Februar y 1772 . Willard, Emma . An Address to the Public, Particularly to the Legislature of New York, Proposing a Plan for Improving Female Education. Middlebury , Vt. : N.p. 1819 . . Via Media, A Peaceful and Permanent Settlement of the Slavery Question. Washington, D . C . : Charle s Anderson , 1862 .

Manuscripts ABBREVIATIONS

Department o f Archive s an d History , Montgomery , Ala . (AL ) Department o f Archive s an d Manuscripts , Louisian a Stat e Universit y Library , Baton Rouge , La . (LSU ) Emory Universit y Archives , Atlanta , Ga . (Emory ) Georgia Stat e Archives, Atlanta , Ga . (GS ) Manuscript Department , Duk e University , Durham , N . C . (Duke ) Mount Holyok e Colleg e Library/Archives , Sout h Hadley , Mass . ( M H ) North Carolin a Collection , Universit y o f Nort h Carolina , Chape l Hill , N . C . (NCC)

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243

North Carolina Department of Archives and History, Raleigh, N.C. (NCDAH ) South Caroliniana Library, Universit y of South Carolina, Columbia, S.C. (SC ) Southern Historica l Collection . Universit y o f Nort h Carolina , Chape l Hill , N.C. (SHC ) St. Mary' s Archives, Raleigh, N.C . (SM ) Wesleyan College Archives, Macon , Ga. (WC) Arthur and Dogan Papers. SC. Babbitt-Ballund Papers. SC. Zilpah P. Gran t Bannister Papers. MC. Barhamville Academy Papers. SC. "Barhamville 1820-61. " SC. Beale and Davis Papers, SHC. Beall-Harper Papers. SHC. Brooke Family Papers. GS. Richard T. Brumb y Papers. SHC. Catalogue of Greensboro Female Academy. 1855 . Duke. Chesapeake Female College. Circular. 1856. SHC. Journals of Ella Gertrude Clanton Thomas. Duke. Henry Toole Clark Papers. Duke. John Clopton Papers. Duke. Daniel Copp Papers. Duke. Cotton Collection. Emory. Creath-Cureton Papers. SC. Notes of Henry Campbell Davis. SC. DeRosset Papers. SHC. James H. Devoti e Papers, Duke. Eakin-Edgefield Papers. SC. Edgefield Female Institute. Circular. SC . Edisto-Elliot Papers. SC. Eliza C. Edwards. Certificate i n Chemistry. SC. Elliott and Gonzales Family Papers. SHC. Martha Fannin Papers. GS. Enoch Faw Diary. Duke. Thomas Boone Fraser Papers. SC. Sarah Furber Letters. LSU. Autograph Book of Elizabeth Gardner. SC. Gill Family Papers. Duke. William P. Graha m Papers. SHC. Autograph Book of Kittie Gregg. SC. Meta Morris Grimball Diary. SHC.

244

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Elizabeth Sewel l Hairsto n Papers . S H C . Boiling Hal l Papers . AL . Louisa Jane Harle e Album . SC . Autobiography o f Mari a Florill a (Flint ) Hamblen . SHC . Marion A . Hawks . M H . Hennen an d Jennings Papers . LSU . Caroline Le e Hent z Diary . SHC . Daniel S . Hil l Papers . Duke . Laurens Hinto n Papers . S H C . "The Histor y o f Wesleya n Scrapbook. " WC . William H . Holde n Papers . Duke . Holly Spring s Femal e Institute . Circular, i Jul y 1859 . Mary Har t Journal . SC . Susan Ny e Hutchiso n Journal . S H C . Jeffords-Johnson Papers . SC . Jones Famil y Papers . SHC . John Mcintos h Kel l Papers . Duke . John Kimberl y Papers . SHC . Drury Lac y Papers . S H C . William August a La w Papers . Duke . Lewie-Lining Papers . SC . Ransom Le e Papers . Duke . Joseph Adolp h Lin n Papers . SHC . The Mar y Lyo n Collection . M H . Louis Manigaul t Papers . Duke . Basil Manl y Papers . SHC . Manly Famil y Papers . Furma n University . Manly-Marks Papers . SC . Maverick an d Va n Wyc k Familie s Papers . SC . Sallie D . McDowal l Books . SHC . Fritz Willia m McMaste r an d Mar y Jane Macfi e Papers . SC . Commonplace Boo k o f Jane Constanc e Miller , 1842—44 . SHC . Minden Femal e College . LSU . "Minutes an d By-Laws. " Sigourne y Society . Femal e Hig h School . Limeston e Springs, 1848-1852 . Typescript . SC . Journal o f Elle n Mordecai . Little-Mordeca i Papers . N C D A H . Jacob Mordeca i Papers . Duke . Nash Papers . S H C . Jane E . Neel y Album . SC . James A . Norco m an d Famil y Papers . NCC . Christopher Willi s Or r Papers . GS .

