The Early Upper Paleolithic: Evidence from Europe and the Near East 9780860545644, 9781407347202
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Table of contents :
Blank Page
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
List of Contributors
Preface
Chapter 1: The Early Upper Paleolithic in Egypt
Chapter 2: The Early Upper Paleolithic in Levantine Caves
Chapter 3: The Early Upper Paleolithic of the Levant
Chapter 4: Analysis of Faunal Remains from Early Upper Paleolithiic Sites in the Levant
Chapter 5: Explorations of The Twilight Zone: The Early Upper Paleolithic of Vasco-Cantabrian Spain and Gascony
Chapter 6: The Early Upper Paleolithic of Portugal
Chapter 7: The Chatelperronian and the Early Aurignacian in France
Chapter 8: The Transition from the Middle to the Early Upper Paleolithic in Central Europe and the Balkans
Chapter 9: Early Upper Paleolithic Sites of the European USSR
Chapter 10: Early Upper Paleolithic Research: A Review
Citation preview
The Early Upper Paleolithic Evidence from Europe and the Near East
edited by
J. F. Hoffecker and C. A. Wolf
BAR International Series 437
1988
B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.
GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.
BAR -S437, 1988: 'The Early Upper Paleolithic' ©The Indi vi dual Authors, 1988
The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860545644 paperback ISBN 9781407347202 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545644 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com
CONTENTS
Contr ibutors
i v
P reface
v
P ierre M . V ermeersch P . V an P eer
T he E ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic i n E gypt
1
O fer Bar-Yosef Anna B e lfer-Cohen
T he E ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic i n L evant ine Caves
2 3
Anthony E . Marks C . Re id F err ing
T he E ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic o f t he L evant
4 3
Corne l ia A . Wo lf
Ana lys is o f F auna l R ema ins f rom E ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic S ites i n t he L evant
7 3
E xp lorat ions o f t he Tw i l ight Z one : The E ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic o f V ascoCantabr ian S pa in a nd Gascony
9 7
L awrence G . S traus C ra ig W . Hel ler
J oäo Z i lhäo
F ranc is B . Harro ld
J anusz K . Koz lowsk i
J ohn F . Hoffeeker
M ichae l A . J oeh im
T he E ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic o f P ortuga l
1 35
T he Chate lperron ian a nd t he E ar ly Aur ignac ian i n F rance
1 57
T rans it ion f rom t he M idd le t o t he E ar ly P a leo l ith ic i n Centra l E urope a nd t he B a lkans
1 93
E ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic S ites o f t he E uropean USSR
2 37
E ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic R esearch : A R ev iew
2 73
1 1
CONTR IBUTORS
O fe r Bar-Yosef We izmann I nst itute o f S c ience Rehovot 7 6 1 00 I s rae l Anna B e lfer-Cohen I nst itute o f A rchaeo logy , T he Hebrew Un ivers ity o fJ ersu laem , Mt . S copus , J erusa lem 9 1905 I s rae l C . Re id F err ing I nst itute o f App l ied S c iences , Nor th T exas S tate Un ivers ity , Denton , T exas 7 6203 U .S .A . F ranc is B . Harro ld Department o f S oc io logy , Anthropo logy , a nd S oc ia l Work , Un ivers ity o f T exas a t A r l ington , A r l ington , T exas 7 6019 U .S .A . C ra ig W . Hel ler Department o f Anthropo logy , Un ivers ity o f New Mex ico , A lbuquerque , New Mex ico 8 7131 U .S .A . J ohn F . Hoffeeker E nergy a nd E nv ironmenta l S ystems D iv is ion , A rgonne Nat iona l L aboratory , A rgonne , I l l ino is 6 0439 U .S .A . M ichae l A . J oeh im Depar tment o f Anthropo logy , Un ivers ity o f C a l iforn ia a t S anta B arbara , S anta B arbara , Ca l iforn ia 9 3106 U .S .A . J anusz K . Koz lowsk i I ns tytut Archeo log i i , Un iwersytet J ag ie l lo r isk i , u l . Go leb ia 1 1, 3 1-007 K rakow P o land Anthony E . Marks Department o f Anthropo logy , S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity , Da l las , T exas 7 5275 U .S .A . L awrence G . S traus Department o f Anthropo logy , Un ivers ity o f New Mex ico , A lbuquerque , New Mex ico 8 7131 U .S .A . P . V an P eer L aborator ium v oor P reh istor ie , Katho / ieke Un ivers ite it t e L euven , Red ingens traat 1 6b is , 3 000 L euven B e lg ium P ierre M . V ermeersch L aborator ium v oor P reh is tor ie , Katho l ieke Un ivers ite it t e L euven , Red ingens traat 1 6b is , 3 000 L euven B e lg ium Corne l ia A . Wo lf Depar tment o f Anthropo logy , Un ivers ity o f Ch icago , 1 126 E as t 5 9th S treet , Ch icago , I l l ino is 6 0637 U .S .A . J oäo Z i lhäo I ns t ituto d e A rqueo log ia , d e F acu ldade d e L etras d e L isboa , 1 699 L isboa Codex P ortuga l
I v
PREFACE Much a ttent ion h as b een f ocused i n r ecent y ears o n t he i s sue o f t he M idd le/Upper P a leo l ith ic t rans it ion , b ut r e lat ive ly l i tt le h as b een a ccorded t o t he d i fferences b etween t he e ar l ier a nd l a ter Upper P a leo l ith ic . T hese d ifferences a re o ften s ign if icant a nd warrant c ons iderat ion o f t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic a s a d i st inct e nt ity i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord , y ie ld ing i mportant c ontrasts w ith b oth t he M idd le a nd t he l a ter U pper P a leo l ith ic . T he p urpose o f t h is v o lume i st o f ocus a ttent ion o n t h is p er iod , a s v iewed f rom v ar ious p arts o f E urope a nd t he Near E ast . T he p apers i n t h is v o lume were i n it ia l ly p repared f or a s ympos ium h e ld i n 1 987 a t t he F ifty-second a nnua l meet ing o f t he S oc iety f or Amer ican A rchaeo logy i n T oronto . T he a uthors w ere a sked t o a ssess t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic i n t he r eg ion o f t he ir r espect ive e xpert ise , a nd M ichae l J och im was a sked t o p rov ide a g enera l d i scuss ion o f t he p rob lem . T he o r ig ina l g roup o f p apers h as b een s ub ject t o o ne a dd it ion ( J .K . K oz lowsk i ) , a nd o ne w ithdrawa l ( R . Wh ite ) ; t he l atter r ef lects a p r ior c orn m ittment t o a nother p ub l icat ion . T he s ubd iv is ion o f t he U pper P a leo l ith ic i n to t wo ma jor p hases i s b y n o means w ithout p recedent . I n t he N ear E ast , t he p ost-Mouster ian i ndustr ies h ave b een t rad it iona l ly d iv ided i n to " Upper P a leo l ith ic" ( 40 ,000-20 ,000 B .P . ) a nd " Ep ip a leo l ith ic" o r " Late P a leo l ith ic" ( 20 ,000-10 ,000 B .P . ) . P reh istor ians i n E astern E urope h ave l ong r ecogn ized a f undamenta l d ist inct ion b etween e ar ly a nd l a te U pper P a leo l ith ic ( e .g . , E f imenko 1 938 ) . T he c omp l icated s uccess ion o f Upper P a leo l ith ic i ndustr ies i n Western E urope h as a pparent ly d iscouraged s uch b road c lass if icatory u n its , a l though n ot w ithout i mportant e xcept ions ( e .g . , L ev i l le e t a / . 1 980 ; Gamb le 1 986 ) . T he b oundar ies o f t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic a re n ot e as i ly o r u n iform ly d ef ined . T he l ower b oundary i so ften o bscure a nd a synchronous . W ith t he p oss ib le e xcept ion o f C entra l a nd E astern E urope , i t c an n o l onger b e e quated w ith t he a ppearance o f a natom ica l ly modern p eop le ( Homo s ap iens s ap iens ) . I n t he N ear E ast , t he t rans it ion i s c omp lex a nd g radua l : Upper P a leo l ith ic t echno logy emerges i n t he L evant we l l b efore t he p redom inance o f t yp ica l Upper P a leo l ith ic t oo l f orms ( >40 ,000 B .P . ) ( Marks a nd F err ing , t h is v o lume ) . B one t oo ls a nd a rt o b jects - i mportant d ef in ing c haracter ist ics o f t he Upper P a leo l ith ic i n E urope - a re r are i n t h is r eg ion , f urther r educ ing t he r eso lut ion o f t he b oundary . I ndustr ies o f u nden iab le Mouster ian c haracter s urv ive l ong a fter t he a ppearance o f f u l ly d eve lo ped Upper P a leo l ith ic i ndustr ies i n Centra l a nd E astern E urope ( after 3 0 ,000 B .P . ) ( Koz lowsk i , t h is v o lume ; Hoffecker , t h is v o lume ) ; t he o ver lap i s p art icu lar ly s t r ik ing i n C entra l E urope , where e ven a b road s ynch ronous b oundary b etween M idd le a nd Upper P a leo l ith ic c an n o l onger b e d ef ined ( Koz lowsk i , t h is v o lume ) . On ly i n Western E urope d oes a r e lat ive ly c lear l i ne o f d emarcat ion w ith r espect t o t echno logy , t ypo logy , a nd a rt mater ia l ize a t c a . 3 5 ,000 B .P . ( Harro ld , t h is v o lume ) , a l though S traus a nd He l ler ( t h is v o lume ) h ave emphas ized t he g radua l n ature o f t he t rans it ion . I f t he i n terface w ith t he Mouster ian s eems c omp lex a nd amb iguous , t he b oundary b etween t he e ar ly a nd l a te Upper P a leo l ith ic i s o ften p erce ived a s a s harp o ne . I n t he N ear E ast , i t i s t yp ica l ly f ixed a t c a . 2 0 ,000 B .P . w ith t he a ppearance o f m icro l ith ic i ndustr ies ( Bar-Yosef a nd B e lfer-Cohen , t h is v o lume ; V ermeersch a nd V an P eer , t h is v o lume ) . I n E urope , r esearchers h ave t yp ica l ly i den it if ied t he t rans it ion w ith t he a ppearance o f t he S o lutrean ( Western E urope )
V
a nd l ater G ravett ian ( Centra l a nd E astern E urope ) i ndustr ies a t c a . 2 2 ,000-20 ,000 B .P . ( e .g . , Gamb le 1 986 ; S traus a nd He l ler , t h is v o lume ; Z i lhäo , t h is v o lume ) . A lternat ive ly , i t h as b een s uggested t hat a more p ronounced b reak i n t he C entra l/ E ast E uropean a rchaeo log ica l r ecord l i es a t c a . 2 7 ,000-25 ,000 B .P . w ith t he a rr iva l o f t he E astern G ravett ian ( Hoffecker , t h is v o lume ) ; s ign if icant c hanges i n h uman s ke leta l morpho logy a lso o ccurred a t t h is t ime ( Frayer 1 978 ) . One o f t he most r emarkab le f eatures o f t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic i st he e normous v ar iab i l ity o bservab le b oth w ith in a nd among r eg ions . I n t he L evant , a fter t he I n it ia l Upper P a leo l ith ic , t here a re a t l east t wo d ist inct ive a nd o verl app ing t rad it ions ( Ahmar ian a nd L evant ine Aur ignac ian ) ( Bar-Yosef a nd B e lferC ohen , t h is v o lume ; Marks a nd F err ing , t h is v o lume ) . V ermeersch a nd V an P eer ( t h is v o lume ) r eport y et a nother c ontemporaneous i ndustry f rom E gypt ( Shuw ikhat ) d ur ing t h is i n terva l . Anatom ica l ly modern p eop le a pparent ly p roduced a l l o f t hese i ndustr ies . I n Centra l E urope , t he S ze let ian a nd Aur ignac ian i ndustr ies a ppear t o h ave e x isted s ide b y s ide t h roughout t he l ater M idd le P len ig lac ia l ( 40 ,000-25 ,000 B .P . ) ( Koz lowsk i , t h is v o lume ) . F urther e ast , i n t he E uropean USSR , as im i lar c oex ist ence o f "Moustero id" a nd f u l ly d eve loped Upper P a leo l ith ic a ssemb lages p reva i led ( e .g . , e ar ly S tre letskaya v ersus S p itsynskaya ) ( Hoffecker , t h is v o lume ) . T he r ema ins o f a natom ica l ly modern p eop le a re a ssoc iated w ith t he Centra l E uropean Aur ignac ian , a nd w ith t he y ounger s i tes i n b oth r eg ions g enera l ly , b ut t he p oss ib i l ity t hat Neandertha ls ( Homo s ap iens n eandertha lens is ) p roduced t he e ar l ier "Moustero id" i ndustr ies c annot b e d iscounted . S harp c ontrasts a re a lso e v ident b etween t he t wo e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic t rad it ions o f Western E urope ( Chate lperron ian a nd Aur ignac ian ) , a l though b oth a re c ons idered t o b e f u l ly Upper P a leo l ith ic w ith r espect t o t echno logy , t ypo logy , b one t oo ls , a nd a rt o b jects ( Harro ld , t h is v o lume ) . N everthe less , t he more "a rcha ic" o f t he t wo i ndustr ies ( Chate lperron ian ) n ow a ppears t o h ave b een t he p roduct o f al oca l Neandertha l p opu lat ion . Wh i le f unct iona l c ons iderat ions must a ccount f or s ome o f t h is v ar iab i l ity , many r esearchers i n b oth E urope a nd t he N ear E ast b e l ieve t hat t hey d o n ot a deq uate ly e xp la in much o f t he d ivers ity w ith in o r among r eg ions . T he Ahmar ian a nd L evant ine Aur ignac ian t rad it ions , f or e xamp le , a re v iewed a s s eparate c u ltures b y B ar-Yosef a nd B e lfer-Cohen ( th is v o lume ) , a nd Marks a nd F err ing ( th is v o lume ) , wh i le t he Chate lperron ian a nd Aur ignac ian , a s n oted a bove , n ow a ppear t o r epres ent s eparate h uman s ubspec ies . On t he o ther h and , t he Aur ignac ian c onst itutes a c om mon t hread t h roughout most r eg ions , a nd , o uts ide t he Near E ast , may r epres ent t he a rchaeo log ica l b anner o f Homo s ap iens s ap iens . One o f t he most i mportant i s sues i n e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic a rchaeo logy i s s ubs istence a nd s ett lement . I n t he p ast , ma jor c hanges i n s ubs istence s trategy ( e .g . , d eve lopment o f o rgan ized h erd d r ives ) h ave b een p ostu lated f or t he M idd le/ Upper P a leo l ith ic t rans it ion ( e .g . , B inford 1 970 ; Me l lars 1 973 ) . However , t he c ompar isons h ave o ften f a i led t o c ons ider s ign if icant d ifferences b etween t he e ar ly a nd l ate U pper P a leo l ith ic . S traus ( 1977 ; S traus a nd He l ler , t h is v o lume ) f ound n o s ign if icant c hanges i n s ubs istence o r s ett lement u nt i l a fter 2 0 ,000 B .P . i n t he M idd le/Upper P a leo l ith ic r ecord o f s outhwestern E urope . On t he o ther h and , B ar-Yosef a nd B e lf e rCohen ( th is v o lume ) , a nd Wo lf ( th is v o lume ) s ee e v idence f or ac hange f rom m ixed s trateg ies o f h unt ing a nd s caveng ing i n t he M idd le P a leol i th ic t o g reater d ependence o n h unt ing i n t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic o f t he L evant .
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Upper P a leo l ith ic s ett le ment p atterns a re g enera l ly t hought t o r ef lect i ncreases i n p opu lat ion d ens ity a nd g roup s i ze o ver t he p reced ing M idd le P a leol i th ic ( e .g . , Wh ite 1 982 ) , b ut o nce a ga in , d ata f rom t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic s eem t o t e l l ad ifferent s tory . Marks a nd F re ide l ( 1977 ) h ave s uggested t hat t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic i n t he Negev r eg ion w itnessed a t rend t owards more d isp ersed r ather t han a gg regated s ett le ment , i n r esponse t o d eter iorat ion o f t he f ood r esource b ase ; s uch a p attern i s more c ons istent w ith t he r e lat ive ly p ars i mon ious u se o f r aw mater ia l f ac i l itated b y b lade t echno logy . Gamb le ( 1983 ) h as r ecent ly a rgued t hat a c omparab le d ec l ine i n r esource a bundance a nd p red ictab i l ity i n C entra l E urope r equ ired a more f lex ib le s ett lement s trategy a nd i n tegrated s oc ia l n etwork i n t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic . T here i s s ome e v idence f or a s im i lar h uman e nv ironmenta l c r is is i n E astern E urope ( Hoffecker , t h is v o lume ) . The i dea t hat t he a ppearance o f t he Upper P a leo l ith ic was l i nked t o i mp ortant - e ven f undamenta l - c hanges i n s oc ia l o rgan izat ion h as a l ong h istory . O ver h a lf a c entury a go , S ov iet p reh istor ians a rgued t hat t he o r ig ins o f modern h uman s oc ia l b ehav ior , l anguage , a nd e xogamous mate e xchange were t i ed t o t he M idd le/Upper P a leo l ith ic t rans it ion ( e .g . , B or iskovsk i j 1 932 ) . More r ecent s pecul a t ion o n t he p rob lem h as emphas ized t he s oc ia l i mp l icat ions o f t he a rt o b jects a nd o ther f orms o f s ymbo l ic e xpress ion t hat emerge w ith t he e ar ly Upper P a leol i th ic ( e .g . , Wh ite 1 982 ; Gamb le 1 983 ) . A lternat ive ly , i th as b een s uggested t hat s uch c hanges o ccurred o n ly w ith t he a ppearance o f t he l a te Upper P a leo l ith ic ( Wobst 1 976 ) , a n e ven t wh ich , a s we h ave s een , may b e a ssoc iated w ith s ign if icant e cono m ic a nd h uman morpho log ica l c hange . T he p overty o f e ar ly ( compared w ith l a te ) Upper P a leo l ith ic a rt h as b een n oted b y an umber o f r esearchers ( Harro ld , t h is v o lume ; S traus a nd He l ler , t h is v o lume ; Hoffecker , t h is v o lume ) . The e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic t hus s eems t o r epresent a n i n terva l o f e xcept i ona l c omp lex ity a nd d ynam ism . T he c ontrasts w ith t he M idd le P a leo l ith ic a re more s ubt le a nd g radua l t han o ften t hought , a l though p erhaps n o l ess i mportant i n t he ir c onsequences f or h uman s oc ia l a nd c u ltura l l i fe . T he d ifferences w ith t he l a ter Upper P a leo l ith ic a re s omet i mes d ramat ic , a nd may h o ld i mportant s oc ia l a nd c u ltura l i mp l icat ions o f t he ir own . T he p apers a ssemb led i n t h is v o lume r epresent n e ither c onsensus o r s ynthes is ( beyond t he r eg iona l s ca le ) , b ut s imp ly p rov ide a n o verv iew o f t he s tate o f r esearch i n v ar ious p arts o f E urope a nd t he N ear E ast . We s t i l l f ace t he f orm idab le t ask o f r eso lv ing t he ma jor i s sues t hat t hey h ave r a ised i n t he s tudy o f t h is c omp lex a nd i n terest ing p er iod i n h uman p reh i story .
REFERENCES B inford , S .R . 1 970 L ate M idd le P a leo l ith ic a daptat ions i n t he L evant a nd t he ir p oss ib le c onsequences . B ioSc ience 2 0 :280-283 . B or iskovsk i j , P . I . 1 932 K v oprosu o s tad ia l 'nost i ir azv it i i v erkhnego p a leo l ita . I zves t iya GAIMK 1 4 (4 ) :9-40 . E f imenko , P .P . 1 938 P ervoby tnoe o bshchestvo . S econd E d it ion . L en ingrad : Akadem iya n auk S SSR . F rayer , D .W . 1 978 E vo lut ion o f t he d ent it ion i n Upper P a leo l ith ic a nd Meso l ith ic E urope . Un ivers ity o f Kansas , P ub l icat ions i n Anthropo logy 1 0 .
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Gamb le , C . 1 983 Cu lture a nd s oc iety i n t he u pper p a laeo l ith ic o f E urope . I n G .N . B a i ley ( ed itor ) Hunter-Gatherer E conomy i n P reh istory , p p . 2 01-211 . Cambr idge : Cambr idge Un ivers ity P ress . 1 986 T he P a laeo l ith ic S ett lement o f E urope . Cambr idge : Cambr idge Un ivers ity P ress . L av i l le , H . , J .-P . R igaud , a nd J . S ackett 1 980 Rock S he lters o f t he P er igord : Geo log ica l S trat igraphy a nd Archaeo log ica l S uccess ion . New York : Academ ic P ress . Marks , A .E . , a nd D .A . F re ide l 1 977 P reh istor ic s ett lement p atterns i n t he Avdat/Aqev a rea . I n A .E . Marks ( ed itor ) P reh istory a nd P a leoenv ironments i n t he Centra l Negev , I s rae l , v o l . 2 , p p . 1 31-158 . Da l las : S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress . Me l lars , P .A . 1 973 T he c haracter o f t he m idd le-upper p a laeo l ith ic t rans it ion i n s outhwest F rance . I n C . Renfrew ( ed itor ) E xp lanat ion o f Cu ltura l Change : Mode ls i n P reh istory , p p . 2 55-276 . L ondon : Duckworth . S traus , L .G . 1 977 O f d eers layers a nd mounta in men : P a leo l ith ic f auna l e xp lo itat ion i n Cantabr ian S pa in . I n L .R . B inford ( ed itor ) F or T heo ry B u ild ing i n A rchaeo logy , p p . 4 1-76 . New York : Academ ic P ress . Wh ite , R . 1 982 Reth ink ing t he M idd le/Upper P a leo l ith ic t rans it ion . Current Anthropo logy 2 3 (2 ) :169-192 . Wobst , H .M . 1 976 L ocat iona l r e lat ionsh ips i n P a leo l ith ic s oc iety . J ourna l o f Human E vo lut ion 5 :49-58 .
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T HE E AR LY U PPER P ALEOL IT H IC I NE G YPT P ierre M . V ermeerseh a nd P . Van P eer L aborator ium v oor P reh istor ie Katho l ieke Un ivers ite it L euven B e lg ium
Th is v o lume i s f ocused o n t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic a s ad ist inct e nt ity i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . T he p rerequ is ite f or s uch a n a pproach i s t he e x ist ence o f ac ont inuous s et o f d ata r e lat ing t o t he l ate M idd le , t he e ar ly Upper , a nd t he L a te P a leo l ith ic o f t he r eg ion u nder c ons iderat ion . I n t erms o f a bso lute c hrono logy t h is p er iod c o inc ides r ough ly w ith a t ime s pan b etween 5 0 ,000 a nd 2 0 ,000 B .P . Wh i le o bta in ing a bso lute d ates f or t he Upper P a leo l ith ic i s n ot d iff icu lt , t he s i tuat ion i sf u l ly d ifferent f or t he M idd le P a leo l ith ic , where d at ing i s a l most a lways b eyond t he p oss ib i l it ies o f t he r ad iocarbon method . T h is l ack o f g ood d at ing t echn iques , e ven i f t hermo lum inescence ( TL ) d at ing p rov ides g ood o pportun it ies i n t he f uture , h ampers t he k now ledge o f what p receded t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic . Consequent ly , o ur e xpectat ions f or a ch iev ing t he g oa ls o f t h is v o lume s hou ld n ot b e t oo h igh . Cons ider ing t he r estr icted n umber o f we l l-dated s i tes i n t he E gypt ian N i le Va l ley , o ne i s e ven l ess o pt im ist ic f or t hat r eg ion . However , i t i s i mportant t o e stab l ish a s tatus q uaes t ion is s o t hat o ngo ing r esearch c an t ake r ecent f ie ld r esu l ts i nto a ccount .
RESEARCH H ISTORY Ear l ier Work I n a n e ar l ier c ontr ibut ion we r ev iewed t he r esearch h istory o f t h is p art o f t he w or ld ( PauEssen a nd V ermeersch 1 987 ) . Thus we w i l l b e b r ief . P erhaps n o v a l ley i n t he wor ld h as r ece ived s o much a ttent ion i n t he s c ien t if ic l i terature a s t he l ower p art o f t he N i le V a l ley i n S udan a nd E gypt . Most r ev iews a re b ased o n a f ew o r ig ina l c ontr ibut ions c onta in ing a n a ston ish ing q uan t ity o f g eo log ica l a nd a rchaeo log ica l o bservat ions , wh ich were t he o utcome o f r esearch p ro jects l ast ing s evera l y ears . By 1 968 , Nub ia h ad d isappeared u nder t he waters o f Nasser L ake , s o t hat n ew r esearch o r af ie ld e va luat ion o f t he p ub l ished r esu lts i n t he l i ght o f n ew e v idences h as b ecome i mposs ib le . F or t he E gypt ian N i le , i mportant s tud ies r el at ing t o t he p reh istory a nd t he Quaternary e nv ironment o f s ome s i tes h ave b een p ub l i shed b y B utzer a nd Hansen ( 1968 ) , Wendorf a nd S ch i ld ( 1976 ) , a nd Wendorf e t a l . ( 1 980 , 1 986 ) . The g eo log ica l e vo lut ion o f t he r iver h as b een s tud ied b y S a id ( 1981 ) . S ince t he c omp le t ion o f t he Nub ian p ro ject , t he work o f t he Comb ined P reh istor ic E xped it ion o f Wendorf a nd S ch i ld h as b een o r iented t owards t he
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u nderstand ing o f t he L ate P a leo l ith ic o f t he N i le V a l ley a nd t he E ar ly , M idd le , a nd T erm ina l P a leo l ith ic o f t he e astern S ahara . T h is s eems , a t l east f or t he L ate P a leo l ith ic o f t he N i le V a l ley , ad e l iberate c ho ice , whereas i n t he S ahara e ar ly Upper a nd L ate P a leo l ith ic a re c onsp icuous ly a bsent . Consequent ly , i nformat ion a bout t he M idd le a nd e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic f rom E gypt i sf ragmentary . I n 1 976 we i n it iated t he B e lg ian M idd le E gypt P reh istor ic P ro ject ( B .M .E .P .P . ) . Our r esearch o b ject ive was t he o vera l l s tudy o f p reh istor ic s i tes g eo log ica l ly i n s i tu ( bur ied w ith in o ther l ayers , b ut n ot n ecessar i ly i n p r imary a rchaeo log ica l c ontext ) i n t he a rea b etween Q ena a nd A suyt . We h ave n ow e xcav ated f ive M idd le P a leo l ith ic a nd f our Upper P a leo l ith ic s ites . Deta i led g eomorpho log ica l a nd g eo log ica l s tudy o f t he s urround ing a rea r evea led a c omp lex s trat igraphy , wh ich we were n ot a b le t o r e late t o t he N i le s equence a s k nown i n t he l ate s event ies . U nexpected r esu lts b ecame a va i lab le f or s ome e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic s i tes where r ad iometr ic d at ing was p oss ib le ( Ver meersch e t a l . 1 982 , 1 984a , 1 984b , 1 984e ; P au l issen e t a l . 1 985 ) . T h is b r ief a ccount m ight g ive t he i mpress ion t hat N i le V a l ley p reh istory i s we l l k nown f or most p er iods i n t he p ast . Unfortunate ly , t h is i s n ot t he e ase , a nd e spec ia l ly n ot f or t he e ar ly Upper P a leol i th ic .
P rob lems o f Chrono logy S ince t he e ar ly i nvest igat ions i n t he p reh istory o f t he Egypt ian N i le V a l ley ( F igure 1 ) , t he ma in r esearch emphas is h as b een o n e stab l ish ing a c hronology b ased p r imar i ly o n t he s uccess ion o f N i le t errace d epos its . P reh istor ic i ndustr ies w ere a lways c ons idered i n r e lat ion t o t hese t erraces , wh ich h ave b een l ooked u pon a s c h rono log ica l markers . One o f t he ma in a ssumpt ions was t hat t he s i lt s ed imentat i on s ystem o f t he N i le was a f a ir ly r ecent p henomenon s tart ing f rom a bout 2 0 ,000 B .P . ( de He inze l in 1 968 ) . A s s evera l Nub ian a nd E gypt ian a sse mb lages ( Wendorf 1 968 ; Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 976 ) o f a pparent M idd le P a leo l ith ic t echno log ica l c hara cter h ave b een f ound i n r e lat ion t o s uch s t rat igraph ic u n its , t hey h ave b een c ons idered a s b e long ing t o t he L ate P a leo l ith ic . I n o ur o p in ion , t he p otent ia l o f t he N i le s ed imentary u n its a s r e l iab le c hrono log ica l markers r e ma ins t o b e e stabl i shed ( Pau l issen a nd V ermeersch 1 987 ; V an P eer a nd V ermeersch , i n p ress ) . F or t he t ime b e ing t hey c an o n ly b e u t i l ized w ith g reat c aut ion . Th is h as a lso b een i nd icated b y t he n ecess ity o f r e interpret ing t he Khormusan c hrono logy ( Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 976 ; Wendorf e t a l . 1 979 ) .
T h is Contr ibut ion I n t h is c ontr ibut ion we w i l l r ev iew t he d ata f rom s e lected s i tes wh ich , i n o ur o p in ion , p resent c erta in c lues f or e xp la in ing what h appened i n t he p er iod o f t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic . I n d o ing t h is we w i l l h ave t o r e interpret s o me o f t he p ub l ished mater ia ls , wh ich i s a lways a h azardous e nterpr ise . We a re f u l ly a ware o f t he f act t hat t he v iew we w i l l p resent i s l a rge ly h ypothet ica l b ecause o f t he p overty o f t he a va i lab le d ata . T o u s , h owever , i t i s f or t he t ime b e ing t he b est p oss ib le s ynthes is .
M IDDLE PALEOL ITH IC F or Nub ia , s ome s pec if ic L eva l lo is-re lated f lake p roduct ion t echn iques h ave b een d escr ibed . Gu ichard a nd Gu ichard ( 1965 :68-69 ) d ef ined t wo t ypes o f s oc a l led Nub ian c ores , t he e ssent ia l c haracter ist ics o f wh ich we w il l r ev iew h ere :
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M ed i terr anean S ea
C A IRO F ayum
A SYUT N az te t K ha te r. S ohag
D i shna M akhadma N ag 'Hammad i 0 . ena l s na
K harga
L uxor
E tK i th l d fu
Oasis
K ubban iya
E GYPT 0
1
1 0 0 I
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S i ts i ta • Kom O mbo A SWAN
2 00 k m 1
r L ake Nasser
. -t
W AD I H ALFA 3 0 1
3 2 1
F igure 1 . S ite l ocat ion map .
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3 1 . *
Nub ian Core I : o n a more o r l ess t r iangu lar n odu le , a c entra l r idge i s c reated b y t he r emova l o f t wo i n tersect ing e longated f lakes f ro m t he d ista l e nd . A fterwards , aL eva l lo is p o int i s s truck o ff . F rom o ur own e xper ience w ith t he l i th ic mater ia l , we l earned t hat c entra l r idge-creat ing p reparat ion i s o ften r estr icted t o t he d ista l p art i n o rder t o p roduce p o inted f lakes r ather t han r ea l p o ints . Nub ian Core I : at r iangu lar c ore w ith p rotrud ing d ista l e nd i sp er iphera l ly p repared i n o rder t o p roduce p o inted f lakes . I n t he most t yp ica l e ases i t wou ld s eem t hat a c entra l r idge i s c reated b y at ransversa l p reparat ion . I n many i nstanc es , h owever , i t i s h ard t o d ist ingu ish t hese c ores f rom " c lass ic" L eva l lo is c ores , e xcept f or t he ir t r iangu lar s hape . T he Ha ifa method , d escr ibed b y Marks ( 1968a ) , i s as pec ia l ized L eva l lo is t echn ique w ith v ery i n tense d i sta l l a me l lar p reparat ion . I t a i ms p r imar i ly a t t he p roduct ion o f s econdary L eva l lo is f lakes , i . e . , f lakes e xh ib it ing a l arge n egat ive o f t he f i rst L eva l lo is r emova l o n t he ir d orsa l s urface . V an P eer a nd V ermeersch ( i n p ress ) h ave s uggested a t hree-stage c hronol og ica l c lass if icat ion f or t he M idd le P a leo l ith ic o f t he l ower N i le V a l ley , b ased ma in ly o n t he Nub ian e v idence : 1 . T he e ar ly M idd le P a leo l ith ic i s t he Nub ian M idd le P a leo l ith ic o f Wendorf ( 1968 :1043 ) . I t i s c haracter ized b y a h igh f requency o f L eva l lo is a rt ifacts . T yp ica l t oo ls a re b ifaces , s ide-scrapers , n otched p ieces , d ent icu lates , t runcated f lakes , a nd b ifac ia l ly r etouched f o l iate p o ints . No s uch a ssemb lages h ave a s y et b een f ound i n s i tu i n t he E gypt ian N i le V a l ley . 2 . T he M idd le P a leo l ith ic c orresponds w ith t he Dent icu late Mous ter ian a nd t he Nub ian Mouster ian a s d ef ined b y Marks ( 1968b :282 ) f or Nub ia . I n t he M idd le P a leo l ith ic o f t he E gypt ian N i le Va l ley o ne c an d ifferent iate t wo t echno log ica l g roups , t he f i rst o ne s how ing a n e xtens ive u se o f t he Nub ian t echn ique n ext t o t he c lass ic L eva l lo is t echno logy ( N-group ) , t he o ther o ne a l most c omp lete ly l ack ing t h is Nub ian t echn ique ( C-group ) . I n c ompar ison w ith t hat o f t he N g roup , t he l am inar i ndex o f t he C -group a ssemb lages i s h igher , a s i s t he r e lat ive i mportance o f o pposed p latform c ores . T oo l t ypo logy o f b oth g roups i s v ery r estr icted d ue t o t he f act t hat t he s i tes a re s pec ia l ized r aw mater ia l e xtract ion s i tes . T he most c om mon t oo ls a re d ent icu lates a nd n otches ; s ide-scrapers a re r are . S o me U pper P a leo l ith ic t oo l t ypes a re p resent . B ifaces a re l ack ing . I t h as b een a rgued ( Van P eer a nd V ermeersch , i n p ress ) t hat t hese t wo g roups r epresent d ifferent a pproaches o f L eva l lo is t echno logy , wh ich c ou ld h ave b een c u ltura l ly d eterm ined . T he r e lat ive c hrono log ica l p os it ion o f t hese t wo g roups i sp resent ly u nc lear . 3 . T he l a te M idd le P a leo l ith ic i s r epresented b y t he Khormusan ( Marks 1 968c ) , t he p resence o f wh ich h as n ot y et b een r ecorded i n t he E gypt ian N i le V a l ley . A l l a va i lab le i nformat ion p o ints t o a c orre lat ion b etween t he M idd le P a leo l ith ic a nd a p er iod o f wetter c l imate , wh ich a t Wad i Kubban iya ( Wendorf e t a l . 1 986 ) i sp robab ly o lder t han 6 0 ,000 B .P .
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TRANS IT IONAL I NDUSTR IES A long t he E gypt ian N i le V a l ley , s ome a ssemb lages , s uch a s t hose o f s i te 1 018 ( Marks 1 968a ) n orth o f Wad i Ha ifa , a nd E 71P1 ( Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 976 :27 ) n orth o f I dfu , p resent a m ixture o f M idd le P a leo l ith ic L eva l lo is t echno logy a nd Upper P a leo l ith ic t oo l t ypo logy . P au l issen a nd V ermeersch ( 1987 ) h ave a rgued t hat t he d ata p resented i n t he s i te r eports d o n ot c onc lus ive ly d emonstrate t hat t hese s i tes a re o f t he a ges o r ig ina l ly s uggested f or t hem ( 20 ,000-17 ,000 B .P . ) . However , t here i s a lso n o a bso lute p roof o f a n o lder a ge f or a ny o f t hem . On t echno log ica l g rounds , t hey c ou ld h ave a n a ge b etween 4 0 ,000 a nd 3 0 ,000 B .P .
S ite 1 018 S ite 1 018 , 1 1 km s outhwest o f Wad i Ha ifa , i s p r imar i ly a s urface s i te b e long ing t o t he Ha lfan ( Marks 1 968a ) . I t y ie lded a m icro l ith ic a ssemb lage i n wh ich Ha ifa t echno logy i s p redom inant ( 45 % o f t he c ores ) . B es ides t h is s pec ia l t echn ique , a f ew e xamp les o f c lass ica l L eva l lo is t echno logy ( 2% ) a re p resent . Nub ian t echn ique i s n onex istent . Upper P a leo l ith ic-type c ores ( predom inant ly s ing le p latform ) a ccount f or 4 1% o f t he c ores . I n g enera l , t hese c ores h ave n ot b een e xtens ive ly f laked , a nd t hey p roduced e longated f lakes r ather t han m icrob lades . Most o f t he t oo ls a re made o n m icrof lakes . T oo ls c ompr ise s evera l t ypes i n e qua l p roport ions : b ur ins , e nd-scrapers , d ent icu lates , a nd b acked e lements . Ouch ta ta b lade lets a re a bsent .
S ite E 71P1 The s i te i s s i tuated o n t he west b ank o f t he N i le , i n t he E l K i lh r eg ion o f Upper E gypt . I t o ccup ies a s urface o f 0 .6 h a o n a sma l l h i l l , a bout 5 m a bove t he modern N i le f loodp la in . No a rt ifact c lusters were a pparent w ith in t h is c oncentrat ion . T renches d isc losed t he p resence o f a r t ifac ts i n s i tu i n l oose s andy s i lt a nd t he u nder ly ing s oft s i lt . A rt ifacts t ended t o b e c oncentrated i n al ayer f rom 2 0 t o 3 0 cm b e low t he s urface . The s i te was d iv ided i n to f our a rb itrary a reas i n o rder t o c o l lect t he s urface mater ia l , b ecause a p re l im inary i n spect ion o f t he t oo ls s uggested s ome i n tras ite d ifferent iat ion . T he a ssemb lage o f S ector C ( F igure 2 ) , c ons ist ing o f b oth s urface a nd i n s i tu e xcavated mater ia ls f ro m T rench 5 , a ppears t o b e h omogeneous f rom a t echn olog ica l p o int o f v iew . L eva l lo is t echno logy p lays a ma jor p art i n t he r educt ion s trategy . Th is L eva l lo is t echno logy i s o f t he s ame n ature a s t hat d escr ibed f or s ite 1 018 . Nub ian t echn ique i s l ack ing . Upper P a leo l ith ic-type c ores ( s ing le a nd o pposed p latform ) a re a lso we l l r epresented ; s ing le p latform c ores a re p redom in ant . On ly a f ew o f t hese c ores h ave b een i n tens ive ly f laked a nd h ave p roduced t rue b lades o r , more c om mon ly , m ierob lades . A s f or t he t ypo logy , t here i s ac omp l icat ion i n t he s ense t hat t he e xcav ated c o l lect ion c onta ins many Ouchtata r etouched m icrob lades , whereas t here a re n one i n t he s urface c o l lect ion . I n o ther r espects , t he t ypo log ies o f b oth s urface a nd e xcavated mater ia l a re v ery s im i lar : b ur ins ( 8% ) , n otches a nd d ent ieul ates ( 20 % ) , s ca led p ieces ( 6% ) , t runcat ions ( 2% ) , e nd-scrapers ( 2% ) , a nd b acked e le men ts ( 3% ) . S ome o f t he b ur ins a re made o n l arge L eva l lo is f lakes . T he a ssemb lage f rom T rench 2 , S ector A h as n o L eva l lo is t echno logy . T he most c om mon t oo ls a re r etouched b lades a nd f lakes , o f wh ich t he e longated p o inted b lades a nd t he b asa l b lunted b lades a re s ign if icant t ypes .
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e m ee .
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3cm
F igure 2 . C ores a nd t oo ls f rom s i te E 71P1C ( a fter Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 976 :245-250 ) .
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These a ssemb lages h ave b een a ss igned t o t he L eva l lo is g roup o f t he I d fuan ( Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 976 :243 ) . However , a s l ong a s we h ave n o f urther i n format i on a bout t he s trat igraphy , i n tras ite d istr ibut ion , d at ing , t echno logy , a nd t ypo logy o f t h is s i te , i t s p os it ion i n t he p reh istor ic r ecord o f t he N i le V a l ley w i l l r ema in u nc lear . P rov is iona l ly , we t h ink t hat a t l east p art o f t he mater ia l f rom t h is s i te i s much o lder t han t he p er iod o f 1 7 ,800-16 ,950 B .P . s uggested b y Wendorf a nd S ch i ld ( 1976 :243 ) .
T rans it iona l Techno log ica l F eatures V an P eer a nd V ermeersch ( i n p ress ) h ave s uggested t hat a ssemb lages f rom s i tes s uch a s 1 018 a nd E 71P1 a re r ooted i n t he M idd le P a leo l ith ic C -group , a lt hough t here i s a marked s h ift i n b i-d irect iona l p reparat ion f rom L eva l lo iß t owards H a lfan c ores . D ista l p reparat ion b ecomes much more i mportant . I n e xtreme c ases , d ista l p reparat ion i nvo lves t he p roduct ion o f an umber o f b lade lets a t t he d i sta l e nd o f t he c ore , a fter wh ich a L eva l lo is f lake i s s truck o ff . S uch a c onvergence o f L eva l lo is t echn ique a nd t rue b lade let t echn ique i sc lear ly a ttested b y t he o ccurrence o f t he t wo t echn iques o n as ame c ore . I ndeed , o ne n otes t he p resence o f Ha ifa c ores o f wh ich t he " Ha lf a " s urface , a fter h av ing p roduced a Ha lfa f lake , s erved a s as tr ik ing p latform f or b lade let p roduct ion o n t he o ther f ace . On o ther c ores , t he r everse p attern i sp resent . There i s , h owever , n o g radua l a daptat ion o f Ha Ifs t echno logy t o b lade t echno logy . I t s ee ms t hat Ha ifa L eva l lo is t echno logy s imp ly p rov ided t he i dea o f r egu lar b lade let p roduct ion . S i tes s uch a s 1 018 a nd E 71P1 , wh ich a re t echnol og ica l ly r ooted i n t he M idd le P a leo l ith ic C -group , a re p otent ia l t rans it ion i ndustr ies . T here i s , h owever , a ma jor r estr ict ion u pon t he v a lue o f t h is mode l : a n e normous t ime g ap . E ven i f t hese s i tes e ventua l ly p rove t o b e o lder t han we h ave s uggested h ere , t he g ap r ema ins c ons iderab le . Consequent ly , i t i sc lear t hat t he mode l a s p roposed h as o n ly a v ery g enera l s ign if icance , a nd i ts hou ld b e b etter d ocu mented , b oth i n t erms o f s i tes a nd e spec ia l ly i n t erms o f a bso lute c hrono logy .
T he Ater ian The A ter ian h as v ery o ften b een c ons idered a s t rans it iona l b etween Mous ter ian a nd Upper P a leo l ith ic i ndustr ies . A ter ian p resence i n t he N i le V a l ley i s , a t most , v ery s canty . On ly o ne sma l l s urface c o l lect ion ( E-78-11 ) f rom Wad i Kubb an iya , n ear A swan , h as b een p ub l ished ( S ing leton a nd C lose 1 980 ) . U nfortun ate ly , t he s amp le o f t oo ls f rom t he s i te i sv ery sma l l . No d ates a re a va i lab le , b ut t he a uthors p resume t hat t he A ter ian may b e o lder t han t he p resent r ange o f t he r ad iocarbon d at ing t echn ique . Unt i l n ew e v idence i s g athered f rom t he A ter ian , i t s i mportance f or t he N i le V a l ley w i l l r ema in u nc lear .
THE EARLY UPPER PALEOL ITH IC Accord ing t o P au l issen a nd V ermeersch ( 1987 ) , ac l imat ic d eter iorat ion t owards h yperar id ity o ccurred d ur ing t he M idd le P a leo l ith ic , p robab ly more t han 6 0 ,000 y ears a go . I t must h ave h ad a t remendous i mpact o n a l l h umans l i v ing i n t he S ahara . I t p robab ly c aused t he em igrat ion o f t he v ar ious M idd le P a leo l ith ic g roups wh ich , a ccord ing t o Wendorf a nd S ch i ld ( 1980 ) , were p resent i n t he e astern S ahara . T he N i le V a l ley must h ave b een a r efuge a rea f or many o f t hem . Unfort unate ly , we h ave n o a rchaeo log ica l d ata f or t h is p er iod o r we a re u nab le t o r ecogn ize t hem .
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Hyperar id c ond it ions p reva i led d ur ing most o f t he p er iod c overed b y t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic , e xcept f or a p oss ib le s hort wetter i nterva l a t a bout 2 3 ,000-21 ,000 B .P . T he N i le was a s uspendedload r iver a nd was a ggrad ing s i lts o ver w ide f loodp la ins , e xcept d ur ing t he wetter i n terva l when t he N i le r eceded a nd c ut a sma l ler v a l ley . Know ledge o f t he e conom ic r esources i s s canty . I ndeed , t he p reserved b one s amp les a re v ery sma l l a nd a ffected b y d i fferent ia l p reservat ion ( Gaut ier 1 976 ) . However , t ak ing i n to a ccount t he h yperar id ity o f t he c l imate , f ood r esources were p robab ly c oncentrated i n t he N i le f loodp la in a nd a long a sma l l f r inge o n i t s b orders . Our i n format ion a bout t he p hys ica l t ype o f e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic man i n E gypt i s r estr icted . We may p o int t o t he p resence a t Naz let Khater , B ou lder H i l l , o f t wo b ur ia ls wh ich were a ssoc iated w ith a f l int m ine d at ing t o a bout 3 3 ,000 B .P . One o f t he s ke letons was i n af a ir s tate o f p reservat ion ( Vermeersch e t a l . 1 984b ) a nd was s tud ied b y T homa ( 1984 ) . T he o ther s ke leton was r epresented o n ly b y s ome p ostcran ia l b ones . A t Wad i K ubban iya ( Wendorf e t a l . 1 986 ) ab ur ia l w as a ssoc iated w ith s ome e ar ly L ate P a leo l ith ic f l int mater ia l . The Kubban iya s ke le ton may b e d ated a s o lder t han 2 0 ,000 B .P . The Naz let Khater a nd t he Kubban iya s ke letons were b ur ied i n l ong r ect angu lar p its . T he b od ies were p laced i n e xtended p os it ion w ith a rms t o t he s i de . T he Naz let Khater man e xh ib its s ome p r im it ive c haracters b ut , a s a who le , t he p hys ica l a ttr ibutes s uggest t hat t he s ke letons o f Naz let Khater a nd Wad i K ubb an iya c an b e c lass if ied a s Mechto id .
Naz let Khater-4 ( NI C4 ) The o ldest Upper P a leo l ith ic s i te i st hat o f NK4 , wh ich h as b een d ated t o a bout 3 3 ,000 B .P . b y n ine r ad iocarbon d ates o n c harcoa l ( Vermeersch e t a l . 1 982 , 1 984a , 1 984e ) . T he p os it ion o f t he s i te , more t han 1 0 m a bove t he modern f loodp la in , p laces i t b eyond t he r each o f a l l N i le i n f luence b oth d ur ing a nd a fter i t s o ccupat ion . T he s i te i s at yp ica l c hert e xp lo ita t ion s i te , r ef lect ing t he u se o f s imp le m in ing t echn iques ( t renches , t unne ls , b e l l p its , a nd g a l ler ies ) t o r each a b ur ied g rave l d epos it o f t he N i le , s i tuated a t a bout 2 m b eneath t he s urface . E xp lo itat ion was a ch ieved ma in ly b y u ndercutt ing t he l owerly ing g reen s i lts a nd e xtract ing t he c hert c obb les . T oo ls u sed f or t hese a ct iv it ies were p icks o f g aze l le o r h artebeest h orn a nd h eavy h am merstones . Deb itage t echn iques ( F igure 3 ) a re f u l ly U pper P a leo l ith ic . N o L eva l lo is o r Ha lfan t echno logy i s p resent . T he b est r epresented c ore t ype i s t he s ing le p latform c ore w ithout a ny t race o f p reform s hap ing . T h is l atter o bservat ion , h owever , may b e m is lead ing . I ndeed , most o f t he c ores s eem t o b e m isf it r ather t han t rue f unct iona l c ores . V ery o ften t he ir r educ t ion was i n terrupted b ecause o f s ome d efect i n t he r aw mater ia l . N orma l ly , t he r educt ion s trategy a i med a t c reat ing a s tr ik ing p latform b y r e mov ing t he t op o f t he c obb le . A s most o f t he c obb les h ave a n ear ly r ounded s ect ion , b lades c ou ld b e o bta ined w ithout p re l im in ary c rest p reparat ion . S omet i mes a l atera l c rest o r ac rest o n t he r everse s ide o f t he c ore was p repared . I t s f unct ion was t o s hape t he c ore s ect ion , ma in ly i n i t s d ista l p art , o nce a n i n it ia l s er ies o f b lades h ad b een o bta ined , a nd t he s tr ik ing s u r face b ecame t oo f lat f or f urther b lade r emova l . Opposed p latform c ores e x ist , b ut t hey d o n ot b e long t o t he n orma l b lade p roduct ion s trategy . S ince t he c obb les f rom wh ich t he b lades w ere s truck were n ot l arge , t he l ength r ange o f t he b lades i s l im ited . T he l ength t o w idth r at io , h owever , o ften
8
F igure 3 . C ores a nd d eb itage f rom Naz let Khater-4 9
e xceeds 3 :1 . T he b lade b utt i sg enera l ly f la t , s omet imes p unct ifor m , b ut r are ly d ihedra l . T he b u lbs a re weak . Most o f t he b lades d o n ot h ave p ara l le l s ides . T oo ls ( F igure 4 ) a re r are a nd a re made f rom f lakes o r b lades b y f lat r etouch ing , s omet imes b ifac ia l , o r b y o b l ique r etouch ing . Den t icu lates a re t he b est r epresented t oo ls , a lthough s ome b ur ins a nd e nd-scrapers a re p resent . One c arefu l ly f laked t h in b ifac ia l f o l iate h as b een f ound . S ome b ifac ia l a xes ( F igure 5 ) h ave b een c o l lected ; t hese a re g enera l ly f lat , made f rom f lakes o r b lanks , w ith c oncave s ides a nd a c onvex e dge .
S huw ikhat-1 Next i n a ge t o NK4 i st he s i te o f S huw ikhat-1 ( Pau l issen e t a / . 1 985 ) , s ome 1 2 km west o f Qena . The S huw ikhat-1 s i te i s s i tuated o n ag en t le s lope e roded i n to t he S huw ikhat s i lts , wh ich were d epos ited b y t he N i le d ur ing a h yperar id c l i mate . I t i s l ocated o n t he o uter e dge o f ah uge f an d epos ited b y o ne o f t he ma jor wad is d ra in ing t he Gebe l Ras E l B isr i n t he E astern Deser t . The s l ope o n wh ich t he s i te i s s i tuated i sn ot c overed b y f an d epos its , a nd h as b een d issected b y s evera l wad i b eds . T he a rchaeo log ica l mater ia l i sc onta ined i n t he S huw ikhat s i lts . A b ur ied s o i l i s p resent w ith in t hese s i lts a nd o ver l ies t he o ccupat ion . T he S huw ikhat s i lts a re c apped b y t he b lack S he ikh Housse in s i lts , d ated t o 1 3 ,000-12 ,000 B .P . ( Vermeersch a t a t . , i n p ress ) a nd l a id d own b y t he "W i ld N i le" ( Butzer a nd Hansen 1 968 ) . E nv ironmenta l s tud ies i nd icate t hat d ur ing i t s o ccupat ion t he s i te was s i tuated i n t he N i le f loodp la in . T he s i te h as b een d ated b y TL o n b urned c lay c lear ly a ssoc iated w ith t he o ccupat ion t o 2 4 ,700±2500 B .P . ( 0xTL .253 ) . F auna l r ema ins ( aurochs , h artebeest , g aze l le , a nd c atf ish ) were a bundant , b ut o n ly a f ew were i dent if iab le d ue t o t he h igh d egree o f p ostdepos it iona l f ragmentat ion . T he s i te c an b est b e c ons idered a s a n e phemera l e xp lo itat ion s i te f or f i sh a nd g ame . T he r aw mater ia l c ons ists o f sma l l g ray t o b rown-gray c hert c obb les o f g ood k napp ing q ua l ity , wh ich a ppear t o b e p resent i n t he wad i g rave ls n earby . T he n orma l f lak ing p rocess a t t he s i te o f S huw ikhat-1 ( F igure 6 ) i nvo lves o pposed p latform c ores , wh ich r epresent 8 1% o f a l l c ores . S ing le p latform c ores a re t he e xcept ion , a nd t he ir s hape i s v ery i r regu lar , s o t hat t hey most l i ke ly r epresent a borted t r ia ls i n t he f lak ing p rocess r esu lt ing i n t he r e ject ion o f t he n odu le b ecause o f i t s i nfer ior q ua l ity . I nsofar a s we c an u nderstand t he f lak ing t echn iques , t here a re n o i nd icat i ons t hat b lades were p roduced a fter s hap ing a n ose o n t he f lak ing s ide o f t he c ore . I n L ate P a leo l ith ic b lade i ndustr ies , s uch a n ose i so bta ined b y t he c reat ion o f a u n i latera l o r ab i latera l r idge ( crest ) , wh ich d irects t he f i rst b lade t o b e s truck . Th is L ate P a leo l ith ic t echn ique d oes n ot s eem t o b e n ecessary , a s most o f t he n odu les o r t he c obb les h ave a c onvex s ect ion , e nab l ing b lade p roduct ion d irect ly f rom a n ew ly o bta ined p latform a fter r emova l o f t he t op o f t he c obb le . I t s eems t hat a l atera l o r a c entra l r idge o n t he r everse s ide o f t he c ore was i n tended t o c ontro l t he w idth o f t he c ore , e spec ia l ly i t s d ista l p art , i n o rder t o p revent i t f rom b ecom ing t oo l arge f or e asy b lade p roduct ion . Moreover , al a tera l r idge o n t he r everse s ide o f t he c ore , a fter r e mova l o f t he c rest , r enders t he f lak ing s urface more c onvex . S uch a p rocedure may e ventua l ly b e n ecessary b ecause , a fter r emova l o f as er ies o f b lades , t he f lak ing s urface o f t he c ore c an b ecome t oo f lat f or f urther d eb itage . I n t h is c ase , t he c rest i s n ot t he s tart ing p o int o f b lade p roduct ion , b ut i so bta ined d ur ing t he r educt ion p rocess .
1 0
F igure 4 . T oo ls f rom Naz let Khater-4 1 1
0 i
I
t
I
I
5 cm t
F igure 5 . B ifac ia l a xes f rom Naz let K hater-4
1 2
F igure 6 . Cores a nd d eb itage f rom S huw ikhat-1 1 3
The p roduct ion o f r obust b lades i s o ne o f t he c haracter ist ics o f t he a ssemb lage . T hese b lades g enera l ly h ave a f aceted o r f lat b utt w ith a p rom inent b u lb . T he p resence o f s ome e n c hapeau d e g endarme b utts s uggests c arefu l e dge p reparat ion o f t he c ore . Whether t h is r epresents a h ard h am mer t echn ique o r o ne o f i nd irect p ercuss ion i sd iff icu lt t o a scerta in . No L eva l lo is o r H a lfan t echno logy h as b een d etected o n t he s i te . Near ly a l l t oo ls ( F igure 7 ) a re made o n b lades . The most c o m mon t oo l t ype i s t he u n i latera l ly d ent icu lated b lade ( 17% ) , b ut b i latera l o nes ( 9% ) a re a lso n umerous . T he b i latera l ly d ent icu lated b lades were o ften made o n p o inted b lanks . B ur ins r epresent a bout 1 3% o f t he t oo ls a nd w ere n orma l ly made o n t h ick b lades . The ir p roduct ion t echn ique v ar ies f rom b ur ins o n b reaks , t o b ur ins o n t runcat ions , t o d ihedra l b ur ins . Mu lt ip le b ur ins a re n umerous . E nd-scrapers o n a b lade a re a s n umerous a s b ur ins . Comb inat ion t oo ls d o o ccur . B lunt ing o f t he p rox ima l e nd o f ab lade i s r ather f requent ( 10% ) . B acked b lades , c h ief ly f ragments , r epresent 5% o f t he t oo ls . B orers a nd t runcated p ieces a re r are . B acked b lade lets , Ouchtata b lade lets , a nd b ifac ia l p ieces a re a bsent .
S ite E 71K9 Th is s i te , s ome 1 0 km n orth o f I sna , i ss i tuated o n af lat e longated d une k no l l ( Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 976 :83 , 2 44 ) . T here was a r ich c u ltura l h or izon t hroughout a s and l ayer , f rom 1 0 cm t o 4 0 cm t h ick , r est ing o n ad ense b rown s i lt . Accord ing t o Wendorf a nd S ch i ld ( 1975 ) , a TL d ate o n b urned c lay f rom a h earth h as b een o bta ined : 2 1 ,590±1520 B .P . ( 0xTL 1 61 .C .1 ) . I n al a ter p ub l icat ion , Wendorf a nd S ch i ld ( 1976 ) a ss igned t h is s i te t o t he n on-Leva l lo is I dfuan , wh ich a ccord ing t o t hese a uthors , may b e d ated t o a pprox imate ly 1 7 ,500 B .P . I nformat ion o n t he a rchaeo log ica l mater ia l c o l lected f rom t h is s i te i ss t i l l s canty , b ut i ts eems t hat d eb itage t echn iques a nd t oo l t ypo logy ( F igure 8 ) a re v ery s im i lar t o t hat o f S huw ikhat-1 . L eva l lo is t echn ique i s a bsent ; t he o pposed p latf orm c ore i s t he most f requent t ype . B ur ins , n otches , d ent icu la tes , a nd e nds crapers a re t he most i mportant t oo l c ategor ies . B asa l b lunt ing i s a lso we l l r epresented , whereas b acked e lements a re r are a nd Ouchtata i sl ack ing . Accord ing t o Wendorf a nd S ch i ld ( 1976 :244 ) , t he s i tes o f E 71P2 , E 71P6 , a nd E 71P7 , a l l l ocated n ear t he s i te o f E 71P1 , s hare a c om mon t echno log ica l a nd t ypo log ica l b ase w ith t he s i te o f E 71K9 . H owever , f requenc ies o f Ouch tatar etouched p ieces may d iffer 'f rom s i te t o s i te .
S ite E 6104 : Ma l chadma 1 Wendorf a nd S ch i ld ( 1976 :113 , 2 30 ) d iscovered t he s i te E 6104 i n s lopewash d epos its n ear t he v i l lage o f Makhadma , o n t he e ast b ank a bout 1 0 km d ownstrea m f rom Qena . A s o ther s i tes h ave b een e xcavated o n t h is s pot , we r ena med t he s i te Makhadma-1 ( Vermeersch e t a l . , i n p ress ) . Wendorf a nd S ch i ld s uggested a n a ge o f a round 2 7 ,000 B .P . f or t he s lopewash u n it . However , a s t he s lopewash d epos it i s r est ing o n t he S huw ikhat s i lts a nd i s c overed b y t he S he ikh H ousse in s i lts ( Vermeersch e t a l . , i n p ress ) , t he a ge o f t he s i te s hou ld b e b etween 2 4 ,000 a nd 1 3 ,000 B .P . Accord ing t o Wendorf a nd S ch i ld , t he a ssemb lage s hou ld b e c ons idered , b oth t echno log ica l ly a nd t ypo log ica l ly , e ar ly L ate P a leo l ith ic . Notches a nd d ent icu lates r epresent 5 4% , a nd r etouched f lakes 3 7% o f t he a ssemb lage . O ther t oo l c ategor ies i nc lude r etouched b lade lets ( 5% ) , t runcat ions a nd e nd-scrapers ( 1% ) , a nd s ome r are t ransverse s crapers a nd s ide-scrapers .
1 4
F igure 7 . T oo ls f rom S huw ikhat-1 1 5
F igure 8 . B lades a nd t oo ls f rom s i te E 71K9C ( a fter Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 976 :251-254 ) .
1 6
The S eb i l ian T h is r ev iew o f t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic wou ld b e i ncomp lete w ithout r eference t o t he S eb i l ian . T he S eb i l ian , a s d ef ined b y V ignard ( 1923 ) a t Kom Ombo , was d iv ided i n to t hree c hrono log ica l p hases ( Seb i l ian I I I I ) . Unfortunate ly , n one o f V ignard 's s i tes h as b een we l l d ated . He h e ld ( 1923 :72 ) t hat t he E gypt ian Mouster ian was t he i n it ia l t erm f or h i s S eb i l ian I . Accord ing t o Caton-Thompson ( 1946 ) , S eb i l ian I a nd I a re t he a pprox imate c ontemporar ies o f t he e ar l ier W i irm ian i ndustr ies o f E urope - t he Cave Mouster ian a nd Chate lperron ian . Accord ing t o Marks ( 1968d ) , t he S udanese S eb i l ian s i tes , w ith a ssemb lages t hat most c lose ly r esemb le t he S eb i l ian I o f V ignard , o ccur i n s trat igraph ic p os it ions wh ich p rec lude t he p oss ib i l ity o f a n e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic a ge , a nd s hou ld b e d ated t o a round 1 5 ,000-12 ,000 B .P . However , Marks was w r it ing a t at ime when i t was g enera l ly a greed t hat a l l y ounger s i lt d epos its were c onte mporaneous w ith L ate P a leo l ith ic s i tes . S o me a ssemb lages h ave b een c o l lected o n t he s urface o f t he D ishna P la in b y t he Co mb ined P reh istor ic E xped it ion . Unfortunate ly n one o f t hese s i tes c ou ld b e d ated . Accord ing t o Hassan ( 1972 , 1 974 ) , t he a sse mb lages c an b e c ompared w ith t he S eb i l ian Imater ia l o f V ignard . An i nspect ion o f s ome S udanese S eb i l ian a ssemb lages h as c onv inced o ne o f u s ( PMV ) t hat t he d eb itage t echn iques , wh ich h ave o ften b een d escr ibed a s L eva ll o is , a re i n f act n ot . T he c ores d o n ot h ave t he t yp ica l t orto ise-back s hape o f t rue L eva l lo is c ores [ e .g . , s ee V ignard ( 1923 :f igs . 1 a nd 6 ) ] . I n c ontrast t o t rue L eva l lo is , t he S eb i l ian e xh ib its a d eb itage t echn ique w ith c ont inuous c entr ipeta l f lak ing o n d isco ida l c ores . S ome o f t he f lakes o bta ined r esemb le L eva l lo is f lakes . However , t he t echn ique o f t he ir r emova l i s n ot t rue L eva l lo is . T oo l t ypo logy i s d om inated b y t runcated p ieces . S ome d ent icu lates a nd n otched p ieces o ccur . T echno log ica l ly a s we l l a s t ypo log ica l ly , t he S eb i l ian may b e c ons idered a s ap henomenon u n ique t o t he E gypt ian N i le V a l ley . I ndeed , i th as l i tt le i n c om mon w ith o ther i ndustr ies i n t he N i le V a l ley ( Sm ith 1 967 ; Marks 1 968d ; Connor a nd Marks 1 986 ) . R econs ider ing t he p ub l ished f ie ld e v idence f ro m t he s i tes i n t he S udan ( Marks 1 968d ) , i n E gypt ian Nub ia ( Wendorf 1 968 :807 ) , a nd o n t he D ishna P la in ( Hassan 1 972 , 1 974 ) i n t he l i ght o f t he p resent d iff icu lt ies i n a ssess ing t he a ge o f t he N i le s i lt d epos its , we h ave s er ious d oubts a bout t he ir p urported a ge o f 1 5 ,0001 2 ,000 B .P . ( Connor a nd Marks 1 986 ) . B efore t he S eb i l ian c an b e i n tegrated i n to a n e vo lut ionary s cheme f or u nderstand ing N i lot ic p reh istory , n ew d ata a re n eeded .
The L ate Pa leo l ith ic A t 2 1 ,000 B .P . an ew e ra b eg ins i n t he E gypt ian N i le V a l ley w ith n umerous a ssemb lages o f g reat t ypo log ica l v ar iab i l ity . T he s equence s tarts w ith t he E ar ly Kubban iyan ( Wendorf e t a l . 1 986 ) , wh ich i s c haracter ized b y a s imp le l i th ie t echno logy . S ing le p latform c ores a re t he most f requent , b ut o pposed p latform , n inety-degree , a nd mu lt ip le p latform c ores a re a lso p resent . T oo l t ypo logy r ef lects t he i mportance o f b acked p ieces ( 26% ) , h igh f requenc ies o f n otches a nd d ent icu lates , a nd t he c ons istent p resence o f p erforators . B etween 1 8 ,600-17 ,000 B .P . , t he K ubban iyan ( Wendorf e t a l . 1 980 ) h as a t echno logy b ased o n s ing le a nd o pposed p latform b lade let c ores , w ith r are mu lt ip le p latform c ores a nd o ccas iona l L eva l lo is a nd Ha lfan c ores . A t most s i tes , t he t oo l s tructure i s d om inated b y p art ia l ly b acked b lade lets ( 60-90 % ) , a l most e xc lus ive ly w ith Ouehtata r etouch . S ca led p ieces a re u sua l ly r are o r a bsent . O ther t oo ls
1 7
i nc lude e legant d ent icu lates .
b ur ins ,
e nd-scrapers
( rare ) ,
r etouched
p ieces ,
n otches ,
a nd
T he l ater s equence , f rom 1 7 ,000 B .P . o n , w ith S i ls i l ian a nd A f ian i s s t i l l c haracter ized b y l ame l lar d eb itage f rom o pposed p latform c ores . L eva l lo is t echn ique i s a bsent . B acked b lade lets a nd t runcated b lade lets a re t he p r inc ipa l t oo l c ategor ies ; m icro l iths a nd m ierobur in t echn ique a ppear .
D ISCUSS ION The I n it ia l E ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic ( 35 ,000-30 ,000 B .P . ) F rom t he i n it ia l e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic o n ly o ne s i te i s k nown : N az let Khater-4 ( NK4 ) . I t i sd ated t o a round 3 3 ,000 B .P . , b ut t he d ura t ion o f i t s i ndustry i s u nknown . The e ar ly NK4 b lade i ndustry s eems t o b e i so lated f rom t he l oca l M idd le P a leo l ith ic a ntecedents , t he e ventua l t rans it iona l i ndustr ies , a nd t he ir s uccessors , a nd a lso f rom t he L ate P a leo l ith ic . I n E gypt ian Nub ia a nd t he S udan , a s we l l a s i n t he L ibyan a nd t he A rab ian d eserts , a ssemb lages o f t h is a ge a re a bsent . T he o n ly k nown i ndustr ies o f t h is t ime s pan i n North A fr ica a nd t he L evant a re t hose o f Cy rena ica a nd t he S ina i . T he a ssemb lages o f t he L agaman i n t he S ina i ( Bar-Yosef a nd P h i l l ips 1 977 ) a nd t hose o f B oker T aeht it i n t he Negev ( Marks 1 976 , 1 977 , 1 983 ) a re d i fferent f rom t hat o f NK4 . T he p resence o f t he b ifac ia l t echn ique , a ttested b y t he a xes a nd a f o l iate a t NK4 , c ou ld p oss ib ly r ef lect t he i n f luence o f t he A ter ian o r t he L upemban . However , s upport f or s uch a h ypothes is i sv ery weak . T he E ar ly Dabban o f t he Haua F teah ( McBurney 1 967 :167 ) h as a h igh p roport ion o f b acked b lades ( 50 % ) , a nd f ewer c hamfered b lades , b ur ins , a nd e nds crapers . S uch a t ypo log ica l c ompos it ion i s f a ir ly d ifferent f rom t hat o f NK4 , a l though t he Dabban i s a lso a b lade-or iented i ndustry . Th is c ou ld p robab ly b e e xp la ined b y t he v ery d ifferent f unct ion o f t he s i tes ( perhaps a lso b y t he d ef ic ient s tate o f t he p ub l icat ion o f t he l i th ic mater ia l f rom t he Haua F teah ) . I t i s i mportant t o n ote t hat i n t he Dabban , a s we l l a s i n NK4 , L eva l lo is t echn ique i s a bsent . F laked a dzes a nd b ifac ia l p ro ject i les , r ough ly s im i lar t o t hose o f NK4 , h ave b een r ecorded i n L ayers XX IV/XXV o f t he Haua F teah . E ven i f o n ly a f ew s uch i t ems h ave b een c o l lected , t he ir p resence i sp robab ly n ot f ortu itous . We wou ld p refer , f or t he t ime b e ing , t o s tress t hat b lade t echno logy i s c lear ly p resent i n t he L evant a nd i n Northern A fr ica f rom 4 5 ,000 y ears o n - t h is i s al i tt le b i t e ar l ier t han i n E gypt - a nd t hat NK4 c an b e c ons idered a s as i te where b lade t echno logy was i n troduced f rom t he n orth .
T he S huw ikhat I ndustry ( 25 ,000-22 ,000 B .P . ) T he s i tes o f S huw ikhat-1 , E 71K9 , a nd s ome o thers f rom t he I dfu r eg ion h ave p roduced v ery s im i lar a ssemb lages . T hey p robab ly b e long t o t he s ame i ndustry , wh ich we wou ld p rov is iona l ly c a l l t he S huw ikhat i ndustry . T h is i ndustry d ates t o a pprox i mate ly 2 5 ,000-22 ,000 B .P . F urther r esearch i s n eeded f or a scert a in ing i t s d urat ion . T he r e lat ion b etween t he S huw ikhat i ndustry a nd t he I dfuan a sse mb lage o f E 71P1 r ema ins t o b e s tud ied . T o u s , i t s eems t hat t he mater ia l o f S ector A a t
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E 71P1 , where n o Ouch tata h as b een r ecorded , h as a t oo l i nventory wh ich i ss im i lar t o t hat o f t he S huw ikhat i ndustry . As t o t he mater ia l o f S ector C o f E 71P1 , we h ave d iff icu lty i n a ccept ing t he c onte mporane ity b etween t he n umerous Ouchtata b lade lets a nd t he L eva l lo is t echn ique , whereas i n t he Ha lfan t h is i sn ot s o . T he ma in d ifference , h owever , i s t hat E 71P1 h as L eva l lo is t echno logy , wh ich i s l ack ing i n t he S huw ikhat i ndustry . We w ou ld t herefore s uggest t hat t he a ssemb lage o f S ector C o f s i te E 71P1 i so lder t han t he S huw ikhat i ndustry a nd c ou ld p oss ib ly , a s h as b een a rgued , b e c ons idered a s at rans it iona l p hase b etween t he M idd le a nd t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic . N ew f ie ld r esearch s hou ld p rov ide a s o lut ion . F ew a ssemb lages o f North A fr ica a nd t he L evant a re s im i lar t o t he S huw ikhat i ndustry . We may s tress h ere t hat t he t oo ls o f t h is l atter i ndustry a re a lmost e xc lus ive ly made o n l am inar b lanks . R etouched b lade lets , s uch a s Oucht ata b lade lets , a re c onsp icuous ly a bsent . The t oo l t ypo logy o f t he S huw ikhat i ndustry i s d ifferent f rom t hat o f t he L agaman ( Bar-Yosef a nd P h i l l ips 1 977 ) i n t he S ina i , w ith i t s s trong b lade let c omponent a nd E l-Wad p o ints . T he t oo l t ypo logy o f s ome o f t he N egev a ssemb lages ( Marks a nd F err ing 1 976 ) , l i ke t hat o f A rkov ( D22 ) , s hows s ome s im i lari t ies . The t yp ica l d ent icu lates o f t he S huw ikhat i ndustry , h owever , a re l ack ing , a nd i n t he N egev , c ores g enera l ly h ave a s ing le p latform . T ak ing i n to c ons idera t ion t he i mportant d ifferences i n b lade t echno logy b etween t he S huw ikhat-1 a nd t he NK4 a ssemb lages , we p resume t hat t here i sn o g enet ic l i nk b etween t hem . Hypothet ica l ly , we c ons ider t he S huw ikhat i ndustry t o b e t he r esu lt o f a l oca l e vo lut ion i n t he E gypt ian N i le V a l ley .
The L ate Pa leo l ith ic The o r ig in o f t he L ate P a leo l ith ic i ndustr ies o f t he E gypt ian N i le V a l ley i s s t i l l a matter o f d i scuss ion . T he l oca l e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic i ndustr ies a re p robab ly u nre lated t o t hese n ew i ndustr ies . W ith t he a rr iva l o f t he L ate P a leo l ith ic i ndustr ies , m icro l ith ic t oo ls b ecame p redom inant , at rend wh ich c an b e f o l lowed i n o ther r eg ions o f t he O ld Wor ld . After i t s a bsence d ur ing t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic , t he L eva l lo is t echn ique i s o ccas iona l ly a ttested i n t he L ate P a leo l ith ic i ndustry o f t he K ubban iyan . E ven i f t he i mpact o f t h is t echn ique was v ery modest , t he q uest ion a r ises a s t o h ow t h is r eappearance s hou ld b e i n terpreted . One h ypothes is wou ld b e t hat K ubb an iyan g roups r e inven ted t he L eva l lo is t echn ique f or s ome s pec ia l p urpose ; s uch a r e invent ion h ypothes is i s a dm itted ly n ot f ash ionab le i n a rchaeo log ica l mode ls . A lternat ive ly , t he r eappearance c ou ld b e v iewed a s i n trus ive . S ince t here i s n o L eva l lo is t echno logy k nown i n t he L ate P a leo l ith ic o f r eg ions t o t he n orth , e ast , a nd w est o f t he N i le V a l ley , t he s outh wou ld s eem t o b e t he o n ly p oss ib le s ource . I n f act , t he L eva l lo is t echn ique a ppears t o h ave c ont inued we l l i n to t he L ate P a leo l ith ic i n p arts o f E ast A fr ica [ e .g . , a t K a lambo F a l ls ( C lark 1 974 ) ] . T h is h ypothes is wou ld i mp ly t hat s uch s outhern g roups h ad s ome i n f luence o n t he L ate P a leo l ith ic o f t he N i le V a l ley a fter 1 8 ,000 B .P .
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CONCLUS IONS F rom o ur r ev iew i t a ppears t hat t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic i n t he E gypt ian N i le V a l ley i s c erta in ly a d ist inct e nt ity i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . However , we a re f u l ly aware o f t he f act t hat t h is r ecord i ss t i l l v ery i ncomp lete a nd p resents many g aps . Geograph ica l i s o lat ion may h ave r esu lted i n l oca l d eve lopments s uch a s a t rans it ion f rom M idd le P a leo l ith ic C -groups i n to t rans it iona l i ndustr ies e xh ib it ing Ha lfa-Leva l lo is t echno logy , wh ich i n t urn e vo lved i n to t he S huw ikhat i ndustry . Geograph ica l i s o lat ion , h owever , was n ot a bso lute d ur ing t he e nt ire t ime s pan , a s i n f luences f r om t he n orth p robab ly a ccount f or t he i n troduct ion o f b lade t echn o logy a nd s ome b ifac ia l t oo l t ypes d ur ing t he i n it ia l s tage o f t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic . T hese i nf luences w ere e phemera l a s v ery f ew , i f a ny , L agaman a nd Ahmar ian t oo l t ypes were i n troduced i n to t he N i le V al ley . Dur ing t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic , s outhern i nf luences a re a bsent ; t hey may o n ly s how u p w ith t he r e introduct ion o f L eva l lo is t echno logy d ur ing t he K ubban iyan , t he s econd s tage o f t he L ate P a leo l ith ic .
Acknow ledgments . We wou ld l i ke t o t hank D r . F . Wendorf , D r . A .E . Marks , a nd D r . A . C lose , Department o f Anthropo logy a t S outhern Method ist U n iv ers ity , Da l las , f or t he ir k ind p erm iss ion t o s tudy s ome o f t he ir c o l lect ions . We owe t hem a nd t he ir s taff o ur g rat itude f or t he h e lp r ece ived d ur ing o ur v i s its . D iscuss ions o n t he s ub ject w ere g reat ly a pprec iated . We a lso t hank D r . E . P au l issen f or h is c om ments o n ad raft o f t h is p aper .
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Gu ichard , J . , a nd G . Gu ichard 1 965 The E ar ly a nd M idd le P a laeo l ith ic o f Nub ia : A p re l im inary r eport . I n F . Wendorf ( ed itor ) Contr ibut ions t o t he P reh isto ry o f Nub ia , p p . 5 7-166 . Da l las : F ort B urgw in R esearch C enter a nd S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress . Hassan , F .A . 1 972 Note o n S eb i l ian s i tes f rom D ishna P la in . Chron ique d iEgypte 4 7 :111 6 . 1 974 The a rchaeo logy o f t he D ishna P la in , E gypt : A s tudy o f a L ate P a laeo l ith ic s ett lement . T he Geo log ica l S urvey o f E gypt P aper 5 9 . Marks , A .E . 1 968a The Ha lfan I ndustry . I n F . Wendorf ( ed itor ) T he P reh istory o f Nub ia , p p . 3 92-460 . Da l las : F ort B urgw in Research Center a nd S outhern Method i st Un ivers ity P ress . 1 968b The Mouster ian i ndustr ies o f Nub ia . I n F . Wendorf ( ed itor ) T he P reh istory o f Nub ia , p p . 1 94-314 . Da l las : F ort B urgw in R esearch Center a nd S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress . 1 968e T he Khormusan : An Upper P le istocene i ndustry i n S udanese Nub ia . I n F . Wendorf ( ed itor ) T he P reh istory o f N ub ia , p p . 3 15-391 . Da l las : F ort B urgw in R esearch Center a nd S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress . 1 968d The S eb i l ian I ndustry o f t he S econd Cataract . I n F . Wendorf ( ed itor ) T he P reh istory o f Nub ia , p p . 4 61-531 . Da l las : F ort B urgw in R esearch Center a nd S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress . 1 981 The Upper P a leo l ith ic o f t he Negev . I n J . Cauv in a nd P . S an lav i l le ( ed itors ) P räh isto ire d u L evant , p p . 3 45-352 . P ar is : CNRS . Marks , A .E . ( ed itor ) 1 976 P reh istory a nd P a leoenv ironments i n t he Centra l Negev , I s rae l , v o l . 1 . Da l las : S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress . 1 977 P reh isto ry a nd P a leoenv ironments i n t he Centra l Negev , I s rae l , v o l . 2 . Da l las : S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress . 1 983 P reh istory a nd P a leoenv ironments i n t he Centra l N egev , I s rae l , v o l . 3 . Da l las : S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress . Marks , A .E . , a nd C .R . F err ing 1 976 Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes n ear E in Avdat . I n A .E . Marks ( ed itor ) P reh istory a nd P a leoenv ironments i n t he C entra l Negev , I s rae l , v o l . 1 , p p . 1 41-198 . Da l las : S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress . McBurney , C .B .M . 1 967 T he Haua F teah ( Cyrena ica ) . Cambr idge : Cambr idge Un ivers ity P ress . P au l issen , E . , P .M . V ermeersch , a nd W . V an Neer 1 985 P rogress r eport o n t he L ate P a leo l ith ic S huw ikhat s i tes ( Qena , Upper E gypt ) . Nyame Akuma 2 6 :7-14 . P au l issen , E . , a nd P .M . V ermeersch 1 987 E arth , man a nd c l imate i n t he E gypt ian N i le V a l ley d ur ing t he P le ist ocene . I n A .E . C lose ( ed itor ) P reh istory o f Ar id North Afr ica : E ssays i n Honor o f F red Wendorf , p p . 2 9-67 . Da l las : S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress . S a id , R . 1 981 T he Geo log ica l E vo lut ion o f t he R iver N i le . N ew York : S pr inger . S ing leton , W .L . , a nd A .E . C lose 1 980 R eport o n S i te E -78-11 . I n A .E . C lose ( ed itor ) L oaves a nd F ishes : T he P reh istory o f Wad i Kubban iya , p p . 2 29-237 . Da l las : S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress . Sm ith , P .E .L . 1 967 New i nvest igat ions i n t he L ate P le istocene a rchaeo logy o f t he Korn Ombo P la in ( Upper E gypt ) . Quaternar ia 9 :141-152 .
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T homa , A . 1 984 Morpho logy a nd a ff in it ies o f t he Naz let Khater man . J ourna l Human E vo lut ion 1 3 :287-296 . V an P eer , P . , a nd P .M . V ermeersch i . p . M idd le t o Upper P a laeo l ith ic t rans it ion : T he e v idence f or t he N i le V a l ley . I n P . Me l lars a nd C . S tr inger ( ed itors ) T he Human Revo lut ion : B ehav ioura l a nd B io log ica l P erspect ives o n t he O r ig ins o f Modern Humans . E d inburgh : Un ivers ity o f E d inburgh P ress . V ermeersch , P .M . , M . O tte , E . G i bt , E . P au l issen , G . G i jse l ings , a nd D . D rapp ier 1 982 B lade t echno logy i n t he E gypt ian N i le V a l ley : S ome n ew e v idence . S c ience 2 16 :626-628 . V ermeersch , P .M . , E . P au l issen , G . G i jse l ings , M . O tte , A . Thoma , P . V an P eer , a nd R . L auwers 1 984a 3 3 ,000 y r o ld m in ing s i te a nd r e lated Homo i n t he E gypt ian N i le V a l ley . Nature 3 09 :342-344 . V ermeersch , P .M . , G . G i jse l ings , a nd E . P au l issen 1 984b D iscovery o f t he Naz let Khater man , Upper E gypt . J ourna l o f Human E vo lu t ion 1 3 :281-286 . V ermeersch , P .M . , E . P au l issen , G . G i jse l ings , M . O tte , A . T ho ma , a nd C . Char l ier 1 984c Une m in iäre d e s i lex e t u n s que lette d u P a leo l ith ique S up8r ieur a nc ien ä Naz let Khater , Haute E gypte . L 'Anthropo log ie 8 8 :231-244 . V ermeersch , P .M . , E . P au l issen , a nd W . V an Neer i . p . T he L ate P a laeo l ith ic Makhadma s i tes ( Egypt ) , t he ir e nv ironment a nd s ubs istence . I n L . K rzyzan iak ( ed itor ) L ate P reh istory o f t he N i le B as in a nd t he S ahara . P oznan : P o l ish Acade my o f S c iences . V ignard , E . 1 923 Une n ouve l le i ndustr ie l i th ique , l e S eb i l ien . Bu l let in d e l ' Inst itut F ranca is d 'Archäo log ie O r ienta le 2 2 :1-76 . Wendorf , F . ( ed itor ) 1 968 T he P reh istory o f Nub ia . Da l las : F ort B urgw in Research Center a nd S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress ( 2 v o ls . w ith a t las ) . Wendorf , F . , a nd R . S ch i ld 1 975 T he P a leo l ith ic o f t he L ower N i le V a l ley . I n F . Wendorf a nd A .E . Marks ( ed itors ) P rob lems i n P reh isto ry : N orth Afr ica a nd t he L evant , p p . 1 27-169 . Da l las : S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress . 1 976 P reh istory o f t he N i le V a l ley . N ew Y ork : Acade m ic P ress . 1 980 P reh istory o f t he E astern S ahara . N ew York : Academ ic P ress . Wendorf , F . , R . S ch i ld ( comp i lers ) , a nd A .E . C lose ( ed itor ) 1 980 L oaves a nd F ishes : T he P reh istory o f Wad i Kubban iya . D a l las : S outhern Method ist ' Un ivers ity P ress . 1 986 T he P reh istory Wad i Kubban iya , V o lume 1 : T he Wad i Kubban iya S ke leton . Da l las : S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress . Wendorf , F . , R . S ch i ld , a nd H . Haas 1 979 A n ew r ad iocarbon c hrono logy f or p reh istor ic s i tes i n N ub ia . J ourna l o f F ie ld A rchaeo logy 6 :219-223 .
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T HE E AR LY U PPER P A LEOL IT H IC I NL E VANT INE C AVES O fer B ar-Yosef I sotope Department We izmann I nst itute o f S c ience R ehovot I s rae l Anna B e lfer-Cohen I n st itute o f A rchaeo logy Hebrew Un ivers ity J erusa lem I s rae l
I NTRODUCT ION T he t erm " ear ly Upper P a leo l ith ic" i s n ot c om mon ly u sed i n t he l i terature o n t he p reh istory o f S outhwest A s ia . F o l low ing t he E uropean s choo ls , i n wh ich most o f t he e xcavators o f p reh istor ic s i tes i n t he L evant were t ra ined , t he Upper P a leo l ith ic s equence was s ubd iv ided i n to " cu ltures ," " phases ," o r " trad it ions" ( e .g . , G arrod a nd B ate 1 937 ; Rust 1 950 ; N euv i l le 1 951 ; Cope land 1 975 ; G i lead 1 981 ; Marks 1 981 ) . Dur ing t he p ioneer ing s tage o f f i e ld r esearch ( 1925-1938 ) , o n ly c ave s i tes a nd r ockshe lters w ere e xcavated i n o rder t o e stab l ish a c u ltura l s equence . T he r ea l izat ion t hat o n ly r are s i tes were c ont inuous ly i nhab ited was i mp l ic it ly a ccepted a nd t he r eg iona l c hronostrat igraph ic f ramework was b u i lt u p b y c orr e lat ing , o n t ypo log ica l g rounds , t he e xcavated a ssemb lages . F rom t he l a te 1 960 's t hrough t he 1 980 's o pen-a ir s i tes i n t he N egev , S ina i , a nd s outhern J ordan b ecame t he ma in t argets i n Upper P a leo l ith ic s tud ies . S ites a nd a ssemb lages a na lyzed a ccord ing t o t echno-typo log ica l c r iter ia a nd d ated b y 1 4 C were i ncorporated i n to t he e x ist ing s cheme o f t he L evant ine Upper P a leol i th ic . T he n umber o f c ave s i tes e xcavated d ur ing t h is p er iod was v ery sma l l , i n c lud ing S efun im c ave ( Ronen 1 984 ) , Hayon im c ave ( Be lfer-Cohen a nd B ar-Yosef 1 981 ) , Rakefet ( Z iffer 1 978 ) , a nd K sar Ak i l ( T ix ier a nd I n izan 1 981 ) . However , n one o f t he f ina l r eports o f t hese s i tes was a va i lab le b efore 1 980 , a nd t hose o n t he i mportant e xcavat ions i n K sar Ak i l b ecame a ccess ib le o n ly r ecent ly ( Azoury 1 986 ; B ergman 1 987 ) . I n c onc lus ion , t he i mba lance b etween t he d ata s ets r etr ieved f rom o pena i r s i tes a nd c ave s i tes i s p art ia l ly r espons ib le , i n o ur v iew , f or t he p resent u ncerta int ies i n t he c hrono logy a s we l l a s t he amb igu it ies i n t he d ef in it ions o f t he i ndustr ies o f t he L evant ine U pper P a leo l ith ic .
TERM INOLOG ICAL CONS IDERAT IONS T rad it iona l ly , t he c h ipped s tone i ndustr ies d ef ine what i s c a l led " Upper P a leo l ith ic" i n A s ia , E urope , a nd A fr ica ( where t he s ame s equence i sr eferred t o a s " Late S tone Age" ) . T oday we k now t hat t here i s n o p os it ive c orre lat ion b etween h uman morpho logy a nd t he c ha racter ist ics o f t he l i th ic i ndustr ies .
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E quat ing c lusters o f l i th ie a sse mb lages w ith s pec if ic h uman g roup s i s a much d ebated t op ic . Desp ite t he t heoret ica l p rogress i n t he s tudy o f s ty le , most e thnograph ic f ie ld r esearch i s d one o n p er ishab les . T hus , we s t i l l d o n ot u nderstand t he s ources o f t he o bservab le morpho log ica l v ar iab l i l ity among t he c h ipped s tone a sse mb lages b eyond t he l im itat ions o f s ize , mechan ica l p ropert ies , a nd a va i lab i l ity o f r aw mater ia l . S tud ies c oncerned w ith a sse mb lage f ormat ion p rocesses o r w ith v ar iab les s uch a s f unct ion a s e v idenced t hrough m ierowear a nd e dge d amage a re i n t he ir i n fancy . T herefore , we s hou ld k eep i n m ind t hat whatever p r inc ip les we u se f or c onstruct ing a c h rono-cu ltura l s cheme f or t he L evant ine Upper P a leo l ith ic , t hey s tem f rom o ur own p arad igmat ic b ia ses . L ith ic a ssemb lages f rom b oth c ave s i tes a nd o pen-a ir s i tes a re c urrent ly r eported o n t wo l eve ls : 1 ) f requenc ies o f t echno log ica l a ttr ibutes ( deb itage c lasses , p latform t ypes , e tc . ) , 2 ) f requenc ies o f r etouched p ieces ( bur ins , s crapers , e tc . ) w ith in a f ramework o f r ig id o r f l ex ib le t ype l i sts . I n most c ases , t he i mp l ic it a ssumpt ion i s t hat t he s tud ied a sse mb lage i s" representat ive" a nd c an b e u sed w ith t hree o r more s im i lar a ssemb lages t o d ef ine a n " i ndustry" o r a " cu lture ." Wh i le o ne s choo l r egards t he d eb itage a na lys is a s t he c r iter ion f or d ef in ing d iscrete e nt it ies , t he t rad it iona l a pproach v iews t he r e lat ive f requenc ies o f r etouched p ieces a nd t he ir s ty l ist ic a ttr ibutes a s t he ma in b as is f o r c u ltura l d eterm inat ions . A g ood e xamp le o f t h is c onfus ing s i tuat ion i s t he g roup o f a sse mb lages f rom l ayers X I I I-X I i n K sar Ak i l ( Cope land 1 975 ; B ergman 1 987 ) wh ich , a ccord ing t o t oo l morpho logy , were c lass if ied a s " Levant ine A ur ignac ian" ( Azoury 1 986 ) , b ut , f o l low ing t he b lade-dom inated d eb itage , s hou ld b e t ermed " Ahmar ian" ( Bergman 1 987 :145 ) . I n o rder t o a vo id a b arren d iscuss ion c oncern ing t he c urrent t erm ino log ica l j u mb le , t h is p aper i s ma in ly c oncerned w ith o ther a spects o f Upper P a leo l ith ic c ave s i tes a nd r ockshe lters , n ame ly t he ir d istr ibut ion , s i ze a nd d ens ity o f o ccupat ion , a spects o f s ubs istence p atterns , h uman r ema ins , e tc . H owever , o ur mod if ied v iew o f t he a va i lab le l i th ic a ssemb lages , o r ig ina l ly s tated e l sewhere ( Be lfer-Cohen a nd B ar-Yosef 1 981 ) , i sb r ief ly r epea ted h ere .
STRAT IGRAPHY , CHRONOLOGY , AND L ITH IC I NDUSTR IES The l im itat ions o f t he a va i lab le d ata s ets i n b u i ld ing a r e lat ive c h rono logy a nd a c u ltura l s trat igraphy a re c lear ly d emonstrated when b oth t he o vera l l v o lume o f ag iven l ayer a nd t he r ecovery t echn iques emp loyed b y t he v ar ious e xcavators a re t aken i nto a ccount . F irst , t he o ld c oncept , a dopted f rom g eo logy a nd p a leonto logy , t hat o ne s i te c ou ld p rov ide a c omp lete s equence a nd wou ld s erve a s a" type s i te" w as b ased o n e rroneous a ssumpt ions c oncern ing t he p atterns o f b ehav ior o f h unterg atherers . The f a i lure t o f ind s uch a s i te i se xemp l if ied i n t he e ase o f K sar Ak i l . K sar Ak i l ( i n Wad i Ante l ias , L ebanon ) p rov ided t he l ongest Upper P a leol i th ic s trat igraphy i n t he L evant . F o l low ing i t s e ar ly e xcavat ions a nd d eta iled I i th ic a na lyses , i t b ecame c lear t hat a ssemb lages s im i lar t o t hose o f l ayers XXVXX I a re p resent o n ly i n t wo o ther L ebanese c aves ( Ante l ias a nd Abu Ha lka ) , a nd t hat a sse mb lages s im i lar t o t hose o f l ayers X I I I-X I a re a s y et u nkown i n t he L evant ( Bergman 1 987 ) .
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S econd ly , most o f t he e xcavat ions o f c ave s i tes t ook p lace d ur ing t he 1 930 's when t he s tandard r ecovery t echn iques were o ften d ifferent f rom t oday . The ma in t oo l a nd d eb itage c lass a ffected b y l ack o f s iev ing w ith f ine mesh a re b lade lets , e ither a s b lanks o r r etouched , wh ich a ppear q u ite e ar ly i n t he L evant ine Upper P a leo l ith ic ( e .g . , T ix ier a nd I n izan 1 981) . T hus , e st imates o f a rt ifact d ens it ies o r t oo l d ens it ies p er m 3 c an b e b ased o n ly o n t he l arger c lasses o f t oo l t ypes s uch a s s crapers , b ur ins , r etouched b lades , e tc . T h ird ly , a n a dd it iona l h indrance i s t he p auc ity o f s i te maps o n wh ich t he s pat ia l d i str ibut ion o f e ach l ayer i s p lotted . Add ing t he v ar iab le o f u nexcavated s urfaces i ncreases t he l eve l o f u ncerta inty i n t he n umbers g iven i n T ab le 1 . T he r ad iometr ic c hrono logy o f t he Upper P a leo l ith ic c ave o ccupat ions i s b ased o n s evera l 1 4 C d ates f or l ate Mouster ian l ayers , i s o lated " Levant ine Aur ignac ian" d ates f rom K sar Ak i l , a nd t echno-typo log ica l c orre lat ions w ith d ated a sse mb lages i n t he Negev a nd S ina i . T he d ates o f t he T rans it iona l I ndustry i n B oker T acht it a veraged w ith t hose o f t he l ate Mouster ian i nd icate t hat t he " trans iton" o ccurred a round 4 4 ,000-42 ,000 B .P . T he e nd o f t he s equence u nder d iscuss ion i s marked b y t he Kebaran c omp lex , c om mon ly c ons idered a s t he e ar ly E p ipa leo l ith ic wh ich i sd ated t o 2 0 ,000-19 ,000 B .P . t hrough 1 4 ,000 B .P . ( Bar-Yosef a nd V oge l , 1 987 ) . T he Upper P a leo l ith ic s equence i s t herefore b racketed b etween 4 4 ,0004 2 ,000 B .P . a nd 2 0 ,000-19 ,000 B .P . , a nd i s f urther s ubd iv ided o n t he g rounds o f t echno-typo log ica l c ompar isons among l i th ic a ssemb lages a cross t he e nt ire s outhe rn L evant ( Cope land 1 975 , 1 986 ; G i lead 1 981 , 1 983 ; Marks 1 981 ; B e lfer-Cohen a nd B ar-Yosef 1 981 ; P h i l l ips 1 987 ) . F igure 1 s um mar izes t he a va i lab le s trat igraph ic e v idence . The f o l low ing i s at rad it iona l d escr ipt ion o f t he l i th ic c omponents t hat c haracter ize t he ma in p hases o r i ndustr ies : a ) The e ar l iest a ssemb lages i n L ebanon ( Ksar Ak i l , Ante l ias , Abu Ha lka ) c onta in a s pec ia l t oo l t ype k nown a s " chamfered b lades a nd f l akes ," a rt ifacts wh ich were e ffect ive ly e nd-scrapers . T he work ing e dge o f t he c hamfered p ieces was s haped b y t ransverse b lows ( Newc omer 1 970 ) . S im i lar t oo ls were u ncovered i n t he s ame c h ronos t rat igraph ic p os it ion i n Haua F teah Cave , Cy rena ica ( McBurney 1 967) . Typo log ica l c onvergence w ith in a d istance o f o n ly 1 ,500 km i s p oss ib le , a l though g iven t he g eograph ic d ispersa l o f e ar l ier e nt it ies s uch a s t he A ter ian ( 3 ,000 km a cross North A fr ica ) , d irect c onnect ions a re a l so p oss ib le . I t s hou ld b e n oted t hat o n ly v ery r are i s o lated p ieces o f t h is t ype were f ound i n I s rae l , g enera l ly n ot w ith in t he c ontext o f t he e ar l iest Upper P a leo l ith ic . b ) The v ery e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic o f t he c aves , f o l low ing Garrod ( 1957) , Neuv i l le ( 1951) , a nd p oss ib ly r ecent f i nds f rom K ebara Cave ( persona l o bservat ions ) , e xh ib its a s h ift f rom d om inance o f L eva l lo is t echn ique t o ab lade/f lake c ore r educt ion t echn ique wh ich r eta ins e ar l ier a ttr ibutes ( f aceted s tr ik ing p latforms , f lat c ores ) . T o s ome e xtent , i t r esemb les t he T rans it iona l I ndustry o f B oker T acht it ( Marks 1 983a ) . c ) The b lade/b lade let a ssemb lages ( def ined a s t he Ahmar ian T rad it ion ) emerged f rom t he T rans it iona l I ndustry . E ar ly v ar iants o f r etouched p o inted b lades o r E l-Wad p o ints a ppear d ur ing t h is s tage .
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Tab le 1 . S ite S ize , Th ickness o f Layers ,a a nd E st i mated Occupat ion S urface b o f S evera l Levant ine Upper Pa leo l ith ic S ites
S ite
S ize
( m2 )
T hickness
O ccupation ( m2 )
( m)
A bu H alka
2 00
1 .20
5 0-100
K sar A kil
2 20
1 4.00
1 50-200
Y abrud I I
5 0
2 .50
3 0-50
H ayonim
2 50
0 .40
3 0-50
E l-Wad
2 20
2 .50
1 60-200
K ebara
2 50
Q afzeh
3 50
1 .00
1 20-150
S efunim
4 50
0 .90
3 0-50
E rq e l A hmar
1 00
2 .00
3 0-50
aS ite
s ize a nd t hickness o f p ublished m aps.
2 .50-3.00
o f
r elevant
bS urface
a nd,
l ayers
o f o ccupation i s a r ough e stimate i n a f ew c ases, p ersonal o bservations.
2 6
1 50-200
a re
e stimated
b ased
o n
s ite
o n
t he b asis
d escriptions
1 4 C
NORTH
DATES
L EBANON
B .P .
