The Earlier Neolithic of Southern England and its Continental Background 9780904531954, 9781407346342

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER ONE THE SETTING, THE BEGINNINGS, AND ECONOMY
CHAPTER TWO SETTLEMENT: ENCLOSURES AND OCCUPATION SITES
CHAPTER THREE BARROWS AND BURIAL IN SOUTHERN ENGLAND
CHAPTER FOUR FLINT AND STONE INDUSTRIES: MANUFACTURE, DISTRIBUTION AND TYPES
CHAPTER FIVE POTTERY AND OTHER MATERIAL EQUIPMENT
CHAPTER SIX THE MESOLITHIC CONTRIBUTION
CHAPTER SEVEN THE NEOLITHIC SEQUENCE AND SETTLEMENT OF THE RHINELAND
CHAPTER EIGHT NORTHERN FRANCE: SEQUENCE AND SETTLEMENT
CHAPTER NINE THE NORTH EUROPEAN PLAIN AND SOUTHERN SCANDINAVIA: SEQUENCE AND SETTLEMENT
CHAPTER TEN THE CONTINENTAL ORIGINS OF THE BRITISH BARROW TRADITION
CHAPTER ELEVEN ENCLOSURES, MINES AND PHYSICAL TYPE
CONCLUSIONS
APPENDIX: LIST OF RADIOCARBON DATES
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Citation preview

The Earlier Neolithic of Southern England and its Continental Background A. W. R. Whittle

BAR Supplementary Series 35 1 977

British Archaeological Reports 122, Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A. C. C. Brodribb, M.A. Mrs. Y. M. Hands

A. R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. Supplementary Series 35, 1977: The Earlier Neolithic of Southern England and its Continental Background" © A. W. R. Whittle The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780904531954 paperback ISBN 9781407346342 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780904531954 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS

P age Acknow ledge men ts L ist o f I l lustrat ions I n troduc t ion 1

The s et t ing , t he b eg inn ings a nd e cono my

2

S et t le men t :

3

Barrows a nd b ur ia l i n s outhern Eng land

4

F l in t a nd s tone i ndustr ies ;

e nc losures a nd o ccupat ion s i tes

7 3 3 5 0

manufacture, d istr ibu t ion

a nd t ypes

6 3

5

Po t tery a nd o ther ma ter ia l e qu ipmen t

7 7

6

The Meso l ith ic c on tr ibu t ion

9 9

7

The Neo l ith ic s equence a nd s et t le men t o f t he Rh ineland

1 07

8

Northern France :

1 51

9

The n orth European P la in a nd s outhern S cand inav ia :

s equence a nd s et t le men t

s equence a nd s et t le men t

1 93

1 0

The c on t inen ta l o r ig ins o f t he B r it ish b arrow t rad it ion

2 08

1 1

Enclosures, mines a nd p hys ica l t ype

2 22

Conc lus ions

2 38

Append ix :

2 45

l i st o f r ad iocarbon d ates

B ib l iography

2 64

AC KNO WLEDGE MENTS

Th is s tudy i s ar ev ised v ers ion o f aD .Ph i l. t hes is a ccep ted a t Ox ford Un ivers i ty i n Apr il 1 976.

Ih ave b enef it ted e nor mously i n t h is s tudy f ro m

t he o pportun ity t o h ave d iscuss ions w ith , a nd g a ther i n for mat ion f rom many a rchaeo log ists, b o th i n Eng land a nd o n t he c on t inen t .

I ti s h ard ly p oss ib le

t o a cknow ledge t he h elp o f a l l t hese i nd iv idua l ly h ere, b ut Iwou ld p ar t icu lar ly l ike t o t hank t he f o l low ing f or g iv ing me a ccess a s ar esearch s tuden t t o u np ub l ished e xcava t ions, ma ter ia l a nd i n for mat ion — i n Eng land ; R . Mercer , P . D ixon , J . Hedges , R . Robertson- Mackay , J . Wil l ia ms, G . Wa inwr igh t , M. a nd F . Va tcher, a nd T . Manby ;

o n t he c on t inen t — J . L' Helgouach ,

G . Verron , P .-R. G io t , H . Carr , B . Ede ine , C . a nd D . Mordan t , M. Boureux , B . S oudsky , J .-C. B lanchet , J .-P. Theveno t , J .-P. Mo is in , P . Ver meersch , M. P u it mans, F . Hubert , J . v an d er Waa ls, J . L i in ing , A . Theven in , L . Louwe Koo i j mans, G . S ch m it t , a nd P . S teh l i.

Iwou ld a lso

l ike t o t hank t he many museu m c ura tors b o th i n Eng land a nd o n t he c on t inen t h ave p u t t he ir c o l lect ions a t my d isposa l.

I ti s ap leasure t o r ecord my

d eb t t o t he s cho larsh ip , c onstruct ive c r it ic is m a nd u n fa i l ing p ract ica l h e lp o f my s uperv isor Hu mphrey Case.

The f au l ts t hat r e ma in a re my own .

L IST OF F IGURES

F igure

P age D is tr ibut ion o f N eo l ith ic s i tes i n t he B r it ish I sles r ad iocarbon d a ted t o t he f ourth m i l lenn iu m b e

1 2

2

Ard- marks u nder N eo l ith ic b arrows

2 0

3

N eo l ith ic s ites a round Wind m il l H il l , Wil tsh ire w ith e nv iron men ta l e v idence

4

2 3

The s i t ing o f r ecen t ly e xcavated N eo l ith ic s i tes i n e astern Eng l ish v a lleys

2 7

5

D istr ibu t ion o f e nc losures i n s ou thern Eng land

3 4

6

Ground p lans o f r ecen t ly e xcavated h ouses i n Br ita in

4 7

7

G enera l ised d istr ibu t ion o f Neo l ith ic b arrow t ypes i n t he Br it ish I sles

5 1

8

Con t inen ta l imports a nd a p oss ib le e xport

6 8

9

D istr ibut ion o f Beer f l in t i n s outh-west Eng land

7 0

1 0

F l in t i ndustry i n s outhern Eng land

7 2

1 1

D istr ibut ion o f p o ttery s ty les i n s ou thern Eng land

7 8

1 2

P o t tery f ro m H e mbury , Devon

8 0

1 3

P ot tery f ro m Broome Heath , Norfo lk

8 4

1 4

P ot tery f ro m Eaton Hea th , Norfo lk

8 7

1 5

P o t tery f ro m Fussel l 's L odge, Wil tsh ire

8 8

1 6

P o t tery f ro m Wh itehawk , S ussex

9 0

1 7

P o t tery f rom Wh itehawk , S ussex

9 1

1 8

P o t tery f ro m The T rund le , S ussex

9 3

1 9 • 2 0

L ate Meso l ith ic f l in t a sse mb lages i n Eng land Genera l ised d istr ibut ion o f c on t inen ta l c u l tures i n t he e ar l ier f ourth m il lenn iu m b e

2 1

1 08

Genera l ised d istr ibut ion o f c on t inen ta l c u ltures i n t he l ater f ourth m il lenn iu m b e

2 2

1 01

1 09

D istr ibut ion o f t he L inear P ot tery c u lture i n western Europe

1 11

F igure 2 3

P age D istr ibut ion o f t he Roessen c u l ture i n t he Rh ineland a nd t o i t s west

1 14

2 4

Roessen c u lture p ot tery

1 15

2 5

Roessen c u l ture f l in t a nd s tone i ndustry

1 17

2 6

B ischhe im a nd Wauw i l p o t tery

1 19

2 7

Reg iona l d istr ibut ion o f Roessen p o t tery s ty les i n t he Rh ineland

2 8

1 20

Reg iona l d istr ibut ion o f M ichelsberg h or izon p o t tery s ty les i n t he Rh ineland

1 21

2 9

Develop men t o f t he s hou ldered b ow l i n t he Rh ine land

1 24

3 0

Po t tery a nd f l in t f ro m Roessen c u lture s i tes i n B e lg iu m

1 26

3 1

D is tr ibut ion o f t he M iche lsberg c u lture i n t he Rh ine land a nd t o i t s w est

1 32

3 2

Belg ian M ichelsberg p o t tery

1 33

. ) . . ) . e , , ,

Be lg ian M ichelsberg p o t tery

1 34

3 4

Be lg ian M iche lsberg f l in t i ndustry

1 36

3 5

Occupa t ion o n t he A ldenhoven P lateau

1 42

3 6

P oss ib le e xpans ion b eyond t he l oess i n Dutch L i mburg

1 48

3 7

P lan o f t he L inear P ot tery c u l ture s et t le men t a t Cu iry-les-Chaudardes , A isne

1 53

Pot tery f ro m Mon ta g ue d e L u mbres ,P as-de-Ca la is

1 59

3 8 3 9

P lan o f as et t le men t o f t he Cerny g roup a t P on tavert , A isne

1 61

4 0

Genera l ised d istr ibu t ion o f s o me t o mb t ypes i n B r it tany

1 65

4 1

D istr ibut ion o f p o t tery s ty les i n Br it tany

1 66

4 2

P edesta l led p o t f ro m Co lpo , Morb ihan

1 67

4 3

D is tr ibut ion o f t he Chasseen c u lture i n n or thern France

1 71

4 4

, P o t tery f ro m J onqu ieres, O ise

1 72

4 5

P o t tery f ro m J onqu ieres, O ise

1 73

4 6

P ot tery f ro m t he f acade o f Co lpo , Morb ihan

1 74

4 7

P o ttery f rom t he c orr idor o f Co lpo , Morb ihan

1 75

4 8

P o ttery f ro m N oyen-sur-Se ine , S e ine-et- Marne

1 76

4 9

P o t tery f ro m N oyen-sur-Se ine, S e ine-et- Marne

1 77

5 0

F l in t i ndustry o f t he Chasseen c u lture i n n orthern F rance

1 79

F igure

P age

5 1

D istr ibut ion o f N eo l ith ic s i tes i n t he A isne v a l ley

5 2

The s i t ings o f L inear P ot tery c u l ture s et t le men ts i n

1 84

n orthern France

1 85

5 3

S it ings o f Chasseen s et t le men ts i n n orthern F rance

1 90

5 4

The f i l l ing o f s ou th-west F rance i n t he f ourth a nd t h ird m il lenn ia b c

1 91

5 5

D istr ibu t ion o ft he F unnel-necked Beaker c u lture

1 96

5 6

Funne l-necked Beakers

2 03

5 7

Grave a t Konens HJ, J u t land

2 11

5 8

Ground p lans o f l ong mounds i n n orth-west France

2 12

5 9

P lans o f b arrow c e me ter ies o f t he n orth European p la in

2 16

6 0

Ground p lans o f p assage g raves o f t he f ourth m il lenn iu m b e i n Br it tany

6 1

2 20

P lans o f e nc losures o f t he L inear Po t tery c u l ture a nd i t s t rad it ion i n t he Rh ine land

2 23

I NTRODUCT ION

Th is s tudy i s c oncerned w ith t he q uest ion o f t he b eg inn ings o f t he e ar l ier N eo l ith ic o f s outhern Eng land a nd b y i mp l icat ion o f t he r est o f Br ita in . I t e xp lores t wo h ypo theses c oncern ing t hese o r ig ins — t hat o f t he g enera t ion o f an ew w ay o f l i fe f ro m w ith in t h is c oun try b y t he e x ist ing p opu lat ion , a nd t hat o f t he i n troduct ion i n to t h is c oun try o f an ew e conomy a nd mater ia l c u lture b y s et t lers f rom o uts ide.

To t h is e nd t he s tudy d evelops a long f i ve ma in l i nes.

F irst , i td escr ibes , d iscusses a nd c haracter ises t he e ar l ier N eo l ith ic o f s outhern E ng land , w ith r eference t o i t s mater ia l c u l ture r e ma ins , monumen ts a nd t he e v idence f or s et t le men t a nd e cono my . S econd ly , i td iscusses t he f i rst h ypo thes is — t hat o f t he r o le o f i nd igenous l a te Meso l ith ic c om mun it ies i n t he o r ig ins o ft he e ar l ier N eo l ith ic.

Th ird ly , f i nd ing l i t t le e v idence f or a s ubs-

t an t ia l c on tr ibut ion f ro m t h is s ource i te xam ines t he s econd h ypo thes is.

I t

d escr ibes, d iscusses a nd c haracter ises N eo l ith ic c u ltures o f t he a d jacen t p arts o f w estern Europe, f ro m France t o S cand inav ia , w ith r eference t o t he s a me r ange o f e v idence. N ex t , i te xp lores s im ilar it ies a nd d iss im ilar it ies o f mater ia l c ulture o n e ither s ide o f t he Channe l , w ith a v iew t o t rac ing h u man g roups a nd t he h istory o f c o lon isat ion . I t emphas ises t he i mportance o f t he t rad it ion o f t he L inear P o t tery c u l ture. The p oss ib le e f fects o f m igrat ion o n c u l ture a re e xa m ined s ince a s Ch ilde d irected w ith t he c oncep t o f " in f luences" ( 1929 , v i ), s o w ith " con tacts" must o ne a t te mp t t o " g ive a p rec ise mean ing i n c oncrete c ases". F ina l ly , t he r elevance o f t he s tudy o f c on t inen ta l s et t lemen t a nd e cono my t o t he h istory o f t he c o lon isat ion o f Eng land i s a rgued , w ith emphas is o n t he i mportance o f t he p opu lous e xpand ing o f fshoo ts o f t he L inear P o t tery c u l ture t rad it ion. H istor ica l s u mmar ies o f p rev ious work s omet imes s ee m t o l ack d irect ion . The p urpose o f t h is i n troduct ion i s t o s et t he s tage f or t he a rgu men ts a nd d isc uss ions wh ich f o l low , c h ief ly b y o ut l in ing t rends o f r ecen t r esearch i n c o mpar ison w ith c lass ic t reatmen ts , a nd b y s uggest ing g aps t hat h ave b een l ef t o r p oten t ial a pproaches t hat h ave b een o ver looked. S ince i ti s t herefore i n troductory , i ta tte mp ts n o t t o b e a n e xhaust ive s u m mary o f a l l e ar l ier work , b ut t o s how t he j ust if icat ion f or t he f o l low ing w ide-rang ing t reatmen t o f N eo l ith ic w estern Europe i n t he f ourth m il lenn iu m b e.

The f o l low ing o u t l ine

c an t herefore g ive u sefu l p erspect ive t o t h is t reatment . P iggot t 's c lass ic,

The N eo l ith ic Cu l tures o f t he Br it ish I sles ( 1954 ) t hough

o utda ted i n many r espects , h as r e ma ined a ma jor b as is f or d iscuss ion o f t he B r it ish N eo l ith ic, s ince i th as n o t b een r ep laced b y a more modern s yn thes is o f c omparab le s cope a nd q ua l ity. However , e ven s hort u p-to-da te t reatmen ts c an b e i l lu m inat ing a s Sm ith ( 1974a ) h as s hown. S ince P iggot t 's work , r es earch h as p roceeded a t at re mendous p ace, g iv ing r esu lts w ith w ide i mp l icat i ons a nd p oss ib il it ies, a nd t he s t i mu lus t o y et f urther e xam inat ion .

For t he

p urpose o f i l lustrat ion Imen t ion h ere t he p etro log ica l a na lys is o f p ot tery

( Peacock 1 969 );

t he s yste mat ic a na lys is o f f l in t i ndustr ies ( Clark e t a l. 1 960 ,

Sm ith 1 965 , e tc.); c on t inued p etro log ica l a na lys is o f s tone a xes ( Evens e t a l . 1 962, 1 972, C lough a nd G reen 1 972, K een a nd Rad ley 1 971, Cumm ins a nd — Moore 1 973, Moore a nd Cu m m ins 1 974 ); d iscuss ion o f c ausewayed c a mps ( Sm ith 1 965 , 1 966, 1 971 ) a nd t he c urren t e xcava t ions o f Ha mb ledon H il l , Dorset , Cr ick ley H i l l , G loucestersh ire , Br iar H i l l , N or tha mptonsh ire, Orset t , Essex , Grea t Wilbraha m Ca mbr idgesh ire a nd O f fha m H il l , S ussex ; t he e xcavat ion o f many l ong b arrows a nd c hambered c a irns, a s yn thet ic t rea tmen t o f " earthen" l ong b arrows ( Ashbee 1 970 ) a nd o pposed v iews ( e .g . S i mpson 1 968, K i rmes 1 975 ) ,s yn the t ic t reat men ts o f Co tswo ld-Severn t o mbs ( Corcoran 1 969 ) a nd o f S co t t ish c ha mbered t o mbs ( l iensha l l 1 963, 1 972 ) wh ich s erve t o amp l ify t he p ioneer ing o f Dan iel ( 1950 ), a nd a c oncen tra t ion o n f unct ions o ther t han f unerea l ( s tar ted b y Case 1 969a );

e nv ironmen ta l s tud ies , i n p art icu lar t he d evelopmen t

o f mo l luscan a na lys is o n c a lcareous s o i ls ( Evans 1 971, 1 972 ), t he c on t inuat ion o f p o l len s tud ies i n f avourab le a reas ( e .g. Sm ith 1 970 , 1 975 ;

P enn ing ton 1 970 ,

1 975 ) a nd t he i n terest o f p a laeoeco log ists g enera l ly i n t he e arly N eo l ith ic ( see Evans e t a l. 1 975 ); a nd f i na l ly t he c on t inued a pp l icat ion o f r ad iocarbon d at ing i n Eng land , S cot land a nd I reland , f rom wh ich i ti s a pparen t t hat b y t he e nd o f t he f ourth m il lenn iu m b e i n c onven t iona l r ad iocarbon c hrono logy ( t he c hrono logy u sed t hroughout t h is s tudy ) t here e x isted mature N eo l ith ic c o mmun it ies i n Br ita in , i n C ase 's ' p hrase ( 1969b ).

I t may b e r e membered t hat P iggo t t —

r easonab ly e nough a t t he t ime — e nter ta ined t he l ike l ihood t hat t he N eo l ith ic b egan a bou t 2 000 B .0 . , a nd l asted s ome 5 00 y ears, a f ramework i n wh ich a n e ar ly r ad iocarbon d ate f ro m Ehens ide Tarn , Cumber land ( C-462 ) w as d i ff icu l t t o a ccep t ( 1954 , 2 96 ). However much t he d evelopmen t o f r ad iocarbon d a t ing h as c hanged t he s tudy o f p reh istory , ad ue s ense o f c aut ion must b e ma in ta ined t owards i t s a pp l icat ion t o t he N eo l ith ic o f Europe.

The p rob le m l i es n o t s o much i n t he n ow e v iden t

n eed f or c orrect ion o r r eca l ibra t ion o f t he c onven t iona l r ad iocarbon c hrono logy a t c erta in p o in ts.

One may h ope f or g enera l s o lut ions t o t h is i n t he f uture.

Rather t he p rob le m l i es i n t he p oss ib il ity o f s hort-ter m k inks o r w igg les i n t he c al ibrat ion c urve. S uess ( 1970 ) p roposed a c urve w ith s ubstan t ia l s hortt er m k inks. The e f fect o f t hese i s t hat i n c er ta in p er iods a g iven r ad iocarbon d ate may c orrespond t o " a c a lendar d ate r ange t hat i s a pprec iab ly w ider t han t he r ange i nd icated b y t he e xper i men ta l e rror l im its o f t he r esu l ts" ( Aitken 1 974 ). I fa s S uess i ns ists t he k inks a re d ue t o n atura l f l uctua t ions i n t he p roduct ion o f c arbon-14 , t hey c an h ard ly b e r ef ined.

Moreover t he f ourth

m i l lenn iu m b e c orresponds t o ap er iod o f s ubstan t ia l s hort-ter m k inks a ccordi ng t o S uess. O thers h ave h owever s uggested c al ibrat ions w ith smoo ther c urves , s uch a s Ra lph , M ichae l a nd H an ( 1973 ) u s ing 9 -samp le a verages, a nd 5 0-100 y ear t rends, Sw itsur ( 1973 ) u s ing t he mean o f t he d if ferences b etween t he t wo f ormer , a nd Ren frew a nd C lark ( 1974 ), u s ing s t i l l more c omp l icated a verag ing p roc edures.

Accord ing t o t he f i rst t hree c urves, e ach r ad iocarbon measuremen t

y ields o n ly o ne c a lendar a ge, t hough Ren frew a nd C lark d iscuss a n i nverse c a l ibrat ion whereby o n ly o ne c a lendar a ge c orresponds t o a ny r ad iocarbon a ge, b u t t here may b e s evera l r ad iocarbon a ges c orrespond ing t o t he s a me c a lendar a ge. C lark ( 1975 ) u s ing 8 12 p a ired t ree-r ing a nd r ad iocarbon o bserv a t ions h as p roduced a f urther , more d ef in it ive smoo th c urve, i n wh ich t he

2

c urve-f i t t ing t echn ique i s b ased o n ' sp l ine f unct ions '.

Accord ing t o h im , most

k inks a re n ot j ust if ied b y t he l evel o f a ccuracy o f t he r ad iocarbon d eter m inat i ons. S uess h owever i s u nrepen tan t ( 1976 ) a nd h is v ers ion o f t he c urve i s b e ing e x tended b ack i nt ime ( Bur le igh 1 977 ).

I n t h is s ta te o f r esearch , Ih ave

u sed u ncorrected d ates , d enoted t hroughout b y ' b c ' a nd l i sted a t t he e nd. Corr ect ion may a lso b est b e a pp l ied when European d endrochrono log ies h ave b een c onstruc ted , s uch a s f ro m mater ia l i n Ho locene d epos its i n t he Danube , Rh ine a nd Ma in ( Bur le igh 1 977 ) o r f rom I r ish b og o aks ( Ba i l l ie a nd P i lcher 1 976 ). One must n o t f orget e i ther t hat e xpress ion o f e xper i men tal e rror l im its a t o n ly o n e s tandard d ev iat ion g ives o n ly a 6 8% p robab il ity o f a ccuracy . F or 9 5% p robab i l i ty o f a ccuracy , t wo s tandard d ev iat ions must b e u sed. Though i ti s p ract ica l t o c oun t s a mp les d own t o as tandard d ev iat ion o f +4 0 y ears ( A itken 1 974 ) many p ubl ished r esu l ts h ave much l arger e rror l im its. I th as a lso b een s tressed ( Waterbo lk 1 971 ) t ha t t here may b e w ide v ar iat ions i n t he r el iab il ity o f a ssoc iat ion b etween t he s a mp le a nd a rchaeo log ica l c on tex t b e ing d ated. On t he o ther h and s hort-grow th ma ter ia l — w ith l i t t le o r n o d i f ference i n a ge f ro m i t s c on tex t — i s p o ten t ial ly s ub ject t o a n e rror o f u p t o +1 20 y ears d ue t o 1y ear c oncen trat ion v ar iat ions ( Aitken 1 974 ), t hough t h is c an b e a vo ided b y t he u se o f s evera l d ates. The o ver-conf iden t a pp l icat ion o f r ad iocarbon d at ing may y et c o me t o r ese mb le o ther u n founded a rchaeo log ica l s equences o f t he p as t. Rad iocarbon d ates i n t h is s tudy a re t herefore u sed s ub ject t o t hese l im itat ions. Au sefu l t er m inus f or o u t l in ing d evelopmen ts o n t he c on t inen t i s P iggo t t 's d iscuss ion o f t he o r ig ins o f t he Eng l ish N eo l ith ic ( 1955 ). Though t he I ber ian p en insu la h as b een l ef t o u t o f t h is t rea t men t , r ecen t work o n mega l ith ic monu men ts i n P ortuga l ( Wh itt le a nd Arnaud 1 975 ) h o lds t he p rom ise t hat i t may b e b et ter u nderstood i n t he f u ture.

The s tudy o f n orthern F rance h as b ene-

f i ted f rom t he work o f Ba il loud ( 1964 , 1 971, 1 974 ) a nd e xcavat ion i n t he r iver v al leys , s uch a s t he A isne, S e ine a nd Y onne, a t te mpt ing t o k eep p ace w ith t he r ate o fd estruct ion , c on t inues t o p roduce n ew r esu l ts, i n p art icular a d ens ity o f L inear P ot tery c u lture s et t le men t.

Deve lopmen ts i n B r it tany , n o tab ly t he

d at ing o f mega l ith ic monu men ts t o t he e arly f ourth m il lenn ium b c, h ave b een s u mmar ised b y L 'He lgouach ( 1971 ).

Work c on t inues t o e xpand i n s outh-

western F rance w ith t he b eg inn ings o f f ourth m il lenn iu m b c o ccupat ion ( e .g . Burnez 1 971), a nd i n e astern F rance, t rac ing c onnect ions w ith t he Rh ine land a nd t he s outh i n t he e ar ly a nd m idd le N eo l ith ic. Much i n tens ive a ct iv ity h as g one o n i n t he s ou th o f t he c oun try ( e .g . Gu ila ine 1 970 ).

There a re many n ew

r esu l ts , a nd w ide i mp l icat ions t o b e c ons idered , wh ich may b e o ver looked i n t he c ourse o f p urely r eg iona l s tud ies. The e xp lorat ion o f Belg iu m h as l agged , t hough L ün ing ( 1967 ) c overed i t t horough ly i n h is monograph o n t he M ichelsberg c u l ture, a nd t here a re n ow s evera l e xcava t ions u nder w ay o n M iche lsberg s i tes.

However, many i n ter-

e st ing s tud ies h ave emerged f ro m t he N etherlands, f or e xamp le o f l oess s ett lemen ts i n t he s ou th ( Modder man 1 970 ) a nd o f c oas ta l Meso l ith ic a nd N eo l ith ic g roups ( van d er Waa ls 1 972; L ouwe Koo i j mans 1 974 ; v an R egeteren A ltena e t a l. 1 962, 1 963; G lasbergen e t a . l. 1 967 ; G roenman-van Waater inge e t a l. 1 968, 1 969 ).

3

R esearch h as a lso b een l oca l ly i n tense i n West G er many . i s s u m mar ised b y L t in ing ( 1976 ).

I t s u nevenness

Much r ecen t w ork h as c oncen trated o n t he

s equence o f N eo l ith ic c u l tures i nt he Rh ineland a nd s urround ing a reas , b y wh ich t he b road s equence o f L inear P ot tery c u l ture t o H inkelste in t o G rossg ar tach t o Roessen i s n ow e nv isaged ( e .g . Me ier-Arend t 1 969, 1 974, 1 975 ), t o r ep lace t he s che mes o f S troh ( 1938 ) a nd o thers. A g ian t monograph o n t he M iche lsberg c u lture ( L t in ing 1 967 ) a t tract ively t i es i n w ith t h is work , i nt ha t i ts ees t he M ichelsberg c u lture a s t he d escendan t o f t h is t rad it ion , r ather t han a s a n o f fshoo t o f t he Funnel-necked B eaker c u lture, a s e nv isaged i n e ar l ier works ( e .g. V og t 1 953, wh ich was f o l lowed b y P iggo t t 1 955 ).

Th is v iew h as

b een d ispu ted ( e .g . d e L aet 1 968 ) b u t s ee ms t o b e s upported b y r ecen t e xcavat ion i n t he Rh ineland ( e .g . S ch m it t 1 974 ). I n tens ive e xcava t ions o n t he A ldenh oven P lateau i n N ordrhe in-Westpha l ia ( e .g . E cker t e t a l. 1 971, 1 972, F arrugg ia e t a l. 1 973, Kuper e t a l. 1 974 , 1 975 ) h ave r evea led a n u nexpected d ens ity o f N eo l ith ic s et t le men t . Th is w ork , t hough l oca l ised , t ogether w ith o ther s tud ies o f German s et t lemen t ( rev iewed i n S ie l mann 1 972 ) a nd o f s et t le men t i n l oess a reas o u ts ide G er many ( e .g. Modder man 1 970, K ruk 1 973 ) s ee ms t o p rov ide t he b as is f or much f ur ther d iscuss ion o f t h is s ub ject . Research i n S cand inav ia a nd n orth G er many h as i l lu m inated t he c hrono logy o f l a te Meso l ith ic a nd N eo l ith ic c u ltures ( Tauber 1 972 ) a nd p rov ided p erspect ive o n t he c on troversy o ver t he s ta tus o f t he E rteb e le c u lture, o n t he d er ivat i on o f t he Funne l-necked B eaker c u l ture i n t hat r eg ion , a nd o n t he s upposed s equence o f i t s s ubd iv is ions. I n teres t ing b arrows h ave b een e xcavated , wh ich t ogether w ith r esu l ts f ro m P o land ( Bakker e t a l. 1 969 , J azdzews id 1 973 ), B r it tany a nd e lsewhere , p rov ide n ew l i gh t i n wh ich t o c ons ider t he q uest ion .

We may s ing le o u t a nother s pec if ic

f orm o f monu men t — t he e nc losure — t o n o te h ow many h ave b een r ecen t ly e xc ava ted i n France a nd G er many , p rov id ing a n a ncestry f or Eng l ish e nc losures wh ich s ee ms t o b e more s at isfactory t han b efore. A l l t h is work c lear ly h as g reat b ear ing o n o ur p rob le m. was o ne o ft he f i rst t o d iscuss i t .

Ch i lde ( 1931a )

H e u l t i mately f o l lowed S chuchhard t 's c on-

c ep t o f a" grea t w estern f am i ly" ( 1919 ), d istr ibu ted f ro m t he Rh ine t o t he A t lan t ic, a nd t yp if ied b y p ot tery o f al ea thery l ook . Ch i lde r e lated o ur p r imary N eo l ith ic t o t h is r a ther t han t o " Ba l t ic" , " Nord ic" o r ' Danub ian" t rad it ions , d ec id ing t hat t he n earest g roups w ere t he Chassey , M ichelsberg a nd Breton N eo l ith ic c u ltures , b ut h e emphas ised t he p rob le ms o f l ack o f e xact c orrespondence, a nd d ivers ity . Though h e c onc luded " S t il l , M ichelsberg , Chassey a nd W indm il l H il l may a f ter a l l b e j ust p ara l lel emanat ions o f ac u lt ure t ransp lan ted f rom A l mer ia-Algarve t o d iverse p o ints a long t he A t lan t ic c oasts" , h e d id d iscuss t he p oss ib il ity t hat t he L inear P ot tery c u lture w as t he p r i me p aren t o f s ubsequen t N eo l ith ic c u l tures i n w estern Europe a s a who le , c i t ing amongst o ther t h ings a p oss ib le d er ivat ion o f t he u se o f w ide t oo thed c ombs f or p o t tery d ecorat ion a t Ab ingdon f ro m t he B elg ian L inear P ottery c u l ture. Th is t he me h as n ever b een p roper ly f o l lowed u p.

Hawkes ( 1935 ) c r i t ic is ing

P iggo t t ( 1934 ) d iscussed t he c hrono log ica l d if f icu l t ies o f ad er ivat ion f rom t he M iche lsberg c u l ture , a nd t he p rob le m o f s elect iv ity . t o t he Corta il lod c u lture a nd i t s a rea. 4

S he t oo l ooked e ssent ial ly

P iggot t h as s uccess ive ly d iscussed t he

p rob le m i n more r ecen t y ears ( 1954 , 1 955, 1 961, 1 972 ).

H e b egan b y a rgu ing

f or a c lear membersh ip o f t he " great w estern f am ily" o f c u l tures f or o ur p r imary N eo l ith ic ( 1954 ).

N ex ty ear h e c ha l lenged t h is a ssu mp t ion ( 1955 ) a nd

f o l low ing V og t 's r eassess men t o f t he M ichelsberg c ul ture ( 1953 ) h e s uggested t hat s evera l e le men ts s uch a s o pen c ar ina ted b ow ls, a n t ler c ombs , c amps a nd p oss ib ly f l in t m ines a nd l ong b arrows , c ou ld b e d er ived f rom a n " eastern" c u l tura l b loc ( t hough n ot ' Danub ian" ) h eaded b y t he Funne l-necked B eaker c u lt ure , wh ile o ther e le men ts s uch a s s i mp le p o ttery c ou ld b e d er ived b y i mp l ica t ion f rom a " western" c u ltura l b loc wh ich i ncluded e ar ly Corta i l lod a nd Chassey c u l tures. H is n ex t s yn thes is w as more c au t ious g enera l ly , a ccept ing c r it ic is m b y S co l lar ( 1959 ) o f t he c oncept o f t he p roposed M ichelsberg-Funnel-necked B eaker r e la t ion , b u t h op ing f or e xa mp les o f ' western ' c a mps i n F rance. I n 1 972 h e r eaf f ir med t he e ast-west d iv is ion , a rgu ing t hat H e mbury w are w as a d er ivat ive me mber o f t he g roup o f West European N eo l ith ic c u l tures i nc lud ing t ha t o f Chassey . F rom t h is c omp lex h e a lso d er ived s i mp ler c a mps. Eastern e lements h e s uggested c ou ld i nc lude t imber mortuary h ouses a nd t rapezo ida l e nc losure o r b arrow f or ms , a n t ler c o mbs , f l in t m ines a nd l eaf a rrowheads, w ith p art icu lar r eference t o t he Funnel-necked Beaker c u lture. O ther s horter c on tr ibu t ions h ave i gnored Ch ilde ' s s uggest ion t oo. P owel l ( 1969 ) l ooked t o a west-cen tra l European t rad it ion o f p ot tery i nclud ing t ha t o f t he A ichb e l , A l the im , M iche lsberg , P fyn a nd Cor ta i l lod a nd Funne l-necked B eaker c u ltures, d ist inct f rom t he ' Danub ian" t rad it ion . t o a Chassey s ubstra tu m i nb oth Br ita in a nd B e lg ium.

S co l lar ( 1961 ) l ooked

Ba il loud ( 1964 ) l ooked

g loom ily t o a s y et u n found o r ig ina l , c oasta l g roups. T hough s everal w r iters h ave emphas ised t he p rob le m o f i nco mp lete p aral le ls a nd s elect iv ity ( e .g. Ch ilde 1 931, Hawkes 1 935, P iggot t 1 972 ) a nd n o-one h as c la i med a s imp le o r ig in f or o ur p r i mary N eo l ith ic, d iscuss ions h ave t ended t o a ssume t hat a l l e le men ts h ave e qua l w e igh t i n t he c u l tura l a rgu men t ( w ith t he e xcep t ion o f mega l ith ic monu men ts wh ich P iggo t t h as c ons isten t ly k ep t o ut o f h is d iscuss ions o f t he p r i mary N eo l ith ic ).

Thus w e may men t ion Case 's d e-

v elopmen t ( 1969b ) o f a more c omp lex a pproach t o t he b ehav iour o f c u ltura l e lemen ts d ur ing a p ioneer ing p hase, i n wh ich h e s uggested t ha t f l in t t oo ls m igh t h ave b een l ess s ub ject t o c hange t han o ther e le men ts. We may men t ion t oo r enewed d iscuss ions o n t he c oncep t o f c u ltures ( e .g . Ren frew 1 973a ), f or t he c oncep t ion o f c u ltural e n t it ies c lear ly h ere a f fects o ne 's v iew o f t he p rob le m. I n most o f t h is d iscuss ion t here h as b een l i t t le a t te mp t t o p rov ide s pec if ic e xp lana t ion f or t he s pread o f c u ltures, p art icu lar ly i n to Br ita in , i n t er ms o f t he d evelopmen t o f e cono my a nd s et t le men t. Ch i lde ( 1931) h owever d iscussed a nu p land t rad it ion o f s et t le men t i n w estern Europe. S co l lar ( 1959 ) s uggested ac ause f or t he s upposed e xpans ion o f t he M ichelsberg c u l ture i n t he r ep lacemen t o f s eden tary a gr icu lture b y more mob ile c a t t le e cono m ies.

P owe l l ( 1969 )

made a s pec if ic l i nk b etween l akes ide c at t le-keepers i n w est-cen tra l Europe a nd t he p r i mary N eo l ith ic o f B r ita in . O thers, n o tab ly P iggot t , h ave b een r ather s i len t o n t h is mat ter. P erhaps t h is h as b een d ue t o ap roper s ense o f c au t ion , b u t m igh t a lso b e d ue t o ac oncept o f t he i nev itab il ity o f t he s pread o f N eo l ith ic c u l tures, e xpressed w ith g reatest c lar ity b y Ch ilde ( 1940, 3 0-31). Ch ilde h ere emphas ised t he p ract ice o f s h if t ing a gr icu lture, t he l im ited a va i lab il ity

5

o f g ood l and , a nd t he g row th o fb oth h u man a nd a n i ma l p opu lat ions.

H is v iew

t hus s et o ut c on ta ins t ruths many w ou ld s t i l l n ot d ispute, b u t i ts eems t hat t he a ccep tance o ft h is g enera l mode l h as i nh ib ited t he d eve lopmen t o f e xp lanat i ons o f s pec if ic c ases, f or c erta in a reas o f t he European N eo l ith ic , a nd p art icu larly a s r egards t he c o lon isat ion o f Eng land. P iggo t t e nv isaged a l ong v oyage f rom t he " su l try g arr igues o f L anguedoc" t o t he " dark g reen masses o f t he Wessex Downs" ( 1954 ), b u t p rov ided n o e xp lanat ion , t hough i tm igh t b e s a id t h is was o u ts ide t he s cope o f h is b ook . I t may b e f oo l ish t o r ush i n where a nge ls h ave f eared t o t read , b u t i ti s p rof i tab le t o c ons ider t he e conom ic b ackground o f t hepopu lous , e xpand ing c u ltures o f p arts o f w estern Europe a d jacen t t o s ou thern Eng land. C lear ly i t may b e o b jected t hat t he s tudy o f s et t le men t c on ta ins t oo many u nknowns , t hat i ti s s pecu lat ive, a nd t hat h arnessed t o t he s tudy o f ac o lon isat ion , i ti mp oses a k ind o f d eterm in is m o n e ven ts. C er ta in ly t here a re many l acunae i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord , f or e xa mp le t he g enera l ly p oor p reserva t ion o f b one i n s ha l lower d epos its o f l oess s o i ls.

M t iddershe im ( Sch ietze l 1 965 ) i s

s o o f ten q uo ted b ecause i ts ee ms t o b e t he o n ly L inear Pot tery c u l ture s i te i n t he Rh ine land w ith a r ecorded f auna l a sse mb lage. Cer ta in ly t he s tudy o f s et t le men t i s s pecu lat ive, b ut i ti s n o t f a ir t o a ssume t ha t s pecu la t ion may n ever b e p ut t o t he t est .

Archaeo logy n o l ess t han s c ience , i s b ased o n o bser-

v at ions, a nd s peculat ion b ased o n o bservat ion i s t he s ou l o f b oth .

O ther p er i-

p hera l c o m mun it ies a re a ssessed f or t he ir c on tr ibu t ion t o t he c o lon isat ion o f Eng land , s o t hat i ti s h oped t hat more r andom move men ts t han t he ma in a dvance o f s et t le men t a re t aken i n to c ons iderat ion . A more b a lanced a pproach may r esu l t f ro m t he s tudy o f b oth mater ia l c u l ture a nd t he d evelop men t o f s et t lemen t , a nd u l t i mately t he o ne may s erve t o r e in force t he o ther.

6

CHAPTER ONE THE S ETT ING , THE BEG INN INGS, AND ECONOMY

THE SETT ING T he Br it ish I s les There i s g enera l a gree men t t ha t t he Br it ish I s les w ere i so lated f rom t he c on t inen t i nt he Borea l p er iod ( Godw in 1 956, Z euner 1 958 ) b u t s ince Corcoran h as c la imed t hat t here i s ' n o c lear e v idence ' ( 1969 , 7 9 ) f or a n i nsu lat ion b ef ore t he f ourth m i l lenn iu m b e, i ti s worth b r ief ly r estat ing t he e v idence. C orcoran r eferred t o t he l a te d a te ( s . 2 000 b e ) f or t he e nd o f t he ma in p ostg lac ial s ea r ise i n n orth Ger many a nd t o t he l a te ( 9..2 000 b e? ) f l ood ing o f t he L yonesse s urface i n E ssex ( Sm ith 1 955 ), a s e v idence f or t he p oss ib il ity o f a l and b r idge i nt he l a ter f ourth a nd t h ird m i l lenn ia b e. Th is m isses t he p o in t . I t i s l i ke ly t hat t he c ha lk l and b r idge o ft he S tra its o f Dover h ad d isappeared b efore t he l ast g lac ia t ion ( Zeuner 1 958, 1 00 ). The h ighest p art o f t he l ink may h ave b een j ust s ou th o f t he Do w e r Bank , o r p oss ib ly a t t he S tra its o f Dover.

T he p resen t d epth o ft he S tra its i s s ome 4 0 m.

Moor log a t t h is d ep th

o n t he Dogger Bank s hows mar ine t ransgress ion b y t he Borea l p er iod.

I ti s

p oss ible t ha tt he S tra its w ere t hen l ess d eep , b ecause s evera l m i l lenn ia o f t i dal s cour h ave p robab ly s ince r e moved d epos i ts. But t h is d oes n o t s ee m l i kely t o h ave h ad more t han a marg ina l e f fect. The e nd o f t he ma in e ustat ic s ea r ise i n a reas o f c rusta l s tab i l ity h as b een d ated , i n t he w est o f Eng land , t o t he e ar l ier f ourth m i l lenn iu m b e ( Godw in a nd Wil l is 1 961).

A l though t here

w as c on t inued t ransgress ion a t am inor r ate i n Br it tany ( Morzadec-Kerfourn 1 969 ), a nd s ome s ubs idence i n t he s ou thern p art o f t he N orth S ea b as in ( Louwe K oo i j mans 1 974 f i g. 1 5 ), i ti s c lear f rom i n tens ive s tud ies o f t he a dj acent Du tch c oast l ine, a nd o f r e lated d epos its i n East Ang l ia , s um mar ised a nd r ef ined b y L ouwe Koo i j mans ( 1 .974 ), t hat r is ing s ea l evel c aused t he c reat i on o f c oasta l marshes a nd p ea t f or mat ion b y t he Borea l p er iod a nd t hat Eng land w as i nsu lated we l l b efore t he b eg inn ing o f t he N eo l ith ic , e ven t hough t he g ap i n t he f ourth m i l lenn iu m may h ave b een s l igh t ly n arrower.

The e v idence

i s s upported d irect ly b y t hat o f as pec ies o f e ar thworm ( U lyot t 1 936; C lark 1 936a ), w h ich was u nab le t o f ind f resh-water r outes t o m igra te t o Br ita in b y t he e nd o f t he Borea l p er iod , a nd i nd irect ly b y a rchaeo log ica l e v idence, s ince B r it ish Meso l ith ic c u l tures l ack l i nks w ith t he c on t inenta l T ardeno is ian g roups t ha t d eve loped a f ter a bou t 6 000 b e ( Jacob i 1 976 ). One may h eed Case 's o bse rva t ions ( 1 969b , 1 80 ) t hat a n arrower c hannel n eed n o t h ave made f or e as ier p assages o r s afer l and ings , e ven i ft he s hortest p o in t o f c ross ing was t he o n ly o ne c hosen .

P hys ica l l andscape A t t he r isk o f o ver-genera l isat ion w e may s ay t ha t t he a d jacent p ar ts o f t he c on t inen t t o Eng land a re d om inated b y ma jor r iver v a l ley s yste ms , a nd t here i s amp le e v idence t hat t he e ar l iest N eo l ith ic s et t le men t t ended t o c onc en tra te o n t hese.

P arts o f s outhern Eng land h owever a re w ithou t s uch

ma jor r iver v a l leys.

The Tha mes, t he S evern a nd Avon , t he r ivers o f t he

Mid lands f l ow ing i n to t he N orth S ea , a nd t o al esser e x ten t t he r ivers o f East Ang l ia a re a na logous t o t hose o n t he c on t inen t , b u t s outh o f t he Tha mes a nd t he S evern t here a re n o ma jor r ivers.

The l andscape i s d om inated b y t he c ha lk ,

a nd t he g ran ite mass ifs t o i t s w est , b ut i s p enetra ted b y many sma l ler r ivers. Ear ly N eo l ith ic s et t le men t i n l arge p arts o f s ou thern Eng land s ee ms t o h ave b een markedly more u p land t han o n t he c on t inen t . A ma jor q uest ion t o b ear i n m ind i s whether s et t le men t w as n o l onger s o marked ly r iver ine, o r whether g iven t he d if ferences i n l andscape a s im ilar p at tern o f d eve lopmen t t o t hat o n t he c on t inen t w as f o l lowed. S o ils S outhern Eng land i s w e l l e ndowed w ith f ert i le a nd e as ily worked s o i ls. Maps o f r ecen t l and-use ( e .g. O rdnance S urvey 1 944 ) s how t ha t l i t t le o f s ou thern Eng land h as p oor q ual ity s o i ls, a part f rom t he s andy h ea ths o f t he s outh a nd u p land moors o ft he s outh-west . P odso l ic s o i ls h ave d eve loped i n t hese a reas t hrough c learance, a nd u se, a nd may h ave h ad g reater i n it ia l t o lerance i n t he s outh t han f ur ther n or th i n Eng land. S i mmons r eports t he d evelopmen t o f l each ing o n Dartmoor o n ly i n t he s econd mil lenn ium b c ( 1969 ) t hough t he p roc ess o n Exmoor may h ave b een sw if ter ( Moore 1 975 ), wh ile P enn ing ton ( 1975 ) h as s uggested a n atura l p rogress ive d eter iorat ion o f u p land s o ils i n t he n orthwest b y l each ing .

The e x ten t o f i n it ia l ly f ert ile s o i ls c an t herefore b e s een t o

b e e ven g reater. The o n ly p arts o f t he s outh u nusab le f or c u l t iva t ion b y e ar ly f ar m ing c om mun it ies m ight h ave b een h eavy c lay v a les, c lay-w ithf l in ts o n c erta in p arts o f t he c ha lk ( t hough u sefu l f or f l in t c o l lect ing ) mar ine c lays a nd h eavy b ou lder c lays i n E ast Ang l ia , wh ich l ikew ise a re o fn o more t han l im ited d istr ibu t ion ( Woo ldr idge a nd L in ton 1 933, 3 03 ). Th is i mpress ion o f f ert i l ity i s r e in forced b y t he r ecogn it ion t ha t a eo l ian d epos its, i n many c ases l oess ic , h ave c on tr ibu ted t o many s o ils o ver w idespread p arts o f s outhern Eng land ( Perr in e t a l. 1 974, L i mbrey 19 75 ). One ma in c ateogry o f s o ils i n t h is g enera l s urvey w ere d escr ibed b y Woo lr idge a nd L in ton ( 1933 ) a s ba r ns ( part o f t he w ider c a tegory o f b rown e arths o r f orest s o ils , e .g . L i mbrey 1 975 ), a nd t oday p rov ide s o me o f t he b est f arml and i n s ou thern Eng land ( as c lass if ied b y t he O rdnance S urvey 1 944 ). They a re o f ten o f l oess ic o r ig in b ut h ave g eneral ly b een r edepos ited. These bar ns a re t o b e f ound s tretch ing f ro m Dea l t o t he w estern s ide o f L ondon , n orth o f t he Tha mes , j ust e ast o f L ondon a nd b eh ind S ou thend , i n w est S ussex i n t he c oas ta l a rea , a s w e l l a s o n p arts o f t he b ou lder c lay s urface o f Eas t Ang l ia. R iver g ravels a nd a l luv ial d epos its wou ld a lso h ave p rov ided e as ily worked , w e l l watered a nd f ert i le s o ils.

I ti s p robab le t hat t here i s al oess ic c omponen t

i n many g ravel s o ils b ut t h is i s h ard t o d etect i n g ravels b ased o n l imestones , a nd s o me s o i ls may h ave b een f ormed i n ap art ly l oess-der ived s and l oa m l ayer c app ing t erraces ( L i mbrey 1 975, 1 90 ); s ome s urveys h ave moreover s a mp led o n ly i n terf luv ia l d epos its ( e .g . P err in e t a l. 1 974 ). 8

A t h ird ma jor c ategory o f s o i ls d eserv ing men t ion i n t h is i n troductory s urvey a re c a lcareous s o ils o n t he c ha lk , wh ich a re n ow c lassed a s o f med ium q ual ity s ince t hey a re n ow r ather s ha l low r ends inas. However, t hese s o i ls s urely h ad h igher p o ten t ial i nt he p er iod w ith wh ich w e a re c oncerned. Weather ing o f t he s ub-so il may h ave a dded t wo o r t hree c en t i metres t o t he d ep th o f t he s o i l s ince ( Atk inson 1 957 , 2 30 ), b ut c u l t ivat ion , e spec ia l ly r egu lar p lough ing , i n p reh istor ic a nd h istor ic t imes h as b een r espons ib le f or t he d estruct ion o f s o il s tructure a nd t he s ubsequen t e ros ion o f t he s o il d own t he s lope a s p loughwash. Coo mbe d epos its o f p loughwash i n s outhern Eng land a re o f ten o f c ons iderab le d ep th , a s a t Brook , K en t ( Kerney e t a l. 1 964 ). Evans ( 1972, 3 12 ) l i sts o ther e xa mp les. S o t he o r ig ina l d ep th o f r ends ina s o i ls i s l i kely t o h ave b een much g rea ter t han a t p resen t ;

c ompress ion , u nder b arrows

( Evans 1 972, 2 22 ), a nd t runca t ion , a lso a ccen tuate t he ir p resen t s ha l lowness. Evans s uggests a n a verage d ep th o f a bout 2 5 cm f or a d eveloped r ends ir ta u nder s tab le w ood land o r g rassland ( 1972, 2 07 ). Manby ( persona l c ommun ica t ion ) a lso r eports s im ilar t h ick d epos its o f h il lwash i n c oombes i n t he Yorksh ire Wo lds , r evea led b y t he l ay ing o f g as p ipel ines.

A r ad iocarbon d ate f or w ash

f rom Brook o f 2 590 + 1 05 b c ( B M-254 ), s uggests a n e ar ly s tar t t o t he p rocess. L i mbrey ( 1975 , 1 . 84-7 ) h as p roposed a more r ad ica l i n terpretat ion , s uggest ing t hat many c halk s o ils b ur ied u nder N eo l ith ic monumen ts a re t oo i m mature t o r ef lect t he ir f u ll p ostg lac ia l d eve lopmen t ; i ti s k nown t hat many h ad a l oess ic c omponen t , a nd b y t he A t lan t ic p er iod many may h ave b een d eveloped b rown f orest s o ils. The s o i ls t hat s urv ive may h ave b een t runcated s o ls s een most c learly i n a n e ar l ier N eo l ith ic c ontex t u nder K ilha m l ong b arrow i n Y orksh ire ( Evans a nd D i mb leby 1 976 ). I ft h is v iew i s a ccep ted , i tf urther r ei n forces t he r ange o f s o il r esources a va ilab le f or c u l t ivat ion i n s outhern Eng land . C l i mate The w ar m w et o cean ic c l i ma te o f t he A t lan t ic p er iod s urely l asted i n to t he e arl ier p art o f t he s ub-Borea l p er iod.

S o ils i n t he d i tches o f l ate N eo l ith ic

a nd Ear ly B ronze Age monumen ts h ave b een d escr ibed a s w indsorted a nd u sed t o s upport t he s uggest ion o f ad r ier p hase l a ter i n t he s ub-Boreal ( Cornwa l l 1 953 ) b u t t hese h ave b een r e in terpreted a s r edepos ited P le istocene w indb lown s o i ls ( Case e t a l. 1 966, s upported b y L i mbrey 1 975 ).

Godw in ( 1956 ) t reated

t he i dea o f ad r ier p hase w ith c au t ion t oo , s ince c onf irmatory e v idence i s s o f ar l ack ing f rom b ogs a nd p eats.

The e x tens ion o f af ar m ing e conomy i n to

Br ita in t hus c o inc ided w ith a f avourab le c l i mate, w ith l ong g row ing s easons, f reedom f rom d rough t , h igher l im its f or c u lt ivat ion , a nd a r educed n eed t o s ta l l c a t t le a nd o ther d omest ic a n i ma ls i n w in ter. Env ironmen t When P iggot t d escr ibed t he e nv ironmen t o f h is N eo l i th ic c u l tures o f t he s outh , h e c onc luded t ha t t he c ha lk d id c arry f orest , t hough l i ghter a nd more e as i ly c leared t han t he ' oak t ang led ' v a l leys ( 1954 , 1 8 ). The c oncep t ion o f d own land w ith a c over o f b eech , y ew , s crub a nd g rass d id l i nger o n ( e .g . S t . J oseph 1 962, 2 83 ), b u t p o l len s tud ies c lose t o t he c ha lk i n K ent , S ussex , Yorksh ire a nd L inco lnsh ire, t ogether w ith Evans ' e n large men t o f t he r esu lts o f e ar l ier l and mo l luscan a na lys is , f ro m c a lcareous s o ils t he mse lves ( 1972 ), 9

h ave s hown c lear ly t hat c losed wood land must b e c ons idered t o h ave c overed v irtua l ly t he who le c oun try .

Up land g ran ite mass ifs l ike Dartmoor h ave b een

s hown t oo t o h ave b een c overed w ith f orest ( S i mmons 1 964, 1 969 ).

Even i n

t he n orth o f Eng land t he t ree c over may o n ly h ave t h inned a t h igher a l t itudes ( Sm ith 1 970 ).

Accord ing t o t he mo l luscan f auna s tud ied b y Evans, o ne must

e nv isage c losed wood land r ather t han o pen p ark land o n t he Downs, s o t ha t e ven t he c on trast b etween l igh t ly wooded d own a nd t ang led v al ley c omes t o s ee m a g rea t o vers i mp l if icat ion.

I n a reas o f f t he c ha lk , p o l len s tud ies h ave s hown a

f orest c ompos it ion a t t h is p er iod o f o ak , e l m, l ime, a sh , b irch , a lder a nd h azel , wh ich o ne may c lass a s a' m ixed f orest ' e ven t hough i t s c o mpos it ion may h ave v ar ied t o s ome d egree a ccord ing t o s ubso il , t opography a nd a l t itude. Mo l luscan s tud ies d o n o t u nfortunately r evea l t he f i ne s tructure o f t he f orest c over.

A t a ny r ate b eech w as s t i l l r are i n t he s ub-Borea l p er iod , s o t hat i t s

d om inance t oday o n t he c halk i s m islead ing.

E lm a nd l ime l ike b ase-r ich

s o ils , a nd m igh t h ave p redom ina ted o n t he c ha lk . P o l len s tud ies u nder N eol i th ic monu men ts ( D i mb leby a nd Evans 1 974 ) h ave r ecen t ly r ecovered sma l l amoun ts o f t ree p o l len , wh ich d o c on f ir m t he s uggested c ompos it ion , b u t w ith l ime a nd h aze l t he most p rom inen t s pec ies r ecorded. The b enef ic ia l e f fects o f f orest c over, o n f or i ns tance t he water r eten t ion o f s o i ls a nd t he p rotect ion o f c rops, h ave b een o u t l ined b y T ay lor ( 1975 ). I n t h is ma in ly f orested e nv ironmen t t wo s or ts o f b reaks i n t he t ree c over migh t h ave h ad g reat s hort-ter m v a lue t o a gr icu l tura l p ioneers o r i nc ip ien t a gr icu ltura l ists. The f i rst w ou ld h ave b een f ound a t t he b orders b etween n atura l e costones, a t v al ley e dges a nd o n c oasta l marg ins f or e xamp le ( Evans 1 971 ).

Here, s urely , n a tura l r esources s uch a s g raz ing a n i ma ls a nd l i gh t-

l ov ing p lan ts w ou ld h ave c oncen trated.

The s econd s ort w ere t he c lear ings

c rea ted b y Meso l ith ic h un ter-ga therers i n t he f orest i t sel f . P laus ib le e v idence h as b een p resen ted f or t h is f rom Dart moor, t he P enn ines a nd East Ang l ia ( S i mmons 1 969 , 1 975, Rad ley e t a l. 1 974 , S i ms 1 973 ), a nd c learance w as p erhaps e f fected b y f i re. Mel iars ( 1975 , 1 976 ) h as c o l lected d ata f rom North Amer ica wh ich s hows c learly t he a dvan tages i n i ncreased b io mass t o b e g a ined b y ap o l icy o f s uch c learance, a nd Case ( 1976 ) h as s ugges ted t hat c learance b y f i re i nu p land f orest was o ne o f t he Meso l ith ic t rad it ions i nher ited b y N eo l ith ic c om mun it ies i n n orth-west Europe a s t hey c ame i ncreas ing ly i n to t h is s ort o f e nv ironmen t.

Though t h is k ind o f e v idence i s i ncreas ing , i n n o

a rea y et d oes i ts ee m c o m mon , o r s how t he k ind o f l ast ing n on-ep isod ic e f fec ts wh ich m igh t s uggest a t rad it iona l p o l icy . On t he o ther h and t he o p t i mum s ize f or s uch c lear ings may h ave b een r a ther sma l l , a nd may b e r egu lar ly u ndet ectab le e ven b y s ens it ive p o l len a na lys is ( Me l lars 1 976, 3 4 ).

I f s o , b reaks

i n t he f orest c over o f t he f ourth m il lenn iu m b c may n o t h ave b een e x tens ive. An e xcep t ion h as b een s trong ly a rgued f or t he h igh g round o f t he s ou thern P enn ines, where s urpr is ing ly l ow t ree p o l len v a lues ( above 1 000 f t . 0 .D.), f requen t c harcoa l r e ma ins a nd a n e ar ly o nset o fb lanket b og h ave b een t aken t o r ef lect a d el iberate a nd c ons isten t r educt ion o fu p land wood land b y f i re i n t he l a ter a nd e ven t he e ar l ier Meso l ith ic ( Jacob i e t a l. 1 976;

n ote B rown 1 977 ,

f or a n o ppos i te v iew o f t he e xpec ted d egree o f wood land c over a t s im i lar a lt itude o n Bodm in Moor , Cornwa l l ).

L arge c lear ings , i ft hey e x isted , may

t hen h ave b een c on f ined t o u p land z ones.

1 0

THE BEG INN INGS N e ither o f t he t er ms ' earl ier N eo l i th ic ' a nd ' sou thern Eng land ' i s r ig id ly d ef ined i n t h is s tudy . The N eo l ith ic o f Br i ta in l as ted o n p resen t i nd ica t ions a t l east f i f teen h undred y ears , s tart ing b y a t l east 3 500 b c. Iu se ' e ar l ier ' t o r efer t o t he f i rst h a l f o f t h is s pan , f ro m t he b eg inn ings i n to t he e ar l ier t h ird m il lenn ium , a nd ' l ater ' t o d eno te t he r est o f t he t h ird m il lenn ium b e.

The

e ar l ier N eo l ith ic s o d ef ined c orresponds t o al arge d egree t o t he ' W indm il l H il l c ul ture ' a nd i t s e x tens ions w est a nd n orth a s s et o ut b y P iggo t t ( 1954 ). T hough Ic once ive o ne b road c u l tura l u n it , l ike P iggo t t , Ih ave p referred t o u se h is l abe l l i t t le, a s t here i s n ow l ess v a lue i n c hoos ing o ne e ponymous s i te. The l a ter N eo l ith ic c on ta ins t he c on t inua t ion o f t he e arl ier c u lture a nd d evelopmen t o f i tl ike t he P eterborough p o t tery t rad it ion , t he G rooved Ware s ub-cu lture ( as d ef ined b y Wa inwr igh t a nd L ongworth 1 971), a nd t he e ar l iest B eaker c u lture g roups. Id ef ine s outhern Eng land a s s ou th o f al i ne b etween t he S evern a nd Hu mber a nd h ave c oncen trated p r i mar ily o n t h is a rea. Id o n ot c la im a ny r ig id d iv ide a t t h is l i ne a nd make f requen t r eference t o a nd u se o f e v idence f rom o ther p arts o f Br ita in , where u sefu l o r a ppropr iate. S et t le men ts, e nclosures , l ong b arrows a nd c a irns, f l in t m ines a nd t he u se o f q uarr ied s tone a xes , p ot tery , p a lyno log ica l t races o f f orest c learance a nd t he r ema ins o f d omest ica ted c erea ls a nd a n i ma ls h ave a l l b een r ad iocarbon d ated i n Eng land t o t he s econd h a l f o f t he f ourth m il lenn iu m b e ( f ig. 1 ) . S i tes w ith Neo l i th ic a rtefacts a nd e v idence o f am ixed f arm ing s yste m a re c omparat ive ly r are , b u tj ust ify t he g enera l e quat ion b etween N eo l ith ic a rtefacts o r monu men ts a nd a N eo l ith ic w ay o f l i fe o r t he p ract ice o f am ixed f arm ing s yste m. T he e v idence f or t h is , a nd t he r ad iocarbon d ates, a re s et o ut i n t he s ucceed ing c hapters. A l l t hese e le men ts s uggest t hat mature c om mun it ies e x isted b y t he l ate f ourth m il lenn iu m b e i n s tab le a d justmen t t o t he ir e nv ironmen t. I th as b een s tressed t hat l arge e nclosures, impos ing b arrows, c omp lex i n teract ions i n t he movemen ts o f f l in t , s tone a nd e ven p o t tery , s izeab le c lear ings a nd more o r l ess p er manen t g rassland a re n o t t he f i rst c rea t ions o f p ioneer ing s et t lers ( Case 1 969b ) n or i ndeed o f i nc ip ien t a gr icu ltura l ists.

I tf o l lows t hat i f mature

a d just men t i s d ated t o t he s econd h a lf o f t he f ourth m il lenn iu m b e, a p hase o f p ioneer ing a nd t he e s tab l ishmen t o f s ett le men t , whose p o ten t ia l p rob le ms a re a dm irab ly o ut l ined b y Case ( 1969b ), o r ap hase o f g radua l a ss im i la t ion o f N eo l ith ic e le men ts b y i nd igenous s tock , may b e e xpected t o g o b ack i n to t he f i rst h a lf o f t he f ourth m il lenn iu m b e. Datab le t races o f s uch a p ioneer ing o r a dap t ive p hase a re u nders tandab ly f ew a nd w i l l p robab ly n ever b e r ecovered o n a ny s ca le. Sma l l amoun ts o f N eo l ith ic p ot tery a nd f l in ts h owever , f ound i n t wo p its a nd a h earth a t t he s et t le men t o f Ba l lynag il ly , c o. Tyrone i n n orthern I reland h ave b een d ated b y s evera l r el iable s amp les t o t he e ar l ier a nd m id f ourth m il lenn ium b e ( UB 305 , 3 795 + 9 0 b e ; UB 307 , 3 690 + 9 0 b e ; UB 197 , 3 675 ± 5 0 b e ; UB 5 59, 3 550 + 8 5 b e ). Though a t f i rst t hese r esu l ts s ee med a no ma lous t hey a re b ased o n r el iab le s a mp les ( ApS i mon 1 976 ) a nd o ver lap w ith o ther d ates n o t o n ly f ro m t he s ame s i te b u t a lso f rom Eng land. They may b e u nderstood a s r are e v idence o f ap ioneer ing o r a dap t ive p hase, wh ich may b e s upposed t o h ave t aken p lace i n o ther p arts o f Br ita in w ithou t l eav ing much t race. I t

1

OL----L----2�00km • site o clearance () both

Fig. 1.

Neolithic sites in the British Isles radiocarbon dated to the fourth millennium be (some overlapping with the third millennium be).

F ig. 1

L ist o f s i tes

Cam nBrea, Cornwa l l

3 3.

2 .

Hazard H il l , Devon

3 4.

N an t F francon , Caernarvon

3 .

He mbury , Devon

3 5.

Red Moss, L anes

4 .

Sweet Track , S o merset

3 6.

B lea Tarn , Cu mbs

5 .

Fusse l l 's L odge , S o merset

3 7.

Ang le Tarn , Cu mbs

6 .

Harrow H il l , S ussex

3 8.

Barf ield Tarn , Cumbs

7 .

B lackpatch , S ussex

3 9.

S ca leby Moss , Cu mbs

8 .

Church H il l , F indon , S ussex

4 0.

N easha m F en , Dar l ing ton ,

9 .

Beckha mp ton Road , Wil ts

1 .

1 0.

Hors l ip , Wil ts

Tot ley Moss , Derbysh ire

c o . Durha m 4 1.

V a l ley Bog , u pper T eesda le, B ishop M idd leha m , c o. Durha m

c o. Durha m

1.

Wind m il l H il l , Wi lts

1 2.

L a mbourn , Berks

4 2.

1 3.

Way land 's Sm ithy , Berks

4 3.

C lat ter ingshaws L och , c o. Ga l loway

( phase I , b y e x trapo lat ion ) Asco t t-under- Wychwood , Oxon

4 4.

Beagh more , c o. Tyrone

1 5.

P en-y- Wyr lod , Brecknocksh ire

4 5.

Bal lyscu l l ion , c o. An tr im

1 6.

Coygan Ca mp , Car marthensh ire

4 6.

Fa l lahogy , c o. L ondonderry

1 7.

Fenga te

4 7.

Gortcorb ies , c o. L ondonderry

1 8.

S h ippea H il l , Nor than ts

4 8.

A l tnah inch , c o. An tr im

1 4.

Northan ts

1 9.

Ea ton H eath , N orfo lk

4 9.

S luggan , c o. An tr im

2 0.

Broo me Heath , N orfo lk

5 0.

Redbog , c o. L outh

2 1.

Wi l lerby Wo ld , Yorks

5 1.

Transcreabagh , c o. S l igo

2 2.

S ea mer Moor , Yorks

5 2.

L o mcloon , c o . S l igo

2 3.

Ehens ide Tarn , Cu mbs

5 3.

Th ir l ings , Northu mber land

2 4.

Lochh il l , K ircudbr igh tsh ire

5 4.

Abbo t 's Way , S o merset

2 5.

Mona more, Arran , Argy l l

5 5.

Hockha m , N orfolk

2 6.

G lenvo idean , Bute, Argy l l

5 6.

Esh ton Tarn , Yorksh ire

2 7.

Ra ig more , I nvernessh ire

5 7.

Wh ite Moss, Yorksh ire

2 8.

Ba l lynag il ly , c o. Tyrone

5 8.

Morden Carr , c o. Durha m

2 9.

Mad Man 's Widow , G lenar m ,

5 9.

Wee lhead Moss , c o. Durha m

c o . An tr im

6 0.

Crose Mere, S hropsh ire

3 0.

Knock iveagh , c o. Down

6 1.

H atch mere , Chesh ire

3 1.

Carnanbane, c o. Tyrone

6 2.

Dr i mnaga l l , Argy l l

3 2.

Ho l me Fen , Hun ts

6 3.

L ackan , c o . Down

6 4.

Carr iv moragh , c o. Down

6 5.

S l ieve Ga l l ion , c o. Tyrone

1 3

i s t rue t ha t t here i s n o c orrespond ing e conom ic e v idence f rom t he e ar l iest c on tex ts a t B a l lyna .g i l ly , a nd t he f i rst l andnam i s t here d ated t o t he l a ter f ourth m il lenn iu m b e ( ApS i mon 1 976 ), b ut t h is d oes n o t d estroy t he v a lue o f t he e v idence, a s t he f i rst s igns o f e i ther t he a ss im ilat ion o f N eo l ith ic c u l ture b y i nd igenous p eop le o r t he e stab l ish men t o f s et t lemen t f rom o uts ide. There a re c erta in o ther i nd ica t ions o f t h is p hase.

Sma l l-sca le f orest

c learances o f l ikely a n thropogen ic o r ig in h ave b een d ated t o t he e arl ier f ourth m il lenn iu m b e, i n t he L ake D istr ict l ow lands a s a t Ehens ide Tarn o r E s l cmea ls ( Penn ing ton 1 975 ), t he P enn ines a s a t Dun ford B r idge ( Rad ley e t a l. 1 974, S i m mons 1 975 ), a nd n orthern I reland a s a t Ba l lyscu l l ion ( Sm ith a nd Co l l ins 1 971, Sm ith 1 975 ).