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Y

245

Pendleton Female Academy Papers. SC. C. Alic e Ready Diary. SHC . Annie Regenas Papers. Duke. Reynolds, Sophia M. "Sketc h of a Southern School Before the Civil War." SC. Sadie Robards's Scrapbook. SM . Langhorne Scrugg Papers. Duke. Silliman Collegiate Institute. Catalogue , 1854-55 . LSU . Diary of Thomas Bog Slade. SHC. Joseph Belknap Smith Papers. Duke. South Carolinian Society—Splatt Papers. SC. Sosnowski-Schaller Families. SC. Sparta Female Model School. Circular . 1833 . LSU. Springs Family Papers. SC. Joseph Stapp Papers. Duke. Lewis Sugg Papers. Duke. "A Tabula r Vie w o f th e Orde r an d Distributio n o f Studie s Observe d i n th e Respective Classes of the Hillsborough Femal e Seminary, 1826. " NCC. John Dudley Tatum Papers. SHC. Calvin Taylor and Family Papers. LSU. Lewis Texada and Family Papers. LSU. Ella Gertrude Clanton Thomas Papers. Duke. Tillingast Family Papers. Duke. Margaret Ann Ulmer Diary. SHC. Wardlow-Washington Papers. SC. Jesse D. Wrigh t Papers. LSU . Zealy-Zubly Papers. SC.

Name Index

Abercrombie, John, 85-8 6 Adams, John, 31 Alcott, Bronson , 10 9 Alexander, Martha , 5 7 Allen, Mrs . Harrie t J., 11 7 Andrew, Bisho p James O., 15 3 Andrew, Octavia , 15 3 Andrews, Eliz a Frances, 81—8 2 Andrews, Joseph, 52-53 , n o Andrews, Rev . M . S. , 5 7 Armston, E. , 39-4 0 Bacon, Milton, 140-4 1 Bagley, S . D. , 18 5 Bailey, M . E. , 16 0 Bailey, Rufus , 10 4 Baker, Laura E., 15 7 Baldwin, James G., 9 0 Banks, Cordelia, 14 4 Barham, Jane, 66 Barnes, David A., 17 7 Bamhardt, Margare t Ann, 129 , 13 6 Barron, Julia, 5 7 Bartlett, Laura , 11 1 Barton, Emma Amelia, 11 1 Baselee, Henri , 12 8 Battle, Rev. A . J., 14 , 17 7 Beall, Mary , 125 , 147 , 161 , 16 5 Beall, Mattie , 9 0 Beck, Mar y Menessier, 50-5 1 Beecher, Catharine , 3 , 17-18 , 61 , 62, 63-64, 78 , 79 , 84,91 , 11 7 Beethoven, Ludwi g van, 87 Benezet, Anthony, 4 8

Benson, Mrs . Catherin e Brewer, 20 , 18 4 Bingham, Caleb , 48 Blackwell, Elizabeth , 32 , 85 , 115-1 6 Blair, Hugh , 7 5 Blake, Catherine T., 11 2 Blake, Rev. John Lauris, 8 3 Bollinger, Margar y A., 14 6 Boston, Camilla, 15 2 Boyd, Esther Wright (Mrs. Jesse Boyd), 29,71-74,91-92, 14 4 Brabson, Miss , 91 Brainard, Miss , 71-7 2 Brainerd, Rev . C . C, 5 3 Brainerd, Rev . Elijah , 5 3 Brewer, Catherine. See Benson, Mrs . Catherine Brewer Brown, Andrew, 47 , 4 8 Brown, Antoinette, 3 2 Brown, J. W. , 59-6 0 Brown, Miss , 113 , 11 4 Brumby, An n Eliza, 12 0 Brumby, Richar d T., 12 0 Buie, Catharine, 16 0 Burwell, Anna , 9 9 Burwell, Rev . Robert , 9 8 Butt, Maggie , 173-7 4 Caldwell, Sallie , 12 7 Calhoun, John C, 14 9 Capers, Bishop, 17 3 Capers, Mollie , 17 3 Carter, Thomas, 6 0 Cashin, Joan, 17 9 Censer, Jane Turner, 13 1

247

248 Chandler, Daniel , 1 9 Cheyney, Mar y Young , 11 7 Chew, Laura , 17 3 Clanton, Ell a Gertrud e (Mrs . Jef f Thomas), 76 , 125 , 134 , 140 , 148 , 152, 172-74 , i79 » 183-8 4 Cocke, Charle s Lewis , 5 1 , 10 5 Comstock, Joh n Lee , 8 3 Cook, Harriet , 14 8 Copp, Mary , 77 , 7 8 Cotton, Charles , 7 3 Cox, Jonathan E. , 5 9 Craven, Braxton , 1 4 Datty, Julia , 5 7 Davies, Charles , 24—2 5 Davis, An n Beale , 107-8 , n o , 132 , 139-40 Davis, George , 9 1 Davis, Presiden t John, 107 , 13 2 Day, M r . , 10 7 Deems, Rev . Charle s Force , 109 , 1 4 2 43> 176-7 8 de Lauretis , Teresa , 16 4 Dellay, Harrie t A. , 6 2 Demuth, Annie , 155 , 156-57 , 16 5 de Roode , Rudolph , 7 3 Doub, Rev . Peter , 2 0 Douglas, Marth a Marti n (Mrs . Stephe n A. Douglas) , 12 1 Dove, Davi d James , 4 8 Dickson, Rev . John , 11 6 Duke, Benjamin , 18 5 Duke, Washington , 18 5 Duncan, Rev . S . A. , 9 0 Duneau, M r s . , 3 7 - 3 8 Dunston, Eliz a Annie , i n , 115 , 13 9 Durant, Henry , 2 0 Dwight, Timothy , 4 8 Easterling, Ria , 17 3 Eaton, Amos , 26 , 80 , 8 5 Edgeworth, Maria , 74 , 80 , 8 3 Edward, Eliza , 9 2 Elliott, Emilie , 13 2