SOUTH GAL ILEE
J ORDAN V ALLEY
J UDEAN H ILLS
NEGEV
S INA I
J a r — H a -f — H n S i te s G -1 1 ,G 9 A — --
—
1 5 ,000 E i n A qev K EBARAN 2 0 ,000
E i n A qev E as t
F azae l X -
2 5 ,000
ai
J oke — rC
I
F azae l I X
-
-
-
--
-
Mas raq A n -Na 'a j S e fun im 8 -10 3 0 ,000
-
K sa r A k i l
Hayo n i m D
L agama X
B oke r B -E
K eba ra D
E l -Quse i r D
L agama ID
K ade sh B a rnea 6 01 ,500 ,9
•
L EVANT INE AUR IGNAC IAN 3 5 ,000
— Ksar A k i l X I I I IX
L agaman S i te s K eba ra E
B oke r
4
K sa r A k i l XX -XV 4 0 ,000
Ksa r A k i l XXV -XX I
Q af zeh 7 -9 Em i reh
E l -W ad F
TR A N SI TI O N A L
E rq E l A hma r F -E -D
E t -T aban B
B oke r T ach t i t
AH M A RI A N *
IN D U S T R Y
4 5 ,000 M O U S T E RI A N
MOUSTER IAN
F igure 1 . A s chemat ic c hrono log ica l t ab le o rgan ized a long a g eograph ic a x is . Dashed l i nes i nd icate b oth s pat ia l a nd t empora l d istr ibut ions . Note t hat t he d a t ing o f t he f lake i ndustr ies a t c a . 2 5 ,000-23 ,000/22 ,000 B .P . i s c on jectura l . R ad iocarbon-dated s i tes a re marked w ith a n a ster isk ( * ) .
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K sar Ak i l d iffers f rom t he Ga l i lee a nd M t . Carme l c aves i n t he o ccurrence o f s evera l t oo l t ypes ( Azoury 1 986 ; B ergman 1 987 ) . T he e st imated d ates f or t h is p hase a re b etween 3 7 ,000-35 ,000 B .P . a nd 3 2 ,000-30 ,000 B .P . d ) Aur ignac ian s crapers ( car inated a nd n osed ) o ccur f i rst i n b lade/b lade let i ndustr ies ( Ksar Ak i l X I I I-X I ; K ebara , n ew e xcavat ions , Un its However , t he e nt ity t hat s u its a r estr icted d ef in it ion o f t he " Levant ine Aur ignac ian" i s c haracter ized b y t he d om inance o f f lakes among t he d eb itage c ategor ies a nd t he d om inance o f f l akes o r e qua l p roport ions b etween f lakes a nd b lades among t he t oo l c lasses ( nosed a nd c ar inated s crapers , b ur ins , e tc . ) . S trat igraph ica l ly , i t o ver l ies t he p rev ious ly d escr ibed a sse mb lages a nd c onta ins s ign if icant ly more b one a nd a nt ler o b jects t han a ny o ther U pper P a leo l ith ic i ndustry . I t i s r ough ly d ated f rom 3 2 ,0003 0 ,000 B .P . t hrough 2 7 ,000-26 ,000 B .P . T he d istr ibut ion o f t he t yp ica l " Levant ine Aur ignac ian" i s l im ited t o c aves a nd r ockshe lters i n t he h i l ly c entra l L evant . Dom inance o f f lake s crapers ( w ithout t he n osed t ypes ) a nd b ur ins i s k nown f rom l a ter l ayers i n t he c aves a s we l l a s o pen-a ir s i tes i n t he J ordan V a l ley , N egev , a nd S ina i . T he ir a ge i s e st imated t o b e f rom 2 7 ,000-26 ,000 B .P . t h rough 2 4 ,000-22 ,000 B .P . e ) B lade/b lade let a ssemb lages ( the T rad it ion ) d om inate t he u pper p art emergence o f t he K ebaran c omp lex . a re t hose f rom K sar Ak i l , l ayers 3 -1 1 981 ; B ergman 1 987 ; Cope land 1 987 ) .
l a ter p art o f t he Ahmar ian o f t he s equence b efore t he E xamp les o f s uch a sse mb lages o r P hase I ( T ix ier a nd I n izan
BONE AND ANTLER I NDUSTRY U n l ike t he Upper P a leo l ith ic c u ltures o f E urope , t he L evant ine a ssemb lages a re r ather p oor i n b one a nd a nt ler o b jects . T he l argest s amp les c ome f rom " Levant ine Aur ignac ian" a ssemb lages s uch a s i n Hayon im c ave , l ayer D ( 75 p ieces ) ( Be lfer-Cohen a nd B ar-Yosef 1 981 ) . T he o ld e xcavat ions o f K sar Ak i l p rov ided 1 31 o b jects a nd t he n ew s er ies , 4 5 ( Newcomer 1 974 ; N ewcomer a nd Watson 1 984 ) . Sma l ler n umbers w ere r ecorded i n t he o ther s i tes : Abr i Ante l ias ( 17 ) , Abu Ha lka ( 15 ) , Yabrud I ( 8 ) , E l-Wad ( 7 ) , K ebara ( 2 ) , E t-Tabban ( 2 ) , E l Q use ir ( 2 ) , Masraq e n Na 'a j ( 3 ) . T he s tud ied o b jects were p roduced f rom l imb b ones , h orn c ores , a nd a nt lers o f g ame a n ima ls . T he t ypo log ica l v ar iab i l ity i sq u ite l im ited a nd c ons ists i n most c o l lect ions o f aw ls a nd p o ints ( i nc lud ing n umerous f ragments ) . Among t he e xcept iona l f orms w ere t he t anged p o ints f rom K sar Ak i l ( Newcomer 1 974 ) , p o l ishers made o f a nt lers a nd h orn c ores , a nd s patu las s haped f rom r ibs ( Hayon im c ave , E l Wad ) . Un ique i t ems a re t wo s p l it-base p o ints ; o ne f ound i n E l Quse ir ( Perrot 1 955 :f ig . 3 ) a nd t he s econd , more r ecent ly , i n K ebara c ave . T he c ontext o f t he l a tter i s ab lade/b lade let i ndustry w ith Aur ignac ian s crapers wh ich h as b een d ated t o 3 2 ,000-30 ,000 B .P . M icrowear a na lys is ( Campana 1 980 ; N ewcomer a nd Watson 1 984 ) i nd icates t hat aw ls w ere u sed f or mak ing h o les i n s oft s ubstances s uch a s h ide o r l eather . S ome p o ints e xh ib it s igns o f i mpact d amage . Apparent ly most o f t hese p o ints
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were f abr icated o f a nt ler wh ich , a ccord ing t o e xper imenta l s tud ies b y A lbrecht ( 1977 ) , h as a s l ight a dvantage o ver b one a nd i vory a s ar aw mater ia l f or p ro ject i les . I nc ised i t ems were r ecovered f rom K ebara , Hayon im , K sar Ak i l , a nd Abu Ha lka . T hese i nc lude a d ecorated o b ject ( T ix ier 1 974 ) , a nd a g roup o f i nc ised s capu lae ( Dav is 1 974 :182 , f ig . 1 :2-6 ) . S im i lar o b jects h ave b een r eported f rom Western E urope . P endants were o n ly f ound i n t he Aur ignac ian a t Hayon im c ave . Deer , e qu id , a nd c arn ivore t eeth were p o l ished a fter t he r emova l o f t he e name l ( Be lferCohen a nd Bar-Yosef 1 981 :f ig . 6 :10-11 ) . T hese a re i dent ica l t o E uropean e xamp les a nd d i ffer f rom t he l ater Natuf ian . I nc luded i n t h is s ect ion i st he e v idence f or t he u se o f o cher , r eported f rom s evera l s i tes ( Qafzeh , K sar Ak i l , Yabrud I , a nd Hayon im ) where o cher-smeared s labs , s ome c lear ly g r ind ing t oo ls , were u ncovered . A " co lor t ube" made o f b ird b one w ith r es idues o f r ed o cher f rom AbuHa lka a nd s ome o cher-smeared f l int a rt ifacts f ro m Hayon im i ncrease t h is sma l l c o l lect ion . Two u n ique f inds a re t he l imestone s labs u ncovered i n l ayer D i n Hayon im , wh ich b ear a s er ies o f i n tent iona l f ine i nc is ions . On o ne o f t hem i t i sp oss ib le t o r ecogn ize a n u ngu late , p erhaps a h orse ( Be lfer-Cohen a nd B ar-Yosef 1 981 :f ig . 8 ) ( F igure 2 ) . We s trong ly b e l ieve t hat s im i lar f inds o r e ven c learer e xamp les o f a rt ist ic e xpress ion w i l l t urn u p when more c ave s i tes o r r oekshe lters a re e xcavated .
HUMAN REMAINS T he n umber o f h uman r ema ins u ncovered i n L evant ine c aves i s meager : t wo f ragmentary s ku l ls f rom Qafzeh ( s t i l l u npub l ished ) , ac h i ld 's s ke leton ( Egbert ) f rom l ayer 1 7 i n K sar Aka ( unpub l ished ) , s evera l f ragments f rom E l-Wad , a nd a f e mur , as ku l l f ragment , a nd s evera l t eeth f rom Hayon im c ave ( Arensburg , p ersona l c ommun icat ion ) . T he p resence o f we l l p reserved b ur ia ls i n most o f t hese s i tes i n e i ther Mouster ian o r Natuf ian l ayers i nd icates t hat t he p auc ity o f Upper P a leol i th ic b ur ia ls c annot b e e xp la ined a s r esu lt o f p oor p reservat ion . T he f ragmentary s tate o f Upper P a leo l ith ic h uman r ema ins may r ef lect a p attern o f b ehav ior ( such a s t he u se o f s ha l low g raves ) wh ich r esu lted i n r ap id d estruct ion ( by h umans , s cavengers , a nd/or o ther p ost-depos it iona l f actors ) . I t may a l so r ef lect r ather e phemera l o ccupat ion o f t he c aves a nd most o f t he r ocks he lters , i nd icated b y c er ta in t ra its o f t he l i th ie a ssemb lages ( d iscussed b e low ) . The s tudy o f t he s carce r ema ins i sf urther h indered b y t he i nadequate r eport ing o f t he f i nds . F ina l ly , i t s hou ld b e s tressed t hat e xcavated o pen-a ir s i tes p rov ided o n ly o ne b ur ia l o f a n a du lt ( Naha l E in I )( Arensburg 1 977 ) .
CAVE AND ROCKSHELTER OCCUPAT IONS The v ar ious a spects i nvo lved i n t he e xp lo itat ion o f c aves a nd r ockshe lters a re r are ly d iscussed i n t he L evant ine l i terature . T h is i s c ur ious , a s e ven t he p ioneer r esearchers ( Garrod , Neuv i l le , Rust , S teke l is , a nd o thers ) were aware t hat n o s i ng le c ave o r r ockshe lter h as p rov ided e v idence o f a p ro longed p er iod o f
2 9
3 0 b e a r s a f i n e
o ccupat ion . Actua l ly i t c an b e e as i ly d emonstrated t hat f or t he p er iod b etween c a . 4 4 ,000-42 ,000 a nd 1 3 ,000 B .P . t hese n atura l s he lters were o n ly s porad ica l ly o ccup ied . We m igh t w onder why c aves o r r ockshe lters were o ccup ied a t c erta in t imes a nd n ot o thers , a s t he a ccumu lat ion o f a rchaeo log ica l r ema ins s uggests . F or t he Natuf ian c u lture ( Ep ipa leo l ith ic ) , i t h as b een s uggested t hat t he e aves were o n ly u sed when t hey w ere d ry ( Bar-Yosef a nd Mart in 1 981 ) . A l l L evant ine s he lters were f ormed b y k arst ic a ct iv ity a nd e ven t oday t he amount o f d r ipp ing w ater d ecreases f rom w inter a nd s pr ing t o s um mer a nd a ut umn , a nd o ften f rom t he r ear o f t he c ave t owards t he e ntrance . Another l im it ing f actor i s t he p enetra t ion o f d ay l ight , wh ich i s u sua l ly b etter n ear t he e ntrance . T hus , s leep ing , d omest ic a ct iv it ies , a nd s torage o f p er ishab les w i l l t ake p lace most ly n ear t he e ntrance . On t he o ther h and , r ockshe lters a re o pen t o s ubaer ia l a genc ies , a nd t he ir d epos it iona l s equences o ften r ef lect e nv ironmenta l c hanges i n t he v ic in ity . R ockshe lters a re n ot a c om mon f eature e verywhere . T here a re , f or e xamp le , f ew r ockshelters i n t he M t . Carme l a rea ( O lam i 1 984 ) , a l though t hey a re q u ite n umerous i n t he J udean d esert ( Neuv i l le 1 951 ) . When s u itab le f or h ab itat ion , t hey w ere o ccup ied more f requent ly ( e .g . , K sar Ak i l a nd Yabrud ) . Cave e ntrances a re s im i lar t o r ockshe lter s , b ut o ften b e ing s ub ject t o d irect e ros ion , t hey h ave n ot a lways p reserved t he a rchaeo log ica l r ema ins ( e .g . , Hayon im , Qafzeh , a nd E lWad ) . Therefore , t he p reserved i ndoor o ccupat ions d o n ot n ecessar i ly r epresent t he t ota l i nhab ited o r u sed a rea . F ina l ly , c ompet it ion w ith s cavengers s uch a s h yenas o ver t he u t i l izat ion o f t he c aves m ight h ave p layed a n i mportant r o le d ur ing t he M idd le P a leo l ith ic , b ut i td oes n ot s eem , o n t he b as is o f t he f auna l r ema ins , t o h ave b een a l im it ing f actor i n t he Upper P a leo l ith ic . T herefore , t he e xp lo itat ion o f e aves a nd r ockshe lters p robab ly r ef lects t he l i v ing c ond it ions ( wetness , l i gh t ) a nd t he d egree o f o pt i ma l l ocat ion w ith in t he f orag ing t err itory . Observat ions i n K ebara c ave i nd icate t hat many o f t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic o ccupat iona l r es idues ( i nc lud ing h earths ) were r edepos ited b y g ent ly f low ing water ( Go ldberg a nd L av i l le , i n p ress ) . Th is may mean t hat t he c ave w as i nhab ited d ur ing t he s um mer a nd f a l l . S uch a p ropos it ion c an b e t ested w ith f urther s tud ies a t Kebara . T h is r a ises t he p oss ib i l ity t hat c erta in c aves were i nhab ited d ur ing t he s um mer a nd f a l l wh i le o thers were e xp lo ited i n w inter . B inford ( 1968 ) h as s ugg ested t hat t here i s ac orre lat ion b etween s i te l ocat ion a nd s eason o f o ccupat ion : c aves o n t he western f lanks o f t he mounta in r anges wou ld h ave b een o ccup ied i n t he w inter months wh i le t he c aves o n t he d r ier e astern f lanks wou ld h ave b een i nhab ited d ur ing t he s ummer . T he a va i lab le i nformat ion i s a s y et t oo amb iguous t o a l low a t est ing o f t h is p ropos it ion . However , what a re m iss ing i n t h is s ett lement p attern a re t he c orrespond ing o pen-a ir s i tes . I t i s worth n ot ing t hat d esp ite t he i ntens ive s urvey s i n I s rae l , n o o pen-a ir s i tes o f t yp ica l " Levant ine Aur ign ac ian" h ave b een r eported . T hose wh ich c onta in c ar inated s crapers a re g enera l ly d evo id o f n osed o nes . P erhaps t he l atter a re o n ly a n e xhausted v ers ion o f t he f i rst , h av ing b een r etouched wh i le s t i l l i n t he ir h aft a nd e ventua l ly d iscarded ( BarY osef , i n p ress a ) . S hortage o f r aw mater ia l i s more a pparent i n c ave s i tes i n t he L ebanese-Mt . Carme l r eg ion t han i n t he N egev . I t i s n ot s urpr is ing t hat s uch " shortages" a nd/or e phemera l o ccupat ions l ed t o t he i ncreased u se o f o lder p ieces ( wh ich b ear more t han o ne p at ina a nd a re h eav i ly r etouched ) . T he n ature o f t he s ed iments r evea ls t he i n tens ity o f o ccupat ion . L ayer D i n Hayon im s erves a s a n e xamp le o f ad epos it wh ich i s ma in ly o f b iogen ie o r ig in ( Go ldberg 1 979 ) . Add it iona l s tud ies o f e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes a re r equ ired
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b efore a p attern c an b e d iscerned . M ieromorpho log ica l a na lys is c annot d isc lose o ther a spects s uch a s t he d urat ion o f t he o ccupat ion o r t he p rocesses wh ich g overn a ssemb lage f ormat ion ( s ee b e low ) , b ut i ts upp l ies a f ramework f or a rchaeolog ica l o r a rchaeo-zoo log ica l a na lyses .
SUBS ISTENCE A s y et , n o p lant r ema ins h ave b een r eported f rom Upper Pa leo l ith ic c ave s i tes o r r ockshe lters i n t he L evant . T he u se o f f lo tat ion c an b e s uccessfu l o n ly i f p reservat ion h as b een a dequate . T he p resence o f g r ind ing t oo ls i n Qafzeh ( layers 8 -9 ) ( Ronen a nd V andermeersch 1 972 ) , i n Yabrud I ( l ayer 4 ) ( Bakdaeh 1 982) , i n K sar Ak i l ( l ayer V I I ) ( Bergman 1 987 ) , t he c utt ing a nd p rocess ing s labs i n Hayon im ( l ayer D ) ( Be lfer-Cohen a nd B ar-Yosef 1 981 ) , a nd s im i lar o b jects i n t he Zagros ( So leck i a nd S o leck i 1 983 ) t est ify t o n ot o n ly t he c rush ing o f r ed o cher , b ut a lso t o t he p reparat ion o f v egeta l f oods . A f u l ler p icture emerges f rom t he r ecovered a n ima l b ones ( F igure 3 ) . S im i lar it ies a nd d ifferences b etween t he b one a ssemb lages o f Mouster ian d epos its a nd t hose o f t he Upper P a leo l ith ic h ave b een d escr ibed b y s evera l a rchaeoz oo log ists ( Dav is 1 982 ; Garrard 1 984 ; Wo lf , t h is v o lume ) . A lthough d eta i ls a re s t i l l m iss ing , i ts eems t hat t he Upper P a leo l ith ic b one a ccumu lat ions d emonstrate ah igher d ependence o n h unt ing a s o pposed t o s caveng ing . When c ompared t o Mouster ian a ssemb lages , t he Upper P a leo l ith ic o nes e xh ib it a s ign if icant i ncrease i n t he n umbers o f a x ia l p arts o f t he med ium t o sma l l mam ma ls . The d i sappeara nce o f t he r h inoceros i sc ons idered t o b e as ign o f e xt inct ion , b ut t he p resence o f h ippopotamus ( w ith c rocod i le a nd s oft water t urt le ) i n t he Ho locene i st aken t o i nd icate h unters ' c ho ice ( Haas 1 953 ; Garrard 1 984 ) . F o l low ing t he a rguments p ut f orward b y B inford ( 1981 ) a nd B lumensch ine ( 1986 ) , i ti ss uggested e lsewhere ( BarY osef , i n p ress b ) t hat t he s h ift t o t he e xp lo itat ion o f sma l ler ma m ma ls a nd t he a bandonment o f l arger o nes s uch a s h ippopotamus , r h inoceros , a nd t he l a rge b ov ids ( e .g . , B os p r im igen ius ) , wh ich d isappear a fter t he v ery e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic , r ef lect t he s h ift f rom m ixed s trateg ies o f s caveng ing t he r e ma ins o f l arge c arcasses a nd h unt ing , t o f u l l d ependence o n h unt ing . T he s h ift f rom Mouster ian f ood a cqu is it ion t echn iques t o t hose o f t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic i s c ons idered t o r ef lect h igher mob i l ity ( e .g . , Garrard 1 982 ) . No l e ss i mportant i s t he c onc lus ion t hat t he h unted f auna r epresents t he i mmed iate e nv ironment o f t he s i te ( H iggs 1 967 ; Dav is 1 982 ; Garrard 1 982 ) . The b est e xamp les a re K sar Ak i l w ith i t s f orested c raggy l andscape , where f a l low d eer , w i ld g oat , a nd r oe d eer were t he d om inant mam ma ls a nd t he M t . Car me l s i tes , 1 50 km s outhward , w ith o pen wood land a nd a w ide s tepp ic c oasta l p la in where f a l low d eer a nd g aze l le were t he d om inant f orms ( F igure 3 ) . The f luctuat ions i n t he f requenc ies o f t hese mam ma ls a re t aken t o r epresent e nv ironmenta l c hanges d ur ing t he L ate P le istocene ( Garrard 1 982 ; Dav is 1 982 ) . An a l ternat ive e xp lanat ion , s tress ing s easona l s e lect ive h unt ing ( i .e . , S peth 1 987 ) o r l ength o f s i te u t i l izat ion , h as y et t o b e o ffered . T he l ack o f e laborate i n terpretat ion may b e d ue t o t he l im ited l eve l o f t he f auna l a na lyses ; b ody p art c ounts , f or e xamp le , a re r are ly g iven i n t he p ub l ished r eports .
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E QU IDS
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W ILD
R ED
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G OAT
D EER
D EER
D EER
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H ARTEBEEST C ATTLE
G AZELLE
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K SAR A K IL 2 5-19 K SAR A K IL 1 8-10 K SAR A K IL
9 -6
K SAR A K IL
5 -1
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K EBARA U P 1 :1
H AY ON IM E L WAD E E L WAD D
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K EBARA E K EBARA D R AKEFET A UR
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F igure 3 . F requenc ies o f b ones o f med ium L evant ine Upper P a leo l ith ic c ave s i tes .
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a nd sma l l
mam ma ls i n s e lected
D ISCUSS ION F o l low ing t he s um mary o f t he a va i lab le e v idence , s evera l s e lected i s sues c oncern ing t he L evant ine e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic d eserve f urther d i scuss ion : t he e nv ironmenta l c ircumstances o f t he t rans it ion f rom t he M idd le t o t he U pper P a leo l ith ic , s ome a spects o f t h is t rans it ion , t he a ppearance o f t he " Levant ine Aur ignac ian ," a nd t he r o le o f r aw mater ia l i n e xp la in ing t echno-typo log ica l v ar iab i l ity .
The E nv ironmenta l C ircumstances o f t he T rans it ion f rom t he M idd le t o t he E ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic A s hort d iscuss ion o f t h is t op ic , d esp ite t he p auc ity o f e v idence , i s a ppropr iate b ecause t he s earch f or c auses o f t he emergence o f modern h umans r esorts , i n s evera l p apers , t o e nv ironmenta l d eterm in ism . The t rans it ion i n t he N egev , f or e xamp le , was r ecent ly s um mar ized b y Marks ( 1983b :94 ) a s f o l lows : " I t i s q u ite p oss ib le . . . t hat t he s tresses o n s ett lement s yste ms b rought a bout b y c l imat ic d eter iorat ion , p art icu lar ly i n t he c l imat ica l ly marg ina l z ones o f t he L evant , l ed many g roups t o i ncrease mob i l ity ." T h is c onc lus ion i sb ased o n g eomorpho log ica l o bservat ions c o l lected i n t he N egev h igh lands , where a d ry p er iod wh ich r esu lted i n ac ons iderab le amount o f e ros ion was t entat ive ly d ated t o 7 0 ,000-50 ,000 B .P . ( Go ldberg a nd B r i mer 1 983 ; Go ldberg 1 986 ) . However , t he b u lk o f t he e v idence s uggests a d ifferent s cenar io . B oth t he s ed iments wh ich c onta in t he B oker T acht it l eve ls ( Go ldberg a nd B r imer 1 983 ) a nd t he mass ive t ravert ines a t t he mouth o f t he E in Mor c anyon , o n ly 1km u pstream , d ated b y T h/U t o a bout 5 0 ,000-45 ,000 B .P . ( Schwarz e t a t . 1 979) , t est ify t o r ather h um id c ond it ions i n t he N egev . T he s i te o f F arah I , i n t he n orthern N egev , c ons idered t o b e o f l ate Mouster ian a ge , i s embedded i n l oamy s ed iments wh ich a ccumu lated a fter t he ma jor e ros iona l i n terva l ( Go ldberg 1 986 ) . The s tudy o f p a leoso ls a nd t he ir a ges i n t he s ame r eg ion ( Goodfr iend a nd Magar itz , i n p ress ) i nd icates a h um id p er iod a round 4 0 ,000 B .P . ( based o n TL d ates ) a nd b efore 3 6 ,000 B .P . ( based o n 1 4 C d ates ) . T he l ong a nd d ry i n terva l i n t he N egev , s een b y Marks a s f orc ing t he t echno log ica l c hange f rom a L eva l lo is c ore r educt ion t echn ique t o a n on-Leva l lo is b lade t echn ique , e nded b efore t he M idd le P a leo l ith ic was o ver . T hus , t he e nv ironmenta l f luctuat ions c annot a ccount f or t he r ap id t echno log ica l s h ift d ocumented i n t he s equence o f B oker T acht it .
The T rans it iona l I ndustr ies T he t rans it ion f rom t he M idd le t o t he Upper P a leo l ith ic i s d escr ibed , among o ther f eatures , a s as h ift i n c ore r educt ion s trateg ies . The i ns i tu s h ift w as o r ig ina l ly r ecogn ized a s when , U pper P a leo l ith ic t oo l t ypes a re f ound o n b lanks made b y aM idd le P a leo l ith ic t rad it ion o f f l int k napp ing ( d irect p ercuss ion , o n p repared c ores , t o p roduce L eva l lo is b lades o r p o ints ) . T hus t he t rans it iona l a spect o ccurs o n t he s ame p iece o f f l int ( Cope land 1 975 :339 ; emphas i s i n t he o r ig ina l ) . S uch a t rans it ion was d escr ibed b y t he s ame a u thor o n t he b as is o f t he r e levant l ayers i n K sar Ak i l f or wh ich t he f u l l r eport i sn ow a va i lab le ( Azoury 1 986) . T he d eve lopmenta l s equence i n K sar Ak i l , s een a s as h ift f rom a u n i- a nd b i-d irect iona l L eva l lo is i n to a t rue Upper P a leo l ith ic b lade t echn ique , h as b een q uest ioned r ecent ly b y Marks a nd V o lkman ( 1986 ) . T he ir l i th ic a na lys is d emon-
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s trated a t endency t owards a n i ncrease i n r ad ia l p reparat ion w ith in t he l ate Mouster ian l ayers , wh ich c ou ld n ot , t herefore , b e t he f orerunner o f t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic b lade t echn ique . The a l ternat ive l ocus f or t he t echno log ica l s h ift i si dent if ied i n t he Negev ( Boker Tacht it ) a nd s outhern J ordan ( f rom where o n ly c ursory r eports a nd n o d ates a re a va i lab le ) . T here , t he o r ig in o f t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic l i th ie t echno logy i s t raced b ack t o t he e ar ly L evant ine Mouster ian wh ich , s im i lar t o i t s o ccurrences i n t he c entra l a nd n orthern L evant , i s d om inated b y u n i- a nd b i -d irect iona l L eva l lo is c ore r educt ion s trateg ies ( Marks 1 983a , 1 983b ) . However , i ts hou ld b e n oted t hat n one o f t he Mouster ian a ssemb lages i n q uest ion i s we l l d ated . T he s uggest ion t hat t he s a me l i th ic t rad it ion l a sted u nchanged i n as em i-ar id o r a r id r eg ion o ver a t ime s pan o f o ver 4 0 ,000 y ears r equ ires a t l east a c erta in n umber o f i nd isputab le r ad iometr ic d ates o r s trat igraph ie s upport b efore i tc an b e t aken a s a n e stab l ished a rchaeo log ica l o bservat ion . B oker T acht it , f or e xamp le , wh ich c onta ins a T ransi t iona l I ndustry i n i t s e ar l iest l eve l , d oes n ot h ave a f u l ly t yp ica l Mouster ian a ssemb lage u nderneath . T hus , we may c onc lude t hat a lthough t he L evant a s a r eg ion h as p roduced a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or t echno log ica l a nd t ypo log ica l s h if ts f rom M idd le t o U pper P a leo l ith ic , i t i s p remature t o d ef ine a ccurate ly t he c ore a rea o f t h is ma jor c u ltura l c hange .
The P henomenon o f t he " Levant ine Aur ignac ian" The p roduct ion o f b lades t hrough s evera l c ore r educt ion s trateg ies c haract er izes t he L evant ine U pper P a leo l ith ic a nd E p ipa leo l ith ic . E xcept ions t o t h is g enera l izat ion a re e ar ly a ssemb lages s uch a s t hose f rom K sar Ak i l , l ayers XXV , XX I I I , a nd XX I I ( Azoury 1 986 ) , Em ireh ( Garrod 1 955 ) , a nd t he " Levant ine Aur ign ac ian" a ssemb lages w ith in t he r estr icted d ef in it ion ( G i lead 1 981 ; B e lfer-Cohen a nd B ar-Yosef 1 981 ) . The e xc lus ive f ocus o n r etouched p ieces , d esp ite t he f act t hat t hose c la ss if ied a s " ut i l ized" o r a s " b lades" among t he d eb itage c ategor ies were o ften u sed , i s d one i n o rder t o s tress t wo p henomena : 1 ) t he a ppearance o f s o-ca l led " Aur ignac ian" e lements s uch a s c ar inated s crapers o r t he " f lat f ace c ar inated b ur ins" i n l ayers X I I-X I i n K sar Ak i l ( Bergman 1 987 ) a nd t he c ar inated a nd n osed s crapers w ith in a b ladeib lade let i ndustry i n K ebara ( new e xcavat ions ) ( persona l o bservat ions ) , a nd 2 ) t he d om inance o f f lake p roduct ion i n t he " Levant ine Aur ign ac ian" a nd i n s ucceed ing a ssemb lages i n wh ich s crapers a nd b ur ins a re a bundant . The p ioneers o f L evant ine p reh istory a ttempted t o i n terpret t hese d iffere nces ( wh ich o ur g enerat ion q uant if ied o n t he b as is o f o ld a nd n ew e xcavat ions ) i n t erms o f h uman b ehav ior . D raw ing f rom t he c om monp lace mode l o f t he 1 930 's , n ame ly t hat ma jor d i fferences i n t ypo log ica l a ttr ibutes b etween a ssemb lages r ef lect d ifferent h uman p opu lat ions , Garrod ( 1957 ) a nd o thers s uggested a m igrat i on o f Aur ignac ian h un ter-gatherers f rom s outheastern E urope . Recent t echno-typo log ica l s tud ies i mp l ic it ly o r e xp l ic it ly u se s im i lar a ssumpt ions . F or e xamp le , b ased o n e thno-archaeo log ica l s tud ies o f s ty le ( e .g . , W iessner 1 982 ) we t end t o s ee t he v ar ious f orms o f m icro l iths a s r epresent ing d i fferent b ands o r macrobands ( e .g . , B ar-Yosef 1 987a ; Gor ing-Morr is 1 987 ) . Moreover , we a ssume t hat t he u se o f t he s ame t echn ique f or t he p roduct ion o f l i th ics i s a b etter c ommon d enom inator f or c luster ing a ssemb lages t han t he morpho logy o f t he r etouched p ieces . T he r esu lts , a part f rom t wo o r t hree a ssemb lages , a re b as ica l ly s im i lar t o t he o lder s cheme ; t hat i s , t he " Levant ine
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Aur ignac ian" f rom s uch s i tes a s K sar Ak i l V I I I-V I I , Hayon im D , E l-Wad D , a nd Kebara D c lear ly s tands o ut . I n t he l ast t wo d ecades t he a pproach k nown a s " reg iona l a rchaeo logy" was d eve loped . One o f t he ma in p rem ises o f t h is a pproach i s t hat t here i s as tab le l oca l p opu lat ion wh ich a dapts i t se lf t o t he c hang ing e nv iron ment . Reg iona l a rchaeo log ists r are ly d i scuss i n tergroup a daptat ions t hat a re c aused b y s ubs istence s tress i n o ne r eg ion a nd i t s e ffect o n n e ighbor ing r eg ions . T hus , h uman movements t hat a re d ef ined a s m igrat ions , e xpans ions , o r s oc ia l c lashes h ave a l most d isappeared f rom t he l i terature o n p reh istor ic h unter-gatherers . On ly " d iffus ion" i s a l lowed a s a mechan ism f or l ong-d istance t ransm iss ion a ch ieved b y s hortd istance e xchanges s uch a s g ift g iv ing . The Med iterranean L evant i s b oth a f ront ier z one a nd a t errestr ia l c orr idor ( e .g . , B ar-Yosef 1 987b ) . Al arge p ort ion o f t he d eserts wh ich e nc ircle i t r equ ire s pec ia l s urv iva l t echn iques . We h ave n o i dea when t hese were f i rst d eve loped . I t may b e s afer t o a ssume t hat h umans moved i n to t he d eserts o n ly d ur ing wetter p er iods , when s uff ic ient water a nd f ood r esources were a va ilab le . The e xp lo itat ion o f t hese r esources d epended o n ag iven l eve l o f t echno logy d ur ing e ach t ime s pan . F ind ing o ut what t he t echno logy was wh ich e nab led s urv iva l i n a marg ina l z one i so ne o f t he r esearch o b ject ives t hat we a s a rchaeo log ists s hou ld h ave . We s hou ld n ot a ssume t he p resence o f ac erta in l eve l o f t echno logy b ecause a s i te i s l ocated i n what i s n ow a n a r id a rea . O f c ourse , d esert o ases a re e xcept ions a s t hey a lways p ossess s tab le , r ich r esources ( Shm ida e t a t . 1 986 ) . S ince t he c oasta l a nd mounta in r anges ( where most o f t he c aves a re l ocated ) a re w ith in t he Med iterranean v egetat iona l b e lt , t hey a l so h ave s tab le , r ich r esources ( i nc lud ing water ) . E ven u nder t he h arshest c l ima t ic c ond it ions t hey c ou ld h ave b een u sed a s ar efug ium f or p opu lat ions t hat n orma l ly i nhab ited t he t ru ly marg ina l z one . R eturn ing t o t he Aur ignac ian q uest ion , we s hou ld s tress t hat t he e ar l iest d ates f or t h is i ndustry c ome f rom C entra l E urope . T here i s amp le e v idence f or a s l ight ly l ater a rr iva l i n Western E urope . T he L evant ine d ates , a lthough f ew i n n umber , a re a round 3 0 ,000-28 ,000 B .P . T herefore , i ts eems p robab le t hat t he p anE uropean Aur ignac ian s oc ia l n etwork r eached t he L evant a t o ne p o int i n t ime b ut d id n ot l ast l ong . Whether p eop le moved a long t he Med iterranean c oasta l r anges f rom t he B a lkans i n to t he T aurus a nd f urther s outh o r s imp ly i nf luenced t he ir n e ighbors who a dopted t he ir l i th ic t oo l t ypes a nd t echn iques f or mak ing b one a nd a nt ler t oo ls r ema ins u nreso lved . I n o ur v iew , t he p ro l iferat ion i n t he p roduct ion o f b one a nd e spec ia l ly a nt ler o b jects i nc lud ing s p l it-base p o ints [ E l Quse ir ( Perrot 1 955 ) , K ebara ( unpub l ished ) ] i s u nmatched b y e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic i ndustr ies b efore a nd a fter t he L evant ine Aur ignac ian ( Newcomer 1 987 ) . B one a nd a ntler a s r aw mater ia l were a va i lab le t hroughout t he Upper P a leo l ith ic . The ir i n tens ive u se d ur ing t he Aur ignac ian c an o n ly b e a ttr ibuted t o n ew c u ltura l-techno log ica l c oncepts a nd n ot t o c hang ing e xp lo itat ion s trateg ies d ictated b y f luctuat ions i n t he e nv ironment . T o s um u p , t he L evant ine Aur ignac ian i n t he c oasta l c ave s i tes i s i nterp reted b y u s t o r epresent t he a rchaeo log ica l r es idues o f a macroband wh ich e xp lo ited a l arge r eg ion , p robab ly e xtend ing f rom t he T abrus f lanks ( south T urkey ) t o t he J udean H i l ls .
Raw Mater ia l , T ypo logy , a nd A ssemb lage F ormat ion P rocesses T here i s n o d oubt t hat t he d istr ibut ion , a ccess ib i l ity , s ize , a nd q ua l ity ( mechan ica l p ropert ies ) o f f l int a nd c hert i n f luence c erta in c haracter ist ics o f e ach
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l i th ic a ssemb lage . However , n one o f t hese v ar iab les r equ ires t he p roduct ion o f b lades a nd b lade lets a s b lanks f or t he ma jor t ypes o f r etouched p ieces . T he N egev s erves a s ag ood e xamp le . E ocene f l int c obb les , o ften l arge a nd o f g ood q ua l ity , were c ommon ly u sed d ur ing t he Upper P a leo l ith ic . B ut t he c ore r educt ion t echn iques v ary ( Vo lkman 1 983 ; Marks 1 977 ; F err ing 1 977 ) . P erce ived f orms o f b lanks , r ather t han s ize , d ictated t he s hape o f t he d es ired b lanks . T h is p henomenon i s e ven more o bv ious when E p ipa leo l ith ic a sse mb lages i n t he r eg ion a re t aken i n to a ccount . The s ame p icture emerges when t he e nt ire Upper P a leo l ith ic s equence o f K sar Ak i l i s e xam ined ( Azoury 1 986 ; B ergman 1 987 ) . I n a r ecent s tudy , Kauf man ( 1987) c ompared a s er ies o f a sse mb lages f rom v ar ious p laces i n I s rae l t hat a re c ons idered t o i m med iate ly p recede t he K ebaran c omp lex . He c onc luded t hat " . . d ifferences i n a rt ifact s ize a re t he r esu lt o f r aw mater ia l a bundance o r s carc ity w ith in g eograph ic r eg ions a nd a re n ot r e lated t o t echno log ica l t rad it ion . Therefore , b ecause o f t he g reater a bundance o f f l int i n t he Negev , mean a rt ifact s ize f or s i tes f rom t h is r eg ion i s l arger t han t hat f or t he J ordan V a l ley s i tes" ( Kaufman 1 987 :46 ) . T he c onc lus ion f rom t h is s ect ion i s t hat c hanges f rom o ne c ore r educt ion s trategy t o a nother a re n ot d irect ly r e lated t o t he a va i lab i l ity , a ccess ib i l ity , a nd s ize o f t he r aw mater ia l i n t he r eg ion u nder d iscuss ion . O ther f actors s uch a s t he o n-s ite d urat ion o f t he s tay ( no t ime t o p rocure f resh l umps o f f l int ) , t he amount o f r etoo l ing n eeded f or t he e xecut ion o f c erta in a ct iv it ies ( e .g . , p reparat ion o f h ides ) , t he d iscard o f c urated a rt ifacts o r t he amount o f e xped ient ly made t oo ls , a nd f ina l ly , t he p roduct ion o f o b jects wh ich c onvey messages ( e .g . , d ecorat ions o r r i tua l ist ic t oo ls wh ich d es ignate g roup membersh ip ) d ictate t he f ormat ion p rocesses o f a n a sse mb lage . W ith t h is i n m ind , i t i s e as ier t o e xam ine t he c ave a ssemb lages . I n o ne t ra it , w e f ee l , t he L evant ine Aur ignac ian d iffers f rom b oth e ar l ier a nd l a ter a ssemb lages , n ame ly , i n t he i n tens ive r e-use o f o lder p ieces . T he c ounts f rom Hayon im c ave , l ayer D p rov ide a g ood e xamp le : 1 6% o f t he t oo ls ( n=844 ) a re d oub le p at inated . The ma in c lasses w ith in t h is c ategory a re a s f o l lows : 1 9 .1 % e nd-scrapers , 2 3 .3 % b ur ins , a nd 2 9 .7% n otches a nd d ent icu lates ( Be lfer-Cohen a nd Bar-Yosef 1 981 ) . S im i lar o bservat ions h ave b een made i n o ther s i tes . I t i s t empt ing t o s uggest t hat t he c ave a ssemb lages d iffer f rom o pen-a ir s ites i n t hose f actors wh ich g overn t he a ssemb lage f ormat ion p rocesses ( s ee a bove ) . The p ropos it ion t hat s easona l o r o perat iona l v ar iab les a re r espons ib le f or t he o bserved d ifferences h as a lready b een o ffered ( e .g . , Hodder 1 982 ) a nd i sb ased o n k nown e xamp les s uch a s t he North Austra l ian o ne d escr ibed b y T homson ( 1939 ) . However , wh i le s easona l ity a nd l ocat ion i nf luence f actors s uch a s t he n ature a nd t ype o f h ab ita t ion , t he k ind o f c loth ing u sed , a nd t he c ho ice o f c u lt o b jects , t he ir i nf luence o n t he c ho ice o f f l int t oo l t ypes o r c ore r educt ion s trateg ies i s n ot s e lf-ev ident . F ina l ly , g iven t he s tate o f t he s tud ies o f t he L evant ine Upper P a leo l ith ic , e spec ia l ly i n r ockshe lters a nd c aves , t he c ha l lenge f or f uture r esearch i s c lear . The k ind a nd d egree o f p reservat ion a t t hese s i tes make t hem a s ource o f b oth u nexpected i nformat ion a nd c onstant h eadaches f or t he e xcavators . However , i f we a re h op ing f or a b etter u nderstand ing o f c u ltura l p rocesses i n t h is p er iod , we s hou ld p ick u p t he t rowe l a nd t ry a ga in .
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REFERENCES A lbrecht , G . 1 977 T est ing o f mater ia ls u sed f or b one p o ints o f t he Upper P a leo l ith ic . I n H . Camps-Faber ( ed itor ) Methodo log ie App l iqu e ä l ' I ndustr ie d e / ' Os P rM istor ique , p p . 1 19-124 . P ar is : CNRS . Azoury , I . 1 986 K sar Ak i l , L ebanon . A T echno log ica l a nd T ypo log ica l Ana lys is o f t he T rans it iona l a nd E ar ly Upper P a laeo l ith ic L eve ls o f K sar Ak i l a nd Abu Ha lka . V o lume I : L eve ls XXV-Xi l . BAR I n ternat iona l S er ies 2 89 . O xford : B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports . A rensburg , B . 1 977 N ew Upper P a leo l ith ic r ema ins f rom I s rae l . E retz I srae l 1 3 :208-215 . B akdach , J . 1 982 Das J ung P a läo l ith ikum v on J abrud i n S yr ien . U npub l ished P h .D . d issertat ion , Kö ln Un ivers ity . B ar-Yosef , 0 . 1 987a T he L ate P le istocene i n t he L evant . I n 0 . S offer ( ed itor ) T he P le istocene O ld Wor ld : Reg iona l P erspect ives , p p . 2 19-236 . New Y ork : P lenum P ress . 1 987b Connex ions b etween P le istocene A fr ica a nd s outhwestern A s ia : An a rchaeo log ica l p erspect ive . T he Afr ican A rchaeo log ica l R ev iew 5 :29-38 . i . p .a . Western A s ia ( Chapter 2 3 ) . I n S .J . D e L aet ( ed itor ) T he H istory o ft he S c ient if ic a nd Cu ltura l Deve lopment o f Mank ind , v o l . 1 . P ar is : UNESCO . i . p .b . Upper P le istocene h uman a daptat ions i n S outhwest A s ia . I n E . T r inkaus ( ed itor ) Routes , Corr idors a nd Coa lescence . Cambr idge : Cambr idge Un ivers ity P ress . B a r-Yosef , 0 . , a nd G . Mart in 1 981 L e p rob löme d e l a s ort ie d es g rottes a u Natouf ien : R epart it ion e t l oca l isat ion d es g isements e p ipa l8o l ith iques d u L evant M ed iterranean . B u l let in d e l a S oc ihtä P r M istor ique F ran a ise 7 8 :187-192 . B ar-Yosef , 0 . , a nd J .C . V oge l 1 987 R e lat ive a nd a bso lute c hrono logy o f t he E p i-Pa laeo l ith ic i n t he s outhern L evant . I n 0 . Aurenche , J . E v in , a nd F . H ours ( ed itors ) Chrono log ies i n t he Near E ast . BAR I n ternat iona l S er ies 3 79 . Oxford : B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l Reports . B e lfer-Cohen , A . , a nd 0 . B ar-Yosef 1 981 T he Aur ignac ian a t Hayon im c ave . P a lk sr ient 7 (2) :19-42 . B ergman , C .A . 1 987 K sar Ak i / , L ebanon . A T echno log ica l a nd T ypo log ica l Ana lys is o f t he L ater P a laeo l ith ic L eve ls o f K sar Ak i l . V o lume H : Leve ls X I I I-V I . BAR I nternat iona l S er ies 3 29 . Oxford : B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports . B inford , S . 1 968 E ar ly P a laeo l ith ic a daptat ions i n t he L evant . Amer ican Anthrop o log ist 7 0 :707-717 . B inford , L . 1 981 B ones : Anc ient Men a nd Modern My ths . New York : Academ ic P ress . B lumensch ine , R .J . 1 986 E ar ly Hom in id S caveng ing Opportun it ies . BAR I nternat iona l S er ies 2 83 . Oxford : B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports . Campana , D .V . 1 980 An Ana lys is o f t he U se- Wear P atterns o n Natuf ian a nd P rotoneo l i th ic B one I mp lements . Unpub l ished P h .D . d issertat ion , Co lu mb ia U n ivers ity . C ope land , L . 1 975 T he M idd le a nd U pper P a laeo l ith ic o f L ebanon a nd S y r ia i n t he l i ght o f r ecent r esearch . I n F . Wendorf a nd A .E . Marks ( ed itors ) P rob lems i n
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P reh istory : North Afr ica a nd t he L evant , p p . 3 17-350 . Da l las : S outhern Method ist U n ivers ity P ress . 1 986 I ntroduct ion t o V o lume I .I n I . Azoury ( author ) K sar Ak i l , L ebanon . A T echno log ica l a nd T ypo log ica l Ana lys is o f t he T rans it iona l a nd E ar ly U pper P a laeo l ith ic L eve ls o f K sar Ak i l a nd Abu Ha lka . V o lume I : L eve ls XXV-XI I , p p . 1 -24 . BAR I n ternat iona l S er ies 2 89 . Oxford : B r it ish A rchaeol og ica l R eports . 1 987 P reface . I n C .A . B ergman ( author ) K sar Ak i l , L ebanon . A T echno log ica l a nd T ypo log ica l Ana lys is o f t he L ater P a laeo l ith ic L eve ls o f K sar Ak i l . V o lume I : L eve ls X I I I-V I , p p . i v -xx . BAR I n ternat iona l S er ies 3 29 . Oxford : B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports . Dav is , S . 1 974 I nc ised b ones f rom t he Mouster ian o f K ebara Cave ( Mount Carme l ) a nd t he Aur ignac ian o f Ha-Yon im Cave ( Western Ga l i lee ) , I s rae l . P a tior ient 2 (1 ) :181-182 . 1 977 The u ngu late r ema ins f rom K ebara c ave . E retz I s rae l 1 3 :150-163 . 1 982 C l imate c hange a nd t he a dvent o f d omest icat ion : T he s uccess ion o f r um inant a rt iodaety ls i n t he L ate P le istocene-Ho locene p er iod i n t he I s rae l r eg ion . P a iior ient 8 (2 ) :2-16 . F err ing , C .R . 1 977 The L ate Upper P a leo l ith ic s i te o f E in Aqev E ast . I n A .E . Marks ( ed itor ) P reh istory a nd P a leoenv ironments i n t he C entra l Negev , I srae l , v o l . 2 , p p . 8 1-118 . Da l las : S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress . Garrard , A .N . 1 982 The e nv ironmenta l i mp l icat ions o f ar eana lys is o f t he l arge mam ma l f auna f rom t he Wad i e l-Mughara c aves , P a lest ine . I n J . B int l iff a nd W . V an Z e ist ( ed itors ) P a laeoc l imates , P a /aeoenv ironments a nd Human Com mun it i es i n t he E astern Med iterranean Reg ion i n L ater P reh istory , p p . 1 65-187 . BAR I n ternat iona l S er ies 1 33 . Oxford : B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports . 1 984 Com mun ity e co logy a nd P le istocene e xt inct ions i n t he L evant . I n R . F o ley ( ed itor ) H om in id E vo lut ion a nd Commun ity E co logy , p p . 2 61-277 . New York : Academ ic P ress . Garrod , D .A .E . 1 955 T he Mugharet e l Em ireh i n t he L ower Ga l i lee : Type s tat ion o f t he Em iran i ndustry . J ourna l o f t he Roya l Anthropo log ica l I nst itute 8 5 :1-22 . 1 957 Notes s ur l e P a l8o l ith ique s uper ieur d e Moyen O r ient . B u l let in d e l a S oc iété P räh istor ique F ran9a ise 5 4 :439-446 . Garrod , D .A .E . , a nd D . B ate 1 937 T he S tone Age o f Mount Carme l . Oxford : C larendon P ress . G i lead , I . 1 981 Upper P a laeo l ith ic t oo l a ssemb lages f rom t he N egev a nd S ina i I n J . Cauv in a nd P . S an lav i l le ( ed itors ) P räh isto ire d u L evant , p p . 3 31-342 . Par is : CNRS . 1 983 Upper P a laeo l ith ic o ccurrences i n S ina i a nd t he t rans it ion t o t he E p iP a leo l ith ic i n t he s outhern L evant . P a lior ient 9 (1 ) :39-54 . Go ldberg , P . 1 979 M icromorpho logy o f s ed iments f rom Hayon im c ave . Catena 6 :1671 81 . 1 986 L ate Quaternary e nv ironmenta l h istory o f t he s outhern L evant . Geoarchaeo logy : An I nternat iona l J ourna l 1 :225-244 . Go ldberg , P . , a nd B . B r imer 1 983 L ate P le istocene g eomorph ic s urfaces a nd e nv ironmenta l h istory o f Avdat/Havar im a rea , Naha l Z in I n A .E . Marks ( ed itor ) P reh istory a nd P a /eoenv ironments i n t he Centra l Negev , I s rae l , v o l . 3 . Da l las : S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress .
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Go ldberg , P . , a nd H . L av i l le i . p . T he c o l lapse o f t he Mouster ian s ed imentary r eg i me a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he Upper P a laeo l ith ic a t K ebara c ave , Mount Carme l I n 0 . Bar-Yosef a nd B . V andermeersch ( ed itors ) P reh istor ic I nvest igat ions i n t he S ou thern L evant . BAR I n ternat iona l S er ies . Oxford : B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l Reports . Gor ing-Morr is , A .N . 1 987 A t t he E dge : T erm ina l P le istocene Hunter-Gatherers i n t he Negev a nd S ina i . BAR I n ternat iona l S er ies 3 61 . Oxford : B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports . Goodfr iend , G .A . , a nd M . Magar itz i . p . P a laeoso ls a nd L ate P le istocene r a infa l l f l uctuat ions i n t he Negev Desert . N ature ( i n p ress ) . Haas , G . 1 953 On t he o ccurrence o f h ippopotamus i n t he I r on Age o f t he c oasta l p la in a rea o f I s rae l ( Te l Qas i leh ) . Bu l let in o f t he Amer ican S choo ls o f O r ienta l Research 1 32 :121-140 . H iggs , E .S . 1 967 E nv ironment a nd c hrono logy - t he e v idence f rom mamma l ian f auna . I n C .B .M . McBurney ( author ) T he Haua F teah ( Cyrena ica ) a nd t he S tone Age o f t he S outh-east Med iterranean , p p . 1 49-164 . Cambr idge : Ca mbr idge Un ivers ity P ress . Hodder , I . 1 982 T he P resent P ast . L ondon : B atsford P ress . Kaufman , D . 1 987 I nterassemb lage v ar iab i l ity o f metr ic a ttr ibutes f ro m E th ic a ssemb lages o f t he L ate Upper P a laeo l ith ic o f I s rae l . M itequfat Ha 'even 2 0 :37-49 . Marks , A .E . 1 981 T he Upper P a laeo l ith ic o f t he Negev . I n J . Cauv in a nd P . S an lav i l le ( ed itors ) P rdh isto ire d u L evant , p p . 3 43-352 . P ar is : CNRS . 1 983b The M idd le t o Upper P a laeo l ith ic t rans it ion i n t he L evant . I n F . Wendorf a nd A .E . C lose ( ed itors ) Advances i n Wor ld Archaeo logy , v o l . 2 , p p . 5 1-98 . N ew York : Academ ic P ress . Marks , A .E . ( ed itor ) 1 977 P reh istory a nd P a leoenv ironments i n t he C entra l Negev , I s rae l , v o l . 2 . Da l las : S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress . 1 983a P reh istory a nd P a leoenv ironments i n t he Centra l N egev , I s rae l , v o l . 3 . Da l las : S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress . Marks , A .E . , a nd P . V o lkman 1 986 The Mouster ian o f K sar Ak i l : L eve ls XXV IA t hrough XXV I I IB . P a ldor ient 1 2 :5-20 . MeBurney , C .B .M . 1 967 T he Haua F teah ( Cyrena ica ) a nd t he S tone Age o f t he S outh-east Med iterranean . Cambr idge : Cambr idge Un ivers ity P ress . Neuv i l le , R . 1 951 L e P a töo l ith ique e t l e Mdso l ith ique d u Deser t d e J udöe . P ar is : 2 4 Mö rno ire d es A rch ives d e l ' Inst itut d e P a löonto log ie Huma ine . Newcomer , M .H . 1 970 The c hamfered p ieces f rom K sar Ak i l . B u l let in o f t he I nst itute o f Archaeo logy , L ondon 8 -9 :177-191 . 1 974 S tudy a nd r ep l icat ion o f b one t oo ls f rom K sar A k i l . Wor ld A rchaeo logy 6 (2 ) :138-153 . 1 987 S tudy a nd r ep l ica t ion o f b one t oo ls f rom K sar Ak i l ( Lebanon ) . I n C .A . B ergman ( author ) K sar Ak i l , L ebanon . A T echno log ica l a nd T ypo log ica l Ana lys is o f t he L ater P a laeo l ith ic L eve ls o f K sar Ak i / . V o lume I : Leve ls
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X I I I -V I , p p . 2 84-307 . BAR I n ternat iona l S er ies 3 29 . Oxford : B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports . N ewcomer , M . , a nd J . Watson 1 984 B one a rt ifacts f rom K sar Ak i l ( Lebanon ) . P a ldor ient 1 0 (1 ) :143-148 . O lam i , Y . 1 984 P reh istor ic Carme l . J erusa lem : I s rae l E xp lorat ion S oc iety . P errot , J . 1 955 L e P a läo l ith ique d 'E l Quse ir e t d e Masaraq-en Naa j . I nventa ire d e l a c o l lect ion R . Neuv i l le . B u l let in d e l a S oc idtd P räh istor ique F ranga ise 5 2 :493-506 . P h i l l ips , J .L . 1 987 S ina i d ur ing t he P a laeo l ith ic : T he e ar ly p er iods . I n A .E . C lose ( ed itor ) P reh istory o f Ar id N orth Afr ica , p p . 1 05-122 . Da l las : S outhern Method ist U n ivers ity P ress . R onen , A . 1 984 S efun im P reh istor ic S ites , Mount Carme l , I s rae l . BAR I n ternat iona l S er ies 2 30 . Oxford : B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports . R onen , A . , a nd B . V andermeersch 1 972 The Upper P a leo l ith ic s equence i n t he c ave o f Qafzeh ( I srae l ) . Quaternar ia 1 6 :189-202 . R ust , A . 1 950 D ie Höh lenfunde v on J abrud ( Syr ien ) . Neumünster : K . Wachho ltz . S chwarcz , H .P . , B . B lackwe l l , P . Go ldberg , a nd A .E . Marks 1 979 U ran ium S er ies d at ing o f t ravert ine f rom a rchaeo log ica l s i tes , Naha l Z in , I s rae l . Nature 2 77 :558-560 . S hm ida , A . , M . E venar i , a nd I . Noy-Me ir 1 986 Hot d esert e cosystems . I n M . E venar i ( ed itor ) Hot Deser ts a nd Ar id S hrub lands , p p . 3 79-387 . Amsterdam : E lseve ir S c ience P ub l ishers . S o leck i , R .L . , a nd R .S . S o leck i 1 983 L ate P le istocene - E ar ly Ho locene c u ltura l t rad it ions i n t he Z agros a nd t he L evant . I n T .C . Young , J r . , P .E .L . Sm ith , a nd P . Mortensen ( ed itors ) T he H i l ly F lanks a nd B eyond , p p . 1 23-137 . O r ienta l I n st itute o f C h icago , n o . 3 6 . Ch icago : Un ivers ity o f Ch icago P ress . S peth , J . 1 987 E ar ly h om in id s ubs istence s trateg ies i n s easona l h ab itats . J ourna l o f A rchaeo log ica l S c ience 1 4 :13-29 . T ho mson , D .F . 1 939 The s easona l f acto r i n h uman c u lture . P roceed ings o f t he P reh istor ic S oc iety 5 :209-221 . T ix ier , J . 1 974 Os i nc ise d e K sar Aq i l , L iban . P a ldor ient 2 :123-132 . T ix ier , J . , a nd M .L . I n izan 1 981 K sar ' Aq i l , s trat igraph ie e t e nsemb les l i th iques d ans l e P a läo l ith ique s up8r ieur . F ou l I les 1 971-1975 . I n J . Cauv in a nd P . S an lav i l le ( ed itors ) P rih isto ire d u L evan t , p p . 3 53-368 . P ar is : CNRS . V o lk man , P . 1 983 B oker T acht it : Core r econstruct ions . I n A .E . Marks ( ed itor ) P reh istory a nd P a leoenv ironments i n t he Centra l Negev , I s rae l , v o l . 3 , p p . 1 27-190 . D a l las : S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress . Z iffer , D . 1 978 The u se o f t echno log ica l a nd metr ic d ata i n t he s tudy o f f our L evant ine Aur ignac ian s i tes i n t he M t . Carme l r eg ion . A p re l im inary s tudy . P a lior ient 4 :71-95
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T HE E ARLY U PPER P ALEOL ITH IC O FT HE L EVANT Anthony E . Marks Department o f Anthropo logy S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity Da l las , T exas U .S .A . C . Re id F err ing I nst itute o f App l ied S c iences Un ivers ity o f N orth T exas D enton , T exas U .S .A .
I NTRODUCT ION On ly r ecent ly h as i t b een p oss ib le t o s er ious ly c ons ider a r ev iew o f t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic o f t he L evant , d esp ite t he f act t hat Upper P a leo l ith ic s tud ies i n t h is r eg ion h ave b een i nterm ittent ly a ct ive s ince t he t urn o f t he c entury . I n t he l ast t wo d ecades a wea lth o f n ew d ata h ave b een g enerated f rom n ew e xcavat ions a nd r estudy o f o lder c o l lect ions o f a sse mb lages . The r esu lts o f t hese e fforts p er m it f resh v iews o n s evera l a spects o f t he L evant ine e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic . F irst , r ecent e xcavat ions i n t he N egev h ave s hown more c lear ly t han a ny o thers t hat t here was a t rue d eve lopmenta l t rans it ion f rom t he M idd le t o Upper P a leo l ith ic i n t h is r eg ion . T hese d ata h ave f ostered more v iab le i n terpretat ions o f i n it ia l Upper P a leo l ith ic a ssemb lages f rom t he n orthern L evant , p art icu lar ly t hose f rom K sar Ak i l . A s a r esu lt , i t i s n ow p oss ib le t o d ist ingu ish I n it ia l Upper P a leo l ith ic a sse mb lages f rom l a te Mouster ian o nes a nd , i n f act , t o d ef ine t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic . S econd , as ign if icant n umber o f Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes , d ated c a . 3 7 ,0002 0 ,000 B .P . a nd l ocated i n t he N egev a nd S ina i , h ave b een e xcavated i n t he l ast t wo d ecades . Comb ined w ith a sma l ler n umber o f r ecent e xcavat ions i n t he n orthern L evant , a much i mproved d ata b ase f or t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic h as b een g enerated . T hese d ata b ear o n p atterns o f i ndustr ia l a nd f unct iona l v ar iab i l ity , b oth s pat ia l a nd t empora l , w ith in t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic . Wh i le much r e ma ins t o b e l ea rned , t he c haracter o f t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic may n ow b e d i scussed s er ious ly . L ast ly , s ign if icant d i scover ies o f h uman f oss i ls h ave s hown t hat i n t he L evant t he t rans it ion t o b io log ica l ly modern p opu lat ions was c o mp leted d ur ing t he M idd le P a leo l ith ic . A ccord ing ly , t echno log ica l a nd f unct iona l c hange d ur ing a nd a fter t he M idd le t o U pper P a leo l ith ic t rans it ion c an b e a ddressed w ithout a l lus ion t o b io log ica l e vo lut ion . I n t he f o l low ing d iscuss ions , t he c haracter o f t he I n it ia l Upper P a leo l ith ic i s e xam ined i n l i ght o f e v idence f or a d eve lopmenta l t rans it ion f rom M idd le t o U pper P a leo l ith ic . E v idence f or r eg iona l v ar iat ion i n t he e ar l iest Upper P a leo l ith ic a sse mb lages i s c ons idered f rom i ndustr ia l a nd f unct iona l p erspec-
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t i ves . T he r ema inder o f t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic i st hen e xam ined i n t erms o f s a l ient p atterns o f v ar iab i l ity a s t hey a re n ow u nderstood : t echno-funct iona l t rad it ions , i n ters ite f unct iona l v ar iab i l ity , a nd i n tras ite v ar iab i l ity . S ince t he c entra l L evant i sc ons idered i n as eparate p aper ( Bar-Yosef , t h is v o lume ) , o ur d iscuss ions f ocus o n s i tes i n t he s outhern a nd n orthern L evant . T he g eograph ic-env ironmenta l s ett ings o f t hese s i tes , a s we l l a s t he ir s t ra t igraph icc hronometr ic r e lat ions a re d iscussed b e low , a s ap re lude t o t he a rchaeo log ica l d iscuss ions .
GEOGRAPH IC AND ENV IRONMENTAL S ETT ING T he L evant i s a n e nv ironmenta l ly d iverse r eg ion , e xtend ing a long t he e astern Med iterranean c oast f rom s outhern T urkey t o n orthern S ina i ( F igure 1 ) . B ecause o f s tr ik ing d ifferences i n l oca l t opography , s hort d i stances a re o ften marked b y d ramat ic c hanges i n p rec ip itat ion , s o i ls , a nd v egeta t ion . I n t he most g enera l t erms , t here i s a s er ies o f p hys iograph ic z ones t hat o ccur a s b ands p ara l le l ing t he c oast . Wh i le t h is may s uggest t hat e nv ironmenta l d ifferences a re a l l e xpressed i n t erms o f d istance f rom t he c oast , c erta in n orth-south d i fferences a re a lso i mportant . P rec ip itat ion d ec l ines f rom n orth t o s outh a nd f rom west t o e ast . T hus , t opography a nd r eg iona l c l imates d ef ine a c omp lex o f m icroenv ironmenta l z ones w ith in a b roader c ontext o f ac ore Med iterranean z one f l anked b y s em i-ar id t o a r id z ones t o t he e ast a nd s outh . T he L evant i s a v ery sma l l r eg ion . I t i s o n ly a bout 9 0 km f rom t he Med iterranean c oast a t B e irut t o t he w estern e dge o f t he S y r ian Desert , a nd o n ly 4 00 km f rom t he Centra l Negev t o t he s outhern c oast o f S y r ia . T hus , c ons iderab le e nv ironmenta l d ivers ity was w ith in t he p otent ia l e xp lo itat ive z one o f L evant ine Upper P a leo l ith ic g roups . P resent ly , a verage a nnua l p rec ip itat ion r anges f rom a h igh o f o ver 6 00 mm i n n orthern I s rae l a nd s outhern L ebanon , t o al ow o f l ess t han 1 00 mm i n t he Centra l Negev a nd S ina i . I n t he marg ina l z ones , h owever , p rec ip itat ion may v ary f rom 2 5 mm t o o ver 1 50 mm a nnua l ly ; t hese z ones a re n ot o n ly d ry , b ut t hey a re u npred ictab le i n p er iod ic e xtremes o f c l imate . The p resent e nv ironmenta l p icture , h owever , i sn ot a n a ccurate r ef lect ion o f p ast e nv ironments . Dur ing t he l ong Upper P a leo l ith ic p er iod ( ca . 4 5 ,000 t o 2 0 ,000 B .P . ) s ign if icant p a leoc l imat ic a nd e nv ironmenta l c hanges a re d ocumented ( Horow itz 1 979 ; L ero i-Gourhan 1 980 ; B ottema a nd V an Z e ist 1 981) . E ven d ur ing mo ist p hases o f t he Upper P le istocene , r eg iona l c l imat ic d ifferences were e v ident i n t he L evant . Dur ing t he mo ist p hases , e nv ironmenta l c ond it ions i n t he marg ina l z ones i mproved , y et t hese a reas a lways e xh ib ited c ons istent ly l ower r esource p otent ia ls t han d id t he c ore Med iterranean z one . D ry , c o ld c ond it ions p reva i led i n n orthern S yr ia d ur ing E uropean g lac ia l max ima , a nd t he s outhern L evant b eca me d ry a nd h ot when c ond it ions t o t he n orth ame l iorated .
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C l imat ic f luctuat ions h ad a n o bv ious e ffect o n f l ora l a nd f auna l r esources , a nd t hese s econdar i ly i nf luenced h uman s ett lement a nd e xp lo itat ion p otent ia ls i n t he v ar ious L evant ine e nv ironments . E ven d ur ing c l ima t ica l ly o pt i ma l p er iods o f t he Upper P a leo l ith ic , h uman o ccupat ion i n t he s outhern z one was n ecessar i ly f ocused n ear p erenn ia l s pr ings a nd s easona l ly a ct ive w ad is . I n c ontrast , o ccupat ions i n t he n orth were n ot c onstra ined b y l im ited s urface water . On t he o ther h and , c aves i n t he c entra l a nd n orthern L evant s eem ing ly i n f luenced h uman s ett le-
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F igure 1 . Map o f t he L evant , s how ing g eograph ic r eg ions a nd U pper P a leo l ith ic s i tes . 4 5
ment . ( These s ett ings h ave , b y d ifferent ia l p reservat ion o f a rchaeo log ica l r ecords , c erta in ly i nf luenced p ercept ions o f s e tt lement s yste ms i n t hose a reas . ) T he a bsence o f e aves i n t he s outhern L evant n ot o n ly f orced a d ifferent v is ion o f t he l andscape , b ut a lso r esu lted i n a n a rchaeo log ica l r ecord o f d ifferent c haracter t han t hat o f t he c entra l a nd n orthern L evant . A l l o f t hese f actors must b e a pprec ia ted i n o rder t o u nderstand t o t he e xtent p oss ib le t he d ivers ity a nd d eve lopment o f t he Upper P a leo l ith ic i n t he L evant . Cave s i tes a re n ot , a p r ior i , c omparab le t o o pen s i tes ; a reas w ith a bundant s urface water may b e u sed q u ite d ifferent ly t han a reas where s pr ings were w ide ly s paced , p lac ing c onstra ints o n o ccupat ion p otent ia ls .
THE UPPER PALEOL ITHIC OF THE LEVANT I n it ia l f ormu lat ions o f L evant ine Upper P a leo l ith ic d eve lopment ( Neuv i l le 1 934 ; Garrod a nd B ate 1 937 ) s aw a u n i l inear e vo lut ionary s equence b eg inn ing w ith av ery e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic s t i l l r i fe w ith M idd le P a leo l ith ic f orms ( Neuv i l le 's P hases Ia nd I ) , p ass ing t hrough a p er iod ( Phase I I ) w ith a h igh ly d eve loped b lade t echno logy a nd r e lat ive ly f ew s o-ca l led Aur ignac ian t ypes , i nto t wo p er iods ( Phases I V a nd V ) o f marked a ccentuat ion o f Aur ignac ian t oo l t ypes , a nd a n a ssoc ia ted l oss o f s ign if icant b lade t echno logy . Th is p ercept ion was b ased o n t he o ften l im ited s trat igraph ic c ave s equences i n P a lest ine ; c hronostrat igraph ic s equences were u ncr it ica l ly a ccepted a s d eve lopmenta l o nes . W ith a m inor e xcept ion ( Gor ing- Morr is 1 987 ) , i t i s n ow r ecogn ized t hat t h is s imp le u n i l inear e vo lut ionary s equence h ad n o h istor ic r ea l ity ( Bar-Yosef 1 980 ; G i lead 1 981 , 1 983 ; Marks 1 981a ; B ergman 1 987 ) . I t i s a pparent t hat t he e ar l iest p ort ions o f t he t rue L evant ine Upper P a leo l ith ic a re l im ited t o a sseml ages e xh ib it ing a d om inant b lade t echno logy a nd a p auc ity o f Aur ignac ian t oo l t ypes ( perhaps p art o f Neuv i l le 's P hase I I ) . B eyond t hat , h owever , t he p resent p icture i sc omp lex , b oth i n t erms o f a ssemb lage v ar iab i l ity a nd c hrono logy . U s ing a r easonab ly l arge n umber o f a ssemb lages f rom o pen-a ir s i tes i n t he s outhern L evant , t wo d ist inct Upper P a leo l ith ic t rad it ions h ave b een p ostu lated : t he Ahmar ian a nd L evant ine Aur ignac ian ( G i lead 1 981 ; Marks 1 981a ) . A lthough f u l l a greement o n a l l a ssemb lage a ttr ibut ions i s l ack ing [ f or e xamp le S de D ivshon ( G i lead 1 981 ; Marks 1 981a ) ] , . t here i s c ons iderab le a greement a s t o t he ma in c r iter ia wh ich d ist ingu ish t hese t rad it ions . F undamenta l d ifferences l i e i n t echno log ica l a pproaches t o b lank p roduct ion . I n t he Ahmar ian , t he l i th ic t echno logy i s s trong ly b lade o r iented , u t i l iz ing c rested b lades f or c ore p reparat ion , c ore e dge a bras ion a nd a c ore t ab let t echn ique f or p latform ma intenance a nd r e juvenat ion . Core f lak ing s urfaces were ma inta ined t o p roduce l ong , n arrow b lades a nd b lade lets wh ich , wh i le o ften i ncurvate , w ere r are ly t w isted i n p rof i le . I n t he L evant ine Aur ignac ian , o n t he o ther h and , c ore r educt ion s trateg ies i nc luded b oth a r ather i r regu lar f lake p roduc ing s trategy , a nd a s imp ler b lade p roduct ion s trategy t hat r esu lted i n l arge , h eavy b lades . I n a dd it ion , b lade lets were p roduced a s p art o f a n Aur ignac ian c ar inated t oo l-core t echno logy . These sma l l , h igh ly t w isted b lade lets a re v ery d ist inct f rom Ahmar ian b lade lets . Typo log ica l ly , a ssemb lages f rom t hese t wo t rad it ions a re u sua l ly q u ite d i st inct . P art ly , t h is i sb ecause o f t he d ifferent c haracter o f t he b lanks p roduced , a nd p art ly , n o d oubt , b ecause o f d iffer ing c oncepts o f d es irab le t oo l f orms . I t i s
4 6
u n l ike ly , h owever , t hat t hese d ifferences r ef lect marked f unct iona l d ifferences , a t l east i n t he Negev . T here , a ssemb lages o f b oth t rad it ions o ccur i n e nv ironmenta ll y c omparab le s i tuat ions a nd o ften i n n ear ly t he s ame l ocat ions . The g eograph ic s pread a nd t empora l d urat ion o f t he t wo t rad it ions a re n ot y et f u l ly d ef ined . Wh i le n umerous s i tes o f b oth t rad it ions a re n ow k nown f rom a l l o ver t he s outhern L evant ( Marks 1 981a ; B aruch a nd B ar-Yosef 1 986 ; Henry 1 986 ; Co inman , p ersona l c ommun icat ion ) , t he p icture i n t he n orthern L evant i s l ess c lear . F or t he most p art , Upper P a leo l ith ic o ccupat ion o f t he c entra l a nd n orthern L evant i s k nown f rom a f ew d eep ly s trat if ied c aves ( e .g . , Garrod a nd B ate 1 937 ; R ust 1 950 ; B ergman 1 987 ) wh ich , wh i le p rov id ing e xce l lent r e lat ive s trat igraphy , y ie ld a n u nre l iab le p icture o f g eograph ic d istr ibut ion . T he s trat if ied s i tes , h owever , p rov ide d ata l arge ly u nava i lab le i n t he s outhern L evant where s i tes a re e i ther u nstrat if ied o r t end t o c onta in s trat if ied a sse mb lages w ith t he s ame t echno log ica l a nd t ypo log ica l man ifestat ions . Yet , i n t he s outhern L evant , s i tes h ave p roduced a g ood n umber o f r ad iocarbon d ates t hat h ave h e lped e stab l ish a c hrono log ica l s equence . T hese , c omb ined w ith t he f ew d ates a nd l ong s trat ig raph ic r ecords f rom t he n orthern c ave s i tes p erm its u s t o s ay u nequ ivoca l ly t hat t he Ahmar ian a nd L evant ine Aur ignac ian t rad it ions h ave a s ign if icant t empora l o ver lap . There a re s ome e xcept ions t o t he c lear d ist inct ion b etween t he t wo t rad it i ons . The most i mportant i ss een i n t he l ong s trat igraph ic s equence a t K sar Ak i l ( Lebanon ) where , i n L eve ls X I I I t h rough I X , t he a ssemb lages a ppear t o c onta in a n Ahmar ian t echno logy a ssoc iated w ith a v ar iab le L evant ine Aur ignac ian t oo l c omp onent ( Ohnuma a nd B ergman , i n p ress ) . I n a dd it ion , s ome o f t he d isagree ment o n p lacement o f t he N egev s i te S de D ivshon ( Ferr ing 1 976 ) i n to o ne o r t he o ther t rad it ion s eems t o s tem f rom a s im i lar a ssoc iat ion . Wh i le t hese " intermed iate" a ssemb lages a re v ex ing , t hey may we l l p o int t o t he o r ig in o f t he L evant ine Aur ign ac ian , a s w i l l b e d iscussed i n more d eta i l l ater .
OR IG INS OF THE LEVANT INE UPPER PALEOL ITH IC The o r ig in o f t he L evant ine Upper P a leo l ith ic i sn ow k nown t o l i e i n al ong d eve lop menta l t rans it ion o ut o f t he L evant ine Mouster ian ( Marks 1 983 , i n p ress a ) . Un l ike E urope , t he s h if t f rom t he M idd le t o Upper P a leo l ith ic was n ot marked , a s a l ready n oted , b y a r ep lacement o f o ne f oss i l t ype w ith a nother . Nor was i t marked b y ar ad ica l r ep lacement o f o ne s et o f t oo l t ypes w ith a nother , o r b y a r ap id c hange f rom a f lake t o a b lade t echno logy . I n t he L evant , t oo l t ypes g enera l ly c ons idered t o r epresent a n Upper P a leo l ith ic l eve l i n E urope ( ends crapers , b ur ins , b orers a nd b acked k n ives ) were c om mon i n t he e ar ly L evant ine Mouster ian ( Marks , i n p ress b ) a nd , a t s uch s i tes a s Rosh E in Mor ( Crew 1 976 ) , t hey were e ven d om inant when c ompared w ith o ccurrences o f t yp ica l Mouster ian t oo ls ( Mouster ian p o ints , l imaces , a nd s ide-scrapers ) . E ven p r ismat ic b lade p roduct ion h as a l ong t rad it ion i n t he L evant . Cons istent b lade p roduct ion i s s een i n t he E ar ly L evant ine Mouster ian ( ca . 7 0 ,000 B .P . ) , a nd i s e ven a s ign if icant e lement o f t he Amud ian f ac ies o f t he Mughar ian t rad it ion o f t he L evant ine c oast ( Je l inek 1 982 , i n p ress ) a nd t he Humma l ian o f e astern S yr ia ( Bergman a nd Ohnuma 1 983 ; Hours 1 982 ) , b oth o f wh ich a re d ated t o t he L ast I nterg lac ia l p er iod ( ca . 1 20 ,000 B .P . ) . A lthough n ot we l l d ated , t he M idd le P a leo l ith ic s equence a t Douara C ave i n c entra l S yr ia c lear ly d ocuments a p ervas ive b lade t echno logy u nder ly ing a t yp ica l , b lady e ar ly L evant ine Mouster ian ( N ish iak i 1 987 ) . T hese o ccurrences a re
4 7
n ot r are , a nd i t i s c lear t hat o ne a spect o f t he e ar l iest L evant ine M idd le P a leol i th ic was a s trong o r ientat ion t owards b lade p roduct ion . I n t he L evant , t herefore , t he t rad it iona l h a l lmarks o f t he E uropean Upper P a leo l ith ic - c ons istent b lade p roduct ion a nd a t oo l s u ite o f e nd-scrapers , b ur ins , b orers , a nd b acked k n ives - a re n ot s uff ic ient c r iter ia f or r ecogn iz ing t he emergence o f a n Upper P a leo l ith ic o ut o f aM idd le P a leo l ith ic b ase . T h is makes a ny d ef in it ion d iff icu lt a nd , t o s ome e xtent , r ather a rb itrary a s must b e e xpected when a d eve lopmenta l s equence i s i nvo lved . T o d ef ine a n I n it ia l U pper P a leol i th ic , a s o pposed t o a t erm ina l M idd le P a leo l ith ic , o ne must c ontend w ith a c omp lex p attern o f t ypo log ica l-techno log ica l c hange a nd s ynchron ic v ar iab i l ity t hat , u nfortunate ly , i sn ot a lways e as i ly u nderstood . A t t h is t ime , i t s eems t hat t he c learest c r iter ion f or d raw ing a l i ne b etween t he t erm ina l M idd le P a leo l ith ic a nd t he I n it ia l Upper P a leo l ith ic l i es n e ither i n t he morpho logy o f t he b lanks p roduced n or i n t he t oo l f orms made o n t hem , b ut r ather i n t he d ifferences i n c ore r educt ion s trateg ies t hat w ere u sed t o p roduce t he t oo l b lanks i n t he f i rst p lace . I n t h is c ase , i t i s as h ift f rom a s pec ia l ized , o pposed p latform L eva l lo is p o int r educt ion s trategy t o ac ons istent , s ing le p latform b lade c ore r educt ion s trategy . Emphas is i sp laced o n l i th ie r educt ion s trateg ies b ecause b oth s trateg ies p roduced l arge n umbers o f morpho log ica l ly s im i lar b lanks ( H ieta la 1 983 ) , wh i le t he t oo l t ypes p roduced o n e ither s i de o f t he l i ne were e ssent ia l ly t he s ame ( Marks a nd Kaufman 1 983 ) . T h is t echno log ica l t rans it ion h as b een c lear ly d ocumented a t t he s t i l l u n ique s i te o f B oker T aeht it i n t he Centra l N egev , I s rae l ( H ieta la 1 983 ; V o lkman 1 983 ) . T he s i te c ons ists o f f our p r imary c ontext f l oors i n s i tu i n f i ne o verbank a l luv ia l d epos its a long t he Naha l Z in ( Go ldberg 1 983 ) . Three o f t he f our l eve ls were e xcavated s uff ic ient ly t o p erm it a d eta i led e xam inat ion o f t he t echno log ica l a nd t ypo log ica l c haracter o f t he s trat if ied a ssemb lages . E xtens ive c on jo in ing o f c ores , t oo ls , a nd d eb itage was a ccomp l ished ( Vo lkman 1 983 ) . T hese s tud ies p erm itted d ef in it ion o f t he r educt ion s trateg ies a nd t he ir v ar iants , a s w e l l a s t he b lank f orms p roduced w ith in e ach a ssemb lage ( H ieta la 1 983 ) . M in i ma l t ypo log ica l c hange was o bserved among l eve ls ( F igure 2 ) . On ly t he p roport iona l o ccurrence o f e nd-scrapers i ncrease t h rough t he l eve ls , a nd , w ith a l arger s amp le o f e nds crapers i n t he l atest a sse mb lage , a s omewhat g reater n umber o f e nd-scraper t ypes o ccurred ( Tab le 1 ) . On t he o ther h and , c ore r educt ion s trateg ies e xh ib ited a c lear p attern o f t empora l ly v ectored c hange . Wh i le s ome i n tra leve l v ar iab i l ity a nd s ome e xamp les o f i d iosyncrat ic b ehav ior were e v ident , t he p attern o f s h ift ing r educt ion s trateg ies was f rom o pposed p latform , L eva l lo is p o int c ore p roduct ion i n t he l owest l eve l t o s ing le p latform b lade c ore r educt ion i n t he u ppermost a sse mb lage ( Marks a nd V o lkman 1 983 ) . S ince t he s pec ia l ized o pposed p latform L eva l lo is p o int c ore s trategy a ppears t o l ack e xact p ara l le ls i n E urope , ab r ief d escr ipt ion o f t h is t echno logy i s warranted . The s trategy p roduced o ne o r more e longa ted p o ints p er c ore , a l though s ome c ore r econstruct ions i nd icate t hat a ctua l p o in t p roduct ion was n ot a lways a ch ieved ( or d es ired p erhaps ) . The s equence o f s teps may b e s u mmar ized a s f o l lows : a . F irst , an odu le was d ecort if ied b y a l ternate r emova l o f n u merous f lakes f rom a r idge o r r idges a long t he l ong a x is o f t he n odu le , a nd a t t imes o n r idges a t e ither e nd o f t he c ore . T hese r idges s et u p c rests f or s ubsequent r emova l o f l ames ä c rite .
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a
b
C
9
h
i
i
k
F igure 2 . Too ls f rom B oker T acht it , L eve l 1 : a -e . r etouched L eva l lo is p o ints ; i . L eva l lo is p o int ; j . p o int/b lade ; f . n otched f lake ; g . d ista l d ent icu late ; h . e nds craper ; k . a typ ica l e nd-scraper ( f rom Marks a nd Kauf man 1 983 ) .
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Tab le 1 . Too l I nd ices f or B oker Tacht it
L EVEL
S crapers
B urins
P oints
D enticulatesN otches
R etouched P ieces
I
9 .8
1 1.2
4 8.4
1 1.3
1 2.4
8 9
I I
1 3.6
2 1.6
2 6.8
1 9.6
1 1.6
2 49
-
8 .0
5 2.0
2 0.0
1 6.0
2 5
2 6.2
9 .2
3 9.9
1 0.9
9 .8
1 93
I II I V
5 0
b . P latforms were t hen e stab l ished a t e ach e nd o f t he ma jor c rested r i dge , b y r e mova l o f t he sma l ler c rests , o r b y a s er ies o f sma l l f l akes . I n e i ther e ase f aceted p latforms were f ormed . c . Once t he c ore was p repared i n t he a bove f ash ion , al ame ä c räte was d etached a long t he l ong a x is o f t he c ore . Wh i le t h is may b e c ons idered mere ly a s tage i n c ore p reparat ion , t he l ames ä c re 'te t end t o b e t he l argest a nd h eav iest b lades p roduced , a nd t hey were c hosen a s b lanks f or r etouched t oo ls i n p roport ions a t l east e qua l t o a ny o ther b lank f orms i n t he a ssemb lages ( Marks a nd Kauf man 1 983 ) . d . F o l low ing r emova l o f t he c rest , t he r esu lt ing n egat ive s car t hen f ormed t he s urface f rom wh ich s ubsequent p ieces were d etached , e xcept ing f lakes r e moved d ur ing p latform r e juvenat ion . A fter f ormat ion o f t h is f l ak ing s urface , as er ies o f b lades ( u sua l ly l ess t han f i ve ) were d etached f rom t he d ista l p ort ion o f t he c ore work ing f ace . T he p rox ima l p latform ( that f rom wh ich t he l ame ä c räte was s t ruck ) was t hen f l aked u nt i l t he n egat ive s car f rom t he l a me ä c röte was r e moved , a nd a s er ies o f sma l l b lades was d etached a long t he c ore f lak ing s urface . A t t h is s tage t hen , t he c ore e xh ib ited mu lt ip le o pposed b lade s cars t hat c onverged a pprox imate ly i n t he m idd le o f t he c ore f l ak ing s urface . e . After s u itab le p reparat ion o f t he f lak ing s urface , o ne o f t he p latforms was r e juvenated a nd a b lade was d etached . T h is b lade i s a lmost a lways c lass if iab le a s a L eva l lo is p o int , a t t imes w ith a c o mp lex a rret p attern , b ut o ften w ith t he t yp ica l Y -arrete p attern o f t he c lass ic L eva l lo is p o int . T he o n ly d ifference b etween t hese p o ints a nd t hose o f t he e ar ly L evant ine Mouster ian i s t hat t he f or mer a lways e xh ib it b i-d irect iona l s ears : t he o uter t wo f rom t he d ista l e nd a nd t he c entra l s ear f rom t he p rox ima l . V irtua l ly a l l L eva l lo is p o ints f rom t he e ar ly L evant ine Mouster ian were p roduced b y p rox ima l , u n id irect iona l f lak ing o f t he p o int c ores ( Crew 1 976 ) . A lthough t h is wa s n ot t he o n ly s trategy u sed , i n t he l owest l eve l a t B oker Tach t it i t a ccounted f or o ver 4 2% o f t he i dent if iab le c ore r econstruct ions . Another 4 0 % were r educed i n t he s ame manner , b ut f a i led t o p roduce t ypo log ic a l ly a cceptab le L eva l lo is p o ints ; t hese c ores were c lass if ied a s o pposed p latform f lake/b lade c ores ( Vo lkman 1 983 :136 ) . Reconstruct ions o f t he r ema in ing c ores d id n ot p rov ide c lear r educt ion s equence p atterns , e xcept i n o ne c ase , a p art ia l r econstruct ion s uggested a r ather c lass ic s ing le p latform b lade c ore w ith a n a ssoc iated l ame ä c röte p reparat ion ( Marks a nd V o lkman 1 983 :20 , f ig . 3 ) . Overa l l , c ore r educt ion s trateg ies h ere were s tr ik ing ly u n iform , e xh ib it ing v ar iat ions o n ly when a d justments were r equ ired t o c orrect e rrors o r t o d ea l w ith i mperfect ions i n t he r aw mater ia l . The r educt ion s t rategy d escr ibed f or L eve l 1a ccounted f or a bout 8 0% o f t he r econstructed c ores i n t hat l eve l . A l arger s amp le o f c ores was r ecovered f rom t he n ext y oungest o ccupat ion h or izon ( Leve l 2 ) . I n t h is a ssemb lage , s ome 1 15 c ores were r econstructed . P atterns o f c ore r educt ion s een i n L eve l 1c ont inu ed i n L eve l 2 , b ut w ith a s ign if icant mod if icat ion . T he s equenc ing o f c ore p reparat ions was t he s ame , b ut i n L eve l 2t he L eva l lo is p o int was o n ly r are ly t he f ina l p roduct . I nstead , f or a lmost h a lf t he c ores , b lades were r e moved a fter d etachment o f t he L eva l lo is p o int . I n a dd it ion , t here was a t endency t o p roduce more b lades d ur ing t he p reparat ion o f t he c ore f lak ing s urface p r ior t o t he d etachment o f t he L eva l lo is p o int .
5 1
A lthough t here i s n o q uest ion a s t o t he L eva l lo is c haracter o f t he p o ints p roduced i n t he L eve l 2a ssemb lages , c erta in d if ferences f rom t hose o f L eve l 1 a re e v ident . On s ome L eve l 2p o ints o n ly o ne d i sta l s ear i s e v ident . F urther , t here i s a n i ncrease i n t he n umber o f c ores t hat e xh ib it s ing le p latform ( un id irect i ona l ) r educt ion s trateg ies , a nd t here a re s ome c ores wh ich w ere r educed b y u s ing t wo o r more u nopposed p latforms . R educt ion o f many o f t he s ing le p latform c ores i n L eve l 2r epresents a v ar iat ion o n t he s trateg ies u sed f or t he o pposed p latform c ores . F o l low ing r emova l o f t he l a me ä c r ke , ap latform was p repared o n t he o ppos ite e nd o f t he c ore . T hereafter , o n ly t hat p latform was u sed f or b lade d etachments . O ther s ing le p latform c ores f rom t h is l eve l , h owever , e xh ib it a h ard-hammer , n onL eva l lo is b lade r educt ion s trategy t hat b ecomes d om inant i n t he u ppermost l eve l o f t he s i te ( Leve l 4 ) . I n L eve l 2 , n on-Leva l lo is b lade p roduct ion i s l im ited t o t he u se o f t h in , t abu lar f l int n odu les . A p latform was made a t o ne e nd b y r e mova l o f o ne o r more f lakes , e ach o f wh ich r emoved t he e nt ire s ect ion o f t he n odu le . T hese f lakes a re s im i lar t o c ore t ab lets , e xcept t hat t hey were n ot u sed f or p latform r e juvenat ion , o n ly f or i n it ia l p latform p reparat ion . P robab ly b ecause o f t he n atura l s hape o f t he n odu les , n o c rest ing a nd l ame ä c r ' äte r emova l were r equ ired . A l l d ecort if icat ion was d one b y u n id irect iona l r emova l o f e longated p r i mary e lements . F o l low ing d ecort if icat ion o f t he c ore work ing f ace , a nother s er ies o f b lades w ithout c ortex was d etached . P latforms were r e juvenated e ither b y r emova l o f ac ore t ab let o r a t t imes b y f acet ing . Wh i le o ther r educt ion s trateg ies were d ocumented i n t he L eve l 2a sse mb lage , t hey a re q u ite v ar iab le , a nd d o n ot r ef lect a ny c ons istent mode o f p roduct ion . A s ide f rom t he s h ift t owards i ncreased b lade p roduct ion ( separate f rom L eva l lo is p o int p reparat ion ) , t he most a pparent c hange i s i n t he s e lect ion o f l arge b locks o f r aw mater ia l f or u se a s c ore b lanks . I n many c ases , t h is s eems t o h ave b een d one t o a ccom modate p roduct ion o f l arger b lades a nd L eva l lo is p o ints . I n o ther c ases , t he l arge b locks were s imp ly s p l it i n to s evera l sma l ler b locks , e ach o f wh ich was u sed a b lank f or a s eparate c ore . I n g enera l , c ore r educt ion s trateg ies i n L eve l 2s how a c ont inua t ion o f L eva l lo is p atterns o f L eve l 1 , a s we l l a s n on-Leva l lo is p atterns o f r educt ion . Wh i le c ons iderab le v ar iab i l ity i n r educt ion s trateg ies i sc lear , t he b lanks p roduced r ema in e ssent ia l ly t he s ame a s t hose i n L eve l 1( H ieta la 1 983 ) . A rt ifact s amp les f rom L eve l 3 were t oo p oor t o warrant d eta i led d i scuss ion . Qua l itat ive ly , h owever , t he l i th ic a rt ifacts f rom L eve l 3a re c ons istent w ith p atterns o f v ectored c hange s een among l eve ls 1 ,2 , a nd 4 ( Vo lkman 1 983 ) .
THE I N IT IAL UPPER PALEOL ITH IC I t i s t he L eve l 4a ssemb lage f rom B oker T ach t it t hat r epresents t he f i rst t rue Upper P a leo l ith ic t echno logy : t he I n it ia l Upper P a leo l ith ic ment ioned a bove . Cont inu ity w ith L eve l 2i s s een i n t he u se o f t he h ard h am mer f or d eb itage r emova l a nd i n t he t endency t o s e lect l arge n odu les f or c ore r educt ion . I n a dd it ion , t he s ing le p latform c ore r educt ion s trategy , wh ich f i r st a ppeared i n L eve l 2( the o ne w ithout c rest ing ) , b ecomes d om inant h ere , a ccount ing f or 4 3 o f t he 5 2 c ores r ecovered ( F igure 3 b ) . T here a re s l ight v ar iat ions i n r educt ion ( F igure 3 a ) , d epend ing o n t he i n it ia l s ize o f t he n odu le ; i f i t w as t h in , t hen t he s t rategy d escr ibed f or L eve l 2p erta ined . I fi t was t oo l arge t o s t r ike o ff t he who le o f t he p latform w ith a s ing le b low , t he p latform was r ough ly f aceted , b ut s ubsequent
5 2
a
b
F igure 3 . I n it ia l U pper P a leo l ith ic c ores f rom B oker T ach t it , L eve l 4 : a . o pposed p latform c ore ; b . s ing le p la tform b lade c ore w ith f aceted p la tform ( f rom Marks a nd K aufman 1 983 ) .
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p latform r e juvenat ion was d one t h rough t he c ore t ab let t echn ique . F ina l ly , when av ery l arge b lock was c hosen , f acet ing o f t he p latform r e ma ined t he means o f p latform r e juvenat ion . I n t hese e ases , h owever , t he r e juvenat ion was d one p iecemea l , a ffect ing o n ly sma l l p ort ions o f t he p latform a t a ny o ne t ime . T hese l a tter c ores t end t o b e p yram ida l i n s hape ( F igure 3 b ) , a nd n orma l ly y ie lded b lades w ith c onverg ing l a tera l e dges a nd f a ir ly l arge p latforms . Deb itage d er ived f rom t hese c ores , w ith l arge p latforms a nd s ym metr ica l ly c onverg ing e dges , a re morpho log ic a l ly i dent ica l t o t he L eva l lo is p o ints f rom t he l ower l eve ls ( F igure 4 a-4d ) a nd , f or t hat matter , t o t hose f ound i n e ar ly L evant ine Mouster ian c ontexts . I n c ontrast t o t he p o ints f rom t he l ower l eve ls , h owever , t hese p o ints a l l e xh ib it u n id irect iona l s ears , s ince a l l were r emoved f rom s ing le p latform c ores . T hus , a lthough t he method o f c ore r educt ion c hanged r ad ica l ly f rom L eve l 1t o L eve l 4 , t he t endency t o p roduce b lades a nd p o ints r ema ined d om inant . T hose e lements wh ich s uggest M idd le P a leo l ith ic t echno logy - w ide , f aceted p latforms , l arge b u lbs o f p ercuss ion , a nd c onverg ing l a tera l e dges - a re n ot t echno log ica l h o ldovers f rom t he M idd le P a leo l ith ic , b ut a re a l l c onsequent a ttr ibutes o f h ard h ammer d etachment a nd s ing le p latform c ore r educt ion . I n t he c ontext j ust d escr ibed , t he I n it ia l Upper P a leo l ith ic may b e d ef ined t echno log ica l ly a s h av ing a c ons istent s ing le p la tform b lade c ore r educt ion s trate gy u t i l iz ing a h ard h am mer mode o f d etachment . Typo log ica l ly , t he I n it ia l Upper P a leo l ith ic c onta ins o n ly t hose t oo l t ypes t hat a re t rad it iona l ly a ssoc iated w ith t he Upper P a leo l ith ic ( F igure 4 e-4g ) , a nd l acks t hose wh ich a re t rad it iona l ly a ssoc iated w ith t he M idd le P a leo l ith ic . On ly t he l arge t r iangu lar p o ints a re s hared w ith t he M idd le P a leo l ith ic . A t K sar Ak i l , t he s ame t ypes o f p o ints a re p resent i n t he I n it ia l Upper P a leo l ith ic a ssemb lages ( Leve ls XXV-XX I ) . There , t he l arge t r ia ngu lar p o ints a re r ep laced i n y ounger Upper P a leo l ith ic a sse mb lages b y l arge p o ints made o n b lades , a nd s t i l l l ater b y sma l ler p o int f orms ( i nc lud ing t he E l-Wad p o int ) , made o n b lades p roduced b y as oft h am mer t echn ique ( Bergman 1 981 ) . I n t he s outhern L evant , n o i n termed iate a ssemb lage s b etween t he I n it ia l U pper P a leo l ith ic a nd t he e ar l iest Ahmar ian a re k nown , a s y et . A s ar esu lt , t he modes o f b lade p roduct ion a nd t he t ypes o f p o ints f ound i n I n it ia l U pper P a leol i th ic a nd e ar ly Ahmar ian c ontexts d i ffer marked ly . Overa l l , h owever , p o int p roduct ion o n b lade b lanks r ema ins a s a l ient a spect o f t he L evant ine U pper P a leol i th ic . A s i nd icated b y B ergman ( 1981 ) , f i na l p o int morpho logy i s c lose t o t he s hape o f t he b lade b lanks ; t he amount o f r etouch i sd eterm ined b y t he i r regu lar it i es o f t he b lank . T herefore , c hang ing L evant ine Upper P a leo l ith ic p o int f orms a re d irect ly r e lated t o c hanges i n b lade b lank morpho logy a nd , c onsequent ly , t o b lade p roduct ion t echno logy . S o f ar , t he s equence f rom B oker T acht it i s u n ique i n p rov id ing a c lear v iew o f t he e ar ly s tages o f t echno log ica l c hanges o ut o f t he M idd le P a leo l ith ic . H owever , a much more d eta i led s equence f or d eve lopment w ith in t he I n it ia l Upper P a leo l ith ic i ss een a t K sar Ak i l ( Ohnuma a nd B ergman , i n p ress ) . There , t he I n it ia l U pper P a leo l ith ic s equence b eg ins w ith l eve l XXV a nd d eve lops , s eem ing ly i n p lace , t hrough L eve l XX I . A lthough t he L eve l XXV a nd XX IV s amp les a re t oo sma l l t o j udge t echno log ica l p roc l iv it ies i n a ny d eta i l ( Azoury 1 986 ; Ohnuma 1 986 ) , t he much l arger s amp les f rom L eve ls XX I I I a nd XX I I e xh ib it s t r ik ing t echn o log ica l s im i lar it ies w ith B oker T acht it , L eve l 4( Ohnuma 1 986 ; Ohnuma a nd B ergman , i n p ress ) . T here i s , h owever , a ma jor d ifference i n t he t oo l k i ts b etween t he t wo s i tes . B oker T acht it s hows a marked emphas is o n h unt ing i mp le ments ( ma in ly p o ints ) , wh i le t he K sar Ak i l a ssemb lages e xh ib it a d om inance o f s crap ing t oo ls ( chamfered p ieces a nd s evera l s craper t ypes ) . Whether t h is k ind o f d iff erence i s o f p rofound s ign if icance i s n ot f u l ly a greed u pon , b ut i t i ss uggested
5 4
d
f
e
g
F igure 4 . I n it ia l U pper P a leo l ith ic t oo ls f rom B oker T acht it , L eve l 4 : a -d . L eva l lo isl ike p o ints ; e -g . e nd-scrapers ( f rom Marks a nd Kaufman 1 983 ) .
5 5
t hat t he h igh ly u n iform t echno log ica l p atterns a t t he t wo s i tes a re l i ke ly t o h ave more d eve lopmenta l s ign if icance t han t he t ypo log ica l v ar iab i l ity , wh ich i s most l i ke ly a ss ignab le t o d ifferences i n d om inant a ct iv it ies .
