The Eagle, the Cactus, the Rock: The Roots of Mexico-Tenochtitlan's Foundation Myth and Symbol 9780860546214, 9781407347721

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
Illustrations
Acknowledgements
Introduction
CHAPTER I: THE ACTORS AND THE SCENE
CHAPTER II: COPIL AND THE MIGRATION MYTH IN THE HISTORICAL CHRONICLES
CHAPTER III : ODPIL AND MALINALXOCHITL THE IMPORTANCE OF WOMEN IN MEXICA SOCIETY
CHAPTER IV: MYTH AND ORAL TRADITION. SACRED ANCESTORS
CHAPTER V: MAN AND NATURE
CHAPTER VI: THE PICTORIAL EVIDENCE
CHAPTER VII: THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
CHAPTER VIII: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
ILLUSTRATIONS
ABBREVIATIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Citation preview

The Eagle, the Cactus, the Rock The Roots of Mexico-Tenochtitlan's Foundation Myth and Symbol

Doris Heyden

BAR International Series 484

1989

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -8484, 1989: 'The Eagle, the Cactus and the Rock' © Doris Heyden, 1989

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860546214 paperback ISBN 9781407347721 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860546214 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

O aNTENTS P age A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS

i x

I NTRODUCTION

1

C hapter I .

3

T HE A CTORS A ND T HE S CENE

A b rief g limpse a t t he m igration

3

T he M exica, t heir o rigin , n ame, a nd c apital

4

T he n ame o f t he A ztec-Mexica

6

T he n ame o f t he M exica c apital

8

C hapter I I.

C OPIL A ND T HE M IGRATION M YTH I N T HE H ISTORICAL C HRONICLES

1 0

T he s ame s tory t old b y o ther w riters

1 9

H uitzilopochtli, s on o f T laloc

2 1

N otes t o C hapter I I

2 3

C hapter I II.

C OPIL A ND M ALINALXOCHIrL. W OMEN I N M EXICA S OCIETY

T HE I MPORTANCE O F 2 5

N otes t o C hapter I II C hapter I V .

M YTH A ND O RAL T RADITION.

2 9 S ACRED ANCESTORS

3 0

W hat i s m yth?

3 0

M exican m yths

3 1

O ral t radition

3 2

M nemonic a ids

3 3

T he i mportance o f m yth a nd o ral a nd v isual t ransmission i n t he s tudy o f t he h istory o f a ncient M exico

3 3

M yth a nd s acred a ncestors

3 6

S ymbolism o f " white"

3 8

Q uetzalcoatl, t he R ed a nd t he B lack . F ire N otes t o C hapter I V

X iuhtecuhtli, t he 3 8 4 1

P age C hapter V .

M AN A ND N ATURE

4 2

G eomancy

4 2

O rientation, s acred s pace a nd t ime

4 4

M acrocosmos a nd m icrocosmos

4 5

R eal a nd m ythic s ettlement o f s ites

4 6

T he c osmic b alance

4 7

C oncept o f t he " promised l and"

4 8

T he i mportance o f t he c entre

4 9

M yth a nd s ymbol b ased o n n ature

5 0

N otes t o C hapter V

5 1

C hapter V I.

T HE P ICTORIAL E VIDENCE

5 2

N atural e lements i n t he C opil m yth a nd i n t he g lyph o f M exico-Tenochtitlan

5 2

A ztlan-Chicomortoc-Colhuacan

5 2

T enochtitlan

5 3

C opil

5 4

S culpture

5 5

T he p ictorial c odices

5 6

T he p resence o f n ature i n m yth a nd i conography

5 6

T he b ird

5 7

T he t ree

5 9

T he r ock, t he h ill, t he c ave

6 2

W ater

6 4

T he a tl t lachinolli

6 5

T he o llin

6 7

I nfluence o f T eotihuacan

6 8

N otes t o C hapter V I

7 1

i i

P age C hapter V II.

T HE A RCHAEOLOGICAL E VIDENCE

7 5

P ossible l inks b etween t he M exica a nd e arlier c ultures

7 5

T eotihuacan h eritage.

7 5

O rientation a nd u rbanization

S acred s pace

7 7

T rade r outes

7 9

T he P ostclassic :

e xchange o f t raditions a nd m aterial c ulture

8 1

A r e-founding o f T enochtitlan?

8 4

A rchitecture.

8 5

T Win t emples

S culpture

8 6

M ural p ainting

8 8

C eramics

8 9

N otes t o C hapter V II

9 1

C hapter V III .

S UMMARY A ND C ONCLUSICNS

9 3

A ntecedents o f t he T enochtitlan m yth a nd i nsignia

9 3

W hy d id t hese p eople m igrate?

9 3

M yth, o ral t radition, a nd s acred g eography

9 4

H eritage f rom c ultures e arlier t han t he M exica

9 7

I LLUSTRATIONS

1 0 1

B IBLIOGRAPHY

ii i

I LLUSTRATIONS F igure 1

M ap o f M esoamerica w ith m ajor a rchaeological s ites mentioned i n t his s tudy.

2

T he V alley o f M exico a t t he b eginning o f t he s ixteenth c entury. A fter S anders, 1 980, a nd P orter W eaver , 1 972.

3

I n t he C odex B oturini o r T ira d e l a P eregrinaci6n ( above), H uitzilopochtli i s i dentified b y h is b ird h eaddress, t he h uitzitzilin o r h ummingbird. H e i s w ithin t he h ill o f C olhuacan i n t he y ear 1 -Flint K nife. T he s even g roups o f m igrants, r epresented b y s even t emples, a re o n a n i sland t hat u ndoubtedly i s A ztlan . T he f emale g od-bearer C himalma i s s eated b elow t he m ajor t emple, t hat o f t he M exica-Aztecs, a nd i s i dentified b y h er n ame g lyph , c himalli o r s hield. B elow , t he i sland A ztlan w ith o nly f our t emples a nd a h ill, a s d epicted i n t he C odex A ubin , 1 979: 1.

4

a ) T he H uixachtecatl H ill n ext t o C olhuacan , a ccording t o t he U psala M ap , 1 550. b ) C olhuacan, " Place o f A ncestors," i s r epresented a s a c urved h ill, f rom t he N ahuatl c oltic, " twisted t hing." T he H uitzuco p laque, f rom S eler , 1 963. c ) C olhuacan i n t he C odex A zcatitlan , 1 949, p late

5

A bove, t he A ztecs l eave A ztlan, g uided b y H uitzilopochtli, w ho w ears h is h ummingbird h elmet. C odex A zcatitlan , 1 949, p late I I. B elow , i n t he C odex V aticanus R ios, 1 964, I II: 1 98, f our g odb earers f ace a h ill w hich s upposedly w as A ztlan , w ith t he g oddess T onacacihuatl o n i ts s ummit. T he f igure a t t he l eft i s i dentified a s H uitzilopochtli.

6

I n C oatlicamac, w here a s hrine w as b uilt f or H uitzilopochtli, a g reat t ree b roke. T his w as a s ign t hat t he A ztecs s hould b reak o ff f rom o ther m igrants a nd c hange t heir n ame t o M exican o r M exica. C odex B oturini o r T ira d e l a P eregrinaci6n .

7

P enafiel, 1 885: 1 85, i nterprets t he T enochtitlan t oponym a s T eonochtitlan: t he s un a t t he b ase o f t he n ochtli, c actus, i s t eo (t1), " sacred, l egitimate."

F igure 8

A bove, t he A ztecs l eave C hicomortoc, t he S even C aves, a t t he b eginning o f t heir m igration . D urän A tlas, p late I , 1 963. B elow t he S even C aves a re r epresented a s ag reat m ountain-earth m onster , w ith H uitzilopochtli b efore i t. C odex A zcatitlan , 1 949, p late V .

9

T he g od-bearers o r t eomamaque l ead t he m igration . T he o nly w oman , C himalma, i s i dentified b y h er n ame g lyph , t he r ound s hield o r c himalli. A bove, C odex A ubin , 1 979: 1 2. B elow , T ira d e l a P eregrinaciön .

1 0

T he b irth o f H uitzilopochtli a t C oatepec . C oatepec i s r epresented b y s erpents ( coatl) a nd a h ill ( tepetl). C odex A zcatitlan , 1 949, p late V I .

1

T he l ake t he A ztecs c rossed w hen l eaving A ztlan i s p ersonified , p erhaps a s aw ater d eity. T he l ittle b ird i s c alling " tihui...", l et 's g o . C odex M exicanus, 1 952, p late X VIII .

1 2

T he M exica l eft t heir c aves t o g o o n t he m igration . T he b ird a t t he t op m ay b e o ne w ho s ang " tihui...". D urän , A tlas, p late I , 1 963.

1 3

A t t he f oundation s cene, t he e agle i s e ating a b ird. T he p erson a t t he r ight b ears t he n ame g lyph " Tenoch" a nd w as o ne o f t he m ythic f ounders o f t he M exica c apital. D urän , A tlas, p late 3 2, 1 963.

1 4

T he t enochtli , " stony" p rickly p ear c actus, g rows f rom t he e ntrails o f t he c onquered C opil, w hile t he h ead o f H uitzilopochtli, t riumphant , i s a bove C opil 's. C odex A zcatitlan , 1 949, p late X II.

1 5

A d ecapitated h ead i s c arved o n t he b ase o f t he s culpture o f ac actus. Ap lant s eems t o g row f rom h is h ead. M exica c ollection , c ourtesy N ational M useum o f A nthropology , M exico .

1 6

A bove, T he t radition o f C hicomortoc, t he S even C aves, b irth-place o f e thnic g roups, i s n ot e xclusively A ztec . T he S even C aves a re s een h ere i n t he L ienzo A ntonio d e L eön f rom t he O axaca r egion . B elow, a t emple a bove a s acred c ave f rom w hich f low r ed a nd b lue w aters i s r epresented i n t he C odex S elden 3 135: 9 , 1 964, w here i t m ay h ave e tymological s ignificance o r m ay b e p art o f t he t radition o f s acred c aves.

F igure 1 7

I n t he C ödice R amirez, 1 944, p late I , t heSeven C aves o f o rigin a re r epresented s imply a scircles w ith t he n ame o f e ach g roup w itten a bove.

1 8

T he d iscovery o f t he e agle a nd t he c actus, s ite f or t he f ounding o f t he M exica c apital, a s s eenin t he C ödice R amirez, p late X I , a bove, a nd i n a d etail o f t he C odex M endoza, p late I , b elow .

1 9

P late I o f t he C odex M endoza , 1 964. T he e agle, t he c actus, a nd t he r ock a re i n t he c entre, a bove a s hield w hose s even f eather b alls m ay r epresent t he o riginal s even m igrants.

2 0

H uitzilopochtli, l eft, w earing h is d iagnostic h ummingbird h elmet, i s i n a n a quatic e nvironment ( evidently c ut u p a nd t hen r epasted), w ith t he T enochtitlan s ymbol i n t he c entre. D urän , A tlas, p late I I.

2 1

T he M exica m igration l naders d iscover t he s igns f or t he f ounding o f T enochtitlan , c onsisting o f t he e agle , t he c actus, a nd t he r ock. T his t ime t he e agle h as a s erpent, n ot a b ird , i n i ts b eak . D urän , A tlas, p late X III, 1 963.

2 2

T he p overty o f t he M exica a t t he t ime o f t heir s ettlement i s e vident i n t heir f irst t emple o r h ouses, s imple h uts. T he l ake i s s een s eparate f rom t he c actus a nd r ock , i nstead o f s urrounding t hem . C odex A ubin , 1 979: 5 1.

2 3

I n t he c arving o n t he b ack o f t he s tone m onument, t he T emple o f S acred W ar ( Teocalli d e l a G uerra S agrada), t he c actus g rows f rom a s upernatural f igure a nd t he n opal f ruits a re h earts. I nstead o f a s erpent t he e agle h as i n i ts b eak t he a tl t lachinolli, f ire-water s ymbol, w hich m ay h ave b een m isinterpreted b y e arly c hroniclers a s a s nake . M exica H all, c ourtesy N ational M useum o f A nthropology, M exico .

2 4

Ab ird p erches o n a t ree w hich g rows f rom a s upern atural b eing i s c ommon i n c ertain p ictorial m anuscripts. A bove, C ödice B orgia , 5 1, 1 963. B elow , C odex D resden , p late 3 , 1 972.

2 5

E ach w orld d irection i s a ssociated w ith a b ird ,a t ree, a nd a d eity . C odex F e jervary-Mayer, I V : 1, 1 964.

2 6

B irds a ccompany t he L ords o f t he D ay i nt he t onalpohualli, t he d ivinatory c alend r. C odex B orbonicus, p late 1 6, 1 974.

v i

F igure 2 7

A t ree o r p lant w hich d ivides t o f orm t wo b ranches w as a c ommon n orm i n p rehispanic a rt . T he b ird i s i n t he p osition s een i n t he C odex B orgia a nd i n t he T enochtitlan i nsignia, w here i t i s t he e agle. S tone b ox , M exica c ulture, c ourtesy N ational M useum o f A nthropology, M exico .

2 8

I n P alenque, o n t he s arcophagus o f t he T emple o f I nscriptions, a b ird i s o n a t ree t hat g rows f rom a h uman f igure.

2 9

T he b ird o n t he t ree o r p ole i s a lso f ound a t I zapa, o n s culpture e xecuted t wo o r t hree c enturies b efore t he p resent e ra . A fter N orman , 1 976: 1 33.

3 0

T he M exica a re e ating n ext t o t he s hrine f or t heir g od a nd t he t ree t hat s hattered. T ira d e l a P eregrinaciön .

3 1

B elow, i n t he g lyph f or X ochicuauhtitlan t he t ree h as a m outh a nd t eeth , w hich i s a l inguistic r epresentation f or t he n ame o f t he s ite: x ochi(t1) m eaning " flower", c uauh , " tree", t lan (tli), " teeth". C odex M endoza, I , p late L II, 1 964.

3 2

A bove, t he s plit t ree i s s een i n t he C odex B orbonicus, p late X V , 1 974, a ccompanying t he g oddess I tzpapalotl. H ere i t i s s aid t o r epresent T ämoanchan , " Our u ltimate h ome."

3 3

T he a tl t lachinolli, " water a nd f ire," " flaming w ater," i s t he s ymbol f or w ar o n t he T eocalli d e l a G uerra S agrada i n t he M exica H all o f t he N ational M useum o f A nthropology, M exico.

3 4

T he f orm o f t he o llin , " movement o f t he s un ," i s s omewhat s imilar t o t he F ef 6rvary-Mayer p late i n f ig. 2 5. I ts c olours, b lue o r g reen a nd r ed o r y ellow , a re t hose o f t he a tl t lachinolli. a ) C odex B orbonicus, p late X IV , b ) C odex B orgia, p late 1 0, c ) B orgia , X XV , d ) T onalamatl d e A ubin.

3 5

C lay s tamps f rom T eotihuacan w ith t he o llin s ymbol. A fter H eyden , 1 966.

3 6

T he t ree t hat g rows f rom t he c entral f igure i n t he " Tlalocan" m ural a t T epantitla, T eotihuacan , h as a n X f orm , s imilar t o t he o llin . T he f igure i s o n a s tylized c ave f rom w hich f low s treams o f r ed a nd b lue w ater. T eotihuacan H all, c ourtesy N ational Museum o f A nthropology, M exico.

v ii

F igure 3 7

A round t he b orders o f t he T epantitla p ainting i nterlacing s treams o f w ater r un, o ne r ed, o ne b lue. T eotihuacan H all, c ourtesy N ational M useum o f A nthropology, M exico .

3 8

T he p ecked c ross p etroglyph, a n i mportant T eotihuacan m arker.

3 9

T he c ave u nderneath t he P yramid o f t he S un i n T eotihuacan i s i n t he f orm o f a f our-petal f lower. A fter H eyden , 1 975.

4 0

A bove, t he R elaciön G eogräfica d e T eotihuacan 1 580 s hows t he " Oracle o f M ontezuma" i n t he s pace b efore t he P yramid o f t he S un a nd t he P yramid o f t he M oon . I t c ould p ossibly r efer t o t he c ave u nder t he S un p yramid. P aso y T roncoso, 1 905: 2 09. B elow , t he C ödice X olotl s hows t he t wo T eotihuacan p yramids w ith t he s ymbol o f t he c ave b eneath . 1 95 1, p late I II.

4 1

T win t emples o n t op o f p yramids. U pper l eft, T enochtitlan , C ödice M atritense. U pper r ight, T enayuca, M arquina 1 95 1. L ower l eft , T enochtitlan , D urän , A tlas. L ower r ight, T enochtitlan , D urän , A tlas.

4 2

T rees w hose r oots a re s aurian m onsters o r e arth s ymbols. U pper l eft , C odex A ubin , 1 979: 1 3. U pper r ight, C odex B orgia, 1 963: 1 4. B elow , I zapa, a fter N orman, 1 976: 9 3.

4 3

B ird o n a t ree t hat g rows f rom a s upernatural b eing w hich h as a s kull h ead a nd c laws i nstead o f f eet, t raits c haracteristic o f e arth d eities. C odex B orgia. F rom t op t o b ottom , p lates 4 9, 5 2, 5 0.

4 4

T he M exica s ought a n a quatic e nvironment f or t heir c apital. T he C odex V aticanus-Rios p ortrays T enochtitlan i n t he m iddle o f a l ake. 1 964, I II: 24. 2

4 5

H uitzilopochtli g ave h is p eople n ets f or f ishing, a s a n i ndication t hat t his w as t heir b asic o ccupation . F lorentine C odex , 1 961, X : 1 33.

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS T his s tudy w as c arried o ut i n t he D epartamento d e E tnologia y A ntropologia S ocial, I nstituto N acional d e A ntropologia e H istoria ( INAH ), o f w hich I a m am ember, i n M exico . A v ersion o f t he s tudy, i n S panish, w as s ubmitted a s a D octoral D issertation a t t he U niversidad N acional A utönoma d e M exico ( UNAM ) i n 1 983. S till a nother v ersion , a lso i n S panish , w as p ublished i n 1 988 b y t he D epartamento d el D istrito F ederal, t he D istrito F ederal c omprises m ainly t he C ity o f M exico , c alled M exico-Tenochtitlan b efore 1 52 1. M y s incerest t hanks t o m embers o f m y d octoral c ommittee a nd t o t hose w ho h ave g iven a dvice a long t he w ay. T hese i nclude B eatriz d e l a F uente, B arbro D ahlgren , N oemi Q uezada, M iguel L eön-Portilla, a nd C arlos M artinez M arin , o f U NAM , Y olotl G onzälez a nd V irve P iho o f I NAH . M ary E lizabeth S mith a nd N ancy T roike, o f T ulane U niversity a nd t he U niversity o f T exas , r espectively, h ave o pened m any d oors t o t he u nders tanding o f t he p ictorial c odices. B oth K aren D akin a nd M iguel L eönP ortilla h ave h elped m e a long t he r ocky r oad t o t he l earning o f N ahuatl, l anguage s poken b y t he A ztecs. A ngeles G onzälez G amio o f t he P ublications D epartment o f D epartamento d el D istrito F ederal h as c ontributed e ncouragement g ood h umour.

t he a nd

M y c hildren , L aurencia a nd M iguel, h ave b een p atient a nd u nders tanding d uring t he m any y ears t hat I h ave b een c loser t o m y t ypewriter t han t o m y o ffspring , i n p roducing t his a nd o ther w ritings.

i x

I NTRODUCTION T he i nsignia o f t he c ity o f M exico i s w ell k nown : i t i s a n e agle d evouring a s nake, p erched u pon a n opal -p rickly p ear c actus - w hich g rows f rom a r ock o r o n t op o f a c ave, a nd w hich s tands i n t he m idst o f w ater. T he s tudy o r m yth o f t he A ztec m igration i s a lso w ell k nown . I n t his e ssay I w ill t race t he w anderings o f t he A ztecs f rom t heir o riginal h ome i n A ztlan-Chicomortoc-Colhuacan t o t heir a rrival i n t he V alley o f M exico , w here t hey h oped t o f ind t heir p romised l and. W hat l ies b ehind a ll t his? I s t he s tory o f t he m igration a nd t he f ounding o f t he A ztec c apital m yth o r h istory? W ho w ere t he A ztecs a nd w hy w ere t hey a lso c alled M exica, o r T enochca? I s uggest t hat s ome o f t he e lements i n t he d ifferent v ersions o f t he f ounding o f M exico-Tenochtitlan a nd i n i ts i nsignia c an b e f ound i n e arlier r epresentations, m any o f t hem p ictorial, f or e xample i n am ural p ainting f rom C lassic T eotihuacan, i n p ictorial c odices o f t he P ostc lassic f rom C entral M exico , a nd i n s culpture c reated b y d ifferent g roups o ver d ifferent p eriods. B ased o n t his m aterial a nd o n o ral t radition a s r eported i n e arly c olonial c hronicles, I w ill a ttempt t o r econstruct a p hase i n t he h istory o f t he A ztec-Mexica b y s tudying t hese a s w ell a s t he a ssociation b etween s acred g eography, a rchaeological r emains, m yths, a nd t he s ocial c ontext o f t he g roups w ho c reated t hese m yths. M yths f requently r elate t rue h istory, o r p art o f i t , p resented a s s tories. T hrough m yth t he r oots o f a c ulture a re s ometimes r evealed , m yth i s ak ey t hat o pens d oors t o t he u nderstanding o f a s ociety, i ts p eople, r eligion a nd b eliefs, a nd t he n atural a nd s ocial e nvironment i n w hich a ll t hese d evelop. W here t he i nvestigator h as a ccess t o p ictorial m aterial p aintings, a rchaeological o b jects, c odices, t extiles, c eramics i conography, t he i nterpretation o f t his v isual m aterial t hrough i ts a nalysis, i s t he c ompanion t o m yth . B y w orking w ith b oth o ne c an o ften i nterpret h istory. T he h istory o f t he A ztec-Mexica i s, i n p art, r evealed i n m yth a nd i mage . G ods a nd h uman l eaders a re e verywhere, e lements o f n ature a re p rominent i n w ords a nd p ictures. A n e xample i s s een i n o ne m yth a nd i ts a ccompanying s ymbol, b oth o f w hich r eveal m uch o f t he b eliefs o f t he p eople o f a ncient M exico , o f t heir i nteraction w ith n ature , o f t he d eep r espect f or t heir p redecessors. T his m yth , t he s ub ject o f t he p resent s tudy, i s t he f ounding o f M exico-Tenochtitlan, t he s ymbol i s t he i nsignia o f t he c ity o f M exico a s i t i s s een t oday a nd a s i t w as s uggested b y t he d iscovery o f t he s ite f or t his c apital, a s c hosen b y t he g od H uitzilopochtli. T he s ite w as d esignated b y t he a ppearance o f a n e agle p erched o n ap rickly p ear c actus, t he n opal o r t enochtli a s i t i s c alled i n N ahuatl, a nd w hich g ave i ts n ame t o t he c ity o f T enochtitlan. A ccording t o t he m yth t he c actus g rew f rom t he h eart o f C opil, n ephew a nd o pponent o f H uitzilopochtli, p atron d eity o f t he A ztec-Mexica. Iw ill t ry t o p enetrate t he p ast i n o rder t o r eveal s ome o f t he r oots o f t his s ymbol a nd i ts a ccompanying m yth . W e d o n ot k now w hat t he p eople o f T enochtitlan t hought o f t heir p redecessors a nd t he e arlier c ultures t hat i nfluenced t heir o wn , b ut i t i s e vident t hat t hey

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r egarded t hem w ith m uch e steem . M any o f t heir o wn i deas c ame t o t hem f rom o ther p eople, o ther t imes.

a nd

i mages

T he m eaning i n e arlier m yths a nd i mages m ay h ave b een q uite d ifferent f rom t he i nterpretation g iven t hem b y t he M exica i n t he t hirteenth t o e arly f ifteenth c enturies. T he n opal f ruit , s ynonymous w ith t he h eart a nd t herefore w ith C opil, m ay h ave h ad i ts i nspiration i n p ictorial r epresentations t hat h ad n o a ssociation w ith a f oundation m yth. I ndeed , t he m yth a nd i mage m ay h ave r eached t he M exica a t d ifferent t imes a nd f rom d ifferent s ources, t o b e a dopted a nd a dapted b y t hem . P ossibly t he r epresentation o f a p lant g rowing f rom t he h eart o r e ntrails o f a s upernatural b eing, o bserved i n s culpture o r p ainting, s uggested t he t enochtli g rowing f rom C opil 's h eart . T he A ztec-Mexica w ere a dept a t u sing e xisting f orms a nd m eanings a nd a dapting t hem t o t heir o wn e nds. T he f oundation m yth a nd H uitzilopochtli 's s upremacy o ver t he C opil-Malinalxochitl g roup p layed a b asic r ole i n t he l egitimation o f t he M exica a s t he m ost p owerful g roup i n C entral M exico i n t he l ate P ostclassic p eriod, a nd j ustified t hrough d ivine i ntervention t he f ounding o f M exico-Tenochtitlan a s i ts c hosen s ite. I n b oth c ases t he n atural e lements i nvolved w ere o f g reat i mportance, a s w as t he r elationship w ith o ther p eople . B ut l et u s m eet s ome o f t he p layers a nd p laces i n t his d rama .

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C HAPTER I :

T HE A CTORS A ND T HE S CENE

C opil w as t he s on o f t he s orceress M alinalxochitl, t he s ister o f H uitzilopochtli, w ho w as a bandoned b y h im a nd t he A ztec-Mexica a bout h alfway a long t he m igration t rail b etween t he p oint o f d eparture , A ztlan, a nd t he V alley o f M exico . F illed w ith h ate b y h is m other b ecause o f t his d esertion , C opil s earch e d f or h is u ncle a nd, f inding h im a t t he s ummit o f T epetzinco H ill i n t he e astern p art o f t he v alley, s houted, " You a bandoned m y m other ! Y ou l eft h er u nprotected ! S o I h ave c ome t o d estroy y ou !" B ut H uitzilopochtli w as q uicker a nd w iser t han h is n ephew . B efore C opil c ould a ct h e w as s eized b y h is u ncle a nd d ecapitated. T hen H uitzilopochtli s lit o pen h is c hest a nd t ore o ut t he h eart. T he b loody h ead w as l eft o n T epetzinco H ill a nd t he h eart, a lso d ripping b lood , w as g iven t o t he p riest C uauhtlequetzqui, w ho t hrew i t f ar a way, i nto t he r eeds a nd r ushes. I t f ell o n t op o f a r ock w hich p rotruded f rom t he s wamp , a nd f rom t his h eart g rew t he n opal c actus t hat w as t o m ark t he s ite f or t he c ity o f T enochtitlan . W hat i s b ehind t his s tory? W hy d id H uitzilopochtli -w ho a ppears i n t he c hronicles a t t imes a s a g od, a t t imes a s t he l eader w ho g uided h is p eople t o t he p romised l and, a nd e ven a s am ummy b undle -h ave t o p rotect h imself a nd h is p eople f rom h is n ephew , t o t he p oint o f a ssassinating h im? A nd C opil, w hat g roup d id h e r epresent, w hy w as h e s o i mportant, t o t he e xtent t hat i t w as h is h eart t hat d esignated t he p lace w here t he A ztec-Mexica w ere t o b uild t heir c apital? T he a nswer c an b e f ound, p erhaps, i n e vents t hat t ook p lace b efore a nd d uring t he m igration.

A b rief g limpse a t t he m igration T he M exica m ade a l ong p eregrination i n s earch o f a p lace w hose e cology w ould r eproduce t he s etting o f t heir o riginal h ome a nd a lso w ould g uarantee t heir s ubsistence. A t t he s ame t ime t hey w ere g uided b y t heir t utelary g od H uitzilopochtli; t his g ave t he p eregrination t he c haracter o f a m essianic m ission. E ventually t his l ed t o t he f ounding i n t he V alley o f M exico o f t he " promised l and" o r c apital b y t he " chosen p eople." D uring t heir m igration t he M exica s ettled i n m any p laces w hich d id n ot f ulfill t heir e xpectations, c ontinued o n t heir w ay, e xperienced i nternal d issention a nd r uptures, c hanged t heir n ame, a nd s uffered i nnumerable d isappointments . T heir g od H uitzilopochtli, h owever , n ever d eserted t hem a nd s poke t o t hem t hrough t he g od-bearers. B y t his m ethod h e i nformed t hem o f t he c anons t hat w ere t o d etermine t he f ounding o f t heir c apital. T hese c anons w ere e lements o f n ature , i n a

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s ignificant c ombination : a n e agle w as t o b e p erched u pon a n opal c actus w hich g rew f rom a r ock . B lue a nd r ed o r y ellow w aters w ere t o f low f rom a c ave u nderneath t he r ock , a lthough a t f irst t he w aters, a s w ell a s t he v egetation a nd a quatic c reatures, w ould b e w hite . T his w hiteness i s r eminiscent o f A ztlan, t he o riginal h ome , w hose n ame m eans " White L and ." T he c ombination o f s treams o f r ed o r y ellow a nd b lue w aters a re s ignificant i n t hat t hey a re f ound i n t he a rt o f T eotihuacan, a lbeit w ith d ifferent s ymbolism . T his w ill b e r eferred t o l ater.

T he M exica ,

t heir o rigin , n ame a nd c apital

B efore d escribing t hat p art c oncerns C opil, c ertain t erms m ust w ho w ere t he A ztecs? W hat i s t he t heir o riginal h ome? W here w as i t T enochtitlan . given t o t heir c apital

o f t he M exican m igration w hich b e d efined: w ho w ere t he M exica, m eaning o f t he n ame, o r n ames, o f l ocated? W hy w as t he n ame M exicoa fter i t w as f ounded?

T he p eople i n t his s tory s et o ut f rom A ztlan a bout t he s ame t ime t hat o ther g roups f rom t he s ame r egion d ecided t o m igrate. T he s ources d iffer a s t o t he n umber a nd n ames o f t hese g roups a nd e ven a s t o t heir p lace o f o rigin . S ome s ay t hat t he A ztecs w ere b orn o f s prings o r c aves ( Durän , 1 967, I I: 1 3), m any c laim t hey e merged f rom C hicomortoc, " Seven C aves" ( Tezozomoc, 1 949: 1 ; A nales d e C uauhtitlan , 1 945: 3 ) a s o ne o f s even t ribes, w ho w ere t he X ochimilcas, t he C halcas, t he T epanecs, t he C ulhuas, t he T lalhuicas, t he T laxcaltecas, a nd t he A ztecs ( Durän , I I: 2 1). E ach c hronicle d iffers w hen g iving t he n ames o f t he g roups, t heir l eaders, t heir g ods, i n w hat s eems t o b e a n e xaltation o f t heir o wn p eople a nd r egion, f ounded o n a b asic m igration m yth . C himalpahin ( 1965) f or e xample, s tresses t he I mportance o f t he C halcas a nd A maquemes, w hile M unoz C amargo ( 1966: 1 9, 2 7) t alks a bout t he a rrival i n C entral M exico o f t he " Ulmecas , C halmecas y X icalanca," w ho s ettled C halco a nd P uebla-Tlaxcala, a nd o f t he C hichimecs w ho f ounded T ezcoco a nd C ohuatlichan . A ztlan -"White L and" o r " Land o f t he H erons" -w as t he p lace o f o rigin o f t he A ztecs, w ho t ook t heir n ame f rom t he s ite. T here i s s till d isagreement a mong s cholars a s t o t he l ocation o f A ztlan. P aul K irchhoff ( 1961) h as c laimed i ts l ocation w as i n t he B ajio r egion o f M exico , w hile J imenez M oreno ( 1956) p laced i t f arther w est, i n N ayarit, w here a n A ztatlan s till e xists. J imenez M oreno c laimed t hat b oth t hese d esignations m ay b e c orrect, h owever, s ince o ne o r m ore c ities m ay h ave h ad t he s ame n ame . A s t he H istoria d e l os M exicanos p or s us P inturas ( 1973: 4 0) s ays, " Y p orque d e l os n ombres q ue l os p ueblos t enian e n s u t ierra u saron y l os p usieron a l os q ue e n e sta p oblaron..." ( "Because t he t owns i n t heir h omeland h ad c ertain n ames, t he s ame n ames w ere g iven t o t he p laces t hey s ettled"). A ztlan i s a lso c alled i n s ome s ources A ztlan-Chicomortoc, a nd C himalpahin ( 1965: 6 7-68) t ells u s t hat t he A ztecs m ade a f irst a nd t hen a s econd c eremonial d eparture f rom C hicomortoc. T his m ay r efer t o t wo d ifferent s ites. A ztlan , d escribed i n t he c hronicles a s aw atery p aradise w here t here w as a n a bundance o f a quatic f oods, p robably w as i dealized i n o ral t radition a s a p rototype o f T enochtitlan . I t i s p ossible, a lso, t hat t he M exica a ctually o riginally c ame f rom t he V alley o f M exico , l eft t he

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r egion a fter p rolonged d roughts, a nd r eturned i n t he t hirteenth o r f ourteenth c entury, h aving m eanwhile b uilt u p a n i mage o f t he p erfect s etting, t he p lace o f l akes, t he w hite p lace , t he a ncestral h ome w hose e xact l ocation w as l ost i n t he m emories o f t he d eceased . A ztlan w as a c ity o n a n i sland i n t he m iddle o f a l ake, a nd h ere w as t he m ountain w here s even c aves w ere f ound, t herefore g iving i t t he n ame C hicomortoc . C himalpahin ( 1965: 6 3) c alls t his Q uinehuayan O ztotl C hicomortoc : " The P lace o f D eparture, S even C aves." T he C odex B oturini o r T ira d e l a P eregrinaciön s hows t he s tarting p oint o f t he m igration a s a n i sland i n t he m iddle o f a b ody o f w ater, w here s even t emples s tand, w ith a c urved h ill ( Colhuacan-Chicomortoc) a s hort d istance a way, o n f irm l and. H uitzilopochtli i s i n a c ave w ithin t he h ill ( fig. 3 ). H e i s i dentified b y h is h ummingbird ( huitzitzilin ) h elmet . T he s even t emples i n t his s cene c ould b e i nterpreted a s r epresenting t he s even g roups t hat m igrated, o r p erhaps a s s ymbols o f t he s even c aves, t hat i s, a s C hicomortoc . T he c urved h ill i s a t oponym f or C olhuacan , t he n ame d erived f rom c oltic , " twisted o r c urved t hing" ( Molina, 1 944: 2 4) ( fig. 4 ). A t t he s ame t ime C olhuacan m eans " Place o f G randparents o r A ncestors," f rom c olli, " grandfather" ( Simeön, 1 963: 1 23). T eocolhuacan , a s t he a ncestral p lace i s o ften c alled, r efers t o t he " real" o r " sacred" C olhuacan. S o t his s cene r epresents t he a ncestral h ome, t he p lace o f t he a ncestors, t he p lace o f s even g roups o f p eople, i n a n atural a quatic e nvironment. I t w ill b e s een t hat o ne o f t he g od-bearers, a t t he f oot a nd l eft o f t he m ajor t emple, i s a w oman, w hose s hield g lyph g ives h er t he n ame o f C himalma , " Shield H and." W omen w ere i mportant i n A ztec h istory, a f act n ot o ften o bserved. S ince n ot e ven t he e xact l ocation o f A ztlan i s k nown, t he e lders, i nformants o f n ative a nd E uropean c hroniclers a t t he b eginning o f t he s ixteenth c entury, m ust h ave l earned a bout t his p lace o f d eparture, a r eal s ite o bscured b y m yth, f rom c enturies o f o ral t radition . S ome o f t he s ources i dentify A ztlan i n t he f ollowing m anner : C ristobal d el C astillo , H ISTORIA D E L OS M EXICANOS, 1 908: T he g reat l ake o f A ztlan-Chicomortoc, t he " Canal d e l a L una" o r M oon ( pp . 8 2, 8 8-9 1). A nepantla ( in t he M iddle o f t he W ater), X ochitlalpan ( Land o f F lowers), T onacatlalpan ( Land o f S ustenance, F ruits o f t he E arth), U eikuluakan ( the A ncient o r R eal C olhuacan , P lace o f A ncestors), U eixiximekatlalpan ( Land o f A ncient o r R eal C hichimecs). T ezozomoc, C RONICA M EXICANA , 1 944: A ztlan ( Place o f A bundance o f H erons, o r P lace o f t he A ztaxochitl, W hite F lower ( p . 7 ). C RONICA M EXICAYOTL , 1 949: C olhuacan ( Place o f A ncestors), T eocolhuacan ( Place o f S acred A ncestors). A ztlan C hicomortoc, A ztlan A ztatlan , H uey A ltepetl ( Aztlan-Seven C aves, P lace o f H erons , G reat C ity) ( pp . 1 8-22). C himalpahin, R ELACIONES O RIGINALES..., 1 965: A ztlan N auhtlan C olhuacatepec ( Place o f W hiteness, P lace o f F our , T wisted H ill)... " Where t he a ncient C hichimecs r esided...the i sland i n t he m iddle o f t he l ake, i n t he e normous c ity o f A ztlan ..."; A ztlan, f rom a zcahuitl, a t ree b earing w hite f lowers; C olhuacan, T eocolhuacan ( Place o f A ncestors, P lace o f D ivine A ncestors), T he g reat c ity o f a ncient C olhuacan; " The c ave w ith a c avity i n t he M iddle, t he G rotto o f t he S even , t he P lace o f D eparture, W here t he t zompantli i s f ound, W here t he

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M esquite i s b ound" ( tzompantli i s t he E rythrina Americana t ree b ut a lso m eans " skull r ack") ( pp. 6 3, 6 5, 1 27, 1 33). H ISTORIA D E M EXICO , T EOGONIA ..., 1 973: C hicomortoc = T holma, Q uivira o r T ucan T usayan ( three n ames o f a m ountain i n n orthern M exico ), " from w hich t hree r ivers f low , a nd a t t he f oot o f w hich ( mountain ) t here w as a c ave w here w ind b lows" ( p. 9 6). K ingsborough, C ODEX V ATICANUS R IOS, 1 964: T he g lyph f or A ztlan i s a s hield w ith d arts a nd t he g oddess T onacacihuatl, o ne o f t he c reator d eities w hose n ame m eans " Lady o f O ur F lesh" o r S ustenance, s tands a t t he s ummit o f a h ill ( III: 1 98, p late L XXXIX ). H uitzilopochtli, " the f irst c aptain o f t hese M exican p eople," i s n ext t o t his g lyph. S ee a lso t he C ODEX T ELLERIANO R EMENSIS i n t he s ame K ingsborough c ollection ( 1964, I : 2 46) ( fig. 5 ). T he A NALES D E C UAUHTITLAN , 1 945: 3 , H errera, H ISTORIA G ENERAL ..., 1 945, I V : 1 03, L öpez d e G ömara, H ISTORIA G ENERAL... 1 966, I I: 3 82, T orquemada, M ONARQUIA I NDIANA , 1 975: 1 15, a ll s ay " Chicomortoc, S even C aves." T ezozomoc, 1 944: 9 , r efers t o C olhuacan X alixco n ot a s p art o f A ztlan b ut a s o ne o f t he f irst p laces r eached o n t he m igration . T orquemada, 1 975: 14, s ays t hat t he A ztecs r eached H uey C olhuacan 1 ( the o riginal C olhuacan ) a fter a y ear 's t ravelling. H ere H uitzilopochtli a ppeared t o t hem a nd c laimed t hat h e h ad t aken t hem o ut o f A ztlan a nd w ished t o b e t heir g uide f rom t hen o n . T hus t hey m ade a t eoicpalli, t he g od 's c hair o f r oods, f or h im . O viedo, H ISTORIA G ENERAL..., 1 945: 1 03108, w rites t hat t he m en w ho f ollowed O rchilobos ( Huitzilopochtli) c ame f rom t he n orth, t owards t he p rovince o f P anuco .