NAME INDE X Ellis, John , 1 8 Ellison, Dr. , 14 0 Emerson, Joseph , 62 Etheridge, M r . , 13 2 Evans, Mary , 15 3 Evans, M r . , 17 2 Evertson, Eliza , 13 4 Faderman, Lillian , 16 6 Falkener, Sarah , 4 1 - 4 4 Falkener, William , 4 1 - 4 4 Fannin, Martha , 9 1 , 14 0 Far, Enoch , 9 0 Felton, Rebecc a Latimer , 183-8 4 Fifthian, Philip , 3 6 Finley, Robert , 9 7 Finney, Rev . Charle s Grandison , 2 9 Fitton, Sara h Mary , 8 0 Fitts, Oliver , 4 5 Flint, Mari a Florilla , 11 1 Foucault, Michel , 16 4 Freud, Sigmund , 16 3 Friedman, Jea n E . , $6 Frost, Rev . S . M . , 10 9 Furber, Sarah , 116-1 7 Genovese, Eugene , 17 9 Gilbert, Mis s J. E . , 10 9 Gill, Catherin e (Kate) , 123 , 125 , 135 , 147 Gilman, Carolin e Howard , 14 , 19 2 n . 8 Goodall, Leab , 152 , 173-7 4 Goodrich, Rev . Charle s A. , 20 7 n . 1 3 Gordon, Emm a Sue , 15 7 Graham, Margaret , 17 2 Graham, Willia m P . , 12 2 Grant, Zilpah , 6 3 Graves, Z . C , 2 1 Greeley, Horace , 11 7 Griffin, Mar y G. , 5 7 Grimball, Met a Morris , 18 3 Grimke, Angelina , 9 1 Grimke, Sarah , 9 1 Guerandes, Bell , 17 3 Gutman, Herbert , 17 9

NAME INDE X Hall, Boiling , 144-4 5 Hanks, Eugenia , 6 2 Hardy, Ella , 13 2 Harper, Mary , 71 , 127 , 138 , 14 7 Harper, Willia m Rainey , 2 1 - 2 2 Harris, Mary , 91 , 14 0 Hauser, Martha , 7 6 Hawks, Marion , 11 7 Haywood, Miss , 9 9 - 1 0 0 Helper, Hinto n Rowan , 12 3 Henderson, Lissie , 17 3 Henkle, Rev . H . M . , 1 4 Hennen, Alfred , 73 , 7 9 Hentz, Carolin e Lee , 87 , 108 , 13 3 Hill, Mar y Momso n (Mrs . D . H . Hill) , 121

Hill, Sallie , 18 1 Hitchcock, Edward , 26 , 84 , 8 5 Holmes, Martha , 5$ Holt, Carri e E . , 111 , 115 , 14 0 Hooper, Rev . William , 33, 73 , 74 , I33 > 177 Hundley, Daniel , 14 , 12 2 Hutchison, Susa n Nye , 74 , 7 5 - 7 6 , 79 , 9 9 - 1 0 3 , 168 , 169-7 0 Jackson, Mar y Morrison , 12 1 Jackson, Stonewall , 12 1 Jacobson, Joh n C , 10 8 Jefferson, Thomas , 23 , 13 3 Jewett, M i l o P . , 15 , 11 7 Johnson, William , 4 8 Jones, Lissie , 17 3 Jones, Thoma s P. , 5 2 - 5 3 , n o Jones, Presiden t Turne r Myrick , 91 , 185 Jerr, Rev . David , 4 9 Key, Franci s Scott , 11 5 Kimberly, Emma , 17 1 Kimberly, Lizzie , 129 , 13 5 King, E . D . , 5 7 Lacy, Bessie , 60 , 141-42 , 156 , 158—59 » 161, 166 , 17 1