THE AHMAR IAN TRAD IT ION T he Ahmar ian T rad it ion s eem ing ly d eve loped o ut o f t he I n it ia l Upper P a leo l ith ic , a nd i s f ound t hroughout t he L evant ( G i lead 1 981 ; Marks 1 981b ) . Ahmar ian s i tes o ccur i n t he n orthern L evant a s f ar a s S yr ia , a nd i n s ome o f t he c ave a nd s he lter s i tes i n t he c entra l L evant , a nd t hey a re w ide ly d istr ibuted i n t he N egev a nd S ina i . I n t he n orthern S ina i an umber o f Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes were d es ignated t he L agaman I ndustry ( Bar-Yosef a nd P h i l l ips 1 977 ) . T oday i ti s c lear t hat t hese a ssemb lages s hare v ery s trong a ff in it ies w ith t he Ahmar ian T rad it ion , a s d o r ecent ly d iscovered s i tes i n s outhern S ina i ( Ph i l l ips 1 987 ) , a nd a l l may b e p laced w ith in t he Ahmar ian T rad it ion . T he o ldest Ahmar ian a ssemb lage k nown t hus f ar i s f rom B oker , L ocus A , i n t he Centra l Negev . Dated t o c a . 3 7 ,000 B .P . , t h is a ssemb lage i lustrates t he s tr ik ing t echno log ica l a nd t ypo log ica l c haracter ist ics o f t he Ahmar ian ( Ferr ing 1 980 , i n p ress ; J ones e t a l . 1 983 ) . I n c ontrast t o t he I n it ia l Upper P a leo l ith ic , t he N egev e ar ly Ahmar ian i s c haracter ized b y c lass ic s oft h ammer b lade/b lade let t echno log ies . S ing le p latform r educt ion s trateg ies w ere p reva len t . I n t hese , f ine b lades a nd b lade lets were ma in ly r emoved f rom s ing le p latform c ores wh ich o ften e xh ib it c arefu l p reform ing a nd p reparat ion ( F igures 5 a nd 6 ) . The c ore t ab let t echn ique was u sed q u ite f requent ly , a nd b lades e xh ib it a d om inance o f t h in , u nf aceted p latforms . L arge t oo ls were made o n l arge b lades , d etached d ur ing c ore p reform ing o r d ur ing t he e ar ly s tages o f s er ia l b lade p roduct ion , when l arge b lanks w ere p roduced a s o pposed t o t he sma l l b lades a nd/or b lade lets s truck d ur ing t he l a ter p art o f t he r emova l s equence . T echno log ica l ly , t he Ahmar ian T rad it ion o f b lade-b lade let p roduct ion p ers isted i n t he s outhern L evant f or a bout 1 5 ,000 y ears w ith o n ly m inor c hange . A sse mb lages f rom t he Negev a nd S ina i a re t echno log ica l ly u n iform , w ith a p repond erance o f s ing le p latform r educt ion s trateg ies ( Ferr ing 1 980 ; G i lead 1 981 ) . I n t he n orthern L evant , a s s hown b y a ssemb lages f rom K sar Ak i l ( Leve ls XX-XV I I I ) , at echno log ica l t rans it ion f rom t he h ard h am mer I n it ia l Upper P a leol i th ic t o t he s oft h am mer Ahmar ian t echno logy i si nd icated ( Azoury 1 986 ; Ohnuma a nd B ergman , i n p ress ) . These a ssemb lages e xh ib it a d eve lopmenta l d ec l ine i n f aceted p latforms a nd a n i ncrease i n sma l l , u nfaceted p latforms . Wh i le s uch a s semb lages , a s y et , h ave n ot b een f ound i n t he s outhern L evant , t he d ates f rom B oker A s uggest t hat t h is p er iod o f t echno log ica l c hange was b r ief . Typo log ica l ly , t he Ahmar ian a ssemb lages a re d om inated b y b lade a nd b lade let t oo ls . T he E l-Wad p o int a nd i t s v ar iants a re u b iqu itous , b ut a s y et c annot b e u sed t o d ist ingu ish p hases w ith in t he t rad it ion . Ahmar ian a ssemb lages e xh ib it a w ide r ange o f b ur in a nd s craper t ypes , most o f wh ich a re made o n l arge b lades . A ssemb lage c ompos it ions , h owever , v ary marked ly , a nd i t i s n ot p oss ib le t o d ef ine p hases o r f ac ies b ased o n p roport iona l t oo l o ccurrences . I ndeed , e v id ence f rom t he s outhern L evant s uggests t hat f unct iona l a nd i n tras ite s pat ia l p a ttern ing o f t oo l o ccurrences a re t he ma in s ources o f i nters ite t ypo log ica l v ar ia b i l ity ( G i lead 1 983 ) . T he ma in t oo l i nd ices f rom a s amp le o f Ahmar ian a ssemb lages i n t he N egev a nd S ina i s how marked t ypo log ica l v ar iab i l ity ( Tab le 2 ) . Wh i le
5 6
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b F igure 5 . E ar ly Ahmar ian b lade c ores f rom B oker , L ocus A ( f rom J ones e t a l . 1 983 ) .
5 7
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q F igure 6 . B lade a nd b lade let p o ints f rom t he e ar ly Ahmar ian s i te o f B aker , L ocus A ( f rom J ones e t a t . 1 983 ) .
5 8
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a l l o f t hese a ssemb lages a re d om inated b y p o ints , s crapers , a nd b ur ins , t he p rop ort ions o f t hese c lear ly s eem t o r ef lect o n-s ite a ct iv it ies , a nd n ot a ny t e mpora l o r c u ltura l v ar iants w ith in t he Ahmar ian . Compar ison o f t hese t hree t oo l c lasses i lustrates t he d egree o f i n ters ite v ar iab i l ity ( F igure 7 a ) . E phe mera l s i tes w ith h igh p o int f requenc ies a re more c ommon i n S ina i , wh i le s i tes w ith h igher f requenc ies o f s crapers a nd b ur ins a ppear t o b e a ssoc iated w ith d ifferent a ct iv it ies a nd/or more i n tens ive o ccupat ions . I t i s n oteworthy t hat t echno log ica l v ar iab i l ity i s a lso c ond it ioned b y s i te-spec if ic a ct iv it ies . T he f requency o f b lades/b lade lets i n t hese Ahmar ian a ssemb lages i s c lear ly c orre lated w ith p o int f requenc ies ( F igure 7 b ) , d esp ite t he f act t hat t he b as ic t echno log ies a re t he s ame a cross a l l s i tes . I n tras ite s pat ia l p attern ing a t B oker i s a lso i n format ive w ith r espect t o t ypo log ica l v ar iab i l ity among Ahmar ian a ssemb lages ( Marks 1 976b ; H ieta la 1 983 ) . T here , v ery d iscrete c lusters o f p o ints a nd o ther t oo l c lasses were d ocumented o n s trat if ied l i v ing s urfaces . I n s ome c ases , more t han 9 0% o f ag iven t oo l c lass was f ound i n c lusters o n ly a f ew s quare meters i n a rea . S amp l ing t hese l i v ing s urfaces w ith sma l l e xcavat ions c ou ld r esu lt i n a pparent d ifferences i n a sse mb lage t ypol og ica l c ompos it ion t hat c ou ld g ross ly m isrepresent t he a ctua l c haracter o f t he t oo ls a ssoc iated w ith i nd iv idua l o ccupat ions . A t a bout 2 0 ,000 B .P . , s ign if icant c hanges t ook p lace i n Ahmar ian t echn o logy a nd t oo l p roduct ion . T echno log ica l ly , a s h ift t o mu lt ip le r educt ion s trateg ies i s d ocumented ( Ferr ing 1 977 ; 1 980 ) . A s s hown b y t he a ssemb lage f rom E in Aqev E ast , s eparate r educt ion s trateg ies were emp loyed f or p roduct ion o f l arge b lade b lanks a nd t he more n umerous sma l l b lade lets ( F igures 8 a nd 9 ) . Typol og ica l c hanges a re a lso p ronounced ; t he a ssemb lage i s d om inated b y b lade lets w ith Ouchtata a nd s em i-steep r etouch , af ew b acked b lade lets , a nd a v ar iety o f b ur ins , e nd-scrapers , a nd t runcat ions made o n l arge b lades . A s im i lar a ssemb lage i s d ocumented f rom s i te L agama X I i n S ina i ( G i lead 1 977 ) . A s f or t he e ar ly Ahmar ian , h owever , e ach s i te a ppears t o h ave b een o ccup ied r epeated ly a nd p roba b ly b r ief ly b y t he s ame mob i le g roup . T he t echno log ica l a nd t ypo log ica l c hanges i n t he l ate Ahmar ian a re s ugg est ive o f a t rans it ion t o t he b lade let/m icro l ith a ssemb lages o f t he E p ipa leol i th ic , y et n o f u l l d ocumentat ion o f t h is t rans it ion i s e v ident ( G i lead 1 983 ) . The s h ift t o mu lt ip le r educt ion s trateg ies , i nc lud ing t rue b lade let p roduct ion , s uggests t hat a t l east s ome o f t he L evant ine E p ipa leo l ith ic i ndustr ies h ave Ahmar ian o r ig ins , r ather t han L evant ine Aur ignac ian o nes ( Ferr ing 1 980 ) .
THE LEVANT INE AUR IGNAC IAN TRAD IT ION T he L evant ine Aur ignac ian was f i rst d ef ined b y Neuv i l le ( 1934 ) . S ome a ssemb lages f rom E l-Wad c ave were c a l led Aur ignac ian b ecause t hey d i sp layed p ara l le ls w ith t he k nown Aur ignac ian o f E urope . There were , h owever , s ome d iff erences , p art icu lar ly t he p auc ity o f Aur ignac ian r etouched b lades , s trang led b lades , t he r ich b one t oo l c omponent k nown f rom E uropean a sse mb lages , a s we l l a s t he p resence o f t he F ont-Yves p o ints ( Garrod 1 953 ) , n ow c a l led E l-Wad p o ints i n t he L evant . I n s p ite o f t hese d ifferences , t he L evant ine Aur ignac ian c onta ins : ...s ome o f t he most c haracter ist ic a rt ifacts o f t he t yp ica l Aur ignac ian o f Centra l a nd Western E urope - s crapers o n t h ick f lakes o r b locks o f f l int w ith p ro ject ing n oses s haped b y f i ne l ame l lar r etouch , c ar inated s teep s crapers , p r ismat ic a nd b eaked
6 0
PO INTS
• L aga man 7 5 • N egev
A hmar ian
50
25
SCRAPERS
BUR INS A
5 00
400 0 30-
•
0 20-
•
1 0—
•0 •
0
•N egev
0
•0
I I
Ah mar ian
L aga man
2 BLADE / FL AK E
t 3
I 4
RATI O
F igu re 7 . Cha racter ist ics o f N egev Ahmar ian a nd L agaman a ssemb lages . 6 1
V
0
I
2c m .
b b
Oa
CC
F igure 8 . T oo ls f rom t he l a te Ahmar ian s i te o f E in Aqev E a st [ compare s ize o f m iero l ith s ( a -y ) t o l arger t oo ls h ere a nd i n F igure 9 ]( f rom F err ing 1 977 ) .
6 2
b
a
0
I
2c m . C
e
f
g
F igure 9 . T oo ls f rom t he l a te Ahmar ian s i te o f E in Aqev E ast : a -f . e nd-scrapers ; g -h . t runcated b lades ( f rom F err ing 1 977 ) .
6 3
b ur ins , a nd i n g enera l ap rofuse a nd r ather f ussy r ework ing o f t he e dges o f f lake a nd b lade t oo ls ( Garrod 1 953 :19 ) . Un l ike t he Ahmar ian , t he o r ig in o f t he L evant ine Aur ignac ian i sn ot c lear . I n i t s p urest a nd t e mpora l ly l ate f orm , i t i sb est k nown f rom c ave d epos its i n t he c entra l a nd n orthern L evant ( Ronen 1 976 ; B e lfer-Cohen a nd B ar-Yosef 1 981 ; B ergman 1 987 ) where t he a ssemb lages a re h igh ly d om inated b y af lake t echno logy a nd b y at ypo logy w ith t h ick , h eav i ly r etouched t oo ls . When b lades a re p resent , t hey a re e ither l arge a nd t h ick o r a re t w isted b lade lets s truck f rom c ar inated c ore-too ls . A lthough t he L evant ine Aur ignac ian l acks a b one i ndustry c omparab le t o i t s n amesake i n E urope , b one t oo ls a re f a ir ly c ommon a t s i tes where t here i sg ood b one p reservat ion , s uch a s Hayon i m Cave ( Be lfer-Cohen a nd B ar-Yosef 1 981 ) a nd K sar Ak i l ( Newcomer 1 974 , 1 987 ; Newcomer a nd Watson 1 984 ) . B one a nd s he l l o rnaments o ccur i n s ome a ssemb lages , b ut a re n ot c om mon ( Marks 1 976a ; B e lferC ohen a nd B ar-Yosef 1 981 ) . On ly t wo e xamp les o f a rt , v ery m in i ma l ly e ngraved p laquettes , h ave b een c la imed ( Be lfer-Cohen a nd B ar-Yosef 1 981) . L evant ine Aur ignac ian s i tes a re most c ommon i n t he n orth , i n c ave s ett i ngs . Open-a ir s i tes o f e ither Upper P a leo l ith ic t rad it ion a re r are i n t he n orth ( Ma rks 1 981b ) . Recent ly , an umber o f o pen-a ir L evant ine Aur ignac ian s i tes h ave b een f ound i n t he s outhern L evant . T hey s eem t o b e t he most c ommon t ype i n J ordan ( Henry 1 986 ) , o ccur i n t he Centra l Negev ( Marks a nd F err ing 1 976 ; Marks 1 981b ; B e lfer-Cohen a nd Gor ing-Morr is 1 986 ) , a nd a re n ow b e ing f ound i n t he S ina i ( Baruch a nd B ar-Yosef 1 986 ) . B ecause o f t he n orth-south d ifferences i n s i te s ett i ngs , i t i s d iff icu lt t o f u l ly c ompare L evant ine Aur ignac ian s ett le ment p atterns o ver t he who le L evant . T he d egree t o wh ich a ny a ssemb lage c onforms t o t he g enera l d ef in it ion o f L evant ine Aur ignac ian - t hat i s , c onta ins a h igh p ercentage o f h eav i ly r etouched Au r ignac ian-type t oo ls - s ee ms t o d epend p art ly o n ag iven s i te 's d istance f rom r aw mater ia l , a s we l l a s t he i n tens ity o f o ccupat ion a nd r eoccupat ion ( Kaufman 1 987 ) . I n a dd it ion , i t a ppears t hat d ur ing t he l ater p art o f t he L evant ine Aur ign ac ian , when Aur ignac ian t oo ls were p roduced i n h ighest f requenc ies , t here was a t endency f or o ff-s ite b lank a nd t oo l p roduct ion ( Kaufman 1 987 ) , a s w e l l a s a n i n tens if icat ion a nd f urther s eparat ion o f t he t wo c ore r educt ion s trateg ies s een t hroughout t he t rad it ion ( Ferr ing 1 980 ) . T h is l atter t endency , h owever , i ss een a s wel l i n t he l ate Ahmar ian , f or i n stance a t E in Aqev E ast ( Ferr ing 1 977 ) . Desp ite t he f ac t t hat i n t he s outh a t l east , b oth l ate L evant ine Aur ignac ian a nd l ate Ahmar ian e xh ib it mu lt ip le r educt ion s trateg ies , c lear t echno log ica l a nd t ypol og ica l d ifferences b etween t hese t rad it ions a re d ocumented ( Marks 1 981b ; F err ing , i n p ress ) . T hese d ifferences s uggest n o c u ltura l a ff in it ies b etween t he t wo t rad it ions ; r ather , t h is s eems t o mark a g enera l p er iod o f t echno log ica l a nd c u ltura l v ar iab i l ity . T he l ater p hase o f t he L evant ine Aur ignac ian , w ith i t s e xtreme Aur ignac ian t ra its , h as l ed s ome t o q uest ion whether o r n ot t he t erm may b e u sefu l ly a pp l ied t o a l l a ssemb lages w ith p redom inant f lake t echno log ies , mu lt ip le r educt ion s trateg ies , a nd a t endency f or t he p roduct ion o f Aur ignac ian-type t oo ls ( Be lferCohen a nd B ar-Yosef 1 981 ; B e lfer-Cohen a nd Gor ing -Morr is 1 986 ) . A lthough t he p resent e v idence i s s t i l l f ragmentary , i t i s p oss ib le t o v iew t he L evant ine Aur ignac ian t rad it ion a s d eve lopmenta l ly d ynam ic , w ith t wo r ecogn izab le p hases . The e ar l ier o f t hese c an b est b e s een a t K sar Ak i l a nd , p erhaps , a t A rkov ( Marks a nd F err ing 1 976 ) a nd S de D ivshon ( Ferr ing 1 976 ) i n t he Centra l
6 4
N egev , w here t here s eems t o b e a n Ahmar ianl ike t echno logy , b ut a s trong L evant i ne Aur ignac ian t oo l c omponent . T he l a tter i nc ludes c ar inated s crapers f ro m wh ich t w isted b lade lets were r e moved , y et t hey r are ly were r etouched i n to t oo ls a s i n t he l a ter L evant ine Aur ignac ian . A t K sar Ak i l t h is t echno log ica l-typo log ica l p attern i sf i rst s een i n L eve ls X I I a nd X I ( Bergman 1 987 :121-125 ) . T he l ater p hase , p erhaps b est t hought o f a s a n E vo lved L evant ine Aur ignac ian , s hows u p i n K sar Ak i l o n ly i n L eve ls V I I I a nd V I I . B y t hat t ime , t he t echn o logy w as h igh ly o r iented t owards f lake p roduct ion w ith a l most a l l b lade lets b e ing p roduced a s p art o f c ar inated t oo l-core p roduct ion ( F igure 1 0 ) . I t i s i n t h is p hase t hat b one t oo ls c ons istent ly a ppear a nd b ecome r e lat ive ly c om mon , a nd a lso when t he L evant ine Aur ignac ian t rad it ion i s most v is ib le i n n orthern I s rae l a t s i tes s uch a s H ayon im , E l- Wad , K ebara , e tc . I f t here i s ad eve lopmenta l t rans it ion a s p roposed h ere , i t i s t o b e e xpect ed t ha t s o me a ssemb lages w i l l f a l l b etween t he t wo e xtre mes ; f or t hat matter , a sse mb lages m ight b e e xpected t o s how v ar ious c omb inat ions o f t echno log ica l a nd t ypo log ica l p roc l iv it ies b ecause o f d ifferent b a lances o f a ct iv it ies , i ntens ity o f o ccupat ion , r aw mater ia l a va i lab i l ity , a nd s o f orth . We a re s t i l l al ong way f ro m t he p o int a t wh ich i t w i l l b e p oss ib le t o d ea l f u l ly w ith t e mpora l , s pat ia l , a nd f unct iona l v ar iab i l ity w ith in t he L evant ine Aur ignac ian . There a re s imp ly t oo f ew d ated a nd/or s trat if ied s i tes k nown a t p resent .
CHRONOLOGY OF THE AH MAR IAN AND LEVANT INE AUR IGNAC IAN TRAD IT IONS T he p art ia l c ontemporane ity b etween t hese t wo t rad it ions h as r ecent ly b een q uest ioned ( Be lfer-Cohen a nd Gor ing-Morr is 1 986 ; Gor ing- Morr is 1 987 ) . I t h as b een s uggested , i n f act , t hat a b as ica l ly u n i l inear s equence p robab ly c an a ccount f or t he d ivers ity o f Upper P a leo l ith ic a sse mb lages i n t he Negev a nd S ina i , a s , i ndeed , e lsewhere i n t he s outhern L evant ( Gor ing- Morr is 1 987 :420 ) . Th is p os it ion , a r eturn t o t he u n i l inear d eve lopmenta l mode ls o f Neuv i l le ( 1934 ) a nd Garrod ( 1962 ) , m ight a ppear t o h ave s o me v a l id ity , b ut o n ly i f o ur v iew were r estr icted t o t he Negev a nd S ina i . T here , t he n umber o f d ated Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes i s sma l l , a nd v ery f ew s trat if ied a sse mb lages a re k nown . W ith t hese c ons tra ints , i t i s p oss ib le , i f n ot c onv inc ing , t o a rgue away r e lat ive d at ing a nd c ross-dat ing o f a sse mb lages wh ich d o n ot f i t a u n i l inear mode l ( Gor ing- Morr is 1 987 ) . When t he e nt ire L evant i s t aken i n to a ccount , h owever , b oth s trat igraph ic s equences a nd r ad io metr ic d at ing o f a sse mb lages c lear ly r efute a ny u n i l inear d eve lopment o f t echno log ica l a nd t ypo log ica l c haracters ( Tab le 3 ) . T here a re f ew r ad iocarbon d ates f or t he Upper P a leo l ith ic o f t he L evant , a nd t he ma jor ity o f t hese c o me f o rm s i tes i n t he Negev a nd S ina i ( Marks 1 981b ; Bar-Yosef a nd P h i l l ips 1 977 ) . Most o f t he i n s i tu Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes i n t he s outh a re Ahmar ian , a nd o n ly a s ing le L evant ine Aur ignac ian s i te h as b een d ated r ad iometr ica l ly . T hat s i te , E in Aqev i n t he Centra l Negev ( Marks 1 976a ) , p rod uced a s er ies o f d ates wh ich a re a l l l ater t han d ated Ahmar ian s i tes a nd , i n f act , s how t h is s i te t o b e c onte mporaneous w ith s o me e ar ly E p ipa leo l ith ic d ates f ro m n or thern I s rae l ( Bar-Yosef 1 981 ) . A l l o ther L evant ine Aur ignac ian s i tes i n t he Centra l Negev a re r ad iometr ica l ly u ndated . P o l len f ro m s evera l o f t hese s i tes , h owever , h as b een u sed t o p lace t he o ccupat ions w ith in a p hase o f c l i mat ic ame l iorat ion ( Marks 1 977 ) . T h is p er iod may b e l i nked w ith o ne d ocu mented i n Gebe l Maghara , o n ly 1 30 km t o t he west i n S ina i . There , t he o n ly p er iod b etween
6 5
a
F igure 1 0 . T oo ls f rom t he E vo lved L evant ine Aur ignac ian s i te o f E in Aqev : a -d . L ame 1 1es Dufour ; e . r etouched b lade let ; f . m icrogravette ; g . b acked a nd t runcated b lade let ; h j , o . c ar inated s crapers ; k . n otch ; 1 -m . e nd-scrapers ; n . b acked b lade ( f rom Marks 1 976a ) .
6 6
Tab le 3 . Re lat ive a nd Abso lute Chrono log ies o f Ahmar ian a nd Levant ine Aur ignac ian A sse mb lages , Aga inst t he Ksar Ak i l S equence
A hmarian
K SAR A KIL
L evantine A urignacian E IN A QEV 1 6,900±250 1 7,390±560 1 7,510±560 1 7,890±600
S ITE 6 18 E IN A QEV E AST
2 0,300'
B OKER B E-II B OKER B E-III
2 6,950±520 2 6,030±600 2 6,660±500 2 7,450±1500
I V
V
2 4,400±900
VI
2 6,500±900 E volved L evantine A urignacian
V II V III
2 8,500±380
M IXED X L AGAMA L AGAMA L AGAMA L AGAMA
I IID V II V III V II
3 0,050±1240 3 1,210±2750
X I
3 3,980±2140 3 4,170±3670
X I I
3 2,000±1500
E arly L evantine A urignacian
X I II S TERILE B OKER A
3 3,420 3 3,600
XV
3 7,920±2810
XVI XVI I
aA ll
d ates a re g iven i n r adiocarbon y ears b efore p resent.
6 7
t he M idd le P a leo l ith ic a nd E p ipa leo l ith ic w ith e v idence f or c l i mat ic ame l iorat ion i sr ad iocarbon d ated a t c a . 3 0 ,000 B .P . ( Bar-Yosef a nd P h i l l ips 1 977 ) . T hus , s i tes i n t he N egev w ith r e lat ive ly h igh a rborea l p o l len c ounts ( Horow itz 1 976 ) s uch a s S de D ivshon ( D27B ) , a nd A rkov ( D22 ) , may d ate t o a bout 3 0 ,000 B .P . , o r t o t he n ext p hase o f c l imat ic ame l iorat ion , wh ich i s a ssoc iated w ith t he E p ipa leo l ith ic , a nd i s d ated t o c a . 1 4 ,000-13 ,000 B .P . ( Bar-Yosef a nd P h i l l ips 1 977 ) . I t i sp oss ib le , b ut n ot l i ke ly , t hat t he Centra l N egev e xper ienced a p er iod o f c l imat ic ame l iorat ion s omet ime b etween c a . 3 0 ,000 B .P . a nd 1 4 ,000 B .P . wh ich d id n ot a ffect t he Gebe l Maghara o r Kadesh B arnes ( Go ldberg 1 986 ) ; t he l a tter a rea i s a ctua l ly o n t he b order o f t he Centra l N egev . Yet a dm itted ly , t he d ata f rom t he Negev f a i l t o p rove c ontemporane ity b etween t he L evant ine Aur ign ac ian a nd t he Ahmar ian . T he l ate Ahmar ian s i te o f E in Aqev E ast ( Ferr ing 1 977 ) wh ich o n g eo log ic a l g rounds was d ated r e lat ive ly t o a bout t he s ame a ge a s o r s o mewha t l a ter t han t he r ad iometr ica l ly d ated L evant ine Aur ignac ian s i te o f E in Aqev ( Go ldberg 1 976 ) , n ow a ppears t o b e o lder t han t he l atter . A r ecent ly d iscovered s i te i n t he Wad i Hasa o f J ordan , S ite 6 18 , c onta ins a n a ssemb lage s tr ik ing ly s im i lar t o t hat o f E in Aqev E ast ( Marks , p ersona l o bservat ion ; Co inman , p ersona l c om mun icat ion ) . S ite 6 18 h as y ie lded a r ad iocarbon d ate o f 2 0 ,300 B .P . ; t herefore , t h is Ahmar ian s i te , a nd q u ite p robab ly E in Aqev E ast a s we l l , a ntedate t he L evant ine Aur ignac ian a t E in Aqev . T h is p icture c hanges a nd b ecomes c learer w ith d ata f ro m t he n orthern L evant . T he s i te o f K sar Ak i l h as p roduced n ot o n ly a l ong s er ies o f s t rat if ied Upper P a leo l ith ic o ccupat ions , b ut a lso a sma l l s er ies o f r ad iocarbon d a tes ( Ew ing 1 947 ; T ix ier a nd I n izan 1 981 ; B ergman 1 987 ) . Comb ined w ith a sse mb lage c haract er ist ics , t hese d ates c lear ly s how a t empora l o ver lap b etween t he L evant ine Aur ignac ian a nd t he Ahmar ian o f a t l east 9 ,000 y ears when t he who le L evant i s c ons idered ( Tab le 3 ) . Many q uest ions s t i l l r ema in u nanswered c oncern ing t he o r ig ins a nd l ongt erm r e lat ionsh ips b etween t hese t wo t rad it ions . A s a lready d iscussed , t he Ahmar ian a ppears t o h ave e vo lved o ut o f t he I n it ia l Upper P a leo l ith ic . The L evant ine Aur ignac ian , o n t he o ther h and , h as n o c lear p rogen itor . I n t h is matter t he o pt ions a re l im ited . E ither i t d eve loped o ut o f t he e ar l ier Ahmar ian , o r i t d eve loped o ut o f t he I n it ia l Upper P a leo l ith ic , o r i t must b e s een a s i ntrus ive i nto t he L evant . T he l atter i sp oss ib le , y et l acks s upport ing d ata f rom p er iphera l a reas s uch a s t he N i le V a l ley o r t he Z agros-Taurus r eg ion . As eparate g enes is o ut o f t he I n it ia l Upper P a leo l ith ic a lso l acks d ocumentat ion . W ith r espect t o a n e ar ly Ahmar ian-Levant ine Aur ignac ian d eve lopmenta l s equence , t he b est e v idence a ga in c omes f rom K sar Ak i l , where i n L eve ls X I I I t hrough X I t here i s a marked t rend t owards i ncreas ing Aur ignac ian e lements w ith in a b as ic Ahmar ian t echno logy . Yet , a s n oted b y B ergman ( 1987 :142-148 ) , t here a re a n umber o f d eve lopmenta l b reaks i n t he K sar Ak i l s equence , o ne o f wh ich f a l ls a t L eve ls X / IX . T hus , t he f ina l s teps f rom t he e ar ly L evant ine Aur ignac ian i n to t he E vo lved L evant ine Aur ignac ian a re m iss ing h ere . More work i s c lear ly n eeded i n t h is a rea . T he r ecent d iscovery o f L evant ine Aur ignac ian s i tes i n t he N egev a nd S ina i may p rov ide p art o f t he n eeded d ata , a lthough f i rm d at ing w i l l b e r equ ired t o h e lp r eso lve t he p rob le ms o ut l ined h ere .
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REFERENCES Azoury , I . 1 986 K sar Ak i l L ebanon . A T echno log ica l a nd T ypo log ica l Ana lys is o f t he T rans it iona l a nd E ar ly U pper P a laeo l ith ic L eve ls o f Ksar Ak i l a nd Abu Ha lka . V o lume I : L eve ls XXV-XI I . BAR I n ternat iona l S er ies 2 89 . Oxford : B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l Reports . B ar-Yosef , 0 . 1 980 The p reh istory o f t he L evant . Annua l Rev iew o f Anthropo logy 9 :101-133 . 1 981 The E p i-Pa leo l ith ic c omp lexes i n t he s outhern L evant . I n J . Cauv in a nd P . S an lav i l le ( ed itors ) P räh isto ire d u L evant , p p . 3 89-408 . P ar is : CNRS . B ar-Yosef , 0 . , a nd J . P h i l l ips ( ed itors ) 1 977 P reh istor ic I nves t igat ions i n Gebe l Maghara , Northern S ina i . Qedem , Monographs o f t he I n st itute o f A rchaeo logy n o . 7 . J erusa lem : T he Hebrew Un ivers ity . Baruch , U . , a nd 0 . B ar-Yosef 1 986 Upper P a leo l ith ic a ssemb lages f rom Wad i S udr , western S ina i . P a ldor ient 1 2(2 ) :69-84 . B e lfer-Cohen , A . , a nd 0 . B ar-Yosef 1 981 The Aur ignac ian a t Hayon im c ave . P a ldor ient 7 (2 ) :19-41 . B e lfer-Cohen , A . , a nd N . G or ing-Morr is 1 986 Har Horsha I : An Upper P a leo l ith ic o ccupat ion i n t he western Negev h igh lands . M iteku f at Ha 'even 1 9 :43-57 . B ergman , C .A . 1 981 P o int t ypes i n t he U pper P a leo l ith ic s equence a t K sar 'Ak i l , L ebanon . I n J . Cauv in a nd P . S an lav i l le ( ed itors ) P rdh isto ire d u L evant , p p . 3 19-330 . P ar is : CNRS . 1 987 K sar Ak i l L ebanon . A T echno log ica l a nd T ypo log ica l Ana lys is o f t he L ater P a laeo l ith ic L eve ls o f Ksar Ak i l . V o lume I : L eve ls X I I I-V I . BAR I nternat iona l S er ies 3 29 . Oxford : B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports . B ergman , C .A . , a nd K . Ohnuma 1 983 T echno log ica l n o tes o n s ome b lades f rom l eve l I a Hum ma l , E l-Kow m , S y r ia . Quartär 3 3/34 :171-180 . B ottema , S . , a nd W . V an Z e ist 1 981 P a lyno log ica l e v idence f or t he c l imat ic h istory o f t he Near E ast , 5 0 ,000-6 ,000 B .P . I n J . Cauv in a nd P . S an lav i l le ( ed itors ) P rdh isto ire d u L evant , p p . 1 11-132 . P ar is : CNRS . C rew , H . 1 976 The Mouster ian s i te o f R osh E in Mor . I n A .E . Marks ( ed itor ) P reh istory a nd P a leoenv ironments i n t he Centra l Negev , I s rae l , v o l . 1 , p p . 7 5-112 . Da l las : S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress . Ew ing , J .F . 1 947 P re l im inary n ote o n t he e xcavat ions a t t he P a laeo l ith ic s i te o f K sar ' Ak i l , Repub l ic o f L ebanon . Ant iqu ity 2 1 :186-196 . F err ing , C .R . 1 976 S de D ivshon : An Upper P a leo l ith ic s i te o n t he D ivshon P la in . I n A .E . Marks ( ed itor ) P reh i story a nd P a leoenv ironments i n t he Centra l Negev , I s rae l , v o l . 1 , p p . 1 99 -226 . Da l las : S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress . 1 977 The l ate Upper P a leo l ith ic s i te o f E in Aqev E ast . I n A .E . Marks ( ed itor ) P reh istory a nd P a leoenv ironments i n t he Centra l Negev , I s rae l , v o l . 2 , p p . 8 1-118 . Da l las : S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress . 1 980 T echno log ica l V ar iab i l ity a nd Change i n t he L ate P a leo l ith ic o f t he Negev . P h .D d isser tat ion , S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity , Da l las . Ann A rbor : Un ivers ity M icrof i lms .
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T echno log ica l c hange i n t he Upper P a leo l ith ic o f t he Negev . I n H . D ibb le a nd A . Montet-Wh ite ( ed itor s ) U pper P le istocene P reh istory Western E uras ia . P h i lade lph ia : T he Un ivers ity Museu m . Garrod , D .A .E . 1 953 T he r e lat ions b etween S outh-Wes t A s ia a nd E urope i n t he l ater P a leol i th ic a ge . J ourna l o f Wor ld H istory 1 : 13-38 . 1 962 An o ut l ine o f P le istocene p reh is tory i n P a lest ine-Lebanon-Sy r ia . Quaternar ia 6 :541-546 . Garrod , D .A .E . , a nd D .M .A . B ate 1 937 T he S tone Age o f Mount Carme l , v o l . 1 . C larendon P ress . Oxford . G i lead , I . 1 977 L agama X . I n 0 . B ar-Yosef a nd J . P h i l l ips ( ed itors ) P reh istor ic I nvest igat ions i n Gebe l Maghara , Northern S ina i , p p . 1 02-114 . Qedem , Monographs o f t he I nst itute o f A rchaeo logy n o . 7 . J erusa lem : The Hebrew Un ivers ity . 1 981 Upper P a leo l ith ic t oo l a ssemb lages f rom t he Negev a nd S ina i . I n J . Cauv in a nd P . S an lav i l le ( ed itors ) P röh isto ire d u L evant , p p . 3 31-352 . P ar is : CRNS . 1 983 Upper P a leo l ith ic o ccurrences i n S ina i a nd t he t rans it ion t o t he E p i-Pa leo l ith ic i n t he s outhern L evant . P a /ior ient 9 (1) :39-53 . Go ldberg , P . 1 976 Upper P le istocene g eo logy o f t he A vdat/Aqev a rea . I n A .E . Marks ( ed itor ) P reh istory a nd P a leoenv ironments i n t he Centra l N egev , I s rae l , v o l . 1 ,p p . 2 5-56 . Da l las : S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress . 1 983 T he g eo logy o f B oker T acht it , B oker , a nd t he ir s urround ings . I n A .E . Marks ( ed itor ) P reh istory a nd P a leoenv ironments i n t he Centra l Negev , I s rae l , v o l . 3 , p p . 3 9-62 . Da l las : S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress . 1 986 L ate Quaternary e nv ironmenta l h i story o f t he s outhern L evant . Geoarchaeo logy : An I nternat iona l J ourna l 1 (2 ) :225-244 . Gor ing-Morr is , N . 1 987 A t t he E dge . T erm ina l P le istocene Hunte r—Gatherers i n t he N egev a nd S ina i . BAR I nternat iona l S er ies 3 61 . Oxford : B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports . Henry , D .O . 1 986 T he p reh istory a nd p a leoenv ironments o f J ordan : An o verv iew . P a löor ient 1 2 (2 ) :5-56 . H ieta la , H . 1 983 B oker T acht it : I n tra leve l a nd i n ter leve l s pat ia l a na lys is . I n A .E . Marks ( ed itor ) P reh istory a nd P a leoenv ironmen ts i n t he Centra l N egev , I s rae l , v o l . 3 , p p . 2 17-282 . Da l las : S outhern Method ist Un ivers itry P ress . Horow itz , A . 1 976 L ate Quaternary p a leoenv ironments o f p reh istor ic s ett le ments . I n A .E . Marks ( ed itor ) P reh istory a nd P a leoenv ironments i n t he Centra l Negev , I s rae l , v o l . 1 , p p . 5 7-68 . Da l las : S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress . 1 979 T he Quaterna ry o fI s rae l . N ew York : A cadem ic P ress . H ours , F . 1 982 Une n ouve l le I ndustr ie e n S yr ie e n tre l 'Acheu leen s uper ieur e t l e L eva l lo iso-Mouster ien . I n J . S tanchy a nd F . Hours ( ed itors ) Archöo log ie d u L evant , p p . 3 3-47 . Co l lect ion d e l a Ma ison d e l 'Or ient Med iterran ien 1 2 , S er ie A rcheo log ie 9 . L yon : Ma ison d l 'O r ient . J e l inek , A . 1 982 T he M idd le P a leo l ith ic i n t he s outhern L evant , w ith c o mments o n t he a ppearance o f modern Homo s ap iens . I n A . R onen ( ed itor ) T he T rans it ion f rom L ower t o M idd le P a laeo l ith ic a nd t he O r ig in o f Modern Man , p p . 5 71 04 . BAR I n ternat iona l S er ies 1 51 . Oxford :Br it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports .
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T he Amud ian i n t he c ontext o f t he Mugharan T rad it ion a t t he T abun Cave ( Mount C arme l ) , I s rae l . I n P . Me l lars a nd C . S tr inger ( ed itors ) T he Human Revo lu t ion : B ehav ioura l a nd B io log ica l P erspect ives o n t he Or ig ins o f Modern Humans . E d inburgh : Un ivers ity o f E d inburgh P ress . J ones , M . , A .E . Marks , a nd D . Kauf man 1 983 B oker : T he a rt ifacts . I n A .E . Marks ( ed itor ) P reh istory a nd P a leoe nv ironments i n t he Centra l Negev , I s rae l , v o l . 3 , p p . 2 83-332 . Da l las : S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress . K aufman , D . 1 987 I n terassemb lage v ar iab i l ity o f metr ic a ttr ibutes f ro m l i th ie a sse mb lages o f t he l a te Upper P a leo l ith ic o f I s rae l . M iteku f at Ha 'even 2 0 :37-49 . L ero i-Gourhan , A . 1 980 L es a na lyses p o l l in iques a u Moyen-Or ient . P a leor ient 6 :79-91 . Marks , A .E . 1 976a E in Aqev : Al a te L evant ine Upper P a leo l ith ic s i te i n t he Naha l Aqev . I n A .E . Marks ( ed itor ) P reh istory a nd P a leoenv ironments i n t he Centra l Negev , I srae l , v o l . 1 , p p . 2 27-292 . Da l las : S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress . 1 976b T erm ino logy a nd c hrono logy o f t he L evant ine Upper P a leo l ith ic a s s een f rom t he C entra l Negev , I s rae l . Deux ieme Co l loque s ur l a T erm ino log ie d e l a P reh is to ire d u P roche Or ient . N ice : US IPP . 1 977 I n troduct ion : A p re l im inary o verv iew o f Centra l Negev p reh istory . I n A .E . Marks ( ed itor ) P reh isto ry a nd P a leoenv ironments i n t he Centra l Negev , I srae l , v o l . 2 , p p . 3 -34 . Da l las : S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress . 1 981a T he Upper P a leo l ith ic o f t he Negev . I n J . Cauv in a nd P . S an lav i l le ( ed itors ) P reh is to ire d u L evant , p p . 3 43-352 . P ar is : CNRS . 1 981b T he Upper P a leo l ith ic o f t he L evant . I n J . Cauv in a nd P . S an lav i l le ( ed itors ) P reh is to ire d u L evant , p p . 3 69-374 . P ar is : CNRS . 1 983 T he M idd le t o Upper P a leo l ith ic t rans it ion i n t he L evant . I n F . Wendorf a nd A . C lose ( ed itors ) Advances i n Wor ld A rchaeo logy , v o l . 2 , p p . 5 1-98 . New Y ork : Acade m ic P ress . i . p .a T he M idd le t o Upper P a leo l ith ic t rans it ion i n t he s outhern L evant : T echno log ica l c hange a s a n a daptat ion t o i ncreas ing mob i l ity . I n M . O tte ( ed itor ) L 'Homme d u Neanderta l , v o l . 8 . L iege : Un ivers ity o f L iege . i . p .b E ar ly Mou ster ian s ett le ment p atterns i n t he Centra l Negev , I s rae l : T he ir s oc ia l a nd e conom ic i mp l icat ions . I n M . O tte ( ed itor ) L 'Hom me d u Neanderta l , v o l . 6 . L iege : Un ivers ity o f L iege . Marks , A .E . , a nd C .R . F err ing 1 976 Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes n ear E in Avdat . I n A .E . Marks ( ed itor ) P reh isto ry a nd P a leoenv ironments i n t he Centra l Negev , I srae l , v o l . 1 , p p . 1 41-198 . Da l la s : S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress . Ma rks , A .E . , a nd D . K auf man 1 983 B oker T acht it : T he a rt ifacts . I n A .E . Marks ( ed itor ) P reh istory a nd P a leoenv ironments i n t he Centra l Negev , I s rae l , v o l . 3 , p p . 6 9-126 . Da l las : S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress . Marks , A .E . , a nd P . V o lkman 1 983 Chang ing c ore r educt ion s trateg ies : A t echno log ica l s h ift f rom t he M idd le t o t he Upper P a leo l ith ic i n t he s outhern L evant . I n E . T r inkaus ( ed itor ) T he Mouster ian L egacy : Human B iocu ltura / Change i n t he Upper P le istocene , p p . 1 3-33 . BAR I nternat iona l S er ies 1 64 . Oxford : B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports . N euv i l le , R . 1 934 L e P reh istor ique d e P a lest ine . Revue B ib l ique 5 4 :237-259 .
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Newcomer , M . 1 974 S tudy a nd r ep l icat ion o f b one t oo ls f rom K sar Ak i l ( Lebanon ) . Wor ld Archaeo logy 6 :138-153 . 1 987 S tudy a nd r ep l icat ion o f b one t oo ls f rom K sar Ak i l , L ebanon . I n C .A . B ergman ( author ) K sar Ak i l , L ebanon . A T echno log ica l a nd T ypo log ica l Ana lys is o f t he L ater P a laeo l ith ic L eve ls o f K sar Ak i l . V o lume I : L eve ls X I I I -V I , p p . 2 84-304 . BAR I nternat iona l S er ies 3 29 . Oxford : B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports . Newcomer , M . , a nd J . Watson 1 984 B one a rt ifacts f rom K sar ' Aq i l ( Lebanon ) . P a leor ient 1 0 (1 ) :143-148 . N ish iak i , Y . 1 987 M idd le P a leo l ith ic a ssemb lages f rom t he Douara Cave , 1 984 e xcavat i ons . I n T . Akazawa a nd Y . S akaguch i ( ed itor s ) P a leo l ith ic S ite o f D ouara Cave a nd P a leogeography o f P a lmyra B as in i n S yr ia , p p . 6 1-96 . T okyo : Un ivers ity o f T okyo P ress . Ohnuma , K . 1 986 A T echno log ica l S tudy t he Upper P a laeo l ith ic Mater ia l f rom L eve ls XXV-XIV f rom K sar Ak i l . Unpub l ished P h .D . d issertat ion , Un ivers ity o f L ondon . Ohnuma , K . , a nd C .A . B ergman i . p . A T echno log ica l a na lys is o f t he Upper P a laeo l ith ic l eve ls ( XXV-V I ) o f K sar Ak i l , L ebanon . I n P . Me l lars a nd C . S tr inger ( ed itors ) T he Human Revo lut ion : B ehav ioura l a nd B io log ica l P erspect ives o n t he Or ig ins o f Modern Humans . E d inburgh : Un ivers ity o f E d inburgh P ress . P h i l l ips , J . 1 987 S ina i d ur ing t he P a leo l ith ic : T he e ar ly p er iods . I n A .E . C lose ( ed itor ) P reh istory o f Ar id North Afr ica , p p . 1 05-122 . Da l las : S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress . Ronen , A . 1 976 T he Upper P a leo l ith ic i n n orthern I s rae l : M t . Carme l a nd Ga l i lee . I n F . Wendorf ( ed itor ) T erm ino logy o f P reh istory o f t he Near E ast , p p . 1 531 86 . P roceed ings , 9 th Congress , Un ion I n terna t iona le d es S c iences P r8h ist or iques e t P rotoh istor iques . P ar is : US IPP . Rust , A . 1 950 D ie Höh lenfunde v on J abrud ( Syr ien ) . Neumünster : K . Wachho lz . T ix ier , J . , a nd M .-L . I n izan 1 981 K sar ' Aq i l , s trat igraph ie e t e nsemb les l i th iques d ans l e P a läo l ith iques s up8r ieur , F ou l l les 1 971-1975 . I n J . Cauv in a nd P . S an lav i l le ( ed itors ) P räh isto ire d u L evant , p p . 3 53-368 . P ar is : CNRS . V o lk man , P . 1 983 B oker T acht it : Core r econstruct ions . I n A .E . Marks ( ed itor ) P reh istory a nd P a leoenv ironments i n t he Centra l Negev , I s rae l , v o l . 3 , p p . 1 27-190 . Da l las : S outhern Method ist Un ivers ity P ress .
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A NA LYS IS O FF A UNAL R EMA INS F R OM E ARLY U P PER P ALEOL IT H IC S ITES I NT HE L E VA NT Corne l ia A . Wo lf D epartment o f Anthropo logy Un ivers ity o f Ch icago Ch icago , I l l ino is U .S .A .
I NTRODUCT ION E st i mat ing t he a ge a t d eath o f a n ima ls f rom a rchaeo log ica l s i tes i s n ow c om mon p ract ice among f auna l a na lysts . One way i n wh ich a ge p rof i les a re u sefu l i s i n r econstruct ing p reh istor ic h unt ing methods ( N im mo 1 971 ; F r ison 1 978a , 1 978b ; K le in 1 978 , 1 979 , 1 981 , 1 982a ; R eher 1 978 ; W i lson 1 978 ; Dav is 1 983 ) . Changes t hrough t ime i n t he a ge p rof i les o f as pec ies may r ef lect c hanges i n t he way i t w as p rocured . T hus , c ompar ison o f a ge p rof i les b oth w ith in a nd b etween s i tes c an h e lp t o i dent ify c hang ing e xp lo itat ion p atterns t hrough t ime . T he a im o f t h is p aper i s t o p resen t a nd d iscuss t he i mp l icat ions o f morta l ity p rof i les o f s evera l u ngu late s pec ies f rom L evant ine M idd le a nd Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes . I t s hou ld b e n oted t hat , i n t he L evant , t he Upper P a leo l ith ic c overs a t ime s pan ( ca . 4 0 ,000-20 ,000 B .P . ) t hat i s e qu iva lent t o t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic i n o ther r eg ions o f t he O ld Wor ld . F or a g enera l o verv iew o f t he L evant ine Upper P a leo l ith ic , s ee B ar-Yosef a nd B e lfer-Cohen ( th is v o lume ) a nd Marks a nd F err ing ( th is v o lume ) .
METHODS T here a re a n umber o f t echn iques b y wh ich a n ima ls c an b e a ged , b ut I b e l ieve t hat t he u se o f d enta l c rown h e ights r epresents t he b est method f or a rchaeo log ica l f aunas . I t h as t he a dvantage o f b e ing r ep l icab le , n on-destruct ive a nd , p erhaps most i mportant ly , i t c an b e a pp l ied t o i s o lated t eeth , wh ich o ften p redom inate i n a rchaeo log ica l s i tes . T he c rown h e ight method i s b ased o n t he f act t ha t t he h e ight o f at ooth w i l l d ecrease a s a ge i ncreases , a lthough t he r e lat ionsh ip b etween d ecreas ing c rown h e ight a nd i ncreas ing a ge i s n ot s tr ict ly l i near . T eeth t end t o w ear r e lat ive ly r ap id ly i n e ar ly l i fe , a t a more c onstant ( l inear ) r ate i n m idl ife , a nd r e lat ive ly more s low ly i n l ate l i fe . S p inage ( 1971 , 1 972 , 1 976 ) h as p roposed a f ormu la t hat mode ls t h is c urv i l inear r e lat ionsh ip a nd wh ich c an b e u sed t o p red ict a ge f rom c rown h e ight . H is mode l c an b e t rans lated a lgebra ica l ly i nto t he f o l low ing a ge e st imat ion f ormu las ( K le in e t a t . 1 983 ) : F or a d ec iduous t ooth : AGE=AGEs-2AGEs (CH/CHo ) + AGEs (CH 2/ CHo 2) F or a p ermanent t ooth : AGE=AGEpe l-2 (AGEpe l-AGEe ) (CH/CHo ) +( AGEpe l-AGEe ) (CH 2/ CHo 2)
7 3
where CH e qua ls c rown h e ight , CHo e qua ls t he i n it ia l u nworn c rown h e ight , AGEs i s t he a ge a t wh ich a d ec iduous t ooth i s s hed , AGEe i s t he a ge a t wh ich a p ermanent t ooth e rupts , a nd AGEpe l i st he max imum p oss ib le a ge o f a n i nd iv idua l ( age a t p otent ia l e co log ica l l ongev ity ) . K le in e t a l . ( 1983 ) t ested t he S p inage f ormu la a ga inst a s er ies o f k nown-age e lk ( Cervus c anadens is ) j aws . T hey f ound t hat i t p red icted a ges f rom c rown h e ight t hat c lose ly a pprox imated t rue a ges when t he p red icted a ges were p laced i n r e lat ive ly b road c lass i n terva ls s uch a s 1 0% o f l i fespan . Ac omp lete a ge p rof i le f or a s pec ies r equ ires c rown h e ight measurements f rom a d ec iduous t ooth a nd a p ermanent t ooth t hat h as e rupted b efore t he d ec iduous t ooth i ss hed . T ab le 1 i nd icates t he i n it ia l u nworn c rown h e ights ( CHo ) o f t he d ec iduous a nd p ermanent t eeth t hat w ere c hosen f or e st imat ing t he a ges o f e ach o f t he s pec ies d iscussed b e low . Ages were c a lcu lated f rom t eeth f rom o ne s ide o f t he j aw o n ly . T ab le 1 a lso p resents t he p arameters [ age when t ooth e rupts ( AGEe ) , a ge when t ooth i s s hed ( AGEs ) , a nd p otent ia l e co log ica l l ongev ity o f t he t ooth ( AGEpe l ) ] t hat were u sed t o e st imate a ge f rom c rown h e igh t . Ages were c a lcu lated a nd a ge p rof i les were c onstructed u s ing a s pec ia l ly w r itten c omputer p rogram ( K le in a nd C ruz-Ur ibe 1 984 ) .
I NTERPRETAT ION Once a ge p rof i les h ave b een c onstructed , i nterpretat ion i s a ided b y c ompar ing t hem t o t heoret ica l ly d er ived a ttr it iona l a nd c atastroph ic morta l ity c urves . T he a rchaeo log ica l i mp l icat ions o f a n a ge p rof i le w i l l d epend i n p art o n wh ich t ype o f morta l ity c urve t he p rof i le r esemb les . F igure 1 s hows i dea l ized c atastroph ic a nd a ttr it iona l a ge d istr ibut ions f or s pec ies i n wh ich f e ma les b ear o n ly o ne y oung p er y ear . A c atastroph ic a ge p rof i le r ef lects t he a ge d i str ibut ion o f as tab le l i v ing u ngu late p opu lat ion . I t i s c haracter ized b y al arge n umber o f i nd iv idua ls i n t he y oungest a ge c ategory ( f irst a ge c lass ) . I t a l so c onta ins a r e lat ive ly l a rge n umber o f p r ime-age a du lts ( s econd t o f ourth o r f i fth a ge c lass ) , b ut v ery f ew o ld i nd iv idua ls . A c atastroph ic p rof i le i s s haped l i ke a d escend ing s ta ircase w ith t he h ighest p eak i n t he f i rst a ge c lass . I n p a leonto log ica l s amp les s uch a p rof i le m ight r esu lt when a who le h erd i s d estroyed i n an atura l c atastrophe s uch a s af lash f lood , h ence t he u se o f t he t erm " catastroph ic ." I n a rchaeo log ica l s amp les , a c atastroph ic p rof i le wou ld i nd icate t hat t he p eop le a t as i te h ad d eve loped h unt ing s trateg ies t hat e nab led t he m t o t ake p r ime-age a n ima ls ( the l east v u lnerab le members o f ah erd ) i n r ough p roport ion t o t he ir l i ve a bundance . F or e xamp le , d r iv ing a n ima ls o ver a c l iff o r i n to a t rap wou ld r esu lt i n t he c apture o f a n e nt ire g roup o f a n ima ls r egard less o f a ge . An ima ls t aken i nd iv idua l ly o ver a p er iod o f t ime c ou ld a l so p roduce a c atastroph ic a ge p rof i le i f h unters h ad d eve loped a t echno logy ( e .g . , s nares o r b ows a nd a rrows ) t ha t e nab led t hem t o d ispatch p r ime-age a du lts a s r ead i ly a s t he more v u lnerab le members o f t he h erd ( the v ery y oung a nd t he v ery o ld ) . An a ttr it iona l p rof i le r ef lects t he n orma l a ttr it ion , o r d ie-off p attern , o f a s tab le p opu lat ion . I n as tab le p opu lat ion t he y oungest a nd o ldest i nd iv idua ls a re most v u lnerab le t o d isease , s tarvat ion , a cc iden ta l d eath , a nd p redat ion , a nd t herefore e xh ib it t he h ighest morta l ity r ates . L ike t he c atastroph ic a ge p rof i le , t he a ttr it iona l p rof i le i sc haracter ized b y al arge n umber o f v ery y oung i nd iv idua ls ( i n t he f i rst a ge c lass ) . Un l ike t he c atastroph ic p rof i le , h owever , t he a ttr it iona l
7 4
Tab le 1 . Parameters Used i n E st i mat ing t he Ages o f Fa l low Deer , Wi ld Goat , Gazel le , a nd Roe Deer
F allow D eer a
W ild C oat b
C azelle c
d P4
d P4
d P4
d P4
1 9
3 0
1 6
8
8 5
1 10
9 5
7 4
M 1
1 4 2
M 3
M 1
4
1 0
1 3
1
1 80
3 30
2 37
1 00
1 68
1 68
1 32
1 20
D eciduous T ooth A ge a t S hedding ( months) U nworn C rown H eight ( mm) P ermanent T ooth A ge a t e ruption ( months) U nworn C rown H eight ( mm) P otential E cological L ongevity ( months)
aC haplin
a nd W hite ( 1969)
bH illson
( 1986)
cD avis
d
( 1980)
A shby a nd W hite ( 1979)
7 5
R oe D eer d
C ATASTROPH IC ( 1=1694 )
i . r .rzz— d r . ' ,/,/, .
/ m. o.. / . . . . m .
// / / /
// / / /
//,5 0/ .
0% 0 .5
1 .5
2 .5
3 .5
4 .5
5 .5
6 .5
7 .5
8 .5
9 .5
P E R C E N T A G E O F I N D I V I D U A L S
5 0%
A TTR IT IONAL
4 0%
( N=500 )
3 0% 2 0% 1 0% > >>>>
/// // //// /
0% 0 .5
1 .5
2 .5
C LASS
3 .5
4 .5
5 .5
6 .5
7 .5
8 .5
9 .5
M I D P O I N T S( Y E A R S )
F igure 1 . Cata stroph ic a nd a ttr it iona l a ge p rof i les o f ah ypothet ica l p opu lat ion o f l a rge mamma ls i n wh ich f ema les b ear o n ly o ne o ff spr ing p er y ear ( a f ter K le in 1 982a :51 ) . 7 6
h as r e lat ively f ew a du lts o f p r i me a ge a nd a f a ir n umber o f i nd iv idua ls p ast t he ir p r i me , t hat i s , b eyond t he f ourth o f f i fth a ge c lass . A ttr it iona l p rof i les a re t rad it iona l ly d escr ibed a s U -shaped w ith t he h ighest n umber o f i nd iv idua ls i n t he y oungest a ge c lass a nd a s ma l ler r i se i n morta l ity i n ac lass b eyond 4 0-50 % o f p otent ia l l i fe s pan . However , t he s econd p eak may b e a l most i mpercept ib le i n a n a ge p rof i le ( K le in 1 982b ) . When t h is i s t he c ase , a s i to ften i s i n p a leonto log ica l a nd a rchaeo log ica l s amp les , a n a ttr it iona l p rof i le w i l l b e L -shaped . When t he a ge d istr ibut ion o f a n a rchaeo log ica l f auna l s a mp le r ese mb les a n a ttr it iona l p rof i le i t m ight i nd icate t hat p eop le o bta ined a n i ma ls b y s caveng ing o r emp loyed a h unt ing method ( s uch a s i nd iv idua l s ta lk ing w ith a s pear ) t hat l im ited t hem t o d ispatch ing t he most v u lnerab le me mbers o f ah erd . A p rob lem o f i n terpretat ion o ccurs when d ea l ing w ith t he p rof i les o f s pec ies i n wh ich f e ma les b ear more t han o ne o ffspr ing p er y ear . K le in ( 1982b ) h as s hown t hat t he a ttr it iona l p rof i les o f s uch s pec ies a re v ery s im i lar i n s hape t o t he c atastroph ic o nes ( F igure 2 ) : T he l i ve a ge ( cata stroph ic ) s tructure o f t he p opu lat ion w i l l b e s im i lar t o t hat o f ad own s ta ircase i n wh ich t he i n it ia l t hree o r f our v ery s teep s teps a re f o l lowed b y a s er ies o f b are ly p ercept ib le o nes . T he c orrespond ing morta l ity ( a ttr it iona l ) p rof i le w i l l r eca l l a v ery s im i lar s ta ircase , t hough t he v ery l ast , b are ly p ercept ib le s teps w i l l t end t o a scend r ather t han d escend ( K le in 1 982b :58 ) . Thus , i t i s v ery d iff icu lt t o d ist ingu ish a c atastroph ic a s o pposed t o a n a ttr it iona l a ge p rof i le o f s pec ies t hat b ear more t han o ne y oung p er y ear . A s Iw i l l s how , t h is makes t he i nterpretat ion o f t he a ge p rof i les o f g aze l le a nd r oe d eer , b oth o f whom p robab ly p roduced more t han o ne y oung p er y ear , more d iff icu lt . Wh i le t heoret ica l c atastroph ic a nd a ttr it iona l a ge p rof i les a re u sefu l t oo ls f or i n terpret ing a ge d istr ibut ions o f a n i ma ls f rom a rchaeo log ica l s i tes , t here i sn o ap r ior i r eason why a rchaeo log ica l a ge p rof i les must c onform t o o ne o f t hese t wo s hapes . I t i s , h owever , more d iff icu lt t o i n terpret t hose wh ich d o n ot c onform s ince a n u mber o f f actors may b e r espons ib le i nc lud ing m ixed h unt ing s trateg ies , d ifferent a gents o f a ccumu lat ion , i nadequate s amp le s ize , a nd t he f act t hat b oth t he s ex c o mpos it ion o f t he s amp le a nd t he s eason o r s easons i n wh ich i t was h unted a re u nknown . T he a im o f t h is p aper i s t o l ook f or d ifferences i n a ge p rof i les t hat c orre late w ith ma jor c hanges i n s tone t oo l t ypo logy a nd t echno logy . As Iw i l l s how , t here a re d i fferences b etween a ge p rof i les f rom Mouster ian , e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic , a nd l a ter Upper P a leo l ith ic l eve ls , b ut t he mean ings o f t hese d ifferences a re n ot a lways c lear , p robab ly d ue t o s ome o f t he f actors j ust c ited .
THE S ITES T he f auna l a sse mb lages o n wh ich t h is p aper i sb ased c ome f ro m t he M idd le P a leo l ith ic l ayers a t K ebara , T abun , a nd K sar Ak i l a nd t he Upper P a leo l ith ic l ayers a t Kebara , Hayon im , a nd K sar Ak i l . The l ocat ions o f t hese s i tes a re i nd icated o n t he map i n F igure 3 . K ebara i s ac ave s i te l ocated a t t he western f oot o f t he Carme l r idge . I t was o r ig ina l ly e xcavated b y T urv i l le-Petre ( 1932 ) who d ist ingu ished f our c u lture-strat igraph ic u n its : Natuf ian ( Layer B ) , Kebaran ( Layer C ) , Aur ignac ian ( Layers D a nd E ) , a nd Mouster ian ( Layer F ) . T urv i l le-Petre c omp lete ly r e moved L ayers B , C , a nd D . T he f auna f rom t h is e xcavat ion was a na lyzed b y S axon ( 1974 ) .
7 7
C ATASTROPH IC
5 0%
( N : =1669 )
4 0% 3 0% 2 0% 1 0% 0% 0 .5
1 .5
2 .5
P E R C E N T A G E O F I N D I V I D U A L S
7 0%
4 .5
5 .5
6 .5
7 .5
8 .5
9 .5
A TTR IT IONAL
6 0%
( N= 1000 )
5 0%
4 0%
3 .5
' /////
4
"/ " // ' / //
3 0 % """ . . i v ,' 2 0% . . , , ,, , , ,, , 1 09 3 4 . ,,, , , , , , , , , " I/ " , . , . . / . ,/ , / , , , , 0% : / / / / , , , / , , ,, , , 0 .5
1 .5
2 .5
1 ---1 3 .5
4 .5
5 .5
6 .5
7 .5
8 .5
9 .5
C LASS M IDPO INTS ( YEARS ) F igure 2 . Catastroph ic a nd a ttr it iona l a ge p rof i les o f ah ypothet ica l p opu lat ion o f l arge mam ma ls i n wh ich f e ma les b ear more t han o ne o ffspr ing p er y ear ( a fter K le in 1 982a :53 ) . 7 8
3 6° .. • • • '
Mas loukh Nahr I brah im Ante i las & K sar Ak il
Yabrud Pas e l Ke lb • • •
• • •
Ad lun Caves
. . . • •
. .. •
A mud Zutt iyeh H agon in n. • Em ireh Sefun im ( !Naha l E in Gev Qafzeh Skhu l &E l Wad • • • Tabun , K ebara •Pakefet
• • • • •
Fazae l I X & X • • 32 ° . Shukbah Erg e l Ah mar n E l C luse ir:0• Mazraq & • • • • Abu S if Et-Tabban Fara
3 0
•
-B oker
Sde D ivshon & 0 27 A Laga man S ites
.
m• a
Rosh E in Mor s
' , .•
A in Ac v
•
. •
& Boker Tacht it » . . .
Qadesh Barnea
. • •• • • . ' •
0
2 8°
5 0 km
5 o
3 3 0
F igure 3 . Map s how ing i mportant M idd le a nd Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes i n t he L evant ( after B ar-Yosef 1 980 :108 ) . S i tes ment ioned i n t he t ext a re i n b o ld t ype . 7 9
B etween 1 951 a nd 1 965 , S teke l is ( 1955 ) u ndertook f urther e xcavat ion a t K ebara , f ocus ing o n t he r ema in ing Aur ignac ian l eve ls a nd t he u nder ly ing Mouster ian o nes . He f ound l arge n umbers o f f l in t t oo ls a nd d eb itage a s we l l a s a n ima l a nd h uman r ema ins ( Sch ick a nd S teke l is 1 977 :97 ) . Unfortunate ly , t he r ad iocarbon d ates f rom t hese l eve ls a re c ons idered a berrent ( Bar-Yosef e t a l . 1 986 ) . S ch ick ( Sch ick a nd S teke l is 1 977 ) h as d escr ibed t he M idd le P a leo l ith ic s tone t oo l a ssemb lages a s L evant ine Mouster ian a nd Z iffer ( 1978 ) h as a ttr ibuted t he Upper P a leo l ith ic i ndustr ies t o t he L evant ine Aur ignac ian . Dav is ( 1977 ) a nd T chernov ( 1968 , 1 981 ) a na lyzed t he f auna l r ema ins . I n t he l ast f ew y ears , K ebara h as b een r eexcavated b y a mu lt id isc ip l inary t eam o f a rchaeo log ists , p hys ica l a nthropo log ists , g eo log ists , z oo log ists , a nd b otan ists ( Bar-Yosef e t a t . 1 986 ) . T hus f ar t hey h ave u ncovered a bundant l i th ics , a n ima l b ones , h earths , a nd a n ear ly c omp lete N eandertha l s ke leton f ro m t he Mouster ian l eve ls , d ated b y TL ( thermo lum inescence ) t o 6 0 ,000 B .P . ( Va l ladas e t a t . 1 987 ) . T he f auna l r ema ins d iscussed b e low c ome f rom t he S teke l is e xcavat ions . Dur ing t hese e xcavat ions , K ebara was d ug i n h or izonta l s p its d esp ite t he f act t hat t he n atura l l eve ls i n t he c ave s loped f rom n orth t o s outh a nd f ro m t he e ntrance t owards t he c enter . T h is r esu lted i n t he m ix ing o f Upper P a leo l ith ic a nd M idd le P a leo l ith ic l eve ls a t c erta in d epths a nd a lso p revents f o l low ing a p art icu lar l ayer a cross t he c ave . F or t he c onstruct ion o f a ge p rof i les , Ih ave f o l lowed Dav is ' ( 1977 ) s trategy o f c omb in ing a l l o f t he u ncontam inated Mouster ian l eve ls a nd a l l o f t he u ncontam inated Aur ignac ian l eve ls a nd v iew ing t hem a s t wo s eparate e nt it ies . T abun c ave i s i s l ocated o n t he western e dge o f Mount Carme l a bout 2 0 km s outh o f Ha ifa a nd 1 3 km n orth o f K ebara . Garrod ( Garrod a nd B ate 1 937 ) e xcavated t he s i te b etween 1 929 a nd 1 934 a nd e xposed a s ect ion a pprox imate ly 2 5 meters d eep . S he d ist ingu ished s ix l ayers i nc lud ing : T ayac ian ( G ) , L ate Acheu l ian ( F ) , Acheu lo-Yabrud ian ( E ) , L ower L eva l lo iso-Mouster ian ( D , C ) , a nd Upper L eva ll o iso-Mouster ian ( B ) . Accord ing t o Garrod , a Neandertha l b ur ia l was f ound i n l ayer C . T he f auna was s tud ied b y B ate ( Garrod a nd B ate 1 937 ) . Garrard ( 1982 ) h as r eana lyzed t hese f auna l c o l lect ions more r ecent ly . T he T abun a ge p rof i le p resented b e low c omes f rom l eve l B . B etween 1 967 a nd 1 972 , J e l inek ( 1982 ; J e l inek e t a / . 1 973 ) u ndertook r enewed e xcavat ions a t T abun . He was a b le t o d iscern o ver 8 5 s trat igraph ie u n its i n t he 1 0-meter s ect ion t hat was e xcavated ( equ iva lent t o Garrod 's l ayers C -F ) . Unfortunate ly , macrofauna l r ema ins f rom t h is e xcavat ion a re s carce . Hayon im c ave i ss i tuated i n t he p iedmont o f t he Upper Ga l i lee o ver look ing at r ibutary o f Wad i Yassaf . I tl i es a pprox imate ly 1 4 km e ast o f t he Med iterranean c oast a nd a bout 2 50 m a bove s ea l eve l . T he c ave was e xcavated b y B ar-Yosef a nd T chernov ( 1966 ) b etween 1 965 a nd 1 970 . T hey r ecogn ized f ive c u lture-strat ig raph ic u n its : Natuf ian ( Layer B ) , K ebaran ( Layer C ) , Aur ignac ian ( Layer D ) , a nd Mouster ian ( Layer E ) . T he Natuf ian r ema ins h ave b een d escr ibed b y B ar-Yosef a nd Goren ( 1973 ) , t he Aur ignac ian b y B e lfer-Cohen a nd B ar-Yosef ( 1981 ) . B oth T chernov ( Bar-Yosef a nd T chernov 1 966 ) a nd Dav is ( 1982 , 1 983 ) h ave r eported o n t he f auna l r ema ins . The f auna d iscussed h ere c omes f rom t he Aur ignac ian l eve l D . K sar Ak i l i s ar oekshe lter l ocated i n t he L ebanon a bout 1 0 km n ortheast o f B e irut . T he s i te was o r ig ina l ly d ug b y t he B oston C o l lege E xped it ion i n 1 937 a nd 1 938 a nd a ga in i n 1 947 a nd 1 948 ( Ew ing 1 947 , 1 948 ) . T h irty-seven l ayers were
8 0
d iscr im inated c onta in ing M idd le P a leo l ith ic ( Leve ls 3 7-26 ) , Upper P a leo l ith ic ( Leve ls 2 5-6 ) , a nd E p ipa leo l ith ie ( l eve ls 5 -1 ) a ssemb lages . Carbon f rom t he u ppermost Mouster ian l eve l ( 26 ) was d ated t o 4 4 ,400±1200 y ears B .P . , a nd s na i l s he l ls f rom L eve l 8 were d ated t o 2 8 ,500±380 B .P . ( Wr ight 1 962 :536-537 ) . T he f auna w as s tud ied b y Hoo i jer ( 1961 ) a nd i s c urrent ly b e ing r eana lyzed b y A . Kersten u nder t he d irect ion o f A . C lason . R enewed e xcavat ions a t K sar Ak i l were u ndertaken i n 1 969-1975 b y J . T ix ier ( 1970 , 1 974 ; T ix ier a nd I n izan 1 981 ) . T hese e xcavat ions h ave p rov ided a r ef inement o f t he s trat igraphy o f l eve ls 1 -9 . Unfortunate ly , t he p o l it ica l s i tuat ion i n L ebanon h as c ut s hort T ix ier 's work a t K sar Ak i l . T he a ge p rof i les f ro m K sar Ak i l w ere d rawn f rom t he f auna l r ema ins t hat were r ecovered i n t he 1 930 's a nd 1 940 's . P erhaps b ecause o f t he l ong g ap b etween e xcavat ion s easons , d epths a t wh ich t he f auna was r ecovered were r ecorded i n t wo d ifferent ways . S ome o f t he s pec imens were a ss igned t o a n a ctua l l eve l ( i .e . , l eve ls 1 t hrough 3 7 ) . F or o thers , o n ly u pper a nd l ower d epths ( i n meters ) were g iven . S ince d epth d es ignat ions o ften c rosscut l eve ls , many o f t he s pec imens c ou ld n o t b e a ss igned t o as pec if ic l eve l . I n o rder t o a na lyze t he e nt ire a sse mb lage , Ip laced a l l o f t he r e ma ins i n l arger u n its , g rouped o n t he b as is o f s im il ar it ies i n s tone t oo l t ypo logy a nd t echno logy ( d iscussed b e low ) . I ts hou ld b e n oted t hat , when g iven , a l l l eve l d es ignat ions were r ecorded , p erm itt ing t he a na lys is o f a t l east a p art ia l s amp le o n al eve l-byleve l b as is . T he M idd le P a leo l ith ic p rof i le f rom K sar Ak i l i s d er ived f rom t he c omb ined L evant ine Mouster ian l eve ls 2 8-26 . An ima l r ema ins a nd l i th ic mater ia l a re more a bundant i n t hese l a ter Mouster ian l eve ls , s uggest ing more i ntens ive h uman u se t han t he e ar l ier , more s parse ly o ccup ied l eve ls 3 7-29 ( Marks a nd V o lkman 1 986 ; K ersten , p ersona l c om mun icat ion ) . Ih ave f o l lowed A zoury ( 1986 ) a nd B ergman ( 1981 , 1 987 ) i n g roup ing t he Upper P a leo l ith ic l eve ls a t K sar Ak i l i n to t h ree p hases . P hase I ( l eve ls 2 5-21 ; 1 5 .05-13 .70 m ) r epresents t he e ar l iest a ppearance o f t he Upper P a leo l ith ic a t K sar Ak i l a nd i s c haracter ized b y Upper P a leo l ith ic t oo l t ypes s uch a s t runcat ion b ur ins , e nd-scrapers , a nd c hamfered p ieces made w ith a s pec ia l ized L eva l lo is t echn ique . Marks ( i n p ress ) c a l ls t h is t he I n it ia l Upper P a leo l ith ic a nd e quates i t w ith t he l i th ic a sse mb lage f rom l eve l 4a t B oker T acht it ( Negev ) . P hase I i nc ludes t he a ssemb lages f rom l eve ls 2 0-16 ( 12 .95-10 .95 m ) a nd i s c haracter ized b y e nd-scrapers , p art ia l ly b acked a nd b acked b lades , K sar Ak i l p o ints , p o in tes ä f ace p lane , a nd a f ew b ur ins . Dur ing P hase I t here i s ag radua l c hange i n b lade t echno logy . Accord ing t o B ergman ( 1981 ) , ac hange i n p o int t echno logy a lso o ccurs d ur ing P hase I . P hase I I ( l eve ls 1 3-6 ; 1 0 .65-3 .5 m ) i sd escr ibed a s L evant ine Aur ignac ian a nd i s c haracter ized b y e nd-scrapers , b ur ins ( d ihedra l ) , E l- Wad p o ints , a nd p ieces w ith A ur ignac ian r etouch . There s eems t o b e a t ypo log ica l a nd t echno log ica l b reak b etween t he l i th ic a ssemb lages o f P hase I a nd P hase I I , wh ich i s a ccomp an ied b y a ma jor s trat ig raph ie b reak t hat o ccurs b etween t he e nd o f P hase I ( l eve l 1 6 ) a nd t he b eg inn ing o f P hase I I ( l eve l 1 3 ) .
8 1
RESULTS F a l low Deer F igures 4 t hrough 6 i lustrate t he a ge p rof i les o f f a l low d eer ( Da ma mesop otam ica ) . A d iscuss ion o f t he d ifferences a nd s im i lar it ies among t he p rof i les i s p resented b e low . T he Ko lmogorov-Sm irnov t est ( Goodman 1 954 ) was a pp l ied t o e ach p a ir o f f a l low d eer p rof i les t o d eterm ine whether d ifferences t hat were o bserved were a lso s tat ist ica l ly s ign if icant . T he r esu lts o f t he t est a re p resented i n T ab le 2 . Under l ined v a lues i nd icate d ifferences t hat a re s ta t ist ica l ly s ign ifi cant a t t he 0 .05 l eve l o r b e low . Two s amp les a re d ifferent a t t he 0 .05 l eve l i f t he ir Ko lmogorov-Sm irnov v a lue i s 1 .36 o r g reater . A v a lue o f 1 . 63 i nd icates a d ifference t hat i ss ign if icant a t t he 0 .01 l eve l . F igure 4 s hows t he a ge p rof i les o f f a l low d eer f rom c entra l L evant s i tes i nc lud ing t he L evant ine Mouster ian l eve l B a t T abun , t he c omb ined L evant ine Mouster ian l eve ls a t Kebara , a nd t he c omb ined L evant ine Aur ignac ian l eve ls a t K ebara . Wh i le b oth t he T abun B a nd t he K ebara Aur ignac ian p rof i les d e monstrate t he d own-sta ircase p attern o f ac lass ic c atastroph ic p rof i le , t he K ebara Moust er ian p rof i le i s s omewhat d ifferent . I t l ooks n e ither a ttr it iona l n or c atas troph ic . [ I n f act , i t i s s tat ist ica l ly d ifferent f rom t he c lass ica l ly c atastroph ic K ebara Aur ignac ian p rof i le ( Tab le 2 ) ] . A lthough i t c onta ins a h igher n umber o f p r ime-age i nd iv idua ls t han wou ld b e e xpected i n a n a ttr it iona l p rof i le , i t a lso s hows a h igher p ercentage o f p ost-pr ime i nd iv idua ls t han wou ld b e e xpected i n a c atastroph ic p rof i le . I t m ight b est b e d escr ibed a s a m ixed c atastroph ica ttr it iona l morta l ity p rof i le . T h is c ou ld r esu lt f rom a c o mb inat ion o f h unt ing s trateg ies o r am ixture o f h unt ing a nd s caveng ing . A lternat ive ly , a m ixed c atastroph ic-attr it iona l p rof i le c ou ld r ef lect t he s trateg ies o f t wo d ifferent c o l lectors - o ne h uman , o ne n on-human - who o ccup ied t he s i te a t d ifferent t imes t hroughout t he M idd le P a leo l ith ic . R ecent e xcavat ions a t K ebara ( Bar-Yosef e t a l . 1 986 ) h ave s hown t hat t he c ave was o n ly i n term ittent ly o ccup ied b y h umans d ur ing a t l east p art o f t he Mouster ian ( Un it X I I ) . A t o ther t imes , c arn ivores i nhab ited t he c ave . Hearth s a nd a rt ifacts i nd icate t he p resence o f h umans i n t he c ave , wh i le c opro l ites a ttest t o t he p resence o f c arn ivores ( Bar-Yosef , i n p ress ) . L ike t he a ge p rof i le o f f a l low d eer f rom t he Mouster ian l eve ls a t K ebara , t he Mouster ian p rof i le f rom K sar Ak i l ( F igure 5 ) i s n e ither c atastroph ic n or a ttr it iona l i n s hape . I n f act , K o lmogorov-Sm irnov v a lues i n T ab le 2s how t hat i ti s s ign if icant ly d ifferent f rom a l l o f t he o ther Dama p rof i les . Wh i le i ti sd ifferent i n s hape f rom t he K ebara o ne , i tc an a l so b e d escr ibed a s am ixed c a tastroph ic-attr it i ona l morta l ity p rof i le . Aga in , t h is i mp l ies e ither a m ixture o f s t rateg ies b y t he p eop le a t t he s i te o r t he work o f d ifferent a gents o f a ccumu lat ion . Un l ike t he K ebara a nd K sar Aka Mouster ian p rof i les , t he Tabun B a ge d istr ibut ion ( F igure 4 ) l ooks much more c atastroph ic . T h is may h ave t o d o w ith t he way T abun c ave was b e ing u sed d ur ing t he d epos it ion o f L ayer B . J e l inek ( Je l inek e t a / . 1 973 ) b e l ieves t hat d ur ing l eve l B , T abun was n o l onger u sed a s a h ab itat ion s i te b ut h ad b ecome a s pec ia l ized b utcher ing a rea . Geo log ica l e v idence i nd icates t hat s omet ime e ar l ier , t he c h imney a bove t he i nner c hamber h ad b egun t o o pen u p t o t he o uts ide . J e l inek s uggests t hat d ur ing t he d epos it ion o f l eve l B , Dama were d r iven i n to t he c h imney a nd b utchered w ith in t he c ave . A s s tated e ar l ier , s uch a t echn ique w i l l p roduce a c atastroph ic a ge d istr ibut ion . A lthough J e l inek 's h ypothes is i ss upported b y t he c atastroph ic s hape o f t he p rof i le o f t he f a l low d eer r ema ins , t he p rof i le s hape c ou ld b e e xp la ined i n a
8 2
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TABUN B M OUSTER I AN
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8
K EBARA A UR IGNAC IAN ( N=55 )
3 0%
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10%
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//// / /// // // // / /// //
/////
/// // // ///
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2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 0
1 0%-0E-L IFESPAN A GE C LASSES F igu re 4 . Age p rof i les o f f a l low d eer f rom t he Mouster ian ( l eve l B ) a t T abun , t he Mou ster ian ( a l l l eve ls ) a t K eba ra , a nd t he A ur ignac ian ( a l l l eve ls ) a t K ebara . 8 3
4 0% -
M OUSTER I AN ( LEVELS 2 6-28 )
3 0%
( N=132 )
2 0% // "/ "/
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( N=47 )
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1 0%-0E-L IFESPAN A GE C LASSES F igure 5 . Age p rof i les o f f a l low d eer f rom t he Mouster ian ( l eve ls 2 6-28 ) a nd Upper P a leo l ith ic P hase I( l eve ls 2 1-25 ) a t K sar Ak i l .
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( N:260 )
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1 0%-0E-L IFESPAN A GE C LASSES F igure 6 . Age p rof i les o f f a l low d eer f rom U pper P a leo l ith ic P hase I ( l eve ls 1 62 0 ) a nd P hase I I ( l eve ls 6 -13 ) a t K sar Ak i l . 8 5
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aU n d e r l i n e d v a l u e s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e 0 . 0 5 l e v e l o r b e l o w .
•= 2
d ifferent way . B ate ( Garrod a nd B ate 1 937 ) , who f i rst s tud ied t he b ones f rom Tabun , r eported t hat most o f t he a n i ma l r e ma ins f rom l eve l B were b roken a nd i ncomp lete a nd t hat s ome o f t he l imb b ones were f ound i n a rt icu lat ion . S he s ugges ted t hat t he d epos it m ight h ave a ccumu lated when c arcasses were washed i n f rom a bove . I f t he e vent was c atastroph ic i n n ature ( a f lash f lood? ) a c atastroph ic a ge d istr ibu t ion m ight r esu lt . However , Garrod ( Garrod a nd B ate 1 937 ) , t he o r ig ina l e xcavator o f t he s i te , t ended t o d isagree w ith B ate 's s ugges t ion . L ike J e l inek , s he f e lt t hat t he l eve l B r e ma ins were p robab ly a ccumu lated b y t he p eop le a t t he s i te , a lthough s he e nv is ioned i t a s ah ab itat ion s i te . S he b ased h er c onc lus ion o n t he r egu lar ity i n t he p roport ions o f f l ints a nd b ones t hroughout t he t h ick ( over 3 meters ) d epos it a nd t he l ack o f a ny c o mp lete o r n ear ly c o mp lete a n i ma l s ke letons i n t he d epos it . Ne ither t he P hase I( F igure 5 ) n or t he P hase I ( F igure 6 ) a ge p rof i les o f f a l low d eer f rom t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic a t K sar Ak i l a re i n terpretab le w ith r eference t o i dea l ized c a tastroph ic a nd a ttr it iona l a ge p rof i les . T hey d o n ot l ook a ttr it iona l , b ut t hey a re a lso d ifferent f rom t he c lear ly c atastroph ic P hase I I p rof i le ( F igure 6 ) . I t i sp oss ib le t hat t he d ifference b etween t he P hase Ia nd P hase I p rof i les o n t he o ne h and , a nd t he P hase I I p rof i le o n t he o ther , r ef lects a t echno log ica l i nnovat ion ( and a c onco m itant c hange i n h unt ing s trategy ) t hat t ook p lace d ur ing P hase I a t K sar Ak i l . B ergman ( 1981 ) , who a na lyzed t he p o ints f rom K sar A k i l , s aw a c hange i n t echno logy w ith in P hase I , b etween l eve ls 1 9 a nd 1 8 . He s ta tes t hat P hase Ia nd IA ( l eve ls 1 9-20 ) p o ints h ave t h ick , w ide p rox i ma l e nds wh ich m ight i nd icate t he u se o f t h icker h eav ier s hafts ( Bergman 1 981 :328 ) . I n P hase IB ( l eve ls 1 6-18 ) a nd P hase I I , t he p rox i ma l e nds o f p o ints a re t h inner a nd n arrower , wh ich p resumab ly wou ld f ac i l itate h aft ing o n t h inner s hafts . B ergman s pecu lated t hat t he c hange i n b lade t echno logy b etween P hases IA a nd IB r ef lected a c hange f rom h unt ing w ith a s pear t o h unt ing w ith a b ow a nd a rrow . The c hange c ou ld e qua l ly r ef lect t he i n troduct ion o f l i ghter s pears t hat wou ld i ncrease t he d istance b etween p redator a nd p rey . A s Uerpmann ( 1987 ) h as p o in ted o ut , b ows a nd a rrows a nd o ther l i ght , l ong-range weapons e nhance t he a b i l ity o f h unters t o t ake sma l l t o med ium s ize g ame . I t wou ld a lso i ncrease t he ir a b i l ity t o d ispatch t he p r ime-age a du lts o f ap opu lat ion . T hus i t i sl i ke ly t hat t he i ntroduct ion o f a weapon s uch a s t he b ow a nd a rrow wou ld p roduce a c hange i n t he a ge s t ructure o f t he p rey s pec ies a t as i te . Can we s ee s uch a c hange i n t he Darna p rof i les a t K sar Ak i l? T he d ifference b etween P hase I a nd P hase I I m ight r ef lect t he d eve lopment o f more s oph ist icated weaponry s omet i me d ur ing P hase I . Unfortunate ly , t he sma l l s i ze o f t he f a l low d eer P hase I s amp le d oes n ot p erm it t he c onstruct ion o f a ge p rof i les f ro m i t s t wo s ubphases t o d eterm ine whether a c hange i n a ge d istr ibut ion o ccurred i n t ande m w ith t he o bserved t echno log ica l c hange . A s a lready s tated , t he P hase I I p rof i le , d rawn f rom L evant ine Aur ignac ian l eve ls 1 3-6 , i sc atastroph ic i n s hape . Age p rof i les f rom i nd iv idua l l eve ls 6 , 8 , a nd 9 ( not s hown ) a re s im i lar ly s haped , a n o bservat ion t hat i s c onf irmed b y Ko lmogorov-Sm irnov v a lues i nd icat ing n o s ign if icant d ifference b etween t hose p rof i les a nd t he c omb ined P hase I I p rof i le . I ti si n terest ing t o n ote t hat t he Da rna p rof i le f ro m t he Aur ignac ian l eve ls a t Kebara c ave ( F igure 4 ) i s c atastroph ic a s we l l . T he i mp l icat ion i s t hat Aur ignac ian p eop le a t t hese s i tes were emp loy ing a h unt ing s trategy o r u s ing weapons t hat e nab led t hem t o t ake i nd iv idua ls o f a l l a ges i n p roport ion t o t he ir l i ve a bundance .
8 7
W i ld Goat The a ge p rof i les o f w i ld g oat ( Capra a egagrus ) f rom t he Upper P a leo l ith ic l eve ls a t K sar Ak i l a re d isp layed i n F igure 7 . T hey s how a c ontrast i n s hape b etween P hase I ,o n t he o ne h and , a nd P hases I a nd I I , o n t he o ther . B oth t he P hase I a nd P hase I I p rof i les a re c atastroph ic i n s hape wh i le t he P hase Ip rof i le l ooks v ery d ifferent . T he c hange i n p o int t echno logy d iscussed a bove ( Bergman 1 981 ) t hat o ccurred d ur ing P hase I may h ave b een a f actor h ere . The i n troduct ion o f al ong-range weapon s uch a s t he b ow a nd a rrow c ou ld s ign if icant ly i ncrease a h unter 's a b i l ity t o t ake a du lt w i ld g oats a nd c ou ld e xp la in t he c hange t o ac atas troph ic morta l ity p rof i le i n P hase I . A s was t he c ase w ith f a l low d eer , t he w i ld g oat s amp le i s t oo sma l l t o d eterm ine whether t here i s ac hange i n t he a ge d istr ib ut ion o f w i ld g oat w ith in P hase I .
Gaze l le F igure 8 p resents t he a ge p rof i les o f g aze l le ( Gaze I la g aze l la ) f ro m t he Mouster ian l eve ls a t K ebara c ave , t he Aur ignac ian l eve ls a t Kebara , a nd t he Aur ignac ian l eve l D a t Hayon im c ave . T he p rof i les l ook b as ica l ly c atastroph ic e xcept t hat , w ith t he p oss ib le e xcept ion o f Hayon im D , t hey a l l h ave d i sproport iona l ly f ew i nd iv idua ls i n t he f i rst 1 0% o f l i fespan . Th is may b e d ue t o t he e xcavat ion t echn iques t hat were emp loyed a t t hese s i tes . Gaze l le d ec iduous t eeth ( f rom wh ich t he a ges i n t he f i rst c lass a re e st imated ) a re sma l l a nd a re l i ke ly t o b e o ver looked i n e xcavat ions where n o s creen ing o r o n ly d ry s creen ing t akes p lace . S ed i ments a t Hayon im c ave were wet s creened a nd , a s m ight b e e xpected , t he Hayon im p rof i le h as a h igher p ercentage o f i nd iv idua ls i n t he f i rst a ge c lass t han a ny o f t he o ther s i tes . K ebara , where s ed iments were d ry s i eved , h as s omewhat sma l ler p ercentages o f j uven i les . P ost-depos it iona l l each ing , p rof i le c ompact ion , a nd o ther p reservat ion f actors w i l l a lso c ontr ibute t o t he l ow n umbers o f d ec iduous t eeth wh ich a re r e lat ive ly more f rag i le t han t he ir p erman ent c ounterparts . Dav is ( 1983 ) h as o bserved t hat p reservat ion was b etter a t Hayon im c ave t han a t K ebara . A ssum ing a n u nderrepresentat ion i n t he f i rst a ge c lass , a l l o f t he g aze l le p rof i les e xh ib it t he d escend ing s ta ircase s hape o f a c atastroph ic morta l ity p rof i le . One m ight c onc lude t hat b oth Mouster ian a nd Aur ignac ian p eop le i n t he L evant were p rocur ing g aze l les w ith s im i lar e ff ic iency . T h is i nterpretat ion i s c omp l icated , h owever , b y t he p oss ib i l ity t hat f ema le g aze l les b ear more t han o ne y oung p er y ear ( Baharav 1 974 ; Dav is 1 980 ) . A s n oted e ar l ier , s pec ies whose f ema les b ear more t han o ne y oung p er y ear , p roduce c atastroph ic a nd a ttr it iona l a ge p rof i les t hat a re v irtua l ly i nd ist ingu ishab le ; b oth a re d own-sta ircase s haped . I t wou ld b e i nformat ive t o e xam ine g aze l le a ge p rof i les f rom a c ontext where a n a ttr it iona l p rof i le m ight b e e xpected ( such a s a c arn ivore a ccumu la t ion ) a nd d eterm ine whether i t i s s ta ircase s haped o r h as t he L - o r U -shape o f ac lass ic a ttr itona l p rof i le . Unt i l t h is c an b e d eterm ined , t he g aze l le p rof i les c annot b e c onf ident ly i n terpreted i n t erms o f h uman b ehav ior .
Roe Deer A s im i lar p rob lem o f i n terpretat ion o ccurs w ith t he r oe d eer ( Capreo lus c apreo lus ) p rof i les f rom Upper P a leo l ith ic P hases I a nd I I a t K sar A k i l ( F igure 9 ) . B oth p rof i les l ook c atastroph ic , b ut r oe d eer h ave a h igh i nc idence o f mu lt ip le b irths a nd t herefore t he ir c atastroph ic a nd a ttr it iona l p rof i les c annot b e e as i ly d ist ingu ished .
8 8
5 0% -
U PPER P ALEOL ITH IC 4 0% -
"W I
( N=43 )
3 0% 2 0% 1 0%
P HASE I
T T
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/ / / / / / // // / / / / / / / / // // / // / // / / / / / / '/ / / / / '/ / / / / '/ / / / / .„ /‚ /// // / / / / / // '/ / / / / '/ / / / / .„ / / / / // '/ / / / / / / / / / • „ ' „/ '/ / / / /' 7, „ '/ / / / / '/ / / /
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 0
9
1 0
9
1 0
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U PPER P ALEOL ITH IC P HASE I I
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( N=93 )
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1 0% // // // // // / / // / /
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U PPER P ALEOL ITH IC P HASE I I
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( N=131) 3 0% 2 0% 1 0%
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1 , 77717 .
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1 0%-0E-L IFESPAN A GE C LASSES F igure 7 . A ge p rof i les o f w i ld g oat f rom U pper P a leo l ith ic P hase I( l eve ls 2 1-25 ) , P hase I ( l eve ls 1 6-20 ) , a nd P hase I I ( l eve ls 6 -13 ) a t K sar Ak i l . 8 9
5 0% —
K EBARA M OUSTER IAN ( N=184 )
4 0% 3 0% 2 0% 1 0%
// // /7 / ,
0%
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( N=35 )
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3
4
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9
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H AYON IM D A UR IGNAC IAN
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( N=100 )
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7
1 0%-0E-L IFESPAN A GE C LASSES F igure 8 . Age p rof i les o f g aze l le f rom t he Mouster ian ( a l l l evels ) a t K ebara , t he Aur ignac ian ( a l l l eve ls ) a t Kebara , a nd t he Aur ignac ian ( l eve l D ) a t H ayon im . 9 0
4 0% -
U PPER P ALEOL ITH IC P HASE I
3 09 3 -
( N=55 )
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1
2
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3
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U PPER P ALEOL ITH IC P HASE I I
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( N=265 )
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1 0%-0E-L IFESPAN A GE C LASSES F igure 9 . Age p rof i les o f r oe d eer f rom Upper P a leo l ith ic P hase I ( l eve ls 1 6-20 ) a nd P hase I I ( l eve ls 6 -13 ) a t K sar Ak i l . 9 1
CONCLUS IONS Dur ing t he L evant ine Mouster ian , t here i s e v idence a t b oth K ebara a nd K sar Ak i l f or t he emp loyment o f ac omb inat ion o f h unt ing s trateg ies o r am ixture o f s caveng ing a nd h unt ing f or f a l low d eer , a l though t h is may r epresent t he b ehav ior o f t wo d ifferent p redators who o ccup ied t he s i tes a t d ifferent t imes . Da ma r e ma ins f rom Mouster ian l eve l B a t T abun , o n t he o ther h and , h ave p roduced a n a ge d istr ibut ion t hat i sc atastroph ic i n s hape . T he s hape may b e t he r esu lt o f an atura l c atastroph ic e vent t hat washed c arcasses i n to t he c ave v ia a n o pen ing i n t he r oof . A lternat ive ly , i t may b e t he r esu lt o f p eop le d r iv ing t he d eer i nto t he c ave a nd b utcher ing t hem t here . Dur ing t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic a t K sar Ak i l , t he e v idence f or h unt ing p ract ices b ased o n a ge p rof i les o f f a l low d eer i sn ot i n terpretab le w ith r eference t o i dea l ized c atastroph ic a nd a ttr it iona l s hapes . However , t here a re d i fferences b etween t he P hase Ia nd I p rof i les , o n t he o ne h and , a nd t he c lear ly c atastroph ic Aur ignac ian p rof i les f rom b oth K sar Ak i l ( Phase I I ) a nd Kebara . The d i fferences may r ef lect a c hange i n h unt ing t echno logy t hat t ook p lace d ur ing P hase I , p erm itt ing i ncreased a ccess t o p r ime-age members o f t he s pec ies . A s im i lar c hange o ccurs i n t he a ge d istr ibut ions o f w i ld g oat a t K sar Ak i l d ur ing t he Upper P a leo l ith ic . T he P hase Ip rof i le i sd ifferent f rom t he c atastroph ic Phase I a nd I I p rof i les , a ga in s uggest ing t hat s omet ime d ur ing P hase I , h unters b egan u s ing weapons t hat e nab led t hem t o t ake more p r ime-age w i ld g oats t han t hey h ad p rev iou s ly .
Acknow ledgments . Iwou ld l i ke t o t hank D r . A . C lason a t t he B io log ischA rchaeo log isch I nst ituut i n G ron igen , D r . A . Gentry a t t he B r it ish Museu m o f Natura l H istory , a nd D r . E . T chernov a t The Hebrew Un ivers ity o f J erusa le m , f or g enerous ly a l low ing me t o e xam ine t he f auna l c o l lect ions d iscussed i n t h is p aper . Iam a lso v ery g ratefu l t o D r . A . C lason , D r . S .J . Dav is , D r . R .G . K le in , a nd Ms . A . Kersten f or t he ir c om ments o n ad raft o f t h is p aper .
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B ar-Yosef , 0 . , a nd E . T chernov 1 966 Archaeo log ica l f inds a nd f oss i l f aunas o f t he Natuf ian a nd m icro l ith ic i ndustr ies a t Hayon im c ave ( western Ga l i lee , I s rae l ) . I s rae l J ourna l o f Z oo logy 1 5 :104-140 . B ar-Yosef , 0 . , B . V andermeersch , B . A rensburg , P . Go ldberg , H . L av i l le , L . Me ignen , Y . Rak , E . T ehernov , a nd A .-M . T i I l ier . 1 986 New d ata o n t he o r ig in o f modern man i n t he L evant . Current Anthropo logy 2 7 (1 ) :63-64 . B e lfer-Cohen , A . , a nd 0 . B ar-Yosef 1 981 The Aur ignac ian a t Hayon im c ave . P a /ior ient 7 (2 ) :19-42 . B ergman , C .A . 1 981 P o int t ypes i n t he Upper P a leo l ith ic s equence a t K sar Ak i l , L ebanon . I n J . Cauv in a nd P . S an lav i l le ( ed itors ) P rih isto ire d u L evant , p p . 3 19-330 . P ar is : CNRS . 1 987 Ksar Ak i l , L ebanon . A T echno log ica l a nd T ypo log ica l Ana lys is o f t he L ater P a laeo l ith ic L eve ls o f Ksar Ak i l . V o lume I : L eve ls X I I-V I . BAR I n ternat iona l S er ies 3 29 . Oxford : B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l Reports . Chap l in , R . , a nd R . Wh ite 1 969 The u se o f t ooth e rupt ion a nd wear , b ody we ight a nd a nt ler c haracter ist ics i n t he a ge e st i mat ion o f ma le w i ld a nd p ark F a l low d eer ( Da ma d ama ) . J ourna l o f Z oo logy ( London ) 1 57 :125-132 . Dav is , S .J . 1 977 The u ngu late r ema ins f rom Kebara Cave . E retzI srae l 1 3 :150-163 . 1 980 A n ote o n t he d enta l a nd s ke leta l o ntogeny o f Gaze 1 1a . I s rae l J ourna l o f Zoology 2 9 :129-134 . 1 982 C l imat ic c hange a nd t he a dvent o f d omest icat ion : T he s uccess ion o f r um inant a rt iodacty ls i n t he l ate P le istocene-Ho locene i n t he I s rae l r eg ion . P a läor ient 8 (2 ) :5-15 . 1 983 The a ge p rof i les o f g aze l les p redated b y a nc ient man i n I s rae l : P oss ib le e v idence f or a s h ift f rom s easona l ity t o s edent ism i n t he Natuf ian . P al ior ient 9 (1 ) :55-62 . Ew ing , J . 1 947 P re l im inary n ote o n t he e xcavat ions a t t he P a laeo l ith ic s i te o f K sar Ak i l , Repub l ic o f L ebanon . Ant iqu ity 2 1 :186-196 . 1 948 K sar Ak i l i n 1 948 . B ib l ica 2 9 (3 ) :272-278 . F r ison , G . 1 978a An ima l p opu lat ion s tud ies a nd c u ltura l i nference . P la ins Anthropo log ist Memo ir 1 4 :44-52 . 1 978b P reh istor ic H unters o ft he H igh P la ins . New York : Acade m ic P ress . F ruz insk i , B . , a nd L . L abudzk i 1 982 Demograph ic p rocesses i n a f orest r oe d eer p opu lat ion . Acta T her io log ica 2 7 :365-375 . Ga rrard , A . 1 982 The e nv ironmenta l i mp l icat ions o f ar eana lys is o f t he l arge mam ma l f auna f rom t he Wad i E l-Mughara c aves , P a lest ine . I n J . B int l iff a nd W . V an Z e ist ( ed itors ) P a laeoc l imates , P a /aeoenv ironments a nd Human Co m mun it ies i n t he E aste rn Med iterranean Reg ion i n L ater P reh istory , p p . 1 65-187 . BAR I n ternat iona l S er ies 1 33 . Oxford : B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports . Ga rrod , D . , a nd D . B ate 1 937 T he S tone Age o f Mount Carme l , v o l . 1 . Oxford : C larendon P ress . H i l lson , S . 1 986 T eeth . Cambr idge : Cambr idge Un ivers ity P ress . Hoo i jer , D . 1 961 F oss i l v ertebrates o f K sar ' Ak i l , a P a laeo l ith ic r ock s he lter i n t he L ebanon . Z oo log ische V erhande l in g en 4 9 :4-65 .