T he n ame o f t he A ztec-Mexica T he A ztecs, a p eople w ho s poke N ahuatl, m embers o f t he Y utoA ztecan l inguistic f amily, t ook t heir n ame, a s h as b een m entioned , f rom A ztlan. B ut t hey w ere n ot a lways c alled t hus. M any s ources r efer t o t hem a s t he a ncient C hichimecs. C himalpahin ( 1965: 6 3-65, 1 23, 1 27) s ays t hat w hen t hese p eople l ived i n A ztlan , t hey w ere " Chichimecas a ntiguos," a lso k nown a s A ztecs o r T eochichimecas. H e r efers, h owever, t o a ll s even m igrant g roups a s C hichimecs. W hen t hey r eached T eocolhuacan n ear A ztlan t he n ame o f a ll s even c hanged t o T eocolhuas C hichimecas. L ater e ach g roup b ecame i dentified w ith i ts p lace o f s ettlement, f or e xample t he X ochimilcas, H uexotzincas, e tc. C himalpahin s ays, " When p eople l eft t heir t owns a nd s ettled i n a nother, f requently t hey t ook t he n ame o f t his t own a s t heir o wn ." W hen t he A ztecs r eached C oatlicamac, w here t here w as a g reat t ree , t hey m ade a s mall a ltar b eneath i t a nd p laced t heir g od t here. S uddenly t here w as a f rightening n oise a nd t he t ree s plit i n t wo ( fig. 6 ). T aking t his a s a b ad o men , t hose " who a re t oday M exicans" c onsulted w ith H uitzilopochtli, w ho a dvised t hem t o a bandon t he o thers a nd c ontinue o n t heir o wn , " and t o c hange t heir n ame f rom A ztecs t o M exicans" o r M exica o r M exitin ( Serna, 1 953: 2 08; T orquemada 1 975: 1 14; C himapahin , 1 965: 6 7). C himalpahin s ays t hat " this i ncident o f t he t ree s plitting m arked t he b eginning o f t he h istory o f t he M exica-

6

A ztec." T hat i s, i t c an b e c onsidered t he b irth o f t he M exica p eople a s a g roup s eparate f rom t he o riginal A ztec-Teocolhua-Chichimecs. T ezozomoc ( 1944: 7 ) w rote t hat i n a ncient t imes t hey c alled t hems elves A ztlantlaca a fter A ztlan a nd t he w hite f lower A ztaxochitl, a lthough o thers c alled t hem A zteca M exitin , " for M exitin m eans M exican ." M exi, h e c ontinues, i s d erived f rom a s pring ( aameyallo) t hat f lows f rom t he m aguey ( metl). A ccording t o t he L eyenda d e l os S oles ( 1945: 1 22), t he n ame M exitin c omes f rom M ecitli, w ho w as a ctually T laltecuhtli, t he e Arth g od o r g oddess. M exitli a lso w as s ynonymous w ith H uitzilopochtli, s ay C lavigero ( 1945, I : 2 33), M otolinia ( 1941: 2 92) a nd T orquemada ( 1943, I : 2 93). A ccording t o T ezozomoc ( 1944: 7 ), t he M exitin w ere c alled C hichimeca, S erranos, a nd M ontaneses ( Nomads, H ill a nd M ountain P eople), b ut a fter t he f ounding o f M exico-Tenochtitlan t hey t ook t he n ame o f t heir c apital a nd c alled t hemselves M exica-TenochcA. D urän ( 1967, I : 2 8) c laims t hat t he n ame M ecitin c ame f rom M eci, o ne o f t he m en w ho g uided t he A ztecs o n t heir m igration . T he n ame t hey u sed a fter t he f ounding o f T enochtitlan, " Tenochca" o r " Tenuchca" w as d ue t o t he t enochtli, t unal o r p rickly p ear , t hat g rew f rom a r ock . T enochca s ignifies " Owners o f t he t unal," s ays D urän . C ristobal d el C astillo ( 1908: 8 1) t ells u s t hat w hen t he f uture " Mexicanos T enustitecos" a bandoned A ztlan-Chicomortoc t hey w ere c alled t he A ztecos C hicomortoques, a nd C uluas C hichimecos w hen t hey r eached U eikoluakan ( sic). D el C astillo a lso s ays t hat l ater t hey w ere c alled T enustitecos b ecause t heir c hieftain a nd g uide w as T enuch, a nd d ue t o t his t he c apital i n t he V alley o f M exico w as n amed T enuchtitlan o r T enochtitlan . A t t he b eginning, h owever , t he M exica a nd t he o ther g roups w ere c alled M exixikilkuani, " Eaters o f w ild b erros ( water c ress)," d ue u ndoubtedly t o t heir c ondition a s l ake p eople ( ibid., a lso V etancurt, 1 97 1: 1 8). A t t hat t ime t he g roups i n A ztlan-Chicomortoc a nd T eocolhuacan a ll s poke t he s ame l anguage, a ccording t o M otolinia ( 194 1: 6 ) a nd T orquemada ( 1975: 4 7). S ahagun d escribes t he M exica a nd t he o rigin o f t heir n ame t hus: O ne a lone i s c alled M exicatl, m any a re c alled M exica. T his c omes f rom t he n ame M ecitli: m e, t hat i s t o s ay [ metl o r] m aguey, c itli, r abbit. I t s hould b e p ronounced M ecicatl. H ence i t i s a c orruption w hen M exicatl i s s aid. A ccording t o t radition , t he n ame o f t he p riest w ho l ed t he M exica w as M ecitli. I t i s s aid t hat w hen h e w as b orn t hey n amed h im C itli. A nd t hey p laced h im i n am aguey l eaf, w here h e g rew s trong, w herefore h e w as n ame M ecitli. A nd t his o ne, w hen h e m atured, b ecame a p riest, a k eeper o f t he g od... A nd s ince h e l ed h is s ub jects, t herefore t hey w ere g iven t he n ame M exica. ( Florentine C odex , B ook 1 0: 1 89, 1 96 1.) A mong t he m odern a uthors, B arlow ( 1949) c alls t he M exica t he C ulhuamexica, d ue t o t heir a ncestral a ssociation w ith C ulhuacan a nd t he

7

C ulhua p eople. H e r efers t o t he i nhabitants o f M exico T enochtitlan a s t he A ztec-Mexica . L eön-Portilla ( 1956) a nd L 6pez A ustin ( 1980) m ention t hat t hey a re p art o f t he N ahua p eople; o thers u se t he t erm M exicas ( Martinez M arin, 1 964, G onzälez T orres, 1 977), o r M exitin ( Uchmany, 1 977). N igel D avies ( 1973) p refers M exica i nstead o f M exicans b ecause - although b oth a ppellations d erive f rom t he s ame s ource -t he p eople o f m odern M exico a re c alled M exicans. B rundage ( 1972) a lso c alls t he A ztecs w ho f ounded T enochtitlan , M exica . V an Z antwijk ( 1985) u ses " Mexitin." I n t his s tudy t he g roup t hat f ounded T enochtitlan w ill b e c alled M exica, p opular u sage f or M exitin, s ince t his i s n ame a dopted b y t hem a fter C oatlicamac, p lace o f t he B roken T ree . W hen I u se t he t erm T enochca I w ill b e r eferring t o t he s ame g roup a fter t he s ettlement o f t heir c apital.

T he n ame o f t he M exica c apital M exico-Tenochtitlan, t he c apital f ounded b y t he M exica, w as c alled t hus b ecause i t w as t he " place o f t he t enochtli, h ard p rickly p ear c actus" ( Herrera, 1 945, I II: 25). T ezozomoc ( 1949: 9 3, 9 7) s ays 2 t hat t he a ncients c alled t he s ite O ztotempan ( At t he E dge o f t he C ave) - T otzallan A catzallan ( Place o f R eeds, P lace o f R ushes) - Mexico T enochtitlan . C himalpahin ( 1965: 5, 1 53) i dentifies " Tenuch , t he 5 N opal C actus w ith H ard R ed F ruit" a s C uauhtlequetzqui, t he g od-bearer w ho c arried o ut H uitzilopochtli's o rders d uring t he m igration; a nd h e c alls t he s ite o f t he c ity " The P lace o f t he t enochtli, w here t he E agle f eeds." A ccording t o O viedo ( 1945, X : 1 05) t he c ity T emistitan ( Tenochtitlan) w as c alled t hus b ecause t he t enochtli w as " the t ree o f t he s un" a nd T enochtitlan s ignified " fruit o f t he s un ...because O rchilobos [ sic] w as t he s un ." T enochtitlan i s s ometimes s hown a s t he n opal c actus o n a h alf-sun, s ymbol o f t eotl, t hat w hich i s d ivine. P enafiel ( 1885: 1 85) i nterprets t his a s: T eo = s un = s acred; n och ( tli) = n opal c actus ; t i = l igature ; t lan = p lace ( fig. 7 ). S ays P e i lafiel, t his i s T eonochtitlan, " Near t he S acred N opal C actus," o r " Nopal w hich b elongs t o t he T emple ." T eotl, h owever , m eans b oth d ivine a nd l egitimate , s o t his g lyph c ould b e t ranslated a s t he s acred , l egitimate T enochtitlan. M otolinia i n h is H istoria ( 194 1: 2 92) m entions t he d erivation o f " Mexico" a nd " Mexicans" f rom M exitli, p rincipal g od, " who b y a nother n ame w as c alled T exatlicupa ." B ut i n h is M emoriales ( 1971: 2 04) M otolinia s ays t hat t he m ain g od h ad t wo n ames: H uitzilopochtli a nd M exitli, t hus i dentifying H uitzilopochtli w ith T ezcatlipoca a nd b oth w ith M exitli. T orquemada ( 1943, I : 2 93) a lso c alls H uitzilopochtli, M exitli. T he i mportance o f t his e tymological r oot p erdured, n ot o nly i n t he n ame o f t he f ounders o f M exico-Tenochtitlan a nd t heir c apital, b ut i n o ther w ays. T he v ortex i n t he g reat l ake o f c entral M exico , a r evered p lace w here t he b odies o f v ictims w ere t hrown d uring s ome f estivals, w as c alled P antitlan b y D urän ( 1967, I : 8 9) b ut M exie b y S erna ( 1953: 1 85). T he l atter p robably w as r everencial ( Mexie ) f or M exi. G utierre T ibon ( 1975:

1 39-14 1) h as m ade a s tudy i n w hich h e l ists

8

s eventy i nterpretations f or M exico o r M exicco , r anging f rom " Mexico , L and o f t he C olhuas" ( from C ortes) t o " Cosmic M aguey" ( Garibay), a nd " In t he N avel o f t he M oon" ( Tibon). T ibon s ees t he l atter a s t he t rue i nterpretation o f M exico. H e r efers t o C aso w ho i n 1 946 s tated t hat t he n ame M exico c ame f rom m etztli ( moon), x ictli ( navel o r c entre ), a nd c o ( place). I n t he s eventeenth c entury C ristobal d el C astillo ( 1908: 8 2) c alled t he l ake a t A ztlan t he " Canal d e l a L una" ( Canal o f t he M oon). T he C odex V aticanus-Rios ( 1964, I II : 1 96) s tates t hat t he n ame M exico i s a c orruption o f M ecitli, w hich m e ns " dressed i n t he s kin o f a h are ," a nd t hat b oth t he c ity a nd i ts p eople t ook t heir n ame f rom M ecitli. C itli, h owever , m eans n ot o nly " hare" b ut a lso " grandm other". T ibon ( 1975: 1 09111) n otes t his f act a nd a s a n a lternative q uotes P aso Y T roncoso w ho t ranslates M ecitli a s " grandmother o f t he m aguey." W hen T orquemada ( 1943, I : 2 93) e quates H uitzilopochtli w ith M exitli ( Mecitli) h e d efines t he l atter a s " the n avel o f t he m aguey ." T hese d ifferent i nterpretations m ust b e b ased u pon f act: h are-skin c lothing p robably r efers t o t he e arly h istory o f t he M exica, w hen t hey m ay h ave d ressed i n s kins. A s t o t he m aguey, i t h as a lways h ad i mportant s ustenance a nd e conomic v alue i n M exico, a s h as t he n opal. T he " grandmother" i n t his c ase w ould b e a s acred a ncestor, s uch a s C batlicue w as t o t he M exica l ate i n t heir h istory ( see D urän , 1 967, I I: 2 15). T he s ite o f T eocolhuacan, s o f requently m entioned i n t he s ources, r efers, a lso, t o s acred a ncestors i n t he M exica l egitimation a ccounts. T he A ztec-Mexica, a s w e h ave s een, h ad m any s acred a ncestors a s w ell a s s ites a ssociated w ith t hem . S ome w ere e xalted i n m yth a nd s ong, o thers m ade t heir a ppearance i n t he s tory, e ventually w ere a nnihilated, y et t heir n ames l ive o n a s i mportant a ctors i n t he M exicam igration-Tenochtitlan d rama . I n C hapter T Wo w e a gain m eet t he v illain/hero i n t his d rama , C opil.

9

C HAPTER I I :

C OPIL A ND T HE M IGRATION M YTH I N T HE H ISTORICAL C HRONICLES

T he s tory o f t he A ztec-Mexica m igration -p robably a c ombination o f f act a nd m yth -h as a lready b een i ntroduced . A s r elated i n t he h istorical c hronicles, i t b egan w hen t he A ztecs l eft t heir h ome i n A ztlan , ap lace s urrounded b y w ater ( seen i n t he C 6dice A zcatitlan a nd t he T ira d e l a P eregrinaci6n , a lso c alled C odex B oturini). T hey e merged f rom C hicomortoc , t he S even C aves, t ogether w ith o ther g roups, e ach o ne s etting o ut t o s earch f or t he l and w here t hey w ished t o m ake t heir h ome ( fig. 8 ). T he A ztec-Mexica w ere t he l ast t o l eave. T hese p eople w ere g uided b y t heir g od H uitzilopochtli, w ho s poke t o t hem t hrough f our t eomamaque , g od-hearers o r p riests ( fig. 9 ). T hey w andered f or a bout t wo h undred y ears, d uring w hich t ime t hey s ettled t emporarily i n d ifferent p laces, p lanted a nd h arvested, b uilt s hrines t o t heir g od , t hen c ontinued o n t heir w ay ( Durän , 1 967, I I: 2 9). E ach t ime t hey t hought t hey h ad f ound t heir g oal a nd h ad s ettled c omfortably u pon t he l and, H uitzilopochtli o rdered t hem t o d estroy t he d ams t hey h ad m ade a nd a bandon t heir h omes a nd f ields b ecause t he s ign t hat w as t o d etermine t he A ztec c apital h ad n ot a ppeared i n t hat p articular p lace. T his s ign w as t he e agle-nopal c actus-rock-water o f t wo c olours, a lready m entioned . S ome c hronicles i ndicate a c ave w ithin t he r ock . T hree t imes d uring t he m igration t he t ravellers s plit i nto d ifferent g roups: f irst a t T amoanchan o r C oatlicamac, p lace o f t he b roken t ree ( fig. 7 ), n ext a t P atzcuaro , a nd l ater a t C oatepec n ear T ula. T he d estruction o f s ites e stablished e n r oute a lso i ndicates a n i nternal d ivision o r ac hange i n l eadership , i nasmuch a s t he p eople w ho w ere r esponsible f or t hese s ettlements l ater w ere k illed, a ccording t o H uitzilopochtli's i nstructions. O ne d ivision, a t C oatepec , i s a ttributed t o t he g od 's s ister C oyolxauhqui, a nd a nother t o a nother s ister , M alinalxochitl, t he s orceress w ho f ounded M alinalco a fter h aving b een a bandoned b y h er b rother 's f ollowers, a nd w ho h ad a s on , C opil, c onceived d uring t he m igration b ut b orn a fter t he s eparation f rom t he o riginal g roup . H e w as e ncouraged b y h is m other t o s eek r evenge f or h er a bandonment. W e k now t hat i n t his a dventure C opil w as k illed a nd h is h eart w as t hrown i nto t he r eeds a nd r ushes b y t he g odb earer a lauhtlequetzqui, a nd f rom t his t he n opal c actus g rew . C opil 's h eart , t hen , i ndicated t he s ite f or t he f uture A ztec-Mexica c apital, M exico-Tenochtitlan . V arious c hronicles d escribe t he A ztec m igration a nd t he s tory o f C opil. S ome o f t hese b egin b y s aying t hat t he M exica w ere t he s ons o f I ztac M ixcoatl ( Torquemada, 1 975: 15, C himalpahin , 1 965: 6 4). S ome 1 c laim t hat T enoch -o r Q uetzalcoatl, o r a ll s even g roups t hat e merged f rom C hicomortoc w ere c hildren o f I ztac M ixcoatl ( Mendieta, 1 944, I : 1 49). M ixcoatl w as t he t utelary g od o f t he C hichimecs a nd w as w orshipped b y t hem i n t he f orm o f aw hite f lint k nife ( Leyenda d e l os S oles, 1 945: 1 24), a f lint k nife a lso c reated 1 600 g ods w hen i t f ell

1 0

fran the skies into Chicaroztoc (Mendieta, 1944, I: 124). The name Iztac (White) Mixcoatl suggests an association with Aztlan (White Land) and with the Chichirnecs, whose gcrl was Mixcoatl. At the start of their migration the Aztec-Mexica were called Chichimecs or Teochichimecs (Chi.rncllpahin, 1965: 123). Torquernada (1975: 113) and Serna (1953: 207) give as the reason for the abandonment of Aztlan the appearance upon a tree of a bird that sang "tihui, tihui. •. ya vamos" ("let's go") (figs. 11, 12). This bird led the excrlus and later a bird indicated the spot for the founding of Tenochtitlan by again perching upon a tree, this time a nopal cactus. The second bird was an eagle and identified himself as Huitzilopochtli, but was represented by Cuauhtlequetzqui, the main goo-bearer (Chimalpahin, 1965: 55; Cristobal del Castillo, 1908: 87). The search for the pranised land, then was guided by a deity, whose people were chosen by divine right. As in all myths, this theme was not exclusive to one group. Huitzilopochtli led the Mexica. Other examples are these: Tezcatlipoca, "Smoking Mirror," was the guide for the people who settled Tezcoco: "This mirror spoke to them in the voice of a human," telling them where they should or should not stop, "until they reached the land of the Chichimecas Aculhuaque" (Panar 1941: 13-14). The northern Chichimecs followed their gcrldess Itzpapalotl until she was overcane and replaced by Mixcoatl, the hunting gcrl (Anales de Cuauhtitlan, 1945: 3). Tezozonoc gives the most canplete version of the Copil myth, therefore I will cite rrore fran his.Cronica Mexicayotl than fran other sources. Although his description of the migration and founding of Tenochtitlan is given here at length, it is only part of Tezozanoc's account. What follows is a description of that section of the migration where Copil is discussed. I quote fran Thelma D. Sullivan's partial translation (Tlalocan VI; 4: 312-336), which she entitled "The Finding and Founding of Mexico Tenochtitlan," because I feel it would be difficult to improve upon her version. I have taken the liberty of cutting sane lines and adding others that she had eliminated. These I put in brackets. Here it is told, it is recounted, how the ancients who were called, who were named, Teochichimeca, Azteca, Mexitin, 01icanoztoca, came, arrived, when they came to seek, when they ca1re to gain possession of their larrl here, in the great city of Mexico Tenochtitlan••• In the middle of the water where the cactus stands, where the eagle raises itself up, where the eagle screeches, where the eagle spreads his wings, where the eagle feeds, where the serpent is tom apart, where the fish fly, where the blue waters and the yellow waters join, where the water blazes up, where feathers came to be known, annng the rushes, among the reeds, [in the place of encounter] 11

w here t he p eople f rom t he f our d irections a re a waited, t here t hey a rrived , t here t hey s ettled... ..[for t his e xcellent , t rue a ccount i s w ritten... o f t he f ounding , t he b eginning o f t he c ity o f M exicoT enochtitlan... T hose w ho w ere t hen o ld, o ur g randfathers, o ur g randmothers O ur g reat g randfathers a nd g reat g randmothers, O ur g reat g reat g randparents, o ur a ncestors, d rew t hese t hings i n t heir m anuscripts. ( This h istory) n ever w ill b e l ost, f or i t w as s et d own i n t heir w ritings, i n t heir p aintings ...] T hey c alled t hemselves T eochichimeca, A zteca, M exitin. T hey b rought a long t he i mage o f t heir g od , t he i dol t hat t hey w orshipped. T he A ztecs h eard h im s peak a nd t hey a nswered h im ; t hey d id n ot s ee h ow i t w as h e s poke t o t hem ... [ He w as c alled T etzahuitl H uitzilopochtli... A nd w ith h im c ame t he s ister o f t he g od H uitzilopochtli, c alled M alinalxoch ...] A nd a fter t he A zteca, M exitin s ailed h ere f rom A ztlan, t hey a rrived i n C ulhuacan ... T hey w ent e verywhere i n C ulhuacan , i n f ar-off C ulhuacan , i n T ona i chuacan o r T onallan . A ll o f t hem j ourneyed f ar t he p eople o f M ichoacan, k in o f t he M exicans , a nd t he p eople o f M alinalco f or a ll o f t hem c ame . [ But t he A ztecs a bandoned t he p eople o f M ichoacan w hen t hey w ere b athing i n L ake P atzcuaro . T hey w ent o ff a nd t ook t heir c lothing, t herefore t he M ichoacanos w ent a lmost n ude i n t he f uture. M eanwhile, H uitzilopochtli a nd h is f ollowers h ad c ome t o d islike M alinalxochitl b ecause o f h er d isagreeable w ays. S o s he, t oo , w as a bandoned.] A nd t he r eason H uitzilopochtli w ent o ff a nd a bandoned h is s ister , n amed M alinalxoch , a long t he w ay, t hat a ll h is f athers a bandoned h er w hile s he w as s leeping, w as b ecause s he w as c ruel, s he w as v ery e vil. S he w as a n e ater o f p eople 's h earts, a n e ater o f p eople 's l imbs -it w as h er w ork ab ewitcher o f p eople, a n e nchanter o f p eople. S he p ut p eople t o s leep, S he m ade p eople e at s nakes, S he m ade p eople e at s corpions, S he s poke t o a ll t he c entipedes a nd s piders a nd t ransformed h erself i nto a s orceress . S he w as a v ery e vil w oman ; t his w as w hy H uitzilopochtli d id n ot l ike h er , t his w as w hy h e d id n ot b ring h is s ister, M alinalxoch , w ith h im ,

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t hat t hey a bandoned ( her a nd) a ll h er f athers w hile t hey w ere s leeping . T hen t he p riest, H uitzilopochtli, s poke, h e a ddressed h is f athers, c alled t he " idol b earers" aid t o t hem , ..he s u o m y f athers, [ it i s n ot m y t ask t o t ake c are o f M alinalxoch ]. W hen I c ame f orth, w hen I w as s ent h ere, Iw as g iven a rrows a nd a s hield, f or b attle i s m y w ork. A nd w ith m y b elly, w ith m y h ead , Is hall c onfront t he c ities e verywhere. I s hall a wait t he p eoples f rom t he f our d irections, Is hall j oin b attle w ith t hem , I s hall p rovide p eople w ith d rink, Is hall p rovide p eople w ith f ood! H ere I s hall b ring t ogether t he d iverse p eoples , a nd n ot i n v ain, f or I s hall c onquer t hem , t hat I m ay s ee t he h ouse o f j ade, t he h ouse o f g old, t he h ouse o f q uetzal f eathers; t he h ouse o f e meralds, t he h ouse o f c oral, t he h ouse o f a methysts; t he s undry f eathers -t he l ovely c otinga f eathers, t he r oseate s poonbill f eathers, t he t rogon f eathers a ll t he p recious f eathers; a nd t he c acao o f v ariegated c olors , a nd t he c otton o f v ariegated c olors ! as f or t his t hat I w as s ent h ere... ..it w O ff t here w e a re g oing t o f ind i t ...! A nd w hen t he s ister o f H uitzilopochtli, c alled M alinalxoch , w hom t hey h ad a bandoned w hile s leeping, w hom t hey h ad g one o ff a nd a bandoned, w hen M alinalxoch a wakened, s he w ept . S he s aid t o h er f ather , " 0 m y f athers, w here s hall w e g o? M y b rother , H uitzilopochtli, h as a bandoned u s b y t rickery. W here h as t he e vil o ne g one? L et u s s eek t he l and w here w e a re t o d well..." T hen t hey s aw t he m ountain c alled T excaltepetl; t hey e stablished t hemselves u pon i t... A long t he w ay M alinalxoch b ecame b ig w ith c hild , a nd t he c hild o f M alinalxoch , a s on n amed C opil, w as b orn. H is f ather 's n ame w as C himalquauhtli; h e w as k ing o f M alinalco... [ Meanwhile, H uitzilopochtli's f ollowers s ettled i n C oatepec, n ear T ollan, w here t hey r aised a t emple t o t heir g od, i n w hich t hey p laced a C uauhxicalli, " eagle v essel," a nd i mages o f t he g ods o f t he d ifferent c alpulli. T he M exica m ade a b all c ourt a nd a s kull r ack, a fter w hich t hey d ammed t he r iver t o f orm a n a rtificial l ake, w hich q uickly f illed w ith f ish. A quatic f owl f locked t o t he p lace a nd m any t rees a nd c rops w ere p lanted .]

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" Plant, s ow , w illows, b ald c ypresses, r eeds, r ushes, a nd w ater-lilies!" A nd t he f ish, f rogs, a jolotes, c rayfish, d ragonfly l arvae , a huihuitlame , e phydrids, a nd t he s alamanders m ultiplied, a nd a lso t he i zcahuitli, a nd t he b irds, d ucks, A merican c oots, a nd t he " red-shouldered" a nd " yellow-throated g rackles. A nd H uitzilopochtli s aid , " The i zcahuitli a re m y f lesh , m y b lood , m y s ubstance ," 1 [ The p lace b ecame a p aradise. C ertain e lders, w hom T ezozomoc c alls t he C entzonhuitznahua o r " Southerners," l ed b y t heir e lder s ister C oyolxauhqui, w ho a t t hat t ime p retended t o b e H uitzilopochtli's m other, p roclaimed t heir i ndependence f rom t he g od, i nasmuch a s h is m ission h ad b een f ulfilled. E nraged a t t heir m aking t heir o wn d ecisions, H uitzilopochtli d enied t hat t his w as t he s ite f or M exicoT enochtitlan, t hen h e k illed t he r ebels a nd a te t heir h earts. T he r est o f t he g roup , f ollowing h is o rders, t hen b roke t he d am a nd c ontinued t he m igration t o T ula a nd o ther p laces. I n M alinalco , m eanwhile , t he c hild C opil h ad g rown t o m anhood. H is m other s aw h im a s a n i nstrument f or r evenge ( Ibid .: 3 1-43)]. T he s on o f M alinalxoch, s ister o f H uitzilopochtli, w hose n ame w as C opil, s poke, h e s aid t o h er , " 0 m y m other , w ell I k now t hat y our b rother i s o ff t here ." " Yes, y our u ncle, n amed H uitzilopochtli, i s y onder ," s he s aid. " He a bandoned m e , h e a bandoned m e w hile I w as s leeping, h e a bandoned m e b y t rickery a long t he w ay. T hen w e s ettled h ere i n T excaltepeticpac." " Very w ell, 0 m y m other ," s aid C opil , " I k now t hat I m ust l ook f or h im i n t he p lace h e h as f ound c ontentment, i n t he p lace h e h as s ettled. I s hall d estroy h im , I s hall d evour h im , a nd I s hall d estroy, I s hall v anquish h is f athers a nd t he v assals t hat h e t ook w ith h im . W ell I k now a ll t he g ifts t hat a re m arked f or h im w ho i s t o s ec, w ho i s t o b ehold t he m anifold r iches . A nd i t s hall b e I . M ine s hall b e t he k nowledge o f a ll t he s undry j ades a nd g old, o f t he q uetzal f eathers a nd t he o ther f eathers, o f t he c acao o f v ariegated c olors , , o f t he c otton o f v ariegated c olors,' o f t he d iverse f lowers a nd d iverse f ruits. 0 m y m other, b e n ot s ad. Ig o n ow t o s eek o ut t he e vil o ne , m y u ncle ..." T hen h e c ame . H e a rrayed h imself, h e a dorned h imself, h e w ho w as c alled C opil. H e w as v ery e vil,

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he was as great a sorcerer as his mother, Malinalxoch; Copil was a very evil man• •••Copi 1 came••• an:1 in the place called Tecpantzinco he transfonned himself. But Huitzilopochtli knew him at once, he recognizEd his nephew, now grown, called Copil. Then he said to his fathers, "o my fathers, array yourselves, adorn yourselves, my nephew, the evil one, is caning. I am off. I shall destroy him, I shall slay him!" He encountered him at the place called Tepetzinco, and when he saw him, he said, ••• "Are you he whan my sister, Malinalxoch, brought into the world?'' "Yes, I am he," Copil said, "and I shall capture you, I shall destroy you! Why did you abandon my mother while she was sleeping? Why did you abandon her by trickery? I shall slay you!" "Very well," Huitziloi;:x:>chtli said, "cane ahead." They pursuErl each other with cunning, and Copil was captured in Tepetzinco. When he was dead he (Huitzilopochtli) cut off his head and slashed open his chest,. an:1 when he had slashed open his chest, he tore out his heart. Then he placed his head on top of Tepetzintli, which is nCM called Acopilco (Copil's Waters), an:1 there the head of Copil died. And after Huitzilopochtli slew him, he ran off with Copil's heart. [And he said to] the idol-bearer, called Quauhtlequetzqui ••• "Cane, O Quauhtlequetzqui.••here is the heart of the evil one, Copil. I have slain him. Run with it into the rushes, into the reeds. There you shall see the mat of stone on which Quetzalcoatl rested when he �ent away, and his seats, one red and one black. There you shall halt an:1 you shall cast away the heart of Copil." Then Quauhtlequetzqui went off to cast away the heart. When he carrE to the place he had described to him, he saw the Mat of stone, and he haltEd there and cast away the heart; it fell in arrong the rushes, in among the reeds, the place where Quauhcoatl or Quauhtlequetzqui stopped and cast away the heart•••

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[ But C opil h ad s tirred u p o ther p eople a nd w hen t he M exica t ried a gain t o s ettle a t C hapultepec, t hey w ere r un o ut, t hen w ent w andering f rom p lace t o p lace : H uehuetlan, A tlixocan, T epetocan , H uitzilac , a nd o ther t owns. S till a gain t hey a ttempted t o g o t o C hapultepec, w here t here w ere f resh w ater s prings a nd f orests f ull o f p lants a nd g ame , b ut t hey w ere r ejected b y t he T epanec , A zcapotzalcas, C ulhuas, X ochimilcas, C uitlahuacas, a nd C halcas. T ezozomoc s tates t hat t his l ast d efeat t ook p lace i n t he y ear 2 A catl ( 1299). H uitzilihuitl, M exica c hieftain , w as t aken p risoner a nd w as a ssassinated i n C ulhuacan. T he M exica f led f rom t own t o t own u ntil H uitzilopochtli a dvised t hem t o s eek t he p rotection o f C ocoxtli, l ord o f C ulhuacan. H e g ave t hem p ermission t o l ive i n T izaapan, a h illy s ection o f C ulhuacan , n ext t o I ztapalapa. T izaapan w as o verun b y p oisonous s nakes a nd C ocoxtli t hought t hat t hey w ould f inish o ff t he i ntruders. B ut t o e veryone 's s urprise t i le M exica f ound t he s nakes q uite t asty a nd a te t hem b oiled o r r oasted:* T his c aused a dmiration a mong t he C ulhuas a nd f rom t hen o n t he M exica w ere a llowed t o m ix w ith t hese p eople a nd e ven i ntermarry . A fter m any y ears o f t his n eighbourliness H uitzilopochtli s poke t o t he M exica p riests a nd t old t hem t hat h is g randmother , Y aocihuatl ( "Woman o f D iscord") w ould a ppear i n t he p erson o f t he d aughter o f A chitometl, w ho w as t hen r uler o f C ulhuacan . T he M exica w ere t o a sk f or t his m aiden , w hom t hey w ould d eify. A chitometl, w ho p robably w as f lattered b y t his, a greed, a nd o ff t he g irl w ent . B ut H uitzilopochtli o rdered h er t o b e k illed a nd f layed, a nd a p riest d ressed i n h er s kin . H er f ather w as t hen i nvited t o T izaapan " to g reet t he g oddess." W hen A chitometl a rrived ...] ..the M exicans s aid, a s t hey r eceived h im ... " May y ou s ee, m ay y ou g reet y our g oddess ." [ Then A chitometl] t ook t he r ubber , t he c opal [ incense], t he f lowers, t he t obacco , a nd t he f ood o ffering , a nd h e o ffered t hem t r, h er , h e s et t hem d own b efore t he f alse g oddess w hom t hey h ad f layed. T hen A chitometl t ore o ff t he h eads o f q uail b efore h is g oddess; h e s till d id n ot s ee t he p erson b efore w hom h e w as d ecapitating t he q uail. T hen h e m ade a n o ffering o f i ncense a nd t he i ncense-burner b lazed u p , A nd A chitometl s aw a m an i n h is d aughter 's s kin. H e w as h orror-struck . H e c ried o ut, h e s houted t o h is l ords a nd t o h is s ub jects. H e s aid , " Who a re t hey , 0 C ulhuacans? H ave y ou n ot s een? T hey h ave f layed m y d aughter ! T hey s hall n ot r emain h ere , t he f iends! W e s hall s lay t hem , w e s hall m assacre t hem ! T he e vil o nes s hall b e a nnihilated ...!" ..The C ulhuacans p ursued t hem, t hey p ursued t he M exicans , t hey d rove t hem i nto t he w ater... t hey c rossed t he w ater o n t heir s hields, t hey c rossed o n t heir a rrows a nd s hields. T hey b ound t ogether t he a rrows...and , s itting u pon t hem , t hey c rossed t he w ater ... a nd s itting u pon t he s hields t hey c rossed t he w ater

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w hen t he C ulhuacans p ursued t hem . A nd t hey c ame i nto t he r ushes, i nto t he r eeds, a t M exicatzinco ... A nd t hen t he o ld M exicans, Q uauhtlequetzqui, o r Q uauhcoatl, a nd a lso t he o ne c alled A xolohua w ent o ff, t hey w ent i nto t he r ushes, i nto t he r eeds, a t a p lace n ow c alled T oltzalan , A catzalan ( "Among t he R ushes, A mong t he R e e ds I " t he t wo o f t hem w ent t o l ook f or t he p lace t hey w ere t o s ettle . A nd w hen t hey c ame u pon i t, t hey s aw m any w ondrous t hings t here i n t he r eeds. T his w as t he r eason H uitzilopochtli h ad g iven h is o rders t o t he i dol-bearers, h is f athers, Q uauhtlequetzqui, o r Q uauhcoatl, a nd A xolohua, t he p riest . F or h e h ad s ent t hem o ff, h e h ad t old t hem a ll t hat t here w as i n t he r ushes, i n t he r eeds... A nd w hen t hey s aw t he w hite b ald c ypresses, a nd t he w hite w illows, a nd t he w hite r oods a nd t he w hite r ushes, a nd a lso t he w hite f rogs, t he w hite f ish, a nd t he w hite s nakes t hat l ived t here i n t he w ater. A nd t hey s aw t he s prings t hat j oined . [ Here T ezozomoc ( 1949: 6 2-63) s tates t hat t he s prings j oined " in a h iding p lace i n a c ave , a nd t he f irst c ave w ith a s pring f aced e ast... a nd t he s econd c ave f aced n orth ...". H e a lso h as H uitzilopochtli s ay t hat w here C opil 's h eart f ell w as " at t he e dge o f t he h idden p lace i nside t he c ave...where C opil 's h eart g erminated, w hich w e n ow c all t enochtli." I t w ill b e r emembered t hat s eeds g erminate i n t he d ark, s o i nside t he c ave w as a n a ppropriate p lace .] T he f irst s pring f aced e ast a nd w as c alled T leatl [ Water o f F ire] a nd A tlatlayan [ Place w here W ater b lazes], t he s econd s pring f aced n orth a nd w as c alled M atlalatl [ Blue W ater] a nd a lso T özpalatl [ Yellow W ater]. [ Huitzilopochtli h ad s aid t o h is p eople , " In t he r ushes, i n t he r eeds, y ou s hall s ee m any t hings." T hey f elt s ure t hey h ad f inally c ome t o t heir r esting p lace, b ut H uitzilopochtli t old w hem t o w ait i n T emazcaltitlan f or f urther i nstructions. D uring t he n ight , t hen], H uitzilopochtli a ppeared t o t he i dol-bearer, c alled Q uauhtlequetzqui, o r Q uauhcoatl. H e s aid t o h im , " 0 Q uauhcoatl, y ou h ave s een a ll t here i s i n a mong t he r oods, i n a mong t he r ushes, y ou h ave b eheld i t, B ut h ear t his: T here i s s omething y ou s till h ave n ot s een. G o , g o a nd l ook a t t he c actus, a nd o n i t, s tanding o n i t, y ou s hall s ee a n e agle . I t i s e ating , i t i s w arming i tself i n t he s un ,

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a nd y our h earts w ill r ejoice , f or i t i sthe h eart o f C opil t hat y ou c ast a way w here y ou h alted i n T lalcocomocco . T here i t f ell, w here y ou l ooked , a t t he e dge o fthe s pring , a mong t he r ushes, a mong t he r eeds. A nd f romCopil 's h eart s prouted w hat i s n ow c alled t enochtli. T here w eshall b e , w e s hall k eep g uard , w e s hall a wait , w e s hall m eet t he d iverse p eople i nbattle . W ith o urbellies, w ith o urh eads, w ith o ur a rrows, w ith o ur s hields, w e s hall c onfront a ll w ho s urround u s a nd w e s hall v anquish t hem a ll, w e s hall m ake t hem c aptives, a nd t hus o ur c ity s hall b e e stablished . M exico T enochtitlan : w here t heeagle s creeches, w here h e s preads h is w ings, w here t heeagle f eeds, w here t he f ish f ly, a nd w here t he s erpent i storn a part. M exico T enochtitlan '..." T hen Q uauhcoatl g athered t he M exicanstogether , h e h ad t hem h er t he w ords o f H uitzilopochtli, t he M exicans l istened . A nd t hen , o nce m ore , t hey w ent i n a mong t he r ushes, i n a mong t he r eeds, t o t he e dge o f t he s pring. A nd w hen t hey c ame o ut i nto t he r eeds, t here, a t t he e dge o f t he s pring , w as t he t enochtli, a nd t hey s aw a n e agleo n t he t enochtli , p erched o n i t , s tanding o n i t. I t w as e ating s omething, i t w as f eeding, i t w as p ecking a t w hat i t w as e ating . A nd w hen t he e agle s aw t he M exicans, h e b owed h is h ead l ow . ( For t hey h ad s een t he e agle f rom a far.) I ts n est , i ts p allet , w as o fe very k ind o f p recious f eather o f l ovely c otinga f eathers, roseate s poonbill f eathers , q uetzal f eathers . A nd t hey a lso s aw s trewn a bout t he h eads o f s undrybirds, t he h eads o f p recious b irds s trung t ogether, a nd s ome b ird 's f eet a nd b ones. ( fig . 1 3) A nd t he g od c alled o ut t o t hem , h e s aid t o t hem , " 0 M exicans, i t s hall b e t here !" ..It i s f or t his r eason t hey c all i tT enochtitlan . A nd t hen t he M exicans w ept , t hey s aid, " 0 h appy , 0b lessed a re w e ! W e h ave b eheld t he c ity t hat s hall b e o urs ! L et u s g o n ow , l et u s r est ..." T his w as i n t he y ear 2 -House , 1 325.