249 Lacy, Rev . Drury , 135 , 141 , 143 , 144 , 156, 16 5 Lacy, Williana , 13 1 Lamar, Lucius , 17 2 Law, Bonnie , 14 9 Lawton, Rosa , 17 3 Lebsock, Suzanne , 5 7 LeConte, Joseph , 2 4 Lee, Agnes , 121 , 123 , 134-35 , 161-62 , 165 Lee, Robert , 121 , 14 0 Leitner, Friedrich , 8 4 Lindee, M . Susan , 8 3 - 8 4 Linnaeus, Carolus , 80-8 1 Locke, John, 8 5 Longefellow, Willia m Wordsworth , 7 5 Longstreet, Ophelia , 17 2 Lowe, Hiberni a Emmet t Ray , 12 1 Lutz, Alma , 6 2 Lyon, Mary , 6 1 - 6 4 , 78 , 84 , 86 , 1 1 2 13, 124 , 137 , 17 0 Lyons, Mar y Eliza , 7 4 McAliley, Mary , 124 , 12 6 McDowall, Susan , 127 , 131 , 133 , 141 , 147, 156 , 158 , 160-61 , 16 5 Mclver, Mar y Helen , 11 2 McPheeters, 9 9 Manly, Anni e R. , 15 7 Manly, Rev . Basil , Jr., 60 , 10 6 Marcet, Jane , 80 , 8 3 Marks, Dr . Elias , 16-17 , 62 , 65 , 102 , 108, n o , 169 , 171 , 18 2 Marks, Julia Pierpont , 62 , 66 Mathews, Donal d G. , 29 , 6 0 Mayo, A . D . , 183-8 4 Meigs, Joseph , 9 7 Meyers, Mr. , 17 3 Miles, Willia m Porcher , 177-7 8 Milton, John , 7 5 Moar, Louise , 6 2 Montgomery, Lizzie , 71 , 134 , 13 8 Moody, Miss , 9 1 Morehead, Joh n Motley , 124 , 102 , 1 4 1 42

2 SO Morehead, Mar y Corinne , 168 , 17 0 Moran, Maggie , 158 , 161 , 166 Mordecai, Caroline , 45 , 5 3 Mordecai, Ellen , 4 5 - 4 6 , 8 7 Mordecai, Jacob , 4 4 - 4 5 , 5 2 Mordecai, Rachel , 4 5 - 4 6 Mordecai, Mrs. , 4 4 Morgan, Mrs. , 1 3 Munroe, Juli a Blanche , 7 5 Napier, Viol a Ross , 18 4 Nelson, Mis s E. , 10 6 Nelson, J . P. , 106-7 , I O 9 Nestle, Joan , 16 4 Norcom, Mary , 14 4 Norwood, Catharine , S5 Nye, Susan . See Hutchison, Susa n Ny e Oakes, James, 17 9 Olmstead, John , 26 , 10 7 Otey, Bisho p James Hervey , 5 8 Paley, William , 24 , 26 , 8 6 Parraga, Manuel , 12 8 Peebles, Skip , 161 , 16 5 Penn, Sarah , 14 7 Peterslie, Mr. , 11 4 Phelps, Almir a Har t Lincoln , 26 , 80 — 81, 84-85 , 99 , 127 , 13 1 Phillips, Ulric h Bonnell , 17 9 Pierce, Ella , 15 3 Pierce, Bisho p Georg e F. , 11 , 19-2 0 Pitts, Rev . E . D . , 10 9 Plunkett, Achilles , S3 Polk, Bisho p Leonidas , 58 , 12 1 Polk, Sara h Childres s (Mrs . Jame s Polk) , 121

Poor, John , 4 8 Pope, Georgia , 17 3 Porcher, Mar y Charlotte , 11 2 Price, Mr. , 14 1 Ray, Edward , 6 0 Ready, C . Alice , 14 2 Reed, Rev . F . L. , 18 5

NAME INDE X Reid, Flax , 16 1 Rich, Adrienne , 16 4 Ronzee, Rev . Willia m B. , 5 9 Rush, Dr . Benjamin , 38 , 4 7 - 4 8 , 11 8 Rousseau, Jea n Jacques, 8 0 Scarborough, Mrs . Ell a Burton , 12 1 Schumann, Robert , 8 7 Scott, Ann e Firor , 1,61 , 64 , 10 7 Scott, Si r Walter , 30 , 74 , 89 , 106 Shakespeare, William , 7 5 Sherman, Genera l Willia m Tecumseh , 182-3 Sigourney, Lydia , 75 , 115—16 , 126 , 149-50 Silliman, Benjamin , 8 5 Sinclair, Elijah , 1 9 Slade, Rev . Thoma s Bog , 2 0 Smedes, Rev . Aldert , 71 , 118 , 126 , 129 , 176 Smellie, William , 26 , 8 5 Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll , 15 9 Sosnowski, Sophia , 73 , 18 2 Southgate, Lucy , 17 0 Spears, J. Edwin , 6 8 - 6 9 Spier, Miss , 7 7 Spruill, Col. , 13 2 Stanton, Elizabet h Cady , 11 1 Stapp, Harriet , 17 1 Sterling, Mr. , 13 0 Stevens, Sara h O. , 106 Stewart, Maria , 9 1 Stone, Lucy , 26 , 9 1 Story, Joseph , 2 6 Tatum, Anna , 12 3 Tatum, Joh n Dudley , 122—2 3 Taylor, Judge , 9 9 Taylor, Rev . Sereno , 5 3 - 5 5 , 8 3 Thackston, Mis s R. , 21 0 n . 4 0 Thatcher, Georg e E. , 10 9 Thayer, Carolin e M . , 9 8 Thomas, Ell a Gertrud e Clantoh . See Clanton, Ell a Gertrud e Thweatt, Rev . H . C , 10 9