S o me o f t hese c learances h ave b een l abel led ' Meso l ith ic ',

o n a ccoun t o ft he ir sma l l s ize a nd e arly d ate. T hey m igh tb e a ppropr ia te h owe ver t o t he a ct iv it ies o f p ioneer ing o r i nc ip ien t f ar mers. S uch p a lyno log ica l e v idence c anno t b e u sed o n i t s own t o d ec ide t he i ssue o ne w ay o r t he o ther, b u t w e may n ote a ga in t hat t he o p t i mum s ize o f c lear ings c reated b y h un terg atherers t o a t tract g ame may h ave b een t oo sma l l f or d etect ion b y p o l len a na lys is ( Mel lars 1 976 , 3 4 ), a nd t he sma l l ' p re-elm d ec l ine ' c learances i n q ues t ion , t yp if ied b y as l igh t r educt ion o n ly i n t o ta l t ree p o l len a nd a smal l i ncrease i n g rasses a nd l i ght-lov ing h erbs, a re p erhaps more l ike ly t o r ef lect d if feren t a ct iv it ies, p art icu lar ly s ince t hey a re r ef lected d i f feren t ly a nd more e p isod ical ly t han t he s outhern P enn ine b urn ing e v idence.

O ther e ar ly c lear-

a nces o f m ixed f armers may b e e xpected t o h ave b een smal l a nd r egu lar ly u nd etec tab le t oo.

ECONO MY OF THE EARL IER NEOL IT H IC On t he f orested l andscape w as i mposed b y t he l a ter f ourth m il lenn iu m b e a mixed f ar m ing e cono my , d educ ib le f rom t he e v idence f or f orest c learance i n p o l len a nd mo l luscan a na lys is , f ro m o ccas iona l c erea l p o l len i n p o l len a na lys es, f rom c erea l f i nds a nd c erea l i mpress ions o n p ot tery , a nd t he b ones o f d omest icated c a t t le ,

o v icapr id a nd p ig.

Th is e v idence, h owever, i s o f u neven

d istr ibu t ion i n s ou thern Eng land — a s i n o ther a reas — s o t hat d if feren t ial p reservat ion , l ack o f p reserva t ion a t a l l , a nd l ack o f r easonab le r ecovery t echn iques , h ave r emoved e conom ic d a ta f rom many s i tes.

We a re a lso

p erhaps more aware t han e arl ier p reh istor ians o f t he p o ten t ia l ly o vers i mp le e qua t ion o f t yp ica l ly N eo l ith ic a rtefacts, s uch a s p ot tery o r p o l ished s tone a xes , w ith a N eo l ith ic e cono my , j ust a s o ne h as b ecome c aut ious o f t he e quat ion o f P a laeo l ith ic o r Meso l ith ic a rtefacts w ith a n u nd if feren t ia ted h un ti ng-gather ing e conomy ( c f . H iggs a nd J ar man 1 969 , 1 972 ). The e ar l iest k nown f ar m ing c om mun it ies i n s ou thwest As ia d id n ot h ave p ot tery , a nd c onversely c erta in c u ltures i n Europe, f or e xamp le i n n orth I ta ly , h ave b een s hown t o h ave a dop ted N eo l ith ic a rtefacts ( i nc lud ing p o t tery ) much s ooner t han t hey a bandoned e conom ic s trateg ies o f t he h un ter-gatherer t rad it ion ( Jar man 1 971, 1 972 ). May i tn o t t hen b e p resu mp t ious t o d iscuss a w idespread mixed f arm ing e conomy i n s outhern Eng land? Though i t may b e f e l t t ha t s uch p rob le ms o f i n terpre tat ion h ave n ot o n t he who le r ecurred i n t he s pread o f a n imposed m ixed f ar m ing e conomy a cross Europe, t he r ange o f e conom ic e v idence f al ls f ar s hort o f what w e n eed ( Barker 1 975 , 1 02 ) . The I t a l ian e v idence r eferred

1 4

t o i nvo lves a ccu ltura t ion , a s p o ten t ia l ly i n B r ita in ;

a nd t he e conom ic s trategy

o f a cculturated c om mun it ies i s u sua l ly p rob le mat ic a nd l i ab le t o w ide v ar iat ion . Bu t t he d if feren t k inds o f e v idence d o a l l c ome t ogether o n s ome s i tes o f t he mature a d justmen t . Thus a t Broome H eath , N orfo lk ( Wa inwr igh t 1 972 ), t here were N eo l ith ic a rtefacts i nc lud ing p o t tery w ith c erea l i mpress ions , a nd ap o l len a na lys is wh ich s uggested l oca l f orest c learance ; C ambr idgesh ire ( Clark e t a l. 1 935 ;

a t S h ippea H il l ,

C lark a nd G odw in 1 962 ), N eo l ith ic p o t tery

a nd f l in ts, t ogether w ith a s heep metacarpa l — f ound a l i t t le d istan t f rom o ther f i nds ( Clark a nd Godw in 1 962 ) a nd a p o l len a na lys is s uggest ing s o me s l igh t d isturbance o f t he f orest ;

i n t he S omerset L eve ls a t rackway ( t he Sweet

T rack ) a nd a ssoc iated N eo l ith ic a rtefacts , t ogether w ith s evera l p o l len a na lyses o f t he s a me l eve l s uggest ing sma l l c learance o n t he f en marg ins a nd o n t he s andy i s lands i n t he f en ( Co les e t a l . 1 973;

c f . B ecket t a nd H ibber t 1 976 ).

Fur ther , t he s tap les o f t he p rev ious h un t ing-ga ther ing e conomy , a s f ar a s i ti s k nown , a re n ow l ess w el l r epresen ted i n f ood r e ma ins. Mo l luscs c ont i nued t o b e c o l lected i n s o me a reas, b u t d eer w ere n o l onger e xp lo i ted o n t he s a me s ca le , t he ir a n t lers b e ing u sed f or t oo ls p erhaps a s much a s t he ir f l esh f or f ood.

I t may b e n o ted t hat r ed d eer s t il l s urv ived o n t he r e la t ively

sma l l ma in i s lands o f Orkney t o b e r epresen ted i n t he f auna l r e ma ins o f K nap o f Howar a nd S kara B rae i n t he m id t o l a te t h ird m il lenn ium b e ( Departmen t o f Env ironmen t 1 976 , Ch iIde 1 931b );

t h is s uggests e ither a c on t inuat ion o f

c areful c ropp ing p o l ic ies p erhaps e v iden t s ince t he e ar ly Meso l ith ic ( Clark 1 972;

S i m mons a nd D i mb leby 1 974 ) o r g reater i n terest i n o ther , more e as ily

manageab le a n i ma ls.

F ish ing w as n o d oub t s t il l i mpor tan t i n many c oasta l

a reas, a s e v idence f rom B ishopstone , S ussex ( Bel l 1 976 ), t he S c il l ies ( Gray a nd Ashbee 1 972 ) a nd K nap o f H owar, P apa Westray , Orkney ( Departmen t o f Env ironmen t 1 976 ) i nd icates. The c on t inued u se o f w ild p lan ts i s a nu nknown q uan t ity .

Adm it ted ly t he e conom ic p at tern o f o ur l a te Meso l ith ic h un ter-

g atherers i s s t il l p oor ly k nown , b u t a va ilab le e v idence s uggests a d ec is ive s h if t i n s tap les wherever e conom ic d ata f rom ' Neo l ith ic ' s i tes h ave b een r ec overed . F ina l ly t he monu men ts o f t he N eo l ith ic s urely r ef lect t he s ame c hange.

M ines w ere s unk f or f ar mers ' a xes, a nd b arrows a nd c amps w ere

p resu mab ly b u il t t o s erve t he more c omp l icated s oc ia l n eeds o f a more s edent ary a nd more n u merous p opu la t ion. What d o r e ma in p rob le mat ica l a re t he f orms o f s ubs istence p rac t ised i n t he p ioneer ing o r a dapt ive p hase. H ere w e may f a l l b ack o n e nv isag ing a v ar iety o f s trateg ies, w ith p ioneers , f or e xamp le , r eady t o u se w i ld r esources wh ile t hey s ough t t o i mpose t he ir own s yste m o f e xp lo ita t ion. Cerea l i mpress ions, o f whea t a nd b ar ley , h ave b een f ound o n t he p ot tery f ro m s everal s i tes s ince H e lbaek 's e ar ly s tudy ( 1952 ), f or e xamp le H urst F en , ( Clark e t a l. 1 960 ) Rob in Hood 's B a l l ( Tho mas 1 964 ) Wh iteleaf ( Ch ilde a nd Sm ith 1 954 ) a nd Broome H eath ( Wa inwr ight 1 972; r ad iocarbon d ated b y BM6 79, 3 474 + 1 17 b e , BM-757 , 2 629 + 6 5 b e, a nd BM-756, 2 573 + 6 7 b e ).

They

w ere l ooked f or b ut n o t f ound o n t he p o t tery f rom S ta ines ( i n for mat ion f ro m Robertson- Mackay ). Actua l c erea ls a re r arer b u t s pel t h as b een r ecovered f ro m a n a pparen t ly u nd isturbed d epos it a t H e mbury , Devon ( L idde l l 1 931 ) ( dated b y BM-138,

1 5

3 330 + 1 50 b e ;

BM-136, 3 240 + 1 50 b e ;

BM-130 , 3 150 + 1 50 b e ), wheat a nd

b arley a t Ma iden Cast le , a nd u nd if feren t iated g ra in a t Aston ( Reaney 1 968 ) ( dated b y BM-271, 2 750 + 1 50 b e ). F lotat ion a nd s iev ing h ave r ecen t ly r ec overed sma l l amoun ts o f wheat a nd b ar ley f rom H a mb ledon H il l ( Mercer 1 975 ;

w ith o ne d ate f ro m e ar l ier e xcava t ions :

NPL-76, 2 790 + 9 0 b e ).

Bones o f d omes t icated c at t le, o v icapr id a nd p ig h ave b een r ecovered f ro m s et t le men t s i tes , t he d i tches o f c ausewayed c amps , a nd f rom l ong b arrows t oo. Cat t le a nd p ig h ave b een d is t ingu ished f rom a urochs a nd b oar b y t he ir smal ler s ize, b u t t h is c r iter ion h as o f c ourse b een s ub ject r ecen t ly t o c r it ici sm ( Ucko a nd D i mb leby 1 969 , p ass im ; H iggs a nd J ar man 1 969 ). A t W indm i l l H i l l e nclosure , Wiltsh ire , t he c at t le w ere measured a ga inst t he S tar Carr a urochs , o n t he o ne h and , f our t housand y ears o lder , a nd a ga inst Dan ish Mag le mos ian a urochs o n t he o ther. On t hese c r iter ia , most o f t he c at t le were d o mest icated , w ith a f ew w ild.

An a l terna t ive t o ar ig id w ild-do mest ic c las-

s i f icat ion wou ld b e t o s ee t he p opu lat ion a s i nclud ing l oca l ly d o mest icated c at t le ( Bököny i 1 969, Case 1 969b ). There was t he s ame o ver lap i n t he p ig p opu lat ion. Both t hese s pec ies w ere a va ilab le l oca l ly i n Eng land , b u t o v ic apr ids a re u nrepresen ted i n a ny f auna l a sse mb lages i n Eng land b efore t he N eo l ith ic a nd a re most l ike ly t herefore t o h ave b een i n troduced. The p roport ions o f t hese s pec ies a t Windm i l l H il l a re t yp ica l o f o ther s i tes , w ith c at t le most f requen t , f o l lowed b y o v icapr id , t hen p ig .

The a ssemblages

f rom t he p re-enclosure o ccupat ion a nd f rom t he p r i mary l evels o f t he e nc losure d itches a t Wind m i l l H il l a f ford t he o n ly c hance o f s tudy ing a ny c hange t hrough t ime.

I ti s i n teres t ing t ha t o v icapr ids i ncreased p roport ional ly , b ecom ing

more c om mon t han p ig.

Th is may b e c onnected w ith e nv ironmen ta l e v idence

f rom t he s i te i t sel f a nd f rom t he s urround ing a rea wh ich s uggests a p rogress ive d efores tat ion , i n wh ich c ond it ions s heep c ou ld h ave b et ter f l our ished. Though o pen a reas r eferred t o o n p . 1 0 c ou ld h ave h ad i m mense v a lue i n t he s hor t t er m f or s et t lers o r i nc ip ien t a gr icu l tural ists s uch c om mun it ies c ou ld h ave b een s k il led a t f ores t c learance, a nd s et t le ment c an n o l onger b e t hough t t o h ave b een i n f luenced i n a ma jor w ay b y t he r elat ive t h ickness o f t ree c over. P iggot t ( 1954 , 1 8 ) c lear ly s aw t h is, when h e s a id t hat t he c la i med u p land s ett lemen t o f t he Windm il l H il l c u l ture was d eter m ined b y e cono m ic s tra tegy r ather t han a t echno log ical i nab il ity t o c lear d ense wood land.

T ree r ing ing a nd f ire

s et t ing w ou ld h ave b een more e conom ical o f l abour t han d irect f e l l ing , b ut w ith a l l t hese methods N eo l ith ic c om mun it ies w ere s ure ly a b le t o a ttack f orest o f a ny k ind. Dendrochrono log ica l e v idence f rom N iederw i l i n Sw itzer land ( Waterbo lk l ecture t o P reh istor ic S oc iety 1 972 ) s uggests a w el l p lanned p o l icy o f t ree r ing ing , w ith t rees s tand ing d ead f or y ears b efore t he g round o n wh ich t hey s tood was t aken u p ; s uch p ract ices may h ave b een w idespread. Ev idence f or f orest c learance i n s ou thern Eng land i s a va ilab le f rom p o l len a nd mo l luscan a na lyses. V ar ious p henomena h ave b een o bserved i n t he p o l len r ecord o fp reh istor ic Europe a nd h ave b een v ar ious ly i n terpreted. I versen 's l andna m ( 1949 ), i n wh ich t ree p o l len d ec l ined , h erbs a nd i nd icators o f c u lt ivat i on i ncreased , t ob e f o l lowed b y t o ta l r egenera t ion o f t he f orest , h as c ome t o s ee m o n ly o ne k ind o f c learance.

Troe ls-S m ith i n terpreted t he s elec t ive

d ecl ine o f t he e lm , i n Sw itzer land a nd Denmark , a t l eve ls w el l b efore I versen 's k ind o f l andnam was e v iden t , a s d ue t o h u man i n terference r ather t han 1 6

c l i ma t ic c hange, o r d isease ( 1960 ).

H eybroek t oo ( 1963 ) h as c oncluded t ha t

t here i s n o e v idence f or t he p reh istor ic e x istence o f modern v ers ions o f , a nd c arr iers o f , e lm d isease. T roels-S m ith r e jected t he c oncept o f t he f e l l ing o f p ure e lm s tands , a nd s uggested t hat t he e lm d ec l ine w as d ue t o s elect ive l opp ing o f t he t ree t o p rov ide f odder f or a n i ma ls, p robab ly k ep t s tal led. Sm ith ( 1975 ) h as i l lustrated t he a ttrac t ions o f e lm b ark t o c at t le. On t he who le, t he a n thropogen ic e xp lanat ion i s t o b e p referred , a l though b ecause t he e lm d ec l ine h as r ema ined t he most s ynchronous o r a t a ny r ate t he l east v ar ied z one b order marker o ver a l l w estern Europe ( Sm ith a nd P ilcher 1 973 ) o ne d oes wonder whether o ther f actors w ere i nvo lved t oo.

I tc an b e

a rgued , h owever , t hat t he r ad iocarbon d ates f or t h is p henomenon , w ith in t he ir own l im its , r ef lect t he e x tens ion o f s et t le men t o u ts ide t he o r ig inal a rea o f t he L inear P o t tery c u lture i n Europe , wh ich w as i ndeed more o r l ess s ynchronous. Troe ls-S m ith e nv isaged a c at t le-based e conomy a t t h is e ar ly s tage, a nd F rench b o tan ists h ave made s im ilar s uggest ions ( Roux a nd L ero i-Gourhan 1 964 ). Howe ver , s uch d isturbances o f t he f orest c ou ld r ef lect t he e x istence o f t he k ind o f i n tens ive , s tab le ' garden ' s yste m o f t he s ort p roposed b y K ruk ( 1973 ).

Turner

( 1965 ) h as s hown h ow smal l c learances may h ard ly b e r ecogn ised i n p o l len h istory i ft hey a re f ar f rom t he b og whence a na lys is w as made. Garden p lo ts o n f ert i le , s e lf-regenerat ing v a l ley s o ils m igh t h ave b een v ery s table , s o t ha t t he ir e x istence wou ld h ard ly b e d etected a t a l l , o r a t b est b y av ery s l igh t d ist urbance o f t he f orest c o mpos it ion a nd t he p resence o f v ery f ew i nd icators o f c u l t ivat ion. On t h is l at ter p o in t , G roen man-van Waater inge ( 1967 ) h as warned t hat p lan ta in may h ave s ubs isted i n n orthwestern Europe a s ag lac ia l r el ic t i n r estr icted l oca l it ies, s uch a s c oastal marg ins ( or i n n orthern u p lands , a s i n Upper T eesda le;

d ocu men ted b y Turner e t a l. 1 973 ), s o t hat i t s f i rst a ppear-

a nce i n l ater p o l len r ecords s hou ld n ot b e t aken a s a n a u to mat ic i nd icat ion o f c u l t ivat ion , e ven t hough i ts ubsequen t ly w as most f requen t ly a ssoc ia ted w ith man 's a ct iv it ies. I n a reas o ther t han t hose s tud ied b yI versen a nd Troe ls-S m ith , t he k inds o f p heno mena t hey d iscussed a re n o t s o c learly s eparated.

I n t he n orth o f

Eng land f or e xa mp le t he s e lect ive e lm d ecl ine i s o ccas iona l ly r epresen ted b ut p recedes b y o n ly a s hort t ime a d isturbance o f t he who le f orest a nd t he a ppearance o f more l i ght-seek ing h erbs, wh ile i n n or thern I re land a l l t hese e ven ts s ee m s i mu l taneous, a nd g rasses r ather t han h erbs make t he f i rst p ush t owards n ew l i gh t.

I n B r ita in a s a who le, w e s hou ld r egard t he f i rst

ma jor c learances, i nc lud ing t he e lm d ec l ine, b eg inn ing i n t he l a ter f our th m il lenn iu m b c a s c omparab le t o t he monu men ts o f mature c om mun it ies i n s tab le a d justmen t , n o t a s e v idence f or t he v ery f i rst i nroads o n t he f orest , f or g iven t hat t hese w ere e x tens ive, t ime w ou ld b e n eeded f or t he e f fects o f c learances t o b e s o d ra mat ica l ly r ef lected. I n s outhern Eng land r ela t ively f ew d ated a nalyses h ave b een made ( f or a s um mary o fu ndated d iagrams , s ee Godw in 1 975 , f i g . 8 3 ), a nd p o l len p res erved i n l and s urfaces b ur ied b eneath monumen ts i s g enera l ly n o t s trat if ied a s i n p eat b ogs ( D i mb leby a nd Evans 1 974 ).

A t S h ippea H il l , d isturbance o f

t he f ores t d ated t o t he l a te f our th m il lenn ium ( by Q-584, 3 505 + 1 20 b e ; Q-583, 3 335 + 1 20 b e ; Q-585 , 3 370+ 1 20 b e ) was m in i ma l t hough a cco mpan ied b y sma l l p eaks o f g rasses, h erbs a nd b racken .

1 7

The e lm d ecl ine i s s i mu l taneous.

Cons isten t w ith t he amount o f c u l t ivab le l and a round t he s i te, t he c learance s ee ms o n ly t o h ave b een sma l l , a nd t e mporary .

I n t he S o merset L eve ls ,

a na lyses a long t ransect ing l ines h ave i nd icated t hat c learance c on te mporary w ith t he Swee t Track i n t he l ate f our th m il lenn iu m ( dated b y Q-968, 3 274 + 7 5 b e ;

Q-963, 3 268 + 7 5 b c ;

Q-1102, 3 190 + 1 00 b e ;

Q-966, 3 209 + 7 6 b c ;

Q -967 , 3 158 + 6 5 b e ;

Q-962, 3 200 + 6 5 b e ;

Q -1103, 3 153 + 1 00 b c ) w as

c losest t o t he s andy b eds a nd marg ins o f t he L evels ( Co les e t a l. 1 973 ), a s o ne m igh t w el l e xpect.

C learance o f s urround ing u p land i s c erta in ly r epre-

s en ted s ince t rees l ike o ak , wh ich w ou ld n ot h ave f lour ished i n t he f en o f t he L eve ls, d ec l ined a nd w ere u sed f or b u ild ing mater ia l f or t he Sweet Track . T here must b e u ncerta in ty a s t o i t s e x ten t h owever , t hough t he s ca le o f a ct iv ity i n t he L evels i t sel f migh t s uggest a c orrespond ing amoun t o n t he s urround ing d ry l and.

A p rof ile f ro m t he s i te o f t he l a ter Abbo t 's Way t rack ( Becket t

a nd H ibbert 1 976 ), a bou t am ile d istant , s hows c learance b eg inn ing i n t he v ery e ar ly t h ird m il lenn iu m b e ( t hrough a f a l l i n t ree p o l len v a lues a nd a r ise i n g rasses , a nd d ated b y SRR-543 2 953 + 5 0 b e a nd SRR-542 2 824 + 5 0 b e ).

Abso-

l u te p o l len c oun ts w ere made wh ich i nd icated t ha t r elat ive c oun ts a rt if ic ia l ly d elayed t he d ec l ine o f e l m.

The c learance c reated r e ma ined o pen f or a l ong

t ime ( dated b y SRR-541 2 707 + 5 5 b e a nd SRR-540 2 556 + 4 5 b e , w ith r egenerat ion d ated b y SRR-539 2 365 + 5 5 b e ), s uggest ing t hat t he s ca le a nd d urat ion o f c learance was much g reater t han w e o f ten s uppose. I n East Ang l ia a bso lu te p o l len c oun ts h ave b een made i n ad ated p rof i le a t Hockha m Mere , Norfo lk , o n t he n or th-east e dge o f t he Breck land ( S i ms 19 73 ) . M inor i n terference w ith t he v egetat ion c ou ld b e s een t o p recede a g enera l f a l l i n t ree v a lues , i nc lud ing t he e lm , a nd a r ise i n g rasses a nd h erbs.

Co lo-

n isers l ike a lder , l ime, b irch a nd h azel t hen t e mporar ily i ncreased b u t were t hen t he mselves r educed.

Af ter t h is r egenerat ion g radua l ly b egan a ga in .

Cereal p o l lens w ere r ecorded i n t he l ater s tages o f t he p rocess.

Th is a ct iv ity

was a ga in o n al ong t ime-sca le ( dated b y Q-1048 3 036 + 1 15 b e , Q-1047 2 844 + 1 15 b e , Q-1046 2 800 + 1 15 b e ), a nd g iven t hat s im ilar e ven ts w ere r ecorded i n a na lyses , u n fortuna tely u ndated , a t S ea mere a nd O ld Buckenha m s ome s ix o r s o m iles d istant , t h is a ct iv ity may h ave b een o f g reat e x ten t.

O ther

a na lyses f ro m East Ang l ia , d ated ( as a t Ho l me F en , Godw in a nd V ishnu M it tre 1 975 ) o r u ndated ( Godw in 1 975 , f i g. 8 3 ), n one f ar f ro m a no ther , r ei n force t h is p o in t. A t Broo me H eath (Wa inwr igh t 1 972 ) p o l len w as s trat if ied b e low t he b ank d ated t o t he l ater N eo l ith ic , a nd was b el ieved , o n t he b as is o f a cco mpany ing C 14 d ates , t o r ef lec t o ver a t housand y ears o f f orest h istory .

C learance i s

i nd icated b y t he c hange i n t he AP/NAP r at io , a nd c u l t iva t ion b y t he p resence o f c ereal p o l len a s w el l a s c erea l i mpress ions.

Th is may h ave b een s ucceeded

b y ap hase o f ma in ly p astora l a ct iv ity i n t he e ar l ier t h ird m il lenn iu m b e, w ith p eaks o f p lan ta in , a rte m is ia a nd o ther h erbs.

The NAP/AP r a t io i s n ot r e-

c orded b eyond t he c u lt ivat ion p hase ( Wa inwr igh t 1 972, 9 0 ), s o t hat o ne c anno t t el l w hether more l and w as t aken u p f or c u lt ivat ion , f urther f ro m t he s i te, o r whether a r ea l s h if t i n e cono m ic s tra tegy o ccurred. P o l len a na lys is o f b ur ied l and s urfaces u nder monu men ts o n c a lcareous

•

s ubso il ( D i mb leby a nd Evans 1 974 ) i s b e l ieved t o r ecover o n ly t he most r ecen t p o l len r a in b efore b ur ia l , whereas s na i ls a re b e l ieved t o r ef lect l onger l as ti ng p rocesses , a nd t h is i s b el ieved t o h ave b een r ap id ly m ixed b y e arthwor m 1 8

a ct iv ity o f ten w ithout c lear s trat if icat ion ( D i mb leby a nd Evans 1 974 , 19 ), u n l ike t he mo l luscan f auna ( Evans 1 972 ). The r esu l ts s uggest c learance o f a n e arly d ate u nder b arrows a t As cot t-under- Wychwood , Oxon ., Beckha mp ton Road , H orsl ip , a nd S ou th S treet , Wil ts., a nd u nder t he o uter b ank a t Windm il l H i l l , ( dated b y BM-491b , 2 943 + 7 0 b c ; NPL-138, 3 250 + 1 06 b e ( Beckha mp ton );

BM-492, 2 785 + 7 0 b e ( Asco tt );

BM-180, 3 240 + 1 50 b c ( Hors l ip );

BM-356 , 2 810 + 1 30 b e ( Sou th S treet ); BM-73, 2 960 + 1 50 b e ( pre-enc losure W indm il l H il l ) ) . At race o f c erea l p o l len w as r ecovered a t B eckhampton Road , a nd a t S ou th S treet , w here l ower l evels s uggest p as ture a nd u pper l evels a rab le, i fs tra t if icat ion i s r ea l.

A t Knap H il l ( dated b y BM-205 , 2 760

+ 15 b e ) h azel wood land a nd b racken d om inated t he a na lys is. S ome o f t hese r esu l ts a re i n a gree men t w ith t hose o f mo l luscan a na lys is , a s a t Asco t t-under- Wychwood , B eckha mp ton Road a nd K nap H il l , W il ts. A t t he l a t ter s i te t here i s d oub t w here t he s na il s amp le w as t aken ;

i fi tw ere

t aken f ro m t he s urface z one , b o th s na ils a nd p o l len wou ld p resu mab ly r ef lec t t he l atest e p isode o f v egetat iona l h istory , a nd t he h aze l a nd b racken may t hen s uggest r egenerat ion o f o nce c leared l and. O ther r esu l ts d i f fer r ad ica l ly f rom t hose o f mo l luscan a na lys is , b u t c an b e r eso lved o n t he p r inc ip le t hat t hey r ef l ect d if feren t e p isodes o f v egeta t iona l h istory .

Thus a t H ors l ip b arrow t here

w as a n o pen s na il f auna t hroughout t he p rof ile , wh ile t he p o l len wh ich s hows s o me s trat if icat ion i nd icates c learance f o l lowed b y p art ia l r eco lon isa t ion. A t W indm il l H i l l , t here w as a w ood land f auna b ur ied b eneath t he o uter b ank , wh ile t wo p o l len a nalyses b oth i nd icate o pen c ond it ions. The d if feren t r esu l ts c an b e r econc iled i ft he p o l len , o r s ome o f i t , i .e. t he most r ecen t p o l len, r ef lects more r ecen t c hanges t han t he s na i ls.

Further , a t W ind m il l H il l t he

b ur ied p ro f i le h ad p robab ly b een t runcated o r t ra mp led , wh ich s uppor ts t he r econc il iat ion o f d i f fer ing r esu l ts ; a s d oes Evans 's o bserva t ion o f o pen c oun try s na ils i n t he b ank mater ia l i t sel f ( 1972, 2 72 ). G iven t he g enera l v a l id ity o f t h is p r inc ip le i ti s c ur ious t hat D i mb leby a nd Evans d id n o t a pp ly i tt o t he b racken p eaks o bserved i n s evera l p o l len a na lyses , e spec ia l ly a t S ou th S treet ( and r eported a s t he l ast e p isode u nder K ilha m ( da ted b y BM-293, 2 880 + 1 25 b e ) a nd Wi l lerby Wo ld ( dated b y BM1 88, 2 950 ± 1 50 b e, BM-189 , 3 010 ± 1 50 b e ) l ong b arrows i n Y orksh ire ), b u t p referred t o s ee t hese a s t he r esu lt o f t he muck ing o ut o f b racken l i t ter u sed f or b edd ing s tock . The o b jec t ion t o an atura l i n terpre tat ion , t hat i s a b racken i nvas ion , w as t hat t he s na i l f auna w as o f g rass land t ype , a nd t oday g rass land s na il f aunas d o n o t f l our ish u nder b racken o r l imestone. A l ternat i vely , h owever, o ne may s ee a g rassland p hase f o l lowed b y ab racken i nv as ion wh ich m igh t r ef lect d egenerat ion o f t he s o il o r a bandonmen t , o r b o th. The p o l len a nd s na il r esu l ts a t S outh S treet a re i n a gree men t s ince t he s na i ls s uggest o pen c oun try a nd t he p o l len o pen c oun try w ith p asture b efore a rab le c u l t ivat ion .

Th is h owever i s a t o dds w ith t he s o i l p rof ile i t se l f , f or

t h is h ad b een d eep ly d isturbed a nd t he s ubso il s cored w ith a rd- marks ( f ig . 2 ) . Y et a s tone-free z one i n t he u pper p art o f t he p rof ile p resumab ly i nd icates ap er iod w ithout c u lt ivat ion , a f ter t he e ar l ier c u l t ivat ion . ma ins a h igh ly i n terest ing b u t p uzzl ing s i te.

S ou th S treet r e-

Mo l luscan a na lys is i nvo lves a ssu mp t ions. I tr ests o n t he o bservat ion t hat e ar thwor ms s ort l and asna ils d ownwards i n as o il p rof ile t hrough t ime ( Evans

1 9

I . a ter d i tch

F ig . 2 .

Ard- marks u nder N eo l i th ic b arrows i n E urope . T op : S ou th S tree t , Wi l tsh ire ( a f ter F ow ler a nd E vans ) . B e low : S arnowo 8 , Ku jav ia ( a f ter Dabrowsk i ) .

1 972, 2 10 ), s o t hat t he s na ils i n t he u pper p ar t o f ap rof ile a re g enera l ly y ounger t han t hose i n t he l ower p art. I ft he p rof ile i s b ur ied , e arthwor m a ct iv ity i s s topped a nd t he f auna p reserved. S na i ls may b e p reserved i n t he a ct ive w eather ing h or izon f or h undreds o f y ears ( 220-30 ), w h ile t he m in i mu m t ime r ange r epresen ted i n as hel l s equence i n at yp ica l r ends ina i s a bou t f orty t o f i f ty y ears, a s t he s na ils a re b ur ied a t ar ate o f u p t o 5 cm p er 1 0 y ears.

S ubso il p ockets a nd h o l lows w il l p reserve f auna o f much g reater a ge ,

b e ing o u t o f t he a ct ive weather ing h or izon . O ther a ssu mp t ions a re i mportan t t oo : t ha t s na ils h ave made l i t t le o r n o a dap t ive c hange t o c hang ing e nv ironmen ts s ince p reh istor ic t imes ( 140 ), a nd t ha t t he s na i l f auna o f a ny o ne p lace w il l t end t o r ef lec t aw ider e nv ironmen t t han t he ir i mmed ia te f i ndspo t ( 3 2 ). I t i s r ecogn ised t ha t p reh istor ic man w il l h ave s e lec ted c leared l and f or h is monuments a nd t hat t he e nv iron men ta l e v idence u nder t he m n eed n ot b e t yp ica l o f t he l andscape a s aw ho le ( 227 ), b u t i ti s i mportan t t o r eal ise t hat s na i ls i n s o ils a re n o t i n f luenced b y sma l l v ar iat ions i n c ond it ions, a s t hey a re i n p i ts o r d itch b o tto ms. L atera l v ar iat ion i n t he f auna c an b e c hecked a nd g enera l ly c on f ir ms t he a ssu mp t ion made. Though t he c onc lus ion t hat t he " fauna o f ab ur ied s o il r ef lects t he e nv ironmen t o f a n a rea , t he s ize o f wh ich c an b e c ons idered i n t er ms o f h u man l and u se" ( 1972, 3 2. )c an r ather p erp lex t he p reh istor ian c oncerned w ith t he s ca le o f l and u se, r a ther t han j ust l and u se p er s e , w e may s ure ly u se t he r esu lts o f Evans ' sw ork w ith c on f idence. L imbrey h owever ( 19 75 ,1 84-7 ) h as s uggested t ha t t hese s na il p rof iles a re i ncomp lete , o n t he g rounds t hat t he s o i ls wh ich c on ta in t he m a re t runcat ed ( see a bove p . 9 ) , t hough a dm it t ing t hat t he e v idence i s s omewhat e lus ive a nd s elf-ef fac ing. I n p er iods o f max i mu m d isturbance a nd d ep let ion o f b ases t hrough c u lt ivat ion , s na il p reservat ion wou ld c ease, a nd b e r esu med o n ly when t he b ase r ich i l luv ia l h or izons o f t he t runcated s o i ls w ere r eached ; e v idence o f i n it ia l c learance w ou ld t hus b e l ost . I fa ccepted , t h is v iew wou ld a ccen tuate t he s ca le o f a ct iv ity o n t he c ha lk a nd r e in force t he i mportance o f c ul t ivat ion .

I t may b e r emarked h owever t hat f or s upposed ly t runcated s o ils ,

as urpr is ing v ar iety o f s o il d isturbances a re p reserved a nd t ha t t he s o il u nder K i lha m l ong b arrow w h ich p o l len a na lys is s uggests m igh t h ave b een c ult ivated t w ice d oes n o t s ee m t runcated t hough i tp robab ly d eve loped i n to a s o l l ess ivee t hrough c u lt ivat ion ( Evans a nd D i mb leby 1 976 ). With in Evans 's t er ms , t here a re i nd ica t ions o f av ar iety o f l and u se. C learance was s hown a t Hors l ip , As co t t-under- Wychwood , S outh S treet , Beckh a mp ton Road , Way land 's Sm ithy , B erks., a nd West K ennet , Wil ts. Th is c ou ld b e d ated t o t he l ater f ourth m il lenn iu m b c a t H orsl ip a nd B eckha mp ton Road , a nd t o t he e ar ly t h ird a t t he l a test a t t he o thers ( by 1 -2328, 2 820 + 1 30 b c f or Way land 's Sm ithy ). T he Horsl ip f auna a nd s o il p rof ile s uggest t he e ar ly c rea t ion o f s tab le g rass land , t hough t he p o l len r ecord i nd icates r eco lon is at ion .

However , a t Beckha mp ton Road t wo r ad iocarbon d ates , f or c learance

a nd b ur ia l o f t he s o il r espect ive ly , g ive a r ange o f h undreds o f y ears i n wh ich ac learance was k ep t o pen , p resu mab ly u nder g rass , s ince t he p rof ile i s h ard ly u nd isturbed.

A s im ilar b u t s horter-l ived s pan o f g rassland i s s hown a t

As co t t-under- Wychwood Though t he s o il p rof iles h ad h ard ly b een d isturbed a t Asco t t-under- Wychwood a nd B eckha mp ton Road , a nd p robab ly West K ennet t oo , t hose a t S outh 2 1

S treet , Horsl ip a nd Way land 's Sm ithy h ad b een d eep ly d isturbed.

A rd marks

i n t he b ot to m o f t he A -hor izon a t S ou th S treet , i n ac r iss-cross p at tern , s ugg est p lough ing t hat was more t han a s cratch ing o f t he s urface ( Fow ler a nd Evans 1 967 ).

Wh ile Way land 's Sm ithy may h ave b een c u l t ivated u n t i l s hort ly

b efore b ur ia l , t he p ro f ile a t S ou th S treet i nd ica tes t ha t l ess t horough c u lt ivat i on a nd g rassland f o l lowed t he d eep t i l lage. Whether t hese d if feren t k inds o f d isturbance r ef lect d i f feren t k inds o f c u l t ivat ion , i s h ard t o s ay , a s Evans warns ( 1972, 3 64 ), t hough ' s lash-and-burn ' w ou ld b e c ons isten t w ith l ess d ist urbance a nd more i n tens ive methods w ith t he d eeper. The a bandonmen t o f c u lt ivat ion s hown b y s tone-free mul l h umus h or izons a bove b o th k inds o f d ist urbance c ou ld s uggest a n atura l l im i t t o t he d ura t ion o f a gr icu l ture o n t hese s o ils o r t he p ressure o f g raz ing s tock . These q uest ions may p ro f itab ly b e c ons idered a long w ith t he v ar ied s i tuat ions t he b arrows a re s i ted i n .

S ou th S treet i s l ow i n t he W in terbourne v a l ley ,

t hough a bove i t s f l ood-p la in , a nd Ascot t-under- Wychwood i s o n t he l ow t errace o f at r ibu tary o ft he r iver E ven lode ;

Horsl ip i s o n t he g en t le s outh s lope o f

Windm i l l H i l l , B eckha mp ton o n t he d ip s lope o f ad ry v a l ley a bove t he W in terb ourne, K ilha m o verlook ing t he d ip s lope o f ad ry v a l ley ; a nd West K ennet a nd Way land 's Sm ithy h igher, t he o ne a bove t he K ennet , a nd t he o ther o n t he n orth s carp o f t he B erksh ire Downs.

I s t here a ny c orrelat ion b etween s it ing

a nd l and-use? On ly i n t he Wind m il l H il l a rea ( f ig . 3 ) a re t here e nough s i tes f or a ny t en tat ive p at tern t o emerge. H ere o ne w onders whether t here i s s ign if icance i n t he i n tens ive c u l t iva t ion s uggested a t S ou th S treet , l ower i n t he v al ley , a nd t he l esser d isturbance a t B eckha mp ton Road , i n a more u p land p os it ion , w i th H ors l ip p erhaps i n a n i n ter med iate p os it ion w ith r egard t o b o th a spects. The g rea ter p roport ion o fb ar ley i n c erea l i mpress ions o n l ocal p ot tery a t Windm il l H i l l t han o n i mported w ares f rom t he B ath-Frome a rea , w ith h eav ier a nd more c layey s o i ls ( Dennel l 1 976 ) p o in ts t he way t o o ther d if ferences t oo b etween l i gh ter a nd h eav ier s o i ls , l ower a nd h igher g round. I ti s t ime t o a t te mp t t o i n tegra te t he e v idence f rom b arrows a nd t he s ign if icance o fb arrow s i t ing w ith t he p lac ing o f o ther s i tes a nd t he k inds o f s o ils a va i lab le a round t hese s i tes.

Th is c an b e d one b y c ons ider ing i nd iv idua l

r eg ions. F irst , h owever, t he b arrows t he mselves.

Most b arrows w ere b u i l t o n

n ot o n ly c ha lk o r l imestone s ubso i ls b u t i n u p land s i tuat ions a s w el l . The wel l k nown e xa mp le o f Ho ldenhurst , Ha mpsh ire, o n at errace o f t he r iver Avon ( P iggo t t 1 937 ) h as l ong b een u nusua l f or i t s s i t ing.

Recen t a er ia l

p ho tography h as r evea led f ew l ong b arrows o n t he g rave ls o f r iver v a l leys. Thus , o n ly o ne w as d iscovered i n t he u pper Tha mes, a t Dray ton , Oxon . ( Benson a nd M iles 1 974 ), a nd a c oup le i n Warw icksh ire ( Tho mas 1 974 ).

As

w e h ave s a id , i ti s e v iden t t ha t t hey w ere b u il t o n c leared l and , b u t E vans 's work g ives r eason t o s ugges t t ha t t he c lear ings i n q uest ion w ere l arger t han t he b arrow mounds.

I ft hey w ere b u il t i n c leared l and , t hen t he ir d is tr ibut ion

i n s outhern Eng land a s a who le must b e c ons idered a s s ome i nd ica t ion o f t he s et t le men t p at tern a s a who le.

T hus P iggot t i n h is s urvey ( 1954 ) c haracter ised

s et t le men t a s u p land a nd p rov ided a n e conom ic e xp lanat ion f or t h is. I ft hey r epresen t u p land a ct iv ity , d o t hey n ecessar ily s uggest t hat a l l a ct iv ity o ft he t ime w as i n t he u p lands? 2 2

The ir a bsence f ro m Eas t Ang l ia,

s h o w n b l a n k ) .

W i l t s h i r e w i t h e n -

c erta in ly c leared a nd s et t led , makes o ne d oub t t he g enera l p ropos it ion . Further , ab arrow d id n o t s erve t he s a me f unc t ions a s as et t le men t ; a na lys is o f t he r esources a round i t , a s s uggested t hrough " s ite c a tch ment a na lys is" , may b e mis lead ing , wh i le c onversely , b arrows may l i e o u ts ide t he a rea w ithi n p roposed " catchment a reas" o f s et t le ments. The f requen t ly made a ssump t ion t hat b arrows must l i e v ery c lose t o s et t le men t d eserves t o b e c ha l lenged. Th is c an b e a pprec iated i n s ome a reas where t he t o ta l d istr ibu t ions o f a xes , f or e xa mp le, a nd b arrows a re c omp le men tary r a ther t han o verlapp ing . An e xa mp le i s Ha mpsh ire, whose e astern p art i s d evo id o f b arrows b ut r ich i n f inds o f a xes.

I n o ther s ou thern c oun t ies, b arrows a re e x tre mely r are i n

v a l leys , b u t i nd icat ions o f s et t le men t s uch a s a xes o r f l in t s ca t ters l ess s o i n t hese s i tuat ions. C ase h as s uggested ( 1969a , 1 5 ) t hat t he c ourt c a irns o f n orthern I reland w ere t he f oc i a round wh ich c ommun it ies r evo lved f or g enerat ions a t at ime, a n i dea wh ich c an b e a pp l ied t o o ther b arrows a s a who le. However , ' f ocus ' n eed n o tb e ' c en tre ', t hough t h is i s ac ase wh ich h as b een a rgued ( Ren frew 1 976 ). Un l ike i n n or thern I re land , t here a re f ew s igns o f e arl ier s et t le men t d ebr is u nder b arrows o f t he s outh o f Eng land. Adm it ted ly t here i s ab arrow h ard b y t he s et t le men t a t Broome H ea th ( a lthough t h is i s a n a rea most ly d evo id o fb arrows ), a nd o ne may a rgue t hat s o me s upposed mort uary s tructures u nder b arrows a re i n f act t he r e ma ins o f d omest ic b u ild ings. N everthe less, o n t he who le t he d ist inct ion i s av a l id o ne. Is uggest w e may p rof itab ly t ake u p t he c lues o f fered b y t he d eta iled s tudy o f t he Wind m il l H il l a rea , where t he l owest p laced b arrow h ad s igns o f t he i nt ensest c u lt ivat ion , a nd s uppose t hat b arrows w ere p laced o n t he who le i n t he u p land p arts o ft err itor ies, a nd t ha t t he ir s i t ing n eed n o t i nd ica te t he c en tre o f t he who le t err itory u sed.

I ft h is h ypothes is i s a pp l ied t o v ar ious r eg ions o f

s outhern Eng land , a nd c omb ined w ith t hat o f o ther s ites , a more v ar ied p at tern emerges. S o ils o n t he c ha lk a nd l imestone a re l igh t , f er t i le , e as i ly worked , w el l d ra ined b u t p erhaps w el l w atered t oo i n t h is p er iod. B arrows w ere n o t p laced i n t he m idd le o f t he l argest e xpanses o f c ha lk , a s r eference t o Ashbee 's maps ( 1970 ) s hows, a nd l arge a reas o f c lay- w ith-f l in ts w ere a vo ided.

The p atch o n

t he d ip s lope o f t he Ch il terns g ives a c lear e xamp le o f t h is.

S o t he g enera l ly

a ssumed u p land p at tern d oes make s ense i n i t s own t er ms.

My s uggest ion i s

t ha t s uch v iews c an b e w idened.

The s a me maps , t ogether w ith t opograph ica l

d eta ils o f Cotswo ld b arrows, s how t hat most c oncen tra t ions o f b arrows w ere n ear r ivers, a nd s ee m g rouped a round t he m i n ac omp lemen tary f ash ion . I t h as o f ten b een s uggested t hat Cotswo ld b arrows w ere s o s i ted o n t he c rest o f t he ir u p lands a s t o b e mos t v is ib le f rom b elow . O ther k inds o f s o il a nd e nv ironmen t w ere t hus i n r each o f t he b arrows. Th is d oes n ot i mp ly a t err itory o f t he sma l lness o ft hat u sed i n s ite c atchmen t a na lys is , b u t d oes mean , f or e xa mp le, t hat w ith in r easonab le r ange o f b arrows w ere v a l ley s o ils — b o th i n ma jor v a l leys l ike t he Tha mes o r t he S evern , o r i n l esser o nes l ike t he F rome , Avon a nd K e rmet — o r c oasta l s o ils, a s o n t he S ussex p la in b e low t he b arrows o f t he S outh Downs, e ven t hough t h is may h ave b een l oca l ly i nundated ( Barton 1 963 ). P iggo t t ( 1954 , 9 2 ) l ooked t o v a l leys, s treams a nd s pr ingheads f or o ccupat i on t races b u t s ee ms n ot t o h ave c ons idered t he ir p o ten t ia l f or e xp lo itat ion. Ev idence f or u se o f t hese v a l leys a nd l ow lands may h ave b een p ar t ly o bscured 2 4

b y l a ter l and u se, u rban d evelopmen t , h i l lwash a nd a l luv iu m ( Pot ter 1 976 ), b ut c o l lect ions o f a rtefacts f rom l ower-ly ing a reas a re k nown i n e very c oun ty . There i sg rea t s cope f or f ur ther w ork o n t h is a spect , wh ich i s b eyond t he r ange o f t h is s tudy , b ut w e may c i te a s e xa mp les : f l in t s ca tters a nd a xes i n t he Upper T ha mes ( Avery e t a l. f orthcom ing ; Ty ler 1 976 ) t he S ussex c oasta l p la in ( Br igh ton Museum r ecords ) a nd t he v a l leys o f c en tral a nd s outhern Wiltsh ire ( Gr inse l l 1 957, map 2 ) ; f l in t c o l lect ions o n t he t erraces o f t he Avon a round Bournemou th , Han ts. ( Ca lk in 1 951); t he s i tes o f Cherh il l , Wil ts. ( Evans a nd Sm ith 1 967 ) a nd S ou thbourne , H an ts. ( Ca lk in 1 947 ). To t hese w e c an a dd t he c ausewayed c a mps o f S ta ines, M idd lesex ( Robertson Mackay 1 962 ) a nd Ab ingdon , Oxon . ( Leeds 1 927 , 1 928 ; Case 1 956; Avery e t a l. f orthcom ing ; d ated b y BM-351, 3 110 ± 1 30 b c, BM-353, 3 020± 1 30 b c, BM-350, 2 960 ± 10 b c , BM-348, 2 780 + 1 35 b e, BM-352, 2 760 + 1 35 b e, BM-355 , 2 510 + 1 40 b e, BM-354 , 2 500 + 1 45 b e ), a nd o ther p oss ib le e xamp les f ro m t he Upper Tha mes f ound b ya er ia l p hotography ( R. P a l mer 1 976 ) ,e ven t hough t hese may w el l b e f oc i t oo a s much a s c en tre p o in ts. Ab ingdon c ausewayed c a mp l i es o n a n e xpanse o f s econd t errace g rave l. A r ange o f o ther s o i ls i s a va i lab le l oca l ly , w ith v ary ing s treng ths s uch a s r es is tance t o waterlogg ing o r d rought ( Jarv is 1 973 ) wh ich wou ld h ave p rov ided g ood d ivers ity o f r esources.

L i mbrey ( 1975 ) h as d rawn a t ten t ion t o s o is l es-

s ives o r b rown f orest s o i ls w ith a n i l luv ia l c layey B h or izon a nd a l eached h or izon a bove w ith d ep leted b ases. S uch s o i ls a re e x tre mely c haracter ist ic i n l ow land a reas t oday .

Wh i le t hey may h ave d eveloped n atura l ly ( 1975 , 1 34 )

L i mbrey a rgues t ha t t h is d evelopmen t i s ma in ly t he r esu l t o f c u l t ivat ion ( 1899 2 ) . As o l l ess ive u nder t he b ank o ft he Dev i l 's Quo its h enge a t S tan ton Harc ourt , Oxon . s uggests c ons iderab le e xp lo itat ion o n t h is h ypo thes is b y t he l ater N eo l i th ic. Th is wou ld f i t t he a rgu men t s uggested h ere. S uch s o il c hanges , i fh u man ly i nduced , may h ave h ad l ess e f fect t han i n u p land a reas, f or t he u pper Tha mes c on t inued t o b e af ocus o f s et t le men t i n t he L ater N eol i th ic a nd t he B ronze Age, w ith i t s d eep , r es i l ien t s o ils o n t he g ravel t err aces.

These c haracter ist ics w ere s urely a pprec iated f rom a n e ar ly s tage.

These c ons iderat ions t hen a dd g reater v ar iety t o t he p oten t ial u se o f t he A mixed f ar m ing e conomy m igh t h ave b et ter f l our ished u s ing a

l andscape.

v ar iety o fh ab itats a nd e co tones. L ower l y ing l ocat ions c ou ld h ave p rov ided l onger l ast ing p lo ts f or c ul t ivat ion , wh i le t he u p lands , w ith t he ir t h inner o r a t a ny r a te more f rag i le s o i ls , c ou ld h ave s upported f ru it fu l b ut l ess p erman en t c u l t ivat ion , a nd u n l im ited g raz ing f or s tock wh ich c ould h ave b een g radua l ly c reated , ma in ta ined a nd e x tended.

I ndeed t he e v idence f rom u nder

h enges o ft he l a te t h ird m il lenn ium b e, s uch a s Marden a nd Durr ing ton Wa l ls , Wilts ( Evans 1 972 ) d irect ly s upports t h is k ind o f d evelopmen t o f p asture. Wa ter meadows t oo w ou ld h ave s upported s tock . The f ac t t hat v a l leys w ithi n t hese a reas were g eneral ly sma l ler t han o n t he c on t inen t m igh t h ave e nc ouraged t h is s upposed d ivers i ty , b u t a more m ixed e conomy t han t hat o f t he f i rst s e t t lers o n t he l oess a nd i n t he v a l leys o f Europe i s l i kely a s w e l l. A c erta in amount o f s easona l move men t may b e h ypo thes ised, a nd t he s pec if ic c ase o ft he S o merset L eve ls d irect ly s upports t h is.

The r esources o f t he

L eve ls t he mselves i nc lude f i sh a nd w ild-fow l , a nd r ich g raz ing o n i t s marg ins ; b ut t hese w ou ld h ave b een a va ilab le a ccord ing t o s eason.

The c onstruct ion

— w ith n o l i t t le l abour — o f at rackway a t a n e ar ly d ate i n t he L evels i s s urely c onnected w ith t he s easona l e xp lo itat ion o f r esources ( Co les e t a l. 1 973, Co les a nd O rme 1 976 ). 2 5

Most o f t he p resen t c oun ty o f K en t i s s t il l f ert ile, w i th t he e xcep t ion o f c erta in a reas o f c lay a nd s and , a nd h eavy e stuar ine s o ils n ow worked wou ld h ave b een i n tractab le t o a more p r im it ive t echno logy.

The b est s o i ls o f

K en t , h owever , a re t he ba r ns f ound i n ab and r unn ing s ou th o f t he n orth c oast o n t he L ondon-Rochester-Can terbury-Dea l l ine , w ith p atches a round Ma idstone a nd n orth o f Ashford. worked t oo.

These s o ils a re n ot o n ly f er t ile, b u t e as ily

There a re t wo c oncen tra t ions o f b arrows i n K en t ( Dan ie l 1 950 ):

t hose i n t he Medway v a l ley a round Ay lesford , a nd t he m inor g roup i n o r n ear t he S tour v a l ley , t hat a t J u l iberr ies G rave n ear Ch i lha m h av ing b een a dded t o b y r ecen t d iscover ies a t Bough ton A luph a nd E l msted ( Archaeo log ia Can t iana 1 970 ).

N e ither g roup i s o n t he b est s o i ls o f t he a rea, a nd most o f t he b arrows

a re i n t he v a l ley , w ith t he e xcep t ion o f t hat a t E l mstead.

The s o ils o f t he

Medway v a l ley a re o f r easonab le q ua l ity , b e ing o n g reensand , a nd w e l l watered. S trea ms p ass n ear t he Add ing ton t o mbs.

The b est s o i ls a re h owever w ith in

r easonab le r each , b oth s outh a nd n orth o f t he Medway t o mbs, a nd s outh a nd n orth o f t he o ther m inor g roup.

On t he n orthern b and o f l oa m s evera l o ccupa-

t ion s i tes a re k nown , f ro m Grovehurst n ear S it t ingbourne ( Payne 1 880 ), ( i f t h is may b e c ons idered o f t he e ar l ier r a ther t han l ater N eo l ith ic, p ace P iggo t t 1 954 ), Wingha m ( Green f ie ld 1 961 ) t o s i tes a round Dea l ( Dunn ing 1 966 ). p rov ide a n e ssen t ia l ly c o mp le men tary p at tern t o t hat o f t he b arrows.

These More-

o ver , s o me o f t hese s i tes may h ave b een s i tua ted w ith a n e ye o n c oas ta l r es ources a s w el l a s a gr icu ltura l p o tent ia l.

Grovehurst , o n f ine l oa m n orth o f

S it t ingbourne ,i s v ery c lose t o Lower Ha lstow , t he l ater Meso l ith ic s i te, a nd Wingha m i s n ear f ormer marsh o r e stuary .

Env iron men ta l e v idence f ro m

Brook ( Kerney e t a l. 1 964 ) wh ich i s s o me f ive m iles s ou th o f J u l iberr ies Grave o n t he e ast s ide o f t he S tour, a nd a t t he N orth Downs s carp , i nclud ing m id t h ird i n i l lenn iu m h il lwash i n t he c oo mbe ( da ted b y BM-254, 2 590 + 1 05 b c ), i nd icates f ur ther v ar iety i n t he p attern o f l and u se.

The b arrows, h owever ,

a s wel l a s b e ing h ere ma in ly i n v a l leys, may h ave b een s et i n a reas c o mp lemen tary t o t hose most f ert ile a nd most s et t led. L it t le o f East Ang l ia c an b e c ons idered p oor ; c arr ied f orest.

e ven t he Breck land o nce

The h eav ier b ou lder c lays, h owever, w ere p robab ly a vo ided .

There a re v ery f ew b arrows k nown , t hough o ther i nd icat ions o f s et t le ment a re a s d ense a s i n o ther a reas.

Most k nown s et t le men ts a re i n r iver v a l leys

o r i n f en land ( f ig. 4 ) . Thus Broo me Hea th i s o n at errace o f t he r iver Waveney , c overed w ith s and a nd g rave ls , a nd a bove a w ide s tretch o f a l luvi u m.

Eaton Heath , Norfo lk ( Wa inwr igh t 1 973 ) ( dated b y BM-770, 3 145 + 4 9

b e ) i s o n as andy g ravel t errace o f t he r iver Y are, a nd F engate, P e terborough , Northan ts ( Pryor 1 974 ) ( dated b y GaK-4196, 3 010 ± 6 4 b e, GaK-4197 , 2 445 + 5 0 b e ) i s o n as im ilar t errace o f t he N ene.

To t hese c an b e a dded s everal

i n terrup ted d itch s yste ms f rom t he r iver v a l leys o f East Ang l ia ( R. P a l mer 1 976 );

Orset t , Essex i s d ated t o 2 791 + 13 b e BM-? a nd 2 635 + 8 2 b e BM-?

S h ippea H i l l a nd Hurst F en , S u f fo lk ( Clark e t a l. 1 960 ) w ere f en s i tes , t he f or mer o n as and r idge a t t he e dge o f a sma l l r iver, wh i le p rel im inary e nv ironmen ta l r eports i nd ica te f en c lose t o t he s ite a t F engate t oo.

T he g rea test

c oncen trat ion o f s tone a xes i s f ound o n t he e as tern e dge o f t he F ens , a lso o n t he r iver v a l leys o f Essex s uch a s t he Co lne, S tour a nd Orwel l , a nd i n c en tra l Norfo lk a round t he Yare a nd Wensun ( Clough a nd Green 1 972 ), wh ich i s ac onf i r matory p at tern p erhaps, t hough t he a bsence o f i mported a xes f rom Broo me Heath makes t he e v idence o f a xes s urely i ncomp lete. 2 6

C learance o ft he

2

i km

F ig . 4 .

Recen t ly e xcava ted N eo l i th ic s i tes i n t he v a l leys o f e as tern Eng land . Broo me Hea th .

2 , F enga te .

( con tours i n f ee t ) .

3 , E a ton H ea th .

4 , B r iar H i l l .

1 ,

5 , Orse t t

Breek land ( see a bove, p p. 1 7-18

)must b e a dded t o t he p icture.

On t he

who le w e may s uggest g rea test c on t inu ity o f s et t le men t a long t he r ivers, b u t w ith c ons iderab le e xp lo ita t ion — p erhaps s easona l a ga in — o f t he v ar ied h ab itats o f t he f en land. Axe d istr ibut ions a re d i f f icu l t e v idence t o h and le, b u t t he g reat c oncen tra t ion o n t he s k irt f en c ou ld b e c onnected w ith s easona l e xp lo ita t ion a nd t e mporary c learance. r ough ly w ith a reas o f g ood l oa m s o i ls.

The o ther t wo c oncen trat ions c o inc ide

I n t he s ou th-west , t hough much o f t he c oun t ies o f Devon a nd Cornwa l l a re t oday p astureland , t here a re a reas o f h igh q ua l ity s o i ls w h ich wou ld h ave b een a t tract ive t o e ar ly s et t lers. The ma in p a tch o f t hese r uns i n ab and f rom a round Exeter t o T aun ton , b u t i nc ludes s o i ls o n l imestone s ou th o f Exeter, a nd a no ther p a tch b etween P enzance a nd H ay le. The u p land s o ils o n t he g ran i te mass ifs, n ow l arge ly p odso ls , w ere f ormer ly b rown f orest s o ils.

The

s i t ings o f He mbury ( L iddel l 1 930, 1 931, 1 932, 1 934-5 ), H igh P eak ( Po l lard 1 966 ), Ha ldon ( W i l lcock 1 936 ), H azard H i l l Mou lder 1 963 ), Devon , a nd Camn Brea , ( Mercer 1 974 ; d a ted b y BM-825, 3 049 + 6 4 b e, BM-824 , 2 747 + 6 0 b e , BM-823, 2 611 + 4 7 b e ) a nd Gw ith ian , Cornwal l ( Thomas 1 958, Megaw 1 976 ) — a l l k nown s et t le men ts — c o inc ide r ough ly w ith t he b et ter s o ils i n t he r eg ion , i n s uch a way a s t o s uggest a s ign if ican t c orre lat ion. H e mbury s i ts o n a g reensand h il l b u t t he s urround ing v a l leys a nd l ow lands o f fer r easonab le l and , o n a mar l s ubso i l , a nd c lose t o t he w est i s t he e astern e dge o f t he b and o f f ine s o i ls d escr ibed a bove.

Dennel l h as d rawn a t ten t ion t o t he a pparen t a b-

s ence o fb ar ley f rom t h is s i te , wh ich s uggests u se o f t he h eav ier l ow lands ( 1976, 1 6 ). H igh P eak , o n t he c oast i t self , s i ts o n ac ha lk a nd g reensand h i l l, w ith c lay-w ith-f l in ts i n p laces , b ut i t s d ip s lope r uns i n to t he f er t ile sma l l O t ter v a l ley . Good l and i s n o t t o b e f ound , h owever, i n t he i mmed iate e nv irons o f Ha ldon . The s i te i s h igh , a bou t e igh t h undred f eet , a nd v ery e xp osed. The r idge i tl i es o n h as much c lay-w ith-f l in ts. Around t he H a ldon r idge h owever , am ile o r s o d istan t a re more f er t ile s o i ls, p art icu lar ly t o t he e ast o n b o th b anks o f t he r iver Exe. H azard H i l l l i es , a t a bout f i ve h und red f eet , af ew m i les i n land o n ab road f l at h i l l a bove t he sma l l Harbourne r iver.

I n t he i mmed iate v ic in ity o f t he s i te a re l imestone , l ava , i n trus ive

a nd s latey-sch ist s ubso ils.

The l imestone p ar t icu lar ly p rov ides f ert i le,

e as i ly worked s o i ls ; t hough more f ert ile s o ils a re f ound t owards t he c oast , Hazard H il l i s a t l east o n t he f r inge o f t h is a rea. Cam nBrea s i ts p erched o n ag ran ite mass if , b u t i s i n f ac t o n t he b order o f d if feren t k inds o f s o ils. To t he n or th , a tt he f oo t o f as teep s lope a re r easonab le s o ils — l oca l ly v ery g ood a s t o t he n orth o f Ca mborne, i n t he c oas ta l p la in , wh i le t o t he s ou th h igher l and h as s ha l lower p oorer s o i ls.

The c oast i s o n ly t wo o r t hree m iles

d is tant t o t he n orth , a nd Gw ith ian l i es a bout f i ve m iles t o t he n orth-west , h a lf a m ile f rom t hepresen t c oas t l ine, w ith d ry s andy s lopes a nd s hel tered v a l leys r ound i t . I ntens ive B ronze Age c u l t iva t ion s uggests t ha t e arl ier a ct iv ity wou ld h ave b een f avourab le t oo , a nd s hel ls were c o l lected ( Thomas 1 958, 1 3 ). A l l t hese s i tes c an b e s een a s p ar t o f ap roduct ive m ixed f arm ing e conomy . The p at tern c an b e w idened , f or S i mmons d emonstrated s porad ic c learance o n t he u p lands o f Dartmoor, o ver 1 000 f eet ( 1964 , 1 969 ), a nd sma l l N eo l ith ic s i tes.

Th is c learance i s n o t r ad iocarbon d a ted h owever , t hough i ti s f i rm ly

a ss igned t o z one V I Ib.

The b rown e arths d id n ot b eg in t o d egenerate i n to

2 8

p odso ls u n t il t he Ear ly o r M idd le Bronze Age.

I td oes n ot s ee m u nreasonab le

t o s uppose t hat s o me o f t h is m inor u p land c learance c ou ld b e c on te mporary w ith t he l ower l y ing s et t le men t s i tes.

I tc ou ld r ef lect c learance f or g raz ing

o r s hor t-term c u l t ivat ion , c on trasted w ith p resu med more s tab le c u lt ivat ion i n t he l ower a reas o n b et ter s o i ls. A d if feren t v iew h as h owever b een p rop osed o f t he s im ilar u p land e nv ironmen t o f Bodm in Moor, Cornwa l l s ince t he l andscape i s s een b y B rown a s r ather o pen f rom t he A t lan t ic p er iod o nwards ( Brown 1 977 );

n onetheless t here a re i ncreased amoun ts o f h erbs l ike p lan-

t a ins i n z one V I Ib. There a re f ew b arrows i n D evon ( Dan iel 1 950 ) wh ich m igh t r ef lect a more d ispersed a nd smal ler p opu la t ion t han t o t he e ast , t hough t he e xa mp le o f E ast Ang l ia makes t h is a h azardous s uppos it ion.

A t a ny r ate t hose a round Dart-

moor a re s i ted o n i t s f r inges, a round 1 000 f eet , a s Corr ingdon Ba l l o n t he e ast s ide o r Trethevy t o t he s ou thwest .

These wou ld s ee m t hen t o b e i n a

s im i lar p os it ion i n t he e xp lo ited l andscape t o t ha t s uggested f or t hose o n t he c halk . There i s ac oncen trat ion o f q uo its a nd e n trance g raves i n t he v ery s outhwest o f Cornwa l l , o n t he u p lands o f P enw ith. One may s uggest t h is i s a nother c ase o fb arrows s i ted a bove more f ert ile l ow land — b ut s et t lemen t s i tes i nt he r eg ion a re n o t k nown . I n t he M id lands , r ecen t i nvest igat ions i n t he S evern , Avon , N ene , Wel land a nd T ren t v a l leys, p art icu lar ly b y a er ia l p hotography , h ave r evea led a p rev ious ly u nsuspected d ens ity o f p reh istor ic s et t le men t ( e .g . R .0 . H. M. 1 960; Webster a nd Hob ley 1 965 ; H o l lowe l l 1 971 ) . S ites t hus d iscovered i nc lude many l a te N eo l ith ic monu men ts a nd s cat tered l a te N eo l ith ic s et t le men ts ( e .g . Sm ith 1 968, M iles 1 969 ), b ut t here a re i ncreas ing i nd icat ions t oo o f e ar l ier N eol ith ic s et t le men t , wh ich d o n o t s uggest merely s econdary i n f il l ing o f t h is r eg ion i n t he l ater N eo l ith ic. mislead ing.

The r elat ive a bsence o f l ong b arrows h as b een

I n t he l ower N ene i s F enga te, a lready d iscussed , a nd n ear

N orthamp ton a c ausewayed e nc losure a t Br iar H i l l ( Ba mford 1 976 ).

( The d is-

t r ibu t ion o f s evera l o ther p robab le c ausewayed c amps i n t he r iver v a l leys o f t he r eg ion i s s hown i n f ig. 5 .) A sma l l o ccupat ion o n t he l ower t erraces o f t he T ren ta t Aston ( Reaney 1 968 ) h as b een d a ted t o t he e ar l ier t h ird m il lenn iu m b e ( B M-271, 2 750 + 1 50 b c ) . Ano ther sma l l o ccupa t ion s i te, c ons ist ing o f sma l l p i ts, a bove t he f l ood p la in o f t he r iver S owe, a t r ibu tary o f t he r iver Avon , a t Bag in ton n ear Coven try , h as y ielded p la in s i mp le-r i mmed N eo l ith ic p o ttery ( Hob ley 1 971 ). A s im ilar s i te i s r eported f rom Warw ick , a nd a c oup le o f l ong b arrows a nd many s tone a xes h ave b een f ound i n Warw icks h ire v a l leys r ecen t ly ( Tho mas 1 974 ).A p oss ib le c ausewayed c a mp h as b een r eported f ro m t he Warw icksh ire Avon ( R. P a lmer 1 976, a nd f i g. 5 ) . We must awa it f urther r esu lts f or t he h ypo thes is t o b e g eneral ly c onf irmed , b u t o n p resen t e v idence i tl ooks a s t hough t here was e ar ly s et t le men t a long t he r ivers o f t he Mid lands , o n wha t w ere, a fter a l l , t ractab le a nd f ert ile g ravel , s andy a nd a l luv ial s o ils. A p a t tern S et t le ment was w idespread b yt he l a te f ourth m il lenn ium b c a nd n umerous c learances w ere c reated o ut o ft he f orest , whose s ca le a nd d urat ion a re imp ress ive when i ti s r e me mbered t hat t hey w ere t he f i rst s usta ined a t tack o n

2 9

t he c l i max p ost-g lac ia l v ege tat ion. S o me b ur ied s o ils s how d eep d isturbance , a nd t he marks s cored i n t he s ubso il u nder t he S ou th S treet l ong b arrow w ere h ard ly made b y t he l i gh test o f a rds. I n t he s ou th much c ha lk land s eems b y t he m id t h ird m il lenn iu m b c t o h ave b een g iven o ver t o g rassland , t hough t here a re l oca l ly s o me i nd icat ions o f r egenera t ion o f s crub o r wood land ;

a r-

g u men ts f or t runca t ion o f o r ig ina l ly t h icker s o i ls wou ld r e in force t h is c hange i nu se.