C uauhtlequetzqui t hen o rdered t he M exica t o b uild a s imple s hrine, a t lalmomortli, a nd a b all c ourt, a t lachcuitectli, i n t he p lace o f t he e agle, s o t heir g od c ould r est t here. T hese t wo s tructures w ere t he f irst e rected w hen t he p eople s ettled i n a p lace. S o t he s hrine a nd t he b all c ourt w ere m ade t here a t O ztotempan, " Place o f t he C ave," w here t he t enochtli g rew f rom C opil 's h eart . T he M exica h ad n o b uilding m aterials o n t heir s mall i sland, w ith t he e xception o f r eeds. T herefore t hey e xchanged l ake p roducts f or w ood a nd s tone a nd w ith t hese " built t he h ome a nd t emple o f H uitzilop ochtli, a t t he e dge o f t he c ave, t hey p ut d own t he r oots o f t hat s ettlement" ( Tezozomoc , 1 949: 7 3).

T he s ame s tory t old b y o ther w riters F ray D iego D urän g ives a v ivid p icture o f t he A ztec m igration w hich d iffers o nly s lightly f rom t hat o f T ezozomoc . D urAn d escribes t he c reation o f t he A ztec-Mexica i n " unas f uentes y m anantiales d e a gua" ( in s ome s prings), a s w ell a s i n t he S even C aves, c alled C hicomortoc a nd l ocated i n " Teocolhuacan, w hich i s a lso c alled A ztlan ." T he s even g roups l eft t his p lace, H uitzilopochtli c arried b y f our g odb earers i n a r eed c hest. H e g uided h is p eople b y s peaking t o t hem t hrough t he p riests . A lthough H uitzilopochtli w as t oo s acred t o b e s een b y h is p eople, s even o ther g ods w ho a lso a ccompanied t he m igration i n r epresentation o f t he S even C aves a nd g roups, m ay h ave b een v isible i n t he f orm o f s mall s tatues ( Ibid ., I I: 2 6, 2 9). T he t roublesome M alinalxochitl w as a bandoned a fter o ther p roblemc reators h ad b een l eft u nclothed a t P atzcuaro. W hen t he M exica , a t C oatepec, b uilt a d am a nd c reated a s mall p aradise, H uitzilopochtli k illed t he l eaders w ho m istakenly h ad t hought t hat t his w as t o b e t heir p romised l and . T he g od a dvised t he M exica t o g o o n t o C hapultepec. T heir a ttempted s ettlement t here a nd p roblems w ith t he n eighbours p arallels t he s tory a s t old b y o ther c hroniclers . C opil, w ho a s a s orcerer a lways k new t he m ovements o f t he M exica , i ncited t he t owns i n t he V alley o f M exico t o d estroy t he n ewcomers. T hey a ttacked t he M exica w hile C opil c limbed T epetzinco H ill w here h e s houted e ncouragem ent. C opil m et h is e nd, h owever , w hen H uitzilopochtli s urprised h im t here a nd c ut o ut h is h eart, w hich w as t hrown i nto t he r eeds a nd r ushes. A nd f rom t his h eart " the n opal c actus g rew i n t he p lace w here l ater t he c ity o f M exico w as b uilt" ( Ibid ., I I: 3 8). C opil h ad s owed h is e vil s eed, h owever, a nd o ther g roups i n t he v alley c ontinued t o h arass t he M exica . E ventually t hey w ere g iven l and i n T izaapan , p art o f C ulhuacan , w here t hey f layed A chitometl's d aughter a nd t hen h ad t o f loe . F inally, t he M exica r eached t hat p art o f t he v alley n ow k nown a s t he S an P ablo s ection o f M exico C ity. H ere, a mong t he r eeds, a mong t he r ushes, " they d iscovered a b eautiful s pring, a nd i n t his p lace f ound a mazing t hings w hich t he p riests a nd g od-bearers h ad p rophecied, o rdered b y t he g od H uitzilopochtli" ( Ibid ., I I : 4). T he c lear w hite 4 w ater f lowed f rom b etween t wo l arge r ocks a nd w as s urrounded b y v egetation a nd w ater c reatures t hat w ere a ll w hite. T he e lders w ept

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a nd g ave t hanks, f or t hey h ad f ound t heir d esired r esting p lace. B ut t hat n ight H uitzilopochtli a ppeared i n a d ream t o C uauhtlequetzqui a nd t old h im t hat t he s ign w as n ot c omplete , t hat t hey m ust r eturn t o f ind t he r ock u pon w hich C opil 's h eart h ad f allen , a nd f rom w hich a g reat t unal, p rickly p ear c actus, h ad g rown . H ere t hey w ould s ee a r oyal e agle w aiting f or t hem, a nd h ere w as t o b e f ounded T enochtitlan , w here t he n ame o f t he M exica w ould b e r aised u p, w here t hese p eople w ould b ecome l eaders o f t he w orld, c ontrolling a ll t he l and f rom s ea t o s ea , w here t hey w ould r eceive g old a nd s ilver , j ewels a nd f ine f eathers, a s t ribute f rom a ll t he t owns a nd c ities t hey w ere t o c onquer. T he n ext d ay t he p riests a nd e lders r eturned t o t he s ite o f t he w hite s pring a nd w hite v egetation a nd c reatures, a nd f ound t hat t he w aters n ow f lowed i n t wo s treams, o ne b lood r ed a nd t he o ther a " thick" b lue. N ear t he s treams o f t wo c olours w as t he g reat r ock w ith t he c actus, a nd a m agnificent e agle p erched u pon t he n opal. W hen h e s aw t he M exica h e b owed h is h ead l ow i n r ecognition . " I a m t hat e agle ," a lauhtlequetzqui h ad s aid i n r epresentation o f H uitzilopochtli, a nd " you a re T enoch , t he n opal c actus w ith s tony r ed f ruit" ( Chimalpahin , 1 965: 5). C uauhtlequetzqui i mmediately o rdered a s mall s hrine t o b e 5 b uilt f or t he g od, m ade o f r eeds o n t he s ite o f t he n opal, w hich w as t o b ecome t he c entre o f t he M exica w orld. T his i s D urän 's a ccount . T he C ödice R amirez ( 1944: 3 6-38) t ells o f t he d iscovery o f t he w hite w aters w hich t urned b lue a nd r ed, o f t he r ock a nd t he e agle a nd t he n opal c actus, i n a lmost t he s ame w o sa s t hose u sed b y D uran . A costa ( 1962: 3 29) f ollows t his p attern . O viedo ( 1945, X : 1 03108) s pells H uitzilopochtli " Orchilobos" a nd s ays t hat h e w as a c aptain w ho l ed h is p eople f rom t he n orth, t hrough t he p rovince o f P anuco , i n t he H uaxteca r egion . S ahagün ( FC , X : 1 90) a lso m entions t hat t he M exica c ame f rom P anotla o n t heir w ay t o t he V alley o f M exico . C ristobal d el C astillo ( 1908: 5 7-8 1) r efers t o H uitzilopochtli a s t he " great o wl-man ," T etzauhteotl, " Frightening g od ," n ame u sually r eserved f or T ezcatlipoca. I n t he c ase o f H uitzilopochtli l eading t he m igration, h owever, i t w ould s ignify " prophet", s ince T etzahuitl m eans a qüero , o men, o r a gorero , d iviner , f orteller , h e w ho p redicts ( Serna, 1 953: 2 10). T he H istoria d e M exico ( 1973: 9 7) s ays t hat b oth H uitzilopochtli a nd T ezcatlipoca f ormed p art o f t he A ztec m igration , a nd T ezozomoc ( 1944: 7 ) r efers t o H uitzilopochtli-Quetzalcoatl-Tlaloc a s o ne a nd t he s ame n umen. U ndoubtedly t his a ffirmation i s d ue t o t he m ultiple a nd o ften c onfusing c haracter o f t he g ods, w hich o verlapped w ith o thers i n s ome c ases. C himalpahin ( 1965: 6 3-94) s tates t hat T etzahuitl H uitzilopochtli w as t he f irst g od w orshipped b y t he A ztecs , a nd t hat h e a ppeared t o t heir p riest i n 1 064 a nd o rdered I ztac M ixcoatl ( in t his c hronicle t he m ilitary l eader o f t he A ztecs) t o l ead a s elect g roup, c hosen f rom t he s even t ribes, t o t he l and o f p lenty. B ut t hese m en w ere t o b e o nly t he b rave a nd o f n oble b irth . T hey l eft t heir o riginal i sland h ome a ccompanied b y C himalma, r epresentative o f C olhuacan. M alinalxochitl a lso j oined t he g roup a t t hat t ime a nd, a lthough s he l ater s ettled i n M alinalco , C himalpahin c laims t hat a t t he b eginning o f t he m igration m any M alinalco s ub jects w ere w ith h er . T his a uthor d escribes t he f ounding o f T enochtitlan i n t he p lace w here t he n opal g rew, a nd s ays t hat t he M exica l ived h ere, a s i n A ztlan , b y

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f ishing w ith n ets ( fig. 4 9). B ut t he o nly m ention o f C opil i s i n C himalpahin 's Q uinta R elaciön ( 1965: 1 53), w here h e i s i ncluded i n t he l ist o f t eomamaque o r g od-bearers. H e r efers t o a s econd d eparture f rom C hicomortoc, t his t ime t he C hichimec-Aztec-Mexitin a ccompanied b y t heir w ives a nd f amilies. T ezozomoc ( 1949: 7 1, 7 7) a lso s tates t hat C opil i s o ne o f t he t eomamaque. A ccording t o C himalpahin ( op . c it .: 5 4) t he I glesia M ayor, t he C athedral o f M exico , w as b uilt o n t he p lace w here t he t enochtli o r n opal c actus g rew f rom C opil 's h eart . R ecent e xcavations ( see V ega, 1 978) s ubstantiate t he f act t hat a s pring o nce e xisted u nderneath t he c athedral.

H uitzilopochtli,

s on o f T laloc

A nother p art o f t he m igration t ale i dentifies H uitzilopochtli a s t he s on o f T laloc ( Historia d e l os M exicanos p ar s us P inturas, 1 973: 4 7; V etancurt , 1 97 1; 2 1; C himalpahin , 1 965: 9 4-95; T orquemada, 1 943, I : 3 97). A ccording t o t hese f our s ources, w hen t he A ztec-Mexica w ere s earching f or t he s ite d esignated t o b e t heir c ity, o ne o f t he g odb earers, A xolohna, w ent a head o f t he o thers a nd s uddenly d isappeared : nd Q uauhcoatl w ent t o l ook f or t he ..Axolohua a s ite a nd t hey f ound t he s tony p rickly p ear c actus w here t here w ere g reen w aters. A xolohua d isappeared i n t he w ater b ut s oon c ame u p t o t he s urface. H e r eported t hat T laloc , L ord o f t he E arth , h ad s aid t o h im d own t here , " Welcome t o m y s on H uitzilopochtli a nd a ll h is p eople; t ell h im t hat t his i s t he l and w here t hey s hould s ettle , w here t hey s hould f ound t he c apital o f t heir d ominion ... ( Vetancurt, 1 97 1: 2 1). W hen C himalpahin ( op . c it .) d escribes t his e vent, h e c ites A xolohua a s s aying t hat T laloc c alled t o h im f rom u nderneath t he w aters, t o t ell h im t hat h e w as d elighted h is s on H uitzilopochtli h ad r eturned t o t hat p lace, w here h is h ome w as t o b e. T he H istoria d e l os M exicanos p or s us P inturas ( op . c it .) c alls t he w ater-earth g od O pochtli, w hich i s t he s econd p art o f H uitzilop ochtli's n ame a nd r efers t o t he f act t hat b oth w ere l eft-handed. O pochtli w elcomed H uitzilopochtli a s h is s on a nd t he M exica n amed t he p lace o f t he s pring H uitzilopochco . ( Its n ame t o t his d ay i s C hurubusco, a c orruption o f H uitzilopochco.) T orquemada ( op . c it .) t ells o f t he M exica w eeping b ecause o f d isappearance o f t heir l eader A xolohua, w ho s uddenly r eappeared s poke t hus: D o n ot f ear , M exica, f or a lthough I d id s ink b elow t he s urface o f t he w ater, i n t he p resence o f Q uauhcoatl, i t w as f or a c ertain p urpose. B ecause d own b elow i n t he d epths o f t he s pring I s aw t he o ne w ho m ade i t p ossible f or m e t o r each t hat p lace; h is n ame i s T laloc...and h e s poke, s aying :

2 1

t he a nd

" Welcome t o m y s on H uitzilopochtli a nd h is p eople , t his i s t he p lace w here t hey w ill l ive .., w here t heir c hildren a nd t heir c hildren 's c hildren w ill b ecome g reat ...". T he M exica w ere a nxious t o s ee t hat p lace , f or i t m eant t heir m igration h ad e nded a nd t hey h ad f ound t he p romised l and . T he k inship b etween T laloc a nd H uitzilopochtli, a lthough c learly s tated h ere, h as b een l argely o verlooked . ( However, s ee E sther P asztory i n S moke a nd M ist , B .A .R. 1 988). T he c olour a nd f orm o f t he w aters t hat f lowed f rom t he s ite o f t he r ock , c ave, c actus, a nd e agle , a ll f ormed p art o f t he a xis m undi o f t he M exica w orld. T he w aters c rossed t o f orm a S aint A ndrew 's c ross ( seen i n t he C odex M endoza, f ig . 1 8) w ith t he r ock , t ree , a nd b ird i n t he c entre , a t t he p lace w here t he w aters c rossed ( Mendieta, 1 945, I : 1 621 63, C ödice M endocino , 1 964, I : 3 -4).

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N OTES T O C HAPTER I I

1 .

T he i zcauitli o r e zcahuitl i s a n e dible w orm ( Lumbricorum t enuissi m orum c ongeries q uoedam , H e m.) t hat l ives i n t he w ater. A ccording t o F rancisco H ernandez ( 1959, 3 95), t he i zcauitli c onsists o f a m ass o f t hese t iny r ed w orms w hich , w hen c ooked, b ecome b lack. T hey s mell l ike f ish e ggs, a re p repared i n p atties, a nd a re s aid t o b e d elicious. T hey a re a lso s aid t o i ncrease l actation i n m others w ho a re n ursing . T he a jolote i s a n a mphibian t hat p robably i s t he t adpole. T he a huihuitlame a nd e phydrids a re w ater i nsects t hat e dible e ggs.

p roduce

2 .

J ade, g old a nd s ilver , c acao o f v ariegated c olours, m ulticoloured c otton , q uetzal f eathers a nd o ther f ine f eathers, a re f requently m entioned i n t he c hronicles. T hese w ere m etaphors f or w ealth, w ell-being, s ecurity, t he p rize w on a t t he e nd o f a l ong s truggle, a s w ell a s t he p olitical a nd e conomic c ontrol o f t he a rea.

3 .

W hen Q uetzalcoatl l eft T ula, d uring h is f light e ast h e r ested o n s ome s tones i n t he r oods a nd r ushes i n t he V alley o f M exico a nd w as s aid t o h ave l eft i mpressions, o ne r ed, o ne b lack . T hese c olours w ere l ater a ssociated w ith Q uetzalcoatl, g od o f w isdom , a nd c ame t o m ean k nowledge, e nlightenment.

4 .

A lthough h istorians h ave u sually v iewed t he s tory o f t he A ztecs e ating t he r attlesnakes a s f iction , t hese r eptiles u ndoubtedly d id f orm p art o f t he d iet a nd c ontributed t o t he v igor o f t he M exica . R attlesnake f lesh h as l ong b een u sed i n M exico i n f olk m edicine . A s f ood i t m ust h ave b een i mportant, a s w e c an s ee i n t he M apa T lotzin w here s ome C hichimecs a re r oasting s nakes.

5 .

T he w orks o f D urän , T ezozomoc, A costa, a nd T ovar h ave b een s een t o h ave a c ommon s ource, t he C rönica X . A side f rom t his c hronicle, h owever , o ral t radition s erved t o d iffuse m yth , t radition, a nd h istory. P ictorial c odices, a lso , m ust h ave b een a ccessible t o t he l earned m en i n d ifferent a reas, b oth i n p reconquest t imes a nd l ater . G reat l ibraries o f p ainted m anuscripts e xisted b efore t he E uropean C onquest a lthough m ost o f t hem w ere d estroyed b y t he c onquerors ( and s ome i n t he p rehispanic p eriod), m any s till e xisted i n t he s ixteenth c entury a nd w ere u sed b y t he c hroniclers a s s ources o f i nformation . I f o ne o f t he c olonial h istorians u sed m aterial w ritten b y a nother , t his w as n ot c onsidered p lagiary. T ovar h imself s tated t hat h e b ased m uch o f h is w ritings o n D urän 's w ork. E vidently t he c hroniclers, m ost o f t hem m embers o f r eligious O rders, r ead e ach o ther 's w orks a nd f elt n o q ualms a bout q uoting t hem w ithout c iting t he o riginal a uthors. F urthermore , t here m ay

2 3

b e a n umber o f l ost c hronicles w hich s erved t hese w riters a s s ources a nd w e s hall n ever k now w hat t hey a re. I gnacio B ernal ( 1964: xi-xxxii), w ho q uotes B arlow r egarding t he C rönica X , a lso x w rites t hat t he F ranciscan m issionary O lmos a rrived i n M exico i n 1 528 a nd b y 1 533 w as g athering m aterial o n M exico 's h istory a nd c ustoms. A ccording t o G aribay, t he H istoria d e l os M exicanos p or s us p inturas ( 1973) i s o ne o f t he f ew d ocuments t raceable t o O lmos.

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C HAPTER I II : O DPIL A ND M ALINALXOCHITL T HE I MPORTANCE O F W OMEN I N M EXICA S OCIETY

C opil i s am ysterious a ctor w ho e nters a nd l eaves t he s tage a t d ifferent t imes, f rom t he b eginning o f t he m igration t o t he e nd. H is m other M alinalxochitl, h owever , w as m ore i mportant t han h e i n t he e arly p art o f t he s tory. A nother i mportant w oman w as t he g od-bearer C himalma, s een i n t he T ira d e l a P eregrinaciön o r C odex B oturini w hen t he A ztecs l eft A ztlan ( fig. 9 ). T ezozomoc ( 1949: 1 8) m entions t hat s he w as o ne o f t he t eomamaque a nd i n t he T ira s he i s s een a n umber o f t imes, h elping t o c arry t he g od . C himalma w as t he r epresentative o f C olhuacan , " Place o f A ncestors," i n t he m igration. I n t wo p ictorial c odices, t he T elleriano-Remensis a nd t he V aticanus-Rios ( 1964) t he p lace g lyph f or A ztlan , a s i dentified b y H amy, i s a h ill w ith t he g oddess T onacacihuatl, " Our L ady o f S ustenance," o n i ts s ummit, t he f igure o f H uitzilopochtli b elow . H amy c alls A ztlan t he " Place o f W omen ." T his o f c ourse i s h is i nterpretation a nd m ay n ot b e c orrect , b ut i f i t i s i t o pens u p t he p ossibility o f a m atrilineal s ociety e xisting a t t he b eginning o f t he m igration, w hich l ater w as r eplaced b y o ne t hat w as p atrilineal e ither a t M alinalco ( with t he d efeat o f M alinalxochitl) o r a t C oatepec ( with t he d ecapitation o f C oyolxauhqui) - p ersonified b y H uitzilopochtli. O ne c ould h ypothesize a bout a c hange f rom m atrilineal t o p atrilineal, a lso , a s s hown s ymbolically i n t he b irth o f H uitzilopochtli a t C oatepec ( fig. 1 0). H e w as b orn f ully a rmed f rom t he w omb o f C oatlicue, m other o f t he g ods, a nd f rom t hen o n w as t riumphant. T he H istoria d e LD S M exicanos por s us p inturas ( 1973: 4 8-49) s ays t he p eople o f M ichoacan w ere t he d escendants o f M alinalxochitl 's p eople. S ince H uitzilopochtli c ut o ff t hese m embers o f t he m igration i n P atzcuaro , t his a ct c ould a lso s ymbolically i ndicate a c hange i n l eadership f rom f eminine t o m asculine. A nother s ub jugation o f t he f emale b y t he m ale i s s een i n t he m urder a nd f laying o f t he d aughter o f A chitometl i n C ulhuacan , b y H uitzilopochtli's f ollowers. H uitzilopochtli c alled h er " the w oman o f d iscord ," w ho w as a lso h is g randmother, t hat i s, T oci, w hose n ame m eans p recisely t hat: " Our G randmother." T oci i s o ne o f t he n ames o f t he M other G oddess. S o w hile t he M exica o f H uitzilopochtli k illed t he m other i mage , a t t he s ame t ime t hey d id n ot c ut t he u mbilical c ord b ut p laced h er i n t he p antheon o f d eities. B ut t he r ole o f w oman i n M exica s ociety w as c ontradictory i n m any w ays. C ihua(t1) m eans " woman, f eminine ," b ut w hen t his f orms p art o f a w ord o r p hrase r eferring t o a m an " it c haracterizes h im a s w eak, a c oward , w ho l acks f orce" ( Löpez A ustin , 1 980: 3 28-330). A n e xample o f

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t his s upposed i nferiority o r w eakness o f w omen w as t he c ustom o f h umiliating s omeone b y p resenting h im w ith a w oman 's g arment . D ur n ( 1967, I: 9 2) t ells o f a b anquet g iven b y t he l ord o f C oyoacan, I M axlaton , t o t he M exica w hom h e c onsidered u pstarts. A fter a b anquet o f h igh o fficials i t w as c ustomary t o g ive t he g uests f lowers a nd t obacco . O n t his o ccasion, h owever, M axlaton h ad e ach M exica l ord p resented w ith a h uipil -b louse -and s kirt, w hich h e i nsisted t hey p ut o n . A nd s o t hey d id. D ressed l ike t his t hey r eturned t o T enocht itlan w here i t w as d ecided t hat s uch a h umiliating a ct w as t antamount t o ad eclaration o f w ar. N evertheless, aw oman a t t imes c ould b e h onoured b y c onsidering h er a w arrior a nd s he w as t hen d eified -b ut a t t he c ost o f h er l ife. I t w as a w oman 's p lace t o b ear c hildren b ut i f s he d ied g iving b irth i t w as s aid t hat s he h ad g iven h er l ife w hile c apturing a p risoner ( the c hild) a nd t herefore w as t ransformed i nto o ne o f t he c ihuateteo , d ivine w omen , w ho c arried t he s un h alfway a cross t he s ky e ach d ay. T he o ther h alf o f t he d aily j ourney w as c overed b y w arriors k illed i n b attle . I n m asculine-oriented M exica s ociety, w hen w omen w ere g oddesses, h owever , t hey w ere h ighly e steemed. T he h ighest f unctionary i n t his s ociety w as t he H uey t latoani, t he s upreme r uler. N ext i n l ine a nd a lmost h is e qual w as t he C ihuacoatl, w ho t ook h is n ame f rom t he d eity o f t he s ame n ame, t he " Serpent W oman ," w ho w as o ne a spect o f t he M other G oddess. S he w as " the m other o f t he h uman r ace," a ccording t o S ime6n ( 1963: 9 8), a nd a lways g ave b irth t o t wins. T he t wins m ay b e i nterpreted a s m asculine a nd f eminine e lements, a nd G aribay c alls t he i dea o f t he C ihuacoatl t he f eminine p rinciple o f s ociety. D urän ( 1967, I: 9 4) l imits h is e xplanation t o p ointing o ut t hat t he C ihuacoatl i n I M exica s ociety w as t he c oad jutor, t he h ead o f t he a rmy, o ne o f t he m embers o f t he g overning c ouncil, a nd t he m an w ho s hared w ith t he t latoani t he p osition o f s acrificer i n c ertain i mportant r ites. I t i s d ifficult t o i magine h ow t he p osition o f s urrogate o f t his M other G oddess o riginated a nd w hy i t b ecame s o s ignificant . B ut t here a re n umerous e xplanations. B rundage ( 1972: 1 6 1) s uggests t hat t he s overeign, w ho w as t he o nly o ne p ermitted t o w ear t he v estments o f H uitzilopochtli ( with t he e xception o f t he g od 's s pecial p riest) a nd t he c oad jutor, w ho d ressed i n t he c ostume o f C ihuacoatl, t ogether r epresented a s ymbolic k inship. T he g oddess w as o ne o f t he " sisters o f H uitzilopochtli" a nd H uitzilopochtli w as t he M exica 's t utelary g od. B rundage ( Ibid .) b elieves t hat t he c haracter o f t he d eity a s t he M other G oddess, t he E arth M other, a nd a s o ne o f t he M exica 's p rotectors, i n a w ay s anctioned t erritorial e xpansion . T his e xpansion o r i mperialism w as i nstitutionalized a s a n a spect o f t he s tate, a uthorized b y t he m ythical t radition o f C ihuacoatl a s t he h ungry m other w ho d evoured a ll. S he i s p ortrayed i n t he p ictorial c odices w ith a s kull-like f ace a nd a n o pen, h ungry m outh . I n t he c hronicles t he s on o f C ihuacoatl i s d escribed a s a s acrificial k nife w hose m other i s a lways " dying o f h unger." W hen t he k nife-son i s d iscovered i n a b asket i n t he m arketp lace t he p eople m ake h aste t o f eed C ihuacoatl h uman h earts, t hat i s, t his n eed t o a ppease h er h unger s erved a s a n e xcuse f or w ar a nd t erritorial g ain . T his b ellicose c haracter m ay e xplain w hy t he g oddess 's s urrogate w as i n c harge o f w ar a nd t he a rmy. I n t he t emple o f C ihuacoatl i n T enochtitlan t here w as a c hamber c alled t he T lillan , " Place o f D arkness," w here " all t he g ods o f t he e arth ," t hose c aptured

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f rom o ther p eople a nd t herefore v iewed a s s ubordinate t o h er , w ere k ept ( Durän , 1 97 1: 2 11). K lein

( 1988:

2 3 1-262) s uggests t hat t he e conomic

i mportance

o f

t he c hinampa r egion ( where C ihuacoatl w as t he s pecial d eity o f X ochimilco) w as s o s ignificant t hat a fter t he M exica c onquered t his r egion i n t he f ifteench c entury, t he n ame o f t he g oddess w as a dopted a s a s ymbol o f t he s upremacy b y t he M exica o ver t he c hinampaneca , t he p lace t hat w as t he m ain f ood s ource f or t he V alley o f M exico . N evertheless, t he t itle o f C ihuacoatl f or t he c oadjutor w as n ot a dopted u ntil 1 440, t he y ear o f t he v ictory o ver a ll t he c hinampa r egion , i ncluding C halco . I t h as b een s uggested t hat t he t itle a nd i dentification w ith C ihuacoatl b e c onsidered t rophies o f w ar ( Klein , I bid ., A costa S aignes, 1 946: 1 77-178, S oustelle, 1 964: 1 05). D urAn ( op . c it.) c alls C ihuacoatl o ne o f t he f ive p rincipal g ods o f t he M exica. P erhaps h er a ssociation w ith t he r egion o f s ustenance, w ith w ar a nd t he d omination o ver o ther p eople, a s w ell a s w ith t he p lace o f a ncestors, C olhuacan , w here s he a lso w as r egarded a s a s pecial d eity ( Sahagün , F C, 1 95 1, I I: 2 11), c an e xplain h er h igh p osition i n t he p antheon a nd t he f act t hat t he s econd i n c ommand b ore h er n ame a s h is t itle.

A c onflict b etween m ale a nd f emale i n a s ociety a nd a p ossible c hange f rom m atrilineal t o p atrilineal d escent o r c ontrol, i n s ome s tages o f M exica h istory, a s h as b een s uggested, d o n ot e xplain , h owever, t he n umerous d ivisions i n t he g roup , t he a bandoning o f s ome o f i ts m embers, t he c onstant f riction . T he f act t hat H uitzilopochtli's f ollowers r id t hemselves o f h is s ister , t he s orceress M alinalxochitl, i ndicates p roblems a mong k in a nd a s truggle f or l eadership t hat p robably e xisted s ince A ztlan. M alinalxochitl o r t he f action s he r epresented w as t he p enultimate s ector t hat s eparated f rom t he n uclear g roup. A lthough t his s ister o f H uitzilopochtli b ecame a ssociated w ith t he t own o f M alinalco ( now i n t he s tate o f M exico) a nd t he c hronicler C himalpahin ( 1965: 6 5) s tates t hat s he w as a l eader o f o ne o f t he s even t ribes, t he n ame o f h er s on c ould i ndicate a c onnection w ith t he H uaxtec r egion, t he " Panotla" w here S ahagün s ays t he M exica p assed t hrough o n t he m igration . " Copil" i s d erived f rom c opilli, " conical h eaddress," t ypical o f H uaxtec c ostume . S imeön ( 1963: h owever , 11), t ranslates c opilli a s " crown" o r " diadem ." T hat C opil w ears a " crown' m ay i ndicate t he h igh s tatus o f H uitzilopochtli's n ephew . A lthough m ost c hronicles p aint t he A ztec-Mexica a s s omeone e lse 's v assals a nd r ough u pstarts, C himalpahin ( 1965: 6 4) c laims t hat t he o riginal m igrants w ere o f n oble b lood. I t m ay b e t hat t his c laim t o n obility ( real o r i nvented) w as a s timulus t o C opil t o r ecuperate h is m other 's l ost l eadership . T his g oal o n t he p art o f t he M alinalxochitl-Copil f action w ould h ave b een d angerous f or t he a uthority t hat t he H uitzilo ocht l g roup w ished t o e stablish, a nd w ould h ave h ad t o b e s topped. I n t he C odex A zcatitlan C opil i s s een i n a s upine p osition a t t he s ummit o f a t emple, w ith a p rickly p ear c actus, t he t enochtli, g rowing f rom t he p lace w here h is h eart h ad b een e xtracted ( fig. 1 4). C opil

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w ears t he h airdo o f ad istinguished w arrior , w ith t he h air p ulled u p i nto a k ind o f c olumn o n t op o f h is h ead . T his h air a rrangement m ay i ndicate t hat a lthough C opil, w ho w as o ne o f t he g od-bearers e arly i n t he m igration a nd t herefore a p rotector o f H uitzilopochtli, c hanged a t o ne p oint i nto a n e nemy a nd a n a ggressor, a w arrior , w hen h e d ecided t o a venge h is m other . O r p erhaps h e u sed t his o ld i nsult a s a n e xcuse t o g ain o r r egain s ome c ontrol o ver t he A ztec-Mexica g roup . W e k now h ow t he s tory o f C opil 's r ebellion e nded , w hen h e l ost h is h ead. I n t he N ational M useum o f A nthropology i n M exico C ity t here i s a s tone s culpture i n t he f orm o f a c actus w hich s eems t o g row f rom a h uman h ead c arved i n r elief o n i ts b ase ( fig. 1 5). A ccording t o F elipe S olis, c urator o f t he M exica H all, t his w as a b oundary m arker b etween T enochtitlan a nd T latelolco . W hile S olis b elieves i t r epresents T enoch , o ne o f t he m ythical f ounders o f T enochtitlan , I v enture t o s uggest t hat i t m ay r epresent C opil, w hose h ead r emained i n T epetzinco b ut w hose h eart -symbolically s imilar t o t he h ead -w as t he s eed f or t he c actus f rom w hich T enochtitlan g rew . T his i dea w ill b e e xplored m ore f ully f urther o n . T he s upremacy o f H uitzilopochtli's f action o ver t hat o f M alinalxochitl a nd C opil w as s o i mportant f or t he M exica ( as w as t he t riumph o ver C oyolxauhqui a nd t he 4 00 S outherners a t C oatepec) t hat i t w ould b e r emembered i n m yth a nd i mage, a s a n a ffirmation o f M exica l egitimacy a nd c ontrol o f t he e mpire t hey w ere t o b uilt. T he h eart o f C opil s ymbolized h is m other 's l ineage w hich y ielded t o t he f orce o f h er b rother H uitzilopochtli, b ut - like C ihuacoatl o f X ochimilco e ventually c ame t o f orm p art o f t he M exica p eople a nd t heir h istory .

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N OTES T O C HAPTER I II

1 .

A ccording t o v an Z antwijk ( 1976: 2 01), C opil s ymbolized t he c hinampaneca r egiön w hile M alinalxochitl r epresented t he M alinalco a rea, t he l atter h aving a ffiliation w ith C halma a nd t he C halmecas. T he f irst ( Copil) g roup w as r elatively a uthoctonous t o t he V alley o f M exico , o ne m ay i nterpret v an Z antwijk a s m eaning t hat t hese t wo g roups j oined i n o pposing t he M exica 's e ntrance i nto t he v alley .

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C HAPTER I V :

M YTH A ND ORAL T RADITION .

S ACRED A NCESTORS

I n t his s tudy o f t he f ounding o f M exico-Tenochtitlan i n m yth a nd s ymbol w e l eave C opil a nd h is mother f or a m oment t o a sk s ome q uestions. W hat i s m yth? W hy d o w e c onsider m yths a n a id i n u nravelling h istory? A re m yths t ransmitted b y o ral t radition? A re t hey r epresented p ictorially? H ave m yths s erved a s p rimary h istorical s ources i n t he p resent s tudy? I n

a ncient M exico , m yth a nd t radition p enetrated e very p hase o f l ife. T hese w ere p assed f rom g eneration t o g eneration a nd f rom o ne g roup t o a nother. M yths w ere h eirlooms t hat l egitimized t heir a ncestral c onnections a nd a lways c ontained a b asic t heme, a lthough t he t rimmings w ere a ltered a ccording t o t he c onvenience o f t he k eepers o f t raditions i n w hose m ythology a nd h istory t hey f ormed p art. Y et t hese m yths p reserved t heir b asic f orm a nd i n t he h eart o f e ach o ne c an b e f ound a g rain o f t ruth .

W hat i s m yth? T he r oot o f t he w ord " myth" i s t he " ...word...speech ..." ( Bolle, 1 987: " communication ."

G reek m ythos 2 61), b y

w hich m eans e xtension ,

" Myths e xplain m an a nd h is u niverse. T hey c larify t he o rigins a nd m eanings o f t hings, l egitimize c ontrol w hich i s e xercised b y c ertain g roups o r i ndividuals, j ustify h istorical f acts, a nd s erve a s au nifier o f t he p eople w ho c reate o r t ransmit t he m yths..." ( Heyden , 1 987: 4 36). M yth i s -frequently t hough n ot a lways -t he i nterpretation o r t ransformation o f h istory . B asically, m yth i s c ommunication , b ut m yths c annot b e s tudied i n a n i solated m anner , t heir f unction w ithin t he s ociety m ust b e e xamined. M yths a re f ound i n a ll c ultures, a ncient a nd m odern, a nd f orm p art o f h istory a nd t radition . M yths e xplain i n t erms t hat a re i nteresting a nd e asily u nderstood n atural, h istorical, s ocial, c ultural, o r b iological p henomena. M yths c an b e a n a id i n a nswering t he a ge-old q uestions: w hat, h ow, w hy , w here , w hen? M yths a re d idactic , t heir f unction s ometimes i s t hat o f t eaching. T hey c onstitute a d iversion , t hey a re o ral l iterature . " One o f t he c hief c haracteristics o f m yth i s t he c reation o f e xemplary m odels f or a w hole s ociety. M yths s ucceed e ach o ther a nd a rticulate t hemselves i nto a s acred h istory w hich i s c ontinuously r ecovered i n t he l ife o f t he c ommunity a s w ell a s i n t he e xistence o f e ach i ndividual ( Eliade , 1 969: 7 8). " It s eems u nlikely t hat a ny s ociety c ould c ompletely d ispense w ith m yths," s ays E liade ( 1960: 3 1-32), " for w hat i s e ssential i n m ythical b ehaviour -t he e xemplary p attern [ for t he i ndividual a nd f or s ociety a s aw hole, i s r eplaced i n m odern s ocieties b y]... i nstruction ,

3 0

e ducation, a nd d idactic c ulture -the f unction t hat i s f ulfilled b y t he m yth i n a rchaic s ocieties ." M yths w ere i ncorporated i nto o ral r epresentations w hether r itual o r t he atre -a nd f ound t heir w ay i nto p ictorial a rt: m ural p ainting, c eramic d ecoration , s culpture , a rchitecture , a nd t extile d esign , w here t hey t old o f c reation , t he g re tness o f f orebears, t he h ardships o f m igration, w ars a nd c onquests, t he s tars a nd t heir e arthly r eflections, c alendrical e vents, g ods a nd h eroes. I n s hort, m yth a nd i ts c lose c ompanions, r itual a nd s ymbol, c annot b e d ivorced f rom h istorical f act i n p rehispanic M exico a nd o ther c ultures.