NAME I N D E X Togno, Acelie, 18 2 Townsend, Miss , 12 6 Transou, Peter, 11 6 Tucker, Eugenia , 151-5 2 Tunstall, William , 9 0 Turner, Daniel , 11 5 Ulmer, Margare t Ann, 87 , 125 , 141 , 157-58, 17 2 Varnod, Widow, 3 7 Waddell, Elizabet h Turner, 18 6 Ware, Dr. John, 26 , 8 6 Washington, George , 8 9 Watson, Kate , 16 9 Watts, Isaac, 85 Wayland, Francis , 8 6

251 Whately, Richard , 7 5 Whitaker, L . F. , 10 9 Williams, Bettie , 152 , 17 3 Williams, John, 13 2 Williams, Matti e Watson, 18 4 Willard, Emma , 2 , 13 , 26, 61-62 , 6 3 64, 66, 78-80 , 99 , 107 , 111-12 , 118, 19 1 n . 3 Winthrop, John, 3 5 Woodbridge, William , 4 8 Wooden, Rebecca , 3 9 Woody, Thomas , 22 , 20 2 n . 3 2 Wright, Mis s Oliver, 10 9 Wyatt-Brown, Bertram , 29 , 78 , 16 6 Young, Dr . Edward , 7 5 Zimmerman, Christopher , 8 8

Subject Index

Academy, 4 7 - 5 2 , 6 0 - 6 1 , 62 , 6$> 67, 79-80 Adelphian Society (Alph a Delt a Pi) , 1 5 1 53 Adventure schools . See French school s African America n women' s education, 5 , 21, 18 9 n . 6 Agnes Scot t College, 18 5 Alabama Femal e Institute , 18 , 4 0 Alpha Delt a Pi . See Adelphian Society American Journal ofEducation , 9 8 American Revolution , 34 , 35, 4 7 Amherst College, 2 4 Amite Femal e Seminary , 111 , 11 5 Architecture, 105-6 , 111 , 143-4 4 Arts and crafts. See Ornamental branche s Association o f College s and Secondar y Schools of th e Southern States , 18 5 Augusta Academy , 10 0 Augusta Daily Constitutionalist y 18 3 Augusta Femal e Seminar y (Mar y Baldwi n College), 10 4 Autograph books , 146 , 14 8 Baltimore Femal e College , 58 , 19 5 n . 2 8 Baptists, 30 , 5 7 - 6 0 Barnard College , 1 8 Bastrop Masoni c Femal e Institute , 5 8 Baylor College , 18 5 Bienvenue Seminary , 7 4 Bisexuality, 164-6 5 Board of trustees, 5 , 55-56^ 10 7 Boston Transcript, 1 3 Bradford Spring s Femal e Academy , 17 4

Bryn Maw r College , 12 , 13 9 Buckingham Femal e Collegiat e Institute , 58, 16 0 Burnsville Academy , 6 0 Burwell School , 99 , 13 6 Carlisle Literar y Societ y (Convers e Col lege), 14 9 Carroll College , 2 4 Catholics (Roman) , 36 , 5 8 Charlotte Mal e an d Femal e Academy , 51 , 102 Chatham Academy , 7 7 Chesapeake Femal e College , 24 , 82 , 14 9 Childrearing, 123 , 141 , 162 , 17 0 Chivalry, 2 , 2 8 - 2 9 , 30 , 74 , 106 , 1 5 4 55, 16 8 Chowan Baptis t Femal e Institute , 14 4 Civil War , 1 2 - 1 3 , *5 2> l l°> 182 , 18 6 Classics, 15 , 17 , 18 , 20 , 2 2 - 2 8 , 3 1 - 3 2 , 46, 4 8 - 5 0 , 70 , 72-73 * i85 , 20 7 n . 9 Clergy, 4 , 11 , 30 , 60 , 97 , 108 , n o Clinton Femal e Seminary , 20 , 10 7 Coeducation, 18 , 6 0 Columbia Femal e Institute , 5 8 Columbia Mal e an d Femal e Academy , 6 6 Comantz Femal e Institute , 1 4 Competition, 140-42 , 162 , 17 8 Composition, 7 6 - 7 8 , 150 , 15 2 Concerts, 128 , 14 2 Converse Femal e College , 149 , 18 5 Courtship, 43 , 1 3 2 - 3 3 , 142-43 * I55 » 170, 1 7 7 - 8 0 Curricula, 6 , 19,21-28 , 3 0 - 3 2 , 3 6 - 4 2 ,