I n o ther p arts o f t he c oun try w idespread a nd p ro longed d isturbance

o f t he f orest was s ucceeded i n t he m idd le o f t he t h ird m il lenn ium b c b y w ides pread r egenerat ion o f f orest. Ih ave i nterpreted b o th c hanges a s s ometh ing o f as tandst il l i n wh ich p opu la t ion , g rown l arge o n t he i n it ia l ly r ich r esources o f t he c oun try , h ad t o a dapt t o d ec l in ing r esources ( Wh it t le f orthcom ing ). I f s uch a s tandst il l i s a ccepted , i ti s i mportan t f or r e inforc ing t he v igour a nd s ca le o f e ar l ier N eol ith ic a ct iv ity o ver most o f t he c oun try. The r eg ional c on trast i s a lso i mportan t , f or more l and i n t he s ou th s ee ms t o h ave s tayed o pen a nd c leared t han e lsewhere i n t he c oun try .

I t may b e t hat more u p land

a reas s u i tab le f or t e mporary c ul t ivat ion r ather t han i n tens ive c u l t iva t ion were more r ead ily g iven o ver t o c a t t le a nd o v icapr ids, wh ich wou ld h ave h e lped t o ma in ta in s em i-per manen t a nd , i ncreas ing ly , p er manen t g rass land o ver w ide a reas.

Thus o ne may c once ive a n o vera l l e xp lo itat ion wh ich u sed l arge p ar ts

o f t he l andscape, w ith a c onco m itan t d egree o f mob il ity , a s s uggested b y b arrows a nd t he t rackways o f t he S o merset L eve ls. Th is s yste m w as more v ar ied , i ts ee ms, t han t he e arl iest N eo l ith ic s et t le men t i n w estern Europe. The q uest ion may b e k ep t i n m ind i n l a ter c hap ters whether t h is g reater v ar iety w as i mported ; a f ter s et t le men t h ad a l tered i n Europe, o r w as c reated t hrough t he v ar ious e le men ts b e ing b orrowe d o r a dap ted p iece mea l , s ince t he l andscape a nd r esources o f s outhern Eng land may n o t s ee m e n t irely r espons ib le f or t he d if ferences. O ther p arts o f t he c oun try By t he l a te N eo l ith ic a nd Early Bronze Age t he s outh o f Eng land w as more e x tens ive ly c leared t han t he r est o f t he c oun try . Th is i s s uggested b y l arge-sca le c learance o n t he c ha lk , a s s een i n g rassland s na il f aunas u nder h enges• in Wil tsh ire a nd H a mpsh ire ( Evans 1 972 ) ,i n mosses f rom t urf i n S ilbury H il l ( W i l l ia ms 1 976 ) a nd i n p o l len a na lys is i n K en t ( Godw in 1 962 ). There i s e v idence f ro m Ra m 's H il l , Berksh ire , o n t he c halk s carp , o f r enewed c learance i n t he Early Bronze Age ( Brad ley a nd E l l ison 1 975 ) b u t o ther more n orther ly a reas a re b e l ieved t o h ave h ad more f orest c over a t t h is s tage ( Turner 1 970 ), e ven t hough r enewed c learances w ere made f rom t he l a te t h ird mil lenn iu m i n f or e xa mp le n orth-west Eng land ( Penn ing ton 1 970 ) a nd I re land ( Sm ith 1 975, ApS i mon 1 976 ). Accep t ing t he v a l id ity o f t h is g enera l isat ion , i ti s r igh t t o c ons ider whether t he d if ference e x isted f rom t he b eg inn ing o f t he N eo l ith ic. I n Yorksh ire o f t he l ate f our th m il lenn ium b c b arrows a re f ound o n t he Wo lds a nd t he f r inges o ft he N orth Yorks Moors, b u t o pen s et t le men ts i n t hese s a me a reas a re r are ( Manby 1 975 ). The moors t he mselves w ere p robab ly l argely a vo ided t i l l t he Bronze Age, a ccord ing t o p o l len a na lys is ( e .g . T ins ley 1 975 ).

Re ma ins s uch a s t he f l in t d ebr is u nder Rudstone 6 7 o n t he Wo lds

( Greenwel l 1 877, 2 57 ) may b e p reserved u nder c erta in b arrows ( c f . Manby 1 970 ,

3 0

1 4 ).

There w as c erta in ly c u l t ivat ion u nder K ilha m a nd Wi l lerby b arrows,

o n f ert i le b rown f orest s o i ls , a nd t he d ens ity o f b arrows imp l ies t he e x istence o f much c leared l and ;

b u t t he p at tern s ee ms t o b e i nco mp lete.

The c oasta l

p la in i s c overed w i th h eavy d r if t a nd may b e e xpected t o h ave b een g eneral ly a vo ided , b u t t he Va le o f Y ork o f fers t ractab le g ravels a nd a l luv ia l d epos its. The r eg ion i s n o t w el l e xp lored t hough , a nd b ecause e ven Roman s i tes a re c overed b y l a ter d epos its , i nc lud ing d e l iberately i nduced Med ieva l ' warps ', e xp lora t ion may b e d i f f icu l t. I n t he w e l l s urveyed L ake D istr ict ( Penn ing ton 1 970 , 1 975 ) ap at tern i s emerg ing o f e arly c oasta l s et t le men t f o l lowed b y ag radua l s pread i n land. Ear ly c learance o n t he o ak-covered l ow lands o f Cu mber land , Westmoreland a nd L ancash ire h as b een d ated t o t he l ate f ourth m il lenn ium b c. There a re e ven s l igh t s igns o f c learance e arl ier i n t he m il lenn iu m ( Penn ing ton 1 975 ) c onven t iona l ly a scr ibed t o t he Meso l ith ic.

S et t lemen t s i tes o n t he c oast a re

k nown a s a t Ehens ide Tarn ( Darb ish ire 1 874 ) a nd Eskmea ls ( Penn ing ton 19 70 ), t he f or mer 's e ar l iest C 14 d a te b e ing 3 014 + 3 00 b e ( C-462 ). Act iv ity i n land a t t h is s tage i n f ores t c learance s ee ms t o h ave b een c on f ined t o a round t he a xe f ac tory s i tes i n t he L angda les, a t much h igher a lt itudes. C erea l p o l len h as b een r ecorded f ro m t heCumber land p la in ; t hese l ow lands a nd o ther a reas o f s outhern c oasta l L ancash ire a re h igh ly f ert i le.

There a re i n ter m it ten t

s igns o f c harcoa l d epos its i n t he p eat b ogs ( Penn ing ton 1 975 ) wh ich m igh t b e e xpected t o g o w ith t he p rac t ise o f s lash-and-burn c u l t ivat ion . Eastern S cotl and , w e l l s upp l ied w ith f ert ile workab le l oa m s o ils, h as l i t t le e v idence f or e arly s et t le men t b u t t wo b arrows — a l ong b arrow a t Da l lad ies, K incard ines h ire ( P iggot t 1 973, 1 974 ;

Romans a nd Robertson 1 975 ), a nd a r ound b arrow

a t P itnacree i n t he T ay v a l ley , P erthsh ire ( Co les a nd S i mpson 1 965 ) — h ave b een d ated t o t he e ar l ier t h ird m il lenn ium b c ( by SRR-189 , 2 710 + 5 0 b e, SRR1 90, 2 585 ± 5 5 b c, a lso b y I -6113, 3 240 ± 1 05 b e ; r espect ive ly ).

Henshal l h as s uggested s et t le men t a s e ar ly a s t h is, o r e ar l ier,

f urther n orth ( 1972 ). Esk ;

G aK-601, 2 860 ± 9 0 b c

Da l lad ies i s o n al ow g ravel t errace o f t he r iver S ou th

i t s mound was l argely c omposed o f t urf , wh ich w as e st i mated t o b e f ro m

o ver a n a cre o f g rassland.

The t urf was h eav ily f l ecked w ith c harcoa l , wh ich

s uggests r ecen t c learance b y f i re.

P o l len a nalys is i n ab og a f ew m iles d is-

t an t s howed s igns o f c on te mporary c learance, s o t hat w e may a ssume s ome w ider a ct iv ity , a nd r e me mber t ha t e ven b et ter s o ils a re t o b e f ound t owards t he c oast . P itnacree i s f ar u p t he r iver T ay , w ithout e nv ironmen ta l e v idence. The r ecord i s t hus l a men tab ly i nco mp lete, b ut t hese t wo s i tes w er e s urely p art o f aw ider p a ttern o f s e t t le men t wh ich c ou ld b e d ated t o t he l a te f ourth a nd e ar ly t h ird m il lenn ia b c. Though N eo l ith ic a rtefacts h ave b een d ated a t Ba l lynag il ly , c o. Tyrone , t o t he m idd le a nd e ven e arl ier f ourth m il lenn ium b e ( by UB 305 , 3 795 + 9 0 b e, UB 307 , 3 690 ± 9 0 b e, UB 197 , 3 675 + 5 0 b e, UB 559, 3 550 + 8 5 b e ), s igns o f f orest c learance a re d ated t o t he l ate f ourth m il lenn iu m b e ( by 1 3 1 3-15 , 3 245 +6 0 b e , UB 18, 3 345 + 9 0 b e ). I ti s p oss ib le t hat t here was l im ited g ardens cale c u l t ivat ion i n t he e ar l ier p art o f t he m il lenn ium a t Ba l lynag il ly wh ich e scaped d etect ion u n t i l i ti ncreased i n s ca le l a ter i n t he m i l lenn ium.

S ince

h owever t he s ett le men t a nd a va ilab le s urround ing c u lt ivab le l and a re s o c lose t o t he s ource o f p o l len a na lys is a t t he s i te, t he d iscrepancy i s p rob le mat ic. E lsewhere t here a re a lso i nd ica t ions o f e ar l ier f our th m il lenn iu m b e c learance , 3 1

a t N ewferry , c o. Tyrone ( Sm ith a nd Co l l ins 1 971 ) a nd B a l lyscu l l ion , c o. An tr im ( Sm ith 1 975 ). C learance o f t he l a ter f our th mi l lenn ium b c h as b een d e monstra ted n o t o n ly a t Ba l lynag il ly b u t a t Bal lyscu l l ion , c o. An tr im ( UB 115, 3 180 + 6 0 b e , UB 114 , 3 040 + 5 5 b e ) a nd Beagh more , c o. Tyrone ( UB 99, 3 335 + 7 5 b e ) a f ew m iles d istan t , a nd a t o ther s i tes f ur ther o f f ( f ig . 1 ) . Deta i led a na lys is a t t he f i rst t hree s i tes ( P ilcher e t a l. 1 971 ) i nd icates a p hase o f a rab le c u lt ivat ion , f o l lowed b y ma in ly p astora l a ct iv ity , f o l lowed b y r egenerat ion o f t he f orest.

The t wo p hases may h ave l asted a t l east a h undred y ears e ach .

C learance d oes n o t s ee m t o h ave b een e x tens ive a t a ny s tage.

Ba l lynag i l ly

a nd B eaghmore a re i nu p land s i tuat ions, Bal lyscu l l ion i n t he l ow lands a round L ough B eg . Ba l lynag i l ly h as s andy , c layey a nd g ravel s o ils i n i t s sma l l b as in.

K irk ( 1973/4 ) h as d iscussed t he p oss ib il ity o f u p land c erea l c u l t iva-

t ion o f t he e arly t h ird m il lenn iu m b e i n c o. Down , a t a n a lt itude o f u p t o 1 500 f eet . The e ar l iest a gr icu ltura l ists may h ave b een w ide-rang ing m ixed f ar mers, w ith a n e clect ic c ho ice o f s o ils a nd s i tua t ions. Th is s trategy may h ave b een p art icu larly s u itab le t o p ioneers, a nd t he f ew e arl iest p i ts a t Bal lynag il ly w ou ld b e c ons isten t w ith t he s e tt le men t o f a sma l l p ioneer ing c om mun ity .

I f , h owever , c u l t ivat ion w as ma in ta ined o n ly f or a r ela t ive ly

s hor t p er iod i n t hese u p lands, Ic onc lude t ha t t hese s i tes may h ave b een p art o f aw ider p at tern , a s s uggested i n s outhern E ng land t oo.

3 2

CHAPTER TWO S ETTLE MENT :

ENCLOSURES AND OCCUPATION S ITES

T o t he p reced ing r ange o f e v idence , we c an n ow a dd t ha t o f t he v ar ious u n i ts o f s e t t le men t t he mse lves.

T here a re s evera l e le men ts r e levan t t o a ny

c ons idera t ion o ft he p a t tern o f s et t le men t i n t he e ar l ier Neo l ith ic o f t he s ou th o f Eng land . T hese a re t he l arge e nc losures k nown a s c ausewayed c amps w ith b anks a nd i n terrup ted d i tches, wh ich r ange i n e x ten t f ro m t hree t o o ver t wen ty a cres ; o ccas iona l sma l l b anked a nd d i tched e nc losures, c ircu lar , r ectangu lar a nd s quare , n o g rea ter t han h a lf a n a cre i n e x ten t , s uch a s t hose a t D orchester , O xon .; a nd h ouses a nd t races o f o ccupa t ion i n t he f orm o f c oncen tra t ions o f a r tefacts , p i ts, h earths a nd s tructures , wh ich a re b oth a ssoc ia ted w i th t hese e nc losures, a nd o therw ise , i n wh ich c ase t hey r ange i n e x ten t f ro m a f ew h undred s quare me tres t o a max i mum o f a bou t t hree a cres . LARGE ENCLOSURES The g enera l f ea tures o ft he l arge i n terrup ted d i tch s yste ms a re we l l e nough k nown t o make a r epe t it ion o f ag enera l d escr ip t ion ( e .g . P iggot t 1 954 ; Sm ith 1 965 , 1 966, 1 971) u nnecessary , a nd t he e x tens ion o f t he ir d istr ibu t ion i n to East A ng l ia a nd t he M id lands h as r ecen t ly b een s u mmar ised ( W i lson 1 975, Pa l mer , R ., 1 976) . S evera l e nc losures c urren t ly o r j ust e xcava ted - Ha mb ledon H i l l, D orse t ; Orse t t , E ssex ; Cr ick ley H i l l , G loucestersh ire ; Br iar H i l l , N or thamp tonsh ire ;

O f fha m H i l l, S ussex a nd G rea t Wi lbraham Cambr idgesh ire

-a nd o thers awa it ing p ub l ica t ion - S ta ines, M idd lesex ; A b ingdon , Ox fordsh ire ; n ote t oo C herh i l l, Wi l tsh ire ( Evans a nd Sm ith 1 967 ) -s erve t o i l lustra te t he g rea t v ar ie ty t yp ica l o f t hese e nc losures a s a who le i n f ea tures s uch a s s i t ing , f or m a nd a ssoc ia t ion w ith o ccupa t ion ( f ig . 5 ) . T hus a t Cr ick ley H i l l , G loucest ersh ire ( D ixon 1 971, 1 972) a n e nc losure w ith t wo c oncen tr ic c ausewayed d i tches r an a cross t he n eck o f al arge p ro mon tory o n t he C o tswo ld e dge . T h is was s ucceeded b y ab ank a nd d i tch , o ver 2m d eep , whose o n ly o pen ing i s a bou t 2 .5 m w ide ; h i l lfor ts .

t h is i s v ery much l i ke t he Ear ly I ron Age d i tches o f t he l oca l

Excava t ions a t Ha mb ledon H i l l , whose g enera l p lan i s we l l k nown ,

h ave r evea led d i tches o fv ary ing s izes, t he i nnermost w ith a r e markab le s er ies o f h u man b one i n t he m , a nd a n u mber o f f ea tures i n t he i n ter ior ( Mercer 1 975) . O f fham H i l l h as t wo c lose ly-spaced r a ther s ha l low d itches, p erhaps o r ig ina l ly . i n ar ing b u t n ow t runca ted b y t he n or th s carp o f t he S ussex Downs ( i n format i on P . D rewet t) . Cr ick ley H i l l, l i ke H e mbury , c u ts o f f ap ro mon tory , b u t o ther r ecen t ly d iscovered p oss ib le e xamp les a re c o mpr ised b y o ne o r more r ing . A t Orse t t , E ssex ( i n forma t ion f ro m J . Hedges) , r ecen t e xcava t ions h ave c on f irmed t he e x istence o ft wo c lose ly-se t o u ter d i tches w ith a p a l isade t rench b eh ind t he m , a nd a sma l ler i nner r ing .

Recen t e xcava t ions a t Br iar

H i l l, N or tha mp tonsh ire , h ave c onf irmed t he e x istence o f t wo c lose ly-se t o u ter d itches a nd a n on-concen tr ic sma l ler i nner d i tch ( Ba mford 1 976) . Excava t ions

3 3

LO

b

T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f e n c l o s u r e s i n s o u t h e r n E n g l a n d .

F ig . 5 L ist o f s ites 1 Cam nBrea , C ornwa l l ( Mercer 1 970 , 1 972 , 1 974) 2 H igh Peak ,

Devon ( Po l lard 1 966)

3 He mbury , Devon ( L idde l l 1 930 , 1 931, 1 932 , 1 934-5) 4

Ma iden Cast le , D orset ( Whee ler 1 943)

5 Ha mb ledon H i l l, D orse t ( R .0 . H .M . 1 970 , Mercer 1 975) 6 Wh iteshee t H i l l , Wi ltsh ire ( P iggot t 1 952) 7 Rob in H ood ' s Ba l l , Wi ltsh ire ( Tho mas 1 964) 8 Rybury , W i ltsh ire ( Bonney 1 964 , Sm ith 1 965b) 9 K nap H i l l , Wi ltsh ire ( Conn .ah 1 965) 1 0 Wind m i l l H i ll , Wi ltsh ire ( Sm ith 1 965) 1 1

Cr ick ley H i l l, G loucestersh ire ( D ixon 1 971, 1 972)

1 2

A b ingdon , Oxfordsh ire ( Leeds 1 927 , 1 928 ;

Case 1 956 ;

Avery e t a l .

f orthco m ing ) 1 3

The Trund le , S ussex ( Curwen 1 929, 1 931)

1 4

Barkha le , S ussex ( Curwen 1 937 )

1 5

Wh i tehawk , S ussex ( Ross Wi l l ia mson 1 930 ;

1 6

C o mbe H i l l , S ussex (Musson 1 950)

1 7

S ta ines, M idd lesex ( Rober tson- Mackay 1 962 , 1 965)

1 8

Orset t , E ssex ( S t . J oseph 1 973)

1 9

Ma iden B ower , Bed fordsh ire ( Sm ith 1 915)

C urwen 1 934a , 1 936)

2 0

Br iar H i l l , Nor tha mp tonsh ire ( W i l l ia ms 1 974 ;

2 1

Grea t W i lbraha m , Ca mbr idgesh ire ( W i lson 1 975 ;

2 2

O f fha m H i l l , S ussex ( Ho lden 1 973)

2 3

East Bed fon t , L ondon ( W i lson 1 975 ;

Ba mford 1 976) Pa l mer 1 976)

Pa l mer 1 976)

2 4

P itstone H i l l, Buck inghamsh ire ( Dyer a nd Ha les 1 961-5)

2 5

Broadwe l l , Oxfordsh ire ( Pa l mer 1 976)

2 6

L ang ford , Ox fordsh ire ( Pa l mer 1 976)

2 7

Card ing ton , Bed fordsh ire ( R .C .H .M . 1 960 , Wi lson 1 975 , Pa l mer 1 976)

2 8

F ornham A l l S a in ts, S uf fo lk ( S t . J oseph 1 964)

2 9

Freston , S uf fo lk ( W i lson 1 975 ;

3 0

S ou thw ick , Nor thamp tonsh ire ( W i lson 1 975 ;

Pa l mer 1 976)

3 1

U f f ing ton , L inco lnsh ire ( W i lson 1 975 ;

3 2

Barho lm , L inco lnsh ire ( S t . J oseph 1 970)

3 3

A lrewas , S ta f fordsh ire ( W i lson 1 975 ;

Pa l mer 1 976)

Pa l mer 1 976) Pa l mer 1 976)

3 4

Mavesyn R idware , S taf fordsh ire ( W i lson 1 975 ;

3 5

S awbr idgewor th , Her t fordsh ire ( S t . J oseph 1 966)

Pa l mer 1 976)

3 6

Aston , Ox fordsh ire

3 7

East leach S t . Mar t in , G loucestersh ire ( Pa l mer 1 976)

( Pa l mer 1 976)

3 8

Me lbourn , Ca mbr idgesh ire ( Pa l mer 1 976)

3 9

Ha mp ton L ucy , Warw icksh ire ( Pa l mer 1 976)

3 5

a t Grea t Wi lbraham , Ca mbr idgesh ire , h ave c on f irmed t he Neo l i th ic a ge o f t he i n terrup ted d i tches ( i nforma t ion f ro m Cambr idge U n ivers ity) .

T hese e xcava-

t i ons h ave t hus c onf irmed i n p ar t t he d istr ibu t ion o f c ausewayed c a mps we l l b eyond t he u p lands o ft he s ou th . O ther l i ke ly e xamp les l i e i n t he v a l leys o f L inco lnsh ire , S uf fo lk a nd t he M id lands a s we l l a s i n t he T hames v a l ley ( f ig . 5 ; a nd S t . J oseph 1 964, 1 966, 1 970, 1 973 ;

Wi lson 1 975) a nd t he ir s im i lar ity t o

c ausewayed c amps o n t he c ha lk may b e a ccep ted ( c f . Pa l mer R , 1 976) .

L arge

e nc losures a re u nknown n or th o f t he Hu mber , w ith t he p oss ib le e xcep t ion o f Rudstone i n Yorksh ire , where u nder a r ound b arrow , n o . 6 3 , G reenwe l l f ound as hor t o va l s ect ion o f a n i n terrup ted d i tch s ystem , t he d i tches , 1 .2 b y 0 .9 m , w ith n arrow c auseways e very 3 .6 t o 4 .8 m, c on ta in ing s o me f l in t , a nd h uman a nd a n i ma l b ones ( 1877 , 2 45-6) ;

a nother p oss ib le e xamp le f ound b y a er ia l

p hotography h as r ecen t ly b een s uggested a t Hast ing H i l l , T yne a nd Wear ( New man 1 976, c f . M tke t 1 976) . I t may t herefore b e s uggested a s ap re l im inary h ypothes is o n t he b as is o f s uch v ar ie ty t ha t t hese l arge e nc losures s erved av ar iety o fp urposes, w ith in t he p a t tern o f s e t t le men t i n t he s outh . The ir d i tches were d ug b y ac o mmon t echn ique wh ich l ef t f requen t i n terrup t ions o r c auseways, o n t he c ha lk a nd o n g rave ls .

T h is t echn ique i s u sed f or t he q uarry d i tches o f s o me l ong b arrows,

t hough o n ly a sma l l p ropor t ion o f t he t ota l n u mber ( Ashbee 1 970 ) . Enc losures l i ke Ca m Brea , C ornwa l l ( Mercer 1 974) a nd L y les H i l l, c o . An tr im ( Evans 1 953) o n h ard s ubsoi ls wh ich p reven ted t he q uarry ing o f d i tches, s uggest t ha t t he i n terrup ted d i tches r ef lect j ust a me thod o f q uarry ing .

Genera l ly b anks,

where t hese s urv ive , h ave f ewer i n terrup t ions t han t he ir d i tches, a s e xamp les a t Windm i l l H i l l ( espec ia l ly t he o u ter b ank a s s een o n a er ia l p hotographs [ Sm i th 1 965, p l . 1 ] ) , Knap H i l l, The Trund le , R ob in Hood ' s Ba l l o r Wh i tehawk s how . C oncen tra t ion o n t he t echn ique o f i n terrup ted d itches may l ead o ne t o u nderest i ma te t he v ar ia t ions i n o ther f ea tures o f t he l arge e nc losures . One may a lso, more p ar t icu lar ly , s uggest t ha t a rgu men ts f or au n iform a nd e spec ia l ly r i tua l o r n on-u t i l itan ian f unct ion f or t hese e nc losures a re n o t a l toge ther s a t isfactory . Exp lana t ions o f t he ir f unct ion h ave t ended t o b e u n iform , a nd b ased o n t he e v idence f ro m f ew o ft he m .

T hus, o n e v idence o f a n i ma l r e-

ma ins f ro m Windm i l l H i l l i t was f irst s uggested t ha t t he e nc losures were a utu mna l mee t ing p laces ( P iggot t 1 954) . T hen when c a t t le f ro m W indm i l l H i l l were s een t o h ave b een o verw in tered , i t was s uggested t ha t t he e nc losures were s easona l r a ther t han s pec if ica l ly a u tu mna l c en tres f or a s ca t tered p opu la t ion , a nd moreover , f ro m c ons idera t ion o f t he d i tch s i lt ing , a nd t he c on ten ts o f t he d itches a nd t he p resen t s ta te o ft he b anks, t ha t t he b anks were d e l ibera te ly p ushed b ack i n to t he ir d i tches r e la t ive ly s oon a f ter c onstruct ion t o c over e i ther t he r e ma ins o f r i tua l mea ls o r f easts ( Sm ith 1 965, 1 966) o r t o b ury s et t le men t d ebr is s craped u p f ro m e lsewhere f or t he s upposed mag ic o f i t s f er t i l is ing p roper t ies ( Sm ith 1 971) . Aga inst t h is h ypothes is h owever i t may b e a rgued t ha t t he b anks o ft he e nc losures were i n many c ases s ubstan t ia l a nd were ma in ta ined , a nd t he d i tches k ep t o pen ; t ha t n a tura l s i lt ing a nd d ecay p layed a ma jor r o le i n t he f i l l ing o ft he d i tches a nd t he d estruct ion o f t he b anks, wh i le d e l ibera te h u man i n ter ference p layed o n ly a m inor r o le ;

a nd t ha t t here a re n o c lear c r i ter ia

t o s uggest t ha t t he d epos its i n t he d i tches a re , o n t he who le , r i tua l o r s craped u p f ro m e lsewhere .

T h is p os i t ion Ih ave a rgued i n s o me d e ta i l e lsewhere

3 6

( Wh it t le 1 977) a nd h ere i ti s c onven ien t t o d eve lop t h is f ramework f ur ther b y c ons ider ing v ar ious a spects o f t he b anks, d i tches a nd o ccupa t ion t races c ont a ined w ith in t he m . Mos t e xcava ted e nc losures c an b e s een t o h ave s ubstan t ia l d i tches , whe ther d ug i n c ha lk , g rave l o r o ther s ubso i ls, w i th b read th r are ly l ess t han 1 0 f t . o r d ep th l ess t han 5 f t .

Excep t iona l ly , Wh iteshee t , Wi lts . ( Piggot t 1 952) h ad

a sma l ler d i tch i n o ne o ft he t wo s ect ions e xcava ted a nd O f fham H i l l , S ussex h ad d i tches l ess t han t hree f ee t d eep ( Drewe t t , Preh istor ic S oc ie ty s em inar 1 977) . T he i nner d i tches o f s o me e nc losures w i th more t han o ne d i tch s yste m were a lso s l igh t . T hus s evera l e nc losures h ave a more s ubstan t ia l o u ter d itch : f or i nstance , Wind m i l l H i l l ( Sm i th 1 965) Wh i tehawk ( Curwen 1 934 , 1 936) , The Trund le ( Curwen 1 929 , 1 931) A b ingdon ( Leeds 1 927 , 1 928 ; Case 1 956) o r S ta ines ( Rober tson- Mackay 1 965) .

I n o ther c ases, t he d if ference b e tween i nner

a nd o u ter d i tches i s l ess marked , a s a t Ma iden Cast le ( Whee ler 1 943 ) , H embury ( L idde l l 1 936) o r R ob in H ood ' s Ba l l ( Tho mas 1 964) .

I n n o c ase y et

i s t he o ppos ite c lear ly t rue . Presumab ly t he u pcast f ro m t hese d i tches c ou ld h ave p rov ided t he ma ter ia l t o f orm c orrespond ing ly s ubstan t ia l a nd more o r l ess c on t inuous b anks o n t he i nner s ide . I ti s t rue t ha t many b anks a s t hey s urv ive t oday ( on t he c ha lk o r l imestone ) h ave s evera l i n terrup t ions a long t he ir l eng th , b u t n one the less s uch i n terrup t ions s ee m l ess f requen t t han t hose i n t he d i tch s yste ms t he mse lves, a s may b e s een a t Windm i l l H i l l o u ter d i tch ( and e spec ia l ly i n a er ia l p hotog raphs e . g . Sm ith 1 965, p l . 1 ) , K nap H i l l , T he Trund le , R ob in H ood ' s Ba l l o r Wh itehawk . Where b anks h ave s urv ived , t hey t yp ica l ly f or m a c on t inuous d egraded p rof i le w i th t he a d jacen t d i tch , s uggest ing t ha t t he t wo e le men ts were u sua l ly c lose ly s e t . T he p redo m inan t ly a sy m met rica l s i lt ing i n p ub l ished s ect ions c on f ir ms t h is j ux tapos it ion ;

a nd s hows t ha t i n n o c ase was ab ank p laced o n t he

o u ter e dge o f ad itch ( excep t p erhaps i n t he c ase o f t he i nner o f t wo c lose ly s e t ) . O n t he o ther h and , l ess f requen t e xamp les o f s ym metr ica l s i lt ing a s i n s o me o f t he s ect ions a t , f or i nstance , Ma iden Cast le ( Whee ler 1 943 p l . V I ) o r Wh itehawk ( Ross Wi l l ia mson 1 930 p l . I I ;

C urwen 1 934 f ig . 2 ) m igh t i nd ica te t ha t , i ft here

w ere a c orrespond ing b ank , t he w id th o f t he b erm b e tween d i tch a nd b ank was s ign if ican t . I t wou ld n ot b e s urpr is ing f or t he w id th o fb erm t o v ary , i ft he I n terrup ted d i tch s yste ms were t he work o f i nd iv idua l g angs o r sma l l s oc ia l u n its . T here i s l i t t le u pstand ing e v idence f or t he f orm o f t hese b anks, t hough v ar ious ly c onstructed f ro m c ha lk r ubb le , e ar th a nd c ha lk r ubb le o r p acked l ev ig a ted c ha lk . T he t i p l i nes v is ib le w i th in wha t r e ma ins o f t he b anks a t Windm i l l H i l l ( Sm ith 1 965 , f i g . 4 ) o r K nap H i l l ( Connah 1 965, f i gs. 4 , 6 , 8 ) s uggest t ha t t he s po i l may h ave b een d u mped a ga inst a s teep o u ter f acing , s i mu ltaneous ly c onstructed ( c f . P iggot t 1 937 , 6 ) . R ed l oamy b locks i n t he b ase o ft he s ect ion o f t he o u ter d i tch a t A b ingdon h ave b een s een a s t he r e ma ins o f t urves ( Case 1 956, 1 3) , wh ich c ou ld r epresen t f a l len r eve t men t ma ter ia l . C on tor ted s i lty l ayers i n t he b ase o f as ect ion o f t he i nner d i tch a t Windm i l l H i l l ( Sm ith 1 965 , f i g . 6 ) mirror t hose a t A b ingdon , a nd , t he s a me may a pp ly t o o ther s i lty l ayers i n c ha lk s ect ions .

3 7

T hough e xper i men ta l

e arthworks h ave s hown a t endency f or i so la ted t urves f rom t he b erm t o d isa ppear o nce i ncorpora ted i n t he f i l l ing o f ad i tch ( Jewe l l a nd D i mb leby 1 966 ), s uch l ayers i n p r i mary o r s econdary s i l t ing c ou ld r epresen t massed t urves , f or i ft hey w ere p roduced o n ly b y p ro longed s i l t ing , o ne may a sk why n o h eav ier r ubb le c ame i n a s w el l. T ur f was f requen t ly u sed a s ac ore ma ter ia l i n o ther Neo l ith ic s tructures a nd , s ign if ican t ly , was u sed f or e x terna l r eve tmen t wa l ls i n s o me e ar then l ong b arrows, s uch a s Ho ldenhurst , Ha mpsh ire ( P iggo t t 1 937 ), h ere p erhaps s teeps ided , a nd G ian ts ' H i l ls, S kend leby , L inco lnsh ire ( Ph i l l ips 1 936 ) , h ere i n c on junc t ion w ith v er t ica l t imbers . Excava t ion a t Orse t t , E ssex ( Hedges, Preh istor ic S oc ie ty s em inar 1 977) c onf irmed t he e x istence o f ap a l isade s lo t w ith in t he t wo c lose ly s e t o u ter d i tches v is ib le o n a n a er ia l p hotograph ( S t . J oseph 1 973) , a nd r e inforces t he e x istence o f ap a l isade i ns ide t he o u ter d i tch a t Wh i tehawk ( Curwen 1 936) . T hese c ou ld h ave s urmoun ted b anks o r r evet ted t he ir o u ter f aces . I fr e la t ive ly s teep-s ided b anks were a ch ieved , t hey wou ld h ave f ormed more e f fect ive b arr iers t han e xper i men ta l b anks c onstructed a lready a t t he a ng le o f r est o ft he ir c onst ituen t ma ter ia ls, a s a t O ver ton D own ( Jewe l l a nd D i mb leby 1 966) a nd Morden B og , ( Evans a nd L i mbrey 1 974) b u t wou ld h ave b een more l i ab le t o p er iod ic d ecay .

T h is s ee ms a b et ter e xp lana-

t i on o f t he s tr ik ing ly a sy m me tr ica l f i l l ing o f many c ausewayed c amps , t han s upposed d e l ibera te d estruct ion o f s tab le g en t ly s lop ing b anks ( c f . Sm ith 1 965, 1 966) . Examp les r ange i n e x ten t f ro m t hree a cres, l i ke C o mbe H i l l, S ussex ( Musson 1 950) o r K nap H i l l ( Connah 1 965) , t o o ver t wen ty a cres l i ke Wind m i l l H i l l a nd Ma iden Cast le . Many a re a bou t f i ve o r s ix a cres i n e x ten t . C ircu lar e nc losures may h ave o ne t o f our d i tches , wh i le e nc losures wh ich c ut o f f p ro mon tor ies h ave o ne o r t wo d i tches. T he i nner d i tch a t T he Trund le , S ussex ( Curwen 1 929 , 1 931) i s s p ira l , wh i le t he o u termost d itch a t Wh itehawk , S ussex ( Ross Wi l l iamson 1 930 ;

Curwen 1 934a , 1 936) r uns o f f a t at angen t .

A t

Hamb ledon H i l l t here i s as hor t l eng th o f mu lt ip le b ank a nd d i tch a cross a s pur o n t he s ou th s ide o ft he h i l l, i n a dd it ion t o t he ma in d i tch , a nd o u ter d i tch o n t he e ast ( R . C. H .M . 1 970) .

A t He mbury a s hor t s ect ion o f d i tch was f ound

o u ts ide t he ma in d i tch, a nd v ir tua l ly a t r igh t a ng les t o i t . Probab le e nc losures k nown a s c rop marks o f ten h ave t wo c lose ly s paced o u ter r ings ( W i lson 1 975) . I ns ide t he o u ter r ings a t Orset t i s a n a pparen t more o r l ess c on t inuous p a l is ade t rench ( S t . J oseph 1 973) , au n ique f ea ture , n ow c on f irmed b y e xcava t ion . Pa l mer h as d rawn many o f t hese o bserva t ions t oge ther t o s uggest r eg iona l t ra i ts i n Wessex , S ussex , t he Thames v a l ley a nd t he East Ang l ian-M id lands r eg ion ( 1 976 , f i g . 8 ) . A t most e nc losures w ith more t han o ne r ing o r a rc i tr e ma ins a n o pen q uest ion whe ther r ings o r a rcs o fb anks a nd d i tches were i n c on te mporary u se . T he v a lue o ft he e v idence o fj o in ing s herds f ro m t he p r i mary s i lts o f d if feren t d i tches a t Windm i l l H i l l a nd He mbury may b e r educed i n t he l i gh t o f o ther e v idence f or r ecu t t ing , a nd s cour ing o ft he d i tches, d iscussed b e low . I t may b e n ot iced h owever t ha t a t Cr ick ley H i l l , G loucestersh ire , where e v idence o f p has ing h as b een f or thco m ing ( D ixon 1 972 , f i g . 2 ) , t he t hree d itches i nvo lved a re c ons iderab ly c loser t oge ther t han h as b een o bserved e lsewhere .

3 8

Many e nc losures were p robab ly ma in ta ined a ct ive ly o ver a c onsiderab le p er iod o f t ime , b y t he s cour ing o u t o f t he ir d i tches a nd t he r epa ir o f t he ir b anks. R ecu t t ing h as b een p o in ted o u tb y Sm ith ( 1971, 9 8 ) i n t he s econdary s i lts a t s evera l s i tes i nc lud ing He mbury ( Sm ith 1 971, f i g . 1 5) , Wh i teshee t ( P iggot t 1 952 , f i g . 2c ut t ing 1 ) , T he Trund le ( Curwen 1 931, p l . 2 ) , a nd Wh itehawk ( Ross W i l l ia mson 1 930 p l . 3s ect ion A -B) . I th as b een r epor ted a t S ta ines ( Rober tson- Mackay 1 965) , a nd i n l ower s i lts a t Br iar H i l l , Nor thamp ton ( Bam ford 1 976) a nd i s e v iden t i n t he p r i mary a nd s econdary s i l t ing o f t he i nner d i tch a t A b ingdon ( Avery e t a l . f orthco m ing ) . I ti s v is ib le i n t he t op o f t he p r imary s i lts o n t he s ou th-west f ace o f s ec t ion 1 a t K nap H i l l ( Connah 1 965, f i g . 2 ) .

A t Wind m i l l H i l l t oo, t hough r ecu ts a re n ot im med ia te ly a pparen t i n

t he t wo s ect ions o ft he o u ter d i tch i l lustra ted b y Sm ith ( 1965 f i gs. 4 & 5 ) , t h is f ea ture i s v is ib le i n t he l ower s i lts o f t hose p ub l ished b y P iggot t ( 1954 f i g . 4 ) f ro m e a l ier e xcava t ions o n t he o u ter d i tch .

C urren t e xcava t ions a t s evera l

c ausewayed c amps w i l l s a t isfy t he c lear n eed f or more l ong itud ina l d i tch s ec t ions .

C lear ing o u t may o ccas iona l ly h ave p roduced c oun terscarp b anks

a s may b e s uggested t en ta t ive ly f or t he o u ter d i tch a t A b ingdon ( Case 1 956 , f i g . 2 ) . T he c ha lk f i l l ing e n ter ing f ro m t he o u ter e dge o f a midd le d i tch s ect i on a t W ind m i l l H i l l ( Sm ith 1 965 , f i g . 6 ) h igh i n t he s econdary s i lt ing c an h ard ly a t t h is p os it ion h ave c o me f ro m t he s ide o f t he d i tch i t se lf , a nd m igh t h ave b een d umped b ack i n f ro m a c oun terscarp .

T he d i tches o f o ther e nc losures

d o n ot , a pparen t ly , s how r egu lar r ecu t t ing , s uch a s Orset t o r Cr ick ley H i l l ( Hedges a nd D ixon , Preh istor ic S oc iety s em inar 1 977) b u t o n t he who le r ecu t t ing a nd ma in tenance wou ld a ppear t o h ave b een w ide ly p ract ised . T h is p o in t c an b e r e in forced n ega t ive ly b y t he d ear th o f e v idence t o s uppor t t he n o t ion t ha t d e l ibera te b ack f i l l ing o ft he d i tches b y d estruct ion o f t he b anks was a c o mmon f ea ture o f c ausewayed e nc losures .

T he c o mp le te d isappearance

o fb anks f ro m l ow land e nc losures a nd t he u neven ly d enuded a ppearance o f many c halk land e nc losures ( a lready r ecorded i n s o me i nstances b y e ar l ier a n t iquar ies) must s ure ly b e r e la ted p r i mar i ly t o l and-use s ubsequen t t o t he Neo l ith ic .

T here

i s n o c lear g enera l c orre la t ion b e tween d isappearance o f ab ank , t he a sym me try o ft he d i tch f i l l ing a nd t he d ens ity o ft he f i nds t here in ( suggested b y Sm ith 1 965 , 1 966) , a s e xa mp les s how s uch a s T he Trund le i nner d itch ( Curwen 1 929, 3 3 , 3 6) , C o mbe H i l l ( Musson 1 950) , Wh itesheet ( P iggot t 1 952) R ob in H ood ' s Ba l l i nner d i tch ( Tho mas 1 964) o r Ma iden C ast le i nner d i tch ( Whee ler 1 043 , p l . V I &3 60) , a t wh ich o ne o r more o ft he t hree v ar iab les was n ot a s d escr ibed .

D e l ibera te

f i l l ing b ack o f al arge ly emp ty d i tch may o n ly b e o bservab le a t Cr ick ley H i l l , G loucestersh ire ( D ixon 1 971, f i g . 7 ) where t wo i n terrup ted d i tch s yste ms ( p hase l b) h ave l ayers o f l imestone s tones p acked f l a t , c on trast ing w i th t he a symme tr ica l f i l l ing o f o ther N eo l ith ic ( phase 1 d ) a nd I ron Age d itches o n t h is s i te . T here may b e m inor e xcep t ions a t A b ingdon i n t he u pper p ar t o f t he o u ter d i tch , n oted a bove , a nd p erhaps i n c er ta in o f t he = wea thered g rave l l ayers o ft he s econdary a nd t er t iary s i l t ing i n t he i nner d i tch ( Avery e t a l . f or thco m ing ) . M inor e xcep t ions f ro m a l a te s tage o f t he s i lt ing may b e r ecurren t e lsewhere , a s i n t he e xa mp le f ro m Windm i l l H i l l n o ted a bove . B y t h is s tage h owever , t he o r ig ina l f unct ion o r f unct ions o f a n e nc losure may h ave l apsed . I ndeed o nce t he p oss ib i l ity o f ma in tenance i s a dm it ted , t he o bserved d i tch s ect ions may i n s o me c ases r ef lec t o n ly t he f i na l h istory o f d igg ing a nd s i lt ing.

3 9

A t many e nc losures r ubb ish f ound i t s way i n to t he d i tches f ro m t he s tar t , a s i n t he p r i mary s i l ts a t W indm i l l H i l l ( m idd le d i tch ) , Wh i tehawk ( t h ird a nd o u ter d i tch o n t he e ast s ide ) o r A b ingdon ( i nner d i tch ). T h is s ugges ts t ha t o ccupa t ion o f s o me k ind w en t h and i n h and w i th t he o r ig ina l p urposefu l c rea t ion o f many e ar thworks . T he g enera l ly s can t ier v o lu me o f r ubb ish i n t he l owes t s i l ts may b e e xp la ined b y t he s peed w i th w h ich t hese t ended t o f orm , a nd p erh aps p ar t ly b y t he t endency o ft he o ccupan ts t o s cour t hem o u t . O n p resen t i nd ica t ions t he b asa l d epos i ts i n t he i nner d i tch a nd i n t he i nner c ross-dykes a t Hamb ledon H i l l ( Mercer 1 975) a re e xcep t iona l . T hey c anno tb e s een a s c asua l , b u t whe ther t hey r ef lec t t he n on-func t iona l p urpose o f t he d i tches i n wh ich t hey a re c on ta ined o r r epresen t as ymbo l ic f ounda t ion d epos i t i n a f unc t iona l b arr ier i s p erhaps a n o pen q uest ion . T he d i tches o f many c ausewayed e nc losures w ere a lso f requen t ly , i fu ne ven ly , u sed f or t he d isposa l o f r ubb ish t hrough t he f orma t ion o f t he s econdary s i l t ing i n to t ha t o ft he u pper o r t er t iary . T h is r ubb ish i nc luded i n s evera l e xamp les a s n o tab ly a t A b ingdon s tr ik ing d arkened l ayers o f c harcoa l a nd p res u mab ly o ther o rgan ic ma t ter , b u t t he a ccoun ts o f t h is a nd Wh i tehawk o r T he T rund le , f or i ns tance , s how t ha t r ubb ish was f ound i n o ther l ess s ta ined l ayers t oo . V ar ia t ions i n t he d ens ity o f r ubb ish may b e o bserved i n s evera l a spec ts , a s b e tween d if feren t p ar ts o f t he s ame e nc losure , f or e xamp le Ma iden C ast le , o rb e tween d i f feren t e nc losures , a s b e tween t he r ichness o f Windm i l l H i l l , o r p ar ts t hereof , a nd t he r e la t ive p over ty o f T he T rund le a s e xcava ted , o r Hamb ledon H i l l ( Mercer 1 975) . N e i ther i n i t s d ispos i t ion n or i n i t s c ompos i t ion i s t he r ubb ish f ro m mos t e nc losures u nusua l e nough t o b e c harac ter ised a s o ther t han c asua l s et t lemen t r efuse . H eaps o fb one r epor ted a tW indm i l l H i l l may h ave b een l arge ly p rod uced b y t he f orces o f g rav i ty c oncen tra t ing h eav ier b ones i n t he c en tre o f s i l t ing . O ccas iona l s coops o r h eap ing o ver o f s o me r ubb ish may b e s ugges ted a t A b ingdon , b u t t h is s ee ms a r are p heno menon , a s f ar a s may b e j udged f rom o ther s i tes d ug i n c ha lk . An o x s ku l l a t Wh i teshee t may h ave b een h eaped o ver . Ab one d epos i t i n t he d i tch o f F usse l l ' sL odge b arrow may t oo h ave b een d e l ibe ra te ly c overed ( Ashbee 1 966 , 1 6) . O ne may c ompare t he d og s ke le ton a tt he i nner d i tch a t C amp I , L es Ma t ignons ( Charen te ) wh ich h ad p robab ly b een c overed o ver , p erhaps s i mp ly t o h ide a r ot t ing c orpse ( Burnez a nd C ase 1 966) . D epos i ts f ro m t he u pper s i lt ing o ft he i nner d i tch a t Hamb ledon H i l l h owever d o c on tras t s trong ly w ith t he p a t tern e lsewhere , a nd were p robab ly d e l ibera te ly l a id i n ap repared t rench o r s lo t ( Mercer 1 975) . T he f i nds f ro m W indm i l l H i l l , e spec ia l ly t he q uan t ity , v ar ie ty a nd c omb inat i on o f a n i ma l r ema ins, h ave b een i n terpre ted a s t he r ema ins o f c o mmuna l f easts, n o t d o mest ic r efuse , a nd h ence p rov ided a mo t ive f or t he s upposed d e l ibera te f i l l ing o f t he d i tches , o ver t he r ema ins o f t hese s pec ia l mea ls ( Sm i th 1 965 , 9& 2 0) . Al a ter v ers ion c hanged t h is i n terpre ta t ion o f t he f i nds ( Sm i th 1 971, 1 01) f o l low ing a s uggest ion b y C ase o n t he c harac ter o fd epos i ts i n

G ood land s i tes ' i n n or thern I re land ( 1 969a , 1 3) , f ro m c o mmuna l f east r e-

ma ins c ere mon ia l ly b ur ied , t o s e t t lemen t d ebr is , s craped u p f ro m e lsewhere a nd b uried f or t he s upposed mag ic p owers o f i t s f er t i l izing p roper t ies . N e i ther c onc lus ion c an b e g enera l ly s uppor ted e ven t hough a ny mea l w i th much mea t i n i t may h ave b een a f east i n t erms o ft he p reh is tor ic d ie t , a nd e ven t hough

4 0

s et t le men t d ebr is may h ave h ad s pec ia l s ign if icance o n o ccas ion , t o j udge b y i t s o ccurrence, n ot o n ly a t G ood land c o . An tr im ( Case 1 973 ), b u t a lso b oth i n e ar then l ong b arrows, a s i n t he ' E mpty H o le ' o f t he G ian ts ' H i l ls b arrow , S kend leby ( Ph il l ips 1 936 ) a nd i n mega l ith ic monumen ts, a s i n t he s econdary b lock ing o ft he c hambers a t West K enne t o r o ther s i tes ( P iggot t 1 962) . T he q uan t ity a nd v ar ie ty o f a n i ma l r efuse , a par t f ro m v ary ing f ro m e nc losure t o e nc losure , i s n o t o bv ious ly d if feren t i n g enera l c haracter f ro m t ha t o n t hose f ew o ther n on-enc losure e ar l ier N eo l ith ic s i tes w i th wh ich i t may b e c o mpared .

T he p re-enc losure p i ts a t Windm i l l H i l l f or i nstance h ad v ar ious

r e ma ins , ma in ly c a t t le , wh i le a k id o r l a mb was f ound i n p i t 5 ; ma ined d om inan t i n t he e nc losure p hase .

c a t t le r e-

Ma iden Cast le h ad f ew b ones i n i t s

d i tches, most ly c a t t le , a nd a f ew p ig a nd o v icapr id b ones i n v ar ious p i ts ( as o n s i te A ) . Var ie ty may h ave b een p ar t ly p roduced b y r ubb ish l y ing o u ts ide t he d i tches f or s o me t ime , o ru ncovered i n t he d i tches, a nd v ar ious c o mb ina t ions o f s pec ies t hereby b e ing p roduced . The p resence o f c arn ivorous a nd n onc arn ivorous s na i ls w ith in b ones f ro m t he W indm i l l H i l l d i tches ( Sm i th 1 965, 1 7) t ends t o s uppor t t h is v iew , u n less a l l t he s na i l s pec ies were b urrowers . One e xcep t ion t o t he c haracter isa t ion o f t he ma ter ia l i n t he d i tches a s d o me st ic r ubb ish may b e made . P iggot t l i sted r e ma ins o f h u man s ku l ls a nd o ther p ar ts o f c orpses f ro m t he d i tches o f s evera l c ausewayed c a mps, t o wh ich f ur ther e xamp les o f s ku l ls a nd o ther b ones may b e a dded , f ro m A b ingdon i t se lf , ( Leeds 1 928 , 4 76) , S ta ines ( Rober tson Mackay 1 965) a s we l l a s b ur ia ls o f s ing le b od ies i n t hese d itches ( 1954, 4 7-49) . Cann iba l is m s hou ld o n ly b e o ne o u t o f s evera l p oss ib le e xp lana t ions o f s uch d epos its ( Bro thwe l l 1 961) . T he p resence o f h u man s ku l ls a nd o ther b ones i n t he d itches o f c ausewayed c amps h as b een c onnected w ith a pparen t e xamp les o f t he r obb ing o fb ones f ro m i n ter men ts i n c hambered t o mbs ( Sm ith 1 959, 1 61; P iggot t 1 962a ) . I n o ther c hambered t o mbs a nd e ar then l ong b arrows i ti s p roba b le t ha t s o me c orpses were d epos ited a lready i nco mp le te , a nd i n t he c ase o f s ku l ls a nd l ong-bones s uch a bsence may b e d e l ibera te . I n b oth c ases , we may i n fer r i tes c onnected w i th p ar ts o f t he b ody , p ar t icu lar ly t he s ku l l a nd l ongb ones . S uch r i tes c ou ld t herefore h ave b een p ract ised a t c ausewayed c amps, a nd t he ir r e ma ins c onsc ious ly o r r ando m ly d epos ited i n t he d i tches. A t Hamb ledon H i l l s uch r e ma ins r ecur

r egu lar ly i n t he b asa l d epos its a nd c er-

t a in ly s eem c onsc ious ly d epos ited ( Mercer 1 975) . Ap rob le m o f i n terpre ta t ion o f t he w ider imp l ica t ions o f t hese d epos i ts e x ists h owever i n t ha t e xamp les o f s im i lar c asua l d epos its o f c orpses o r p ar ts t hereof h ave b een l i sted f ro m f l in t m ine s i tes, s uch a s C issbury , B lackpa tch a nd Gr i mes G raves ( P iggot t 1 954, 4 7 ) . T hese c annot b e t aken t o s how t he f unct ion o ft he mine s i tes a s awho le . N or s hou ld t he o ther e xamp les b y t he ms e lves b e t aken t o s uggest t he w ho le f unct ion o r f unct ions o f c ausewayed c a mps, a ny more t han f ragmen tary c orpses i n I ron Age p its , f or e xamp le a t The T rund le ( Curwen 1 929, 4 5 &6 7) r evea l t he who le n a ture o f ah i l lfor t . S ku l ls o n t he d itch b ot to m a t Hamb ledon H i l l a long w i th o ther d e l ibera te d epos its o f o ccupa t ion ma ter ia l ( Mercer 1 975, 1 8) c ou ld b e s een a s f ounda t ion d epos its. R itua l a ct iv it i es a re i ndeed n ot u nexpected a t c o m muna l c en tres . T hey were p erhaps n ot s o s harp ly s epara ted f ro m d a i ly l i fe a s i n o ur a ge , a nd n eed n ot b e t aken t o c haract er ise t he r ange o f f unct ions o ft he s i tes a s a who le . 4 1

Wh i le o ccupa t ion ma ter ia l was f requen t ly a bundan t i n t he ir d itches, r e la t ive ly l i t t le o ccupa t ion i s s o f ar im med ia te ly a pparen t w ith in c ausewayed c amps i n g enera l .

He mbury i s ac lear e xcep t ion , b u t s ign if ican t ly o ccupa t ion

w ith in i t was o fu neven d ens ity . Ma iden Cast le t oo h ad a n u mber o f p i ts a nd p ostho les b e tween t he t wo d i tch s yste ms . A t A b ingdon , L eeds was a b le t o r ecord s evera l p its i n t he a lready b ad ly d amaged i n ter ior , wh ich a re s uggest ive o f g rea ter o ccupa t ion w ith in t he e nc losure t han i s im med ia te ly a pparen t . T here a re r epor ts o f o ccupa t ion , i nc lud ing g u l l ies, w i th in S ta ines, p erhaps c on te mporary w ith t he d i tches ( Rober tson- Mackay 1 965) . T he c urren t e x tens ive e xcava t ions a t Hamb ledon H i l l h ave r evea led t he r emnan ts o f many p oss ib le p i ts w i th in t he i nner d i tch ( Mercer 1 975) .

Ex tens ive s tr ipp ing w i th in

t he i nner d i tch a t Wind m i l l H i l l p roduced l oca l c oncen tra t ions o f p i ts a nd f ea tures , most o f wh ich h owever were c er ta in ly e ar l ier t han t he b ank a nd d itch . O ther c ausewayed c amps h ave n ot b een e x tens ive ly e xcava ted , wh ich must s ure ly b e a n a im o f f uture work . Af i na l e va lua t ion must a lso t ake i n to a ccoun t t he e x ten t o f e ros ion o f t he i n ter iors o f t hese e nc losures, b oth o n c ha lk a nd o n g rave ls . L ower ing o f o r ig ina l l and s ur faces t oge ther w ith s ubsequen t d estruct ive f orms o f l and u se , c ou ld a ccoun t f or t he d isappearance o f many f ea tures. I ti s t herefore p erhaps h arder t han c o mmon ly a ssu med t o e va lua te t h is a spect o f t hese monu men ts.

Wh i le s uch d if f icu lt ies r ema in a t many e nc losures i n

p rov ing o ccupa t ion , t he s i tua t ions o f many were a t l east h igh ly f avourab le f or s tab le s et t le men t . T hough t h is c annot o n i t s own p rove t he p o in t , i ti s s uggest ive p ar t icu lar ly i n t he c ase o f t hose i n l owly ing l oca t ions i n o r a t t he e dges o f r iver v a l leys .

O f t hese A b ingdon h as a t p resen t p erhaps t he b est r ange o f

e v idence f or s uch s tab le s e t t le men t .

T he s i te l i es o n a n e xpanse o f f i rst a nd

s econd t errace g rave ls wh ich s tre tches f or we l l o ver a m i le i n most d irect ions a round , a nd a v ar ie ty o f o ther s o i ls a re t o b e f ound b eyond , i n a we l l-wa tered l andscape o f g en t le r e l ief . An i ma l b ones a nd c erea l impress ions o n p ot tery f ro m t he d i tches o f t he e nc losure s uggest t he p ract ice i n t h is s e t t ing o ft he mixed f arm ing e cono my t yp ica l o f t he e ar l ier N eo l i tch ic .

T he c harcoa ls a nd

s ubfoss i l m i l lusca f ro m t he s i te a re a t l east c ons isten t w i th a n e nv ironmen t o f p ar t ia l ly c leared wood land , r ecorded i n g rea ter d e ta i l i n many o ther c on te mp orary p o l len a nd mo l luscan a na lyses .

I t may b e t ha t t he r e ma ins o f s uch a n

e conc my o n ly a ccu mu la ted a t t he c a mp i th av ing b een l argely p ract iced e lsewhere , b u t i ts ee ms l i ke ly e nough t ha t t he e v idence r e la tes t o e xp lo i ta t ion I n s i tu o f t he f avourab le s e t t ing d escr ibed . T he c la im o f as o l l ess ive u nder a r emnan t o fb ank a tt he h enge monu men t u pstream a t S tan ton Harcour t i s h igh ly i n teres t ing ( L i mbrey 1 975 , 1 90 ) , f or i t i mp l ies , i fc orrect ly d ist ingu ished f ro m a r emnan t o f aP le istocene s o i l , d egrada t ion o f ag rave l t errace s o i l b y t he e nd o f t he Neo l ith ic, a nd t hereby b y e x tens ion , c ons iderab le e xp lo ita t ion o f t h is e nv ironmen t i n t he N eo l ith ic, t hough a n u pper t ime l im it o n t h is p rocess i s u n for tuna te ly l ack ing . G rave l s o i ls may h owever , a s L i mbrey p o in ts o u t , h ave b een more r es istan t t o d egrada t ion t han many o thers i n s ou thern Eng land , a nd e ven a f ter t he N eol ith ic wou ld h ave b een a b le t hrough t he ir r ich c a lcareous s ubso i ls o r C -hor izons t o p rov ide g ood r eturns a t at ime when many c ha lk s o i ls f or e xamp le w ere u nder p asture . I ti s o f i n terest t ha t o ther p oss ib le e xamp les o f c ausewayed e nc losures i n t he U pper T hames v a l ley t owards L ech lade ( Pa l mer R ., 1 976) were s i ted o n 4 2

t he e dges o f e xpanses o f g rave l, w i th in r each o f h igher g round o n t he C otswo ld l imestone a nd o f t he v a l ley b o t to m . T he p oss ib le e xamp le f ro m Aston l i es i n t he p resen t f l oodp la in i n t he m idd le o f al arge e xpanse o f a l luv ium .

A ma jor i ty

i ndeed o fo ther s uch e nc losures were s i ted i n s im i lar ly p oten t ia l ly f avourab le e nv ironmen ts ( Pa l mer R ., 1 976) . B ut c lear ly o thers s i ted h igh o n c ha lk d ownl and were more e xposed a nd f ur ther f ro m ab a lanced r ange o f r esources .

These ,

h owever , s uch a s Hamb ledon H i l l, K nap H i l l a nd i ndeed Windm i l l H i l l , i nc lude e xamp les w ith e f fect ive b arr iers f ormed o f d i tch a nd b ank .

A t t h is p o in t we

must l ook b eyond c o m mon f ea tures s uch a s t he t echn ique o fu s ing i n terrup ted d i tches o rb u i ld ing s ubstan t ia l b anks t o t he l i ke l ihood o f v ar ied f unct ions, a nd v ary ing p a t terns o f o ccupa t ion . Rad iocarbon d a tes f ro m t he l a te f our th a nd t o t he mid-th ird m i l lenn iu m b e a re a va i lab le f ro m s even s i tes : H e mbury ( 3330 + 1 50 b e , BM - 1 38 ; 3 240 + 1 50 b e, BM - 1 36 ; 3 150 + 1 50 b e, BM - 1 30) , Hamb ledon H i l l ( 2790 + 9 0 b e, NPL - 7 6) , H igh Peak ( 2860 + 1 50 b e, BM - 2 14) , Knap H i l l ( 2760 + 15 b e, BM - 2 05) ,

Windm i l l H i l l ( 2580 + 1 50 b e, BM - 7 4 ;

s amp le f ro m t he midd le a nd o u ter d i tches) ,

n ote t h is i s ab u lked

Orset t ( 2791 + 1 13 b e , BM ;

2 635 + 8 2 b e, BM ) , a nd A b ingdon ( f ro m o ne s egmen t o f t he i nner d i tch 2 780 + 1 35 b e , BM - 3 48 a nd a bove i t4 070 + 10 b e , BM - 3 49 ; a nd f ro m a nother s egmen t o ft he i nner d i tch , i n s tra t igraph ic s equence f ro m t he midd le t o t he u pper s i lt ing 2 960 + 1 10 b e , BM - 3 50 ; 3 110 + 1 30 b e, BM - 3 51 ; 2 760 + 1 35 b c , BM - 3 52 ; 3 020 + 1 30 b e, BM - 3 53 ; 2 500 + 1 45 b e, BM - 3 54 ; a nd 2 510 + 1 40 b e, BM - 3 55) .

Da tes f or Cam

Brea may a lso b e c o mpared

( 3049 + 6 4 b e, BM - 8 25 , at erm inus p ost q ue m f or t he e nc losure wa l l ; 2 747 6 0 b e, BM-824, a t er m inus a n te q ue m f or t he e nc losure w a l l ; 2 611± 4 7 b e, BM-823 ), a nd t he mater ia l c u l ture f rom o ther e nc losures i nd ica tes a s im il ar o vera l l t ime s pan f or t he ir c onstruct ion a nd u se. Combe H il l ( Musson 1 950 ) h ad o n ly Ebbsf leet p ot tery i n o ne c u t t ing o f i t s s ha l low i nner d itch , a s ty le w h ich may h ave c ome i n to b e ing i n t he f i rst h a lf o f t he t h ird m il lenn ium b e. A b ingdon was v irtua l ly w ithou t l ater N eo l ith ic p ot tery i n t he u pper f i l l ing o f i t s d i tches , l ike t he ma jor ity o f c ausewayed e nc losures, t hough Windm i l l H i l l i s an o tab le e xcept ion . By i t se lf a d itch wou ld s ure ly s i l t u p i n f ar l ess t ime t han c en tur ies b u t t he v a l id i ty o f al ong t imesca le i s s uppor ted b y t he c o mp lex s i l t ing o f d itches I n wh ich n a tura l s i l t ing , d epos i t ion o f r ubb ish a nd r epea ted c lear ing o u t c an a l l b e o bserved .

On ly A b ingdon s o f ar h as p rov ided a s equence o f d a tes f ro m

o ne d i tch b u t t hese c an b e t aken t o s uppor t al ong t imesca le .

S ing le d a tes f ro m

o ther s i tes may h ave b een a f fected b y r ecu t t ing o r t he c ond it ions o f d epos it ion . T he r ange o f p ot tery s ty les f ro m Wind m i l l H i l l s ee ms t o i nd ica te a s im i lar l ong c hrono logy f or t he s i lt ing o ft he d i tch , t o t ha t s hown b y t he d a tes o f A b ingdon , w ith t he m ix ture o f a l l s ty les a t t he t op a na logous t o t he d a te a t Ab ingdon ( B M-353 ) i n s im i lar p os it ion b u t p laus ib ly d er ived f ro m e ar l ier o ccupa t ion . T he e x ten t t o wh ich r ecu t t ing h as b een o bserved i n o ther e nc losures c an a lso b e t aken t o s uppor t t he g enera l v a l id ity o f l ong t imesca les . T h is c ou ld a lso p rov ide t he r ight p erspec t ive i n wh ich t o e xam ine t he c ase o f Ma iden Cast le ( c f . Sm i th 1 965, 1 7 ) . Here t he L ong Mound was b u i lt o ver a n a lready s i lted u p e nc losure d itch .

G iven t he =chang ing ma ter ia l c u lture o f t he r eg ion a nd

t he c ons iderab le s pan o f t he N eo l i th ic, b oth e ar thworks c ou ld c om fortab ly b e f i tted i n to t he l i ke ly c hrono logy . Bu t we must a vo id o ver-genera l isa t ion , a nd t he p oss ib i l ity t ha t o ther e nc losures f e l l o u t o f u se r e la t ive ly s oon a f ter

4 3

c onstruct ion must b e k ep t i n m ind . I ndeed w ith in t he Upper T hames v a l ley , t he t hree o r f our n ear L ech lade a re n ot l i ke ly t o h ave b een a l l c on te mporary . T he l arge e nc losures c ou ld t hen o n t he who le b e s een a s p ermanen t s truct ures , p robab ly w i th s ubstan t ia l b anks ( and t he o ccas iona l p a l isade) , w hose q uarry d i tches t ended t o s i lt u p a nd were p er iod ica l ly c leared o u t o ver a l ong p er iod o f t ime .

I n t h is l i gh t i ti s r ash t o d is m iss d efens ive r o les, a nd s ince

s ocia l c onf l ic t may t ake many f orms, t he n on-h i l ltop s i t ing o f many e nc losures c annot b e c onc lus ive . I t wou ld h owever b e n o a dvance t o s ubst itu te o ne u n iv ersa l e xp lana t ion f or a nother , a nd t he who le r ange o f p oss ib le f unct ions i s b est s een i n c onnect ion w ith o ther u n its o f s e t t lemen t , t o wh ich we n ow p roceed . SMALL ENCLOSURES A l l t he sma l l c ircu lar e nc losures a t Dorchester , Oxon ., r ang ing i n d iame ter f ro m a bou t 1 2 t o 3 0 m, h ave b een d escr ibed a s s acred s i tes, r e la ted t o h enges, a nd =connected w ith d o mest ic ' l i fe ( Atk inson e t a l . 1 951) . I t was r ecogn ised t ha t t here were d if ferences b e tween t hese e nc losures, p ar t icu lar ly b e tween s i tes I , Ia nd X I , a nd I V , Va nd V I . T he l a t ter t hree c o mpr ised p enannu lar a rrange men ts o f c on t iguous p its, e ach w ith a h o le o r p oss ib le p ost s et t ing i n i t s b ot to m , s urrounded i n e ach c ase b y a n e x terna l b ank ( p . 4 0 , 4 5, 5 5) .

Wi th in t he u pper f i l l ings o f t he p i ts a nd i nside t he p i ts t here were n u mer-

o us c re ma t ions .

T hese monumen ts a re c lear ly r e la ted t o h enges i n f orm ,

t hough t he n umber o f c re ma t ions i s u nusua l . S i te I V h ad n o d ef in ite d a t ing a ssoc ia t ions, b u t t he v ery s im i lar s i tes V a nd V I m igh t b e c on te mporary w ith t he u se o f Pe terborough ware i n t he r eg ion ( p . 5 0 , 5 9) . T he o ther t hree s i tes, I , Ia nd X I h ave c lear a f f in it ies t o t hese , s ince I a nd X I h ave p enannu lar a rrange men ts o f i so la ted p i ts, a ssocia ted w ith sma l l n u mbers o f c re ma t ions, a nd I p hase 3 h as s evera l c re ma t ions, t hough i nside ac ircu lar d iscont inuous d i tch . H owever , t hey d if fer f ro m t he f i rst t hree s i tes s ince t here i s e v idence t ha t I , Ia nd X I h ad b anks i ns ide t he ir d i tches, o n t he g rounds o f t he o bserved s i lt ing a t Ia nd I ( p . 1 5, 3 0) a nd o f t he f act t ha t t he c ursus d i tch c o mes s o c lose t o t he t h ird d i tch o f X I t ha t a n i nner b ank i s l i ke ly ( p . 6 2 ) .