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J e l inek , A . The T abun c ave a nd P a leo l ith ic man i n t he L evant . S c ience 2 16 :1369-1375 . J e l inek , A . , W . F arrand , G . Haas , A . Horow itz , a nd P . Go ldberg 1 973 New e xcavat ions a t t he T abun c ave , Mount C arme l , I s rae l . P a leor ient 1 ( 2 ) :151-183 . K le in , R .G . 1 978 S tone a ge p redat ion o n l arge A fr ican b ov ids . J ourna l o f A rchaeo log ica l S c ience 5 :195-217 . 1 979 S tone a ge e xp lo itat ion o f a n ima ls i n s outhern A fr ica . Amer ican S c ient ist 6 7 :151-160 . 1 981 S tone a ge p redat ion o n sma l l A fr ican b ov ids . S ou th Afr ican A rchaeo log ica l Bu l let in 3 6 :55-65 . 1 982a Age morta l ity p rof i les a s a means o f d ist ingu ish ing h unted s pec ies f rom s cavenged o nes i n S tone Age a rcheo log ica l s i tes . P a leob io logy 8 ( 2 ) : 1 51-158 . 1 982b P atterns o f u ngu late morta l ity a nd u ngu late morta l ity p rof i les f rom L angebaanweg ( Ear ly P l iocene ) a nd E landsfonte in ( M idd le P le istocene ) , S outh-western Cape P rov ince , S outh A fr ica . Anna ls o f t he S outh Afr ican Museum 9 0 (2 ) :49-94 . K le in , R .G . , K . A l lwarden , a nd C . Wo lf 1 983 T he c a lcu lat ion a nd i nterpretat ion o f u ngu late a ge p rof i les f rom d enta l c rown h e ights . I n G . B a i ley ( ed itor ) Hunte r—Gatherer E conomy i n P reh istory : A European P erspect ive , p p . 4 7-57 . Cambr idge : Cambr idge Un ivers ity P ress . Marks , A .E . i . p . T he M idd le a nd Upper P a leo l ith ic o f t he Near E ast a nd t he N i le V a l ley : T he p rob lem o f c u ltura l t ransformat ions . I n P . Me l iars a nd C . S tr inger ( ed itors ) T he Human Revo lut ion : B ehav ioura l a nd B io log ica l P erspect ives o n t he O r ig ins o f Modern Humans . E d inburgh : U n ivers ity o f E d inburgh P ress . Marks , A .E . , a nd P . V o lkman 1 986 T he Mouster ian o f K sar Ak i l : L eve ls XXV IA t h rough XXV I I IB . P a iäor ient 1 2 (1 ) :5-19 . N im mo , B . 1 971 P opu lat ion d ynam ics o f a Wyom ing p ronghorn c ohort f rom t he E denF arson s i te , 4 85W304 . P la ins Anthropo log ist 1 6 :285-288 . R eher , C . 1 978 B uffa lo p opu lat ion a nd o ther d eterm in ist ic f actors i n a mode l o f a dapt ive p rocess o n t he s hortgrass p la ins . P la ins Anthropo log ist Memo ir 1 4 :23-39 . S axon , E . 1 974 T he mob i le h erd ing e conomy o f K ebarah c ave , Mount C arme l - An e conom ic a na lys is o f t he f auna l r ema ins . J ourna l o f A rchaeo log ica l S c ience 1 : 27-45 . S ch ick , T . , a nd M . S teke l is 1 977 Mouster ian a ssemb lages i n K ebara c ave , Mount Carme l . E retz I s rae l 1 3 :97-149 . S p inage , C . 1 971 Geratodonto logy a nd h orn g rowth o f t he i mpa la ( Ae pyceros me lampus ) . J ourna l o f Z oo logy ( London ) 1 64 :209-225 . 1 972 Age e st imat ion o f z ebra . E ast Afr ican W i ld l ife J ourna l 1 0 :273-277 . 1 976 Age d eterm inat ion o f t he f ema le 's G rant 's g aze l le . E ast Afr ican W i ld l ife J ourna l 1 4 (2 ) :121-134 . S teke l is , M . 1 955 Kabbara . Revue B ib l ique 6 2 :84-84 .
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T chernov , E . 1 968 S uccess ion o f Rodent F aunas d ur ing t he Upper P le istocene o f I srae l . Hamburg a nd B er l in : P au l P arey . 1 981 T he b iostrat igraphy o f t he M idd le E ast . I n J . Cauv in a nd P . S an lav i l le ( ed itors ) P rih isto ire d u L evant , p p . 6 7-97 . P ar is : CNRS . T ix ier , J . 1 970 L 'abr i s ous r oehe d e K sar ' Aq i l . L a e ampagne d e f ou i l les 1 969 . Bu l let in d e Musde d e B eyrou th 3 3 :173-191 . 1 974 F ou i I le ä K sar ' Aq i l , L iban ( 1969-1974 ) . P a läor ient 2 (1 ) :183-185 . T ix ier , J . , a nd M .-L . I n izan 1 981 K sar ' Aq i l . S trat igraph ie e t e nse mb les l i th iques d ans l e P a leo l ith ique s up & ieur . F ou l l les 1 971-1975 . I n J . Cauv in a nd P . S an lav i l le ( ed itors ) P räh isto ire d u L evant , p p . 3 53-367 . P ar is : CNRS . T u rv i l le-Petre , F . 1 932 E xcavat ions i n t he Mugharet e l-Kebarah . J ourna l o f t he Roya l Anthropo log ica l I nst itute 6 2 :271-276 . U erpmann , H . P . 1 987 T he Anc ient D istr ibut ion o f Ungu late Mam ma ls i n t he M idd le E ast . Re ihe A ( Naturw issenschaften ) 2 7 . W iesbaden : D r . L udw ig Re ichert V er lag . V a l ladas , H . , J .L . J oron , G . V a l ladas , B . A rensburg , 0 . B ar-Yosef , A . B e lferC ohen , P . Go ldberg , H . L av i l le , L . Me ignen , Y . Rak , E . T ehernov , A .-M . T i l l ier , a nd B . V andermeersch 1 987 T hermo lum inescence d ates f or t he Neandertha l b ur ia l s i te a t Kebara i n I s rae l . Nature 3 30 :159-160 . V a l ladas , H . , J .L . R eyss , J .L J oron , G . V a l ladas , 0 . B ar-Yosef , a nd B . V andermeersch 1 988 T hermo lum inescence d at ing o f Mouster ian ' Proto-Cro-Magnon ' r e ma ins f rom I s rae l a nd t he o r ig in o f modern man . Nature 3 31 :614-616 . W i lson , M . 1 980 P opu lat ion d ynam ics o f t he Garnsey S ite B ison . I n J .D . S peth a nd W .J . P arry ( ed itors ) L ate P reh istor ic B ison P rocurement i n S outheastern New Mex ico : T he 1 978 S eason a t Garnsey S ite ( LA-18399 ) . T echn ica l R eport 1 2 . Ann A rbor : U n ivers ity o f M ich igan Museum o f Anthropo logy . W r ight , H .E . 1 962 L ate P le istocene g eo logy o f c oasta l L ebanon . Quate mar ia 6 :525-539 . Z if fer , D . 1 978 A r e-eva luat ion o f t he Upper P a laeo l ith ic i ndustr ies a t K ebara c ave a nd t he ir p lace i n t he Aur ignac ian c u lture o f t he L evant . P a l kw ient 4 :273-293 .
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EXPLORATIONS OF THE TWILIGHT ZONE: THE EARLY UPPER PALEOLITHIC OF VASCO-CANTABRIAN SPAIN AND GASCONY Lawrence G. Straus and Craig W. Heller
University of New Mexico Albuquerque, New Mexico U.S.A. INTRODUCTION
The biocultural transition between Homo sapiens neanderthalensis/ Mousterian and Homo sapiens sapiens/Upper Paleolithic has been the subject of several recent reviews (Mellars 1973; White 1982; papers in Trinkaus 1983). Until the discovery of the Neanderthal skeleton in a Chatelperronian level at St. Cesaire in 1979, it was possible to see the transition in Western Europe as a punctuation "event" occurring rapidly and more-or-less fully at around 35,000 B.P. Now that the linkages between archaic human morphology and Middle Paleo lithic technology, and between modern morphology and Leptolithic technology have been broken, serious reexamination of the changes in human adaptation involved in "the transition" can be undertaken. It is the premise of this paper that the transition to full-blown, "classic" Upper Paleolithic adaptations was a fairly gradual one, spanning a period of at least 15,000-20,000 years from the late Mousterian until the appearance of Solutrean or Magdalenian technology. For the sake of argument (and without a desire to create and reify more tempero-cultural subdivisions) a distinction is made between the early and the late Upper Paleolithic. The former corresponds to the "Aurignacian" (sensu Breuil) which is equivalent to the Aurignacian plus the Perigordian (sensu Peyrony and de Sonneville-Bordes) and to the Chatelperronian-Aurignacian-Gravettian (sensu Garrod). The latter corresponds to the Solutrean-Magdalenian-Azilian of Western Europe. Furthermore, it is argued that certain aspects of the adaptive complex normally associated with the Upper Paleolithic did indeed appear early in the archaeological record of the time span, while others developed more recently - somE: in �he period betweeen the Last Glacial Maximum and the end of the . Tard1glac1al (1.e., 20,000-10,000 B.P.). The subject of this paper is the early Upper Paleolithic of Vasco Cantabrian Spain and Gascony, the adjacent region of Southwest France (Figure 1). The former region, consisting of the modern provinces of Asturias, Santander (Cantabria), Vizcaya, and Guipuzcoa, is a narrow, geographically distinct entity, bounded on the south by the Cantabrian Cordillera and to the north by the Bay of Biscay. For our purposes, Gascony is the southern part of the Aquitaine, consisting of the modern Departments of Pyrenees-Atlantiques, Hautes-Pyrenees, Ariege, and the southern areas of Les Landes and Haute-Garonne. The early Upper Paleolithic site distribution along the Pyrenees also includes locations in French and Spanish Catalonia. Hominid fossil remains pertaining to the early Upper Paleolithic of Cantabria and the Basque country are rare. Among the more significant ones are 97
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F igure 1 . E a r ly Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes o f North-Centra l a nd Northeast S pa in a nd S outhern F rance : 1 . E l Conde 2 . L a V i i ia 3 . Cueva O scura d e P eran 4 . E l C ierro 5 . Cueto d e l a M ina , L a R iera , A rnero 6 . E l Cudon 7 . Hornos d e l a P e r ia 8 . E l Ca st i l lo 9 . E l P endo , Camargo 1 0 . Cueva Mor in 1 1 . E l S a l itre , E l Rasea t io 1 2 . E l O tero 1 3 . S ant imam i f ie 1 4 . Kurtz ia 1 5 . L umentxa , A txurra 1 6 . B o l inkoba 1 7 . L ezetx ik i 1 8 . U sateg i 1 9 . E ka in , Ama lda 2 0 . A itzb itarte 2 1 . L ez ia 2 2 . B aste , Chab iague , B idart , Mou l igna , V i l lefranque 2 3 . I s tur itz 2 4 . Gatzarr ia , Hareguy 2 5 . T ere is , B enesse , S t . L ion 2 6 . Montaut , E y res 2 7 . B rassempouy , P ou i l lon , Gau jacq 2 8 . S a l ies-de-Bearn , L abast ide , B idache , S orde 2 9 . Gargas 3 0 . Montmaur in , Coupe Gorge , Gahuzere , L es Abe i l les , L es R ideaux 3 1 . Aur ignac I& I , B oussens , L 'Hop ita l 3 2 . T ambourets , Roquecourböre , B ouz in , Tarte , Marsou las , Mas d 'Az i l , Teou le , Rachat , Couteret 3 3 . L e P orte l 3 4 . L a Carane 3 5 . T uto d e Cama lhot ( Sa int-Jean-de V erges ) 3 6 . Canecaude , L es Caune i l les-basses 3 7 . G rande e t P et ite G rottes d e B ize 3 8 . L a C rouzade 3 9 . L 'Arbreda , R ec lau V iver 4 0 . Can C r isp ins , Ca l Co ix 4 1 . R oc d e l a Me lea
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the Camargo cranium (Aurignacian, now lost), a tooth, a mandible, 10 cranial fragments, and four other bone fragments from "Typical Aurignacian" Level 18 at El Castillo; a phalange and a mandible from the Middle Aurignacian of Isturitz, five cranial fragments from at least four individuals, a mandible and maxilla (possibly from the same individual), and a distal fibula from the Gravettian of Isturitz; and four mandibles and a proximal ulna from the final Gravettian of Isturitz (Obermaier 1924; Cabrera 1984; de Saint-Perier and de Saint-Perier 1952). All these remains are of robust Homo sapiens sapiens with large teeth and heavy dental wear.
CHRONOLOGY The early Upper Paleolithic is not well dated in the Cantabro-Pyrenean A Quina Mousterian level at Cueva Millan in Burgos, south of the region. Cordillera, is radiocarbon dated to 37,600±700 B.P., and flowstones from the Mousterian deposits of the adjacent caves of La Flecha and El Castillo in Santander date to 31,640±890 B.P. and 31,450±1400 B.P., respectively (Straus 1985). Level Xa in Ekain Cave (Guipuzcoa), which yielded a Chatelperronian point together with a backed bladelet and a side-scraper, underlies Level Xb which is B.P. (Altuna and Merino 1984). The dated to greater than 30,600 Chatelperronian level (10) from Cueva Morin (Santander) is dated to 35,875 ±6777 B.P., whereas " Archaic Aurignacian" level 8a dates to 27,655±556 B.P. and 27,335±757 B.P., "Typical Aurignacian" level 7 to 28,655±865 and 27,240 ±1535 B.P., "Typical Aurignacian" level 6/7 to 31,570±901 B.P., and Gravettian level 5 upper to 20,110±350 B.P. [Stuckenrath 1978 (recalculated to Libby half-life)]. The artifactpoor basal levels (7 and 9) of El Rascafl.o cave (Santander), possibly attributable to the "Aurignacian," have been dated to 27,240 ±i�g and >27,000 B.P., respectively (Gonzalez Echegaray and Barandiaran 1981). At Almada Cave, Level VI, assigned to the "Perigordian V," has recently been dated to 27,400±1000 and 27,400±1100 B.P., and is rich in Noailles burins and chamois remains (J. Altuna and K. Mariezkurrena, personal communication). (These radiocarbon dates seem rather old, although reasonable at minus two Assemblages lacking Solutrean points from Ekain, standard deviations.) Lezetxiki, and La Riera have yielded dates >20,000 B.P. and the earliest dates for Solutrean-point bearing levels (from La Riera) are in the 20,500 B.P. time range (Straus 1986a). In Ariege, the site of St.-Jean-de-Verges yielded dates for the Aurignacian and Gravettian deposits: 24,200±600 and 21,500±400 B.P., respectively (Bahn 1984). Aurignacian levels IV and III at Canecaude Cave in Aude (southern Languedoc) date to 24,510±400 and 22,980±330 B.P., respectively (Sacchi 1976). The basal levels at L'Arbreda Cave, Gerona have been dated as follows: Gravettian: 20,130±220 B.P.; Upper Aurignacian: 22,590±290 B.P.; Early Aurignacian: 25,830±400 B.P. (Delibrias et al. 1984). Thus, along the 43rd parallel, the early Upper Paleolithic dates to the period between 35,000-20,000 B.P. The Chatelperronian and earliest Aurignacian were penecontemporaneous, while the Gravettian seems to have followed the Aurignacian (with little or no temporal overlap, despite claims for a late Aurignacian at El Pendo). The early Upper Paleolithic corresponds to the climatic phases of the so-called "WUrm III" between the Les Cottes and Laugerie "interstadials." Both temperate (e.g., the Tursac and Arey oscillations) and cold types of environmental conditions occurred in this period and were relatively wet in Cantabrian Spain (Butzer 1981, 1986). Butzer (1981, 1986) places the Chatelperronian and earliest Aurignacian of Cueva Morin in the first cold phase 99
o f Wi l rm I I [ "Recent Wurm" o f L av i l le ( i n p ress ) ] , w hereas L ero i-Gourhan ( Leroyer a nd L ero i-Gourhan 1 983 ) p laces t hem i n t he L es C ottes i n terstad ia l [ t he "W i irm I n ters tad ia l" o f L av i l le ( i n p ress ) ] . L eroyer a nd L ero i-Gourhan ( 1983 ) , B utzer ( 1981 , 1 986 ) , a nd L av i l le e t a l . ( 1980 ) a l l f a i l t o f i nd a ny c orre la t ions b etween s pec if ic Aur ignaco-Per igord ian s tages a nd p art icu lar e nv ironmenta l c ond it ions ( " pha ses" ) . T here i s n o a pparent c ausa l r e lat ionsh ip b etween a rchaeo log ica l a ssemb lage o r " foss i l d i rector" t ypes a nd g enera l ized i nd icators o f t e mperature a nd h um id ity a s measured b y s ed iments a nd p o l len .
EARLY UPPER PALEOL ITH IC S ITE DENS ITY AND D ISTR IBUT ION T here a re a s many a s 2 5 k nown o r p oss ib le e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes i n V a sco-Cantabr ian S pa in . I n 2 0 o f t hese , t he s upposed e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic l eve ls were s t rat if ied b e low S o lutrean a nd/or Magda len ian d epos its , a l though i n s evera l c ases a ttr ibut ion t o t he e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic i sb ased e ssent ia l ly o n t h is s t ra t igraph ic p os it ion o n ly a nd n ot o n a ny d ist inct ive c haracter ist ics o f t he a ssemb lages i n q uest ion ( i .e . , t hey m igh t b e " So lutrean" i n a ge , b ut l ack ing i n f o l iate p o ints ) . S ome o f t he a ssemb lages a re , i n f act , e xtreme ly sma l l a nd o n ly a v ery f ew a re c hronometr ica l ly d ated . Most o f t he o ther e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic o ccurrences a re i s o lated l eve ls w ith s ma l l c o l lect ions p oss ib ly l abe led " Aur ign ac ian" o r " Per igord ian" b y d efau lt , i n t he a b sence o f S o lutrean p o ints o r Magda len ian h arpoons [ s ee d escr ipt ions i n Oberma ier ( 1924 ) , B arand iarän ( 1953 ) , A ltuna e t a l . ( 1982 ) , a nd B erna ldo d e Q u irds ( 1982 ) ] . I n o n ly 8 o f t he s i tes w ere mu l t ip le e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic l eve ls d ef ined d ur ing e xcavat ion ; a t 5o f t hese , b oth " Aur ignac ian" a nd " Per igord ian" l eve ls were d ef ined , a l though s ome o f t he a ttr ibut ions a re t enuous . A l l b ut o ne o f t he V asco-Cantabr ian s i tes a re i n c aves a nd t he a ttr ibut ion o f t he o ne o pen-a ir s i te ( Kurtz ia i n V izcaya ) i sp rob le mat ica l ( Barand iarän e t a l . 1 960 ) . R ea l ist ica l ly , t here a re p robab ly n o more t han 2 0 c red ib le e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic s i tes i n t he r eg ion , w ith p erhaps 4 5 d ef ined l eve ls among t hem . T o d ate , t here a re o n ly 5 t ru ly ma jor e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes i n t he r eg ion : C ueto d e l a M ina , L ezetx ik i , a nd e spec ia l ly ( i n t erms o f n umbers a nd r i chness o f l eve ls ) E l C ast i l lo , E l P endo , a nd C ueva Mor in , o n ly t he l a st o f wh ich was e xcava ted a nd f u l ly a na lyzed w ith modern methods . B ut t here h ave b een n o s i gn if icant e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic e xcavat ions i n t he r eg ion s ince t he l ate 1 960 's u n t i l t he r ecent r eopen ing o f E l C ast i l lo b y V . C abrera a nd t he n ew r esearch a t Ama lda , r esu lts o f wh ich a re , o f c ourse , a s y et u npub l ished . I n c ontras t , t here a re a t l east 4 1 S o lutrean s i tes i n t he s ame r eg ion , e ven t hough t he S o lutrean t echno logy s panned a t most o n ly 3 ,500 y ears i n c ontrast t o t he c a . 1 5 ,000-year t ime s pan o f t he Aur ignaco-Per igord ian t echno logy . A lthough s ome o f t he p oss ib le o r c erta in e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes ( e .g . , L ezetx ik i , B o l inkoba , E l S a l itre , E l R ascaf to , E l Cast i l lo , a nd H ornos d e l a P ef ia ) a re l ocated i n t he mounta inous i n ter ior , i t i s o n ly w ith t he S o lutrean a nd e spec ia l ly t he Magda len ian t hat s uch s i tes b ecome c om mon a nd w ere f requent ly u t i l ized ( p r inc ipa l ly f or i bex h unt ing a s a t B o l inkoba , E l R a scaf to , a nd Co l lub i l ) . A s i sa l so t he e ase f or Mouster ian s i tes i n C antab r ia ( Freeman 1 973 ) , most o f t he e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic s i tes a re l ocated i n t he c oasta l z one . T hey a re o ften s i tuated c entra l ly b etween t he L ast G lac ia l s hore ( s ome 6 -8 km f ur ther n orth t han t he p resent s hore ) a nd t he C ord i l leran f ooth i l l r anges i n s he ltered s pots ( e .g . , s outh o r west f ac ing s l opes o f r i dges o r d o l inas ) . T here a re s ome 4 8 s upposed e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes a long t he n or thern f l anks o f t he P y renees ( d ra inages o f t he N ive , Adour , u pper Garonne , A r iege , a nd A ude r i vers ) ( Arambourou 1 976a , 1 976b ; C lottes 1 976 ; B ahn 1 984 ) .
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H owever , more t han 2 0 o f t hese a re o pen-a ir l oca l it ies , most o f wh ich c ons ist o n ly o f s urface f inds . On ly t wo ( Le B aste a nd , i n p art icu lar , L es T ambourets ) h ave b een s ub jected t o s ubstant ia l , modern e xcavat ions . O therw ise , a ttr ibut ion o f many o f t he o pen-a ir s i tes t o e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic " cu lture" i s s ub ject t o q uest ion s i nce i t i s b ased s imp ly o n t he d iscovery o f s upposed ly c haracter ist ic s tone t oo ls , wh ich c ou ld , h owever , a l so p erta in t o more r ecent p er iods . T here a re t wo ma jor c ave s i tes w ith mu lt ip le Aur ignaco-Per igord ian l eve ls i n t he F rench B asque c ountry : I s tur itz a nd Gatzarr ia . B rassempouy , ac ave c omp lex i n s outhern L es L andes a lso h as a n Aur ignaco-Per igord ian s equence . T here i s a ma jor c luster o f e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic c ave s i tes ( none o f wh ich a re , b y t hemse lves , v ery s i gn if icant ) a round L espugne o n t he L annemezan P lateau i n f ront o f t he c entra l P y renees . N ear t he o pen-a ir s i tes o f L es T ambourets i n n orthern ( l ow land ) A r iege , t here i sa nother c luster o f e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes ( i nc lud ing R oquecourbäre , T artä , Marsou las , T äou lä , e tc . ) . T he t ype s i te o f Aur ignac i sa l so l ocated i n t h is a rea n ear t he c onf luences o f t he V o lp a nd S a lat r ivers w ith t he Ga ronne . O ther s i gn if icant s trat if ied s i tes i n A r iäge i nc lude S t .-Jean-de-Verges a nd L e P orte l , w h i le i n t he l ower b as in o f t he Aude , C anecaude , B ize , a nd L a C rouzade a re a l so r e lat ive ly ma jor c ave s i tes . N one o f t hese s i tes h as a s equence a s l ong a nd r i ch a s I s tur itz , u nfortuna te ly d ug t oo e ar ly t o h ave y ie lded modern e nv ironmenta l , c hrono log ica l , l i th ic r educt ion , a nd r esource d ata . T he S o lutrean i sr epresented b y 1 7 s i tes i n t he P y renean r eg ion , b ut i ti si n t he Magda len ian ( " IV-V I" ) t hat s i te d ens ity e xp lodes a nd d i str ibut ion s h ifts t o i nc lude n ot o n ly l ow land s i tes b ut many s i tes i n t he mounta ins a s w e l l ( notab ly i n s outhern A r iäge a nd P y ränäes-Or ienta les ) . T he h igh mounta in s i tes i nc lude s evera l wh ich w ere d ef in ite ly o r p robab ly i bex h unt ing c amps a nd o thers wh ich may h ave b een r es ident ia l l ocat ions r e lated t o h unt ing r e indeer o n t he ir s ummer p astures ( C lottes 1 983 ; B ahn 1 984 ; S traus 1 987 ) . F ina l ly , t here i s ac luster o f 6e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic s i tes i n G erona ( Span ish C a ta lon ia ) a round S er inya . L 'Arbreda i s a mu lt i-component e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic c ave s i te ( a s w e l l a s h av ing s evera l S o lutrean a nd o ne p oss ib le Magda len ian l eve l ) ( Fu l lo la-Per icot 1 983 ; F u l lo la-Per icot e t a l . 1 986 ) . B oth t o t he s outh ( Barce lona , T arragona , C aste 1 16n ) a nd t o t he n orth ( northern a nd c entra l L es L andes , G ers , s outhern T arn -et-Garonne , T arn , Avey ron , H ärau lt ) t here a re ma jor g aps i n t he d istr ibut ion o f e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes wh ich g ive a s ense o f u n ity t o t he P y renean a l ignmen t o f s i tes . S outh o f t he Cantabr ian C ord i l lera a nd P y renees e ast o f C ata lon ia t here a re n o e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes ( i .e . , n o s i tes i n L eon , O ld Ca st i le , Navar ra , o r A ragon ) . T h is d ist inct l i near d i str ibut ion a long t he 4 3rd p ara l le l , f undamen ta l ly a long t he l ow land n orthern f lanks o f t he C antabro-Pyrenean c ha in , h o lds t rue i n t he l a te Upper P a leo l ith ic e xcept t hat s i tes a re t hen a lso t o b e f ound f ar more f requent ly i n h igh mounta in s ett ings . T h is d i str ibu t ion i s o n ly p art ly d ue t o t he r etreat o f t he g lac iers b y l a te Magda len ian t imes . I t may h ave b een most ly d ue t o t he d eve lopment o f l og ist ica l ly o rgan ized s ett lement-subs istence s ystems , a s h unter-gatherer g roups emphas ized " co l lect i on" a t t he e xpense o f t he more p erva s ive " forag ing" o f e ar l ier p er iods ( s ee B inford 1 980 , 1 982 ; S trau s 1 986b ) .
THE L ITH IC ASSEMBLAGES OF THE EARLY UPPER PALEOL ITH IC I N THE PÜR IGORD T he c lass ic d ef in ing c haracter ist ics o f t he s ubd iv is ions o f t he e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic a s e stab l ished i n t he P er igord ( Bordes 1 968a , 1 968b ; d e S onnev i l leB ordes 1 960 , 1 982 ; R igaud 1 976 ; D e lporte 1 984 ) c an b e s ummar ized a s f o l lows :
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Perigordian I (Chatelperronian): many Mousterian tools, curved backed knives ("Chatelperron points"), simple, often mediocre burins on breaks or truncations, end-scrapers on flakes (often as numerous as the burins), generally very few bone implements; Aurignacian O (ex-Perigordian II): some Mousterian tools, keeled and nosed end-scrapers, Dufour bladelets; Aurignacian I: end-scrapers on retouched blades, thick end-scrapers (nosed, keeled), blades with scalariform retouch, strangled blades, few burins (mostly dihedral), split-base bone points; Aurignacian II: many nosed end-scrapers, somewhat fewer end-scrapers on retouched blades, somewhat more burins (mostly dihedral, with lots of busked burins) at times even outnumbering the end-scrapers, flat-section lozengic bone points; Aurignacian III: similar to Aurignacian II, but with few end-scrapers on retouched blades and mostly keeled and nosed end-scrapers, burins almost all dihedral, virtually no retouched blades, oval-section lozengic bone points; Aurignacian IV: end-scrapers dominant (but mostly on simple blades), relatively few burins (mostly dihedral), reappearance of retouched blades; Aurignacian V (concept now abandoned): thick end-scrapers, relatively many burins, simple bevel-base bone points. Dufour bladelets can be found throughout the Aurignacian sequences, whose phases 0-IV were defined at La Ferrassie. There is no other complete stratified Aurignacian sequence, although the nearby Abri Pataud comes fairly close (Brooks 1982), as do La Chevre and Roe de Combe. Only the types of assemblages called "Aurignacian O, I, and II" have fairly widespread distributions, but they are of disparate ages at different sites even in the Perigord (Laville et al. 1980). There are so-called "Evolved Aurignacian" assemblages at a few sites, and these may be penecontemporaneous with the Aurignacian III and IV at La Ferrassie as well as with Upper Perigordian assemblages at other sites (Laville et al. 1980). The Upper Perigordian sequence -- nowhere found directly and completely stratified above the Lower Perigordian -- consists of four "phases" represented at a combination of sites: La Ferrassie, Le Flageolet I, Roe de Combe, Abri Pataud, and Laugerie-Haute in Perigord: Perigordian IV: many burins (both truncation and dihedral), simple end scrapers on flakes and blades, backed pieces (including Gravette and microgravette "points"); Perigordian V: similar to above, with the addition of tanged ("Font Robert") points, truncated elements, and/or Noailles burins (a form of small multiple truncation burin); Perigordian VI: large numbers of burins (especially on truncations), presence of Gravette and microgravette points, truncated blades; Perigordian VII (= "Protomagdalenian" = "Laugerian"): similar to above but with more dihedral than truncation burins, many backed bladelets, some bone implements. Found only at Laugerie-Haute and nearby Pataud. In general terms, assemblages called "Perigordian" are characterized by backed blades and bladelets, and those called "Aurignacian" by thick end-scrfil)ers, .r,_etouched blades, and abunda!}t bone tools (Bordes 1968a, 1968b; Brooks 1982). Other indicators {e.g., ratio of end-scrapers to burins, particular lithic "fossiJ director" types, and scalariform retouch) seem to be highly variable in terms of presence/absence or relative frequency. Indeed, tools thought typical of one cultural "phylum" often appear in the other and vice versa -- although this fact is often attributed to mechanical mixture or prehistoric collecting (see Bordes 1968b; de Sonneville-Bordes 1982). Despite the variability internal to both the 102
P er igord ian a nd Aur ignac ian p hy la , d e S onnev i l le-Bordes a nd P errot ( 1953 ) d eve loped s imp le p ercen tage i nd ices t o d ist ingu ish b etween a ssemb lages o f t he t wo g roups . T hese i nd ices a re s t i l l i n v ery w idespread u se a nd a re d ef ined a s f o l lows : Aur ignac ian G roup ( GA ) : c omb ined p ercentages o f o g iva l , k ee led , a nd n osed e nd-scrapers , e nd -scrapers o n Aur ignac ian b lades , b usked b ur ins , Aur ign ac ian a nd s trang led b lades ; P er igord ian G roup ( GP ) : c omb ined p ercentages o f b acked k n ives , p o ints a nd b lade lets , a nd t runca ted b lades . B one p o int t ypes a re u sed t o d i st ingu ish s pec if ic Aur ignac ian p ha ses a nd g enera l ly b etween t he A ur ignac ian a nd P er igord ian p hy la . T he P är igord s cheme a nd c r iter ia h ave b een a pp l ied n ot o n ly i n a d jacent a reas o f Guyenne , b ut a l so i n o ther r eg ions o f F rance a nd i n o ther c ountr ies o f Western E urope , i nc lud ing S pa in ( s ee f or e xamp le d e S onnev i l le-Bordes 1 966 ) . S ince v irtua l ly a l l t he Aur ignac ian a nd P er igord ian p hases h ave , a t o ne t ime o r a nother , b een s a id t o e x ist i n Can tabr ian S pa in , o ne g oa l o f t h is p aper i s t o o b ject ive ly s urvey t he i n tera sse mb lage v ar iab i l ity d escr ibed f rom t he ma jor e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic s equences i n t hat r ich r eg ion .
THE FRENCH BASQUE COUNTRY : GATZARR IA AND I STUR ITZ I t i s f i rst i n struct ive t o ment ion t he e x istence o f a n a l ternat ive mode l o f e a r ly Upper P a leo l ith ic v ar iab i l ity , t hat o f t he " synthetotype" i n t he " l ep to l ith izat ion" p rocess a s d eve loped b y L ap lace ( e .g . , 1 958 , 1 966 ) , b ased i n p art o n e xcavat ions i n t he F rench B asque c ountry . I n stead o f s ee ing t wo " ethn ic" p hy la , e ach d eve lop ing a long i t s own c u ltura l t ra jectory a s d id P ey rony a nd t he B ordes , L ap lace r eturned t o a more c omp lex v ers ion o f t he o r ig ina l s cheme o f B reu i l , b ut w ith a v i ta l ist ic t heory o f l ong-term d eve lopment o f b lade-based t echno log ies o ut o f t he Mouster ian o f Western E urope . A t e ach s tage L ap lace s ees c ons iderab le i n terassemb lage v ar iab i l ity ( a s h ave o thers i nc lud ing P rade l a nd P ey rony h i mse lf , a nd more r ecent ly S ackett , w ith t he c reat ion o f an ew " cu lture" - t he " Beurron ian" ) . I n L ap lace ' s v iew , " foss i l d irectors" o f t he t wo d i fferent p hy la a re c onstant ly a ssoc iated w ith o ne a nother t hroughout t he t empora l s equence . Wh i le d i sagree ing w ith L ap lace 's a vowed o rthogenet ie v iew o f c u l ture c hange , we f i nd i n terest ing h is d i savowa l o f t he s t r ict s eparat ion o f t he P er igord ian a nd Aur ignac ian p hy la . I ndeed , t hese p hy la a re , i n r ea l ity , i dea l t ypes e ven w ith in t he f ramework o f t he B ordes ian s choo l . E xcept ions t o t he s upposed c ha racter ist ics o f t he A ur ignac ian a nd P er igord ian a nd t he ir r espect ive " phases" [ wh ich h ave b een s hown t o l ack s tr ict t e mpora l v a l id ity ( Lav i l le e t a / . 1 980 ) ] a re f requent ly made i n t he d iagnos is o f s pec if ic a ssemb lages f rom n on-type s i tes e ven i n G uyenne . F or t he l ong s equence f rom Gatzarr ia t here e x ists o n ly a p re l im inary p ub l icat ion o f t he f i r st t h ree e xcavat ion s easons ( Lap lace 1 966 ) . T oo l g roup i nd ices ( based o n L ap lace ' s t ypo logy , wh ich i s c ompat ib le w ith t hat o f d e S onnev i l le-Bordes a nd P errot a t o n ly t he most g enera l l eve l ) s how a h igh d egree o f v a r iab i l ity w ith in t he Gatzarr ia s equence o f P roto- a nd E ar ly Aur ignac ian a ssemb lages . T here a re a l so s ome s im i lar it ies a nd d i fferences b etween t hem a nd t he b asa l Chate lperron ian l eve l , a nd h igh p ercentages o f Mouster ian t oo ls t h roughout t he e nt ire e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic s equence ( 64% f or t he C hate lp er ron ian l eve l a nd 3 9-33% f or t he f our Aur ignac ian o nes - p robab ly i n p art r e la ted t o t he h eavy u se o f q uartz ite , e spec ia l ly i n t he Chate lperron ian o ccupat ion o f t he s i te ) . B ur ins a re r are t hroughout , b ut e nd-scrapers - p ar t icu lar ly t h ick
1 03
o nes - d o i ncrease i n t he t hree u ppermost Aur ignac ian l eve ls . T he d i st inct ion b etween t he l owest P roto-Aur ignac ian a ssemb lage ( i tse lf d i fferent f rom t he r es t o f t he Aur ignac ian a t Gatzarr ia ) a nd t he Chate lper ron ian , w ith wh ich i ts hares t he s ame g eo log ica l f ormat ion a nd e nv ironmenta l p hase ( "W i Irm I / I I I" i n ter s tad ia l ) , i s t he p resence o f many b acked b lade lets ( not e xact ly a c lass ic " Aur ignac ian" t ra it ) i n a ssoc iat ion w ith k ee led e nd-scrapers i n t he P roto-Aur ignac ian . T he r aw mater ia l d i str ibut ion ( >50 % b lack f l int ) a l so s ets t h is o lder P roto-Aur ignac ian a ssemb lage a part f rom b oth t he Chate lperron ian a nd t he r est o f t he A ur ignac ian s equence . T he Aur ignac ian s equence a t Gatzarr ia i s c apped b y a n Upper P er igord ian l eve l w ith N oa i l les b ur ins , m icrogravette a nd s hou ldered p o in ts . Gatzarr ia 's Cha te lperron ian l acks b one i mp lements ; t he t wo " Proto-Aur ignac ian" l eve ls e ach y ie lded o ne s aga ie , o ne o f wh ich i s l arge , s ub lozeng ic a nd f la ts ect ioned . T he " Ear ly Aur ignac ian" l eve l c onta ined s ma l l s p l it-base p o ints o f l ozeng ic s hape a nd f lat o r o va l s ect ions . T he " Evo lved Aur ignac ian" h as s ome f ragments o f o va l-sect ion , l ozeng ic p o ints a s w e l l a s o ther t ypes o f s aga ies ( Lap lace 1 966 :124-125 ) . N ot f ar f rom Gatzarr ia , h owever , i s t he s i te o f I s tur itz , w ith a r ather c lass ic s equence o f Aur ignac ian a nd P er igord ian a ssemb lages , u nfor tunate ly s tud ied b efore t he d eve lopment o f t he B ordes ian t ypo logy a nd i nd ices . L y ing a top t he Mouster ian i n t he S a l le d e S a int-Mart in ( base o f L eve l S I I I ) t here i s al eve l c onta in ing s ome a typ ica l Chate lperron ian p o ints a ssoc ia ted w ith Mous tero id s ides crapers a nd t h ick , k ee led , o r n ue le iform e nd-scrapers , w ithout A ur ignac ian b lades . T h is a ssemb lage c ou ld b e a ttr ibuted e i ther t o t he Chate lperron ian o r t he e ar ly Aur ignac ian ( de S a int Par ier a nd d e S a in t P ar ier 1 952 :224-226 ) ( or a mechan ica l m ixture o f t he t wo a ssemb lages? ) . I n sofar a s i s p oss ib le w ith t he l im ited t ypo log ica l i n format ion a va i lab le t o d e S a int-116 1 . 1er a nd d e S a in tPar ier ( 1952 :227 ) , t he l i th ic t oo l i nd ices f or t he r est o f t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic a ssemb lages a re p resented i n T ab le 1 . L eve ls I I a nd I V a re c lear ly d i fferent f rom L eve ls S IN a nd S IV i nt er ms o f t he ir l i th ie a ssemb lage c ompos it ion , b ut i t s hou ld b e n oted t ha t t he t wo p a irs o f l eve ls a re f rom d ifferent c hambers o f t h is v ast k arst ie s ystem a nd a re s trat ig raph ica l ly u nconnected a nd u ndated . L eve l Vi n G rande S a l le b ears r esemb lances ( e .g . , t he e nd-scraper i ndex ) t o t he U pper P er igord ian a ssemb lages wh ich o ver l ie i t a nd ( e .g . , t he b ur in i ndex ) t o t he E ar ly a nd M idd le Aur ignac ian o f t he S a l le d e S a int-Mart in . L eve l V i s d i fferent f rom a l l o ther a ssemb lages i n t erms o f i t s e xtreme ly h igh p ercentage o f r etouched b lades , b ut i t s b one i ndustry i sp oor a nd b ana l . L eve l S IV h as s p l it-base b one p o ints a nd S I I I h as s ome o va l- a nd r ounds ect ion l ozeng ic o nes . L eve l I V , wh ich h as l arge n umbers o f Noa i l les b ur ins , y ie lded h igh ly d i st inct ive l a rge s aga ies w ith t ransversa l i nc is ions a cross t he p o inted p rox ima l e nds . T hese " saga ies d ' Is tur itz" h ave a l so b ecome a " foss i l d i rector" o f t he Upper P er igord ian ( a f act a typ ica l f or t he P er igord ian p hy lum ) ( de S onnev i l le-Bordes 1 971 ) . I t i si n terest ing t o n ote t hat G ravette p o ints a re p resen t t hroughout , a nd o n ly marg ina l ly more a bundant i n t he U pper P er igord ian l eve ls .
CANTABR IAN S PA IN : L ITH ICS F . B erna ldo d e Qu irös ( 1982 ) h as r ecent ly p ub l ished a s ynthet ic s tudy o f t he e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic i n C an tabr ian S pa in , p rov id ing d escr ip t ions o f Aur ignaco-Per igord ian l i th ie a ssemb lages d er ived f rom b oth o ld a nd n ew e xcavat ions , p r inc ipa l ly i n c ave s i tes i n A stur ias a nd S antander . L ike G onza lez E chegaray ( 1971 , 1 973 , 1 980 ; b ut s ee a l so 1 976 ) , B erna ldo d e Qu irös a t tempts t o a ss ign t he Cantabr ian a ssemb lages t o t he Aur ignac ian a nd P er igord ian p hases a s
1 04
Tab le 1 . I s tur itz Ear ly Upper Pa leo l ith ic L inde Too l I nd ices
S ITE:
G rande S alle
L EVEL:
I II
A TTRIBUTION:
G
a
S alle d e S aint-Martin
I V
V
G
A
S III A
S IV A
I NDEX T otal E nd-scraper ( %)
3 5.00
3 6.00
3 3.00
5 0.00
5 1.00
K eeled E nd-scraper ( %)
2 .00
2 .00
2 .00
1 6.00
9 .00
( %)
4 3.00
4 7.00
9 .00
9 .00
5 .00
B usked a nd " Prismatic" B urins ( %)
3 .00
2 .00
2 .00
2 .00
2 .00
G ravette P oints ( %)
2 .00
3 .00
1 .00
1 .00
1 .00
R etouched B lades ( %)
1 8.00
1 3.00
5 5.00
3 8.00
3 7.00
1 ,834
1 1,010
1 ,367
1 ,111
3 ,984
T otal B urins
N =
aG =Gravettian;
A =Aurignacian
1 05
defined in the Perigord at a handful of "type sites" (e.g., La Ferrassie, Pataud, Laugerie-Haute). Thus, he accepts a priori a classificatory framework and the phylogenetic paradigm which engendered it. Predictably, for a different region with distinctive topography, food resources, and lithic materials, the attempt to place Cantabrian assemblages into a Perigord scheme is often, at best, forced. Ultimately, the sense of such an enterprise is to be questioned (Straus 1987a). What follows is a preliminary attempt at objectively assessing the differences and similarities between the Mousterian and early Upper Paleolithic assemblages of the region (see also Freeman 1977; Harrold 1981) and among the early Upper Paleolithic assemblages. The transition from the Middle Paleolithic to the early Upper Paleolithic is supposedly marked by a frequency shift in lithic assemblages, i.e., from a Mousterian stone tool "culture" to the Chatelperronian, Aurignacian/Perigordian, and Gravettian "cultures" of the early Upper Paleolithic. According to Bordes (1968, 1972) and others, an observable change in lithic technology occurs between the Middle Paleolithic and the early Upper Paleolithic. This change is characterized by a shift from a predominance of side-scrapers, notches, and denticulates to one of end-scrapers, burins, and backed pieces. In addition, de Sonneville-Bordes (e.g., 1960), Harrold (1981), and others have argued that the early Upper Paleolithic "cultures" are distinguished by significant increases and decreases in certain lithic percentages and thus, each "culture" is typified by a distinct lithic industry. Using data from sites in Cantabrian Spain, southwestern, central, and north-central France, Harrold (in press) describes the Chatelperronian as an industry with a relatively high number of Chatelperron knives (and in decreasing importance) end-scrapers, burins, truncated and retouched pieces as well as many of the typically Mousterian side-scrapers, notches, and denticulates. Harrold sees the difference between Chatelperronian and Aurignacian as marked by a drastic increase in the mean GA (Groupe Aurignacien) score and an equally significant decrease in the mean GP (Groupe Perigordien) score. Continuity in Lithic Assemblage Composition across the Middle/Early Upper Paleolithic Transition
In contrast to these characterizations, based mainly on data from Southwest France, our examination of assemblages from major sites in Cantabria shows that the differences iri this region are neither so abrupt or clear-cut. The relative frequencies of side-scrapers, notches, and denticulates for six major sites in Cantabria (El Conde, El Castillo, Cueva Morin, El Pendo, El Otero, and El Cierro) show that, while definite differences can be seen in lithic industries between the extremes of Mousterian and Gravettian assemblages, the overall transition is a gradual one.
,
If the Middle Paleolithic/early Upper Paleolithic "transition" did indeed represent the appearance of new and separate cultures, one would expect to see significant breaks in the presence of Middle Paleolithic fossil directors. The evidence for Cantabria does not support this. The two Chatelperronian levels in the region (Morin 10 and Pendo VIII) show high, but variable cumulative percentages of side-scrapers, denticulates, and notches: 38.196 and 59.596 respectively. The presence of these lithic tool types does not appear to be diagnostic in any way, for the percentages increase and decrease continually across the entire sample of early Upper Paleolithic assemblages (Table 2). The only general trend that can be observed is a gradual decrease (although not a continuous one) through the Aurignacian until the Gravettian, when the number of 106
Tab le 2 . Re lat ive F requenc ies o f M idd le Pa leo l ith ic Too l Types a F ound i n Ear ly Upper Pa leo l ith ic L eve ls
E l C astillo
E l O tero
L evel 1 8
-
6 .82
L evel 8
-
3 1.25
L evel
1 6
-
1 7.44
L evel 6
-
2 6.46
L evel 1 4
-
9 .02
L evel 5
-
1 0.81
L evel
-
2 9.85
L evel 4
-
1 5.08
1 2
C ueva M orin
E l P endo
L evel 1 0
-
3 8.10
L evel V IIIb
-
4 8.60
L evel
-
2 6.70
L evel V IIIa
-
3 9.10
L evel 8 b
-
2 0.30
L evel V III
-
5 9.50
L evel 8 a
-
2 4.90
L evel V II
-
1 4.10
L evel 8 R
-
3 2.20
L evel V I
-
1 2.30
L evel
7
-
2 8.47
L evel V b
-
8 .70
L evel
6
-
2 2.32
L evel V a
-
9 .80
L evel 5 1
-
2 0.10
L evel V
-
9 .30
L evel 5 u
-
1 4.36
L evel I V
-
1 6.60
L evel
-
1 8.80
L evel I II
-
1 6.10
-
1 2.69
9
4
E l C onde
E l C ierro
L evel 4
-
7 7.48
L evel 7
L evel 2
-
6 2.27
L evel 6
L evel 1
-
6 5.09
aT ype
7 4 - N otch T ype 7 5 - D enticulate T ype 7 7 - S ide-scraper
1 07
6 .66
Middle Paleolithic fossil directors increases once again at El Pendo and Cueva Morin. Some Aurignacian assemblages (notably at El Conde) are extremely rich in Middle Paleolithic tools (see below). In addition, if Bordes and Harrold are correct, one would expect an increase through time of early Upper Paleolithic fossil directors (end-scrapers, burins, backed pieces, and perforators) in Middle Paleolithic levels. This does not prove true either (Table 3). The cumulative percentages of these lithics do not exhibit any consistent directional shifts. While the presence of early Upper Paleolithic fossil directors does increase through the Mousterian at El Conde, it decreases through time at El Castillo. Cueva Morin only begins to increase at the end of its Mousterian sequence (Level 11) after steadily decreasing through five levels. At no time does it approach the 29.496 present in the earliest Mousterian level at Morin. The percentages in the Mousterian levels of El Pendo fluctuate up and down with no directional pattern. The Lithic Assemblage Variability Within the Early Upper Paleolithic
Variability within the early Upper Paleolithic also does not support an argument for the existence of separate cultures in the early Upper Paleolithic. The lithic indices (GA, GP, etc.) established by de Sonneville-Bordes and Perrot (1953) show only gradual, and usually non-directional, change in the presence of supposed fossil directors rather than abrupt ones which would be expected if different cultures were represented (Table 4). There are no dichotomies between assemblage types labeled "Chatelperronian" versus "Aurignacian" or between those 1abeled "Aurignacian" versus "Gravettian." Among the Aurignacian assemblages, the GA ranges from 3-3096, the GP from 0-8.596, the IB from 1.6-56.596, the IG from 11-6796, and the IGA from 33196. Among the Gravettian assemblages, the GA ranges from 6-1496, the GP from 6.7-37.596, the IB from 16-6396, the IG from 7-3396, and the IGA from 312.596. Most of the ranges for these supposedly key indices overlap between the two "cultures." The only index which does seem to discriminate between the Aurignacian and the Gravettian is the GP, reflecting the development of backed blade(let)s, points, and elements in the later period (related to the development of more sophisticated weapon tips, perhaps for projectile weapons?). This is reflected by the mean index values for the Aurignacian and Gravettian as well (Table 5), where the GP for the Gravettian does indeed stand out. There is a general pattern of higher end-scraper percentages in the Aurignacian and higher burin percentages in the Gravettian, but these generalizations are by no means valid in all or even most specific cases and cannot, therefore, be considered "diagnostic." These data also cast considerable doubt on any lingering suggestion of a "phylogenetic" relationship between the Chatelperronian and Gravettian (i.e., "Lower" and "Upper Perigordian"). There are no apparent assemblage similarities between the two groups. One time trend (seen in the averages but not necessarily in the individual stratigraphic sequences) is an increase in the importance of burins. In this region, dihedral burins always far outnumber truncation burins, irrespective of "cultural" attribution. Supposed lithic "fossil director" types of the Aurignacian (Dufour bladelets) and Gravettian (Gravette points) are generally extremely rare (or absent) in all Cantabrian early Upper Paleolithic assemblages (Table 6). Nor are Chatelperron knives abundant or confined to the two recognized Chatelperronian levels (Morin 10 and Pendo VIII).
108
Tab le 3 .
Re lat ive F requenc ies o f Ear ly Pa leo l ith ic L ith ie Too l Types a Found i n M idd le Pa leo l ith ic Leve ls
E l P endo
C ueva M orin
L evel X VI
-
1 3.21
L evel
1 71
-
2 9.40
L evel X IV
-
2 0.40
L evel
1 7
-
2 2.00
L evel X III
-
1 4.28
L evel
1 6
-
1 7.70
L evel X II, X I
-
2 0.20
L evel
1 5
-
1 3.10
L evel V IIId
-
1 3.80
L evel
1 4,
-
1 1.00
L evel
1 2
-
2 0.20
L evel
1 1
-
1 7.00
E l C onde
1 3
E l C astillo
L evel 9 /8
-
1 5.61
L evel 2 2
_
1 1.25
L evel
6
-
1 5.87
L evel 2 0
-
8 .53
L evel
4
-
2 0.77
aT ype
3 0
-
T ypical E nd-scraper
T ype 3 1 T ype 3 2 T ype 3 3
-
A typical E nd-scraper T ypical B urin A typical B urin
T ype T ype T ype T ype T ype T ype
-
T ypical B orer A typical B orer B acked K nife A typical B acked K nife N atural B acked K nife R aclette
3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7 3 8 3 9
1 09
Tab le 4 . L ith ie Too l I nd ices o f Cantabr ian S ites
S ITE:
E l C onde
L EVEL:
4
2
A TTRIBUTION: a A
A
I NDEX G A G P I GA I B I Bd I Bt I G
6 .30 1 .60 1 .40 0 .00 1 2.90 3 64
2 73
S ITE:
E l P endo
L EVEL:
V IIb
A TTRIBUTION: a
E l C astillo
1
7
6
1 8
1 6
A
A
A
A
A
3 .30 5 .40 3 .30 0 .50 3 .30 5 .20 1 0.60 8 .90 6 .20 4 .50 0 .00 1 .10 1 1.00 1 4.50
6 .32 0 .60
N =
E l C ierro
A
1 4
1 2
3 0.20 6 .30 3 0.20 2 2.20 1 5.90 6 .30
4 0.70 8 .60 4 0.70 6 .20 4 .90 1 .20
2 8.89 2 .21 2 1.27 1 0.41 7 .17 1 .16
1 9.76 3 .49 1 8.60 1 1.63 9 .31 0 .00
1 3.10 1 1.50
6 .70 6 .70
9 .80 2 5.40 1 3.10 3 .30
3 .70 1 5.70 6 .70 4 .50
4 4.40
6 6.70
3 5.49
3 3.71
3 2.80
1 2.70
6 2
8 1
8 65
8 6
4 41
V IIIa
V III
V II
A
C
A
V I A
1 22
V b
V a
V
I V
A
C
C
A
1 34
I II A
I NDEX G A G P I GA I B I Bd I Bt I G
1 4.30 0 .00 1 4.30 8 .60 2 .90 2 .90 2 2.90
N=
3 5
1 5.30 6 .30 8 .50 6 .30 1 1.60 2 .50 1 1.60 1 0.10 9 .50 5 .10 1 .10 1 .30 2 1.70 1 6.50 1 89
S ITE:
C ueva M orin
L EVEL:
1 0
A TTRIBUTION: a
C
7 9
3 0.40 4 .20 2 1.20 2 1.70 1 3.30 4 .70 4 0.00 4 05
1 4.50 1 0.10 5 .60 1 2.50 5 .50 2 .90 9 .90 3 7.50 1 3.10 8 .70 2 .80 1 2.50 4 6.20 5 6.50 6 3.40 2 1.90 3 7.20 4 0.60 4 7.90 6 .20 3 .40 1 3.00 9 .90 3 .10 1 7.90 1 4.50 7 .00 2 1.90 1 45
6 9
7 1
3 2
9
8 b
8 a
8 R
7
6
5 1
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
1 2.40 7 .20 2 .80 1 .70 1 1.50 7 .20 4 3.50 4 1.10 3 2.60 2 2.80 3 .90 7 .20 2 1.10 1 9.40 3 56
5 u
1 80
4
I NDEX G A G P I GA I s I Bd I Bt
6 .00 1 1.80 1 1.90 2 1.40 1 2.20 1 9.40 2 3.10 1 6.90 7 .50 3 .40 4 .20 0 .90 1 .70 2 .70 3 .70 4 .80 5 .40 9 .30 7 .60 1 7.90 1 1.10 1 5.00 1 7.00 1 2.10 1 2.10 9 .30 5 .10 8 .90 6 .00 1 4.80 1 1.00 2 1.20 9 .20 5 .80 5 .10 6 .20 5 .30 1 2.20 7 .00 1 5.80 0 .60 0 .50 0 .00 0 .90 0 .40 1 .40 1 .10 3 .60
I G
1 3.60 2 5.30 1 1.90 2 5.00 2 2.70 3 3.30 3 4.00 3 0.90 2 2.50
N =
5 20
2 06
1 18
1 12
1 10
4 65
3 46
6 18
1 64
1 3.70 8 .80 2 8.70 2 0.70 1 2.30 6 .50 1 1.60 1 3.80 8 .90 1 0.10 2 .00 1 .80
1 46
1 6.20 2 17
Tab le 4 . ( cont inued )
S ITE:
E l O tero
L EVEL:
6
5
4
A TTRIBUTION: a
A
A
A
2 0.58 2 .95 1 4.70 8 .82 5 .88 0 .00 2 6.47
2 .70 0 .00 0 .00 2 9.72 1 0.81 1 0.81 1 0.81
1 5.90 5 .66 4 .71 1 9.81 1 0.37 8 .49 2 7.35
3 4
3 7
1 06
I NDEX G A G P I GA I B I Bd I Bt I G N =
S ources:
F reeman 1 977; C abrera 1 984; G onzälez E chegaray 1 978, B ernaldo d e Q uirös 1 982; G onzälez E chegaray e t a l. 1 966.
aC =Chatelperronian,
A =Aurignacian, G =Gravettian
1 11
1 980;
Tab le 5 . Means a nd S tandard Dev iat ions o f Too l G roup I nd ices b y " Cu lture" C hatelperronian
A urignacian
G ravettian
G A
A = s =
6 .15 0 .21
1 6.41 9 .40
1 0.07 3 .50
G P
R = s =
6 .90 0 .85
3 .36 2 .36
1 9.17 1 2.01
I GA
R = s =
3 .95 2 .05
1 3.44 8 .89
7 .93 4 .24
I B
R = s =
1 1.10 1 .41
1 8.14 1 4.79
2 5.30 1 9.37
I Bd
R = s =
7 .15 2 .90
1 2.20 1 0.69
1 5.48 1 6.08
I Bt
R = s =
0 .95 0 .50
3 .05 3 .65
4 .10 3 .00
I G
R = s =
1 5.05 2 .05
2 6.00 1 2.77
1 8.85 8 .97
C hatelperronian:
M orin 1 0;
P endo V III.
A urignacian:
C astillo 1 8, 1 6; M orin 9 , 8 a, 8 b, 8 R, 7 , 6 , 5 1; C onde 4 , 2 , 1 ; P endo V IIIb, V illa, V II, V I, V b, I V, I II; C ierro 7 , 6 ; O tero 6 , 5 , 4 .
G ravettian:
M orin 5 u,4;
P endo V a,V ; C astillo 1 4,12.
1 12
Tab le 6 .
S ite:
Re lat ive F requency o f G ravett ian a nd Aur ignac ian L ith ic Types i n Cantabr ian E ar ly Upper Pa leo l ith ic A sse mb lages
E l C onde
L evel:
4
2
1
C hatelperron K nives ( 46, 4 7)
-
-
_
G ravettes ( 48, 4 9, 5 0/51)
_
_
_
D ufour B ladelets ( 90)
_
-
_
7
6
1 .58
-
1 .58
1 .23
T ype
S ite:
E l C ierro
L evel T ype C hatelperron K nives ( 46, 4 7) G ravettes ( 48, 4 9, 5 0/51) D ufour B ladelets ( 90) S ite:
C ueva M orin
L evel:
1 0
9
8 b
8 a
8 R
7
6
5 1
5 u
4
T ype C hatelperron K nives ( 46, 4 7)
1 .9
-
0 .8
-
0 .4
-
0 .2
-
3 .4
-
G ravettes ( 48, 4 9, 5 0/51)
_
_
_
_
_
_
5 .0
_
9 .5
1 .4
0 .2
6 .3
2 1.2
1 5.2
1 .9
2 .3
4 .8
3 .0
4 .8
0 .9
D ufour B ladelets ( 90)
1 13
Tab le 6 . ( cont inued )
S ite:
E l P endo
L evel:
V IIIb
V IIIa
V III
V II
V I
V b
V a
V
I V
I II
C hatelperron K nives ( 46,47)
-
2 .2
3 .8
1 .5
0 .7
-
-
-
-
-
G ravettes ( 48,49, 5 0/51)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
0 .7
2 .1
1 .4
-
3 .1
1 .4
1 .1
8
6
5 _
4 _
-
-
-
0 .94
1 8
1 6
1 4
1 2
0 .11
-
-
-
1 .63
-
_
_
T ype
D ufour B ladelets ( 90) S ite:
E l O tero
L evel: T ype C hatelperron K nives ( 46,47) G ravettes ( 48,49, 5 0/51) D ufour B ladelets S ite:
( 90)
E l C astillo
L evel: T ype C hat e lperron K nives ( 46,47) G ravettes 4 8,49,
5 0/51)
D ufour B ladelets
( 90)
1 14
L ith ie Raw Ma ter ia l Another i nd ica tor wh ich c ou ld b e u sefu l i n e xam in ing t he d ifferences b etween t he M idd le a nd e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic a nd among e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic " cu l tures" i s l i th ic r aw mater ia l . T he p r imary ma ter ia ls u sed i n l i th ic t oo l manufacture d ur ing t he M idd le a nd e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic o f C antabr ian S pa in a re f l int , q uar tz ite , a nd q uartz ( and s ome o ph ite ) . U nfortunate ly , t he s ource ma ter ia l i n format ion c o l lected f or t he e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic i n Cantabr ia i s r a ther u nspec if ic , a l though q u ite c omp lete f or t he M idd le P a leo l ith ic ( Tab le 7 ) . On ly t he f o l low ing t en tat ive o bservat ions c an b e made f rom t he d ata a va i lab le . T he u se o f o ph ite ( a mott led-green ish i gneous r ock ) a ppears t o b e a band oned i n t he e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic . E l P endo a nd C ueva Mor in s how d rast ic d ecreases i n t he u se o f o ph ite i n t oo l manufacture d ur ing t he Aur ignac ian . E ven f ewer o ph ite t oo ls a re f ound i n t he l a test Aur ignac ian a nd t wo G ravett ian l eve ls a t M or in ( 5 1 , 5 u , a nd 4 ) . T here a ppears t o b e ac orre lat ion b etween a l a rge n umber o f e nd-scrapers a nd t he u se o f q uartz ite i n t oo l manufacture . I n p art icu lar , E l C ierro L eve l 7a nd E l C ast i l lo L eve l 1 8 h ave I GA ' s o f 3 0 .2% a nd 2 1 .27 % r espect ive ly , w ith c orres pond ing q uartz ite u se o f 8 1 .25% a nd 5 1 .4% . T here i s a n a pparent c orre lat ion b etween h igh n umbers o f M idd le P a leo l ith ic f oss i l d irectors i n e ar ly Upper P a leol i th ic a ssemb lages a nd t he u se o f q uartz ite . T he h igh p ercentages o f " archa ic h eavy-duty" t oo l t ypes a t E l C onde i s a ssoc iated w ith t he e xc lus ive u se o f q ua r tz ite . A lso , 4 8 .6% o f E l P endo L eve l V I I Ib l i th ics a re s ide-scrapers , d ent icul a te s , a nd n otches a nd 3 4 .3% o f t he t oo ls i n t h is l eve l a re q uar tz ite . O ther t han t hese c orre lat ions , t here a ppear t o b e n o c lear r e lat ionsh ips b etween t he e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic t oo l a ssemb lages a nd l i th ic r aw mater ia ls . S urpr is ing ly , t he a ssemb lages r i ch i n s ma l l d e l icate " Per igord ian" i ndex t oo ls [ backed b lade ( let )s , p o in t s , a nd e lements ] d o n ot a lway s h ave h igh p ercentages o f f l int . I ndeed , s evera l " Aur ignac ian" a ssemb lages a re a s r i ch o r r i cher i n t hat f i ne-gra ined ma ter ia l d esp ite l ow " GP 's ." I t i s o f i n terest t o n ote t hat a l / t he U pper P a leol i th ic a ssemb lages a t E l C ierro a re d om inated b y e nd-scrapers ( most ly t h ick t ypes ) . The S o lutrean l eve l h a s 3 4 .1% e nd-scrapers a nd t he Magda len ian l eve ls h ave 6 1 .8% a nd 5 2 .5% . A t l east t he S o lutrean l eve l i se xtreme ly r i ch i n r ed d eer r ema ins , s uggest ing , a s a t E l J uyo a nd e l sewhere , af unct iona l r e la t ionsh ip ( deer h ide p reparat ion? ) . There a re many s pec if ic a noma l ies i n t he c lass if icat ion o f a ssemb lages a s " Au r ignac ian" o r " Per igord ian" i n C antabr ian S pa in . Af ew a re n oted b e low . 1 ) T he A itzb itarte " Aur ignac ian" a ssemb lage c onta ins t wo Chate lperron p o in ts ( as d o " Aur ignac ian" L eve l 1 8 a t E l Cast i l lo , " Archa ic Aur ignac ian" L eve ls V I I Ia a t E l P endo , 8 b a nd 8 a a t Mor in , " Typ ica l Aur ignac ian" L eve l 6a t Mor in , a nd V I I a t E l P endo , a nd " Evo lved Aur ignac ian" L eve l V I a t E l P endo ) - p lus a c leaver - " typ ica l" o f t he Cantabr ian Mouster ian ( Barand iarän 1 972 :995 ) . S uch a c leaver , t ogether w ith a b i faee a nd a l arge s i de-scraper , w ere f ound i n t he O tero " Au r ignac ian" ( Cabrera 1 984 ; Gonza lez E chegaray e t a / . 1 966 ; G onza lez E chegar ay 1 971 , 1 973 , 1 980 ) . 2 ) A t E l C ast i l lo , L eve l 1 2 , GA=GP=6 .7 % , y et t he a ssemb lage i s l abe led " Upper P er igord ian ." I n L eve l 1 4 , GA=13 .1 % a nd GP=11 .5% , y et i ti sc a l led " Per ig ord ian V " s ince i to nce h ad 1 5 N oa i l les b ur ins ( now l o st ) ( Cabrera 1 984 ) . 3 ) T he GA ( 6 .0% ) i s a lmost a s g reat a s t he GP ( 7 .5% ) f or t he Chate lp erron ian ( Leve l 1 0 ) o f C ueva Mor in ( Gonza lez E chegaray 1 978 ) . T he i nd ices a re e qua l ( 6 .3% ) i n t he r eg ion 's o ther Chate lperron ian l eve l ( V I I I a t E l P endo )
1 15
Tab le 7 .
Re lat ive F requenc ies o f L ith ie Raw Mater ia l Types i n Cantabr ian Mouster ian a nd Ear ly Upper Pa leo l ith ic Asse mb lages
S ite:
E l C onde
L evel: A ttribution:
9 /8
6
4
2
1
M
M
A
A
A
a
M aterial F lint Q uartzite Q uartz
-
-
-
-
-
1 00.0 -
1 00.0 -
1 00.0 -
1 00.0 -
1 00.0 -
-
-
-
-
-
O phite
7 ite:
E l C ierro
L evel
7
A ttribution:
a
A
M aterial F lint
1 8.75
Q uartzite
8 1.25
S ite:
C ueva M orin
, evel: A ttribution:
a
1 7
1 6
1 5
1 0
9
8 b
7
6
5 1/u
4
M
M
M
C
A
A
A
A
A /C
G
M aterial F lint
6 7.7
5 6.8
6 5.9
7 8.2
8 2.3
9 0.5
9 3.7
9 3.7
9 3.3
7 7.8
Q uartzite Q uartz
1 1.6 0 .1
1 6.1 0 .1
1 4.0 0 .2
1 3.4 0 .6
1 1.0 2 .7
5 .6 3 .9
3 .4 1 .7
2 .1 2 .2
2 .2 3 .8
6 .0 1 5.7
O phite
2 0.6
2 5.3
1 7.7
7 .9
4 .0
1 .1
1 .9
0 .5
0 .5
1 16
Tab le 7 . ( cont inued )
S ite:
E l P endo
L evel A ttribution :
X VI
X IV
X III
X II-XI
V IIId
V IIIb
V IIIa
V III
V II
M
M
M
M
M
A
A
C
A
7 9.7 1 5.9 0 .3 3 .6
5 0.9 3 2.5 0 .3 1 6.0
4 1.4 4 2.5 0 .6 1 5.5
5 1.2 3 5.9 1 .5 1 1.4
5 7.9 2 7.6 0 .7 1 3.7
6 2.9 3 4.3 2 .9
8 6.5 1 6.9 1 .6
9 8.7 1 .3
8 9.1 5 .7 4 .7 0 .5
a
M aterial F lint Q uartzite Q uartz O phite
, te:
E l P endo ( continued)
' evel: A ttribution :
V I
V b
V a
V
I V
I II
A
A
G
G
A
A
9 7.9 2 .1
9 5.7 4 .3
9 4.4 1 .4 4 .2
9 3.7 6 .2
8 8.9 1 .0 1 0.1
9 0.5 5 .6 3 .9
a
M aterial F lint Q uartzite Q uartz
S ite:
E l C astillo
L evel:
2 2
2 0
1 8
1 6
1 4
1 2
At tr i bu t i o n : a
M
M
A
A
G
G
6 0.4 3 7.0 2 .6
4 1.9 5 1.4 6 .7
5 9.2 2 9.6 1 1.1
6 7.6 1 5.7 1 6.7
9 3.3 3 .3 3 .3
M aterial F lint Q uartzite O ther
a
4 4.5 4 8.4 7 .1
M =M ousterian C = C hatelperronian A =A urignacian G=G ravettian
1 17
(Gonzalez Echegaray 1980). These facts, together with Laplace's findings at Gatzarria, suggest that the "Lower" and "Upper Perigordian" are rather different types of assemblages and that the former shares much in common with the earli est "Aurignacian." 4) At Cueto de la Mina, Bernaldo de Quiros (1982) calls Level H "Peri gordian," although GA=GP=5.2%. He calls Level G "Aurignacian" because GA (14.7%) > GP (8.8%), despite the presence of a sagaie d'lsturitz, a supposed "Perigordian V" fossil director. 5) Bolinkoba E is called "Gravettian" although GA=GP=13.4% and there are Solutrean points as well as Noailles burins. Level F also has Solutrean points, but with Noailles burins and GP (10.2%) > GA (7.0%), it is also called "Gravettian" (Bernaldo de Quiros 1982). Several other Basque sites have levels with both Noailles burins and Solutrean points (see Straus 1987a). 6) As noted above with El Cierro, lacking any chronometric dating and given the similarity between the "typical Lower Cantabrian Magdalenian" and the "Aurignacian" [relatively many thick (keeled, nucleiform, etc.) end-scrapers], it is conceivable that the lower levels of Otero (especially Level 6) could be of early Magdalenian age. The upper levels are certainly Upper Magdalenian deposits (with harpoons) and no arguments are made to indicate the existence of a depositional hiatus or an erosional episode between Levels 4 and 3 (Gonzalez Echegaray et al. 1966). The same could probably be argued for some other so-called early Upper Paleolithic assemblages when they are undated or do not underlie clear Solutrean deposits. We find it difficult to discern, given the above information, separate cultures or trends during the supposedly distinct period of the early Upper Paleolithic in Cantabrian Spain. It is obvious that some gradual changes do occur and that the presence of certain tool types varies with raw material, site function, and sampling. However, we see no evidence that these changes occur in any systematic manner and feel that the "cultural" classifications which have been created for the early Upper Paleolithic are highly problematical in this region.
BONE TOOLS
As noted earlier, the Aurignacian is classically distinguished by a relative abundance of sagaies (bone "points") and other bone implements, whereas the Perigordian phylum generally has few. There is, however, an exception in the traditional scheme in that the late Perigordian is sometimes characterized by the presence of sagaies d'Isturitz. The different Aurignacian phases are in part distinguished by different sagaie morphologies at the type site of La Ferrassie. How well do these distinctions hold up in Cantabrian Spain? There are no bone tools in the Chatelperronian of Cueva Morin (Gonzalez Echegaray and Freeman 1971:180) or El Pendo (Barandiaran 1980). The base of level SIV at lsturitz (Chatelperronian or "Lower Aurignacian") yielded a sagaie fragment and a bone spatula fragment (de Saint-Perier and de Saint-Perier 1952: 226). Nor are there any in the "Aurignacian O" of El Pendo -- and only one possible sagaie tip in that of Cueva Morin. The "Aurignacian I" of El Pendo does have one possible undecorated flattened sagaie with a rounded, possibly beveled, base. Both the "Evolved Aurignacian" and the "Gravettian" levels at El Pendo yielded small numbers of banal sagaies (including fusiform ones) and fragments. 118
By far the richest levels are IV and III {"Late Aurignacian"), with numerous round-, oval-, and flat-section, bevel-base sagaies with striations on the bevels and sometimes on a mesial surface. There is a large lozenge-shaped, flat-section point from El Pendo {now lost) which is a supposed fossil director of the "Aurigna cian II" {!) {Barandiaran 1980). Most of the upper Aurignaco-Perigordian sequence at Cueva Morin is very poor in bone points, with no credible "diagnostics," except a lozengic, flat-section sagaie in Level 5 lower. The level is attributed to the "Aurignacian II" because of the lozengic sagaies {although there is also a problematical split-base sagaie fragment) {Gonzalez Echegaray 1971:229). The Aurignacian levels of El Otero {labeled as pertaining to phases III, IV, and V for no convincing reason), yielded virtually no bone tools: three possible banal sagaie fragments, one of which has a flat cross-section {Gonzalez Echegaray et al. 1966). The Aurignacian levels of El Conde yielded no formal Upper Paleolithic bone implements {Freeman 1977) except those found by Vega del Sella in 1915, which included broad: lozengic, flat-oval section sagaies, including some with split bases (Bernaldo de Quir6s 1982:44, 50). A small split-base bone point {along with a few simple bevel-base points) was found in the 1924 excavations at Santimamiii.e near Guernica (Vizcaya) in the basal level, which is said to also have contained "Gravettian lithic elements" (Barandiaran 1972:211). The Aitzbitarte and Lumentxa "Aurignacian" collections lack bone implements (Barandiaran 1972), although the latter site had two short, single, bevel-base bone points which could fit perfectly well in a Solutrean or Magdalenian context. Indeed, the directly overlying Middle Magdalenian level (also undated) has three identical points. Lezetxiki Level II {"Gravettian") has some circular-section sagaies, while the problematical underlying "Aurignacian" levels apparently lacked bone implements {Bernaldo de Quir6s 1982). Other significant "Aurignacian" levels lacking bone points include Harnos de la Pena and El Cierra, while the old excavations at Arnero are said to have yielded split-base points {Bernaldo de Quir6s 1982). Like the case of Isturitz in Gascony, there is one site in Cantabrian Spain with major early Upper Paleolithic bone industries: El Castillo. Level 18 {"Aurignacian Delta" = "Typical Aurignacian") yielded at least 10 flat-section, split-base, lozengic bone points. Level 16 {"Aurignacian Gamma" = "Typical Aurignacian") had one. Level 14 ("Aurignacian Beta" = "Perigordian V with Noailles burins") had six bi-pointed, circular-section points and three fragments of oval-section ones. Level 12 ("Aurignacian Alpha" = "Upper Perigordian") yielded several bi-pointed sagaies {all lost), one of which may be a sagaie d'Isturitz (i.e., with transverse engraved lines on the base). There is a sagaie d'Isturitz fragment from Level F (Upper Perigordian with Noailles burins and Solutrean points), at Bolinkoba, from Level G at Cueto de la Mina [nevertheless called "Aurignacian" by Bernaldo de Quir6s (1982:71)], and from the otherwise poor, little-known Level III at Usategi Cave in Guipuzcoa (Altuna et al. 1982:81-82). In sum, while most early Upper Paleolithic levels lack "diagnostic" bone implements, the split-base and lozenge-shaped sagaies of the French "Typical Aurignacian" do appear in several Cantabrian sites, although not always in On the other hand, the sagaie stratigraphically early Aurignacian levels. d'Isturitz, supposedly associated with Noailles burins in the "Perigordian V" appears in a variety of contexts, only one of which (Bolinkoba F) is at least partially "classic" (if one argues that the Solutrean points in it are the result of mechanical mixture). Bone points thus serve as temporal and "cultural" markers in only the most general sense in Cantabrian Spain. Their relative rarity is not a product of preservation conditions, as fauna! remains are well preserved in these limestone caves, and bone implements are very abundant in the often overlying Solutrean and especially Magdalenian levels of the same sites.
119
ART AND ORNAMENT The Chatelperronian levels of Isturitz, Gatzarria, Cueva Morin, and El Pendo have yielded no engraved or perforated objects. Nor have the "Aurig nacian" or "Archaic Aurignacian" levels at El Pendo, Cueva Morin, or El Conde. The upper of two levels (cjnl) assigned to the "Proto-Aurignacian" at Gatzarria produced bone with engraved lines ("marques de chasse"), a steatite bead, and a perforated fox canine; the "Early Aurignacian" level (cbci-cbf) has several engraved pieces of antler and bone, stone beads, and perforated fox and red deer teeth, as does the "Evolved Aurignacian" level (cb) (Laplace 1966:125). The "Typical" and "Middle Aurignacian" levels of Isturitz, Salle de Saint-Martin, and Grande Salle are rich in engraved bones, perforated stones, shells, and teeth and relatively few figurative pieces. However, the Gravettian levels are far richer in these ornamental and mobile art objects -- especially figurative engravings of animals and "marques de chasse" (de Saint-Perier and de Saint-Perier 1952). Art 1.nd ornament definitely seem to increase through time in the stratified sequence . f Isturitz. The "Aurignacian" of Aitzbitarte yielded but one perforated ibex tooth; the Bolinkoba "Gravettian" has a perforated shell and an engraved bird bone tube; the El Castillo "Gravettian" has a pebble with a possible animal engraving and a perforated shell; the "Gravettian" of Cueva Morin yielded a piece of marl with an :mthropomorphic engraving and a perforated, engraved stone, together with two perforated red deer canines (plus one in the "Aurignacian I"); Lumentxa's supposed "Aurignacian" had an antler fragment with a possible bovine engraving; there are five perforated teeth at El Otero -- two in the "Aurignacian IV" and three in the "Aurignacian V." There is a problematical "Aurignacian" find of a bone with a painting of a cervid from El Salitre (Gonzalez Echegaray and Freeman 1971; Barandiaran 1972). It is noteworthy that neither of the El Castillo "Aurignacian" levels (excavated over vast areas) yielded any mobile art or ornamental objects (Cabrera 1984). The "Aurignacian" provenience of the horse frontal bone with a horse engraving is highly doubtful according to Barandiar{m (1972:133-134). One of the richer levels in terms of ornaments is El Pendo Level VII ("Aurignacian I"), with several perforated and engraved stones, as well as a red deer canine [one of which was also found in Level VI ("Evolved Aurignacian")]. The other Aurignacian level and both Gravettian levels are, however, devoid of such ornamental objects. Level I at La Riera, which is probably "pre-Solutrean" (ea. 21,000 B.P.) yielded two rib fragments with cut marks or linear engraving, and two perforated red deer canines (Gonzalez Morales 1986). In contrast, engraved and carved bones, antlers, and stones, perforated shells, teeth, and stones, and other works of mobile art are generally and abun dantly found in the Solutrean and especially Magdalenian levels of the Cantabrian region. In the early Upper Paleolithic in general such objects are relatively rare -- absent in the oldest levels and most frequent in the youngest ones in stratified sequences. Mobile art and ornamental objects do not serve to distinguish the Middle Paleolithic and earliest Upper Paleolithic in this region -- and only rarely elsewhere (see Harrold 1981). In this regard there is a marked regional contrast with the early Upper Paleolithic of the Perigord. Cave art which can be reason ably assigned to the early Upper Paleolithic is virtually non-existent in the region (Straus 1987b). The deeply engraved animal figurines in a stalagmitic column in Isturitz were covered with "Middle Magdalenian" archaeological deposits at the time of discovery, so that they date to either the Solutrean or early Upper Paleo lithic (de Saint-Perier and de Saint-Perier 1952). The lineal and figurative engravings on the wall of the La Vina rockshelter were similarly covered with "Middle Magdalenian" deposits and thus were made in the Solutrean occupations or 120
in as yet undefined earlier occupations (early Upper Paleolithic?) (Fortea 1981). The lineal engravings on the walls of El Conde Cave were partially covered by Aurignacian deposits (Marquez Uria 1981). Other such "simple," "primitivelooking" engravings exist but there is no proof (or strong reason to believe) that they too date to the early Upper Paleolithic. Based on stylistic comparisons with dated works of mobile art, it is reasonable to assume that the vast majority of cave art (engravings and especially paintings) date to the late Upper Paleolithic. This is true in France as well, where, however, the first rock art does appear in the "Aurignacian II" of La Ferrassie. So again the early Upper Paleolithic lies between the Middle and the late Upper Paleolithic in a characteristic (i.e., art) wnich is pro_bably related, at least in part, to symbolic behavior and aspects of social organization possibly involving territorialism, ethnicity, information storage, and collective planning capacity.
SUBSISTENCE Early Upper Paleolithic evidence from Cantabrian Spain has been sum marized in various publications (Altuna 1971, 1972; Freeman 1973; Straus 1977; Fuentes 1980; Bernaldo de Quiros 1982). Quantified numbers of remains [plus minimum numbers of individuals (MNI)] of ungulates from modern early Upper Paleolithic excavations are presented in Table 8. Also included is Cueto de la Mina, whose old collections were recently studied by the paleontologist P. Castaii.os (1982). MNI counts for carnivores from recently dug levels are listed in Table 9. Other presence/absence and relative abundance data from older excava tions (or ones with only perfunctory faunal analyses) are given by Freeman (1973) and Bernaldo de Quiros (1982). As pointed out in an earlier article (Straus 1982), deposits with Mousterian artifacts in this region are often rich in a variety of large carnivores which were probably major agents of accumulation. By late Upper Paleolithic times the caves occupied by humans ceased to be carnivore dens as well, and all or most of the ungulate remains in them can be credibly attributed to human hunters. When carnivores are present in the late Upper Paleolithic, they are usually small, fur-bearing mustelids and foxes, probably trapped by people. The early Upper Paleolithic deposits are generally poorer in large carnivores than the Mousterian deposits, but richer than the late Upper Paleolithic ones. Note worthy in Table 9 is the frequency of wolf, bear, hyena, and lion in the early Upper Paleolithic levels. Of course, there are problems with cultural attribution with Lezetxiki Levels IVc, IVa, and Illa (i.e., Mousterian or early Upper Paleo lithic), but it is interesting to observe that archaeologically sterile Levels IVb and Illb are also very rich in cave bear remains and were clearly lairs (in which bears possibly died during hibernation). These large carnivores are very rare in late Upper Paleolithic cultural levels in the region. Among the older and unquantified collections, similar trends are apparent. At Gatzarria, the following carnivores are present: Chatelperronian:
Ursus; "Protoaurignacian:" Ursus, Felis, Vulpes; "Early Aurignacian:" Vulpes; "Evolved Aurignacian:" Vulpes (Laplace 1966).
At Isturitz the early Upper Paleolithic carnivore faunas are richer: "Typical Aurignacian:" Canis lupus, Vulpes vulpes, and Alopex lagopus, Ursus spelaeus, and U. arctos, Crocuta crocuta, Panthera spelaea and P. pardus; "Gravettian:" Canis lupus, Cuon alpinus, Vulpes vulpes, and Alopex lagopus, Ursus arctos, and U. spelaeus, Crocuta crocuta, Martes foina, Panthera spelaea, Felis sylvestris; Final Gravettian: Canis lupus, Vulpes vulpes and Alopex lagopus, Ursus arctos and U. spelaeus, Crocuta crocuta, Mustela putorius, Panthera spelaea, and 121
Tab le 8 . Ungu late F aunas f rom E ar ly Upper Pa leo l ith ic L eve ls E n =N ISP ; ( n ) =M M ]
S ite:
C ueva M orin
L evel:
1 0
9
8
7
6
5 ca
5 ba
1 4 ( 3)
9 5 ( 7)
1 08 ( 7)
1 21 ( 7)
1 47 ( 8)
C apreolus c apreolus
1 1 ( 2)
6 ( 2)
2 6 ( 6)
2 1 ( 5)
3 1 ( 5)
S us s crofa
1 ( 1)
5 ab
4
3 88 ( 12)
2 71 ( 11)
9 5 ( 6)
4 9 ( 4)
T axon C ervus e laphus c
3 ( 2)
E quus c aballus
2 ( 1)
B ovini
2 5 ( 2)
C apra p yrenaica R upicapra r upicapra
3 ( 2)
1 3 ( 4)
3
6
( 1)
( 2)
1 ( 1) 8 ( 1)
3 7 ( 4)
2 6
2 3
( 2)
( 5)
( 1)
1 ( 1)
3 ( 1)
8 ( 1)
1 ( 1)
M ammuthus p rimigenius
6 ( 1) 9
1 2 ( 2)
3 0 ( 4)
3 9 ( 4)
1 7
2 9
1 9
( 3)
( 3)
( 2)
8 ( 3)
1 3 ( 3)
3 ( 1)
1 ( 1)
1 ( 1)
aL evel 5 - I nferior L evel 5 - S uperior
1 22
Tab le 8 . ( cont inued )
S ite:
E l P endo
L evel:
V IIIb
V III
V II
V I
V b
V a
V
I V
I II
4 6 ( 8)
2 82 ( 12)
3 ( 1)
2 ( 1)
T axon C ervus e laphus c
4 6 ( 2)
1 9 ( 1)
1 67 ( 5)
2 37 ( 8)
C apreolus c apreolus
2 ( 1)
1 ( 1)
2 ( 1)
2 ( 1)
1 8 ( 1)
1 10 ( 5)
7 8 ( 5)
1 ( 1)
S us s crofa E quus c aballus B ovini
2 ( 1)
C apra p yrenaica
1 ( 1)
S ite: L evel:
1 ( 1)
3 0 ( 3)
3 7 ( 1)
1 8 ( 1)
1 5 ( 1)
1 4 ( 1)
7 5 ( 3)
2 3 ( 1)
9 ( 1)
1 8 ( 1)
6 ( 1)
9 ( 1)
3 1 ( 3)
1 ( 1)
E l C onde C
L ezetziki B
A
I Vc
A itzbitarte
I Va
I IIa
3 5
3 3
1 04
( 5)
( 2)
I I
4
4 1
1 01
T axon C ervus e laphus c
1
5
9
( 1)
( 2)
( 1)
C apreolus c apreolus
2 ( 1)
( 9)
( 3)
( 7)
4 ( 1)
4 ( 2)
2 ( 1)
S us s crofa
3 ( 1)
E quus c aballus
1 3 ( 2)
3 ( 1)
2 ( 1)
B ovini
1 ( 1)
5 ( 1)
1 8 ( 3)
1 13 ( 3)
9 ( 2)
9 ( 2)
C apra p yrenaica
3 ( 1)
2 ( 1)
1 1 ( 1)
2 ( 1)
7 ( 2)
3 5 ( 3)
1 6 ( 3)
3 ( 2)
R upicapra r upicapra
3 ( 1)
1 0 ( 2)
2 9 ( 3)
1 0 ( 1)
9 ( 1)
1 26 ( 12)
1 33 ( 8)
6 2 ( 5)
1 23
Tab le 8 . ( cont inued )
S ite:
L a R iera
L evel:
1
C ueto d e l a M ina H
E l R ascaf io
G
9
8
E kain 7
X a
V III
T axon C ervus e laphus c
1 01 ( 7)
2 ( 2)
3 5 ( 3)
5
1
( 2)
( 1)
3 1
5 4
( 5)
( 5)
C apreolus
2
1
5
c apreolus
( 1)
( 1)
( 1)
2 ( 1)
4 ( 1)
1 ( 1)
4 8 ( 5)
2 7 ( 4)
S us s crofa E quus c aballus B ovini
1 16 ( 5) 6 2 ( 4)
C apra
1 8
p yrenaica
( 5)
1
1
1
( 1)
( 1)
( 1)
1
5
1
( 1)
( 1)
( 1)
R upicapra
4
1
r upicapra
( 1)
( 1)
1 4 ( 4) 1 9 ( 3)
4 ( 1)
9
1 4
( 2)
( 2)
2 7
7 5
( 2)
( 5)
cI ncludes
M egaloceros i n E l P endo V a a nd V I ( total N ISP = 6 ), R angifer i n L ezetxiki I IIa a nd I Vc ( total N ISP = 4 ), a nd R angifer i n C ueto d e l a M ina ( NISP = 1 ). S ources: A ltuna 1 971, 1 977, 1 978, 1 981, 1 984; C astaf ios 1 982; F uentes 1 980.
1 24
1 986; A ltuna a nd M ariezkurrena
Tab le 9 . Quant if ied Ear ly Upper Pa leo l ith ic Carn ivore Ase mb lages (MN I )
C anis l upis
V ulpes v ulpes
U rsus s pelaeus & U . a rctos M ustelidae
C rocuta c rocuta
F elis P anthera l ynx & F . p ardus & P . s ylvestris s pelaeus
C ueva M orin L evel L evel L evel L evel
6 5 c 5 b 5 a
L evel 4
1
1 1
1 1 1
1 1
1
1 2
E l P endo
evel e vel e vel L evel L evel
V IIIb V II V I V I V I II
1 1
1 1
1
1 1 1
1 1
E l C onde L evel B
1
L ezetxiki L evel L evel L evel
I Vc I Va I IIa
2 1 2
1 1
4 4 9
2 4
L evel
I I
1
2
2
1
1 1
2
A utzbitarte L evel 4
3
C ueto d e l a M ina L evel H L evel G
1 1
X
R asca t io L evel
7
1
1
E kain L evel X a L evel V III
1 1
2 3
4 8
2 1
1 25
1
F e l is s y lvestr is ( de S a int-Pär ier a nd d e S a int-Pär ier 1 952 ) . Wh i le l arge c arn ivore r ema ins a re p resent i n t he S o lutrean a nd Magda len ian l eve ls a t I s tur itz , t hey a re f ar r arer ( de S a int-Pär ier 1 936 ; d e S a int-Pär ier a nd d e S a int-Pär ier 1 952 ) . A t E l Cast i l lo , t he 1 911-1914 e xcava t ions u ncovered r ema ins o f l i on i n a l l t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic l eve ls b ut 1 6 , w i ld c at i n L eve ls 1 8 a nd 1 2 , l ynx i n 1 2 , a nd h yena , wo lf , f ox , a nd c ave b ear i n a l l f our e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic l eve ls ( 18 , 1 6 , 1 4 , a nd 1 2 ) . C arn ivores a re r arer i n t he o ver ly ing S o lutrean a nd L ower Magdal en ian l eve ls a nd v irtua l ly a bsent i n t he U pper Magda len ian a nd Az i l ian l eve ls ( Cabrera 1 984 ) . A t E l O tero , f ox , h yena , a nd c ave b ear were r epresented i n " Aur ignac ian" L eve l 4 , a nd t he l a tter s pec ies i n L eve l 5 a s w e l l ( Mad iar iaga 1 966 ) . I n s hort , i t i s n ot a pparent - j udg ing f rom t he c ont inued r e lat ive a bundance o f l arge c arn ivores - t hat t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic c ave s i tes were o n ly i nhab ited b y h umans o r t hat a l l t he u ngu late f auna l r ema ins i n t hem were a ccumu lated b y p eop le . T hese s i tuat ions c hange f urther i n t he d irect ion o f e xc lus ive h uman u se o f t he c aves a nd e xc lus ive h uman h unt ing i n t he r eg iona l l ate Upper P a leo l ith ic . T ab le 8 s hows t hat r ed d eer i s u b iqu itous ly p resent i n t he r ecent ly e xcavated e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic l eve ls ( a s i t i s i n t he o lder e xcavat ions ) . However , t he m in imum n umbers o f i nd iv idua ls a nd t he n u mbers o f r ema ins a re n ever v ery l arge - t he l a rgest MN I 's b e ing 1-12 i n o n ly t hree c ases . T h is i s i n s tr ik ing c ontrast t o t he s i tuat ion i n t he r eg iona l S o lutrean a nd Magda len ian when Cervus MN I 's f requent ly e qua l o r e xceed 2 0-25 f rom l im ited e xcavat ion u n its ( S traus 1 987c ) . B ov ines , f o l lowed b y h orses , a re f requent ly r epresented , b ut t he N ISP f igures a re u sua l ly v ery l ow s uggest ing t hat e ven MN I f igures o f 1 -5 g ross ly o verrepresent t he e conom ic i mportance o f t hese l arger s pec ies a t t hese s i tes u n less , o f c ourse , o n ly meat s tr ipped f rom t he b ones a t k i l l s i tes was b rough t b ack t o t hese c ave ( r es ident ia l? ) s i tes . I n c ontrast t o t he Mouster ian , when i bex a nd c hamo is a re e ssent ia l ly a bsent , t hese r ocky s l ope dwe l lers ( espec ia l ly t he f ormer ) b eg in t o make a s i gn if icant a ppearance i n e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic a sse mb lages . [ And i f L eve l Ea t B o l inkoba i sc ons idered G ravett ian i n stead o f S o lutrean , d esp ite t he p resence o f f o l iate p o ints , t here i s a t l east o ne e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic l eve l w ith e v idence o f s ome i bex-hunt ing s pec ia l izat ion w ith a n MN I o f 1 1 ( S traus 1 977 ) ] . R oe d eer i sf a ir ly c ons istent ly r epresented , a long w ith s ome b oar , wh ich i s a lso p robab le e v idence f or t he s omet ime e x istence o f t h ickets o r woods d ur ing "W t irm I I" i n terstad ia ls . H owever , n e ither a n ima l was e cono m ica l ly s ign if icant i n t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic . A s s ummar ized b y B ahn ( 1984 ) , t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic f aunas o f Gatzarr ia a re c omposed o f m in iscu le q uant it ies o f r ed d eer , b ov ines , c hamo is , h orse , r e indeer , g iant d eer , a nd i bex r e ma ins , w ith t he f i rst t h ree b e ing t he n umer ica l ly most i mportant t axa . T he e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic f aunas o f I s tur itz a re s im i lar ly u n impress ive d esp ite t he v ast a reas e xcavated a nd t he o ften g reat t h ickness o f t he c u ltura l h or izons b y wh ich t he r e ma ins w ere l u mped . I ti so n ly i n t he G ravett ian l eve l I V/F I I I i n t he G rande S a l le t hat b oth d e S a int-Pär ier a nd P assemard f ound s ubstant ia l n umbers o f r e indeer ( 20-22 i nd iv idua ls a nd 1 5 i nd iv idua ls r espect ive ly ) a nd b ov ines ( 12-14 i nd iv idua ls a nd 2 7 i nd iv idua ls r espect ive ly ) ( Bahn 1 984 : t ab le 7 ) . I t s hou ld b e r eca l led t hat t h is i s ac h ronol og ica l ly r ecent d epos it . O ther u ngu late g enera r epresented ( by s ma l l q uant it ies ) i n t he e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic o f I s tur itz i nc lude : Gen ius , C apreo lus , Capra , Rup icapra , a nd E quus . On ly t he l a tter h ad ma jor e conom ic s ign if icance ( i n t he " Typ ica l Aur ignac ian" ) ( Bahn 1 984 ) . I n c ontras t , r e indeer a nd h orse a re e xtreme ly a bundant i n t he I s tur itz Magda len ian l eve ls ( e .g . , MN I 's o f 4 6 a nd 2 8 i n P assemard 's "Magda len ian I V" L eve l E ) . Af ew r h inoceros a nd p robose idean r e ma ins a re a l so p resent i n t he e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic o f I s tur itz , Cueva Mor in ( one t usk
1 26
f ragment ) , a nd E l C a s t i l lo . A l l a re p robab ly j ust o b jects c o l lected a s c ur ios it ies o r r aw mater ia ls b y t he h umans a nd h ad n o s ubs istence s i gn if icance . I n t he C ast i l lo e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic , r ed d eer , b ov ines , a nd h orses a re c lear ly t he d om inant u ngu lates ( a s a t E l O tero ) , w ith s upposed MN I 's o f 2 16 ( ! ) f or C ervus a nd 2 9 f or B ov in i i n L eve l 1 8 , a nd 1 0 a nd 1 1 r espect ive ly i n L eve l 1 4 . Wh i le i t i s c once ivab le t hat t he c i tat ion o f 2 16 i nd iv idua ls f rom t he e xcavat ion d ocuments b y Cabrera ( 1984 :236 , 4 15 ) r ea l ly r efers t o n umbers o f r ema ins , i t s hou ld b e n oted t ha t L eve l 1 8 c ons isted o f t hree s trat igraph ic s ubd iv is ions e xcavated o ver a v ery l arge a rea ( ca . 1 3 .5 x 2 0 m ) ( Cabrera 1 984 ) . W ith a n a pprox ima te v o lume o f 1 35 c ub ic meters , L eve l 1 8 i so bv ious ly a v ast p a l impsest , s o t he h igh MN I 's a re b ehav iora l ly mean ing less . T he c onc lus ion t hat e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic p eop le g enera l ly p rocured s ma l l n umbers o f u ngu lates ( p r inc ipa l ly r ed d eer , b ov ines , a nd h or ses ) , p robab ly b y h unt ing i nd iv idua ls ( a s o pposed t o h erds ) i s t hus u na ltered b y t he Cast i l lo f igures . [ Recent r eana lys is o f t he C ast i l lo c o l lect ions d oes n ot c onf irm t he e x istence o f s uch h uge q uant it ies o f d eer o r b ov ines i n t he e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic ( R . G . K le in , p ersona l c ommun icat ion ) . ] A lp ine s pec ies w ere u sua l ly m inor p rey a nd may a l so h ave b een t aken i nd iv idua l ly [ i n c ontrast t o t he l a rge i bex s l augh ters i n l a te U pper P a leo l ith ic t imes n ear s i tes l i ke L a R iera , C o l lub i l , B o l inkoba , P lä lago , R asea t io , L es E g l ises , L a V ache , Bk le i lhac , B a lma Marg ineda , a nd B e lv is ( S traus 1 987d ) ] . T he l ow u t i l izat ion o f i bex i sr ef lected i n t he e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic s ett lement p attern , wh ich i s v ery s im i lar t o t hat o f t he Mouster ian , a s o bserved e ar l ier . A s n oted a bove , t he d angerous b oar was o n ly o ccas iona l ly h unted ( o r s cavenged? ) . L agomorph r ema ins a re a bsent o r r are t h roughout , a nd n ot a l l t he u ngu la te r ema ins f ound i n e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic d epos its w ere n ecessar i ly k i l led b y h umans . F ina l ly , t here i sn o s trong e v idence f or mar ine f ood r esource e xp lo itat ion ( a s t here i s , i n c on trast , f or t he S o lutrean a nd Magda len ian o f t he r eg ion ) . S he l lf ish a re p resent a t I s tur itz a nd E l C ast i l lo i n t he e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic l eve ls , b u t t hey a re g enera l ly f ew a nd w ere p robab ly u sed a s o rnaments ( s omet imes w ith p er forat ions ) . T hey a re f ar more c ommon i n t he l a te U pper P a leo l ith ic l eve ls . What a re most l i ke ly o rnamenta l s he l ls a re f ound t h roughout t he Aur ignac ian a nd G ravett ian l eve ls o f C ueva Mor in . A t E l O tero , E l P endo , L a R iera , a nd C ueto d e l a M ina t here a re many s he l ls i n t he l a te U pper P a leo l ith ic l eve ls , b ut f ew o r n one i n t he e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic . R ea l s he l l m idden l ayers d o n ot a ppear u nt i l t he S o lutrean a nd L ower Magda len ian a t s uch s i tes a s L a R iera a nd E l J uyo . F ish r ema ins a re v i r tua l ly a b sent a l together i n t he r eg iona l e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic ( a s i nt he Mouster ian ) , a nd o n ly b eg in t o a ppear i nt he S o lutrean , b ecom ing f a ir ly c ommon i n t he U pper Magda len ian ( i n a ssoc ia t ion w ith h a rpoons ) . B ird r ema ins a re p resent i n t he e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic o f E l C ast i l lo a nd I s tur itz ( much m ore s o t han i n t he Mouster ian ) , b ut t hey a re a bsent a t E l P endo u n t i l t he l a te U pper P a leo l ith ic . O f c ourse , E l Cast i l lo a nd I s tu r itz c ou ld h ave b een n atura l ly p referred r oost ing s i tes f or many o f t he b irds , a s t he r ema ins i nc lude s pec ies t hat f r equent c l iffs a nd e aves . I n c ontrast t o t he s ubs istence e v idence f or t he l a te U pper P a leo l ith ic o f t he V asco-Cantabr ian r eg ion , t he e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic s ubs istence d ata p o int t o af ood q uest wh ich w as s t i l l o f r e la t ive ly l ow i n tens ity a nd l ow d iver s if ica t ion . S pec ia l ized t echn iques f or h erd h unt ing s eem n ot t o h ave b een d eve loped y et a nd t he r esources o f t he r i vers , e stuar ies , a nd o pen o cean s hore s eem t o h ave b een o n ly m in ima l ly e xp lo ited . C er ta in ly t he s ubs istence s t rateg ies o f e a r l iest H omo s ap iens s ap iens w ere more a ct ive , s oph ist ica ted , a nd t horough t han t hose o f t he r eg iona l N eandertha l s , b ut s e lect ive p ressures c ont inued t o c ause c hange wh ich l ed t o t he d eve lopment o f f u l l-b lown , i n tens if ied , b road s pectrum s ub s istence s t rateg ies i n t he l a te U pper P a leo l ith ic . S o , a ga in , t he e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic
1 27
a ppears t o b e at rans it iona l a dapt ive g rade b etween t he M idd le P a leo l ith ic a nd t he c lass ic l a te Upper P a leo l ith ic .