253

254 Curricula (Continued)

44, 45-50 , 66-67 , 69-88 , 142 , 184 85

Cult o f domesticity. See Separate sphere s Cult of true womanhood. See Separate spheres Dallas Academy, 5 6 Dame schools , 3 8 Dancing, 37-3& > 42 , i09 > 150 , 169-70 , 174 Davenport Ladie s College, 1 8 DeBow's Review, 1 4 Delta Phi , 15 3 Demosthenian Society , 1 9 Dialectic Literar y Society , 14 9 Diplomas, 20 , 48 , S5> 72 , 9° > 9 2 Disease. See Illness Dress, 133—35 . i75 > 177 ; costumes, 169 ; uniforms, 134—35 , 16 5 Duke Universit y (Norma l School ; Trinit y College), 1 4 , 9 0 - 9 1 , 18 3 Du Pre \ Schoo l o f Mme , 11 6 Economic support , 5 3 - 5 5 , 5 8 - 5 9 , 1 0 3 4 Edgeworth Femal e Seminary , 60 , 71 , 90 , 113, 124 , 127 , 130-31 , 138 , 141 , 147, 161 , 168 , 170 , 17 5 Elizabeth Femal e Academy , 19 1 n . 3 Elmira Femal e Colleg e (Aubur n Femal e University), 17 , 2 2 Embroidery, 40 , 20 0 n . 19 . See also Ornamental branche s Emory University , n , 15 3 Enrollments, 54 , 108 , 19 4 n . 2 0 Episcopalians, 58 , 64 , 12 9 Etiquette, 2 , 42 , 4 4 - 4 5 , 49 , 6 3 - 6 4 , 8 8 89, 112-13 , " 8 , 126-28 , 131 , 1 3 5 37, H 9 - 5 0 , 152 , 17 8 Evangelical Protestantism , 3 - 4 , 29 , 34 , 105, 108 , 112 , 118-19 , 128-29 , 140 , 145, I7° > 172-7 9 Examinations, 88—90 , 141-43 , 15 9 Exercise, 124 , 12 6

SUBJECT INDE X Faculty, 3 , 6 , 9 7 - 9 8 , 119 ; female, 6 0 64, 9 7 - 9 8 , 103-4 , 107 , 110-118 ; male, 106 , 109-10 , 118 ; presidents, 3 , 6, 106-8 ; principals , 104-5 , 107- 8 Fanners' School , 4 1 - 4 2 , 12 7 Farmville Femal e College , 7 7 - 7 8 Fayetteville Academy , 4 9 Female Colleg e o f Bennettsville, S.C. , 68-69 Female colleges , 2 , 6 , 11—21 , 28 , 70 , 105 Forsythe Femal e Collegiat e Institute . See Monroe Femal e Colleg e French Broa d Baptis t Institute . (Mar s Hill College) , 6 0 French school s (adventur e schools) , 3 7 46, 47 , 4 9 - 5 0 Gentility, 2 8 - 2 9 , 3 0 - 3 1 , 69 , 89 , 91 , 93 , 139, 149 , 15 1 Georgia Femal e Colleg e (Wesleya n Col lege), 11-12 , 17 , 19 , 20 , 22 , 88 , 121 , 136, 148 , 151 , 172-73 * 184 , 18 5 Georgia Femal e Colleg e (Madiso n Colle giate Institute) , 1 7 Giraud's School, Madame , 7 8 Godey's Lady's Book, 14 , 8 5 Goldsboro Femal e College , 24 , 40 , 109 , 131 Goucher Colleg e (Woman' s Colleg e o f Baltimore), 12 , 18 5 Graduation, 8 8 - 9 3 , 9 0 - 9 2 , 9 9 Great chain o f being, 8 6 Greensboro Femal e Academy , 76 , 117 , 136-37 Greensboro Femal e College , 20 , 22 , 72 , 7 6 - 7 7 , 91 , 92 , 109 , 125 , 137 , 142 , 147-49, 176 , 18 5 Guilford College . See New Garde n board ing schoo l Hampden-Sydney College , 19 , 10 5 Hartford Femal e Seminary , 6 2 Harvard College , 19 , 2 2 - 2 3 ; Lawrenc e Scientific School , 2 4

SUBJECT INDE X High Poin t Femal e Seminary , 123 , 13 5 High school , 6 5 Hillsborough Academy , 13 6 Hillsborough Femal e Seminary , 8 8 Holidays, 130 ; Christmas, 130 ; Valentine^ Day, 17 1 Hollins Colleg e (Valle y Unio n Seminary) , 51, 104-5 , 183 , 18 5 Holly Spring s Femal e Institute , 69 , 9 0 Holston Conferenc e Femal e College , 17 , 24,82 Hood College , 18 5 Hygiene, 144-4 5 Illness: epidemics, 144 ; deaths, 14 4 Illinois Conference Femal e College , 1 8 Ingham Femal e University , 1 8 Ipswich Academy , 63 , 9 2 Jews, 44 , 46 , 6 5 Johnson Femal e Academy, 5 6 Johnson Femal e University , 9 2 Judson Femal e Collegiat e Institute , 15 , 57, 59 , 117 , 125-26 , 129 , 1 3 0 - 3 1 , 134, 171 , 182-8 2 Ladies Education Society , $6 LaGrange Collegiat e Seminar y (Souther n and Western Femal e College) , 1 7 LaGrange Femal e College , 8 1 Lenoir Collegiat e Institute , 13 0 Lesbianism, 163-6 7 Liberal arts , 22 , 23 , 69 , 73~7 4 Lima Seminary , 11 1 Literacy, 3 5 - 3 7 , 76 , 19 8 n . 8 , 19 9 n . 13 Literary societies, 148-5 1 Loretto Femal e Seminary , 3 6 Louisburg Femal e College , 18 5 Lutherans, 12 9 Madison Femal e College , 91 , 122 , 140 , 148, 18 3 Mansfield Femal e College , 22 , 7 0 - 7 2 , 87, 92 , 109 , i37 > H 4 , 18 4