T hese d i tches a re

n ot f ormed b y c on t iguous p i ts, b u t a re c on t inuous c irc les a t Ia nd X I , w h i le Ih as d iscon t inuous c irc les, o f wh ich 1 a nd 2 a re u nassoc ia ted w ith c rema t ions . B ound t he c on t inuous d itch o f s i te I ts a s quare , V -sect ioned d i tch , w i th a n o u ter b ank ( p . 1 2) . T he i n for ma t ion o n t he p ub l ished s i tes s uggests t ha t s i tes Ia nd I h ave g rea ter n u mbers o f a r t ifacts a nd b one r ubb ish t han I V , Va nd V I , i nc lud ing q uan t it ies o fb one f ragments o f o x , s heep a nd p ig .

Ia nd X I h ad v ery f ew

c re ma t ions, t hough I h ad o ver t wen ty . T here a re i nd ica t ions o f a n e ar l ier d a te f or I , Ia nd X I .

T hough d i tch

3o f X I h as Pe terborough p ot tery i n i t s p r i mary f i l l ing , t he c ursus, w h ich i s e ar l ier t han t he d roveway a ssoc ia ted w ith A b ingdon s ty le s herds, s eems t o r espect X I a s a who le . T here i s a n Abingdon s ty le s herd i n o ne o f t he i nner p its o f X I , wh ich a re p receded b y d i tches 2 a nd 1 . T he t h ird d itch o f s i te I h as Pe terborough p ot tery i n i t s u pper f i l l ing , s o t he c onstruct ion o f a l l t hree d i tches o f s i te I m igh t p recede t he u se o f P eterborough p ot tery . 4 4

S i te Ih as

A b ingdon p ot tery a ssoc ia ted w i th i t s d i tch a nd i nner p its, a nd t he d itch was r ecu t a pparen t ly b y u sers o f P e terborough p ot tery . T he s quare o u ter d i tch a lso h ad A b ingdon p ot tery f ro m i t s p r i mary s i lts ( p . 1 3) .

F or c o mpar ison a

s im i lar r ectangu lar s ha l low d i tched e nc losure , a bou t 9b y 1 m, a t Barford , Warw icksh ire , h ad a n E bbsf lee t b ow l i n i t s p r i mary s i lt , p oss ib ly mark ing t he a bandon men t o f ap ost s tructure s e t i n t he d i tch ;

e ar l ier f ea tures a nd p its

o n t he s i te a lso s uggest t he p oss ib i l ity o f a n e ar ly d a te ( Oswa ld 1 969 , s i te C ). I t was s uggested ( A tk inson e t a l . 1 6-17) t ha t t he r ecut t ing o f t he c ircu lar d i tch o f s i te Iwas c onnected w i th d o mest ic p urposes, a nd Pe terborough p ott ery was s een a s b e long ing t o ad if feren t c u ltura l t rad it ion a nd s o b y i mp l icat i on d if feren t p eop le . One m igh t s uggest i n f act t ha t s i te Ia nd p hases 1 a nd 2 o f s i te I , a nd d i tches 1 , 2a nd 3o f s i te X I c ou ld a l l h ave s erved s o me d o mest i c f unct ion , f or i nstance t ha t o f sma l l e nc losures o r p ens f or s tock ( c f . Case 1 963 , b u t c oncen tra t ing o n s i tes I a nd V I ) .

I t was n oted t ha t t he c re ma t ions

o f t he p ennanu lar r ing o f p its a t Iwere d ug i n t he u pper f i l l o f t hese p i ts ; t h is i s t he c ase a t W, V a nd V I t oo .

b ut

I t was r ecogn ised t oo t ha t t here was

l i t t le f i rm b as is f or t he p oss ib i l ity o f p osts i n t he p i ts o f s i te I( Atk inson e t a l . 1 5) , e ven t hough t he d iame ter o f 1 2 m wou ld b e f eas ib le f or a r oofed t imber s tructure . On t he o ther h and o ne may p refer t o s uggest an on-do mest ic f unct ion f or s i tes I , Ia nd X I . T he ir i nd iv idua l ity c o mb ined w ith t he e v idence f or a n e ar ly d a te makes t he m a r easonab le p ro totype f or o ther h enges, t he ma jor ity o f wh ich a re d a ted l a ter o r l a te i n t he t h ird m i l lenn iu m b c , a nd t o t he b eg inn ing o f t he s econd .

Crema t ion i s r are , t hough n o t u nknown i n t he e ar l ier Neo l ith ic

o f t he s ou th . I ti s p oss ib le t ha t ad if ferent k ind o f r i tua l s i te b egan , i n a ssoc ia t ion w ith a l ess c o mmon r i te o f d isposa l . My own h ypothes is o n t he l arge e nc losures s uggests t ha t t he a rgu men t t ha t t he c ausewayed c a mps w ere t he p rototype f or t he r i tua l ' h enges ( Sm i th 1 966) may b e i nc o mp le te .

I nstead h enges may h ave e vo lved p ar t ly f ro m b eg inn ings s uch a s

s i tes Ia nd I ( t he s im i lar ity i n f orm o ft he l a t ter t o c ausewayed e nc losures w i l l n o t b e m issed) i n a reas, l i ke Dorchester , where t here i s o ther e vidence f or t he e vo lu t ion o f p resu mab ly r i tua l s tructures .

F or t he c ursus a t Dorchester

a ppears t o b e a ssoc ia ted w ith A b ingdon p ot tery , a nd moreover i to ver l ies s i te V II I , ar ectangu lar monu men t ( w i th E bbsf lee t p ot tery i n i t s u pper s i lt ing : p . 6 0) s im i lar i n f or m t o t he mor tuary e nc losure o n N orman ton Down . E lsewhere i n Br ita in t oo t here a re s o me i nd ica t ions o f o ther e ar ly h eng if orm monu men ts .

As herd o f M i ldenha l l p ot tery was f ound a t Maxey , N or than ts,

i n t he u pper s i lt ing o f ap ennanu lar d itch 9 m i n d iame ter ( S i mpson 1 967 ) s uch a p os it ion o f c ourse may h ave l i t t le c hrono log ica l v a lue . Wood f ro m a p it , wh ich p ostda ted t he f i l l ing o f t he i nner r ing o f i n terrup ted d i tches a t Bar ford , Warw icksh ire ( Oswa ld 1 969 , 1) was d a ted t o 2 416 + 6 4 b c ( B irm-7 ) . r ing h ad a n e x terna l b ank , s o me 1 0 .5 m i n d iame ter .

T h is

I ti s h owever i mposs ib le

t o t e l l w he ther t he p it i s a ssoc ia ted w ith t he s ucceed ing p enannu lar d itch , o r t he f i na l c on t inuous c ircu lar d i tch ( Oswa ld 1 969 , 1 5) . Charcoa l f ro m t he c en tre o f t he b ase o f p ostho le 7 a t Arm ingha l l , N or fo lk ( C lark 1 936b) was d a ted t o 2 490 + 1 50 b c ( B M-129) . G iven t he l arge s ize o ft he p ost i n q uest ion , i ti s p oss ib le h owever t ha t t h is d a te d oes n ot a ccura te ly d a te t he monu men t .

A

p r i mary f i re-p it a t t he c lass Ih enge a t L la ndega i , Caern .arvonsh ire ( Hou lder 1 968) was d a ted t o 2 790 + 1 50 b c ( NPL-220) , a nd t he e nd o f p r i mary s i lt ing i n t he d itch t o 2 470

4

1 40 b c ( NPL-221) . 4 5

I ti s r e levan t t o r eca l l t ha t p oss ib le r itua l s i tes i n I re land o f t he k ind r epresen ted i n t he l a ter Neo l i th ic b y G ood land , c o . An tr im ( Case 1 973 ) w ith u nusua l s tone- a nd s herd-packed p its, may g o b ack t o t he e ar l ier Neo l i th ic, a s a t L ang ford L odge , c o . An tr im , Knock iveagh , c o . D own , o r Ba l lybr iest , c o . T yrone ( Case 1 969a ) . OTHER ELE ME NTS OF S ETTLE MENT T he s i te o f C legyr B o ia , Pe mbrokesh ire ( W i l l ia ms 1 953) o ccup ies a bou t h a lf a n a cre

o n t he t op o f ar ock o u tcrop , a we l l-def ined a rea wh ich may b e

a ssu med t o r epresen t t he l im its o f o ccupa t ion .

With in were r ecovered t he

p lans o f t wo h u ts, a m idden a nd a n i so la ted h ear th .

One h u t i s ar ectangu lar

s tructure 7 .2 b y 3 .6 m, d ef ined b y r ock o n o ne l ong s ide a nd p ostho les a nd a l ow s tone wa l l o n t he o ther .

T he o ther h u t i s sma l ler a nd o va l, d ef ined b y a

r ing o f p ostho les, w i thou t i n terna l s uppor t . O ther p resu med s et t le men t t races a re u nenc losed c oncen tra t ions o f p its a nd a r tefacts l i ke t hose a ssoc ia ted w ith s o me e nc losures, c over ing a max i mum o f t hree a cres.

An a rea 4 5 b y 2 7 m was e xcava ted o f t he 1 62 b y 8 1 m c oncen-

t ra t ion r epor ted a t Hurst F en b y Br iscoe ( C lark e t a l . 1 960) . c overed a bou t 1 00 b y 5 0 m ( Wa inwr ight 1 972) . t a in ly l asted a mi l lenn iu m ;

O ccupa t ion a t t he l a t ter c er-

i t was s uggested t ha t a t t he f ornü r i t was s hor t-

l i ved , t hough t h is may b e d oubted . c oncep t o f s e t t le men t

Broo me H ea th

d r if t '

Th is u ncer ta in ty , t oge ther w ith C larke ' s

( 1970 , 5 7 ) , makes i th ard t o d ef ine t he ir s ize .

Sma l ler c oncen tra t ions were f ound a t Hazard H i l l ( Hou lder 1 963 ) , H igh Peak ( Po l lard 1 966) a nd Windm i l l H i l l i n i t s p re-bank p hase ( Sm ith 1 965) . s uggest ions o f

r i tua l ' o r

s oaped u p s e t t le men t d ebr is

W i th

i n mind , o ne may

r ef lect t ha t o ne d oes n ot y e t h ave f ro m t hese s i tes t he measure o f wha t might c onst itu te

o rd inary ' s et t le men t d ebr is .

Av ar ie ty o f r ec tangu lar h u ts h ave

b een f ound w ith t h is k ind o f o ccupa t ion i n Br ita in .

I n I re land r ound h ouses

h ave b een r ecovered a s we l l . T he h u ts a t Ha ldon a nd C legyr Bo ia a re we l l k nown , b u t Mercer ( 1 970, 1 972 , 1 974) h as s hown b y e xcava t ion t ha t t he r ound h u ts o n Cam nBrea a re p robab ly I ron Age i n d a te , a nd t ha t t he Neo l ith ic s tructures s o f ar r evea led a re r ec tangu lar .

Ah u t i n c ut t ing I I a t He mbury

( L idde l l 1 931, f ig . 3 ) was

7 .1 b y 3 .6 m, i t s s ides f ormed b y p ostho les wh ich a re c loser s e t a t i t s e astern , s l igh t ly r ounded e nd .

I tc on ta ins a c en tra l h ear th a nd wha t may b e i n terpreted

a s ac ook ing p it n ear o ne wa l l .

I t s e n trance may b e o n t he west e nd , s ince

t here i s al arge b reak i n t he p ostho les h ere .

I n East Ang l ia a r ectangu lar

e ar l ier Neo l ith ic s tructure , 7b y 8 .5 m, a t F enga te , P eterborough ( f ig . 6 ) , I s d ef ined b y s ha l low d i tches o r t renches ( Pryor 1 974) .

On ly o ne c er ta in p ost-

h o le i s k nown , a t o ne c orner ;

A t Eaton H ea th , i n

t he s i te i s b ad ly e roded .

N or fo lk , t wo ' huts ' were o r ig ina l ly r eported , o ne a 5 -post s tructure 3b y 2 .5 m , t he o ther a 7 -post t rapezo ida l s tructure 5 b y 3b y 2m ( Wa inwr igh t a nd D ona ldson 1 972 ) , b u t were l a ter more c au t ious ly i n terpre ted ( Wa inwr igh t 1 973) .

T he ' hu ts '

were o ver 3 0 m a par t a nd a lso s epara ted b y s o me d istance f ro m a c luster o f sma l l p its, a f act wh ich emphas ises a ga in o ur i gnorance o f t he s ize o f s et t lemen t u n its a nd t he d ens ity o f o ccupa t ion w i th in t he m . Cer ta in o f t he g u l l ies i ns ide S ta ines a re s uggest ive o f b edd ing t renches f or h ouse wa l ls b u t i ti s n ot p oss ib le t o s uggest a ny g round p lan w ith c er ta in ty ,

4 6

I

1

•

.

VI : : •

•

•.

.

o e

h

•

c )

• •

F ig . 6 .

G round p lans o f r ecen t ly e xcava ted e ar l ier N eo l i th ic h ouses i n Br i ta in . T op :

Ba l lynag i l ly .

C en tre :

F enga te.

ApS i mon , P ryor a nd O 'Nua l la in .)

B e low :

Ba l lyg lass .

( A fter

s ince t he s ur face h ere t oo i s b ad ly e roded .

L it t le r ectangu lar h u ts a re k nown

o n t he o ld l and s ur face o n t he E ssex c oast a t S tone Poin t , Wa lton-onthe-Naze ( Hazz led ine Warren e t a l . 1 936 , p l . XXXVI I I ) , b u i lt o f

i n ter laced sma l l b oughs '.

T hese h owever a re u nassoc ia ted w ith Neo l i th ic a r tefacts, u n l ike t he c ircu lar " p i t dwe l l ings", 4 .5 m i n d iame ter , f ound i n t he s ame a rea .

Pea t a bove t he

r ectangu lar h u ts may b e o f Bronze Age d a te , b u t Sm ith ' ss uggested l a te d a te f or t he mar ine t ransgress ion ( 1955) h ard ly a l lows a p rec ise d a t ing f or t he s tructures w ith in t he Neo l ith ic .

F ina l ly, t he d a t ing e v idence i s n o t s ecure f or

wha t h as b een c la i med a s af ragmen t o f ar ectangu lar h ouse a t Easton Down f l in t mine i n Wi ltsh ire ( S tone 1 933 , 2 32) .

T he d a t ing o f t he s tructure i s b ased

o n at h in s ca t ter o f Windm i l l H i l l p ot tery o n i ta nd t he s urround ing p i ts, a nd t he f act t ha t t h is p ot tery a nd k ind o f s tructure a re o therw ise u nknown ( excep t f or as crap o f Wind m i l l H i l l p ot tery i n p ar t o f o ne o f t he s haf ts) o n t h is p redo m ina n t ly Beaker p ar t o f t he s i te .

However , t here s ee ms n o n eed t o l i nk t he t wo

u nknowns, a nd t he e ar l ier p ot tery i s n ot c onf ined t o t he s tructure .

T he f urrow

o r b edd ing t rench w ith p ostho les c ou ld b e at runca ted r emnan t o f ah ouse , b u t e qua l ly i t may we l l b e a ssoc ia ted w ith t he s ha l low p its, t he mse lves s urrounded b y p ostho les, b e tween wh ich i tl i es . Rec tangu lar h ouses a re k nown i n I re land n ot o n ly a t L ough G ur , c o . L i mer ick ( 0 ' R iorda in 1 954) where t hey a re o f s im i lar d i mens ions t o Eng l ish e xamp les, a nd i ncorpora te s uch f ea tures a s s tone wa l lf oot ings, i n terna l r ows o f p osts a nd c en tra l h ear ths, b u t a lso a t Ba l lynag i l ly , c o . Tyrone ( ApS i mon 1 969) a nd Ba l lyg lass, c o . Mayo ( 0 ' Nua l la in 1 972) ( f ig . 6 ) .

T he d i mens ions o f t he

Ba l lynag i l ly h ouse , 6b y 6 .5 m, a re s o mewha t s quat ter t h a n o thers k nown , a nd t he t races o f s p l it o ak p lank wa l ls s e t i n t renches o n t he l ong s ides , a long w i th s tone p ack ing o u ts ide i n t he western h a lf o f t he h ouse , a re a f ea ture n ot r ecogn ised e lsewhere , a l though t hey may b e s uspec ted when s tructures a re r epor ted a s h av ing n arrow b edd ing t renches . I n terna l p ostho les a re s im i lar t o t hose i n o ther e xa mp les . T he h ouse i s C 14 d a ted t o t he l a te f our th mi l lenn ium b c ( UB 199, 3 280 + 5 0 b c) . T he h ouse u nder a c our t c a irn a t Ba l lyg lass s hares many f ea tures, b u t i s t he most c o mp lex s tructure s o f ar k nown s ince i th as a c o mp l ica ted e n trance , p robab le d iv is ions w ith in t he ma in p ar t , a nd a c o mpar tmen t o n t he o ther e nd .

I t s p os it ion u nder a c our t c a irn may we l l , t hough n ot

n ecessar i ly , p u t i ti n t he e ar l ier Neo l ith ic .

A s we l l a s t he Neo l ith ic r ound

h ouses a t L ough G ur s i te C , t here a re u npub l ished e xamp les a t S l ieve Breagh , c o . Mea th ( repor ted b y 0 ' Nua l la in 1 972 ) , b u t w i th t he r e mova l o f t he Ca m Brea r ound h ouses f ro m t he Eng l ish Neo l ith ic , t hese may b e p ar t icu lar ly I r ish . I ti s wor th men t ion ing t he mor t ised p lank f ound a t L ion P oin t , C lacton , Essex ( Hazz led ine Warren e t a l . 1 936) a nd t he s p l i t p lanks u sed i n t he Swee t Track i n t he S o merse t L eve ls ( Co les e t a l . 1 973) , s o me o f wh ich h ave t races o f h o les a nd j o in ts n ot c onnec ted w ith t he ir u se i n t he t rack , t o p o in t o u t t he s k i lls o bv ious ly p ossessed b y e ar ly Neo l ith ic c o m mun it ies i n woodwork ing . F ina l ly , t he p it dwe l l ings r epor ted f ro m C or fe Mu l len , Dorse t ( Ca lk in

a nd

P iggot t 1 938) a nd New Barn Down , S ussex ( Curwen 1 934) may b e r ubb ish p its .

4 8

AP ATTERN T he e v idence o f s e t t lemen t s hou ld b e t i ed i n w i th t ha t o ft he e nv iron men t p resen ted i n t he p rev ious c hap ter , wh ich must i ndeed b e p ar t o f t he b ackground t o a nu nderstand ing o ft he r o le o f e nc losures . K nown s e t t lemen t s i tes s uggest t ha t t he b as ic u n i ts o f s e t t lemen t were sma l l ; p o l len a na lys is s uggests t hey may n o t h ave b een i so la ted , a nd t here a re i nd ica t ions f ro m s ur face c o l lect ions o ff l in tt ha t t h is p a t tern i s l i ke ly t o b e c orrec t . I n t he s ou th s e t t lemen t s tre tched o ver a w ider r ange o ft he l andscape p erhaps t han e lsewhere , a nd t he ma in tenance o f g rass land i n t he m id t h ird m i l lenn ium b c , wh i le e lsewhere f ores t f ree ly r egenera ted , a t tests g rea ter h uman a nd a n i ma l p opu la t ions . I t s eems r easonab le t herefore t o l i nk t h is w i th t he k nown d istr ibu t ion o f c ausewayed c amps a nd i n terrup ted d i tch s ystems . T hese were t hen d ependen t o n ac er ta in l eve l o fp opu la t ion f or t he ir c rea t ion a nd ma in tenance . T he p a t tern o f sma l l a nd d ispersed b u t n o t n ecessar i ly i so la ted s e t t le men ts c ou ld b e c o mpared w i th t he I r ish c lachan s yste m , v ar ied a nd c hang ing t hough t ha t w as ( Evans 1 957 , J ohnson 1 958 , Proud foot 1 959) , i n w h ich a m ixed f arm ing e cono my i nc lud ing s ome mob i l i ty p ar t icu lar ly f or s u mmer g raz ing was c o mb ined w ith d ispersed s et t lemen t . C o mmuna l e xchanges a re more t han e ver i mpor tan t f or d ispersed c ommun i t ies . T hey c an b e e nv isaged i n t he n or th a nd wes t o ft he c oun try i n t he e ar l ier Neo l i th ic b u t w i thou t f orma l s i tes t o mark t hem . I n t h is c ase we n eed n o t s ee t he e nc losures i n t he s ou th a s j us t s easona l c en tres o r meet ing p laces t hough n o d oub t g a ther ings u sefu l f or t he e xchange o fg oods , s oc ia l r e la t ionsh ips a nd t he g ene t ic h ea lth o f t he p opu la t ion t ook p lace a t t hem , a cco mpan ied b y h igh s p ir i ts a nd c ere mony , s o me o f wh ich may b e d e tec tab le i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord .

B u t e qua l ly impor tan t , o ther f unc-

t i ons c an b e e nv isaged , i nc lud ing t ha t o fp ermanen t c o mmuna l marker o r f ocus a nd i ncorpora t ing p erhaps s o me p ermanen t o ccupa t ion , wh ich e ros ion , s ubseq uen t l and u se a nd l ack o f e x tens ive e xcava t ion h ave c o mb ined t o u nderp lay . I n more d ense ly s et t led p ar ts i ndeed s o me d egree o f h ierarchy i nb o th s et t lemen t a nd s oc ia l a rrange men ts i s r easonab le . I t may b e wrong t o p ress a l l o f t he e xa mp les o f e nc losures , a pproach ing f or ty i n n umber , i n to t he s ame mou ld , b u t t he a pproach h ere ofered mus t b e s er ious ly c ons idered f or a w ide r ange o ft hem .

4 9

CHAPTER THREE BARRO WS AND BUR IAL I N S OUTHERN ENGLAND

H av ing e ar l ier d iscussed t he s i t ing o f b arrows a nd t he ir r e la t ion t o s e t t lemen t , In ow c ons ider t hese monu men ts , c onnec ted b y a nd l arge w i th d isposa l o f t he d ead , o n t he ir own .

Is tress t he v ar ie ty o f s truc tures ( f ig . 7 ) wh ich

c an b e r e l iab ly o r p laus ib ly d a ted t o t he l a ter f our th mi l lenn ium b c . EARTHEN LONG BARRO WS Aw ide v ar iety o f ' ear then ' l ong b arrows a nd a ssocia ted n on- mega l i th ic s truc tures e x is ted b y a round 3 000 b e i n s ou thern Eng land , a nd i n Yorksh ire . The f ew monumen ts d a ted s o f ar s how t ha t v ar ious e le men ts were p resen t i n t h is c oun try . A sma l l o va l mound w i th a s arsen c ore , o ver 1 5 m l ong , c overed t he f irs t s truc ture o f Way land 's Sm i thy , B erks , a nd was d e l im i ted b y ak erb o f s arsen b ou lders a nd s tones ( A tk inson 1 965 ) .

The H ors l ip b arrow , Wi lts , h ad a l onger

e ar then mound o ver 4 5 m l ong , a pparen t ly o f r ough ly r ec tangu lar f or m ( Ashbee a nd Sm i th 1 960 ) .

The mound o f t he L a mbourn b arrow , B erks ,

( da ted b y GX-

1 178 , 3 415 + 1 80 b e ) was o ver 6 0 m l ong , w i th a s arsen a nd t ur f c ore , a nd may h ave t apered a t o ne e nd ( Wy mer 1 965-6 ) . L odge b arrow , Han ts ,

T he e ar then mound o ver t he F usse lPs

( da ted b y BM-134 , 3 230 + 1 50 b e ) was c on ta ined b y a

t rapezoida l e nc losure f or med o f p os ts s e t i n ab edding t rench , a bou t 4 0 m l ong a nd 1 2 m a nd 7 .5 m w ide a t t he e nds ( Ashbee 1 966 ) .

A t Wi l lerby Wo ld , Y orks ,

as im i lar ly s haped t imber e nc losure was t hough t t o h ave b een b urn t d own ( a t l eas t a t t he w ider e nd ) b e fore t he e rec t ion o ver i to f a n e arthen a nd c ha lk mound , w i th a t ur f c ore a t t he wes t e nd , a nd c apped w i th f l in t . t he s a me s ize a s F usse l l 's L odge ( Manby 1 963 ) .

The mound was a bou t

A t S ea mer Moor , Y orks

( l oose ly d a ted b y NPL-73 , 3 080 + 9 0 b e ) , a mound o f l imes tone r ubb le w as e rected w i th in t he c on f ines o f as l igh t ly t rapezo ida l e nc losure a bou t 1 5 m l ong , f or med b y d ry s tone wa l l ing ( Va tcher 1 961;

a nd p ersona l c o m mun ica t ion ) .

A t K i lha m , Y orks , ar ec tangu lar e nc losure o f wooden p os ts 5 8 .5 b y 1 0 .5 b y 8 m was t hough t l ike t he Wi l lerby e nc losure t o h ave b een b urn t d own b e fore t he e ar then mound was s e t i n i t s p lace ( Manby 1 971) ; t he d e f in i t ive p ub l ica t ion s ugges ts t ha t p ar t o f t he mound was s e t w i th in t he t imber e nc losure b e fore t h is was f ired ( Manby 1 976 ) b u t i n t he a bsence o f s uf f ic ien t o f t he mound r ema in ing t o s how t h is , t he e ar l ier i n terpre ta t ion s ee ms more l i ke ly .

T he b ed-

d ing t renches f or t h is e nc losure were p ar t ia l ly c u t i n to t he h a l f f u l l s i l t ing o f t wo p ara l le l d i tches , wh ich were 7 m a par t a nd 4 2 .5 a nd 3 6.5 m l ong ; c ou ld b e t he d i tches o f a n e ar l ier mound .

t hese

Ad a te o f 2 880 + 1 25 b e ( B M-293 )

f ro m t imbers o f t he f acade o f t he e nc losure , t oge ther w i th t he s i l ted u p p r imary d i tches i n to wh ich i t was c u t , p rov ide a t er m inus a n te q ue m f or t he f irs t p hase o f t he monumen t .

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Wi th s o me o f t hese wen t mass ive f acades b u i l t o f l arge p os ts . A t F usse l l 's L odge t h is s tood a t t he b roader e nd , a nd was s l igh t ly c onvex . An e n trance l ay i n i t s m idd le ( l a ter t o b e b locked b y o ne o f t he a x ia l p os t-ho les o f t he mor tuary s tructure ) . T he K i lha m f acade was a t t he e as tern e nd o f t he monumen t , b u t t here was a ccess n o t o n ly a t t he c orner a nd m idd le o f t he e as t e nd b u t a t t he midd le o f t he w es t e nd a s wel l . A t Wi l lerby Wo ld a mass ive c oncave f acade , t he more c o m mon f or m i n Y orksh ire , was s e t i n ac on t inuous b edd ing t rench , a nd was c ons idered t o h ave b een f i red b e fore t he f ir ing o f t he b anked c re mat or iu m ( Manby 1 963 ) . A t S ea mer Moor t he d ry s tone wa l l ing c urved a t t he e as tern , b roader e nd t o f orm a c onvex f acade , u nusua l f or Yorksh ire ; i t was n ot c on t inuous , a nd may h ave h ad a n e n trance i n i t s c en tre ( i n forma t ion f ro m Va tcher ) . P orches were f ound a t Way land 's Sm i thy I , f or med o f s ix sma l l p os tho les i n at rapezoida l a rrange men t , a nd a t Fusse l l 's L odge , f or med o f f our p os tho les a ga in i n as l igh t ly t rapezoida l a rrange men t , b o th s e t t ings b e ing i mmed iate ly a d jacen t t o t he mor tuary s tructures o f t hese b arrows . A t K i lha m t wo p ara l le l r ows o f p os ts s tre tched f or s o me 9 m f ro m t he e as t e nd o f t he b arrow , a nd migh tb e s een a s a more e labora te v ers ion o f t hese s truc tures . I ndeed t hey c on t inue t he l i ne o f t wo r ows o f t hree p os ts i ns ide t he f acade a nd i nf ron t o f t he b anked mor tuary d epos i t . ( A s im i lar f ea ture h as b een r ecovered i n f ron t o f t he u nda ted K e mp H owe b arrow , a lso i n Y orksh ire ( M in is try o f Works 1 969 ) . T he f irs t , sma l l , s truc ture a t N u tbane H an ts may b e a s e ar ly a s t hese o ther e xa mp les d iscussed , s ince t he s econd f orecour t b u i ld ing i s d a ted t o 2 730 + 1 50 b e ( B M-49 ) . T he f irs t s tructure may h ave b een a f orebu i ld ing t o t he d i tched mort uary e nc losure wh ich was s e t a t r igh t a ng les t o i tb eh ind i t , o n t he l ong a x is o f t he monumen t ( Morgan 1 959 ) . Wi th in t he H ors l ip mound n o s truc tures a nd n o b ur ia ls were f ound . I n t he La mbourn b arrow 's e as t e nd , ac on trac ted i nhuma t ion was f ound i n ' ac are fu l ly a rranged p i le ' o f s arsens o f f t he a x ia l l ine o f t he b arrow .

The s arsens were

n ot l arge e nough f or t he a rrange men t t o b e c ons idered mega l i th ic a nd i t was n ot e ven c lear whe ther t he b ur ia l was i n trus ive o r n o t . T he r es t o f t he e as tern e nd was n ot e xcava ted . A t Way land 's Sm i thy c lear i nd ica t ions were r ecovered o f at en t-l ike mor tuary s truc ture c over ing o ne a r t icu la ted s ke le ton a nd t he d isa r t icu la ted r e ma ins o f s evera l o ther i nd iv idua ls . Two l arge D -shaped p i ts , s o me 5 m a par t , o nt he a x is o f t he mound , a nd s tradd l ing t he b ur ia ls , c lear ly h ad c on ta ined mass ive h a lf t reetrunks . A t t he e n trance e nd t wo l arge f la t s arsens were p i tched t oge ther , a nd s ugges t t ha t wooden t imbers w ou ld h ave b een s o p i tched a long t he r es t o f t he s truc ture 's l eng th r es t ing a ga ins t ar idge p o le f i t ted b e tween t he t wo u pr igh ts . A t t he f our c orners o f t he s arsen p avemen t s ha l low d epress ions s ugges ted l arge w ooden t imbers , a nd t he h eaps o f s arsens o n e i ther s ide o f t he b ur ia ls , c lear ly s epara ted f ro m t he s arsen c ore o f t he mound , w ere i n terpre ted a s e i ther a s uppor t f or o r ad e l im i ta t ion o f t he wooden p i tched t imbers . The t wo a x ia l p i ts h ad c lear ly c on ta ined p os tho les b ecause o f t he h ard p ack ing s urround ing s o f ter i n f i l l where t he p os ts h ad d ecayed . H owever , i t i s n o t c lear whe ther a l l o ther a x ia l a rrange men ts o f p i ts , a nd o ther r e ma ins l i ke f l in t c a irns , a re e v idence o f s im i lar p i tched mor tuary s truc tures .

A t

Fusse l l 's L odge t here were t hree a x ia l p i ts o ver 6 m t ha t a t t he e as tern e nd

5 2

c ut t ing t he b edd ing t rench o f t he f acade.

They d id n o t h ave t he c lear

e v idence o f Way land 's Sm ithy f or h av ing h ad t imbers, b e ing f i l led w ith f l in t n odu les a nd d irty c ha lk , w ith a t opp ing i n t he c ase o f t he c en tra l p i t o fb ones.

P ottery a nd d isar t icu lated b ones c onst ituted t he b ur ia l d epos its

w ith in t he l eng th a nd b read th o f t he a rea d ef ined b y t he p i ts. A r idged i rregu lar mass o f f l in ts c overed t he who le , p o in t ing , s o t he e xcava tor t hough t , t o ac o l lapsed r idged s truc ture o ver t he f i f ty o r s o d isar t icu la ted b ur ia ls . H owever , b ecause t he p i t a t t he e as tern e nd c u t t he b edd ing t rench o f t he f acade , i ti s l ike ly , h ad t h is b edd ing t rench a lready h e ld t imbers , t ha t a ny s izeab le p os t i nt h is p rox i ma l p i t wou ld h ave b locked a l l a ccess ( f ro m t h is d irec t ion a t l eas t ) t o t he s truc ture wh ich s upposed ly c overed s o many b ur ia l d epos i ts . N or d o t he b ones c over ing t he c en tra l p i t s ee m t o a l low t he p resence t here o f ap os t . T he a l terna t ive , p erhaps u nsa t is fac tory t oo , i s t o s ee t he p i ts a s s i mply p i ts w i thou t a ny p os ts i nt he m ( S i mpson 1 968 , K innes 1 975 ) . Wha t o f t he f l in t c a irn? I tc overs t he p i ts , o ne o f wh ich c u ts t he b edd ing t rench o f t he • f acade , a nd i t se lf a lso c overs t h is b edd ing t rench . Were i tt he c over ing mat er ia l o f t he p roposed mor tuary s truc ture i ti s h ard t o s ee h ow i tc ou ld h ave s p i l led p as t t he f acade a nd t he b lock ing p os t . I fi t were a p r i mary c a irn , a s S i mpson s ugges ts i ns tead , t he f acade c an h ard ly s t i l l h ave e x is ted . The s ugges ted s econd s tructure o f t he N u tbane l ong b arrow , may b e b rough t i n to t he d iscuss ion , s ince t he r ad iocarbon d e term ina t ion d a tes o n ly t he s ugg es ted t h ird s truc ture .

T he r e levan t s truc ture i s ad i tched e nc losure s o me

4b y 3m , c on ta in ing t wo p i ts wh ich b racke t t hree b ur ia ls . Af our th b ur ia l p ar t ia l ly c overs t he i nner o f t he t wo p i ts . The a rrange men t i s c overed w i th al ayer o f d ark s oi l a nd c ha lk b locks . E v idence f or p os ts i n t he p i ts i s n o t c lear , a nd t he f our th b ur ia l i s a n o bs tac le t o t here h av ing b een a p os t i n t he i nner p i t . Wha tever t he a nswer t o t h is p rob le m t he d isar t icu la ted b od ies f ro m Wayland 's Smi thy Ia nd F usse l l 's L odge s how t he c o l lect ive d isposa l f requen t ly p rac t ised i nt he s ou th . I ti s r easonab le t o s uppose t ha t s uch d isar t icu la ted c orpses were f irs t e xposed , af or m o f d isposa l t o wh ich t he ma jor i ty o f t he p opu la t ion may h ave b een s ub ject , i fi ti s c orrec t t o a ssu me t ha t o n ly a sma l l p ropor t ion o f t he t o ta l p opu la t ion e nded

u pi nb arrows .

I n Y orksh ire t here were a pparen t ly d i f feren t s truc tures f ro m t he s ou th , o f ten a ssocia ted w i th c re ma t ion . 4 .1 m was f ound .

A t S ea mer Moor a wooden s truc ture 7 .5 b y

T h is was s l igh t ly t rapezoida l i nf or m , a nd h ad t hree r ows

o f p os ts ( two o r t hree p os tho les i nt he m idd le r ow ) , t he o u ter r ows b e ing s upp or ted a lso b y r ough wa l ling . T here was e v idence a t t he r ear e nd o f t he s truct ure f or h or izon ta l t imbers . C onyngha m ( 1849 ) f ound i nhuma t ions i n t he p or t ion h e u ncovered , t he i nner p ar t o f t he s truc ture , b u t i n t he p ar t n earer t he e n trance , t he Va tchers f ound s igns o f i n tense b urn ing -w i th c re ma ted b ones a nd l imes tone r ubb le t urned i n to s lag . I ti s p oss ib le t ha t b od ies were p laced i n a wooden s truc ture , w i th a mound c ons truc ted o ver i t , t ha t t he s truct ure was f ired b u t o n ly i t s o u ter e nd d es troyed b e fore i ta nd t he c over ing l imes tone mound c o l lapsed p reserv ing t he b od ies i n t he i nner p ar t . A t t he e as t e nd o f Wi llerby Wo ld l ow b anks o f e ar th , c ha lk a nd t ur f o n t he ma in a x is o f t he mound , s o me 6 m l ong , f lanked a c re ma tor ium d epos i t o f f ired c ha lk , f l in t a nd t imber a nd b urn t b ones , a s we l l a s ap rev ious ly d ug p i t , 6m d eep , 1 .2 m w ide a nd 2 .1 m l ong i nt he c en tre . 5 3

Th is p i t h ad b een s ub jec t t o t he g rea tes t h ea t i n t he who le c re ma tor iu m d epos i t ( Manby 1 963 , 1 80 ) . ma t ion p i t .

P erhaps i tr epresen ts t he s i te o f a n e ar l ier i so la ted c re-

B ones f ro m s evera l e xposed s ke le tons were f ound i n t he l eng th o f

t he s pace b e tween t he b anks . A s im i lar a rrange men t was e xcava ted a t K i lha m .

G reenwe l l ( 1877) r e-

p or ted a c ha lk r idge o n t he ma in a x is f lanked b y e ar then b anks , w i th i nhu mat ions a nd o ne c re ma t ion b enea th a nd i n t he c ha lk r idge . p i ts , a s we l l a s e lsewhere .

B enea th i ta lso were

Recen t e xcava t ion s howed t ha t t he b anks were o f f

t he ma in a x is o f t he mound , a nd s tar ted 2 t o 3m b ack f ro m t he e as t e nd . Three sma l l p i ts were f ound i n t he l eng th b e tween t he b anks , w i thou t a ny t race o f p os t s e t t ings .

The b anks were p robab ly o ver 1 5 m l ong , o n t he b as is o f

Greenwe l l 's d escr ipt ion , b u t t he p i ts were f ound o n ly i n t he e as tern p ar t o f i t .

I n t he c en tre o f t he e nc losure were s evera l p os tho les wh ich may h ave c on-

s t i tu ted a s quar ish s truc ture , whose r ela t ion t o o ther f ea tures i s u nknown . Greenwe l l d oes n o t s ee m t o h ave f ound t races o f t he i n tense b urn ing wh ich h e d escr ibed s o v iv id ly a t Wi l lerby , a nd K i lha m h as n o c re ma tor ium d epos i t t yp ica l o f o ther Y orksh ire b arrows . A 1 .8 m d eep c re ma t ion p i t i s r epor ted b eh ind a c oncave f acade a t Gar ton S lack 3 7 f ro m r ecen t e xcava t ions i n t he sma l l l ong b arrow ( M in is try o f Works 1 966 ) , a nd a c re ma t ion p i t w i thou t ab arrow was f ound n earby ( 1 970 ) . I ti s impor tan t t o men t ion t he s truc tures i n t he S co t t ish b arrows o f Lochh i l l , K irkcudbr igh tsh ire ( da ted i n i t s s econd p hase b y 1 -6409 , 3 120 + 1 05 b e ; Mas ters 1 973 ) , Da l ladies , K incard inesh ire ( da ted i n i t s s econd p hase b y SRR2 89 , 2 710 + 5 0 b e ;

SRR-290 , 2 585 + 5 5 b e ;

p erhaps w i th a n i n ter-labora tory e rror ;

a lso b y 1 -6113 3 240 + 1 05 b e ,

P iggo t t 1 974 ) a nd P i tnacree , P er th-

s h ire ( wi th a d a te o f 2 860 + 9 0 b e , G aK-601, f ro m i t s o ld l and s ur face , wh ich i s c ons idered t o b e r easonab ly c lose ly a ssocia ted w i th t he c ons truc t ion o f t he b arrow s truc tures ( Co les a nd S i mpson 1 965 ) .

I n e ach c ase l ines o f p i ts s how-

i ng c lear t races o f p os tho les a re s ucceeded b y wa l led n arrow r ec tangu lar s truc tures , p robab ly w i th f la t r oofs .

Two o f t he L ochh i l l p os ts a re s pl i t h a l f

t runks l ike t hose i n Way land 's Sm i thy I .

The n umber a nd a rrange men t o f p os t-

h o les i nt he f irs t p hase a t D a l lad ies h as s ugges ted t o P iggo t t ar idged s truc ture , a nd r idged s truc tures c ou ld b e r econs truc ted u s ing t he p os tho les a t L ochh i l l I a nd P i tnacree I- t hough t here i s n o o ther e v idence ( o f t he k ind me t a t Way land 's Sm i thy ) a t a ny o f t he t hree s i tes f or a r idged s truc ture , a nd i n t he m a t Da ll ad ies a nd L ochh i l l a t l eas t , i t s ee ms l ike ly t ha t t he s ucceed ing s truc tures h ad v er t ica l s ides a nd f la t r oofs . N o b ur ia ls c an b e a ssocia ted w i th t he f irs t p hase o f a ny o f t he t hree , t hough w i th t he s econd t here were f ound c re ma ted r e ma ins a t L ochh i l l a nd P i tnacree , a nd a f ragmen t o f as ku l l a t Da ' lad ies . These f inds a re impor tan t s ince t heir p i ts s o c lear ly s how p os tho les . B y a na logy p os ts c ou ld b e e nv isaged where h os t i le s o i ls h ave l e f t o n ly b lank p i ts . H owever , t he S co t t ish e v idence f or p i tched , r oo fed t imber mor tuary s truc tures i s n o t o verwhe lm ing , a nd t he s econd p hase s truc tures may r a ther b e a na logous t o b anked ( and p oss ib ly r oo fed ) s truc tures i n Y orksh ire b arrows . Many o ther b arrows i n t he s a me a reas h ave b een e xcava ted b u t n o t d a ted . T he d ivers i ty o f f ea tures o u t l ined a bove s ugges ts t ha t o ther v ar ia t ions - l ike t ur f s truc tures o r t ur f h eaps a s a t H o ldenhurs t ( P iggo t t 1 937 ) a nd T h ick thorn , Dorse t ( Drew a nd P iggo t t 1 936 ) , a t Wes t Rudham , p erhaps a ssoc ia ted w i th 5 4

b urning ( Hogg 1 939 ) , a nd o ver p r i mary b ur ia ls a t Wor B arrow , D orse t ( P i t t R ivers 1 898 ) - migh t a lso b e e ar ly .

The t hree d a ted b arrows w i thou t i n terna l

f ea tures , H ors l ip ( Ashbee a nd Sm i th 1 960 ) , S ou th S tree t a nd B eckha mp ton R oad ( Sm i th a nd Evans 1 968 ) s how t ha t s im i lar c ons truc t ions r ecurred t hrough t ime . The s ize o f t he G ian ts ' H i l ls b arrow a t S kend leby , h owever , t w ice t ha t o f Wi l lerby Wo ld , a nd i t s d a te l a ter i n t he t h ird mi l lenn iu m b c , t oge ther w i th t he l ike l ihood t ha t t he L ong Mound a t Ma iden C as t le ( Whee ler 1 943 ) i s n o t a n e ar ly f ea ture , s ugges t t ha t t he l arges t b arrows a re l a te . ROUND BARRO WS N eo l i th ic r ound b arrows c over ing c re ma t ion p yres , c re ma tor iu m d epos i ts a nd f acades a re k nown i n Yorksh ire ( Manby 1 970 ) .

G ar ton S lack 8 0 a nd 8 1

h ad b anked c re ma tor iu m d epos i ts a s i n e ar ly l ong b arrows , b u t t ha t a t b arrow 8 0 c overed a B eaker i nhu ma t ion g rave .

A t F ord a r ound b arrow c overed a

p yre where s evera l b od ies h ad b een b urn t , wh i le a t S ea rner Moor t he p yre was f ra med b y p os tholes a nd f lanked b y s tones a nd a p i t . h ad p yres a nd b urn t d own f acades .

Hugga te a nd War ter 2 54

A t C a l l is Wo ld ( Coo mbs 1 976 ) al arge

r ound b arrow c overed a c en tra l s tone p la t for m o r p ave men t w i th c rouched i nh u ma t ions a nd f lanked b y l arge p i ts c on ta in ing f ur ther b urn t a nd u nburn t h uman b ones .

A r ound b arrow , o f s tone a nd t ur f , c overed t he t wo-phase mor tuary

s truc ture a t P i tnacree , P er thsh ire , i n wh ich c re ma t ions were f ound . mi llenn iu m b e d a te was o b ta ined .

At h ird

T he p o t tery f ro m F ord a nd S ea mer Moor

was c ons idered t o b e ' t ypo log ica l ly e ar ly ' , b u t t he p la in c ar ina ted p o t tery o f Y orksh ire s ee ms t o h ave r e ma ined u nchanged i n s tyle f ro m t he f our th i n to t he t h ird m i l lenn iu m b e . L ea f-shaped a rrowheads were r ecovered f ro m t he C a l l is Wo ld p ave men t .

I ti s wor th r e me mber ing t ha t p assage g raves a re c lass ica l ly

s e t i n r ound o r o va l mounds , a nd t ha t s o me s uch monu men ts i n t h is c oun try may b e e ar ly , wh i le

p or ta l d o l mens s e t i n o va l c a irns may b e e ar ly t oo .

The p r i mary mound a t S wa le 's Tumu lus , S u f fo lk ( Br iscoe 1 956 ) wh ich c overed e x tens ive t races o f b urn ing a nd s o me c re ma ted b one , a nd w i th wh ich may b e a ssoc ia ted a c re ma ted b ier o u ts ide t he mound , c ou ld b e e ar ly o n t he b as is o f t he a ssoc ia ted p ot tery , p la in a nd d ecora ted , t hough a ga in a w ide d a te r ange i s p oss ib le .

T here a re o ther r ound b arrows i n t he s ou th o f Eng land wh ich a re

p robab ly N eo l i th ic ( Ashbee 1 970 ) , s uch a s U p ton D own , Wi l ts ( Co l t H oare 1 812 ) o r Ther f ie ld H ea th , H er ts ( Fox 1 923 , 3 2 ) .

The mu l t ip le d isar t icu la ted b ur ia ls

i n ar es tr ic ted a rea - 3 .6 b y 0 .6 m a t T her f ie ld - a nd f lanked b y s arsens a nd f l in ts a t U p ton Down a re s im i lar t o b ur ia ls i n l ong b arrows b u t d o n o t o f fer a ny more p recise c lues a s t o t he ir a ge .

D ecora ted s ty le p o t tery f ro m t he

k idney-shaped mound a t Wh i te lea f , Bucks ( Ch i lde a nd sm i th 1 954 ) a nd p la in Eas tern s ty le p ot tery f ro m t he o va l monu men t a t A ldw inc le N or than ts , i ncorp ora t ing b ur ia ls b e tween f lank ing p i ts a nd p robab ly a c over ing mound , i nd ica te p oss ib ly a d a te i n t he e ar l ier N eo l i th ic ( Jackson 1 976 , K innes 1 976 ) . MEGAL ITH IC LONG BARRO WS F ew mega l i th ic l ong b arrows i n t he s ou th o f Eng land h ave b een r ad iocarbon d a ted , n a me ly Way land 's Sm i thy I , at rapezoida l monu men t w i th t ransep ted t er m ina l c ha mbers ,

( I -2328 , 2 820 + 1 30 b e , t hough t t o im med ia te ly p recede

i t ) , t oge ther w i th P en-y-wyr lod , B recknocksh ire , al ong c a irn w i th f a lse

5 5

t er m ina l c ha mber a nd s evera l l a tera l c ha mbers ( Savory 1 973 ; 3 020 + 8 0 b e ) .

d a ted b y HAR-?,

P iggo t t 's c au t ious a pproach ( e .g . 1 972 ) h as b een t o q ues t ion

whe ther t hese monu men ts were a p r i mary f ea ture o f t he B r i t ish N eo li th ic , o n t he imp l ic i t a ssu mpt ion t ha t t hey were a s a who le q u i te d is tinc t f ro m t he ' eart hen ' l ong b arrow t rad i t ion .

H owever , s o me mega l i th ic monumen ts i n t he

n or th o f t he Br i t ish I s les h ave d a tes wh ich c as t d oubt o n t h is . An e ar ly p hase o f t he C lyde c a irn a t Mona more , Arran , i s d a ted b y Q-675 t o 3 160 + 1 10 b e , f ro m a l ayer i n t he f orecour t wh ich i s l i ke ly t o h ave s tar ted a ccu mu la t ing s oon a f ter t he c ons truc t ion o f t he f acade ( MacK ie 1 966 , 1 6 ). The e as tern p ar t a t l eas t o f t he d ua l c our t c a irn a t C arnanbane , B a l lybr ies t , c o . L ondonderry i s d a ted b y UB535 t o 3 095 + 9 5 b e , f ro m t he u nder ly ing b lack l ayer , i n wh ich t he o r thos ta ts o f t he e as tern Mega l i th a re d irec t ly b edded ( Evans 1 939 , 1 2 ) , wh i le a no ther p re-ca irn s a mple f ro m o u ts ide t he b lack l ayer e lsewhere u nder t he c a irn g ave a d a te o f 2 980 + 8 0 b e ( UB 534 ) .

S a mples f rom

t wo p i ts o u ts ide t he k erb o f aC lava c a irn , a t R a igmore , I nvernessh ire , were d a ted t o 3 033 + 1 30 b e ( SRR-188 ) a nd 2 782 + 9 0 b e ( SRR-187 ).

These s a mp les

were a ssocia ted w i th p o t tery a nd f ragmen ts o f c re ma ted b one , b u t Ih ave n o i n for ma t ion whe ther t hey may d a te a n e ar ly p hase o f t he monumen t o r n o t . These d a tes f or monu men ts wh ich h ave c er ta in s im i lar i t ies t o t hose o f t he s ou th j us t i fy t he work ing a ssu mpt ion t ha t s o me o f t he s tone monumen ts o f t he s ou th t oo a re a n e ar ly , p r i mary f ea ture .

T he a ssump t ion i s f ur ther s treng thened

b y s im i lar i t ies b e tween t he mega l i th ic l ong b arrows a nd t he e ar then l ong b arr ows . The r ange o f mega l i th ic monu men ts i n t he s ou th c o mpr ises S evern-Co tswo ld t o mbs , o ccas iona l p assage g raves , p or ta l d o l mens , e n trance g raves i n S ci l ly a nd C ornwa l l , a nd t he Medway t o mbs i n K en t .

T he S evern-Co tswo ld t o mbs

were d iv ided i n to t hree ma in t ypes b y C orcoran ( 1 969 ) , c a irns w i th s imple t ermina l c ha mbers - l ike R andw ick , G loucs ( Craw ford 1 925 ) o r T ink inswood , G la morgan ( Ward 1 915 , 1 916 ) , c a irns w i th t erm ina l t ransep ted c ha mbers - l i ke N o tgrove , G loucs ( C li fford 1 936 ) o r N y mps f ie ld , G loucs ( C li f ford 1 938 ) , a nd c a irns w i th l a tera l c ha mbers - l ike B e las K nap , G loucs ( Berry 1 929 , 1 930 ) , o r Luck ing ton , Wi l ts ( Corcoran 1 969 ) .

If o l low t h is c lass i f ica t ion , t hough t he

c onc lus ion t ha t wh i le t here were i ndependen t o r ig ins f or e ach o f t he c ha mber t ypes , t he l ong c a irn was d er ived f ro m t he e ar then l ong b arrow t rad i t ion , s hou ld b e d ispu ted . I t s ee ms p oss ible t ha t s o me o f e ach o f t he t hree ma in t ypes o f t h is monumen t c ou ld b e e ar ly . T he r ec tangu lar o r t rapezo ida l c a irns w i th s imp le t ermina l c ha mbers a re t he c loses t a na logy i n s tone , w i th o r thos ta ts f or t he c ha mbers a nd d rys tone wa l l ing f or r eve t men t wa l ls a nd sma l l s tones f or c a irn ma ter ia l , o f t he l ong b arrows w i th mor tuary s truc tures a t o ne e nd ( whe ther t en tl ike o r o therw ise ) .

There i s n o c lear b reak i n t he ir mu tua l d is tr ibu t ion , i n G louces ter-

s h ire a nd Wi l tsh ire.

An a na logous s truc ture a t L ochh i l l , K irkcudbr igh tsh ire

( Mas ters 1 973 ) s ucceeds a r ec tangu lar mor tuary s truc ture w i th wa l led s ides a nd a x ia l p i ts t ha t c on ta ined p os t s et t ings .

T he e ar l ier p ar t o f t he monu men t

i s d a ted t o 3 120 + 1 05 b e ( I -6409 ) a nd i t was c ons idered t ha t t he c a irn w i th i t s s tone f acade a nd s i mp le t er m ina l c ha mber p robab ly f o l lowed s oon a f ter t he b urni ng o f t he p r i mary mor tuary s truc ture .

5 6

The s ee m ing ly o bv ious p ro to type f or t he c a irns w i th t ransep ted t er m ina l c ha mbers l i es i n t he t ransep ted t o mbs o f B r i t tany a nd t he L o ire e s tuary , t hough t he F rench e xa mp les a re i n o va l c a irns wh i le t he C o tswo lds e xa mp les a re s e t i n t rapezoida l c a irns .

Our o ne e xcep t ion t o t h is i s t he a pparen t o va l

c airn s urround ing t he t ransep ted c ha mbers a t T y I saf , B recknocksh ire ( Gr i mes 1 939 ) . I ti s e as ier t o s ee t he who le monumen t , w i th t he t rapezo ida l c a irn a nd l a tera l c ha mbers , a s t he r esu l t o f t wo p er iods o f c ons truc t ion r a ther t han a s au n i f ied d es ign .

Whe ther t he t rapezoida l c a irn was a dded t o t he o va l , o r v ice

v ersa , i s v ery h ard t o d ec ide , a nd d oes n o t a f fec t t he p resen t p oin t .

T he u n-

e xcava ted mound o f P en maen B urrows , G la morgan ( Dan ie l 1 950 ) wh ich c ont a ins t ransep ted t er m ina l c ha mbers , may n o t b e t rapezoida l , b u t i ti s r isky t o r e ly t oo much o n a n u nexcava ted monu men t o f t h is k ind .

T o a n t ic ipa te , t he

d a ting o f t he French t ype i n t he d eve lop men t o f t he Bre ton t o mbs h as b een d i ff icu l t , b u t t here h as b een a t endency t o s ee i ta s l a ter , s ince t he c ha mbers a re , t ypo log ica l ly , more c o mp l ica ted t han s i mp le p assages w i th r ound s quare o r p o lygona l c ha mbers , wh ich n ow t hrough r ad iocarbon d a t ing s tand a t t he h ead o f t he Bre ton s equence ( P iggo t t 1 962 , L 'He lgouach 1 965 ) .

T he a va i lab le

Eng lish d a te , f or Way land 's Sm i thy I , s ee med t o s uppor t t h is d eve lopmen t . R ecen t e xcava t ions a t C o lpo , Morbihan , h ave r evea led a n o va l c a irn w i th t rans ep ted c ha mbers , d a ted o nt he b as is o f as a mp le ( G i f-2826 ) i n t he p assage o f t he t o mb b e fore i t s b lock ing a nd t he s ubsequen t d epos i t ion o f t yp ica l C hasseen p o t tery , t o t he mid f our th mi l lenn iu m b c

( L 'He lgouach a nd L ecornec 1 976 ) .

There a re t hree p a irs o f o pposed c ha mbers o f f t he p assage , a s we l l a s at ermina l c ha mber , a l l b u i l t i n d ry s tone wa l l ing .

Th is d a t ing t here fore s uppor ts

t he s ugges ted F rench s equence , b u t p laces t he t ransep ted c ha mbers much e arl i er t han s uspec ted .

T here i s t here fore t he p oss ibi l i ty , i f Eng l ish c a irns w i th

t ransep ted c ha mbers a re t o b e d er ived f ro m B r i t tany a nd t he L o ire , t ha t t h is may h ave h appened i n t he f our th mi l lenn iu m b c . The t rapezoida l c a irns w i th l a tera l c ha mbers b ear s trong r ese mb lances t o t he l ong c a irns w i th s evera l c ha mbers i n n or thern Br i t tany a nd N or mandy , s uch a s B arnenez , l ie G a ignog ( F in is t re ) , a nd L a H ogue t te , F on tenayleMar m ion , ( Ca lvados ).

The c ha mbers o f B e las K nap , f or e xa mple , c o mpr ise

p assages w i th s i mple p o lygona l o r thos ta t ic c ha mbers .

T he o vera l l f or m o f

Be las K nap i s t rapezo ida l , l i ke t he t wo p ar ts o f B arnenez.

Un l ike B arnenez

h owever , t he c ha mbers a re e n tered f ro m b o th s ides a nd o ne e nd .

L a H ogue t te

i s n ow k nown ( Ca i l laud a nd L agne l 1 972 ) t o h ave c on ta ined s even c ha mbers , b u i lt o f d rys tone wa l l ing s e t i n as tone mound o ver 3 0 m l ong , o f i rregu lar o va l f or m ;

t he c ha mbers o pen o n t o a l l s ides o f t he c a irn .

U nder p ar t o f i t

was f ound d ecora ted p ot tery w i th p ara l le ls i n l a te L inear p o t tery o n t he R h ine a nd a ssoc ia ted w i th a mid f our th m i l lenn iu m b c d a te . f ound i n t he c ha mbers .

C hasseen p o t tery was

I ti s r easonab le t o s uppose t ha t t he N or mandy t o mbs

d er ived f ro m Br i t tany , B arnenez b e ing d a ted t o t he e ar l ier f our th mi l lenn iu m b e .

Ad er iva t ion o f Eng l ish l a tera l c ha mbered t o mbs f ro m e i ther Br i t tany o r

N or mandy i s r easonable t oo , a nd t here i s a ga in t he p oss ib i l i ty , s ince t he F rench p roto type e x is ted b y t he e ar l ier f our th mi l lenn iu m b e , t ha t t he S evern-Co tswo lds t ype i s e ar ly .

Th is i s s uppor ted b y t he P en-y- Wyr lod d a te .

T he c harac ter is-

t ic b l ind f acade o f t h is t ype h owever i s n o t af ea ture o f B arnenez o r L a H ogue t te . I tc ou ld d er ive f ro m b locked e n trances o f t he o ther t wo S evern-Co tswo lds t ypes , o r f ro m t hose o f e ar then l ong b arrows . I ti s af ea ture wh ich i l lus tra tes t he c o mp lex i ty o f t he g ene t ics o f t hese t o mbs , b u t wh ich d oes n o t p rec lude a n e ar ly d a t ing . 5 7

Whe ther t he t rapezoida l mound o f t he S evern-Co tswo lds t o mbs i s b e t ter d er ived f ro m t he mound o f t he e ar then l ong b arrow t rad i t ion o r f ro m B re ton p ro to types , - wh ich Id iscuss l a ter o n -b o th s ugges ted p ro to types a re d ated t o t he f our th mi llenn iu m b e , wh ich r e in forces t he p oss ibi l i t ies o u t l ined a bove . PASSAGE GRAVES There a re o ccas iona l p assage g raves , i n t he r es tr ic ted s ense o f c ha mbers w i th p assages l ead ing t o t he m s e t i n r ound mounds , i n t he s ou th-wes t o f Eng land , a s w e l l a s p erhaps i n s ou th Wa les ( Dan ie l 1 950 ) .

T here a re e xa mp les o f t he

t ype i n D erbysh ire , a s a t F ive We l ls , wh ich h as t wo c ha mbers s e t b ack t o b ack i n ar ough ly r ound c a irn ; a nd t here i s ap re l im inary r epor t o f ad rys tone wa l led p assage a nd c ha mber b enea th a r ound c a irn i n Y orksh ire , a t Wh i teg rounds , Bury thorpe ( M in is try o f Works 1 968 ) .

Broadsands , Devon , h as a

p assage 3 .9 m l ong b u i l t o f d rys tone wa l l ing a nd o r thos ta ts , a nd a p o lygona l o r tho s ta t ic c ha mber , w i th d rys tone wa l l ing i n t he g aps b e tween t he o r thos ta ts ( Radford 1 958 ) .

A l arge c aps tone c overed t he c ha mber .

p i led s tones was p robab ly c ircu lar .

The c a irn o f l oose ly

T here i s ap ave men t i n t he c ha mber ,

p os tda t ing p r i mary b ur ia ls a ssocia ted w i th p la in , h igh ly p o lished p o t tery .

The

n eck o f ac ar ina ted b ow l o f t he s a me ware was f ound i n t he c a irn . I nt he C o tswo lds , C ow C o m mon R ound , G loucs , h as a n a pparen t ly f rees tand ing c ircu lar c a irn wh ich c on ta ins a d rys tone b u i l t c ircu lar c orbel led c ha mber w i th a s l igh t ly o f fse t p assage ( Craw ford 1 925 , 9 1) .

The sma l l s truc-

t ure a t Ab l ing ton , G loucs , i s a na logous ( Pass more 1 934 ) t o t he p reced ing c ha mber , b u t h as n o p assage o r mound .

Dan ie l ( 1950 , 5 7 ) i nc ludes L onghouse

a nd Bur ton i n s ou thwes t P e mbrokesh ire i n h is Ang lesey g roup o f p assage g raves . Bo th h ave p o lygona l o r thos ta t ic c ha mbers , b u t o n ly B ur ton h as a ny t races o f ap oss ib le p assage .

C arreg S a mson i n P e mbrokesh ire , w i th a p o lygona l o r tho-

s ta t ic c ha mber a nd s o me s ugges t ion o f ap assage ( Lynch 1 976 ) migh t a lso b e i nc luded i n t h is t ype .

S craps o f c re ma ted b one a nd a n o pen b ow l w i th b eaded

r i m were r ecovered f ro m t he c ha mber . Many p assage g raves i n t he Br i t ish I s les may b e long t o t he mid t h ird mi ll enn iu m b e o r l a ter , s uch a s t he e labora te a nd g rand t o mbs i n t he B oyne r iver v a l ley .

I f Bryn C el l i D du i n Ang lesey d oes o ver l ie s o me k ind o f h enge monu-

men t ( Lynch 1 969 ) , al a te t h ird mi l lenn ium b e d a te i s l i ke ly f or i t .

C ase ( 1969a ,

1 920 ) h as a rgued t ha t t he p assage g raves o f I re land a re a n i n trus ive e le men t , i n t he mid t h ird mi l lenn ium b e , s ince t he ir d i f feren t c ha mbers , mu l t ip le b ur ia ls , a nd f requen t h i l ltop s i t ing , c on tras t w i th t he c our t c a irn t rad i t ion ; s uppor ted t h is v iew ( e .g . H er i ty 1 974 ).

o thers h ave

H owever , i ti s a n a t trac t ive p oss i-

b i l i ty t ha t s o me o f t he s i mp le e xa mp les i n s ou th-wes t Eng land , a nd e lsewhere c ou ld b e e ar l ier .

N ewgrange c o . Mea th ( O 'Ke lly 1 973 ) i ndeed h as b een d a ted

t o 2 465 + 4 0 b e ( GrN-5463 ) , a nd 2 550 + 4 5 b e ( GrN-5462 ) , b u t c harcoa l b enea th as a te l l i te o f Know th c o . Mea th ( Eogan 1 974 ) h as b een d a ted t o 2 925 + 1 50 b e ( UB318 ) , a nd 2 845 + 1 85 b e ( UB 319 ) , t hough a s a mp le f ro m t he b asa l l ayer o f t he mound o f t he l arge c en tra l monumen t a round wh ich t he s a te l l i tes a re c lear ly g rouped , y ie lded 2 795 + 1 65 b e ( UB337 ) . I r ish p assage g raves were w ide ly d is tr ibu ted ( O 'Nua l la in 1 968 ) .

B re ton p assage g raves , w i th s i mp le

t hough mass ive p o lygona l c ha mbers s e t i n r ound mounds , s uch a s K ercado , Morbihan , o r w i th s i mp le c ircu lar c ha mbers , i n s tone a nd o r thos ta ts , s e t i n 5 8

r ound c a irns , l i ke I le B ono , P erros-Gu irec , C ö tes-du-Nord , a re k nown f ro m t he f our th mi l lenn ium b c .

l ie C am, P louda l mezeau , F in is tere , h as c ircu lar

c ha mbers b u i l t o f d ry s tone wa l l ing , a nd d ry s tone p assages ; . d a ted t o t he l a ter f our th mi l lenn ium b e , h as t hree c ha mbers .

t he monumen t , These s i mp le

Bre ton e xa mp les p rov ide r easonab le p ro to types f or t he s i mp le e xa mp les u nder c ons idera t ion i n Eng land . There i s t he s a me p oss ib i l i ty o f a n e ar ly d a te f or t hese a s f or t he s i mple p assage g raves o f S co t land s ugges ted b y H ensha l l ( 1 972 , 2 78 ) .

On t he b as is

o f h er t ypo log ica l a rrange men t o f t he S co t t ish t o mbs , s he s ugges ted t ha t s o me s i mp le p assage g raves a re e ar l ier t han t he l ong mound t radi t ion , a nd c ou ld t herefore d a te f ro m t he f our th mi l lenn iu m b e . Fur ther a f ie ld p o t tery i nt wo t ypo log ica l ly e ar ly s i mp le p o lygona l p assage g raves w i th s hor t o r thos ta t ic c ha mbers i n t he U pper A len te jo o f P or tuga l , P oco d a Ga te ira Ia nd G org inos 2 ( Le isner a nd L e isner 1 951, 2 12-220 , 3 08-9 ) h as b een t hermo lu m inescence d a ted t o t he f i f th mi l lenn ium B . C . ( Wh i t t le a nd Arnaud 1 975 ) .

These d a tes a re n o t o lder t han t he e xpec ted r eca l ibr °a ted r ad iocarbon

d a tes f or t he e ar l ies t monumen ts i n Br i t tany . ac over ing c ircu lar mound , 1 0 m i n d ia me ter .

P oco d a G a te ira o r ig ina l ly h ad I tc on ta ined t we lve i nhuma t ions .

There i s n o r ecord o f t he mound a t G org inos , wh ich c on ta ined o n ly o ne u nd ist urbed i nhuma t ion .

N o d irec t c onnec t ion h as t o b e s ough t b e tween t hese a nd

s i mp le p assage g raves e lsewhere .

I ndeed Wh i t t le a nd Arnaud a rgue f or a d e-

v e lop men t o u t o f t he s i mple b ox-l ike c is ts o f t he T agus a rea wh ich a lso c on ta in g eo me tr ic microl i ths .

However , t he ir e ar ly e x is tence s erves t o u nder l ine t he

p oss ibi l i t ies o f e ar ly d a tes f or p assage g raves w i th s i mp le c ha mbers . PORTAL DOL MENS Around t he I r ish S ea t he mega l i th ic p or ta l d o l men , a sma l l c losed r ec tangul ar o r thos ta t ic c ha mber w i th f lank ing p or ta l o r thos ta ts a nd c over ing c aps tone , i s af a ir ly c o m mon t ype .

T here i s n o c er ta in e v idence f or i t s b eing a p r i mary

f ea ture o f t he N eol i th ic , b u t t here a re s evera l r easons t o s uppose t ha t i ti s a n e ar ly t ype . I ti s c o m mon i n I re land , r ound Dub l in a nd Wa ter ford , a nd i s k nown f ur ther n or th i n t he a rea o f c our t c a irns .

F inds f ro m t he p or ta l d o l mens o f

t h is l a t ter a rea b e long t o t he l a ter I r ish N eo l i th ic ( Her i ty 1 964 ) b u t i th as b een s hown t ha t t hese f inds l ack p r i mary a ssocia t ions w i th t he monumen ts , b eing i n d is turbed c on tex ts ( Co l l ins 1 965 ) .

The t ype i s k nown o n t he c oas ts o f Wa les ,

a nd i n C ornwa l l , a nd t here a re o ccas iona l e xa mp les i n t he S evern-Co tswo lds a rea , l i ke t he Wh isper ing Kn igh ts i n Ox fordsh ire . The wes tern c ha mber o f D yf fryn Ardudwy , Mer ione thsh ire , i s ac lass ic p or ta l d o l men ( Powe l l 1 973 ).