M exican m yths S ome m yths w hich r efer t o p rehispanic M exico h ave b een a nalyzed i n ah istorical c ontext . B riefly , Im ention a f ew . T he m yth o f t he c reation o f t he F ifth S un i n T eotihuacan a nd t he d eath o f g ods i n t his p lace i s i nterpreted a s t he c reation o f a n ew h istorical e ra i n t he C entral P lateau r egion a nd t he a rrival/ p redominance/interaction o f an ew e thnic g roup h ere ( Jimenez M oreno , 1 956). M yth a nd a rt h ave h elped k eep a live a stronomical, m athematical, a nd c hronological k nowledge , a nd t hese h ave c ontributed t o t he p reservation o f t he c osmic o rder w hich i s r eflected i n t he s tability o f t he s tate ( Le n-Portilla, 1 956, 1 980). T he n aturalistic s chool o f t he n ineteenth a nd e arly t wentieth c enturies h as i nterpreted m yths a s e xplanations o f c elestial p henomena . N evertheless, s ome r ecent s tudies h ave q uestioned t his a stral e xplanation a nd i nterpret m yths o f t he t ype d iscussed i n t his s tudy a s t he t riumph o f o ne g roup -in t he s ociopolitical a nd e conomic s ense o ver a nother ( Gonzälez d e L esur , 1 968: 1 75190, M atos M octezuma, 1 988: 4 0-42). S tudies i n a rchaeoastronomy, h owever , h ave p roved m any a ssociations b etween m yth a nd c elestial p henomena. T oday t hese o f c ourse a re a nalyzed s cientifically a nd o ften b y a stronomers. S ee , e xample, R ay A . W illiamson , 1 984, a nd A veni, C alnek, a nd H artung , 1 988. T he i dentification o f g eographical s ites t hrough m yth a nd w ith t he a id o f o ther s ources s uch a s p ictorial c odices, l inguistics, a nd e thnographic c omparisons, h as h ad g ood r esults i n M exico . O ne e xample i s t he i dentification o f p laces i n t he M ixtec a rea w hich a re r epresented p ictorially i n t he c odices ( M .E. S mith, 1 973). I n t he C hiapas h ighlands m yths h ave p rovided o ne k ey t o t he u nders tanding o f s ome m agic-religious s urvivals r elating t o p rehispanic c osmovision ( such a s t he i mportance o f t he p ath t ravelled b y t he s un), t o t he c omprehension o f t he f act t hat a c ertain p lace i n t he l andscape i s v ital t o a c ertain c ult, a nd t o t he d ecipherment o f t he s ymbolic c ode o f s ome o ld M esoamerican m yths a nd t heir t ransformation i nto m odern b eliefs ( Vogt, 1 976: G ossen , 1 972; H unt, 1 977)

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O ral t radition M yths a re t ransmitted o rally i n m ost s ocieties; t hey a re p art o f t he o ral t radition . T he s tudy o f t his t radition , a ccording t o V ansina ( 1968), a nalyzes t hat p art o f h istory which h as b een p reserved i n v erbal t ransmission , e ither s poken o r s ung . A mong p eoples w ho d o n ot p ossess w riting s uch t ransmissions a re p assed f rom g eneration t o g eneration a nd b ecome a ids i n t he r econstruction o f t he p ast. A mong l iterate p eoples, m any h istorical s ources , e specially t hose r ooted d eeply i n t he a ncient p ast, h ave h ad t heir o rigin i n o ral t radition . I n t hese g roups t he m emory b ecomes h ighly d eveloped a nd t raditions a re t ransmitted i n ad isciplined m anner, a nd f ollowing c ertain f ormululas, b y s pecialists w ho a re i n c harge o f h istory, m yths, t raditions, c ustoms. T hat i s, t hey c onstitute a k ind o f l iving l ibrary . B ut t hese p ersons d o n ot p ass o n t heir k nowledge t o j ust a nyone, b ut o nly t o t hose w ho h ave b een t rained t o f ollow t hem i n t heir p rofession . T raditidns o f a p eople m ust b e s tudied i n r elation t o t he s ociety a nd t he n atural a nd m an-made e nvironment t hat w as r esponsible f or t heir c reation . T hese t raditions - g enealogies, c alendrics, a stronomy, r eligion , h istory -a re u sually f ound i n aw ell o rganized s tate w here t here a re s chools i n w hich c lassic t raditions a re s ystematically t aught ; " all e soteric t radition i s c onserved a nd t ransmitted t hrough i nstitutions" ( Ibid .: 4-47). A t l east o ne f unctionary w as i n c harge 4 o f r eciting t he h istory o f t he g roup p eriodically a nd p ublicly b ut s ome t raditions w ere e soteric, r eserved f or t he l earned f ew . F requently, c ertain t raditions w ere a ccessible o nly t o c ertain s ocial c lasses, e specially t he p riesthood a nd t he n obility, s tates V ansina. I n m any s ocieties t hese s ame p reservers o f t raditions a re i n c harge o f m usic, d ance, a stronomy, t he c alendar , m athematics, h istory o f t he s tate a nd c ourt p rotocol. A n i mportant e vent t hat l eft i ts m ark i n t he s ocial s tructure o f a p eople s erves a s a p oint o f r eference i n t ime. I t i s s uggested t hat j ust a s t he O lympic g ames i n G reece c onstituted a r eference o f t his t ype, t he f ounding o f M exico-Tenochtitlan c ould h ave b een t he b eginning o f a c alendar c ount. B ut a mong p eople w ho b y t radition i nteract w ith n atural p henomena, t ime i s o ften m arked b y n orms i n n ature , b y p henomena t hat a re m anifested a t d ifferent t imes a nd w hich i n p art r egulate h uman a ctivity. T his d ivision o f t ime i s c yclical a nd c orresponds t o t he s easons, d ry p eriods a nd r ainy s eason, t he t imes f or s owing a nd f or h arvesting, t he p ath o f t he s un, t he p hases o f t he m oon , a nd t he m ovement o f o ther c elestial b odies . T ime i s m easured i n m any w ays. A side f rom t hese m entioned t here i s a t ime o f o rigin , o ne o f m igration, o ne o f s tability. D uring t he m igration p eriod t he n ames o f t he p laces w here a g roup s topped o r s ettled m arked a d ivision o f t ime ( Ibid .). T his t ype o f m arker c ould h ave e xisted f or t he M exica d uring t heir m igration , a s s een i n t he p ictorial c odices ( Codex B oturini, C odex M exicanus, C ndex A ubin ), w here e ach s ite r eached b y t he M exica i s m arked b y a p lace g lyph . I n o fficial s tate-controlled h istory e ach t radition s uffers a lterations o ver a p eriod o f t ime . A ll w ritten o r o ral h istory d emands a c ertain a mount o f i nterpretation a nd , w here i t i s p ossible, c onfrontation w ith o ther s ources s uch a s a rchaeology , l inguistics, a nd

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e thnology. A ccording t o V ansina , m any t raditions w hich r eveal t rue f acts a re t hose d ealing w ith m igrations o r t he m oving o f g roups f rom o ne p lace t o a nother , w ith t he b irth o r d eath o f r ulers, a nd w ith t he i ntroduction o f an ew e lement i n t he s ociety . F requently g roups o f p eople a re r epresented b y t he n ames o f g ods o r p ersons ( such a s C opil, M alinalxochitl , C oyolxauhqui, o r H uitzilopochtli). O ral t raditions w hich l ast t he l ongest a re t hose w hich a re u seful t o t he s ocieties w here t hese t raditions a re t ransmitted f rom o ne g eneration t o t he n ext o ne. M yth i s o ne f orm o f d isguising i niquitous o r i nconvenient e vents a nd e stablishing c ontrol b y m eans o f c ertain t raditions w hich f unction a s s tabilizers. T he m anipulation o f p olitical-religious i deology i s o ften c arried o ut t hrough m yth. M yths a nd t raditions, h owever , a re l ike o ral s chool b ooks, t hey e ducate w hile p roviding a k ind o f t heatre w hich i s a ccessible t o t he p eople .

M nemonic a ids , M nemonics c onstitute t he u se o f c ertain m aterial o b jects, c ertain a cts, c ertain w ords, b y m eans o f w hich a ssociated b eliefs o r a cts a re r emembered. T he o b jects c an b e m any t hings, a mong t hem p ictorial r epresentations s uch a s t he c odices o f p rehispanic o r e arly c olonial M exico . T he a cts c an b e m ovements, s uch a s t hose i n t he d ance . W ords c an b e f ound i n r itual s peeches, i n p oetry , o r s imply i n i mportant a nd r epeated p hrases. S ounds l ike t he b eat o f ad rum o r t he p laying o f a f lute c an b e m nemonic . S acred i mages a re f ound i n a ll c ultures, a ssociated w ith a p eople 's w orld v iew . T hey a re a nalogous t o m yths b ecause t hey r epresent s acred r eality i n v isual f orm ( Bolle , 1 978: 7 98). A mong t he v isual r epresentations t hat r elay a m essage a re a rchitectural f orms. M any m eanings a re t old b y s tructures, w hose e lements c an a lso b e m nemonics. S ome o f t hese r emind t heir v iewers o f h istorical e vents o r o f m yths, f or e xample a c olumn w hich s ymbolizes t he c osmic t ree t hat h olds e arth a nd s ky t ogether , o r t he t win s hrines a t t he s ummit o f t he G reat T emple o f T enochtitlan w hich s ymbolize T laloc ( water , e arth , f ertility) a nd H uitzilopochtli ( war , t ribute ), a nd t he M exica v ictory o ver t heir a dversaries. M ural p ainting, p ictorial c odices, c eramics, t extile d esigns, j ewellery, o ther a dornments, a nd c eremonial c ostume , t ell s omething a bout t he g ods, c osmogony, m igrations, w ar , g enealogies -t hat i s, t hey a re v isual a ids i n r econstructing t he m ythology a nd h istory o f t heir c reators.

T he i mportance o f m yth a nd o ral a nd v isual t ransmission i n t he s tudy o f t he h istory o f a ncient M exico T he q uestion m ay a rise : W hat d oes a ll t his h ave t o d o w ith t he f oundation o f M exico-Tenochtitlan , t he h eart o f C opil, t he e agle o n t he c actus a nd t he s treams o f w ater o f t wo c olours t hat f lowed f rom a c ave? I t i s t hrough t he s tudy o f t hese t raditions a nd i mages t hat w e c an a rrive a t c ertain t ruths. M yths t hemselves c an p rovide a v ariety o f

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e xplanations o n c hroniclers s ay m nemonics.

o ne t heme . B ut f irst l et u s s ee w hat s ome e arly a bout t heir o wn u se o f d ocuments, i mages, a nd

V arious c hronicles w ritten i n t he s ixteenth c entury m ention m yths a nd t raditions i nherited f rom e arlier c ultures. T his h eritage w ould h ave b een i n b oth o ral a nd v isual f orm , t he l atter i n c ult o b jects a nd s acred d ocuments. T he p ictorial m anuscripts, f or e xample , " tenian m emoria d e s us a ntiguallas, a si c omo l inajes..." ( ...they r emembered t heir a ncient h istory a nd l ineages t hrough t he u se o f t he p ictorial c odices...) ( Motolinia, 1 97 1: 2 10). N avas ( n .d.: 1 55) t ells u s t hat t he g enealogy o f t he l ords c ould b e t raced b ack t o t he b eginning o f t he w orld. I n o rder t o d istinguish t hemselves f rom t he c ommoners , t hese m en o f h igh b irth h ad s ongs c omposed t hat e xtolled t he f amily t ree a nd f eats o f t heir a ncestors. T hese s ongs w ere s ung i n p ublic o r i n t emples ( Ibid.: 1 40, 1 56, H istoria d e l os M exicanos p or s us p inturas, 1 973: 1 42). T o d istinguish t hemselves f rom " people o f l ow b irth" t he g reat l ords u sed d evices a nd i nsignia t hat e xalted t heir a ncestors ' d eeds a nd t he " grandeur o f t heir o rigins a nd o f t heir g enealogical t ree , w hich w ere a lways e steemed a nd r espected" b y t hese n oblemen ( Navas, n .d.: 1 56). M yths w hich s poke o f a ncestors, g ods, a nd o utstanding p ast e vents w ere i nherited b y o ne g eneration f rom a p revious o ne . T he m yth o f t he C reation o f t he F ifth S un , f or e xample , o riginated w ith " the p redecessors" ( Ibid .: 2 00). R eal o r m ythic a ncestors ( who c ould b e m en , g ods, t rees, o r r ocks) w ere e xtolled i n m yth a nd s ong, i n o ral t radition , i n p ictorial c odices. T here w ere s cribes " who w ere v ery s kilfull i n r epresenting p ersons i n t heir p aintings" ( Zurita , 1 94 1: 1 03), a nd v erbal c ommunicat ion w as c arried o ut b y c apable o rators w ho p ossessed " great m emory" ( Munoz C amargo , 1 966: 1 43). E legant f ormal s peeches f ormed p art o f r itual c ommunication , a s c an b e j udged b y r eading t he h uehuetlatolli, w hich M otolinia ( 1948: 1 57) c alled " sayings o f t he e lders ." T hese h uehuetlatolli a re p reserved m ainly i n B ook 6 o f S ahag lan 's F lorentine C odex . D urän ( 1967, I I: 7 3) s tated t hat t here w ere g reat s peakers, e xperts i n r hetoric , w ho o n a ny o ccasion m ade l engthy, v erbose a ddresses. T here w ere a lso s ingers w ho r elated h istory i n w ords a nd s ong. A gain c iting D urän ( 197 1: 2 99): " ...in t he r oyal o r l ordly d welling p laces.. . All h ad t heir s ingers w ho c omposed c hants a bout t heir o wn g lorious d eeds a nd t hose o f t heir a ncestors.. . describing f eats, v ictories, c onquests, g enealogies...There w ere o ther c omposers w ho c reated d ivine c hants a bout t he g randeur o f a nd p raises t o t he g ods. T hese [ musicians] l ived i n t he t emples...They w ere c alled c uicapicque , w hich m eans ' composers o f s ongs '." I n t he s chools, m ainly t he c almecac, s chool f or n oble c hildren , " the s ongs w hich w ere l earned b y h eart o ften c oncerned t he h istory o f t he c ities, o f f ormer r eigns a nd w ars, a nd i n t his w ay t he y oung p eople c ame t o k now t heir o wn p ast" ( Soustelle , 1 964: 1 78). T orquemada m ust h ave l earned m uch i n t his w ay . W hen h e d escribes t he M exica m igration ( 1975: 3 95) h e s ays h e " learned a bout t hese t hings i n s ome v ery o ld c antares ." O ral a nd v isual e ducation w as c arried o ut n ot o nly i n t he s chools b ut a lso i n t he h omes. H istories w ere r epeated o ver a nd o ver , b oth i n f amily g roups a nd i n p ublic . Z urita ( 194 1: 12) w rote t hat " parents 1

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g ave t heir c hildren m uch w ise c ounsel, a nd t oday [ in t he s ixteenth c entury ] t he h igh-born I ndians s till r etain t hese t hings a nd r emember t hem t hrough t heir p aintings [ that i s, c odices]." T he h uehuetlatolli e xisted a s an orm f or a dvice f rom f ather t o s on , f ather a nd m other t o d aughter , t he m idwife t o t he n ewborn a nd t o t he d eity w ho w ould p rotect t he b aby, t he s overeign t o h is p eople , t he p eople t o t he s overeign , t he s overeign t o t he g ods, a s w ell a s f or s peeches o n f ormal o ccasions. T he i nformants o f S ahagun p laced a n " N" ( for n ombre o r n ame) w here t he n ame o f t he p erson w as t o b e , t hus i ndicating t hat t hese a ddresses w ere p art o f ap attern l earned, p robably, i n t he s chools, a nd w ere u sed a nd f illed i n a ccording t o t he o ccasion . T his i ndicates t hat t hey m ust h ave b een o f l ong s tanding, p ossibly w ith r oots i n e arlier c ultures . F ernando d e A lva I xtlilxochitl, m ember o f t he f ormer r uling f amily o f T ezcoco , w rote h is O bras H istöricas i n t he s ixteenth c entury. T his b ook i s a t reasury o f i nformation o n p rehispanic l ife i n M exico , f ound b y t he a uthor i n p ictorial m anuscripts, t he c antares o r r itual s ongs, a nd i n o ral t radition . I xtlilxochitl e xplains t he i mportance o f e xamining t hese s ources i n o rder t o p enetrate t he p ast ( 1952, I I: 1 71 9).

T he f ollowing l oose t ranslation i s m ine : I h ave m anaged t o c ollect t he p aintings o f t he h istories a nd a nnals a nd t he s ongs t hat t ell o f t hese [ histories]. I n o rder t o u nderstand t hese , I h ave c onsulted m any o f t he p rincipal m en o f t his N ew S pain w ho h ave t he r eputation o f k nowing a nd u nderstanding t hese a ccounts , a lso t he s ongs w hich a re c omposed w ith a llegorical m eanings a nd, b ecause t hey a re a dorned w ith m etaphors a nd s imiles, a re d ifficult t o u nderstand . B ut w ith t he h elp o f t hese s cholars I c ould e asily u nderstand a ll t he p aintings a nd c hronicles a nd t ranslate t he s ongs i nto t heir t rue m eaning ... Im ade u se o f t he p aintings a nd c haracters w ith w hich t hese [ codices] w ere w ritten a nd t heir c ontent m emorized , b ecause t hey w ere p ainted a t t he t ime t hese e vents t ook p lace. I a lso u sed t he s ongs t hat w ere w ritten v ery c arefully , a ccording t o t he s cience a nd a bility o f t hese p eople, f or t he v ery k ings a nd m ost i llustrious a nd l earned m en a lways o bserved a nd r ecorded t he t ruth . T his t hey d id w ith g reat c are a nd k nowledge, a s m uch s o a s t he m ost s erious a nd r eliable a uthors a nd h istorians i n a ll t he w orld... S ome s pecialists w ere i n c harge o f r ecording i n p aintings t he l imits a nd b oundary s tones o f t he c ities, p rovinces, t owns, a nd o ther p laces, o f t he d ivisions a nd d istribution o f l ands, a nd t o w hom t hey b elonged . O thers p ainted t he b ooks d escribing t he l aws, t he r ites a nd c eremonies u sed i n p agan t imes, t he p riests, t he t emples, i dolatry a nd t he w ay i dolatrous d octrine w as t aught, t he f estivals

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o f t heir f alse g ods, a nd t he c alendar. T he p hilosophers a nd w ise m en a mong t hem w ere i n c harge o f p ainting a ll t he s ciences t hat w ere p art o f t heir k nowledge a nd t eaching [ others] t o m emorize a ll t he s ongs t hat r eferred t o t heir s cience a nd h istory... ll t his c hanged w ith t he d ownfall o f t he ..but a k ings a nd l ords [ after t he S panish C onquest] I n t he c ity o f T etzcuco w ere t he r oyal a rchives w here a ll t hese t hings w ere k ept . S ome o f t hose w hich e scaped t he b urning [ of d ocuments] a nd o ther c alamities, a nd w hich w ere k ept b y t he e lders o f m y f amily, f ell i nto m y h ands, a nd f rom t hese I h ave t aken d ata a nd h ave t ranslated t hem f or m y H istory ...but i t h as c ost a g reat d eal o f w ork a nd p erserverance f or m e t o u nderstand a nd i nterpret t he e p aintings a nd c haracters t hat w ere t heir l etters, a nd t o t ranslate t he w ords o f t he s ongs i n o rder t o f ind t heir t rue m eaning...

T he " paintings," t hat i s, t he p ictorial c odices, w ere b urned o r d isappeared n ot o nly d uring t he c olonial p eriod b ut w ere d estroyed a lso i n p rehispanic t imes s o h istory c ould b e p resented i n a m anner c onvenient t o t he d ominant g roup. N evertheless, m uch h istory w as p reserved b y o ral m ethod, b y b eing r epeated o ver a nd o ver, b y b eing m emorized. I n t he s ame w ay v isual s ymbols a nd m yths h ave, i n s ome i nstances, s urvived s ufficiently f or u s t o d ecipher b eliefs a nd c ustoms o f t he p redecessors.

M yth a nd s acred a ncestors W hen t he M exica d evised t he m yth o f t heir m igration a nd t he f ounding o f M exico-Tenochtitlan, p robably b ased p artly o n f act a nd p artly o n p opular n arratives w hich r eferred t o d ifferent g roups a nd d ifferent t imes, t hey m ay h ave i ntended t o e nsure t heir p restige a s h eirs o f o ther c ultures. T hey w ere n ot i gnorant o f t he i mportance o f a ncestors a s o ne m eans o f l egitimation . T hrough a ncestral a lliance w ith t he T oltecs o f C ulhuacan, t he M exica c onsidered t hemselves T oltecs, a nd t he c reation o f t heir o wn w orld, b efore t hat, w as t he F ifth S un c reated i n T eotihuacan. A nd w hen M otecuhzoma I s ent h is a mbassadors t o s earch f or t he m other o f H uitzilopochtli, h e d id s o i n p art t o c larify h is o wn r oots w ith h uman o r s acred a ncestors. A mong t he c ustoms f ound i n t he e ast a nd w est, n orth a nd s outh , i s t he c ult t o a ncestors. T his w as a s trong s tabilizing i nstitution i n s ociety. T he c ult t o a ncestors c onsists o f r ites p erformed i n h onour o f f orefathers w ho a re c onsidered s acred , t hat i s, o nly c ertain a ncestors a re w ithin t his c ategory. T hese a re b iological a nd m ythical a ncestors, a ll o f whom s erve t o u nify a g roup, i mpose o bedience a nd o rder, a nd g ive p restige t o t heir d escendants. A m ythical a ncestor m ay b e a g od, a s emi-historical h ero , a n a nimal, a r ock, a t ree, a s pring, o r a nother n atural f eature. T he l ares, m anes, a nd p enates, w hich c ome t o u s f rom R oman m ythology, w ere t utelary g ods w orshipped i n h ousehold

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s hrines w hose o rigin w as i n d eified a ncestors. A s

a n e xample o f t he i mportance o f f orebears,

i n I ndia

a ncestors

a re h onoured i n n atural s ites, s uch a s s prings o r r ivers, o r a re a ssociated w ith a t emple o r a h ouse a ltar ( Crooke, 1 908: 4 50). I n A frica, i n m ost g roups t he " ancestral c ult i s t he f ocus o f a ll s ocial o rganization ," a ncestors r egulate t he c onduct o f t heir d escendants ( Fiawoo , 1 976: 2 63-28 1). I n C hina, t he a ncestral t emple w as t he s ymbol o f t he s tate, t he c entre o f g overnment. T he a ncestor c ult o riginally w as a ssociated w ith a gricultural r ites b ut e ventually t he a ncestral g od o f t he S hang w as c laimed a s t he r eal o r m ythical f orebear o f n ot o nly t he r ulers b ut o f a ll t he a ristocracy. T hus, t his o riginal a ncestor u nited p reviously a ntagonistic g roups ( Smith , 1 970). I n J apan t he t raditional s ocial s ystem i s b ased o n t he f amily, t he a ncestor i s a n i mportant u nifier, a nd t he w ord f or " home" a nd " family" ( ie) i s t he s ame a s t hat f or " lineage w hose o rigin i s f ound i n a n a ncestor" ( Takeda, 1 976: 19127). 1 I n p rehispanic M exico t he i mportance o f d escent f rom a n o utstandi ng r eal o r m ythical a ncestor i s e vident i n t he c olonial c hronicles. M otolinia ( 1971: 2 99), f or e xample, s tates t hat " the r eason f or m aking i dols w as t o r emember t he d eceased." W e i nterpret t hat a s h onouring t he a ncestors. D uring t he m onth T ecuilhuitontli t he g reat l ords a nd n obles w ere f eted , w hose g enealogy " went b ack t o t he t ime o f t he o rigin o f t he w orld" ( Navas, n .d.: 1 53). L egitimacy o f r ule w as b ased i n p art o n t he p restige o f f orefathers a nd i n o rder t o p erpetuate t hese i llustrious l ineages c antares a bout t heir d istinguished b irth o r t heir f eats w ere s ung i n t he t emple o r i n p ublic s quares. M en w ho c laimed t hese r elationships d istinguished t hemselves f rom p eople o f " low b irth" b y u sing c ertain i nsignia t hat e xalted t he d eeds o f t heir a ncestors a nd " the g reatness o f t heir b eginnings." M otolinia ( 197 1: 2 10) m entions t hat t he i mportance o f b eing a b ranch o f t he r ight f amily t ree i s s een a lso i n t he p ictorial c odices w here t he a ncient h istory a nd l ineages o f t he l ords w ere r ecorded. D ivine d escent w as d ifficult t o p rove y et e asy t o a cquire , s imply b y c laiming i t. B ut t his w as r eserved f or t he r ulers o r f or t he c hosen p eople, t hat i s, t he M exica a nd N ahuatl s peaking p eople . W e h ave s een t hat T eocolhuacan , o ne o f t he p laces f rom w hich t he A ztec-Mexica e merged, w as t he P lace o f D ivine A ncestors. A nd m any s ources s tate t hat a t t he b eginning o f t he m igration t he s even g roups w ere N ahuatl s peakers. B ut " all t he M exicans a nd N ahuatlacos w ere b orn o f o ne f a t her.. . Iztacmixcoatl," s ays T orquemada ( 1975: 15), a nd 1 I ztacmixcoatl w as a C hichimec d eity. H is n ame m ay r efer t o a h unting o r s acrificial k nife m ade o f w hite f lint a nd t he f act t hat h e w as a n e arly g od m ay r efer t o a p eriod o f t he M exica a nd o thers w hen t hey r elied n ot o nly o n a griculture b ut o n h unting a nd g athering . T he f ather a nd m other o f t he p eople d id n ot c ontinue t o b e I ztacmixcoatl, h owever, b ut e ventually w as r eplaced b y X iuhtecuhtli-Tezcatlipoca a nd H uitzilopochtli, w ho r epresented r ulership, w ar , a nd t ribute.

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S ymbolism o f " white" B efore w e l eave I ztacmixcoatl ( "White C loud S nake") i t i s w ell t o m ention t hat a s a c reator g od, a s acred a ncestor, h e s hares t he " whiteness" w ith o ther r eferences t o w hite w hich u ndoubtedly i ndicate c reation o r t he f inal h ome . W e k now t hat A ztlan m eans " White L and" a nd t he f act t hat v arious A ztlans o r A ztatlans e xist i n M exico m ay i ndicate t hat d ifferent g roups o riginated t here, n ot o nly t he f ounders o f T enochtitlan; f or e xample, t he p eople o f C holula. T he H istoria T olteca-Chichimeca ( 1976) g ives a n umber o f s ynonyms f or C holula a t t he m oment o f i ts f oundation t hat r efer t o w hiteness; s ome a re : I ztac t ollin y elyeliuhcan ( Where t he W hite R eeds D ivide), I ztac uxotl y hicacan ( Where t he W hite W illow S tands), I ztac t ollin y mancan ( Where t he W hite R eeds a re F ound). C holula w as f or i ts p eople t he a xis m undi, t he o riginal a nd f inal h ome, a s w as A ztlan-Chicomortoc-Colhuacan o r T enochtitlan f or t he M exica. M ost o f t he " white p laces" s eem t o h ave b een i n s wampy l and o r o n l ake s hores, a nd r eeds a nd r ushes w ere c onsidered a n i mportant p art o f t his a ncestral w hiteness. T he s ymbolism o f r eeds a nd r ushes, d iscussed f urther o n , e xplains m uch o f t he r elationship b etween r eeds a nd r ulership , c reation , w ealth, a nd t he g ods. T hat t he P lace o f R oods -T oltzallan A catzallan -o r t he c ity o f M exico-Tenochtitlan -c ontinued t o b e c onsidered t he W hite P lace, a s w as A ztlan , i s s een i n t he r eference t o t he V alley o f M exico i n t he M ixtec anguage: l 1 .u u ci u si, " White Pa l ce" ad n T enochtitlan a s " Place o f R eeds, 1 -u u c o o ( M .E . S mith, 1 973: 7 2).

Q uetzalcoatl,

t he R ed a nd t he B lack .

X iuhtecuhtli,

t he F ire

Q uetzalcoatl a s g od a nd c ulture h ero w as a s acred a ncestor f or m ore t han o ne r eason . W hen C opil w as k illed a t T epetzinco , C uauhtlequetzqui, H uitzilopochtli 's g od-bearer , w hile t hrowing t he h eart i nto t he r oods, s tood o n t he s pot m arked b y Q uetzalcoatl b y r ed a nd b lack s eats o r s tones w hen t he g od-hero f led f rom T ula. T his r elates t he M exica t o t he T oltecs o f T ula. W hen Q uetzalcoatl c reated t he f irst m en h e d escended t o t he l and o f t he d ead w here h e s tole b ones o f t he a ncestors i n o rder t o c reate o ther a ncestors, t he f irst m an a nd w oman. S ince t he g od w as t he c reator , h e t ook h is p lace a mong t he s acred a ncestors. A nd t he r ed a nd b lack , a ccording t o L e6n-Portilla, i s s een a s t he s ymbol o f k nowledge ( personal c ommunication, 1 983). T he " Mother a nd F ather o f t he p eople ," a ccording t o h istorical d ocuments, n ot o nly r eferred t o t he r uler , t he n ation, t he c ity, b ut a lso t o g ods -d ivine a ncestors -such a s Q uetzalcoatl, T laltecuhtli, a nd t he e arth, f ire , a nd t he s un ( Florentine C odex , 1 969, V I: 4 , 1 9, 2 1, 3 1; H eyden , 1 972). F ire w as w orshipped u nder t he n ame X iuhtecuthli, T urquoise L ord ( DurAn , 1 97 1: 2 14) a nd w as a lso c alled H uehueteotl, O ld O ne, s ince h e w as t he o ldest e lement. F ire w as t he p rogenitor o f T ezcatlipoca, S upreme G od, a nd w as t he " mother o f t he g ods, t he f ather o f t he g ods, U eueteotl...Xiuhtecuhtli...who i s s et i n t he n avel o f t he e arth, w ho l ieth i n t he t urquoise e nclosure" ( Florentine C odex, 1 969, V I: 1 9, 4 1). A s s urrogate o f X iuhtecuhtli a nd a t t imes o f o ther g ods, t he h ueytlatoani, t he r uler, w as a lso t he m other a nd f ather o f t he p eople. A nd h e w as c hosen b y " his m other, h is f ather" M ictlantecuhtli i n t he l and o f t he d ead, w here " the s pine , t he

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m aguey o f t hy p regenitors, o f t hy g reat-grandfathers - w hich t hey p lanted d eep a s t hey d eparted...which t hey p laced i n t he e arth ... s prouteth, f lowereth ..." a nd b ecame t he n ew r uler , " noble o f l ineage" w ho i n h is w ise g overnment w as t o f ollow " thy m other, t hy f ather, t he s un , t he l ord o f t he e arth" ( Ibid .: 4 9, 5 7-58). W hen I tzcoatl o rdered t he l egal c ode d rawn u p ( Durän , 1 967, I: I 9 7104) a nd m ade X iuhtecuhtli t he p atron o f M exica s overeigns ( Noguez 1 971), h e b enefitted b y t he p restige o f t he O ld G od o f F ire a nd a lso b y t he c reation o f t he F ifth S un i n T eotihuacan, t he m ost p restigious c entre, f or a n ew s ocial o rder . X iuhtecuhtli, o wner o f t he C entre a nd o f F ire, w ho c ontrolled t he a xis m undi a nd t he A bove a nd B elow , b ecame t he m odel f or h is e arthly i mage, t he s upreme c hieftain , w ho w as i n t urn t he a xis o f h is w orld. I t i s l ogical t hat t he o ld g od, t he m ost a ncient a ncestor, w as c hosen f or t his r ole. A nd t his i s r eminiscent o f a n e vent t hat t ook p lace t oward t he e nd o f t he M exica m igration , w hen t wo r elic b undles m iraculously a ppeared. W hen o pened , o ne w as s een t o c ontain a j ade b ead, t he o ther t wo s ticks. T he T latelolcas t ook t he j ade a nd w ent t o s ettle t heir a rea a nd t he T enochca t ook t he s ticks ( Torquemada, 1 975: 15). M yth t ells u s t hat 1 t he T latelolcas w ere a lert t o t rade i tems, t he m ost v aluable b eing j ade , a nd e ventually b ecame g reat m erchants. T he T enochca, h owever , p referred t he s ticks w hich m ake f ire, t hus e nsuring t hem o f t he v ital e lement w hile a t t he s ame t ime i t o ffered t he p rotection o f t heir s acred a ncestor , H uehueteotl-Xiuhtecuhtli. F ire w as t he T urquoise P rince , a n ame a lso g iven t o t he s overeign . B ut t he T urquoise P rince w as a lso t he s un w ho w as " the r esplendent o ne, t he a scending e agle, t he o celot, t he v aliant w arrior..." a nd i t w as t he r uler a nd " the n oblemen ...the e agle w arriors, t he o celot w arriors w ho a re i n t he h eavens [ after h aving l ost t heir l ives i n w ar ] w here t hey g ladden t he s un , t he t urquoise p rince, t he v aliant w arrior" ( Florentine C odex, 1 969, V I: 1 213). T hese q uotations f rom S ahagün s how u s t he s acredness a ttached t o f ire, o ne o f t he o riginal a nd m ost v alued a ncestors, w ho c hanged i ts c haracter a s t he M exica s tate f ormed a nd c hanged, u ntil i t b ecame t he i mage o f t he r uler, p rotector o f t he p eople, a nd t he e quivalent o f t he s un a nd w ar. T he s un a s f ire a nd e agle d ates b ack t o T eotihuacan t imes, i f w e b elieve t he m yth o f t he c reation o f t he F ifth S un . I n t his m yth, a fter t he h umble g od N anahuatzin h ad t hrown h imself i nto t he f ire t o b ecome t he s un , " ...then f lew u p a n e agle...It t hrew i tself s uddenly i nto t he f lames...From t his e vent, i t i s s aid, t hey t ook...the c ustom w hereby w as c alled a nd n amed o ne w ho w as v aliant, a w arrior. H e w as g iven t he n ame Q uauhtlocelotl. T he w ord q uauhtli c ame f irst...because ...the e agle f irst e ntered t he f ire. A nd t he o celot ( ocelotl) f ollowed t hereafter..." a nd b ecame t he m oon ( Ibid ., 1 953, V II: 4 -6). N anahuatzin , t he s un , t hus b ecame a s acred a ncestor o f t he w arriors a nd a t t he s ame t ime h ad h is o wn d ivine a ncestors, f or , a s N avas ( n .d.: 1 95, 2 00) s ays, h e c ame f rom " a d irect l ineage o f t he g ods." T hat T eotihuacan w as c onsidered a n a ncestral s hrine b y t he M exica i s s hown b y t he c ustom o f t he s overeign m aking o fferings t here e very t wenty d ays ( F. C ., 1 963, X : 1 93) a nd b y t he n ame g iven t he p lace b y a N ahuatl s peaking p eople, p robably t he M exica : T eotihuacan : " Place w here g ods

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o r r ulers a re m ade." T he F lorentine C odex ( Ibid .: 1 92) s ays t hat i t w as n amed T eotihuacan " because i t w as t he b urial p lace o f t he r ulers ," a nd " he w ho d ied b ecame a g od...some b ecame t he s un , s ome t he m oon ," s ome t he p lanets. T he o rientation o f s tructures t o h eavenly b odies , t hen, m ay p artially b e a ssociated w ith a ncestor w orship , s inc t he c elestial b odies w ere c onsidered t he t ransformation o f a ncestors.' U ndoubtedly m ore n atural f eatures -n ot o nly c elestial b odies, c aves, m ountains, a nd s prings -h ad a ncestral a ssociations i n a ncient M exico . T hese c ould i nclude s erpents a nd o ther c reatures. A s W heatley ( 197 1) h as s tated, a t rue a ncestor c ult, b ased o n n ature, i n t ime c ould h ave b ecome t he i nstrument o f l egitimation o f p olitical c ontrol, b ased o n s acred a ncestors. I n t his e ssay t he i nterrelationship o f n atural e lements w ith t he d evelopment o f s ociety a nd s ocial c ontrol i s c onsidered i mportant i n t he s tudy o f t he M exica a nd t heir r ise f rom a h umble g roup t o a p owerf ul o ne , w hose p oint o f d eparture i nto t he r ealm o f t he g reat c ame, a t l east i n t heir m ythical h istory, f rom t he m oment t hey f ounded M exicoT enochtitlan , b ased o n s igns t hat i ncluded m any o f t hese n atural f eatures w hich w ere r elated t o a ncestral t ies w ith o ther c ultures a nd p eriods. T he M exica , w ho p robably w rote t heir h istory a p osteriori, s ought t o p icture t heir p eople a s a lways v ictorious, t o j udge f rom t he d escriptions o f t heir s upremacy i n m any c hronicles, a nd b y t he d estruction o f d ocuments t hat w ould h ave s hown t hem i n a n u ndesirable l ight. O nly C ristöbal d el C astillo ( 1908: 8 2) r efers t o t he M exica a s v assals o f o ther A ztecs i n A ztlan , a t t he b eginning o f t he m igration . T o r epresent t hemselves a s t hey d esired, t he M exica e xalted i n m yth t heir g ods, t heir h eroes, a nd t heir fe ats, a nd a lso f requently r eferred t o t heir f orebears a s t hey w ished t o s ee t hem . T hese a ncestral l inks i ncluded e arlier c ultures, c entres t hat w ere o utstanding f or t heir a rt , t heir i deology, t heir w idespread i nfluence o ver o thers, a nd e ven c ertain f lora a nd f auna, f or e xample t he t enochtli o r p rickly p ear c actus, t he e agle, a nd r eeds a nd r ushes.

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N OTES T C ) C HAPTER I V

1 .

R ulers w ere n ot o nly t hought t o b e t he s un , m oon, a nd s tars, b ut a s s overeigns t hey a utomatically b ecame d ivine , a s t hey d id i n t he F ar E ast a nd o ther r egions. A d ivine p itch w as u sed f or t he f unction o f t he n ew r uler , w ith w hich h e b ecame a g od a nd f ormed p art o f t he p antheon . W hen h e d ied h e w as d ressed i n t he i mage o f f our d eities, w as i ncinerated w ith " firewood o f t he g ods" a nd h is a shes d eposited a t t he f oot o f H uitzilopochtli 's s tatue, n ext t o t he S un S tone ( Durän , 1 967, I I: 2 99-300, 3 94-395), a lthough S ahagün s tates t hat r ulers w ere a t o ne t ime b uried u nderneath t he p yramids a t T eotihuacan ( F. C ., 1 963, X : 1 92). I n t he F lorentine C odex t he w ord r eferring t o t he l atter i s t zacualli, w hich i s t ranslated t here a s " pyramid." F ernando H orcasitas ( personal c ommunication, 1 975), h owever, c laimed t hat i t m eans " enclosed p lace ." L indoro C ruz, N ahuatl i nformant, e xplains t hat i n X alteportla, P uebla, t zacualli i s s imply " burial p lace" i n m odern N ahuatl.