CONCLUS IONS B ased o n t he a dm itted ly i mperfect d ata f rom C antabr ian S pa in a nd S outhwest F rance , t he b iocu ltura l t rans it ion b etween M idd le a nd U pper P a leo l ith ic a daptat ions c an b e c haracter ized a s ap rocess s pann ing s ome 2 5 ,000 y ears . T he f o l low ing s eem t o b e s ign if icant s equent ia l d eve lopments w ith in t h is p rocess : 1 ) I ncreased manufacture o f e nd-scrapers , b ur ins , p erforator s , b acked p ieces , a nd , where r aw mater ia l p erm its , t rue b lades - e a . 3 5 ,000-30 ,000 B .P . ; 2 ) Hom in id b io log ica l e vo lut ion o r r ep lacement ( "Neandertha l"/"CroMagnon" ) - c a . 3 0 ,000 B .P . ; 3 ) Appearance o f b one i mp lemen ts a nd s ome mob i le a nd r upes tra l a rt - e a . 3 0 ,000-28 ,000 B .P . ; 4 ) I ncrease i n s pec ia l ized l i th ic t oo ls ( e .g . , F ont-Robert " po in ts ," Noa i l les b ur ins , t runca ted a nd b acked e lemen ts ) - e a . 2 8 ,000-25 ,000 B .P . ; 5 ) L essened c arn ivore i nvo lvement i n h uman r es ident ia l c ave s i tes a nd f auna l a ccumu lat ion t ogether w ith s ome e v idence f or h uman s ub s istence i n tens if icat ion - e a . 3 0 ,000-20 ,000 B .P . ; 6 ) Ma jor i ncrease i n s i te n umbers p opu lat ion d ens ity - c a . 2 0 ,000 B .P . ;
a nd ,
p resumab ly ,
r eg iona l
7 ) F urther d eve lopment o f s pec ia l ized h af ted s tone a nd b one t oo ls , p art icu lar ly w eapon t i ps a nd p ropu ls ion s y stems [ a t lat l , f i sh g orge , h arpoon , l e ister , a s w e l l a s n ets , t raps , w e ir s , a nd b ows ( ? ) ] - c a . 2 0 ,000-10 ,000 B .P . ; 8 ) Ma jor i n tens if icat ion o f t he f ood q uest t hrough d ivers if icat ion [ t o i nc lude t he h unt ing o f mon tane s pec ies ( i nvo lv ing e xpans ion o f t he s ett lement d i str ibut ion i n to t he mounta ins ) a nd t he e xp lo itat ion o f a quat ic r esources ] a nd v ia s pec ia l ized h erd h un t ing t act ics ( f or k ey s pec ies s uch a s r ed d eer , r e indeer , a nd i b ex ) - c a . 2 0 ,000-10 ,000 B .P . ; 9 ) E xp los ion o f mob i le a nd r upestra l a rt - c a . 2 0 ,000-12 ,000 B .P . ; 1 0 ) I ncreased u se o f e ff ic ient m icro l ith ic c ompound t echno logy a nd c ont inued b roaden ing o f t he r esource s pec trum - c a . 1 2 ,000-8 ,000 B .P . T he e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic , f rom t he most g enera l p erspect ive , was a n i mportant p er iod o f c hange , t rans it iona l i n r etrospect b etween " archa ic" a nd " modern" a daptat ions o f t he s ort n ot f ar d i fferent f rom t hose o f s ome r ecent h unter-gatherer g roups . B y t he e nd o f t he e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic , c u lture - " the e xtrasomat ic means o f a daptat ion" - f i na l ly a tta ined i t s f u l l p rom inence o r
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p reem inence i n t he u n ique d eve lopment o f t he h om in id f am i ly . Cu ltura l e vo lut ion f i na l ly s ee ms t o h ave r ep laced s lower b io log ica l e vo lut ion i n p erm itt ing t he g enus Homo t o s urv ive . F or t h is r eason , t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic r epresents a p ivota l c hapter i n o ur e vo lut ionary h istory .
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d e B arand iarän , J .M . , A . Agu irre , a nd M . G rande 1 960 E stac iön d e Kurtz ia . B i lbao : D iputac iön d e V izcaya . B erna ldo d e Qu irös , F . 1 982 L os I n ic ios d e l P a leo l it ico S uper ior Cantäbr ico . Monograf ias d e l Centro d e I nvest igac iön y Museo d e A ltam ira 8 . B inford , L . 1 980 W i l low smoke a nd d ogs t a i ls : Hunter-gatherer s ett lement s ystems a nd a rcheo log ica l s i te f ormat ion . Amer ican Ant iqu ity 4 5 :4-20 . 1 982 The a rchaeo logy o f p lace . J ourna l o f Anthropo log ica l A rchaeo logy 1 :5-31 . B ordes , F . 1 968a T he O ld S tone Age . N ew Y ork : McGraw-H i l l . 1 968b L a q uest ion p er igord ienne . I n F . B ordes a nd D . d e S onnev i l le-Bordes ( ed itors ) L a P reh isto ire : P rob lemes e t T endances , p p . 5 9-70 . P ar is : CNRS . 1 972 Du P a leo l ith ique moyen a u P a läo l ith ique s uper ieur : C ont inu ite o u d iscont inu itä? I n F . B ordes ( ed itor ) T he O r ig in o f Ho mo S ap iens , p p . 2 112 18 . P ar is : UNESCO . B rooks , A . 1 982 Aur ignac ian a ssemb lages f rom Abr i P ataud . ERAUL 1 3 (2 ) :93-104 . B utzer , K . 1 981 Cave s ed iments , Upper P le istocene s trat igraphy a nd Mouster ian f ac ies i n Cantabr ian S pa in . J ourna l o fA rchaeo log ica l S c ience 8 :133-183 . 1 986 P a leo l ith ic a daptat ions a nd s ett lement i n Cantabr ian S pa in . I n F . Wendorf a nd A C lose ( ed itors ) Advances i n Wor ld Archaeo logy , v o l . 5 , p p . 2 01-252 . New York : Academ ic P ress . Cabrera , V . 1 984 E l Y ac im iento d e / a Cueva d e " E l Cast i l lo ." B ib l iotheca P raeh istor ica H ispana 2 2 . Casta t ios , P . 1 982 E stud io d e macromam m iferos d e l y ae im iento p reh istör ico d e " Cueto d e l a M ina ." B o letin d e l I nst itu to d e E stud ios Astur ianos 1 05/106 :43-86 C lottes , J . 1 976 L es c iv i l isat ions d u P a leo l ith ique s up6r ieur d ans l es P y renees . I n H . d e L um ley ( ed itor ) L a P reh isto ire F ra f l ise , v o l . 1 , p p . 1 214-1231 . P ar is : CNRS . 1 983 L a Caverne d es E g l ises ä U ssat . B u l let in d e / a S oc iitä P reh istor ique d e l ' Ar iege 3 8 :23-82 . D e l ibr ias , G . , 0 . Roma in , a nd G . L e Haz if 1 984 Datat ion p ar l e methode d u Carbone 1 4 d u r e mp l issage d e l a G rotte d e l 'Arbreda . Co l loque s ur / e Cadre Chrono log ique d u P le istocene s uper ieur e n Cata logne , T autave / a nd B anyo les ( prepr int ) . De lporte , H . ( ed itor ) 1 984 L e G rand Abr i d e l a F errass ie . F ou i l les 1 968-1973 . E tudes Quaterna ires Memo ire 7 . P ar is : I n st itut d e P a leonto log ie H uma ine . F ortea , J . 1 981 l nvest igac iones e n l a c uenca med ia d e l Na lön , A stur ias . Z ephyrus 3 2/33 :2-16 . F ree man , L .G . 1 973 The s ign if icance o f mamma l ian f aunas f rom P a leo l ith ic o ccupat ions i n Cantabr ian S pa in . Amer ican Ant iqu ity 3 8 :3-44 . 1 977 Contr ibuc iön a l e stud io d e n ive les p a leo l it icos e n l a Cueva d e l Conde . B o let in d e l I nst ituto d e E stud ios A s tur ianos 9 0/91 :447-486 . F uentes , C . 1 980 E stud io d e l a f auna d e E l P endo . I n J . Gonzä lez E chegaray ( ed itor ) E l Y ac im iento d e / a Cueva d e " E l P endo ," p p . 2 17-237 . B ib l iotheca P raeh istor ica H ispana 1 7 .
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F u l lo la-Per icot , J . 1 983 L e P a leo l ith ique s uper ieur d ans l a z one med iterraneenne i ber ique . L 'Anthropo log ie 8 7 :339-352 . F u l lo la-Per icot , J . , N . S o ler , a nd P . Garc ia-Argue l les 1 986 N ouve l les a pportat ions e t p erspect ives d u P a leo l ith ique s uper ieur e n Cata logne . I n A . ApS imon ( ed itor ) T he P le istocene P erspect ive 1 . L ondon : A l len a nd Unw in . Gonzä lez E chegaray , J . 1 971 E l P a leo l it ico s uper ior . I n J . Gonzä lez E chegaray a nd L .G . F ree man ( ed itors ) Cueva Mor in : E xcavac iones 1 966-1968 , p p . 1 91-297 . S antander : P atronato d e l as C uevas P reh istör icas . 1 973 N uevas a portac iones a l e stud io d e l P a leo l it ico s uper ior d e Cueva Mor in . I n J . G onzä lez E chegaray a nd L .G . F reeman ( ed itors ) Cueva Mor in : E xcavac iones 1 969 , p p . 1 65-216 . S antander : P atronato d e l as Cuevas P reh istör icas . 1 976 T he Concep t o f " Fac ies" App l ied t o t he Upper P a leo l ith ic . Unpubl i shed p aper p resented a t t he 4 1st a nnua l meet ing o f t he S oc iety f or Amer ican A rchaeo logy , S t . L ou is . 1 978 L os n ive les d e l P a leo l it ico s uper ior . I n J . Gonzä lez E chegaray a nd L .G . F ree man ( ed itors ) V ida y Muerte e n Cueva Mor in , p p . 2 63-312 . S antander : I nst ituc iön Cu ltura l d e Cantabr ia . Gonzä lez E chegaray , J . ( ed itor ) 1 980 E l Y ac im ien to P reh istör ico d e / a Cueva d e " E l P endo ." Madr id : B ib l iot heca P raeh istor ica H ispana 1 7 . Gonzä lez E chegaray , J . , a nd I .B arand iarän ( ed itors ) 1 981 E l P a leo l it ico S uper ior d e / a Cueva d e l R asca t io . S antander : Monograf ias d e l C entro d e I nvest igac iön y Museo d e A ltam ira 3 . Gonz a lez E chegaray , J . , a nd L .G . F reeman 1 971 E l Chate lperron iense . I n J . Gonzä lez E chegaray a nd L .G . F ree man ( ed itors ) Cueva Mor in : E xcavac iones 1 966-1968 , p p . 1 65-188 . S antander : P atronato d e l as C uevas . Gonzä lez E chegaray , J . , M . Garc ia Gu inea , a nd A . B eg ines ( ed itors ) 1 966 C ueva d e l O tero . Madr id : E xcavac iones A rqueo lög leas e n E spaf ia 5 3 . Gonzä lez Mora les , M . 1 986 L a R iera b one a nd a nt ler a rt ifact a ssemb lages . I n L . S traus a nd G . C lark ( ed itors ) L a R iera Cave , p p . 2 09-218 , 3 85-420 . Anthropo log ica l R esearch P apers 3 6 . Harro ld , F . 1 981 N ew p erspect ives o n t he Chate lperron ian . Ampur ias 4 3 :35-85 . i . p . Mouster ian , Chate lperron ian , a nd e ar ly Aur ignac ian : Cont inu ity o r d iscont inu ity? I n P . Me l iars a nd C . S tr inger ( ed itors ) T he Human Revo lut ion : B ehav ioura l a nd B io log ica l P erspect ives o n t he O r ig ins o f Modern Humans . E d inburgh : Un ivers ity o f E d inburgh P ress . L ap lace , G . 1 958 R echerches s ur l ' or ig ine d es c omp lexes l epto l ith iques . Quate mar ia 5 :153-240 . 1 966 L es n iveaux c aste lperron ians , p rotoaur ignac iens e t a ur ignac iens d e l a G rotte Gatzarr ia ä S uhare e n P ays B asque . Quartär 1 7 :117-140 . L av i l le , H . i . p . A cqu is r ecents s ur l a c h ronostrat igraph ie d e l a p er iode p a leo l ith ique e n P er igord . I n H . D ibb le a nd A . Montet-Wh ite ( ed itors ) Upper P le istocene P reh istory o f Western E uras ia . P h i lade lph ia : T he Un ivers ity Museum . L av i l le , H . , J . R igaud , a nd J . S ackett 1 980 R ock S he lters o f t he Nr igord . New York : Academ ic P ress .
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L eroyer , C . , a nd A n. L ero i-Gourhan 1 983 P rob lömes d e c h rono log ie : L e Caste lperron ian e t l 'Aur ignac ien . Bu l let in d e l a S oc iete P reh istor ique F rança ise 8 0 :41-44 . Madar iaga , R . 1 966 Anä l is is p a leonto lög ico d e l a f auna t errestre y mar ina d e l a Cueva d e l O tero . I n J . Gonzä lez E chegaray , M . Garc ia Gu inea , a nd A . B eg ines ( ed itors ) Cueva d e l O tero , p p . 6 3-80 . E xcavac iones A rqueo lög icas e n E spa i ia 5 3 . Märquez U r ia , M . 1 981 L os g rabados r upestres d e l a Cueva d e l Conde . I n M . A lmagro ( ed itor ) A ltam ira S ympos ium , p p . 3 11-318 . Madr id : M in ister io d e Cu ltura . Me l lars , P . 1 973 The c haracter o f t he M idd le-Upper P a laeo l ith ic t rans it ion i n S outhwest F rance . I n C . R enfrew ( ed itor ) T he E xp lanat ion o f Cu lture Change , p p . 2 55-276 . L ondon : Duckworth P ress . Oberma ier , H . 1 924 F oss i l Man i n S pa in . New Haven : Ya le Un ivers ity P ress . R igaud , J . 1 976 L es c iv i l isat ions d u P a löo l ith ique s uper ieur e n P er igord . I n H . d e L um ley ( ed itor ) L a P reh isto ire F ran a ise , v o l . 1 , p p . 1 257-1270 . P ar is : CNRS . S acch i , D . 1 976 L es c iv i l isat ions d u P a l8o l ith ique s uper ieur e n L anguedoc o cc identa l e t e n Rouss i l lon . I n H . d e L um ley ( ed itor ) L a P reh isto ire F ran a ise , v o l . 1 , p p . 1 174-1188 . P ar is : CNRS . d e S a int-P8r ier , R . 1 936 L a G rotte d ' I stur itz I : L e Magda len ien d e l a G rande S a l le . A rch ives d e l ' Inst itut d e P a l8onto log ie Huma ine 1 7 . d e S a int-P8r ier , R . , a nd S . d e S a int-Per ier 1 952 L a G rotte d ' I stur itz I H : L es S o lutreens , l es Aur ignac iens e t l es Mouster iens . A rch ives d e l ' Inst itut d e P a l8onto log ie Huma ine 2 5 . d e S onnev i l le-Bordes , D . 1 960 L e P a leo l ith ique S uper ieur e n P er igord . B ordeaux : De lmas . 1 966 L '8vo lut ion d u P a leo l ith ique s upär ieur e n E urope o cc identa le e t s a s ign if icat ion . Bu l let in d e / a S oc iötä P reh istor ique F ran v i ise 6 3 :3-34 . 1 971 Un f oss i le d irecteur o sseux d u P 8r igord ien s uper ieur ä b ur ins d e Noa i l les . Bu l let in d e l a S oc iete P reh istor ique F ranga ise 5 0 :44-45 . 1 982 L '8vo lut ion d es i ndustr ies a ur ignac iennes . ERAUL 1 3 (2 ) :339-360 . d e S onnev i l le-Bordes , D . , a nd J . P errot 1 953 E ssa i d 'adaptat ion d es möthodes s tat ist iques a u P a l8o l ith ique s up8r ieur : P rem iers r esu ltats . Bu l let in d e l a S oc iöti P reh istor ique F ra rwa ise 5 0 :323-333 . S traus , L . 1 977 O f d eers layers a nd mounta in men : P a leo l ith ic f auna l e xp lo itat ion i n Cantabr ian S pa in . I n L . B inford ( ed itor ) F or T heory B u i ld ing i n Archaeo logy , p p . 4 1-76 . New York : Academ ic P ress . 1 982 Carn ivores a nd c ave s i tes i n C antabr ian S pa in . J ourna l o f Anthropo log ica l Research 3 8 :75-96 . 1 985 S tone Age p reh istory o f n orthern S pa in . S c ience 2 30 :501-507 . 1 986a Once more i nto t he b reach : S o lutrean c hrono logy . Mun ibe 3 8 :35-38 . 1 986b L ate Würm a dapt ive s ystems i n Cantabr ian S pa in : The e ase o f e astern A stur ias . J ourna l o f Anthropo log ica l A rchaeo logy 5 :330-368 . 1 987a P arad igm l ost : A p ersona l v iew o f t he c urrent s tate o f Upper P a leo l ith ic r esearch . He l in ium 2 7 :157-171 . 1 987b The P a leo l ith ic c ave a rt o f V asco-Cantabr ian S pa in . Oxford J ourna l o f Archaeo logy 6 :149-163 .
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1 987c Hunt ing i n l a te Upper P a leo l ith ic western E urope . I n M . N iteck i a nd D . N iteck i ( ed itors ) T he E vo lut ion o f Human Hunt ing , p p . 1 47-176 . New Y ork : P lenum P ress . 1 987d Upper P a leo l ith ic i bex h unt ing i n SW E urope . J ourna l o f A rchaeo log ica l S c ience 1 4 :163-178 . S tuckenrath , R . 1 978 Datac iones d e c arbono 1 4 . I n J . Gonzä lez E chegaray a nd L .G . F ree man ( ed itors ) V ida y Muer te e n Cueva Mor in , p . 2 15 . S antander : I n st ituc lön Cu ltura l d e Cantabr ia . T r inkaus , E . ( ed itor ) 1 983 T he Mouster ian L egacy : Human B iocu ltura l Change i n t he Upper P le istocene . BAR I n ternat iona l S er ies 1 64 . Oxford : B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports . Wh ite , R . 1 982 Reth ink ing t he M idd le/Upper P a leo l ith ic t rans it ion . Current Anthropo logy 2 3 :169-192 .
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T HE E ARLY U PPER P ALEOL ITH IC O FP ORTUGAL J oäo Z i lhäo I n st ituto d e A rqueo log ia d e F acu ldade d e L etras d e L isboa 1 699 L isboa Codex P ortuga l
I n h is l ast g enera l e va luat ion o f t he Upper P a leo l ith ic o f P ortuga l , Roche ( 1964 ) , t he F rench p reh istor ian t o who m we owe most o f t he d iffus ion o f t he r e levant e v idence among t he i n ternat iona l a rchaeo log ica l c o m mun ity , l i sted o n ly t wo s i tes o ccup ied d ur ing i t s e ar l iest p hases : R oss io d o Cabo , a n o pen-a ir s i te o n t he c oast o f T orres V edras [ excavated b y L . T r indade a nd j o int ly p ub l ished ( Roche a nd T r indade 1 951 ) 1 , a scr ibed t o t he Aur ignac ian ; a nd l eve l I I o f G ruta d as S a lemas ( Roche e t a l . 1 962 ) , a c ave s i te l ocated s ome 2 0 km n orth o f L isbon , a scr ibed t o t he Upper P er igord ian . L ater , a t t he e nd o f t he 1 960 's , R oche a lso c oa uthored t he p ub l icat ion o f a nother c ave s i te , L apa d a Ra inha ( A lme ida e t a / . 1 969 ) , i n wh ich a n o ccupat ion l eve l s a id t o c onta in "Moustero-Aur ignac ian" i ndust r ies h ad b een i dent if ied ( F igure 1 ) . A s Roche ( 1964 ) a lso o bserved i n t hat p aper , i nvest igat ions c arr ied o ut d ur ing t he l ate 1 930 's a nd e ar ly 1 940 's i n t he R io Ma jor a rea b y M . He leno , a f ormer d irector o f t he Nat iona l Museum o f A rchaeo logy a t L isbon , r esu lted i n t he d iscovery o f s evera l l a rge o pen-a ir Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes . Unfortunate ly , t hese were n ever p ub l ished a nd were k nown u nt i l v ery r ecent ly o n ly t hrough s cattered r eferences i n t he n ewspapers o f t he t ime a nd i n t wo a rt ic les b y He leno ( 1944 , 1 956 ) . The s a me was t rue f or a nother a rea , Cambe las ( Torres V edras ) , where He leno e xcavated i n t he l a te 1 940 's a nd e ar ly 1 950 's . I n b oth c ases , t hose r eferences i nc luded t he ment ion o f s evera l s i tes a scr ibed t o t he Aur ignac ian a nd t he P er igord ian . The R io Ma ior a nd Cambe las c o l lect ions b egan t o b e s tud ied o n ly i n 1 982 , b y t he a uthor o f t h is p aper a s p art o f ad octora l d issertat ion p ro ject o n t he Upper P a leo l ith ic o f P ortuga l . T he p rob le ms i nvo lved i n t h is r esearch ( name ly t he u nava i lab i l ity o f whatever f i e ld n otes may h ave o r ig ina l ly e x isted , a nd t he n ecess i ty o f r e locat ing a l l t he s i tes ) , a nd t he ways t hey were r eso lved , h ave b een d iscussed e lsewhere ( Z i lhäo 1 984 ) . I n s p ite o f t hese c ond it ions , a r easonab le k now ledge o f He leno 's modus o perand i a nd o f t he way s i tes were s amp led a nd c o l lect ions l abe led n ow e x ists , a l low ing t he ir u se a s r e levant e v idence f or t he s tudy o f t h is t ime p er iod . However , t he l arge s i ze o f t hese c o l lect ions ( more t han 5 0 ,000 a rt ifacts ) , p lus t he n ecess ity o f a ccompany ing t he ir s tudy w ith a dequate museo log ica l c urat ion , h ave s lowed t he p rocess o f t he ir p ub l icat ion , wh ich h as b een f ocused t o d ate ma in ly u pon t he a sse mb lages a scr ibed t o t he S o lutrean a nd t he Magda len ian . I n as hort p aper p repared f or a meet ing o n t he I ber ian Quaternary ( Z i lhäo 1 985 ) , t he f i rst r esu lts c oncern ing t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic were p resented , i n troduc ing t he Aur ignac ian s i te o f V a le d e P oreos a nd e xp la in ing why l eve l I I o f S a lemas s hou ld b e c ons idered a s S o lutrean a nd n ot Upper P er igord ian . T he s i te o f V a scas was a lso p resented a nd c haracter ized a s Magda len ian , n ot Aur ignac ian , a s He leno t hought ( cf . T ab le 1 ) . S ubsequent ly , t he p robab le G ravett ian s i te o f Casa l
1 35
F igure 1 . L ocat ion o f s i tes d iscussed i n t he t ext : 1 . G ruta d o Ca lde iräo ; 2 . Casa l d o F e l ipe ; 3 . V a le Compr ido ( Junto ä b arraca ) ; 4 . V a le d e P orcos ; 5 . L apa d a Ra inha ; 6 . Ross io d o Cabo ; 7 . G ruta d e S a lemas .
1 36
d o F i l ipe was a lso s tud ied , a nd , i n c o l laborat ion w ith A . Marks , most o f t he c o l lect ions f rom t he l oca l it ies He leno h ad r eferred t o a s c onta in ing e v idence f or e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic o ccupat ion were r eexam ined , a s were t hose o r ig ina l ly p ub l ished b y Roche . T he d eta i led r esu lts o f t h is o vera l l r eappra isa l w i l l b e t he o b ject o f o ther p apers ( e .g . , Z i lhäo a nd Marks , n .d . ) ; t h is o ne w i l l c oncentrate ma in ly u pon t he p resentat ion o f t he i ndustr ia l a sse mb lages t hat a re o r h ave b een p os it ive ly o r p robab ly a scr ibed t o t he Aur ignac ian o r t he G ravett ian ( no Caste lp erron ian a ssemb lages h av ing s o f ar b een i dent if ied i n P ortuga l ) . F irst , h owever , i t i sn ecessary t o d iscuss t he c urrent s tate o f o ur u nderstand ing o f t he c o l lect ions l eft b y He leno , whose p rev ious c u ltura l a ttr ibut ions , e xtracted f rom h is l atest p aper ( 1956) , a re s um mar ized i n T ab le 1 . Consu ltat ion o f H e leno 's d ata l eads t o t wo i mportant c onc lus ions : f i rst , e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic i ndustr ies wou ld h ave h ad a w idespread d istr ibut ion i n c entra l P ortuga l ; a nd s econd , s evera l o f t he s i tes s ee m t o h ave b een c ont inuous ly o ccup ied t hroughout a l a rge p art o r e ven t he who le o f t he Upper P a leo l ith ic . G iven t he f act t hat n o s trat igraph ic s equences were d escr ibed ( except f or B ocas ) , h e l a tter o bservat ion i mp l ies t hat e ither t hese s i tes c onta ined s evera l l oc i , w ith d ifferent a sse mb lages b e ing t hus o n ly h or izonta l ly s eparated ; o r t hat t here a s n o s trat igraph ie d ifferent iat ion a t a l l , t he i n ference o f c ont inuous o ccupat ion l y ing b een made o n t he b as is o f t he p resence o f u nm istakab le i ndex f oss i ls . m idst t he m ixed r e ma ins o f s evera l d ifferent o ccupat ions ; o r , f ina l ly , t hat t he : i agnos is was w rong , t hese b e ing s i tes f rom a s ing le p er iod whose n ature h ad y et t o b e e stab l ished . The r eana lys is o f t he c o l lect ions s howed t hat t he f i rst a nd t h ird a lternat ives were c orrect i np ract ica l ly a l l c ases . A s a matter o f f act , He leno , f o l low ing t he p ract ice o f t hat t ime , v iewed P a leo l ith ic i ndustr ies a s emb le mat ic o f c u ltures i n t he e thn ic s ense o f t he word ( i .e . , p eop les ) . The i ndustr ies were s t i l l c once ived a s d ef inab le t hrough t he p resence o f c erta in i ndex f oss i ls . I n h is 1 944 p aper , f or i nstance , h e u sed a p late c onta in ing a p o inte ä f ace p lane a nd a l aure lleaf p o int t o i lustrate h is a ssert ion t hat t he s i te o f V a le C ompr ido c onta ined P roto-So lutrean a nd M idd le S o lutrean o ccupat ions . T he method was f o l lowed b y o thers ; B reu i l a nd Z byszewsk i ( 1942 , 1 945 ) ment ion s evera l e ases o f Aur ignac ian o ccurrences b ased o n t he i so lated f ind ings o f k ee led e nd-scrapers , o r o n t he ir i dent if icat ion i n d isturbed c ontexts ( name ly f ro m c o l luv ia l d epos its ) ( e .g . , a t Casa l d o Monte , l ocated a f ew k i lometers n orth o f L isbon ) . When H e leno w r ites t hat h e f ound Aur ignac ian ( or a ny o ther i ndustry ) i n as i te , i t s hou ld b e u nderstood t hat h e i dent if ied t oo ls i n t he a sse mb lages e xcavated t here t ha t were c ons idered t o h ave b een manufactured s o le ly b y t hat c u lture/peop le . T h is s ystemat ic u se o f t he e quat ion " index f oss i l =l i th ic i ndustry = P a leol i th ic p eop le" a lso h e lps t o e xp la in why He leno n ever c ared t o p ub l ish h is d isc over ies i n d eta i l . He was n ot a n a rchaeo log ist i n t he modern s ense o f t he word , b ut a h i stor ian who , i n h is own words , e xcavated o n ly t o b e a b le " to o bta in a p ersona l v iew o f t he c u ltura l b ackground .. t hat p receded t he P ortuguese n at ion" ( He leno 1 956 :226 ) . He was e spec ia l ly c oncerned w ith a p rob lem t hat h ad b een f or al ong t ime a t t he c enter o f a l l t he d ebates c oncern ing t he p reh istory o f I ber ia : t he q uest ion o f t he A fr ican o r E uropean o r ig ins o f i t s Upper P a leo l ith ic p eop les ( exc lud ing t he Cantabr ian s t r ip , whose r e lat ions w ith t he c lass ic F rench r eg ions were u nquest ionab le ) , t o wh ich h e d ed icated h is 1 944 p aper . T h is was n ot o n ly a n i mportant a cadem ic d iscuss ion b ut a lso , i n t he 1 930 's a nd 1 940 's , o ne t hat h ad i mportant p ract ica l c onsequences , g iven t he d ifferent " rac ia l s tatus" i t wou ld i mp ly f or t he modern I ber ians , e spec ia l ly i n t he c ase o f a p lanned b ut n ever r ea l ized o ccupat ion o f S pa in a nd P ortuga l b y t he a rm ies o f t he T h ird R e ich . F rom h is p o int o f v iew , t hen , t he d i scovery o f t yp ica l c u ltura l p roducts o f t he E uropean
1 37
Tab le 1 . R io Ma jor a nd Ca mbe las S ite Ascr ipt ions H eleno R io M ajor S ites A brigo d as B ocas a A rneiro a B airradas b C abe90 d a F igueira b C arneira a C asal d o F elipe a C astros c F igueiredos c M armeleira c P anasqueira c P assal a Q uinta N ova b Q uinta d a P ena c Q uintal d a F onte b S enhora d a L uz a V ale C omprido a
V ale d e M arinhas c V ale d e P orcos a V ascas a V ia-Vai b
C ambelas S ites C errado N ovo a C ova d a M oura a V ale A lmoinha a V ale d a M ata a
aS ites
e xcavated,
bI nventoried
cP robable
( 1944,
1 956)
G rimaldian U pper S olutrean A urignacian, G ravettian A urignacian, M iddle S olutrean A urignacian G ravettian A urignacian, G ravettian G ravettian G ravettian G ravettian U pper S olutrean G ravettian M iddle S olutrean U pper S olutrean G ravettian A urignacian, G ravettian, P roto-Solutrean, S olutrean, M iddle S olutrean U pper S olutrean
Z ilhäo
( 1987)
L ate M agdalenian S olutrean U nknown U nknown M agdalenian G ravettian U nknown U nknown U nknown U nknown S olutrean U nknown U nknown S olutrean U nknown G ravettian ( Junto ä B arraca), S olutrean U nknown
A urignacian A urignacian G ravettian
A urignacian M agdalenian U nknown
M agdalenian, P ostM agdalenian A urignacian S olutrean, L anguedocian
M agdalenian ( ?),
G ravettian, M agdalenian, P ost-Magdalenian
r elocated,
E pipaleolithic ( ?) U nknown S olutrean T erminal M agdalenian
a nd i nventoried.
b ut n ot r elocated s urface c ollections.
s urface c ollections a s y et u ninventoried.
1 38
U pper P a leo l ith ic p eop les i n P ortuga l , i n t he f orm o f t he ir d i st inct i ndex f oss i ls , was more t han e nough , a nd t he c r it ic isms o f t hose t hat a ccused h im o f " not p ub l ish ing a s heet f or e ach u nearthed s tone" ( i de m ) t herefore s hou ld b e r egarded w ith O lymp ian c ontempt . Hav ing e xam ined t he f undamenta ls o f He leno 's s i te a scr ipt ions , i tb ecomes e as ier t o u nderstand t he r eason f or t he d iscrepanc ies . Desp ite t he p resence o f s i gn if icant amounts o f k ee led e nd-scrapers a nd t he o ccas iona l b usked b ur in , V aseas a nd Carne ira a re n ot Aur ignac ian b ut Magda len ian s i tes ; b oth h ave l arge p ercentages o f b acked b lade lets , a nd i n t he c ase o f t he l atter , e ven o f g eometr ic m icro l iths ( name ly t rapezes ) . A s f or t he s urface c o l lect ions o f B a irradas , Cabego d a F igue ira , Castros , F igue iredos , Marme le ira , P anasque ira , Qu inta Nova , a nd V iaV a i , t he sma l l s ize o f t he a ssemb lages a l lows n o i ndustr ia l c lass if icat ion a t a l l ; t he s ame c an b e s a id o f t he Cova d a Moura s i te i n Cambe las . V a le d a Mata i s a T erm ina l Magda len ian s i te w ith t yp ica l i ndex f oss i ls ( tanged p o ints , p arrot-beaked b ur ins ) , h igh p roport ions o f b acked b lade lets , a nd a l arge c ohort o f d ifferent m icro l ith ic p o int t ypes . V a le Compr ido i s a n a rea where s evera l l oc i h ave b een i dent if ied t hrough t he a na lys is o f t he mater ia ls a nd t he l abe ls t hat h ave b een a pp l ied t o t he m ; o ne o f t hem , f or e xamp le , i s E ar ly Neo l ith ic , most o f t he o thers S o lutrean a nd o n ly o ne , " Va le Compr ido ( Junto ä B arraca ) ," i s p oss ib ly G ravett i an . As f or Casa l d o F e l ipe a nd V a le d e P orcos , He leno 's a scr ipt ions s eem t o b e c orrect , a nd n oth ing c an b e s a id f or t he moment c oncern ing S enhora d a L uz , t he a na lys is o f wh ich h as j ust b egun .
THE AUR IGNAC IAN Accord ing t o Roche a nd T r indade ( 1951) s ome 5 ,400 l i th ic a rt ifacts were r ecovered a t t he s i te o f Ross io d o Cabo , o f wh ich 8 87 were r etouched t oo ls . O f t hese , h owever , o n ly a f ew h undred p ieces s t i l l e x ist a t t he T orres V edras Museum , t o wh ich a sma l l c o l lect ion o f l ess t han 1 00 a rt ifacts k ept a t t he Museum o f t he G eo log ica l S urvey i n L isbon c an b e a dded . F ortunate ly , t he f i rst o f t hese museu ms s t i l l h ad o n d i sp lay t he p ieces c hosen b y Roche f or t he p lates t hat a ppear i n h i s p ub l icat ion , a nd , f urthermore , p ossessed a nother c o l lect ion n ever s tud ied b y h im , o bta ined d ur ing s ubsequent e xcavat ions c arr ied o ut i n 1 952-1953 . A s a r esu lt , i t was p oss ib le t o e va luate n ot o n ly t he c r iter ia u sed b y Roche i n h is c la ss if icat ions , b ut a l so t he e xtent t o wh ich t he r esu lts o f t he r eana lys is c ou ld b e c ons idered t o b e a ffected b y t he f act t hat o n ly a sma l l p ort ion o f t he o r ig ina l s amp le was a va i lab le f or s tudy . The t ypo log ica l i nd ices o bta ined , c a lcu lated i n t he e ase o f Roche 's c ounts f or a t ota l o f 7 48 t oo ls ( exc lud ing f lakes w ith u nc haracter ist ic r etouch ) , a re p resented i n T ab le 2 . The a na lys is o f t hese v a lues d emonstrates t hat t here i s a n o vera l l s im il a r ity b etween t he r esu lts c a lcu lated f or b oth t he 1 952-1953 a nd t he r ema inder o f t he 1 951 c o l lect ions . T he o n ly s ign if icant d ifferences were t he h igher p ercentage o f A ur ignac ian e nd-scrapers a nd t he l ower p ercentage o f b lade let t oo ls i n t he l a t ter . These m ight b e d ue e i ther t o t he d ifferent s i zes o f t he a sse mb lages o r , s i nce t hey were e xcavated f rom s eparate a reas i n s eparate s easons , t o ad ifferent i a l i ntra-s ite s pat ia l d istr ibut ion o f t he t oo ls , p art icu lar ly t he r etouched b lade lets . E ven c ons ider ing t h is , t he r esu lts c ontrast s ign if icant ly w ith t hose o bta ined b y Roche , e spec ia l ly w ith r espect t o t he b ur ins . I n t he c ase o f t he b lade lets , t he I l am c a lcu lated f or Roche 's f igures d oes n ot i nc lude a ny o f t he 5 6 p ieces c ounted b y h im u nder t he c ategory " retouched b lades a nd b lade lets ." I fo ne a ssumes t hat a t l east h a lf o f t hese a re v ery l i ke ly t o h ave b een b lade lets a nd t herefore s hou ld b e i nc luded i n t he c a lcu lat ion o f t he I l am , t hen i t wou ld b e
1 39
Tab le 2 .
1 951
( MTV)
Ross io d o Cabo : Typo log ica l I nd ices
1 951
( MGS)
1 951
( Tot)
1 952/53
R oche
I G I B I GA I Bd I Bt I Bb I Btv I lam
8 .62 6 0.91 2 .87 2 1.84 1 7.82 3 .45 1 1.49 2 0.11
6 .45 4 8.38 0 .00 3 .22 1 2.90 6 .45 6 .45 3 8.71
8 .29 5 9.02 2 .44 1 9.02 1 7.07 3 .90 1 0.73 2 2.93
1 5.91 6 8.18 9 .09 2 6.14 1 8.18 2 .27 1 5.91 7 .95
1 2.30 6 9.38 9 .22 2 1.92 9 .49 1 6.71 5 .61 4 .54
I GAr I Bdr I Btr I Bbr I Btv
3 3.33 3 5.85 2 9.24 5 .66 1 8.87
0 .00 6 .67 2 6.67 1 3.33 1 3.33
2 9.41 3 2.23 2 8.92 6 .61 1 8.18
5 7.14 3 8.33 2 6.67 3 .33 2 3.33
7 5.00 3 1.60 1 3.68 2 4.08 8 .09
G A G P
6 .32 5 .17
6 .45 9 .68
6 .34 5 .85
1 1.36 1 .14
2 5.94 4 .54
T otal
1 74
3 1
8 8
7 48
G : B : G A: B d: B t: B b:
2 05
E nd-scrapers B tv : B urinslam : B ladelet t ools A urignacian e nd-scrapers G A : D ihedral b urins G P: B urins o n t runcation r : B usked b urins
1 40
T ransverse b urins A urignacian g roup P erigordian g roup R estricted
b rough t u p t o 8 .29 , 1 953 a sse mb lage . c ontrast s hou ld b e s e lect ive t runcat ion
t hat i s t o v a lues i dent ica l t o t he o ne o bta ined f or t he 1 952Thus , g iven t he a bove-ment ioned o vera l l s im i lar ity , t h is c ons idered a s d ue t o c lass if icat ion c r iter ia a nd n ot t o a o f t he o r ig ina l c o l lect ion .
Th is c onc lus ion i s s upported b y a c ons iderat ion o f t he way t he t oo ls d isp layed i n t he Museum o f T orres V edras were d escr ibed b y Roche ( Roche a nd T r indade 1 951 ) . I n p late I I , h e c lass if ied n umbers 1 -14 a s k ee led e nd-scrapers ; t he r eana lys is o f t hese p ieces s uggested t hat t here were o n ly t wo s pec imens o f t h is t ype , p lus f our b lade let c ores , t wo e nd-scrapers o n a f lake , t wo e nd-scraper/ b ur ins , o ne m ixed mu lt ip le b ur in , a nd o ne t ransverse b ur in o n an atura l s urface ; t wo o f t he o r ig ina l p ieces were m iss ing . I n p late I V , a l l 1 3 p ieces were s upposed t o b e b usked b ur ins ; o n ly t en o f t he d isp layed s pec i mens were i dent ica l t o t hose p ub l ished b y Roche , a nd , o f t hese , o n ly o ne was c lass if ied a s s uch ( a lthough a nother was a lso r epresented i n a ssoc iat ion w ith a n e nd-scraper ) . And i n p lates V a nd V I , t he b ur ins d escr ibed b y R oche a s o n at runcat ion i nc luded f our s pec i mens r ec lass if ied a s t ransverse . I n s um , Roche t ended t o c ons ider a s k ee led e nd-scrapers a rt ifacts n ow c lass if ied a s c ores , a s b usked b ur ins many t hat may b e c lass if ied a s d ihed ra l o r o n t runca t ion ( i n s p ite o f t he ir mu lt ip le s pa l ls ) , a nd a s t runcat ion b ur ins t hose t hat a re n ow c lass if ied a s t ransverse . T hese d ifferences i n t he c r iter ia o f c lass if icat ion must b e c ons idered r espons ib le f or t he s ign if icant i nf lat ion o f t he v a lues f or t he R estr icted Aur ignac ian E nd-scraper a nd t he B usked B ur in i nd ices d er ived f rom Roche 's f igures ( 75 % a nd 1 6 .71 % , r espect ive ly , a ga inst o n ly 2 9 .41 % a nd 3 .9 % i n t he n ew a na lys is ) a nd t he d ef lat ion o f t he T ransverse B ur in I ndex ( on ly 5 .61 % a ga inst o ur 1 5 .91 % ) . F or c omparat ive p urposes i ts hou ld b e n oted , h owever , t hat mu lt ip le t ransverse b ur ins were a lso c ounted u nder n umbers 3 8 a nd 3 9 a nd n ot u nder n umber 4 0 o f t he d e S onnev i l le-Bordes a nd P errot t ype l i st ( 1954 , 1 955 , 1 956a , 1 956b ) . P art ly a s a r esu lt o f t hese d ifferences , t he i ndustr ia l c lass if icat ions p roposed c ou ld h ard ly h ave b een t he s ame . I nf luenced b y what h e t hough t was a n i mpress ive r epresentat ion o f t yp ica l Aur ignac ian i ndex f oss i ls , Roche a scr ibed t he a ssemb lage t o t h is Upper P a leo l ith ic c omp lex ( Roche a nd T r indade 1 951 :11 ) , u nd erest imat ing , i n o ur o p in ion , t he i mportance o f t he b lade let t oo ls . T he a no ma ly r epresented b y t he l atter was n oted b y o ther a uthors , n ame ly B ordes ( 1968 ) , who r eferred t o t h is a sse mb lage a s a n " Aur ignac ien u n p eu s pc ia l" [ l ater h e wou ld b e e ven more emphat ic , s tat ing t hat " quo iqu 'en p ensent l es a uteurs i l n e s ' ag it p as d 'un v ra i Aur ignac ien t yp ique" ( Bordes 1 984 ) ] , a nd t r ied t o s o lve t he a pparent c ontrad ict ion t h rough t he e stab l ishment o f ap ara l le l b etween t he p o inted b acked b lade lets o f Ross io d o Cabo a nd t he K rems p o ints o f t he German Aur ignac ian . However , t he r ecent r estudy o f t he t oo ls c onf irmed t he s ame i mpress ion t hat a s imp le a na lys is o f Roche 's p lates i m med iate ly s uggests : t hese a re t yp ica l Magdal en ian b lade let t oo ls ( m icrogravettes , b acked b lade lets , l a me l les b ordäes , a nd e ven o ne p o inte ä t roncature o b l ique ) , v irtua l ly i dent ica l t o t hose t hat h ave b een e xcavated f rom o ther s i tes i n t he s ame a rea ( e .g . , V a le d a Mata ) o r i n t he R io Ma jor a rea ( e .g . , V ascas ) , a nd a scr ibed t o t he Magda len ian , a nd where k ee led e nds crapers a nd b usked b ur ins a re a lso r epresented i n v ar iab le p roport ions ( Z i lhäo 1 985 ) . T h is a ssemb lage s hou ld t herefore b e c ons idered a s Magda len ian . G iven t he r ather h igh p ercentage o f t ransverse b ur ins a nd t he l ow p ercentages o f r etouched b lade let t oo ls , i t may b e long t o i t s e ar l iest s tages ( i f t he F rench s equence p roves t o b e v a l id i n t h is c ase ) .
2 ) .
T he o n ly we l l e stab l ished Aur ignac ian s i te s o f ar i sV a le d e P orcos ( F igure T he e xtant c o l lect ion f rom t h is s i te i s c omposed o f s ome 7 60 a rt ifacts , o f
1 41
3 0
2 cm
. 11 4A l40 4
F igure 2 . V a le d e P orcos ( Aur ignac ian ) : 1 . d oub le e nd-scraper ; 2 . n osed e nds craper ( th in ) ; 3 . e nd-scraper o n s trang led p iece ; 4 . k ee led e nd-scraper ; 5 . s imp le e nd-scraper ; 6 -7 . b usked b ur ins ; 8 . c anted d ihedra l b ur in ; 9 . s t ra ight d ihedra l b ur in ; 1 0 . b ur in o n o b l ique t runcat ion . 1 42
w h ich 1 42 a re r etouched t oo ls . I t s hou ld b e b orne i n m ind , h owever , t hat t hese f i gures a re t he r esu lt o f a d oub le s ort ing . The f i rst t ook p lace d ur ing t he e xcavat ion , a nd c ons isted o f t he d iscard o f t he " unworked s tones" ( i n t he words o f o ne o f He leno 's w orkmen ) ; t he s econd t ook p lace a t t he Museum i n L isbon , a nd ( accord ing t o t he t est imony o f He leno 's f oreman ) i nvo lved t hrow ing away a l arge p art o f t he d eb itage b ecause o f t he l ack o f s pace t o s tore t he l arge c o l lect ions . A s ma l l t est e xcavat ion u ndertaken i n 1 975 b y t he Grupo p ara o E studo d o P a leo l it ic o P ortuguis ( GEPP ) s ome 1 00 meters away f rom t he l ocat ion where He leno h ad w orked a t V a le d e P orcos , p rov ided t he f ina l e v idence t hat t h is was s o : among more t han 4 ,000 l i th ic o b jects , n ot more t han 2 0 were r etouched t oo ls . A lthough a t t h is t ime t he a rea h ad a lready b een p loughed w ith h eavy mach inery t o p repare t he s o i l f or e xtens ive e uca lyptus p lantat ions ( caus ing s evere d amage a nd b reakage t o t he l i th ics , a nd t hus a rt if ic ia l ly i nf lat ing t he d eb itage c ounts ) , t he o r ig ina l t oo l/deb itage r at io s hou ld h ave h ave b een much c loser t o t he o ne i nd icated b y t he 1 975 d ata t han t o t he o ne d er ived f rom He leno 's c o l lect ion . Another i n terest ing c haracter ist ic o f t he o ld a ssemb lage t hat c an a l so b e e xp la ined a s af unct ion o f s amp l ing i s t he s t ructure o f t he d eb itage , n ame ly t he p redom inance o f b lades ( 4 5% ) a nd b lade lets ( 5% ) o ver f lakes ( 47 % ) , i n s harp c ontrast t o t he f act t hat o n ly s o me 1 8% o f t he t oo l b lanks a re b lades . T he t ypo log ica l i nd ices o bta ined t h rough t he a na lys is o f He leno 's c o l lect i on a re s um mar ized i n T ab le 3 . I t s more s ign if icant a spects a re t he c lear p red om inance o f b ur ins o ver e nd-scrapers a nd o f d ihedra l o ver t runcat ion b ur ins , t he r e lat ive ly l ow o vera l l p ercentage o f Aur ignac ian e nd-scrapers , t he h igh p roport ion o f b usked b ur ins , a nd t he a lmost t ota l a bsence o f t yp ica l Aur ignac ian r etouch ( on ly o ne b lade b ears i t a nd o n ly o ne e nd-scraper c an b e d escr ibed a s manufact ured o n as trang led p iece ) . A s f or t he e nd-scrapers , i t must b e k ept i n m ind t hat e ar inated p ieces manufactured o n c ore f ragments were c lass if ied a s n uc le iform ; t he I GA a nd t he I GAr t herefore g ive a n i ncomp lete i dea o f t he r e lat ive i mport ance o f t h in v ersus t h ick f orms ( the l atter amount ing t o 5 2% o f t h is t oo l g roup ) . The t ypo log ica l s tructure o f t h is a ssemb lage s hows a g reat s im i lar ity t o t hose k nown i n t he E vo lved Aur ignac ian o f n orthern S pa in , p art icu lar ly i n t he s oc a l led " Pendo f ac ies" ( Berna ldo d e Qu irös 1 982 ) . I n l ayers V b a nd V I o f t h is C antabr ian s i te ( E l P endo ) , t he a ssemb lage was a lso d om inated b y b ur ins , a nd w ith in t h is g roup b y d ihedra l s pec imens . S ome i mportant d ifferences c an a lso b e p o inted o ut , h owever , w ith r espect t o b usked b ur ins , r are t hroughout t he who le A ur ignac ian s equence i n a l l o f Cantabr ian S pa in , a nd t he r etouched b lades , p ract ic a l ly a bsent i n t he P ortuguese s i te . T he a ttr ibut ion o f t he l a tter t o al a te s tage o f t he Aur ignac ian i s s upported b y c ompar isons t o t he F rench a ssemb lages i n wh ich t he o n ly i dent if iab le t e mpora l t rends a re a n i ncrease i n a l l t ypes o f b ur ins ( e spec ia l ly b usked f orms ) , a nd a d ecrease i n b lades w ith marg ina l Aur ignac ian r etouch ( Brooks 1 982 ) . The o r ig ins o f t h is l ate P ortuguese A ur ignac ian r e ma in o bscure . T he a ssemb lage e xcavated a t L apa d a Ra inha i s t oo p oor t o a l low a ny d iagnos is ; i t c onta ins n o more t han t wenty l i th ic a rt ifacts , o f wh ich v ery f ew were r etouched , a nd o ne p erforated s he l l o f L ittor ina o btusata ; t he d eb itage s eems t o i nd icate a g ener ic Upper P a leo l ith ic . I n t h is c ontext , t he c la ims o f a "MousteroA ur ignac ian" i ndustry p ut f orward b y R oche a nd h is c o l laborators a re d iff icu lt t o a ccept . T he f act t hat t he s i te was r e lat ive ly r ich i n f auna means t hat i t was p robab ly a c arn ivore d en t hat k new o n ly e p isod ic h uman o ccupat ion , a s i s a l so s uggested b y t he a bundance o f h yena r ema ins , i nc lud ing c opro l ites . The o n ly Mouster ian c ave s i te t hat h as s o f ar b een e xcavated i n P ortuga l i s G ruta Nova d a C o lumbe ira . I n s p ite o f c onta in ing a s er ies o f h earth l eve ls f rom wh ich a 1 4 C d ate o f 2 5 ,000 B .P . was o bta ined ( Ferre ira 1 984 ) , i t h as n ot y et b een a dequate ly p ub-
1 43
Tab le 3 . Typo log ica l I nd ices o f t he R io Ma jor S ites
V .
d e P orcos
C .
d o F elipe
V .
C omp.
I G I B I GA I Bd
1 6.20 6 1.27 5 .63 2 8.17
4 3.98 2 .62 1 0.47 2 .62
8 .93 5 1.30 6 .05 1 0.37
I Bt I Bb I Btv I lam
1 0.56 1 5.49 2 .82 0 .00
0 .00 0 .00 0 .00 1 .57
3 5.45 0 .58 1 .44 5 .76
I GAr I Bdr I Btr I Bbr
3 4.78 4 5.98 1 7.24 2 5.29
2 3.81 1 00.00 0 .00 0 .00
6 7.76 2 0.22 6 9.10 1 .12
4 .60
0 .00
2 .81
2 2.54 0 .00 0 .00
1 0.99 2 .09 1 8.85
6 .63 9 .22 9 .22
1 42
1 91
3 47
I Btvr G A G P Gp a T otal
aP erigordian
G roup i ncluding b lades p ointed b y
a brupt r etouch.
1 44
( JB)
l i shed , a nd t he i dea o f t he p ers istence o f as omewhat p ro longed Mouster ian i n P ortuga l , a lthough n ot i nconce ivab le , must awa it s ounder e v idence t o b e s er ious ly c ons idered .
THE GRAVETT IAN A s a lready n oted , t he o n ly p ub l ished a sse mb lage t hat t rad it iona l ly h as b een a scr ibed t o t he G ravett ian i n P ortuga l i s t he c o l lect ion f rom l eve l I I o f Gruta d as S a lemas ( Zbyszewsk i e t a t . 1 961 ; Roche e t a / . 1 962 ) . I n t he f i rst o f t hese p ub l icat ions , t he ma in a rgument a dvanced b y t he a uthors t o j ust ify t h is a scr ipt ion was t he s trat igraph ie p os it ion o f t he u n it . S ince i tu nder lay a S o lutrean l ayer ( l eve l I ) , t he i ndustry i t c onta ined was r egarded a s o lder t han t he i ndustry r epresented i n t he l atter . I n t he s econd p ub l icat ion , t hey a dded t hat i n s p ite o f i t s p overty ( on ly 2 5 r etouched t oo ls ) , t he t ypo logy i nd icated t hat t h is was a P er ig ord ian a sse mb lage . S ince i tc ons isted o f o n ly o ne b ur in , t hree d ent icu lates , t wo n otches , t hree e nd-scrapers , 1 5 r etouched b lade lets ( one Dufour a nd 1 4 b acked ) , a nd o ne l a me l le ä d os d e t ype G ravette e t c ran p rox ima l , i ts eems c lear t hat t he c lass if icat ion was b ased o n t h is l atter p iece a nd t he m icro l iths . I ti s o bv ious t hat t here i sn o ap r ior i r eason why a n Upper P a leo l ith ic l eve l u nder ly ing o ne t hat i s a scr ibed t o t he S o lutrean c ou ld n ot b e S o lutrean a s we l l . Roche was p robab ly m is led i n h is d iagnos is b y t he f act t hat t he s hou ldered g rav ette h e ment ions , b etter d escr ibed a s ab acked a nd s hou ldered p o int , i s k nown i n F rance a s ap o inte ä c ran p er igord ienne , d ite a typ ique ( de S onnev i l le-Bordes a nd P errot 1 956b ) . I n I ber ia , h owever , t hese p o ints a re i ndex f oss i ls o f t he S o lutrean , e spec ia l ly i n t he S outheast , where o ut o f at ota l o f 3 55 r ecovered t o d ate i n t he t hree s i tes t hat s pan t he G ravett ian-So lutrean t ime p er iod ( Parpa l lö , Ma l laetes , a nd B arranc B lanc ) , o n ly t hree c ame f rom G ravett ian l ayers ( V i l laverde a nd P e r ia 1 981 ) . I n Cantabr ia , o n ly o ne s uch p o int was f ound i n aG ravett ian l ayer ( l ayer V IFo f B o l inkoba ) , b ut t h is a ssemb lage a l so c onta ined t wo c oncave-based l aure lleaf p o ints , wh ich s uggests t hat t he s hou ldered p o int m ight , l i ke t he l atter , b e i n trus ive ( Berna ldo d e Qu irös 1 982) . E ven i n F rance , t h is a ssoc iat ion o f b acked a nd s hou ld ered p o ints w ith t he S o lutrean i s we l l e stab l ished i n t he P yrenees , f or i nstance a t B rassempouy ( De lporte 1 967 ) , a nd o n t he Med iterranean c oast ( Sacch i 1 976 ) . The h igh p ercentage o f b acked b lade lets a t S a lemas c annot b e c ons idered a s aG ravett ian i nd icator e i ther , s ince i ti s ac ommon f eature o f t he S o lutrean a sse mb lages o f Cantabr ian S pa in ( Straus a nd C lark 1 983 ) . F ina l ly , i n ar ecent r eexam inat ion o f t he c o l lect ions f rom S a lemas ( l eve l I I ) b y t h is a uthor , af ew b ifac ia l t h inn ing f lakes w ere f ound t hat may b e i n terpreted a s d ebr is o f f o l iate p o int manufact ure . I n s um , t here i s f or t he moment n o c onc lus ive e v idence o f aG ravett ian o ccupa t ion a t S a le mas . T he s i te o f Casa l d o F e l ipe , i n R io Ma ior , i s c erta in ly a much b etter c and ida te f or t h is s tatus ( F igures 3 a nd 4 ) . T he a ssemb lage e xcavated t here i sn ot S o lutrean , a nd , g iven t he p auc ity o f m icro l ith ic t oo ls , s o we l l r epresented i n a l l t he k nown Magda len ian s i tes o f P ortuga l , i t c annot b e a scr ibed t o t h is i ndustr ia l c omp lex e i ther . T he l ow p roport ion o f m icro l ith ic t oo ls c annot b e e xp la ined b y a s a mp l ing b ias , s ince a l l t hese s i tes were e xcavated b y t he s ame p eop le a nd w ith t he s ame methods . The a ssemb lage o f Casa l d o F e l ipe must b e c ons idered , t heref ore , a s p art o f a n e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic i ndustr ia l c omp lex whose a ff i l iat ions a re d i ff icu lt t o e stab l ish . I t s t ypo log ica l c haracter ist ics a re s um mar ized i n Tab le 3 , a nd t he s tr ik ing c ontrast t hey p resent w ith V a le d e P orcos e vokes a n a ttr ibut ion t o t he G ravett ian c omp lex . T h is a scr ipt ion s hou ld b e u nderstood t o mean t hat t h is a sse mb lage was d epos ited i n t he t ime p er iod b etween t he Aur ig-
1 45
4
1
/ 1 4
1 3
1 0 0
2 _
cm
13
F igure 3 . Casa l d o F e l ipe ( Gravett ian ) : 1 -3 . c ar inated e nd-scrapers ; 4 . e nds craper o n ar etouched b lade ; 5 . f anned e nd-scraper ; 6 . d oub le e nd-scraper ; 7& 9 . m icrogratto ir g r ima ld ien ; 8 . o g iva l e nd-scraper ; 1 0 . b ur in , a ng le o n b reak ; 1 1 . r etouched b lade ( one e dge ) ; 1 2 . o b l ique t runcat ion ; 1 3 . b acked b lade let ; 1 4 . b lade let , b acked a nd t runcated ; 1 5 . s imp le e nd-scraper ; 1 6 . n osed e nd-scraper ( th ick ) ; 1 7 . s ea led p iece ; 1 8 . s imp le e nd-scraper . 1 46
1 0
1 1 5 0
2 cm
. 1-4.“4,
1 6
F igure 4 .
1 7
Casa l d o F e l ipe ( Gravett ian ) : 1 -19 . p o inted b lades ( Casa l d o F e l ipe
p o ints ) . 1 47
n ac ian a nd t he S o lutrean wh ich , e lsewhere i n Western E urope , s aw t he d eve lopment o f t echno log ies c haracter ized b y t he u se o f a brupt r etouch f or t he manufacture o f l i th ic a rmatures . S ign if icant d ifferences e x ist b etween Casa l d o F e l ipe a nd t he t yp ica l G ravett ian , i nd icat ing t hat t he a sse mb lage r ecovered a t t h is R io Ma jor s i te i s p robab ly b etter u nderstood a s o ne o f t hose f ac ies ( such a s t he A ren ian o f t he P rovence ) t hat s ee m t o d eve lop t owards t he e nd o f Gravett ian t imes i n p er iphera l r eg ions o f Western E urope ( Onorat in i 1 982 ) . F irst among t he c haracter ist ics t hat i nd icate c lose a ff in it ies w ith t he G ravett ian i s t he s tructure o f t he e nd-scraper g roup . Desp ite t he i mportance o f t he c ar inated f orms , t h is g roup i s c lear ly d om inated b y s imp le e nd-scrapers ; t he c ompar ison o f t h ick v ersus t h in f orms f avors t he l a tter , u n l ike a t V a le d e P orcos . T he d om inance o f e nd-scrapers o ver b ur ins a nd t he p resence o f c ar inated f orms i n v ar iab le p roport ions i s n ot a c lass ic c haracter ist ic o f t he F rench G ravett ian ( de S onnev i l le-Bordes 1 958 ) , b ut i n Cantabr ia I G/ IB p roport ions a re h igh ly v ar iab le a nd Aur ignac ian e nd-scrapers c ont inue t o b e v ery we l l r epresented d ur ing t he Gravett ian . More i mportant , h owever , i s t he p resence o f f ive s pec i mens o f at oo l t ype t hat Sm ith ( 1966 ) h as c a l led m icrogratto ir g r ima ld ien ( that i s , a sma l l e nd-scraper whose s ides b ear a c ont inuous marg ina l a brupt r etouch f ro m t he f ront t o t he b ase ) . I n s outhwestern F rance t hese o ccur d ur ing t he S o lutrean , b ut a re r epres ented e ar l ier i n t he G r i ma ld ian o r L ate G ravett ian a sse mb lages o f t he Tyrren ian c oast . T he k ey t o u nderstand ing t h is s i te , h owever , l i es i n i t s u n ique p o inted b lades , wh ich r epresent more t han 1 6% o f t he r etouched t oo ls . T he ir s hape i s d ef ined b y v ery a brupt a nd b i latera l r etouch , g enera l ly a ffect ing o n ly t he t erm ina l h a lf o r t he t erm ina l t h ird o f t he b lank , wh ich i s a lways a v ery t h in b lade . T he s ym metry a x is o f t he a ng le a t t he p o int a lways c o inc ides w ith t hat o f t he b lank , a nd t he mod if ied p art o f t he l a tter , i n most c ases , c ontrasts s harp ly w ith t he u nmod if ied . T hese a re h igh ly s tandard ized a rt ifacts wh ich a re u nknown i n a ny o ther s i te i n t he R io Ma ior a rea o r e lsewhere . T hey a re d ifferent f ro m Gravette p o ints b ecause o f t he ir s ym metry a nd t he e xtent o f t he e dge mod if icat ion , a l though t hey s hare w ith t he m t he a brupt a nd s tra ight c haracter o f t he r etouch . T hey a re a lso d ifferent f ro m t he p o inted b lades o f t he A ren ian , wh ich a re much t h icker a nd h eav ier w ith l ess a brupt r etouch . T he o n ly p ara l le ls t hat c an b e e stab l ished f or t he m a re w ith t he F ont-Yves p o ints t hat a ppear i n s o me Aur ign ac ian a ssemb lages ( de S onnev i l le-Bordes 1 958 ) , w ith wh ich t hey s hare t he s ymmetry , t he b i latera l c haracter o f t he r etouch , a nd t he t h inness o f t he b lanks , o r w ith t he f lechettes , a lso p art icu lar ly n umerous i n t he B ayac ien o r P er igord ian I V l eve ls o f t he t ype s i te o f L a G ravette . Unt i l as im i lar a sse mb lage i sf ound i n ad atab le s trat igraph ic c ontext , t he e xact n ature o f t he Casa l d o F e l ipe i ndustry w i l l r e ma in c ontrovers ia l . The a va i la b le e v idence s uggests a t l east t hat t h is i s a n e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic a sse mb lage i n wh ich a s pec ia l l i th ic p o int t ype p lays a r o le s im i lar t o t he o ne r epresented b y t he g ravettes a nd m icrogravettes o f t he G ravett ian . I ts hou ld b e b orne i n m ind , i n t h is r egard , t hat i n Cantabr ian S pa in t hese t oo l t ypes a re n ever w e l l r epresented i n t he G ravett ian a sse mb lages , a nd a re s omet i mes a bsent a ltogether . On t he o ther h and , i t i s a lso o n ly d ur ing t he G ravett ian t hat p o inted b lades o ccur i n t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic o f t he r eg ion . I n o ne a ssemb lage t hey c oex isted w ith t he g ravettes : t he c ave o f B o l inkoba ( Berna ldo d e Qu irös 1 982 ) , where l eve l V I (F ) c onta ined t wenty-two o f t hese a rt ifacts , whose morpho logy u nfortunate ly c annot b e c ompared w ith t he Casa l d o F e l ipe p o ints s ince n o i lustrat ions a re s upp l ied b y t he a uthor .
1 48
The o ther p oss ib le G ravett ian s i te i s V a le Compr ido ( Junto ä B arraca ) ( F igure 5 ) . Here t he s im i lar it ies w ith t he c lass ic G ravett ian a re much more e v ident t han a t Casa l d o F e l ipe ( cf . T ab le 3 ) . B ur ins l arge ly d om inate o ver e nds crapers , a nd b ur ins o n t runcat ion a re more t han t hree t imes a s n umerous a s d ihedra l b ur ins . E ven more s ign if icant i s t he f act t hat 2 1% o f t he f ormer a re mu lt ip le , a nd 6 3% a re p lan . T h is s tructure r epresents a n a l most p erfect match w ith t hat d escr ibed b y d e S onnev i l le-Bordes f or t he G ravett ian o f s outhwestern F rance , t he s tage o f t he U pper P a leo l ith ic where : T he b ur in i ndex , w h ich i s more s tab le a nd a lmost a lways g reater t han t he e nd-scraper i ndex , i s a lways h igh o r v ery h igh ...where t he g reatest n umber o f r etouched b ur ins o n t runcat ion ( very o ften t r ip le o r q uadrup le ) o ccur. ..[ and where ] p lan b ur ins , made o n b lade f ragments o r r e lat ive ly s hort f lakes , w ith mu lt ip le s pa l ls , g enera l ly d oub le , a nd o n r etouched t runcat ion , s ee m c haracter ist ic o f a ssemb lages wh ich a lso c onta in Noa i l les b ur ins i n v ar ious p roport ions . ( 1958 :437 ) Th is i s a lso t he e ase w ith t he V a le Compr ido ( Junto ä B arraca ) a ssemb lages , a lthough t h is l atter t oo l t ype i so n ly r epresented , i n t h is c ase , b y o ne s pec imen . Conf irm ing t he d iagnos is s uggested b y i t s o vera l l s tructure , c lass ic b acked t oo l t ypes a re a lso r epresented , a l though i n sma l l p roport ions : o ne Chate lperron p o int , t hree b acked k n ives , a nd f ive m ierogravettes . T he l atter , a lthough i n sma l l n umbers , s ee m t o b e d ifferent f rom t he s tra ight b acked a nd p o inted b lade lets t hat were i dent if ied a t Magda len ian s i tes s uch a s V a le d a Mata , wh ich f rom a morphometr ic p o int o f v iew , f orm a c ont inuum w ith t he b acked b lade lets a nd a re o n a verage sma l ler t han t he p o ints a t V a le Compr ido ( Junto ä B arraca ) . T hese h ave w idths t hat v ary a round 0 .8 cm , t hat i s , f or a b acked b lank , n ear t he b oundary b etween b lades a nd b lade lets , a s i sp ostu lated b y t he d ef in it ion o f t he t ype , wh i le a t V a le d a Mata t he a verage w idth o f b acked b lade lets a nd m icro l ith ic b acked p o ints i s0 .4 cm , a l most t wo t h irds o f t he s amp le ( a t ota l o f 5 06 measured p ieces ) h av ing a w idth f a l l ing b etween 0 .3 a nd 0 .5 cm ( Araü jo a nd Z i lhäo , n .d . ) . I n marked c ontras t w ith R oss io d o Cabo a nd a l l t he Magda len ian s i tes s o f ar a na lyzed , t he b acked b lade lets c onst itute o n ly o ne t h ird o f t he P er igord ian Group , o r 5 0% i f t he m ierogravettes a re i nc luded . A t Ross io d o Cabo , t hey c ompr ise 7 5% o f t he 1 951 c o l lect ion , a nd 1 00 % o f t he 1 952-1953 c o l lect ion , a nd a t Va le d a Mata , V aseas , a nd Carne ira t hey a lso r epresent a n o verwhe lm ing ma jor ity o f t he g roup . Th is c ontrast i s d ue n ot o n ly t o t he p resence a t V a le Compr ido ( Junto ä B arraca ) o f much h igher p ercentages o f macro l ith ic b acked t oo ls , b ut a lso t o t he more s ign if icant r o le o f t runcat ions , whose n umbers , a lthough s omewhat l ow i n a bso lute t erms , a re p roport iona l ly h igher t han i n a ny o ther o f t he a na lyzed P ortuguese Upper P a leo l ith ic a ssemb lages . F ro m t h is p o int o f v iew , V a le Compr ido ( Junto ä B arraca ) s eems t o b e s uff ic ient ly d ifferent f rom t he k nown Magda len ian a ssemb lages t o warrant t he c orrect ion o f t he c lass if icat ion b ased o n t he b ur ins , d esp ite t he f ac t t hat s ome s im i lar it ies w ith Ross io d o Cabo m ight a lso i nd icate t he p oss ib i l ity o f t h is b e ing a nother e ar ly a sse mb lage o f t hat s tage . A s a matter o f f act , b oth s i tes h ave s im i lar I G 's , I B 's , a nd I G/ IB r at ios , a nd s im i lar I GAr 's , I P 's a nd ( cons ider ing , a t Ross io d o Cabo , t he 1 952-1953 a ssemb lage ) I l am 's ( c f . T ab les 2 a nd 3 ) . B ut , u n l ike Ross io d o Cabo , t he R io Ma jor s i te h as o n ly marg ina l n umbers o f t ransverse b ur ins , a nd many more b ur ins o n t runcat ion t han d ihedra l . The i mportance o f t he Aur ignac ian e nd-scrapers i s p robab ly a n eutra l c haracter ist ic w ith r espect t o i ndustr ia l a ff i l iat ions , s ince i t s eems t o b e p resent i n a l l s tages o f t he Upper
1 49
0 •
2 C
( i 3 M 4 1 1 4 F igure 5 . V a le C ompr ido ( Junto a B arraca ) ( Gravett ian ) : 1 . b ur in ; mu lt ip le o n t runcat ion ; 2 . b ur in o n c oncave t runcat ion ; 3 . k ee led e nd-scraper ; 4 . c anted d ihedra l b ur in ; 5 . o b l ique t runcat ion ; 6 . s imp le e nd-scraper ; 7 . b ur in , mu lt ip le o n t runcat ion ; 8 -9 . b ur ins o n c oncave t runcat ion ; 1 0 . Chate lperron p o int ; 1 1 . b acked k n ife ; 1 2 . N oa i l les b ur in ; 1 3-16 . m icrogravettes ; 1 7 . b lade let , b acked a nd t runcated ; 1 8-19 . D ufour ( backed , marg ina l ) b lade lets . 1 50
P a leo l ith ic o f P ortuga l , i nc lud ing t he L ater Magda len ian o f V aseas , Carne ira , a nd V a le d a Mata . On t he o ther h and , V a le C ompr ido ( Junto ä B arraca ) s hares i t s d i st inct ive s tructure i n t he P er igord ian G roup w ith Casa l d o F e l ipe , t he o n ly o ther n on-Aur ignac ian a ssemb lage s o f ar i dent if ied t hat c an p robab ly b e a scr ibed t o t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic . A l l t h ings c ons idered , i t s eems t hat b oth s i tes a re v ery p robab ly G ravett ian o r " Gravetto id ."
CONCLUS IONS T he c urrent s tate o f r esearch c oncern ing t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic o f P ortuga l i s s t i l l c oncentrated o n t he most b as ic o f a l l i s sues : t hat o f e stab l ish ing i t s e x istence . T he e v idence r ev iewed h ere i nd icates t hat a ssemb lages a ttr ibutab le t o t h is t ime p er iod d o e x ist , a nd t hat t hey a re , i n g enera l t erms , c omparab le t o t he o nes r ecogn ized e l sewhere i n Western E urope , t hereby j ust ify ing t he u se o f t rad it iona l t axonom ies t o d ef ine t he m . I n t he c ase o f t he G ravett ian , i t s eems t hat t he E th ic i ndustr ies a re p robab ly c haracter ized i n P ortuga l , a s i n Cantabr ia a nd t he P 6r igord , b y ah igh d egree o f v ar iab i l ity , t he n ature o f wh ich ( chronol og ica l , f unct iona l , o r s ty l ist ic ) i s s t i l l f ar f rom b e ing u nderstood ( Lav i l le a nd R igaud 1 973 ) . A s i sa l so t he e ase w ith t he Aur ignac ian , more a ssemb lages h ave t o b e e xcavated f rom a dequate c ontexts b efore f urther a dvances c an b e made i n t he u nderstand ing o f t h is v ar iab i l ity . S ince a l l t h ree s i tes k nown a re l oca l it ies where o rgan ic matter was n ot p reserved , t here i s n o d irect e v idence c oncern ing t he p a leoeconomy o f t hese p opu lat ions . Neverthe less , f auna l a ssemb lages e xcavated f rom S o lutrean c ave s i tes p rov ide s ome i dea o f a va i lab le a nd h unted g ame : r ed d eer , h orse , a urochs , a nd w i ld b oar i n t he l ow lands , i bex a nd c hamo is i n t he a lp ine n iches , wh ich , d ur ing t he L ate Würm , i n t he r eg ion o f E stre madura , c ou ld b e f ound a t a round 1 00 meters a bove p resent s ea l eve l ( Z i lhäo 1 986 ) . T he f act t hat n o e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes a re k nown i n t he k arst ic p lateaus o f t h is r eg ion , h owever , c annot b e i n terp reted a s e v idence f or l ack o f e xp lo itat ion o f t hese n iches d ur ing t he Aur ignac ian a nd t he G ravett ian . More p robab ly , t h is i s ap roduct o f ab iased s amp l ing , s ince a l l t he k nown c ave s i tes o f t he h igh lands c onta in o n ly S o lutrean o ccupat ions . G iven t he f act t hat a l l o f t hem a re r ather sma l l a nd n arrow c aves , t he ir u se i s p robab ly t he c onsequence o f a more i n tens ive h uman p resence i n t hese a reas d ur ing S o lutrean t imes , when e ven t he most marg ina l ly s u itab le s he lters were o ccup ied , r ather t han t he r esu lt o f ab ehav iora l s h ift . I t s hou ld b e n oted , i n t h is r espect , t hat a t G ruta d o Ca ide iräo ( Tomar ) , l ocated i n t he e asternmost p art o f t he l imestone mass if o f Centra l E stremadura , a S o lutrean s equence o f c a . 2 m eters h as a lready b een e xcavated wh ich o ver l ies a s er ies o f l eve ls t hat a re s t i l l U pper P a leo l ith ic , b ut c onta in n o S o lutrean t oo ls a nd h ave y ie lded a f auna l a ssemb lage where i bex , r ed d eer , a nd h orse s eem t o b e e qua l ly r epresented . A lthough t hey c annot y et b e f orma l ly a ss igned ( due t o l im ited s amp le s ize ) t o a ny s pec if ic i ndustr ia l c omp lex , t he s trat igraph ic p os it ion o f t he l ower l eve ls s eems t o i nd icate t ha t t hey a re p robab ly G ravett ian , t hus s uggest ing t hat h uman u se o f a lp ine n iches w as n ot a ltogether u nknown d ur ing t he e ar l ier s tages o f t he Upper P a leo l ith ic . T he s ame i s p robab ly n ot t rue f or t he c oasta l a reas . Here , c ons iderab le s urvey ing h as a lready b een u ndertaken i n c erta in z ones , e spec ia l ly b etween E r iee ira a nd P en iche , r esu lt ing i n t he d iscovery o f s evera l S o lutrean , Magda len ian , a nd E p ipa leo l ith ic s i tes , b ut , s o f ar , o f n one a ss ignab le t o t he Aur ignac ian o r t he G ravett ian . I n t h is c a se , i ts eems p oss ib le t hat i n P ortuga l , a s i n Cantabr ian S pa in ( S traus a nd C lark 1 983 ) , t he e xp lo itat ion o f mar ine a nd e stuar ine r esources d oes
1 51
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REFERENCES A lme ida , F . , M .F . S antos , J . Roche , a nd O .V . F erre ira 1 969 Not ic ia p re l im inar s obre a s e scavacöes n a L apa d a R a inha ( V ime iro ) . Actas d as I J o madas Arqueo lög icas d a A ssoc iaqäo d os Arqueö logos P ortugueses 1 :273-279 . A raü jo , A .C . , a nd J . Z i lhäo n .d . 0 Magda lenense T erm ina l d e V a le d a Mata ( Cambe las , T orres V edras ) . U npub l ished manuscr ipt . B erna ldo d e Qu irös , F . 1 982 L os I n ic ios d e l P a leo l it ico S uper ior Cantäbr ico . Monograf ias d e l C entro d e I nvest igac iön y Museo d e A ltam ira 8 . B ordes , F . 1 968 L e P a leo l ith ique d ans l e Monde . P ar is : Hachette 1 984 L eqons s ur l e P a leo l ith ique , v o l . 2 , L e P a leo l ith ique e n E urope . P ar is : CNRS . B reu i l , H . , a nd G . Z byszewsk i 1 942 Contr ibut ion ä l 'kude d es i ndustr ies p a l8o l ith iques d u P ortuga l e t d e l eurs r apports a vec l a g 8o log ie d u Quaterna ire . Comun icaqöes d os S er v iqos Geo lög icos d e P or tuga l 2 3 :1-394 . 1 945 Contr ibut ion ä 1 1 8 tude d es i ndustr ies p a leo l ith iques d u P ortuga l e t d e l eurs r apports a vec l a g öo log ie d u Quaterna ire . C omun icaqöes d os S er v igos Geo lög icos d e P or tuga l 2 6 :1-678 . B rooks , A . 1 982 Aur ignac ian a ssemb lages f rom Abr i P ataud ( Dordogne , F rance ) . E tudes e t Recherches A rcheo log iques d e l 'Un ivers ite d e L iege 1 3 (2 ) :931 04 . De lporte , H . 1 967 B rassempouy : S es i ndustr ies d 'aprös l a c o l lect ion P iette . Z ephyrus 1 7 :5-41 . F erre ira , O .V . 1 984 0 ma is i mportante n ive l d e o cupacäo d o c agador Neanderta l d a G ruta Nova d a Co lumbe ira ( Bombarra l ) . V o lume d 'Hom mage a u Geo logue G . Z byszewsk i . P ar is : R echerche s ur l es C iv i l isat ions . He leno , M . 1 944 0 P rob lema Capsense ; Contr ibu iqäo P or tuguesa p ara a s ua R ev isäo . Com mun icacäo a o I nst ituto d e A rqueo log ia n a s essäo d e Abr i l d e 1 944 ( L isbon ) . 1 956 Um q uarto d e s gcu lo d e i nvest igacäo a rqueo lög ica . 0 Arqueö logo P ortugues 2 -3 :221-237 . L av i l le , H . , a nd J .-P . R igaud 1 973 T he P er igord ian V i ndustr ies i n P 8r igord : T ypo log ica l v ar iat ions , s trat igraphy a nd r e lat ive c hrono logy . Wor ld Archaeo logy 4 ( 3 ) :330-338 . Onorat in i , G . 1 982 P reh isto ire , S ed iments , C l imats , d u Würm I H äl 'Ho locene d ans l eS udE st d e l a F rance . Marse i l le : Un ivers itä d 'A ix-Marse i l le 3 . R oche , J 1 964 L e p a leo l ith ique s uper ieur p ortuga is . B i Ian d e n os c onna issances e t p rob lömes . B u l let in d e l a S oc iete P reh istor ique F rança ise 4 1 :41-27 .
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R oche , J . , a nd L . T r indade 1 951 L a s tat ion p r8h istor ique d e Ross io d o Cabo ( Santa C ruz Estremadura ) . B o let im d a S oc iedade Geo lög ica d e P ortuga l 9 :219-228 . R oche , J . , J .C . F ranca , O .V . F erre ira , a nd G . Z byszewsk i 1 962 L e P a l8o l ith ique s uper ieur d e l a g rotte d e S a lemas ( Ponte d e L ousa ) . C omun icaqäes d os S erv igos Geo lög icos d e P ortuga l 4 6 :187-207 . S acch i , D . 1 976 L es c iv i l isat ions d u P a l8o l ith ique s up8r ieur e n L anguedoc o cc identa l e t e n Rouss i l lon . I n H . d e L um ley ( ed itor ) L a P rM isto ire F ran9 a ise , v o l . 1 , p p . 1 174-1188 . P ar is : CNRS . Sm ith , P . 1 966 L e S o luträen e n F rance . B ordeaux : D e lmas . d e S onnev i l le-Bordes , D . 1 958 P rob l mes g 8n8raux d u P a l8o l ith ique s up8r ieur d ans l e S ud-Ouest d e l a F rance . L 'Anthropo log ie 6 2 (5-6 ) :413-451 . d e S onnev i l le-Bordes , D . , a nd J . P errot 1 954 L ex ique t ypo log ique d u P a l8o l ith ique s up8r ieur . Bu l let in d e / a S oc i &i P räh istor ique F ranga ise 5 1(7 ) :327-335 1 955 L ex ique t ypo log ique d u P a l8o l ith ique s up8r ieur . Bu l let in d e / a S oc iitä P rM istor ique F ranga ise 5 2 (1-2 ) :76-79 . 1 956a L ex ique t ypo log ique d u P a l8o l ith ique s up8r ieur . Bu l let in d e l a S oc iété P rih istor ique F ranga ise 5 3 (7-8 ) :408-412 . 1 956b L ex ique t ypo log ique d u P a leo l ith ique s uper ieur . Bu l let in d e l a S oc i ti P rih istor ique F ranga ise 5 3(9 ) :547-559 . S traus , L . , a nd G . C lark 1 983 L ate P le istocene h unter-gatherer a daptat ions i n Cantabr ian S pa in . I n G . B a i ley ( ed itor ) Hunter-Gatherer E conomy i n P reh istory : A European P erspect ive , p p . 1 31-148 . Cambr idge : Cambr idge Un ivers ity P ress . V i l laverde , V . , a nd J .L . P e l la 1 981 P iezas c on E scotadwm d e l P a leo l it ico S uper ior V a lenc iano . V a lenc ia : S erv ic io d e I nvest igac ion P reh istör ica , D iputac iön P rov inc ia l d e V a lenc ia , S er ie d e T raba jos V ar ios n o . 6 9 . Z byszewsk i , G . , J . R oche , J .C . F ranca , a nd O .V . F erre ira 1 961 Note p r8 l im ina ire s ur l es n iveaux d u P a l8o l ith ique s up8r ieur d e l a g rotte d e S a le mas ( Ponte d e L ousa ) . Comun ica Oes d os S erv igos Geol ög icos d e P or tuga l 4 5 :197-206 . Z i lhäo , J . 1 984 0 S o lutrense s uper ior d e f äc ies c antäbr ico d e V a le A lmo inha ( Camb e las , T orres V edras ) . 0 Arqueö logo P ortuguäs 4 (2 ) :15-86 . 1 985 Donn8es n ouve l les s ur l e P a leo l ith ique s up8r ieur d u P ortuga l . Actas d a IReun i c io d o Quate mär io IWr ico 2 :101-102 . 1 986 T he P ortuguese E stremadura a t 1 8000 B .P . T he P le istocene P erspect ive 2 ( pre-c ircu lated p apers o f t he Wor ld A rchaeo log ica l Congress , S outhampton a nd L ondon , 1 986 ) . Z i lhäo , J . , a nd A .E . Marks n .d . Contr ibu i9d io p ara uma Reava l i f l io d o P a /eo l i t ico S uper ior Ant igo em P ortuga l . U npub l ished manuscr ipt .
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T HE C H ATELPERRON I A NA ND T HE E ARLY A UR IGNAC I A N I NF RANCE F ranc is B . Harro ld Department o f S oc io logy , Anth ropo logy , a nd S oc ia l Work U n ivers ity o f T exas a t A r l ington A r l ington , T exas U .S .A .
T h is p aper i sc oncerned w ith t he t wo t e mpora l ly a nd s pat ia l ly o ver lapp ing i ndustr ies o f t he F rench e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic , t he Chate lperron ian a nd t he Aur ignac ian . I t w i l l r ev iew t he s im i lar it ies a nd d ifferences i n v ar ious c ategor ies o f e v idence a va i lab le t o u s f rom t hese t wo c u lture-strat igraph ic u n its i n t he l i ght o f t wo c ompet ing h ypotheses s eek ing t o e xp la in t he m . Geograph ica l ly , t h is s tudy i s r estr icted t o t he s phere o f t he Chate lp erron ian i n F rance , where t hese t wo i ndustr ies c o inc ide - a t err itory s tretch ing f rom t he F rench P yrenees t o i nc lude s outhwestern a nd much o f c entra l a nd n orthc entra l F rance ( s ee F igures 1 -3 ; f or d i scuss ion o f t he V asco-Cantabr ian e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic , s ee S traus a nd He l ler i n t h is v o lume ) . A s Iw i l l h ave c ause t o emphas ize more t han o nce , t he q ua l ity a nd q uant ity o f r e levant e v idence i sn ot y et s uch t hat we c an p ropose a nd t est d eta i led h ypotheses a bout t he b ehav iora l r ea l it ies u nder ly ing t hese t wo a rchaeo log ica l c onstructs . However , It h ink t hat a n e ffort a t d etect ing p atterns i n t he c urrent e v idence , a nd a ssess ing t he ir i mp l icat ions f or r iva l i nterpretat ions o f t hese i ndustr ies , i s a worthwh i le s tep i n t he r ight d irect ion .
SOME PREL IM INARY CONS IDERAT IONS B efore t reat ing t he c ont inu it ies a nd d iscont inu it ies b etween t rad it ions , s ome p re l im inary p o ints s hou ld b e made c oncern ing b oth .
t hese
The Chate lperron ian Desp ite i mpress ions t o t he c ontrary - d ue p r imar i ly t o d isturbed a nd m ixed a sse mb lages f rom o ld e xcavat ions a t L a F errass ie a nd L e Moust ier - t he Cha te lperron ian i s a t rue e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic i ndustry ( Harro ld 1 981 , 1 983 , 1 986 ; F ar izy , i n p ress ) . A lso k nown a s t he Caste lperron ian a nd L ower P er igord ian , i t i s c haracter ized b y ( i n d ecreas ing o rder o f i mportance ) Chate lperron k n ives , e nd-scrapers , b ur ins , t runcated a nd r etouched p ieces , a nd s uch "Mouster ian" t ypes a s s ide-scrapers , n otches , a nd d ent icu lates . H igh p roport ions o f t hese t oo ls a re made o n b lades s truck f rom p r ismat ic c ores .
The E ar ly Aur ignac ian The t ime-space s ystemat ics o f t he F rench Aur ignac ian a re n ot a s n eat ly p atterned a s was o nce t hought . S ome h istor ica l r ev iew m ight b e i n o rder :
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P eyrony ( 1933 ) e stab l ished t he we l l-known s equence o f f i ve Aur ignac ian s tages ( I -V ) p r i mar i ly o n t he b as is o f t he s uccess ion o f b one p o int f oss i l d irectors f ound i n h i s e xcavat ions a t L a F errass ie , w ith s p l it-base b one p o ints i dent ify ing t he Aur ignac ian I ,a nd s o o n . L ater , d e S onnev i l le-Bordes ( 1960 ) a l so p o inted t o t empora l t rends i n t he l i th ic c ompos it ion o f Aur ignac ian a sse mb lages . S he f urther s uggested t hat a n e ar ly p hase o f t he Aur ignac ian p receded t he c lass ic Aur ignac ian Iw ith s p l it-base b one p o ints . S he s howed t hat P ey rony 's " Per igord ian I " w ith Dufour b lade lets , i n c o l lect ions l i ke L a F errass ie E ' a nd Dufour , was a ctua l ly Aur ignac ian i n a ssemb lage c ompos it ion . S ince i t s trat igraph ica l ly u nder lay t he Aur ignac ian Ia t L a F errass ie , i t b ecame a n Aur ignac ian " 0 ." S ince t hen , v ar ious a ssemb lages h ave b een a ttr ibuted t o ap hase o f t he Aur ignac ian wh ich ( a ) p rec eded t he c lass ic Aur ignac ian I ,a nd ( b ) d iffered t ypo log ica l ly f rom i t , l ack ing i t s c haracter ist ic s p l it-base b one p o ints a nd p erhaps o ther Aur ignac ian f oss i l d irectors ( s uch a s Aur ignac ian b lades ) , a nd ( i n most f ormu lat ions ) c onta in ing sma l l , s em i-abrupt ly r etouched Dufour b lade lets . B ut a s t he Aur ignac ian d ata b ase h as e xpanded , t he n ea t s uccess ion o f s tages h as b roken d own - e .g . , a t t he Abr i P a taud ( Brooks 1 982 ) , where t he l ong s uccess ion o f Aur ignac ian a ssemb lages d oes n ot d emonstrate t he e xpected c hanges o ver t ime . T he t ypo log ica l i n tegr ity o f t he Aur ignac ian i ndustry i sn ot i n d oubt , n or i s t he f act t hat i t h as s ome t empora l p attern ing i n b oth b one a nd s tone t oo ls ( C lass ic Aur ignac ian I a ssemb lages , f or i n stance , s eem u sua l ly o lder t han " evo lved" o nes ) . However , i t c an n o l onger b e ma inta ined t hat a t ypo log ica l ly c oherent A rcha ic Aur ignac ian ( a lso v ar ious ly c a l led Aur ignac ian 0 , Correz ian , o r P roto-Aur ignac ian ) p recedes t he Aur ignac ian It h roughout o ur g eograph ica l s phere o f c oncern ( R igaud 1 982 :440-43 ; d e S onnev i l le-Bordes 1 980a ; De lporte a nd Mazi ere 1 977 ; L eroyer a nd L ero i-Gourhan 1 983 ) . S ome " Archa ic" ( " 0" ) Aur ignac ian a ssemb lages i ndeed r esemb le t he c hara cter izat ion g iven a bove , a nd a ntedate t he Aur ignac ian I - e .g . , i n Languedoc ( Baz i le 1 976 , 1 984 ) a nd , i n o ur a rea , a t Gatzarr ia a nd i n s t i l l e ssent ia l ly u npub l ished a ssemb lages a t S a int-Cesa ire a nd t he Abr i P ataud . O thers , h owever , a re q u ite c lose t o Aur ignac ian Ia ssemb lages i n o vera l l t ypo logy , e xcept f or a f ew k ey f oss i l d irectors . T hey l ack s p l it-base b one p o ints a nd/or c onta in D ufour b lade lets [ e .g . , Chan lat a nd Dufour ( de S onnev i l le-Bordes 1 960 ) o r L e P lage ( Champagne a nd E sp ita l ie 1 981 ) ] . F urthermore , i n most s uch c ases we c annot a ssume t hat t hey a ntedate t he Aur ignac ian I : e ither t hey a re k nown t o b e c onte mporaneous w ith i t( e .g . , L e P lage ) , o r t he ir a ge i su nknown ( Dufour ) . T here i st hus n o u n if ied " Archa ic Aur ignac ian ." Iw i l l i nstead u se t he t erm " Ear ly Aur ignac ian" i n a s tr ict ly c hrono log ica l s ense . E ar ly Aur ignac ian a ssemb lages a re t hose wh ich a re r ough ly c ontemporary w ith t he C hate lperron ian - t hat i s , t hose a ss igned w ith r easonab le c erta inty t o t he s ame c hronostrat ig raph ic p er iod a s t he Chate lperron ian , r egard less o f t ypo log ica l " stage" ( cf . T ab le 2 a nd d iscuss ion b e low ) .
The Nature o f t he Chate lperron ian-Ear ly Aur ignac ian Re lat ionsh ip T hese t wo c u lture-strat igraph ic u n its h ave h istor ica l ly b een r ecogn ized a s d ist inct ive a nd s equent ia l . E ven a fter P ey rony 's ( 1933 ) s chemat izat ion o f t he P er igord ian ( i nc lud ing t he Chate lperron ian a s t he L ower P er igord ian ) a nd t he Aur ignac ian a s t wo p ara l le l c u ltura l t rad it ions p roduced b y t wo d i fferent h uman ‚ tr aces" ( those o f Combe-Cape l le a nd C ro-Magnon ) , t hey were p erce ived a s mutua l ly e xc lus ive i n a ny o ne r eg ion .
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S ince t he 1 960 's , h owever , i n terstrat if icat ion a nd o ther e v idence h ave s hown t hat t he Chate lperron ian a nd Aur ignac ian a re a t l east p art ly c ontempor aneous . How d o w e i n terpret t he p henomenon o f t wo d ifferent b ut c onte mporary i ndustr ies o ccupy ing t he s ame g eograph ica l r eg ion? Two e xp lanat ions a re p roff ered : 1 . T here i s ac lear ma jor ity o p in ion among p reh istor ians f am i l iar w ith t he r eg ion t hat t he Chate lperron ian a nd Aur ignac ian r epresent t wo d ist inct c u ltura l t rad it ions a ssoc iated w ith e thn ica l ly ( and p erh aps r ac ia l ly ) d ist inct ive g roups ( e .g . , d e S onnev i l le-Bordes 1 960 , 1 980b ; L av i l le e t a t . 1 980 :285 ; Howe l l 1 984 ) . I n t h is v iew , d iff erences b etween t he t wo c u lture-strat igraph ic u n its a re t oo s tr ik ing a nd c ons istent t o b e e xp la ined o ther t han a s t he r esu lt o f d ifferent c u ltura l ly t ransmitted t rad it ions o f a rt ifact manufacture . 2 . I n a n e cho o f t he B ordes-B inford d ebate o ver t he n ature o f Mouster ian i n terassemb lage v ar iab i l ity , am inor ity o p in ion i nterprets Chate lperron ian-Aur ignac ian d ifferences a s u nre lated t o s oc ioc u ltura l b oundar ies , b ut r ather r ef lect ing f unct iona l ly d ifferent iated s ets o f b ehav ior a t d ifferent s i tes . T h is p o int o f v iew h as b een p ut f orward b y S . B inford ( 1972 ) a nd , more r ecent ly , A shton ( 1983 ) , who a rgues t hat d ifferences b etween Aur ignac ian a nd Chate lperron ian a ssemb lages a re b as ica l ly i n t he f requency o f c erta in a rt ifact t ypes , r eferab le t o s easona l ly v ary ing s ubs istence-sett lement b ehav ior . Wh i le n e ither o f t hese h ypotheses i s c urrent ly s uscept ib le t o d eta i led e xp l icat ion a nd t est ing , we c an s uggest t hat t hey wou ld i mp ly e xpectat ions o f d i fferent ia l p attern ing i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . I n t he c ase o f t he f i rst h ypothes is , we wou ld e xpect t o s ee c ons iderab le d iscont inu ity i n a r t ifac t t echno logy a nd t ypo logy , e spec ia l ly i n t erms o f s ty l ist ica l ly d ist inct " foss i l d i rectors" c haracter is t ic o f e ach i ndustry . I We wou ld n ot e xpect s ign if icant c o nt a mi n ati o n" o f Chate lperron ian a sse mb lages w ith Aur ignac ian f oss i l d irectors , a nd v ice v ersa . T h is e ase wou ld b e s trengthened i f who le c ategor ies o f mater ia l c u lture ( e .g . , b one t oo ls o r f igurat ive a rt ) were p resent i n o ne i ndustry a nd a bsent i nt he o ther . "
I n r egard t o e v idence o f s ubs istence a nd s ett lement , d iscont inu ity i n i n ferred p atterns o f g roup s i ze a nd movement a nd f auna l e xp lo itat ion wou ld s upport t h is h ypothes is . R edundancy i n e v idence f or s easona l ity wou ld a lso b e e xpected , mak ing i tl e ss l i ke ly t hat d ifferences b etween t he i ndustr ies were d ue t o s easona l ly v ar iab le e xp lo itat ion o f t he e nv ironment . F ina l ly , w ith r eference t o t he r ep lacement i n t h is g enera l t ime p er iod o f t he West E uropean N eandertha ls b y a natom ica l ly modern h umans , e v idence t hat t he t wo i ndustr ies were manufactured b y d ifferent s ubspec ies o f Homo s ap iens w ou ld s upport t h is h ypothes is , a lthough s uch e v idence i s n ot r equ ired b y i t ( after a l l , t wo s eparate c u ltura l t rad it ions c ou ld b e t he work o f " rac ia l ly" u nd ifferent iated g roups ) . I n t he c ase o f t he s econd h ypothes is , we wou ld e xpect a rt ifactua l c on t inu ity b etween t he t wo i ndustr ies - j ust t he s ort o f " contam inat ion" ment ioned a bove . D ifferences i n a ssemb lage c ontent s hou ld b e q uant itat ive r a ther t han q ua l itat ive , d ependent o n d iffer ing c omb inat ions a t d ifferent s i tes o f a ct iv it ies i nvo lv ing t he mak ing , u se , mod if icat ion , a nd d iscard o f a rt ifacts . I n terasse mb lage v ar iab i l ity m ight e ven f orm a c ont inuum , r ang ing f rom " pure
1 59
Chate lperron ian" a ssemb lages w ith l i tt le Aur ignac ian c ontent t hrough a s pectrum t o " pure Aur ignac ian" o nes . We wou ld a lso e xpect t o s ee Chate lperron ian-Aur ignac ian c omp le mentari ty , r ather t han r edundancy , i n a t l east s ome c lasses o f s ubs istence-sett lement d ata . We m ight , f or i n stance , f ind e v idence t hat s i tes o f t he t wo t rad it ions c ons istent ly r epresent o ccupat ions a t d ifferent s easons o f t he y ear , o r p erhaps s pec ia l-purpose s tat ions v s . o ccupat ion s i tes . F ina l ly , we wou ld e xpect b oth i ndustr ies t o b e a ssoc iated w ith a natom ic a l ly modern h umans ( a lthough , a s n oted a bove , t h is a ssoc iat ion c ou ld a lso b e h armon ized w ith t he f i rst h ypothes is ) . F irm e v idence o f manufacture b y t wo d ifferent h uman s ubspec ies wou ld make t h is " funct iona l d i fferent iat ion" h ypothes is u ntenab le . A c aveat i s a ppropr iate h ere . Unfortunate ly , t hese h ypotheses a re n ot c urrent ly t estab le i n d eta i l . We a re u nab le s at isfactor i ly t o q uant ify a nd s pec ify t hem , a nd t he ir o utcomes i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord may n ot a lway s b e mutua l ly xc lus ive . T hey a re v ague , s pec ify ing v ery l i tt le a bout t he n a ture o f p ast u bs istence-sett lement s ystems o r p rocesses o f l ong-term c u ltura l c hange . l owever , we c an a t t h is p o int c ompare t he p attern ing we f ind w ith t hese h ypothe, e s f or g oodness o f f i t .
TEMPORAL CONT INU ITY We w i l l f i rst r ev iew t he e v idence f or t he t e mpora l r e lat ionsh ip b etween t he Chate lperron ian a nd t he E ar ly Aur ignac ian . T h is e v idence f a l ls i n to t hree c ategor ies .