I th as a c losed e n trance , ar ec tangu lar c ha mber

a nd f lank ing p or ta ls wh ich f or m a n arrow a pproach .

I th ad a lso a l ow f acade ,

U -shaped i np lan , e x tend ing f ro m t he t i ps o f t he p or ta ls , made o f sma l l s tones . I t was e nc losed i n a n e gg-shaped o va l s tone c a irn w i th a k erb o r r eve t men t o f l arger s tones . N o t a l l t he C orn ish e xa mp les ( Dan ie l 1 950 , F ox 1 964 ) a re c lass ic p or ta l d ol mens , s ince Lanyon q uo i t d oes n o t h ave a c losed c ha mber , f or e xa mp le , a nd C hun q uoi t h as a c losed c ha mber b u t n o p or ta ls , b u t t hese a nd o thers i n t he a rea s ee m v ery c lose ly r e la ted t o t hose q uo i ts , l ike Tre thevy a nd Z ennor , wh ich d o h ave t he c lass ic a t tr ibu tes . 5 9

L anyon was o r ig ina l ly e nc losed i n al ong mound 2 7 m l ong , Tre thevy i n al ong mound 3 6 m l ong , a nd C hun a nd P aw ton i n c ircu lar o r o va l mounds a bou t 1 2 m i n d iame ter . T he Wh isper ing Kn igh ts i n Ox fordsh ire h as mass ive o r thos ta ts , a nd a b locki ng s tone . T he c aps tone i s d isp laced . S tuke ley r e fers t o a' round t u mu lus ' f or t he mon u men t ( 1 746 ) . Dy f fryn Ardudwy 's wes tern c ha mber was e nc losed l a ter i n as l igh t ly t rapez oida l c a irn wh ich c on ta ined i n i t s e as tern , s l igh t ly n arrower p ar t a no ther , more mass ive c ha mber o fp or ta l d ol men t ype . T here a ppears n ot t o b e d irec t a ccess t o t he e as tern c ha mber f ro m t he e as t e nd o f t he c a irn . P o t tery f ro m ap i t i nt he f orecour t o f t he w es tern c ha mber c o mpr ised f ine o pen p la in c ar in a ted b ow ls . F ro m t he f orecour t o f t he e as tern d o l men b enea th i t s b lock ing c a me a r a ther s im i lar b ow l , t hough o f d i fferen t f abr ic . Th is c ar ina ted p ott ery c o mpares we l l w i th o pen p la in c ar ina ted b ow ls t ha t a re k nown e lsewhere i nt he c oun try t o b e long t o t he f our th mi l lenn iu m b c , a s i n C ornwa l l a nd Devon , a nd E as t Ang lia a nd Y orksh ire , t hough t hey a lso c on t inue i n t he t h ird mi l lenn ium b c . The t rapezoida l c a irn i s s im i lar i np lan t o o ther t rapezoida l c a irns a nd mounds o f k nown e ar ly d a te . The t wo e le men ts t aken t oge ther s ugges t t he p oss ibi l i ty o f a n e ar ly d a te f or t he wes tern c ha mber a t D yf fryn Ardudwy , a nd t he p or ta l d o lmens o f n or th Wa les g enera l ly h ave b een s ugges ted , b y c ompar ison w i th t he o ther monu men ts i n t he a rea , t o b e t he e ar l ies t t ype ( Lynch 1 969 ). L ikew ise s imp le sma l l r ec tangu lar mega l i th ic c ha mbers i n S co t land i n t he a rea o f C lyde c a irns , o f ten w i th a p orch o r p or ta l e le men t , h ave b een r e la ted t o o ther p or ta l d o l mens , a nd p laced b y b o th S co t t ( 1 969 ) a nd H ensha l l ( 1 972 ) a t t he h ead o f ad eve lop men t l ead ing t o t he c lass ic C lyde c hamber w i th t wo o r more c o mpar t men ts . H ensha l l s ugges ted t ha t t he s ize a nd s impl ic i ty o f t hese monumen ts c ou ld b e a ppropr ia te t o p ioneers , a nd t ha t t hey c ou ld r epresen t a n i nd igenous d eve lopmen t ( 1 972 ) . C on t inen ta l p ara l le ls a re a va i lab le o n ly i n t he P yrenees a nd S cand inav ia , b u t n o t c loser t o h and , a nd a re o f u ncer ta in d a te . I ti sp referab le t here fore t o t h ink o f t he m a s ar eg iona l , s i mp li f ied f orm o f o ther c hambers i n s tone , o r e ven wooden mor tuary s truc tures ( S co t t 1 969 ) , r a ther t han a s a who l ly i ndependen t t ype i n troduced f ro m d is tan t s ources . ENTRANCE GRAVES I ti s n ecessary f or t he s ake o f c o mp leteness t o men t ion t he S ci l ly-Tra more g roup o f e n trance g raves i n t he S ci l ly I s lands a nd s ou theas t I re land , w i th a f ew e xamp les i n s ou thwes t C ornwa l l . T hese a re V -shaped o r r ec tangu lar o r thos ta t ic c ha mbers s e t i n sma l l ( up t o 1 2 m d iame ter ) r ound mounds w i th o r thos ta t ic k erbs . G enera l ly t here i s n o v ar ia t ion i n t he s ides o f t he c ha mbers , t hough o ne o r t wo o f t he S c i l ly e xa mp les , s uch a s t he l arge S t . Mary 's I , h ave af or ma l c ha mber d is t ingu ished b y ac los ing s lab a nd d i f feren t a l ignmen t t o t he a pproach ing p assage . Mu l t ip le i nhuma t ion a nd c re ma t ion i s r epor ted i n s o me ( Hencken 1 932 , 2 8 ) b u t e xcava ted f inds f ro m t he c ha mbers a re n o t e asy t o d a te a nd mos t may b e p os t-Neo l i th ic ( Ashbee 1 974 ) . I n v iew o f t he emphas is t o b e p laced i n d iscuss ion o n l oca l v ar ia t ions o f l arger t he mes , i ti s importan t t o k eep a n o pen mind o nt he d a te o f b eg inn ings o f t h is t ype , s ince t hey h ave a t l eas t ag enera l ised r ese mb lance t o e ar ly s i mp le p o lygona l p assage g raves . 6 0

S i mi lar c ha mbers i n S co t t ish c a irns h ave b een p laced o n t ypo log ica l g rounds b y Hensha l l i n h er f a ir ly e ar ly

‚B argrennan '

b e e xpec ted t o s how i nsu lar t ra i ts .

p hase ( 1972 , 2 77 ).

I s lands may

Though ' Neol i th ic ' s e t t le men ts a re k nown

( Gray a nd Ashbee 1 972 ) , a s a t H a langy P or th o r P or th K i l ler , i ti s n o t p oss ib le t o d a te t he m , t hough b o th a re c lose t o p resen t h igh t ide l eve l . The r ese mb lance o f t he e n trance g raves t o Bre ton t o mbs o f L 'He lgouach 's Man6-Ker ioned Ba nd o ther s im i lar B re ton v ar ia t ions s ugges ts a b eg inn ing l a ter t han o ther k inds o f monumen ts , s ince i n B r i t tany t h is k ind o f t o mb i s n o t c ons idered a s amongs t t he e ar l ies t ( L 'He lgouach 1 965 ) . T h is i s o n t he a ssump t ion t ha t a d irec t p ara l le l f or t he e n trance g raves i s t o b e s ough t , r a ther t han a d er iva t ion f ro m o ther s im i lar monumen ts .

One h as a lways t o r e me mber t ha t al a te s tage

i n Bre ton t er ms may s t i l l b e e ar ly f or t hese i s lands . MED WAY TO MBS There a re t he s a me k ind o f p oss ib i l i t ies a nd d i f f icu l t ies i n s ugges t ing a d a te a nd s ource f or t he sma l l Medway g roup o f t o mbs i n K en t .

These s ee m

a l l t o h ave s i mp le o r thos ta t ic t er m ina l c ha mbers ( Dan ie l 1 950 , A lexander 1 961 ) b u t whereas t he mound a t Add ing ton i s l ong , n arrow a nd r ec tangu lar , t ha t a t C o ldrum i s s hor t , a nd b road .

B o th h ave b ou lder k erbs .

At rapezoida l mound

i s s ugges ted f or C hesnu t 's , A dd ing ton , w i thou t ak erb . The s i mp le r ec tangul ar c hamber a t Chesnu t 's i s v ery s im i lar t o t ha t o f C o ldrum , s ince b o th a ppear t o h ave a b lock ing s tone , a nd a s lab a cross t he midd le o f t he c ha mber .

I np r i-

mary p os i t ions a t C hesnu t 's s evera l i nhuma t ions a nd o pen p o t tery , wh ich wou ld n o t b e o u t o f p lace i n e ar lier N eo l i th ic a sse mb lages , were f ound .

Av ar iety

o f o r ig ins h as b een s ugges ted f ro m S cand inav ia o r H o l land ( Dan ie l 1 950 ; 1 954 ) t o t he s ou thwes t o f Eng land ( Craw ford 1 925 ;

P iggo t t

E vans 1 950 ) , t he A t lan t ic

f acade g enera l ly ( A lexander 1 961 ) , o r t he l ong b arrows o f e as tern E ng land ( Manby 1 970 ) .

Wha t i s mos t s tr ik ing h owever i s t ha t where s u i tab le s tone was

a va i lab le , i t was u sed .

N o p rec ise o r ig ins c an b e r ea l ly s ugges ted , b u t t he

i dea o f a n e ar ly d a te may b e e n ter ta ined f or monu men ts t ha t d isplay o ne more v ar ia t ion o nt he l ong mound t he me .

Wi th s uch a t he me i n mind , wh ich Id eve lop i n al a ter c hap ter , l e t u s n o te t he e x is tence o f o ccas iona l b ur ia ls i np i ts , e nc losure d i tches a nd e ven c aves ( P iggo t t 1 954 , K innes 1 975 ) .

F or e xa mp le a r ecen t ly e xcava ted p i t , f ound 1 20 m

e as t o f t he h ouse a t F enga te , N or than ts . a nd measur ing 2 .2 b y . 7m , c on ta ined t he r e ma ins o f f our i ndiv idua ls :

o ne c rouched a du l t man a nd o ne d isar t icu la ted

a du l wo man , a nd t wo d isar t icu la ted c h i ldren . Al ea f a rrowhead was f ound i n t he man 's r ibs ( Pryor 1 976 ) . An o lder f ind a t P angbourne , B erks ( P iggo t t 1 927 ) c ons is ted o f t he r e ma ins o f a n o ld wo man , p oss ib ly f ro m a p i t o r o ther u nmarked i n ter men t a nd a cco mpan ied b y ad ecora ted c losed b ow l .

O ther u nassoc ia ted

b ur ia ls f ro m v a l leys , s uch a s t he ' do l ichocepha l ic ' r e ma ins f ro m p i ts F a nd V a t S u t ton C our tenay , Oxon .

( Leeds 1 923 , 1 52 ;

i ns tances o f t h is k ind o f d isposa l .

1 934 , 2 66-7 ) c ou ld b e f ur ther

These b ur ia ls a re n o t c lose ly d a ted , b u t

s how t ha t d isposa l o f a l l t he d ead d id n o t t ake p lace e n t ire ly i nb arrows .

A

s im i lar s ugges t ion was made i n c ons ider ing d isar t icu la ted b od ies i n mor tuary s tructures .

When we r e f lect o nt he l arge a reas o f t he Mid lands a nd E as t Ang lia

w i thou t b arrows b u t w i th s e t t le men t , a s d iscussed i n c hap ter o ne i ti s c lear t ha t many c o m mun i t ies may h ave b een o u ts ide t he b arrow t rad i t ion a l toge ther . The s ign i f icance o f t h is c ho ice w i l l b e r e turned t o l a ter . 6 1

THE PHYS ICAL TYPE FRO M LONG BARRO WS The g enera l f ea tures o f t he Br i t ish N eo l i th ic p opu la t ion h ave b een d escr ibed o f ten ( e .g . C a meron 1 934 , C oon 1 939 ) , a nd o ne may c lass t he t ype a s g raci le a nd d o l ichocepha l ic .

C oon l is ted t he f o l low ing c harac ter is t ics - a bove a verage

s ta ture ( 1 67-171 cm mean f or ma les ) ; i ndex 6 8-72 ) ;

modera te ly h igh v au l t ;

b rowr idges , med ium t o l ong f ace ;

s lender b u i ld ;

l ong n arrow s ku l l ( mean

modera te ly s loping f orehead , modera te

l ep torrh ine n ose .

H e a sser ted t ha t t he p opu-

l a t ion was e x tre me a nd s tr ik ing a s a who le , a nd d is t inc t a nd h o mogeneous , t hough a p opu la t ion o n t he p er iphery o f Europe migh t b e e xpec ted t o b e g enet ic a l ly d is t inc t ( c f . Chagnon 1 972 ) .

The s a mp le o f s ku l ls i s n ow a pproach ing t wo

h undred , a nd o f i ndiv idua ls i s e ven l arger , a nd i t s h o mogene i ty may b e d oub t The Wes t K enne t p opu la t ion f or e xa mp le was u nusua l ly t a l l , a nd We l ls ( i n P iggo t t 1 962 ) s ugges ted t he p oss ib i l i ty o f l ook ing f or g rea ter v ar ia t ion i n t he B r i t ish p opu la t ion a s a who le .

The p opu la t ion o f C o ldrum , K en t ( Kei th 1 925 ) was o f

sma l ler t han a verage s ta ture , a nd t h is a nd o ther e xa mp les s uppor t We l ls 's s ugges t ion .

One s uspec ts t ha t t he u se o f means h ides much v ar ia t ion .

F or

e xa mp le t he mean c ran ia l i ndex i s 6 8-72 f or t he who le p opu la t ion , b u t r anges u p t o 7 8 ( t hus i n to mesocepha ly ) , wh ich a dm i ts a g rea ter o ver lap w i th o ther p opu la t ions .

( Thus t he L inear P o t tery c u l ture p opu la t ion h as a c ran ia l i ndex

wh ich r anges u p t o 8 0 ). As f or n onme tr ica l f ea tures , We l ls h as a lso s ugges ted a d egree o f p a idomorph is m i n t he Wes t K enne t s ku l ls , i n s tr ik ing c on tras t t o C oon 's p ronouncemen t t ha t t he p opu la t ion a s a who le was g eron to morph ic .

P a ido morph is m i s

t he p ossess ion o f s exua l ly =d i f feren t ia ted , c h i ld like f ea tures i n t he s ku l l , s uch a s p ro minen t f ron ta l a nd p ar ie ta l b osses , wh ich p roduce p en tagona l o u t-lines i n t he s ku l l when s een f ro m a bove o r b eh ind , f eeb le b rowr idge a t i t s c en tra l p o in t , a nd c oncave sma l l n oses .

Gerhard t ( persona l c o m mun ica t ion ) h as em-

p has ised t he n eed f or v iews o f t he s ku l l f ro m a bove , t he s ide , t he f ron t a nd b eh ind , i n e va lua t ing t h is f ea ture .

T hese a re n o t g enera l ly a va i lab le i n E ng-

l ish p ubl ica t ions , t hough t wo o f t he f ew N eo l i th ic s ku l ls i l lus tra ted i n t he C ran ia B r i tann ica ( Dav is a nd Thurn a .m 1 865 ) d o s ee m p a ido morph ic a s d e f ined a bove . These a re f ro m L i t t le ton Drew o r Lugbury , a nd R od mar ton , G loucs ( p is 2 4 a nd 5 9 ) .

Th is f ea ture c on tr ibu tes t oo t o t he p oss ib i l i ty o f g rea ter v ar ia t ion .

6 2

CHAPTER FOUR FL INT AND STONE I NDUSTR IES : MANUFACTURE, D ISTR IBUTION AND TYPES

O f a l l c u t t ing s tone t oo ls i n t he e ar l ier Neo l ith ic o f s ou thern Eng land , t he a xe

ss ure ly o f p ara moun t i mpor tance f or t he v ar ied t asks o f c learance a nd

c onstruct ion f ac ing e ar ly f armers .

By 3 000 b c, a xes o f b oth f l int a nd o ther

h ard r ocks were b e ing p roduced a t mines a nd q uarr ies i n v ar ious p ar ts o f Br ita in , a nd were a lready b e ing d istr ibu ted f ar f ro m t he ir s ources . M_N ING AND QUARRY ING Three r ad iocarbon d a tes , a l l f ro m a n t ler s amp les, 3 3904 —1 50 b c ( B M-181) f ro m C hurch H i l l, F indon , 3 140 + 1 30 b c ( B M-290) f ro m B lackpa tch , Wor th ing a nd 2 980 + 1 50 b e ( B M-182) f ro m Harrow H i l l , i nd ica te t he e ar ly work ing o f f l in t m ines i n S ussex .

T hey a lso d e monstra te t he e ar ly e x istence i n t he s outh

o f Eng land o f s oph ist ica ted m in ing t ech n iques .

A t C hurch H i l l , F indon , i n t he

a rea f ro m wh ich t he r ad iocarbon s a mp le c a me were s haf ts c ut t ing t hrough t hree s ea ms o f f l in t t o e x tract t he f our th , a nd i n o ne c ase t hrough f ive s ea ms t o ez t rac t t he s ix th ( Pu l l 1 953) .

Ga l ler ies r ad ia ted o u t f ro m t he b ase o f t he s haf ts ,

o ugh i n t he c ase o f t he s ha f t g o ing d own t o t he s ix th s ea m o n ly s hor t h ead ings J ere made , d esp ite t he a pparen t f irmness o f t he c ha lk .

Another s haf t ( Pu l l

3 33 ) h ad o n ly s hor t h ead ings, a f ter c ut t ing t hrough t hree s ea ms.

A t B lackpa tch

s haf t 4f ro m wh ich t he s amp le c o mes i s p ar t o f ac o mp lex o f c lose ly p laced s ha f ts a nd c onnect ing g a l ler ies ( Pu l l 1 932) . t hey a re d eep - s o me 3 .5 m . q ua l ity .

T he s ha f ts a re a bou t a s w ide a s

T he f irst s ea m me t was e xp lo i ted , b e ing o f g ood

Another s haf t e xcava ted b u t u nda ted ( Good man e t a l . 1 924) was 4 .5

6m w ide b u t o n ly 3 .3 m d eep , a nd h ad g a l ler ies r ad ia t ing o u t f ro m i t s b ase , b u t n o t c onnect ing w i th t hose o f o ther s haf ts.

S haf ts o n t he t op o f t he h i l l were

d eeper t han a l l t hese e xamp les a s t he h or izon ta l s eam l ay d eepest a t t ha t p o in t . A t Harrow H i l l ( Curwen a nd C urwen 1 926) t he s haf t f ro m wh ich t he s amp le c a me was o ver 6m d eep , a nd e xp lo i ted t hree s ea ms o f f l in t .

The t op s ea m was

q uarr ied a l i t t le i n o pencast f ash ion o n o ne s ide o f t he s haf t h ead , t he s econd f o l lowed o n o ne s ector o f t he s haf t f or a l i t t le wh i le b y a sma l l g a l lery , a nd t he t h ird a nd l owest s ea m was e x tracted b y s ix o r s even g a l ler ies wh ich r ad iat ed f ro m t he b ase o f t he s haf t , t hough n ot r igh t r ound i t s c ircu m ference a s o n o ne s ide a sma l l h ead ing o n ly was made . w ith t hose o f o ther s ha f ts .

Two o f t hese g a l ler ies c o m mun ica te

L a ter e xcava t ions ( HoHey man 1 937 ) r evea led

sma l ler s haf ts a bou t 3m d eep , w ith g a l ler ies s hor t a nd b road , o r l ong a nd c urved r ad ia t ing f ro m t he ir b ases .

T hese s haf ts were o n t he s umm it o f t he

h i l l a nd e xp lo ited t wo s ea ms o f f l in t o n ly , b y means o f o ne g a l lery . A t a l l t hree s i tes t he s eams o f f l in t a re more o r l ess h or izon ta l .

Ou t-

c rops o f f l in t most l i ke ly were t he i nd ica tor o f t he p oten t ia l o f as i te f or d eve lopmen t b u t t here i s n o g ood r eason t o s uppose a s low d eve lop men t i n a l l c ases 6 3

f ro m o pen p i ts, t o sma l l s haf ts, t o d eep s haf t s w ith g a l ler ies, a s p roposed f or Gr i me ' sG raves, Nor fo lk ( Armstrong 1 926) o r S p iennes i n Be lg ium ( Verhey leweghen 1 963 , 1 966) . Verhey leweghen e nv isaged f or e xamp le a s tage ( 1 ) o f o pen-cast p its n ear t he r iver Trou t l le , w i th r a ther c rude p roducts, f o l lowed b y s uccess ive ly d eeper s ha f ts f ar ther f ro m t he v a l ley , w ith f i ner p rod ucts ( s tages ( 2 ) a nd ( 3 ) ) , a nd f i na l ly a p er iod o f d egenera t ing s tandards, when t he d eepest s ha f ts h ad b een w orked o u t ( 4 ) .

T he c ruder s tages c orrespond t o

a reas w i th s ha l lower-bedded a nd t herefore more b r i t t le , i nfer ior f l in t s o t ha t t he a pparen t d eve lop men t i s p robab ly i l lusory . O ther m ine s i tes l i ke C issbury , S ussex , E aston Down , Wi lts , a nd Gr i me ' s Graves h ave l a ter r ad iocarbon d a tes .

On ly a f ract ion o f t he ir s haf ts h as b een

d a ted h owever , w ith t he e xcep t ion o f t he l a t ter ( Mercer 1 976 , S ievek ing e t a l . 1 973 ) , s o t here i s ap oss ib i l ity o f s im i lar t echn iques a t a n e ar ly d a te o u ts ide S ussex .

T here a re a lso o ther , u nda ted , e x tract ion p its a nd sma l l s haf ts, a s

a t Durr in .g ton Wa l ls, Wi lts ( Booth a nd S tone 1 951-2) o r u nder t he Woodford l ong b arrow , Wi lts ( Va tcher 1 964) , wh ich c o mp le te a p icture o f w ide v ar iety . T he q uarry ing o f h ard r ocks o ther t han f l in t was p robab ly a s i mp ler a f fa ir , s ince w i th t he e xcep t ion o f t he l a ter s ource a t Mynydd Rh iw , Caernavonsh ire ( Hou lder 1 961) n o u nderground e xcava t ion was a pparen t ly n ecessary . I ndeed t he e xact l oca t ion o f s o me s ou th-western s ources h as n ot y et b een i den t if ied . A ct iv ity a t t he q uarr ies c an b e d a ted b y t he d istr ibu t ion o f p roducts.

Axes

o f s ou th-western g roups Ha , I V , I Va , XV I a nd XVI I h ave b een f ound i n c losed c on tex ts o f a round 3 000 b c ( Evens e t a l . 1 972 ) .

L ower l im i ts o f p roduct ion

a re n o t p oss ib le t o e stab l ish b u t a l l t hese g roups may h ave b een r e la t ive ly s hor tl ived . Axes o f g roup V I ( Langda le a rea , C u mber land ) were f ound l oca l ly a t Ehens ide Tarn , whose e ar l iest d a te i s 3 014 + 3 00 b e ( C-462 ) , a nd

h u man

a ct iv ity i s a lso i n d ica ted a round t he r ock s ource b y a bou t 3 000 b e i n p o l len d iag rams ( Penn ing ton 1 970 , 1 975) . a rr iva l o fg roup V I p roducts .

I n t he s ou th t here a re i nd ica t ions o f a n e ar ly

T here was a f ragmen t f ound a t F enga te o ne o f

whose d a tes i s 3 010 + 6 4 b e ( GaK -4196) , wh i le amin i mum o f s ix a xes were r ecovered f ro m t he i nner d i tch a t A b ingdon ;

t hose f ro m L eeds ' e xcava t ions

a re n o t s ecure ly s tra t if ied a nd a f ragmen t f rom e xcava t ions i n 1 963-4 was r ec overed f ro m t he u pper f i l l ing b u t t he s er ies o f r ad iocarbon d a tes, a s s amp les f ro m t he m idd le a nd u pper f i l l ing , p robab ly c over t he u se o f t hese a xes a t t he s i te .

Ag roup V I I I ( sou th-west Wa les) a xe was f ound n ear a p it a t C oygan c amp ,

Carmar thensh ire ( Wa inwr igh t 1 967) d a ted t o 3 050 + 9 5 b e ( NPL-132 ) , a nd g roup I( Co r nwa l l) a xes were f ound o n t he s et t le men t o n Ca m Brea , C ornwa l l . P orce l lan ite ( group I X ) f ro m T ievebu l l iagh a nd R a th lin I s land , C o . A n tr im , may a lso h ave b een e xp lo ited b y 3 000 b e , s ince t he h ard s tone u sed i n t he l a te Meso l ith ic , b aked mudstone , was a ppren t ly a vo ided i n t he e ar ly Neo l i th ic ( Wood man 1 976) . PRODUCTS AND THEIR D ISPERSAL Q uarry s i tes p roduced e xc lus ive ly a xes i n t he e ar l ier Neo l i th ic . Axes l i kew ise were t he ma in p roduc t o f e ar l ier f l in t m ines, t hough t here i s ar ange o fb y-products a s we l l s uch a s b lades, k n ives, s crapers a nd r ougher f or ms . C onverse ly i ti s l i ke ly t ha t t he v ast ma jor ity o f a l l f l in t a xes made c a me f ro m mines ( an e xcept ion may b e Broo me Hea th , N or fo lk ( Wa inwr igh t 1 972) ) . 6 4

Fro m t he b eg inn ing o f t he N eo l ith ic t he f or m o fb oth p o l ished f l in t a nd h ard s tone a xes was t yp ica l ly 'Western ' ,w ith w ide c onvex c ut t ing e dge , o va l c rosss ect ion , a nd n arrow t h in b u t t .

T here a re f ew e xcep t ions t o t h is g enera l f or m ,

s uch a s t he s quare-sect ioned t h ick-bu t ted a xes o f S cand inav ian a f f in it ies ( eg . P iggot t 1 938 , f ig . 1 6) , o ne o f wh ich was f ound i n J u l iberr ies ' G rave , K en t ( Jessup 1 939) .

T he t yp ica l ly f ace t ted s ides o f g roup V I ( Langda le ) a xes a ppear

t o b e ar eg iona l v ar ia t ion , i n t he s a me way a s t he wa isted f or ms f ro m t h is a rea ( Fe l l 1 964) , b u t s ince f l in t a xes w i th s im i lar f acet ted s ides a re f ound a l l o ver t he s ou th o f Eng land - a s a t Hurst F en , Broo me Hea th , Wh itehawk , Wind m i l l H i l l ( where o ne a xe h ad o ne s ide s quared a nd t he o ther r ounded ) , He mbury a nd Ca m Brea - t hese c annot b e s een a s d ist inct ive . The g roup V I r aw ma ter ia l, a v o lcan ic t u f f , wou ld h ave l en t i t se lf more r ead i ly t o t h is f in ish t han most o ther h ard r ocks u sed f or a xes . T he a va i lab le r aw ma ter ia l must h ave l arge ly c ond it ioned o ther m inor v ar ia t ions i n t he f orm o f a xes . s lender n arrow f l in t a xes f ro m

T hus t he

C issbury , S ussex , c an b e r e la ted t o t he f la t

n odu lar f l in t f ro m t he m ines t here . There s ee ms l i kew ise t o h ave b een l i t t le v ar ia t ion i n f orm b etween t he e ar l ies t a nd l a ter s tone a xes p roduced .

T he e ar l iest p er fora ted f or ms a re n ot

f ound i n c losed c on tex ts e ar l ier t han t he s econd m i l len iu m b c ( Evens e t a l . 1 972) .

A dzes migh t b e e ar ly p roducts b u t h ave n ot y e t b een f ound i n c losed

c on tex ts .

T hey were a nyway v ery r are .

The d istr ibu t ion o f s tone a xes f ro m t he s ou th-west s ee ms t o h ave i ncreased a nd w idened t hrough t ime .

Products o f g roups [ Va a nd XVI I were l arge ly

c onf ined t o C ornwa l l , Devon , S o merse t a nd Dorset , wh i le a sma l l n u mber o f a xes o fg roups I V a nd XV I were f ound a s f ar away a s East Ang l ia ( Evens e t a l . 1 972 ;

C lough a nd G reen 1 972) .

S ince t he a xes i n q uest ion were n ot c losed

f inds, t h is d eve lop men t c anno t b e d a ted w i th c er ta in ty , b u t c ou ld r epresen t t he e ar ly b eg inn ings o f p urposefu l l ong-d istance t rade , wh ich c u lm ina ted i n t he p robab ly ma in ly Neo l ith ic d istr ibu t ion o f g roup Ip roducts ( Evens e t a l . 1 972 ; Cu m m ins 1 974) , r a ther t han more l oca l ised e xchange .

A s im i lar d eve lop men t

may h ave o ccurred a t o ther s ources s uch a s V I I a nd V I I I i n Wa les. t hough t he l ike ly e ar ly o ccurrence o f g roup V I a xes i n t he s ou th a t ac ons iderab le d istance f ro m t he ir s ource s uggests t ha t i n t h is c ase t he p rocess was sw if ter . T he d istr ibu t ion o f mined f l in t a xes may a lso h ave w idened r ap id ly , s ince f l int a xes o f p resumed m ined f l in t h ave b een f ound o n s i tes i n n on-cre taceous a reas l i ke He mbury a nd Ca m Brea , d a ted a round 3 000 b c .

( Che m ica l a na lys is

o f f l in t s ources ( S ievek ing e t a l . 1 972) may c on tr ibu te t o t h is q uest ion .) H owever , n earness t o s ource s ee ms t o h ave b een t he c on tro l l ing f actor i n t he e ar l ier s tages o f a xe p roduct ion , a s t he f o l low ing t ab le s uggests . A t Ca m B rea o ver 2 00 km d istan t f ro m t he c ha lk , l oca l ly d er ived h ard s tone a xes f ar o u twe igh t he n u mber o f f l in t a xes .

A t He mbury , c loser t o t he c ha lk

b ut s t i l l s o me 1 50 km f ro m t he Wi ltsh ire m ines , n u mbers o f e ach s ee m t o b e e qua l . H igh Peak h owever h ad f i ve s tone t o o ne f l in t . Ma iden Cast le h ad more f l in t t han s tone , a nd t he S ussex s i tes h ad n o s tone a xes . T here s ee ms t hen t o h ave b een a d eve lop men t t hrough t he Neo l ith ic f ro m l oca l ised move men t o f p roducts w ith l i t t le l ong r ange d ispersa l , ap hase wh ich may h ave b een l ongl ived ,t o move men t o ver g rea t d istances, w ith s uch a

6 5

H ard s tone a xes

S i te Wind m i l l H i l l ( pr imary l eve ls)

F l in t a xes

2

min i mu m o f 6p o l ished

He mbury

1 5

1 5?

Ma iden Cast le

1 4

7 + p o l ished , 1c h ipped

H igh Peak

5

1

Wh itehawk T he Trund le Carn Brea

s evera l 1r oughou t c .20

s evera l

Broo me H ea th

m in i mum o f 7

Hurst F en

2

F enga te Hazard H i l l Ab ingdon

TABLE 1 .

4

1 1

1( + 1c her t )

min i mu m o f 6

m in i mum o f 6

R ela t ive n umbers o f h ards tone a nd f l in t a xes o n e xcava ted e ar l ier N eo l i th ic s i tes .

6 6

r e la t ive ly sma l l p ropor t ion o fp roducts s tay ing n ear t he s ource ( Evens e t a L 1 972) t ha t t he d ispersa l c an b e i n terpre ted a s p urposefu l t rade . I n c on trast t he more l im i ted e ar ly d istr ibu t ions c ou ld b e s een a s t he r esu l t o f e xchanges, g i f ts o r c ommun ica t ions b e tween i nd iv idua ls s uch a s w ere d ocumen ted i n A ustra las ia b y C lark ( 1 966) . T he t endency f or n umbers t o d ec l ine s tead i ly a s d istance f rom t he s ource i ncreases c an b e t aken t o s uppor t s uch r ando m , d own-thel ine ' move men ts ( Hodder 1 974 ) . O n t he o ther h and , t he s ame d is tr ibu t ion c ou ld b e t he r esu l t o f d i f feren t p rocesses , s uch a s o f i nd iv idua ls o r c o mmun i t ies c om ing t hemse lves t o w ork a s ource o rb arga in w i th a l oca l e x tractor f or h is p roduc ts , a s i s a lso d ocumen ted i n A ustra l ia ( e .g . McBryde a nd Wa tchman 1 976) . P eop le f ro m f ur ther o f fw ou ld b e l ess l i ke ly t o v is i t a s ource w i th t he s ame f requency a nd i n t he s ame n umbers a s o thers l i v ing n earer t o i t , a nd h ence t he s ame s teady d ec l ine i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord c ou ld r esu lt .

T he p oss ib i l ity o f e ar ly p urposefu l t rade i n s tone a nd f l in t a xes

s hou ld b e c ons idered a s we l l, s ince a c o m mun i ty i n S o merse t f or e xamp le m igh t we l l h ave w ished t o s ecure more r egu lar s upp l ies o f a xes t han w ou ld b e a va i lab le t hrough g if t e xchange , a nd w i th g rea ter e ase t han t hrough t he ir own v is its o r n ego t ia t ions . T he p roduct ion a nd d ispersa l o f f l in t a nd s tone may t hen h ave b een c o mp lex , w i th av ar ie ty o f l oca l a nd i nd iv idua l p roduc t ion a nd c onsu mp t ion , e xchanges , s pec ia l ised a ct iv i ty a nd p urposefu l t rade . T he j ade i te a xe f ro m a c losed c on tex tb es ide t he Swee t T rack , S o merse t , s erves t o i lustra te t he c o mp lex i ty o f t hese i n terrac t ions ( Co les e t a l . 1 974 ) . O fp resumed c on t inen ta l o r ig in , p erhaps A lp ine r a ther t han Bre ton , t h is f i ne a xe , u n less t he p ossess ion o f a n i nco mer , must h ave r eached S o merse t t hrough e xchange o r t rade . I t s s ecure c on tex t s ugges ts t ha t t he j ade i te a xes f ro m H igh Peak a nd Hamb ledon H i l l c ou ld a lso b e o f t he e ar l ier N eo l i th ic . T oge ther w i th t he f ew f ragmen ts o f g roup X d o ler i te a xes i n E ng land ( Evens e t a l . 1 962 ) w hose s ource h as n ow b een l oca ted ( Le R oux 1 971) , t hese s uggest t ha t t he c omp lex s e t o f i n terac t ions o u t l ined e x tended b eyond t he C hanne l ( f ig . 8 ) . OTHER S OURCES OF FL INT A lthough most o f t he f l in t a t Wh i tehawk a nd T he T rund le i n S ussex was p robab ly m ined ( Curwen 1 934a , 1 22 ; 1 931, 1 39) , much o ft he f l in t u sed a t o ther s i tes f or t oo ls o ther t han a xes d id n o t c o me f ro m m ines . I ndeed t here I s a sma l l p ropor t ion o fb each o r r iver f l in t a t Wh itehawk i t se lf , wh i le t he f l in t a t s i tes l i ke Broo me H ea th , H urs t F en , A b ingdon , Windm i l l H i l l a nd F enga te c ou ld b e d er ived f ro m s ur face d epos its n ot f ar d istan t . I ti s u ncer ta in w he ther B eer f l in t , w ide ly d istr ibuted f rom i t s s ource i n s ou th-east D evon , was m ined . T he i n fer ior f l in t f ro m t he o ver ly ing c lay-w i thf lin ts a t t he s i te ( Woods 1 9293 2 , Woods a nd Woods 1 933-36) , a nd t he e x is tence o f g rassed o ver p i ts , u sed f or mar l a ccord ing t o l oca l t rad i t ion , s uggest t ha t i tc ou ld we l l h ave b een m ined . Much f l in t was p robab ly d er ived l oca l ly . T hough a t Windm i l l H i l l t he M idd le C ha lk c on ta ined n o f l in t , t h is was a va i lab le a m i le o r t wo a way i n U pper C ha lk d epos its . I n t he s ou th-west , g ood f l in t was r are a nd was i mp or ted f rom B eer o n t he e dge o f t he c re taceous a rea . I t s d istr ibu t ion i s u nu sua l ly c lear ( f ig . 9 ) .

6 7

.

0

1 0 cm

3

0

1 . 5 cm

F ig. 8 .

Two c on t inen tal i mports a nd a p oss ib le e xport. Sweet Track ( af ter Co les e t a l.). ( Ha mp 4 9 ).

1 , J ade ite a xe f ro m t i

2 , Do ler ite a xe f rom S ou thampton

3 , S herd f rom S p iennes ( af ter Verhey leweghen ).

Beer f l in t was t he most c o m mon a t He mbury , H igh Peak , Ha 'don a nd Hazard H i l l . A t Hembury t here were c ores o n b each p ebb les, a nd l oca l c her t was u sed i n s o me q uan t ity . P oorer f l int a nd c her t were u sed a t t he o ther t hree t oo . B eer f l in t p robab ly a lso o ccurred a t Ca m Brea i n C ornwa l l . b u t t he p rob lems o f i den t if ica t ion a t t ha t s i te a re c o mp lex .

F l in t i s a va i lab le o n b o th

n orthern a nd s ou thern c oa ts o f C ornwa l l , o ccas iona l ly i n l arge n odu les. S ince t he c or tex o f f l in t f ro m C a m Brea r anges f ro m b e ing f resh a nd n odu lar t o t h in a nd b a t tered , b oth l oca l a nd more d istan t f l in t was p robab ly u sed . A t a ny r a te B eer f l in t was c ons idered t o h ave b een u sed f or t he Meso l ith ic i ndustry a t Doz mare Poo l, o n B od m in Moor i n C ornwa l l ( Wa inwr ight 1 960) .

Af ew

s im i lar n on-geo me tr ic m icro l i ths were f ound o n Beer Head i t se lf ( Woods 1 9293 2 ) .

T he p a t tern o f d istr ibu t ion may a lready h ave b een e stab l ished b efore t he

Neo l ith ic . T he f l ak ing f l oors f ound b y Woods a t B eer Head i t se lf ( 1929-32) s uggests s o me q uarter ing a nd c ore p roduct ion a t t he s i te . Perhaps r aw ma ter ia l was d istr ibu ted i n t h is p repared f orm . N ot a l l f l in t f ound a t t hese s i tes h owever was w orked t here .

Crea my wh ite f l int a xes were i mpor ted t o H e mbury I n a

f i n ished s ta te . I n al arge s amp le o f waste f l akes f ro m t h is s i te , If ound n one o f ab rown o r ac reamy g rey f l in t u sed f or s o me a rrowheads. T he b rown f l in t was a va i lab le a f ew m i les t o t he n or th ( L idde l l 1 930 , 4 5) , t he s ource o f t he o ther I su nknown . F ine ly worked a rrowheads were t hus a pparent ly b rough t t o t he s i te i n fi n ished f orm . C her t f ro m Por t land , D orse t , was f ound a t H embury i n t he f orm n ot o n ly o f a rrowheads, b u t o f as craper , ab eve l led f l ake a nd a f ew t runca ted b lades a s we l l .

I t was d istr ibuted e lsewhere i n t he s ou th-west , ma in ly i n t he f orm

a rrowheads ( note a f l ake a nd a worked p ebb le a t H igh Peak ( Po l lard / 966) . T h is ma ter ia l t oo h ad b een a lready d istr ibu ted we l l i n land f ro m i t s s ource i n t he Meso l ith ic ( Pa l mer 1 970) . TECHN IQUES OF MANUFACTURE A t C a m Brea , H a mbury , Ha ldon , Hazard H i l l , Ma iden Cast le , Wh i tehawk , Broome Hea th , Hurst Fen a nd Windm i l l H i l l, s ing le-p la t form c ores w ith f l akes r e moved p ar t o f t he way r ound ( c lass A2 o f t he t ypo logy i n C lark e t a l . 1 960) were most c o m mon .

S ing le-p la t form c ores w ith f l akes r e moved a l l r ound

( A1) ,d oub le-p la tforms a t o b l ique a ng les ( B 2 )a nd t r ip le-p la t form c ores ( C) were l e ss f requen t . Abou t t en p er c en t o f c ores h ave p ara l le l b lade f ace ts . ( A b lade i s d ef ined a s h av ing f a ir ly p ara l le l s ides, a nd ab read th : length r a t io b e low 2 :5 .)

I n s hor t , t here was o n t he who le a s i mp le b as ic t echno logy , c o m-

mon t o a l l a reas o ft he s ou th . T he s ize o f c ores i s i n terest ing . A t s ou th-western s i tes, most a re u nder 1 00 g ra ms . Thus a t Ca m Brea , o n ly t hree o u t o f as amp le o f 6 4 were o ver t h is w e ight , a t He mbury 1 5 o u t o f 1 57 .

A t Ma iden Cast le a nd Wh itehawk t he

l argest c ores were o ver 3 00 g rams , wh ich s ee ms t o r ef lect a more a bundant r aw ma ter ia l .

T he p urpose o ft he Sma l lest c ores a t a l l s i tes ( a s sma l l a s 2 0

o r 3 0 g ra ms) i s u nc lear a s Sm ith r e marked ( 1 965, 8 7)

s ince

f l akes a nd

b lades s e lected f or v ar ious k inds o fu t i l isa t ion were c onsisten t ly l arger t han t he a verage waste f l ake .

6 9

M e s o l i t h i c , p r e s n t

C : )

•

0

Z— 4 4

S im i lar t echn iques o f c ore r e juvena t ion , t o r emove p la t forms, worked f aces a nd b ases, were f ound a t a l l t hese s i tes u nder c ons idera t ion . Ih ave s upp le men ted me tr ica l a na lys is o f t he b read th : leng th r a t io o f waste f l ees f ro m Wind m i l l H i l l ( Sm i th 1 965) , Broo me H ea th ( Wa inwr igh t 1 972) , K nap H i l l ( Conn .ah 1 965) , F enga te ( Pryor 1 974) a nd H igh P eak ( Po l lard 1 966) w i th a na lyses f ro m H e mbury a nd Wh i tehawk . ( Leng th was measured a s t he max i mum l eng th a long t he b u lbar a x is , a nd b read th a s t he max i mum d is tance a t r igh t a ng les t o t h is ).

B read th :Leng th r a t io ( % ) S amp le s ize He mbury Wh itehawk

6 85 4 32

1 :5

2 :5

3 :5

4 :5

5 :5

6 :5

1 0 1 6

3 0 3 1

2 9 2 5

1 3 1 4

8 .5 7

9 .5 7

Desp ite a r ange i n d i mensions a s im i lar p a t tern o f s hape s ee ms t o emerge . On ly a t K nap H i l l a nd i n t he n on-cor t ica l f lakes a t H e mbury i s t he g rea test p ropor t ion o f waste f l akes n ot o ft he b read th : leng th r a t io 2 :5 - 3 :5 . I n t hese i ti s b e tween 3 :5 a nd 4 :5. T he p ercen tage i n e ach s amp le o f t he p referred r a t io i s u sua l ly a bou t 3 0 p er c en t . TOOL TYPES ( f ig . 1 0) F lake w i th s erra ted a nd b eve l led e dges Waste f l akes w ith i rregu lar s igns o fu se v ary i n q uan t ity f ro m s i te t o s i te , a nd a re h ard t o c a tegor ise . F lakes w i th more r egu lar , b eve l led wear o r r et ouch o n t he ir e dges a nd f l akes w i th s erra ted e dges a pparen t ly p roduced d e l ibera te ly , were l arger t han t he a verage waste f l ake a t He mbury , Wh itehawk , Ma iden Cast le a nd Ha ldon a s we l l a s Windm i l l H i l l .

A s qua t ter f l ake was p re-

f erred f or t he b eve l led f l ake , a more s lender o ne f or t he s erra ted f l ake , p resumab ly u sed f or c ut t ing . These t oo ls were n ot c onf ined t o c ausewayed c amps ( pace Sm ith 1 965, 9 2-3) . S crapers C onvex-edged s crapers o n r obust f l akes a re t he c o m monest t oo l t ype a t t he s i tes u nder c ons idera t ion ( w ith t he e xcep t ion o f Cam nBrea where a rrowh eads p redo m ina ted ) .

Most c o m mon were e nd-scrapers, wh i le d oub le-ended .

d isc a nd s ide s crapers were much l ess c o mmon .

S ide s crapers were c o mmon

o n ly a t Ma iden Cast le ( some 6 3 o u t o f as a mp le o f 3 04) . A t He mbury a nd H igh P eak a f ew h o l low s crapers were r epresen ted ( f ig . 1 0 ; P o l lard 1 966) . Perhaps t hese s ou th-western e xamp les c ou ld b e r e la ted t o t he I r ish t ype (Mov ius 1 942) .

7 1 .

1 0 1 4

1 7

1 8 2 2

2 1

0

F ig . 1 0 .

T he f l in t i ndus try o f t he e ar l ier N eo li th ic o f s ou thern Eng land . 8 , 1 5-17 , 2 1, H e mbury ; 9 , 1 0 , 1 2 , Abingdon ;

6 , B roo me H ea th ;

1 1 , 1 3 , 1 9 , 2 0 , Wind m i l l H i l l ;

( dense s t ipp le s hows s i l ica g loss ;

1 -5 ,

7 , 1 8 , 2 2 , H urs t F en ;

v ar ious s ources ) .

1 4 , Wh i tehawk

A t s ou th-western s i tes, o ne may i n terpre t d i f ferences i n t he s hape o f s crapers made o n B eer f l in t a s t he e f fec t o f d is tance f ro m t he s ou rc c . I n t erms o f s hape d ef ined b y t he b read th : leng th r a t io , H embury a nd Ha ldon ( c losest t o B eer ) h ave s im i lar s qua t s crapers . Wh i tehawk a nd Ma iden C ast le , a lso w i th f l in t l oca l ly a bundan t , h ave s im i lar t oo ls . Hazard H i l l ( and Ca m B rea o n t he b as is o f a sma l l s amp le k ind ly made a va i lab le b y R . Mercer ) f ur ther o f f , h ave l ess s qua t s crapers . H embury h as t he l ongest a nd t h ickest , C am nB rea t he s hor test a nd t h ickest . D istance f ro m s ource s eems t o h ave a f fected t he s ize a nd s hape o f a r tefac ts when t hese were n o t made a t s ource .

B read th : leng th r a t io ( % ) S amp le

Wh itehawk Ma iden C ast le H e mbury Ha ldon Hazard H i l l C am B rea

s ize

1 :5

2 :5

3 :5

4 :5

5 :5

6 :5

4 9

-

1 0

2 3

4 9

1 2

6

3 81 2 59

2 1

1 1 2

2 4 3 1

3 9 3 3

1 9 1 8

5 5

7 7 2 4 7 1

-

3 1 4 9 4 0+

3 9 2 9

1 9 4 .5

4

7 1 7 .5

L aure l l eaves o r o va tes T h is b ifac ia l ly f l aked l aure llea f f orm , d ef ined a t H urst F en ( C lark e t a l . 1 960 ) i s c o mmon b u t n o t n umerous ( s ince f ound a t H azard H i l l , H igh P e* , a nd B roome H ea th . An e xamp le f ro m a B eaker l eve l a t Ma iden C as t le s ugg es ts s o me c on t inua t ion i n to t he l a te N eo l i th ic ( Whee ler 1 943 , f ig . 9 3 ) .

S o me

a re much more r ough ly f l aked t han o thers , t hough t here i s n o h eavy u se o n t heir e dges . L igh t g r ind ing w as f ound o n o ne a t W ind m i l l H i l l . Aw ls a nd p o in ts A t H urst F en a nd Windm i l l H i l l , aw ls were c haracter ised b y s hor t p o in ts w ith a m in i mu m o f r e touch . A t W indm i l l H i l l t hey d i f fered f ro m l onger l a te N eo l ith ic p o in ts . A ma jor ity w ere u n ifac ia l ly r e touched . A t s o me o ft he s ou th-wes tern s i tes , l i ke H embury a nd H a ldon , t he a w ls a re l onger . T he t ype i s made i nd iscr im ina te ly o n a l l s or ts o f f l akes a nd b roken p ieces , a nd c an b e sma l l a nd d e l ica te , o r q u i te h eavy . A par t f ro m F enga te , t he o n ly s i te w i thou t t he t ype ( i t i s n o t men t ioned i n t he Ha ldon r epor t , b u t ac oup le o f e xamp les a re p resen t ) i s Wh i tehawk , where a bundan t b one p o in ts w ere f ound . Y e t T he Trund le , where b one i s p reserved , s hows t ha t f l in t a nd b one p o in ts w ere n ot mu tua l ly e xc lus ive .

7 3

There was av ar ie ty o f k n ives i n t he i ndus try .

Broad f lakes w i th r obust

s teeph ish f lak ing o n o ne e dge c haracter ise o ne t ype . P erhaps t he b lun ted b ack was a h a f t ing a id . A t W ind m i l l H i l l p ar t icu lar ly , l ustre , b eve l l ing a nd smooth ing was o bserved o n t he c u t t ing e dges. O ther b lun ted b ack k n ives were made o n n arrow f lakes a nd b lades , w ith s teep h ea t r etouch .

T hey h ave s tra igh t o r c urv ing b acks .

Th is t ype i s most

c o m mon a t s ou th-western s i tes l i ke H e mbury . O ther k n ives h ad o ne o rb o th e dges r e touched w ith s ha l low c over ing r et ouch . T he f i nest d oub le-s ided e xamp le c a me f ro m t he l ower p ar t o ft he f i l l o f t he d i tch a t t he e astern s ide o f Ma iden C ast le ( Whee ler 1 943 , f ig . 9 3) . T h is t ype was c o m mon t oo . S ick les A t a l most a l l t he s i tes c ons idered h ere t here was a c lass o f s hor t , t h in f l akes, s truck , r e touched o r s napped t o as quar ish s hape , a nd f ur ther n ea t ly r e touched d own o ne e dge .

T hese c ou ld b e e lemen ts o f c o mposi te c u t t ing t oo ls ,

b ecause o f f requen t s i l ica g loss i n at h in b and o n o ne o r o ther f ace o f t he c u t t ing e dge .

S uch g loss i s n ot h owever o n ly p roduced b y c on tact w i th c erea l

s ta lks, a nd e ven a t i t s most a bundan t , o n t he e xa mp les f ro m Windm i l l H i l l , h ard ly e ver c overs a l arge d iagona l p a tch , i n t he manner o f s ick le e le men ts o f t he L inear P o t tery c u l ture . A t Ma iden C as t le a nd Wh i tehawk t here were s ing le f lakes w i th sma l l n o tches c h ipped a t e i ther e nd a s wel l a s t races o f l us tre a nd u se , wh ich s ugges ts a n a l terna t ive me thod o f h a f t ing . T hese were h owever r are . A s we l l a s t hese ' s ick le ' e le men ts, t here a re a f ew f i ne ly r e touched p ieces wh ich may b e s ick les i n t he ir own r igh t .

I ndeed t he Ab ingdon e xa mp le

( Leeds 1 928 , p l . XX I I ) was o ne o f t he f ew s tra t if ied o f C lark ' ss ubcrescen t ic t ype ( 1932) . T he p iece f ro m H e mbury ( L idde l l 1 932 , n o . 9 36) may a lso b e a n e xamp le , t hough i ti s d amaged .

( One migh t a lso c lass ify t h is a s aj ave l in ,

s im i lar b u t f i ner t han t hose k nown f ro m I r ish Neo l i th ic c on tex ts ( Mov ius 1 942 ) . O ther e xamp les, f ro m Hurst F en ( Clark e t a l . 1 960 , F 55) a nd F enga te ( Pryor 1 974 , f ig . 8 .3) a re more o va te i n f orm , b u t s uggest s trong ly t ha t t he t ype b e longed t o t he e ar l ier Neo l ith ic i ndustry . I ndeed s ince t he p ot tery f ro m G rovehurst , K en t ( Payne 1 880) s ee ms o f t he e ar l ier r a ther t han t he l a ter Neo l ith ic ( pace P iggot t 1 954 , 3 04) t he s ubcrescen t ic e xa mp les f ro m h ere c an b e a dded t o t he e ar l ier Neo l ith ic l i st . Af ur ther p ossib le e xa mp le c o mes f ro m East K noy le , Wi lts., o f s ub-crescen t ic f orm , a nd f ound w ith p la in t hough 'f l a t-based ' p ot tery a nd p o l ished f l in t a xes ( Sma l lco mbe 1 937) . Bur ins Bur ins were v ery r are , t hough a r tefacts l i ke t he a n t ler c o mbs must h ave b een made w ith s o me s uch t oo l . T hey h ave b een f ound i n sma l l q uan t it ies o n ly a t Hurst F en , Broo me Hea th , Ha ldon ( W i l lock 1 936 , p l . 6 5, 5 e a nd 5 c) a nd S ta ines ( Rober tson- Mackay 1 962) .

A t H igh P eak a f abr ica tor h ad b ur in b lows

o n i t s e nd ( Po l lard 1 966, f i g . 1 0 . 1 4) .

Fabr ica tors Th ick , D-sect ioned f abr ica tors were c o m mon o n e ar l ier Neo l ith ic s i tes, t yp ica l ly w ith h eav i ly u sed o r b a t tered e nds, a nd g enera l ly w i th l i t t le r e-touch o n t he b u lbar s ur face . Examp les f ro m t he l a ter N eo l ith ic ( a s a t Windm i ll H i l l o r Broo me Hea th) t end t o b e more s lender . L ea f a rrowheads L eaf-shaped p ressure-f laked a rrowheads a re t he h igh p o in t o f t he e ar l ier Eng l ish N eo l ith ic f l in t i ndustry .

T he ma jor ity o f t hese a re p ressure-f laked

a l l o ver b oth f aces . A t t he ir b est , t he f l ake s cars r un p ara l le l t o t he c en tre f ro m t he t wo l ong e dges, a nd t he s tandard o f work mansh ip i s g enera l ly h igh , c ons ider ing t ha t s o me a re u p t o 3o r 4 cm w ide . t he ir e dges a nd t ips .

Af ew a re t r i m med o n ly o n

I ti s u ncer ta in whe ther s o me s uch p o in ts, w i th t he b u lb

o f p ercuss ion r e ta ined , a re t o b e c lass if ied a s a rrowheads a t a l l . Most a rrowheads a re 3t o 5m m t h ick , w i th a f l a t o r l en t icu lar c rosss ect ion . F ew a re s hor ter t han 2 cm , e xcep t a t Cam nBrea , where t he ma jor ity were b e tween 2 a nd 2 .5c m a nd many b e low 2 cm l ong . t a in 5 cm .

E lsewhere l eng ths a t-

A t He mbury t he l argest c o mp le te e xamp le i s 4 .6 cm , b u t ad amaged

e xamp le i s s o me 5 .5 cm l ong .

A t Windm i l l H i l l l i kew ise t he l ongest c o mp le te

e xa mp le i s 4 .2 cm l ong b u t d amaged o nes c ou ld h ave a t tained 6 cm .

T here

a re s im i lar l ong a rrowheads a t Ha ldon , Hazard H i l l, Wh i tehawk a nd T he T rund le . T he ma jor ity o f a rrowheads were l a tera l ly a sym me tr ica l , a nd t he most c o m mon f or m h ad a r ounded b ase a nd r ough ly t r iangu lar t i p . Og iva l t i ps were l ess c o mmon . La tera l ly s ymme tr ica l f orms were o n t he who le l ess c o m mon , b u t t he d oub le p o in ted l ea f s hape was n umerous . a nd a d oub le-ogee s hape r are .

L ozenges were i n frequen t ,

T here d o n ot s eem t o b e a ny r eg iona l o r

c hrono log ica l v ar ia t ions i n s hape i n t he a sse mb lages o f e xcava ted s i tes ; a na lys is u s ing s ur face c o l lect ions a s we l l wou ld b e more s u ited t o d ist ingu ish r eg iona l v ar ia t ions . The l ozenge , f or e xamp le , i s r epresen ted a tb o th Camn Brea a nd Hurst F en . ( I n t he l a ter Neo l ith ic i n Yorksh ire , h owever , i ts ee ms t o h ave b eco me a r eg iona l ised t ype o f h igh q ua l i ty ( P iggot t 1 954) ) . Arrowheads were p len t ifu l a t s o me e nc losures l i ke Cam nBrea ( w ith o ver f i ve h undred ) , He mbury a nd W indm i l l H i l l, a nd a t s o me o ccupa t ion s i tes l i ke Hazard H i l l a nd Hurst F en .

O ther e nc losures l i ke Wh i tehawk o r T he Trund le ,

a nd o ccupa t ion s i tes l i ke Broo me H ea th h ad r e la t ive ly f ew .

Whe ther t h is r e-

f l ects o n t he l eng th a nd d ens i ty o f o ccupa t ion a t e ach s i te , i s u ncer ta in . S ince o ther a r tefacts were n u merous a t Wh itehawk , f or e xa mp le , t h is may n o t b e t he c ase . Ev idence a t He mbury d iscussed e ar i ler s uggested n onloca l manuf acture , a nd t he h igh s tandard o f f i n ish a lso i s c ons isten t w ith s pec ia l ised manufacture . T here may h ave b een s pec ia l ised o r s em i-spec ia l ised makers o f a rrowheads, t he most d ist inct ive f orm o f ar a ther u nd ist ingu ished i ndustry , a nd t he p resence o r a bsence o f s uch c ra f ts men c ou ld e xp la in i n p ar t t he v ary ing n u mbers o f a rrowheads u sed a nd made f ro m s i te t o s i te .

75

M icro l i ths A t s o me s i tes micro l iths h ave b een f ound i n a pparen t a ssoc ia t ion w ith N eo li th ic a sse mb lages . A sma l l q uadrangu lar r od was f ound i n t he i nner d i tch a t Abingdon ( Leeds 1 927 , f ig . 4 , . m ) , r a ther s im i lar t o t hose o f t he l a te Mesol i th ic s i te a t Wawco t t , B erks ( Froo m 1 971-2 ) . An o b l ique ly b lun ted p oin t was f ound a t B roo me H ea th , i na n a rea o f p i ts a nd p o tho les . Sma ll b acked k n ives a t H e mbury a re v ery s im i lar . Ih ave f ound a m icrobur in i n t he a sse mblage o f H e mbury . A l l t hese c ou ld b e e xp la ined a s t he r e l ics o f p rev ious o ccupa t ion , i n v iew o f t heir s parse n umbers . t hese c ou ld b e e xp la in ted a s t he r e l ics o f p rev ious o ccu a t ion , i n v iew o f t he ir s parse n u mbers. M icro l iths h ave a lso b een r epor ted i n a ssoc ia t ion w ith Ebbs f leet p ot tery a t H igh R ocks, K en t ( Money 1 960 , 1 962) w ith t wo e i ther e rroneous o r u nass oc ia ted r ad iocarbon d a tes o f 3 710 + 1 50 b e ( B M-40) , a nd 3 780 + 1 50 b c ( B M9 1) ( t he s i te i s ar ock s he l ter w i th a c onvo lu ted s andy s o i l) , a t Barkha le , S ussex ( unpub l ished e xcava t ions b y S eton Wi l l ia ms) , a t s i te I a t Ebbsf lee t ( S ievek ing 1 960) , a nd a t N or manby Park , L ines ( R i ley 1 973) . T hese a ssoc ia t ions migh t a ga in b e e xp la ined a s b efore ; f or i nstance

t here a re n u merous o ther Meso-

l i th ic s i tes o n Bagmoor n ear N ormanby Park .

B oth l oca l a nd d istan t r aw ma ter ia ls were u sed i n t he s ou th . o f a r tefacts i s h owever c ons isten t ly h o mogeneous .

T he r ange

Not o n ly t he a xes, b u t a lso

t oo ls made a nd u sed l oca l ly were r e markab ly s im i lar o ver t he a rea .

S o me

sma l l d iferences c an b e o bserved , l i ke h o l low s crapers a t He mbury a nd H igh P eak , t he l onger a w ls o f t he s ou th-wes t , k n ives a t H e mbury a nd e lsewhere , t he more n u merous s ide s crapers a t Ma iden Cast le , o r t he o ccurrence o f b ur ins a t Hurst F en a nd Broo me H ea th .

T hese s ee m t o s epara te t he s ou th-

west a l i t t le f ro m t he

H owever , t hese d iferences a re n e-

r est o f t he s ou th .

g l ig ib le b es ide t he a pparen t u n iform ity o f t echn iques o f manu facture a nd t oo l t ypes .

I ti s h ard n ot t o s ee i n t h is s o me c u ltura l u n ity .

7 6

CHAPTER F IVE POTTERY AND OTHER MATER IAL EQU IPMENT

POTTERY Three s ty les o f p o t tery - t he S ou th-wes tern , t he E as tern a nd t he D ecora ted - may b e d e f ined i n t he e ar l ier N eo li th ic o f s ou thern E ng land ( f ig . 1 1) . The S ou th-wes tern , c ons is t ing o f s imple-r i m med u ndecora ted c ups , b ow ls , c ar in a ted b ow ls , j ars a nd n ecked b ow ls , w i th a d is t inc t ive t ubu lar l ug , was d ist r ibu ted f ro m C ornwa l l t o Wi l tsh ire . T he E as tern , c ons is t ing o f u ndecora ted c ups , b ow ls , a nd c ar ina ted b ow ls , w i th h eavy r i ms a nd n o l ugs , was d is tr ibu ted d own t he e as t s ide o f Eng land f ro m Yorksh ire t o E ssex a nd e ven S ussex . The Decora ted , c ons is t ing o f h eavy-r i m med c ups , b ow ls , c ar ina ted b ow ls , a nd j ars , w i th l ugs a nd h and les , v ar ious ly d ecora ted w i th i mpress ions a nd i ncis ions was d is tr ibu ted f ro m E as t Ang lia a cross t o t he C o tswo lds , a nd s ou th a s f ar a s S ussex . A l l t hree were , i ts ee ms , c urren t b y t he l a ter f our th mi l lenn ium b e . S o me d e f in i t ions I nt he d iscuss ion t ha t f o l lows c up a nd b ow l a re u sed t o d eno te v esse ls whose h eigh t d oes n o t e xceed t heir max i mum d ia me ter . Ces a re d e f ined a s h av ing ad ia me ter o f 1 2 cm o r l ess . J ar i s u sed t o d eno te a v esse l whose h e igh t d oes , o r may b e e s t i ma ted t o , e xceed i t s max i mum d ia me ter . An ecked b ow l i s n o t d ef ined b y t hese p ara me ters b u t b y t he e x is tence o f as hor t n eck o f r es tr ic ted d ia me ter a bove a g lobu lar b ody . V esse ls , a s s een i n s ec t ion , may h ave s tra igh t , c onvex , c ar ina ted o r S -prof i led s ides o r wa l ls , a nd a re d e f ined a s o pen o r c losed , when t heir g rea tes t d ia me ter i s a t t he mou th o r a t mid h e igh t r espect ive ly ;

when t he d ia me ter a t m id h e igh t a nd t he mou th a re r ough ly t he s a me

Ir efer t o t he v essel a s n eu tra l .

R i ms may b e s imp le , t h ickened , r ol led .

Heavy r e fers t o p ronounced t h icken ing o r r o l ling . D ecora t ion was a pp lied b ef ore f ir ing , u n less sma l l h o les d r i l led b e low t he r i ms o f v esse ls i n c er ta in a sse mb lages a re t o b e i nc luded a s d ecora t ive . Id is t ingu ish b e tween i nc ised d ecora t ion , made w i th a s troke , a nd i mpressed , i n wh ich t he t oo l was n o t d ragged a cross t he s ur face . The S ou th-wes tern s ty le The S ou th-wes tern s ty le ( Ih ave p re ferred t h is l abe l t o ' He mbury s ty le ' o n ly t o c on tras t i tw i th ' Eas tern s ty le ' wh ich l acks a n e pony mous s i te ) was v irt ua l ly u ndecora ted .

T he n ecked j ar f ro m H e mbury w i th i nc is ions o n i t s r im

a nd f inger-t ip impress ions o n t he b ody s ee ms t o h ave b een u n ique ( one o r t wo o ther b ow l r im s herds f ro m H e mbury b ear l i gh t p ara l le l s cor ings ) . T he s ty le was c haracter ised b y ar a ther r es tr ic ted r ange o f f or ms , wh ich c o mpr ised c ups a nd b ow ls , c ar ina ted b ow ls , j ars , a nd n ecked b ow ls ;

a nd b y s imple r i ms ,

p er fora ted a nd u nper fora ted c y l indr ica l l ugs w i th b o th e xpanded ( s o-ca l led ' t rumpe t ' )

7 7

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a nd u nexpanded e nds , s imp le l ugs , a nd c upped s o l id l ugs .

A t many s i tes -

Gw i th ian , C am nBrea , H azard H i l l , H a ldon , H igh P eak , H embury , Ma iden C as t le , C or fe Mu l len , R obin H ood 's B a l l a nd Wind m i l l H i l l , t o wh ich may b e a dded H a mb ledon H i l l ( i n forma t ion f ro m Mercer ) -a f abr ic w i th n onloca l f i l ler d er ived f ro m t he g abbro i nt he f ar s ou th-wes t o f C ornwa l l h as b een d ist i ngu ished f ro m l oca l f abr ics ( Peacock 1 969 ). Th is g abbroic ware was n ot f ound , o r h as n o t b een d is t ingu ished , a t t he r es t o f t he s i tes w i th p o t tery o f t h is s ty le .

H e mbury ( f ig . 1 2 ) h ad a v ar ie ty o f s imp le , c losed a nd o pen c ups

a nd b ow ls , w i th s i mp le r ounded , p o in ted , o r s l igh t ly e ver ted r i ms . T here was a n o t iceab le s er ies o f s tra igh t-s ided s ha l low o pen c ups a nd b ow ls , a nd s o me r a ther s tra igh t-wa lled d eep o pen b ow ls , o f ten w i th s l igh t ly p o in ted r i ms . C ar ina ted b ow ls were n o t c o mmon ; i ndeed Io n ly c oun ted a d ozen o r s o c ar in a ted s herds . These b ow ls h ad e i ther n eu tra l o r s l igh t ly o pen mou ths , r a ther weak c ar ina t ions a nd s l igh t ly e ver ted r i ms . Af ew b ow ls h ad c ordons r ound t he l ower p ar t o f t he ir b od ies r a ther t han c ar ina t ions . T here was a w ide v ar iety o f j ars , u sua l ly o f mass ive s i ze a nd w i th t h ick wa l ls . These were n eu tra l mou thed w i th s tra igh t-s ided w a l ls a nd s imp le r ounded r i ms ; g lobu lar w i th c losed mou th a nd s i mp le r i ms , o r o ccas iona l ly w i th a t h inned r im ; g lobu lar w i th c losed mou th b u t w i th v ery s hor t r a ther u pr igh t r im ; a nd o f more s inuous p ro f i le , w i th more n eu tra l mou ths a nd s o me t imes a s l igh t ly b eaded r im . The n ecked b ow l a lready r eferred t o h ad a g lobu lar b ody a nd much l onger , s tra igh t n eck , g iv ing a s l igh t ly o pen mou th . T here was a v ar ie ty o f s imple u nper fora ted l ugs , wh ich s ee m t o h ave b een u sua l ly s e t h igh o n v esse ls , n o t f ar b e low t he r im .