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C HAPTER V :

M AN A ND N ATURE

T he i nteraction o f m an w ith h is n atural e nvironment i s r esponsible f or m any r eligious c oncepts, f or m yths , r ituals , a nd p lastic r epresentations, a nd e ven f or s ociopolitical c oncepts ( such a s d ivine k ingship a ssociated w ith t rees o r o ther e lements o f n ature). I n m yths a nd r ites f requently t here i s s pecific r eference t o c ertain f lora a nd f auna t hat a re u sed i n a s ociety f or f ood a nd o ther a spects o f t he e conomy. T he f orms, e vents, a nd i deas r epresented i n i conographic c onventions a lso a re f ounded i n r eal o r i maginary e vents t hat h ave i ntervened i n s ome w ay i n t he h istory o f a p eople ( Stocker e t a l, 1 980: 7 42). O ne e xample o f t his m an-nature r elation i s f ound i n t he m yth a nd g lyph o f t he f oundation o f T enochtitlan. W e m ust n ot c onfuse t he n aturalist i nterpretation o f m yth a nd r itual t hat w as p opular i n t he n ineteenth c entury -according t o w hich e very m ythic m anifestation r eferred o nly t o an atural e lement, u sually a h eavenly b ody o r t he p lanting-harvesting c ycle -with t he e cological f ocus p roposed b y m any s cholars t oday. A ccording t o H ultkrantz ( 1966: 1 43), m ythological t raditions a nd b eliefs a re l argely b ased o n e lements o f t he n atural e nvironment t hat a re i nterpreted i n r elation t o t heir s ocial s tructure a nd t he v alue s ystem o f t he g roup . W e c annot d isregard t he p ossibility o f t he i ntentional m anipulation o f t he b eliefs i n n ature o f c ertain p eople i n o rder t o i nterpret o r j ustify a n i nvented o r a dopted h istory, t aken f rom a nother g roup , b ut e ven i n s uch a c ase, t he e ffect o f n ature i tself a nd m yths a nd r ituals i nvolving n ature i s n ot l essened i n a s ociety. E cological l inks a nd b eliefs a re s imply t ransferred f rom o ne g roup t o a nother. I n s ocieties w here t here i s i nteraction w ith n ature , c ities a nd b uildings r epresent t he c osmos, a t t he s ame t ime t hat t hey a re a ssociated w ith s ocial a nd p olitical o rganization. O ne e xample i s a ncient C hina, w here t he r ooms o f a h ouse r epresented t he d ivisions o f t he u niverse, e lements o f n ature, a nd p olitical s ectors.

G eomancy I n o rder t o u nderstand t he s ymbolism o f s ome e lements o f n ature a nd t heir r elation t o h uman s ociety, w e r efer t o s ome d efinitions o f g eomancy. F reedman ( 197 1: 1 2 1122) s ays t hat i t i s d ifficult f or a p erson e ducated i n a s ystem t hat d istinguishes b etween m an a nd n ature, t o u nderstand t he p rinciples o f g eomancy, c alled f eng s hui i n C hinese, w hich m eans " winds a nd w aters." T hese t wo e lements s ymbolize t he e nergy o f t he c osmos t hat i s f ound b eneath a nd a bove t he e arth. T hus,

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g eomancy r epresents e nergy, f orce, s trength , r eceived f rom n ature. F avourable e lements o f n ature e xist, i t i s m an 's j ob t o c oordinate t hem . T he e ssence o f t hese e lements i s a v ital e nergy f ormed o f r ivers, s prings, f ire, e arth, c louds, l ightning , w ind, r ain , a nd t he w orld d irections, t hat f lows u nder t he e arth b ut o nly i n p laces t hat s atisfy g eomantic r equirements. T his e nergy f lows o utward i n p laces t hat m eet t hese r equirements, c oming f rom a c ave t hat i s c ompared t o t he w orld 's w omb ( Yoon , 1 976). T his c ave m ay b e n atural, i maginary, i dealized, o r f rankly c onstructed a rtificially i n o rder t o m eet t he n eeds f or g eomantic h armony. F euchtwang ( 1974: 2 ) d efines g eomancy a s d ivination b y m eans o f n atural g eographic f eatures, t he p oints o f t he c ompass, a nd t he h eavenly b odies, f or t he l ocation o f t he m ost a ppropriate s ite , a s p art o f t he p lanning o f ar eligious-political c entre. T he i mportance o f g eomantic c oncepts i n t he f ounding o f M exicoT enochtitlan i s r evealed i n t he c osmovision o f t he p eople, i n t he p lanning o f t he c ity, a nd i n t he s ignificance o f s acred s pace i n M exico . B y r eviewing t hese c oncepts i n o ther p arts o f t he w orld w here t hey h ave b een s tudied i n d epth, a nd b y p ro jecting t hem o nto M esoa merica, i t m ay b e p ossible t o u nderstand w hy t he M exica b ased t heir f oundation m yth o n t he c oncept o f t he c entre o f t he u niverse, o f t he p romised l and, o f n atural e lements a nd i mages, s ome o f w hich f ound t heir w ay i nto t he g lyph o f t he c apital c ity. T he i nteraction o f n ature w ith t he p lanning o f s ites a nd t he o rientation o f s tructures h as b een a c ommon p ractice i n C hina a nd o ther c ountries f or m illennia. T he a xis m undi, t he c entre , i s i mportant u niversally . A ll g reat c ities h ave v iewed t hemselves a s c entres o f t he w orld, t heir w orld. T his i s m anifest i n t he O rient, i n m edieval E urope, i n M esoamerica . I t i s e qually t rue i n s mall p laces, w here t he w orld o utside i s s een f rom t he l ocal p oint v iew . I n a ncient t imes t he p lace o f b urial o f a s overeign o r o f a r egal a ncestor, o r o f am ythical a ncestor, w as o ften c onsidered t he a xis m undi f rom w hich e manated a uthority. I n M exico s ome c ases o f t his t ype o f s acred p lace a re d ocumented i n t he c hronicles. A s h as b een m entioned, S ahagün s tated t hat i n T eotihuacan t he r ulers w ere b uried u nder t he p yramids, a nd i n t his w ay t hey w ere d eified ( FC , 1 961, X : 1 92). I n C hichen I tzä b urials o f i mportant p ersons h ave b een f ound i n a n atural c ave, a c enote, u nderneath t he ° sari ( ) ; t he T emple o f I nscriptions i n P alenque w as b uilt o ver a c rypt a n a rtificial c ave w here t he r uler-priest w as b uried. T hese b urial s ites, w hich a lso w ere p laces o f c ommunication b etween t he w orlds, w ere i n t hemselves a xes m undi w ithin a l arger a xis m undi, a c entre w ithin a c entre , w here a uthority r esided. I n A sia t he e arth a nd t he s ky w ere s een a s o rdered i n l ayers. I n a ncient M esoamerica t hese w ere a lso l ayered. M olina, i n h is s ixteenth c entury V ocabulario ( 1944: 19) r efers t o t hese t iers t hat a re f ound 1 i n " paper, p lates, c loth...or c ielos ( heavens, s kies)...when o ne t hing i s f olded o ver a nother." T he c osmos w as d ivided i nto n ine o r t hirteen c elestial t iers a nd n ine l ower o r e arthly o nes, s o t hat e ach w as " folded" o ver a nother. I n t he C odex V äticanus-Rios t here i s a r epresentation o f t he t hirteen u pper a nd t he n ine l ower l evels. L O 'pez ' A ustin ( 1980: 6 0-65) a nalyzes t hese t wenty-two l evels: t he l ower o nes, p art o f w hat w e c all t he u nderworld b ut i s s imply t he w orld u nder

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t he e arth , a re r ich i n e arthly a nd w atery t hings, s uch a s w ater, s eeds, s tones, m etals -although t his p art o f t he c osmos i s a lso c onsidered h arsh b y t he f armers, w ho a re d ependent u pon r ain a nd r ivers, w hich a re v ery u ncertain i n M esoamerica. D roughts a re f requent a nd s o a re f loods. T his e arthly-watery f ertility c ulminated i n t he f irst o r l owest s ky t ier, r uled b y T laloc. H e w as t he w ater-earth g od a nd w as t he o wner o f m ountains, f rom w hich w ater f lowed , a lthough t hese m ountains a lso w ere t he w omb o f C halchiuhtlicue , w ater g oddess. T laloc r uled, t oo , o ver t he t laloques , t he m inor T lalocs w ho c ontrolled t he w ater a t e ach c orner o f t he u niverse . T his w ater c ould b e g ood o r b ad . I t c ould m ake t he p lants g row , t he l akes b e f ull, o r i t c ould d escend a s d estructive s torms. T he u pper w orlds o r c elestial l evels w ere w here s alt w ater w as k ept t hat s urrounded t he e arth, a nd w ere a lso t he a bode o f t he f ecundating s un . A t t he s ummit o f t hese l evels w as t he O meyocan , P lace o f D uality, t he h ome o f t he m asculine a nd f eminine p rinciples, t he M other a nd F ather o f a stral a nd e arthly-aquatic c hildren , f riends o f t he f armer . A mong s ome i ndigenous g roups i n M exico t oday t he r eign o f T laloc, t he T lalocan , i s b elieved t o b e a l evel i mmediately u nderneath t he e arth . I t i s a l and o f a bundance, o f f ertility, t he e ntrance t o w hich c an b e f ound i n c aves, s prings , r ivers, a nd t he s ea ( Garcia d e L eön , 1 969: 2 79-3 12). O ne i mportant c ave i n t he h istory o f M exico i s t he c avern f ound u nderneath t he P yramid o f t he S un i n T eotihuacan , w hich I h ave s uggested d etermined t he p lanning o f t he c ity ( Heyden , 1 975, 1 98 1). M ore a bout t his l ater. M any i nvestigators b elieve t hat a lthough g eomancy h as a lways b een s een a s a s trictly O riental p ractice , i t w as a lso c arried o ut i n M esoa merica i n p rehispanic t imes ( Carlson , 1 98 1; T ownsend, 1 979). T he p lanning, o rientation , a nd b uilding o f c ities a nd s tructures i n M esoa merica w ere b ased l argely o n n atural f eatures o f t he l andscape a nd o n a stronomical o bservations, a nd w ere i ntegrated w ith t he c alendar , t he g ods, a nd s acred a ncestors. A ll o f t hese w ere a lso r elated t o t he p eriodical f estivities, w ar , t ribute , t rade , p olitical i nstitutions, h ierarchies a nd r anks o f t he s overeign a nd n obles. A ll w ere a ssociated w ith m yth , s ymbol, a nd r itual.

O rientation .

S acred s pace a nd t ime

T he f our w orld d irections, e ither c ardinal o r i ntercardinal, s o s ignificant i n u niversal c osmology, l imited s acred s pace w ithin w hich m an c ould l ive i n s ecurity a nd p ractice s easonal r ites t hat h elped m aintain h armony b etween t he m acrocosmos a nd t he m icrocosmos, w hich i n t urn d etermined t he f ortune o f t he g roup o r t he k ingdom ( Wheatley, 1 969: 1 7). I n S outheast A sia t he t emple w as b uilt i n t he c entre o f t he k ingdom . I f t he c apital c hanged l ocation , r ites a ssociated w ith c ertain s acred s ites w ere a dopted b y a nd a dapted t o t he o ther c entre . T his c hange a ssured t he c ontinuity o f c osmic f orces i n t he c hosen a rea ( Ibid.: 1 3). T he c ustom o f p reserving t he s acred c haracter o f o ne p lace b y t ransferring t he r ites, o rientation o f b uildings, c haracter o f t he s tructures, a nd o ther c haracteristics , t o a n ew t emple i ndicated t hat p erhaps t he b uilding o f ap yramid o ver a c ave ( as i n T eotihuacan ) o r t he c ustom o f n aming a c ity f or a n e arlier a nd s ometimes m ythological o ne ( such a s C olhuacan i n t he V alley o f M exico f or

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T eocolhuacan), o r t he p ractice o f r econstructing a b uilding p eriodically, o r p ainting a m ural o ver e arlier o nes, c ould h ave n ot o nly r eligious, p olitical, o r h istorical s ignificance, b ut c ould a lso b e a n a ct o f d irecting t he c osmic f orces f rom t he o ld t o t he n ew a nd t hus c apture m ore v ital e nergy. T he a xis o f a c ity i s a lmost a lways a n a venue t hat r uns n orth t o s outh o r e ast t o w est . A t t imes t hese a venues c ross, t herefore f orming f our s ectors, w ith t he a venues p ointing t o t he w orld d irections. T hey m ay p oint a lso t o s acred m ountains, o r t o a c onstellation s uch a s t he P leiades. T hese a venues n ot o nly s erved t o d ivide t he c ity i nto q uadrants a nd f orm a b asis f or t he p lanning , b ut w hen t he c ity w as b uilt t hey w ere a n i mportant p art o f r itual. P rocessions w ere h eld o n t hese s treets, c ertainly i n M esoamerican c ities a nd p ossibly i n a ll t raditional c entres i n t he w orld. I n T eotihuacan t he p rocessions u ndoubtedly w ere h eld i n h onour o f t he s easons a nd a gricultural a ctivities, f or a stronomical p henomena, t o h onour t he g ods o n s pecial o ccasions, i n a cts r elating t o t he r uler , i n a t heatrical r epresentat ion o f m yths a nd h istorical e vents, a nd f or r eligious p ilgrimages. T hey m ay a lso h ave s erved f or p arading l ocal o r f oreign d ignitaries, d ressed i n a ll t heir f inery a nd f ollowed b y i nnumerable a ttendants a nd f riends, a lso d ecked i n g lorious c ostume. I magine t he A venue o f t he D ead i n T eotihuacan , t hat c entral t horoughfare t hat c rosses t he e ntire c ity f rom n ortheast t o s outhwest, o r p erhaps a n a venue t hat w ent f rom o ne e nd o f T enochtitlan t o a nother, o r t hat c rossed M onte A lbän o r C hichen I tzä, f illed w ith p eople w ho w ere d edicated t o s ome r eligious c eremony, s pacing t heir s teps s o t hat t hey w ould b e a t a c ertain p oint a t a c ertain m oment , t he c oordination o f p eople w ith t he p yramidal b ases, t he t emples, t he c ourtyards, t he s unken p atios, t he s teps t hat g o d own a nd o thers t hat g o u p , t he s tatues a nd t he m ural p aintings, e ach p laying i ts p art i n a g reat t heatre . O f c ourse t he m ovements o f t he p eople w ere c oordinated n ot o nly w ith t hese m an-made m arkers, w ith t he s tars, w ith t he m ovement o f t he s un , w ith t he s hadow o f t he m ountains, w ith t he g rid c reated b y r ivers a nd r oads, b ut a lso w ith t he m usic t hat w as p layed a s t he p eople p rogressed, w ith t he p oetry t hat w as r ecited a t d ifferent t imes, a nd w ith r itual d ancing a nd s inging.

M acrocosmos a nd m icrocosmos T he w ord c osmos, d erived f rom t he G reek k osmos , m eans " order , h armony, t he u niverse c onceived a s a n o rdered a nd h armonious s ystem" ( Webster , 1 948). I n a ncient t imes, a nd e ven t oday i n t raditional a reas, m any p eople c onsidered t heir c ity o r t heir c ountry a s t he m icrocosmos, c opy o f t he m acrocosmos, t he c entre o f t he u niverse. I n p resent-day t raditional s ocieties t his p oint o f v iew e xists, s acred s pace, m yth, r itual a nd a s pecial c oncept o f t ime a re i nseparable. B y t raditional I m ean a s ociety w here t he d octrines, c ustoms, b eliefs, r ites, a nd m yths o r h istorical c onceptions h ave b een e stablished b y c ustom a nd h ave p assed f rom o ne g eneration t o a nother . A t raditional s ociety i s a g roup l ike t he T zotzil i n C hiapas, t he K ogi i n C olombia, o r a h ighly d eveloped p eople s uch a s w e f ind i n a ncient C hina, I ndia, M esopotamia, o r M esoamerica . S ome o f t hese h ave b een p owerful s tates b ut h ave n ot l ost t he m utual d ependency b etween t he s tate, n ature, a nd t radition. I n t hese l arge o r s mall s ocieties t he c oncept o f t he d ivine r uler f unctioned a s a p olitical i nstrument, a nd o ne o f t he m aterial

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m anifestations w as t he o fficial t emple o r t he r itual c entre t hat w as c onsidered t he c entre o f t he k ingdom a nd t he u niverse ( Wheatley , 1 97 1: 2 49).

S acred t ime a nd s pace I n t raditional g roups t he j uxtaposition o f t ime a nd s pace - for e xample , t he c elebration o f p eriodical r ites a ssociated w ith t he w orld d irections -is p art o f t he c osmovision . M ircea E liade ( 1959: 112) 1 e xplains t hat a h ierophany i s a n a ct o f m anifestation o f t he s acred , w hen s omething s acred s hows i tself t o u s. A h ierophany c an b e t he c reation o f a n e thnic g roup i n ac ertain p lace , t he c hoosing o f a s ite f or t he s ettlement b y t he g ods, o r s imply t he a ppearance o f a s acred r ock o r t ree . B ut, a s E liade s ays , " the s acred t ree , t he s acred s tone a re n ot a dored a s s tone o r t ree ; t hey a re w orshipped p recisely b ecause t hey a re h ierophanies, b ecause t hey s how s omething t hat i s n o l onger s tone o r t ree b ut i s t he s acred...". T he s acred i s e quivalent t o a p ower , a nd i n t he l ast a nalysis, t o r eality. M an i n w hat E liade c alls t he a rchaic s ocieites t ends t o l ive a s m uch a s p ossible i n t he s acred o r i n c lose p roximity t o c onsecrated o bjects . T his i s h is r eality, a nd m uch o f t his r eality i s n ature . A nd, " for r eligious m an t ime , t oo , l ike s pace , i s n either h omogenous n or c ontinuous" b ecause " by i ts v ery n ature s acred t ime i s r eversible i n t he s ense t hat ...it i s p rimordial m ythical t ime m ade p resent" ( Ibid .: 6 8). T his i s u nderstandable w hen w e o bserve r ituals s uch a s t he m onthly f estivals i n a ncient M exico . T hrough t hese r ites t he p ast b ecomes t he p resent : w hen T laloc i s p ropitiated , f or e xample, a lthough h is e xistence c an b e t raced b ack t housands o f y ears, w hen c hildren a re s acrificed t o h im o r o fferings a re m ade , h e i s p resent t o h ear p leas f or w ater a nd h elp f ertilize t he l and. I n t he c eremony o f t he " general f east t o a ll t he e arth ," X ochiquetzal w as h onoured; s he w as t he p atroness o f f lowers a nd p lants i n g eneral, b ut a lso o f p rostitutes , w hose s exual a ctivity r epresents h uman f ertility, l ike f ecundity o f t he l and.

R eal a nd m ythic s ettlement o f s ites W hen p eople t ake p ossession o f a t erritory, i n m any c ases t his i s d one i n a r itual m anner t hat i s a n i mitation o f t he c osmic p lan , a nd i n t his w ay t he l and i s c onsecrated a nd t he g roup 's r ight t o i t i s e nsured. I n a ncient M exico a n e xample o f t his r itual s ettlement i s t he s hooting o f a rrows o f d ifferent c olours t o t he f our w orld d irections b y t he g oddess I tzpapalotl, p atron d eity o f t he C hichimecs i n t he e arly p art o f t heir h istory. T his t erritory w as c alled T eotlalpan , " In t he l and o f t he g ods ," a n ame t hat c ontinued t o b e u sed t o d esignate t erritory n orth o f t he V alley o f M exico , e specially t hat i nhabited b y t he C hichimecs ( Anales d e C t iauhtitlan , 1 945: 3 ). T he c omplex o f m ountains, w ater , f ields, c aves, a nd t rees o r p lants i s e quivalent t o f ertility a nd t o s ecurity. T his c omplex o f n atural f eatures w as a lmost a lways a ssociated w ith a c entre , t he p lace t he c apital w as b uilt , w hether i t w as a c apital c ity o r a c entral

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s hrine o r a s acred t ree o r r ock. I t w as t he c osmos i n m iniature . T his w as t he c ase, t oo , o f t he f ounding o f T enochtitlan , w here t he M exicaA ztecs t hought t o h ave f ound a ll t he n ecessary n atural e lements f or t he c entre o f t heir w orld .

T he c osmic b alance A p erfect b alance b etween m an a nd n ature , m an i n r elation t o t he c osmos, i s t he i deal s ought a fter i n m ost s ocieties o f t he w orld, a s w e h ave s een. D urän ( 1967, I I: 4 00) s aid t hat o ne o f t he o bligations o f t he r uler w as t o m aintain t he c osmic e quilibrium s o t hat t he s ociety w ould f unction i n t he s ame o rderly w ay t hat t he c osmos d oes. W hen a r uler w as i nvested a g roup o f n obles s poke t o h im : he s un [ the n ew r uler] h as r isen a gain ... ..now t t he d arkness i n w hich w e f ound o urselves h as b een b anished.. . this d arkness h ad b een c aused b y t he d eath o f t he k ing , y our u ncle. B ut t oday t he f ire , t he t orch , t hat i s t o b e t he l ight o f M exico h as a gain b een i gnited...[Now ], m y s on...begin t o w ork i n t his l abour o f t he g ods, a s t he f armer w ho t ills t he l and d rives o ut t he w eakness w ith h is m anly h eart ...And y ou m ust s tudy t he s tars i n o rder t o k now t he t imes [ they a ppear] a nd t heir s igns, a nd t heir [ good] i nfluence a nd t heir t hreatening o nes. A nd b e p ending [ the a ppearance] o f t he m orning s tar s o t hat w hen i t a ppears y ou g o t hrough t he c eremony o f b athing y ourself a nd c leaning t he b lemishes, a nd t hen a noint y ourself w ith t he d ivine p itch, a nd [ do a utosacrifice] b y b loodletting a nd t ake t he c enser a nd o ffer i ncense a nd s acrifice t o t he g ods, a nd [ after t his ] y ou w ill c ontemplate t he h idden p laces i n t he s ky a nd t he n ine f olds t here . A nd a t t he s ame t ime y ou w ill d escend t o t he p lace o f t he a byss, t he c entre o f t he e arth, w here a re f ound t he t hree h ouses o f f ire. A nd y ou s hould h ave a n u nderstanding w ith t he h ills a nd t he w ilderness w here t he c hildren o f G od g o t o d o p enance, l ive i n s olitude i n t he c aves. Y ou s hould g et t o k now t he d ivine s prings a nd s ources o f w ater . A ll t hese t hings y ou m ust k now a nd u nderstand... T he s tability o f t he c osmos d epended u pon h uman a ctivity. T he g overnmental a pparatus, t latocayotl ( the c ontrolling b ody h eaded b y t he r uler , t he t latoani), c ontrolled t he m ost i mportant i nstruments o f i deological d omination , a mong w hich w ere t he k eeping o f t he t wo c alendars -t he t onalpohualli, r itual a nd d ivinatory c alendar m ade u p o f 2 60 d ays ( combination o f 2 0 s ymbols a nd 1 3 n umbers) a nd t he a gricultural c alendar o f 3 65 d ays, p lus t he r elationship b etween t he t latocayotl a nd t he g ods ( Löpez A ustin , 1 980: 8 7-89). T hese i ncluded t he g ods o f w ar a nd t ribute , a nd o ne o f t he a ctivities t hat k ept t he c osmos o n a n e ven k eel w as h uman s acrifice, m ainly o f p risoners o f w ar . W ith t his s ystem o f ac ouncil a nd a r uler r epresenting t he p eople a nd

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s erving a s c ommunication w ith d ivine f orces, t he c ontrol o f t he i deology a nd e conomy w ere t ranslated i nto t he m aintaining o f t he c osmic b alance a nd t herefore o f a s table s ociety. T his c osmic o rder, w here t he w orld d irections a nd c olours a re s ignificant, i s f ound i n s ome r egions t oday. F or e xample, i n S anta A na T lacotenco, n ot f ar f rom M exico C ity , c orn i s p lanted i n t his w ay: t he f urrows i n t he f ield a re m ade i n a n e ast-west d irection ( path o f t he s un) a nd e ach g rain o f c orn i s p lanted t oward a c ertain d irection , a ccording t o i ts c olour; e ach w orld q uarter i s a ssociated w ith a c ertain c olour ( Gonzälez T orres, 1 975: 1 49150). T his s ystem o f p lanting i s r eminiscent o f t he f estival o f H uey P achtli o r C oailhuitl, g eneral f east t o t he e arth, i n a ncient M exico , w here m aize o f f our c olours w ere t hrown t o t he f our d irections. T his m ay h ave r epresented a s ymbolic p ossession o f t he l and b ut i t a lso m agically e nsured a gricultural f ertility, i nasmuch a s t he f estival w as i n t he f all, d uring t he h arvest s eason, a nd c orn u sed i n t his r itual w as c ollected b y t he p eople a nd k ept u ntil s pring. T hen i t w as p lanted a nd i ts d ivine c haracter, b estowed u pon i t t hrough t his c eremony, m eant t hat a g ood y ear w as a head f or t he f armers. I t i s e vident t hat c osmic t hought, s acred g eography, a nd n atural p henomena t hat f requently a re a ssociated w ith c ertain g roups e ven j ustify t heir r ights t o t he l and a nd s erve a s m eans t o a s ocial c ontrol, a re w oven i nto t he s ociopolitical s ystem o f t hese p eople . M yths a ssociated w ith t hese p henomena c onstitute p art o f t he o fficial l anguage t hat e nsures t he l egitimation o f t he p ast , w hich a t t imes i s n ebulous, a nd c ommunicates s ecurity a nd c onfidence t o t he p eople.

C oncept o f t he " Promised L and" T he M esoamerican c oncept o f t he " promised l and", t he p lace o f e ternal h appiness, w as a l and w here t here w as a n a bundance o f w ater, w here p lants a nd f lowers w ere a lways g rowing, w here f ood w as f orever p lentiful. T his w as t he T lalocan , w here " never w as t here l ack o f e ars o f g reen m aize , ( nor) s quash , s quash b lossoms, h eads o f a maranth, g reen c hilis, t omatoes, g reen b eans, ( nor) t he T agetes f lower... i n T lalocan a ll i s e ver g reen , a lways i n g rowth , a lways s pring; i t i s a lways s pringtime" ( P .C ., 1 952, I II: 4 5). T his p aradise w as a lso T amoanchan , " Our u ltimate h ome" ( Ibid ., 1 969, V I: 1 05), w here t he f lowery p eople l ive; w here t he m other o f t he g ods " opens l ike a f lower," w here t he y oung X ochiquetzal, g oddess o f f lowers a nd p lants, a ccompanied b y h er f irst h usband, T laloc , " lived i n a greeable p laces [ surrounded b y] m any p leasures...with g reat d elights a nd c omforts [ provided b y] s prings, r ivers, a nd f orests.. . where n othing w as e ver l acking" ( Sahagün , 1 938, V : 9; M unoz C amargo , 1 966: 1 54155). 9 I n t his E den t here w ere d elightful t hings s uch a s " fish, f rogs, t adpoles, l ittle s hrimp , a nenetes [ dragon f ly 's e ggs], l ittle s wamp w orms, a quatic f lies [ and t heir e ggs], t he d ragon f ly, t he l ake w orm i zcahuitli, a nd t he w ater f owl, t he d uck, t he g oose , t he r eed t hrush" ( Tezozomoc , 1 949: 3). 3 W hen t he M exica f ounded T enochtitlan t he i deal p lace w as a c opy o f t he A ztlan-Chichomortoc-Colhuacan o f t heir a ncestors. H uitzilopochtli

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w ished t o s how t o t hem t he s imilarity o f t he l and a nd t his p lace t hat h e h ad p romised t hem , a ccording t o T orquemada ( 1975: 1 17). A t t he t ime o f t he f oundation o f w hat w as t o b ecome t he c apital c ity, t he e conomy o f t he M exica w as b ased m ainly o n l ake p roducts . A griculture w as s till s econdary. T hese w ere w ater p eople, t o w ham t heir g od h ad p romised " a l arge l ake , w here e verything y ou n eed i s f ound" ( Cristöbal d el C astillo , 1 908: 8 3). D urän ( 1964: 1 34) d escribes t he l and o f t he M exica 's a ncestors , w here C oatlicue , m other o f H uitzilopochtli , d welled : ..the p lace w herein d welt o ur g od H uitzilopochtli a nd o ut o f w hich h e l ed o ur f orefathers...There t hey l ived i n l eisure , w hen t hey w ere c alled M exitin a nd A ztecs. T here t hey h ad a t t heir d isposal g reat f locks o f d ucks o f d ifferent k inds, h erons, w ater f owl, a nd c ranes . O ur a ncestors l oved t he s ong a nd m elody o f t he l ittle b irds w ith r ed . a nd y ellow h eads . T hey a lso p ossessed m any k inds o f l arge b eautiful f ish . T hey h ad t he f reshn ess o f g roves o f t rees a long t he e dge o f t he w aters. T hey h ad s prings s urrounded b y w illows, e vergreens a nd a lders, a ll o f t hem t all a nd c omely. O ur a ncestors w ent a bout i n c anoes a nd m ade f loati ng g ardens u pon w hich t hey s owed m aize , c hilli, t omatoes, a maranth , b eans, a nd a ll k inds o f s eeds w hich w e n ow e at a nd w hich w ere b rought f orth f rom t here . T hese d escriptions a lso r eflect t he T lalocan a nd T amoanchan o f m yth . I n t his p aradisaical l and e verything t hat d epended u pon t he l ake , f rom t he r ushes t o t he d ucks a nd f ish , w ould b e a bundant .

T he i mportance o f t he c entre T he e arthly p aradise , t he p romised l and t hat t he M exica t hought t hey h ad f ound i n t he V alley o f M exico , b ecame t he c entre o f t heir w orld. T his i s t rue o f a ll c ultures -the w orld r evolves a round t he c entre t hey h ave c reated , w here s ocial, p olitical, e conomic , a nd r eligious a ctivities a re c arried o ut. T enochtitlan w as t he a ltepetl h ill a nd w ater -and i t w as a nepantla -in t he m iddle o f t he w ater . T his r eminded t he M exica o f A ztlan , t heir o riginal h omeland, a n i sland i n t he m iddle o f al agoon . S ome c hronicles, w hen r eferring t o t his i sland, s ay t hat i n i ts c entre t here w as a h ill f rom w hich f lowed a s pring , w hich b ecame a r iver ( Chimalpahin , 1 965: 6 4, 1 24: H istoria d e l os M exicanos p or s us P inturas , 1 973: 3 9). H uitzilopochtli's m other l ived o n ah ill c alled C olhuacan , i n t he m iddle o f ag reat l ake . B oth t he h ill i n t he l ake a nd t he P lace o f A ncestors ( which i s t he m eaning o f C olhuacan ) r efer t o t he M exica p lace o f o rigin , t hat i s w hy M otecuhzoma I 's e nvoys l ooked f or t his g oddess-ancestor w here t hey d id. T he i mportance o f t he c entre i s n ot o nly M esoamerican , i t i s u niversal. W e h ave s een t his i n t he O rient , a nd i n s outhwestern U nited S tates t he p lace o f c reation o f ag roup i s c onsidered t he c entre o f t he w orld. I n M exico t he c entre o f t he e arth w as n ot o nly t he p lace o f c reation b ut w as t he h ome o f X iuhtecuhtli-Huehueteotl, t he F ire , w ho

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l ived " in t he t urquoise e nclosure ...where r est t he d ark b lue, t he y ellow w aters..." ( F .C., 1 969, V I: 1 9). T hat t his w as t he p lace o f b lue a nd y ellow w ater i ndicates t hat t he n avel o f t he e arth , t he h ome o f t he m other a nd f ather o f a ll, t he c entre o f t he u niverse, h ad a ncestral s ignificance f or t he M exica, s ince s treams o f b lue w aters a nd y ellow w aters ( equivalent t o r ed i n i ndigenous t hought) i ndicated t he p lace w here T enochtitlan w as t o b e f ounded.

M yth a nd s ymbol b ased o n n ature I n M exica s ociety t he i nteraction w ith n ature w as a d eterminant i n t he c reation o f m yths a nd t he f ormation o f s ymbols, t herefore a g reat d eal o f M exica h istory w as r elated t o o r i nterpreted t hrough n atural e lements, e specially g eographical f eatures. M any r eligious c oncepts w ere f ormed t hrough t his m an-natural e nvironment r elationship . I n c ultures w here t his p oint o f v iew i s f ound, b uildings a re o ften o riented t o g eographical f eatures, t o c elestial p henomena, a nd t o t he w orld d irections . T owns a nd c ities a re g enerally s een a s m odels o f t he u niverse . W e h ave s een t hat a ltepet1 ( water a nd h ills) m eans " city" i n t he N ähuatl l anguage . T his w ord p oints t o t he i mportance o f n atural e lements; b oth w ater a nd l and a re n ecessary f or a s ettlement , p art o f t heir v alue i s e conomic . W ithin t his a ltepetl, t he a rchitecture a nd f orms o f a rt w ere s ymbolic . N othing w as c asual, e verything h ad a m eaning . T hese e xpressions o f a rt c onstituted p art o f t he o fficial l anguage t hat j oined m an t o h is e nvironment , t o h is r eal o r i magined h istory, a nd t o t he i dealized i mage o f h is p eople . T hus w as a h istorical i dentity c reated w hich v isually c ommunicated t he v alidity o f t he s tate . I n t hese c 9ncepts t he g eographical c entre ( or w hat w as i magined t o b e t he ce ntre ) w as b asic . I t w as s ynonymous w ith t he c hosen p lace , t he p romised l and . F or t he M exica i t w as t he p lace w here t he w aters o f t wo c olours c rossed , t he p lace o f t he c ave f rom w hich t he s treams f lowed . T he M exica b ased t heir f oundation m yth a nd t he c omponents o f t heir g lyph o n t he c oncepts d iscussed a bove , r elated t o s acred n ature a nd c ombined w ith t he i dea o f s acred a ncestors a nd o f t he p eople c hosen b y t heir g od.

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N OTES ' P O C HAPTER V

1 .

A ccording t o t he C uicatec p eople o f C oncepciön P äpalo , O axaca, f our s acred m ountains s urround t he t own, o ne a t e ach c orner , t hus f orming a q uincunx w ith t he t own i n t he c entre . T hese m ountains r epresent t he f our q uarters, s ince t hey a re s aid t o f ace t he f our d irections. T hat t he g eographic r eality d oes n ot c orrespond t o t his b elief i s u nimportant, t he m ountains h ave n o a ssociation w ith t he c ardinal o r i ntercardinal d irections b ut s tand i n p laces t hat d o n ot c orrespond t o t hese. I n t he v iew o f t he p eople o f C oncepciön P äpalo , h owever, t hey f orm a q uincunx a nd e ach o ne i s r elated t o a w ord d irection. T his i s t he w ay t he v illagers h ave l earned b y t radition t o s ee t heir s acred h ills. ( Eva H unt, p ersonal c ommunication).

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C HAPTER V I:

N atural e lements T enochtitlan

i n

t he

T HE P ICTORIAL E VIDENCE

C opil

m yth a nd

i n t he

_ glyph

o f

M exico-

T he s tory o f t he f oundation o f T enochtitlan a nd o f t he M exica m igration i s f ound n ot o nly i n t he c hronicles w ritten a t t he b eginning o f t he c olonial p eriod, s ixteenth a nd s eventeenth c enturies, b ut r epresentations o f t he m yth o r e lements t hat f orm p art o f i t a re s een i n p ictorial , e xpressions. T he l atter a re f ound i n s culpture , m ural p ainting, a nd i n t he p ictorial c odices, c reated e ither i n p rehispanic t imes o r n ot l ong a fter t he S panish C onquest . A s s tated e arlier , t he h ypothesis h ere i s t hat e lements o f t he f oundation m yth c an b e f ound i n i solated f orm i n t he T eotihuacan m urals, i n t he c odices , a nd i n p rec lassic a s w ell a s p ostclassic s culpture , a lthough o f c ourse t he s ignificance o f t hese r epresentations m ay w ell h ave b een d ifferent f rom t hat o f t he " promised l and" o f t he M exica. H ere I s hall d escribe t he m otifs f ound i n d ifferent a spects o f a rt a nd d iscussed i n t he w ritten c hronicles t hat a re a ssociated w ith t he m yth a nd t he g lyph , a nd a s tudy o f w hich c an r eveal s ome o f t heir s ymbolic i mportance .

A ztlan-Chicomoztoc-Colhuacan A ztlan-Chicomortoc i s s hown a t t imes a s S even C aves, a t o thers a s t he d eparture o f t he g roups f rom t his p lace o f o rigin , i n t he T ira d e l a P eregrinaciön o r C odex B oturini ( where t he f ounding o f T enochtitlan a t t he e nd i s m issing ), i n D urän 's A tlas, i n t he C ödice A ubin , C ödice M exicanus , C ödice A zcatitlan , t he a lauhtinchan M aps , t he C odex V aticanus-Rios, te h H , C ödice R amirez istoria Tl o teca-Chichimeca , d 6I d 5 -e A ntonio d e L ean , t he S elden R oll, a nd o ther m anuscripts. A lthough m ost o f t he w ritten c hronicles r efer t o A ztlan a s a n i sland i n t he m iddle o f a b ody o f w ater , o nly a f ew o f t he p ictorial s ources s how t his ( figs. 3 , 1 2). I n t he T ira o r B oturini H uitzilopochtli i s w ithin a c ave t hat i n t urn i s w ithin t he h ill o f C olhuacan, w hich e vidently w as r eached a fter t he A ztecs c rossed t he w ater . T heir i sland s hows s even t emples i nstead o f c aves ( Chicomortoc m eans " Seven C aves"), t he l argest o f t hese t emples u ndoubtedly p ertained t o t he A ztecs. I n t he A ubin , A ztlan i s ah ill s urrounded b y o nly f our t emples, a ll o f t hem A ztec a ccording t o t he g loss. P late X VIII o f t he M exicanus a nd p ossibly o ne p late i n t he A tlas d e D urän , s how t he A ztecs e mbarking u pon t heir m igration a t t he o rder o f ab ird i n t he t ree ( Torquemada, 1 975: 13) 1 ( fig. 1 3). T he h ead e merging f rom a t emple m ay b e t hat o f H uitzilop ochtli, i nasmuch a s t he s peech s croll c oming f rom h is m outh i ndicates h e i s s peaking t o t he m igrants, a s i s t he b ird .