S trat igraph ie S uperpos it ion The s trat igraph ic r e lat ionsh ips o f F rench Chate lperron ian a nd Aur ignac ian a ssemb lages f ound a t t he s ame s i tes g ive , i n a ggregate , g ood i nd ica t ions o f t he ir r e lat ive a ges . A t 2 2 F rench s i tes ,2 t he Chate lperron ian h as b een f ound i n a t l east m in ima l ly d ocumented s trat igraph ic c ontexts . T he f o l low ing i nformat ion i sb ased o n t h is s amp le . Aur ignac ian l eve ls a re k nown a t 1 7 o f t hese s i tes . I n 1 5 o f t hem , t he Aur ignac ian d irect ly o ver l ies o ne o r more Chate lperron ian l eve ls ( by " d irect ly" h ere Imean t hat n o o ther a rchaeo log ica l u n it i sb etween t he m ; a n a rchaeo log ica ll y s ter i le s tratum may o r may n ot b e i n terposed ) . T hese o ver ly ing Aur ignac ian l eve ls a re v ar ious ly c haracter ized a s Aur ignac ian 0 ,I ,I , o r " evo lved" Aur ignac ian ; s ome a re we l l d ated , o thers a re n ot . I n t wo c ases ( a s we l l a s o ne i n Cantabr ian Aur ignac ian i n terstrat if icat ion h as b een d ocumented :
S pa in ) ,
Chate lperron ian-
A t R oc d e Combe ( Lot ) ( Bordes a nd L abrot 1 967 ) , a n Aur ignac ian l eve l ( 9 ) l i es s andw iched b etween t wo Cha te lperron ian o nes ( 10 a nd 8 ) ; a top t hem a l l l i es a n Aur ignac ian Il eve l ( 7 ) . A t n earby L e P iage ( Lot ) ( Champagne a nd E sp ita l i 1 981 ) , a Chate lperron ian l eve l ( F1 ) i s u nder la in b y t h ree Aur ignac ian l eve ls ( K , J , G -0 , a nd o ver la in b y a nother ( F ) .
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T hus , Chate lperron ian o ver l ies Aur ignac ian i n t wo c ases , a nd u nder l ies i t i n 1 7 ( t he 1 4 ment ioned a bove , p lus t he t wo w ith i n terstrat if icat ion ) . I n tere st ing ly , i n n o c ase d oes a c lass ic Aur ignac ian Ia ssemb lage w ith s p l it-base b one p o ints u nder l ie t he Chate lperron ian . T he u nder ly ing Aur ignac ian a t Roc d e Combe i s t oo s canty t o c haracter ize ; a t L e P lage , i t i s i n l i th ic t erms l i ke Aur ignac ian I , b ut l ack ing s p l it-base p o ints , a nd i n o ne c ase ( K ) , h as many Dufour b lade lets . T he s trat igraph ic i nformat ion s trong ly s uggests t hat Aur ignac ian a ssemb lages a re g enera l ly more r ecent t han Chate lperron ian o nes . S pat iotempora l o ver lap o f t he t wo i ndustr ies i s d emonstrated , b ut s uch o ver lap may h ave b een b r ief i n a ny o ne l oca l ity . I t may b e t hat f u l l f ledged c lass ic Aur ignac ian Il eve ls a lways p ostdate Chate lperron ian o nes , a t l east i n a ny o ne l oca l ity .
Rad iocarbon Chrono logy T he r ad iocarbon d ates r e levant t o o ur r eg ion o f c oncern , l i sted i n T ab le 1 , P resent a n o vera l l p attern s im i lar t o t hat j ust n oted , e spec ia l ly when i t i s mphas ized t hat many d ates f or t he l a ter Aur ignac ian ( rang ing d own t o 2 5 ,000 . 1 .P . a nd e ven more r ecent ) , a re n ot i nc luded . The e ar l iest d ated o ccurrences o f ) oth i ndustr ies a re r easonab ly i n terpreted a s b e ing we l l o ver 3 4 ,000 r ad iocarbon y ears i n a ge , a nd t he ir p er iod o f o ver lap p ers ists t o s omewhat a fter 3 3 ,000 B .P . , w ith o n ly Aur ignac ian d ates a ppear ing t hereafter .
Chronostrat igraph ic F rameworks A s o ut l ined i n T ab le 2 , p o l len a nd l i thostrat igraph ie f rameworks , e spec ia ll y t hose o f L av i l le a nd L ero i-Gourhan , c an b e i ntegrated w ith r ad iocarbon c hronol og ies t o p roduce a s er ies o f a pprox imate ly d ated c l i mat ic p er iods t o wh ich many a rchaeo log ica l l eve ls c an b e a ss igned , t hus a l low ing f or s er iat ion o f many s i tes wh ich l ack r ad iocarbon d ates . T he s uggested c orre lat ions i n T ab le 2 a re t entat ive , b ut wha t i s p art icu lar ly n oteworthy i s t he b road c onvergence o f r esu lts f rom d ifferent a reas b y workers i n b oth p a lyno logy a nd g eomorpho logy . T he p attern ing a pparent i n T ab le 2 i s c onsonant w ith t hat d er ived f rom t he d ata s ources a lready ment ioned ; t he Mouster ian i s s ucceeded b y t he Upper P a leo l ith ic , w ith l i tt le o r n o t e mpora l o ver lap , wh i le t he Aur ignac ian s ucceeds t he Chate lperron ian w ith a d i st inct o ver lap . I t i s i mportant t o p o int o ut t hat t he c ontemporane ity o f a ssemb lages a ss igned t o t he s ame u n its i n T ab le 2 i s v ery r ough ( w ith in a b lock o f 1 ,500 y ears o r s o ) , b ut t he b est t hat c an b e d one a t p resent . An umber o f o bservat ions a re worth n ot ing . S evera l Chate lperron ian l eve ls a re n ow d ated t o t he Würm I / I I I ( Henge lo/Cott8s ) I n terstad ia l . W ith t he p oss ib le e xcept ion o f o ne l eve l o f u ncerta in a ff in it ies - L a F errass ie L 3a ( Tuffreau 1 984 ) - n o Chate lperron ian o ccurrences a re y et r eported f rom t h is i n terstad ia l i n t he P 8r igord , t he r ichest F rench p reh istor ic p rov ince . Accord ing t o L av i l le , h eavy e ros ion a t t he c lose o f t he i n terstad ia l t yp ica l ly d estroyed whatever d epos its may h ave a ccumu lated d ur ing i t . I n c ontrast , n o Aur ignac ian o ccupat ions i n o ur r eg ion o f i nterest a re k nown t o d ate t o t he Würm a l though t he Aur ignac ian i sf ound a t t h is t ime t o t he s outheast i n L anguedoc ( Leroyer a nd L ero i-Gourhan 1 983 ) . Most Chate lperron ian o ccupat ions d ate t o t he c oo l , f luctuat ing p er iod i dent if ied b y L av i l le a s P hase Io f t he W i irm I I s tad ia l . However , t h is i ndustry
1 61
p ers ists i n i t s n orthern p er iphery ( a t A rcy-sur-Cure i n t he Par is B as in ) i n to t he p er iod e qu iva lent t o L av i l le 's P hase I . When t hese s uccess ive i ndustr ia l r ep lacements a re c ons idered f rom a g eog raph ica l p erspect ive , c lear s pat iotempora l p attern ing i sa pparent , a s L eroyer a nd L ero i-Gourhan ( 1983 ) h ave s uggested , d esp ite t he c rudeness o f o ur c a l ibrat ion a nd t he r e lat ive ly f ew s i tes i nvo lved ( s ee F igures 1 -3 ) . A t t he e nd o f t he c o ld Würm I s tad ia l , o n ly Mouster ian o ccupat ions a re k nown i n o ur a rea o f i n terest . T hen , d ur ing t he s ucceed ing i n terstad ia l ( s ee F igure 1 ) , we f ind Mouster ian b eyond F rance i n C antabr ian S pa in , Chate lperron ian i n t he c enter a nd n orth ( w ith l arge ly u nknown d eve lopments i n t he Kr igord ) a nd , j ust o uts ide o ur s phere , a rcha ic Aur ignac ian t o t he s outheast i n L anguedoc . Dur ing t he e nsu ing p hase o f f luctuat ing c l imate ( s ee F igure 2 ) , n umerous Chate lperron ian l eve ls a re f ound t hroughout t he s phere , wh i le t here a re e ar ly Aur ignac ian o ccupat ions i n i t s s outhern a nd c entra l p arts ; o ver lapp ing d istr ibut ion a nd i n terstrat if icat ion o f t he t wo i ndustr ies o ccur . T hen , i n t he f o l low ing c o ld p hase ( see F igure 3 ) , o n ly Aur ignac ian l eve ls a re f ound , s ave f or Chate lperron ian o n t he n orthern p er iphery . T hereafter , t he Chate lperron ian d isappears , wh i le t he Aur ignac ian p ers ists f or s evera l m i l lenn ia . I n t h is l i ght , A shton ( 1983 ) , i n p ostu lat ing a s easona l ly r e lated n orth-south s pat ia l d i fferent iat ion o f Chate lperron ian a nd E ar ly Aur ignac ian s i tes , h as m istaken ly a ssumed t hat t hey a re c ontemporary r ef lect ions o f as tab le s ystem , r ather t han c hang ing i n d istr ibut ion o ver t ime . I n s um , v ar ious l i nes o f e v idence s uggest t hat t he Mouster ian i n o ur a rea o f i n terest was r ep laced , t o a l l a ppearances r ather a bruptly , b y t he C hate lp erron ian , wh ich c oex isted w ith t he Aur ignac ian b efore g iv ing way t o i t . F urthermore , s pat ia l d istr ibut ion o f a dequate ly d ated s i tes s uggests t hat t he g radua l r ep lacement o f t he Chate lperron ian b y t he Aur ignac ian was t imet ransgress ive , f rom t he s outh a nd e ast t oward t he n orth a nd west .
ART IFACTUAL S IM ILAR IT IES AND D IFFERENCES I n t h is s ect ion c ont inu it ies a nd c ontrasts i n s evera l c ategor ies o f a rt ifacts w i l l b e r ev iewed f or t hese t wo e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic i ndustr ies i n l i ght o f t he h ypotheses n oted a bove c oncern ing t he n ature o f t he ir r e lat ionsh ip . Data h ere c ome b oth f rom my own s tudy o f Chate lperron ian a ssemb lages ( Harro ld 1 978 ) a nd f rom t he l i terature .
L ith ic A rt ifacts L et u s f i rst c ons ider t echno log ica l c ompar ison . I n t erms o f b lank p roduct ion t echno logy , b oth i ndustr ies a re b road ly c haracter ized b y b lades ; h owever , more d eta i led i nformat ion o n l i th ie r educt ion p ract ices i s n ear ly n onex istent . E ven l am inar i nd ices ( the p ercentages o f b lades among a l l t oo ls o r a l l b lanks ) o f e ar ly Aur ignac ian a ssemb lages , a re s urpr is ing ly d iff icu lt t o o bta in i n t he l i terature . More s ubt le i s sues , s uch a s whether t he t wo i ndustr ies a re c ha racter ized b y a ny s ystemat ic d ifferences i n t echn iques o f b lank p roduct ion a nd mod if icat ion , c annot y et b e r eso lved .
1 62
Tab le 1 . Re levant Reg iona l Rad iocarbon Dates a
S ite a nd L evel
Y ears B .P.
D ate N umber
S ource
C HATELPERRONIAN R enne ( Arcy), V III L es C ott4s,
G
3 3,500±400 3 3,860±250 3 3,300±500
G rN-1736 G rN-1742 G rN-4333
( 1) ( 1) ( 2)
3 3,800±1800
O xA-598
( 3)
E ARLY AURIGNACIAN L e F lageolet, X I " Basal" A urignacian A bri
P ataud,
1 4
3 4,250±675 3 3,330±410 3 3,300±760
G rN-4507 G rN-4720 G rN-4610
( 2) ( 2) ( 2)
A bri P ataud,
1 2
3 3,000±500
G rN-4327
( 2)
1 1
3 2,600±550 3 2,000±800 3 3,200±570 3 1,400±350 3 0,800±500 3 1,000±320
G rN-4309 G rN-4326 G rN-5751 G rN-1493 G rN-4258 G rN-4296
( 2) ( 2) ( 4) ( 1) ( 2) ( 2)
3 1,200±410
G rN-4509
( 2)
3 1,300±300 2 8,600±1050
G if-4277 O xA-409
( 4) ( 3)
A urignacian I A bri
P ataud,
L a F errassie, K 6 L a Q uina, 1 L es C ott ü, E
A urignacian I I L a F errassie,
aD ates
K 4
a re e xcluded w hich a re m erely m inima
( e.g.,
o r d ubious d ue t o c ontamination o r o ther c auses, a ble d ocumentation. S ources: ( 1) ( 2) ( 3) ( 4)
V ogel a nd W aterbolk ( 1963) V ogel a nd W aterbolk ( 1967) M ellars e t a l. ( 1987) D elibrias ( 1984)
1 63
> 35,000
B .P.),
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0
C . , )
C astanet , Ce l l ier , a nd p erhaps B e lcayre , d ep ict ing a pparent v u lvae . Two s cu lpted b one p endants f rom B lanchard a nd Ce l l ier a re r eported ( Wh ite 1 986 :94 , 9 6 ) , a s w e l l a s ap ha l l ic c arv ing i n r e indeer a nt ler f rom B lanchard ( De l luc a nd D e l luc 1 978 ) . There a re e ven i nd icat ions o f p ar ieta l a rt : r ockshe lter v au lt f ragments w ith t races o f p a int a nd/or e ngrav ing were f ound i ncorporated i n Aur ignac ian I s ed iments a t L a F errass ie ( Peyrony 's e xcavat ions ) , a nd j ust a bove t hem a t C a stanet ( De l luc a nd D e l luc 1 978 ) . More s uch mater ia l i s k nown f rom Aur ignac ian I c ontexts . Most o f t hese i t ems o f a rt a nd a dornment a re r estr icted t o a sma l l a rea o f t he V 6zöre V a l ley , a nd o ffer t he i n terest ing p oss ib i l ity t hat a t av ery e ar ly d ate s ome s tat ions were t he s i tes o f l arge a ggregat ions o f p eop le f or r i tua l a nd o ther p urposes . T hese o b jects a re n ot o n t he l av ish s ca le o r i n t he s oph ist icated s ty le o f t he Magda len ian , b ut a re more n umerous a nd e laborate t han a nyth ing t he Chate lp erron ian h as t o o ffer , a nd i n t he c ase o f f igurat ive a rt , i nvo lve a who le n ew u n iverse o f s ymbo l ic e xpress ion . Were t hey k nown t o b e c ontemporary w ith t he C hate lperron ian l i ke t he mater ia l i n t he a ssemb lages i n T ab le 8 , t hey wou ld d emonstrate a more c omp lex s ymbo l ic r eperto ire - a nd p erhaps e nhanced c u ltura l c apab i l it ies - o n t he p art o f t he makers o f Aur ignac ian a sse mb lages r e lat ive t o t he ir Chate lperron ian c ontemporar ies . W ithout more p rec ise d at ing , t hough , i t i s a l so p oss ib le t hat t hese d eve lopments a l l p ostdate t he Chate lperron ian .
I NFOR MAT ION ON SUBS ISTENCE AND S ETTLE MENT Compared t o t he a rt ifactua l e v idence d iscussed a bove , d ata i n t h is c ateg ory a re q u ite u neven a nd r ather s canty . T hey f a l l i n to f our s ubcategor ies .
I n tens ity o f S ite U se I t i s as ad f act o f P a leo l ith ic a rchaeo logy t hat we s t i l l c annot r e l iab ly e st imate t he n umber a nd l ength o f o ccupat iona l e p isodes wh ich h ave c ontr ibuted t o am in ima l a rchaeo log ica l u n it ( l eve l ) d ist ingu ished d ur ing e xcavat ion . Was a 6 em l eve l o f o ccupat iona l d ebr is a ccumu lated d ur ing o ne l ong v is it , o r s uccess ive s ea sona l o nes? B y h ow many p eop le? Abso lute a nswers s t i l l e lude u s . However , t he t h ickness a nd s pat ia l e xtent o f a n a rchaeo log ica l l eve l c an a t l east g ive s ome r e la t ive i nd icat ion o f t he i n tens ity o f o ccupat ion . One h opes t hat s ome d ay t h is g enera l f actor o f s i te-use i n tens ity , t o b e t ru ly u sefu l , c an b e b roken d own a na lyt ica l ly i n t erms o f t he v ary ing c ontr ibut ions o f t he d iscrete v ar iab les c ontr ibut ing t o i t- s uch a s t he n umbers a nd s ize o f h uman g roups o ccupy ing s i tes , t he d urat ion a nd f requency o f t he ir s tays , a nd t he n ature o f t he ir d ebr isg enerat ing b ehav ior . B ut f or t he p resent , t he g enera l n ot ion w i l l h ave t o d o . I n t he c ontext o f t h is s tudy , we wou ld e xpect t hat i ft here a re s ystemat ic d i fferences b etween o ur t wo i ndustr ies i n t he n umbers o f s i tes a nd l eve ls , t he ir t h ickness , a nd/or t he ir a rea l e xtent , t hen t here a re g rounds f or s uspect ing d i fferent ia l o vera l l i ntens ity o f s i te u se . T h is a ssumes more o r l ess c onstant r ates o f s ed i mentat ion , wh ich i su n just if ied a t t he m icro-sca le b ut p robab ly n ot f ar f rom t rue i n c ompar ing n umerous s trat igraph ic u n its f rom t he s ame c hronostrat igraph ic p er iods a nd o ften f rom t he s ame s i tes . W ith a va i lab le d ata , we c annot c ompare t he a rea l e xtent o f o ccupat ion l eve ls , b ut we c an c ompare t he ir n umbers a nd t h ickness . L ook ing f i rst a t t he n umber o f s i tes a ssoc iated w ith t he t wo t rad it ions , i t i s o bv ious t hat , a s p reh istor ians h ave l ong n oted , t here a re d ist inct ly more
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Aurignacian than Chatelperronian sites. White's (1985) count for the Perigord, for instance, found 62 of the former and 22 of the latter. However, the Aurignacian spanned a considerably longer period than the Chatelperronian. If we control for time by counting only those sites in Table 2 (i.e., those assigned to the same chronostratigraphic periods), then there are 31 Chatelperronian stratigraphic units reported at 16 sites, as opposed to 28 Early Aurignacian units at 14 sites (see Table 9). In other words, the number of occurrences, controlling for time, is approximately equal. Turning to the thickness of archaeological units, we must first emphasize that this measure depends on several hard-to-control variables, most notably the number of subunits into which an excavator may divide a relatively thick zone of archaeological materials. If an archaeological level 10 cm thick is eventually divided into two sublevels, then average thickness per unit has just decreased by 5096. However, all the excavated units reported in Table 9 are reasonably recently and methodically excavated, and there is no reason to expect the vari ability due to this factor to affect units of one industry more than those of the other. As Table 9 shows, Aurignacian stratigraphic units are thicker on average than Chatelperronian ones by nearly 7096. When combined with our previous find ing on differing assemblage size, this result seems to indicate a tendency toward more intensive occupation, at least of cave/rockshelter sites, in the early Aurig nacian than in the Chatelperronian (there are no open-air sites in our Aurignacian sample to compare with the three Chatelperronian ones).
Site Location White (1985) has performed a systematic and quantified examination of the location of sites associated with the various Upper Paleolithic industries in the Perigord. Regarding the Chatelperronian and the Aurignacian (considered here globally, since he did not differentiate earlier from later Aurignacian sites), what stands out is that no differential patterning of site location relative to topo graphic features can be firmly established. There were no statistically significant differences between the industries with regard to cave/rockshelter vs. open-air sites, or site location relative to tributaries vs. major rivers, distance from or above major rivers, site size, or solar orientation. The modest differences in site location variables which White did find were between earlier (Chatelperronian/ Aurignacian/Gravettian) Upper Paleolithic sites and later (Solutrean and Mag dalenian) ones. Furthermore, Bahn's (1983) study of Pyrenean sites, dealing with a relatively scantier data base, also did not note any systematic contrasts in site location. Thus no Chatelperronian-Early Aurignacian differences in site location are established; however, the focused research to explore this possibility systematically has yet to be done. Circulation of Raw Materials A line of evidence of growing importance involves materials of "exotic" origin which may provide information about patterns of group movement or ex change. Two classes of evidence are potentially useful here, flint and shells. Unfortunately, they do not yet provide much information relevant to the question at hand. Studies of flint provenience for certain Upper Paleolithic sites have been done by Demars (1982) for the Brive Basin, Rigaud (1982) in the Sarladais, and Morala (1979) in Lot. None found evidence for extensive long-distance transport; some flint came to these sites from as far away as 80-100 km but most was from much closer sources. Rigaud and Morala both conclude that somewhat different 180
Tab le 9 .
Nu mber a nd Th ickness o f Conte mporaneous Chate l-
p erron ian a nd Ear ly Aur ignac ian S trat igraph ic Un its a
C hatelperronian
E arly A urignacian
T otal u nits
3 1
2 8
U nits w ith u sable d ata
1 8
1 4
9 .4 c m
1 5.8 c m
M ean t hickness p er u nit b
8U nits
a ssigned
t o
t he W ürm I I/III
t wo p hases o f W ürm I II
i nterstadial
a nd
t he
f irst
( see T able 2 ).
bi n
e ach s ample t here i s o ne " dominant" s ite w ith a t hick s eries o f n umerous u nits: f or t he C hatelperronian, G rande R oche ( 10 u nits t otaling 9 1 c m), a nd f or t he A urignacian, A bri P ataud ( 8 u nits a nd s ome 1 20 c m). R emoving t hese s ites f rom t he c alculations m akes n o r eal d ifference; m ean t hicknesses b ecome
9 .9
c m
f or
t he
C hatelperronian,
A urignacian.
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a nd
1 6.8
c m
f or
t he
p atterns o f p rocurement o f ( l arge ly l oca l ) f l int - a nd , p resumab ly , o f g roup c ircu lat ion - c haracter ize t he Aur ignac ian a nd t he Upper P er igord ian . S o f ar , h owever , Chate lperron ian a ssemb lages h ave n ot y et b een i nc luded i n t hese s tud ies . T he p otent ia l o f t h is l i ne o f e v idence , h owever , i so bv ious . F ragments o f A t lant ic mar ine s he l ls , o ne o f t he m p ierced f or s uspens ion , were r ecovered f rom l eve l 1 4 a t t he Abr i P a taud , t he e ar l iest Aur ignac ian u n it t here ( Dance 1 975 ) . T he c oast i sn ow 1 50 km f rom t he s i te , a nd wou ld h ave b een o ver 2 00 km away a t t he t ime o f d epos it ion . T hus we c an i n fer e ither w ider ang ing h uman g roups , o r e lse a s ystem o f e xchange i nvo lv ing t hese i t e ms , i n E ar ly Aur ignac ian t imes . One "mar ine" s he l l ( w ithout f urther i dent if icat ion ) i s r eported f rom t he e xcavat ions e ar ly i n t he c entury i n Chate lperron ian d epos its a t Gargas i n t he c entra l P yrenees ( Breu i l a nd Cheyn ier 1 954-1955 ; Harro ld 1 978 :327-328 ) . I f t he a ssoc iat ion i s g enu ine a t t h is s i te r ough ly e qu id istant b etween t he A t lant ic a nd Med iterranean - a nd w e c annot b e s ure t hat i t i s - t hen t ransport d istance was a bout t he s ame a s f or t he P ataud s he l l f ragments . S he l ls a re v ery s carce f rom b oth i ndustr ies . However , an umber o f t he p oor ly d ated p ierced s he l ls ment ioned a bove f rom t he Aur ignac ian Ia t B lanchard a re mar ine s he l ls , a nd s o t he p oss ib i l ity e x ists t hat s uch i t ems were more c om mon ly o bta ined i n t he Aur ignac ian .
F auna l E v idence T h is i s p erhaps t he most u nderut i l ized c lass o f e v idence i n s tud ies o f h uman b ehav ior i n t he Upper P a leo l ith ic . D esp ite t he n umerous f auna l r e ma ins r ecovered f rom a rchaeo log ica l d epos its , t here h as b een o n ly l im ited s uccess i n t h is p art o f t he wor ld i n r e l iab ly u nscramb l ing t he r o les p layed b y t he d ifferent a gents c ontr ibut ing t o t he f ormat ion o f a rchaeo log ica l f aunas . T he c omp lex s et o f t aphonom ic v ar iab les wh ich c an make o ne a rchaeol og ica l f auna l a ssemb lage d iffer f rom a nother i nc ludes ( 1 ) c l imat ic c hange o ver t ime ; ( 2 ) e vo lut ionary c hange i n f auna l f orms ; ( 3 ) t opograph ica l o r g eo log ica l d i fferences b etween s i tes a ffect ing l oca l f auna l c ompos it ion , o r b one p reserv at ion ; ( 4 ) v ar ious c u ltura l f actors , s uch a s s easona l ity , h unt ing a nd c arcassp rocess ing p ract ices , a nd d emography ; a nd ( 5 ) s i te u se b y c arn ivores a nd r aptor ia l b i rds . Ih ave n oted t hese f actors h ere t o emphas ize t hat t he p rob le m w ith f auna l i n format ion i n t h is c ontext i sn ot s imp ly a d earth o f s tud ies o f C hate lperron ian o r E ar ly Aur ignac ian f aunas ( though s ome a re u nstud ied ) . I t i s r ather t hat most e x ist ing s tud ies , wh i le i mportant a nd i n format ive ( e .g . , De lpech 1 975 , 1 984 ; B ouchud 1 975 ) , h ave f ocused o n f actors ( 1 ) a nd ( 2 ) a bove , p ay ing f ar l ess a ttent ion t o t he o thers . A s ar esu lt , e ven i fc ons istent d i fferences b etween Chate lperron ian a nd E ar ly Aur ignac ian f aunas were f ound , t he ir s ign if icance i n t er ms o f h uman b ehav ior wou ld r ema in u nsett led . Iw i l l t hus n ot d iscuss f auna l r e ma ins i n d eta i l , b ut w i l l make t wo g enera l p o ints . F irst , more s tr ik ing t han a ny Chate lperron ian/Ear ly A ur ignac ian f auna l c ontrasts i s t he r e lat ive ly c ons istent i n tras ite f auna l c o mpos it ion , a t l east i n s evera l s i tes i n a nd n ear t he Kr igord . T he U pper P a leo l ith ic d epos its a t R oe d e C ombe ( De lpech 1 975 ) , L e P iage ( Champagne " a nd E sp ita l l6 1 981 ) , a nd t he Abr i P ataud ( Bouchud 1 975 ; S p iess 1 979 ) a re n umer ica l ly d om inated b y r e indeer r e ma ins a cross b oundar ies b etween b oth c u lture-strat igraph ic u n its a nd c l imat ic
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p er iods . The c ontemporaneous f aunas f rom L a F errass ie a re more b a lanced , d om in ated v ar iab ly b y r ed d eer , b ov ids , a nd h orse . T hese p atterns c ou ld b e d ue t o d iffer ing s easona l ity o f e xp lo itat ion [ c f . S p iess ' ( 1979 ) s uggest ion t hat P ataud was aw inter s i te ] , m icroenv ironmenta l d ifferences ( Wh ite 1 985 :151 ) , o r o ther f actors ; whatever t he c auses , t h is a pparent c ons istency o f s i te u se a cross " cu ltura l" b oundar ies a nd l ong s pans o f t ime i ss ure ly i mportant . S econd ly , i t s eems s afe t o s ay t hat n o Chate lperron ian-Aur ignac ian d iff erences i n f auna l e xp lo itat ion p atterns h ave y et b een e stab l ished ( a lthough f or r easons d iscussed a bove , i t i sp robab ly a l so t rue t hat i fs uch d ifferences e x ist , we wou ld n ot h ave d etected t hem y et ) . I ndeed , i t wou ld f urthermore s eem t hat a ny ma jor s h ift i n s uch p atterns - s uch a s a dopt ion o f s pec ia l ized o r mass-hunt ing methods , wh ich h as s omet imes b een t hought t o b e r e lated t o t he M idd le-Upper P a leo l ith ic t rans it ion - c annot b e d ocumented i n Western E urope u nt i l t he l ater Upper P a leo l ith ic ( So lutrean/Magda len ian ) ( cf . Chase , i n p ress ; C lark a nd S traus 1 983 ) . I n t h is c ontext , i t i s worth r e iterat ing S p iess ' c onc lus ion t hat Aur ignac ian a nd U pper P er igord ian u se o f Abr i P ataud i nvo lved w inter o ccupat ions b y sma l l g roups who b agged r e indeer ( and o ther mam ma ls ) i nd iv idua l ly o r i n sma l l n umbers , w ith n o i nd icat ion o f mass k i l ls .
HUMAN REMA INS F or a l ong t ime , n o d iagnost ic h uman r ema ins were f i rm ly a ssoc iated w ith t he C ha te lperron ian . T he a natom ica l ly modern s ke leton f rom Combe-Cape l le may o r may n ot h ave d er ived f rom a Chate lperron ian l eve l ; t he e xcavator was t he n otor ious Hauser , whose methods were c rude e ven b y t he s tandards o f 1 909 , a nd we s ha l l n ever k now C ombe-Cape l le Man 's t rue p roven ience ( Harro ld 1 978 :252-58 ) . I n C ha te lperron ian d epos its a t t he G rotte d u R enne , L ero i-Gourhan ( 1959 ) f ound s evera l i so lated t eeth whose s i ze l ed h im t o i nfer N eandertha l a ff in it ies ; a nd a s o le u ndescr ibed t ooth c omes f rom F ont-de-Gaume ( Prat a nd d e S onnev i l le-Bordes 1 969 ) . The q uest ion o f t he p hy let ic a ff in it ies o f t he makers o f t he Chate lperr on ian r e ma ined o pen u nt i l r ecent ly . I n 1 979 , ap art ia l s ke leton , c lear ly N eandertha l , was f ound i n a Chate lp erron ian l eve l a t S a int-C8sa ire ( Charente-Mar it ime ) , t he f i rst r eported e ase o f a Neandertha l a ssoc iated w ith a n Upper P a leo l ith ic i ndustry ( L8v8que a nd V andermeersch 1 980 , 1 981 ; V ander meersch 1 984 ) . No d iagnost ic h uman f oss i ls a re a ssoc iated w ith a ny k nown E ar ly Aur ign ac ian d epos its ( i .e . , t hose n oted i n T ab le 2 a s c ontemporaneous w ith t he Cha te lperron ian ) . However , t here i s g ood r eason f or i nferr ing t he a ssoc iat ion o f t he E a r ly Aur ignac ian w ith a natom ica l ly modern h umans . F irst , t he Homo s ap iens s ap iens s ke letons f rom t he f amous s i te o f C ro-Magnon p robab ly d er ived f r om a f a ir ly e ar ly Aur ignac ian l eve l t here . Mov ius ( 1969 ) a rgued o n t ypo log ica l g rounds t hat t hey a re p robab ly c ontemporary w ith Aur ignac ian l eve ls s ome 3 0 ,000 y ears o ld a t t he n earby Abr i P ataud . S econd ly , s even a dd it iona l a natom ica l ly modern i nd iv idua ls f rom f ive s i tes p robab ly d er ive f rom o ne s tage o r a nother o f t he Aur ignac ian ( Gamb ier , i np ress ) . F urther we l l-documented f inds o f h uman r ema ins a re c erta in ly n eeded , e spec ia l ly i n t he c ase o f t he Chate lperron ian , i n o rder t o r u le o ut p oss ib i l it ies l i ke B ordes ' ( 1981 ) s uggest ion t hat t he S a int-C8sa ire Neandertha l c ou ld h ave b een a v ict im o f t he " Chate lperron ians ," r ather t han o ne o f t hem . However , p end ing f ur ther f inds , ap r ima f ac ie c ase e x ists t hat Chate lperron ian a sse mb lages were
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made b y N eandertha ls , a nd Aur ignac ian o nes b y a natom ica l ly modern h u mans . S uch a c onc lus ion h as i mportant i mp l icat ions , b oth f or t he n ature o f t he M idd leUpper P a leo l ith ic t rans it ion ( Harro ld 1 983 , i n p ress ) , a nd f or t he t wo h ypotheses p osed a bove c oncern ing t he e xp lanat ion o f Chate lperron ian-Aur ignac ian d i fferences . I f q u ite d ifferent a nd c ontemporary h uman p opu lat ions were r espons ib le f or t he t wo d i fferent t rad it ions , t hen t he h ypothes is o f s easona l o r o ther f unct iona l d ifferent iat ion c annot b e v a l id i n a ny s imp le way .
CONCLUS IONS Here we w i l l r e iterate t hose t entat ive c onc lus ions d rawn f rom p attern ing i n t he c urrent a va i lab le d ata , a nd , i n t he ir l i gh t , a ssess t he r iva l h ypotheses c oncern ing t he Chate lperron ian-Ear ly Aur ignac ian r e lat ionsh ip . The c onc lus ions a re a s f o l lows : 1 . A s pat iotempora l t rend i s a pparent wh ich i nvo lves t he g radua l s pread o f t he Aur ignac ian a cross t he a rea o f o ur c oncern , a nd t he c oncom itant r etreat a nd e ventua l d isappearance o f t he Chate lperr on ian .4 T h is p rocess was a pparent ly a s low o ne , t ak ing o n t he o rder o f 2 ,000 t o 3 ,000 y ears . 2 . T he t wo i ndustr ies d raw o n t he s ame b a s ic r eperto ire o f U pper P a leo l ith ic a rt ifact p roduct ion t echn iques a nd morpho log ies , r esu lt ing i n ac om mon f und o f b lades , e nd-scrapers , a nd b ur ins - a s we l l a s s ome "M idd le P a leo l ith ic" t ypes l i ke s ide-scrapers , wh ich a re more c om mon i n t he Chate lperron ian . 3 . S ome c ons istent d ifferences i n l i th ie i nventor ies b etween t he t wo t rad it ions a re i n r e lat ive f requenc ies o f d i st inct ive t ypes ( e .g . , k ee led s crapers ) . 4 . O ther d ifferences a re i n a bso lute o ccurrence - f oss i l d irector t ypes , l i ke Chate lperron k n ives , c haracter ized b y d ist inct ive r etouch modes , wh ich a re p resent i n o ne i ndustry , a nd l ack ing i n t he o ther . Aur ignac ian s p l it-base b one p o ints a lso f a l l i n to t h is c ategory . 5 . E ar ly Aur ignac ian l i th ic a ssemb lages t end t o b e l arger t han Chate lperron ian o nes , a nd a pparent ly more t ypo log ica l ly d iverse . 6 . Ava i lab le we l l-dated i nventor ies o f b oth b one t oo ls a nd o rnamenta l a rt ifacts a re c omparab le i n t he t wo i ndustr ies , t hough t hey o ccur i n more Aur ignac ian a ssemb lages , a nd b one p o ints a re more n umerous i n t he Aur ignac ian . 7 . P oor ly-dated c o l lect ions o f b one t oo ls , a nd e spec ia l ly , f igura t ive a rt , may b e i nd icat ive o f more c omp lex E ar ly Aur ignac ian d eve lopments . 8 . E ar ly Aur ignac ian s trat igraph ic u n its a re o n a verage t h icker t han Chate lperron ian o nes . 9 . T here i sn o a pparent d ifference i n t he n umber o f Chate lperron ian a nd Aur ignac ian s i tes o r l eve ls p er u n it o f t ime .
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T hree p o ints a re n ot s o much g enera l izat ions a s s tatements t hat r e l iab le g enera l izat ions c annot y et b e made . We d o n ot y et h ave a ny i nd icat ions t hat t here a re s ign if icant Chate lperron ian-Ear ly Aur ignac ian d ifferences i n r egard t o : 1 0 . The l ocat ion o f s i tes r e lat ive t o s ign if icant t opograph ic f eatures . 1. P atterns o f c ircu lat ion o f l i th ie r aw mater ia l o r e xot ic s he l ls . 1 2 . S ubs istence p atterns ( i nc lud ing s easona l ity ) a s r evea led b y f auna l e v idence . One f ina l p o int : 1 3 . Apparent ly , t he t wo i ndustr ies a re a ssoc iated w ith d ifferent h uman s ubspec ies . I t ems 1 , 4 , 7 , a nd 1 3 s upport o ur f i rst h ypothes is , t hat t he Chate lperron ian a nd Aur ignac ian r epresent d i st inct c u ltura l t rad it ions , a lthough t he v ery t entat ive n ature o f No . 7 must b e r e iterated . I t em No . 3i s most c ons istent w ith t he s econd h ypothes is , t hat o f f unct i ona l d i fferent iat ion , a lthough i ti sn ot u tter ly i ncons istent w ith t he f i rst ; o ne c an e nv is ion t hat e ven among s eparate , c u ltura l ly d ist inct ive p opu lat ions o f h unterg atherers , p ure ly " funct iona l" n eeds e xpressed i n t he manufacture , u se , a nd d isc ard o f c erta in a rt ifact t ypes wou ld l ead t o t he ir w idespread a nd f luctuat ing o ccurrence i n l i th ie a ssemb lages l eft b y b oth p opu lat ions . I t ems Nos . 2 , 5 , g . 8 , a nd 9 c ou ld c urrent ly b e i nterpreted i n ways c ons istent w ith e ither o f o ur h ypotheses . And N os . 1 0 t hrough 1 2 a re n ot i n format ive e nough t o t e l l u s a nyth ing y et a bout e ither h ypothes is . I n s um , t he t empora l v ector i n t he r e lat ionsh ip b etween t he t wo i ndust r ies , t he d iscont inu it ies i n a rt ifact o ccurrence , a nd t he a ssoc iat ion w ith d ifferent h uman p opu lat ions a l l p o in t t oward t he f i rst h ypothes is , o f d ifferent c u ltura l t rad it ions , a s t he more c onsonant w ith t he e v idence we n ow h ave . T h is h ypothes is i sa lso c ons istent w ith a " bow-wave" mode l o f t he Chate lperron ian a s a n a ccu ltura t ive p heno menon l i nked t o t he M idd le-Upper P a leo l ith ic t rans it ion a nd a rcha icmodern h uman r ep lacement i n Western E urope - a mode l wh ich Ia nd o thers t h ink i s a" best f i t" t o a va i lab le e v idence ( D ibb le 1 983 ; L eroyer a nd L ero i-Gourhan 1 983 ; S tr inger e t a l . 1 984 ; Harro ld 1 986 , i n p ress ) . T he p rocess o f d i sp lacement o f t he Chate lperron ian b y t he Aur ignac ian ( F igures 1 -3 ) s eems t o h ave b een , a s n oted a bove , aq u ite g radua l o ne ; t hus , t he c ompet it ive a dvantage e n joyed b y modern h umans o ver N eandertha ls wou ld p res umab ly h ave b een s l ight . T h is i sc onsonant w ith t he g enera l ly c omparab le n ature o f t he t wo i ndustr ies ' a rt ifact i nventor ies . I n t h is c onnect ion , i t i s worth n ot ing Z ubrow 's ( i n p ress ) s uggest ion , b ased o n d emograph ic mode l ing , t hat a v ery sma l l d i sadvantage i n morta l ity r a tes r e lat ive t o a rr iv ing modern h umans c ou ld h ave l ed t o Neandertha l e xt inct ion i n ap er iod a s b r ief a s am i l lenn ium . G iven t he much s tressed s hortcom ings i n s evera l a reas o f e v idence , h owe ver , w e c annot y et c omp lete ly r u le o ut s ome mod if ied v ers ion o f t he s econd , " funct iona l" h ypothes is , o r ( more l i ke ly ) s ome o ther , a ltogether d ifferent o ne wh ich m ight s ome d ay b e p roposed i n t he l i ght o f f u l ler u nderstand ing o f t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord .
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The n ext s teps t o t ake i nvo lve i mprov ing t he s ize o f o ur d a ta b ase , a nd t he q ua l ity o f i t s a na lys is , w ith t he p rob lems r a ised h ere i n m ind . One s tep wou ld b e t o e n large a nd f i l l o ut t he d ata b ase i n v ery t rad it iona l t erms . T he r e lat ive ly f ew s i tes a nd a ssemb lages a na lyzed i n t h is p aper , a nd t he f ewer s t i l l wh ich a re f u l ly p ub l ished , a re a n o bv ious h and icap . F or i n stance , t he t hree a rguab ly most i mport ant Chate lperron ian s i tes ( the G rotte d u R enne a t A rcy-sur-Cure , t he r ich mu lt ic omponent G rande-Roche d e l a P lematr ie , a nd S a int-Cesa ire , w ith i t s Neandertha l r ema ins ) a re o n ly p art ly p ub l ished . Our s amp le o f e xcavated a nd p ub l ished s i tes i s s t i l l t oo sma l l t o a nswer a dequate ly t he q uest ions w e a re a sk ing . S econd ly , d at ing methods n eed t o b e more w ide ly a pp l ied i f we a re t o c a l ibrate t rends a nd p rocesses w ith p rec is ion . More s trat igraph ic u n its n eed t o b e r ad iocarbon d ated a nd i n tegrated i n to c h ronostrat igraph ic f rameworks . R ecent r esu lts o f t he Oxford a cce lerator d at ing p rogram ( Me l lars e t a t . 1 987 ) a re we lcome a nd p rom is ing i n t h is r egard . Th ird , s ystemat ic a ttent ion e spec ia l ly n eeds t o b e p a id t o f auna l , s ett lement , a nd s ubs istence d ata , a nd t he ir i n tegrat ion w ith o ther c lasses o f d ata . F ina l ly , r e lat ive ly n ew methods wh ich h ave b een s uccessfu l ly a pp l ied e l sewhere t o r e late a rt ifactua l v ar iat ion t o t he b ehav ior p roduc ing i t s hou ld b e b rought t o b ear o n t he p rob lems d iscussed h ere . T hese i nc lude m icrowear p o l ish a nd o ther e dge-damage a ssessment t echn iques ; s cann ing e lectron m icroscope s tud ies o f mod if ied b one ; a nd d eta i led s tud ies o f l i th ic r educt ion s equences a nd p atterns o f a rt ifact u se , r ecyc l ing , a nd d iscard s uch a s h ave b een u sed b y D ibb le a nd o thers ( e .g . , D ibb le 1 984 , 1 987 ) , p r imar i ly i n S outhwest A s ia . Much o f t h is s uggested r esearch c ou ld b e p erformed u s ing e x ist ing c o l lect ions , w ithout h av ing t o awa it a n ew g enerat ion o f e xcavat ions , wh ich u nfortunate ly b ecome s lower a nd more e xpens ive a s t hey b ecome more method ica l a nd i n format ive . I ti st hus q u ite r easonab le t o e xpect t hat c oncerted e fforts c ou ld w ith in t he n ext d ecade g reat ly i mprove b oth o ur d ata b ase a nd o ur u nderstand ing o f v ar iab i l ity i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord o f t he F rench e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic .
NOTES Whether s ty l ist ic d ifferences a re c once ived h ere i n S ackett 's ( 1982 , 1 986 ) t erms , o r L . B inford 's ( 1972 ) , Ir efer i n t h is c ontext t o f unct iona l ly more o r l ess e qu iva lent a rt ifacts w ith d ist inct ive ly d ifferent morpho log ies d ue t o d ifferences i n t rad it iona l ly t ransm itted c raft n orms . 2T he s i tes a re : R oc d e Combe , L e P iage , T rou d e l a Chevre , L a Cöte , L e Moust ier , L a F errass ie , L ausse l , Combe-Cape l le , F ont-de-Gaume , G rotte d u L oup , L a Qu ina , P a ir-non-Pa ir , B aste , B e l leroche , Gatzarr ia , L es Tambourets , Gargas , L es Cottes , L a G rand-Roche d e l a P lematr ie , S a int-Cesa ire , Chäte lperron , a nd G rotte d u R enne ( Arcy-sur-Cure ) ( f or b ib l iograph ic i nformat ion a nd d eta i ls , s ee Harro ld 1 978 , 1 981 , 1 986 ) .
3C am inade-Ouest i n fer ieur , Castenet I , Chan lat I a nd I , L es Cottes E , Dufour , L a F errass ie E , Abr i L artet , Abr i d u P o isson . 4F or r easons d eta i led e lsewhere ( Harro ld 1 981 , 1 983 ) , Ir egard t he l i nk ing o f t he Chate lperron ian w ith t he Upper P er igord ian i n as ing le c u ltura l t rad it ion a s u n just if ied .
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1 05-107 . E tudes Quaterna ires M6mo ire 7 . P ar is : I n st itut d e P a l8onto log ie Huma ine . De l lue , B . , a nd G . D e l lue 1 978 L es man ifestat ions g raph iques a ur ignac iennes s ur s upport r ocheux d es e nv irons d es E yz ies ( Dordogne ) . Ga l l ia P räh isto ire 2 1 :213-438 . De lpech , F . 1 975 L es F aunes d u P a lk o l ith ique S u Or ieur d ans l e S ud -Ouest d e l a F rance . T hese d e Doetorat d 'Etat e s S c ience Nature l les , Un ivers it6 d e B ordeaux I . 1 984 L a F errass ie : Carn ivores , a rt iodacty les e t p er issodacty les . I n H . De lporte ( ed itor ) L e G rand Abr i d e L a F errass ie : F ou i l les 1 968-1973 , p p . 6 1-90 . E tudes Quaterna ires M8mo ire 7 . P ar is : I nst itut d e P a l8onto log ie Huma ine . De lporte , H . 1 984 L 'Aur ignac ien d e L a F errass ie . I n H . D e lporte ( ed itor ) L e Grand Abr i d e l a F errass ie : F ou i l les 1 968-1973 , p p . 1 45-234 . E tudes Quaterna ires M8mo ire 7 . P ar is : I nst itut d e P a l8onto log ie Huma ine . De lporte , H . , a nd G . Maz iere 1 977 L 'Aur ignac ien d e l a F errass ie : Observat ions p rö l im ina ires ä l a s u ite d e f ou i l les r 6centes . B u l let in d e l a S oc iété P räh istor ique F ran a ise 7 4 (Etudes e t T ravaux ) :343-361 . Demars , P .-Y . 1 982 L 'Ut i l isat ion d u S i lex a u P a l& ) l ith ique S up & ieur : Cho ix , Approv is ionnement , C ircu lat ion . Cah iers d u Quaterna ire 5 . P ar is : CNRS . D ibb le , H .L . 1 983 V ar iab i l ity a nd c hange i n t he M idd le P a leo l ith ic o f Western E urope a nd t he N ear E ast . I n E . T r inkaus ( ed itor ) T he Mouster ian L egacy : Human B iocu ltura l Change i n t he Upper P le istocene , p p . 5 3-72 . BAR I n ternat iona l S er ies 1 64 . Oxford : B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports . 1 984 I n terpret ing t ypo log ica l v ar iat ion o f M idd le P a leo l ith ic s crapers : F unct ion , s ty le , a nd s equence o f r educt ion . J ourna l o f F ie ld A rchaeo logy 1 1 :431-436 . 1 987 T he i n terpretat ion o f M idd le P a leo l ith ic s craper v ar iab i l ity . A mer ican Ant iqu ity 5 2 :109-117 . F ar izy , C . 1 . p . L a t rans it ion P a l8o l ith ique moyen/Pa 18o l ith ique s up8r ieur ä Arcy-surCure . I n P . Me l lars a nd C . S tr inger ( ed itors ) T he Human Revo lut ion : B ehav ioura l a nd B io log ica l P erspect ives o n t he O r ig ins o f Modern Humans . E d inburgh : Un ivers ity o f E d inburgh P ress . F ar izy , C . , a nd B . S chm ider 1 985 Contr ibut ion ä l ' ident if icat ion c u lture l le d u Chäte lperron ien . L es d onn8es d e l a c ouche X d e l a g rotte d u R enne ä A rcy-sur-Cure . I n M . O tte ( ed itor ) L a S ign if icat ion Cu lture l le d es I ndustr ies L ith iques , p p . 1 49-169 . BAR I n ternat iona l S er ies 2 39 . Oxford : B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports . Gamb ier , D . i . p . L es h om mes modernes d u &but d e P a 18o l ith ique s up8r ieur e n F rance . I n P . Me l lars a nd C . S tr inger ( ed itors ) T he Human R evo lut ion : B ehav ioura l a nd B io log ica l P erspect ives o n t he O r ig ins o f Modern Humans . E d inburgh : Un ivers ity o f E d inburgh P ress . Harro ld , F . 1 978 A S tudy o f t he Chate lperron ian . U npub l ished P h .D . d issertat ion , Department o f Anthropo logy , Un ivers ity o f Ch icago . 1 981 N ew p erspect ives o n t he Chate lperron ian . Ampur ias 4 3 :35-85 . 1 983 T he Chate lperron ian a nd t he M idd le-Upper P a leo l ith ic t rans it ion . I n E . T r inkaus ( ed itor ) T he Mouster ian L egacy : Human B iocu ltura l Change i n t he U pper P le istocene , p p . 1 23-140 . BAR I n ternat iona l S er ies 1 64 . Oxford : B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports .
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1 986 Une r eeva luat ion d u Chäte lperron ien . Bu l let in d e l a S oc iete P reh istor ique A r iege-Pyrenees 4 1 :151-169 . i . p . Mouster ian , Chate lperron ian , a nd e ar ly Aur ignac ian : Cont inu ity o r d i scont inu ity? . I n P . Me l lars a nd C . S tr inger ( ed itors ) T he Human R evo lut ion : B ehav ioura l a nd B io log ica l P erspect ives o n t he Or ig ins o f Modern Humans . E d inburgh : Un ivers ity o f E d inburgh P ress . H owel l , F .C . 1 984 I ntroduct ion . I n F . Sm ith a nd F . S pencer ( ed itors ) T he O r ig ins o f Modern Humans , p p . x i i i-xx i i . N ew York York : A lan R . L iss . J ude , P . , a nd R . A rambourou 1 964 L e G isement d e L a Chevre . P 8r igueux : R . e t M . Magne . L av i l le , H . 1 975 C l imato log ie e t Chrono log ie d u P a leo l ith ique e n P er igord . E tudes Q uaterna ires M8mo ire 4 . P ar is : I n st itut d e P a l8onto log ie . 1 976 L e r emp l issage d e g rottes e t a br is s ous r oche d ans l e S ud-Ouest . I n H . d e L umley ( ed itor ) L a P reh isto ire F ran a ise , v o l . 1 , p p . 2 50-270 . P ar is : CNRS . L av i l le , H . , M . P aquereau , a nd H . B r icker 1 985 P rec is ions s ur 1 ' 8vo lut ion c l imat ique d e l ' interstade würm ien e t d u c l 8but d u Würm r ecent : L es d öpöts d u g isement e aste lperron ien d es T ambourets ( Haute Garonne ) e t l eur c ontenu p o l l in ique . Comptes-Rendus d e l 'Acadäm ie d es S c iences d e P ar is 3 01 , S 8r ie 2 (15 ) :1137-1140 . L av i l le , H . , J .-P . R igaud , a nd J . S ackett 1 980 Rock S he lters o f t he P er igord . N ew York : Academ ic P ress . L av i l le , H . , a nd A . T uffreau 1 984 L es d 8pe sts d u g rand a br i d e L a F errass ie : S trat igraph ie , s ign if icat ion e l imat ique , e t c hrono log ie . I n H . De lporte ( ed itor ) L e G rand Abr i d e L a F errass ie : F ou i l les 1 968-1973 , p p . 2 5-50 . E tudes Quaterna ires , Memo ire 7 . P ar is : I nst itut d e P a l8onto log ie . L ero i-Gourhan , And . 1 959 E tudes d es r estes h uma ins f oss i les p rovenant d es g rottes d 'Arcy-surC ure . Anna les d e P a leonto log ie 4 :87-148 . 1 967 T reasures o f P reh istor ic Ar t . N ew York : Abrams . L ero i-Gourhan , A n. 1 984 L a p lace d u Neanderta l ien d e S t .-C8sa ire d ans l a c hrono log ie w ürm ienne . Bu l let in d e l a S oc iiti P reh istor ique F ra f l ise 8 1(7 ) :196-198 . L eroyProst , C . 1 979 L ' Industr ie o sseuse a ur ignac ienne . E ssa i r eg iona l d e c lass if icat ion : P o itou , Charentes , P 8r igord ( su ite ) . Ga l l ia P reh isto ire 2 :205-370 . L eroyer , C . , a nd A n. L ero i-Gourhan 1 983 P rob lämes d e c hrono log ie : L e Caste lperron ien e t l 'Aur ignac ien . B u l let in d e l a S oc iete P reh istor ique F ranga ise 8 0 (2 ) :41-44 . L 8väque , F . 1 966 L a G rotte Gatzarr ia d e S uhare , B asses P yrenees . M8mo ire d e D ip lo me &Etudes S up8r ieurs d e S c iences Nature I les , F acu lt8 d e S c iences d e P o it iers . L eväque , F . , a nd J .-C . M iskovsky 1 983 L e Caste lperron ien d ans s on e nv ironnement g 8o log ique . L 'Anthrop o /og ie 8 7 :369-391 . L 8v8que , F . , a nd B . V andermeersch 1 980 Decouverte d e r estes h uma ins d ans u n n iveau c aste lperron ien ä S a intC 8sa ire ( Charente-Mar it ime ) . Co rnptes-Rendus d e l ' Ac cuMmie d es S c iences d e P ar is , S ör ie 2 , 2 91 :197-89 . 1 981 L e N 8anderta l ien d e S a int-C8sa ire . L a Recherche 1 2 :242-44 . Marshack , A . 1 972 T he Roots o f C iv i l izat ion . N ew York : McGraw-H i l l .
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Maz i8re , G . , a nd J .-P . R ayna l 1 983 L a g rotte d u L oup ( Cosnac , C orr8ze ) , n ouveau g isement ä Caste lperron ien e t Aur ignac ien . Cor nptes Rendus d e L 'Acadä rn ie d es S c iences d e P ar is , S er ie 2 , 2 96 :1611-1614 . Me l lars , P . , H . B r icker , J .A . Gow lett , a nd R .E .M . Hedges 1 987 Rad iocarbon a cce lerator d at ing o f F rench Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes . Current Anthropo logy 2 8 (1 ) :128-133 . Mora la , A . 1 979 E tude p re l im ina ire d e l a s tat ion a ur ignac ienne d es A rda i l loux ( com mune d e S oturac ) . B u l let in d e l a S oc iätä d es E tudes L itt &a ires , S c ient if iques , e t Ar ti s t iques d u L ot :185-201 . Mov ius , H .L . 1 969 T he Abr i d e C ro-Magnon , L es E yz ies ( Dordogne ) , a nd t he p robab le a ge o f t he c onta ined b ur ia ls o n t he b as is o f t he n earby Abr i P ataud . Anuar io d e E stud ios A t i c int icos 1 5 :323-344 . P eyrony , D . 1 933 L es i ndustr ies " aur ignac iennes" d ans l e b ass in d e l a V 8z8re . B u l let in d e l a S oc iété P re-h istor ique F ranga ise 3 0 :543-559 . 1 934 L a F errass ie . P rih isto ire 3 :1-92 . P op l in , F . 1 986 D8couverte e t u t i l isat ion p robab le d e g ar dne d ans l e c häte lperron ien d e Merry-sur Yonne ( Yonne ) . Bu l let in d e l a S oc iätä P rä.h istor ique F ra rwa ise 8 3 (5 ) :132 . P rade l , L . 1 961 L a g rotte d es Cott8s , c om mune d e S a int-P ierre-de-Ma i l l8 ( V ienne ) . L 'Anthropo log ie 6 5 :229-258 . P rat , F . , a nd D . d e S onnev i l le-Bordes 1 969 D 8couvertes r 8centes d e P a l8o l ith ique s up8r ieur ä l a g rotte d e F ontd e-Gaume ( Dordogne ) . Quaternar ia 1 1 :115-131 . R igaud , J .-P . 1 982 L e P a läo l ith ique e n P ir igord : L es D onn es d u S ud-Ouest S ar /ada is e t l eur I mp l icat ions . T hese d e D octorat d 'Etat 8 s S c iences , Un ivers it8 d e B ordeaux I . S ackett , J . 1 982 Approaches t o s ty le i n l i th ic a rchaeo logy . J ourna l o f Anthropo log ica l A rchaeo logy 1 : 59-112 . 1 986 I s ochrest ism a nd s ty le : A c lar if icat ion . J ourna l o f Anthropo log ica l A rchaeo logy 5 :266-277 . d e S onnev i l le-Bordes , D . 1 960 L e P a lio l ith ique S up & ieur e n Kr igord . B ordeaux : D e lmas . 1 970 L es i ndustr ies a ur ignac iennes d e l ' abr i Cam inade-Est , c o m mune d e l a Can da ( Dordogne ) . Quate mar ia 1 3 :77-131 . 1 972 L a P räh isto ire Moderne . P er igueux : P ierre F an lac . 1 980a L '8vo lut ion d es i ndustr ies a ur ignac iennes . I n L . B anesz a nd J .K . K oz lowsk i ( ed itors ) L 'Aur ignac ien e t l e G ravett ien ( Pär igord ien ) d ans l eur Cadre E co log ique , p p . 2 55-273 . N itra : I nst itute A rchäo log ique d e l ' Acad8m ie S lovaque d es S c iences . 1 980b Cu ltures e t m i l ieux d 'Homo s ap iens s ap iens e n E urope . I n L es P rocessus d 'hom in isat ion , p p . 1 15-129 . P ar is : CNRS . S p iess , A .E . 1 979 R e indeer a nd Car ibou Hunters : An Archaeo log ica l S tudy . New Y ork : A cadem ic P ress . S tr inger , C .B . , J .J . Hub l in , a nd B . V andermeersch 1 984 T he o r ig in o f a natom ica l ly modern h umans i n Western E urope . I n F . Sm ith a nd F . S pencer ( ed itors ) T he O r ig ins o f Modern Humans , p p . 5 1-136 . N ew Y ork : A lan R . L iss .
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T uffreau , A . 1 984 L es i ndustr ies mouster iennes e t c aste lperron iennes d e L a F errass ie . I n H . De lporte ( ed itor ) L e G rand Abr i d e L a F errass ie : F ou i l les 1 968-1973 , p p . 1 11-144 . E tudes Quaterna ires Me mo ire 7 . P ar is : I n st itut d e P a l8onto log ie . V andermeersch , B . 1 984 A p ropos d e l a d 8couverte d u s que lette n 8anderta l ien d e S a intC8sa ire . B u l let ins e t Mimo ires d e l a S oc i é d 'Anthropo log ie d e P ar is 1 ( s8r ie 1 4 ) :191-196 . V i l la , P . 1 982 Con jo inab le p ieces a nd s i te f ormat ion p rocesses . Amer ican Ant iqu ity 4 7 :276-290 . V oge l , J .C . , a nd H .T . Waterbo lk 1 963 G ron ingen r ad iocarbon d ates I V . Rad iocarbon 5 :163-202 . 1 967 G ron ingen r ad iocarbon d ates V I I . Rad iocarbon 9 :107-155 . Wh ite , R . 1 985 Upper P a leo l ith ic L and U se i n t he P& igord . BAR I nternat iona l S er ies 2 53 . Oxford : B r it ish A rchaeo log ica l R eports . 1 986 D ark Caves , B r ight V is ions . New York : Amer ican Museum o f Natura l H istory/Norton . i . p . P roduct ion c omp lex ity a nd s tandard izat ion i n e ar ly Aur ignac ian b ead a nd p endant manufacture : E vo lut ionary i mp l icat ions . I n P . Me l lars a nd C . S tr inger ( ed itors ) T he Human Revo lut ion : B ahav ioura l a nd B io log ica l P erspect ives o n t he O r ig ins o f Modern Humans . E d inburgh : Un ivers ity o f E d inburgh P ress . Z ubrow , E . i . p . T he d emograph ic mode l l ing o f Neandertha l e xt inct ion . I n P . Me l iars a nd C . S tr inger ( ed itors ) T he Human R evo lut ion : B ehav ioura l a nd B io log ica l P erspect ives o n t he O r ig ins o f Modern Humans . E d inburgh : Un ivers ity o f E d inburgh P ress .
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T HE T RANS IT IO NF R OM T HE M IDDLE T OT HE E ARLY U PPER P ALEOL IT H IC I NC E NTRAL E UROPE A ND T HE B ALKANS J anusz K . Koz lowsk i I nstytut A rcheo log i i Un iwersytet J ag ie l lonsk i K rakow P o land
I NTRODUCT ION T he p resent s tudy , i n c oncert w ith t he a uthor 's e ar l ier works o n t he s ub ject ( Koz lowsk i 1 986 , i n p ress a , i n p ress b ) , a ddresses t he p rob le m o f c ont inui ty a nd/or d iscont inu ity i n t he d eve lopment o f t he M idd le a nd Upper P a leo l ith ic i n Centra l E urope a nd t he B a lkans . A d ifferent a pproach i sp roposed h ere ; wh i le t he e ar l ier s tud ies f ocused o n c u ltura l c lass if icat ions ( ma in t echnocomp lexes ) o r r ef lected a mu lt i-aspectua l a pproach t o t he M idd le/Upper P a leo l ith ic t rans it ion , t he p resent work a dopts a r eg iona l p erspect ive . T he f o l low ing g eograph ic r eg ions a re c ons idered : G reece , t he e astern a nd western B a lkans , t he L ower Danube a nd t he e astern Carpath ians , t he M idd le a nd Upper Danube b as ins , a nd t he n orthern p art o f Centra l E urope . F or e ach macror eg ion , we s ha l l d escr ibe t he b as ic c r iter ia o f t axonom ic d ifferent iat ion o f l i th ie a sse mb lages , t he ir e co log ica l a nd e conom ic d eterm inants , a nd t he s ett lement s tructure i n t he l ate M idd le a nd e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic . I n t h is way we h ope t o c ontr ibute t o t he e luc idat ion o f t he p rob lem o f c ont inu ity a nd d iscont inu ity a t t he t rans it ion b etween t he M idd le a nd t he Upper P a leo l ith ic ( F igure 1 ) .
GEOCHRONOLOG ICAL FRAME WORK T he p er iod wh ich i st he o b ject o f o ur i n terest embraces t he y ounger p art o f i sotope S tage 3 i n t he N orth A t lant ic d eep-sea c ores ( Sancetta e t a l . 1 973 ) . The o lder p art o f t h is s tage c orresponds t o P len ig lac ia l I , wh ich i s c onf irmed b y t hermo lum inescenee ( TL ) d ates f or t he p re-Grudz iadz s tad ia l i n n orthern P o land . These d ates f a l l w ith in t he t e mpora l b oundar ies o f 5 6 ,900-56 ,000 B .P . i n t he s econd g lac ia l l eve l o n t he L ower V istu la , a nd w ith in 5 3 ,200-47 ,600 B .P . f or t he b eg inn ing o f t he G rudz iadz I n terstad ia l ( Drozdowsk i 1 986 ) . Accord ing ly , t he b eg inn ing o f t he I n terp len ig lac ia l s hou ld f a l l a t a bout 5 0 ,000 B .P . T h is i si nd icated o n t he i s otope c urve a s ad i st inct o sc i l lat ion i n S tage 3 . Unfortunate ly , e co log ica l c ond it ions i n t he f i rst p art o f t he I n terp len ig lac ia l a re n ot we l l k nown b ecause t he ma jor ity o f Centra l E uropean p rof i les i n t he 4 0 ,000-57 ,000 B .P . r ange s how a ma jor p hase o f e ros ion . F rom among t he B a lkan p rof i les , t he o n ly u nbroken r ecord o f e co log ica l c ond it ions c omes f rom t he T enagh i P h i l ippon p o l len c ore ( Bottema 1 974 ) , where Z one V i s s ynchronous w ith P len ig lac ia l I , a nd t he I n terp len ig lac ia l b eg ins i n Z one/Phase P . T h is p hase c onta ins s ix warmer o sc i l lat ions g rouped i n to t hree i n terstad ia ls : Herak l itsa , Ka labak i , a nd K r in ides . T he Ka labak i a nd K r in ides i n terstad ia ls p roduced d irect
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F igure 1 . Map o f t he ma in s i tes d iscussed i n t he t ext : 1 . Kokk inop i los ; 2 . C rvena S t i jena ; 3 . V ind i ja ; 4 . S amu i l ica I ; 5 . T emnata C ave ; 6 . Muse l ievo ; 7 . B acho K iro ; 8 . R ip icen iIzvor ; 9 . Ceah lau-Cetet ica ; 1 0 . J ankov ich ; 1 1 . R emete-Fe lsö ; 1 2 . I s ta ll oskö ; 1 3 . S ze leta ; 1 4 . B rno-S transka S ka la ; 1 5 . B rno-Bohun ice ; 1 6 . B rnoL isen ; 1 7 . O rechov ; 1 8 . Ondrat ice ; 1 9 . Dz ierzys law ; 2 0 . N ietoperzowa Cave i n J erz manow ice ; 2 1 . K rak6w-Zw ierzyn iec ; 2 2 . S esse lfe lsgrotte ; 2 3 . Oberneder ; 2 4 . We inbergh öh le n ear Mauern . 1 94
r ad iocarbon d eterm inat ions p lac ing t hem c oncurrent ly w ith t he D enekamp ( Kr in ides ) a nd t he n orthwest E uropean Henge lo ( Ka labak i ) . T he Herak l itsa I n terstad ia l , o n t he o ther h and , a l though h ypothet ica l ly s ynchron ized w ith Moershoofd , h as n o d i rect d ates a s i t e xceeds t he l im its o f t he r ad iocarbon method . Mere ly a s ac on jecture , we m ight a scr ibe a n a ge o f 5 0 ,000-40 ,000 B .P . t o H erak l itsa . I n R uman ia , C arc iumaru ( 1980 ) i s o lated a c oo l s tad ia l b etween t he l ast i n terg lac ia l ( Borosten i ) a nd t he e ar ly Würm ( Nandru A , r egarded a s c oncurrent w ith Amersfoort a nd B rörup ) , whereas b etween Nandru A a nd Nandru B ( the l ast i den t if ied w ith t he f i rst h a lf o f t he I n terp len ig lac ia l : Odderade , Moershoofd , a nd Henge lo ) o n ly a s teppe-tundra e p isode h as b een d ist ingu ished . T he n ext s tad ia l h as b een e quated b y Carc iumaru w ith t he m idd le o f t he I n terp len ig lac ia l , i n b etween Nandru B a nd Ohaba A ( concurrent w ith A rey ) . T he amp l itude a nd r hythm o f t he r eg istered p henomena r a ise d oubts a s t o t he v a l id ity o f Carc iumaru 's h ypothes is . Nor d o we h ave a n u nbroken r ecord o f p a leoc l imat ic e vents f rom t he M idd le Danube b as in . T he b est i nvest igated l oess p rof i le f rom P aks i n Hungary h a s r evea led a t h ick l eve l o f s andy l oess p laced b y TL d at ing b etween 4 2 ,0007 9 ,000 B .P . ( Maruszczak a nd B utrym 1 986 ) . T h is l eve l i s o ver la in b y t wo f oss i l s o i l s : t he BD s o i l , r ad iocarbon-dated a t b etween 4 2 ,000-45 ,000 B .P . ( by TL b etween 3 7 ,000-42 ,000 B .P . ) , a nd t he MF s o i l , d ated a t b etween 2 8 ,000-30 ,000 B .P . ( Pecs i 1 972 ) . B etween t he BD a nd t he MF s o i l l i es t he " osc i l lat ion" l oess d a ted b y TL b etween 3 3 ,000-37 ,000 B .P . ( Maruszczak a nd B utrym 1 986 ) . I n Morav ia , s evera l p rof i les f rom t he v ic in ity o f B rno c onta in a n i ncomp lete r ecord o f p a leoc l imat ic e p isodes b etween 5 0 ,000-30 ,000 B .P . S voboda ( 1985 ) s uggests t hat t he e nd o f t he P len ig lac ia l Ii s marked b y s o l if luct ion d epos its l a id d own p r ior t o 4 0 ,000 B .P . [ r ad iocarbon d ates o bta ined f or t he s i te o f S transka S ka la Ma ( 41 ,300± 3 21 A B .P . ) o n t he s o l if luct ion d epos its , a nd t he d ates f or t he s i te o f B ohun ice o bta ined o n d epos its r eworked b y s ubsequent s o i l f ormat ion p rocesses ( 41 ,400 4 2 3 B .P . a nd 4 2 ,900± 1 Z B .P . ) ] . T hese s ed iments c orre late w ith a t undra e nv ironment w ith t he p redom inance o f S a / ix . Th is i s f o l lowed b y t he d eve lopment o f a n I n terp len ig lac ia l s o i l , wh ich i n Morav ian p rof i les c omes d irect ly a f ter t he L ower P len ig lac ia l ( a t S transka S ka la I I t h is s o i l h as b een d ated a t 3 8 ,400± 1 242 B .P . a nd 3 8 ,200±1100 B .P . ) . T he f ormat ion o f t he I nterp len ig lac ia l s o i l c orre lates w ith s teppe c ond it ions w ith c lusters o f t rees g row ing a t more t han 3 00 m a bove s ea l eve l . P er iod ic h eav ier r a infa l ls a re r ef lected b y t he p resence o f Ab ies , whereas f a ir ly l ow t emperatures a re i nd icated b y ah igher p ercentage o f b irch a nd w i l low , a nd Campanu /a among g rasses . T he f a ir ly c oo l s teppe e nv ironment h as b een f urther e v idenced b y t he ma laeofauna p reserved i n t hese s o i ls i n Morav ian p rof i les . I n s outhern P o land , ac ont inuous r ecord o f e vents f rom t he f i rst h a lf o f t he I n terp len ig lac ia l i s n ot a va i lab le , s ince a n umber o f e ros iona l p hases s eparate t he l oess d epos its a nd f oss i l s o i ls . O f g reater i mportance f or t he r econstruct ion o f t he s uccess ion o f p a leoc l imat ic e p isodes s eem t o b e t he r ecent ly o bta ined r esu lts o f t he i nvest igat ions i n to d eg lac iat ion i n t he z one embraced b y t he a dvance o f P len ig lac ia l Ii n t he L ower V istu la b as in . Here t he p rocess o f c lay a ccumu lat ion e nded most p robab ly b y c a . 5 6 ,000 B .P . F o l low ing t h is d ate , d egradat ion o f t he u n iform i ce-mant le b eg ins w ith c oncom itant g lac ia lisostat ie u p l ift a nd t he r i s ing o f e ustat ic s ea l eve l . T he d eg lac iat ion p rocess a nd t he B a lt ic S ea t ransgress ion l as ted u p t o c a . 4 0 ,000 B .P . , when a nother r ecess ion o f t he s ea t ook p lace . A s a r esu lt , s ed i ment d epos ited a t t he mouth o f t he L ower V istu la was washed away ( D rozdowsk i 1 986 ) . T he n ext ma jor s ea t ransgress ion c orresponds t o t he s econd
1 95
h a lf o f t he I nterp len ig lac ia l , P len ig lac ia l I .
d irect ly
p reced ing
t he
i ce-sheet
r eadvance
o f
I n t he west a more c omp lete r ecord o f p a leoc l imat ic e vents i sa va i lab le a s f ar a s t he t err itory o f B e lg ium . T he p rof i le a t H arm ign ies h as r evea led t h ree f oss i l s o i ls : t he e ar l iest h um ic P oper inge s o i l , u sua l ly c orre lated w ith t he Moershoofd I n terstad ia l [ r ad iocarbon d ate o f 4 5 ,600±1500 B .P . ( Paepe a nd V anhoorne 1 967 ) , a nother , l ess c onsp icuous , l ayer o f h um ic s o i l ( the i n terpo lat ion o f d ates a ssoc iates t h is s o i l w ith t he Henge lo ) , a nd f i na l ly a t h ird s o i l w ith a we l ld eve loped i luv ia l h or izon , d escr ibed a s t he V aux s o i l a nd d ated a t i mmed iate ly b efore 3 1 ,000 B .P . ( Haesaerts 1 984 ) . T he a bove r ev iew s uggests t hat t he n umber o f warmer o sc i l lat ions i n t he f i rst h a lf o f t he I n terp len ig lac ia l was n ot t he s ame i n v ar ious a reas o f Centra l E urope ( Tab le 1 ) . P laces where t he f i rst e p isode o f c l imat ic ame l iorat ion h as b een r ecorded a re f ew . Chrono log ica l ly , t h is e p isode p ers ists u nt i l a fter 4 2 ,000 B .P . a nd may e xtend a s f ar b ack a s 5 0 ,000 B .P . T he l ack o f e v idence f or t he f i rst warmer o sc i l lat ion i n t he p rof i les may b e d ue t o e ros iona l p rocesses wh ich c aused s trat igraph ic h iatuses ( s omet imes u nobserved ) i n t he s ed i ments . Another p oss ib le e xp lanat ion i s t he f act t hat t he c hrono log ica l b oundar ies o f t he f i rst o sc i l lat ion g o we l l b eyond t he l im its o f t he r ad iocarbon method , a nd t hus t he d ates o bta ined f or t he f i rst i n terva l may o ver lap w ith t hose f or s ubsequent warmer o sc i l lat ions . T he o ccurrence o f t wo warmer p hases i n t he p er iod b etween 4 0 ,000-28 ,000 B .P . h as b een r eg istered t hroughout t he who le o f E urope . T he d iff icu lt ies o f r econstruct ing t he c l imat ic r ecord o f t he f i rst h a lf o f t he I n terp len ig lac ia l a re a n a dd it iona l h indrance i n a ddress ing t he p rob lem o f c ont inu ity a nd d iscont inu ity b etween t he M idd le a nd U pper P a leo l ith ic .
TECHNOLOG ICAL BASES T he most f requent ly d iscussed o ppos it ion b etween t he M idd le a nd t he Upper P a leo l ith ic i s t hat o f t he f lake a nd b lade t echn iques . On t he o ther h and , t he p resence o f t he L eva l lo is ian b lade t echn ique i n t he M idd le P a leo l ith ic h as p rov ided g rounds f or s pecu lat ion o f a smoother t rans it ion f rom M idd le t o Upper P a leo l ith ic t echno logy . S tud ies o f l i th ic t echn iques h ave p o inted , h owever , t o e ssent ia l d ifferences b etween t he L eva l lo is a nd t he U pper P a leo l ith ic s t rateg ies : 1 . The L eva l lo is t echn ique i ndeed o bta ined a p redeterm ined b lank t ype , b ut i t was n ot who l ly s tandard ized ; t he s ame c ores c ou ld p roduce e ither f lakes o r b lades o r L eva l lo is p o ints . A lthough B ordes ( 1980 ) p roposed t he e x istence o f v ar ious t ypes o f L eva l lo is c ores ( f or b lades , f lakes , a nd p o ints ) , t hese were i dea l r ather t han r ea l t ypes . Dynam ic a na lys is o f c ores h as s hown t hat a v ar iety o f b lank t ypes c ou ld b e o bta ined f rom t he s ame s pec imens . T he Upper P a leo l ith ic c ores were s upposed t o y ie ld h igh ly s tandard ized b lades . 2 . I n t he L eva l lo is ian t echn ique , b lanks w ere o bta ined f rom o ne s urface o f t he c ore d e l im ited b y l a tera l t r imm ing e dges . Th is p ut c onstra ints o n t he e xtent o f p oss ib le c ore r educt ion . C onsequent ly , t he L eva l lo is t echn ique was a n e xtravagan t t echn ique t hat s quand ered r aw mater ia ls a nd c ou ld o n ly b e emp loyed i n a reas a bound ing i n l oca l r aw mater ia ls . T he U pper P a leo l ith ic t echn ique h ad n o s uch r estr ict ions ; c ore r educt ion s tarted w ith t he r emova l o f c rested
1 96
T ab le 1 . Corre lat ion o f t he Ma in S trat ig raph ie S equences o f t he I n terp len ig lac ia l i n C entra l E urope a nd t he B a lkans
W E u r ope
1 6/ 1 8 0 /0
(N .A t lan t ic)
1 8 ,7 17 ,9
— 20 K yr
B a lkans
M idd le
E urope
D anube
S tages
S tage
NW
(p a lyno logy ) (l oess
N o z m
T ur sac
K esse lt _5 4 . i . l _ _ _
M a is i e res
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(l oess )
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I — I K I
H enge lo
s o i ls a nd s o l i fl udo
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C D
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i
( G r u d z i q d z i n t e r s t a d i a l )
I N T E R P L E N I G L A d j A L
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4 0
zone V
56 ,9 53 ,2
M e n d e B a s a h a r c v a r o s —
P re Grudz iqdz S tage
1 97
b lades , t hen t he f lak ing f ace was b roadened , a nd t he r educt ion c ont inued u nt i l t he n odu le was f u l ly u sed . Thus , t he Upper P a leol i th ic t echn ique was more e conom ica l , mak ing c arefu l u se o f a va i lab le mater ia ls . R ecent ly , B oeda ( 1986 ) s uggested t he p oss ib i l ity o f d i st ingu ish ing a L eva l lo is t echn ique ( a ssoc iated w ith t he L eva l lo is c ore Type B ) , wh ich e nsured t hat c ore r educt ion was more a dvanced ( f lak ing f ace i s more c onvex ) a nd t hat more s tandard ized b lade b lanks were o bta ined . T h is d oes n ot mean , h owever , t hat t he c ores ment ioned b y B oeda c onst itute d i rect p rototypes o f Upper P a leo l ith ic c ores ; t he t wo t echn iques i nvar iab ly d i sp lay t he b as ic d ifference i n t he mode o f n odu le r educt ion . "s pec ia l ized"
I n t he M idd le P a leo l ith ic o f E urope we d o n ot f ind a b lade t echno logy i n wh ich t he r educt ion o f r aw mater ia l n odu les a pprox imates U pper P a leo l ith ic t echno logy . Upper P a leo l ith ic t echno logy emp loyed a s trategy o f e i ther p repar ing t he f lak ing f ace f rom a c entra l c rest , o r u s ing a c ore d ecort icated b y b lade r emova ls a nd o therw ise u nprepared . T he i mportant p o int i s t hat b ecause t here were n o l atera l t r imm ing e dges , t he n odu le o f r aw mater ia l c ou ld b e r educed a l l a round i t s c ircumference o r t h ickness . S uch a r educt ion s trategy i sk nown i n t he p enu lt imate g lac iat ion ( P iekary i n P o land ) a nd t he e ar ly p hase o f t he V istu l ian ( S t . V a lery-sur-Somme a nd R ocourt i n B e lg ium , S ec l in i n F rance , Rhe inda len l ayer B i i n West Germany ) . T h is t echno logy may p oss ib ly b e r egarded a s p roto-Upper P a leo l ith ic , b ut t he methods o f b lade r emova l d iffer ; t he a l leged ly " proto-Upper P a leo l ith ic" s trategy u sed a h ard h am mer , whereas Upper P a leo l ith ic t echn iques i nvo lved t he u se o f as oft h am mer o r ap unch . D iss im i lar it ies i n t he t echno logy o f b lank p roduct ion c onst itute , t herefore , t he e ssent ia l q ua l itat ive d ifference b etween t he Upper a nd t he M idd le P a leol i th ic . O ther a spects o f l i th ie t echno logy ( e .g . , r etouch ing t echn iques ) a re r ef lected i n q uant itat ive d ifferences , o r i n t he v ary ing c omb inat ions o f t echno log ica l e lements . O ther a spects o f mater ia l c u lture , e conomy , s ett le ment p attern , a nd s ymbo l ic s ystem h ave b een d iscussed b y t he a uthor i n as epa rate p aper ( Koz lowsk i , i n p ress b ) I n t erms o f t he a bove-ment ioned a spects , t he b oundary l i nes b etween t he M idd le a nd t he Upper P a leo l ith ic a re a synchronous a nd , moreover , f requent ly i ncons istent w ith t he t axonomy o f l i th ie i ndustr ies .
THE M IDDLE/UPPER PALEOL ITH IC TRANS IT ION : A REG IONAL PERSPECT IVE G reece The h igh ly u nsat isfactory s tate o f r esearch o n t he P a leo l ith ic i n G reece p rec ludes a f u l l d escr ipt ion o f t he y oungest u n its o f t he M idd le P a leo l ith ic a nd makes i t v irtua l ly i mposs ib le t o e stab l ish c haracter ist ic f eatures o f t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic . I n t he M idd le P a leo l ith ic o f G reece , t he f o l low ing t hree t ypes o f l i th ic i nventor ies a re f ound : 1 . I nventor ies o f t he P in ios t ype c haracter ized b y t he a bsence o f t he L eva l lo is t echn ique , ah igh i ndex o f g roup 1 ( 67 .5% ) made u p b y t he h igh r at io o f s ide-scrapers ( 46 .8 % ) a nd Mouster ian p o ints ( 1 8 .9 % ) . T hese a re , t hen , T yp ica l Mouster ian a ssemb lages w ith a r icher s ides craper c omponent .
1 98
2 . Typo log ica l ly L eva l lo is ian i nventor ies w ith a l arge n umber o f u nretouched p o ints , L eva l lo is f lakes a nd b lades . T hey a re f ound i n t he P e loponnese [ Kastron 1 , Ama l ias 9 a nd 1 2 , o ther s i tes a re a ss igned t o t he s o-ca l led c omp lex 2 b y L ero i-Gorhan e t a t . ( 1964 ) 1 , b ut o n ly i n s urface c o l lect ions c onta in ing mechan ica l i n trus ions f rom t he Upper P a leo l ith ic . 3 . I nventor ies wh ich s how a h igh t ypo log ica l L eva l lo is ian i ndex , b ut a lso c onta in l eaf p o ints . T he b est e xamp le o f t h is i st he a ssemb lage f ro m K okk inop i los i n E p irus ( Dakar is e t a t . 1 964 ) , wh ich h as a h igh L eva l lo is t ypo log ica l i ndex o f 4 0 .3 a nd , a t t he s ame t ime , af a ir ly h igh i ndex o f s ide-scrapers ( IR1 = 4 0 .6 ) . T he i ndex o f g roup I i s4 8 .1 -n ot much d ifferent f rom t hat o f t he who le c lass o f s ide-scrapers ( Tab le 2 ) . T he r at io o f d ent icu lated a nd n otched t oo ls i so n ly 3 .6 % . The p roport ion o f l eaf p o ints , a l though t echno log ica l ly s ign if icant , i s l ow ( l ess t han 2% ) . T he f ine ly f laked l eaf p o ints a re u sua l ly s l ender a nd e longated ( w idth : length r at io i s 1 : 3-1 :4 ) ; t hey h ave p ara l le l s ides , a nd a s l ight ly r ounded b ase . T hey a re r hombo ida l i n c rosss ect ion a s ar esu lt o f s uccess ive work ing o f t he t wo s ides w ithout a lternate r emova l o f f l akes f rom b oth s ides o f o ne e dge . O ften , t he b ase o f as pec imen e xh ib its a p reserved u nworked p latform . Of t he e numerated f ac ies , i t i s o n ly a t K okk inop i los t hat we c an d ef ine t he c hrono log ica l p os it ion . T he M idd le P a leo l ith ic f inds f rom t h is s i te a re l ater t han P len ig lac ia l I . T hey a re s trat if ied i n r ed s o i ls wh ich , i n a l l l i ke l ihood , a re c onnected w ith t he f i rst h a lf o f t he I n terp len ig lac ia l . O ther f ac ies a re p robab ly e ar l ier . The e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic i n G reece i s e ven l e ss we l l k nown . T he p resence o f a l arge n umber o f c areno ida l e nd-scrapers f rom s i tes l ocated i n r iver ine a l luv ium i n E l ida a nd T hessa l ly ( Chava i l lon e t a t . 1 967 , 1 968 ; M i lo jc ie e t a t . 1 965 ) may r ef lect t he i mportance o f Aur ignac ian i nventor ies . Unfortunate ly , t here a re n o d ata t o d eterm ine t he l ower t empora l b oundary f or t hese i ndustr ies ; n onethe less , t hey s hou ld p recede t he e ar l iest i ndustr ies w ith b acked p ieces k nown f rom A sprocha l iko a nd F ranchth i ( H iggs e t a t . 1 969 ; B a i ley e t a / . 1 983 ; P er les 1 986 ) d ated t o e a . 2 5 ,000 B .P . A t F ranchth i , t he s o-ca l led p hase l i th ique I i s c haracter ized b y t he p resence o f h igh-nosed a nd e areno ida l s crapers ( 10 i tems ) , a ccompan ied b y n otched a nd d ent icu lated t oo ls ( 11 s pec imens ) , f lakes a nd b lades w ith l a tera l r etouch ( 4 s pec imens ) , p erforators ( 2 s pec imens ) , a t runcat ion , a b lade let w ith l atera l r etouch , a nd a s p l intered p iece . T h is modest a ssemb lage i s t he o n ly h omogeneous i nventory o f t he Aur ignac ian t ype i n G reece . I t s u n ique t ra its , b es ide t he p resence o f Aur ignac ian d iagnost ic t oo ls , a re t he u se o f sma l l n odu les a nd f l int p lates a s b lanks f or t oo l p roduct ion , a nd t he p roduct ion a nd u se o f b lade lets . T hese f eatures a re i nd icat ive o f ad eep t echno log ica l a nd morphol og ica l h iatus s eparat ing a ssemb lages w ith t he L eva l lo is t echn ique a nd l eaf p o ints ( Kokk inop i los t ype ) f rom Aur ignac ian a ssemb lages i n G reece . T he q uest ion o f whether t hey a re a lso s eparated b y ac hrono log ica l b reak c annot b e a nswered a t p resent .
Western Ba lkans The most c omp lete s trat igraph ic s equences f rom t he p er iod o f o ur i nterest h ave b een r ecorded i n t he C rvena S t i jena Cave i n Montenegro ( Bas ler e t a t . 1 975 ) a nd i n V ind i ja C ave i n C roat ia ( Ma lez e t a t . 1 980 ) . T he f ormer o f t hese s i tes y ie lded a r ich s equence o f Mouster ian ( l ayers XXX I-X I I I ) , a nd s equences o f Upper P a leo l ith ic a nd Meso l ith ic i ndustr ies w ith b acked p o ints ( XIV ) . I n c ontrast
1 99
Tab le 2 . Mouster ian w ith L eaf P o ints : P r inc ipa l I nd ices
K okkinopilos I ( Greece)
M uselievo ( Bulgaria)
, •a
S amuilica I I ( Middle L ayers 5 -6) ( Bulgaria)
I L
2 5.0
n• . .•
1 2.7
I F
5 6.0
n .c.
2 7.8
I lam
1 5.0
1 4.8
1 8.8
I L t y
4 0.3
1 1.3
3 1.2
I R e ss
6 8.0
4 5.4
4 1.2
I I g roup i ndex
4 8.1
4 1.9
2 8.8
I II g roup i ndex
4 .4
1 4.0
9 .6
I V g roup i ndex
3 .6
8 .8
1 0.1
a Specialized w orkshop s ite:
9 0% o f c ores a re o f L evallois t ype.
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t o t he T yp ica l Mouster ian i n l ayers XX IV-XX I I I a nd XV I I-X IV , t he v ery t op o f t he M idd le P a leo l ith ic s equence c onta ins a Mouster ian a ssemb lage w ith a l arge n umber o f d ent icu lated t oo ls ( l ayer X I I I ) a nd a p oor Mouster ian l eve l w ithout d iagnost ic f inds ( l ayer X I I ) . T h is l eve l h as b een r ad iocarbon d ated t o 4 0 ,777±900 B .P . ( Voge l a nd Waterbo lk 1 972 ) . I t i s o ver la in b y l ayer X I o f v o lcan ic a sh , c o inc id ing w ith o ne o f t he v o lcan ic e rupt ions i n L at ium ( Brunnacker 1 975 ) . I f we t ake i n to a ccount t he d i scover ies o f s im i lar l ayers o f v o lcan ic a sh i n t he B a lkans [ e .g . , l ayer I Vb i n t he p rof i le o f t rench I a t T emnata Cave i n B u lgar ia ( Koz lowsk i e t a / . , i n p ress ) ] , t hen t he l ayer i n q uest ion c an b e a ssoc iated w ith a n e rupt ion b etween 3 2 ,000-29 ,000 B .P . Consequent ly , l ayer X I a t C rvena S t i jena must h ave b een p receded b y a n e ros iona l p hase wh ich d estroyed t he s ed i ments f rom t he p er iod b etween 4 0 ,000-30 ,000 B .P . T he n ext l ayer ( X ) , a lthough i dent if ied i n B as ler 's ( 1975 ) s tudy a s A ur ignac ian , c onta ins t yp ica l b acked t oo ls ( 1 .c . p l . X I I I , 1 1 , X I I , 8 , 9 ) a nd c annot b e e ar l ier t han t he c orrespond ing l ayers i n G reek c aves ( i .e . , e a . 2 5 ,000 B .P . ) . T he s trat igraph ic b reak i n C rvena S t i jena i s p r imar i ly a ssoc iated w ith a n e ros iona l h iatus i n t he s ed iments b etween l ayers X I I a nd X I , p oss ib ly a l so b etween l ayers X I a nd X . O ther s i tes i n B osn ia , Hereegovn ia , a nd Montenegro y ie lded n o a dequate d ata b ase t o b r idge t h is g ap . I nvest igat ions i n n orthern B osn ia h ave d rawn a ttent ion t o a d i st inct c h rono log ica l h iatus b etween t he Z ob iste-type Mouster ian ( s im i lar t o t he Typ ica l Mouster ian b ut w ith a h igher s ide-scraper i ndex ) , d ated b y TL method t o > 85 ,000 B .P . a nd t he Aur ignac ian o f t he L use i6 t ype , d ated a t 2 9 ,000-27 ,000 B .P . ( Montet-Wh ite e t a l . 1 986 ) . I n t he s trat igraph ic s equence a t V ind i ja Cave , t he r ep lacement o f t he M idd le P a leo l ith ic i ndustr ies b y t he Upper P a leo l ith ic o ccurs i n l ayer G . T h is l ayer f ormed d ur ing P len ig lac ia l I( G 2 -G 5 ) a nd t he b eg inn ing o f t he I nterp len ig lac ia l [ G 1e quated b y Ma lez e t a / . ( 1980 ) w ith t he P od H rade m I n terstad ia l ] . L ayers G 3 t o G 5y ie lded t he Charent ian-type Mouster ian d om inated b y s ides crapers a nd d isco ida l c ore t echn ique . T h is Mouster ian i s s im i lar t o o ther a sse mb lages f rom C roa t ia ( Vetern ica , K rap ina ) . On t he s trength o f i t s t op p os it ion i n t he s equence o f P len ig lac ia l I , Ma lez e t a l . ( 1980 ) s uggest t hat l ayer G 3f a l ls i n t he r ange o f 4 5 ,000-40 ,000 B .P . T h is , h owever , s eems t o b e a t v ar iance w ith t he p a leoeco log ica l c ond it ions d eterm ined f or t h is l ayer ( un less t he b eg inn ing o f t he I n terp len ig lac ia l s hou ld c o inc ide w ith a n e ros iona l p hase b etween l ayers G 4 a nd G 3 ) . A s p l it-based b one p o int was f ound i n l ayer G 1 , a ccompan ied b y n ond iagnost ie s tone a rt ifacts . L ayers E a nd F c onta ined a rt ifacts i dent if ied a s Aur ignac ian , whereas s ta rt ing f rom l ayer D t hey a re G ravett ian . A t t he b eg inn ing o f t he U pper P a leo l ith ic , w e h ave t he o ccurrence o f p oor a ssemb lages , t yp ica l o f h unt ing s he lters , w ith b one p o ints a nd f ew l i th ie a rt ifacts . T he p resence o f s p l itb ased p o ints d emonstrates l i nks w ith t he Aur ignac ian t echnocomp lex . On t he o ther h and , i n t he s i tes o f t h is t echnocomp lex i n n orthwestern Yugos lav ia [ e .g . , P otocka ( Brodar a nd B rodar 1 983 ) ] , d ist inct ly Mouster ian e lements a re a bsent , e xcept f or e ight s ide-scrapers [ 2 c onvergent a nd 6 l atera l ( F igure 2 ) ] , n one o f wh ich b ear t yp ica l Qu ina r etouch , b ut t wo o f wh ich h ave f lat marg ina l r etouch ( F igure 2 : 1 , 2 ) . T he p roport ion o f t he Mouster ian c omponent i st hus c a . 2% . T he a nth ropo log ica l a na lys is made b y Sm ith ( Ma lez e t a l . 1 980 ) h as s hown t hat f oss i l r e ma ins o f t yp ica l Neandertha ls o ccur i n l eve l G 3o f V ind i ja Cave . Nond iagnost ic f inds f rom l eve l G 1 may r epresent e i ther t he Neandertha l o r t he Upper P a leo l ith ic g roup . D ist inct ly Upper P a leo l ith ic h uman r ema ins c ome f rom l eve l D . I n c onc lus ion , i n t he western B a lkans we f ind a f a ir ly p ronounced h iatus b etween t he Charent ian i ndustr ies , wh ich may h ave p ers isted u nt i l t he b eg inn ing o f t he I n terp len ig lac ia l a nd t he Mouster ian i ndustr ies w ith d ent icu lated t oo ls o n t he o ne h and , a nd t he U pper P a leo l ith ic r epresented a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he
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F igure 2 . P otocka Cave ( Yugos lav ia ) : 1 -4 . s idescrapers f ro m Aur ignac ian l ayer ( a fter B rodar a nd B rodar 1 983 ) . 2 02
I n terp len ig lac ia l b y t he Aur ignac ian t echnocomp lex o n t he o ther . The b reak c an b e s een b oth i n t echno logy ( f lake v ersus b lade ) , i n t he b as ic t oo l k it ( s ide-scrapers v ersus r etouched b lades , e areno ida l a nd n osed s crapers , b one p o ints ) , a s we l l a s i n t he h uman p hys ica l t ypes a nd t he s trategy o f l and u se ( i n n orthern Yugos lav ia t he s ame c aves wh ich f i rs t s erved a s Mouster ian b ase c amps w ere l ater u sed a s Aur ignac ian h unt ing c amps ) .
E astern B alkans The most c omp lete s trat igraph ic s equences i n t h is r eg ion a re k nown f rom t he c aves o f S amu i l ica I , B acho K iro , a nd T e mnata . T he S amu i l ica I Cave n ear Kun ino i n n or th-centra l B u lgar ia c onta ined a s equence o f t en Mouster ian l ayers o f L eva l lo is f ac ies . L eaf p o ints o ccurred i n t he c entra l p art ( l ayers 5 a nd 6 ) o f t he s equence ( S irakov 1 983 ) . T he e vo lut ion o f t he Mouster ian l eve ls o f S amu i l ica I s hows s l ight o sc i l la t ions o f t he L eva l lo is i ndex ( between 3 1 .2 a nd 4 0 .0 ) , t he s ides craper i ndex ( 16 .4-21 .6 ) , a nd t he g roup I I i ndex ( 6 .4-10 .0 ) . N one o f t he i nd ices s hows a c lear c hrono log ica l s er iat ion , a lthough t he b lade i ndex i ncreases f rom 1 1 .4 t o 3 1 .9 b etween l eve ls 1 0 a nd 3 , o n ly t o d rop a ga in i n l eve ls 1 a nd 2 , where i t i s 2 2 .8 . The g roup o f Upper P a leo l ith ic t oo ls i n l eve ls 1 a nd 2 d oes n ot d isp lay a ny c lear e vo lut ionary t endency , n or d o we n ot ice a ny c ons istent p attern o f c hange i n t he b lade t echno logy i n t he y oungest l eve ls o f t he s equence . T he b lade t echn ique r epresents t he L eva l lo is t ype w ithout Upper P a leo l ith ic c ores . The u ppermost l eve ls o f t he Mouster ian s equence o f S amu i l ica I a re c onta ined i n u n it 5 ( l ight r ed a nd y e l low ish c lay s w ith l imestone d ebr is i n t he b ottom a nd i n t he t op ) a nd p rov ided a r ad iocarbon d ate o f 4 2 ,780±1270 B .P . ( S irakov 1 983 ) . Above t h is , t he p rof i le a t S amu i l ica I s hows a p ronounced e ros iona l p hase wh ich c orre lates w ith most o f t he I n terp len ig lac ia l a s t he d r ip-stone l ayer l i es d irect ly o n t he s urface o f u n it 5 . I t i s i mportant t o n ote t hat t he e vo lut ion o f t he L eva l lo is f ac ies o f t he Mouster ian a t S amu i l ica d oes n ot r evea l d eve lopmenta l t endenc ies , whether t echn o log ica l o r t ypo log ica l , t hat wou ld l ead t o t he Upper P a leo l ith ic ( Tab le 3 ) . The p rof i le i n B acho K iro Cave h as b een r epeated ly d escr ibed ( Koz lowsk i 1 979 , 1 982 ) . I tc onta ins a s er ies o f c lay a nd r ubb le s ed iments w ith t he Mouster ian c u lture o ccurr ing i n l ayers 1 2 a nd 1 3 . The f auna l a nd s ed imento log ica l d ata i nd icate t hat l ayer 1 3 w as o ccup ied i n a warmer a nd wetter p er iod b efore 4 7 ,500 B .P . ( i .e . , e xceed ing t he l im its o f 1 4 C m ethod ) , whereas l ayer 1 2 a ccumu lated d ur ing a c oo ler a nd a r id e p isode c orre lat ing , most l i ke ly , w ith t he L ower P len ig lac ia l . The Mouster ian i n l ayers 1 2 a nd 1 3 i sc haracter ized b y t he l ow u se o f t he L eva l lo is t echn ique , as l ight ly h igher t ypo log ica l L eva l lo is i ndex , a nd a f a ir ly h igh s ide-scraper i ndex ( Koz lowsk i 1 982 ) . T he p ercentage o f Upper P a leo l ith ic f orms i s l ow , a s i s t yp ica l f or Mouster ian a ssemb lages ( Tab le 4 ) . Over ly ing l ayers 1 2 a nd 1 3 i s l ayer 1 1a , wh ich f a l ls a t t he b eg inn ing o f a nother e p isode o f c l i mat ic ame l iorat ion . Unfortunate ly , l i th ic a rt ifacts f rom l ayer ha a re c h ief ly n ond iagn ost ic , p oss ib ly s im i lar t o ak ind o f d ent icu lated Mouster ian . I t i s o n ly l ayer 1 1 , p laced e nt ire ly w ith in t he n ext warmer a nd wetter p er iod [ a s e v idenced b y t he p redom inance o f P itymys s ubterraneous o ver M icrotus a rva l is ( Kowa lsk i 1 982 ) ] t hat c onta ins f our e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic l eve ls . Ar ad iocarbon d ate o f > 43 ,000 B .P . o bta ined f rom l ayer 1 1 c orre lates i tw ith o ne o f t he f i rst warmer e p isodes o f t he I n terp len ig lac ia l ( poss ib ly t he Herak l itsa I n terstad ia l ) . I t h as y ie lded t he o ldest Upper P a leo l ith ic i ndustry i n t h is p art o f E urope , a n i ndustry wh ich i s p ar t ia l ly c ontemporaneous w ith t he l ate Mouster ian i n t he e astern p art o f t he B a lkan P en insu la . T he U pper P a leo l ith ic a ssemb lages f rom l ayer 1 1 y ie ld a we l ld eve loped b lade t echno logy wh ich i s u nre lated t o L eva l lo is t echno logy , a nd c onta ins v ery f ew Mouster ian-type t oo ls ( the p roport ions o f s ide-scrapers a nd Mouster ian p o ints r ange f rom 0 .44% t o 0 .61 % ) . T he s harp t echno log ica l a nd morpho log ica l b reak b etween l ayers 1 2 a nd 1 1 i s f urther d emonstrated b y t he
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F igure 6 . R ip icen iIzvor ( Ruman ia ) : e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic f rom l ayer I a : 1 .l eaf p o int ; 2 . b acked b lade ; 3 -5 . r etouched b lades ; 6 . d ent icu lated t oo l ; 7 . s i de-scraper ( after P aunescu 1 965 ) .