These were sma l l a nd l arge ;

r ound , o va l , f l a t-topped ( mos t o f ten f ound

o n l arge v esse ls ) , o r w i th d epressed t op . Af ew s i mp le o va l l ugs h ad sma l l s ing le v er t ica l p er fora t ions . T he d is t inc t ive c upped l ug was f ound a t H e mbury t oo , t hough i t was r are . I ti s n o t p oss ib le t o d ec ide whe ther i t was s e t w i th t he c upped f ace u pwards o r d ownwards . T here was a s er ies o f c lass ic t rumpe t l ugs , h igh s e t o n d eep c on ica l o pen b ow ls a nd o n c ar ina ted b ow ls , a nd If ound o ne ( unnumbered ) u nper fora ted s o l id t rumpe t l ug . T here was a lso a sma l l r ound s trap h and le .

Gabbro ic ware , wh ich i n P eacock 's s a mp le c ons t i tu ted

s o me t en p er c en t , w as f ine , w e l l made a nd c are fu l ly f in ished , a nd c on ica l o pen b ow ls a nd c ar ina ted b ow ls w ere t he mos t c o mmon f or ms . H owever , n o t a l l f ine ware was g abbro ic ; If ound t rumpe t l ugs , c ar ina t ions , ac ordon , a nd a f ine c on ica l o pen b ow l i nf ine w e l l made l oca l f abr ics t oo . O f o ther s i tes w i th r easonab ly s ized a sse mblages , C am nB rea , H azard H i l l a nd H a ldon were c loser i n d e ta i l t o H e mbury t han Ma iden C as t le o r Wind m i l l H i l l , t hough n one o f t hese h ad t he v ar ie ty o f g lobu lar j ars o f H e mbury , a nd n one h ad t he t ype w i th t h inned r im . C am nB rea ( on t he b as is o f as a mple k ind ly made a va i lab le b y R . Mercer ) h ad c ups a nd b ow ls , c ar ina ted b ow ls , j ars ( t hough t he wea thered c ond i t ion o f much o f t he p o t tery made t hese s ee m r are ) , a nd s herds o f an ecked j ar w i th a c oncave n eck .

Many r i ms o n c ups , b ow ls a nd

c ar ina ted b ow ls were s l igh t ly e ver ted , a s we l l a s s i mp le , a nd l ugs were a ga in h igh-se t , a s o n af ine d eep o pen c on ic l b ow l . T he a sse mb lage may b e d ist inguished f ro m H e mbury b y t he g rea ter n umber o f c ar ina ted s herds a nd t he g rea ter r ange o f c y lindr ica l l ugs , s ince a s we l l a s t rumpe t f orms , t here were t ubu lar e xa mples a nd o nes w i th c ons tr ic ted e nds g iv ing a c onvex o u t l ine when s een f ro m a bove . F or ms a t H a ldon , b ow ls , c ar ina ted b ow ls a nd g lobu lar j ars , ma tched t hose a t H e mbury , t hough were n o t s o v ar ied , b u t t here s ee m t o h ave b een more c ar ina ted s herds h ere t oo . 7 9

( -

I \ _ J )

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/ 72

I

0

F ig . 1 2.

1 0 cm P ot tery f ro m He mbury .

The r ange o f H azard H i l l a lso ma tched p ar t o f t he r ange o f H e mbury . T here was a n o tched l ug , s im i lar t o t hose f ound a t Windm i l l H i l l , wh ich c an b e d ist ingu ished f ro m t rumpe t l ugs . Ma iden C as t le a nd Wind m i l l H i l l may b e d is t ingu ished f ro m H e mbury b y t he r ar i ty o f c ar ina ted f or ms ( Io n ly c oun ted f our s uch s herds a t t he f or mer , a nd f ew a re r epor ted f or t he l a t ter ( Sm i th 1 965 ) a nd o f s imple e ver ted r i ms . R i ms w ere more o f ten s i mp le o rb eaded , a nd s ome t imes f la t-topped o r e xt erna l ly b eve l led . T here were c upped n o tched l ugs a t Wind m i l l H i l l , b u t n o t a t Ma iden C as t le , t hough t he l a t ter d id h ave more s o l id t rumpe t l ugs t han H e mb ury . S ou th-wes tern s ty le p o t tery a t Wind m i l l H i l l c an b e d is t ingu ished f ro m o ther p o t tery o f t he D ecora ted s ty le . I t was made i nt hree wares - g abbroic ( two s herds , w i th b urn ish ) , l oca l ( f l in t- s and- a nd s he l l-gr i t ted ) a nd o o l i t ic ( t he f i l ler f or t he l a t ter b e ing d er ived f ro m t he B a th-Fro me a rea ) . T here were a lso f or ms p ecu l iar t o t he s i te i t se lf , s uch a s b ow ls w i th a ' t humb g roove ' b elow t he r im , c ar ina ted b ow ls l i ke t hose i n t he s ou th-wes t b u t w i th d ecora t ion , i n t he manner o f p o t tery a t A bingdon a nd o ther s i tes , a nd d ecora ted b ow ls ( Sm i th 1 965 ). Amongs t a n a sse mb lage o f s i mple-r i m med b ow ls f ro m H a mb ledon H i l l ( Bonney e xcava t ions ) was a r im s herd w i th r ounded r im a nd , i ts ee ms , ab ou ton a u r epousse e t hough t he e x terna l k nob was s l igh t ly d a maged . Ih ave n o t s een s uch b u t tons e lsewhere i n s ou thern Eng land , wh ich i n ab ad ly d a maged s ta te wou ld b e i nd is t ingu ishab le f ro m s i mp le p er fora t ions . C legyr B oia i n P e mbrokesh ire h ad c upped l ugs wh ich r ese mb le t hose i n t he S ou th-wes tern s ty le , a s w el l a s l igh t-r i m med c ar ina ted o pen b ow ls .

H ow-

e ver , t he s ty le c anno t b e s a id t o b e d is tr ibu ted t h is f ar , s ince t h is a sse mb lage a lso i nc luded h eavy-r i m med c ar ina ted b owls , s o me w i th r im d ecora t ion , wh ich h ave e as tern o r e ven I r ish a f f in i t ies . C losed c ar ina ted b ow ls w i th s i mp le r i ms f ro m t he S wee t T rack i n t he S o mers e t L eve ls s ee m t o h ave h ad a d e l ibera te s ur face c oa t ing a ppl ied , a s ap a in t r a ther t han a s l ip ; s im i lar t echn iques h ave b een o bserved o n g abbro ic v essels f ro m H e mbury a nd C am nB rea ( Sm i th i n C o les a nd Orme 1 976 ). Asse mb lages o f t he S ou th-wes tern s ty le h ave b een d a ted t o t he l a te f our th mi l lenn ium b e a t H embury , C am nB rea , a nd i n t he S o merse t L eve ls ; a nd t o t he e ar ly t h ird mi l lenn ium b e a t C adbury C a me lo t , H igh P eak , Hazard H i l l , H a mb led on H i l l , a nd i n t he p re-bank o ccupa t ion o f Windm i l l H i l l . T here a re i nd icat ions t ha t t he s ty le l as ted a t l eas t i n to t he mid t h ird mi l lenn ium b e . P eacock 's d iscovery t ha t t he o r ig in o f n onloca l f i l lers was i n g abbroic c lay f ro m t he L izard i n C ornwa l l i s o f ma jor impor tance . H is s a mp ling o f s i tes f ro m C ornwa l l t o Wi l tsh ire s hows t ha t t he p ercen tage o f n on-loca l f ine ware i nt he a sse mblages s tud ied d ecreases w i th d is tance f ro m t he L izard . H e s ugges ted t ha t t he a pparen t ly r es tr ic ted r ange o f f or ms o f t h is f ine ware r u led o u t move men t o f c lay a s r aw ma ter ia l , a nd t ha t t he mechan is m i nvo lved migh t h ave b een o rgan ised t rade i np o ts . t he S ou th-wes tern s ty le .

T h is h as o n ly b een r ecogn ised s o f ar i n

T he r ange o f f or ms i nvo lved was n o t , i ts ee ms , q u i te s o r es tr ic ted a s h e s ugges ted , s ince s herds s hown t o b e o f t h is f ine ware f ro m Ma iden C as t le a nd H azard H i l l , f or e xa mp le , c a me f ro m a v ar ie ty o f b ow ls a nd c ar ina ted 8 1

b ow ls , a nd t he c ar ina ted b ow l i l lus tra ted b y P eacock was a n u nusua l t ype , w i th ar a ther l ow-se t c ar ina t ion .

I ti s more s a t is fac tory t o r u le o u t t he move men t

o f r aw c lay o n t he p e tro log ica l g rounds s ugges ted b y P eacock , t ha t i n n o c ase h ad l oca l f i l lers s uch a s f l in t b een i nc luded i n t he f abr ics o f t hese v esse ls , wh ich c ou ld b e e xpec ted d ur ing l oca l manu fac ture .

( I t wou ld b e u nw ise t o r u le

o u t t he move men t o f r aw ma ter ia l i n t he N eo l i th ic a p r ior i , s ince P iggo t t h as n o ted t he u se o f o o l i te s labs i n t he c ons truct ion o f t he Wes t Kenne t l ong b arrow a nd o thers i n t he a rea , c er ta in ly d er ived f ro m t he Ba th-Fro me a rea ( 1962 , 5 8 ) ; c ores a nd o ther p ieces o f g roup V I I r ock f ro m G ra ig L lwyd h ave b een r epor ted i n G louces tersh ire ( Evens e t a l . 1 962 , 2 17 ) t hough i ti s u ncer ta in whether t hese d er ive f ro m f in ished a xes o r n o t) .

The r ecen t ly e xcava ted a sse mb lage f ro m

C a m B rea i nc luded much f ine ware , wh ich Ic ons ider t o b e o f g abbro ic o r ig in . Th is k ind o f ware h ere h owever i nc ludes f l in t , a nd t hus t he move men t o f c lay w i th in s ou th-wes t C ornwa l l r e ma ins a p oss ib i l i ty . Moreover , t he p ercen tages o n P eacock 's map r e fer t o t he f ine i mpor ted ware a s ap ercen tage o f t he t o ta l p o t tery a sse mb lage a t e ach s i te .

H owever

i ft he f ine impor ted ware i s c ons idered a s ap ercen tage o n ly o f t he f ine ware o f e ach s i te , a more empha t ic p ic ture emerges .

Thus a t H e mbury , f or e xa mp le ,

mos t o f t he f ine ware , i nc lud ing c ar ina ted b ow ls , c on ica l b ow ls a nd t ru mpe t l ugs , s ee ms t o h ave b een o f impor ted f abr ic . T ru mpe t l ugs ( e .g . P3 45 , P7 7 ) , c ar ina t ions ( P 3 35 ) a nd c on ica l b ow ls ( P 1 26 , P1 04 ) were made i n ar easona b ly f ine l oca l ware , b u t r epresen t l ess t han a t h ird o f t he f iner p ot tery a t t h is s i te . A t Hazard H i l l , t he l oca l f ine ware was i n e ven l ower p ropor t ions . Ma iden C as t le h as l i t t le f ine ware , b u t mos t o f i ts ee ms t o h ave b een impor ted . C ons idera t ion o f t he n on-loca l f ine ware i n t h is way s treng thens P eacock 's s ugges t ion o f s pecia l ised p roduc t ion a nd o rgan ised e xchange .

The r e la t ionsh ip

b e tween p ercen tage o f t he t o ta l a sse mb lage a nd d is tance f ro m s ource , a s s ugg es ted b y P eacock 's map , i s c o mpa t ib le w i th a d is tr ibu t ion o f t he p o t tery b y means o f u nd irec ted move men t , s uch a s e xchange f ro m c o m mun i ty t o n e ighbouri ng c o m mun i ty . Th is k ind o f move men t h as b een c a l led ' rando m f l igh t ' ( Hogg 1 971 ) a nd ' downthel ine ' e xchanges o f t h is k ind h ave b een d iscussed b y H odder ( 1974 ) .

H owever , s een i n t he way Is ugges t , t he p ercen tages a re more c o m-

p a t ib le , a t l eas t a t H e mbury , Hazard H i l l a nd Ma iden C as t le , w i th p urpose fu l e xchange .

A l l t hree s i tes - a nd i ndeed mos t o f t he o thers w i th impor ted p o t-

t ery - were q u i te c lose t o t he s ea .

L ong d is tance t rade b y s ea o f t he k ind

d escr ibed b y N ick l in i n t he P aci f ic ( 1971) i nt he r ecen t p as t i s t hus a p oss ib i l i ty .

O ther i ns tances o f n on-loca l p o t tery , s uch a s t he wares w i th o o l i te

f i l ler f ro m t he Ba th-Fro me r eg ion a t Wind m i l l H i l l , may a lso r epresen t more o rgan ised e xchanges a nd n o t s i mp ly o ccas iona l v is i ts b y o ther c o mmun i t ies o r r ando m e xchanges . The E as tern s ty le Asse mb lages o f v ir tua l ly u ndecora ted , w e l l- made f requen t ly b urn ished p o tt ery were c harac ter is t ic o f t he e as t o f Eng land . Decora t ion was c on f ined t o f lu t ing o nt he i ns ide o f r i ms , g enera l ly t hose o f o pen b ow ls . were n o t u sed .

Lugs a nd h and les

There were f ewer j ars t han i n t he S ou th-wes tern s ty le , b u t

t he w ide r ange o f c ar ina ted b ow ls i nc luded b oth o pen a nd c losed f orms . were n eu tra l , o pen a nd S -pro f i led .

B ow ls

R i ms w ere g enera l ly r o l led o u twards , o f ten

w i th a b ead ing . 8 2

These a sse mb lages h ave many s im i lar i t ies t o p o t tery f ro m b arrows i n Y orks h ire , a nd f ro m b arrows a nd s e t t le men ts i n S co t land a nd i n I re land , a nd o n t h is b as is t he who le s er ies h as b een r e ferred t o a s t he Gr i ms ton-Ly les H i l l s tyle ( e .g . Wa inwr igh t 1 972 , Sm i th 1 974b ) .

H owever , s ince b o th t ype-s i tes

i n t h is l abe l l i e o u ts ide s ou thern Eng land , Ip re fer t o u se h ere t he t er m ' Eas tern s ty le ' , wh ich may n one the less b e s een a s ac o mponen t o f aw ider s ty le . The l arge a sse mb lage f ro m B roo me H ea th ( Wa inwr igh t 1 972 ) s howed n o d isc ern ib le v ar ia t ions i n t he a pparen t ly l ong h is tory o f t he s i te ( f ig . 1 3 ) .

As we l l

a s o pen c ar ina ted b ow ls a nd o pen S -pro f i led b ow ls , s im i lar t o t hose i n Y orks h ire b arrows , s uch a s Hang ing G r i ms ton o r H es ler ton ( Newb ig in 1 937 ) , i t i nc luded a w ide r ange o f o ther f or ms n o t d epos i ted i nb arrows . b ow ls made u p a l mos t h a l f o f t he a sse mb lage . - mos t c o m mon ly - o pen . q uen t ly c oncave .

They were n eu tra l , c losed , a nd

T he ir n ecks c ou ld b e s tra igh t b u t were more f re-

R i ms were r are ly much t h ickened , b u t r a ther were r o l led

s trong ly o u twards , e ven o n t he c losed v esse ls . r a ther t han r o l led .

C ar ina ted

A sma l l p ropor t ion were h ooked

The o ther t wo ma in c o mponen ts o f t he a sse mb lage were

n eu tra l b ow ls , a nd S -pro f i led b ow ls , w i th w ide o pen mou ths a nd f lar ing r ol led r i ms . Fenga te ( Sm i th 1 974b ) h ad o pen b ow ls a nd o pen c ar ina ted b ow ls w i th s tra igh t f lar ing n ecks a nd f lu ted r i ms . o n t he i ns ide ;

The r i ms were l i t t le e ver ted b u t s l igh t ly t h ickened

o ne d escr ibed a s h ooked i s l ess s o t han Broo me H ea th e xa mp les ,

a nd i s more s im i lar t o e ver ted r i ms o f t he S ou th-wes tern s ty le .

There were

n o c losed c ar ina ted b ow ls i n t he a sse mb lage wh i le t he b ow l w i th r ounded s hou lders a nd s hort o pen n eck h ad n o e xac t c oun terpar t a t B roo me Hea th . There was a w ider v ar ie ty o f f or ms i n t he l arger a sse mb lage f ro m S wa le 's Tu mu lus , S u f fo lk ( Br iscoe 1 956 ) , wh ich i nc luded n eu tra l b ow ls , S -pro f i led b ow ls w i th f lar ing r o l led r i ms , a nd c ar ina ted b ow ls w i th r ounded s hou lders r a ther t han t he s harp c ar ina t ions o f many o f t he Broo me H ea th v esse ls , s hor t o pen n ecks a nd r o l led , s l igh t ly t h ickened r i ms ( e .g . Br iscoe 1 956 , f ig . 8 ) . As wel l a s t hree r i ms w i th i n terna l f lu t ing , t here were d ecora ted s herds at h ickened r im w i th i nc ised o b l ique l ines ( i b id . ,f ig . 5 ) a nd r ounded s hou lders w i th b ands o f s ha l low c ircu lar impress ions ( i b id ., f igs 7 a nd 1 9 ) . The f l ar ing c oncave n ecks o f o pen b ow ls f ro m Wingha m , K en t ( Green f ield 1 960 , f igs 1 1 , 4a nd 1 1, 7 ) , w i th f lu t ing o n s i mple r i ms , a re v ery l ike t hose o f Fenga te , wh i le h ooked r i ms ( f ig . 1 1 , 5 ) a nd S -pro fi led b ow ls w i th f lar ing r i ms a re t ypica l o f t he s ty le a s a who le .

The sma l l a sse mb lages f ro m S h ippea

H i l l ( C lark a nd G odw in 1 962 ) a nd t he C hesnu t 's t o mb , Add ing ton ( A lexander 1 961 ) ma tch p ar t o f t he r ange o f f or ms i n t he l arger a sse mb lages , b u t t he c oncave o pen n ecks o f t he f or mer , o r t he s i mp le c ar ina t ion o f t he l a t ter ( f ig . 2 , 4 1 ) a re n o t b y t he mse lves d iagnos t ic .

B o th h owever h ave r o l led , h ooked a nd

t h ickened r i ms . C la i ms h ave b een made f or t he i nc lus ion o f t he p o t tery f ro m N ew B arn Down ( Curwen 1 934b ) a nd C issbury ( C lark a nd P iggo t t 1 933 ) i n S ussex , a nd H and ley Down i n D orse t ( P iggo t t 1 936 ) i n t h is s ty le ( e .g . b y Sm i th 1 974b ) .

The c ar i-

n a ted b ow ls f ro m N ew B arn D own a re n o t d iagnos t ic , s ince t he ir r i ms were s i mp le a nd t he ir mou ths h ard ly o pen .

The C issbury c ar ina ted b ow l a nd t he

S -pro f i led b ow l f ro m H and ley D own a re i ndeed more o pen , a nd t he l a t ter h as af ine f l ar ing r im , b u t t hey were i sola ted f inds , a nd h ard ly s upport t he e x tens ion 8 3

S t

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-

2 Oc m

F ig . 1 3 .

P ot tery f ro m Broo me Hea th ( a f ter Wainwr igh t ).

o f t he s ty le s o f ar s outh a s c la i med.

Is ugges t t hat c en tral K en t i s a s f ar

s outh a s t yp ica l a sse mb lages o f t he s ty les w ere f ound.

S ou thwards t he p o t-

t ery was e ither s i mp ler o r l ike S ussex a sse mb lages ( see b elow ), w ith a l oca l v ar ian t o f p la in-r i m med b ow ls w ith i rregu lar S -pro f i les ( Dunn ing 1 966 ). Even i n n orth K en t , s o me a sse mb lages, l ike G rovehurst ( Payne 1 880 ) w ere n o t t yp ica l o f t he Eastern s ty le , b e ing much s i mp ler.

I n M idd lesex , i n t he

Ch il terns a nd t he Tha mes v a l ley , t he Decorated s ty le r ep laced t he Eastern . However , p ot tery a sse mb lages i n Yorksh ire , e astern a nd s outh-western S cot land a nd n orthern I reland w ere s im ilar t o t hose o f t he Eastern s ty le. Y orksh ire p o ttery c a me, mos t c onsp icuous ly , f ro m b arrows.

I t i nc luded

o pen c ar inated b ow ls w ith f l ar ing r i ms , w ithout l ugs o r d ecora t ion , a nd o pen S -prof i led , w ith s im i lar r i ms.

C losed f or ms w ere n o t f ound.

P iggot t 's

' Gr i mston ' a nd ' Hesierton ' w ares ( 1954 ) h ave b een ama lga mated i n to o ne ' Gri mston ware ', t o d eno te t he r ange o f f ine p o t tery ( Manby 1 970 ) ,b u t Manby 's s ugges t ion t hat t here w as s t i l l as eparate c lass o f s i mp ler p o t tery , o f b ow l f o f or m w ith u ndeveloped r i ms ( related e ven t o H e mbury ware ), a nd a ssoc iated w ith i nhu mat ion b ur ia ls a s a t Tow thorpe, must b e t reated w i th c au t ion.

Much

o f t he I r ish western N eo l ith ic p o t tery w ith i t s c ar inated b ow ls a nd a bsence o f d ecorat ion a nd l ugs — t he L y les H il l s ty le o f P iggo t t ( 1954 ) ( Case 's d ef in it ion o f Ly les H il l ware was more r estr icted ( 1961) )s ee ms s im ilar, a l though much o f t he I r ish p o ttery h ad h eav ier r i ms a nd s harper, l edge l ike e ar ina t ions.

I n

s outh-western S cot land , a s a t L uce S ands ( Mc Innes 1 963-4, f i gs. 1 a nd 2 ) s trong r ese mb lance c an b e s een i n t he N eo l ith ic p o t tery t o I r ish p o t tery , i n s harp a nd l edged c ar inat ions, a nd h eav ier r i ms.

P o t tery f ro m many o ther

p arts o f S co t land may b e a ss im ila ted t o t h is s a me g eneral s ty le ( e .g. Mc Innes 1 969 , 1 9 ).

The b ow ls f rom P itnacree h owever ( Co les a nd S i mpson 1 965, f ig.

4 .1) w ere n o t o f d iagnost ic f or m, a nd o ne h ad a p erforated l ug . Asse mb lages o f t he Eastern s ty le were f ound i n e arly d ated c on tex ts i n East Ang l ia — a t B roo me H ea th , F engate, a nd S h ippea H i l l.

Pot tery o f t he

w ider G r i mston-Ly les H il l s ty le h as b een f ound i n f ourth m il lenn iu m b c c ont ex ts i n Yorksh ire a nd n orthern I reland.

The e ar l iest d a tes f ro m B a l lynag il ly

a re h ard ly s eparab le f ro m t he e ar l iest d ate f or Broome Heath.

The s er ies

o f d ates f rom Broome Heath i nd icates a l ong l i fe f or t he Eastern s ty le.

The

l ate d ate o f t he S kendelby l ong b arrow i n L inco lnsh ire, wh ich c on ta ined s im ilar p ot tery , s upports t h is.

S im ilar p o t tery a pparen t ly i n d irec t a ssoc iat ion w ith

Grooved Ware i n ab orrow t rench o n al ate N eo l ith ic s et t le men t s i te a t S tacey B ishes, Bucks

( Green 1 976 ) h as b een d ated t o 1 850 ± 1 50 b e ( HAR 858 ) . There

a re s im i lar i nd icat ions o f al ong l i fe i n n orthern I reland , w ith l a te d a tes f rom c ha mbered t o mbs s uch a s B a l lyu toag , c o. An tr im ( 2160 + 3 00bc ) ( D-48 ) )a nd Annaghmare, c o. Ar magh ( 2445 ± 5 5 b e ( UB 241 ) ) . There h ave b een n o s tud ies i nd icat ive o f t rade i n t h is s ty le o f p ot tery , b ut t h is w il l b e f urther d iscussed a t t he e nd o f t he c hapter. The Decorated s ty le The Decorated s ty le w as d istr ibu ted i n E ast Ang l ia , c en tra l s outhern Eng land , t he Cotswo lds a nd S ussex .

A n u mber o f r eg iona l v ar ian ts may b e

d ist ingu ished , b ut c o m mon t o t he m a l l w ere h eavy-r i m med c ar inated b ow ls a nd t he u se o f d ecora t ion. t ed.

Abou t t h irty p er c en t o f e ach a sse mb lage was d ecora-

W ind m i l l H i l l , w ith a bout f i f ty p er c en t o f i t s v esse ls d ecorated s eems

t o r epresen t t he u pper l im it . 8 5

The East Ang l ian v ar ian t o f t he s ty le c a l led ' M ildenha lP b y P iggo t t ( 1954 ) i s n ow b est r epresen ted b y t he a sse mb lage f rom Hurst F en , S u f fo lk ( Clark e t a l. 1 960 ).

Ano ther t yp ica l a sse mb lage c a me f ro m Eaton H eath , N orfo lk

( Wa inwr igh t 1 973 ) ( f ig . 1 4 ).

There w ere n eu tra l , o pen , a nd S -pro f i led b ow ls

w ith d eveloped r i ms , af ew o pen c ar inated b ow ls, a nd a s er ies o f c losed o r n eu tral , h eavy-r i m med c ar inated b ow ls.

Decorat ion w as v irtua l ly c onf ined

t o t h is l at ter f or m, wh ich h as t hus c o me t o b e t he d iagnost ic v esse l o f t he East Ang l ian v ar ian t . s i mp le b ow l.

A t Hurst F en o n ly o ne d ecorated v esse l , P 44, was a

Decorat ion w as s et o n r i ms, n ecks , s hou lders a nd b od ies.

R i ms w ere d ecorated b y i nc ised o b l ique o r t ransverse p ara l lel l ines. N ecks b ore i nc ised a nd f l u ted d iagona l a nd v ert ical l i nes, o r h or izon ta l b ands o f s hor t j abs. d eeper j abs.

S hou lders h ad r elat ive ly n arrow b ands o f s hal low i mpress ions o r U sua l ly t h is b and w as c on t inuous , b ut w as b roken i n to metopes

o n s o me p o ts, a s a t Eaton H eath , a nd i n o ne c ase h ad p endan t mo t ifs h ang ing f ro m i t( Hurst Fen , P 53 ). b ody b y v ert ica l i nc is ions.

Decorat ion w as o ccas iona l ly c on t inued d own t he The s a me t echn ique was u sed o n t he u pper p art

o f t he i n ter ior o f s ome o f t hese b ow ls.

Though t he d ecorat ive s cheme was

r egu lar ly z oned i n t h is w ay , i t was o ccas iona l ly v ar ied , a s b y s hor t d iagona l s trokes o n t he n eck o f ab ow l f rom Eaton H ea th ( P25 ), o r b y t he a dd it ion o f a n arrow z one o f impress ions b etween n eck a nd s hou lder z ones o n a no ther b ow l f ro m t h is s ite ( P14 ) o r b y h or izon ta l i nc ised l i nes c ut t ing a cross d iagona l i nc is ions o n t he s hou lder o f ab ow l f ro m H urst F en ( P46 ). S i mp le l ugs s ee m t o h ave b een r are. b ow l f ro m a s haf t a t Eaton H eath ( P 1). b ut t hese t oo w ere h ard ly p len t ifu l.

There were r ound b ut tons o n a n o pen

P erforated l ugs were t he u sual k ind ,

They i nc luded smal l r ound s trap h and les ,

a nd l arger b road s trap h and les wh ich merged more g radual ly w ith t he c ircu mf erence o f t he ir v essels ;

t he sma l ler v ar iety was s et v ert ical ly a nd h or izon-

t a l ly , b u t t he l arger p erhaps o n ly h or izon ta l ly . The FusselPs L odge b ow l ( Ashbee 1 966 ) ( f ig . 1 5 ) c an b e r e lated t o t h is s ty le b y i t s c losed c ar inated f or m , a nd i t s d ecorat ion o f v ert ica l i nc is ions o n t he c oncave n eck a nd o n t he s hou lder.

I t s r im h owever was l i t t le d eveloped ,

t he b ow l l acked t he s hou lder b and o f impress ions , a nd h ad o n t he s houlder t wo l ugs w ith t wo v ert ica l p erfora t ions.

I tw as a ssoc iated i n t he b ur ia l d epos it

o f t he b arrow w ith a n eutra l d ecorated b ow l.

O ther v essels, wh ich i t was

s uggested were d er ived f ro m t he c o l lapsed mor tuary s tructure, i nc luded t wo d eep p o ts w ith t h ickened r i ms d ecorated w ith i nc is ions o n t he b ody ( l ike b ow ls f ro m Wind m i l l H il l , e .g . P 135 ), a nd a c r iss-cross l at t ice p at tern o n t he i ns ide o f o ne, a nd a c ar inated b ow l w ith a n e longated v er t ical ly p erfora ted l ug , s l igh t ly t h ickened r im d ecorated w ith i nc is ions, a nd t hree o r f our r ows o f impress ions a str ide t he c ar inat ion , i n t he manner o f Ab ingdon v esse ls. There was l i t t le p o t tery f ro m t he p r i mary s i l ts o f t he q uarry d i tches o f t he L a mbourn b arrow b ut t h is d id i nclude a s herd o f as hel l-gr it ted b ow l w i th ah eavy T -shaped r i m (Wymer 1 965-6, f ig . 7 ) . S herds f ro m a d epos it b etween t he p r i mary a nd s econdary f i l l ing o f t he d itches i ncluded o ther T-r i ms, o ne w ith a s er ies o f w idely s paced i mpress ions a nd a f ine c ar inat ion , c oncave n eck a nd e verted r i m. The p ot tery f rom Ab ingdon ( Leeds 1 927, 1 928;

Case 1 956 ), p redo m inan t ly

s hel l-gr it ted b ut o ccas iona l ly f l in t-gr it ted , c o mpr ised s i mp le c ups a nd b ow ls , 8 6

0 0 0

* 0

0

0 0 a a e

a 0

0

0

0

0 •

0 c s

a

d i g

7 7 r ; ; ' pm

F ig . 1 4.

P ottery f ro m Ea ton Hea th ( a f ter Wa inwr igh t ).

Az o

f l i iza mk . iimme d r ad oe r

1

0

F ig . 1 5 .

1 4 5 cm

P o t tery f ro m Fusse l l 's L odge ( a f ter Ashbee ) .

u sua l ly n eutral , r arely o pen a nd s omet i mes c losed. b ow ls h ad a r ather h igh-set c , ar inat ion .

S o me o f t he c ar inated

The ma jor ity o f r i ms w ere s trong ly

d eve loped , b e ing s trong ly o u t-turned , t h ickened a nd e ven T -shaped , a nd h eavy r i ms were f ound w ith a l l f or ms o f v essel. b lage w as d ecorated , a t l east o n t he r i ms. j ars h ad b ody d ecorat ion a s w el l.

About a t h ird o f t he a sse m-

N o t o n ly c ar inated b ow ls b ut d eep

L ugs w ere c o m mon , a nd most w ere s i mp le,

whether smal l o r l arge, o va l o r r ound.

Sma l l r ound s trap h and les w ere s et

e ither h or izon ta l ly ( e.g . P 10 ) o r v ert ica l ly o n c ar inated b ow ls ( e .g . P 2 ). R im d ecorat ion c ons isted o f o b l ique o r t ransverse l ines a s o n East Ang l ian p ots b u t t hese were n ot o n ly i nc ised a s i n East Ang l ia b u t made b y i mpress ions o f t w isted c ord , o r s i mp le p o in ts.

Af ew n ecks b ore v ert ical f l ut ing ( e .g . P 4,

P 50 ), b ut d ecorat ion o n t he u pper p arts o f v essels c ons isted ma in ly o f r ows , u p t o f ive i n n u mber , o f c ircu lar i mpress ions o r j abs. o ccas iona l ly u sed.

N a il impress ions were

One mo t if w as f or med b y c urv ing l ines o f impressed d o ts.

S hou lders, wh ich w ere l ess p ronounced t han i n East Ang l ia , b ore r ows, u sua l ly t wo i n n u mber, o f r ound i mpress ions , o r s hort o b l ique i nc is ions.

P 87 h ad

t hree r ows o f t r iangu lar i mpress ions. F lut ing o n t he b ody b e low t h is z one , a s o n t he S -prof iled b ow l P 10, w as r are.

There was a l i t t le v er t ica l f l ut ing o n

t he i n ter ior o fj ars. T he p ot tery f ro m Ab ingdon was s im ilar t herefore t o t hat f ro m Hurst F en a nd o ther East Ang l ian s i tes , b u t i t s d ecorat ion was l ess p rofuse a nd i t s r ange o f f orms a nd l ugs w ider. S im i lar p o ttery , i n l oca l , o o l it ic a nd s hel l-gr it ted ware, w as p resen t i n l arge q uan t it ies i n t he d itches o f Wind m il l H il l ( Sm ith 1 965 ).

There w ere s ome

f or ms p ecu l iar t o Wind m i l l H il l i t sel f ( 1965 , 6 9 ) b ut d ecora t ive t reat men t was g eneral ly s im i lar t o o ther a sse mb lages o f t h is s ty le.

A s im i lar k ind o f d ecora-

t ed p o ttery was a lso f ound a t S ta ines ( Robertson- Mackay 1 965, p l. LX I I I ) . The a ssemb lage f ro m Wh itelea f b arrow , Bucks ( Ch ilde a nd Sm ith 1 954 ) h ad many t ra i ts s im ilar t o t he Ab ingdon a nd East Ang l ian v ar ian ts , t hough a lso t o p o t tery f rom Ebbsf leet .

However, t he a sse mblage f rom Ma iden Bower, Beds. ( P iggot t

1 931, f ig . 6 ) was most s im i lar t o t ha t f ro m Ab ingdon , a nd i nc luded h eavy r i ms , d ecorat ion i n n arrow i mpressed b ands, a nd s trap h and les o n c ar inated b ow ls. T he p ot tery f rom Wh itehawk ( f igs. 1 6 a nd 1 7 ), S ussex ( Ross Wil l ia mson 1 930 ;

Curwen 1 934a , 1 936 ) w as, i ts ee ms, r elated t o t hese d ecorated a sse m-

b lages t o t he n orth , a s P iggot t s uggested ( 1954 ), t hough i th ad c ons iderab le v ar iety o f f or m.

I t s f or ms i nc luded s i mp le a nd o pen c ups, s i mp le , a nd o pen

b ow ls , w ith c on ica l p rof i les a nd h eavy o ut-turned r i ms, s o me S -pro f iled o pen b ow ls , c losed a nd g lobu lar b ow ls a nd v ery s ha l low b ow ls.

There w ere a lso

r im s herds b elong ing t o v essels o f u ncerta in f or m w ith h eavy o ut-turned r i ms, s o me f l at-topped.

The most c o m mon f or m w as a n e x tre me ly we l l made , o f ten

l arge , c ar inated o pen b ow l , w ith r a ther s tra igh t n eck a nd a t h ickened b u t r are ly o ut-turned r i m.

There w ere a lso a f ew n ecked j ars , a nd o ne o r t wo

d eep j ars. There was a v ar iety o f s i mp le l ugs, r ound a nd o va l , o f wh ich t he most c om mon was l arge, a nd o va l , a nd merged o n ly g radua l ly w ith t he c ircu mfere nce o f t he v esse l.

Th is w as o f ten s et o n t he c ar inat ion o f o pen b ow ls. S o me

sma l ler o va l l ugs were v ert ica l ly p erfora ted , a nd t here was a lso o ne sma l l s trap h and le s et h or izon ta l ly . 8 9

0

1 5c m

F ig . 1 6.

P ot tery f ro m Wh i tehawk .

9

i , o, Z D EN F ig . 1 7.

P ot tery f ro m Wh i tehawk .

Decora t ion was a pp l ied t o most o pen c ar ina ted b ow ls, a nd a lso t o s o me o ther b ow ls.

I t was a ga in z oned a s a t o ther s i tes d iscussed , t hough i n a

r ather f reer f ash ion.

R i ms , b o th s i mp le a nd d eveloped , w ere d ecorated w ith

o b l ique o r t ransverse i nc is ions.

One h ad r ows o f c o mb impress ions, a nd

a no ther l arge f inger-t ip i mpress ions.

N ecks o f s hou ldered b ow ls a nd t he

u pper p arts o f o ther b ow ls b ore v ert ica l a nd d iagona l f lu t ing ( i n o ne i nstance i n t wo s eparate b ands ), a nd a lso r ows o f t r iangu lar a nd c ircu lar i mpress ions , a nd o ccas iona l ly n a il i mpress ions.

Mo t ifs , r ather t han b ands, w ere f ormed

b y i n terconnect ing l ines o f c ircu lar i mpress ions a nd c urv il inear a rrange men ts o f f inger-t ip i mpress ions.

S hou lders b ore d iagona l i nc is ions, s hort o b l ique

i nc is ions, o b l ique f lu ted g rooves , a nd h err ingbone p at terns f or med b y s hor t o pposed d iagona l g rooves o n e i ther s ide o f t he c ar ina t ion .

F ew b ow ls, a nd

o n ly o ne o r t wo c ar inated b ow ls , h ad d ecorat ion o n t he l ower p ar t o f t he b ody . S o me c ar inated b ow ls h ad v ert ica l f l ut ing o n t he ir i n ter ior.

I n o ne c ase t h is

was e xecuted b y s tab a nd d rag t echn ique. The Trund le ( Curwen 1 929, 1 931 ), f ur ther west i n S ussex , h ad r ather d if feren t p ot tery ( f ig . 1 8 ).

There w ere a f ew c ar inated b ow ls, b u t o n ly o ne

d ecorated i n t he Wh itehawk manner w ith s hor t o b l ique i nc is ions o n t he c ar inat ion.

A s ing le b ow l s herd i n t he Wh itehawk s ty le i s r eported f rom Barkha le

( Sm ith 1 971).

To t he e ast , b ow l s herds t yp ica l o f t he Wh itehawk a sse mb lage

h ave b een f ound o n C reteway Down , n ear F o lkestone ( Dunn ing 1 966, f ig. 6 ) . O ther f or ms a t The Trund le c o mpr ised s i mp le c ups a nd b ow ls, w e l l made o pen c on ica l b ow ls , a nd a f ew n ecked v esse ls.

An u nusua l b ow l f or m h ad a n o pen

mouth a nd S -pro f i le w ith s hort c oncave n eck .

Most r i ms were s imp le;

a

m inor ity were s l igh t ly t h ickened , a nd o ne l arge h eavy a nd o ne sma l l T-r im were f ound.

Lugs were n ot p len t ifu l a nd w ere o f s i mp le f or m o n ly , r ound o r

o va l , b oth sma l l a nd l arge. Decorat ion was a pp l ied t o a l l v ar iet ies o f f or m. d ecorated , w ith t ransverse o r o b l ique i nc is ions.

R i ms were i n frequen t ly

The u pper p arts o f b ow ls

a nd t he n eck o f c ar inated b ow ls b ore v er t ica l f l ut ing a nd r ows o f sma l l c ircu lar impress ions.

These i mpress ions w ere f requen t ly a rranged i n mo t ifs , t o f or m

b locks a nd g arlands. The f l ut ing i n o ne i ns tance w as l igh t ly e xecuted i n c ont iguous g roups o f s p layed l ines d escend ing f ro m t he r im l ike t he f eathers o f a n o pen b ird 's w ing , s et a bove b roader v er t ica l f l ut ing s epara ted b y s hal low h or iz on ta l i nc is ions.

Th is ' w ing ' mot if i s r em in iscen t o f P 167 a t W ind m il l H i l l ,

a nd t he a rrange men ts o f r ows o f sma l l i mpress ions i s s im ilar t oo t o t ha t o n s evera l v essels a t Wind m il l H i l l ( e .g . P 156 , P 150 , P 165 ). A l l t hree ma in t ypes o f S evern-Co tswo ld t o mb ( as s et o ut i n C hapter T hree ) c on ta ined h eavy-r i m med p o t tery . S herds w ith t h ickened f l at-topped r i ms were a ssoc ia ted w ith t he p r i mary b ur ia ls a t West K ennet ( P iggo t t 1 962, f i g. 1 0 ), t ogether w ith a p la in c ar inated b ow l w ith a r im i n t he Ebbsf leet manner ( f ig . 1 0, W2 ).

A t Ny rnpsf ield ( Cl if ford 1 938, f i g. 4 2 ) as ing le r im s herd w ith

h eavy r o l led p ro f i le was f ound i n c hamber C , i n a ssoc ia t ion w ith i ntu _rned r i ms, wh i le f rom t he a n techa mber c a me a n ecked j ar , a nd f ro m t he mound i t se l f , a nu nusua l o pen b ow l whose r im t oo h ad E bbsf leet a f f in it ies ( f ig . 3 ).

There

w ere s ome t h ickened r i ms i n t he s craps o f p la in p ot tery f ro m t he c ha mbers a nd a n techa mbers o f N o tgrove ( Cl if ford 1 936, f ig. 7 ) , t h ickened a nd r o l led r i ms f ro m a l l c ha mbers o f Ty I saf ( Gr i mes 1 939, f ig . 6 ) , a nd f rom d epos its

9 2

( L I g i8D , 940 ,0

1 Pc m F ig . 1 8 .

P ot tery f ro m The T rund le .

in and in front of the chamber of Tinkinswood (Ward 1916, fig. 2). None of these contexts were certainly primary. There are now strong indications that the Decorated style can be dated as early as the fourth millennium be, on the basis of the radiocarbon dates from Eaton Heath, Fussell 's Lodge, Lambourn (with plain but heavy-rimmed pottery) and Abingdon. Since there are other indications of late fourth mil­ lennium be settlement in Sussex, it is clearly likely that decorated pottery in that area could be similarly dated. Some Ebbsfleet sherds were found in the ditches of Whitehawk, but none in primary contexts, and so they cannot be used to support a later date for the whole enclosure. If, as I have argued, it is likely that some Severn-Cotswolds tombs are fourth millennium be in date, it is possible that heavy-rimmed pottery in that region too can be dated similarly, even though there is no certainty about their contexts in the his­ tory of the monuments (cf. Henshall 1972, 165). Piggott's view that the variants of this style represented a later develop­ ment from the two other styles (1954) appears to have been superseded, but the possibility that it represented insular development nonetheless must still be borne in mind. I shall consider this in relation to continental styles, and suggest that it can be traced to the Roessen culture. The style may have lasted until the mid third millennium be. My three main styles are essentially the same as those outlined by Piggott (1954), Case (1969b) and Smith (1974b). The distribution of what I call the Eastern style may be open to dispute. Broome Heath, Fengate and Swale's Tumulus were discovered since Piggott's treatment, and so naturally his distribution now is too limited. On the other hand I have argued above that Smith's distribution of her Grimston/Lyles Hill series extends unrealis­ tically far south, if one judges the matter by reasonably sized assemblages rather than stray pots. By the criterion of taking apparently uniform as­ semblages as a whole and giving them individual characterisation, I also take issue with Smith's view of the Whitehawk assemblage as a mixture of Hembury and Grimston/Lyles Hill styles. There were certainly bowls, carinated bowls and jars in this assemblage which could be compared with similar ves­ sels of either of the styles, if considered simply by themselves. However, forms, decoration, and the use of lugs and handles all taken together, the assemblage may be best considered as a variant of the Decorated style. The fabrics of the assemblage were uniform too, and do not support the idea of breaking it down. (I would also suggest that the Ebbsfleet style developed from the Decorated style, not the Grimston/Lyles Hill styles as Smith argued, on the grounds of shape, distribution and absence of handles (1974a). The suggested area of origin, the lower Thames, is not clearly seen in either distribution. The heavy decorated rims of the Decorated style seem to be a more plausible prototype for developed Ebbsfleet rims than plain, rolled and hooked Eastern style rims. Both lugs and rims were presumably used as practical handling devices. If rims became well developed, then lugs could become dispensable. This practical view is some sort of explana­ tion of the absence of lugs from the Eastern style, and could be applied to the development of Ebbsfleet pottery.)

94

A t a ny r ate t here i s c lear a gree men t t hat t here were t hree ma in s ty les o f p ot tery , wh ich o n t he d at ing e v idence n ow a va ilab le w ere a l l c on te mporary , w ith v ar iat ions w ith in e ach s ty le, a nd s ome s ty l ist ic o verlap b etween a t l east t wo o f t he s ty les.

Thus, f or e xa mp le, n e ither He mbury ,

Windm i l l H il l e xac t ly ma tched e ach o ther ;

Ma iden C ast le o r

Wh itehawk w as a v ar ian t w ith in

t he Decora ted s ty le ; a nd F engate h ad d if ferences t o Broome H eath , e ven t hough i t was a much sma l ler a ssemb lage. S ty l ist ica l ly t here was s ome o ver lap b et ween t he Eastern a nd Decora ted st y les.

I tc an n ow b e s een t hat c losed c ar ina-

t ed b ow ls f ro m B roome H ea th , f or e xa mp le, w ere r ather s im i lar i n f or m t o t hose f ro m Hurst F en , wh i le t he l at ter h ad o pen S -prof iled b ow ls a s w el l a s t he t yp ica l ' M ildenha l l ' c losed c ar ina ted b ow l.

The S outh-western s ty le w as,

i ts eems, more d is t inct , b ut o n t he f r inge o f i t s d istr ibu t ion a t Windm i l l H i l l , t here w as s o me o ver lap w i th t he Ab ingdon v ar ian t o f t he Decora ted s ty le , a s n o ted a bove.

Moreover , b o th t he Decorated a nd t he E astern s ty les o ver-

l apped g eograph ica l ly , j ust i n East Ang l ia i f my a rgu men ts a re c orrect , o r more e x tens ively a nd f urther s outhwards a s w el l , i f Sm ith i s r igh t . How a re t hese o bserva t ions t o b e i n terpreted? The w idespread d istr ibut ion o f f ine p ot tery w ith f i l lers d er ived f ro m t he g abbro i n t he f ar s outh-west o f Cornwa l l c an b e s een , a s d iscussed a bove, a s t he r esu l t o f t he move men t o f f in ished p roducts made i n ar estr ic ted a rea w ith in s outh-west Cornwa l l. P erh aps t he p o ts s o made were o n ly t he b y-produc t o f t he move men t o f s ome o ther c om mod ity , s uch a s s al t , b u t Ih ave l e f t t h is p oss ib il ity o ut o f a ccoun t , s ince i ti s s o imponderab le, a nd b ecause t he p urposefu l l ong-d istance move men t o f f ine p ot tery d oes a ccord w ith r ecen t e thnograph ic e xamp les ( N ick l in 1 971 ), a nd would h ave matched t he move men t e astwards o f p o l ished s tone a xes, a nd c ou ld h ave a nswered t he move men t westwards o f Beer f l in t a nd p o l ished a xes o f g rey f l in t. I ti s t hus p oss ib le t o e nv isage t he e x istence o f s pec ia l ised p o tters whose work d om inated t he s outh-western a rea.

Th is h ypothes is c ou ld r ep lace t he

v iew ,t ha t p ottery mak ing w as a c o m muna l a c t iv ity wh ich , i n t he f or ms a nd s ty les u sed , e xpressed c ommuna l t rad it ions a nd i den t it ies ( Sm ith 19 74a ). Th is i n terpre tat ion c ou ld b e a pp l ied t o t he d istr ibu t ion o f o ther k inds o f p o t tery w i th d ist inc t ive f i l lers.

Thus t he o o l it ic ware w ere f ound a t Wind m il l

H il l h ad o o l it ic f i l ler d er ived f rom t he Bath-Frome a rea.

The s ame ware was

moved t o o ther e nc losures o n t he Wil tsh ire c ha lk , s uch a s Rob in Hood 's Ba l l , Wh itesheet a nd Knap H il l. T h is ware t oo c ou ld b e t he p roduct o f s pec ial ised p ot ters r ather t han t he e xpress ion o f c o m muna l t rad it ions. Y et t he o o l i t ic p ot tery a t Wind m il l H i l l w as n o t i n ar estr ic ted r ange o f f orms, b e ing u sed f or S outh-western a nd Decora ted s ty le v essels.

The move men t o f b locks o f o o l i-

t i c l imestone i n to t he Avebury a rea h as b een n o ted , s o t hat t h is c ase must r ema in f or t he t ime b e ing l ess s uggest ive t han t hat o f g a .bbro ic w are. H owever , o ne m igh t b e e ncouraged t o v iew a l l t he t hree ma in s ty les i n t he l igh t o ft he g abbro ic ware. Thus t he ir d istr ibu t ions wou ld n o l onger r ef lec t c om muna l t rad it ions a nd c u l tura l p rov inces, b u t t he s pheres o f a c t iv ity o f d iff eren t g roups o f p ot ters. A reas o f g eograph ical o ver lap b etween d if fer ing s ty les m igh t a lso b e more p laus ib ly i n terpre ted a s a reas where c ompet ing p o tters o perated ( pace Brad ley 1 971 ), r ather t han a s o ver lapp ing c u l tura l a reas. The w ay wou ld a lso b e o pen t o i n terpret a sse mblages o f p ot tery a s t he p roduc t o f more t han o ne p ot t ing t rad it ion , i fp o t tery mak ing w ere n o l onger t o b e s een a s who l ly o r e ven p art ly a l oca l c o m muna l a c t iv ity. 9 5

If this hypothesis can be applied to the whole of the south, a contrast is apparent between the south-west and the central and eastern part of the country. For the areas outside the south-western region do not seem to have been dominated by one group of. potters as has been suggested in the south­ west. There were surely more centres of production and smaller distributions. It has been seen how the distribution of Whitehawk pottery was restricted. The pottery of Abingdon was largely filled with locally derived shell, perhaps fossil shell, (Williams in Avery et al. forthcoming). Shell-gritted ware at Lambourn barrow could be derived from the same area, and since the shells in shell-gritted ware from Windmill Hill were probably fossil in origin (Smith 1965) a wider distribution of the same ware from, say, the Thames valley, might be envisaged. The shell filler from Whiteleaf however, probably from chalky boulder clay, is probably local (Childe and Smith 1954, 221) . On the proposed hypothesis, it would be plausible to suggest greater competition amongst potters in the east than in the south-west. The hypothesis is supported by ethnographic studies which, though incom­ plete, have suggested that, to put it simply, pots do not equal people, that communal traditions and identities are not necessarily reflected in the style of pottery used by a particular community (Nicklin 1971; David and Hennig 1972). Despite the attractions of this hypothesis, which Smith implies can solve many of the problems of the identity of human groups in the earlier Neolithic in the south of England (1974a), it may be premature to abandon altogether the notion that cultural traditions were expressed in pottery. In the south-west, for instance, varying proportions of the respective assemblages were com­ posed of what seems to have been locally made pottery. At any rate it seems most economical to consider coarse pottery of simple form, with flint, quartz or sandy fillers, as locally made products, contrasting with fine burnished im­ ported wares. Here at least could have been local traditions of pottery making. Though the forms were not on the whole distinctive, I noted characteristic globular pots at Hembury, and taken as a whole, the range of coarser pottery in the south-west may be seen as different to that in other areas. Of course this approach is likely to be rather difficult. One may consider the problem differently. Why are we able to distinguish three main styles at all, despite variants and stylistic overlap? May not potters themselves, how­ ever specialist, have been part of a tradition in which their communities were involved, so that in their own way they too expressed cultural traditions in their products? After all, specialist potters had not only to make their wares, but make them in styles which met approval from their prospective users. Nicklin (1971) has discussed factors affecting conservatism and innovation amongst recent pottery makers, but not specifically the effect of the intended market. During most of the Neolithic, pottery changed only gradually. The apparently sudden appearance of Grooved Ware in the later third millennium be is a strongly contrasted exception. The generally gradual rate of change might best be explained by the balance between conservatism and innovation amongst both makers and users. Moreover, another aspect has to be taken into account. In certain recent societies (as in parts of Afghanistan - information from Matson), itinerant 96

p ot ters h ave worked t o t he s pec if ica t ions o f t he ir c l ien t c o m mun it ies.

I n t h is

way , p ot tery mak ing h as b een b o th a s pec ia l ised a ct iv ity a nd s ub ject t o t he c on tro l o f i nd iv idua l a nd c ommuna l t astes, wh ich may b e c o l lect ively e xpressed a s ac u ltura l t rad it ion. Ana lys is o f g abbro ic w are a nd i t s d istr ibu t ion h as c learly o pened u p e xc it ing p oss ib i l it ies, b u t i t wou ld b e p rema ture t o a bandon who lesa le t he n ot ion o f c u lture a nd c ommuna l t rad it ion i n p ot tery mak ing. Far f ro m s o lv ing p rob le ms o f c ommuna l t rad it ions a nd i den t i t ies , t he a na lys is o f g abbro ic ware may h ave h igh l igh ted t he ir t rue c o mp lex ity . BONE AND ANTLER ARTEFACTS One c an a dd l i t t le t o P iggot t 's s urvey o fb one a nd a n t ler a rtefac ts ( 1954 ) b ecause most s i tes e xcavated s ince h ave y ie lded f ew .

The p ub l icat ion o f t he

Windm i l l H il l r epor t d id h owever s et o u t t he most c omprehens ive s e lec t ion t o b e f ound a t a ny o ne s ite ( Sm ith 1 965 ). The most c om mon b one a rtefac ts i n t he s outh a re s i mp le b one p o in ts made o n sma l l s p l it l ongbones, t he p rocesses o f wh ich h ad o f ten b een c u t o f f . Those h ave b een f ound a t c ausewayed c a mps, s et t le men t s ites a nd i nb arrows.

A

v ar iat ion o n t h is t ype o ccurred o n ly a t Ma iden Cast le a nd Wind m i l l H il l , c onsi st ing o f aw ide p iece o f s p l it l ongbone n arrowed s harp ly a t t he p o in t . mil l H i l l a lso h ad u nsp l it p o in ts o r p ins.

Wind-

Gouges o r c h isels , made o n l arge

s p l it l ongbones , w i th a r ounded work ing e dge, w ere f ound a t Wind m i l l H il l , Ab ingdon , S kende lby b arrow a nd e lsewhere, b u t s harp , b eve l led , s quaree nded c h isels were f ound o n ly i n Cotswo lds b arrows, s uch a s B elas Knap , P o les Wood East a nd a f ew o thers. Bone w edges w ere f ound i n S ussex f l in t m ines ; s capu lae o f o x a nd p ig , p robab ly u sed a s s hovels, were f ound t here , a nd a t Windm i l l H il l. Rar it ies i nc lude b eads made f rom s hort c y l indr ica l s ect ions o f l ongbone f rom Wind m il l H il l , a na logous t o b eads i nj et a nd s ha le e lsewhere ; smoo thed l ongbones w ith j agged e nds a t Ab ingdon ; a n u n f in ished d oub le-ended c o mb f ro m Wh itehawk , n o t made o f a n t ler ; a nd a p ha l lus f ro m The T rund le. The most c om mon a n t ler a rtefac ts a re p icks , made o f a nt lers s tr ipped o f a l l b ut t he l arger b row t i ne, o r o ccas iona l ly a l l b ut t he t wo b rows. b een f ound i n f l in t m ines, a nd a t c ausewayed c amps.

These h ave

Co mmon t oo a re a n t ler

c ombs , w ith a n a verage o f a bout t en p rongs , made f rom v ar ious p arts o f t he a n t ler , n o t o n ly t he b ea m b u t e ven f ro m t he t ine a s wel l. These h ave b een f ound a t Wind m i l l H il l , Ab ingdon , Wh itehawk , Ma iden Bower, a nd S ta ines. Un f in ished a nd b roken e xamp les a re k nown f rom Ma iden Cas t le, H arrow H i l l a nd E aston Down . Two e xamp les f rom Yorksh ire b arrows , G arton S lack C 37 a nd H ugga te C242 ( Mort i mer 1 905, f ig . 7 27 a nd 9 29 ) may h ave r a ther l a ter a ssoc iat ions. O ther a n t ler a rtefac ts i nc lude r akes made f rom t he c rown , k nown f ro m c a mps a nd m ines ;

ap o in t o r p unch f rom Windm il l H il l ;

a t tached t o s capu lae, f rom S ussex m ines;

h af ts

a nd r are p erforated b eams, f rom

C issbury a nd Wind m il l H i l l. T he most n o tab le r eg iona l t ype i s t he s quare-edged c h isel o f Co tswo ld monumen ts ( P iggo t t 1 954, 1 46 ).

9 7

OTHER ARTEFACTS There i s l i t t le e ither t o a dd t o P iggo t t 's s urvey ( 1954, 8 5-88 ) o f o ther minor a rtefac ts l ike f igur ines , c ups a nd b eads i n c ha lk a nd o ther mater ia ls. A n oteworthy a dd it ion t o t he e arl ier N eo l ith ic i s t he c o l lared t ype o f p erforated b ead — a n e xa mp le i n j et was f ound a t F enga te ( Sm ith 1 974b ) — t o j o in t he s i mp le t ype k nown f ro m He mbury , Hazard H il l , Ma iden Cast le, W ind m i l l H i l l , N otgrove a nd Ey ford.

One may n ote a lso t hat t he e xcavat ions o f t he Sweet

Track h ave p roduced a v ar iety o f wooden a rtefac ts s o f ar l argely u nknown i n s outhern Eng land , i nc lud ing p arts o f s i mp le b ows, p add les o r s pades, a c lub o r ma t tock , w edges, t ogg les, p o in ts, k n ives a nd a d ish ( Co les e t a l. 1 973 ; Co les a nd Or me 1 976 ).

S ince t hey a re u n ique a s a n a sse mb lage f or o ur a rea ,

o ne c an make n o c ompar isons, e xcep t t o p o in t o u t t ha t t here d oes n o t s ee m t o b e much o ver lap w ith t he r ange o f wooden a rtefacts r ecovered f rom Ehens ide Tarn , Cu mberland ( Darb ish ire 1 874 ).

9 8

CHAPTER S IX THE MESOLITH IC CONTR IBUTION

The p reced ing c hapters h av ing p resen ted a n i n tegra ted v iew o f t he e ar l ier Neo l i th ic o f s ou thern Eng land , i t s o r ig ins mus t n ow b e s ough t .

It here fore

t urn f irs t t o wha t wou ld b e t he mos t e cono m ica l s o lu t ion , t ha t o f d irec t c ont inu i ty f ro m t he i nd igenous p opu la t ion .

One i s b ound t o p o in t o u t h owever t ha t

s ince t he l a ter Meso l i th ic p er iod c anno t b e d e f ined i n a s much d e ta i l a s o thers , t he h ypo thes is o f ad er iva t ion o f t he e ar l ier N eo l i th ic f ro m t he i nd igenous p opul a t ion i s a t ad isadvan tage f ro m t he b eg inn ing . THE LATER MESOL ITH IC I N ENGLAND O f t he r e la t ive ly f ew r ad iocarbon d a ted Meso l i th ic s i tes i n Eng land , o n ly a sma l l n u mber h ave b een p laced i n t he f i f th a nd f our th mi l lenn ia b c .

Wes tward

H o !, Devon ( 4 635 + 1 30 b c ( Q-672 ) ) , F reshwa ter Wes t , Devon ( 4010 + 1 20 b c ( Q-530 ) ) , B lashenwe l l , Dorse t ( 4500 + 1 50 b e ( B M-89 ) ) , Wawcot t I I , B erks h ire ( 4170 + 1 34 b e ( B M-767 ) )a nd T horpe C o m mon , Y orksh ire ( 4483 + 1 15 b e ( Q-1116 ) )b e long t o t he f i f th mi l lenn ium b e ;

Wawco t t I , B erksh ire ( 3310 + 1 30

b e ( B M-449 ) ) , Dun ford Br idge B , Y orksh ire ( 3430 + 8 0 b e ( Q-799 ) ) , a nd March H i l l , a lso i n Y orksh ire ( 3900 + 8 0 b e ( Q-788 ) )b e long t o t he f our th . ( Oakhanger V I I , H a mpsh ire , d a ted t o 4 350 + 1 10 b e ( F-67 ) , 4 430 + 1 15 b e ( F-68 ) h as micro l i ths more t yp ica l o f t he e ar l ier Meso l i th ic ) .

An u mber o f o ther

s i tes s uch a s Dun ford Br idge A a nd C ock H ead , Yorksh ire , c an b e r e la ted t o p o l len z one V I Ia .

T he ma in c lass o f ma ter ia l a t t hese s i tes i s f l in twork .

I t

i s t here fore a p rob le m e ven t o d e f ine t he l a te Mesol i th ic i n Eng land , l e t a lone a ssess i t s p oss ib le c on tr ibu t ion t o t he N eo l i th ic . d ence , h owever ,

R ecen t r ev iews o f t he e v i-

( Jacob i 1 973 , Me l lars 1 974 ) a gree , o n t he b as is o f t he r ad io-

c arbon d a ted s i tes a nd o ther s tra t igraph ica l a ssoc ia t ions ( c f . F roo m 1 976 ), t ha t ab road d is t inc t ion may b e made b e tween t he e ar l ier Meso l i th ic f l in t i nd us try , t yp if ied b y ar es tr ic ted r ange o f s i mp le micro l i ths , a nd t he l a ter , t yp i f ied b y ar ange o f n arrow m icro l i ths i nc lud ing g eo me tr ic f or ms ( sca lene t r iang les , r ho mbo ids , a nd o thers ) a nd h o l low-based p o in ts w i th i nverse r e touch r ese mb l ing p ressure f lak ing ( s o-ca l led " Horsha m p o in ts" ) i n a dd i t ion t o o r i ns tead o f t he s i mple r ange o f t he e ar l ier Meso l i th ic . b e i s s ugges ted f or t he c hange .

T he d a te o f a round 6 500

The l a ter Meso l i th ic i ncorpora tes i ndus tr ies

d escr ibed p rev ious ly a s o f S auve terr ian a f f in i t ies o r o f t he H orsha m c u l ture . The p ossess ion o f f l in t a xes o r p icks i s n o t d iagnos t ic i n ac hrono log ica l s ense , s ince b o th e ar l ier a nd l a ter i ndus tr ies i nc lude t he m , b u t may b e i n terpre ted r a ther i n f unct iona l t er ms ;

s ince c erta in u p land s i tes , f or i ns tance o n t he

P enn ines , may b e s een a s t e mporary c a mps t hrough t he ir l ack o f a xes a nd p let hora o f micro l i ths .

9 9

The a sse mb lages o f Wawco t t I( Froo m 1 972 ) a nd Dun ford Br idge B ( f ig . 1 9 ) a re d om ina ted b y r od-l ike a nd q uadrangu lar m icro l i ths , t hose o f March H i l l a nd D un ford B r idge A b y s ca lene t r iang les a nd r od-l ike f or ms ( Rad ley e t a l . 1 974 ).

There were a lso a xes a t Wawco t t I .

S uch s i mp le a sse mb lages o ver-

l apped w i th t he e ar l ier N eo l i th ic . J acob i h as s ugges ted t he " ordered e xp lo i ta t ion o f t he who le o f i n land Engl and a nd Wa les a nd a lso much o f S co t land" i nt he l a ter Meso li th ic , o n t he b as i o f t he l arge n umber o f l a ter s i tes o ver a n e c lec t ic r ange o f t he l andscape , t hough a n o tab le l acuna i s i n w ide a reas o f c ha lk a nd l imes tone d own land o r b ou lder c lay ( 1973 , 2 47 ) .

T h is a pparen t f i l l ing u p o f t he c oun try migh t b e d ue

i np ar t t o l and l oss , a f ter t he s even th mi l lenn iu m b e , a nd a lso - more s pecul a t ive ly - t o ar ea l g row th o f p opu la t ion .

I ti s p oss ib le t ha t many a reas , when e .

c oas ta l a nd i n land s i tes a re k nown i n c o mp le men tary d is tr ibu t ions , were e xp lo i ted s easona l ly , b u t o ne may s ugges t t ha t i n f avoured c oas ta l a reas f or e xamp le a round L ower H a ls tow , E ssex ,

( Burche l l 1 925 ) o r C u lver We l l , I s le o f

P or t land , ( Pa l mer S ., 1 976 ) , a more s tab le a d jus t men t h ad b egun t o e vo lve , w i th t he e xp lo i ta t ion o f ab road s pec trum o f r esources . Though o ne may a ssu rn t he c o m mon e xp lo i ta t ion o f d eer a nd o ther u ngu la tes l i ke B os ( Evans 1 975 ) , mo l luscs , a nd p resumab ly f ish , we a re i gnoran t o f t he r o le o f p lan ts i n t he l a ter Mesol i th ic d ie t .

T he u nexpec ted p eak o f i vy i nt he Oakhanger p o l len p ro-

f i le , a nd a lso a t Win fr i th H ea th , Dorse t h as s ugges ted t he p oss ib i l i ty t ha t i vy was c ol lec ted a s f odder f or a n i ma ls ( S i m mons a nd D i mb leby 1 974 ) .

Av ery

p ronounced i vy p eak h as a lso b een f ound a t t he l eve l o f Meso li th ic f l in ts u nder al a ter b arrow a t M ins ted , wes t S ussex ( Drewe t t 1 975 ) a nd t he p ract ice c ou ld t here fore h ave b een w idespread , b u t whe ther a s ah un t ing a id o r a s p ar t o f a h erd ing e cono my c anno t b e k nown .

There a re n o s u i tab le f auna l a sse mb lages

o f t he l a ter Meso l i th ic f or t he l a t ter c oncep t t o b e t es ted ( as d one b y J ar man 1 972 , e lsewhere i n E urope ) . I th as b eco me e v iden t h owever f ro m t he i ncreased n u mber o f p o l len s tud ies t ha t i n s evera l a reas , s uch a s Dar t moor ( S i m mons 1 969 ) , t he P enn ines ( S i m mons 1 975 , Rad ley e t a l . 1 974 ) a nd t he L ake D is tr ic t ( Penn ing ton 1 975 ) , sma l l c leara nces o f p re-e lm d ec l ine d a te may b e d is t ingu ished , d e f ined b y sma l l t e mporary i ncreases i n h erbaceous p o l len a nd s e tbacks t o t he f ores t , a nd i n c er ta in c ases a pparen t ly a ssocia ted w i th c harcoa l .

A s even th mi l lenn ium b e e xa mp le c o mes

f ro m C ross G i l l , Yorksh ire , ( S i m mons 1 975 ) a nd f our th mi l lenn iu m b e e xa mp les f ro m t he Lake D is tr ic t a nd Y orksh ire ( Penn ing ton 1 975 , R ad ley e t a l . 1 974 ) . Many o f t hese s i tes a re u p land , b u t s igns o f p re-e lm d is turbance o f t he v eget a t ion a t l ow land s i tes i n n or thwes t Eng land ( Ehens ide T arn , B ar f ie ld T arn a nd Eskmea ls ) s ugges ts t ha t t he p heno menon was n o t c on f ined t o o ne p ar t o f t he l andscape . Op in ion c urren t ly f avours a n a n thropogen ic e xplana t ion f or t hese v ege tat iona l d is turbances ( Sm i th 1 970 ) .

Me l lars ( 1 975 , 1 976 ) h as p o in ted o u t t ha t

r egenera t ing wood land h as more f ood f or b rows ing a n i ma ls a nd r egu lar ly a tt rac ts h igher d ens i t ies o f a n i ma ls d ur ing t he s pan o f i t s r egenera t ion .

I ti s

p oss ible t here fore t o e nv isage sma l l f ores t c learance a s ad e l ibera te Mesol i th ic p o l icy , e ven c onnec ted w i th h erd ing r a ther t han h un t ing .

H owever , i n

n o a rea a re t here y e t s igns o f ac on t inued a pp l ica t ion o f t his s tra tegy a nd t he l a tes t c lear ings o f "Meso l i th ic" t ype ( so d e f ined b ecause sma l l , e .g . P enn ingt on 1 975 ) c ou ld b e c onnec ted r ather w i th t he e ar l ies t N eo l i th ic . 1 00

1 0

CM

1 4

1 6

1 5

1 7

i t 2 0

1 9

2 1

2 2

2 3

3 .cm

2 6 3 0

3 1

2 5

F ig . 1 9 .