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O ther m anuscripts r epresent t he S even C aves o r P lace o f E mergence, i n a m ore s tylized f ashion, t he c aves a ll f orming p art o f a m ountain . I n s ome c ases t he m ountain i s i dentified a s C olhuacan b y t he t wisted h ill a t i ts s ummit, g lyph o f t his p lace . T hat s ome o f t he r epresentat ions o f C hicomortoc c ome f rom r egions o ther t han t hat o f t he M exicaA ztecs, f or e xample O axaca ( Selden , L ienzo A ntonio d e L eön o r C holula ( Historia T olteca-Chichimeca), i ndicates t hat t his m ythical p lace o f o rigin f orms p art o f aw idespread t radition ( fig. 1 6). T he C ödice R amirez p resents C hicomortoc s imply a s s even c ircles w ith p eople f rom d ifferent g roups i nside ( fig. 1 7), w hile D urän s hows b oth s tylized c aves a nd p eople e merging f rom a g reat e arth-monster-cave m aw ( fig . 8 ).

T enochtitlan T he s cene o f t he d iscovery o f t he s ite f or t he M exica c apital w hich c onsists o f a n e agle p erched o n a n opal c actus t hat g rows f rom a r ock o r h ill, w ater f lowing f rom t his o r a round t he r ock, a t t imes t he f ounders i ndicating t he s ign ( at t imes t hey a re a bsent), t hese a re p ortrayed i n t he A tlas d e D urän , C odex A ubin , C ödice R amirez, a nd C odex M endoza ( figs. 1 3, 1 8, 1 9). I n t he c entre o f t he f irst p late o f t he M endoza l t he g lyph f or T enochtitlan i s s een : t he e agle, n opal, a nd r ock a bove a s hield w hich r epresents t he c ity ( and w hose s even f eather t ufts c ould s ymbolize t he s even o riginal g roups o f t he m igration). T he f ounding s cene i s l ocated w here t wo s treams c ross. T hese a re n ot t he r ed o r y ellow a nd b lue s treams o f t he m yth , a lthough t hey c ould s ymbolize t hem . R ather , t hey a re c anals t hat l imit t he f our o riginal d ivisions o f T enochtitlan . ( In t he l ower p art o f t he p late t wo t emples a re s hown o n f ire, t hose o f C olhuacan a nd T enayuca . T he f ire i ndicates a c onquest o f t hese t wo c ities, s ince t he f irst a ct o n c onsolidation o f a c onquest w as t he b urning o f t he t emple o f t he f allen c ity). t he A tlas d e D uran 2 t he T enochtitlan g lyph i s a n opal t hat g rows f rom a r ock o n a n i sland i n a l ake . T hese d rawings, w hich i llustrate D urän 's H istoria , p robably w ere d one i n t he s ixteenth c entury b y a n ative a rtist, i n E uropean s tyle . T he i llustrations i n t he o riginal m anuscript i n t he B iblioteca N acional i n M adrid, a re c ut u p a nd p asted o n a gain , s ometimes i n a c onfusing m anner . T he f oundation s cene i s r epresented t wice : o ne, w hen t he t eomamaque d iscover t he s igns t hat i ndicate t he s ite f or t he f ounding o f t he c ity , a nd, i n t he l ast i llustration, t he e agle i s d estroying a b ird w ith h is b eak. I n t he o ther, h e h as a s erpent i n h is b eak . I n t he f inal i llustration T enoch, o ne o f t he m ythical f ounders, i s s hown , h is n ame g lyph i s t he n opal a nd t he r ock. I n a nother D urän i llustration H uitzilopochtli i s s hown w ith t he e agle m issing a nd t he n opal o n t he r ock a nd w ater i n t he b ackground . T his i s n ot e xactly a f oundation s cene , h owever , a nd h as b een c ut u p a nd p asted. I n t he D urän A tlas, i n s cenes w here t he s overeign o r a w arrior o r l eader i s i dentified a s a M exica-Tenochca, t he T enochtitlan g lyph i s d rawn n ext t o h im . T he c ity i s i dentified t he s ame w ay, f or e xample i n t he s cene w here w ater i s b rought t o T enochtitlan b y a n a queduct f rom C oyoacan ( figs. 1 3, 2 0, 2 1). I n

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I n t he C ödice R amirez t here a re f ewer d rawings b ut t hey a re a lmost e xact c ounterparts o f t hose i n D urän ( fig . 1 7). H owever, t he s tyle i s c ruder t han t he l atter . R amirez a ppears t o b e ap oor c opy o f D urän , a lthough b oth m ay h ave b een t aken f rom a t hird p ictorial s ource . T here i s d oubt a s t o w hether D urän w as e arlier t han R amirez o r v ice v ersa ( Warren , 1 973: 8 1). W hen t he D urän m anuscript w as b ound d uring t he n ineteenth c entury p arts o f t he c oloured i llustrations w ere c ut o ff, t he p ages e ither l eft i n m utilated f orm o r p lates o f i llustrations p asted t ogether a gain , o ften i ncorrectly. T he A ubin C odex , a lso c alled C odex 1 576, s hows t he f ounding o f M exico T enochtitlan i n t he t raditional m anner , e xcept t hat t he l agoon i s d epicted s eparately, i nstead o f s urrounding t he n opal c actus . T he f irst b uildings m ade b y t he M exica a t t his t ime w ere o nly h umble h uts a nd t he N ahuatl g loss a lso i ndicates t he p overty o f t he p eople d uring t heir e arly d ays h ere . T he M exicanus C odex i s s imilar i n c ontent a nd s tyle t o t he A ubin . I n t he A zcatitlan t he M exica a re s een e scaping f rom T izaapan o n t heir s hields m ade o f r eeds, w hich s erve a s r afts. T he d eath o f C opil i s s een o n a nother p late ( figs. 1 4, 2 2).

C opil C opil i s r epresented i n v ery f ew p ictorial m anuscripts. I n t he C odex A zcatitlan t he f oundation o f T enochtitlan i s s ymbolized b y t he f igure o f C opil i n a s upine p osition , f rom h is h eart ( or t he p lace t he h eart w ould b e i f i t h ad n ot b een e xtracted ) t he t enochtli o r n opal c actus g rows. H uitzilopochtli, t he v ictor , i s d epicted a s a h ead w ithin t he b eak o f t he h umming b ird , t he g od 's s ymbol a nd n amer eference ( from h uitzitzilin , t he b ird i n N ahuatl), h overing o ver C opil 's f ace ( fig . 1 4). I n M exico 's M useum o f A nthropology t here a re t wo s tone sc ulptures o f c acti t hat g row f rom a h ead c arved o n t he b ase ( fig . 1 5). A lthough t hey d o n ot g row f rom t he h eart , i n C opil 's c ase I b elieve t he h eart a nd t he h ead t o b e s ynonymous. I n T ula t here a re t wo s imilar c acti t hat g row f rom h eads, t his t ime i n r elief c arvings o n t he b alustrades o f a s mall t emple i n t he Z apata I I s ection . P ossibly t hese c ould a ll r epresent C opil, w hose h ead w as c ut o ff a nd t hrown i nto t he r eeds a t T epetzinco . P ossible a ntecendents o f C opil o r o f t he c omponents o f t he f oundi ng g lyph o f T enochtitlan -natural e lements t hat m ay o r m ay n ot h ave i nfluenced t he M exica i n t heir c hoice o f s ymbolic i conography - a re f ound i n t he c odices B orbonicus , X olotl, Q uinatzin , M agliabechiano , T udela , a ll f rom c entral M exico , a nd t he B orgia , V aticanus-Rios, ir e ' g ry-Mayer, a nd L aud , o f t he B orgia g roup , p robably f rom t he P uebla T laxcala r egion . S ome o f t hese n atural e lements w hich c ould h ave i nfluenced t he M exica h ad t hey b een a cquainted w ith t hem a nd w hich w ould h ave c onstituted i solated m otifs t hat m ay h ave s uggested t he T enochtitlan g lyph , a re t he s acred t ree, t he f our w orld d irections a ssociated w ith t he t ree , ab ird, a nd a g od , t he b roken t ree , t he o llin a nd t he a tl t lachinolli. M ost o f t hese m otifs, a nd a lso t he s treams o f w ater o f t wo c olours, a re s een , t oo , i n i solated f orm i n O lmec , I zapa, i n M aya s culpture, a nd i n t he T eotihuacan m urals, t hat i s, i n m any

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r egions o f M esoamerica i n t he P reclassic a nd C lassic p eriods.

S culpture O n t he b ack o f t he s tone m odel o f a t emple c alled t he T eocalli d e l a G uerra S agrada, e xhibited i n t he M exica H all o f t he M useum o f A nthropology i n M exico , t here i s a r elief c arving o f t he T enochtitlan g lyph: t he e agle, t he a tl t lachinolli i ssuing f orth f rom h is b eak l ike ac all t o w ar , p erched o n an opal t hat g rows f rom t he b ody o f a f igure t hat i s e ither h uman o r d ivine ( fig. 2 3). I nstead o f f ruits o f t he n opal, p rickly p ears , h ere a re r epresented h uman h earts a s t he f ruit . T hese m ore s trongly e mphasize t he w arlike a spects o f t he e agle a nd t he s ymbol o f w ater a nd f ire, a v isual m etaphor f or w ar . T he s upine f igure f rom w hich t he p lant g rows i s n ot, h owever , C opil, a lthough i t m ay h ave b een i nspired b y t he s ame p ictorial t radition. C aso ( 1927: 5-56) h as 5 i nterpreted i t a s C halchiuhtlicue, g oddess o f w ater , b ecause i t i s r eclining i n w ater, s hown b y w avy l ines. A lthough t he d eity ( if i t i s) w ears a s hort s kirt, t his a ppears t o b e ax icolli a m an 's s hirt-like g arment, r ather t han a w oman 's s kirt . S ince t he w hole c arving m ay r epresent t he e mblem o f T enochtitlan , t he w ater w ould t hen b e t he l ake i n w hich t he i sland c ity s tood, t he s upine f igure t he l and. T here a re l arge e yes i n t he c hest o f t he f igure , w here t he h eart s hould b e a nd f rom w hich t he c actus g rows. T hese e yes a nd l arge m outh o r o pen s pace a re t ypical o f t he r epresentations o f t he e arth m onster a s s hown i n t he c odices. T he e arth m onster w ith a s acred t ree o r p lant g rowing f rom i ts m iddle i s s een i n d ifferent M esoamerican c ultures, f rom P reclassic I zapa u p t o M exica t imes. T herefore, t he f igure o n t he T eocalli d e l a G uerra S agrada c ould r epresent t he e arth w here t he r oots o f t he n opal t hat g rew f rom C opil 's h eart w ere g erminated. I n t his i mage f ound o n t he T eocalli, t he e agle c ould b e a s ymbolic r eference t o t he c onqueror w ho s oars a nd o vercomes h is e nemy, a s d oes t he e agle . T his i s t he p icture t he M exica l iked t o h ave o f t hemselves. T he s un w as " the e agle t hat a scends" a ccording t o t he F lorentine C odex ( 195 1, I: 4 7), a nd t he s un w as a n i mportant s ymbol f or t he M exica . I T he h eart o f t he p risoner o f w ar w ho w as s acrificed w as c alled t he q uauhnochtli, " tuna d e ä guila," ( "the e agle 's p rickly p ear"). A w arrior w ho m et h is d eath b y s acrifice w as t he q uauhtecatl, " he w ho l ives i n t he l and o f t he e agle" ( SAH , 1 969, I : 1 43, I V : 30). T he 3 e agle, t hen , i n t his s culpture m ay s ymbolize t he h eart o f C opil, w ho w as s acrificed a fter h e w as c onquered b y H uitzilopochtli; t he M exica o ffered h is h eart t o t he s un, a s w as c ustom i n s acrificing, b efore t hrowing i t i nto t he r eeds a nd r ushes i n T epetzinco ( HMP : 4 8). T he e mblem o f M exico-Tenochtitlan p robably i s, h owever , a p lace g lyph w hose c omponents g ive t he n ame o f t he c ity : t e(t1) ( rock), n och(tli) ( hard p rickly p ear f ruit, n opal c actus), t i- (ligature), t lan ( place o f), a s h as b een m entioned i n t hese p ages. N evertheless, t he n atural e lements h ere m ust h ave b een c hosen b ecause o f t heir a ssociat ion w ith s acred p henomena, t he c ontent i nherited t hrough o ral t ransmission o ver t he c enturies. T he e agle i s n ot i ncluded i n t he l inguistic i nterpretation o f t he g lyph , n or a re t he s erpent, t he b ird i n t he e agle's b eak, n or t he w ater. I t i s p ossible t hat t he p lace g lyph w as d esigned a fter t he c reation o f t he T eocalli d e l a G uerra S agrada, w ith t his i n v iew ( in l ate A ztec t imes o r e arly C olonial?),

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a nd t he a tl t lachinolli -w ar s ymbol -in m isinterpreted a nd s een a s a s erpent.

t he

s erpent 's

b eak

w as

T he p ictorial c odices A n i mage o f a t ree o r p lant o n w hich a b ird p erches a nd w hich g rows f rom t he b ody o f ah uman o r s upernatural f igure i s f requently f ound i n c ertain p ictorial m anuscripts, f or e xample t he C odex B orgia . S eler ( 1963, II: 5 3) u sually i nterprets t he s upine f igure a s t he I e arth g oddess a nd t he t ree o r p lant a s a ssociated w ith o ne o f t he w orld q uarters. T he f igure a lmost a lways h as c laws i nstead o f h ands a nd f eet a nd a s kull i nstead o f a f ace ( fig. 2 4). T hese f eatures i ndicate n ot o nly l ife a nd d eath b ut p roperties o f t he e arth . T he p lates o f t he C odex B orgia a nd o ther m anuscripts w here f lora g rows f rom t he e ntrails o f a f igure i n r eality d o n ot r efer t o t he f oundation o f T enochtitlan , h owever. W hat t hey d o d emonstrate i s a p ictorial t radition t hat m ust h ave b een o ld w hen t he M exica a dopted i t a nd a dapted i t t o t heir i deas. I n e arlier ' times u ndoubtedly t his m otif w as r elated t o c reation: c reation t hat c ould b e aw orld d irection, s ustenance i n t he f orm o f f ruit t rees o r m aize t hat c omes o ut o f t he e arth 's w omb , a l ineage r epresented a s a n a ncestral t ree b orn o f t he l ands p ertaining t o a c ertain g roup o f p eople, o r t he s upremacy o f o ne g roup o ver a nother, s een s ymbolically a s a n ew e ra t hat g rows f rom t he h eart o f t he v anquished o nes. T he c odices m entioned h ere p robably w ere c ontemporaneous w ith t he f oundation o r t he r ise o f T enochtitlan , t hat i s, f rom t he f ourteenth t o t he f ifteenth c enturies ( N . T roike, p ersonal c ommunication), a nd r epresent a c ontinuation o f m ore a ncient t raditions, p ossibly s ince I zapa. I f t he M exica w ere a ble t o c onsult t his t ype o f p ictorial d ocument ( the c hronicles d o m ention i nnumerable m anuscripts a nd t he e xistence o f g reat l ibraries i n p rehispanic t imes), t hey m ust h ave b een i nfluenced b y t hem w hen t hey w rote M exica h istory. S ome t hemes i n t hese p ictorial d ocuments, s uch a s t he t ree t hat g rows f rom t he b ody o f d d ivine b eing, c ould h ave s uggested t o t he M exica t he m yth o f t he h eart a nd h ead o f C opil. A s av isual m etaphor f or c reation , i t w ould h ave s ymbolized t he e nd o f a o nce p owerful p olitical s ector a nd t he c reation o f a n ew f action i n a n ew c apital c ity, T enochtitlan.

T he p resence o f n ature i n m yths a nd i conography E lements o f n ature h ave a lways h ad a s acred c haracter . T hey a re m eans o f c ommunication b etween m an a nd t he v ital n atural f orces, b etween m an a nd t he g ods. T he t rees, t he m ountain, a nd w ater a re s acred i n M exico a nd i n o ther p arts o f t he w orld. B ut i t i s n ot p ossible t o s eparate n ature f rom i ts f unction w ithin a s ociety i n w hich i t i s c onsidered s acred . O utside o f M esoamerica, a n e xample o f t his m an-natural e nvironment r elationship i s t he a pplication o f t he m andala, i mage o f t he c osmos, t o g eography: t he c ircle i n t he m andala r epresents t he s ky a nd o rder i n n ature , a nd t he r ectangle , o rder i mposed b y m an . I n C hina, J apan, S outheast A sia a nd I ndia i t i s c ommon t o s ee p ilgrimages t hat t ake p lace i n g eographical s pace w hose h ills, c aves, t rees, r ivers, a nd s prings ( also r eligious a rchitecture) r epresent p arts o f t he m andala, t he c osmogram . A s t he p ilgrim a dvances

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t hrough t his s acred s pace h e r eaches t he r esidence o f t he d ivinity. A s imilar c oncept m ust h ave e xisted i n M esoamerica, w here p ilgrimages w ere i mportant a nd w here e ach g eographical f eature s urely h ad a s pecial s ignificance . E ven t oday t his c oncept i s f ound i n m any p laces. O ne e xample i s t he s acred h ill a t A mecameca, n ear M exico C ity. T his h ill w as t he h ome o f C halchiuhtlicue i n p rehispanic t imes ( Chimalpahin , 1 965: 2 87). A s o ne c limbs t he h ill h e p asses g reat t rees, s till h ighly r evered, o n w hich a re h ung e x-votos, a nd a c ave n ear t he s ummit i s a lso t he s cene o f r everence. A c hurch s tands o n a s pot w here p robably t here w as a n a ncient s hrine . E lements o f n ature w hich a ccording t o t he h istorical s ources h elped d etermine t he f ounding o f T enochtitlan a nd w hich a re f ound i n t he m yth t hat e xplains o r j ustifies t his c entre , u ndoubtedly f ormed p art o f a t radition b ased o n t he i nteraction o f n ature w ith m an 's a ctivities. T his p henomenon o f n atural e lements, m yth , a nd t radition, w as i nherited b y t he M exica f rom t heir p redecessors. I n t he p ictorial r epresentation o f T enochtitlan, i ts g lyph o r e mblem , s een f rom t he t op t o b ottom a re t he b ird ( eagle i n t his c ase), t he t ree ( nopal c actus), t he r ock w hich i s s ymbolic o f t he m ountain a nd i ncludes t he c ave, a nd f inally t he w ater. T his p ictorial s ign f or T enochtitlan n ot o nly h as e tymological s ignificance a ccording t o t he i mages t hat c onstitute i t ( tetl . r ock , s tone; n ochtli = p rickly p ear , f ruit o f t he n opal c actus; t i l igature; t lan = p lace o f), b ut a lso u nites s ome o f t he n atural s ymbols f ound i n M esoamerican t raditions. N ow i t w ill b e n ecessary t o g o b ack i n t ime i n o rder t o t race , i f p ossible, t he e lements w hich i n t he m yth d etermined t he f ounding o f t he M exica c apital, i n a n a ttempt t o f ind t heir o rigin . T he s ignificance o f t hese e lements w ill b e d iscussed i n t he M exica p eriod a s w ell a s i n e arlier t imes, w hen t he m eaning p robably w as d ifferent, t hough s ymbolic. ' E ach p art o f t he f oundation s ymbol w ill b e d iscussed : t he e agle i s " the b ird", t he n opal i s " the t ree", a nd s o o n .

T he b ird T he b ird i s s ignificant i n M esoamerican t radition a nd p ictorial r epresentation . I t i s f ound i n a ll c ultures a nd a ll p eriods, t he b ird - w hether i t b e t he e agle, t he q uetzal, t he o wl, o r t he h ummingbird n ever w as a p urely d ecorative e lement i n a rt . A s i n a ll t hings i n t he p rehispanic w orld, e very m ention i n o ral l iterature a nd e very v isual r epresentation w as m eaningful. E ach o ne o f t he w orld q uarters w as a ssociated w ith a b ird, a t ree, a nd a e ty (o di C dex Fj e e ' rvary-Mayer; f ig. 2 4; Cd o ex De r sden ). F requently a f ifth b ird w as i n t he c entre. B irds o r o ther w inged c reatures s uch a s t he b utterfly a ccompanied t he L ords o f t he D ay i n t he t onalpohualli, t he s acred c alendar , f or e xample a s s een i n t he C odex B orbonicus ( fig. 2 6). E vidently i n t hese c ases t he b ird h ad a stronomical a nd c alendrical a ssociation. T Wo o f t he t wenty d ay n ames o f t he a ncient M exican c alendar w ere b irds: c uauhtli, e agle, a nd c ozcacuauhtli, b uzzard .

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I n s ome p ictorial c odices, s uch a s t he B orgia ( figs. 2 4, 4 3) a nd i n M exica s culpture ( fig . 2 7), t here a re m any r epresentations o f ab ird p erched o n a t ree t hat g rows f rom t he b ody o f a f igure t hat i s l ying f ace u p . I n t he M aya r eliefs o f t he C ross a nd t he F oliated C ross i n P alenque a b ird i s a lso o n t op o f t he t ree o f l ife, w hich i s t he m aize p lant. T he b ird i s a lso s een i n t he T emple o f I nscriptions ( fig . 2 8). A t t imes t he t ree w here t he b ird i s p erched g rows f rom t he h ead, n ot f rom t he h eart, o f a f igure . I n T eotihuacan, i n t he m urals o f T epantitla, b irds a re o n t he b ranches o f a t ree o r at wisted v ine t hat s eems t o g row f rom t he h ead o f t he c entral d eity ( fig . 3 8). A s imilar m otif, t he b ird o n at ree , i s f ound i n I zapa a s e arly a s t he t hird o r s econd c entury B .C . ( fig . 2 9). T ozzer ( 1907: 1 54) s ays t hat i n M aya m ythology t he s ouls o f t he d ead a scend t o t he c elestial w orlds b y a g iant c eiba o r s ilk-cotton t ree, o n i ts h ighest b ranch a f alcon l ives t hat r epresents t he s pirit o f t he t ree . N orman ( 1976: 1 36137) s ees t he I zapa r elief c arving s imilar t o t he P alenque r epresentations a nd c onsiders t his a n e xample o f a c onceptual t radition t hat i s b asic i n M esoamerica a nd t hat c ontinued o ver t he c enturies. T he b ird o n t he t ree i s s een n ot o nly i n p ictorial c odices a nd s culpture b ut i s p resent i n r itual. Ab ird m ade o f a maranth d ough w as p laced o n t he t op o f at ree i n t he X ocotl H uetzi f estival a nd w as a dored a s d ivine ( Durän , 1 97 1: 2 03-204). B oys c ompeted i n c limbing t he t ree t o o btain a p iece o f t he d ough b ird, e ven i f t hey h ad t o f ight f or i t , a nd t hen t ook h ome t he p rize t o b e p ut a way a s s ome s acred t hing. T he V oladores ( "flyers") o f t oday p erhaps a re r eminisc t o f t his f estival, a s w ell a s o f t he V oladores o f p rehispanic t imes. T he e agle 4 i s f requently f ound i n p rehispanic s ymbolism . A b ird a t t imes w as i dentified w ith c ertain p eople a s t heir g uide o r t utelary g od. T his i s t he c ase o f H uitzilopochtli w ith t he M exica , w ho w as a ssociated w ith t he e agle, t he c onqueror , w hen h is p eople w ere a t t heir h eight . I t i s a lso t he c ase o f Q uilaztli, w ho , w hen s he a ppeared t o t he C hichimecs i n a s emi-arid l and , t ook t he f orm o f a n e agle a nd 1 p erched o n ac actus ( Torquemada, 1 975: 16117). H uitzilopochtli w as c onceived b y a f eather b all t hat h is m other C oatlicue f ound a s s he w as s weeping a t emple, a nd p ut t he f eathers i nside h er b louse ( FC , 1 952, I II: 1 -5). A s imilar m yth i s t old o f C himalma , w ho c onceived Q uetzalcoatl w hile s weeping t he t emple ( Codex V aticanus-Rios , 1 964, I II: 2 6). T he m yth a bout H uitzilopochtli d oes n ot i dentify t he f eathers b ut b alls o f e agle d own i n a h eaddress i ndicate w ar o r s acrifice. H uitzilopochtli w as b orn f ully a rmed a nd w ith a " mass o f f eathers" o n h is h ead a nd h is l eft l eg c overed w ith f eathers ( F. C ., I 1 95 1, I: 4 7, S AH , 1 969, I : 2 7 1). T hese f eathers c ould h ave b een e agle p lumes, s ince t hese a re a ssociated w ith w arriors. O n t he o ther h and , t he " sisters o f H uitzilopochtli" d uring c ertain f estivities h ad t heir l egs a nd a t t imes t heir a rms c overed w ith r ed f eathers, a n a dornment t hat m ay h ave b een r eminiscent o f H uitzilopochtli 's b irth , i n s pite o f t heir c olour w hich i s n ot t ypical o f t he e agle . B ut C oyolxauhqui, H uitzilopochtli 's s ister w ho w as d ecapitated w hen s he t ried t o h ave h im m urdered , w ore t ufts o f e agle f eathers i n h er h eadd ress, a s ign t hat s he w as s acrificed . T he e agle, t hen , s eems t o h ave b een a c omplex s ymbol t hat r epresented t he s un, c onquest, p ower , a nd d eath .

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T he i mportance o f t he e agle i s f ound i n m any m yths. T he s econd i n c ommand i n t he M exica s tate w as i n c harge o f m ilitary a ffairs. O n s pecial s tate o ccasions h e d ressed i n t he v estments o f t he g oddess C ihuacoatl, w hich w ere c alled " eagle c lothing" ( DU , 1 967, I: 4 31). I W hen M otecuhzoma r eceived p rophecies o f t he c oming o f t he S paniards, h e f led t o a c ave a nd h id t here, b ut a n e agle, p erhaps H uitzilopochtli i n o ne o f h is f orms, s ent w ord t hrough a h umble f armer t hat t he r uler h ad b ecome a s elfish d espot a nd m ust t hink o f h is p eople i nstead o f a bandoning t hem ( Ibid.: 4 9 1-492).

T he t ree T he t ree, l ike o ther e lements o f n ature i n M exico , i s c onsidered a nimate a nd s acred . A ll f lora h as t his c haracter, w hether i t b e t he c eiba ( slik-cotton t ree), t he a huehuete o r g iant c ypress, t he m aguey a gave, t he n opal c actus, t obacco , o r m aize . S o w hile I s hall h ere r efer t o t he i mportance o f t he t ree i n t he a ncient M esoamerican w orld, i ts s ymbolism c an b e p ertinent t o o ther f lora. B oth t rees a nd r ocks w ere c onsidered t o b e a ncestors o f c ertain g roups, f or e xample t he M ixtecs. I n C hiapas i t w as b elieved t hat h uman l ineages c ame t o e arth t hrough t he r oots o f t he c eiba ( Nunez d e V ega, 1 702; T hompson , 1 950: 7 1). A ccording t o J acinto d e l a S erna ( 1953: 2 3 1) t rees o riginally w ere m en a nd w hen t hey w ere t ransformed i nto t rees t hey k ept t heir " rational s oul." C ervantes d e S alazar ( 19 14, I : 4 1) w rote t hat " they a dored a s go ds.. . s o me t rees s uch a s t he c ypress, c edar, o r o ak , b efore w hich t hey m ade t heir s acrifices." A t ree w as a ssociated w ith c reation i n m yth. A fter t he d estruction o f t he w orld b y f lood, t he s ky f ell d own . TWo m ain g ods, Q uetzalcoatl a nd T ezcatlipoca, t ransformed t hemselves i nto t rees a nd b etween t hem l ifted t he s ky b ack i nto p lace . T ezcatlipoca w as t hen c alled T ezcacahuitl, " Tr e o f m irrors," a nd Q uetzalcoatl w as Q uetzalhuexotl, " Precious w illow" ( 1 IMP , 1 973: 3 2). T he t r e w as a ssociated w ith c reation i n a nother m yth . E hecatl ( Quetzalcoatl) a nd M ayahuel, m aguey g oddess, c ame d own f rom o ne o f t he s ky l evels a nd t urned i nto a t ree w ith t wo b ranches, o ne n amed Q uetzalhuexotl, t he o ther X ochicuahuitl , " Flowery t ree ." W hen t he o ther g ods r ealized t hat M ayahuel h ad d isappeared, t hey c ame d own t o l ook f or h er. A t t hat p oint t he b ranches s plit o ff f rom t he t ree a nd M ayahuel's b ranch b roke i nto m any p ieces. H er r elatives t ook t he p ieces a nd a te m ost o f t hem , t hen t hey d eparted , l eaving Q uetzalhuexotl a lone . S o E hecatlQ uetzalcoatl r ecovered h is o riginal f orm , c ollected t he p ieces o f M ayahuel-Xochicuahuitl t hat r emained, a nd b uried t hem . F rom t hese g rew t he c entury p lant k nown a s t he m aguey ( HM , 1 973: 1 07). T his m yth p resents t wo e lements f ound i n b oth o ral l iterature a nd i n p ictorial e vidence , t he t ree o r p lant o f t wo b ranches a nd t he s plit t ree. T he d ouble-branched p lant s eems t o h ave b ecome a c anon , a f ormula f or r epresenting a ny f lora. W e s ee i t i n c odices a nd i n r elief s culpture ( figs. 2 4, 2 7). T his n orm f orms a c ross a nd t he c ruciform c ross w as c alled t he t onacaquahuitl, t he t ree o f s ustenance ( Ixtlilxochitl, 1 952; I I: 2 4). E ven i n m odern t imes t he t ree i s t he e quivalent o f t he c ross a nd i s t he s acred s entinel o f w ater-holes, i n

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C hiapas ( Guiteras-Holmes, 1 962: 2 94). T he d ouble-branched t ree t hat f orms a c ross o r aT i s s een i n a n umber o f c odices, f or e xample t he B orgia ( 1963: 1 8). T hese t rees o r p lants h ave a b ird o n t op , l ike t he e agle o n t he n opal, a nd i n o ne i nstance a j aguar. T he t rees g row f rom t he e ntrails o f ah uman o r s upernatural f igure. T he t ree r oots a re i n t he f orm o f a n e arth-monster-alligator a nd a re s imilar t o s ome c arvings a t I zapa, C hiapas ( figs. 2 8, 4 5). T he s plit t ree , w hich w as t o b ecome a b asic p art o f t he M exica m igration m yth, i s a lso s een i n t he B orgia. I n s ome, b lood f lows f rom w ounds. T he g loss o f t he C odex V aticanus-Rios ( 1964, I II: 1 04) s tates t hat t he s plit t ree b led a s i f i t h ad b een s acrificed : " They p aint t he t ree w ith b lood f lowing f rom i t, i n t he s ame w ay t hat t hese g ods a re s aid t o h ave b een e xpelled f rom t his p lace...". I f t here w ere a n e arly t radition o f e xpulsion f rom a p lace r epresented b y ab roken t ree, t he A ztecs, w hen t heir m ajor g roup w as s plit i nto t wo a t C oatlicamac, p lace o f t he b roken t ree, w ould h ave u sed t his s ymbol t o r epresent t he d ivision o f t heir p eople. T he s econd p art o f t he T enochtitlan e mblem i s t he p rickly p ear, t he t enochtli o r n opal c actus, w here t he e agle s tood . T he t enochtli i s t he " tuna d ura", t he f ruit o f t he n opal, a nd s ince t he n opal i s r epresented h ere i t i s i ncluded a mong t he s acred t rees. I n r epresentat ions f rom c ultures b efore t he M exica t he f lora w here t he b ird s tands i s u sually a t ree, n ot a c actus, b ut I a m f ollowing S ahagün ( 1969, I II: 2 90) w ho c alled t he n opal a t ree w hen h e d escribed i t: " ...tunal, A rbol q ue l leva t unas" ( "the p rickly p ear, a t ree t hat b ears t he f ruit , t he p rickly p ear"). T he s acred t ree, t he t ree o f l ife, t he t ree t hat s upports t he w orld q uarters, e vidently, t hen , w as s upplanted b y t he n opal c actus i n t he M exica m yth a nd g lyph. A side f rom i ts l inguistic v alue a s t he n och(tli) i n T enochtitlan , t he n opal i s t he s ymbol o f t he d ivine t ree, o f t he c entre o f t he u niverse w hich w as T enochtitlan f or t he M exica. T he r eason f or t heir h aving c hosen t he n opal m ay h ave b een e conomic, s ince t his c actus, l ike t he m aguey, c ontributed t o t he f ood a nd w elfare o f t he p eople. H errera ( 1945, I II: 25) s aid a bout t he n opal , " In t he 2 l and o f t he C hichimecs, w hich i s s terile, a nd w here w ater i s l acking, i t s erves a s f ood a nd d rink , b ecause t hey ( the C hichimecs) e at t he p rickly p ear f ruit a nd d rink t he j uice i n t he l eaves. T he f ruit i s s omething l ike f igs.. . and i s v ery d elicious ..." D uring t he f estival o f H uey T ozortli, i n h onour o f T laloc , g od o f w ater a nd e arth, a n a rtificial f orest w as s et u p i n t he c ourtyard o f h is t emple, w ith r eal t rees b rought f or t his o ccasion. T he t allest t ree w as p laced i n t he c entre a nd w as c alled T ota, " Our f ather ." T he t ree w as a lso n amed T opiltzin , " Our p rince," a nd Y olometl, " He w ho h as a h eart" o r " Heart o f t he m aguey" ( DU , 1 97 1: 1 60, 1 61). T he T otaY olomet1 t ree w as b rought f rom t he h ill o f C olhuacan, P lace o f A ncestors . A t t he e nd o f t he A tl C aualo f iesta, t he T ota-Yolometl t ree w as c arried i n a c anoe, w ith m usic a nd r ich o fferings, t o P antitlan, w here i t w as t hrust i nto t he l ake t o r emain s tanding, t ogether w ith t he s keletons o f o ther t rees f rom p revious y ears, a s p art o f a d ead b ut s acred f orest . T he g reat l ake i n t he V alley o f M exico w as r eferred t o a s " Our m other," a nd t he t hrusting o f t he t ree i nto h er s urface a nticipated F reud 's p hallic i nterpretations b y m any c enturies. I t i s

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i nteresting, t oo , t o n ote t hat a g od o f v egetation, X ipe T otec, w as g iven t he s ame n ames a s T laloc : T ota, T opiltzin , Y olometl ( DU , 1 97 1: 1 72). T he t ree w as a m etaphor f or r ulership. T he s overeign w as r eferred t o a s t he g reat p ochotl o r c eiba, a s t he a huehuetl o r g iant c ypress, w ho p rotected h is p eople a s t hese g reat t rees g ive s hade a nd p rotection t o t hose w ho a re n ear i t ( SAH , 1 969, I I: 9 9, T EZ, 1 944: 8 0). T he c eiba, t he s avine, a nd t he w illow w ere m etaphors, t oo , w hen r eferring t o t he k ing, t he g overnment, t he t eacher . S ahagün ( 1969, I: 1 60) I s aid o f t he p redecessors o f t he M exica , " they w ere o ur a ncestors, t hey w ere o ur s hade a nd o ur s helter, t hey w ere l ike t hose g reat t rees t he p ochotl a nd t he a huehuetl, i n w hose s hade t ook r efuge...their s ub jects a nd v assals, t heir r elatives a nd f riends...". T he b roken t ree p lays a n i mportant r ole i n p ictorial m anuscripts a nd w ritten c hronicles, a s w e h ave s een . T his i mage c ould h ave e tymol ogical s ignificance o r c ould r epresent a b reak i n t ime . I f t he s plit t ree i s ap lace g lyph t he r oot c ould b e f ound i n c oati, w hich m eans t win o r d ouble ( as w ell a s s erpent), t hat i s, i t c ould r efer t o t he t wo p arts o f t he b roken t ree. T he C odex T elleriano R emensis, h owever ( 1964, I : 20, 22), i dentifies t he b roken t ree a s a s ymbol o f 2 2 T amoanchan X ochitlicacan , t he e arthly p aradise. I t w ould s eem t hat t he b roken t ree w as t he i ndicator o f s hattering e vents. O ne e xample i s w hen Q uetzalcoatl a nd T ezcatlipoca f ell f rom t he s ky, a ccompanied b y I tzpapalotl w ho f ell w ith t hem . T hey l anded o n a t ree w hich t hen b roke. T hese g ods w ere b orn i n T amoanchan-Xochitlicacan b ut c ut t oo m any f lowers a nd t ree b ranches, w hich a lso c aused t he t ree t o b reak ( Ibid.: 20). T his m yth w as a w arning t o t ake c are o f n atural 2 r esources. P eople i n p rehispanic t imes w ere v ery a ware o f t he e cology, t o t he p oint t hat e ven g ardeners h ad t o h ave s pecial p ermission t o c ut f lowers a nd o ther p lants, a nd s ome f lowers w ere r eserved f or t he g ods a nd s ome f or t he r uler, n ot t o b e t ouched b y o rdinary p eople. T hese r estrictions a t l east p rotected t he f lora f rom i ndiscriminate p lucking. T he m ost o utstanding e xample o f t he b roken t ree a s a p rophetic a ct w as i ts b reak a t C oatlicamac, a s h as b een p ointed o ut. S erna ( 1953: 2 08) s ays o f t his : " After h aving b egun t heir t ravels, o n r eaching a p lace w here t here w as a g reat t ree, a nd a ccording t o o rders g iven [ by H uitzilopochtli], n ext t o t he t ree t hey p laced h is i dol, a nd m ade f or h im a s mall a ltar...And w hen a ll t hose A ztecs f amilies w ere e ating, s uddenly t he t ree b roke i n h alf ( fig. 3 0). T errified b y s uch a h ad o men, t he p eople c onsulted t heir i dol, w ho , t aking a side t hose w ho t oday a re M exica, t old t hem t o l eave t he o ther f amilies...". T his t hey d id a nd a t t he s ame t ime c hanged t heir n ame, a s t heir g od h ad o rdered. A ccording t o T ezozomoc ( 1949: 2 0), a v oice i nside t he t ree w arned t he M exica-Aztecs t hat i t w as a bout t o b reak. I n s ome p lace g lyphs, f or e xample X ochicuauhtitlan , " Flowery T ree ," t he t ree i s r epresented w ith t eeth ( fig. 3 3). T his i s e xplained b y t he b reaking d own o f t he w ord: x ochi = f lower, c uauh = t ree o r f orest , t i = l igature ( joining), t lan n ext t o , i n o r t lantli = t eeth ( which h as t he s ame m eaning a s " next t o" i n t his c ase). T hus X ochicuauhtitlan m eans " Flowery T ree" o r " Next t o t he F lowery F orest." A lthough t he s plit t ree a t C oatlicamac u sually i s s hown w ithout t eeth, t he u se o f t eeth m eaning " next t o" m ay h ave b een i nterpreted b y s ome o f t he e arly c hroniclers a s a n i ndication o f a v oice c oming f rom t he t ree ( fig. 3 1). I mages o f t he s plit t ree a re

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s een i n t he T ira d e l a P eregrinaciön o r C odex B oturini, C odex B orbonicus, V aticanus-Rios, T elleriano-Remensis, a nd B orgia. I n n ot e very c ase d oes i t r efer t o C oatlicamac, h owever , b ut a t t imes i t a pplies t o T amoanchan a nd i s a ssociated w ith t he g oddess I tzpapalotl ( fig. 3 2). T he i mage o f t he s acred t ree i s c ommon i n a ll o f M esoamerica a nd a s a n e xample o f t he v alidity o f c omparing c ustoms a nd i deas o f o ne r egion a nd p eriod w ith a nother, I c ite T ozzer w ho w as d escribing a M aya b elief i n 1 907, r egarding t he w orld t ree ( 194 1: 1 32): A ccording t o t he n atives o f Y ucatan, t here a re s even h eavens a bove t he e arth, e ach o f w hich h as a h ole i n t he c entre, o ne d irectly a bove t he o ther. A ccording t o o ne i dea, a g iant c eiba t ree ( Yache , B ombac c eiba), g rowing i n t he e xact c entre o f t he e arth , r ears i ts b ranches t hrough t he s uccessive h oles i n t he h eavens u ntil i t r eaches t he s eventh, w here E l G ran D ios o f t he S paniards l ives. I t i s b y m eans o f t his t ree t hat t he d ead s pirits a scend f rom o ne w orld t o a nother u ntil t hey r each t he t opmost o ne, w here t hey f inally r emain. T his d escription o f t he c osmic t ree, g iven t o T ozzer i n t he t wentieth c entury, i s a lmost t he s ame a s c oncepts h undreds a nd p erhaps t housands o f y ears b efore, e xcept f or t he s ubstitution o f H unab K u, c reapor g od o f t he M ayas, f or E l G ran D ios, t he G reat G od o f t he S paniards. 3 R eferring t o t he n opal w ith i ts " hard f ruit ," t he t enochtli T orquemada ( 1975: 1 32) c ompares i t t o t he o live t hat a ppeared w here t he c ity o f A thens w as t o b e b uilt. T he o live w as f or t he G reeks, t hen , w hat t he n opal w as f or t he M exica a nd w hat o ther t rees o r p lants h ave b een f or o ther g roups -t he p lant l ife w ith w hich t hey h ave i dentified t hemselves f or s ome r eason a nd w hich f requently i s a n i mportant e lement i n t heir d iet. A ccording t o t he n atural e nvironment w here t hey g rew a nd t heir u sefulness i n t he r egion, t he m aguey , r eeds a nd r ushes, o r a c ertain f lower c ould h ave h ad t he s ame s ignificance f or s ome p eople t hat t he n opal h ad f or t he M exica. I n m any r egions o f M exico , f or e xample, t he t ollin o r r eed w as h ighly v alued. I ts n ame e ven c ame t o s ignify " metropolis," s ome s ay b ecause r eeds g row i n g reat n umber, b ut p robably t he e xplanation l ies i n t he u sefulness o f t he p lant, i ts e conomic i mportance, a nd t he f act t hat a s wampy l ocation s eems t o h ave b een p referred f or a s ettlement, s ince w here t here a re r eeds a nd r ushes t here i s a lwayp w ater, t here a re f ish , w ater f owl, a nd a ny n umber o f g oods t hings. A nother r evered p lant, m aize , w as f requently r epresented i n t he f orm o f a t ree, a nd t his p lant w as p rominent i n r itual: p opcorn n ecklaces f or t he d ances, a s o ne e xample.