255 Marion Femal e Seminary , 5 6 Marriage, 4 , 131-32 * H3 * 170-71 * 175-82 Mars Hill College . See French Broa d Baptist Institut e Mary Baldwi n College , 10 4 Mary Shar p Female Colleg e (Tennesse e and Alabama Femal e Institute) , 2 0 - 2 2 Maternalism, 29 , 30 , 79 , 9 8 May Day , 168-7 0 Memphis Conferenc e Femal e Institute , 5 8 Mercer University , 8 9 Meredith College , 18 5 Methodist Quarterly Review, 1 4 Methodists, 30 , 5 8 - 6 0 , 6 4 - 6 5 , 129 , 174, 184-8 5 Minden Femal e College , 72 , 74 , 91 , 122,184 Monroe Femal e Colleg e (Forsyth e Femal e Collegiate Institute) , 1 7 Montpelier school , 75 , 126 , 132 , 156 , 171 Moravians, 36 , 8 9 - 9 0 , 19 8 n . 9 Mordecai's school , 4 4 - 4 7 , 52-53, 13 8 Mount Holyok e College , 2 , 5 , 15 , 18 , 3 1 , 6 3 , 7 7 , 84 , 112-14 , 124-25 , 130-31, 137 * I9 i " • 3 * ! 9 2 n . 10 Music. See Ornamental branche s Mystical Seven , 15 3 Nashville Femal e Academy , 145 , 17 0 Native America n women' s education, 5 , 189 n . 6 Nazareth Femal e Seminary , 3 6 Neighborhood school s ("Old Field") , 3 6 38 New Ber n Academy, 3 1 New Garde n boarding school , 51 , 5 8 - 5 9 New Hampshir e Conferenc e Femal e Col lege, 1 8 New York Transcript, 1 3 Northampton Academy , 6 2 Novels, 132-33 * ! 43» 170 , 17 7 Nutrition, 124-2 6

256 Oberlin College , 18 , 26 , 9 1 Odd Fellows ' Femal e Seminary , 5 8 Oglethorpe College , 2 4 Ohio Wesleya n Femal e College , 1 8 Old Fiel d Schools . See Neighborhood schools Ornamental branches , 38 , 4 0 - 4 1 , 44 , 49, 6 6 - 6 7 , 6 9 - 7 0 , 8 6 - 8 9 Oxford Femal e Colleg e (Nort h Carolina) , 18, i34-35 > 13 7 Oxford Femal e Colleg e (Ohio) , 2 2 Patapsco Femal e Seminary , 26 , 80 , 99 , 127, 129 , 142 , 144 , 14 7 Paternalism, 29 , 101 , 103 , 179-8 0 Pendleton Femal e Academy , 5 5 - 5 6 Penmanship, 42 , 109-1 0 Personalism, 2 9 Pestalozzian method , 8 7 Phi Bet a Kappa , 15 3 Philanthropic Literar y Society , 14 9 Philomathean Gazette, 15 2 Philomathean Societ y (Ph i Mu) , 152 , 18 4 Philomathesian Literary Society , 14 9 Phi Mu . See Philomathean Societ y Pi Kapp a Society, 1 9 Plagiarism, 7 6 - 7 7 , 83 , 9 2 Presbyterians, 58 , 64 , 12 9 Princeton College , 22 , 11 7 Psi Upsilon , 15 3 Quakers (Societ y o f Friends) , 36 , 51 , s^ Queer theory , 164-6 5 Radcliffe College , 1 8 Rainbow, the , 15 3 Raleigh Mal e an d Femal e Academy , 31 , 52, 74 , 75 > 9 9 Raleigh Register, 1 3 Randolph Femal e Academy , 5 1 - 5 2 Randolph-Macon College , 185-8 6 Regulations, 6 , 130-39 ; literar y societies , 149-51 Report cards , 8 8 - 8 9 , ! 37

SUBJECT INDE X Republican motherhood , 15-16 , 98 , 102-3, * 1 *, l8 *> Revivals, 29 , 5 9 - 6 0 , 144 , 172-7 4 Richmond Academy , 5 3 Richmond Femal e Institute , 17 , 10 6 Salaries (teachers'), 103 , 106 , 112 , 116 Salem Femal e Academy , 36 , 40 , 8 9 - 9 0 , 108, I 2 i , 124 , 144 , 156 , 182 , 19 9 n . 9 School o f the Misse s Nas h an d Mis s Kol loch, 104 , 109 , 124 , 128 , 14 5 School papers , 79 ; Edgeworth Bouquet, 79 Scotland Nec k Femal e Academy , 6 2 Second Grea t Awakening , 29 , 5 9 Sedgewick Femal e Seminary , 3 3 Seminary, 3 , 17 , 21 , 65 , 70 , 104-5 , 121-22