La te Mesol i th ic f l in t a sse mb lages o f Eng land . Dun ford Br idge B . e t a l ) .

1 -17 , Wawcot t I .

1 8-25 ,

2 6-31, Dun ford Br idge A ( a f ter Froo m , a nd Rad ley

Ev idence o f a more s us ta ined a nd l ess e pisodic p o l icy o f c learance i n t he Meso l i th ic h as b een p roduced i n t he f or m o f t he s ee m ing ly a rt if ic ia l s uppress ion o f t ree p o l len v a lues a t r e la t ive ly h igh a l t i tudes i nt he P enn ines , a ssoc ia ted w i th much c harcoa l i n t he p ea t p ro f i les ( Jacob i e t a l . 1 976 ).

T h is

p rac t ice c ou ld b e o f c ons iderab le a nces try i n t he Meso l i th ic , a nd s ee ms t o b e o f ad i f feren t n a ture t o t he e p isod ic , l ow land p re-e lm c learances o f t he f our th mi l lenn ium b c . THE HYPOTHES IS OF SUBSTANT IAL CONTR IBUT ION P iggo t t ( 1954 ) d eve loped Ch i lde 's s ugges t ion ( 1940 , 8 3 ) o f t he " accu lturat ion o f r es idua l f ood-ga ther ing g roups" i n to t he c oncep t o f t he s econdary N eol i th ic ( s een e spec ia l ly i n P e terborough p o t tery ) , wh ich was h e ld t o r epresen t t he a ss im i la t ion o f N eo l i th ic e le men ts b y t he i nd igenous Meso li th ic h un terf isher p opu la t ion a f ter t he f irs t impac t o f t he i n trus ive im m igran ts .

Th is

c oncep t h as i t se l f f a l len t o t he impac t o f t he r ad iocarbon c hrono logy , a nd t he e nsu ing r eassess men t o f t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord , p ar t icu lar ly o f t he d eve lopmen t o f c era m ic s ty les , b u t i tw i l l b e r e me mbered t ha t P iggot t ( 1954 ) a lso made v ar ious o ther s ugges t ions o f ap os i t ive c on tr ibu t ion b y i nd igenous c o mmun i t ies , a par t f ro m i np o t tery mak ing , t o t he ma ter ia l c u l ture o f t he Neo l it h ic , s uch a s t he u se o f a n t ler c o mbs , t he o rdered e xp loi ta t ion o f f l in t a nd s tone r esources , a nd e ven c a mp b u i ld ing . There i s e v idence f ro m o ther p ar ts o f n or th-wes t Europe f or t he a ccu l tura t ion o f i nd igenous Meso l i th ic c o m mun i t ies a t t he f r inges o f N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t , a s i n t he L ow C oun tr ies ( Newe l l 1 970 ) , s ou thern S candinav ia , ( Troe lsSm i th 1 966 ) a nd e ven Br i t tany ( Case 1 969a ) , s o i ti s e ssen t ia l t o c ons ider t he h ypo thes is t ha t l a te Meso l i th ic c o m mun i t ies i n B r i ta in made a s ubs tan t ia l , i f n o t e xc lus ive c on tr ibu t ion t o t he N eo l i th ic o f E ng land , a nd t ha t t he c oncep t o f a n a c tua l im m igra t ion h as b een l arge ly i l lusory . I f we may f o llow t he s ugges t ion t ha t t he l a ter Meso l i th ic c o m mun i t ies o f Eng land were n u merous , w ide ly d is tr ibu ted a nd i ncreas ing ( Jacobi 1 973 ) , a nd were a t l eas t p ar t ly mob i le , i ti s n o t d i f f icu l t t o v isua l ise c asua l c on tacts b et ween t he m a nd N eo l i th ic c o m mun i t ies c o mpara t ive ly r ecen t ly a rr ived i n a dj acen t E urope , s im i lar ly e ngaged i n w ide-rang ing s easona l a c t iv i t ies , o f e xp lora t ion a nd f ish ing . S uch c on tac ts c ou ld h ave l ed t o t he e xchange o f a n ima ls i nc lud ing s heep , a nd c erea ls , f or t hese w ere n o t n a t ive t o Br i ta in , w i th c o m mun i t ies who may a lready h ave b een h erd ing a n i ma ls .

Were t hese Meso-

l i th ic c o m mun i t ies i ncreas ing , s uch a dd i t ions t o t he s pec trum o f a va i lab le r esources wou ld h ave b een a dvan tageous , a nd c ou ld h ave b een s peed i ly a dop ted o ver w ide a reas . The ir e xp lo i ta t ion o f a n i ma ls c ou ld h ave b een e as i ly a dapted , a nd p o l ic ies o f f ores t c learance e x tended w i thou t d i f f icu l ty . The n ew a dap tat i ons wou ld h ave b een f ur ther r e in forced , i ft hey t he mse lves h e lped t o e ncourage a n e ven f as ter r a te o f p opu la t ion i ncrease . O ther t ra i ts c ou ld h ave f o l lowed , i nclud ing t he u se o f p ot tery , a nd t he c ons truct ion o f e nc losures a nd b arrows , t he l a t ter o f wh ich i ndeed h ave b een s een a s t he r esu l t o f f us ion b e tween N eol i th ic a nd Meso l i th ic c o m mun i t ies i n A t lan t ic E urope ( Case 1 969a ). Wha t o f t he a r te factua l r ecord?

There i s o n t he who le l i t t le s ign o f c on tac t

i n Eng land b e tween t he Mesol i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic i n f l in t , s tone o r b one i ndus tr ies , t hough t h is h as b een o bserved e lsewhere i n n or th-wes t E urope .

1 02

S o me N eo l i th ic s i tes h ave a f ew m icro l i ths , o f l a ter Meso l i th ic t ype ( as d isc ussed i n C hap ter F our ) , a nd n arrow f lakes w i th d e l ibera te ly r e touched s awl ike e dges were c o m mon t o b o th l a ter Meso l i th ic a nd N eol i th ic i ndus tr ies , a long w i th o ther u nd is t ingu ished k n i fe a nd s craper f or ms .

H owever , b ur ins

( t hough p resen t i n t he l a ter Meso l i th ic ) were g enera l ly a bsen t f ro m N eo l i th ic i ndus tr ies d esp i te t he c on t inued u se o f b one a nd a n t ler . One may b e mis led b y c lear c oncep ts o f i den t i ty a ccord ing t o wh ich a microl i th c onno tes h un t ing a nd g a ther ing o r al ea f a rrowhead mixed f ar m ing .

On

t he o ther h and we s hou ld s er ious ly c ons ider t he p oss ib i l i ty o f r ap id a r tefac tua l c hange , a s h as b een c la i med f or o ther p er iods o f t he Meso l i th ic , a s s oon a f ter t he i ce r e trea t i n Br i ta in t o sma l ler p o in ts , a nd a round 6 000 b c i n c on t inen ta l Europe t o b lade a nd t rapeze i ndus tr ies . T hus micro l i ths c ou ld h ave b een l arge ly a bandoned f or s uper ior p ierc ing a rrowheads o f c on t inen ta l N eo l i th ic i nsp ira t ion , f or t he manu fac ture o f wh ich h owever t here a lready e x is ted s u i ta b le t echn iques i n B r i ta in , s ince H orsha m p o in ts - w ide ly d is tr ibu ted i n Engl and ( Brad ley 1 972 ) -were a pparen t ly made w i th p ressure f lak ing . L ikew ise t he r es t o f t he f l in t i ndus try o f t he e ar l ier N eo l i th ic c ou ld b e d er ived f ro m l a ter Meso l i th ic i ndus tr ies t hough o va tes a nd f abr ica tors wou ld b e i nnova t ions .

I ndeed t he a pparen t u n i for m i ty o f e ar l ier N eol i th ic f l in t i ndus tr ies

( Chap ter F our ) c ou ld b e d ue t o t h is b ackground .

N eo l i th ic c h ipped f l in t a xes

n ot iceab ly l ack a t ranche t e dge , i n c on tras t t o t he v as t ma jor i ty o f l a ter Mesol i th ic a xes .

T h is c hange wou ld h ave t o b e e xp la ined b y t he n eed t o p o l ish a xes ,

f or wh ich t he t ranche t f in ish , w i th i t s c oncave s ur face , wou ld b e u nsu i tab le . Moreover , p ecked s tone a xes h ave b een f ound i n c oas ta l Meso l i th ic s i tes i n Wa les ( i n for ma t ion f ro m J acob i ) a nd t he move men t o f s tone o f s ou th-wes tern o r ig in i n to s ou thern E ng land i n t he Meso l i th ic was d ocu men ted b y R ank ine ( 1949 , 1 956) .

O ther r aw ma ter ia ls were d is tr ibu ted i n t he Meso l i th ic o ver v ary ing

d is tances , s uch a s P or t land c her t ( Pa l mer 1 970 ) o r Beer f l in t ( Wa inwr igh t 1 960 ) . P a t terns o f e xchange o r move men t i n t he l a ter Meso l i th ic c ou ld h ave b een a dapted t o t he d e mands o f more p ro l i f ic a xe p roduc t ion . O ther e le men ts s uch a s p o t tery , a nd monu men ts l ike e nclosures a nd b arrows c ou ld h ave l i kewise b een b orrowed f ro m a d jacen t c on t inen ta l c o m mun it ies . I ndeed o ne migh t c la im t ha t s uch a d er iva t ion wou ld r e move a t as troke t he d iff icu l t ies o f c o mplex o r ig ins a nd l ack o f d e ta i led c orrespondences w i th p oss ib le p aren ts o f t he i nsu lar N eol i th ic p o t tery s tyles a nd t o mb f or ms .

I tn eed n o t b e

a n o b jec t ion t ha t t he i nsu lar p o t tery i s a lready we l l made a nd i nd ica t ive o f e st ab l ished t echn iques a nd c anno t t herefore b e a n a dap ta t ion .

T he e xa mples o f

Chä teauneuf-lez- Mart igues i n t he s ou th o f F rance , where I mpressed p ot tery , a lready we l l made , was a dded t o a n i nd igenous Meso l i th ic f l in t t rad i t ion ( Esca lon d e F on ton 1 966 ) , a nd E rteb iA le c u l ture p ot tery , c o mpe ten t ly made f ro m t he b eg inn ing ( i n for ma t ion f ro m Hu l then ) , s ugges t o therwise . S uch t hen i s t he s ubs tance o f t he r ad ica l t hes is t ha t t he e ar l ier N eo li th ic o f Eng land was n o t d irec t ly d escended f ro m t he c on t inen ta l c u l tures o f E urope , b u t r epresen ts t he c on t inua tion o f l a ter Mesol i th ic c o m mun i t ies , who a dap ted a nd d er ived e le men ts o f ma ter ia l c u l ture a nd e cono my f ro m t he ir N eo l i th ic n e ighbours a nd a dded t he m t o t he ir own d eve lop men ts . Though a t trac t ive i n c er ta in r espec ts t he a bove h ypo thes is c annot a t p resen t b e a ccep ted .

A s l igh t c hrono log ica l o ver lap b e tween t he l a ter Mesol i th ic a nd

1 03 •

t he e ar l ier N eo l i th ic s ee ms t o h ave b een d e mons tra ted b u t t he o vera l l d iss im il ar i ty b e tween t he t wo s ugges ts t oo r ad ica l , r ap id a nd c o mp le te a c hange o f a r te fac ts a nd s ubs is tence f or t h is t o b e e xp la ined o ther t han b y im m igra t ion f ro m o u ts ide .

I n o ther c ases , a ccu l tura t ion h as b een d ocu men ted p recisely

b ecause o f t he l ack o f r ap id c o mp le te c hange .

T he h ypo thes is r e l ies t oo h ea-

v i ly o n s pec ia l p lead ing - i nd iv idua l ly d oub t fu l , a nd c o l lec t ive ly u nconv inc ing . I n t he c on tex t o f t he d i f f icu l t ies o f d a t ing l a ter Meso li th ic a sse mb lages a nd o ur p oor k now ledge o f t he l a ter Mesol i th ic e cono my , t he e ssence o f t he o b jec t ion -t ha t c hange was t oo e x tens ive t o b e c o mpa t ib le w i th c on t inu i ty - r e ma ins d ec is ive .

S im i lar c oncep ts h ave i n t he p as t b een r espons ib le f or many s upposed

im m igra t ions a nd i nvas ions ( C lark 1 966 ) b u t u sua l ly o n t he b as is o f i nnova t ion i n ar es tr ic ted r ange o f e le men ts .

I n t h is c ase i nnova t ions were e x tens ive ,

w i th d e mons trab le c on t inen ta l b ackgrounds , a nd o ne may h ope t o s how b o th mo t ive a nd o ppor tun i ty f or t he e xpans ion o f c on t inen ta l c o m mun i t ies i n to Br it a in . THE END OF THE MESOL ITH IC The f a te o f i nd igenous c o m mun i t ies i n E ng land mus t b e o pen t o an u mber o f i n terpre ta t ions .

A s udden d ras t ic d isappearance t hrough d isease i n troduced

b y im m igran ts , o n t he a na logy o f t he r esu l t o f c on tac ts b e tween E uropean a nd Amer ican o r P ac i f ic p eop les , migh t b e p roposed . T he c ase o f S t . K i lda , s e t i n t he A t lan t ic b eyond t he Ou ter H ebr ides , o f fers a n a na logy c loser t o h o me . The S t . K i ldans r egu lar ly s u f fered ' boa t-co lds ' , o r s evere b ou ts o f i n fec t ion a nd d epress ion a f ter v is i ts b y s tea mers c arry ing t our is ts t o t he ir i s lands ( S tee l 1 965 ) . g er ms .

The ir i so la t ion d id n o t p repare t he ir b od ies t o r es is t u naccus to med

L ikew ise t he i nd igenous Meso l i th ic s tock o f t h is c oun try , t hree mi l-

l enn ia o r s o a f ter t he i nsu la t ion o f B r i ta in f ro m t he c on t inen t , migh t h ave b een s im i lar ly i l l-equ ipped f or c on tac ts w i th i nco mers . P rolonged s urv iva l , a s e nv isaged b y t he c oncep t o f t he s econdary N eol i th ic , w i thou t c on tr ibu t ion t o t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord , i s h arder t o c once ive , t hough t he e x is tence o f marg ina l g roups l ike t he F erm i , r epu ted ly l i v ing b y h un t ing i n n or thern E urope i n R o man t imes ( Tac i tus , G er man ia 4 6 ) a llows t he p oss ibi l i ty . Two o ther a l terna t ives may b e p re ferred .

I t may b e s upposed t ha t t he i n-

t roduc t ion o f aw ide-rang ing mixed f ar m ing e cono my f ro m o u ts ide may h ave s o d isrup ted i nd igenous p a t terns o f h un t ing , f ood c o l lec t ing a nd f ish ing - t hrough c o mpe t i t ion f or r esources , a nd d is turbance o f t he q u ie t f ores ts - a s t o d es troy t he m . S uch d isrup t ion i ndeed c ou ld h ave b een o n al arger s ca le i n Eng land , i n c loser p rox im i ty t o t he c on t inen t , t han i n I re land , a nd i t s e f fec t g rea ter . Were t he l a ter Meso l i th ic p opu la t ion r a ther sma l l i n a bso lu te n umbers ( desp i te J acob i 's c harac ter isa t ion a s " numerous" ) , i t may h ave t he more e as i ly s i mp ly f aded a way , a s t rad i t iona l r esources d im in ished . D isrup t ion o n t he o ther h and c ou ld h ave e ncouraged r ap id a ss im i la t ion , e sp ec ia l ly i fl a ter Meso l i th ic c o m mun i t ies were n o t s tab ly a d jus ted t o t heir e nv ironmen t .

One h as b een e ncouraged i n ah o mos ta t ic v iew o f h un ter-ga therers

b y t he a pparen t s uccess o f c er ta in r ecen t g roups i n s tab i l is ing t he ir p opu la t ion b e low t he s upposed c arry ing c apac i ty o f t he ir e nv ironmen t ( e .g . L ee a nd D evore 1 968 ) .

I ft here were i n f ac t c on t inua l t ugs b e tween s upp l ies a nd n umbers , n ew

k inds o f r esources migh t h ave b een t he more s peed i ly a dopted , a nd a r apid a ss im i la t ion e f fec ted . 1 04

T he r ar i ty o f t he a bi l i ty o f Meso l i th ic g roups a l l o ver Europe t o r es is t ad i ff eren t way o f l i fe , d esp i te t he s upposed a trac t ions o f t he ir own i n t er ms o f r e turns f or h ours worked ( Lee a nd D evore 1 968 , S ah l ins 1 972 ) , migh t b e b ased o n t he ir own i ns tab i l i ty .

The Eng l ish c ase s hou ld b e c o mpared w i th c on t inen ta l

c ases i n t he f ra mework o f t he c o mpe t ing p oss ib i l i t ies o f a voidance , a dap ta t ion a nd d isrup t ion .

Mu tua l a vo idance b e tween i nco m ing N eo l i th ic a nd i nd igenous

Meso l i th ic c o mmun i t ies h as b een d ocu men ted i n c en tra l a nd e as tern E urope ( Tr ingha m 1 968 ).

T he s a me s i tua t ion may b e r e f lec ted i n t he r espec t ive d is-

t r ibu t ions o f t he L inear P o t tery c u l ture a nd n a t ive g roups i n n or th-wes t G ermany , s ou thern H o l land a nd B e lg iu m ( Modder man 1 970 , Arora 1 973 ) , a nd i n t he P ar is B as in ( Ba i l loud1974 ) where d e ta i led d is tr ibu t ion s tud ies s ugges t f ar mers i n t he v a l leys a nd h un ters e lsewhere ( e .g . P aren t 1 971) , t hough d isr up t ion c ou ld a lso e xp la in t he l ack o f c on tac t w i th in t he ma in a reas o f d is tr ib u t ion o f t he L inear P ot tery c u l ture .

I n o ther a reas t here was a rguab ly a

much g rea ter n a t ive a dapta t ion a nd c on tr ibu t ion , a s we s ha l l s ee i n t he L ow C oun tr ies , s ou thern S cand inav ia , a nd Br i t tany .

E v idence f or t he e x t inc t ion

o f t he a urochs o n Z ea land a t t he Borea l/At lan t ic t rans i t ion ( C lark 1 975 , 1 38 ) may b e t aken t o s ugges t t ha t r esources were n o t i n f in i te o r c ou ld b e o vere xp lo i ted , a nd t ha t n ew s tap les w ou ld b e we lco med .

S ign i f ican t ly , t hese c ases

o f a dap ta t ion a re d rawn f ro m t he p er iphery o f t he p r i mary N eo l i th ic c o lon isat ion i n c on t inen tal Europe .

H ere t here was t ime a s we l l a s mo t ive f or n a t ive

c o m mun i t ies t o a dap t , a nd t h is p rocess c an b e d e tec ted b o th e cono m ica l ly a nd i nt he ma ter ia l s phere . F or t he g rea ter p ar t o f B r i ta in t h is mode l s ee ms i napp l icab le a nd t he s i tuat ion s hou ld b e e nv isaged r a ther a s o ne o f d isrup t ion . T he impac t o n t rad i t iona l e cono m ic r esources , p oss ib ly a lready s tra ined , b y i n trus ive a gr icu l tura l c o mmun i t ies , c ou ld h ave b een s u f f ic ien t t o t i p r ap id ly t he s ca les a ga ins t ah un t ingg a ther ing way o f l i fe , wh ich may a nyway h ave b een c hang ing a way f ro m o ur t rad i t iona l c oncep t ions o f i t .

T he a pparen t ly p uzzl ing e nd o f t he Meso li th ic

c ou ld b e e xp lained p laus ib ly i n t hese t er ms , a nd i ndeed i s o f c ons iderab le s ign i f icance i n c ons ider ing t he s ca le o f c o lon isa t ion a nd im m igra t ion i n to B r i ta in . I n n or thern I re land a nd wes tern S co t land , b y c on tras t , s i tua t ions o f a dap tat ion a nd a voidance r espect ive ly c an b e d e tec ted , wh ich f i t t he s a me mode l o f c on tact .

N or thern a nd e as tern I re land h as a d is t inc t ive i nsu lar l a te Meso l i th ic

o r Larn ian c u l ture .

T h is i s t yp i f ied b y ar es tr ic ted r ange o f a r te fac ts , p r inc i-

p a l ly l ea f-shaped " Bann" f lakes , o b l ique ly r e touched f lakes , b ar-l ike a nd r odl ike f l in t f or ms , f l in t p icks a nd a xes , a nd a lso p o l ished a xes o f b aked muds tone wh ich may b e t raced b ack t o t he s ix th mi l lenn iu m b c i n t he N ew ferry a rea ( Wood man 1 976 ) .

Ac hrono log ica l o ver lap b e tween t he l a te Meso l i th ic a nd e ar ly

N eo li th ic i n t he f our th mi l lenn ium b c c an b e more c lear ly d e mons tra ted i n I rel and t han i n Eng land , e ven t hough h ere f ew N eo l i th ic s i tes c an b e s a fe ly d a ted b e fore 3 000 b c .

I n land , u pper d epos i ts a t N ew ferry a re c on te mporary i n r ad io-

c arbon t er ms w i th B a l lynag i l ly , a nd o n t he c oas t , N eo l i th ic c ores h ave b een f ound i n s tor m b eaches o f t he max i mum mar ine t ransgress ion , wh i le Meso li th ic a r te fac ts h ave b een r ecorded i n s im i lar a nd p os ttransgress ion p os i t ions . Wh i le t here a re o ccas iona l N eo li th ic a r tefac ts o n l a te Meso l i th ic s i tes s uch a s p o t tery a t N ew ferry a nd D a lkey I s land , i n a pparen t ly u nd is turbed c on tex ts , n o i ns tances o f t he o ppos i te h ave y e t b een r ecorded .

Thus i ta ppears t ha t l a te

Meso li th ic c o m mun i t ies were a dap t ing N eo l i th ic e le men ts t o t he ir own u se . 1 05

S andh i l ls ware may r epresen t a ccu l tura ted Meso l i th ic c o m mun i t ies ( Case 1 961) ; wes tern N eo l i th ic p o t tery h as b een f ound a t N ew ferry w i th Meso l i th ic a r te fac ts ( Wood man 1 976 ) .

I n o ther r espec ts t he c o m mun i t ies s ee m q u i te s epara te .

Ano ther e xa mple i s t he ir s ources o f r aw ma ter ia l - muds tone a nd b each f l in t b e ing u sed i n t he l a te Meso l i th ic , p orce l lan i te a nd s cree f l in t i n t he N eo l i th ic . The L arn ian c u l ture i s r es tr icted i n d is tr ibu t ion t o t he c oas ta l a reas a nd t he ma in i n land r ivers ( Wood man 1 973-4 ) . p aren t ly a vo ided .

Areas o f u p land i n land were a p-

I t may b e t ha t Larn ian c o m mun i t ies c oncen tra ted o n r iver

f ish ing a nd t he e xp li ta t ion o f c oas ta l r esources , a nd e n joyed a s tab le a d jus tmen t t o t he ir e nv ironmen t .

R ecorded i ns tances o f a pparen t ly d o mes t ica ted

a n i ma ls a t l a te Meso l i th ic c oas ta l s i tes , s uch a s Da lkey I s land , S u t ton o r R ingne i l Quay ( L iversage 1 968 , M i tche l l 1 956 , C o l lins a nd S tephens 1 960 ) , i n a pparen t ly u nd is turbed c on tex ts , s ee m t o b e a na logous a cqu is i t ions t o p ot tery . A l though i th as b een a rgued t ha t s uch a cqu is i t ions r epresen t ' precoc ious ' l ong-range a ccu l tura t ion ( Wa terbo lk 1 968 ) i ts ee ms t ha t h ere n a t ive c o m mun i t ies were a c tua l ly a bsorbed b y i n trus ive o nes .

T ha t we c an d e tec t t he p rocess s ug-

g es ts e i ther t ha t t he i nd igenous p opu la t ion was i n t h is c ase s tab ly a d jus ted ( perhaps t hrough a r e l iance o n r iver ine a nd c oas ta l r esources ) o r t ha t n or thern I re land d esp i te t he e ar ly d a tes f ro m B a l lynag i l ly was n o t a ma jor f ocus o f e ar ly N eo l ith ic c o lon isat ion . T he s urv iva l o f Meso l i th ic c o m mun i t ies i n t he mid a nd l a te f our th mi l lenn ium b c o n t he ma in land a nd e spec ia l ly t he i nner i s lands o f wes tern S co t land s uch a s J ura a nd Oronsay ( Me l iars a nd P ayne 1 971) w i th t he ir s i mp le ma ter ia l e qu ip men t o f m icro l i ths , h arpoons a nd s coops c an b e s een i nt er ms o f a vo idance .

A t a n u nknown l a ter d a te o n J ura N eo l i th ic a r te-

f ac ts were l e f t o nt he s a me s i tes ( J . Mercer 1 974 ) ;

o n Oronsay t he e nd o f

o ccupa t ion a t t he t urn o f t he mi l lenn ium c ou ld a ga in b e d ue t o N eo l i th ic d isr upt ion .

1 06

CHAPTER S EVEN THE NEOLITHIC S EQUENCE AND S ETTLE MENT OF THE RH INELAND

ADJACENT CONT INENTAL EUROPE : s ign i f icance o f i t s f our th mi l lenn ium b c c u l tures f or t he o r ig ins o f t he e ar l ier N eo li th ic o f s ou thern E ng land The s econd h ypothes is p roposed a t t he b eg inn ing o f t h is s tudy , t ha t o f a d er iva t ion o f t he e ar l ier N eo l i th ic o f s ou thern Eng land f ro m a d jacen t c on t inen ta l European c u l tures , mus t i n t he l igh t o f t he r e jec t ion o f t he f i rs t h ypo thes is b e n ow c onsidered . H owever , t he s econd s hou ld n o t b e a ccep ted j us t b ecause t he f irs t i s r e jec ted , b u t s hou ld i dea l ly b e t enab le f or p os i t ive r easons o f i t s own . The l ike l ihood o f ap ioneer ing p hase i n t he e ar l ier N eo l i th ic ( ra ther t han a n e ar ly a dapt ive p hase o f i nc ip ien t a gr icu l ture b y i nd igenous p eop le ) i s e x tre me ly impor tan t c hrono log ica l ly . I t imp l ies t he n eed t o c as t t he s earch f or o r ig ins b ack i n to t he e ar l ier f our th mi l lenn ium b c , a nd t o c ons ider c u l tures n o t c ont e mporary w i th t he ma ture c o m mun i t ies o f t he e ar l ier Eng l ish N eo l i th ic . N onet he less o ur c hrono log ica l s cope mus t b e t he whole o f t he f our th m i l lenn ium b c , s ince o ne mus t n o t p re judge t he l eng th o f t he s pan o ver wh ich migra t ion t ook p lace , i n i t se l f al i t t le c ons idered p rob le m . Th is s earch f or t hese o r ig ins i s made o n t he e xp l ic i t a ssump t ion t ha t t he a d jacen t a reas o f Europe t o E ng land a re l i ke ly t o b e t he mos t f ru i t fu l .

T hese

a reas may b e d el im i ted a s f ro m F rance i n t he s ou th t o s ou thern S cand inav ia i n t he n or th a nd a s f ar i n land a s w es tern G er many ( f igs 2 0 a nd 2 1 ) . I ti s s ugges ted t ha t c o m muna l move men ts o ver v ery l ong d is tances were r are , a nd i n s o f ar a s o ne may j udge t he ma t ter , u nnecessary a t t h is s tage o f p reh is tory . T o a n t ic ipa te , r easonab le a nswers t o t he p rob le m c an i ndeed b e f ound i n t he a reas t hus d e f ined , s o t ha t I ber ia ( i n wh ich f l our ished i n t he f our th mi l lenn ium b c d iverse r eg iona l g roups , whose monu men ts a lready i nc luded p assage g raves a nd p robab ly r ock-cu t t o mbs ) a nd c en tra l Europe ( represen ted i n t he f our th mi l lenn ium b c main ly b y t he S t ichbandkera m ik a nd L engye l c u l tures ) c an b e l e f t o u t o f o ur a ccoun t . H owever , i t wou ld i ndeed b e f oo l ish t o d eny t he p oss ib i l i ty o f l ong-range s easona l move men ts b y sma l l g roups o r i nd iv idua ls , e spec ia l ly b y r iver a nd s ea. I tw i l l s oon b e r ea l ised t ha t n o e xac t c orrespondence c an b e f ound b e tween t he e ar l ier N eo l i th ic o f s ou thern E ng land a nd c on t inen ta l c u l tures . Wh i le t h is makes t he q ues t ion o f o r ig ins d i f f icu l t , i ti s i n i t se l f af ea ture r equ ir ing e xp lana t ion a nd p oten t ia l ly a c lue t o t he c ond i t ions o f c o lon isa t ion - s ugges t ing e i ther a h igh ly c o mp lex s e t o f i n teract ing e le men ts s o e n tw ined t ha t n arrow ly d ef ined o r ig ins a re i rre levan t , o r o r ig ina l ly d e f inab le g roups whose c ohes ion was weakened b y migra t ion i t se l f a nd t he s ocia l a rrange men ts c urren t d ur ing i t . F ur ther o ne mus t t ry t o d is t ingu ish b e tween e le men ts w i th r e l iab le a nd amb iguous c u l tura l s ign i f icance . 1 07

r i C s 1

b i i . . f r 4

G e n r a l i s e d d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c o n t i n e t a l c u l t u r e s i n t h e l a t e r f o u r t h m i l e n i u m b e ,

THE RHEN ISH S EQUENCE A f ter t hree-quar ters o f ac en tury i t s ee ms t ha t t he c orrec t c u l tura l s eq uence h as f ina l ly b een e s tab l ished f or t he N eo l i th ic o f t he Rh ine land .

Despi te

e ar l ier a rrange men ts , o f wh ich S troh 's ( 1938 ) i s t he b es t k nown , t he a va i lab le e v idence , c h ie f ly p o t tery , n ow s uppor ts t he f o l lowing b road c hrono log ica l d ev e lop men t -l a te L inear P ot tery c u l ture ( f ig . 2 2 ) , H inke ls tein Group , G rossg ar tach G roup , R oessen c u l ture a nd f ina l ly t he M iche lsberg c u l ture ( Me ierArend t 1 969 , 1 974 , 1 975 ;

Mauser-Go l ler 1 969 , 1 972 ;

D ohrn-Ih m ig 1 974b ;

S ang me is ter 1 973 ) . The H inke ls te in Group i s k nown f ro m u p t o e igh ty s i tes , b o th c e me ter ies a nd s e t t le men ts , wh ich a re c oncen tra ted i n R he in land-P fa lz b u t e x tend d own t he R h ine , t he N eckar , i n to t he We t terau , a nd e ven t he l ower R h ine v a l leys ( Me ier-Arend t 1 975 , f ig . 1 ) .

H inke ls te in p o t tery i ncludes g lobu lar b ow ls ;

p ear-shaped b ow ls , g lobu lar b u t w i th a more c y l indr ica l n eck , a nd w i th a t end ency a lso t o ad e f in i te B auchkn ick i nt he b e l ly ; o r l ower f oo t ;

p edes ta l v ases w i th a h igher

a nd c oarse b icon ica l f or ms .

Decora t ion i s made u p b y p a irs o f j abbed impress ions ( S t ichdoppe lre ihen ) c on t inuous impressed l ines ( R i tzl in ien ) o r l ines o f c lose ly s et , h ard ly s eparat ed impress ions ( Furchens t ich l in ien ) .

Wi th t hese t echn iques v ar ious mo ti fs

a re made , wh ich i nc lude c on t inuous a nd b roken p ara l le l l ines o n t he n ecks , a nd o n t he b e l l ies c hevrons a nd i n tersec t ing v er t ica ls , a nd a g rea t v ar ie ty o f t r ia ng les a nd s im i lar s hapes b u i l t u p o f p ara l le l l ines . I n s tone , t he a ppearance o f t he p er fora ted a xe-ha m mer i s t he mos t n ot icea b le c hange f ro m t he L inear P o t tery c u l ture . N o h ousep lans a re k nown b el ong ing t o t he H inke ls te in Group , s e t t le men ts b e ing r epresen ted b y c oncen trat ions o f a r tefac ts a nd p i ts .

The L inear P o t tery c u l ture t rad i t ion o f s ing le

e x tended i nhu ma t ions i np i ts , a cco mpan ied b y v ar ious g rave g oods , a nd g rouped i n sma l l c e me ter ies , was c on t inued . The t ypo log ica l v ar ie ty o f t he H inke ls tein d ecora ted p ot tery a l lows a d iv is ion o f t he who le i n to a t l eas t t wo p ar ts , w i th o n t he o ne h and p ots wh ich h ave a ff in i t ies w i th l a te L inear p o t tery a nd S t ichbandkera m ik , a nd o n t he o ther p ots i n wh ich t hese a f f in i t ies a re much l ess e v iden t , a nd wh ich a re t ypolog ica l ly r a ther s im i lar t o G rossgar tach p o t tery . I nt he f irs t g roup , t here a re p o ts w i th v ery c lose S t ichbandkera m ik a f f in it ies , a s a t Rhe indurkhe i m XXV ( Me ier-Arend t 1 969 , f ig . 4 , 1a nd 2 ) o r Monshe i mH inke ls te in ( Me ier-Arend t 1 974 ) . Th is s ugges ts r ough c on te mporane i ty w i th t he S t ichbandkera m ik o f C en tra l Europe , wh ich s ucceeds l a te L inear p ot tery , a nd e spec ia l ly w i th t he g arka p hase , i n wh ich c hevrons a nd v er t ica l b ands made u p o f S t ichdoppe lre ihen a re impor tan t .

On t he o ther h and , p o ts w i th s uch c lose

a nd c lear a f f in i t ies a re r are , s o t ha t t he H inke ls te in Group c an h ard ly b e c ons idered a p er iphera l o u t l ier o f t he S t ichbandkera m ik c u l ture .

Many o f i ts e le-

men ts c an b e d irec t ly c onnec ted w i th t he L inear P o t tery c u l ture , l ike t he s i mp ler b ow l f or m , t he d ecora t ive

t echn ique o f u s ing c on t inuous l ines ( whe ther R i tz o r

Furchens t ichre ihen ) , a nd n eck d ecora t ion i nc lud ing i n terrup ted b ands .

Pots

i n Rhe indurkhe im g raves V I I a nd V II I ( Me ier-Arend t 1 969 , f ig . 2 , 1a nd 4 ) i l l us tra te t h is .

H owever , t he S t ichbandkera m ik c u l ture may s t i l l b e c ons idered

p erhaps a s ac a ta lys t ( Me ier-Arend t 1 972 , 1 36 ) i n t he f or ma t ion o f H inke ls te in , 1 10

C s 1

w i t h a d i t i o n s ) .

s ince many mo ti fs , t hough n o t e xecu ted i n S t ichdoppe lre ihen a re marked ly g eo me tr ic , a nd t he t r iang le i t se l f , wh i le e x treme ly r are i n l a te L inear P o t tery c u l ture c on tex ts ( as a t P la idt ) i s c o m mon i n S t ichbandkera m ik d ecora t ion . These t ypo log ica l c ons idera t ions s uppor t ap os i t ion f or H inke ls te in a f ter t he l a te L inear P o t tery c u l ture , e ven p erhaps o ver lapp ing w i th i t .

A t K ö ln-

L inden tha l ( Bu t t ler 1 935 ) a nd R odgen , Kr . F r iedburg ( Me ier-Arend t 1 966 , 5 8 , t a f . 1 8 .2 ) , p o ts w i th L inear P o t tery a nd S t ichbandkera m ik s im i lar i t ies were f ound i n l a te L inear P o t tery c u l ture c on tex ts . I n t he s econd g roup a re p o ts w i thou t t hese s trong t ypo log ica l a f f in i t ies , l i ke t he b owls f ro m g raves V I a nd ) (X I a t R he indurkhe im ( Me ier-Arend t 1 969 , t a f . I , 2 ;

1 , 3 ;

3 , 1 ;

3 , 3 ) , w i th d ecora t ion d om ina ted b y t r iang le a nd c hevron .

These may b e p ar t ly c on te mporary w i th t he p reced ing , b u t a lso w i th o thers , wh ich t ypo log ica l ly s ee m c lear ly l a ter , l i ke t he p o ts f ro m g raves I I a nd I V a t Wor ms -Rhe ingewann .

These a re a p edes ta l v ase w i th t r iangu lar mo t i fs e i ther

s ide o f aR eizl in ie a nd a g lobu lar b ow l w i th s im i lar d ecora tion , b u t s o a rranged t ha t t he c en tra l h or izon ta l l ine c rea tes t he s a me v isua l e f fec t a s ac ar ina t ion ( Me ier-Arend t 1 969 , f igs 5 ,1 , 6 ,2 ) .

There a re s im i lar p ots i n Wor ms -

Rhe ingewann LX I ( f igs 8 ,1 , 8 ,3 , 9 ,1 ) a nd o ne w i th a s peci f ica l ly G rossgar tachl ike d ecora t ive s che me o f h a tched t r iang les a nd s hou lder d ecora t ion o f s em ic ircu lar impress ions . T he H inke ls te in-Grossgar tach r e la t ionsh ip may a lso b e c ons idered t ypo log ic a l ly f ro m t he o ther s ide , s ince s o me Grossgar tach p o t tery , a s a t Grossgar tach , Obergro mbach ( S troh 1 948-50 ) a nd N iers te in , Kr . Ma inz ( Behrens 1 923 , 1 927 ) , h ave f or ms a nd d ecora t ion - p edes ta l v ases , h a tched t r iang les , c en tra l h or iz on ta l l ines - c lose ly p ara l le led i n t he Wor ms a rea H inke ls te in c e me ter ies . Ye t t he c on ten ts o f g rave Y O CX a t Wor ms -Rhe ingewann , wh ich i nc lude a t p o t r emin iscen t o f S t ichbandkera m ik a nd t wo G rossgar tach-l ike b owls , c an b e t aken t o s uppor t t he v iew t ha t t he p hases o f t he H inke ls te in g roup , b u i l t u p o n t ypo logy , were p robab ly s hor tl ived .

Ag rave a t P lan ig , Kr . Ma inz-B ingen , c on ta ined

b o th G rossgar tach a nd H inke ls te in p o ts ( Me ier-Arend t 1 975 ).

I th as b een

p o in ted o u t t o me h owever b y P ro fessor Modder man t ha t Wor ms -Rhe ingewann XXX c ou ld b e t wo s uper i mposed g raves s ince t he ma le b ody ( accord ing t o t wo i den ti f ica t ions b u t n o t at h ird ( Me ier-Arend t 1 975 , 1 97 ) was a cco mpan ied b y s ha le a r m-r ings , wh ich a re c harac ter is t ica l ly f e ma le e qu ip men t i n t he Wor ms c e meter ies . Ap la in s teep-s ided b eaker , wh ich may h ave G rossgar tach a f f in i t ies , w as f ound w i th l a te L inear P o t tery i n ag rave ( n o . 1 8 ) a t F t ixhe im , Mu lhouse ( Sang me is ter 1 973 ) a nd r ecen t ly l a te L inear P o t tery a nd Grossgar tach s herds h ave b een r ecovered f ro m t he s a me l arge p i t a t L angwe i ler 8 o n t he A ldenhoven P la teau , Kr . Duren ( S teh l i 1 974 ) .

Th is f ind , t oge ther w i th t he p auci ty o f

H inke ls te in f inds i n t he l ower R h ine a rea , s ugges ts t ha t t he H inke ls te in G roup was t o s o me e x ten t al oca l ised g roup o f t he e nd o f t he L inear P o t tery c u l ture , a nd t ha t i n t h is more n or ther ly a rea t he L inear P o t tery c u l ture c on t inued l onger , t o e vo lve i n to t he G rossgar tach Group d irec t ly . T he p ot tery o f t he Grossgar tach G roup i nc ludes d ecora ted a nd p edes ta l v ases , d ecora ted a nd p la in s ha l low b ow ls w i th f our p oin ted c orners , a nd d ecora ted s ha ll ow b ow ls , o va l c ups a nd s tra igh t-s ided b eakers .

Decora t ion c overs mos t o f

t he o u ts ide o f t he p ot f ro m n eck t o n ear t he b ase , a nd i s made mos t c o m mon ly w i th D oppe ls t ich . 1 12

I ti s h igh ly v ar ied b u t c o m mon a re b road a nd n arrow c on t inuous a nd i n terrup ted h or izon ta l b ands , a nd l ooser mot i fs i nc lud ing h a tched t r iang les wh ich f or m a s or t o f g ar land r ound t he p o t . T he f l in t i ndus try s ee ms t o h ave b een s t i l l d om ina ted b y b lades . a re t r iangu lar a rrowheads w i th p ar t ia l ly c over ing r e touch .

T here

P er fora ted a dzes ,

p er fora ted , r ectangu lar-sec t ioned h a m mer-axes , a nd s o-ca l led ' wes tern ' a xes , w i th l en t icu lar s ec t ion , t h in b u t t a nd c onvex c u t t ing e dge ( t o b e d is t ingu ished f ro m s o-ca l led ' nor thern ' a xes w i th s quared s ides a nd t h ick b u t ts ( e .g . J acobFr iesen 1 939 , f ig . 3 8 ) ) , make u p t he e qu ip men t i n o ther h ard r ocks . N o h ouse p lans a re k nown .

T he b ur ia l t rad i t ion r e ma ined a pparen t ly u n-

a l tered . T he G rossgar tach Group i s k nown f ro m s o me h undred s i tes , b o th s e t t le men ts a nd c e me ter ies . I t s d is tr ibu t ion i s s im i lar t o t ha t o f t he R cessen c u l ture ( f ig . 2 3 ) , s tre tch ing f ro m t he S . O berrhe in t o t he l ower R h ine , b u t w i th c oncen trat ions i n t he S trasbourg a rea , t he N eckar , R he in land-P fa lz , a nd t he We t terau . The R oessen c u l ture i s k nown i n g rea t q uan t i t ies i n t he n or th t han i n S troh 's d ay , e specia l ly i n t he N euw ied b as in ( Tackenberg 1 954 , map 3 ) a nd i n t he l ower Rh ine , a s r ound Bochu m a nd o n t he A ldenh .oven P la teau .

T h is s im i lar i ty o f

d is tr ibu t ion s ee ms t o b e s ign i f ican t f or t he r e la t ionsh ip o f t he t wo . T he R osssen c u l ture i s k nown f ro m a s im i lar n u mber o f s i tes , t hough f ew g raves h ave b een f ound .

T he f or ms o f i t s p o t tery ( f ig . 2 4 ) i nc lude sma l ler

a nd l arger c losed s hou ldered b ow ls ( Kuge lbecher a nd Kuge l töp fe ) , l arge o pen b ow ls , o f ten w i th a l ow f oo tr ing , s ha l low b ow ls a nd l arge p la in b icon ica l s torage f or ms .

T he s hou ldered b ow l i s s im i lar t o t he G rossgar tach b ow l , t hough

r a ther l ess c losed a nd w i th a more o u t-turned , s o me t i mes d ecora ted r im . S ha l low b ow ls h ave G rossgar tach p roto types , a s d o o bv ious ly p edes ta l v ases , t hough t hese a re n ot c o m mon i n t he R h ine land , b u t f ur ther t o t he e as t .

T he

d ecora t ion o f R oessen p o t tery a lso s hows a g ene t ic r e la t ionsh ip t o Grossgar tach d ecora t ion , e spec ial ly i n t he f ea tures o f c over ing d eep impress ions ( T ie fs t ich ) , Doppe ls t ich , h a tch ing a nd t r iangu lar mot i fs ( Me ier-Arend t 1 974 ) .

H owever ,

Roessen d ecora t ion i s h igh ly v ar ied , a nd s hows more r eg iona l v ar ia t ions t han Grossgar tach , a nd h as many c harac ter is t ics n ot p ara l le led o n Grossgar tach p o t tery .

T hese i nc lude i nc ised l ines , f r inge mo t i fs , ' carpetl ike ' b ands o f

f ishbone mo t i fs , a nd c hevrons .

R oessen r i ms a re much more o u t-turned t han

Grossgar tach , a nd t here a re f or ms l i ke t he b ig o pen b ow l o r t he o va l d ish , wh ich h ave n o Grossgar tach p roto types . T hese f ea tures s how t ha t t here a re many p oin ts i n c o m mon , c lose e nough t o s ugges t ag enet ic r e la t ionsh ip , b u t t ha t t here a re s u f f ic ien t d i f ferences t o s how d eve lop men t b eyond t ha t r ela t ionsh ip .

Grossgar tach was l abe l led b y

S troh ( 1 938 ) t he j i .ngere R össen Ku l tur o r s t idwes tdeu tsche S t ichkera m ik . R oessen i s n ow c ons idered t o b e d er ived f ro m G rossgar tach , r a ther t han v ice v ersa f or t he f o l low ing r easons .

I n t he Wor ms a rea t here a re c lear t ypo log ica l

s im i lar i t ies b e tween H inke ls te in a nd G rossgar tach p o t tery .

T hese c anno t b e

s hown a s c lear ly b etween R oessen a nd H inke ls tein p o t tery .

R oessen p o t tery

h as c er ta in c harac ter is t ics , a s d escr ibed a bove , wh ich a re n ot f ound i n Grossg ar tach , n or i n H inke ls te in c on tex ts .

R oessen p i ts n o t o n ly c u t L inear P o t tery

c u l ture p i ts , a s a t H oenhei m , F rank fur t-Praunhe im a nd H er ingen , Kr . L i mburg , b u t a re c u t b y Miche lsberg p i ts a t The G o ldberg a nd Kär l ich among o thers , 13

F ig . 2 3 .

D is tr ibu t ion o f t he R oessen c u l ture i n t he Rh ine land a nd t o i t s w es t ( a f ter S troh , Mauser-Go l ler , S chwabed issen , w i th a dd i t ions ) .

cm 0 00 0‚ 3 00p tpt s t . 000 0 00000 o pt% o eo 8 0 0006 0 o0 0 0 e ie i0 " Oß

S 3

44)4 ,0 t 2Q

ge t ä 94 3 / 3444 ( b oa ad i„ t ia t 30

a )a,C 2 9 a? „ 4 00 t 3 .64 s i p6 )4 g ig — 0g 7 3i *A n apin ea sa i l 1 a g e % 1 , 2 g ,t 4p a at in ea 4 • 34 1

F ig . 2 4 .

P o t tery o f t he Roessen c u l ture ( sources c i ted i n t he t ex t ) . A ldenhoven .

3 , I nden .

1 , 2 , 4 ,

wh i le i n o ther i ns tances R oessen a nd M iche lsberg a sse mblages may b e c ont e mporary a s a t S tu tzhe im i n A lsace .

T hese c on tac ts w i th t he M iche lsberg

c u l ture a re n o t k nown f or G rossgar tach a sse mb lages . I th as b een s ugges ted t ha t t he ' P lan ig-Fr iedberg ' g roup o f t he Ma in-Rh ine c on f luence c ou ld b e d a ted t o t he t rans i t ion f rom G rossgar tach t o R oessen . The l abe l i s t ha t o f S troh ( 1 938 ) , who a pp l ied i tt o p o t tery w i th a m ix ture o f G rossgar tach a nd R oessen e le men ts , s uch a s d eep b ow ls a nd s hou ldered b ow ls w i th c urved o pen r i ms w i th u nusua l ly r ich c over ing i mpressed d ecora t ion . H e d id n o t s ee i th owever a s ac lear g roup i n t ime o r s pace , ad oub t wh ich s t i l l a pp l ies . Ana lys is o f g raves a t L ingo lshe im a nd E hrs te in n ear S trasbourg s ugges ts t ha t o n t he b as is o f t ypo logy a nd a ssoc ia t ion t here may b e t wo p hases a pparen t i nt he d eve lop men t o f Grossgar tach p o t tery , w i th weak s hou ldered b owls a nd t a l l p edes ta l led v ases - a s i n L ingo lshe im 6 -s ucceeded b y f ir m s hou ldered b ow ls a nd s hor t p edes ta l led v ases - a s i n E hrs te in 7 ( L ichardus , p aper t o S trasbourg C o l loque s ur l e N 6o l i th ique 1 974 ) .

I ft h is a na lys is i s c orrect , i t

t oo s uppor ts t he p os it ion o f Grossgartach b etween H inkelste in a nd Roessen . T he o vera l l s equence c an a lso b e f o l lowed i n h ouses , o rna men ts , b ur ia l a nd f l in t a nd s tone i ndus tr ies , t hough n o t s o c lear ly a s i n t he p o t tery . Thus t he R oessen f l in t i ndus try ( f ig . 2 5 ) i nc ludes many b lade t oo ls , s uch a s s crapers a nd k n ives . T here s ee m t o b e more t oo ls made o nb road f lakes t han e ar l ier i n t he t rad i t ion , s uch a s c onvex e nd-scrapers . Arrowheads a re t r iangu lar , f la t, h o l low- o r c onvex-based , w i th l arge ly c over ing r e touch .

T hese p ierc ing

p oin ts may a lso b e s een t o c on t inue t he L inear P o t tery c u l ture t rad i t ion . T here i s av ar ie ty o f c u t t ing t oo ls i n o ther h ard r ocks . P aradox ica l ly t he p er fora ted ' Roessen ' a dzes ( or h ohe d urch loch te S chuh le is tenke i le ) o f amph ib o l i te , d is tr ibu ted w ide ly i n t he n or th E uropean p la in ( S chwabed issen 1 966 , v an d er Waa ls 1 972 ) a re w i thou t s ecure c on tex ts w i th in t he ma in a rea o f t he R oessen c u l ture i t se l f .

H owever , t he more c o m mon p er fora ted t r iangu lar

h a m mer-axes ( durch loch te B re i tke i le ) , a nd a v ar ie ty o f f la t a xes , o f s quare a nd l en t icu lar c ross-sec t ion , a re we l l r epresen ted . Orna men ts a re w i th in t he s a me t rad i t ion t oo , s ince t here a re f or e xa mp le n eck laces made o f t ee th , l imes tone a nd s pondylus , a nd u se was made t oo o f b oth f oss i l a nd f reshwa ter musse l s he l ls . Though n o h ouse p lans o f t he H inke ls te in o r Grossgar tach g roups a re k nown -p oss ib ly b ecause b o th were r e la t ive ly s hor t-l ived -t he t rad i t ion o f t he t imb er l ong-house c on t inued i n t he R oessen c u l ture .

R oessen c u l ture l ong-houses

s ee m t o b e t yp ica l ly t rapezo ida l ( j us t a s S t ichbandkera m ik c u l ture h ouses i n c en tra l E urope a re n arrower a t o ne e nd t oo ) . T he c o m mon f orm h as t hree i n terna l r ows o f p os tho les , t hough i n l ess q uan t i ty t han i ns ide L inear P o t tery c u l ture h ouses , ac on t inuous b edd ing t rench r ound t he o u ts ide , w i th c lose ly s paced p os tho les s e t j us t b eyond o r c on t iguous w i th t h is . Sma l ler e xa mp les , u p t o 2 0 m l ong , a re k nown f ro m I nden-Lamersdor f , K r . J ü l ich-Düren ( Kuper a nd P iepers 1 966 ) a nd s hor t o f 3 0 m f ro m G ie lde , Kr . G os lar ( N ique t 1 969 ) b u t g ian t e xa mp les a re k nown , u p t o 5 0 m l ong , a t Deir ingsen-Ruploh , Kr . S oes t ( Gün ther 1 973a ) a nd u p t o 6 0 m l ong a t B ochum-H i l trop ( Brand t 1 960 ) . O thdr t rapezoida l h ouses l ack t he c on t inuous b edd ing t rench , a s a t B ochumL aer ( Gün ther 1 973a ) . 16

1

4

2

5 cm

0

6

5

7

1 1 0

1 3

1 , 0 E T 1

F ig . 2 5.

G rossgar tach p oin ts ( 1-2 ) a nd R oe s sen c u l ture f l in t a nd s tone i ndus try ( 3 -15 ).

1 , Mu lhausen V iesenhausener H of .

E uer feld .

4 , 6 , 9 , 1 1 , 1 2 , S chwabisch-Ha l l .

1 3 , H o lzhausen .

1 4 , E sse lborn .

2 , L ingo lshei m .

3 ,

5 , 7 , 8 , Ladenburg .

1 5 , I l veshei m- Wa l ls tadt ( v ar ious s ources ).

The bedding trench and external posts of the commoner type, together with fewer internal posts, presumably allowed greater weight to be borne by the walls, and more space inside, than in houses of the Linear Pottery culture.

It is possible too that there were smaller more rectangular houses (4-5 by 8-10 m) in the Roessen culture, but the examples from The Goldberg (Bersu 1936) cannot now be definitely claimed as Roessen, since the relevant part of the site yielded Linear Pottery culture and Michelsberg artefacts in some quantities too. Such houses might however reflect in some way either an economic or a social adaptation to changing patterns of settlement. The few Roessen culture burials continue the same tradition of inhumation, as before. The paucity of regular burials from the succeeding Michelsberg culture (Luning 1967, 126f.) suggests that this part of the Rhenish cultural tra­ dition progressively declined through time.

Stroh (1938) picked out regional variations in Roessen pottery with a Wurttemberg group, a Rhein-Main group and an Unterneckar group which re­ presented a mixture of the other two. He also picked out two other special groups (1938b), the Bischheim and Schwieberdingen groups, in Hessen and Rheinland-Pfalz, and in the middle Neckar area respectively. To these two Sondergruppen Kimmig (1948/50) added the Bischoffingen group, of the Stras­ bourg area, and the Wauwil group of the S. Oberrhein and northern SWitzerland All four are characterised by individual decorative and formal characteristics which separate them from Roessen, varied though that is (fig. 26).

Schwiedberdingen pottery has flat-based, shouldered open bowls, decorated with fine impressions and Furchenstich, in various motifs including triangles and bands of zigzag lines. Bischoffingen bowls have a rather straight funnel­ like neck above globular bodies, decorated by fine impressions and incisions, from the bottom of the neck down, in vertical lines or geometric motifs. Wauwil pottery has rather closed, S-profiled bowls, decorated with impression and Furchenstich, in zones below the neck from which spring up or down vertical bands or motifs. Bischheim pottery has forms very similar to Roessen Kugelbecher and Kugeltopfe, decorated characteristically with fine Furchenstich motifs or horizontal and vertical lines of less closely set rectangular impres­ sions.

It is hard to see Bischoffingen as a closed group since many Bischoffingen pots are found in association with Michelsberg artefacts (Mauser-Goller 1972, 248). Likewise there are few closed finds of Wauwil pottery; Gonvillars arid Jechtingen are examples where this style of pottery is found not in association with other types. Bischheim pottery is found in more closed contexts (e. g. Luning 1969, List 2 Lilning �al. 1972), though there are notable cases as at Monsheim II where only typology can sort out Roessen and Bischheim.

Llining (1968) has suggested that all these 'groups' are later than the Roessen culture proper, chiefly through their relationship to Michelsberg assemblages. In the case of Karlich, Kr. Koblenz Bischheim material was found definitely stratified below a Michelsberg (I or II) assemblage (Llining �al. 1972). Mauser-Goller however (1972) has warned that the general chronology of the end of the Roessen culture is far from being secure, and suggests on the basis of contacts as at Stutzheim in Alsace, that the Schwieberdingen-Aichbuhl-Mich horizon could be no later than the end of the Roessen culture proper. 118

i pc m

F ig . 2 6 .

B ischhe im a nd Wauwi l p o t tery . 4 , J ech t ingen .

5 , S cht i tz 1 .

G o I ler , Ga l lay a nd S ch mi t t ) .

1 , B ischhei m .

2 , 3 , Monshei m .

6 , En tzhei m ( a f ter L t in ing , Mauser-

o B ischhe im

0 0

o

A B ischo ff ingen

0

o Wauw it + S chw ieberd ingen xA ichbüh l +

_y -( x

o E P

C I

9

F ig . 2 7.

1Q 0km

Reg iona l d is tr ibu tion o f ' La te Roessen ' h or izon p o t tery s tyles .

oM iche ls b erg oE berstad t AM unz ingen •B odensee +S chussenr ied P fy n

1 Q 0 km

F ig . 2 8 .

R eg iona l d is tr ibu t ion o f M iche lsberg h or izon p o t tery s tyles .

F inds f ro m The G o ldberg s ugges t t ha t S chw ieberd ingen a nd R oessen p o t tery was t here c on te mporary , a nd R oessen Kuge l töp fe h ave b een f ound a t A ichbüh l i tse l f .

R oessen f inds a re c oncen tra ted r ound H e i lbronn , S chw ieberd ingen

r ound S tu t tgar t .

G a l lay ( 1970 ) h as s hown t he w ide t ime r ange i n wh ich Wauw i l

p o t tery o ccurs i n n or thern S w i tzer land , f ro m E go lsw i l t o C or ta i l lod c on tex ts . I ti s t here fore p ro f i tab le t o s ee t hese ' groups ' a s d ecora t ive s ty les wh ich , wh i le s har ing c er ta in mo ti fs ( L ik ing 1 969, map 3 ) , d o h ave v a l id r eg iona l d ist r ibu t ions , b u t wh ich a re n o t n ecessar i ly t o b e s epara ted f ro m t he R oessen c u lture p roper o r c on f ined t o as hor t i n terva l b e tween t he R oessen a nd Miche lsb erg c u l tures .

I t may b e s ugges ted f ur ther t ha t s uch r eg iona l s ty les c ou ld r e-

f lec t t he e x is tence o f s pecia l is t p ot ters . B y t he e nd o f t he L inear P o t tery c u l ture , c er ta in b road r eg iona l d i f ferences h ad emerged , f or e xa mp le t he R h ineMa in a nd t he R hein- Maas g roups ( as l abe l led b y D ohrnIh m ig 1 973 ) .

T here

were a lso p o t tery s ty les o f more l oca l ised d is tr ibu t ion , s uch a s t he L i mburg s ty le ( Modder man 1 974 ) , t he G er ing g roup ( Dohrn-Ih m ig 1 974a ) o r t he L eihg es tern ( Me ier-Arend t 1 972a ) .

I th as b een s hown t ha t s o me o f t hese p o ts were

moved b eyond t he ir p lace o f manu fac ture ( as a t Ki ln-L inden tha l ( Bu t t ler a nd Haberey 1 936 ) , o r i n t he c ase o f t he L i mburg s ty le , t hough p erhaps i n t he o pp os i te d irect ion t o t ha t e nv isaged b y Modder man ) . I ti s p oss ib le t ha t t he r eg iona l isa t ion o f p o t tery s tyles r e f lec ts t oo t he e x is tence o f s pecia l is t p o t ters , a s d iscussed i n c ons idera t ion o f Eng l ish p o t tery .

The R oessen c u l ture

S ondergruppen c ou ld b e t he c on t inua t ion a nd e ven t he d eve lop men t o f t h is t rend . I t may b e n o ted t oo t ha t r eg iona l c era m ic d i f ferences o f t he Miche lsberg h or iz on a ppear t o b e s im i lar ly d is tr ibu ted ( f igs . 2 7 , 2 8 ) . R ad iocarbon d a t ing h as b een u neven ly a pp l ied t o t h is s equence , a nd t he a bs o lu te c hrono logy o f many g roups a nd s ty les i s s t i l l u nc lear .

The s equence o f

d a tes f or t he L inear P o t tery c u l ture i n t he s ou thern N e ther lands e x tends i n to t he e ar ly f our th mi l lenn iu m b c .

The S t ichbandkera m ik c u l ture o f C en tra l E urope

i s d a ted b y d e ter m ina t ions f ro m Zwenkau , Kr . L e ipzig , a nd H ienhe im , Kr . K e lhe im , t o t he e ar l ier f our th mi l lenn iu m b e ( B ln-66 , K -555 , H -224/223 ;

G rN ,

4 832 ) , d a tes wh ich may g ive s o me i dea o f t he a bso lu te p os i t ion o f t he H inke ls tein Group ;

S t ichbandkera m ik s i tes i n C zechos lovak ia a re s im i lar ly d a ted .

B o th t he H inke ls te in a nd t he Grossgar tach Groups may h ave b een r e la t ive ly s hor tl ived . R oessen c u l ture ma ter ia l h owever i s o n ly d irec t ly d a ted a t I nden , Kr . Düren ( Kn330 , 3 990+ 2 00 b e ) , Wah l i tz , K r . Burg ( f ur ther e as t ) ( GrN4 33 , 3 350 + 2 00 b e ) , Düm mer , Kr . G ra fscha f t D iepho lz ( Hv-374 , 3 470 + 5 0 b e , H v-816 , 3 475 + 3 5 b e ) , G onv i l lars , n ear B e l for t ( G i f-468 , 3 430 + 2 50 b e ) ,a nd p erhaps L a Tu i ler ie l eve l I X i n t he s a me r eg ion ( Ly-335 3 540+ 1 40 b e ) . B ischhe i m ma ter ia l i s o n t he o ther h and d a ted t o t he midd le o f t he f our th mi ll enn iu m a s we l l , a t K g .r l ich , Koblenz ( GrN-6347 , 3 735 + 9 5 b e ) , S chwa lhe im , F r iedburg ( Kn568 , 3 480 + 1 50 b e ) a nd l oosely a t G ivry , Mons ( GrN-6021, 3 360 + 6 0 b e ) .

A ichbüh l ma ter ia l ( wh ich i s c ons idered t o b e c on te mporary

w i th t he S chw ieberd ingen g roup ) h as b een d a ted a t L au tereck , Kr . E h ingen , t o 3 480 ± 4 0 b e ( GrN-4666 ) wh i le a b ea m b e long ing t o aS chussenr ied h ouse a t R iedschachen 1 3 , n ear t he F edersee moor , h as b een d a ted t o 3 360 + 1 60 b e ( Kn27 ) ( S chussenr ied b e ing c ons idered l a ter t han t he S chw ieberd ingen-A ichb il l h or izon ) .

S chussenr ied- M iche lsberg ma ter ia l i s d a ted a t Ehrens te in , Kr .

t o t he l a te f our th mi l lenn iu m b e ( B ln-70 , 7 1 , 5 4 ; H -61/149 ) .

1 22

Kn2 , 1 91 ;

H -125/107 ,

U lm

M iche lsberg I ma ter ia l ( accord ing t o L im ing t ypo logy ) i s d a ted t o t he l a ter f our th m i l lenn ium b c a t B erghe im , Mayen , Ludgw igsburg , H e i lbronn a nd Karl i ch ( L im ing , p ersona l c o m mun ica t ion ) a nd M iche lsberg I I t o t he l a te f our th mi l lenn ium a t E hrens te in ( see a bove ). T he ma in d e f iciency i s i n R oessen c u l ture d a tes .

I ti s u nc lear h ow s oon

i ts ucceeds t he G rossgar tach g roup , a nd h ow much i to ver laps w i th i t s S onderg ruppen .

H owever , i n r ela t ion t o t he H inke ls te in g roup a nd t he Miche lsberg

c u l ture w e may p lace i ti n t he e ar l ier t o mid f our th mi l lenn ium b c . I th as b een a rgued a t l eng th t ha t b o th t he H inke ls te in a nd R oessen c u l tures h ave C en tra l E uropean o r ig ins , b u t t he c oun ter-argu men ts o f Me ier-Arend t ( 1 969 , 1 974 , 1 975 ) t ha t b oth a re p ar t o f a n e ssen t ia l ly l oca l d eve lop men t a re p erhaps more c onv inc ing .

S t ichbandkera m ik e le men ts c an c lear ly b e a dm i t ted ,

b u t t he n umber o f e le men ts t raceab le t o t he L inear P o t tery o f t he R h ine land d en ies t he p oss ibi l i ty u rged f or e xa mp le b y Z apa tocka ( 1972 ) t ha t H inke ls te in i s j us t ar eg iona l wes tern g roup ing o f t he S t ichbandkera m ik c u l ture .

T he r e-

o rder ing o f t he Grossgar tach G roup i n t he s equence i s h igh ly s ign i f ican t f or t he o r ig ins o f R oessen c u l ture , whose l oca l o r ig in c an b e s trong ly s uppor ted . I ndeed R oessen , Kr . Merseburg , i t se l f may b e o n t he f r inges o f R oessen d ist r ibu t ion ( c f . K au f mann 1 976 , 1 05 a nd map 1 2 ) . THE ROESSEN CULTURE AND ENGLAND Fro m a n E ng l ish p o in t o f v iew , t h is r esu l t i s h igh ly s ign i f ican t , s ince i t i mp lies t ha t t he d eve lop men t o f ma ter ia l c u l ture i n as em ina l a rea was e ssent i a l ly l oca l , a nd t ha t t he c hang ing p a t terns o f s e t t le men t i n t h is r eg ion - wh ich c an b e d a ted f ro m t h is f ra mework - c an t hereby b e s een a s t he r esu l t o f u ni n terrup ted l oca l d eve lop men t . There i s much o f i n teres t i n t he ma ter ia l c u l ture o f t h is t rad i t ion , f ro m t he p oin t o f v iew o f t he d er iva t ion o f t he e ar l ier Eng l ish N eo l i th ic a nd i ndeed t he f or ma t ion o f t he 'wes tern N eo l i th ic ' a s a who le . v e lop men t o f p o t tery .

T ake , f or e xa mp le , t he d e-

The b ow l was d eve loped f ro m g lobu lar f or m w i th d ecora-

t i on c rea t ing s o me e f fec t o f as hou lder , a s a t Wor ms -Rhe ingewann , t o t he B auchkn ickge fässe o f t he Grossgar tach G roup , w i th t he ir l ow-se t f ir m s hou lders , a nd t o t he more r ounded R oessen Kuge lbecher a nd Kuge l töp fe , wh ich h ave h owe ver a s hor ter more a ccen tua ted n eck , al ess c losed mou th , a nd s l igh t ly more o u t-curved r i ms ( f ig . 2 9 ).

T he r i ms o f t he Grossgar tach b ow ls a re u ndecora ted ,

b u t s o me o f t he R oessen s hou ldered b ow ls h ave d ecora t ion o n t he i ns ide . T h is i s p ar t icu lar ly a f ea ture o f t he R oessen o pen b ow ls , o f ten l arge , w i th o u t-turned r i ms .

S uch d ecora t ion i s a pp l ied w i th c on t inuous s trokes o r w i th

F urchens t ich , a nd i s a rranged i n s hor t o b lique o r t ransverse l ines , o r c o mmon ly i n h err ingbone mo ti fs ( S troh 1 938 , t a f . 6 , 1 7-22 ). One may s ugges t t ha t t here a re t wo g enera l t rends i n t he d ecora t ion o f t he t rad i t ion , a par t f ro m t he s peci f ic i n teres t o f t he a dd i t ion o f r im d ecora t ion . T he f irs t i s t ha t t owards more r egu lar z ona t ion a nd c over ing d ecora t ion w i th l ess s pec i f ic mot i fs , a s o n Grossgar tach a nd R oessen p o t tery b y c o mpar ison w i th H inke ls te in p o t tery.

T he s econd i s i l lus tra ted b y t he S ondergruppen o f

t he R oessen t rad i t ion , wh ich s ee m t o b e a t l eas t p ar t ly l a te R oessen .

The ir

d ecora t ion i s o n t he who le l ess p len t i fu l t han b efore , much more r es tra ined , a nd t hough o n S chw ieberdingen a nd B ischo f f ingen v esse ls mo t i fs r a ther t han

1 23

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Deve lop men t o f t he s hou ldered b ow l i n t he Rh ine land . ( Wor ms -Rhe ingewann I V ) .