T he r ock ,

t he h ill, t he c ave

T he s ymbolism o f t he r ock o r h ill w here t he n opal g rows i n t he T enochtitlan g lyph i s v ery r ich. S ome e xamples a re t hese: t he r ock c an r epresent t he s acred m ountain , o ne o f t he g ecmantic e lements i n d efining a s ite f or a s tructure. V iewing a m ountain a s a l arge r ock , o ne c an f ind a ncestral v alue i n i t, s ince s ome p eople b elieve

6 2

t hemselves d escended f rom r ocks. I t a lso r epresents C hicomortoc, t he p lace o f s even c aves w here s even e thnic g roups w ere c reated, i ncluding t he M exica-Aztecs. T he r ock a t T enochtitlan a lso h as l inguistic v alue, i nasmuch a s i t i s t he t e(t1) i n T e-nochtli, t he s ound g iving t he h ard q uality t o t he f ruit , w hich i s h ard. T he r ock o r h ill i n T enochtitlan i s a lso t he a ltepetl, t he " hill a nd w ater," t he c ity o r c entre o f t he M exica w orld. S ahagün ( 1969, II: 3 44-345) s ays o f t hese h ills t hat t hey " are f ull o f w ater a nd I o utside a re m ade o f e arth , a s i f t hey w ere l arge v essels o f w ater o r l ike h ouses f ull o f w ater. A nd w hen t here i s n eed [ of w ater] t he h ills w ill b reak o pen a nd t he w ater w ithin w ill p our o ut a nd f lood t he e arth. A nd b ecause o f t his i t w as c ustomary t o c all t he t owns w here p eople l ived a ltepetl, w hich m eans m ountain o f w ater, o r h ill f ull o f w ater." O ne o f t he m ost r evered h ills i n t he V alley o f M exico w as t he H uixachtepetl, s et b etween I ztapalapa a nd C olhuacan , w here t he N ew F ire c eremony w as h eld e very f ifty-two y ears. T epeyacac, a s mall h ill a t t he n orthern e dge o f T enochtitlan , w as a lso h ighly r evered, f or h ere w as t he h ome o f T onantzin , " Our M other", n ow t he s anctuary o f O ur L ady o f G uadalupe s tands a t t he f oot o f T epeyac . O n a ll t he h ills i mportant c eremonies w ere h eld, e specially o n M ount T laloc, w here r ich o fferings w ere d eposited. T hese w ere s o l avish, c onsisting o f s umptuous f oods a nd v aluable t extiles a nd j ewellery, t hat a rmed g uards w atched o ver e verything u ntil t he p erishable f oods a nd g oods h ad d isappeared. D uring t he m onth a nd f estival o f T epeilhuitl, w hen h ills w ere h onored, m iniature m ountains w ere f ormed o f t zoalli, a n a maranth d ough , a nd t hen w ere d ecorated w ith f eatures m ade o f s eeds. W hen t he M exica f led f rom T izaapan a nd f inally m anaged t o r est i n I ztacalco , t hey m ade a n a rtificial h ill o f p aper w hich s erved a s t he c entre o f a c eremony i n w hich t hey g ave t hanks t o t heir g od ( Torquemada, 1 975: 1 32). A nother s acred h ill w as C erro G ordo , am ountain t hat s erves a s a b ackdrop f or T eotihuacan , w hich i n p rehispanic t imes w as c alled T enan , " The M other" ( Papeles d e N ueva E spana, 1 905: 20). O n a lmost a ll 2 o ccasions w hen m en w ished t o e nsure t heir g ood l uck, t hey o ffered p rayers t o t he r ocks, h ills, w ater h oles, a nd o ther g eographical f eatures ( DU , 1 97 1: 16, 2 10, 2 11). 1

T he c ave A ccording t o T ezozomoc ( 1949: 8), t he r ed a nd b lue w aters t hat 8 a lso m arked t he s pot f or t he M exica c apital f lowed f rom a c ave i n a r ock. E ven t he p lace o f c reation, C hicomortoc, h ad b een a s ite f ull o f c aves. C aves h ave b een p rominent i n m yths o f a ll n ations. I n t he s ixteenth c entury M endieta w rote t hat t he m oon w as c reated i n a c ave i n T eotihuacan a fter t he b irth o f t he F ifth S un . H e a lso s ays t hat b oth g ods a nd m en w ere c reated i n c aves ( 1945, I : 8 7, 1 58). H errera ( 1945, I : 3 08) m entions t hat t he s un a nd t he m oon w ere c reated i n a c avern . A nd P ane ( 1963: 5 0) c laims t hat t he e ntire h uman r ace c ame o ut o f c aves. C aves w ere a nd s till a re t he h ome o f m an 's a ncestors, t he p lace w here a s upernatural g overnment i s i nstalled, t he p lace w here t reasure

6 3

i s h idden ( meaning s ustenance , s uch a s c orn), a nd a p lace o f c ommunicat ion w ith t he L ord o f t he E arth a s s acred a ncestors ( Hermitte, 1 970: 3-42, K elly, 1 966: 3 00). T oday, i n O ztotempan, G uerrero ( whose n ame 3 m eans " at t he e dge o f t he c ave"), w hen t he d ry s eAson e nds, r ites a re c arried o ut t o p ropitiate t he L ord o f t he E arth a nd a ttract r ain, i n a c ave t hat i s c alled " the c entre o f t he w orld" ( Sepülveda, 1 973: 9 -20). T he C odex R amirez s ays a bout C hicomortoc , t he S even C aves, t hat t he p eople " did n ot l ive i n t hem , f or t hey h ad t heir h ouses a nd f ields w ith m uch o rder a nd p ropriety...in t hose p rovinces e ach l ineage u sually h ad [ association w ith ] i ts k nown s ite a nd p lace, t hat w hich w as i ndicated b y a c ave, i t w as s aid ' the c ave o f s uch a nd s uch a l ineage '...". T his t radition h as r emained a live i n m any a reas. A ccording t o A lfonso V illa R o jas ( 1946: 5 78-587, a nd p ersonal c ommunication ) e ach h amlet i n t he r egion o f O xchuc, C hiapas, i s c alled b y t he s ame n ame a s t he c ave w ith w hich i t i s a ssociated. T he l ineages a lso a re r elated t o c aves a nd i t i s p ossible t o i dentify t he o rigin o f a p erson s imply b y k nowing h is c ave-name . T he c ave i s t he s ymbol o f t he u terus a nd o f b irth . I t a lso r epresented t he m outh o f t he e arth m onster t hat s wallowed p eople, a nimals, a nd p lants t hat d ied. H errera ( 1945, I : 3 07) w rote t hat w hen a r uler d ied h e w as b uried i n a c ave o r i n a " hollow p lace." C aves a t t imes f ormed p art o f t he t emples t hemselves o r a s acred s pace i n a r itual c entre. T he R alancanche g rottoes, w ell k nown f or t he r ich o fferings t o T laloc a nd X ipe T laloc, f orm p art o f C hichen I tzä , a nd t here a re o ther s acred c enotes i n t his M aya c ity. N ot a ll t hese e xamples c an b e a ssociated w ith t he t ype o f c ave t hat f orms p art o f t he f ounding m yth a nd g lyph, b ut t hey d o s how t he s acred c haracter o f c aves. T he c ave, o r g rotto i s t he p lace w here s ustenance i s k ept, i t i s t he d epository o f s eeds, t he s cene o f r ites a nd o fferings t o g ods o f w ater a nd f ertility. I t i s ad ark p lace a nd g ermination, t he b eginning o f l ife , t akes p lace i n d aLkness. T he c ave, t he e arth 's w omb, i s t he s ymbol p ar e xcellence o f c reation .

W ater S prings, w aterholes, r ivers, l akes -all w ere s acred, a s w ere t he c ave, t he t ree, t he r ock, a nd t he b ird, t he l atter f our i n t he i nsignia o f T enochtitlan. M ountains, t he s acred h ills, s upposedly w ere h ollow, l ike j ars, a nd c ontained w ater. P yramids, c onsidered a rtificial m ountains, a lso m ust h ave b een t hought t o b e f illed w ith w ater, s ince M unoz C amargo ( 1966: 2 08-209) w rote t hat i n t he c ase o f a c ataclysm r ivers w ould f low o ut f rom b eneath t he p yramids. L akes a nd s prings a nd t he i nteriors o f h ills w ere s een a s t he w omb o f C halchiuhtlicue , g oddess o f p lacid w aters. W ater t hat r an s wiftly a nd r ain t hat f ell f rom t he s ky w ere a ssociated w ith T laloc. I n a ncient M exico , t he l ake w as c alled " Our M ot her"... " She w ho w as t he W ater" ( DU, 1 971: 1 68, 2 69). A ccording t o D urän , " The I ndians r evered t his e lement [ water] h ighly.. .t hey s aid t hat i n i t t hey w ere b orn a nd t hat w ith i t t hey l ived a nd w ith i t t hey w ashed a way t heir t ransgressions a nd w ith i t t hey d ied...[and ] w ater h elped t he c rops a nd s eeds t hat t hey e at, t o g row...and a ssured t he c onservation o f h uman

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l ife..."

( Ibid .:

2 64-265).

T he u se o f w ater w as b asic i n r ites o f l ustration. T hese w aters w ere b lue a nd y ellow , m uch l ike t he s treams t hat f lowed f rom b eneath t he r ock a nd t he n opal i n t he f oundation m yth. I n t he p ictorial c odices r ed f requently w as s ubstituty d b y y ellow , i n t he s ame w ay t hat b lue a nd g reen w ere i nterchangeable. S ahagün ( FC , 1 969, V I: 1 75176) d escribes a r ite o f p urification b y w ater , t he b ath o f t he n ewborn b abe: T he m idwife a ddressed t he g oddess C halchiuhtl icue, t he w ater. S he s aid t o h er . " Lady, o ur l ady, C halchiuhtlicue, C halchiuhtlatonac, t he c ommoner h ath a rrived...He i s i n t hy h ands...mother o f t he g ods, s ister o f t he g ods...to w ash , t o c l e anse.. . [And t o t he b aby], E nter, d escend i nto t he b lue w ater , t he y ellow w ater...[matlalac, t ozpalac]..." [ "Place o f t he b lue w ater, P lace o f t he. y ellow w ater"] A nd t he g oddess T lazolteotl-Tlaelquani, t o w hom w ere t old t he c onfessions o f t ransgressors, w as d escribed t hus: " ...she r emoved t he c orruption, s he c leansed, s he w ashed. I n h er h ands l ay t he [ cleansing] g reen a nd y ellow w aters" ( FC , 1 959, I : 8 ). T he s tream t hat f lowed o ut o f t he c ave i n t he p lace c hosen f or t he f ounding o f t he M exica c apital w ere s acred w aters, a s w ere t he s prings w ithin C hapultepec H ill, o r i n t he h uitzil a tl, H uitzilopochtli's w aters i n H uitzilopochco, n ow c alled C hurubusco ( SAH , 1 938, I : 1 93, I I: 2 80). T he w ater d iscovered b y C uauhtlequetzqui a nd A xolohua a t t he s ite w here C opil 's h eart w as b uried w as w hite, b ut w hen t he t eomamaque r eturned t o t he p lace t he n ext d ay, t he w ater w as " bright r ed, a lmost l ike b lood, a nd w as d ivided i nto t wo s treams. A nd t he s econd s tream , i n t he s ame p lace w here i t b ecame d ivided, c ame o ut s o b lue a nd s o t hick t hat i t w as a f rightening t hing" ( DU , 1 967, I I: 4 8). A ccording t o T ezozomoc ( 1949: 6 3), f laming w aters f lowed o ut f rom a s pring i n a c ave t hat f aced e ast a nd t hat w as c alled T leatl-Atlatlayan ( "Water o f f ire, P lace o f b urning w ater"). T he s econd c ave t hat c ontained a s pring o r s prings f aced n orth a nd w as c alled M atlalatlT ozpalatl, " Dark b lue w ater , Y ellow w ater , W ater t he c olour o f a p arrot." T he b lue a nd r ed o r y ellow w aters a nd t he f laming w aters c ould s ymbolize t he a tl t lachinolli, a c ombination o f w ater a nd f ire , o f b lue a nd r ed, t he s ymbol o f p urification a nd a lso o f w ar.

T he A tl T lachinolli I n t he c hronicles t hat d escribe t he M exica p eriod, t he a tl t lachinolli i s am etaphor f or w ar, a nd t he t eoatl t lachinolli f or t he " flowery w ar" w hose o b ject w as t o t ake p risoners f or s acrifice ( FC , 1 1 95 1, I I: 15). T he c hange o f c olour o f t he s treams i n t he p lace d esignated f or T enochtitlan , f rom w hite t o r ed o r y ellow a nd b lue, s eems t o i ndicate a lso a c hange i n t he c haracter o f t he M exica, f rom p eaceful o r p erhaps d ominated b y o thers, t o ab ellicose s tate . T hey h ad f ound t he m odel o f

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t heir a ncestral h ome, t he w hite p lace, r ich i n a quatic f oods. B ut t hey w ere d estined t o c onquer t heir n eighbours, t o b ecome t he o wners o f t he h ouses o f g old a nd s ilver , o f c otton o f m any c olours, t o " raise t he M exica n ation t o t he c louds," a s t heir g od H uitzilopochtli h ad p romised t hem ( DU , 1 967, I I: 3 1). I n o rder t o g ain t hese r iches a nd t his p ower t he M exica h ad t o m ake w ar a nd t ribute o ne o f t heir g oals. N ot o nly w ar o f c onquest, b ut t he t eoatl t lachinolli, t he F lowery W ar b etween e nemy-friendly n ations w ho n eeded b rave w arriors a s v ictims t o b e s acrificed. T hese t wo t ypes o f w ar w ere c onsidered n ot o nly t he o bligation b ut t he r ight o f t he p eople. T he F lowery W ar, t hrough h earts o ffered t o t he s un , h elped m aintain t he s tability o f t he c osmos. T hus i t f unctioned a s a s ocial c ontrol. T his d ivine w ar a lso w as l inked t o t he r elations o f o ne g roup t o a nother: i t s erved a s p ractice f or s oldiers o f b oth b ands, w ho t hen c ould g o i nto w ars o f c onquest. A nd, a fter a ll, b oth s ides w on, s ince t he d efeated a nd s acrificed w arriors t hen w ent t o t he s un, a nd t his w as t he u ltimate a im . T heref ore t he d iscovery o f t he f laming w aters t hat s ymbolized w ar p rophecied t he d estiny o f t he M exica i n o ne w ay. F rom t his p lace, t he s it gf or T enochtitlan , t he M exica w ould o ne d ay c onquer t heir k nown w orld • 0 B ut t he a tl t lachinolli, i mportant c oncept i n t he f ounding o f T enochtitlan, w as n ot a n ew s ymbol a t t hat t ime. P ictorially, i t c an b e f ound c enturies b efore t he M exica. G enerally i t w as r epresented a s t wo i nterlaced s treams o f d ifferent c olours, o ne o f w ater, o ne o f f ire, t wo b asic e lements f or l ife ( fig. 3 3). T his a tl t lachinolli i s s een i n t he p ictorial c odices a nd i n s culpture , w here i t i s d iagnostic o f c ertain d eities. T he t wo s treams a re a lso f ound i n t he m urals o f T eotihuacan , w here t he b lue a nd r ed w aters f low o ut o f a c ave i n t he p ainting a t T epantitla. B ut a re w e n ot g oing f ar a field i n s eeing t he c omponents o f a l ate P ostclassic s ymbol r epresented i n t he C lassic p eriod? W hat s ignificance w ould t he c ombination o f w ater a nd f ire , o r o f i nterlaced w aters o f t wo c olours, h ave h ad i n e arly t imes? W ould t he m eaning h ave b een d ifferent f rom t hat o f t he M exica? I n t he w ritten c hronicles t here a re f requent r eferences t o t he b lue ( green) a nd y ellow ( red) w aters. A lthough t hese d o n ot a lways s ignify w ar, t hey d o a lways r efer t o s omething p recious o r s acred. T hey s ymbolized w ater a nd f ire, a s w e h ave s een. F ire, l ike w ater, w as a p urifier. S ahag i an ( FC , 1 950, I : 1 2) s ays t hat w ith f ire " things w ere c leansed." T he g reat e xample o f p urification b y f ire w as t he c reation o f t he F ifth S un a t T eotihuacan. N anahuatzin, t he s ick , s orer idden g od, t hrew h imself i nto t he f ire a nd w as c leansed, h e b ecame t he r esplendent s un ( FC , 1 953, V II: 4 -9). N anahuatzin, t hen, n ot o nly w as p urified b y t he f ire t hat c leansed h im b ut h e a lso w as r esucitated i n t he f orm o f t he s un . F or t he M exica t he w aters o f t wo c olours a lso s ignified j ustice, w isdom , s overeignty, a nd g ood g overnment ( FC , 1 969, V I: 2 9, 3 1, 1 08). P ossibly t he c ombination o f t hese , p lus t he w ar s ymbol, w as t he b asic m eaning o f t he s treams t hat d etermined t he s ite f or T enochtitlan , t he c ity f rom w hich t he M exica h oped t o c onquer a nd r ule. T he c ombination o f w ater a nd f ire i s f ound, a lso, i n t he c haracter o f H uitzilopochtli, t utelary g od, w hose f ather w as, a ccording t o s ome c hronicles, T laloc, w ater d eity ( HMP , 1 973: 4 7). H uitzilopochtli t oo h ad i gneous

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c haracteristics d ue t o h is a ssociation w ith t he s un a nd w ar , t o N icholson ( 197 1: 4 25, 4 26).

a ccording

I n s um , t his s ymbol w hich c onsists o f w ater a nd f ire o r f laming w ater, a s b lue w ater , r ed w ater, g oes b ack t o e arly t imes a nd i s f ound i n m any c ultures. A tl, w ater , m akes t he p lants g row ; t lachinolli, t hat w hich b urns, i s f ire a nd b y e xtension t hat b all o f f ire , t he s un , w hich c omplements w ater i n f ructifying t he e arth. B oth w ater a nd f ire a re n ecessary e lements f or l ife . B ut w ater a nd f ire a lso a re d estructive , t hey c an s weep a way e verything. T ogether t hey c an m ean w ar , t hat a ctivity w hich d estroys. T he a tl t lachinolli, t hen , c an s ymbolize b oth l ife a nd d eath .

T he 0 11in T he o llin i s s imilar t o t he a tl t lachinolli b oth i n f orm a nd i n t he c olours o f t he t wo s treams a t t he M exica c apital, t he r ed a nd t he b lue . I ts f orm i s t hat o f a s altire o r S aint A ndrew 's c ross, w here t he c olours j oin b ut a re n ot i ntertwined a s t hey a re i n t he a tl t lachinolli . 0 11in m eans " movement ." T his i s t he n ame o f r ubber , h ule i n S panish , w hich c omes f rom o llin b ecause i t " jumps u pward a nd d ownward, t o a nd f ro" ( DU , 1 97 1: 3 16). B ut o llin w as a lso t he m ovement o f t he s un a s i t c rossed t he s ky, a s w e a re t old i n t he c hronicles a nd s ee i n t he p ictorial c odices, w hose g loss e xplains t his 10, ( Serna, 1 953: 1 23; C odex B orbonicus 1 9). I n t he p ictorial m anuscripts b oth t he o llin a nd t he a tl t lachinolli a re a ssociated w ith g ods o f c reation a nd a gricultural f ertility ( Borbonicus , B orgia , F e jervary-Mayer , L aud ). T he i nsignia u sed b y t he m ost p restigious s oldiers a mong t he M exica w as t he o llin , s ymbol o f t he s un , a nd t hey 1 7 1 . rn s ays o f t his i nsignia t hat i t w ere c alled W arriors o f t he S un . 5 w as " in t he f orm o f ab utterfly...the i mage o f t he s un" ( 197 1: 1 87, 1 88). T he h earts o f s acrificed c aptives w ere o ffered t o T onatiuh 0 11in , " the s un i n m otion" ( Cristöbal d el C astillo , 1 908: 6 3, 8 6). T he f estival i n h onour o f t he s un a mong t he M exica w as c alled N auh-ollin , " Four s uns" o r " Fourth s un ." I n t he C odex V aticanus-Rios ( 1964, I II : 6 6) t he s un g od i s r epresented a s " Naolin" a nd t he g loss s ays t hat " this N aolin i s s aid t o b e t he s un w ith i ts t repidations a nd m otions.. . when t he s un r everberates." T he r eference t o t repidations m ay h ave b een i nterpreted b y s ome s ixteenth c entury s cholars a s m eaning " earthquake" a nd t hen c ould h ave b een a pplied t o t he F ourth § un o r w orld i n t he s tory o f t he F ive S uns o r e pochs o f a ncient M exico .' The i mportance o f t his s ymbol s eems t o r eside , t hen , i n i ts a stronomical a ssociation , w ith t he c ourse o f t he s un . T he e nds o f t he a rms o f t he s altire , X , o r o llin , a ppears t o p oint t o t he i ntercardinal d irections w hich a re s olstitial p oints . T hese p oints w ith t he c entre ( where t he l ines c ross, t he p oint o f o bservation) f orm a q uincunx . T he i mportance o f t he s olstices, w hich d etermined t he i ntercardinal d irections a nd t he o rientation o f m any s ites a nd b uildings, h as b een n oted ( by G onzälez T orres, 1 975; B rotherston , 1 976; T ichy, 1 978; C oggins, 1 980; K 8hler , 1 979, D igby, n .d .). V illa R o jas ( 1969: 1 351 39) c laims t hat t he f our s olstitial p oints c orrespond t o t he f our " corners o f t he s ky" i n t he a ncient a nd m odern M aya w orld, a nd t hat t hey a re r epresented i n t he f orm o f aq uincunx i n t he D resden a nd

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M adrid c odices. 1 0 T he s altire a nd t he q uincunx w ere b oth a dored a s g ods i n a ncient M esoamerica, a ccording t o L öpez d e G ämara ( 1965, I : 1 48). T his w as p robably d ue t o t heir s olar a ssociation. S erna ( 1953: 1 23) s ays t hat t he " ollin i s t he s ign o r c haracter o f t he S un ...in t he f orm o f a c ross, a nd.., i ts f our p oints s ignify f our m otions." I h ave m entioned t hat t he o llin a nd t he a tl t lachinolli a re s imilar i n f orm a nd c olour a nd t hat t hese c olours w ere t he s ame a s t he s treams t hat f lowed f rom a c ave a t t he s ite o f T enochtitlan 's f oundat ion. T he X -form o f t hese s treams, a s c an b e s een i n t he C odex M endoza, d ivided t he i ncipient c ity i n f our p arts ( fig. 1 8), a nd t he p lace c hosen f or t he h eart o f t he c ity w as t he c entre, w here t he s treams c rossed. T his X -cross-ollin-quincunx w hich p robably i nfluenced t he M exica w hen t hey c hose t heir s ymbolic m otifs, b ecause o f t he r ichness i n n atural f eatures a nd i n r eligious s ignificance, a re p resent i n M esoamerican i conography. T he o llin i s f ormed w ith c urved o r s traight l ines, w hen c urved i t i s s imilar t o t he a tl t lachinolli ( fig. 3 4). T he b all c ourt, w hose g ame w as a p roof o f d exterity, p restige, a nd w ealth, h as t he f orm o f a s tylized o llin a nd i n t he p ictorial c odices i s p ainted i n f our c olours, a t t imes i n c ombinations o f b lue, r ed, a nd y ellow . S ome a uthors ( Beyer, K rickeberg) c laim t hat t he b all c ourt w as a m odel o f t he u niverse a nd t he b all r epresented t he s un c rossing t he s ky a s i t w ent f rom o ne s ide t o a nother. I n a s imilar m anner , K 8hler i nterprets t he o llin a s am odel o f t he u niverse. N o m atter h ow o ne l ooks a t t he o llin-atl t lachinolli-quincunxs altire m otif, i t i s e vident t hat i t i s a n o ld f orm t hat w as l ater a dopted b y t he M exica . T his s ymbol, o r t hese s ymbols, i s/are f ound i n p ictorial f orm i n c ultures e arlier t han t he M exica, f or e xample i n T eotihuacan a nd i n t he c odices. T he m eaning o f t he o llin a nd t he a tl t lachinolli ( course o f t he s un, w ater a nd f ire , t he c omplement o f o pposites, w ar) i s f ound i n M exica p hilosophy, i n t he m yths, a nd i n p ictorial r epresentations. T he s ignificance o f t he s ymbols m ust h ave b een d ifferent i n e ach p eriod , b ut n o m atter h ow t hey w ere i nterpreted t hey f ormed p art o f t he i conographic e quipment a nd r eligious c oncepts o f m any M esoamerican g roups.

I nfluence o f T eotihuacan S ome s ymbols, f orms, c olours, a nd i deas p resent i n M exica a rt a nd b eliefs c an b e t raced b ack t o T eotihuacan , f rom w hom t he M exica i nherited m ore t han t hey w ould h ave l iked t o a dmit. N ow t he q uestion w ill b e a sked: d id s ome f orm o f t he o llin a nd t he a tl t lachinolli e xist i n t he C ity o f t he G ods? H ere a re a f ew a nswers, o r a t l east s uggestions: s ome c lay s eals w ith d efinite o llin s ymbols a re f rom T eotihuacan ( fig. 3 5). T he o llin i s r epresented, a lso , i n m urals o n t he w alls o f a s mall t emple i n t he C iudadela . T here i s n o s ure w ay o f k nowing, o f c ourse , e xactly w hat t hey w ere u sed f or . T he t wo s ymbols m entioned a re p resent, a lso, i n av ery s tylized m anner, i n t he m ural p ainting a t T epantitla, c alled b y C aso " the T lalocan" ( fig. 3 6). I n t his m ural, o n e ither s ide o f ad oorway i n ab uilding a t T epantitla, a g reat f igure i s p ainted, e ach o ne f lanked b y s maller p rofile f igures. A t ree o r t wisted v ine t hat f orms a c urved X a pparently g rows f rom t he

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h ead o f e ach l arge c entral p ersonage . T his t ree, s imilar t o b oth t he o llin a nd t he a tl t lachinolli, h as o ne r ed b ranch, o ne y ellow . S ome b irds s tand o n t he b ranches a nd o thers f ly a round t he t rees a nd s maller p lants t hat a re b elow . A long t he r ed b ranch f lowers a re p ainted, a long t he y ellow b ranch, b utterflies. D rops o f w ater f all f rom t he t ree a nd f rom t he h ands o f t he c entral f igure, s eeds f rom t he p rofile o nes. T he t ree e vidently r epresents a gricultural f ertility, a lthough t he b irds a nd b utterflies c ould s ymbolize w arriors w ho w ere t ransformed i nto t hese c reatures a fter d eath i n t he b attlefield o r b y s acrifice ( FC , 1 952, I II: 4 7-48; V idarte, 1 968). L ittle r ed a nd b lue s treams c ome o ut o f t he f lowers o n t he t ree, a nd t he e ntire s cene i s b ordered b y i nterlaced r ed a nd b lue w aters. H eads o f t he g od c alled T laloc i n t he P ostclassic a re i nterspersed a long t hese w aters a t r egular i ntervals. T he t wisting o f t hese s treams o f t wo c olours a lso f orms o n o llin a fter a nother ( fig. 3 7). T he c entral f igure , w hich P asztory h as n oted i s ab ust, a nd w hich r eminds u s o f the myth t hat t ells o f t he f irst m an a nd t he f irst w oman w ho w ere c reated a s b usts, a s t he H istoire d u M echique ( 1973: 9 1) 8 s ays, ( also M endieta, 1 945, I : 8), i s p laced u pon a c ave. T his c ave i s f ull o f f ertility s ymbols: t he c halchihuitl w hich a re c ircles r epresenting j ade a nd w ater ; a quatic s tars; f lowers, p lants, a nd s eeds. W aters o f t wo c olours ( red a nd b lue a gain ) s pring f rom t he c ave i n s mall r ound w aves. T he c rests o f t he w aves a re f ormed l ike s hells a nd t he s treams a re f ull o f w ater s ymbols a nd a quatic c reatures. E ach w ave i s r ed w ith a b lue b order. I n t he l arger b order t hat g oes a round t he p ainting, a nd w here t he h ead a nd h ands o f T laloc s hown , t he s treams a re b lue o r r ed. T hese s treams o f b lue a nd r ed w ater t hat f low f rom a c ave b eneath a s acred t ree , w ith a b ird o r b irds i n t he t ree, i s a t heme t hat w ould b e f ound c enturies l ater i n t he s ymbol o f t he f oundation o f T enochtitlan . T he t heme o f t he c ave i n T eotihuacan h as b een d iscussed i n o ther e ssays ( Heyden , 1 973, 1 975, 1 98 1). I n t he T eotihuacan m ural t he c ave w ould s eem t o r epresent, a s i t o ften d oes, t he w omb o f t he e arth g oddess, o f f ertility, t he p lace o f b irth ( if t he c entral f igure i s f emale, a s P asztory s uggests). I n t his c ase i t w ould b e t he b irth o f c reation o f s ustenance, o f p lants a nd w ater, n ot o f h uman g roups s uch a s w e f ind i n t he C hicomortoc o f t he h istorical c hronicles. T he T epantitla c ave c ould b e t he h ome o f a n o racle, o r t he p lace o f c ommunication b etween w orlds. W e c an o nly s peculate a s t o i ts m eaning, b ut i nasmuch a s a s acred c ave d esignated t he s ite f or t he b uilding o f t he P yramid o f t he S un a nd c onsequently f or t he c onstruction o f t he r itual c entre o f T eotihuacan ( Heyden , I bid.; M illon , 1 98 1) ( fig. 3 9), i t i s p ossible, a s Is uggest i n t he a rchaeology s ection o f t his s tudy, t hat t he T epantitla m ural r efers t o a t rue c ave, t he a xis m u i o f T eotihuacan , e ven t hough t he s cene p ainted h ere b e m ythological. B oth t he T epantitla m ural a nd t he m yth o f t he f ounding o f T enochtitlan s tress a c oncept o f t he p romised l and w here e verything n ecessary t o m an e xisted. T he p ainting a nd t he m yth a lso s hare t he f ollowing b asic e lements: t he b ird, t he t ree, t he r ock o r c ave, t he r ed a nd y ellow o r b lue w aters, t he a quatic c reatures. W ith t he

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o bservations m ade a bove , Ih ave t ried t o d emonstrate t hat t he M exica , w hen p lanning t heir c ity, o n d esigning t he s ymbol o f t heir c apital w hich r eferred t o t he f oundation , a nd o n c reating t heir m yths ( all o f t hese l ater t han t he a ctual f oundation ), m ay h ave r eferred t o a r ich s tore o f m otifs a nd m yths a lready e xtant. T he m otifs s tudied h ere h ad t heir o rigin i n t hose e lements o f n ature t hat w ere t ranslated i nto t radition , a rt , a nd m yth .

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N OTES T O C HAPTER V I 1 .

D on A ntonio d e M endoza , f irst V iceroy i n M exico ( 1535155), h ad t he c odex m ade w hich b ears h is n ame. T he o b ject o f t he C odex M endoza w as t o s how E mperor C harles V o f S pain , i n p ictures a nd g losses, t he h istory a nd l ife o f t he A ztec p eople a nd t he t ributes o n w hich t heir e conomy w as l argely b ased . T he m anuscript n ever r eached S pain, h owever , s ince F rench p irates c aptured t he s hip t hat w as c arrying i t. A fter h aving p assed t hrough m any h ands, i ncluding t hose o f A ndre T hevet, t he F rench r oyal c osmographer , a nd R ichard H akluyt , g eographer a nd c haplain o f t he B ritish E mbassy . T he c odex, n ow i n t he B odleian L ibrary a t O xford, p resents n ot o nly a r ecord o f t ribute b ut a lso t he s tory i n p ictures o f A ztec l ife a nd t he r ole o f w arriors a nd p riests, M otecuhzoma 's p alace, a nd l aws a nd p unishments i n A ztec s ociety ( Glass a nd R obertson , 1 975: 1 601 6 1).

2 .

T he A tlas d e D urän c ontains t he i llustrations f or t he H istoria d e l as I ndias d e N ueva E spana e I slas d e l a T ierra F irme. T he s ixt eenth c entury d rawings p robably w ere d one b y a n I ndian a rtist, i n E uropean s tyle . T he o riginal D urän m anuscript i s k ept i n t he B iblioteca N acional d e M adrid a nd a g ood c opy w hich J ose R amirez h ad m ade i n t he n ineteenth c entury i s i n t he H istorical A rchive o f M exico 's N ational M useum o f A nthropology.

3 .

I n t he V olador c eremony f our " flyers," d ressed a s b irds, l eap f rom t he t op o f a t all t ree o r p ole w here t here i s a t iny p latform , a nd " fly" a round t he p ole a s r opes t hat b ind t hem s lowly u nwind . A f ifth " bird" s tands o n t he l ittle p latform , p laying a f lute, a nd e ventually g oes d own t he p ole t o j oin t he o ther f lyers. B efore t he p erformance, a nd w hen t he p ole i s b eing s et u p , a n o ffering i s m ade a t i ts b ase, c onsisting o f l iquor, s acrificed c hickens, a nd s ome o ther o b jects w hich a re b uried t here. N ot l ong a go a g roup o f f lyers w ho w ent t o t he c ity o f S altillo t o p erform f ailed t o m ake t his o ffering a nd t he f lyers f ell f rom t he t op , k illing s ome o f t hem . T he c aptain o f t he g roup a ttributed t he t ragedy t o t he f ailure o f h aving c arried o ut t he u sual r eligious-magic r ite .

4 .

T he r oyal e agle ( Aquila c hrysaetos) i s p robably t he e agle r epresented o n t he M exican n ational e mblem , a ccording t o b iologist T icul A lvarez ( Atlas C ultural d e M exico : F auna, 1 987: 1 04, M exico).

5 .

T hompson ( 1950: 7 1), w ho c ites N unez d e l a V ega, 1 702, s tates t hat i n C hiapas i t w as b elieved t hat t he l ineages c ame t hrough t he r oots o f t he c eiba t ree .

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6.

Reeds are not represented in the Tenochtitlan glyph but may have been rrore important than the nopal because of their many uses. When the Mexica arrived in the Valley of Mexico they were poor and lived on whatever fruits of the land they could gather: water creatures (including mosquito eggs, fresh water shrimp, fish, etcetera) and the roots of the tules (Torquema.da, 1975: 133, 298). A tule can be a reed or a cattail. The first temple dedicated to Huitzilopochtli was made of reeds, says Duran (1967, II: 49). The seat and mat of the sovereign were made of reeds and rushes arrl the reed mat came to be the symbol of authority. Like Aztlan, where the "White Land" ca.rre to be a metaphor for the original haneland of the Mexica-Aztecs, reeds and rushes became one of the metaphors for the Mexica capital, Tenochtitlan. See Heyden, ''Reeds and Rushes: frm Survival to Sovereigns," in Flora and Fauna Imagery in Pre­ 93-112, edited by columbian Cultures: Iconography and Function: Jeanette F. Peterson. BAR International Series 171, 1983.

7.

Contemporary Nahuatl infonnants often use "blue" or "green" as synonyms. That is, the same word is used for sky and vegetation­ covered earth (F. Horcasitas, personal cannunication, 1978). At times this is the case, also, with red and yellow, especially in reference to the sun, which is red or yellow according to the hour of the day and the sun's position in the sky.