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T hese a ssemb lages r ema ined u nder t he i n f luence o f t he M idd le Danub ian S ze let ian a nd p oss ib ly t he d eve loped Upper Danub ian o r B a lkan l eaf-po int i ndustr ies . I t must b e r emembered t hat t he e vents u nder d iscuss ion a re d ated t o c a . 2 8 ,000 B .P . , when t he p ara l le l d eve lopment o f t he Aur ignac ian a nd t he L ate S ze let ian h ad r eached i t s a pogee i n C entra l E urope . Ap oss ib le a l ternat ive s ource o f i n f luence f rom l eaf-po int i ndustr ies c ou ld h ave b een c onte mporaneous ( 28 ,0002 6 ,000 B .P . ) Mo ldav ian a ssemb lages w ith f lake a nd b lade t echno logy [ e .g . , K orp atch ( Borz iak e t a / . 1 981 ) , B ryndzeny ( Ketraru 1 973 ) , o r Gordyneshty ( Borz iak 1 984 ) ] . T he i s sue i s f urther c omp l icated b y t he f act t hat M idd le P a leo l ith ic a ssemb lages w ith l eaf p o ints a nd d ent icu lated t oo ls a lso o ccur i n t he P rut b as in [ e .g . , S t inka ( An is iutk in 1 972 ) ] . Typ ica l Aur ignac ian a ssemb lages a re n ot k nown i n t he e astern Carpathi ans , wh i le t hose f ound i n t he P rut a nd R eut b as in ( e .g . , Rashkov V I I ) , a re much l ater , a ff i l iated w ith t he E ast E uropean " Aur ignaco ida l" p rov ince ( Gr igor ieva a nd K etraru 1 973 ) .
The M idd le Danube Bas in Two c u ltura l u n its a re o f p art icu lar i mportance f or t he i s sue wh ich i st he s ub ject o f o ur i n terest . T hese a re t he s o-ca l led " Centra l E uropean M icoqu ian" a nd t he l eaf-po int L eva l lo is f ac ies o f t he Mouster ian , b oth o ccurr ing i n t he l ate M idd le P a leo l ith ic o f t he M idd le Danube B as in . T he s o-ca l led Centra l E uropean M icoqu ian i sr epresented i n t he s equence a t Ku Ina Cave n ear B rno i n Morav ia ( Va loch 1 969 , 1 980 ) i n l eve ls 6 a t o 9 b . A r ad iocarbon d ate o f 4 5 ,660± 9 8 B .P . h as b een o bta ined f or l ayer 7 a a ttest ing t hat t he u n it c ou ld h ave p ers isted u nt i l t he b eg inn ing o f t he I nterp len ig lac ia l . Another r eg ion where t he Centra l E uropean M icoqu ian was d istr ibuted i s t he B ükk Mount a ins ( R inger 1 982 ) . Unfortunate ly , t here i s n o g eochrono log ica l f ramework t o c onf irm t he p roposed s equence o f s i tes ( Sa jobabony-Mehestetö - M isko lcS zabadkatetö - M isko lc - K anastetö ) , o r t o d eterm ine t he d at ing o f t he y oungest p hase , t he s o-ca l led B abon ian i n Hungary . T he Centra l E uropean M icoqu ian i ndustr ies c onta in t yp ica l b ifac ia l t oo ls ( b ifaces , l eaf p o ints , B lattschaber , a nd b ifac ia l k n ives/s ide-scrapers ) ; t he L eva l lo is t echn ique a nd t ypo logy a re a bsent , t he i ndex o f s ide-scrapers p roper i sa verage ( up t o 3 0 ) , a nd t he b lade i ndex i s l ow . B oth i n t he e ase o f Morav ian a nd t he B i lkk Mounta ins s i tes , i t may b e j u st if iab ly s upposed t hat t he Centra l E uropean M icoq u ian c ont inued t o d eve lop d ur ing t he I n terp len ig lac ia l a s al oca l l eaf-po int u n it i n t he f orm o f t he c lass ica l S ze let ian ( the B i lkk Mounta ins S ze let ian ) a nd t he Moravi an S ze let ian . T he e vo lut ion o f t he c lass ica l S ze let ian a t t he e ponym ic s i te i s r epres ented b y t wo l ayers ; t he l ower i s d ated t o > 41 ,700 B .P . , a nd t he u pper t o 3 2 ,580±420 B .P . T he t wo d ates i nd icate a r e lat ive ly l ong p er iod o f d eve lopment f or t h is u n it . T he e ar ly S ze let ian d iffers t echno log ica l ly f ro m t he " M icoqu ian" i n t he d egree o f a dvancement o f t he b lade t echn ique ; t he S zelet ian u sed d oub le p latform b lade c ores w ith i n it ia l p reparat ion o f s ides ( F igure 7 ) , t r im m ing b lades a ppeared , a nd t he i ndex o f b lades a nd b lade lets i n t he d eb itage g roup i s h igh ( 53 .8% ) . I n t he u pper l ayer o f S ze leta Cave , t hese t endenc ies l ead t o af u l ly d eve loped b lade t echn ique w ith c areno ida l c ores , a nd s ing le p latform s ubd isco ida l c ores w ith c rested p reparat ion o n t he b ack . T he i ndex o f b lades a nd b lade lets i n t he d eb itage g roup i s a s h igh a s 7 2 .9% . We s hou ld , h owever , b e aware o f t he s pec ia l n ature o f t h is s i te , wh ich was a h unters ' s he lter c onta in ing a n i nventory d om inated b y l eaf p o ints ( i n t he l ower l eve l : 5 5 .6% o f a l l r etouched t oo ls , a nd
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1 F igure 7 . S ze leta C ave ( Hungary ) : 1 . i n it ia l c ore f rom l ower l ayer ; 2 . d oub le p la tform p repared c ore f rom u pper l ayer ( co l lect ion o f t he Nat iona l Museum , B udapest ) .
2 15
3 7 .6 % o f a l l a rt ifacts ; i n t he u pper l eve l : 3 6 .6 % o f r etouched t oo ls a nd 1 9 .8% o f t he t ota l n umber o f a rt ifacts ) . T he p o ints were manufactured i n s pec ia l ized workshops , a s c onf irmed b y t he u se o f o ne r aw mater ia l t ype a nd t he a bsence o f p roduct ion waste a t S ze leta Cave . I f we t ake i n to a ccount t he sma l l n umber o f c ores [ on ly 9 i t ems ( 2% ) i n t he l ower l eve l , a nd 5 i t ems ( 1 .2 % ) i n t he u pper l eve l ] , we may c on jecture t hat s ome o f t he b lades were i mports , a nd t hat t he s porad ic f lakes were d er ived f rom r e juvenat ion r ather t han p reparat ion o f o ccas iona l c ores . I n b oth l eve ls , Upper P a leo l ith ic f orms a re f ound among t he r etouched t oo ls . T he ir p roport ion i ncreases marked ly i n t he u pper l eve l ( e .g . , f rom 6% t o 8% f or e nd-scrapers , f rom 0 .3 % t o 5 .6% f or b ur ins , f rom 1 4% t o 3 0 .3 % f or r etouched b lades ) , wh ich i s i ndependent o f t he f act t hat b acked p ieces a nd m icro-retouched o bs id ian b lade lets i n t he u pper l eve l may b e al a ter a dd it ion ( Tab le 7 ) . I ns ight i n to t he e vo lut ion o f t he Morav ian S ze let ian i s h indered b y t he a bsence o f mu lt ilayer s i tes , a nd a va i lab le S ze let ian mater ia ls a re most ly f rom s urface c o l lect ions . A s t hese c onst itute o ur d ata b ase , we must a pproach w ith c aut ion t he a ssemb lages c onta in ing b oth t he "M icoqu ian" a nd S ze let ian e lements , s uch a s t he c o l lect ions f rom J ezerany , l ocus Ia nd I , n ear B rno ( Tab le 8 ) . T hese a ssemb lages h ave y ie lded S ze let ian p o ints a s we l l a s M icoqu ian b ifaces , b ifac ia l k n ives/s ide-scrapers o f t he P radn ik t ype , C iemna a nd K lausenn ische t ype , a nd n umerous s ide-scrapers ( Va loch 1 973 ; O l iva 1 979 ) . S hou ld t he c ompos it iona l i n tegr ity o f t hese a ssemb lages b e c onf irmed , we wou ld h ave t o r ecogn ize a t rans it iona l M icoqu ian/Sze let ian p hase . I n i t s f u l ly d eve loped f orm , t he S ze let ian i n Morav ia c o inc ides w ith t he v ery b eg inn ing o f t he I n terp len ig lac ia l , a s e v idenced b y t he f i rst s trat if ied f inds f rom V edrov ice V ( Va loch 1 984 ) . T he s ubsequent e vo lut ion o f t he Morav ian S ze let ian i s c haracter ized b y a dvances i n b lade t echno logy , ag row ing p roport ion o f c ores w ith Upper P a leo l ith ic-type p reparat ion , a nd a n i ncreas ing n umber o f Upper P a leo l ith ic t oo ls ( f rom 2 0% t o 5 0% ) . T he p resence o f l eaf p o ints f rom t he Cave P od H radem i n Morav ia , y ie ld ing d ates o f 3 2 ,990±1500 B .P . a nd 3 2 ,420±470 B .P . ( Va loch 1 966 ) , i nd icates t hat t hese t endenc ies c ont inued u nt i l c a . 3 0 ,000 B .P . A r ad iocarbon d ate o f 2 2 ,800±600 B .P . ( r epor ted b y J . B arta ) f or a S ze let ian Khsemen itsa f rom T renc iansk ie B ohus lav ice i n western S lovak ia s uggests t hat t he Morav ian S ze let ian may h ave l asted much l onger . Another M idd le P a leo l ith ic e nt ity t hat d eve lops l oca l ly u nt i l t he b eg inn ing t he Upper P a leo l ith ic i s r epresented b y t he s o-ca l led J ankov ich ian i n T ransd anub ia , a nd t he B ohun ic ian i n s outhern Morav ia . T he t wo u n its s hare a c o m mon t echno log ica l b ase o f d eve loped L eva l lo is t echn ique , a nd a c om mon morpho log ica l c omponent o f l eaf p o ints ( both u n ifac ia l a nd b ifac ia l ) . T he f orma t ion o f t he J ankov ich ian i n T ransdanub ia c o inc ides w ith t he p er iod p reced ing P len ig lac ia l I a nd P len ig lac ia l Ii t se lf [ Jankov ich Cave , Remete-Fe lsö Cave , S ze l im , K iskeve ly , B ivak ( Gabor i-Csank 1 983 ) ] . The J ankov ich ian i s af u l ly d eve loped M idd le P a leol i th ic u n it , d evo id o f Upper P a leo l ith ic f orms i n i t s i nventor ies ( Upper P a leo l ith ic i n trus ions , s uch a s i n J ankov ich Cave , a re p robab ly mechan ica l a dm ixtures ) . B ecause t he J ankov ich ian u sed a c omp lete ly d i fferent t echno logy i td oes n ot , i n o ur v iew , c onst itute a f urther c ont inuat ion o f t he " Centra l E uropean M icoqu ian ." We s hou ld i n stead l i nk t h is u n it w ith t he L eva l lo is t echn ique a nd l eaf-po int u n its f rom t he B a lkans a nd t he e astern Carpath ians . Another s tage i n t he e vo lut ion o f t he t echno log ica l t rad it ion u nder d iscuss ion i s r epresented b y t he s o-ca l led B ohun ic ian i n Morav ia ( Va loch 1 976 ; O l iva 1 984 ; S voboda a nd S vobodova 1 985 ) . T he d i str ibut ion o f t he B ohun ic ian i s s tr ict ly l im ited t o s outhwestern Morav ia , a nd c hrono log ica l ly c o inc ident w ith t he c oo l i n terphase b etween t he f i rst a nd t he s econd warm o sc i l lat ions o f t he I nter-
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p l en ig lac ia l , a nd w ith t he s econd o sc i l lat ion i t se lf ( e .g . , t he f oss i l s o i l a t S transka S ka la I I w ith r ad iocarbon d ates o f 3 8 ,500± M B .P . a nd 3 8 ,200±1100 B .P . ) . T he B ohun ic ian s i tes were l ocated c lose t o l i th ic r aw mater ia l s ources ; t hey were b ase c amps o r s ate l l ite c amps o f h unters who were p r i mar i ly h unt ing h orse . A l l t he s i tes a re d istr ibuted o ver a l im ited t err itory o f 6 0-100 km i n d iameter . The t echno logy u sed i n t he B ohun ic ian i se nt ire ly L eva l lo is ian . T he Upper P a leo l ith ic-type c ores a re s porad ic [ occurr ing ma in ly a t Ondrat ice a nd B rno L isen , s i tes k nown o n ly f rom s urface c o l lect ion ( Svoboda 1 980 , 1 987 ) ] . Desp ite t he d om inant L eva l lo is t echno logy , t he morpho logy o f t oo ls r ef lects t he p resence o f s ome Upper P a leo l ith ic f orms ( Tab le 9 ; F igure 8 ) , o r r ather t oo ls o r ig inat ing f rom t he t ypo log ica l s ubstratum ( end-scrapers , b ur ins ) . T he B ohun ic ian i nventor ies a re d om inated b y e nd-scrapers ( S transka S ka la I I ) , o r n otched a nd d ent icu lated t oo ls ( S transka S ka la Ma , B ohun ice ) , f o l lowed b y s ide-scrapers . L eaf p o ints , e ither f u l ly b i fac ia l o r t he J erzmanow ice b lade f orms , o ccur a t s ome s i tes ( Svoboda 1 987 ) . The e x ist ing d ata d o n ot s upport t he h ypothes is t hat t he B ohun ic ian c ont i nues t o d eve lop l oca l ly , g iv ing r i se t o y ounger Upper P a leo l ith ic u n its s uch a s t he A ur ignac ian . S voboda s uggested t hat t here was c ont inu ity b etween t he B ohun ic ian a nd t he Aur ignac ian i nventory a t S transka S ka la Ma . The Aur ignac ian a t t hat s i te w as s trat if ied i n t he y ounger f oss i l s o i l o f t he I n terp len ig lac ia l , d ated a t 3 0 ,980±360 B .P . Deta i led a na lys is o f t he mater ia ls f rom S transka S ka la I Ia ( The A rchaeo log ica l I nst itute C sAV i n B rno ) a pparent ly c onf irms S voboda 's h ypothes is a bout a s im i lar ity o f t he t wo i nventor ies , o r t o b e p rec ise , t hat t he Aur ignac ian l eve l c onta ins s ome morpho-techno log ica l c omponents i dent ica l t o t he B ohun ie lan . We a re i nc l ined t o b e l ieve , h owever , t hat t hese e lements a re d er ived f rom e ryoturbat ion o f t he B ohun ic ian l eve l , a nd r epresent a s econdary i n trus ion i n to t he A ur ignac ian i nventory . F urthermore , t he Aur ignac ian l eve l c onta ins f lakes f rom L eva l lo is c ores , whereas a l l c ores i n t he Aur ignac ian l eve l a re Upper P a leo l ith ic s pec imens ( s ing le a nd d oub le p latform c ores , a nd c ores w ith c hanged o r ientat i on ) . More t o t he p o int wou ld b e ac ompar ison b etween t he B ohun ic ian a nd o ther u nd isputed ly h o mogeneous Aur ignac ian a ssemb lages . Ac ompar ison l i ke t h is wou ld b r ing o ut t he d iss im i lar it ies more p rom inent ly , e spec ia l ly i f we r emember t hat A ur ignac ian f orms a re a bsent a ltogether a t B ohun ice , t hat o n ly o ne h igh s craper o ccurred a t S transka S ka la I I , a nd t hat 5 s pec imens o f t h is t oo l t ype were f ound a t S transka S ka la I Ia ( where t here i s a p oss ib i l ity o f i nverse p enetrat ion o f a rt ifacts a s ar esu lt o f c ryoturbat ion ) . The M idd le Danube B as in i s ar eg ion where e ar ly Aur ignac ian s ett lement s pread e xcept iona l ly e ar ly , c onte mporaneous ly w ith b oth t he S ze let ian a nd t he B ohun ic ian . F or t h is w e h ave t he e v idence o f t he d ate p roduced b y t he l ower l ayer i n I s ta l loskö Cave i n t he B ükk Mounta ins ( 42 ,350±900 B .P . ) , u nfortunate ly r epresent ing o n ly a s hort-term h unt ing c amp . T he c amp y ie lded 3 8 b one p o ints , mos t ly s p l it-based , a nd o n ly 1 9 s tone a rt ifacts . F urthermore , t he most r ecent ly o b ta ined d ates f or l eve l 2a t W i l lendorf I [ 41 ,700±Y52 B .P . a nd 3 9 ,500± 1 22 B .P . ( Haesaerts a nd O tte 1 987 ) ] , a lso s uggest a n e ar ly a ge , b ut u nfortunate ly f or a r e la t ive ly p oor i nventory . R icher Aur ignac ian a ssemb lages c ome f rom V edrov ice I a nd I , a nd K uparov ice i n Morav ia . T he v ery l i ke ly e ar ly a ge o f t hese a ssemb lages h as b een e st imated o n t he b as is o f c hronostrat igraphy , a nd n ot a rguments b ased o n t he r i ch s er ies o f a rt ifacts . A t V edrov ice I , o ccas iona l f inds , h ypothet ica l ly r e la ted t o t he s urface c o l lect ion , were c onta ined i n al oess l ayer wh ich was o lder t han a f oss i l s o i l i dent if ied a s o r ig inat ing f rom t he b eg inn ing o f t he I nterp len ig lac ia l ( Va loch e t a l . 1 984 ) .
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3c m 0 1 I I I F igure 8 . B rno-Bohun ice ( Morav ia ) : B ohun ic ian t oo ls : b ur ins ; 7 .n osed e nd-scraper ; 8 . b ur in ( a fter V a loch 1 976 ) .
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1 -4 . e nd-scrapers ; 5 -6 .
S uch a n e ar ly d at ing o f t he Aur ignac ian i n t he M idd le D anube B as in f urther d eepens t he c ontrast b etween t h is u n it a nd t he S ze let ian a nd B ohun ic ian , t wo u n its o f u nquest ionab le l oca l a ff i l iat ion .
The Upper Danube B as in N one o f t he p rof i les i n t he P a leo l ith ic s i tes o f t he Upper D anube B as in r ef lects a c omp lete s uccess ion o f p a leoc l i mat ic e vents i n t he f i rst h a lf o f t he I n terp len ig lac ia l . We c an mere ly a ttempt t o c o l late t he p rof i les o f s o me s i tes s pann ing t he t erm ina l P len ig lac ia l Ia nd t he I nterp len ig lac ia l i n o rder t o d eterm ine t he a pprox imate s uccess ion o f s ett lement p hases i n t hese p rof i les . I t h as b een a scerta ined t hat t yp ica l o f t he max imum L ower P len ig lac ia l a nd t he p er iod d irect ly p reced ing t he max i mum a re t he i ndustr ies o f t he " Centra l E uropean M icoqu ian" g roup k nown a t S chambach , S esse lfe lsgrotte l ayer N ( dated > 45 ,900 B .P . ) , a nd o ther s i tes . A ssemb lages c on ta in ing s ome M icoqu ian e lements [ e .g . , t he P radn ik a nd K lausenn ische-type k n ives ( F igure 9 ) ] a re f ound a s l a te a s t he t erm ina l P len ig lac ia l I ,a s e v idenced b y t he p resence o f r odent s pec ies s uch a s D icrostonyx t orquatus a nd L emmus l em mus . B la ttschaber a nd l eaf p o ints o ccur i n i ncreas ing q uant it ies . An e xamp le o f a n a ssemb lage o f t h is t ype i sl eve l Io f t he G rosse G rotte c ave n ear B laubauern ( Wagner 1 983 ) w ith s ome c omponents o f t he b lade t echn ique b ut w ithout c ore p reparat ion , a nd a u n ique s pec imen o f t he M ladec-type p o int . I t i s p laus ib le t hat a s tage t rans it iona l t o t he l eaf p o int i ndustr ies i s r epresented i n l ayer 3 i n t he Oberneder Cave n ear K e lhe im ( Freund 1 968 ; K au l ich e t a l . 1 978 ) . T he v ery b eg inn ing o f t he I nterp len ig lac ia l c an b e c orrelated w ith l ayer 4 ( F ) i n We inberg Cave n ear Mauern . T h is l ayer f a l ls a t a warmer o sc i l lat ion , t he f i rst a fter t he t undra p er iod o f t he e ar ly Würm ( von K oen igswa ld e t a l . 1 974 ) . T o p lace l ayer 4 f rom t he We inberg Cave i n t he Henge lo I nterstad ia l [ a s p roposed b y Mü l lerBeck ( i n p ress :f ig . 4 ) ] s eems t oo l ate when c ompared w ith t he p rof i les o f o ther e aves i n t he Upper Danube B as in . The l i th ie i ndustry f ro m We inberghöh le i s c haracter ized b y al arge n umber o f b ifac ia l p o ints w ith p redom inant ly p o inted b ases , r are ly c onvex ( F igure 1 0 ) . S ide-scrapers , made a s ar u le o n af lake w ith a n atura l b ack , a re l ess n umerous . B lanks a re r are ; among t he m a re b lades f rom s ing le o r d oub le p latform ( even t r ip le p latform ) c ores , i n most c ases w ithout p reparat ion . T he o n ly p repared c ore s ee ms t o b e ad er ivat ive o f t he L eva l lo is c ore , b ecause o f t he c entr ipeta l p reparat ion o f t he b ack ( F igure 1 1 ) . T he o f c ores i n t h is i ndustry a re c erta in ly n ot y et r e lated t o t he t yp ica l p reparat ion o f U pper P a leo l ith ic b lade c ores . On t he o ther h and , t he We inberghöh le c ores b ear n o r esemb lance t o L eva l lo is c ores . T he a ttract ion o f t he Upper Danube r eg ion f or t he s pread o f s ett lement was t he p art icu lar s u itab i l ity o f t he d epos its o f B avar ian " P lattens i lex" f or t he p roduct ion o f l eaf p o ints . I n a dd it ion t o t he s i tes a bound ing i n s uch p o ints a re i ndustr ies r epresent ing t he Mouster ian t rad it ion i n t he f i rst h a lf o f t he I nterp len ig lac ia l . An e xamp le o f t he " extended" Mouster ian i st he i nventory o f l eve l E 3i n S esse lfe ls Cave . T h is i s t he u ppermost l eve l i n t he M idd le P a leo l ith ic s equence , w ith a r ad iocarbon d ate o f 3 7 ,100±1000 B .P . ( Freund 1 984 ) . The s tone p rocess ing t echn ique i n l eve l E 3r esumes t he u se o f L eva l lo is c ores , ma in ly f or f l akes , a l though b lades i n t h is l eve l a lso e xh ib it s ome L eva l lo is t ra its ( c f . e spec ia l ly F reund 1 984 :f ig . 8 :3 ) ; n ext t o s ide-scrapers , s ome o f wh ich b ear Q u ina r etouch , t here a re B lattschaber type s pec imens . B ur ins a nd e nd-scrapers [ i .e . , s ubstratum i mp lements o f Upper P a leo l ith ic t ype ( F igure 1 2 ) ] a re a lso f ound . T he t oo ls a re made o n f lakes ; t hey s how n o r esemb lance t o a ny d iagnost ic f orms ( e .g . , t he Aur ignac ian ) .
2 22
F igure 9 . G rosse G rotte n ear B laubauren ( West G ermany ) : l ayer I : 1 .l eaf p o int ; 2 -3 . b i fac ia l s i de-scraper s ( a f ter Wagner 1 983 ) . 2 23
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2 24
F igure 1 1 . We inberghöh le n ear Mauern ( West G ermany ) : 1 -4 . c ores f rom l ayer F ( co l lect ion o f t he P reh istor ic Museum i n Munchen ) .
2 25
o
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F igure 1 2 . S esse lfe lsgrotte n ear Neu E ss ig ( West Germany ) : f inds f ro m l ayer E 3 : 1 -2 . b ur ins ; 3 -4 . e nd-scrapers ; 5 . L eva l lo is ian c ore ; 6 . e nd-scraper ( after F reund 1 984 ; c o l lect ion o f t he I n st itute o f A rchaeo logy , Un ivers ity o f E r langen ) .
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The ma jor c u ltura l c hange t akes p lace b etween t he f i rst a nd s econd h a lf o f t he I n terp len ig lac ia l , most p robab ly i n t he c oo l i n terphase b etween t he Henge lo a nd t he Deneke mp ( i n t he 3 6 ,000-32 ,000 B .P . r ange ) . A t t hat t ime t he who le t err itory o f t he Upper D anube B as in b ecame t he d oma in o f t he Aur ignac ian . The p a lyno log ica l a na lys is o f t he p rof i le i n t he Ge issenk loster le Cave ( Leroyer a nd L ero i-Gourhan 1 983 ) h as a scerta ined t hat t he e ar l iest Aur ignac ian l eve l c ou ld e ven b e c ontemporaneous w ith t he Henge lo-Les Cottes ( f or t h is we h ave t he e v idence o f av ery e ar ly r ad iocarbon d ate o f 3 6 ,540±500 B .P . ) . I n v iew o f t h is , t he e ar l iest Aur ignac ian o n t he U pper Danube may b e s ynchronous w ith t he y oungest Mou ster ian a nd t he i ndustr ies w ith Mauern type l eaf p o ints . The Upper Danub ian A ur ignac ian i s ac u lture wh ich emp loys a t yp ica l ly Upper P a leo l ith ic b lade t echno logy b ased o n c arefu l ly p repared c ores ( Hahn 1 977 ) . The p roport ion o f Aur ignac ian d iagnost ic t oo ls ( e .g . , e areno ida l e nds crapers , n osed s crapers , r etouched b lades , s trang led b lades ) i s v ery h igh . T he c oncom itant f igura l a rt , b oth z oomorph ie a nd a nthropomorph ic , i s h igh ly s oph ist ic ated . The p ercentage o f f lake t oo ls ( s ide-scrapers , r etouched f lakes ) i n t he Upper Danub ian s i tes i s l ow a nd d oes n ot e xceed 2 -8% . We c an s ee t hat t he Mouster ian a nd t he Aur ignac ian a sse mb lages a re d iv ided b y ap ronounced t echnol og ica l h iatus . A l oca l d eve lopment , o n t he o ther h and , a re a ssemb lages w ith Mauerntype l eaf p o ints , a nd e p i-Mouster ian a ssemb lages o f t he S esse lfe lsgrotte t ype , l eve l E 3 . The c ont inuat ion o f t h is l oca l t rad it ion u nt i l t he Henge lo I nterstad ia l h as b een i n ferred f rom t he i n terpo lat ion o f d ates r ather t han f rom d irect d at ing .
The N orthern P art o f Centra l E urope The s i tuat ion i n t he n orthern p art o f C entra l E urope i s much s imp ler , a s t he p a leogeograph ica l c hanges a nd e ncroachment o f P len ig lac ia l Ii ce-sheets c ompe l led t he w ithdrawa l o f s ett le ment f rom t he t err itor ies n orth o f t he mounta in mass ifs . T he ma in l ower l oess s er ies o f t he l ast g lac iat ion o n t he l oess u p lands o f P o land a nd i n c entra l Germany c onta in n o r ecord o f s ett lement . A t t he v ery e nd o f t h is p hase o f l oess d epos it ion , s ome t races h ave b een r ecorded o f l eafp o in t i ndustr ies d escr ibed a s " Pre-Sze let ian" i n s outhern P o land ( Chm ie lewsk i 1 975 ) , a lso d ef ined a s an orthern t ype o f t he B a lkan-Danub ian u n its w ith L eva l lo is t echn ique a nd l eaf p o ints ( Koz lowsk i a nd Koz lowsk i 1 977 ) . Unfortunate ly , n one o f t he l oess o r c ave p rof i les c onta ins a c omp lete r ecord o f t he p a leoc l ima t ic e vents o f t he I nterp len ig lac ia l . We may c on jecture t hat t he o sc i l lat ion e quated w ith t he Henge lo s aw t wo g roups o f l eaf-po int i ndustr ies : t he S ze let ian ( Morav ian S ze let ian ) a nd t he J erzmanow iee g roup . T he c h rono log ic p os it ion o f t he l a tter g roup h as b een c onf irmed b y a d ate o f 3 8 ,160±1250 B .P . o n l ayer 6 o f N ietoperzowa Cave ( Chm ie lewsk i 1 961 ) . The s eparate d eve lopment o f t he Morav ian-S i les ian S ze let ian h as b een p roposed e lsewhere ( Koz lowsk i 1 967 ; V a loch 1 969 ) . T he t axonom ic p os it ion o f t he S ze let ian f rom t he s i te o f K raköw-Zw ierzyn iec may h ave t o b e mod if ied i n t he l i gh t o f r ecent d iscover ies i n R uss ian Mo ldav ia . T he r ecovered Mo ldav ian a ssemb lages y ie lded l eaf p o ints a nd a rched b acked p ieces a na logous t o t hose f rom t he K raköw-Zw ierzyn iee s i te , where a ttempts h ad b een made t o i s o late b acked i mp lements i n as pec ia l Upper P a leo l ith ic c u lture c orrespond ing t o t he Chate lp erron lan o r U luzz ian . I ti sp oss ib le t hat t he mater ia ls f rom K raköw-Zw ierzyn iec s hou ld b e a ss igned t o as pec ia l S ze let ian g roup o f t he Mo ldav ian t ype , wh ich c omb ines t he t echno logy o f f lat a nd s teep r etouch .
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T he s eparate p os it ion o f t he J erzmanow ice c u lture h as b een a c ontrovers ia l i s sue f or a l ong t ime . V a loch h as o b jected t o e ndow ing t h is u n it w ith a s eparate t axonom ic s tatus , whereas K oz lowsk i a nd K oz lowsk i ( 1981 ) s uggested t he e x istence o f a d ist inct ive u n it w ith l eaf p o ints , d istr ibuted o ver t he North E uropean l ow land b etween P o land a nd G reat B r ita in . T he weak p o int o f t he l atter h ypothes is was t he a bsence o f b ase c amps . Across t he who le a rea o f t he n orthern e dge o f t he u p land a nd i n t he s outhern c orner o f t he l ow land , t h is u n it i s k nown o n ly f rom h unt ing c amps where t here were f ew a rt ifacts b es ides l eaf p o ints ( Tab le 1 0 ) . T he J erzmanow ice p o ints a ppear a t t he v ery b eg inn ing o f t he I nterp len ig lac ia l ( before t he Henge lo I nterstad ia l ) i n t wo d i fferent c ontexts : 1 . W ith in t he B ohun ic ian c ontext , a lthough t he ir a ssoc iat ion w ith t he B ohun ic ian a ssemb lages h as n ot b een p roved b eyond a l l d oubt . T he J erzmanow ice p o ints a re p art o f t he s urface c o l lect ions f rom B rno L isen a nd Ondrat ice , b ut t hey h ave n ot b een r ecorded i n t he s trat if ied B ohun ic ian a ssemb lages ( Svoboda a nd S vobodova 1 985 ) . 2 . T hey a re p resent i n t he Upper Danub ian i ndustr ies o f t he We inb erghöh le t ype , b ut o n ly v ery o ccas iona l ly ( Bohmers 1 951 :f 1g . 2 7 ) . The B ohun ic ian a nd Upper Danub ian a ssemb lages ment ioned a bove d iffer e ssent ia l ly w ith r espect t o t echno logy f rom t hose c onta in ing t he J erz manow ice p o ints ( e .g . , N ietoperzowa Cave , l ayer 6 ; Ran is , l ayer X ) . A l l t he p o ints f rom N ietoperzowa Cave , a s we l l a s a t Ran is , a re made o n s lender b lades , u sua l ly f rom d oub le p latform c ores w ithout o bservab le p reparat ion . The B ohun ic ian p o ints , o n t he o ther h and , a re p roduced o n L eva l lo is b lades , a nd t he Upper D anub ian o n b ladel ike f lakes . T hese t echno log ica l v ar iat ions make i t d iff icu lt t o d raw c onc lus ions a bout t he g enes is o f t he J erzmanow ice a nd s im i lar a sse mb lages . T here a re , u nfortuna te ly , n o c omp lete J erz manow ice ( o r Ran is a nd L incomb ian t ype ) a ssemb lages f rom b ase c amps a va i lab le f or s tudy . S ome i nd irect i n format ion i sp rov ided b y l ater s i tes ( i n a l l l i ke l ihood f rom t he s econd h a lf o f t he I n terp len ig lac ia l o r l a ter ) , s uch a s t he s i te o f P u lborough i n E ng land ( Jacob i 1 986 ) , o r t he u pper l eve l o f Kostenk i 8 -Te lmanskaya ( Ef imenko a nd B or iskovsk i 1 957 ) , wh ich a re l ocated a t o ppos ite e nds o f t he r ange o f t he l arge t axonom ic u n it o f t he J erzmanow ic ian-Ran is ian . O f s pec ia l i nterest i s t he c o l lect ion ( a lthough n ot s ystemat ica l ly e xcavated ) f rom P u lborough where , a longs ide b ifac ia l b lade p o ints äf ace p lane ( a ltogether 3 4 s pec imens ) , o ccurred b ur ins ( 13 ) [ r epresented b y b ur ins o n a s nap , d ihedra l a nd t runcat ion b ur ins ( 10 ) 1 , r etouched b lades ( 9 ) , Kostenk i k n ives ( 8 ) , a nd o ccas iona l p erforators a nd r etouched t runcat ions . T h is i s , t hen , a t yp ica l s et o f Upper P a leo l ith ic f orms , a l l made o n h igh q ua l ity b lades f ro m d oub le p latform c ores . T he who le c o l lect ion c onta ins o n ly a s ing le r etouched f l ake . We d o n ot k now where , w ith in t he l ate I n terp len ig lac ia l , t he P u lborough c o l lect ion s hou ld b e p laced , n or d o we k now what t ime i nterva l s eparates i t f rom t he e ar l iest h unt ing c amps o f t he J erz manow ice-Ran is-L inco mb ian c o mp lex , wh ich i s c orre lated t o t he Henge lo I nterstad ia l . T he e vo lut ionary t rends o f t he J erzmanow ice u n it c an o n ly b e t raced i n t he s trat igraphy o f N ietoperzowa Cave ( Chm ie lewsk i 1 961 ) , where b ifac ia l p o ints d isappear , t he r etouch o n u n ifac ia l b lade p o ints o r who l ly b ifac ia l p o ints d im in ishes , a nd b lades b ecome t h inner a nd l onger . I n t he n orthern p art o f E urope , we l l-deve loped Aur ignac ian i ndustr ies a re a l so p resent , b ut t hey a ppeared o n ly i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he I nterp len ig lac ia l ,
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more p rec ise ly f rom t he Henge lo-Arey i n terphase [ e .g . , i n t he w e l l-dated s i tes o f L om mersum i n West Germany , a t t he K rak6w-Zw ierzyn iec a nd K rak6w-Spadz ista s i tes ( Leroyer a nd L ero i-Gourhan 1 983 ; K oz lowsk i a nd S obczyk 1 987) ] . Madeyska ( 1982 :f ig . 3 ) s uggests t hat t he Aur ignac ian s pread t o s outhern P o land a t t he v ery b eg inn ing o f t he I n terp len ig lac ia l ( ca . 5 0 ,000 B .P . ) . T h is e rroneous s uppos it ion s eems t o r esu lt f rom i ncorrect ly c orre lat ing t he s trat igraphy o f t he s o-ca l led l oamy l oess o n t he s i te o f K rakbw-Zw ierzyn iec ( un it 1 2 ) w ith t he e ar ly I nterp len ig lac ia l ; i t i s more l i ke ly t hat t h is l oess was d epos ited d ur ing a c oo l , s teppe p hase s eparat ing t wo I n terp len ig lac ia l o sc i l lat ions . T he l ower o f t hese o sc i l lat ions i s marked o n ly b y a n e ros iona l p hase , a nd t he s o i l c orrespond ing t o i t h as n ot b een p reserved i n t he p rof i le .
CONCLUS IONS T he f orego ing r ev iew o f t he ma in t echno log ica l t rends i n t he 5 0 ,0003 0 ,000 B .P . r ange , p resented i n t erms o f ar eg iona l p erspect ive , h as s hown t hat d ur ing t h is p er iod t he f o l low ing c ont inu it ies a nd d i scont inu it ies c an b e o bserved : 1 . I n t he s outhern p art o f C entra l E urope , n otab ly i n t he B a lkans , a n u n interrupted e vo lut ion o f Mouster ian i ndustr ies w ith t he L eva l lo is t echn ique p ers ists u nt i l t he f i rst h a lf o f t he I n terp len ig lac ia l . I n t he ir y ounger p hase , t hese i ndustr ies p roduce l eaf p o in ts . I n t he M idd le D anube B as in , t he c omparab le i ndustry i s t he J ankov ich ian , a nd i n Morav ia , t he B ohun ic ian . A lthough t he l a tter i ndustry h as a p rom inent b lade c omponent a nd c onta ins U pper P a leo l ith ic t oo ls , i t d id n ot l ead t o t he e vo lut ion o f Upper P a leo l ith ic b lade t echno log ies . T he B ohun ic ian d ec l ines i n t he Henge lo-Arcy i n terphase b etween 3 6 ,000-34 ,000 B .P . I n t he l ast p hase o f t he ir e vo lut ion , t he makers o f t he L eva l lo is t echnocomp lex w ith l eaf p o ints were h unters , s pec ia l iz ing i n h orse a nd o ther b ig g ame o f t he c oo l s teppe . T he f i rst dwe l l ing f eatures made o f mam moth b ones a re e ncountered i n t h is p er iod . A lthough n oth ing i s k nown a bout t he p hys ica l c haracter ist ics o f t hese p eop le , t he e ar l ier p hases must h ave b een t he o utcome o f t he a ct iv ity o f Homo s ap iens n eandert ha lens is . 2 . I n t he M idd le a nd Upper Danube B as in , c o inc id ing w ith t he L ower P len ig lac ia l , t wo t ypes o f l eaf-po int i ndustr ies d eve loped o n t he b ase o f t he " Centra l E uropean M icoqu ian :" t he S ze let ian a nd a ssemb lages o f t he Mauern t ype ( We inberghöh le ) . We c an s ay w ith c o mp lete c erta inty t hat t he S ze let ian c ont inues i t s e vo lut ion u nt i l t he b eg inn ing o f t he U pper P len ig lac ia l . I t mod if ies i t s t echno logy ( f lake t echno logy b ased o n d isco ida l c ores i s r ep laced b y b lade t echno logy ) p roduc ing a n i ncreas ing n umber o f Upper P a leo l ith ict ype t oo ls . I n p ara l le l f ash ion , t he t yp ica l S ze let ian h unt ing p attern , f ocused i n t he r eg ions a t t he f oot o f t he mounta ins , e co log ica l ly v ar ied , a nd w ith a w ide s pectrum o f s pec ies , was g radua l ly r ep laced b y s pec ia l ized h unt ing i n t he s teppe e nv ironment . The f i rst dwe l l ing s tructures b u i lt o f s tone o ccur i n t he a dvanced S zelet ian [ Dz ierzys law ( Koz lowsk i 1 964 ) ] . T he t ypo logy o f t he l ate S zelet ian a ssemb lages s uggests t hat p art o f t he Upper P a leo l ith ic t oo l s et c ou ld h ave b een t he i n f luence o f c ontacts w ith t he Aur ignac ian .
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I n c ontrast t o t he S ze let ian , i n t he c ase o f t he Mauerntype a ssemb lages , w e c annot i nd isputab ly e stab l ish t he c ont inu ity o f e vo lut ion i n to a ssemb lages o f t he J erz manow ice-Ran is-L incomb ian t ype . I t i sl i ke ly t hat t he d eve loped J erzmanow ice b lade t echno logy h as a d ifferent o r ig in ( e .g . , i n t he p oor ly u nderstood M idd le P a leo l ith ic a ssemb lages w ith Upper P a leo l ith ic b lade t echno logy , k nown i n t he w estern p art o f t he E uropean L ow land ) . The o lder S ze let ian a ssemb lages w ere p robab ly t he work o f t he Neandertha ls ( Thoma 1 969 ) ; t he y ounger o nes were u nquest iona b ly made b y modern p eop le ( Ve V ratech Cave , B ohem ia ) . C ou ld c ontacts w ith t he Aur ignac ian p eop le h ave l ed t o g enet ic c hange? T o r eso lve t h is q uest ion c a l ls f or f urther s tudy . 3 . I n t he e astern p art o f t he r eg ions o f o ur i n terest ( east o f t he Carpath ians , t he Dnester a nd P rut B as in ) , t he e vo lut ion o f t he Mouster ian p ers ists i n to t he f i rst h a lf o f t he I n terp len ig lac ia l a s man ifested b y t he o ccurrence o f t erm ina l Mouster ian a ssemb lages w ith d ent icu lated-notched t oo ls , a nd t he a ppearance o f e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic a ssemb lages d om inated b y d ent icu lated-notched t oo ls , l eaf p o ints , a nd e xh ib it ing a weak ly p erfected b lade t echno logy ( i .e . , a sse mb lages o f t he R ip icen iIzvor-Ceah lau-Cetet ica t ype ) . T he ir r e lat ion t o t he E ast E uropean a ssemb lages w ith l eaf p o ints , i n p art icu lar t o t he s o-ca l led Mo ldav ian S ze let ian , r equ ires f urther s tudy . 4 . The Aur ignac ian o ccurs t hroughout t he who le o f t he t err itory o f o ur i nterest . A p ronounced d iscont inu ity i n t echno logy , morpho logy , a nd r aw mater ia ls s eparates t h is u n it f rom b oth t he t yp ica l Mous ter ian w ith L eva l lo is t echn ique a nd f rom t he " Centra l E uropean M icoqu ian ." T he Aur ignac ian was c reated b y Homo s ap iens s ap iens . F rom t he o utset i t p ossessed a s oph ist icated f igura l a rt . T he e ar l iest Aur ignac ian a ssemb lages a re f ound i n t he b as in o f t he M idd le Danube a nd i n t he B a lkans , a l though i n t he l i ght o f t he p resent s tate o f i nvest igat ions , t he Aur ignac ian i n t he B a lkans i s a lso a n a l lochthonous u n it . On t he o ther h and , we h ave o bserved a h iatus b etween t he Mouster ian a nd t he b acked i mp lements a ssemb lages i n t he t err itory o f Anato l ia ( A lbrecht 1 986 ) ; t he p os it ion o f t he Aur ignac ian i s , t hen , n ot v ery c lear . I n t he N ear E ast t he Aur ignac ian i s p robab ly l ater t han i n t he B a lkans . T he i s sue o f t he o r ig ins o f t he Aur ignac ian s t i l l r ema ins o pen f or d iscuss ion . 5 . Unquest ionab ly , t he Aur ignac ian p layed a v ita l r o le i n t he l epto l ith izat ion o f C entra l E urope , n otab ly i n t he p ropagat ion o f Upper P a leo l ith ic t echno logy a nd i t s t ransm iss ion t o l oca l l eaf-po int i ndustr ies . T ogether w ith t he s pread o f t he Aur ignac ian , a n ew h uman p hys ica l t ype p opu lated E urope , m ix ing w ith t he l oca l Neandertha ls .
REFERENCES An is iutk in , N .K . 1 972 L istov idy ie o str ia s d vustoronnoy o brabotkoy s o s toyank i S t inka I . Mater ia ly ii s s ledovan iya p o a rkheo log i i S SSR 1 85 :88-94 .
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A lbrecht , G . 1 986 E ine m itte l- u nd j ungpa läo l ith ische Abfo lge a us Anta lya/Südtürke i E rgebn isse d er Höh lengrabung , 1 985 i n K ara in B . I n M . O tte ( ed itor ) L 'Homme d e N eanderta l . L i8ge : U n ivers ity o f L i8ge . B a i ley , G . , P .L . Carter , C .S . Gamb le , a nd E . H iggs 1 983 A sproeha l iko a nd Kastr itsa . F urther i nvest igat ions o f P a laeo l ith ic s ett lement a nd e conomy i n E p irus ( N .W . G reece ) . P roceed ings o f t he P reh istor ic S oc iety 4 9 . B as ler , D . ( ed itor ) 1 975 C rvena s t i jena - z bo m ik r adova . N iks ie . B oeda , E . 1 986 L e c oncept l am ina ire : r upture e t f i l ia t ion a vec l e c oncept l eva l lo is . I n M . O tte ( ed itor ) L 'Hom me d e Neanderta l . L i8ge : Un ivers ity o f L i8ge . B ordes , F . 1 980 L e d 8b itage L eva l lo is e t s es v ar iants . Bu l let in d e l a S oc iit8 P reh istor ique F ranqa ise 7 7 :45-49 . B ohmers , A . 1 951 D ie Höh len v on Mauern . P a laeoh istor ia I .G ron ingen : J .B . Wo lters . B orz iak , I .A . 1 984 V erkhnepa leo l it icheskaya s toyanka Gordyneshty I v Popru t ie . K ish inev : S ht i intsa . B orz iak , I .A . , G .V . G r igor ieva , a nd N .A . K etraru 1 981 P ose len iya d revnekamennogo v eka n a S evero-zapade Mo /dav i i . K ish inev : S ht i intsa . B ottema , S . 1 974 L ate Quaterna ry V egetat ion H istory o f Nor thwestern Greece . G ron ingen : G ron ingen Un ivers ity P ress . B rodar , S . , a nd M . B rodar 1 983 P otocka z i ja lka - v isokoa lpska p osta ja a ur ignac iensk ih l ovcev . L jub l jana . B runnacker , K . 1 975 D ie S ed imente d er C revena s t i jena . I n D . B as ler ( ed itor ) Cr vena s t i jena -z born ik r adova . N iks ie . Carc iumaru , M . 1 980 Med iu l g eograf ic i n p le istocenu l s uper ior s i c u lture p a leo l it ice d in Roman ia . B ueurest i : E d itura Academ ie i Repub l ic i i s oc ia l iste R oman ia . Chava i l lon , J . , N . Chava i l lon , a nd F . Hours 1 967 I ndustr ies p a l8o l ith iques d 'E l ide . I- r eg ion d 'Ama l ias . B u l let in d e Correspondance He l len ique 9 1(1 ) :151-201 . 1 969 I ndustr ies p a l8o l ith iques d 'E l ide . I -r eg ion d e K astron . B u l let in d e C orrespondance He l len ique 9 3 (1 ) :97-151 . Chm ie lewsk i , W . 1 961 L e c iv i l isat ion d e J erzmanow ice . Wroc law . 1 975 P a leo l it g rodkowy ig örny . I n W . Chm ie lewsk i a nd W . Hense l ( ed itors ) P rah istor ia Z iem P o lsk ich , v o l . 1 ,p p . 9 -158 . Wroc law . Dakar is , S . I . , E .S . H iggs , a nd R .W . Hay 1 964 T he c l imate , e nv ironment , a nd i ndustr ies o f S tone Age G reece . P roc eed ings o f t he P reh istor ic S oc iety 3 0 :199-244 . D rozdowsk i , E . 1 986 S tratygraf ia i g eneza o sadöw z lodowacen ia W istu l ian w p ö lnocnej c zehc i Do lnego P ow iS la . Wroc law . E f imenko , P .P . , a nd P . I . B or iskovsk i 1 957 T e l 'manskoye p a leo l it icheskoye p os ie len ie . Mater ia ly i i s s ledovan iya p o a rkheo log i i S SSR 5 9 :191-234 .
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F reund , G . 1 968 L e P a leo l ith ique moyen ä p o intes f o l lacees d e l a g rotte Oberneder s ur A lt müh l e n B av iere . I n F . B ordes a nd D . d e S onnev i l le-Bordes ( ed itors ) L a P r M isto ire : P rob l& nes e t T endances . P ar is : CNRS . 1 984 Z um S tand d er Ausgrabungen i n d er S esse lfe lsgrotte i m u nteren A ltmüh lta l . Ausgrabungen i n D eutsch land . Ma inz : V er lag d es R om ischG er man ischen Z entra lmuseum . Gabor i-Csank , V . 1 983 L e g rotte R emete-"Fe lsö" e t l e S ze let ien d e l a T ransdanub ie . Acta A rchaeo log ica Academ ieae S c ient iarum Hungar icae 3 5 (3-4 ) :249-285 . G r igor ieva , G .V . , a nd N .A . K etraru 1 973 I s s ledovan iya p a leo l it ichesk ikh s toyanok R ashkov V I I iV I I I . A rkheol og ichesk iye i s s ledovan iya v Mo ldav i i v1 970-1971 g g . K ish inev : S ht i intsa . Haesaer ts , P . , a nd M . O tte 1 987 Nouve l les r echerches a u g isement d e W i l lendorf ( Basse Autr iche ) . R e lat ions Rh in-Danube a u P a leo / ith ique S u Or ieur e t F ina l . Ma inz . ( Prep r int ) . Hahn , J . 1 977 Aur ignac ien : D as ä ltere J ungpa läo l ith ikum i n M itte lund O steuropa . K ö ln : F undamenta R e ihe A9 . H iggs , E .S . , C . V ita-F inz i , D .R . Harr is , a nd A .E . F agg 1 969 The c l i mate , e nv ironment a nd i ndustr ies o f S tone Age G reece , p art I . P roceed ings o f t he P reh istor ic S oc iety 3 3 :1-29 . Honea , K . 1 986 Dat ing a nd p er iod izat ion s trateg ies o f t he Rouman ian Upper a nd M idd le P a laeo l ith ic : R etrospect ive o verv iew a nd a ssessment . I n A . ApS i mon ( ed itor ) T he P le istocene P erspect ive , v o l . 1 . L ondon . J acob i , R .M . 1 986 The c ontents o f D r . Har ley 's s how c ase . I n S .N . Co l lcutt ( ed itor ) T he P a laeo l ith ic B r ita in a nd I t s Nearest N e ighbours : Recent T rends , p p . 6 26 8 . S heff ie ld : J ohn R . Co l l is . Kau l ich , B . , M . Nad ler , a nd L . R e isch 1 978 F ührer z u u rgesch icht l ichen Höh len f undp latzen d es u nteren A ltmüh lt a les . Regensburg . Ketraru , N .A . 1 973 P am i a tn ik i e pokh p a leo l ita imezo l ita . K ish inev : S ht i intsa . v on K oen igswa ld , W . , H .J . Mü l ler Beck , a nd E . P ressmar 1 974 D ie A rchäo log ie u nd P a läonto log ie d er We inberghöh len b e i Mauren ( Bayern ) G rabungen 1 937-1967 . Archaeo log ia V enator ia 3 . T üb ingen . Kowa lsk i , K . 1 982 Genera l r emarks ( an ima l r e ma ins ) . I n J .K . K oz lowsk i ( ed itor ) E xcav at ion i n t he B acho K iro C ave ( Bu lgar ia ) . F ina l R eport . Warszawa : P ar istwowe Wydawn ictwo Naukowe . Koz lowsk i , J .K . 1 964 P a /eo / it n a Go mym S lasku . Wroc law . 1 979 L e B achok ir ien - l a p lus a nc ienne i ndustr ie d u P a leo l ith ique s uper ieur e n E urope ( Que lques r emarques ä p ropos d e l ' out i l lage d e l a c ouche 1 d e l a g rotte B acho K iro ) . I n M idd le a nd E ar ly Upper P a laeo l ith ic i n B a lkans . K raköw . 1 986 L 'appar it ion d u P a leo l ith ique s uper ieur . I n M . O tte ( ed itor ) L 'Hom me d e Neanderta / . L iege : Un ivers ity o f L iege . i . p .a P rob le ms o f c ont inu ity a nd d iscont inu ity b etween t he M idd le a nd Upp er P a laeo l ith ic o f Centra l E urope . I n H . D ibb le a nd A . Montet-Wh ite ( ed itors ) Upper P le istocene P reh istory o f Western Euras ia . P h i lade lph ia : T he Un ivers ity Museum .
o f
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i . p .b Mu lt iaspectua l a pproach t o t he M idd le - U pper P a laeo l ith ic T rans i t ion . I n P . Me l lars a nd C . S tr inger ( ed itors ) T he Human Revo lut ion : B ehav ioura l a nd B io log ica l P erspect ives o n t he O r ig ins o f Modern Humans . E d inburgh : Un ivers ity o f E d inburgh P ress . K oz lowsk i , J .K . ( ed itor ) 1 982 E xcavat ion i n t he B acho K iro C ave ( Bu lgar ia ) . F ina l R eport . Warszawa : P af istwowe Wydawn ictwo N aukowe . K oz lowsk i , J .K . , H . L av i l le , a nd N . S irakov i . p . L e g rotte T emnata p res d e K ar loukovo : Une i mportante s equence g eo log ique e t a rcheo log ique a ux B a lkans . L 'Anthropo log ie ( i n p ress ) . K oz lowsk i , J .K . , a nd S .K . K oz lowsk i 1 977 E poka k am ien ia n a z iemiach p o lsk ich . Warszawa : P af i stwowe Wydawn ictwo Naukove . 1 981 P räh isto ire d e l a G rande P la ine d e l ' Europe . Archaeo log ia I nterr eg iona l is I .K raköw-Warszawa : J ag ie l lon ian Un ivers ity . K oz lowsk i , J .K . , a nd K . S obezyk 1 987 T he Upper P a laeo l ith ic S i te K raköw-Spadz ista S treet C2 . E xcavat ions 1 980 . P race A rcheo log iczne 4 2 . K raköw . L ero i-Gourhan , A . , J . Chava i l lon , a nd N . Chava i l lon 1 964 P a l8o l ith ique d e P e loponese . Bu l let in d e l a S oc iete P reh istor ique F ranga ise 4 0 . L eroyer , C . , a nd A . L ero i-Gourhan 1 983 P rob l8mes d e c hrono log ie - l e C aste lperron ien e t l 'Aur ignac ien . B u l let in d e l a S oc iete P reh istor ique F ra rwa ise 8 0 (2 ) :41-44 . Madey ska , T . 1 982 T he s trat igraphy o f P a laeo l ith ic s i tes o f t he C racow Up land . Acta Geo log ica P o lon ica 3 2 (3-4 ) . Ma lez , M . , F .H . Sm ith , J . R adovc ic , a nd D . Rukav ina , 1 980 Upper P le istocene h om in ids f rom V ind i ja , C roat ia , Y ugos lav ia . Cu r— r ent Anthropo logy 2 1 (3 ) :365-367 . Maruszczak , H . , a nd J . B utrym 1 986 Wyn ik i d atowaf i metoda t ermo lum inescency jna j ako p odstawa p aral e l izac j i c hronostratygraf iczne j r eperowych p rof i l i l essöw p o lsk ich weg iersk ich . Geochronometr ia 1 .G l iw ice . M i lo j8 ic , V . , J . B oessneck , D . J ung , a nd H . S chne ider 1 965 P a läo l ith ikum i n L ar issa , T hessa l ien . B onn . Montet-Wh ite A . , H . L av i l le , a nd A .M . L ez ine 1 986 L e P a l8o l ith ique e n B osn ie d u N ord : Ch rono log ie , e nv ironment e t p r a isto ire . L 'Anthropo log ie 9 0 (1 ) . Mü l lerBeck , H .J . i . p . T he e cosystem o f t he "M idd le P a laeo l ith ic" ( Upper L ower P a laeol i th ic ) i n t he U pper Danube B as in a s b ase o f t he Upper P a laeo l ith ic d eve lopment . I n H . D ibb le a nd A . Montet-Wh ite ( ed itors ) Upper P le istoc ene P reh istory o f Western Euras ia . P h i lade lph ia : T he Un ivers ity Museum . O l iva , M . 1 979 D ie Herkuft d es S ze let ien i m L ichte n euer F unde v on J ezerany . Casop is Morayskeho Muzea 6 4 :45-78 . 1 984 L e B ohun ic ien , u n n ouveau g roupe c u lture l e n Morav ie . Que lques a spects p sycho-techno log iques d u d 8ve loppement d es i ndustr ies p a l8ol i th iques . L 'Anthropo log ie 8 8 (2 ) :209-220 . P aepe , R . , a nd R . V anhoorne 1 967 T he S trat igraphy a nd P a laeobotany o f t he L ate P le istocene i n B e lg ium . B ruxe l les . P auneseu , A . 1 965 S ur l a s uccess ion d es h ab itats p a l8o l ith iques e t p ostpa l8o l ith iques d e R ip icen iIzvor . D ac ia 9 :5-32 .
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1 987 i nceputur i le p a leo l it icu lu i s uper ior i n Mo ldova . S tud i i s i c ercetar i i d e i s tor ie v eche s ia rheo log ie 3 8 (2 ) :87-100 . P ecs i , M . 1 972 S c ient if ic a nd p ract ica l s ign if icance o f l oess r esearches . Acta Geo log ica Academ iae S c ient iarum Hun g ar icae 1 6 :317-328 . P er les , C . 1 986 L es I ndustr ies L ith iques d e F ranchth i , V o lume I . T hese d e d octorat , Un ivers ite P ar is X . R inger , A . 1 982 B abon iyen - e ine m itte lpa läo l ith ische B lattsp itzen industr ie i n Nordos tungarn . D isser tat iones Archaeo log icae 1 1 . B udapest . S irakov , N . 1 983 R econstruct ion o f t he M idd le P a laeo l ith ic f l int a ssemb lages f rom t he Cave S amu i l itsa I ( Northern B u lgar ia ) a nd t he ir t axonom ica l p os it ion s een a ga inst t he P a laeo l ith ic o f S outh-Eastern E urope . F o l ia Quaternar ia 5 5 . S voboda , J . 1 980 K remencova i ndustr ie z Ondrat ic . K p rob lemu p ocatku m ladeho p a leo l itu . S tud ie A rcheo /og ickeho u stavu C sAV 9 (1 ) :1-109 . P rague : Academ ia . 1 985 N eue G rabungergebn isse v on S transka s ka la , Mäh ren . A rchäo log isches Korespondenzb latt 1 5 . 1 987 S transka s ka la . B ohun icky t yp v b rnenske k ot l in ie . S tud ie Archeo log ickeho u stavu C sAV 1 4 (1 ) . P rague : Academ ia . S voboda , J . , a nd H . S vobodova 1 985 L es i ndustr ies d u t ype B ohun ice d ans l eur c adre s trat igraph ique e t e co log ique . L 'Anthropo log ie 8 9 (4 ) . T homa A . 1 969 Contr ibut ion t o t he d iscuss ion o f K . V a loch 's r eport . I n T he O r ig in o f Homo S ap iens . P ar is . V a loch , K . 1 966 D ie a l tertüm l icher B lattsp itzen industr ie v on J ezerany . Casop is Moraysk Mo Muzea 5 1 :5-60 . 1 969 Das P a läo l ith ikum i n d er T schechos lowake i . I n Quaternary i n Czechos lovak ia , p p . 6 9-149 . P rague : Academ ia . 1 973 N es lov ice , e ine b edeutende F undste l le d es S ze let iens i n Mähren . Casop is Morayske 'ho Muzea 5 8 :5-76 . 1 980 P redbezna s prava o v yzkumu j eskyne Ku lny u S loupu . P reh led V S 7zk umu 1 977 , p p . 1 1-22 . B rno . 1 984 V yzkum p a leo l itu v V edrov icach V ( okr . Z no j mo ) . Casop is Morayskäho Muzea 6 9 . V a loch , K . ( ed itor ) 1 976 D ie A ltste inze it l iche F undste l le i n B rno-Bohun ice . S tud ie ArcheoI og ickeho u stavu C sAV 4 (1 ) :3-120 . P rague : Academ ia . V a loch , K . , M . O l iva , P . Hav l icek , J . K arasek , J . P e l isek , a nd L . Smo l ikova 1 984 Das F rühaur ingnac ien v on V edrov ice I u nd K uparov ice i n S udmäh ren . Anthropozo ikum 1 6 . V oge l , J .C . , a nd H .T . Waterbo lk 1 972 G ron ingen r ad iocarbon d ates X . Rad iocarbon 1 4 (1 ) :6-110 . Wagner , E . 1 983 D as M itte lpa läo l ith ikum d er G rossen Grotte b e i B laubauern ( A lbDonauKre is ) . S tuttgart : Kom iss ionver lag K . The iss .
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E ARLY U PPER P A LEOL ITH IC S ITES O FT HE E UROPEAN U SSR J ohn F . Hoffeeker E nergy a nd E nv ironmenta l S yste ms D iv is ion A rgonne Nat iona l L aboratory A rgonne , I l ino is U .S .A .
I t i s n ow a pparent t hat t he P a leo l ith ic r ecord o f t he E uropean USSR i s p rofound ly d ifferent f rom t hat o f Western a nd Centra l E urope , a nd t he Near East . T h is i s a l most c erta in ly a r ef lect ion o f t he h arsh e nv iron ments o f t he Russ ian P la in , wh ich d iscouraged s ett le ment u nt i l r e lat ive ly l ate i n p reh istory , a nd a ppear t o h ave c o mpe l led s ubsequent a bandonment o f s ome r eg ions . T he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic i s p art icu lar ly a noma lous , l ack ing a l l b ut t he f a intest t races o f t he o therw ise u b iqu itous Aur ignac ian , a nd man ifest ing i t s own p ecu l iar a rray o f n at ive i ndustr ies .
THE PROBLEM OF DEF IN IT ION Recogn it ion o f af undamenta l d iv is ion b etween " ear ly" a nd " late" Upper Pa leo l ith ic i ndustr ies i n it ia l ly s urfaced i n S ov iet a rchaeo logy d ur ing t he t urbu lent p er iod o f t he e ar ly 1 930 's . P r ior t o t h is , P a leo l ith ic r esearchers , a pp ly ing c lass if icatory s che mes b orrowed f rom Western E urope , s ubd iv ided t he Russ ian Upper P a leo l ith ic i nto a s im i lar s equence o f i ndustr ies . T h is a pproach was t yp if ied b y Gorodtsov ( 1923 ) , who p ostu lated e ar ly , m idd le , a nd l ate Upper Pa leo l ith ic p hases , c orrespond ing t o Aur ignac ian , S o lutrean , a nd Magda len ian , r espect ive ly . T he u nfortunate t endency t o a pp ly West E uropean c lass if icatory s che mes t o t he Russ ian P a leo l ith ic was p robab ly e ngendered , a t l east i n p art , b y t he a bsence o f a v iab le c hrono log ic f ramework . T he P a leo l ith ic r ecord o f t he E uropean USSR i s v ery d i fferent f rom t hat o f Western E urope , l ack ing b oth t he o vera l l t ime d epth a nd d eep ly s trat if ied c ave s i tes o f t he l a tter . Most P a leo l ith ic s i tes i n E uropean Russ ia a re o pen-a ir l oca l it ies o f L ate P le istocene a ge , r are ly c onta in ing more t han o ne o r t wo o ccupat ion l eve ls . S ov iet a rchaeo log ists t hus a ttempted t o o rder t he ir s i tes c h rono log ica l ly b y a pp ly ing t he r e lat ive c u ltures trat igraphy o f Western E urope . I n r etrospect , i t i s a pparent t hat t he b orrowed c u lture-strat igraph ic s chemes h ave v ery l im ited a pp l icab i l ity t o t he Russ ian d ata ( Bordes 1 968 ; K le in 1 973 ) ; a t b est , t hey p erm it a s ubd iv is ion b etween M idd le a nd Upper P a leo l ith ic . B y t he b eg inn ing o f t he 1 930 's , S ov iet a rchaeo log ists were a tte mpt ing t o d eve lop a n e xp l ic it ly Marx ist-Len in ist a pproach t o p reh istory , w ith a n emphas is o n s oc ia l a nd e conom ic e vo lut ion ; West E uropean r esearchers were d enounced f or t he ir n arrow c oncerns w ith t ypo logy a nd s trat igraphy ( M i l ler 1 956 ; Howe 1 980 ) . The P a leo l ith ic r ecord was n ow i n terpreted i n t erms o f t he s oc ia l e vo lut ionary f ramework o f Marx a nd E nge ls , w ith p art icu lar a ttent ion t o t he a ppearance o f
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" c lan s oc iety" ( r odovoe o bshchestvo ) , wh ich was a ttr ibuted t o t he M idd le-Upper P a leo l ith ic t rans it ion ( e .g . , B or iskovsk i j 1 932 , 1 935 ; E f imenko 1 938 ) . However , s ign if icant s oc ia l a nd e conom ic c hange was a l so p ostu lated f or t he b eg inn ing o f t he l ater Upper P a leo l ith ic ( Bor iskovsk i j 1 932 :29-38 ; E f imenko 1 938 :469-565 ) . T he e ar l ier p hase o f t he Upper P a leo l ith ic was t ermed t he " Aur ignacoS o lutrean ," a lthough t he S ov iet r esearchers r ecogn ized t he d iff icu lty o f a pp ly ing t he West E uropean t ypo logy t o t he t he ir s i tes . On ly t he c ave s i te o f S yuren ' I ( l ocated i n t he C r imea ) was i dent if ied ( t entat ive ly ) a s a n Aur ignac ian l oca l ity i n t he E uropean USSR ( Ef imenko 1 938 :441-442 ) ; t h is d eterm inat ion was l arge ly b ased o n t he p resence o f n uc le iform e nd-scrapers a nd b ur ins . The r e ma in ing s i tes a ss igned t o t he e ar l ier Upper P a leo l ith ic b y E f imenko ( 1938 :442-468 ) i nc luded K ostenk i I( Hor izon 1 ) ( M idd le Don R iver ) , Gagar ino ( M idd le D on R iver ) , a nd B erdyzh ( l ocated o n t he S ozh R iver i n t he B e loruss ian S SR ) - ag roup o f a ssemb lages c onta in ing s hou ldered p o ints t hat i s n ow t yp ica l ly i nc luded i n t he " Eastern G ravett ian" ( or , more n arrow ly , t he " Kostenk i-W i l lendorf C u lture" ) ( Kozlowsk i a nd Koz lowsk i 1 979 ; Rogachev a nd An ikov ich 1 984 ) . I n t he y ears f o l low ing t he S econd Wor ld War , S ov iet a rchaeo log ists , work ing f rom a n e xpanded d ata b ase , p roposed more c omp lex Upper Pa leo l ith ic r eg iona l c hrono log ies f or t he E uropean USSR ( e .g . , B or iskovsk i j 1 953 :395-415 ; Chernysh 1 959 :114-115 ) . T here was l ess empha s is o n a more f undamenta l d iv is ion b etween " ear ly" a nd " late" Upper P a leo l ith ic . N everthe less , a s i n o ther p arts o f E urope a nd t he N ear E ast , as ign if icant b oundary i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord may b e r ecogn ized r ough ly a t t he m id-po int o f t he Upper P a leo l ith ic s uccess ion . T he b oundary r ema ins d iff icu lt t o d ef ine i n p ure ly t echno log ica l o r t ypo log ica l t erms , h owever ; t he l ack o f w e l l d eve loped c lass if icatory s chemes a nd e ffect ive c hrono log ica l c ontro ls i n S ov iet Pa leo l ith ic a rchaeo logy c ontr ibute t o t he p rob lem . F or t he p resent , Iwou ld d ef ine t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic o f t he E uropean USSR o n t he b as is o f s trat igraph ic c on text , d raw ing t he b oundary b etween e ar ly a nd l ate a t t he c ontact b etween t he w ide ly d istr ibuted t erm ina l M idd le P len ig lac ia l b ur ied s o i l a nd o ver ly ing G lac ia l Max i mum l oess , r ad iocarbon d ated a t c a . 2 5 ,000 B .P . T he l ower b oundary a lso r ema ins d iff icu lt t o d ef ine p rec ise ly [ s ome a sse mb lages i n t he M idd le Dnestr V a l ley c annot b e f i rm ly a ss igned t o e ither t he M idd le o r t he Upper P a leo l ith ic ( Chernysh 1 973 , 1 977 ) ] , b ut a n amorphous t rans i t ion may b e i dent if ied a t 3 5 ,000-30 ,000 B .P . o r p oss ib ly e ar l ier . A fter t h is t ime , a sse mb lages o f i nd isputab le Upper P a leo l ith ic t echno log ica l a nd t ypo log ica l c hara cter w ere p resent i n t h is p art o f E urope . T he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic o f t he E uropean USSR may b e d ef ined , t heref ore , a s t he Upper P a leo l ith ic i ndustr ies o f t he M idd le P len ig lac ia l , a n e nt ity c onta in ing a r emarkab ly d iverse c o l lect ion o f s i tes . T h is d ef in it ion e xcludes t he " Eastern G ravett ian" o ccupat ions , wh ich a re w ide ly d istr ibuted a cross t he Russ ian P la in i n t he p ost-25 ,000 B .P . i n terva l , a nd a re c ategor ized b y many p reh istor ians a s " ear ly Upper P a leo l ith ic" ( e .g . , Gamb le 1 986 ) . The E astern G ravett ian a nd c ontemporaneous o ccupat ions o f t he e ar ly G lac ia l Max imum mark t he most i mport ant b reak i n t he R uss ian Upper P a leo l ith ic r ecord , a nd c lear ly warrant i nc lus ion i n i t s l a ter s tage .
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D ISTRIBUT ION OF S ITES Most e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes o n t he Russ ian P la in a re c oncentrated i n t wo r eg ions : t he M idd le D nestr V a l ley ( and a d jo in ing a reas ) , a nd t he M idd le Don Va l ley . However , s evera l s i tes h ave b een i dent if ied o n t he n orthern h a lf o f t he p la in , i nclud ing t he f ar n ortheast ( F igure 1 ) . T h is d istr ibut ion p attern p resents s ign if icant c ontrasts w ith t hat o f t he l ater U pper P a leo l ith ic .
M idd le Dnestr Valey a nd Ad jo in ing Reg ions The most i mportant s i tes i n t he M idd le Dnestr V a l ley a re l ocated s outhwest o f Kamenets-Podo l 'sk i j i n S ok iryansk r ajon ( Chernov itsy o b last ' ) i n t he Ukra in ian S SR : Mo lodova I( Layer 3 ) , Mo lodova V ( Layers 8 -10a ) , a nd Korman ' I V ( Layers 7 -10 ) . A l l t h ree s i tes a re s i tuated o n t he s econd t errace o f t he Dnestr R iver ( r ight b ank ) , a d jacent t o d eep s ide-va l ley r av ines . Mo lodova Ia nd Korman ' I V w ere i n it ia l ly d iscovered a nd i nvest igated b y I .G . B otez ( 1933 ) a nd N .N . Moros an ( 1 938 ) b etween 1 927-1931 . F o l low ing t he S econd Wor ld War , S ov iet a rchaeo log ist A .P . Chernysh b egan a b road p rogram o f P a leo l ith ic r esearch i n t he r eg ion ; f u l lsca le e xcavat ions were c onducted a t K orman ' I V d ur ing 1 969-1974 ( Chernysh 1 977 ) , a nd a t Mo lodova Io ver a p er iod o f many y ears ( 1955-1961 , 1 963 , a nd 1 9741 984 ) ( Chernysh 1 959 , 1 982 ) . Mo lodova V was d i scovered b y Chernysh i n 1 948 a nd s ub ject t o e xcavat ion d ur ing 1 951 , 1 953-1960 , 1 962 , a nd 1 964 ( Chernysh 1 959 , 1 961 , 1 987a ; I vanova a nd Chernysh 1 965 ) . T hese s i tes a re b e ing i nundated b y t he Mog i lev-Podo l 'sk i j h ydroe lectr ic d am r eservo ir . S evera l o ther M idd le Dnestr V a l ley s i tes i n Chernov itsy o b last ' a lso c onta in o ccupat ions c ommon ly a ttr ibuted t o a n e ar ly p hase o f t he Upper P a leol i th ic , c h ief ly o n t he b as is o f a rt ifact t ypo logy ( Chernysh 1 973 ) . T hey a re l ocated o n v ar ious t errace l eve ls a long t he r ight b ank o f t he Dnestr R iver , a nd i nc lude Bab in I( Layer 3 ) ,1O se l ivka I( Layers 3 -4 ) , O se l ivka I , a nd V oronov itsa I( Layer 2 ) ( Ambrozew icz 1 930 ; Chernysh 1 959 , 1 971 , 1 973 , 1 987b ) . However , t he d at ing o f t hese s i tes must b e c ons idered p rob lemat ic . A t l east o ne e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic s i te h as b een d iscovered i n t he n or thern Vo lyn-Podo l ian Up land , l ocated i n K remenets ( s outhwest o f Rovno i n T ernopo l ' o b last ' ) . Two o ccupat ion h or izons a t K u l ich ivka ( Layers 3 -4 ) c an b e a ss igned t o t he e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic o n t he b as is o f s trat igraph ic p roven ience a nd r ad iocarbon d at ing ( Sav ich 1 975a ; 1 985 ) . I mportant e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes h ave a lso b een d i scovered i n t he n e ighbor ing P rut V a l ley s ystem i n t he Mo ldav ian S SR . T hey i nc lude t he r ad ioc arbon-dated o pen-a ir s i te o f K orpach ( Layers 3 -4 ) ( Gr igor 'eva 1 983 ) , a nd s evera l c ave s i tes , most n otab ly B rynzeny I( Layer 3 ) ( Ketraru 1 973 ) a nd T r inka I( Layer 3 a ) ( An isyutk in e t a t . 1 986 ) . Another Mo ldav ian o pen-a ir s i te , Chutu leshty I ( Ketraru 1 973 ) , i sl ocated o n at r ibutary o f t he L ower Dnestr R iver . T he d at ing o f Chutu leshty Ia nd t he c ave s i tes i s u ncerta in ; t he ir a ss ignment t o t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic r ema ins t enta t ive .
M idd le Don V a l ley The g reatest c oncentrat ion o f f i rm ly d ated e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes i n t he E uropean USSR l i es a long t he e astern marg in o f t he C entra l R uss ian Up land , s ou th o f Voronezh o n t he Don R iver ( Voronezh o b last ' , R uss ian S FSR ) . T hese s i tes a re p art o f t he K ostenk i g roup a nd i nc lude K ostenk i I( Layers 3 -5 ) , Kostenk i V I ( Stre letskaya I ) , K ostenk i V I I I ( Te l 'manskaya ) ( Layers 2 -4 ) , K ostenk i X I ( Anosovka I ) ( Layers 4 -5 ) , Kostenk i X I I ( Layers 1 -3 ) , K ostenk i X IV ( Mark ina Gora ) ( Layers 2 -
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200km .
VOLGA
B yzovoyo
MOSKVA
o
Y osokovo A l edrezh 'ya Cara
R IVE R Y uros ieh i
K u l ich ivko 0 O seNuke I I I Mo lodoso I , V K orman I V B rynzeny I ,T r inko I K o rpo 0
C hutu leshty I
CRI MEA CAU CAS ' 1 2 1
MOUNTAINS
. yuren ' I
B LACK SEA
F igure 1 . E ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic s i tes o f t he E uropean U SSR . I n set : P echora B as in .
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4 ) , Kostenk i XV ( Gorodtsovskaya ) , K ostenk i XV I , a nd Kostenk i XV I I ( Layers 1 -2 ) ( Rogachev 1 957 ; K le in 1 969 ; P ras lov a nd R ogachev 1 982 ) . T hey a re s i tuated o n t he s econd t errace l eve l , a t t he mouths a nd i n t he u pper r eaches o f t hree l arge s ide-va l ley r av ine s ystems o n t he west ( r ight ) b ank o f t he Don . K ostenk i Ir epres ents o ne o f t he f i rst P a leo l ith ic s i te d i scover ies i n E uropean R uss ia ( 1879 ) , a lthough t he r ema ins o f e x t inct a n i ma ls h ad b een r eported f rom t he a rea i n t he e ighteenth c entury a nd e ar l ier . S ubsequent s i te d iscover ies s pan many y ears [ e .g . , Kostenk i V I ( 1927 ) , K ostenk i X IV ( 1928 ) , K ostenk i V I I I ( 1936 ) , K ostenk i X I I ( 1950 ) 1 , a nd f u l l-sca le e xcavat ions h ave b een u ndertaken b y n umerous S ov iet a rchaeo log ists , i nc lud ing S .N . Z amya tn in , P .P . E f imenko , P . I . B or iskovsk i j , A .N . Rogachev , a nd N .D . P ras lov .
O ther R eg ions S evera l s i tes o n t he n orthern h a lf o f t he Russ ian P la in may b e a ss igned t o t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic . T hese i nc lude Y asakovo a nd S ung ir ' , b oth l ocated i n t he Oka R iver s ystem i n t he R uss ian S FSR . Yasakovo , wh ich i s s i tuated o n t he Oka s econd t errace a nd i sd ated o n t he b as is o f s trat igraph ic c orre lat ion ( i .e . , t he a rt ifacts a re a ssoc iated w ith a l ate M idd le P len ig lac ia l s o i l ) , h as n ever b een t horough ly i nvest igated ( Gromov 1 948 :210-212 ) . S ung ir ' i s l ocated o n a h igh p romontory a long a ma jor Oka t r ibutary ( K lyaz 'ma R iver ) , o uts ide t he c ity o f V lad im ir ( V lad im ir ° b last ' ) ( Sukachev e t a l . 1 966 ; B ader 1 978 ) . D iscovered i n 1 955 , t he s i te was s ub ject t o e xtens ive e xcavat ion i n 1 957-1959 , 1 963 , 1 966-1967 , a nd 1 969-1970 b y O .N . B ader ; t he d iscovery o f s evera l s pectacu lar b ur ia ls i n t he 1 960 's made S ung ir ' o ne o f t he most f amous a rchaeo log ica l s i tes i n t he USSR . F urther n orth , i n t he P echora B as in , l i e t he s i tes o f B yzovaya a nd Medvezh 'ya Cave ( Kan iv ets 1 969 , 1 976 ) , r epresent ing t he n orthernmost P a leo l ith ic o ccupat ions i n E urope ( s ituated we l l a bove t he 6 0th p ara l le l ) . L ate Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes a re u nknown f rom t he n orth Russ ian P la in u nt i l t he L ate G lac ia l ( i .e . , a fter 1 4 ,000 B .P . ) . F ina l ly , i t s hou ld b e n oted t hat t he C r imean c ave s i te o f S yuren ' I( d isc overed i n 1 879 a nd e xcavated b y G .A . B onch-Osmo lovsk i j i n 1 926-1929 ) h as b een a ss igned t o a n e ar ly p hase o f t he Upper P a leo l ith ic o n t ypo log ica l g rounds b y many S ov iet a rchaeo log ists ( Vek i lova 1 957 ) . U nfortunate ly , t here a re n o s upport ing g eo log ic o r r ad iometr ic d ata f or t h is c onc lus ion . T here i s l i tt le e v idence f or a n Upper P a leo l ith ic p resence i n t he v ast Dnepr-Desna B as in u nt i l t he o nset o f t he G lac ia l Max i mum ( i .e . , a fter 2 5 ,000 B .P . ) , d esp ite t he w idespread o ccurrence o f t he l ate M idd le P len ig lac ia l B ryansk S o i l a nd many d ecades o f a rchaeo log ica l i nvest igat ion ( Hoffeeker 1 987 :273 ) . The o n ly U pper P a leo l ith ic s i te i n t he r eg ion t hat h as p roduced a r ad iocarbon d ate i n e xcess o f 2 5 ,000 B .P . [ 26 ,470±420 B .P . ( LU-125 ) f rom a mam moth t ooth ] i s Yurov ich i o n t he P r ipyat ' R iver ( Be loruss ian S SR ) ( Ka lech its 1 984 ; K senzov 1 987 ) . K lyusy , l ocated o n at r ibutary o f t he Desna R iver ( Ukra in ian S SR ) , i s s omet imes t hough t t o r epresent a n e ar l ier Upper P a leo l ith ic s i te , b ut t he d at ing o f t he o ccupat ion h or izon h ere i s h igh ly p rob lemat ic ( Shovkop lyas 1 967 ) . RadomyshP , l ocated w est o f K iev o n t he T eterev R iver ( Ukra in ian S SR ) ( Shovkop lyas 1 965 ) , h as l ong b een r egarded a s e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic o n t ypo log ica l g rounds ( e .g . , Rogac hev a nd An ikov ich 1 984 :176 ) . However , S oi fer ( 1986 :112-113 ) h as r ecent ly r ep orted a r ad iocarbon a cce lerator d ate o f 1 9 ,000±300 B .P . ( OxA-698 ) o n a mam moth t ooth f rom t h is s i te . E ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes a lso Russ ian P la in , b ut , f or t he p resent , t h is e rror ( i .e . , sma l ler s amp le o f P a leo l ith ic f actor i n t h is r eg ion may b e t he r educed
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a ppear t o b e a bsent i n t he s outhernmost may b e p laus ib ly a scr ibed t o s amp l ing s i tes ) ( Hoffecker 1 986 ) . A s ign if icant o ccurrence o f t he l ate M idd le P len ig la-
c ia l s o i l , wh ich , a ccord ing t o V e l ichko a nd Morozova ( 1982 :88 ) , i s o ften l a rge ly i ncorporated i n t he modern s o i l o r a bsent a l together . A s i n t he c ase o f t he D neprDesna B as in , b oth M idd le P a leo l ith ic a nd l ate U pper P a leo l ith ic s ett le ment a re we l l d ocumented i n t h is r eg ion .2 The Caucasus , a lthough n orma l ly c ons idered p art o f t he E uropean USSR , w i l l n ot b e d iscussed h ere .
GEOARCHAEOLOGY : S TRAT IGRAPHY , CHRONOLOGY , AND S ITE FORMAT ION PROCESSES Most e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic r ema ins i n t he E uropean USSR a re b ur ied i n d epos its o f l oess ic c o l luv ium t hat o ver l ie r i ver t erraces o f v ary ing a ge a nd e levat ion . T he c o l luv ia l l oess s equences o ften c onta in i n s i tu a nd/or r edepos ited p a leoso ls , a nd t hese , i n c on junct ion w ith o ther d ata ( e .g . , r ad iocarbon d ates , p o l len/spore s amp les ) , f requent ly p erm it c orre lat ion w ith p r i mary l oess s trat igr aphy i n t he E uropean USSR a nd n e ighbor ing r eg ions . Corre lat ion w ith c a l ibrated l oess s equences i sp art icu lar ly i mportant f or e stab l ish ing t he a ge o f e ar l ier M idd le P len ig lac ia l o ccupat ions , s ince most r ad iocarbon d ates i n e xcess o f 3 0 ,000 y ears s hou ld b e r egarded a s m in imum e st imates . A rchaeo log ica l s i te f ormat ion i n t h is t ype o f s ed imentary c ontext o ften i nvo lves a c omp lex i n terp lay o f a eo l ian d epos i t ion , s o i l f ormat ion , c o l luv iat ion , a nd v ar ious a b iot ic a nd b iot ic d isturbance p rocesses ( e .g . , c ryoturbat ion , r odent b urrow ing ) .
M idd le P len ig lac ia l S trat igraphy T he M idd le ( or I n ter) P len ig lac ia l c orresponds t o S tage 3 i n t he d eep-sea o xygenisotope r ecord ( Shack leton a nd Opdyke 1 973 ) , s pann ing t he i nterva l b et ween c a . 6 0 ,000 a nd 2 5 ,000 B .P . ( Brad ley 1 985 :187 , t ab le 6 .2) . I s otop ic measurements f rom t he d eep-sea c ores , wh ich c an b e c orre lated w ith o xygenisotope r ecords f rom c ont inenta l i ce s heets [ e .g . , V ostok , Antarct ica ( Lor ius e t a / . 1 985 ) ] , l ong p o l len c ores [ e .g . G rande P i le , F rance ( Wo i l lard 1 978 ) ] , a nd o ther p a leoc l imat ic s equences , i nd icate t hat t he M idd le P len ig lac ia l was a p er iod o f c oo l , o sc i l lat ing c l imates w ith a t l east t h ree warmer p eaks o r i n terstad ia ls . Desp ite t he e v idence f or mu lt ip le i nterstad ia l p er iods d ur ing t he M idd le P len ig lac ia l , many l oess p rof i les i n t he E uropean USSR [ e .g . , Mez in , Dnepr V a l ley ( Ve l ichko e t a t . 1 984 ) ] a nd a d jo in ing r eg ions [ e .g . , Do ln i V eston ice , C zechos lovak ia ( K l ima e t a / . 1 962 ) ] c onta in o n ly o ne b ur ied s o i l a ss igned t o t h is i n terva l . T h is b ur ied s o i l i s u sua l ly d ated t o t he f i na l i n terstad ia l , y ie ld ing 1 4 C d ates o f e a . 2 9 ,000-28 ,000 B .P . i n C entra l E urope ( S t i l lfr ied B S o i l ) a nd c a . 2 9 ,000-25 ,000 B .P . o n t he R uss ian P la in ( Bryansk S o i l a nd i t s a na logues ) ( Ch ichagova 1 972 ) . A more c omp lete r ecord o f t he M idd le P len ig lac ia l i s p resent i n t he l oess p rof i le a t P aks ( Hungary ) , where a s equence o f t hree b ur ied s o i ls h as p roduced TL d ates b etween 4 1 ,000-28 ,000 B .P . ( Butrym a nd Maruszczak 1 984 ) . I n western S iber ia , t he l ower h or izon o f ad oub le s o i l c omp lex i n p rof i les f rom t he Ob ' B as in h as y ie lded 1 4 C d ates o f e a . 3 3 ,000-29 ,000 B .P . ( Vo lkov a nd Z yk ina 1 984 :121 , f ig . 1 2-3 ) . However , r e l iab le d at ing a nd c orre lat ion o f t hese e ar l ier M idd le P len ig lac ia l s o i ls i s p rob lemat ic b ecause t he ir a ge l i es a t o r b eyond t he l im its o f e ffect ive ( convent iona l ) r ad iocarbon d at ing ( Terasmae 1 984 ) , a nd i t i s a pparent t hat many TL d ates i n t h is t ime r ange ( >50 ,000 y ears ) a re t oo y oung ( S inghv i a nd Me jdah l 1 985 ) . C lar if icat ion o f M idd le P len ig lac ia l l oess s trat igraphy i s f urther c omp l icated b y b ur ied s o i ls f ormed d ur ing t he l a tter p art o f o xygenisotope S tage
2 42
5[ e .g . , t he u pper h or izons o f t he S t i l lfr ied A c omp lex i n Centra l E urope ( Kuk la 1 975 ) ] t hat may b e d iff icu lt t o d ist ingu ish f rom e ar ly M idd le P len ig lac ia l s o i ls ( Hoffecker 1 987 :264 ) . The M idd le Dnestr V a l ley p robab ly c onta ins t he most d eta i led M idd le P len ig lac ia l s trat igraphy i n t he E uropean USSR ( I vanova 1 977 , 1 982 , 1 987 ) . I n t h is r eg ion , t he D nestr R iver h as c ut d eep ly i n to s ed imentary r ock a long t he s outhwestern marg in o f t he V o lyn-Podo l ian P lateau , l eav ing a t l east e ight i dent if iab le t errace l eve ls . A t Mo lodova I , Mo lodova V , a nd K orman ' I V , P a leo l ith ic r e ma ins o ccur i n at h ick man t le o f l oess ic c o l luv ium o ver ly ing t he a l luv ia l f ades o f t he s econd t errace ; t he l a tter g rades u ps lope i n to a n i n terg lac ia l s o i l a t Mo lodova I , a nd may b e c orre lated w ith o xygenisotope S tage 5 e ( Last I n terg lac ia l : 1 28 ,0001 15 ,000 B .P . ) ( I vanova 1 982 ) . A t l east o ne b ur ied s o i l a t t he b ase o f t he c o l luv ium a t K orman ' I V ( Pa leoso l Comp lex I V ) may b e t entat ive ly a ss igned t o t he S tage 5 a5 d i n terva l ( Ear ly G lac ia l : 1 15 ,000-73 ,000 B .P . ) ( I vanova 1 977 ) ;3 t h is p er iod i s a pparent ly r epresented b y l im ited t races o f s o i l d eve lopment a t Mo lodova Ia nd V . Mouster ian o ccupat ion h or izons o ccur i n t he l atter d epos its a t a l l t hree s i tes ( Chernysh 1 977 , 1 982 , 1 987 ) ( F igure 2 ) . These u n its u nder l ie a b ed o f " loessl ike" c o l luv ia l l oam , c onta in ing s evera l b ur ied s o i ls , t hat may b e a ss igned t o S tages 4 -2 o r t he P len ig lac ia l ( 73 ,000-10 ,000 B .P . ) . A s o i l c orrespond ing t o t he f i na l M idd le P len ig lac ia l i nters tad ia l ( Dnestr S o i l ) a ppears t o b e p resent a t e ach s i te ; a t Mo lodova V , ah uman o ccupa t ion h or izon i n t h is s o i l h as p roduced 1 4 C d ates ( charcoa l ) o f 2 9 ,650±1320 B .P . ( LG 15a ) a nd 2 8 ,100±1000 B .P . ( LG 15b ) ( I vanova 1 987 :114 ) . An e ar l ier M idd le P len ig lac ia l s o i l ( Mo lodova S o i l ) h as b een i dent if ied a t Korman ' I V a nd Mo lodova V ( I vanova 1 977 :1722 1 987 :107 ) , b ut i t s a ge r ema ins u nc lear . A lthäugh a r ad iocarbon d ate o f 4 4 ,400± a B .P . ( GrN-6807 ) h as b een r eported f rom a n u nder ly ing l eve l a t K orman ' I V , t h is must b e r egarded a s am in imum e st i mate . Upper P a leo l ith ic o ccupat ion l eve ls a re c onta ined i n t he Dnestr S o i l , b ut a ssemb lages i n t he o lder M idd le P len ig lac ia l d epos its , i nc lud ing t he Mo lodova S o i l , a t Mo lodova V a nd Korman ' I V a re o f r ather amb iguous c u lture-strat igraph ic a ff i l ia t ion ( Chernysh 1 977 , 1 987 ) . The Dnestr S o i l i s c apped w ith l oess ic c o l luv ium t hat may b e f i rm ly a ss igned ( w ith s upport ing 1 4 C d ates ) t o S tage 2 ( Late P len ig lac ia l a nd L ate G lac ia l : 2 5 ,000-10 ,000 B .P . ) . I t c onta ins a s ing le w e l l-deve loped s o i l h or izon , a pparent ly c orrespond ing t o am inor warm o sc i l lat ion i n t he o xygenisotope r ecord a t t he b eg inn ing o f S tage 2 ( Shack leton a nd Opdyke 1 973 ) . A lthough t h is s o i l h as b een o bserved i n o n ly o ne Dnestr V a l ley p rof i le [ Pa leoso l Comp lex Ia t K orman ' I V ( I vanova 1 977 ) ] , i t h as a l so b een r ecogn ized i n t he M idd le Don V a l ley ( s ee b e low ) .4 S ince i t e xh ib its many o f t he c haracter ist ics o f t he M idd le P len ig lac ia l s o i ls , i t r epresents a nother p otent ia l c omp l icat ion i n t he c orre lat ion a nd d at ing o f t he l atter . Occupat ion h or izons o f t he l ater Upper P a leo l ith ic ( 25 ,000-10 ,000 B .P . ) a re p resent t hroughout t he L ate P len ig lac ia l/Late G lac ia l s equence a t t hese s i tes . The M idd le D on V a l ley ( Kostenk i-Borshehevo r eg ion ) a lso c onta ins a c omp lex M idd le P len ig lac ia l s equence , b ut many q uest ions a bout c orre lat ion a nd d at ing r e ma in t o b e r eso lved ( Lazukov 1 957 , 1 982 ; G r ishchenko 1 976 ) . T he h ighest ( f our th ) t errace l eve l a long t he west ( r ight ) b ank o f t he Don R iver i sc omposed o f M idd le P le istocene g lac ia l t i l l o ver ly ing s ed imentary b edrock . A l luv ium o f t he t h ird t errace i s g enera l ly a ss igned t o t he L ast I nterg lac ia l , a nd c orre lated w ith a b ur ied f orest s o i l h or izon c app ing t he M idd le P le istocene t i l l ( Lazukov 1 982 :171 9 ) . T he a l luv ia l f ac ies o f t he f i rst t errace was d epos ited p r ior t o t he L ate P len ig lac ia l ( accord ing t o 1 4 C d ates o n a n o ver ly ing s o i l ) ; t he a ge o f t he s econd t errace a l luv ium i sn ot c lear . T hese d epos its a re a rchaeo log ica l ly s ter i le .
2 43
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F igure 2 . S trat igraph ic p rof i le o f Mo lodova V ( M idd le Dnestr V a l ley ) ( mod if ied a fter I vanova 1 987 :104 , f ig . 8 ) . L ayers 1 2-10c : Mouster ian ; l ayers 1 0a-8 : e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic ; l ayers 7 -1 : l a te Upper P a leo l ith ic .
2 44
A l l t hree t erraces a re mant led w ith l oess ic c o l luv ium c onta in ing i n s i tu b ur ied s o i ls a nd h um ic h or izons ( presumab ly d er ived f rom s o i ls ) ( Lazukov 1 982 :192 0 ; P ras lov 1 985 :25-28 ) . On t he s econd t errace , at h ick h um ic l ayer ( Lower Hum ic B ed ) l i es a t t he b ase o f t he c o l luv ia l s equence ; t h is u n it h as r ecent ly y ie lded 1 4 C d ates ( charcoa l ) o f 3 6 ,400± B .P .B . P .( GrN-12596 ) a nd 3 2 ,200+ 08 B .P . ( GrN1 0512 ) ( Bor iskovsk i j e t a t . 1 982 :186 ; N .D . P ras lov , p ersona l c om mun icat ion ) t hat s hou ld p robab ly b e r egarded a s m in imum e st imates . An u ndated v o lcan ic t ephra o ver l ies t he L ower Hum ic B ed , a nd s evera l more h um ic l ayers o ccur a bove t he t ephra . R ad iocarbon d ates f rom t he u pper h um ic l ayers v ary w ide ly , b ut r ecent r esearch s uggests t hat t he o lder d ates ( charcoa l ) o f 3 2 ,700±700 B .P . ( GrN-7758 ) , 2 7 ,700±750 B .P . ( GrN-10509 ) , a nd 2 6 ,750±700 B .P . ( GrN-10511) a re p robab ly t he most a ccurate ( Bor iskovsk i j e t a t . 1 982 :186 ; R ogachev a nd An ikov ich 1 982a :137 ; R ogachev e t a t . 1 982a :108 ) . Upper P a leo l ith ic a ssemb lages h ave b een r ecovered f rom b oth t he L ower Hum ic B ed a nd t he u pper h um ic l ayers ( Pras lov a nd Rogac hev 1 982 ) . S evera l i n s i tu b ur ied s o i ls h ave r ecent ly b een d iscovered a bove t he u pper h um ic l ayers a t Kostenk i I( Lazukov 1 982 :24 ; P ras lov 1 985 ) . T he l owermost s o i l r ema ins u ndated , b ut a s er ies o f 1 4 C d ates ( bone c harcoa l ) f rom a n o ver ly ing o ccupat ion h or izon ( Kostenk i I ,L ayer 1 ) b etween 2 4 ,100-21 ,300 B .P . ( Rogachev e t a t . 1 982b :62 ) s uggests t hat i t may b e t entat ive ly c orre lated w ith t he l a te M idd le P len ig lac ia l Dnestr S o i l ( M idd le Dnestr V a l ley ) a nd i t s a na logues ( e .g . , B ryansk S o i l , M idd le Desna V a l ley ) . T he o ccupat ion h or izon ( wh ich a lso a ppears t o b e a ssoc iated w ith a n e p isode o f s o i l f ormat ion ) i s o ver la in b y a weak ly-deve loped s o i l ( Gme l in S o i l ) t hat i sa l so p resent o n t he f i rst t errace a t Kostenk i XX I , where i t h as b een r ad iocarbon d ated ( wood c harcoa l ) t o 2 2 ,270±150 B .P . ( GrN-7363 ) a nd 2 1 ,260±340 B .P . ( GrN-10513 ) ( Pras lov a nd I vanova 1 982 :209 ) . The Gme l in S o i l may b e c orre lated w ith P a leoso l Comp lex Ia t Korman ' I V a nd t he m inor warm o sc i l lat i on a t t he b eg inn ing o f S tage 2 ment ioned a bove . Upper P a leo l ith ic a ssemb lages o ccur i n t he b ur ied s o i l h or izons , a s wel l a s i n y ounger l oess ic c o l luv ium o n t he f i rst t errace t hat may b e a ss igned ( w ith s upport ing 14 C d ates ) t o t he r ema inder o f S tage 2( Late P len ig lac ia l a nd L ate G lac ia l ) . O ther r eg ions c onta in ing e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes l ack t he c omp lex M idd le P len ig lac ia l s trat igraphy o f t he Dnestr a nd Don v a l leys . Occupat ion h or iz ons a t s evera l s i tes h ave b een f ound i n a ssoc iat ion w ith a n i n s i tu b ur ied s o i l a ss igned t o t he f ina l M idd le P len ig lac ia l i nterstad ia l ( 30 ,000-25 ,000 B .P . ) . These i nc lude Y asakovo a nd S ung ir ' ( Oka R iver s ystem ) a nd K u l ich ivka ( northern P odo li a ) ; s upport ing 1 4 C d ates a re a va i lab le f or t he l atter t wo ( Gromov 1 948 :210-213 ; I vanova a nd Rengarten 1 975 ; B ader 1 978 :58-66 ; S av ieh 1 985 ) . I n o ther c ases , t he o ccupat ion h or izons l i e i n h um ic l ayers o f u ncerta in a ge a nd d er ivat ion [ e .g . , Chut u lesh ty I , L ower Dnestr V a l ley ( I vanova 1 975 :103-104 ) ] t hat c annot b e r e l iab ly a ss igned t o t he M idd le P len ig lac ia l .