2 -3 , G rossgar tach ( Schaid t , F reinshe im ) .

4 , P lan ig-Fr iedberg ( Fr iedberg ) . ( Var ious s ources .)

1 , H inke ls tein

5 -6 , R oessen ( Monshei m , Euer fe ld ) .

b ands a re i mportan t , b o th Wauw i l a nd B ischhe im d ecora t ion a re c o mposed i n l arge p ar t b y n arrow z ones o r b ands o f r a ther s i mp le impress ions ( S troh 1 938 , t a f . 2 3 , e spec ia l ly 1 5 , a nd 2 4 ) . Apar t f ro m t hese d ecora t ive t rends , o ne may n o te t oo t ha t u ndecora ted G rossgar tach p ot tery i nc luded s hou ldered b ow ls , a nd t ha t R oessen s hou ldered b ow ls a nd p la in o pen- mou thed b ow ls a re f ound u ndecora ted t oo ( Mauser-Go l ler 1 972 , 2 36 , 2 40 ) . N ow t he R oessen c u l ture i s d is tr ibu ted n ot j us t o n t he midd le a nd u pper R h ine a nd t he N eckar .

The s ca t ter ing n or thwards h as s ince S troh 's d ay b een

much i ncreased , n o t o n ly i n t he N euw ied b as in ( Tackenberg 1 954 , map 3 ) b u t a lso i n t he l ower R h ine , f or e xa mp le r ound A ldenhoven a nd B ochu m .

T he

B ischhei m g roup i s c oncen tra ted i n H essen a nd R he in land-P fa lz , b u t i s n ow s een t o e x tend n or th o f t ha t a rea t oo ( Lun ing 1 969 , l i s t 2 ) w i th o u t l iers i n B ochum -A l tenbochu m ; a nd G ivry n ear Mons i n B e lg iu m ( f ig . 3 0 ) . Roessen o r ' Cerny ' s i tes h ave b een f ound i n s ou thern Belg iu m t oo i n t he p ays WAth , a s a t O r me ign ies , E l l ign ies-St-Anne ( f ig. 3 0 ), B l icquy a nd Mor la ix ( Hubert 1 970 , Des marez 1 971,1972 ) a s w e l l a s V l i jt ingen ( L i mburg ) a nd J enef fe ( Lut t ich ) i n e astern Be lg iu m ( de L aet 1 972,1974 ). A f ew Roessen s herds h ave b een r ec overed f rom Du tch L i mburg ( Bloe mers 1 972 ). To t he n orth t here a re s evera l Roessen c u l ture s ites i n t he b end o f t he E lbe i n A ltmark ( N iquet 1 937, S chwabed issen 1 966, f ig. 3 , R ichter 1 960 ) where o n ly o ne o r t wo L inear P ot tery c u lture s i tes a re k nown , a nd e ven b eyond i n U cker mark ( Raddatz 1 956 ), where n o L inear Po ttery c u lture s i tes h ave b een r ecorded. A l i t t le f urther w est , Roessen p o t tery h as b een f ound a t Boberg , Ha mburg ( Sch ind ler 1 962 ) a nd s outh-west a ga in l i es t he s i te o f H ide I , Dü m mer , Kr . G ra fscha f t D iepho lz .

H ere , o n t he

s ou th s ide o f al arge l ake i n t he f la t l andscape o f L ower S axony , t here i s a l ower l eve l r ad iocarbon d a ted t o t he mid f our th mi l lenn ium b c ( 3 665 + 9 5 b c H v-1793 ;

3 475 + 3 5 b c Hv-816 , a t er m inus a n te q ue m ;

3 300 + 2 40 b e Hv-1231;

3 470 + 5 0 b e H v-374 ;

3 225 + 1 55 b e Hv-1230 ) ( De ich m i i l ler 1 969 ) .

Al arge

c era m ic a sse mblage was d om ina ted b y p la in , r oundbased o f ten s hou ldered p o t tery b u t i ti ncluded d ecora ted v esse ls c lose ly a k in t o R oessen p ot tery ( De ichmü l ler 1 965a ).

P er fora ted B re i tke i le , o ther p o l ished s tone a xes , f l in t

b lades a nd a f ew t r iangu lar f l in t a rrowheads c ou ld a lso b e r e la ted t o t he R oessen c u l ture ( De ich mü l ler 1 965b ) .

T he p o t tery i nc luded a f ew t h ick-wa l led p oin ted-

b ase v esse ls , a nd t rapezes were a bundan t i n t he f l in t i ndus try , s o t ha t an a t ive e le men t c anno t b e o ver looked ( assum ing t ha t t he s tra t i f ica t ion o n t he s i te i s s ecure ( De ich mü l ler 1 965b , f ig . 2 ) ) .

H un t ing , f ish ing a nd f ow l ing were a c-

c ord ing t o p re l im inary i nves t iga t ions more impor tan t t han a n i ma l h usbandry a nd c erea ls h ave n o t y e t b een d e f in i te ly i den t i f ied .

E le men ts o f t he R oessen

c u l ture were h owever more n umerous t han o n o ther n a t ive s i tes b eyond t he l oess w i th e v idence o f a ccu l tura t ion ( d iscussed b e low ) , a nd i ti s a t p resen t r easonab le t o r egard t he s i te a s an or ther ly e x tens ion o f t he R oessen c u l ture . T h is was c lear ly n o t l im i ted t o s ou th-wes t G er many .

I fa l l t he p er fora ted

a dzes a nd t r iangu lar a xes o f n or th a nd n or th-wes t Europe a re t o b e r e l iab ly c onnec ted w i th t he R oessen c u l ture ( Schwabed issen 1 966 , v an d er Waa ls 1 972 ) , t he n or thern a spec t o f p ar t o f t he R oessen c u l ture i s c on f ir med , e ven t hough t hese a xes s ee m t o r e f lec t s o me s or t o f e xchange o r t rad ing p a t tern . I t was a rgued i n t he l as t f u l l-sca le t rea t men t o f t he Miche lsberg c u l ture ( Lun ing 1 967 ) t ha t i t s o r ig ins were i n t he R oessen c u l ture , a nd p ar t icu lar ly t he B ischhe im g roup . The d istr ibu t ion o f B ischhe im a nd e ar ly Miche lsberg 1 25

1 0

' L oc m

F ig . 3 0 .

P o ttery a nd f l in t f ro m R oessen c u l ture s i tes i n Be lg ium. G ivry ( excava t ions S .R .P .H .) . ( excava t ions De marez) .

1 -2 , 6 -9 ,

3 -5 , 1 0-12, E l l ign ies-S te-Anne

s ites o ver laps, a nd B ischhe im p ot tery i s f ound i n c on tact w ith M ichelsberg a t Mie l a nd I gge lhe i m. Roessen f or ms p rov ide r easonab le p rototypes f or a t l east p art o f t he r ange o f M iche lsberg p ot tery .

T h is d er ivat ion s ee ms p re-

f erab le t o o thers s uggested , f rom t he F unne l-necked Beaker c u lture f or e xamp le ( Vog t 1 953 ), o r t hrough Chasseen i n f luence ( Sco l lar 1 959 ) o r f rom a Rhen ish Meso l ith ic s tock a ccu lturat ing u nder Roessen o r Chasseen i n f luences ( de L aet 1 968 ), t o i l lustrate b u t s ome o f t he r ange o f a lterna t ive p roposa ls. The d is tr ibu t ion o f b oth t he Roessen a nd t he M iche lsberg c u l tures i s i n l arge p art Rhen ish. S ince l oca l p rototypes a re a va ilab le i n p o t tery f or e xamp le , l oca l c on t inu ity may b e u rged.

The f l in t a nd s tone i ndustr ies o f t he M ichels-

b erg c u l ture a re c ons isten t w ith t h is n o t ion t oo.

There i s l i t t le e v idence f or

t he Meso l ith ic s tock s uggested , a nd t he p at tern o f M ichelsberg s et t lemen t t oo s uggests s trong ly a c on t inu ing e xp lo itat ion o f t he e nv ironmen t b y t he s ame p opu la t ion . T h is s a id , o ne n eed n ot f o l low L i in ing i n s uggest ing s uch a r estr ic ted s ource a rea , f or h is p hase "M iche lsberg I " .

An ew f ind o f at u l ip b eaker h as a lready

e x tended t h is , i n h is o p in ion , n orth t o A ldenhoven ( Lun ing 1 971b ) . H is s ys te m o f p hases n eed n o t b e t aken t oo l i tera l ly , s ince i ti s c ons truc ted b y means o f ar a ther o ver f ine t ypo logy , t hough a pparen t ly s uppor ted b y t he s tra t igraphy a t I ls fe ld , Kr . H e i lbronn ( Koch 1 971 ) . T he s ys te m i s c ons is ten t , i n t ha t o n ly "M iche lsberg I " i s a ssoc ia ted w i th B ischhe im o r S chw ieberd ingen a r te fac ts , wh i le "M iche lsberg I " c an b e s hown a t s evera l s i tes t o b e l a ter t han R oessen , B ischhe im a nd S chw ieberd ingen ma ter ia l ( 1 967 , 1 36-139 ) . H owever , i ft he t ypo log ica l d is t inc t ion b e tween "M iche lsberg I " a nd "M iche lsberg I" i s t oo f ine , t hen t he c hrono log ica l d is t inct ion t oo mus t b e b lurred , a nd more o ver lap w i th l a te R oessen c u l ture b e c ons idered . En tzhe im n ear S trasbourg h as a Miche lsberg a sse mb lage wh ich m igh t b e "M iche lsberg I" b u t h as S chw ieberd ingen a nd B ischo f f ingen s herds a ssoc ia ted w i th i t ( S ch m i t t 1 974 ) . A t Kär l ich , Kr . Kob lenz a B ischhe im a sse mb lage was s tra t if ied b e low a Michelsberg a sse mb lage a ss igned t o p hases Io r I (a i l ing e t a l . 1 972 ). I t may b e s ugges ted t ha t t he who le R h ine a t p resen t c an b e s een a s t he s ource a rea , a nd t ha t e ven t he c onc ep t o f as pread i n to B e lg iu m i n "M iche lsberg L I I" a nd "M iche lsberg I V" migh t b e i nva l id , i fR oessen s i tes c on t inue t o b e f ound i n B e lg ium . N o t o n ly t he Miche lsberg b u t a lso t he Funne l-necked B eaker c u l ture - a t l eas t i n n or th-wes tern E urope - c ou ld b e d er ived f ro m t he R oessen c u l ture a nd i ts i n terrac t ion w i th t he Er teb ff le-E l lerbek c u l ture . F irs t , R oessen s i tes a nd a r te fac ts h ave b een f ound i n n or thern G er many i n t he mid f our th mi l lenn ium b e . S o me o f t hese c on tex ts a re d om ina ted b y R oessen a r te fac ts , a s i n t he l ower l eve l o f Hüde ,Dü mmer , ( De ichmü l ler 1 965a , 1 965b , 1 969 ) o r B oberg 2 0 , H a mb urg ( S ch ind ler 1 962 ) . R oessen a r te fac ts h ave b een f ound i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th t he E r tebAl le-E l lerbek c u l ture . T he r ecovery o f t h ick-wa l led a nd p o in ted b ased p ot tery f ro m t he l ower l eve l a t Düm mer u nder l ines t h is . ' Roessen ' p erf ora ted a xes a re d is tr ibu ted w ide ly i n t he n or th , i nc lud ing o n t he S a trup Moor , S ch lesw ig-Ho ls tein , where m id f our th mi l lenn ium b e o ccupa t ion s i tes b e longi ng t o t he E r teb0 1 1e-E l lerbek c u l ture a re a lso k nown ( S chwabed issen 1 966 ) . A t S w i f terban t , N .E . F levo land , i nt he N e ther lands , ab roken p er fora ted a xe was f ound i n al oca l Meso l i th ic c on tex t o f t he mid f our th mi l lenn ium b e , b u t h ad a b icon ica l p er fora t ion ( van d er Waa ls 1 972 ). T he R oessen c u l ture may h ave h ad i t s e f fec t o n t he E r tebh l le-E l lerbek c u l ture i n o ther ways , s ince

1 27

c erea ls h ave b een f ound i n E r tebOle-E l lerbek c on tex ts o f t he mid f our th mi ll enn ium b c , a t S a trup Moor ( Schwabed issen 1 966 , 4 16 ) a nd R osenhof , L übeck ( Schü tru mp f 1 972 ) . f ro m t he e as t .

T hese c erea ls may a s we l l h ave c o me f ro m t he s ou th a s

The Er teb e le-E l lerbek c u l ture may b e s een a s l arge ly Meso-

l i th ic w i th s o me i n trus ive N eo l i th ic e le men ts . S econd ly , t h is R oessen-Er teb e le-E l lerbek h or izon i s c lear ly , i n n or thern G er many a nd s ou thern S cand inav ia a t l eas t , e ar l ier t han t he Funne l-necked Beaker c u l ture , wh ich i s r ad iocarbon d a ted t o t he l a te f our th mi l lenn iu m b c o nwards . T h ird ly , t here a re many s im i lar i t ies , i nf or m a nd d ecora t ion , b e tween R oessen p ot tery - i nc lud ing t he R oessen p ot tery f ound i n t he n or th - a nd e ar ly Funne l-necked B eaker p ot tery , e spec ia l ly b e tween Kuge lbecher a nd f unneln ecked b eakers , a nd t he v ar ie t ies o f v er t ica l s troke d ecora t ion f ound o n t he m . T he j umb l ing o f t he A -B-C s equence f or f unne l-necked b eakers p roduced b y r ad iocarbon d a t ing ( Tauber 1 972 ) , as equence wh ich was c ons idered n o t o n ly t ypo log ica l ly b u t c hrono log ica l ly v a l id ( Becker 1 947 , 1 954 ) h as r e moved t he d i f f icu l ty t ha t A -po t tery i s f la t-based wh i le B -beakers a re t yp ica l ly r oundb ased .

T he F unne l-necked B eaker c u l ture o f t h is a rea c an b e d er ived f ro m

s trong R oessen i n f luence o n t he Er teb4 1 1e-E l lerbek c u l ture .

O ther more d is-

t an t s ources i n wes tern Europe s ee m d is t inc t ly l ess p laus ib le ( pace S chwabed issen 1 966) . T o t h is l i s t o f d er iva t ives o f t he R oessen c u l ture c ou ld b e a dded much o f t he e ar l ier Eng l ish N eo l i th ic , i n t he e as t o f Eng land p ar t icu lar ly .

T he way

f or t h is h ypo thes is h as b een o pened b y t he e ar ly d a t ing o f t he E as tern a nd Dec ora ted p ot tery s ty les o f Eng land .

T he D ecora ted s ty le c anno t n ow b e c lear ly

s epara ted f ro m t he o thers a s a n i nsu lar d eve lop men t , o n t he b as is o f c hronol ogy .

The E as tern s ty le h as n ot o n ly p la in o pen b ow ls a nd c ar ina ted b ow ls ,

b u t a s Broo me H ea th s howed , ar ange o f c losed u ndecora ted c ar ina ted b owls . These c ou ld a l l b e d er ived , o ne c ou ld s ugges t , f ro m R oessen p la in b ow ls a nd s hou ldered b ow ls .

T he c haracter is t ic f or m o f t he D ecora ted s ty le i s ac losed ,

r ound s hou ldered b ow l wh ich t oo c ou ld b e d er ived f ro m R oessen s ources . Ver t ica l s troke d ecora t ion , b ands o f impress ions , a nd f requen t r im t rea t men t c ou ld a l l b e s o d er ived t oo .

T he F usse l l 's L odge b ow l w i l l s erve a s a n e xa mp le ,

t oge ther w i th s hou ldered b ow ls f ro m A b ingdon , w i th impressed d ecora t ion a nd s trap h and les , a nd E as t Ang l ian b ow ls , a s f ro m E a ton H ea th , Hurs t F en a nd o ther s i tes .

T he b ands o f r ound impress ions a re mos t c lear ly p ara l le led i n

t he s ou th Rhen ish - n or th S w iss Wauw i l g roup , b u t t h is may s erve t o i l lus tra te t he p oss ib i l i t ies o f d eve lop men t f ro m t he R oessen t rad i t ion , a nd t he n or ther ly B ischhe im g roup d oes a t l eas t s how many e xa mp les o f impressed b ands , t hough i n r ec tangu lar Furchens t ich . One may p lead t ha t t he p oss ib i l i ty o f s o me e ar ly i nsu lar d eve lop men t e xp la ins t he p rob le m o f t he l ack o f a bso lu te s im i lar i t ies b etween t he p o t tery s ty les b e ing c o mpared , e i ther i n t he d ecora t ion o r i n t he r ange o f f or ms .

T he f or m

o f r i ms i n Eng land , w i th t he ir t endency t o b e h eav ier o r more o u t-turned t han o n t he c on t inen t , i s a t l eas t o ne s ign o f t h is i nsu lar d eve lop men t , i ft he g enera l c oncep t o f c on t inen ta l d er iva t ion i s a dm i t ted . T he s im i lar i ty o f t he mos t o pen p la in b ow ls a nd c ar ina ted b owls o f t he E ast ern s ty le w i th B e lg ian Miche lsberg t u l ip b eakers a nd c ar ina ted b ow ls mus t 1 28

s t i l l b e a dm i t ted ( e .g . Lün ing 1 967 , t a f . 1 -4 ) , b u t i ft he Miche lsberg c u l ture i tse l f d er ives f ro m t he R oessen c u l ture , t hen s uch s im i lar i t ies mus t b e t he r esu l t o f p ara l le l d eve lop men t .

T he a dvan tage o f d er iv ing b o th t he E as tern

a nd t he D ecora ted s ty les , whose f orms o ver lap t o s o me e x ten t a s we h ave s een , f ro m t he s a me s ource l i es i n t he r esu l t o f s ee ing a w ider r ange o f f or ms i n t h is c oun try w i th c on t inen ta l p ro to types .

A f ter a l l , L im ing 's s tud ies h ave

s hown h ow w ide ly t he Miche lsberg f or ms r ange , a nd i th as a lways s ee med a p rob le m t ha t a sse mb lages o f t he E as tern s ty le , s upposed t o b e d er ived f ro m t h is s ource , s hou ld i nc lude s o l i t t le o f t h is r ange .

Wi th a R oessen d er iva t ion

t h is p roble m i s n o t r e moved , s ince t here a re , f or e xa mple , n o s tra igh t-s ided b eakers , o r o va l c ups , o r h uge s torage f or ms i n t h is c oun try , b u t i td oes s ee m t o b e l essened . T he s im i lar i t ies n oted b e tween Eng l ish , Miche lsberg a nd Funne l-necked Beaker c u l ture p ot tery ( P iggo t t 1 955 , 1 961 , 1 972 ;

S i mpson 1 968 , a nd o thers )

a re a l l t he more c o mprehens ib le , a nd r e la ted more e as i ly t o o ur c hrono logy , i ft he R oessen c u l ture p o t tery i s s een a s t he ir c o m mon a nces tor . T he d er iva t ion o f o ne c u l ture f ro m a no ther s hou ld n o t i dea l ly r es t o n o ne e le men t .

I th as l ong b een s upposed , s ince C h i lde ( 1931 ) , t ha t B e lg ian M iche ls-

b erg p iercing a rrowheads p rov ide t he b es t p roto types f or t he p iercing l ea f a rrowheads o f t he Eng l ish N eo l i th ic . t hen , t h is may wel l b e s o .

F ro m t he r ange o f c u l tures c ons idered

H owever , i n s evera l a spec ts t hese B e lg ian a rrow-

h eads a re d i f feren t f ro m t he E ng l ish e xa mp les .

They h ave f requen t ly t r iangu lar

c ross-sec t ions , wh i le t he E ng l ish a re a l mos t i nvar iab ly f la t , a nd t hey a re marked ly t h icker t han t he Eng l ish o nes . S o me h ave c over ing r e touch , b u t many h ave o n ly p ar t ia l ly c over ing r e touch o n t he f ace t ted d orsa l s ur face . A l l a re s tra igh t-based .

R oessen a rrowheads o n t he o ther h and , a s we l l a s b e ing

t r iangu lar i n s hape - w i th c onvex , f la t o r e ven s l igh t ly h o l low b ases - h ave l en t icu lar s ect ions , a re s o me t i mes f la t , a nd g enera l ly a re f laked w i th a nd a lmos t c over ing r e touch ( Mauser-Go l ler 1 972 , t a f . 4 8 , 1 -6 ) .

T hey a re n ot

n u merous ( i b id ., 2 41 ) b u t af ine s er ies c an b e s hown f ro m G ivry i n s ou thern Be lg ium a ssoc ia ted w i th p o t tery d ecora ted i n B ischhe i m manner ( f ig. 3 0 ). Their c loser r ese mb lance t o E ng l ish a rrowheads t oge ther w i th t he ir more s a t is fac tory c hrono log ica l p os i t ion makes t he m a r easonab le p ro to type f or t he Eng l ish t ype .

S ince l ea f a rrowheads a re a ssocia ted w i th b o th t he E as tern

a nd D ecora ted p ot tery s ty les o f Eng land i ti s s a t is fac tory t o d er ive t he m f ro m t he s a me s ource . I ft h is t hes is i s c orrec t , t he a nces try o f o ur l ea f a rrowheads g oes b ack u l t i ma tely t o p iercing a rrowheads o f t he L inear P o t tery c u l ture i n wes tern Europe ( e .g . Modder man 1 970 , t a f . 2 17;

S ch ietze l 1 965 , t a f . 1 7 ;

d e L ae t

1 958 , f ig . 1 9 ) , w i th a g radua l e vo lu t ion t hrough t he G rossgar tach Group ( Mauser Goner 1 972 , t af . 4 6 , 4 -6) ( H inke ls te in f l in t b e ing p oor ly k nown ) . R oessen a rrowheads h ave b een s een a s t he s ource o f C hasseen p ierc ing a rrowheads i n Eas t-Cen tra l F rance a nd n or thwards , t hrough c on tac t i n F ranche-Co m t6 ( Ba i l loud 1 971 , 1 974 ) ;

a nd i fs o , were e v iden t ly w ide ly i n f luen t ia l .

T he ' wes tern ' f or m o f s tone a xe , w i th w ide c u t t ing e dge , n arrow a nd t h in b u t t , a nd l en t icu lar s ec t ion , was d eve loped i n t he L inear P o t tery c u l ture t rad i t ion .

G rossgar tach c u t t ing t oo ls i nc lude n o t o n ly a dzes a nd p er fora ted

h a mmer-axes b u t a lso f la t t ish , r ough ly t r iangu lar o r t rapezoida l a xes w i th r ounded s ides ( S troh 1 938 ;

Mauser-Go l ler 1 972 , t a f . 4 6 , 2 1-22 ) . 1 29

Th is t ype i s c on t inued i n t he R oessen c u l ture ( S troh 1 938 , f igs 6 -15 , n umerous e xa mp les o f b o th ).

T here a re c er ta in ly s im i lar a xes i n o ther N eo l i th ic c u l tures

s uch a s t he Miche lsberg , o r t he Bre ton N eo l i th ic c u l tures , w i thou t t he p erf ora ted f or ms s t i l l p ers is ten t i n t he R oessen c u l ture b u t wh ich a re l ack ing i n Eng land , b u t t he s i mp le s tone a xe c an b e a dded t o t he l i s t o f a r te facts o f p ot en t ia l R oessen d er iva t ion . T he L inear P o t tery c u l ture t rad i t ion o f e nc losures wh ich c an a lso b e s een a s a nces tra l t o t he Eng l ish t rad i t ion o f c ausewayed c a mps a nd i n terrup ted d i tch s ys te ms

i s d iscussed s epara te ly l a ter b u t s hou ld b e k ep t i n mind h ere .

O ther e le men ts o f t he R oessen c u l ture a re h arder t o c o mpare i n t he e ar l ier Eng l ish N eo l i th ic .

T h is s e lec t iv i ty i s s uch a g enera l p rob le m t ha t i tc an b e

d iscussed , a s s uch , l a ter .

T hough t he R oessen f l in t i ndus try was l arge ly b ased

o nb lade - r a ther t han f lake - t oo ls ( S troh 1 938 , 7 3 ) , t here a re s o me c onvex f lake s crapers f ound ( S troh 1 938 , f ig . 1 6 ) , p erhaps i n g rea ter q uan t i t ies t han e ar l ier i n t he t rad i t ion .

T he i ndus try a s a who le l acks many d is t inc t ive f or ms

s o t ha t i t s s ugges ted me ta morphos is may b e t he more e as i ly c once ivab le . I ft he G o ldberg h ouses b e long t o t he R oessen c u l ture a nd i ft hey r e f lec t a n a dap ta t ion t o t he d i f feren t t opography i n wh ich t hey were b u i l t , t hey c ou ld b e u sed t o n ea t ly e xp la in t he d iscrepancy b e tween t he t yp ica l R oessen l ong-house a nd t he s qua t ter B r i t ish h ouses .

T his h owever i s o pen t o d oub t .

Bur ia l i n t he R oessen c u l ture i s p oor ly k nown , w i th o n ly s ix i ndiv idua l a nd o ne c o l lec t ive g rave r ecorded ( Mauser-Go l ler 1 972 , 2 42 ).

I ft he a pparen t

wan ing o f t he b ur ia l t rad i t ion i s r ea l , i ti s h igh ly s ign i f ican t .

F or i ft he R oessen

c u l ture i s i nvo lved i nt he c o lon isa t ion o f Eng land , i t imp l ies t ha t t he i nco mers d id n o t h ave a s trong r eadyfor med b ur ia l t rad i t ion o f t he ir own , b u t may h ave b een o pen t o o ther modes a nd i deas , c om ing f ro m o ther d irec t ions .

T h is t he me

w i l l b e e n larged l a ter when d iscuss ing b arrows . F ina l ly , t he c hrono log ica l a dvan tages o f t he p roposed d er iva t ion may b e emphas ised , f or i ta voids f or e xa mp le t he l ong t roub leso me p rob le m ( e .g . Hawkes 1 935 ) o f o ur e ar l ier N eo li th ic b e ing a pparen t ly c on te mporary w i th t he Miche lsberg c u l ture.

I n c on tras t we may r easonably s ugges t t ha t t he R oessen

c u l ture h ad emerged b y t he p ioneer ing p hase o f t he e ar l ier Eng l ish N eo l i th ic . THE MICHELSBERG CULTURE I N BELG IU M F ina l ly , we may c ons ider t he wes tern g roup o f t he M iche lsberg c u l ture , i n B e lg iu m , a s a n e xa mp le o f a ma ture c u l ture wh ich emerged p ara l lel t o t he e arl i er N eo l i th ic o f Eng land o u t o f t he L inear P o t tery c u l ture t rad i t ion a nd b ecause a t ten t ion h as l ong b een d irected s peci f ica l ly t o i ti n c onnec t ion w i th t he b eg inn ings o f t he Eng l ish N eo l i th ic ( e .g . P iggo t t 1 934 , d e L ae t 1 974 ). L im ing ( 1967) l i s ted o n ly e igh t s i tes o f t he M iche lsberg c u l ture i n B e lg iu m i n h is monograph , o f wh ich L o m me l was a n i so la ted f ind i n a n I ron Age c on tex t , wh i le t here i s s t i l l s o me r oo m f or d oubt a s t o t he c orrec t c u l tura l a t tr ibu t ion o f t he b ur ia ls a t F ur fooz . Th is was h ard ly a n i mpress ive l is t i n v iew o f t he r o le t he Miche lsberg c u l ture o f B e lg iu m h as b een s upposed b y v ar ious a u thors t o p lay i nt he c o lon isa t ion o f Eng land , b u t e xcava t ions i n t he f ew y ears s ince L in ing 's monograph h ave p roduced s evera l more s i tes , e i ther e x tens ions o f p rev ious ly k nown c o mplexes a s a t P e t i t S piennes i n t he S p iennes c o mp lex , 1 30

H a inau t ( Huber t 1 971a ) o r n ew d iscover ies , a s a t C as teau-Th ieus ies ,Ha inau t , ( Ver meersch a nd Wa l ter 1 975 ) , K e m me lberg ,wes t F landers ( Van D oorse laer 1 971) , C hau mon t-G is toux ,Braban t ( Gra f f a nd L eno ir 1 969 ) o r mos t r ecen t ly a t Doua i j us t o ver t he b order i n n or thern F rance ( i n for ma t ion f ro m B lanche t ) . F l in t c o l lec t ions w i th r ecogn isab le Miche lsberg c u l ture a r te fac ts , a s f ro m A ssen t ( Ver meersch 1 972 ) o r f ro m S t . G enes ius-Röde ,Braban t , s ou th-eas t o f B russe ls ( co l lect ion o f t he C a tho l ic Un ivers i ty , L ouva in ) r e in force t he p oin t t ha t t he n u mber o f s i tes c an b e e xpec ted t o c on t inue r is ing s tead i ly w i th i nc reased r esearch a nd f i e ldwork i n B e lg iu m ( f ig . 3 1 ) . Mos t o f t hese s i tes a re d is tr ibu ted i n t he c en tra l p ar t o f B e lg iu m e as t o f t he Escau t a nd wes t o f t he S a mbre a nd Meuse .

F landers was , s o f ar a s i s

k nown a t p resen t , u noccup ied , t hough t here were s i tes a t i ts e dge , a s a t K e m me lb erg a nd C orbehe m o n u plands , a nd a t D oua i i n n or thern F rance .

D e L aet

( 1 958 , 1 974 ) h as d escr ibed N eo l i th ic s i tes i n t he r iver v a l leys o f F landers , s uch a s t he r ivers S che ld t , L ys a nd Mande l , a s we l l a s o n h igher g round , b u t t he ir c u l tura l a t tr ibu t ion r e ma ins p rob le ma t ica l .

The s i te o f H e t Vor mer n ear

N i j megen i n t he s ou thern N e ther lands , wh ich a lso h as s o me p o t tery o f M iche lsb erg a f f in i t ies , may a lso b e i nc luded ( Louwe K oo i j mans 1 976 ). The ma ter ia l c u l ture o f t he B e lg ian M iche lsberg c u l ture i nc ludes p o t tery , f l in t a nd s tone a r te fac ts , b one a nd a n t ler t oo ls , a nd c a mps a nd f l in t m ines . Much o f t he p ot tery i s we l l made a nd f in ished , a nd mos t o f i ti s p la in a nd u ndecora ted ( f igs 3 2-33 ).

T here i s aw ide v ar ie ty o f f or ms , e specia l ly i n

b ow ls , r e f lected i n L in ing 's e labora te t ypo logy ( e .g . Beu te lbecher , Tu lpenb echer , k on ische S chussel , k on ische T op f , Kn ick-vandschusse l e tc .)

T here

i s as er ies o f r ound-based b ow ls w i th v ery o pen mou ths , whose p ro f i les r ange f ro m b e ing marked ly S -shaped t o r a ther s tra igh t ( Lün ing 1 967 , t a f . 1 , 1a nd 3 ; t a f . 3 , 1 , 3 , 7 ) . T here i s a nother s er ies o f r ound-based b ow ls w i th c an D a ted o r s hou ldered p ro f i les .

T hese t oo a re g enera l ly o pen - t hough o ne

s l igh t ly c losed b ow l f ro m S p iennes ( i b id . t a f . 4 , 9 ) r epresen ts t he o ther e xt re me o f f or m .

There i s c ons iderab le v ar ia t ion i n t he f or m o f t he s hou lder

o r c ar ina t ion , f ro m r ounded t o s harp , a nd i n t he ir p lac ing o n t he b ow ls , f ro m n ear t he r im t o l ower n ear t he b ase .

T h is v ar ia t ion c an b e f ound w i th in o ne

s i te ( as a t B oi ts for t ,Braban t , L un ing , t a f . 1 ) , a nd c an a lso b e o bserved b e tween d i f feren t s i tes . S piennes f or e xa mp le h ad a h igher n u mber o f r a ther s tra igh twa l led l ow-based o pen b ow ls , a nd t h is p ar t icu lar f or m h as n o t y e t b een f ound a t B o i ts for t , whose b ow ls were p redo m inan t ly s hou ldered .

On a l l t hese f or ms

t he r i m was l i t t le d eveloped . T hough s o me t i mes f ar o u tturned i t was n ever c ur led , a nd t h icken ing e x tended o n ly t o af ew c ases o f s i mple b ead ing ( e .g . L ün ing 1 967 , t a f . 3 , 3 ;

3 , 8 ) .

Larger t h icker-wa l led p o ts were o f ten o pen mou thed a nd s hou ldered t oo ( e .g . i b id ., t a f 1 , 1 3 , a nd t he mass ive p ot ( t a f . 3 , 1 0 ) f ro m S p iennes ) t hough ap o t f ro m B oi ts for t ( i b id ., t a f 1 , 1 2 ) h ad a s tra igh t c losed n eck a nd mou th . Af ew g lobu lar j ars a re r epresen ted , w i th s hor t a nd l ong n ecks a t S p iennes , a nd s hor t a t B o i ts for t .

Decora t ion o n t he f ine b ow ls was r es tr ic ted t o b ou tons

a u r epousse p ushed o u t o n t he i ns ide o f t he r im , a nd o ccas iona l ly o bl ique n icks a cross t he r im i t sel f . L arger p o ts o n ly h ad r im t rea t men t t oo , e i ther f inger t i pp ing o n t he r im i tse l f o r f inger t ipping o n a n a pp l ied b and a round t he o u ts ide o f t he r im .

1 31

F ig . 3 1.

D is tr ibu tion o f t he M iche lsberg c u l ture i n t he R hine land a nd t o i t s w es t ( a f ter L t in ing , w i th a dd i t ions ).

1 , 5 cm

2 , 5c m F ig . 3 2.

Be lg ian Miche lsberg p o t tery . Boi ts for t .

1 -3 , 6 , S p iennes .

7 , S a in t-Sy mphor ien ( a f ter L t in ing ) .

4 , An twerp .

5 ,

L .C C _CC . LC GCCLL

2

2. ° cm

F ig . 3 3 .

Be lg ian M ichelsberg p o t tery. ( a f ter L t in ing ).

1 , S p iennes .

2 -4 , Boi ts fort

F l in t a r tefacts were made p redo m inan t ly o n g rey f l in t wh ich c a me e i ther f ro m l arge mines o r f ro m l oca l q uarr ies .

F or e xa mp le t here a re sma l l f l in t

o u tcrops n ear C as teau-Th ieus ies . T he f resh b rown c or tex o f a r te fac ts f ro m t he s i te s ugges ts s o me q uarry ing a t l eas t , b u t n o t a l l t he f l in t n eed h ave b een m ined . D is tr ibu t ion w i th in t he c oun try mus t h ave e x is ted , a s we l l a s t ha t d ocumen ted w e l l u p t he R h ine , t o t ake g ood f l in t t o a reas wh ich l acked i t . The p oss ib i l i ty o f a mix ture o f l oca l a nd e x terna l f l in t s ources i s r e in forced b y c ons ider ing t he e x ten t t o wh ich t he f l in t i ndus try o f t he B e lg ian M iche lsberg was b ased o nb lades ( f ig . 3 4 ) . T yp ica l o f t hese f l in t a ssemblages a re l ong b lades w i th r egu lar f ace ts wh ich u sua l ly h ave b een r e touched d own mos t o f b o th s ides .

L ün ing h as i l lus tra ted e xa mp les f ro m B o i ts for t a nd Zwyndrech t ,An twerp

( i bid . t a f . 1 , 1 6 ;

2 , 8 )a nd t he b lade c ores f ro m wh ich s uch b lades were o b-

v ious ly s truck a re c o m mon a t t he m ines , s uch a s S p iennes . C ase ( 1 969b , 1 82 ) h as t aken t h is a spect u p i n r e la t ion t o t he f l in t i ndus try o f s ou thern Eng land , a nd c haracter ised t he i ndus try a s a who le a s b ased o nb lades . H owever , t he a sse mblages f ro m C as teau-Th ieus ies a nd P e t it S piennes may p u t t he ma t ter i n ad i f feren t l igh t . B o th s i tes h ave s uch b lades , b u t t hey d o n o t h ave c ores f ro m wh ich l ong b lades were s truck . The ir c ores a re o f v ar ious f or ms , a nd f ro m t he m were s truck a v ar iety o f f l akes a nd sma l ler b lades , o n wh ich o ther t oo ls s uch a s s crapers a nd aw ls were made . The i ndus try may n ot t here fore b e s i mply a ' b lade ' i ndus try , b u t o ne i n wh ich t oo ls made l oca l ly were b ased o n f l akes , b u t w i th t he l arge-sca le p roduct ion o f l arge b lades a t m ine c en tres . T he n umbers o f b lade c ores i n H uber t 's e xcava t ions a t S piennes ( 1 969 , 4 2 ) , a l mos t e qua l t hose o f a xes , s uppor t t h is v iew . O ther t oo ls i nc lude a w ide v ar ie ty o f c onvex-edged f lake s crapers , a w ls w i th s hor t p oin ts made o nf lakes a nd b lades , c ruder s crap ing t oo ls ( known a s r ac loirs ) , b ur ins , t ranche t a xes a nd c h ise ls , p o l ished f l in t a xes w i th o va l s ect i on a nd w i th s quared s ides , a nd p ierc ing l ea f-shaped a rrowheads . S o me o f t he s er ies o f t ranche t a xes f ro m C as teau-Th ieus ies h ad t races o f p o l ish o n t heir e dges . The a rrowheads a re g enera l ly o f t r iangu lar o r l en t icu lar s ec t ion , a nd h ave r are ly b een f laked a l l o ver b o th s ur faces . T hey a re g enera l ly l ea fs haped w i th r ounded o r f la t tened b ases . T here a re n o o bv ious s ick le t ypes , t hough t here was a s er ies o f s napped f lakes a nd b lades a t C as teau-Th ieus ies , w i th sma l l s erra t ions d own e i ther o r b o th e dges ( Vermeersch a nd Wa l ter 1 975 , f ig . 5 ) . e nd .

I n o ne c ase , t h is was c o mbined w i th s teep o b l ique r e touch a cross o ne

Axes o f ' wes tern ' f or m i n h ard r ock o ther t han f l in t a re l ess p len t i fu l t han f l in t a xes , w i thou t b e ing r are . T hey a re t ypica l ly q u i te sma l l , o f ten u nder 1 0 cm l ong. There a re f ew b one a nd a n t ler t oo ls wh ich c an b e r e liab ly a t tr ibu ted t o t he B e lg ian M ichelsberg c u l ture . S imp le p o in ts a re k nown f ro m s e t t le men ts , a long w i th a n t ler c o mbs f ro m S p iennes a nd v ar ious p er fora ted t oo ls o f b one a nd a n t ler f ro m o ther mine s i tes . Enc losures a nd m ines a re d escr ibed a nd d iscussed i n C hap ter 1 1.

T he

t wo b anks a t O t te mbourg-Grbs D o iceau , Braban t h ave b een s ugges ted a s l ong b arrows b y d e L ae t ( 1 972 , 1 974 ) , who d rew u pon e ar l ier e xcava t ion o f t he s hor ter ( 80 m ) o ne a t G rbs D o iceau , wh ich r evea led a b lack , a pparen t ly b urn t l ayer a bove t he o ld l and s ur face c on ta in ing b urn t h uman a nd a n i ma l b ones a nd 1 35

F ig . 3 4.

B e lg ian M iche lsberg f l in t i ndus try .

1 -4 , Boi ts for t .

5 -6 ,

S piennes ,

7 -11, Cas teau-Th ieus ies ( a f ter Huber t , a nd Ver meersch and Wa lters ).

f l in t a r te fac ts , b u t w i thou t t he e v idence o f f ur ther e xcava t ion i ti s h ard t o a ccep t t h is who lehear ted ly , e spec ia l ly s ince t he b anks a t B oi ts for t , wh ich h ad a lso b een s ugges ted a s f unerary monu men ts , h ave b een s hown b y f ur ther e xc ava t ion t o b e p ar t o f ar egu lar s ys te m o f e nc los ing b anks a nd d i tches ( Huber t 1 971b , a nd p ersona l c o m mun ica t ion ) . T he B e lg ian M iche lsberg c u l ture was c er ta in ly i n c on tact w i th t he R h ine , a s f inds o f g rey f l in t p u ta t ive ly f ro m B e lg ian o r Du tch mines i n t he R h ine land s how , l ike t he c ache o f f l in t b lades f ro m H ackenhe im , Kr . B ingen .

I t s p o t-

t ery i s t ypo log ica l ly c lose t o t ha t o f t he M iche lsberg g roup o n t he m idd le Rh ine n or th o f t he Ma in-Rh ine c on f luence .

B o th h ad k inds o f o pen s hou ldered b ow ls

a nd o pen b ow ls w i th s tra igh t wa l ls , wh ich were r are i n o ther g roups .

T hese

d e ta i ls c er ta in ly f i t L i in ing 's e xpans ion is t h ypo thes is o f t he d eve lop men t o f t he M iche lsberg c u l ture , a ccord ing t o wh ich p hase M ichelsberg Iwas r es tr ic ted t o t he midd le R hine ( M ie l , I gg lehe im a nd A ldenhoven ( Lün ing 1 971b ) ) , a nd s ubs equen t p hases s pread o u twards , b r ing ing M iche lsberg c u l ture t o B e lg iu m i n p hases I I a nd I V .

T he p hases c ons truc ted b y L ün ing r es t h owever o n s uch

f ine d e ta i ls o f s hape t ha t t he ir c on f iden t s epara t ion mus t b e mis trus ted .

A

r es tr icted a rea o f o r ig in makes t he p heno menon e as ier t o u nders tand , b u t we c ou ld s ee t he o r ig ins o f t he M iche lsberg p o t tery s ty le i n ag enera l t rend o f d ev e lop men t i n t he Rh ine land a s a who le , a nd i t may b e wrong t o l ook f or a s ing le r es tr ic ted o r ig in .

T he p o t tery f ro m En tzhe im i n A lsace , wh ich i nc ludes

R oessen a nd Miche lsberg s ty les ( Schm i t t 1 974 ) s ugges ts t ha t i n a ny o ne a rea i ti s u nnecessary t o l ook o u ts ide f or t he g row th o f t he n ew p la iner p o t tery s tyle . T here was c er ta in ly i n terac t ion b e tween d i f feren t M iche lsberg g roups a s d ef ined b y t he ir p ot tery s ty les , b u t t he p la inness o f t he p o t tery s hou ld n o t o bscure t he f ac t t ha t d i f ferences e x is ted f ro m r eg ion t o r eg ion .

I ndeed t here i s r ea-

s on t o s uppose t ha t t he s a me b road r eg iona l d is t inc t ions e x is ted w i th in t he M iche lsberg c u l ture i n t he R h ine land a s w i th in t he R oessen c u l ture , i fo ne c o mp ares Lün ing 's map o f t he M iche lsberg c u l ture a s a who le ( 1967 , B ei lage 6 ) a nd h is g roups w i th in i t , w i th t he s a me a u thor 's map ( 1969 , map 2 ) o f t he d ist r ibu t ion o f s upposed ly l a te R oessen c u l ture g roups ( f igs 2 7-8 ) .

N ow t ha t t here

i s ah and fu l o f R oessen c u l ture s i tes i n B e lg iu m o ne may e ven s ugges t as im i lar t rans i t ion w i th in B e lg iu m i t sel f , r a ther t han a move men t o f p opu la t ion f ro m t he Rh ine , e ven t hough t here i s n o c on t inu i ty y et a t a ny o ne s i te . I n g enera l t er ms t he Miche lsberg c u l ture i n B e lg iu m may b e d a ted t o t he l a ter p ar t o f t he f our th mi l lenn iu m b c a nd t he e ar l ier p ar t o f t he t h ird mi l lenn iu m b c , i fi to ccupies a s im i lar c hrono log ica l r e la t ionsh ip h ere t o t he R oessen c u l ture o f t he Rh ine land , i fe v iden t c on tac ts w i th t he C hasseen c u l ture o f n ort hern F rance may b e r e l ied u pon ( de L ae t 1 968 , 1 972 ;

a nd c hap ter 8 ) a nd i f

t he S e ine-O ise- Marne c u l ture i n B e lg ium i s t o b e s im i lar ly d a ted t o t ha t i n F rance .

D a tes f or t he M iche lsberg c u l ture i n t he R h ine land a re c oncen tra ted

a round 3 000 b c , a nd o ther g roups i n c on tac t w i th t he c u l ture s uch a s t he P fyn g roup o f n or th S wi tzer land a re s im i lar ly d a ted , t hough s uch d a tes d o n o t o f c ourse e s tab l ish w i th a ny p rec is ion t he e xac t c hrono log ica l p os i t ion o f t he B e lg ian Miche lsberg c u l ture . A c t iv i ty a t mine s i tes , a s a t S p iennes a nd Mesv ins ans-Pare i l , wh ich i s a ssu med t o b e long t o t he M iche lsberg c u l ture h as b een d a ted t o t he l a te f our th mi l lenn iu m b c ( by G rN-4674 , 3 470 + 7 5 b c ;

a nd L v-65 ,

3 270 + 1 70 b c , Lv-216 , 3 390 + 1 50 b c , BM-417 , 3 181 + 1 23 b c r espect ive ly ) . O ccupa t ion a t Ke m me lberg , wh ich may b e a t tr ibu ted a t l eas t i np ar t t o t he

1 37

M iche lsberg c u l ture , h as b een d a ted t o 3 050 + 1 20 b c ( Lv-524 ) a nd 3 070 + 9 5 b e ( Lv-525 ) , a nd a t C as teau-Th ieus ies t o 3 200 + 4 5 b e ( GrN-7012 ) .

Ad eter-

mina t ion f ro m C hau mon t-G is toux , a ssoc ia ted w i th M iche lsberg a r te fac ts g ave 2 090 + 9 0 b e ( Lv-290 ) , b u t t h is d a te c lashes w i th p o l len e v idence f ro m t he s i te wh ich s uppor ts a n a t tr ibu t ion t o t he A t lan t ic/sub-Borea l t rans i t ion n or ma l ly d a teab le t o a round 3 000 b e , a nd wou ld imp ly a c on t inua t ion o f t he M ichelsberg c u l ture t hrough t he S e ine-O ise- Marne c u l ture , e ven d own t o t he B eaker c u lt ure ( co mpare I RPA-131 , 2 085 + 1 90 b e ;

I RPA-3 , 2 144 + 2 40 b e ) .

R ecen t e v idence t here fore s uppor ts t he v iew i ndependen t ly a rr ived a t b y e ar l ier p reh is tor ians ( e .g . H awkes 1 935 ) t ha t t he Miche lsberg c u l ture o f B e lg iu m r uns p ara l le l t o t he e ar l ier N eo l i th ic o f s ou thern B r i ta in . t he d er iva t ion o f t he l a t ter f ro m t he f or mer p roble ma t ic .

T h is makes

C er ta in ly , a s P iggo t t 's

c o mpar isons make c lear , a more s a t is fac tory l i s t o f c u l tura l e le men ts c an b e c i ted f or c o mpar ison t han i s s o me t i mes t he c ase .

T he l i s t i ncludes p ot tery ,

f l in t a rrowheads , mines , a n t ler a r te fac ts , p erhaps e nc losures a nd much more d oubt fu l ly , l ong b arrows . H owever , o ne mus t we igh t hese i nd iv idua l ly t og e ther w i th t he g enera l c hrono log ica l p rob le m , a nd c ons ider t he r e levance o f a l terna t ive s ources wh ich c an b e d a ted e ar l ier . The s er ies o f f ine p la in M iche lsberg b ow ls f ro m B e lg iu m c an b e c lose ly c o mpared w i th c er ta in p la in o pen b ow ls f ro m e as tern Eng land , e spec ia l ly w i th S -prof i led a nd c ar ina ted v esse ls f ro m o ccupa t ion s i tes s uch a s F enga te a nd Broo me H ea th , a nd f ro m l ong b arrows i n Y orksh ire , a l though r i ms i n Be lg iu m a re much l ess d eve loped .

F or e xa mp le t he S -pro fi led b ow l ( L i : t i l ing 1 967, t a f .

3 ,3 ) f ro m S p iennes , o r t he c ar ina ted b ow l f ro m B o i ts for t Oi l ing 1 967 , t a f . 1 , 8 ) , wou ld n o t b e o u t o f p lace i n t he a sse mb lage f ro m B roo me H ea th .

H owever ,

t he a sse mblage f ro m B roo me H ea th , s ince i t was l arger t han t hose f ro m Yorks h ire b arrows , h as made i tc lear t ha t t he p la in b owls o f e as tern E ng land i nc luded c losed f or ms , a nd t ha t t h is s ty le t o s o me e x ten t o ver lapped w i th t he Decora ted s ty le .

T here i s t hus c ons iderab le a dvan tage i n d er iv ing b o th t he

Eng lish a nd t he Miche lsberg b ow l s er ies f ro m t he R oessen c u l ture , a s s ugges ted e ar l ier .

T here i s a n i nco mp le te r epresen ta t ion o f o ther M iche lsberg f or ms

i n Eng land , s uch a s l arge d eep s torage v esse ls a nd n ecked j ars , i ft he Miche lsb erg-Eng land d er iva t ion w ere t o b e a ccep ted , a nd t h is d i f ference t oo may b e b e t ter e xp la ined b y c o m mon d ivergence f ro m t he R oessen c u l ture , e ven t hough c er ta in R oessen f or ms t oo , s uch a s l arge s torage j ars , a re n o t f ound i n Engl and .

Id o n o t w ish t o d eny t he s im i lar i t ies b e tween t he B e lg ian M iche lsberg

a nd Eng l ish p o t tery , b u t s ugges t t ha t t hese s er ies b e s een a s c o mmon d escend an ts o f t he R oessen c u l ture r a ther t han b e p u t i n ad irec t l ine o f d escen t t he mse lves . De ta i led c ons idera t ion o f t he Be lg ian M iche lsberg f l in t a rrowheads o f fers s im ilar p oss ib i l i t ies .

T yp ica l ly t hese p oin ts a re l en t icu lar o r t r iangu lar i n

s ec t ion , a nd were n ever worked a s f la t a s t he l ea f a rrowheads o f E ng land . S o me e xa mp les a re d ec ided ly f a t , u p t o 0 .6 o r 0 .7 cm t h ick .

Though p ressure

f läk ing was u sed , i t was o f ten o n ly a pp l ied t o t he d orsa l s ur face , a nd e xa mp les w i th f lak ing o nb o th s ur faces r are ly h ave c over ing r e touch a l l o ver b o th f aces . T he ir f or m i s c harac ter is t ica l ly a sy m me tr ic , w i th f la t o r s l igh t ly r ounded b ases .

R oessen c u l ture p o in ts h owever o f fer a s l igh t ly w ider v ar ie ty o f f or m ,

a nd were f laked t h inner a nd w i th more c o m mon c overing p ressure f l ak ing . One may a ga in s ugges t c o m mon d ivergence f or t he Eng l ish a nd B e lg ian Miche lsb erg p o in ts f ro m t he R oessen c u l ture . 1 38

Much o f t he r es t o f t he f l in t i ndus try o f t he B e lg ian Miche lsberg c u l ture i s u n in for ma t ive , b u t i t may b e s ign i f ican t t ha t t here i s n o s ign a t Eng l ish m ines o f t he s pec ia l ised p roduc t ion o f b lades a s i n B e lg iu m ( c f . C ase 1 969b ) . I ti s a rgued l a ter ( Chap ter 1 1 ) t ha t f l in t min ing i n d i f feren t a reas n eed o n ly i nd ica te c o m mon n eeds r a ther t han c u l tura l s im i lar i ty , a nd t he c a mps o f t he B e lg ian Miche lsberg c u l ture l ack t he s peci f ic t echn ique o f d i tch d iggi ng t ypica l o f t hose i n E ng land .

One mus t b e c au t ious a s t o whe ther t he mounds

a t O t te mbourg-Gr s D o iceau a re b arrows , a nd i n a ny c ase t he g rand t ota l i n B e lg iu m s ugges ts much more s trong ly i n f luence f ro m Eng land o r o ther A t lant i c r eg ions , r a ther t han v ice v ersa . Mos t o f t he b one a nd a n t ler t oo ls o f b o th c u l tures a re n o t d iagnos t ic , b u t t he o ccurrence o f a n t ler c o mbs i n Eng land q u i te s im i lar t o t hose f ound a t S p iennes c er ta in ly s ee ms t o i mp ly a c u l tura l l ink , a nd t h is c o m mon t ra i t i s n o t e as i ly r e ferred t o t he R oessen c u l ture .

H owever , t he f ew B e lg ian e xa mp les

k nown a re c on f ined t o S p iennes , a nd s o f ar a s Ik now a re w i thou t a bso lu te ly r el i able Miche lsberg a ssoc ia t ions , wh i le t he t ype h as b een f ound f ar n or th i n l ower S axony a t H e ikendor f-K ie l , i n ap oss ible A t lan t ic c on tex t ( Schwan tes 1 939 , 1 42 ) .

P iggo t t s ugges ted t he p oss ibi l i ty o f ac o m mon Meso l i th ic b ack-

g round f or t hese t oo ls ( 1955 ) b u t o ne wonders whe ther t he S p iennes e xa mp les c ou ld b e e v idence o f move men t f ro m Eng land , r a ther t han v ice v ersa , s im i lar t o t he c ase o f t he c la i med P e terborough s tyle r im f ro m S p iennes ( Verheyleweghen 1 964 ) , i ft ha t i s f ound c onv inc ing ( f ig, 8 ) . NEOL ITH IC S ETTLE MENT I N THE RH INELAND Though t he s uccessors o f t he L inear P o t tery c u l ture r a ther t han t he L inear P ot tery c u l ture i tse l f f or med t he ma in s ub jec t o f t he p reced ing s ec t ion , Ip rop ose t o c ons ider t he e cono my a nd s e t t le men t o f t he L inear P o t tery c u l ture h ere .

T he L inear P o t tery c u l ture r epresen ts t he a dven t o f mixed f ar m ing i n

c en tra l a nd wes tern E urope , a nd d iscuss ion o f s ucceed ing d eve lop men ts , wh ich f or m o ne o f t he t he mes o f t h is s tudy , c an b es t b e made w i th r e ference t o t he e v idence f or t he e cono my o f t he f irs t N eo l i th ic c u l ture i n t he a rea u nder c ons idera t ion . THE L INEAR POTTERY CULTURE The e nv ironmen t o n t he R h ine a nd i n s urround ing

a r ea

a t t he t ime o f t he

L inear P o t tery c u l ture was o ne o f c losed , mixed o ak f ores t , s hown b y n ot o n ly p o l len a na lys is ( F irbas 1 952 , v an Z e is t 1 958-9 , J ansen 1 960 ) b u t a lso c harcoa l ( Schwe ingruber 1 973 ) a nd o ther macroscop ic r e ma ins ( Kn i irzer 1 974 ) .

Var ia-

t ions w i th in t h is c losed f ores t a re l ike ly t o h ave r e la ted t o d i f feren t t opograph ies , s uch a s v a l ley b ot to ms , s ides a nd i n ter f luves . Wi th in t h is f ores ted e nv iron men t , o ur s can ty e v idence s ugges ts t ha t c learance was l im i ted i n s ca le .

U n for tu-

n a te ly t he a na lys is made a t S i t tard , L i mburg , wh ich i nd ica tes l i t t le o vera l l a l tera t ion i n f ores t c o mpos i t ion , a nd v ery l i t t le p as ture ( van Z e is t 1 958-9 ) i s h ard t o r e la te t o t he L inear P o t tery c u l ture o ccupa t ion s ince t here a r a ther l arge d iscrepancy b e tween t he r ad iocarbon d a te f or t he p ea t p ro f i le ( GRO-1660 ) a nd o ther d a tes f or L i mburg L inear P ot tery c u l ture s e t t le men ts , s uch a s S i t tard a nd G e leen .

J ansen ( 1 960 , 1 02-3 ) a lso o bserved l ow v a lues f or P lan tago

l anceo la ta a nd Ar te m is ia i n h er a na lyses o f A t lan t ic d epos i ts i n p ea t b ogs i n t he e as tern p ar t o f L i mburg , b u t d oub ted whether t hese r e f lec ted sma l l c learances ,

1 39

s ince mos t k nown s e t t le men ts a re i n t he n or thwes t o f L i mburg ; t hese l ow v a lues t o l imes tone a nd u ns tab le s o i ls .

s he a t tr ibu ted

A t B edburg-Garsdor f , Kr .

Berghe i m-Er f t , i n t he l ower Rh ine , Knörzer ( 1 974 ) i den ti f ied c arbon ised r ema ins o f p lan ts t yp ica l o f t ur f o r s ward , s uch a s P oa , F es tuca a nd T ri fo lium , i n p i ts o f as i te o f t he m idd le t o l a ter L inear P o t tery c u l ture , wh ich s ugges ts s o me g round k ep t o pen a f ter c learance . S i tes o f t he L inear P o t tery c u l ture a re f ound p redo m inan t ly o n a reas o f l oess s o i ls , s tretch ing r ough ly a s f ar n or th a s t he s ou th o f t he N or th European P la in .

L oess s o i ls a re among t he mos t f er t i le i n t he wor ld , s ince t hey a re

g enera l ly r ich i n minera ls s uch a s p o tass iu m , magnes iu m a nd c arbona tes , h ave g ood p oros i ty f or wa ter r e ten t ion a nd y e t a re we l l a era ted f or r easonab le d ra inage .

T he r egu lar p ar t ic le s ize t ha t c ond i t ions t hese l as t t wo f ea tures

a lso makes t he m e as i ly worked .

Modder man h as emphas ised t ha t i n t he A t-

l an t ic p er iod t h is f er t i l i ty s hou ld h ave b een e ven g rea ter ( 1971 ) .

Ye t ac er ta in

p ropor t ion o f L inear P o t tery c u l ture s i tes , a s much a s aq uar ter o f s i tes k nown i n a ny a rea , a re f ound o n o ther s o i ls w i th r easonab le p roper t ies f ro m t he p o in t o f v iew o f c u lt iva t ion , s uch a s a l luv ia l d epos i ts .

Thus i n t he Un ter ma ingeb ie t

t here a re s evera l s i tes o n a l luv ia l s o i ls ( Me ier-Arend t 1 966 , 1 6-21 ) a nd i n t he N euw ied b as in , many o n s o i ls d er ived f ro m t u f fs ( Tackenberg 1 954, DohrnI hm ig 1 974b ) . One may a lso n o te t he n umber o f s i tes a pparen t ly o n t he e dges o f p a tches o f l oess , a s i n t he a reas men t ioned o r i n t he N eckar r eg ion ( e .g . S ie l mann 1 972 , f ig . 1 1 ) . I ti s a lso wor th n ot ing t ha t p ar ts o f t he l oess , f or i ns tance t hose wh ich were l oa m ier a nd s ton ier , a nd l ess we l l wa tered , s ee m t o b e w i thou t L inear P o t tery c u l ture s i tes ( Dohrn-Ihm ig 1 974b , 5 2 ) .

H owever ,

t he l owes t p ropor t ion o f s i tes o n l oess i n v ar ious r eg ions o f t he Rh ine , i ts t r ib u tar ies a nd s ou thern G er many i s s t i l l s o me 6 8 p er c en t o f s i tes , i n t he Wor ms Rheinp fa lz a rea ( S ie l mann 1 972 ) . Mos t L inear P o t tery c u l ture s i tes a re f a ir ly n ear wa ter , whe ther i n t he b ig v a l leys , o r i n sma l ler s ide v a l leys , o r i n more r o ll ing c oun try s uch a s i n t he s ou th o f t he Un ter ma ingeb ie t o r t o t he wes t o f S trasbourg .

Mos t s i tes c an b e

f ound i n t he l ower p ar ts o f v ar ious-s ized v a l leys o r i n t he more r o l l ing a reas j us t men t ioned a bove .

The f loodp la in i t se l f s ee ms t o h ave b een g enera l ly

a vo ided , t hough t he v a l ley b o t to ms h ave a ggraded s ince A t lan t ic t imes ( c f . Modder man 1 976a ) a nd a re o f ten u sed n ow a s p as ture a nd wa ter meadows , wh ich may h ave h e lped t o o bscure t he r ea l p a t tern .

S e t t le men t c oncen tra ted o n t he

l oess-covered midd le t errace o f t he l ower Rh ine n or th o f Kö ln i s a n e xa mp le o f s e t t le men t a pparen t ly s topp ing b e fore e ven t he l ower t errace .

T he i n ter-

f luves i n s o me a reas b e tween sma l l r ivers a re n o t o ver t hree o r f our km w ide ( Kuper e t a l . 1 974 ) .

P o ten t ia l ly t here fore t he who le o f s uch sma l l i n ter f luves

c ou ld h ave b een e xp lo i ted f ro m s e t t le men ts i n t he a d join ing v a l leys .

E ven

s e t t le men ts o nt he e dge o f l arger v a l leys h ad t wo b io to mes a va i lab le , t hat o f t he v a l ley a nd t ha t o f

t he i n ter f luve .

I ti s h ard t o j udge t he d ens i ty o f s e t t le men t , a s i n Eng land , when much e xc ava t ion a nd r esearch h as b een u l t i ma te ly t he r esu l t o f c hance d iscovery. Even s o , s o me we l l s urveyed a reas r evea l ac ons iderab le o vera l l d ens ity o f L inear P o t tery c u l ture s e t t le men t , a s i n t he l ower Rh ine f ro m Du tch L i mburg t o Kö ln ( Modder man 1 970 , t a f . 1 ) .

Wi th in t h is p a t tern t here s ee m t o b e c lus ters

o f s i tes , e spec ia l ly i n sma l l v a l leys .

The e x tens ive s ys te ma t ic e xcava t ions

o n t he A ldenhoven P la teau i nf ron t o f o pencas t l ign i te min ing ( Ecker t e t a l . 1 971 , 1 40

1 972 ;

F arrugg ia e t a l . 1 973 ;

K uper e t a l . 1 974 ) a re b eg inn ing t o r evea l a

p le thora o f s i tes i n t he l i tt le l oess-covered s trea m v a l leys a nd o n t he f lank ing p la teaus , wh ich i ft yp ica l w i l l s ugges t t ha t ac ons iderab le d ens i ty o f s e t t le men t was i ndeed p oss ib le ( f ig . 3 5 ).

O ther l ess i n tens ive ly i nves t iga ted c ases ,

a s i n

t he s ou thern We t terau a nd t he L e ine v a l ley ( Me ier-Arend t 1 966 , map 9 ; Z i m mer man 1 966 , f ig . 1 ) s uppor t t h is l i ke l ihood .

T here i s a n a pparen t c on-

t ras t b e tween t he more o r l ess c on t inuous s e t t le men t a long t he Merzbach o n t he A ldenhoven P la teau , a nd l arge n uc lea ted s e t t le men ts s uch a s E ls loo , a nd sma l ler s e t t le men ts s uch a s G e leen ( Modder man 1 970 , Modder man e t a l . 1 957/ 8 ) . The c on tras t may b e h eigh tened i ft he Merzbach s e t t le men t c an b e s een a s as uccess ion o f d ispersed i nd iv idua l l ong-houses o r sma l l h am le ts . As f or t he e cono my t ha t s uppor ted t h is s e t t le men t , t he c ons is ten t c hoice o f f er t i le s o i ls i n i tse l f s ugges ts t ha t c u l t iva t ion was impor tan t .

T h is i s i n-

d eed c on f ir med b y c arbon ised p lan t r e ma ins f ro m s evera l L inear P o t tery c u l ture s i tes i n t he R h ineland ( Knörzer 1 971 , 1 974 ) , e specia l ly t hose o f em mer a nd e inkorn whea t , b y em mer a nd e inkorn impress ions o n L inear P o t tery c u lt ure p o t tery i n s ou th L i mburg ( Beckers a nd B eckers 1 940 , 1 32 ) , a nd b y i so la ted whea t p o l lens i n t he S i t tard p ro f i le ( van Z e is t 1 958-9 ) .

T he a bsence o f b ar ley

h as n ow b een e s tab l ished o n n o l ess t han e igh teen L inear P o t tery c u l ture s i tes i nt he R h ineland ( Knörzer 1 974 , 1 88 ) , t hough i t was w ide ly g rown i n c en tra l G er many , a nd c en tra l a nd e as tern Europe . ( However , b ar ley was i den t i f ied a t Müddershe im ( Sch ie tze l 1 965 , 1 23-4 ) a nd a t K ö ln-L inden tha l ( Bu t t ler a nd H aberey 1 936) ) .

C hess ( Bro mus s eca linug was a lso c o l lec ted a nd i s we l l

r epresen ted i n s a mp les , t hough s pread ing e ssen t ia l ly , i ti s s ugges ted , a s a weed o f c u l t iva t ion ( Knörzer 1 974 , 1 90 ). Sma l l amoun ts o f p ea a nd mi l le t h ave b een r ecorded ;

t he r egenera t ive p roper t ies o f t he f or mer f or t he s oi l a re n o t

t o b e o ver looked .

Sma l l amoun ts o f o i l-r ich f lax a nd p oppy h ave b een r e-

c orded ( Knörzer 1 974 ) wh ich may h ave b een g rown f or t he ir f ood v a lue t oo ( Knörzer 1 967 ).

F ro m t he a va i lab le e v idence , a l l t hese c rops were p robab ly

g rown i n sma l l c lear ings . Wh i le t here a re s evera l f auna l a sse mb lages o f t he L inear P o t tery c u l ture i n c en tra l G er many ( Mü l ler 1 964 ) , C zechos lovak ia ( C lason 1 968 ) a nd Hungary ( Bökönyi 1 959 ) t here i s o n ly o ne we l l s tud ied a sse mb lage i n t he R h ine land , a t Müddershe im ( S ta mp f l i 1 965 ) .

( Ano ther a sse mb lage may b e a va i lab le i n t he

f u ture f ro m R osdor f , Kr . G ö t t ingen , S chwarz 1 972 ).

T he p a t tern a t t h is s i te

f o l lows t ha t o f t he o ther a reas men t ioned , i n t ha t c a t t le d om ina te t he d o mes t ic a n i ma ls ( 6 6.5 p e cc en t ) wh i le p ig o u twe igh t he o v icapr ids ( 20 .7 p er c en t :

1 2 .2

p er c en t ) , t he t \ of or mer s pec ies p resu mab ly b e ing b e t ter a dap ted t o f ores t c Dndi t ions .

On f ace v a lue , Müddershe im i s d i f feren t f ro m mos t o ther L inear

2 o t tery c u l ture s i tes i n t ha t s o me 4 6 p er c en t o f t he f auna were w i ld , s ugges ti ng a g rea ter r o le f or h un t ing.

I n f ac t , t he s a mp le w as v ery sma l l , w ith m in i-

mum n umbers i n t he ' wi ld ' s pec ies o f t wo h orse a nd t wo d eer , a nd t hree a urochs . Mos t L inear P o t tery c u l ture c a t t le were ' med iu m-s ized ' , t hough s o me were l arge a nd s o me sma l l .

A l l t he b ones o f t he Müddershe im c a t t le were l arge

( S ta mpf l i 1 965 , 1 20 ) , s o t ha t i t may b e u nw ise t o r e ly o n t hese i den t i f ica t ions o f ' do mes t ic ' a nd ' w i ld ' .

H owever t ha t may b e , c a t t le was t he mos t impor tan t

s pecies a t Muddershe im .

The c en tra l G er man p rac t ice o f c as tra t ion ( Mü l ler

1 964 ) , o ne may n o te , s ugges ts t ha t o xen c ou ld h ave h ad o ther p r i mary f unc t ions t ha t t ha t o f f ood a n i ma ls i n t he L inear P o t tery c u l ture .

1 41

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