Separate spheres , 2—3 , 16 , 29 , 30 , 34 , 6 3 - 6 4 , 74 , 77 , 7 8 - 7 9 , 102-3 , 108 , i u - 1 3 , 118-19 , 128-29 , 141-42 , 145, 155 , 159 , 178 , 22 2 n . 1 3 Shocco Femal e Academy , 5 1 Sigma Alph a Epsilon , 15 3 Sigma Phi , 15 3 Sigournian Literar y Society , 14 9 Sigourney Society , 149-5 1 Silliman Femal e Collegiat e Institute , SS Sisters of Charity , 5 8 Slavery, 2 , 11 , 28 , 30 , 38 , 4 1 - 4 3 , 46 , 64, 79 , 98 , 100 , 103 , 115-19 , 121 , 123, 125-56 , 128 , 139 , 145 , 148 , 154, 158 , 161 , 163 , 169 , 174 , 176 , 179-82 Smith College , 12 , 19 0 n . 3 Sophie Newcom b College , 18 5 Sororities, 151-54 , 22 1 n . 1 8 South Carolin a College , 17 1 South Carolin a Femal e Collegiat e Insti tute, 62 , 65 , 73 , 90 , n o , 121 , 1 2 3 24, 126 , 128 , 134 , 139-41 , H 3 , 169 , 171, 18 2 Southern Association o f Colleg e Women , 185

257

SUBJECT INDE X Southern an d Western Femal e College . See LaGrange Collegiat e Seminar y Society o f Friends . See Quakers Southern belle , 2 , 4 - 5 , 91 , 113 , 119 — 20, 127-28 , 130 , 133-34 , HO , H 5 , 161, 166 , 168-69 , 170-82 , 18 6 Southern Femal e Institute , 31 , 13 6 Southern Index, 31 , 16 0 Southern Ladies* Companion, 1 4 Southern Masoni c Femal e College , 5 8 Southern Rose, 1 4 Sparta Academy, 3 1 Sparta Female Mode l School , 5 3 - 5 4 , 8 3 Spectator, 36 , 19 9 n . I I Spring Creek Academy , 7 1 Statesville Femal e College , 18 3 Stealing, 13 5 St. Mary' s Academy fo r Youn g Ladies , 58 St. Mary' s School , 71 , 90 , 108 , 118 , 125-27, 134-35 , 137-38 , H 4 - 4 5 , 157-58, 171 , 176 , 18 6 Sweet Bria r College, 18 5 Synodical Institute , 5 8 Talvande's school, Mme , 8 4 Teachers. See Faculty Teacher placement , 62 , 107 , i n —12 , 115

Tennessee an d Alabama Femal e Institute . See Mary Shar p Femal e Colleg e Tennessee College , 18 5 Troy Femal e Seminary , 18 , 6 1 - 6 2 , 79 , 111-13, 19 1 n . 3 Tuition, 54 , 103 , 112 , 12 1 Tuscaloosa Femal e Academy , $^ Tuscaloosa Femal e Educatio n Society , 5 6 Tuskegee Femal e Academy , 125 , 129 , 157 Tuskegee Femal e College , 24 , 5 7 Union College , 15 3 University o f Alabama, 15 3

University o f Chicago, 2 1 University o f Georgia, 19 , 2 1 - 2 2 , 130 , 138, 149 , 15 3 University o f Illinois , 2 3 University o f Mississippi , 1 $3 University o f Nort h Carolina , 1 0 5 - 6 , 122, 138 , 14 4 University o f Virginia, 23 , 13 8 University o f Wisconsin , 2 3 Ursuline nuns , 3 6 U.S. Burea u of Education , 1 2 Valley Unio n Seminary . See Hollins Col lege Vassar College, 12 , 15 , 2 7 - 2 8 , 117 , 139 , 190 n . 3 Vine Hil l Academy , §6 Virginia Femal e Institute , 12 3 Wake Fores t College , 109 , 17 6 Warrenton Femal e Academy , 3 1 Warrenton Femal e College , 9 0 Washington Femal e Seminary , 8 1 Wellesley College , 12 , 2 0 Wesleyan College . See Georgia Femal e College Wesleyan Femal e Colleg e (Cincinnati) , 17 Wesleyan Femal e Colleg e (Nort h Caro lina), 59 , 87 , 90 , 1 0 7 - 8 , 114 , 130 , 132, 139 , 144 , 174 , 21 0 n . 4 0 Western Femal e Seminary , 6 2 Wheaton College , 19 1 n . 3 White supremacy , 2 , 181-82 , 18 6 William an d Mary , Colleg e of , 23 , 15 3 Wood's Femal e Academy , 6 2 Yale College , 21 , 24 , 10 7 Yale Report , 2 3 Young Ladie s Academy (Philadelphia) , 38, 47 , H 2 Zimmerman Femal e Institute , 9 2 - 9 3

Printed in the United State s 35986LVS00001B/94-1.14

9 "78081 4 72634 T