E ar ly Upper Pa leo l ith ic Chrono logy Ih ave s uggested t hat t he u pper s trat igraph ie b oundary o f t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic i n t he E uropean USSR i s most a ppropr iate ly f ixed a t t he c ontact b et ween t he B ryansk S o i l ( o r i t s a na logues ) a nd t he o ver ly ing Upper P len ig lac ia l l oess ; i n t er ms o f o xygenisotope s trat igraphy , t h is b oundary may b e c orre lated w ith t he S tage 3 /2 t rans it ion . I n a bso lute c h rono log ie t erms , i t may b e d ated t o c a . 2 5 ,000 B .P . The l ower b oundary i s d iff icu lt t o e stab l ish i n e ither s trat ig raph ic o r c hrono log ic t erms . On t he b as is o f t he more c omp lete M idd le P len ig lac ia l s equences r ev iewed a bove a nd e x ist ing 1 4 C d ates ( see T ab le 1 ) , Is uspect t hat i ti sa t l east 3 5 ,000 B .P . a nd p oss ib ly much e ar l ier .
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Among t he r ad iocarbon d ates f rom o ccupat ion h or izons t hat Ih ave a ss igne d t o t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic i n T ab le 1 , many a re s ign if icant ly l ess t han 2 5 ,000 B .P . , a nd i t s hou ld b e n oted t hat t here h as b een a p ers istant p attern o f y oung d ates f rom P a leo l ith ic s i tes i n t he E uropean USSR . T he p rob lem a ppears t o b e a ttr ibutab le t o h eavy r e l iance o n b one a nd s o i l o rgan ics , a nd t o s amp le p repara t ion t echn iques u sed i n S ov iet r ad iocarbon l abs i n e ar l ier y ears ( Cherdyntsev 1 971 :308 ; K le in 1 973 :120 ) . A s T ab le 1 i nd icates , y oung d ates f rom e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic h or izons were i nvar iab ly o bta ined o n b one o r s o i l o rgan ics a nd/or p ub l ished p r ior t o 1 970 . A n ew s er ies o f o lder a nd u ndoubted ly more a ccurate d ates f rom K ostenk i I ,L ayer 1 , p roduced b y t he Geo log ica l I nst itute i n Moscow , i s a pparent ly d ue t o i mproved s amp le p reparat ion ( e .g . , Rogachev e t a t . 1 982b :62 ) . T he p resence o f e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic a ssemb lages we l l b e low t he u pp ermost M idd le P len ig lac ia l s o i l s uggests t hat t he e ar l ier o ccupat ions l i e a t o r b eyond t he e ffect ive r ange o f c onvent iona l r ad iocarbon d at ing . F uture a dvances i n c hronostrat igraphy w i l l t herefore d epend o n w ider a pp l icat ion o f 1 4 C a cce lera tor d at ing , a nd t hermo lum inescence ( TL ) d at ing . Acce lerator d a tes a re c urrent ly a va i lab le o n ly f or l ate Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes ( Soffer 1 986 ) . TL d at ing o f l oess was p ioneered b y S ov iet r esearchers ( e .g . , S he lkop lyas 1 971 ) , a nd a n umber o f d ates h ave b een r eported f rom n on-archaeo log ica l c ontexts i n t he E uropean USSR ( Zubakov 1 988 ) .
S ite F ormat ion P rocesses Most e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic r ema ins i n t he E uropean U SSR , a s a l ready n oted , a re b ur ied i n l oess ic c o l luv ium d er ived f rom p r imary a eo l ian d epos its ( F igure 3 ) . S tud ies o f P a leo l ith ic s i te f ormat ion i n t h is t ype o f s ed i mentary c ontext a re l ess c om mon t han s tud ies o f s i te f ormat ion i n c aves o r a l luv ia l s ett ings ( e .g . , Cheetham 1 976 ; B utzer 1 981) . N everthe less , s ome r esearch a long t hese l i nes h as b een u ndertaken a t P a leo l ith ic s i tes o n t he Russ ian P la in ( e .g . , I vanova a nd R engarten 1 975 ; I vanova 1 977 ; V e l ichko e t a l . 1 977 ; B ader 1 978 ) . Co l luv iat ion o f a eo l ian s ed iment o n v a l ley s lopes a ppears t o h ave b een a c om mon f eature o f P le istocene l andscape e vo lu t ion i n l oess r eg ions ( French 1 976 : 1 41-143 ; Washburn 1 979 :244-246 ) . P r imary s ed iment was r edepos ited c h ief ly i n t he f orm o f s lopewash ( i .e . , t ransported d owns lope b y r unn ing water a s s heetf low ) ; s o l if luct ion p layed a l esser r o le a s a n a gen t o f r edepos it ion ( I vanova 1 959 ; V e l ichko 1 961 ; L azukov 1 982 ) . L im ited v egetat ion c over , s ea sona l t haws a nd s ha l low p ermafrost , a nd c onstant l oess a ccumu lat ion a re a l l v ar iab les i n t hese p er ig lac ia l e nv ironments t hat p robab ly c ontr ibuted t o t he p rocess . T he s equence o f 1 4 C d ates f rom s i tes l i ke Mo lodova V a nd Kostenk i X I s upport t he a ssumpt ion t hat c o l luv iat ion was c ont inuous o r n ear ly c ont inuous , a nd b road ly s ynchronous w ith i n it ia l a eo l ian d epos it ion . A l low ing f or t he d at ing p robl ems d iscussed a bove , t here i sn o e v idence f or s ign if icant s trat igraph ic r eversa l o f u n its . However , t he i n s i tu b ur ied s o i ls r ef lect p er iods o f r e lat ive ly s tab le s l opes , when r educed l oess d epos it ion , a nd p oss ib ly m i lder c l imates a nd t h icker v egetat ion c over , a cted t o l im it c o l luv iat ion . S ince many e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic o ccupat ion l ayers a re a ssoc iated w ith i n s i tu M idd le P len ig lac ia l s o i ls , t hese a l tered c ircums tances o f s i te f ormat ion must b e a ccounted f or i n t he ir i nterpretat ion . S o i l s urfaces were p robab ly e xposed f or l onger t ime p er iods , p er m itt ing more e xtens ive o ccupat ion a nd more i n tens ive weather ing o f d ebr is ( espec ia l ly f auna l r ema ins ) . B ur ia l i n l oess ic s lopewash was a l ow-energy p rocess t ha t c aused m in ima l d isturbance t o o ccupat ion f loors . A lthough s ome e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic h or izons
2 48
F igure 3 . S trat igraph ie p ro f i le o f K orman ' I V ( M idd le D nestr V a l ley ) ( mod if ied a fter I vanova 1 977 :154 , f ig . 1 2 ) . N umbers r efer t o c u ltura l l ayers .
2 49
e xh ib it d isturbance o f f eatures [ e .g . , K ostenk i I ,L ayer 5 ( Rogachev e t a l . 1 982a : 6 5 ) ] o r c omp lete r edepos it ion o f a rt ifacts a nd f auna l r e ma ins [ e .g . , K ostenk i V I , S tre letskaya 2 l oca l ity ( Rogachev a nd An ikov ich 1 982b :90 ) ] , d ebr is c oncentrat ions , f ormer h earths , a nd o ccas iona l ly o ther f ea tures h ave b een f ound i ntact o n most o ccupat ion h or izons . However , s ome p ost-depos it iona l d isturbance h as p robab ly o ccurred a t a l l s i tes . F rost a ct ion , i nc lud ing s urface f rost-sort ing , u pfreez ing o f b ur ied o b jects , a nd c ryoturbat ion , i s l i ke ly t o h ave c aused v ert ica l a nd h or izonta l d i sp lacement o f r ema ins a nd f ragmentat ion o f f auna l d ebr is . R odent b urrow ing ( i nd icated b y n umerous k rotov inas o n many o ccupat ion l eve ls ) a nd h uman t rampl i ng h ave p robab ly g enerate v ert ica l movement o f mater ia l .
M IDDLE PLEN IGLAC IAL ENV IRON MENTS A s ubstant ive d iscuss ion o f M idd le P len ig lac ia l e nv ironments i n E astern E urope i sb eyond t he s cope o f t h is p aper , b ut a f ew o bservat ions a re i n o rder . B y a l l i nd icat ions , c l imates were s ign if icant ly c o lder t han t hose o f t he p resent d ay , a l though t here i ss ome p a leopedo log ie a nd p a leobotan ica l e v idence t hat t hey were m i lder t han t hose o f t he E ar ly a nd L ate P len ig lac ia l . The c ompos it ion o f t he f auna a nd f lora s uggest t hat c ond it ions w ere a lso more a r id t han p resent-day E uropean R uss ia ( Frenze l 1 973 ; V e l ichko e t a l . 1 984 ) . A s d ur ing t he E ar ly G lac ia l a nd o ther p hases o f t he P len ig lac ia l , t he d iverse a rray o f f oss i l v ertebrate a nd i nvertebrate t axa r epresent a r emarkab le m ixture o f s teppe , t undra , a nd wood land f orms w ithout modern p ara l le l . T he b est s tud ied b ur ied s o i ls o f t he M idd le P len ig lac ia l a re t hose o f t he f ina l warm i n terva l ( 30 ,000-25 ,000 B .P . ) . T he B ryansk S o i l , d i str ibuted a cross t he D nepr-Desna B as in a nd Oka-Don L ow land , h as b een c haracter ized a s af rost-g ley s o i l w ith a c arbonate i luv ia l h or izon t hat l acks c lose modern a na logues ( Ve l ichko a nd Morozova 1 982 :89 ) . A lthough p rof i les i n t he n orth r ef lect more i n tens ive g ley ing a nd l ess d eve lopment o f t he c arbonate i luv ia l h or izon t han t hose i n t he c entra l a nd s outhern p ort ions o f t he R uss ian P la in , t he o vera l l s tructura l h omog ene ity o f t he B ryansk S o i l i mp l ies l i tt le l a t itud ina l z ona t ion ( Ve l ichko e t a l . 1 984 :114 ) . However , t he i soch ronous Dnestr S o i l , wh ich h as b een c ompared w ith modern b orea l f orest s o i ls , s uggests more i n tens ive s o i l f ormat ion i n t he M idd le Dnestr V a l ley ( Gub in 1 977 :100 , 1 982 :118-119 , 1 987 :137-139 ) . E ar l ier i n s i tu M idd le P len ig lac ia l s o i ls a re c onf ined t o t he l a tter r eg ion ( i .e . , Mo lodova S o i l ) a nd a ppear s im i lar t o t he B ryansk/Dnestr s o i ls ( Gub in 1 987 :136-137 ) . T he c ompos it ion o f E ar ly G lac ia l a nd P len ig lac ia l f auna l a ssemb lages i s c ons istent w ith t he s uggested l ack o f l at itud ina l z onat ion . Mam ma l ian a sse mb lages f rom M idd le P len ig lac ia l d epos its c onta in s pec ies c haracter ist ic o f t he modern s teppe [ e .g . , s teppe b i son ( B ison p r iscus ) a nd s teppe mar mot ( Marmota b obac ) 1 , t undra [ e .g . , r e indeer ( Rang ifer t arandus ) a nd a rct ic f ox ( A lopex l agopus ) ] , a nd wood land [ e .g . , e lk ( Cervus e /aphus ) ] ( Markova 1 984 ) . S im i lar d ivers ity i s f ound among t he t errestr ia l mo l luscan f auna f or t he L ate P len ig lac ia l a nd , t o a l e sser e xtent ( perhaps d ue t o p oor p reservat ion ) , f or t he M idd le P len ig lac ia l ( Motuz 1 987 ) . T he f auna l d ivers ity p robab ly r ef lects a f ine-gra ined mosa ic o f p lant c ommun it ies , a l though t he d egree o f s pec ies r i chness among t he n onarborea l t axa may b e masked i n f oss i l p o l len a ssemb lages ( Guthr ie 1 982 :309-315 ) . The p o l len-spore s amp les d o i nd icate h igher c ounts f or a rborea l t axa f or t he M idd le , a s o pposed t o t he L ate , P len ig lac ia l ( Gr ichuk 1 972 :26-31 ) , a nd t hese d ata a re c orroborated b y p lant macro-foss i ls ( wood f ragments , c harcoa l , a nd r es in ) r ecovered f rom s evera l
2 50
e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes [ e .g . , s pruce ( P icea ) , b irch ( Betu la ) , o ak ( Quercus ) ( I vanova a nd Chernysh 1 965 :199 ; B ader 1 978 :181 ) 1 .
ART IFACT ASSEMBLAGES : TECHNOLOGY AND TYPOLOGY S evera l b road g enera l izat ions may b e o ffered a bout e ar ly Upper P a leol i th ic a rt ifact a ssemb lages i n t he E uropean USSR . F irst , t hey d iffer s ign if icant ly f rom c onte mporaneous a ssemb lages i n Western a nd Centra l E urope ; n one o f t he e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic i ndustr ies d ef ined i n o ther p arts o f E urope ( e .g . , Chate lp erron ian , S ze let ian , A ur ignac ian ) i s p resent s ensu s tr icto . S econd , t here i s c ons iderab le v ar iab i l ity b oth w ith in a nd among r eg ions ; s ome o f t h is v ar iab i l ity p ara l le ls t he Chate lperron ian/Aur ignac ian a nd S ze let ian/Aur ignac ian o ppos it ion r ecogn ized i n Western a nd C entra l E urope r espect ive ly . T h ird , l i ke t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic o f Centra l E urope , many a ssemb lages c onta in b if a ces o r b ifac ia l p o ints . The a bsence o f e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic i ndustr ies l i ke t he Chate lperron ian a nd S ze let ian i s n ot s urpr is ing ; t hese a re r eg iona l e nt it ies w ith l i nks t o t he l oca l Mouster ian . B ut t he l ack o f Aur ignac ian a ssemb lages i n t he E uropean USSR i ss ign if icant a nd d eserves c omment . T he Aur ignac ian , d istr ibuted n ot o n ly a cross Western a nd Centra l E urope b ut t he Near E ast a s we l l , i s af undamenta l a nd u n ifyi ng t heme i n t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic , a nd i t s a l most c omp lete a bsence i n t he E u ropean USSR s ets t he l atter a part f rom t he o ther r eg ions . "Aur ignac ian e lements" a re u nden iab ly p resent i n a n umber o f a ssemb lages ( Gr igor 'ev 1 968 :50-55 ; Koz lowsk i a nd K oz lowsk i 1 979 :29 ) , b ut most o f t he more d iagnost ic f orms ( e .g . , e ar inated s crapers , n osed s crapers , s trang led b lades , s p l it-base a nd l ozenge-shaped b one p o ints ) a re r are o r u nknown . T he s trongest s im i lar it ies a re e v ident o n t he westernmost Russ ian P la in ( i .e . , a reas i n c losest p rox im ity t o Centra l E urope ) . S evera l a ssemb lages f rom t he M idd le Dnestr V a l ley ( Mo lodova I , L ayers 1 0-9 ; B ab in I ,L ayer 3 ) c onta in l arge b lades w ith Aur ignac ian r etouch , r etouched b lade lets , a nd o ccas iona l e nd-scrapers o n t h ick f lakes ( Chern y sh 1 959 :20-25 , 1 987a :27-32 ) . Neverthe less , t hese a ssemb lages d iffer s ign if ic ant ly f ro m t he t yp ica l Aur ignac ian i n b oth Western a nd Centra l E urope ( Koz lows k i a nd Koz lowsk i 1 979 ) . I s o lated " Aur ignac ian e lements" ( e .g . , c ar inated s crap er s ) h ave a lso b een i dent if ied i n s i tes f urther e ast , s uch a s Kostenk i I ,L ayer 3 ( M idd le Don V a l ley ) a nd S y t , tren t I( Cr imea ) ( Ef imenko 1 938 : 4 41-442 ; G r igor 'ev 1 968 :55 ) . S im i lar it ies t o t he S ze let ian h ave b een o bserved a t s evera l s i tes i n t he western most Russ ian P la in [ e .g . , B rynzeny I( Ketraru 1 973 :73 ) ] . F or t he p urposes o f a na lys is , t he s i tes may b e d iv ided i nto t wo ma jor g eog raph ic g roups : t he West R uss ian P la in a nd t he Oka-Don L ow land . T he West Russ ian P la in g roup i nc ludes s i tes i n t he P rut V a l ley a nd i t s t r ibutar ies ( Korpach , B rynzeny I ,a nd T r inka I ) , i n t he M idd le Dnestr V a l ley ( Mo lodova Ia nd V , Korman ' I V , B ab in I ,a nd O se l ivka I ) , a nd i n t he n orthern V o lyn-Podo l ian Up land ( Ku l ich ivk a ) . T he Oka-Don L ow land g roup i nc ludes t he M idd le Don V a l ley s i tes a t Kostenk i a nd S ung ir ' o n a n Oka R iver t r ibutary . S evera l s i tes , most n otab ly t he P echora B as in l oca l it ies ( Medvezh 'ya Cave , B yzovaya ) , l i e o uts ide t hese g eograph ic g roups .
West Russ ian P la in E ar ly P hase ( >30 ,000 B .P . ) . T he o ldest a sse mb lages a re t hose d epos ited b eneath t he u ppermost M idd le P len ig lac ia l s o i l a t Mo lodova V ( Layers 1 0a a nd 1 0b ) , K orman ' I V ( Layer 1 0 ) , K u l ich ivka ( Layer 3 ) , a nd p oss ib ly O se l ivka I( Layer 4 )
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( Chernysh 1 971 :69-70 , 1 977 :21 , 1 987a :25-26 ; S av ich 1 985 , 1 986 ) . L ayer 1 0a a t Mo lodova V a nd L ayers 1 0 a nd 9 a t Korman ' I V a re a ssoc iated w ith t he o lder Mo lod ova S o i l . A l l o f t hese o ccupat ion l eve ls a ntedate 3 0 ,000 B .P . a nd s ome may b e s ign if icant ly o lder . T he Mo lodova V , Korman ' I V , a nd O se l ivka Ia ssemb lages a re sma l l a nd o f m ixed M idd le a nd Upper P a leo l ith ic c haracter , c ompr is ing a f ew b lades , f lakes , a nd o ccas iona l c ore ; ab ur in a nd r etouched f lake w ere r ecovered f rom Mo lodova V , L ayer 1 0a . However , t he r ecen t ly d iscovered o ccupat ion L ayer 3a t Ku l ich ivka h as p roduced a c omparat ive ly r ich i nventory , a lthough f ew d eta i ls a re p resent ly a va i lab le . T h is a ssemb lage c onta ins d isco ida l a nd i r regu lar p r ismat ic c ores , s ide-scrapers , "Mouster ian p o ints ," e nd-scrapers , b ur ins , a nd n umero us b lades a nd f lakes . The u ndated a ssemb lage f rom T r inka I ,L ayer 3 a i n t he P rut V a l ley may b e t entat ive ly i nc luded i n t he e ar ly p hase o n t echno log ica l/typo log ica l g rounds ( An isyutk in e t a / . 1 986 :26-32 ) . T he o ccupat ion h or izon , wh ich o ver l ies a Mousteri an l eve l , h as p roduced a sma l l c o l lect ion ( 67 a rt ifacts ) t hat An isyutk in e t a l . ( 1986 :32 ) d ec l ine t o s pec if ica l ly c lass ify a s e i ther Mouster ian o r U pper P a leol i th ic . Among t he a rt ifacts a re s evera l c ores ( i nc lud ing a " crude" p r ismat ic t ype ) , l arge b lades ( r etouched a nd u nretouched ) , s ide-scrapers ( 4 ) , d ent icu lates ( 4 ) , n otches ( 2 ) , e nd-scrapers ( a typ ica l ) ( 2 ) , a nd a b ur in ( a typ ica l ) . L ate P hase ( 30 ,000-25 ,000 B .P . ) . A n umber o f a sse mb lages h ave b een f ound i n a ssoc iat ion w ith t he u ppermost M idd le P len ig lac ia l s o i l ( e ither w ith in t he s o i l h or izon o r i m med iate ly a bove i t ) , i nc lud ing Mo lodova I ,L ayer 3 ; Mo lodova V , L ayers 1 0 , 9 , a nd 8 ; K orman ' I V , L ayers 8 a nd 7 ; A tak i I ,L ayer 5 ; a nd Ku l ich ivka , L ayer 2 ( Chernysh 1 968 :103-104 , 1 977 :23-26 , 1 982 :70-72 , 1 987a :27-35 ; S av ich 1 975a :44-47 ) . T o t hese may b e a dded Korpach , L ayer 4 , c onta ined i n d ark l oam ( r edepos ited s o i l? ) w ith s upport ing 1 4 C d ate ( Gr igor 'eva 1 983 :219 ) . A sse mb lages f rom f our o ther M idd le Dnestr V a l ley s i tes ( Bab in I ,L ayer 3 ; O se l ivka I ,L ayer 3 ; O se l ivka I ; a nd V oronov itsa I , L ayer 2 ) a re u sua l ly a ss igned t o t h is g roup o n t ypo log ica l g rounds . L ayer 3 a t O se l ivka Ii sd epos ited i n ab rown l oam t hat may r epresent a r edepos ited s o i l , wh i le t he o ccupat ion h or izon a t O se l ivka I r eported ly o ccurs i n ab ur ied s o i l ( Chernysh 1 959 , 1 971 , 1 973 , 1 987b ) . L ayers 1 0-8 a t Mo lodova V ( ear ly s tage o f t he Mo lodovskaya k uPtura ) a pp ear t o b e p art icu lar ly r epresentat ive o f t h is t ime p er iod f or t he r eg ion ( Rogachev a nd An ikov ich 1 984 :173 ) ( F igure 4 a-4 1 ) . T he a ssemb lages a re c haracter ized b y l arge i r regu lar p r ismat ic b lade c ores ( 70-80 mm ) a nd b lades ; t oo l d imens ions a re c orrespond ing ly l arge . B ur ins [ typ ica l ly d ihedra l ( s red inny j ) o r o n t he c orner o f a s napped b lade ( ug lov e ] a re t he most n umerous t oo ls ( 31-38 % ) , f o l lowed b y " kn ifel i ke t oo ls" ( nozhev idnye o rud iya ) ( 23-37 % ) , e nd-scrapers ( genera l ly o n b lades ) ( 111 6% ) , a nd u n ifac ia l p o ints ( 3-7 % ) ; as ing le b ifac ia l i mp lement i s p resent i n L ayer 1 0 . E ach l ayer a lso c onta ins a sma l l n umber ( 6 -15 ) o f s andstone g raters ( t erk i ) . B one a rt ifacts a nd b acked b lades , wh ich b ecome c om mon i n L ayer 7 ( l ate Upper P a leo l ith ic ) , a re r are . T he u ndated a ssemb lages f rom B ab in I( Layer 3 ) , Ose l ivka I ( Layer 3 ) , O se l ivka I , a nd V oronov itsa I( Layer 2 ) e xh ib it many s im i lar it ies t o t he a rt ifacts f rom t hese o ccupat ion l eve ls ( Chernysh 1 973 :19-20 ; 1 987a :29 ) . Many s im i lar it ies a re a lso e v ident i n t he l a rge a ssemb lage ( >50 ,000 ) f rom L ayer 2 a t Ku l ich ivka ( Sav ich 1 975a :51 , 1 975b :20-27 ) . A lthough mean b lade l ength i s n ot u nusua l ly h igh , v ery l arge s pec imens a re p resent . R etouched b lades ( 26 % ) a nd e nd-scrapers ( 25 % ) p redom inate among t he t oo ls , wh ich a lso i nc lude b ur ins ( 15% ) , s ide-scrapers ( 5% ) , p o ints ( 4% ) , a nd a s ing le b iface ( F igure 4m ) .5 A s omewhat d ifferent p attern i s p rov ided b y t he a sse mb lages f rom K orman ' I V , L ayers 9 -7 . T hese h or izons were f ormer ly c orre lated b y C hernysh ( 1973 :
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F igure 4 . A rt ifacts f rom t he West R uss ian P la in : a 1 . Mo lodova V , L ayer 1 0 ( a fter C herny sh 1 959 :71 , f ig . 3 3 ; m . K u l ich ivka , L ayer 2 ( a fter S av ich 1 975 :46 , f i g . 2 ; n p . K orman ' I V , L ayer 8( a fter Cherny sh 1 977 :22 , f i g . 1 0 ) . 2 53
f ig . 2 1 ) w ith u n its u nder ly ing t he Dnestr S o i l a t Mo lodova V , b ut r ad iocarbon d ates a nd p a leomagnet ie s trat igraphy s upport t he ir a ss ignment t o t he f i na l M idd le P len ig lac ia l p hase ( I vanova 1 977 :178-179 , t ab le 7 ; K u l ikova 1 987 :170 , f ig . 2 ) . T he a rt ifact c o l lect ions a re sma l l ( 8 ,000 i t ems ) , i nc lud ing p r ismat ic a nd d i sco ida l c ores , p o ints , s ide-scrapers , n otches , d ent icu lates , e nd-scrapers , b ur ins , b ifac ia l p o ints , a nd o thers .
Oka-Don L ow land E ar ly P hase ( >35 ,000(? ) B .P . ) . T he o ldest Upper P a leo l ith ic a ssemb lages i n t h is r eg ion a re c onta ined i n t he L ower Hum ic B ed ( under ly ing t he v o lcan ic a sh l ens ) a t t he K ostenk i s i te g roup . T hey i nc lude Kostenk i V I ; Kostenk i V I I I , L ayer 4 ; K ostenk i X I I , L ayers 3 a nd 2 ; K ostenk i X IV , L ayer 4 ; a nd Kostenk i XV I I , L ayer 2 ( Rogachev 1 957 ; K le in 1 969 :87-108 ; P ras lov a nd R ogachev 1 982 ) . 7 The a ge o f t he L ower Hum ic B ed r ema ins u nc lear , b ut i t s eems i ncreas ing ly l i ke ly t o a ntedate 3 5 ,000 B .P . , a nd may b e s ign if icant ly o lder . S ov iet p reh istor ians h ave d iv ided t hese a sse mb lages i n to t wo g roups o r a rkheo log ichesk ie k urtury , a lthough s ome a re t oo sma l l t o a dequate ly c haracteri ze ( Pras lov a nd R ogachev 1 982 ; Rogachev a nd An ikov ich 1 984 :179-183 ) . T he f i rst o f t hese i st ermed t he S tre letskaya k urtura , a nd i nc ludes Kostenk i V I a nd K ostenk i X I I , L ayer 3 . Raw mater ia ls i n t hese a ssemb lages c ons ist p r imar i ly o f b oth n onl oca l a nd l oca l f l int , a nd q uartz ite . P r ismat ic b lade t echno logy i s r are , a nd t yp ica l Mouster ian t echn iques o f b lank p roduct ion ( and r etouch ) p redom inate . Mouster ian f orms a l so p reva i l among t he t oo ls , wh ich i nc lude s i de-scrapers ( 121 7% ) , s ubtr iangu lar p o ints ( 4% ) , b ifaces ( 17-18 % ) , a nd e nd-scrapers ( atyp ica l ) ( 71 7% ) . P art icu lar ly d iagnost ic o f t he S tre letskaya a ssemb lages a re sma l l t r iangul ar , c oncave-base b ifac ia l p o ints ( F igure 5 f-5 j ) . T he s econd g roup i s t ermed t he S p itsynskaya k uPtura , a nd i nc ludes Koste nk i X I I , L ayer 2 (? ) a nd K ostenk i XV I I , L ayer 2 . The r aw mater ia l c ons ists p r imar i ly o f n onloca l f l int [ s ource l ocated 1 30-150 km t o t he s outhwest ( Bor iskovsk i j 1 963 :168-169 ) ] . P r ismat ic b lade t echno logy i sp redo m inant i n t hese a ssemb lages ,
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ii
n n D
F
45 % ) , f o l lowed b y e nd-scrapers ( i nc lud ing c ar inated f orms ) ( 21 % ) , s p l intered p ieces ( 10 % ) , a nd b ur ins ( 10% ) ; a sma l l n umber o f n ons tone t oo ls ( aw ls , " po l ishers" ) a re p resent . O ther a ssemb lages t hat c annot b e p laced i n ad ef ined g roup i nc lude K ostenk i V I I I , L ayer 2 ; Kostenk i X IV , L ayer 3 ; a nd K ostenk i XV I I , L ayer 1 .
O ther Reg ions T he most i mportant e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes o uts ide t hese t wo ma jor g eograph ic g roups a re t he P echora B as in l oca l it ies : Medvezh 'ya Cave a nd Byzov aya ( Kan ivets 1 969 :136-142 , 1 976 ) . The Medvezh 'ya Cave a ssemb lage , wh ich r e-
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f leets a m ixture o f f lake a nd b lade p roduct ion , c onta ins a r ather u nd iagnost ic c o l lect ion o f t oo ls ( ch ief ly a typ ica l s ide-scrapers a nd e nd-scrapers ) . A lthough b lade t echno logy i sl ess e v ident , B yzovaya h as p roduced a s et o f more t yp ica l t oo l f or ms , i nc lud ing e nd-scrapers ( on b lades a nd s hort f lakes ) ( 43 % ) a nd b ifaces ( 5% ) . T oo ls o f b one , a nt ler , a nd i vory a re l ack ing i n b oth s i tes , d esp ite p reservat ion o f l arge q uant it ies o f f auna l r e ma ins . Kan ivets ( 1976 :69-70 ) h as n oted s im i lar it ies b etween B yzovaya a nd t he S tre letskaya a ssemb lage f rom Kostenk i I ,L ayer 5 , b ut i t i s a pparent t hat n e ither o f t he P echora B as in s i tes p ossess c lose a na logues e lsewhere i n t he E uropean USSR ( Rogachev a nd An ikov ich 1 984 :186-187 ) . A s p rev ious ly n oted , t he l owermost h or izon ( Layer 3 ) o f t he C r imean c ave s i te S yuren ' Ii s u sua l ly a ss igned t o t he e ar l ier Upper P a leo l ith ic o n t echno log ica l/ t ypo log ica l g rounds ( Vek i lova 1 957 ) . P r ismat ic c ores a nd b lade b lanks a re c ommon i n t h is a sse mb lage , wh i le t he t oo ls a re d om inated b y r etouched m icrob lades ( i nc lud ing b acked m ierob lades ) ( 44% ) , r etouched b lades ( 24 % ) , e nd-scrapers ( i nc ludi ng e ar inated f orms ) ( 10% ) , a nd b ur ins ( 9% ) . A sma l l n umber o f Mouster ian t ypes [ pr i mar i ly p o ints ( 3% ) ] a re p resent . T he n on-stone t oo l i nventory i nc ludes aw ls , p o ints , a nd p erforators .
I NTERNAL ORGAN IZAT ION OF S ITES Al ong h istory o f b road h or izonta l e xcavat ion b y S ov iet a rchaeo log ists h as g enerated a wea lth o f d ata o n o ccupat ion f l oor p atterns i n o pen-a ir P a leo l ith ic s i tes . Many e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic f loors o n t he R uss ian P la in r evea l a rrangements o f d ebr is c oncentrat ions a nd f ormer h earths , s ome o f wh ich a re i n terpreted a s f ormer s tructure l ocat ions . However , u n l ike t he l a te Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes o f t he E uropean USSR , d eep p i ts a nd s tructura l r ema ins o f b one ( i .e . , "mam moth h ouses" ) a re a bsent . As harp c ontrast e x ists b etween t he e ar ly a nd l a te p hases o f t he e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic : t he f ormer h as p roduced v ery f ew f eatures . T he c omp arat ive a na lys is o f M idd le , e ar ly Upper , a nd l ate Upper P a leo l ith ic o ccupat ion f loors s eems l i ke ly t o c ontr ibute t o t he s tudy o f s oc ia l a nd e conom ic c hange d ur ing t he L ate P le istocene . E ar ly Phase . N o f eatures a re r eported f rom Upper P a leo l ith ic o ccupat ion l eve ls i n t he M idd le Dnestr V a l ley d ated t o > 30 ,000 B .P . These h or izons c onta in e xtreme ly s parse c o l lect ions o f a rt ifacts a nd f auna l r ema ins [ Mo lodova V , L ayers 1 0a-10b ; K or man ' I V , L ayer 1 0 ; a nd O se l ivka I ,L ayer 4 (? ) ( Chernysh 1 971 :69-70 , 1 977 :21 , 1 987a :25-26 )1 I n t he c ase o f K orman ' I V , Chernysh ( 1977 :21 ) h as s ugg ested t hat o n ly t he p er iphery o f t he o ccupat ion a rea was e xcavated . However , a d ebr is c oncentrat ion a nd t h ree f ormer h earths h ave r ecent ly b een r eported f rom L ayer 3 a t Ku l ich ivka i n t he V o lyn-Podo l ian Up land ( Sav ieh 1 985 :350 ) . F eatures a re a l so r are among t he e ar ly o ccupat ion l eve ls i n t he Oka-Don L ow land ( i .e . , b e low t he Upper Hum ie B ed a t Kostenk i ) , wh ich p robab ly d ate t o > 35 ,000 B .P . Two f ormer h earths , a ssoc iated w ith t oo ls , d eb itage , a nd o rnaments , h ave b een u ncovered a t K ostenk i XV I I , L ayer 2 ( Bor iskovsk i j 1 963 :86 , f ig . 6 1 ) , a nd ap robab le f or mer h earth h as b een r eported f rom K ostenk i X I I , L ayer 3 ( Rogachev a nd An ikov ich 1 982a :138 ) . L ate Phase . F eatures a re c omparat ive ly c om mon o n o ccupat ion f loors o f t he l ater e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic . Among t he l a ter West Russ ian P la in s i tes ( 30 ,000-25 ,000 B .P . ) , L ayers 1 0-8 a t Mo lodova V p rov ide a p art icu lar ly v iv id g l i mpse o f e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic l i v ing f l oors ( Chernysh 1 961 :maps 1 -3 ) . E ach l eve l ( 630-750 m 2 e xposed ) c onta ins a s er ies o f l arge d ebr is c oncentrat ions ,
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t yp ica l ly a ssoc iated w ith o ne o r more f ormer h earths . Cherny sh ( 1987a :27-32 ) s uggests t hat most o f t hese c oncentrat ions may r epresent t he l ocat ions o f f o rmer dwe l l ing s tructures , b ut t hey s eem e qua l ly l i ke ly t o r epresent work ing a reas a d jacent t o o pen h earths . A s im i lar p attern o f d ebr is s catters a nd f or mer h earths h as b een r ecorded o n ( undated ) o ccupat ion f loors a t O se l ivka I ,L ayer 3 ; B ab in I , L ayer 3 ; a nd V oronov itsa I , L ayer 2 ( Cherny sh 1 959 , 1 971) , b ut f eatures f ro m Korman ' I V , L ayers 8 -7 a re c onf ined t o s evera l f ormer h earths ( Chernysh ( 1977 :232 4 ) . S av ich ( 1975a :42-44 ) b e l ieves t hat t h ree d we l l ing l ocat ions a re d iscern ib le o n t he c omp lex o ccupat ion f l oor a t K u l ich ivka , L ayer 2 . I t s hou ld b e k ept i n m ind t hat t hese " f loors" were o ccup ied d ur ing a n p er iod o f i ncreased s l ope s tab i l ity a nd s o i l f ormat ion ; t hey a re l i ke ly t o r ef lect l onger t ime i n terva ls ( more o ccupat ion e p isodes? ) t han f l oors d ated t o t he L ate P len ig lac ia l . D ebr is c oncentrat ions a nd f ormer h ear ths a re a l so c ommon o n o ccupat ion l eve ls i n t he Oka-Don L ow land t hat e i ther o ver l ie t he v o lcan ic a sh l ens a t K oste nk i o r a re d irect ly a ssoc iated w ith t he f i na l M idd le P len ig lac ia l s o i l ( i .e . , 3 5 ,000 (9-25 ,000 B .P . ) . I n c ontrast t o t he Wes t R uss ian P la in s i tes , s evera l o ccup at ion f loors i n t h is r eg ion c onta in e xamp les o f c oncentrat ions c omposed s o le ly o f b one d ebr is [ e .g . , Kostenk i X IV , L ayer 2 ( Rogachev 1 957 :77-80 ) , S ung ir ' ( Bader 1 978 :67-113 ) ] . P its h ave b een r eported f rom t wo s i tes [ Kostenk i XV I a nd S ung ir ' ( Tarasov 1 961 ; B ader 1 978 ) 1 , b ut t hey a re r e la t ive ly s ha l low ( 150 s pec imens ) , a nd S ung ir ' ( >200 s pec imens ) ( Bader 1 978 ; P ras lov a nd R ogachev 1 982 ) . T he l a rge s amp les f rom Kostenk i XV a nd S ung ir ' were e xcavated p r imar i ly f rom b ur ia ls , a nd many were f ound i n mu lt ip le s equences s uggest ing a n eck lace o r o ther c ompos ite d isp lay ( Rogachev 1 957 :111 ; B ader 1 978 :167 ) . O ther i t ems o f b one , i vory , s he l l , o r s tone , d escr ibed a s p endants o r b eads , h ave b een r ecovered f rom K ostenk i I ,L ayers 5 a nd 3 ; K ostenk i V I I I , L ayer 2 ; K ostenk i X I I , L ayer 1 ; K ostenk i X IV , L ayer 2 ; K ostenk i XV I I , L ayer 1 ;a nd S ung ir ' . T he c o l lect ion f rom S ung ir ' , e xtracted l arge ly f rom t he t he b ur ia ls , i nc ludes e a . 1 0 ,000 i vory b eads a nd s evera l o rnaments d escr ibed a s " brace lets" a nd " r ings ." Ob jects o f b one a nd i vory d ecorated w ith g eometr ic d es igns ( r ows o f d ashes , d o ts , l i nes , c hevrons , a nd z igzags ) h ave b een f ound i n Koste nk i I ,L ayer 3 ; K ostenk i V I I I , L ayer 2 ; K ostenk i X I I , L ayer 1 ; K ostenk i X IV , L ayer 2 ; K ostenk i XV ; a nd S ung ir ' ( F igure 6 h-6 j) . F igurat ive a rt i sv ery r are i n t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic o f t he E uropean USSR . An amb iguous i vory c arv ing f rom K ostenk i V I I I , L ayer 2 h as b een t entat ive ly l abe led a n " anth ropomorph ic o b ject ," b ut i t s t rue s ign if icance r ema ins u nknown ( Rogachev a t a l . 1 982a :106 , f ig . 3 3 ) . However , s evera l a n ima l f igur ines , i nc lud ing 2 h orses (? ) , o ne d ecorated w ith d ots , a mammoth (? ) , a nd p oss ib ly a f ragment o f af ourth f igur ine ( b ison? ) , h ave b een r ecovered a t S ung ir ' ( Bader 1 978 :171 , f ig . 1 14 ) ( F igure 6 k ) .
B ur ia ls B ur ia ls h ave b een e ncountered o n ly i n y ounger e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic o ccupat ion l eve ls o f t he Oka-Don L ow land . I t i s i n terest ing t o n ote t hat t hese b u r ia ls a ccount f or mos t o f t he Upper P a leo l ith ic g raves f ound i n t he E uropean USSR ; t h is c ou ld r ef lect t he m i lder c l imates ( w ith l ess s ha l low p ermafrost t ab le ) o f t he l ate M idd le P len ig lac ia l , wh ich may h ave p erm itted d eeper b ur ia l a nd r ed uced f rost-act ion e ffects ( e spec ia l ly f rost h eav ing ) , wh ich d estroy many b ur ia ls i n a rct ic r eg ions t oday ( Z i mmerman 1 985 :24 ) . Three i nd iv idua l b ur ia ls h ave b een e xcavated o n t he M idd le D on : K ostenk i X I I , L ayer 1 ; K ostenk i X IV , L ayer 3 ; a nd Kostenk i XV ( Rogachev 1 957 ; An ikov ich 1 987 ) , a nd a mu lt ip le b ur ia l c omp lex ( conta in ing a t l east f i ve i nd iv idua ls ) h as b een f ound a t S ung ir ' ( Bader 1 967 , 1 973 ) . The s ke letons i nc lude b oth ma les a nd f ema les , a nd a l l ma jor a ge g roups a re r epresented . T here i sn o c ons istent p attern o f o r ientat ion . E xcept a t Kostenk i X I I , a l l o f t he g raves c onta ined a rt ifacts a nd r ed o chre , a nd l arge n umbers o f o rnaments were e ncountered a t Kostenk i XV a nd S ung ir ' ( see a bove ) ; t he p lacement o f t hese o b jects a t b oth s i tes l eave l i tt le d oubt a s t o t he ir o rnamenta l f unct ion .
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F igure 6 . O rnamen ts a nd a r t o b jects : a -g . K ostenk i XV I I , L ayer 2 ( after B or iskovs k i j e t a l . 1 982 :182 , f ig . 6 5 ) ; h j . K ostenk i X IV , L ayer 2 ( a fter R ogachev a nd S in itsyn 1 982a :155 , f i g . 5 0 ) ; k . S ung ir ' ( a fter R ogachev a nd An ikov ich 1 984 :270 , f ig . 1 06 ) .
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FAUNAL REMA INS A lthough f auna l r ema ins c onst itute t he p r ime s ource o f i n format ion f or i n ferences c oncern ing s easona l ity , s i te f unct ion , h unt ing s trateg ies , a nd o ther a spects o f s ubs istence a nd s ett lement , a ssemb lages f rom s i tes i n t he E uropean USSR - a s e lsewhere - h ave y et t o b e s uff ic ient ly e xp lo ited f or p ert inent d ata . N everthe less , af ew g enera l izat ions c an b e o ffered . On t he who le , t he l andscape c ontext o f most Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes i n t h is p art o f E urope ( i .e . , o pen-a ir s i tes o n r iver t errace marg ins , b ur ied i n c o l luv ia l l oam) i sl e ss l i ke ly t o b e ar epos itory f or l arge q uant it ies o f f auna l d ebr is a ccumul a ted b y n onhuman a genc ies ( e .g . , r unn ing water , c arn ivores ) t han a l luv ia l o r c ave s ett ings . H owever , av ar iety o f sma l l a nd med ium mam ma ls a re a ttracted t o t h is t opograph ic/sed i mentary c ontext f or b urrow s i tes . T hey i nc lude r odents [ e .g . , mo le r at ( Spa l ax s p . ) , s teppe marmot ( Marmota b obac ) ] t hat e xcavate d eep , c omp lex b urrow s ystems , a nd c arn ivores [ e .g . , wo lf ( Can is l upus ) ] t hat n ot o n ly o ccupy b urrows b ut a ccumu late t he r ema ins o f p rey s pec ies i n t hem ( Ognev 1 962 , 1 963 ) . T hese a n ima ls may c ontr ibute t o t he c o l lect ion o f f auna l d ebr is a ccumu lated b y t he h uman o ccupants o f t he s i te l ong a fter i t s a bandonment a nd b ur ia l ( Vereshc hag in a nd Kuz 'm ina 1 977 ) . P rocesses o f p ost-depos it iona l mod if icat ion i nc lude f rost a ct ion a nd g eob iochem ica l w eather ing ; a s a lready n oted , t he l a tter i sl i ke ly t o h ave b een more i ntens ive i n e ar ly ( as o pposed t o l a te ) Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes b ecause o f s o i l d eve lopment d ur ing t he M idd le P len ig lac ia l . T he most c om mon l a rge mam ma l i n t he ma jor ity o f e ar ly Upper P a leol i th ic o ccupat ion h or izons i s h orse ( Equus c aba l lus ) , a l though r e indeer ( Rang ifer t arandus ) a nd mam moth ( Mam muthus p r im igen ius ) a re t he most a bundant t axon i n s evera l o ccupat ions [ e .g . , S ung ir ' ( r e indeer ) ( Gromov 1 966 ) ; B ab in I , L ayer 3 ( mam moth ) ( Chernysh 1 959 ) ] . Most a ssemb lages c onta in r ema ins o f a l l t hree s pec ies , a long w ith o ther l a rge mamma ls s uch a s woo l ly r h inoceros ( Coe lodonta a nt iqu itat is ) , r ed d eer ( Cervus e laphus ) , a nd s teppe b ison ( B ison p r iscus ) . L ess c om mon t axa i nc lude s a iga ( Sa iga t atar ica ) , r oe d eer ( Capreo lus c apreo lus ) , a nd e lk ( A lces a lces ) . B y c ontrast , l a te Upper P a leo l ith ic a ssemb lages r ef lect t he d om inance o f r e indeer i n t he West R uss ian P la in , a nd mam moth i n Oka-Don L ow land . C arn ivores , c h ief ly wo lf ( Can is l upus ) a nd a rct ic f ox ( A /opex l agopus ) , a re we l l r epresented i n t he Oka-Don L ow land , b ut r are i n t he West R uss ian P la in s i tes . Wo lf i s a ctua l ly t he most a bundant med ium/ large mamma l i n t wo a ssemb lages ( Kostenk i V I I I , L ayer 2 a nd K ostenk i XV I I , L ayer 2 ) , a nd a rct ic f ox i s t he most c ommon t axon a t K ostenk i I ,L ayer 3 . A s im i lar d istr ibut ion i se v ident f or sma l l mam ma ls ( rodents a nd l agomorphs ) a nd b irds . Hare ( Lepus t ana it icus ) i st he most a bundant mam ma l i n t hree M idd le Don a ssemb lages ( Kostenk i V I I I , L ayer 2 a nd Kostenk i X IV , L ayers 4 -3) ( Vereshchag in a nd Kuz 'm ina 1 977 ) . S easona l ity d ata a re v ery r are f or e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes . T he d isc overy o f r e indeer f ronta l b ones w ith a ttached a nt lers a t S ung ir ' s uggests a n a utumn o r w inter k i l l ( Bader 1 978 :189 ) . R ema ins o f 8 -9 month-o ld wo lves a t K oste nk i X IV a l so a rgue f or a w inter o ccupat ion ( Vereshehag in a nd K uz 'm ina 1 977 :85 ) . T he l arge c oncentrat ions o f r e indeer a t S ung ir ' ( Gromov 1 966 :75-78 ) a nd h orse a t K ostenk i X IV , L ayer 2 ( Vereshchag in a nd K uz 'm ina 1 977 :107 ) may b e u sed t o s uggest t hat g regar ious s pec ies w ere s omet imes t aken i n g roups ( a c atastroph ic morta l ity a ge p rof i le may b e p resent a t K ostenk i X IV ) ; h owever , more d ata a re n eeded o n t hese a sse mb lages . Outs ide o f t he s outhernmost Russ ian P la in , where s teppe b i son a re h eav i ly p redom inant i n most Upper P le istocene f aunas , ac omp lex
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mosa ic o f p lant c ommun it ies ( s ee e ar l ier d iscuss ion ) may h ave f avored h igh megaf auna l d ivers ity b ut c orrespond ing ly l ow d ens it ies a nd l im ited a ggregat ion among i nd iv idua l s pec ies , p rec lud ing mass k i l l t echn iques [ s ee S p iess ( 1979 :244-249 ) f or a s im i lar a rgument r egard ing r e indeer p opu lat ions i n t he P er igord d ur ing t he Würm I I i n terva l ] .
SOME CONCLUS IONS Upper P a leo l ith ic i ndustr ies were e stab l ished i n t he E uropean USSR a t l east 4 0 ,000-35 ,000 y ears a go a nd p oss ib ly e ar l ier . The o ldest 1 4 C d ate ( 36 ,400± 1488 B .P . ) h as b een o bta ined f rom t he M idd le Don V a l ley ( Kostenk i XV I I , L ayer 2 ) , b ut t h is s hou ld p robab ly b e t reated a s am in imum e st imate . F urthermore , i ts hou ld b e n oted t hat t he a ssemb lage d ated h ere r epresents a f u l ly d eve lo ped Upper P a leo l ith ic i ndustry w ithout " trans it iona l" c haracter ist ics . The " t rans i t iona l" a ssemb lages f rom t he West R uss ian P la in ( e .g . , Mo lodova V , L ayer 1 0a ; T r inka I , L ayer 3 a ) may b e o lder . L ayer 1 0a a t Mo lodova V i s c onta ined i n a b ur ied s o i l ( Mo lodova S o i l ) t hought t o h ave f ormed d ur ing 3 8 ,000-36 ,000 B .P . ( I vanova 1 987 :107 ) , b ut Ib e l ieve t hat t h is s hou ld a lso b e r egarded a s am in imum e st imate . I t i s a pparent t hat Upper P a leo l ith ic i ndustr ies were f i rm ly e stab l ished i n C entra l E urope p r ior t o 4 0 ,000 B .P . ( Koz lowsk i 1 982 ; Sm ith 1 982 ) . T he e ar l iest Upper P a leo l ith ic r ema ins i n t h is p art o f E urope o ften c omp r ise v ery i mpover ished a ssemb lages o f l i th ic a nd f auna l d ebr is . T he p attern i s p art icu lar ly e v ident i n t he M idd le Dnestr V a l ley , wh ich a pparent ly c onta ins t he most c omp lete M idd le/Upper P a leo l ith ic s equence i n t he E uropean USSR . A lt hough s ome o f t he o ldest o ccupat ion l eve ls i n t he M idd le Don V a l ley h ave y ie lded r i ch c o l lect ions o f a rt ifacts a nd f auna l r ema ins [ e .g . , Kostenk i XV I I , L ayer 2 ( Bor iskovsk i j e t a l . 1 982 ) ] , a s Ih ave o bserved a bove , t hese a re u n l ike ly t o r epresent b asa l Upper P a leo l ith ic i ndustr ies . S ome o f t he o ldest U pper P a leo l ith ic l eve ls i n Centra l E urope h ave a l so p roduced v ery s parse a ccumu lat ions o f d ebr is [ e .g . , W i l lendorf , l owest l eve l ( Austr ia ) ( Fe lgenhauer 1 956-1959 ) ; S ze leta Cave , l owest h or izon ( Hungary ) ( Gabör i 1 953 ) ] . E ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic l i th ic a ssemb lages i n t he European USSR e xh ib it s ome c ont inu it ies w ith l oca l Mouster ian i ndustr ies , b ut t he c ase f or a l oca l t rans i t ion r ema ins weak . A s i n Centra l E urope , many e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic a ssemb lages e xh ib it t echno logy a nd t oo l t ypes , i nc lud ing b ifac ia l i mp lements , c haract er ist ic o f t he l oca l Mouster ian ( Am irkhanov e t a / . 1 980 ) . I ti s i mposs ib le t o t race ad eve lopmenta l s equence i n t he Oka-Don L ow land , where t he o ldest k nown U pper P a leo l ith ic i ndustr ies s eem t o mater ia l ize e x n ih i lo . A more o r l e ss c ont inuous s uccess ion o f o ccupat ion l eve ls i s p resent o n ly i n t he M idd le D nestr V a l ley a t Mo lodova V a nd K orman ' I V . However , i t i s d iff icu lt t o f o l low a d eve lopmenta l s equence t hrough t he meager a ssemb lages t hat c ompr ise t he t enuous t hread b et ween r ead i ly i dent if iab le M idd le a nd Upper P a leo l ith ic i ndustr ies a t t hese s i tes ; t he p oss ib i l ity c annot b e e xc luded t hat t he a ssemb lages i n t he D nestr S o i l ( Mo lod ova V , L ayers 1 0-9 a nd K orman ' I V , L ayers 9 -8 ) r epresent a f ore ign i n trus ion . T he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic i ndustr ies d ef ined i n Western a nd Centra l E urope d o n ot a ppear t o b e p resent i n t he E uropean USSR . S o me a rt ifact a ssemb lages e xh ib it s im i lar it ies t o t he Aur ignac ian a nd S ze let ian i ndustr ies , e spec ia l ly i n t he westernmost R uss ian P la in , b ut n e ither i ndustry i s p resent s ensu s tr icto . T he a bsence o f t he Aur ignac ian s ets t he E uropean USSR a part f rom t he r est o f E urope a nd t he Near E ast . However , t he s ign if icance o f t h is i s n ot c lear . I f t he Au r ignac ian r epresents t he i n it ia l s pread o f H omo s ap iens s ap iens t hroughout
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E urope , t he a noma lous c haracter o f t he e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic o f t he E uropean USSR ( wh ich i s t hus f ar e xc lus ive ly a ssoc iated w ith t he r ema ins o f a natom ica l ly modern p eop le ) m ight r ef lect t he r e lat ive i s o lat ion a nd p ecu l iar a dapt ive d emands o f t hese h arsh l andscapes . T he d istr ibu t ion o f e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes d iffers s ign if icant ly f rom t hat o f t he l ate Upper P a leo l ith ic . E ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes a re we l l d ocumented i n t he West Russ ian P la in ( Prut V a l ley , Dnestr V a l ley , V o lyn-Podo l ian Up land ) a nd t he Oka-Don L ow land . I n c ontrast t o b oth t he Mouster ian a nd t he l a te Upper P a leo l ith ic , e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes a re r are , i f n ot c omp lete ly a bsent , i n t he Dnepr-Desna B as in . T h is i s a nother p henomenon u n ique t o t he E uropean USSR ; n o o ther r eg ion o f c omparab le s i ze i n m idlat itude E urope r ema ined u noccup ied d ur ing e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic t imes . T he e nv ironmenta l v ar ia b le (s ) t ha t d iscouraged s ett lement o f t h is i mmense b as in r ema in o bscure ; o ne p oss ib il ity i s l ack o f a dequate f ue l s ources . E ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes a re f ound i n p arts o f t he n orth R uss ian P la in s ubsequent ly a bandoned w ith t he r eadv ance o f t he S cand inav ian i ce s heet a fter 2 5 ,000 B .P . T hese i nc lude s i tes i n t he P echora B as in , ar eg ion wh ich , a l though l arge ly u ng lac iated d ur ing t he L ate P len ig lac ia l , a pparent ly s aw t he f ormat ion o f mass ive p rog lac ia l l akes a t t hat t ime ( Grosswa ld 1 980 :15-20 ) . T he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic a rt ifact a ssemb lages o f t he European USSR e xh ib it a c ons iderab le amount o fv ar iab i l ity , b oth w ith in a nd among r eg ions . Much o f t h is v ar iab i l ity i s e xpressed i n t erms o f t oo l c lass ( e .g . , b ur in ) o r t oo l t ype ( e .g . , d ihedra l b ur in ) f requenc ies , b ut s ome a ssemb lages f rom t he s ame r eg ion a nd t ime p er iod d i ffer i n t erms o f f undamenta l t echno log ica l p atterns ( e .g . , Mo lodova V , L ayer 1 0 v ersus K orman ' I V , L ayer 9 ; Kostenk i XV I I , L ayer 2 v ersus Kostenk i X I I , L ayer 3 ) . I t i s my i mpress ion , i n f act , t hat a ssemb lage v ar iab i l ity i s g reater d ur ing t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic t han d ur ing e i ther t he Mouster ian o r t he l ate U pper P a leo l ith ic , a lthough I h ave n ot a tte mpted a q uant itat ive c ompar ison . A g ood d ea l o f t he v ar iab i l ity i s u ndoubted ly a ttr ibutab le t o s amp l ing e rror , t e mpora l c hanges , a nd d i fferences i n r aw mater ia ls a nd a ct iv it ies , b ut e thn ic d ifferences s ee m l i ke ly t o h ave p layed a s ign if icant r o le h ere a s we l l , b oth among a nd w ith in r eg ions . On t he o ther h and , t here i sn o e v idence t o d ate f or s ubspec if ic v ar iat ion ( i .e . , Homo s ap iens s ap iens v ersus H . s ap iens n eandertha lens is ) among t he makers o f t hese i ndustr ies . Most o ccupat ion h or izons c onta in a d iverse a rray o f t oo l t ypes a nd f auna l r ema ins , a nd a ppear t o b e c ons istent w ith t he e xpectat ions o f a mu lt ip le-act iv ity ( and p robab ly l ong-term ) h ab itat ion s i te . Many o ccupat ion f loors c onta in d ebr is c oncentrat ions a nd f ormer h earths , a nd s ome may p ossess t races o f f ormer s truct ures . A l l s i tes a re l ocated i n ma jor r iver v a l leys , o n we l l-dra ined s urfaces ( t errace marg in a d jacent t o s ide-va l ley r av ine ) . U nfortunate ly , l i tt le i nformat ion i sa va i lab le o n s easona l ity . W ith t he e xcept ion o f s ome o f t he e ar l iest o ccupat ions ( e .g . , Korman ' I V , L ayer 1 0 ) , e xamp les o f sma l ler , l im ited-act itv ity s i tes ( e .g . , k i l l l oca l it ies ) d o n ot s eem t o b e r epresented . N on-ut i l itar ian a r t i fac ts ( o rnamen ts , a r t o b jects ) i n t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic may b e c ontrasted w ith b oth t he Mouster ian a nd t he l a te Upper P a leol i th ic . A lthough b ur ia ls o ccur i n s evera l c ave s i tes o f t he C r imea , t here i sl i tt le e v idence f or o rnamentat ion o r a rt i n t he Mouster ian . 9 On t he o ther h and , t he l ate Upper P a leo l ith ic h as p roduced a r ich c o l lect ion o f o rnaments , d ecorated p ieces , a nd f i gu ra t ive a rt ( Abramova 1 967 ) . The e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic , c onta in ing a modest a rray o f r e lat ive ly s imp le o rnaments a nd d ecorated i t ems , b ut l i tt le f igura t ive a rt , s ee ms t o l i e b etween t he t wo e xtremes . Two f actors t hat may h ave i nf luenced t h is a spect o f t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord a re d ifferent ia l p reservat ion
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a nd t he r educed a va i lab i l ity o f h ardwood t rees d ur ing t he l ate Upper P a leo l ith ic . However , t he i n termed iate c haracter o f t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic i s a lso a ttested b y t he d eve lopmenta l s equence e v ident i n t he Oka-Don L ow land : o rnaments ( Lower Hum ie B ed ) , o rnaments , d ecorated p ieces , a nd b ur ia ls c onta in ing s ome o rnaments ( upper h um ic h or izons ) , a nd o rnaments , d ecorated p ieces , b ur ia ls c onta in ing e laborate o rnamentat ion , a nd f igurat ive a rt ( f ina l M idd le P len ig lac ia l s o i l ) . T h is p attern s uggests t hat t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic may r epresent a p er iod o f g radua l e vo lut ion i n h uman s ymbo l ic e xpress ion . A t t he c lose o f t he M idd le P len ig lac ia l ( ca . 2 5 ,000 B .P . ) e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic i ndustr ies a re s upp lanted b y E astern G ravett ian a ssemb lages i n many p arts o f t he E uropean USSR . T he E astern G ravett ian a sse mb lages c onta in a h igh p roport ion o f b acked b lades a nd p o ints ( i nc lud ing t he d iagnost ic Kostenk i s hou ld ered p o ints ) , a nd s oph ist icated f igurat ive a rt ( notab ly t he e vocat ive Venus f igur ines ) . T hey h ave b een r ad iocarbon d ated t o t he 2 4 ,000-22 ,000 B .P . i n terva l i n t he Dnepr-Desna B as in ( Berdyzh , Khoty levo I ) , t he C entra l R uss ian U p land ( Avd eevo ) , a nd t he M idd le D on V a l ley ( Gagar ino , Kostenk i I ) , a nd a ppear t o r epresent ar e lat ive ly r ap id d i spersa l o f p eop le f rom o uts ide t hese r eg ions ( Rogachev a nd An ikov ich 1 984 ) . S ince e ar l ier d ates h ave b een r eported f rom s im i lar a sse mb lages i n Centra l E urope , t he l atter was p robab ly t he s ource o f t he E astern G ravett ian i ndustry o n t he R uss ian P la in . I t s hou ld b e n oted t hat t h is i ndustry was n ot p resent s ensu s tr icto i n t he westernmost p ort ion o f t he E uropean USSR , a lthough t he p roport ion o f b acked b lades a nd p o ints i ncreases i n s ome a sse mb lages o f e ar ly L ate P len ig lac ia l a ge [ e .g . , Mo lodova V , L ayer 7 ( Chernysh 1 987a :40-42 ) ] .
Acknow ledgments . Iam g ratefu l t o R .G . K le in a nd S .M . W i lson , who r ev iewed e ar l ier d rafts o f t h is p aper . My t hanks a lso t o L i l ian K . Takahash i , who p repared t he a rt ifact i lustrat ions ( F igures 4 , 5 , a nd 6 ) .
NOTES i T he o ccupat ion h or izons a t B ab in I a re a ctua l ly n umbered f ro m t he b ottom u p ( Chernysh 1 959 :16-39 ) . Th is i s ar eversa l o f t he n orma l p attern a t P a leo l ith ic s i tes i n t he USSR , a nd I h ave t aken t he l i berty o f r enumber ing t he l ayers f rom t he t op d own i n t h is p aper f or t he s ake o f c ons istency . 2E ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic s ett lement i n t he s outhernmost Russ ian P la in i s i nd irect ly i nd icated b y t he p resence o f f oss i l mo l luscs f rom t he B lack S ea c oast i n L ayer 3 o f Kostenk i I( Rogachev 1 957 :34 ) . 3I vanova ( 1977 :178-179 , t ab le 7 ) a ss igns P a leoso l Comp lex I V t o t he f i rst M idd le P len ig lac ia l warm p eak , w ith a n e st imated a ge o f c a . 5 0 ,000-45 ,000 B .P . I h ave t entat ive ly c orre lated i t w ith a n E ar ly G lac ia l i n terstad ia l ( S tage 5 a? ) b ecause i t a ppears t o h ave d eve loped u nder r e lat ive ly warm c l i mat ic c ond it ions ( Gub in 1 977 :102 ) .
4
T he b and o f d ark l oam c onta in ing L ayers 7 -6a a t Mo lodova V , wh ich h as
b een r ad iocarbon-dated t o t he s ame t ime i n terva l , h as o ccas iona l ly b een d escr ibed a s ab ur ied s o i l ( e .g . , Chernysh 1 973 :11 , f ig . 3 ) , b ut a ccord ing t o Gub in ( 1987 :139 ) , t here a re n o f i rm i nd icat ions o f s o i l f ormat ion i n t h is u n it . 5T he p ercentages g iven f or t oo l c ategor ies f rom Ku l ich ivka , L ayer 2 h ave b een c a lcu lated o n a sma l ler s amp le o f a rt ifacts ( 21 ,290 ) ( Sav ich 1 975b :20-22) .
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6T he h azards o f a ss ign ing a ssemb lages t o t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic o n t echno log ica l/ typo log ica l g rounds w ithout i ndependent s upport ing d ata a re i lust rated b y t he a rt ifact c o l lect ions f rom K ostenk i V I I I , L ayer 1 ( Rogachev e t a / . 1 982a ) a nd R adomyshr ( Shovkop lyas 1 965 ) , wh ich c onta in many " archa ic" e lements , b ut may b e a ss igned t o t he l ate Upper P a leo l ith ic o n t he b as is o f s trat igr aphy a nd r ad iocarbon d at ing , r espect ive ly . 7D ur ing March 1 986 , a nd M .V . An ikov ich a t t he A cade my o f S c iences , Ih ad X I I , L ayers 1 , l a , 2 , a nd 3 ; XV I I , L ayer 2 .
t hrough t he c ourtesy o f N .D . P ras lov , A .A . S in itsyn , I n st itute o f A rchaeo logy , L en ingrad S ect ion , USSR a n o pportun ity t o e xam ine a rt ifacts f rom Kostenk i Kostenk i X IV , L ayer 2 ; K ostenk i XV I ; a nd Kostenk i
8K ostenk i I , L ayer 5 was f ormer ly a ss igned t o t he L ower Hum ic B ed ( Lazukov 1 957 :150 ) , b ut i s n ow t hought t o r est i n t he l ower p ort ion o f t he h um ic b ands t hat o ver l ie t he v o lcan ic a sh l ens ( An ikov ich 1 977 ) .
9T he most c ompe l l ing e v idence f or Mouster ian a rt i n t he E uropean USSR i sa n e ngraved mammoth s capu la f rom Mo lodova I ,L ayer 2 ( Chernysh 1 982 :64-65 , f i g . 2 7 ) .
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K le in , R .G . 1 969 Man a nd Cu lture i n t he L ate P le istocene : A Case S tudy . S an F ranc i sco : Chand ler . 1 973 I ce-Age Hunter s o r t he Ukra ine . Ch icago : Un ivers ity o f Ch icago P ress . K l ima , B . , J . Kuk la , V . L ozek , a nd H . d e V r ies 1 962 S trat igraph ie d es P le istozäns u nd A lter d es p a läo l ith ischen Rastp latzes i n d er Z iege le i v on Do ln i V eston ice ( Unter-W istern itz ) . Anthropozo ikum 1:93-145 . K oz lowsk i , J .K . ( ed itor ) 1 982 E xcavat ion i n t he B acho K iro Cave ( Bu lgar ia ) F ina l Report . Warsaw : P af istwowe Wydawn ictwo Naukove . K oz lowsk i , J .K . , a nd S .K . K oz lowsk i 1 979 Upper P a laeo l ith ic a nd Meso l ith ic i n E urope : T axonomy a nd p a laeoh i story . P race Ko rnis j i A rcheo log icznej 1 8 . K senzov , V .P . 1 987 Novye i s s ledovan iya v erkhnepa leo l it ichesko j s toyank i Yurov ich i . S ovetskaya a rkheo log iya ( 1 ) :239-243 . Kuk la , G .J . 1 975 L oess s trat igraphy o f Centra l E urope . I n K .W . B utzer a nd G .L 1 . I saac ( ed itors ) Af ter t he Austra lop ithec ines , p p . 9 9-188 . T he Hague : Mouton . Ku l ikova , L .S . 1 987 E kskursy iv ekovye v ar iats i i g eomagn itnogo p o lya k ak s trat igraf ichesk ie r epery ( po i s s ledovan iyam r azrezov Mo lodova V iKorman ' I V ) . I n I .K . I vanova a nd S .M . T se jt l in ( ed itors ) Mnogos lo jnaya p a /eo / it icheskaya s toy anka Mo lodova V : L yud i k amennogo v eka io kruzhayushchaya s reda , p p . 1 68-180 . Moscow : N auka . L azukov , G . I . 1 957 Geo log iya s toyanok Kostenkovsko-Borshevskogo r a jona . Mater ia ly i i s s ledovan iya p a a rkheo log i i S SSR 5 9 :135-173 . 1 982 Kharakter ist ika c hetvert ichnykh o t lozhen i j r a jona . I n N .D . P ras lov a nd A .N . R ogachev ( ed itors ) P a leo l it Kostenkovsko-Borshchevskogo r ajona n a Donu 1 879-1979 , p p . 1 3-37 . L en ingrad : Nauka . b onus , C . , J . J ouze l , C . R itz , L . Mer l ivat , N . I . B arkov , Y .S . K orotkev ich , a nd V .M . Kot lyakov 1 985 A 1 50 ,000-year c l imat ic r ecord f rom Antarct ic i ce . Nature 3 16 :5915 96 . Markova , A .K . 1 984 L ate P le istocene mam ma l f auna o f t he R uss ian P la in . I n A .A . V e l ichk o ( ed itor ) L ate Quaternary E nv ironments o f t he S ov iet Un ion , p p . 2 092 18 . M inneapo l is : U n ivers ity o f M innesota P ress . Marshack , A . 1 979 Upper P a leo l ith ic s ymbo l s ystems o f t he R uss ian P la in : Cogn it ive a nd c omparat ive a na lys is . Current Anthropo logy 2 0 :271-311 . M i l ler , M . 1 956 Archaeo logy i n t he U .S .S .R . New York : F reder ick A . P raeger . Morosan , N .N . 1 938 L e P le istocene e t l e P a läo l ith ique d e l a R ouman ie d u Nord-Est . Annuaru l I nst itutu lu i Geo log ie a l Roman ie i 1 9 . Motuz , V .M . 1 987 Nazemnye mo l lyusk i i z c hetvert ichnykh o t lozhen i j s toyank i Mo lodova V . I n I .K . I vanova a nd S .M . T se jt l in ( ed itors ) Mnogos lo jnaya p a leo l it iche skaya s toyanka Mo lodova V : L yud i k a mennogo v eka io kruzhayushchaya s reda , p p . 1 62-167 . Moscow : Nauka .
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Ognev , S . I . 1 962 Mam ma ls o f E astern E urope a nd N or thern A s ia , v o l . 2 , C arn ivora . T rans lated b y A . B irron a nd Z .S . Co le . J erusa lem : I s rae l P rogram f or S c ie nt if ic T rans lat ions . 1 963 Mam ma ls o f t he U .S .S .R . a nd Ad jacent Countr ies , v o l . 5 , Rodents . T rans lated b y A . B irron a nd Z .S . Co le . J erusa lem : I s rae l P rogram f or S c ie nt if ic T rans lat ions . P ras lov , N .D . 1 984 Geo log ichesk ie i p a leogeograf ichesk ie r amk i p a leo l ita 1 r azv it ie p r irodno j s reda n a t err itor i i S SSR 1 p rob lemy k h rono log i i ip er iod izats i i p a leo l ita . I n P . I . B or iskovsk i j ( ed itor ) P a leo l it S SSR , p p . 1 7-40 . Moscow : Nauka . 1 985 K ostenkovskaya g ruppa p a leo l it ichesk ikh s toyanok . I n S .M . S h ik ( ed itor ) K raevye o brazovan iya mater ikovykh o ledenen ij : P u tevod ite l ' e ksk urs ij V I I v sesoyuznogo s oveshchan iya , p p . 2 4-28 . Moscow : N auka . P ras lov , N .D . , a nd M .A . I vanova 1 982 K ostenk i 2 1 ( Gme l inskaya s toyanka ) . I n N .D . P ras lov a nd A .N . Rogachev ( ed itors ) P a leo l it Kostenkovsko-Borshchevskogo r ajona n a D onu 1 879-1979 , p p . 1 98-210 . L en ingrad : Nauka . P ras lov , N .D . , a nd A .N . Rogachev ( ed itors ) 1 982 P a leo l it Kostenkovsko-Borshchevskogo r ajona n a D onu 1 879-1979 . L en ingrad : Nauka . Rogachev , A .N . 1 957 Mnogos lo jnye s toyank i Kostenkovsko-Borshevskogo r a jona n a D onu i p rob lema r azv it iya k u l 'tury v e pokhu v erkhnego p a leo l ita n a R ussko j r avn ine . Mater ia ly ii s s ledovan iya p a a rkheo log i i S SSR 5 9 :9-134 . Rogachev , A .N . , a nd M .V . An ikov ich 1 982a K ostenk i 1 2 ( Vo lkovskaya s toyanka ) . I n N .D . P ras lov a nd A .N . Rogachev ( ed itors ) P a leo l it Kostenkovsko-Borshchevskogo r ajona n a D onu 1 879-1979 , p p . 1 32-140 . L en ingrad : Nauka . 1 982b K ostenk i 6( S tre letskaya s toyanka ) . I n N .D . P ras lov a nd A .N . R ogac hev ( ed itors ) P a leo l it Kostenkovsko-Bor shchevskogo r ajona n a D onu 1 8791 979 , p p . 8 8-91 . L en ingrad : Nauka . 1 984 P ozdn i j p a leo l it Russko j r avn iny 1K ryma . I n P . I . Bor iskovsk i j ( ed itor ) P a leo l it S SSR , p p . 1 62-271 . Moscow : Nauka . Rogachev , A .N . , M .V . An ikov ich , a nd T .N . Dm itr ieva 1 982a K ostenk i 8( Te l 'manskaya s toyanka ) . I n N .D . P ras lov a nd A .N . R ogac hev ( ed itors ) P a leo l it Kostenkovsko-Bor shchevskogo r ajona n a Donu 1 8791 979 , p p . 9 2-109 . L en ingrad : Nauka . Rogachev , A .N . , N .D . P ras lov , M .V . An ikov ich , V . I . B e lyaeva , a nd T .N . Dm itr ieva 1 982b K ostenk i 1( s toyanka P o lyakova ) . I n N .D . P ras lov a nd A .N . R ogachev ( ed itors ) P a leo l it Kostenkovsko-Borshchevskogo r ajona n a D onu 1 879-1979 , p p . 4 2-66 . L en ingrad : Nauka . Rogachev , A .N . , a nd A .A . S in itsyn 1 982a K ostenk i 1 4 ( Mark ina Gora ) . I n N .D . P ras lov a nd A .N . R ogachev ( ed itors ) P a leo l it Kostenkovsko-Borshchevskogo r ajona n a D onu 1 879-1979 , p p . 1 45-162 . L en ingrad : Nauka . 1 982b K ostenk i 1 5 ( Gorodtsovskaya s toyanka ) . I n N .D . P ras lov a nd A .N . R ogachev ( ed itors ) P a leo l it Kostenkovsko-Borshchevskogo r ajona n a D onu 1 879-1979 , p p . 1 62-171 . L en ingrad : Nauka . 1 982c K ostenk i 1 6 ( Ug lyanka ) . I n N .D . P ras lov a nd A .N . Rogachev ( ed itors ) P a leo l it Kostenkovsko-Borshchevskogo r ajona n a Donu 1 879-1979 , p p . 1 711 81 . L en ingrad : Nauka . S av ich , V .P . 1 975a P ozdnepa leo l it ichesk ie p ose len iya n a g ore K u l ich ivka v g . K remenets . Byu l leten ' Kom iss i i p a i zuchen iyu c hetvert ichnogo p er ioda 4 4 :41-51 .
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1 975b P izn 'opa leo l i t ichne n ase /ennya P ivdenno-Zakh idno j V o l in i . K iev : Naukova d umka . 1 985 Raboty V o lyno-Podo l 'sko j e ksped its i i . Arkheo log ichesk ie o tkryt iya 1 983 g oda , p p . 3 50-351 . Moscow : Nauka . 1 986 I s s ledovan iya K u lych ivk i vg . K remenets . Arkheo log ichesk ie o tkryt iya 1 984 g oda , p p . 3 01-302 . Moscow : Nauka . S hack leton , N .J . , a nd N .D . Opdyke 1 973 Oxygen i s otope a nd p a leomagnet ic s trat igraphy o f e quator ia l P ac if ic c ore V 28-238 : Oxygen i s otope t e mperatures a nd i ce v o lumes o n a1 00 ,000 y ear a nd 1 ,000 ,000 y ear s ca le . Quaternary Research 3 :39-55 . S he lkop lyas , V .N . 1 971 Oprede len ie v ozrasta p orod l essovo j f ormats i i Ukra iny t ermo lyum in estsentnym metodom . I n V .A . Z ubakov a nd S .M . T se jt l in ( ed itors ) P rob lemy p er iod izats i i p lejstotsena , p p . 2 95-301 . L en ingrad : Akadem iya n auk S SSR . S hovkop lyas , I .G . 1 965 Radomysh l tskaya s toyanka - p amyatn ik n acha l 'no j p ory p ozdnego p a leo l ita . I n O .N . B ader , I .K . I vanova , a nd A .A . V e l ichko ( ed itors ) S trat igraf iya ip er iod izats iya p a leo l ita V ostochno j iT sentra l 'no j E vropy , p p . 1 04-116 . Moscow : Nauka . 1 967 Novaya p ozdnepa leo l it icheskaya s toyanka v Chern igovsko j o b last i . Arkheo log ichesk ie o tkryt iya 1 966 g . , p p . 1 87-189 . Moscow : Nauka . S inghv i , A .K . , a nd V . Me jdah l 1 985 T hermo lum inescence d at ing o f s ed i ments . Nuc lear T racks a nd Rad ia t ion Measurements 1 0 (1-2 ) :137-161 . S offer , 0 . 1 986 Rad iocarbon a cce lerator d ates f or Upper P a laeo l ith ic s i tes i n E urop ean U .S .S .R . Oxford Un ivers ity Com m ittee f or A rchaeo logy Monograph 1 1 :109-115 . Sm ith , F .H . 1 982 Upper P le istocene h om in id e vo lut ion i n S outh-Centra l E urope : A r ev iew o f t he e v idence a nd a na lys is o f t rends . Current Anthropo logy 2 3(6 ) :667-703 . S p iess , A .E . 1 979 Re indeer a nd Car ibou Hunters : An Archaeo log ica l S tudy . N ew York : Academ ic P ress . S ukachev , V .N . , V . I . G romov , a nd O .N . B ader 1 966 V erkhnepa leo l it icheskaya s toyanka S ung ir ' . T rudy Geo log icheskogo i nst ituta 1 62 . T arasov , L .M . 1 961 Ug lyanskaya p a leo l it icheskaya s toyanka ( Kostenk i XV I ) . Kratk ie s oobshchen iya I nst ituta a rkheo log i i 8 5 :38-47 . 1 979 Gagar inskaya s toyanka i e e mesto v p a leo l ita E vropy . L en ingrad : Nauka . T era smae , J . 1 984 Rad iocarbon d at ing : S ome p rob lems a nd p otent ia l d eve lopments . I n W .C . Mahaney ( ed itor ) Quaternary D at ing Methods , p p . 1 -15 . Amsterdam : E lsev ier . V ek i lova , E .A . 1 957 S toyanka S yuren ' Ii e e mesto s red i p a leo l it ichesk ikh mestonakhozhd en i j K ryma i b l izha jsh ikh t err itor i j . Mater ia ly i i s s ledovan iya p o a rkheo log i i S SSR 5 9 :235-323 . V e l ichko , A .A . 1 961 Geo log ichesk i j v ozrast v erkhnego p a leo l ita t sentr enykh r ajonov Russko j r av iny . Moscow : Nauka .
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V e l ichko . , A .A . , A .B . B oguek i , T .D . Morozova , V .P . Udartsev , T .A . K ha leheva , a nd A . I . T satsk in 1 984 P er ig lac ia l l andscapes o f t he E ast E uropean P la in . I n A .A . V e l ichko ( ed itor ) L ate Quaternary E nv ironments t he S ov iet Un ion , p p . 9 4-118 . M inneapo l is : Un ivers ity o f M innesota P ress . V e l ichko , A .A . , L .V . G rekhova , a nd Z .P . Gubon ina 1 977 S reda o b itan iya p ervobytnogo c he /oveka T imonovsk ikh s toyanok . Moscow : Nauka . V e l ichko , A .A . , a nd T .D . Morozova 1 972 B ryanskaya i s kopaemaya p oehva , e e s t rat igraf icheskoe z nachen ie 1 p r irodnye u s lov iya f orm irovan iya . I n A .A . V e l ichko ( ed itor ) L essy , p ogrebennye p ochvy ik r iogennye y av len iya n a Russko j r avn ine , p p . 7 1-114 . Moscow : Nauka . V ereshchag in , N .K . , a nd I .E . K uz 'm ina 1 977 O statk i m lekop itayushch ikh i z p a leo l it iehesk ikh s toyanok n a Donu i V erkhne j D esne . T rudy Z oo log icheskogo i ns t ituta AN S SSR 7 2 :77-110 . V o lkov , I .A . , a nd V .S . Z yk ina 1 984 L oess s trat igraphy i n s outhwestern S iber ia . I n A .A . V e l ichko ( ed itor ) L ate Quaternary E nv ironments o f t he S ov iet Un ion , p p . 1 19-124 . M innea po l is : Un ivers ity o f M innesota P ress . Washburn , A .L . 1 979 Geocryo logy : A S ur vey o f P er ig lac ia l P rocesses a nd E nv iron ments . L ondon : E dward A rno ld . Wo i l lard , G . 1 978 G rande P i le p eat b og : A c ont inuous p o l len r ecord f or t he l a st 1 40 ,000 Y ears . Quaternary R esearch 9 :1-21 . Z i mmerman , M .R . 1 985 P a leopatho logy i n A laskan mum m ies . Amer ican S c ient ist 7 3 (1) :20-25 . Z ubakov , V .A . 1 988 C l imatostrat igraph ic s cheme o f t he B lack S ea P le istocene a nd i t s c orre lat ion w ith t he o xygenisotope s ca le a nd g lac ia l e vents . Quaternary Research 2 9 :1-24 .
o f
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E ARLY U PPER P A LEOL ITH IC R E SEARCH : AR EV !E W M ichae l A . J och im D epar tment o f Anth ropo logy U n ivers ity o f C a l iforn ia S anta B arbara , Ca l iforn ia U .S .A .
I NTRODUCT ION T he e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic h as b een a r e lat ive ly n eg lected t op ic i n t he a rchaeo log ica l l i terature , o vershadowed b y t he more s pectacu lar c haracter ist ics o f t he l a ter s tages o f t he P a leo l ith ic . T h is c o l lect ion o f p apers s eeks t o h e lp c orrect f or t h is n eg lect b y f ocus ing a ttent ion o n t h is i mportant p er iod o f p reh i story . I n s o d o ing , i t a l lows u s t o s urvey t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord a cross a b road r eg ion o f E urope a nd t he N ear E ast . I fp art o f t he t ask o f a nth ropo logy i st o i nvest igate j ust what i t means t o b e h uman , t hen t he e ar ly U pper P a leo l ith ic , r epresent ing mater ia l r ema ins o f s ome o f t he e ar l iest modern h umans , i s c lear ly a n i mportant s ub ject f or r es earch . B a sed o n v ar ious i n terpreta t ions o f t he p reh istor ic r ecord o f t h is p er iod , i ti sp oss ib le t o s tate s ome d ecept ive ly s imp le q uest ions a bout p reh istor ic b ehav ior t hat c ou ld g u ide r esea rch .
1 . What d i st ingu ishes t he c u lture o f e ar ly modern h umans f rom t ha t o f t he N eandertha ls? 2 . What e v idence i s t here f or a m igrat ion o f modern p eop le i n to a N eandertha l E urope? 3 . What e v idence i s t here f or t he c oex istence o f s evera l d i fferent s oc ia l o r e thn ic g roup s o f modern h umans?
Q uest ions s uch a s t hese p erta in t o c u lture h i story , wh ich , a fter a l l , i st he a spect o f a rchaeo logy t ha t a ttracts most p ub l ic i n terest . A rchaeo logy h as a n o b l iga t ion t o t he p ub l ic t o d escr ibe o ur p ast a s we l l a s t o e xp la in i t , a nd t he most i n terest ing d escr ipt ions a re i n t erms o f b ehav ior , n ot a rt ifacts o r v ar iab les . We n eed t o c lar ify whether t he b as ic p rem ise o f J ean Aue l 's C lan o f t he C ave B ear i s p oss ib le o r p robab le . B ecause o f o ur a sp irat ions a l so t o e xp la in t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord a nd t he h uman p ast , w e n eed t o d ev ise o ther q uest ions a s w e l l , q uest ions wh ich f ocus o n t he m ethods a nd t heor ies u nder ly ing o ur r esearch . I mmed iate ly o bv ious f rom t h is s urvey i s t he f act t ha t many o f t he c lass ic p rob lems o f p reh istory must b e c onfron ted i n i nvest igat ing t h is p er iod . Two ma jor q uest ions c an b e u sed t o o rgan ize ac ons iderat ion o f t he p aper s i n t h is b ook .
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WHAT I S THE NATURE OF THE BEG INN ING OF THE UPPER PALEOL ITH IC? T h is r equ ires f i rst o f a l l ad ef in it ion . G iven t he l im its o f t he a rchaeol og ica l r ecord , v ar ious c r iter ia m ight b e u sed , i nc lud ing t echno log ica l f actors o f s tone o r b one , t ypo log ica l c haracter ist ics , b io log ica l t ra its , i n ferred b ehav iora l c hanges o r p ure ly c h rono log ica l markers r e lat ive t o e nv iron menta l c hanges . The t echno logy o f l i th ic r educt ion , e ssent ia l ly t he d eve lopment o f b lade t echno logy , r ece ives t he g reatest a ttent ion i n t he p apers i n t h is v o lume ( Vermeersch a nd V an P eer ; Marks ) , b ut s trat igraph ic c ontext ( Hoffeeker ) a nd l i th ic t ypo log ica l p roport i ons ( S traus ) a lso a re u sed . I dent ify ing t hese c r iter ia i s i mportant , b ecause c ompar isons a cross r eg ions p resuppose c om mon u n its o f a na lys is . Compar isons a l so r equ ire a dequate c hrono log ica l c ontro l , a nd h ere , a ga in , v ar iab i l ity among r eg ions i s e v ident . C r it ica l " trans it iona l" a ssemb lages o f t he N i le V a l ley , f or e xamp le , h ave v ar ious c hrono log ica l e st imates wh ich d i ffer b y 2 0 ,000 y ears ( Vermeersch a nd V an P eer ) . T he e ar l iest d ates f or U pper P a leo l ith ic s i tes i n t he Russ ian P la in a re s uggested o n ly t o b e m in imum e st imates , b y r efere nce t o o ther d ated s i tes i n C entra l E urope ( Hoffecker ) . E ven i n t he b est d ated r eg ion o f E urope , s outhwestern F rance , r ecent work h as r ev ised c h rono log ica l e st imates f or Upper P a leo l ith ic s i tes ( Me l iars e t a l . 1 987 ) . I t i s n ot o n ly c ompar isons i n g enera l t hat a re h ampered b y t hese d ifferences i n c hrono log ica l c ontro l ; i nterpretat ions wh ich f ocus o n t he s equence a nd r ate o f c hanges i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord a re weakened a s we l l . P erhaps t he b iggest q uest ion i nvo lves h ow we i n terpret a rchaeo log ica l o bservat ions . I n t he r ea lm o f l i th ic t echno logy , f or e xamp le , w e h ave t ended t o emphas ize t he p roport ion o f b lades t o f lakes , t he r e lat ive i mportance o f t he L eva l lo is t echn ique , a nd t he p atterns o f r etouch . I n t he c ase o f l i th ic t ypo logy , a ttent ion i su sua l ly g iven t o t he p resence o r a bsence o f v ar ious i ndex f oss i ls a nd t o f requency v ar iat ions o f d ifferent a rt ifact t ypes o r g roups o f t ypes , s uch a s t he "Mouster ian g roup" a nd t he " Aur ignac ian g roup ." F rom many o f t he p apers i n t h is work i t i s c lear t hat many o f t he t rad it i ona l measures s how l e ss c hange t han t hought , o r t hat t he c hanges a re more s ubt le t han p rev ious ly s upposed . A lso c lear f rom t he p apers i n t h is b ook i s t he f act t hat d ifferent v ar iab les c hange a t d ifferent t imes a nd r ates , w ith s ome c hanges a ppear ing a brupt a nd o thers more g radua l . I n Western E urope , a t l east , t here a ppears t o b e l i tt le c hange i n s ubs istence a nd s ett lement ( Harro ld ; S traus ) , whereas i n t he L evant t here may h ave o ccurred e ar ly c hanges i n mob i l ity a nd p erhaps h unt ing s trateg ies ( Marks ; Wo lf ) . What i s s t i l l n ot a t a l l o bv ious i s t he mean ing o f t hose v ar iab les t hat we c an measure , t hat i s , t he b ehav iora l c hanges t hat u nder l ie t he a rchaeo log ica l v ar iab les . Any o f t he c haracter ist ics o f l i th ic a ssemb lages ment ioned a bove m ight b e r ef lect ing what w e t rad it iona l ly c a l l " sty le" o r " funct ion ," b ut a lso s imp le r esharpen ing p atterns o r r aw mater ia l q ua l ity a nd a bundance ( s ee , f or e xamp le , R o l land 1 981 ) . T hese , i n t urn , may b e a ffected b y p atterns o f mob i l ity , s easona l ity , o r e thn ic d istr ibut ion a nd i n teract ion .
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WHAT I S THE NATURE OF VAR IAB IL ITY I N THE EARLY UPPER PALEOL ITH IC? T he N i le V a l ley a sse mb lages a ppear t o h ave b een t echno log ica l ly d iffere nt iated f rom t hose o f n e ighbor ing a reas a round 2 0 ,000-25 ,000 y ears a go ( Vermeersch a nd V an P eer ) . I n t he L evant , t he Ahmar ian a nd Aur ignac ian c oex isted f or 1 5 ,000 y ears ( Marks ) . Cons iderab le t echno log ica l a nd t ypo log ica l d ivers ity c haracter izes s i tes i n t he Oka-Don l ow lands o f t he R uss ian P la in ( Hoffecker ) . T he Chate lperron ian a nd Aur ignac ian i n s outhwestern F rance h ave l ong b een v iewed b y s ome a s c oex ist ing c u ltures , av iew e ndorsed b y Harro ld i n t h is v o lume . E ven w ith in t he Aur ignac ian , c lear d ifferences i n b ead a nd p endant t echno logy a nd d ecorat ive mot ifs d ist ingu ish s i tes i n F rance a nd Germany d esp ite g reat s im il ar it ies i n l i th ie t echno logy ( Wh ite ) . I n e xp la in ing t h is v ar iab i l ity , h ow much ( and o n what b as is ) c an we a tt r ibute t o " s ituat iona l" f actors i n t he b roadest s ense a nd h ow much t o " ethn ic" f actors? F or e xamp le , a re c erta in t echno log ica l p atterns l i ke ly t o r ef lect r aw mater ia l a va i lab i l ity , s i tuat ion o f manufacture a nd u se , a daptat iona l f actors o f r esource b ehav ior a nd h uman mob i l ity , o r " i soch rest ic" c ho ice? How d o we k now? O f what v a lue a re e thnoarchaeo log ica l s tud ies i n t h is r egard , p art icu lar ly when c onf l ict ing o bservat ions emerge f rom s uch s tud ies? F or e xamp le , i ntera ct ions b etween t wo d ifferent s oc ia l g roups may l ead t o i ncreased s im i lar it ies i n s o me mater ia l t ra its ( e .g . , Doz ier 1 966 ) i n s ome s i tuat ions , b ut i n o ther s i tuat ions i ncreased d ifferent iat ion o f mater ia l c u lture may r esu lt a s af orm o f b oundary ma intenance ( Hodder 1 982 ) .
PROBLEMS AND FUTURE WORK Methodo log ica l p rob le ms o bstruct f uture r esearch i n t h is t op ic . Compar is ons o f d ata must a l low f or d ifferences i n t ypes a nd q ua l ity o f i n format ion . I n a s urvey o f s uch a l arge a rea , i t i s c lear t hat r esearch i n d ifferent c ountr ies h as emphas ized d ifferent f actors o r g oa ls . U sefu l r esu lts o f s uch a s urvey a re t he h igh l ight ing o f s uch d ifferences a s we l l a s t he e xchange o f i deas a nd t he s t i mul at ion o f c o mp lementary r esearch . Another methodo log ica l p rob lem t hat emerges f rom s uch a s urvey i s t he r ecogn it ion t hat a l l r esearch i s t i ed t o p ast methods a nd i n terpret ive d ev ices , a nd t hese i n te l lectua l t ethers may a lso v ary f rom r eg ion t o r eg ion . S tone t oo l t ypo lo gy i s p erhaps t he most o bv ious o f t hese t ethers . A lthough t he F rench l i th ic t ypo logy d om inates P a leo l ith ic r esearch a nd s erves a s au sefu l c om mon t oo l o f measurement , t he d eterm inants o f t oo l f orm a re s t i l l n ot k nown . A s ar esu lt , j ust what i sb e ing measured i s-n ot c lear . T heoret ica l c ha l lenges a lso awa it f uture r esearchers . T he p apers i n t h is v o lume d e monstrate t he weakness o f c urrent , s imp le e co log ica l p arad igms . No c lear c hanges i n e nv ironment o r s ubs istence p recede o ther c hanges i n most a rea s . As imp le b io log ica l p arad igm i sa lso s hown t o b e d ef ic ient , a s t here a re n o c lear a nd s imp le l i nks b etween b io log ica l f orm o f h om in id a nd most o f t he a rchaeo log ica l v ar iab les . P erhaps t he most p rom is ing o f a pproaches a re t hose t hat f ocus o n c hanges i n t he o rgan izat ion o f b ehav ior ( Marks ) , b ut measur ing o rgan izat iona l v ar iab les i s ad iff icu lt t ask ( Joch im , i n p ress ) . I f we a ssume t hat a b io log ica l r ep lace ment h as o ccurred , a t l east i n E urope ( Lew in 1 987 ) , wha t c an a rchaeo logy t e l l u s a bout t he p rocess? Two p lau-
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s ib le c omponents c an b e c ons idered : ( 1 ) c ompet it ion a nd r ep lace ment a nd ( 2 ) a ccu lturat ion . F or r ep lacement t o h ave o ccurred , s ome ( u lt imate ly r eproduct ive ) a dvantage c an b e a ssumed f or modern h uman p opu lat ions . S uch a n a dvantage may h ave b een o f v ery sma l l magn itude ; s imu lat ion work s uggests t hat o n ly sma l l d iff erences i n morta l ity r ate c ou ld h ave l ed t o c omp lete r ep lace ment w ith in a t housand y ears ( Lew in 1 987 ) . The a dvantage c ou ld h ave t aken a ny o f an umber o f f orms , i nc lud ing s uper ior ity i n c onf l ict , g reater e ff ic iency o r r e l iab i l ity o f s ubs istence , a nd more e ffect ive c h i ld c are . I n o rder t o i nvest igate a rchaeo log ica l ly t he n ature o f t h is a dvantage , i t m ight b e u sefu l t o s uggest , ap r ior i s ome p oss ib le man ifestat ions o r c orre lates . Many o f t hese h ave b een c ons idered i n a rchaeo log ica l r esearch f or t h is p er iod , b ut n ot u n iform ly , a nd n ot c lear ly t i ed t o at heory o f c ompet it ion . Among t he p oss ib le man ifestat ions a re : l arger g roups , more e ffect ive o r r e l iab le t echno logy i n s ubs ist ence a nd f ight ing ; t ighter s oc ia l c ohes ion ; more f orma l a l l iances ; b etter n utr it ion ; a nd g reater t ime s av ings i n t echno logy a nd s ubs istence ( to f ree t ime f or d efense , c h i ld c are ) . T he a rchaeo log ica l s tud ies r equ ired t o p ursue t hese t op ics wou ld n eed t o f ocus o n s i te s ize , t he e ffect iveness o f t echno logy , r aw mater ia l p rocurement , d iet b readth , b utcher ing i ntens ity , h uman s ke leta l s tructure a nd c hem istry , a nd t he d istr ibut ion o f e xchange i t ems a nd o b jects s ymbo l iz ing g roup a ff i l iat ion a nd b oundar ies . I n o rder t o e xam ine a ccu lturat ion p rocesses i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord we n eed t o c ons ider t he c r iter ia u nder ly ing t he s e lect ion o f a dopted c haracteri s t ics . Unfortunate ly , t here a ppears t o b e l i tt le d eve loped t heory o f a ccu lturat ion i n t he g enera l a nthropo log ica l l i terature . Certa in ly , h owever , we c annot a ttr ibute a ny a pparent m ix ing o f mater ia l t ra its t o a ccu lturat ion . We must r ea l ize f urther t hat a ccu lturat ion , a l though a g radua l p rocess , n eed n ot a ppear a s a g radua l c hange i n mater ia l c u lture . I n f act , g iven t he i mprec is ion o f o ur c hrono log ica l c ontro l f or t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic , a ccu lturat ion i sl i ke ly t o a ppear a s a brupt a s p opu lat ion d isp lacement . An i mp l icat ion o f t h is v iew i st hat g radua l c hanges i n t he P a leo l ith ic a rchaeo log ica l r ecord may n ecessar ily r ef lect o n ly s low c u ltura l d eve lopment . Obv ious ly , a l l t hat h as b een d one h ere i s t o s uggest a s et o f c om mon q uest ions t o g u ide r esearch . T o p roduce t ru ly c oherent a nd f ru itfu l r esearch , h owever , s uch q uest ions must b e g u ided b y t heory . We c an c urrent ly d raw u pon t heor ies o f e vo lut ionary e co logy t o c ons ider t he p rocesses o f c o mpet it ion a nd d isp lacement , b ut we l ack t heory i n t wo o ther c r it ica l r ea lms . We n eed a rchaeol og ica l t heory o f e thn ic i dent ity a nd b oundar ies , a l low ing u s t o p red ict mater ia l c haracter ist ics o f e thn ic a ff i l iat ion . Wobst ( 1977 ) , W iessner ( 1983 ) , a nd S ackett ( 1986 ) h ave b egun t o d eve lop s uch i deas , b ut a s c omp lex e thnograph ic e xamp les s uggest ( Lemonn ier 1 986 ) , t hese i deas a re o n ly t he b eg inn ing . E ssent ia l ly , we s t i l l d o n ot u nderstand t he s e lect iv ity u nder ly ing t he u se o f o n ly c erta in mater ia l o b jects t o ma rk e thn ic b oundar ies , a nd u nt i l we d o , o ur a b i l ity t o i dent ify e thn ic g roups , p art icu lar ly i n a n a rchaeo log ica l r ecord d om inated b y s tone t oo ls , w i l l b e s evere ly l im ited . F urthermore , w e n eed t o d eve lop t heory a bout s oc ia l i n teract ion a nd a cc u lturat ion . H ere a ga in i s as e lect ive p rocess i nvo lv ing o n ly c erta in mater ia l r ema ins , b ut o ur a b i l ity t o e xp la in t h is p rocess a nd p red ict t he n ature o f t hose o b jects i s m in ima l . Unfortunate ly , w ithout work i n t hese t heoret ica l d oma ins , o ur r econstruct ion o f t he e ar ly Upper P a leo l ith ic w i l l b e u nsc ient if ic a t b est a nd e ssent ia l ly f ict it ious a t worst . The a rt ic les i n t h is b ook s urvey much o f what i s c urrent ly k nown a bout t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . T he c ha l lenge n ow i s t o d eterm ine what we c an s ay a bout p reh istor ic b ehav ior .
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REFERENCES D oz ier , E . 1 966 Hano : A T ewa I nd ian Com mun ity i n Ar izona . New York : Ho lt , R ineh art a nd W inston . Hodder , I . 1 982 S ymbo ls i n Act ion . Cambr idge : Cambr idge Un ivers ity P ress . J och im , M . i . p . Opt im izat ion a nd s tone t oo ls . I n R . T orrence ( ed itor ) T ime , E nergy , a nd S tone T oo ls . Cambr idge : Cambr idge Un ivers ity P ress . L emonn ier , P . 1 986 T he s tudy o f mater ia l c u lture t oday : T oward a n a nthropo logy o f t echn ica l s yste ms . J ourna l o f Anthropo log ica l Archaeo logy 5 :147-186 . L ew in , R . 1 987 A fr ica : c rad le o f modern h umans . S c ience 2 37 :1292-1295 . Me l iars , P . , H .M . B r icker , J .A .J . Gow lett , a nd R .E .M . Hedges 1 987 Rad iocarbon a cce lerator d at ing o f F rench Upper P a laeo l ith ic d ates . Current Anthropo logy 2 8 (1 ) :128-133 . R o l land , N . 1 981 T he i nterpretat ion o f M idd le P a laeo l ith ic v ar iab i l ity . Man 1 6 :15-42 . S ackett , J . 1 986 I s och rest ism a nd s ty le : A c lar if icat ion . J ourna l o f Anthropo log ica l A rchaeo logy 5 : 2 66-277 . W iessner , P . 1 983 S ty le a nd s oc ia l i nformat ion i n Ka lahar i S an p ro ject i le p o ints . Amer ican Ant iqu ity 4 6 :253-276 . Wobst , H .M . 1 977 S ty l ist ic b ehav ior a nd i nformat ion e xchange . I n C . C le land ( ed itor ) P apers f or t he D irector : Research E ssays i n Honor o f J ames B . G r iff in . Anthropo logy P apers 6 1 :317-342 . Ann A rbor : Museum o f Anthropo logy , U n ivers ity o f M ich igan .
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