8.

The sister city of Tezcoco also adopted the atl tlachinolli as a symbol of prestige. It forms part of the insignia of this city and was still used in Colonial tines. (Handbook of Middle American Indians, vol. 14, fig. 15, 1975).

9.

In his interpretation of the Vaticanus Rios plate, Corona Nunez (1964, III: 66) states that Naolin, meaning "Four �tion," is one of the names of the sun, of calendrical arrl mythical origin. Ths sun's movement is related to the solstices, ma.king the sun seem at times to be farther north or farther south, says Corona Nunez. Thus, the people of ancient Mexico said that the sun had two houses in the east and two in the west, therefore there were four, giving the name "Four (Nahui) Ollin." In the Relacion de Michoacan there is a mythological person who represents the planet Venus. 'As a celestial messenger he goes to look for the sun in his four houses but finds him only in the fifth house, in the middle of the sky, that is, at the zenith. This messenger, on searching for the sun this way, forms with his path a saltire or Saint Arrlrew's cross. This is how, concludes Corona Nunez, the figure ollin may have been created.

72

1 0. A ccording t o T ichy ( 1978), t he o rientation o f p rehispanic b uildi ngs s uch a s t he g reat C holula p yramid, b ecause o f t heir r elagion t o t he s olstices, s how d eviations f rom t he a stronomical c ompass. T ichy s ees i n t he a xial o rientation o f t he m onuments a n o rdering o f t ime : t he p yramids s erve a s m arkers o f t ime , l ike a s un d ial, a ccording t o t he p osition o f t he s un a nd o bservations f rom t he t emples. H e p oints o ut t hat t he s ame t ype o f o rientation g overned t he c onstruction o f s ome c hurches i n M exico i n t he s ixteenth c entury, t hat w ere b uilt o n t op o f p rehispanic t emples. K öhler ( 1979) i dentifies t he o llin a s t he s ymbol o f t he a nnual c ourse o f t he s un a round t he e arth a nd c alls i t " a m odel o f t he u niverse ." S ince t he c ourse o f t he s un a nd i ts s ymbol, t he o llin , c ould h ave d etermined t he e ntire c osmos w hich i ncludes t he e arth, t he o llin c an b e i nterpreted, t hen, a s a t errestrial i mage . K öhler b ases t his i dea i n p art o n t he o llin t hat f orms t he c entre o f t he Su n S tone i n M exico 's M useum o f A nthropology a nd w hich h as b een i dentified a s a n i mage o f t he e arth w ith s olar a spects ( Navarrete a nd H eyden , 1 974). I n u niversal s ymbolism , t he S aint A ndrew 's c ross , b asically t he s ame f orm a s t he o llin , s ignifies t he u nion o f t he w orld a bove w ith t he w orld b elow ( Cirlot, 1 962: 6 8).

1.

A gain I r efer t o t he s altire o r q uincunx b ecause t he c ave u ndern eath t he P yramid o f t he S un i n T eotihuacan i s i n t he f orm o f a f our-petal f lower , o mnipresent i n t his c ity, a nd t he p etals o f t his p articular p hytoform c ave s eem t o b e d irected t o t he s olstitial p oints .

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C HAPTER V II:

T HE A RCHAEOLOGICAL E VIDENCE

P ossible l inks b etween t he M exica a nd P arlier c ultures T he i nfluence o n t he M exica o f c ultures o lder t han t heirs w ill b e e xplored a t t his t ime. I s hall a ttempt t o d emonstrate t hat m yths, t raditions, a nd i mages c ame t o t his l ate P ostclassic c ulture n ot o nly t hrough i deology, t hrough o ral t radition , b ut b y w ay o f m aterial r emains. T he M exica u ndoubtedly h ad c ontact w ith s ome o f t hese r emains w hich w ere c reated c enturies o r m illennia b efore t heir t ime . A mong t hese m anifestations w ere t he o rientation o f s ites, t he u rbanization o f c ities, a rchitecture, s culpture, p ainting, a nd c eramics. O ne g reat c ivilization t hat l eft i ts m ark o n o thers t hat f ollowed w as T eotihuacan.

T eotihuacan h eritage .

O rientation a nd u rbanization

T he g eneral o rientation o f T eotihuacan , 1 5°2 8' E ast o f N orth , h as b een c alled " the s acred d irection" b y A veni a nd G ibbs ( 1976: 5 10) d ue t o i ts a lignment w ith g eygraphical f eatures a nd w ith i ts r elation t o c ertain c elestial b odies. A n E ast-West s treet c uts a cross t he S treet o f t he D ead -as t he N orth-South a xis w as n amed b y t he l ater A ztecs. A nthony A veni, w hile d emonstrating t hat r eligion p layed a d ecisive r ole i n t he p lanning o f c eremonial c entres i n M esoamerica, a t t he s ame t ime s tates t hat t here i s a t hin l ine b etween c osmic g eomancy a nd t rue f unctional a stronomical o rientation . W hen t he p lanners o f c ities c ame t o e stablish w ith p recision t he c ardinal d irections w ith a ssociated m arkers a long t he h orizon i n o rder t o d etermine p recise p eriods i n t he c alendar , a nd f ormed g rid p atterns f or c ity p lanning a nd c onstruction, t rue a stronomical o rientation c ame i nto b eing . T he c ity, t hen , A veni 2 c laims, f unctioned a s a n a stronomical i nstrument ( 1980: 20). B y b asing c alculations o n a s eries o f p ecked c ross p etroglyphs i n T eotihuacan ( fig. 3 8), w hich s eem t o h ave b een s urveyors ' m arks f or t he c ity p lanners, t he E ast-West o rientation w as f ound. I n o rder t o d etermine t he s ignificant a stronomical e vent c oinciding w ith t his E -W b ase l ine, A veni i nvestigated t he l atitude, b uilding t ime, a nd h orizon e levations o f t his s ite , w hich s erved i n o bserving a stronomical b odies a long e ither d irection, a ccording t o c onditions a t t he t ime o f t he p lanning a nd b uilding o f T eotihuacan ( ca. A .D . 1 50). T he c elestial b ody t hat s eemed t o f it t hese c onditions i s t he P leiades s tar g roup 2 ( Ibid .: 25). A veni a lso f eels t hat t he P leiades c ould h ave a nnounc t he f irst a nnual p assage o f t he s un t hrough t he z enith a t T eotihuacan . T he P leiades w ere n ot o nly a d eterminant i n t he o rientation o f t he C ity o f t he G ods b ut c ontinued t o b e i mportant t hroughout t he c enturies i n r itual a nd i n a gricultural p ractices.

7 5

A mong t he M exica a N ew F ire c eremony w as c arried o ut e very f iftyt wo y ears a t t he t op o f t he s acred h ill c alled t he H uixachtecatl, n ow S tar H ill, b etween I ztapalapa a nd C ulhuacan . T he o b ject o f t he r ite w as t o k eep t he f ire ( the u niverse) a live f or a nother f ifty-two y ears, a p eriod c omparable t o o ur c entury. T he r ole o f t he P leiades w as t hat o f " announcer": a t t he m oment t hat t his s tar g roup r eached t he z enith , t he p riests p erforming t he r ite s acrificed t he v ictim b y c utting o ut h is h eart a nd t hen l ighting a n ew f ire i n t his c avity. W hen t he f ire c aught o n e veryone r ejoiced, f or t his m eant a n ew c ycle o f f ifty-two y ears w as a ssured, a s w ell a s t he c ontinued s tability o f t he u niverse ( FC , 1 957, I V-V : 1 43). T his s acred c eremony m ay w ell h ave b een a r eflection o f t he N ew F ire t hat t ook p lace i n T eotihuacan w hen N anahuatzin t hrew h imself i nto t he f lames t o b ecome t he s un, t hus a nnouncing t he b eginning o f a n ew e ra. B ut o ne s ystem o f o rientation , t he a stronomical, d oes n ot e xplain e verything a bout t he p lanning a nd c onstruction o f T eotihuacan . A nother i mportant c lue t o t he u nderstanding o f t his g reat c ity p lan i s t he c ave u nderneath t he P yramid o f t he S un ( fig . 3 9), w hich c ould h ave b een t he o riginal a xis m undi, a s h as b een d iscussed . S ince t he c ave w as a n i mportant s ymbol f or t he M exica, i t i s p ossible t hat t his t radition w as i nherited b y t hem f rom o ther c avern-conscious g roups. A nd t here i s t he p ossibility t hat t hey w ere a cquainted w ith t he T eotihuacan c ave a nd o thers o f s acred c haracter ; f ragments o f A ztec c eramics w ere f ound a t t he e ntrance t o P yramid o f t he S un c ave, a ccording t o a rchaeologist J orge A costa ( personal c ommunication). F urthermore, t here w as a n A ztec s ettlement i n t he T eotihuacan v alley i n t he l ate C lassic p eriod, a fter t he f all o f t he c ity ( Sanders, 1 965: 1 89; R uben C abrera, p ersonal c ommunication). L ater, w hen T enochtitlan h ad b een f irmly e stablished, t he M exica r ulers m ade o fferings p eriodically i n T eotihuacan a nd c onsulted a n o racle t here, a ccording t o t he R elaciön G eogräfica d e T eotihuacan , 1 580 ( 1905, V I: 2 09 e t s eq ). T he m ap i n t he R elaciön s hows t he " Oräculo d e M ontezuma" i n f ront o f t he S un P yramid ( fig. 4 0). I n t he C ödice X ölotl ( 1951, p late I II) t he t wo m a jor p yramids a t T eotihuacan - t he S un a nd t he M oon -a re d epicted w ith a c ave b elow t hem a nd i n t he c ave i s ah ead, p ossibly r epresenting a n o racle ( fig. 4 0). N ot o nly d id c ave s ymbolism f ollow p rehispanic b eliefs f rom o ne p eriod t o a nother b ut T eotihuacan 's " sacred d irection ," t he s kewed N -S o rientation f ollowed b y t he S treet o f t he D ead, t urned u p c enturies l ater, i n t he M exica p eriod, i n t he c hinampas, t hose s mall m an-made i slands s et i n f ertile l akes. A fter t he c onquest o f t he c hinampa z one b y t he M exica i t f lourished a nd b ecame t he b read b asket - o r r ather, t he m aize b asket -for T enochtitlan . A ccording t o A rmillas ( 1971: 6 00, 6 57), i n t he f ifteenth c entury t his e ntire a gricultural z one w as p lanned o n ag rid p attern o f m ilpas o r c ultivated p lots b ordered b y c anals; t he w hole a rea c ould f eed 1 00,000 p ersons. T he i nteresting p art o f t his p lanned g rid i s t hat t he p arallel a lignments o f t he l arger c anals, w hich s erved a s t he b ase o f t he g rid, w as a N E t o S W a xis s imilar t o t he s acred d irection i n T eotihuacan. A lthough A rmillas d oes n ot m ention t his c ity, h e d oes s uggest t hat t he c arefully p lanned o rientation o f t he c hinampas c ould h ave b een c opied f rom a n e arlier p lan, a nd a t t he s ame t ime i t w as d ue t o a p olitical o rganization t hat c ame i nto b eing i n t he f ifteenth c entury. T his r e-planning o f t he

7 6

c hinampa z one, t he p lace o f s ustenance , d uring t he p eriod o f c onsolidat ion o f t he M exica s tate , w hen t he l eaders o f t hat s tate s aw t he a dvantage o f i ncorporating t raditions f rom e arlier c ultures i nto t heir o wn , m akes u s t urn o ur e yes t o T eotihuacan, a s t he M exica m ust h ave d one.

S acred s pace T he a rea i n T eotihuacan w here t he t wo m ain a venues c ross, f orming t he c entre o f t he g rid p lan , a nd w here t he m ajor m onuments a re l ocated, e vidently w as t he r eligious-ceremonial c entre , a s w ell a s t he p lace w here p olitical a nd e conomic a uthority r esided. T his i s t he p lace w here, a ccording t o m yth, t he F ifth S un o r w orld o f t he M exica w as c reated, w hen t he g ods f aced t he f our d irections i n o rder t o s ee w here t his g reat o rb w ould r ise . C learly t he p lanners a nd a rchitects o f T enochtitlan , c enturies l ater , w ere f amiliar w ith t his t radition a nd w ished t o r e-create t hat s acred s pace i n T enochtitlan. D urän d escribes t he g reat c entral s quare o f T enochtitlan w hose p lan w as b ased o n t hat w hich t hey h ad b een t old a bout t he e arlier p owerful m etropolis a nd w hich t hey p robably s aw a s t he w orld o f t heir f orebears: [ The c ourtyard w as i mmense]...for i t a ccommodated e ight t housand s ix h undred m en , d ancing i n a c ircle. T his c ourtyard h ad f our d oors o r e ntrances, o ne o n t he e ast, a nother o n t he w est, o ne o n t he s outh , a nd a nother o n t he n orth ...The f our m ain t emples h ad e ntrances f acing t he d irections I h ave m entioned, a nd t he f our g ods s tanding i n t hem a lso f aced t he s ame d irections... [ The r eason f or t his] I s hall n ot r efrain f rom n arrating s o t hat t his a rrangement i s c omprehensible. T he a ncients b elieved t hat b efore t he s un r ose o r h ad b een c reated t he g ods d iscussed l engthily a mong t hemselves, e ach i nsisting s tubbornly o n t he d irection h e t hought a ppropriate f or t he r ising o f t he s un , w hich h ad t o b e d etermined b efore i ts c reation . O ne, d esirous o f h aving h is o wn w ay, s aid i t w as n ecessary t hat t he s un r ise i n t he n orth , a nother c ontradicted h im , s aying t he s outh w as b etter , a nother s aid n o , t hat i t s hould a ppPar i n t he w est, s till a nother s aid t hat t he e ast w as m ost c onvenient f or i ts r ising. T he l ast h ad h is w ay. H e t urned h is f ace [ toward t he d irection ] i n w hich h e w anted t he s un t o a ppear , a nd t he r est t urned t heir f aces t oward t he d irections t hey h ad c hosen. T hese f our d oors [ of t he s quare i n T enochtitlan ] e xisted f or t his r eason . A nd s o t hey s poke o f t he d oor o f s uch a nd s uch a g od, a nd o f o thers, e ach d oor b eing n amed f or i ts g od. ( 197 1: 7 8) i nformation c ame n ot o nly f rom a ncient d ocuments a nd i nformants b ut a lso f rom F ray F rancisco d e A guilar w ho, b efore

Durän 's

I ndian

7 7

h e e ntered t he D ominican O rder, w as o ne o f C ortes ' s oldiers a nd a t o ne t ime w as M otecuhzoma 's g uardian . H e w as a n e yewitness, t hen, t o m any c ustoms o f t he M exica a t t he t ime o f t he C onquest. T he F lorentine C odex d escribes t he c reation o f t he F ifth S un i n T eotihuacan i n a s imilar m anner t o D urän 's d escription o f t he g reat c ourtyard a t T enochtitlan . A fter N anahuatzin t hrew h imself i nto t he f ire t here w as c onfusion a mong t he g ods i n a nticipation o f t he s un 's r ising, u ntil f inally e ach o ne f aced t he d irection h e f avoured a nd w aited t here : S ome t hought t hat i t w ould b e f rom t he n orth t hat [ the s un ] w ould c ome t o r ise, a nd p laced t hemselves t o l ook t here , s ome [ did s o ] t o t he w est, s ome p laced t hemselves t o l ook s outh . T hey e xpected [ that h e m ight r ise] i n a ll d irections, b ecause t he l ight w as e verywhere . A nd s ome p laced t hemselves s o t hat t hey c ould w atch t here t o t he e ast...Thus t hose w ho l ooked t here [ to t he e ast w ere] Q uetzalcoatl, t he n ame o f t he s econd w as E catl...and t he r ed T ezcatlipoca . A lso [ there w ere] t hose w ho w ere c alled t he M imixcoa, w ho w ere w ithout n umber, a nd f our w omen ...And w hen t he s un c ame t o r ise, w hen h e b urst f orth, h e a ppeared t o b e r ed...[there i n ] t he e ast... A nd s o t hey t ell i t, r epeat t he l egend...

[ so ] t hey r elate t he s tory a nd ( FC , 1 953, V II: 6 -7).

S ahagün d oes n ot s ay w hich g ods f aced w hich d irections, w ith e xception o f Q uetzalcoatl, w ho w as t urned t oward t he e ast.

t he

B y b asing t he p lan o f t heir c eremonial a nd a dministrative p recinct o n t he m yth o f t he F ifth S un a nd t he s acred s pace r elated t o t his t radition, t he M exica w ere e nsuring t he w ell-being a nd p restige o f t heir c apital b y a ssociating i t i n o rientation , s pace, a nd m yth , w ith t he m ost i mportant a nd i nfluential m etropolis o n t he c ontinent d uring t he C lassic p eriod. T his c osmic p lan, w here t he g ods a re a ssociated w ith t he w orld q uarters, w as r epresented v isually i n d ifferent r egions a nd m ay h ave i nfluenced t he M exica h ad t hey b een a cquainted w ith s ome o f t hese m anifestations, f or e xample t he p ictorial c odices o f p revious c ultures. O ne c odex w here t he d eities a nd w orld d irections a re s een i s t he F e jeväry M ayer ( fig. 2 6). T he e ccentric f orm o f t his c odex p late i s s een, a lso , i n a rchitecture , t hough m inus t he g od f igures: a t t he f oot o f t he P yramid o f t he M oon i n T eotihuacan t here i s a s tructure, p erhaps a n a ltar, w ith t his s ame f orm , a nd t he E -VII S ub i n U axactun i s s imilar. A s C lemency C oggins p oints o ut, p robably t here e xisted r elations b etween h ighland M exico a nd G uatemala s ince v ery e arly t imes. A s o ne p roof o f t his, p ecked c rosses e xist i n t he l atter r egion a s t hey d o i n T eotihuacan . A ccording t o C oggins ( 1980: 7 34), t he r uler o f T ikal -w here T eotihuacanoid t alud a nd t ablero a rchitecture i s f ound w ho a scended i n 3 78 A .D ., c ame f rom t he M exican c entral h ighlands o r h ad a M exican c onnection . H is c ulture s eems t o h ave b een t hat o f

7 8

Teotihuacan and he intrcrluced some traits typical of that area. J. Eric Thanpson (1970) also discusses the presence of Mexicanize:1 or "Toltecize:1" people in the Maya region, and suggests a regular exchange of ideas and material items. So with all this caning and going probably since Preclassic times and up to the Postclassic, the Mexica had much to draw upon in fanning their own images and ideas. Trade routes The trade routes of prehispanic Mesoamerica, the study of which is through archaeological remains and in historical chronicles, serve:l to establish relations between regions that were separated geographically. Many traits in cultural areas that are different one fran another - yet the traits are similar - have come about through carmercial exchange (Lee, 1978: 1). The importance of trade in establishing intercultural relations and in stimulating ideological arrl material exchange cannot be ignored. There is_sufficient archaeological evidence to offer proof that the canplex network of trade routes mentioned by the chroniclers in the sixteenth century had its roots in the Classic pericrl or even earlier (Lee, Ibid., cites Parsons arrl Price, 1971). When observing trade in ancient �soomerica, certain cities stand out as centres that must have functione:l as key points in receiving arrl conveying not only merchandise but ideas and custans. The rrost important centre of this type in relation to the Mexica must have been Teotihuacan, the physical and intellectual giant of its time, whose people were great merchants as well as creators of arts and beliefs. Two other cities that playe:1 a part in trading and the transference of traditions were Tula arrl Cholula, arrl surely there were many more. Cholula, for example, was one of the heirs of the Teotihuacan culture, and in the Postclassic period (coeval with Tenochtitlan) was the leading market city of central Mexico. Trade and religion were often dependent one upon the other. Frequently a religious sanctuary, the goal of pilgrims, was at the same time a leading ccrrmercial centre. Millon (1973) has noted the close relation of the temple with the market in Teotihuacan. Other examples are the market cities of Xicalanco and Oletumal (Lee, 1978: 2; Olapnan, 1969). That trade routes carried both objects and ideology fran one end of �soomerica to another has been discussed by many scholars. Here will be given only a fEM examples. The obsidian route. Cobean et al (1971: 666-671), who call the volcanic glass, obsidian, "the steel of its time," have shown that a trade route of unfinished obsidian existed between Teotihuacan, the Tula area, and Guatemala, since 1200 B.C. In Teotihuacan obsidian workshops functioned since the Patlachique phase, 150 B.C.-0, arrl other workshops in nearby Tepeapulco frcm the late Preclassic to the early Classic were controlled by Teotihuacan. In these, obsidian fran different sites in the region was worked and the pieces exporte:l (Charlton, 1977: 285-292). Charlton claims that this kirrl of "econanic imperialism," where Teotihuacan controlled the routes in three equidistant directions fran Tepeapulco, could have been based on an even earlier model of trade routes, perhaps Olmec, and constituted an antecedent of the systan used by Teotihuacan and, later, by Tula and Tenochtitlan. The industry, and trade in obsidian contributed �� a 79

d emographic a nd e conomic e xplosion t hat i n t urn c aused T eotihuacan t o e xpand a nd b ecome a m ajor r eligious a nd p ilgrimage c entre . A t t his t ime, A .D . 1 150, t he P yramids o f t he S un a nd t he M oon , m ajor a ttractions f or p ilgrims, w ere b uilt ( Millon , 1 973: 5 3). B ut n ot o nly o bsidian w as o f g reat i mportance i n e stablishing t rade r outes a nd c ontributing t o t he r ise o f c ities, t he e xchange o f i deas a nd t he i nfluence o f o ne r egion o n a nother. C acao , t he b eans u sed a s m oney, a nd c hocolate f rom t he c acao , a f avourite d rink i n t he P ostclassic p eriod, p robably a ccompanied o bsidian a long t he t rade r outes. T he c acao p lant a nd s eeds a re r epresented i n t he m urals o f T eotihuacan. S ince c acao d oes n ot g row i n t he M exican h ighlands, t hese p aintings o ffer p roof o f c ommercial e xchange w ith w armer r egions, f or e xample w hat t oday i s t he s tate o f T abasco . P rized t hin o range c eramics w ent f rom T eotihuacan t oward t he e ast -P uebla, T laxcala , t he G ulf C oast -from t he l ate P reclassic ( ca. 2 00 B .C .-0) t o t he f all o f T eotihuacan ( A .D. 7 50) ( Charlton , 1 977: 2 87). T he G ulf C oast r egion w as c losely a ssociated w ith t he C ity o f t he G ods d uring i ts e xistence a nd c onstituted a s tepping s tone t o t he s outh f or T eotihuacan p enetration. R attray ( 1979: 3 07) s ays t hat " Teotihuacan e xercised g reat p ower o ver a ll o f M esoamerica i n t he C lassic p eriod, t o t he e xtent t hat s ites s uch a s K aminaljuyu a nd E scuintla, G uatemala, w ere r eally T eotihuacan c olonies...". A mong t he p roducts t hat c ame i nto T eotihuacan i n e xchange f or p ainted o r e ngraved c eramic v essels, f igurines, a nd o ther t hings a lready m entioned, w ere f eathers f rom t ropical b irds, t extiles, r ubber, s alt, s ea s hells, f lowers f rom t he t ropics , c innabar f rom m ines i n Q uer &-a ro , g reenstone m asks a nd f igurines f rom G uerrero , t urquoise, j ade, s erpentine, a nd p robably s laves. A ll t hese w ere a ccompanied b y t raditions w hich m ust h ave l asted o ver t he c enturies a nd f ound t heir w ay i nto c ontemporary a nd l ater c ultures. E sther P asztory h as c ompared M esoamerica t o E urope i n s ome w ays: i n b oth a reas t here a re g reat g eographical d ifferences a nd m any e thnic g roups a nd l anguages, y et t here h as a lways b een c ontact a nd c ultural e xchange t hrough t rade, m atrimonial a lliances, a nd w ar. I n M esoamerica t he d ifferent g roups s hared a c ommon i deology a nd i n t he M iddle C lassic p eriod ( A .D . 4 00-700) T eotihuacan 's i nfluence w as f elt t hroughout a ll o f M esoamerica, b oth t hrough t rade i n c eremonial a nd u tilitarian p roducts a nd i n t he d iffusion o f a rchitectural s tyles a nd i conography. T his w as a p eriod o f s yncretism o f i deas a nd i mages, a n e clecticism i n a rt, w here v arious r egions i nfluenced o ne o r m ore a spects i n a rt a nd t hought ( Pasztory, 1 978: 7 , 8 ). T his p attern o f t he c oming a nd g oing o f a ll t hese t hings w as t o c ontinue t o s ome e xtent a nd p lant t he s ccd f or c ertain t raditions a nd p lastic r epresentations. T he b all g ame . P asztory ( Ibid .) a lso s ees t he b all g ame a s a m eans o f d iffusion o f c ultural e lements. R ubber , b asic f or t he m aking o f t he h all, e vidently c ame f rom t he a reas o f V eracruz a nd T abasco , w here t he b all g ame s ees t o h ave o riginated . T his g ame, w hich b ecame t he m ost p opular o ne i n p rehispanic t imes a nd w hich i s r ich i n c osmic s ymbolism , s pread f rom i ts h omeland t o t he M aya r egion , O axaca, a nd t he c entral h ighlands, c arrying w ith i t f a rms a nd s ymbols t hat w ere t o p erdure .

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A lternate r outes. A round A .D . 6 00-750, w hen t he C lassic p eriod w as e nding, T eotihuacan i nfluence o utside t he v alley d iminished w hile o ther c entres i ncreased i n s ize a nd p ower . T hese w ere C holula, E l T a ji n , X ochicalco , p arts o f O axaca, T ula, a nd C otzumaluapa. A t t he s ame t ime a lternate r outes c ame i nto b eing a s t raffic i ncreased. L itvak-King ( 1978: 19) h as p roposed a t rade r oute t hat c overed 1 M orelos-Guerrero-Puebla-Oaxaca-Veracruz, a long m uch o f w hich t he B alsas R iver w as i mportant . A nother r oute w ould h ave b een t he T oluca V alleyM alinalco-Teloloapan . T hese r outes w ould h ave c arried e ven m ore g oods a nd i deas f rom o ne r egion t o t he o ther , a t t he s ame t ime r elieving T eotihuacan o f m uch o f i ts o wn t raffic . T eotihuacan 's l ight w as d imming, t he b urning o f c eremonial b uildings i n t he c ity i ndicates e ither a c hange i n r eligious p ractices o r a c onquest, s ince t he c onquest o f a p lace w as a nnounced b y t he b urning o f i ts t emple, a s c an b e s een i n t he c odices. I n X ochicalco o b jects f rom t he M aya r egion, O axaca, a nd V eracruz, a s w ell a s o thers, h ave b een e xcavated t hat s how c entral h ighland t raits. I n C acaxtla , T laxcala, M aya i nfluence i s o bvious. S o t he l ater M exica h ad m any s ources t o d raw f rom .

T he P ostclassic :

e xchange o f t raditions a nd m aterial c ulture

A t t he e nd o f t he C lassic p eriod c ities o ther t han T eotihuacan b ecame i mportant. H ere o nly a f ew w ill b e m entioned. P erhaps t he m ost i mportant w as T ula . B efore t he r ise o f T ula, a s ite t here c alled C hingü w as a T eotihuacan s ettlement, w here t here w ere o bsidian w orks hops, a nd p eople w ho a pparently c ame f rom T eotihuacan w ho e xercised p olitical a nd e conomic p ower , p ossibly v ia m ilitary c onquest, a ccording t o C lara L . D iaz ( 198 1: 1 07112). F urthermore, p eople w ith O axaca r elationship s ettled i n T ula a nd e vidently w ere a ffiliated w ith m embers o f t he O axaca b arrio i n T eotihuacan ( Crespo a nd M astache, 1 98 1: 99 1 07). S anders h as s uggested t hat t he r elation b etween t hese g roups i n T eotihuacan ( city o f p ainted w alls) a nd T ula ( place w here l ime t o m ake s tucco i s m ined) w as p recisely d ue t o t he n eed t o a cquire t he r aw m aterial u sed i n c onstructions a nd m ural p ainting . T he O axaca p eople w ere i nvolved b ecause t he u se o f s tucco i n b uildings w as a n e arlier t radition i n M onte A lban t han i n T eotihuacan ( Ibid.). T he O axaca b arrio i n T ula , l ike C hingü, d ates f rom t he C lassic p eriod, c ont emporaneous w ith T eotihuacan , a nd i n N anza a t T ula, M etepec c eramics f rom l ate T eotihuacan h ave b een f ound. T his T eotihuacan-Tula c onnection l eft i ts m ark w hich w as f elt b y t he T oltecs, t he r eal m asters o f T ula. T he s ettlement b y t he T oltecs a round A .D . 9 00 p robably w as t he r esult o f a s low i nfiltration o f t he f ollowers o f M ixcoatl w ho p rior t o t his h ad t heir c apital a t S tar H ill, t he H uixachtecatl i n t he V alley o f M exico , a s w ell a s C azcanes f rom t he n orthwest o f M exico a nd p ossibly o ther g roups. T he M exica r eached ' Ada e arly i n t he t welfth c entury, t hey c elebrated t heir N ew F ire c eremony t here i n 1 163. W hen t he M exica a rrived i n T ula t hey p robably s erved t he T oltecs a s m ercenaries i n w ars a gainst t he H uastecs, a s l ater o n t hey w ere m ercenary s oldier f or t he T epanecs o f A zcapotzalco. 3 T he h istorical s ources d o n ot c ompletely c larify t he e nigma o f t he M exica i n T ula. A ccording t o t he H istoria d e l os m exicanos por s us 4 P inturas ( 1973: 4-45) t he M exica s pent t hree y ears i n T lemaco , n ear

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T ula , w here t hey b uilt a t emple t o H uitzilopochtli; t hen w ere t wo y ears i n A tlitlalaquian, a lso n ear T ula, w here t hey a gain m ade a t emple f or t heir g od; a nd f our y ears i n T ula, w ith a nother s hrine f or H uitzilopochtli. A nd w hen " the p eople o f T ula" w ere d ispersed , " the M exica r emained a s l ords o f T ula." N evertheless, i f t his a ccount s peaks t he t ruth, t he M exica a s l ords o f T ula w ould h ardly h ave c ont inued t heir m igration w hich e nded i n t he V alley o f M exico . T he M exica h ad b uilt t heir s mall t emple i n T ula o n t he s ite o f a T oltec b all c ourt. T his i ndicates e ither a c laim t o t he l and b y t his r itual a ct o r c ould p oint t o a c onquest, s ince t he f irst a ct o n s ettling a p lace w as t he b uilding o f a t emple a nd a b all c ourt; i n t his c ase t he b all c ourt w as s imply r e-used . D urän ( 1967, I I: 3 4) s ays t hat t he M exica c ontinued o n t heir w ay a fter T ula b ecause H uitzilopochtli a t t his p oint m ade t hem d estroy t he d am t hey h ad m ade a t C oatepec-Tula, w hich h ad b rought t hem p rosperity, b ecause t his w as n ot y et t he p lace c hosen b y h im . P robably, h owever, t he T oltecs w ere t oo m uch f or t he M exica a nd f orced t hem t o m ove o n . B ut t his c lose c ontact o f t he t wo g roups, f riendly o r n ot, w ould h ave a llowed t he M exica t o a cquire s ome T oltec t raditions. C holula, r eligious a nd m arket c entre. O ne o f t he c ities t hat f lourished a fter t he d ecline o f T eotihuacan w as C holula. J imenez M oreno ( 1963: 1 06) c onsiders C holula a r egional T eotihuacan c entre d uring t he C lassic p eriod; t hen i t w as c onquered c a. A .D . 8 00 b y t he O lmeca-Xicallanca, w ho o ccupied i t u ntil 1 292 when t hey w ere e xpelled b y t he T oltecs. W hen t he O lmeca-Xicallanca o vercame t he C holultecaT eotihuacanos, s ome o f t hese p eople w ent a s f ar s outh a s N icaragua a nd S alvador, w here t hey l eft i deas a nd c ustoms a nd e ventually r eturned t o c entral M exico w ith o ther t raditions a nd m aterial g oods a cquired i n t he s outh. I n t his w ay t he T oltecs w ho f led f rom T ula a nd t hen b ecame r ulers o f C holula o btained c ertain c ultural t raits w hich t hey l ater p assed o n t o t he M exica. C holula i s a g ood e xample o f t he t ransmission o f i deology t hrough c ommerce. T his c ity h eld a s trategic l ocation b etween c entral M exico a nd t he G ulf C oast a nd w as a t t he c rossroads t o t he H uasteca i n t he n orth a nd l ands t hat l ed t o t he M aya r egion i n t he s outh. U nder t he O lmeca-Xicallanca t he m erchant c ity e xploded w ith r iches, a s i t m ay h ave d one i n T eotihuacan t imes, a nd w hen t he S panish a rrived h ere i n 1 519 t hey w ere a mazed a t t he s ize a nd a mount o f p roducts i n t he m arket. A s M unoz C amargo ( 1966: 15) c ommented c enturies a go, t he p eople o f 1 C holula " were m ore m erchants t han m en o f w ar...". T he i nfluence o f e conomics i n r eligion i s e vident i n t he c ase o f Q uetzalcoatl i n C holula. T raditionally Q uetzalcoatl w as a c reator d eity, a g od o f k nowledge a nd c ivilization . H e s tole b ones o f t he a ncestors f rom M ictlantecuhtli, L ord o f t he L and o f t he D ead, i n o rder t o c reate a n ew g eneration o f h umans ( HM , 1 973: 1 06), a nd h e c hanged h imself i nto a n a nt s o h e c ould s teal m aize k ernels f rom o ther a nts w ho s tored t hese i nside a m ountain, s o h e c ould f eed m aize t o h umans ( Leyenda d e l os S oles, 1 945: 1 2 1). A nother a spect o f Q uetzalcoatl w as h is g uise a s t he w ind w ith t he n ame E hecatl. F or t he T oltecs h e w as t heir m ain g od; D urän ( 197 1: 1 28) c alls h im " the f ather o f t he T oltecs." W hen t he T oltecs c ontrolled C holula t hey p ut t heir o wn g od, w hom t hey h ad b rought f rom T üla, a t t he h ead o f t he p antheon t here, a nd s ince t his w as a g reat c o r anercial c entre, Q uetzalcoatl h ad t o c hange r

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h is c haracter : h e b ecame t he g od o f t he m erchants. T his t ransformat ion t ook p lace o nly i n C holula . D urän d escribes t he i mportance o f Q uetzalcoatl h ere : [ Quetzalcoatl] w as t he g od a nd p atron o f t he C holultecs, h ighly e xalted a nd c elebrated t o t he e xtent t hat o n t he d ay o f h is c elebration , s ince t he C holultecs w ere m erchants a nd w ealthy p eople , t hey c elebrated a s uperb, a c ostly f east f or t he g od c alled Q uetzalcoatl, t he d eity o f t he m erchants... T oday t he n atives o f C holula c ontinue t heir t rade a nd c ommerce w ith d ifferent m erchandise , t raveling t hrough t he m ost r emote a nd d istant p arts o f t he l and , s uch a s C uauhtemallan a nd X oconochco , a ll a long t hese c oasts a nd m ines...just a s t hey d id i n a ncient t imes ... ( Ibid.: 1 28129).

X icalanco a nd X oconochco . D uring t he l ate P ostclassic p eriod t wo l ong-distance t rade r outes j oined T enochtitlan w ith P uebla , O axaca, a nd X icalanco a nd X oconochco f arther s outh ( SAH , 1 969, I II : 2 8). T hese r outes p assed t hrough t he p resent d ay c ities a nd s tates o f C halco , M orelos, I zucar d e M atamoros, T ecamachalco , T epeaca, a nd s ome M ixtec r ealms s uch a s T laxiaco . F rom X oconochco o ne r oute c ontinued t o t he C hiapas h ighlands a nd G uatemala . A ll a long t hese a nd o ther t rade r outes w ere s ome t ribute-paying c ities a nd o thers w hose o bligation c onsisted s olely i n a llowing t he m erchants t o p ass f reely t hrough t heir t erritory . A g roup o f s tates i n t he f ifteenth a nd e arly s ixteenth c enturies w hich i ncluded T ututepec a nd T ehuantepec ( Oaxaca ), t he T arascan r egion ( Michoacan ), t he Y ope a rea ( Guerrero ), a nd C hiapas, f ormed a s ystem o f c ommercial e xchange w hich b asically t raded b ronze a nd c opper o b jects, f eathers, c acao , a nd t extiles. M uch o f t his w ent o n t o o ther r egions ( Ball a nd B rockington , 1 978: 1 07114). T he M exica p ochteca, c onveyers o f i deologies. C ommunication s ystems w ere w ell o rganized d uring M exica t imes. T he g eneral t erm f or m erchants w as p ochteca, l ong-distance t raders w ere t he o rtomeca , t he n ahualortomecatl w as a l ong-distance m erchant w ho w as a lso a s py a nd a w arrior. T he p ochteca p rovided c ontact b etween p eople o f d ifferent c ultures a nd m any o f t he i tems t hey t raded h ad s ocial, p olitical, o r r eligious s ignificance ( Bittman a nd S ullivan , 1 978: 2 17). T his t rade, a s w ell a s t ribute-collecting, w as a ccompanied b y r eligious d octrines a nd t he e stablishment o f c olonies. A s t o t he l atter, h undreds, p erhaps t housands, o f p eople w ent f rom T enochtitlan, T ezcoco , C halco , X ochimilco, a nd C uauhnahuac t o l ive i n o ther r egions, f or e xample , O axaca ( Davies, 1 979: 25). T hese p eople k ept t heir o wn t raditions 2 w hich w ere s ynchretized w ith t hose o f t he p laces c onquered o r c ontrolled.

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A r e-founding o f T enochtitlan? T here i s a p ossibility t hat a s ettlement o n t he s ite o f t he c ity o f T enochtitlan e xisted l ong b efore t he f ounding o f t he M exica c apital, e stablished b y p eople w ho p ossessed a s imilar m aterial c ulture. T hey w ould h ave a bandoned t heir s ettlement d ue t o n atural c auses, s uch a s f loods. T he M exica e stablishment o f t heir c apital i n t his p lace w ould h ave c onstituted a c ontinuity i n t raditions . S ince a rchaeological w ork h ere h as s een t he s imilarity b etween t he t wo c ultures, i t i s p ossible t hat t he M exica k new o f t he l ocation t hrough r epeated o ral t radition , a nd t hat i s w hy H uitzilopochtli k ept u rging h is p eople o n t o t heir p roper d estination . T his h ypothesis f ind s upport i n t he e xcavations c arried o ut u nder t he M etropolitan C athedral, o ne s tep f rom t he T emplo M ayor p yramid, w here e vidence o f a n a ncient s pring h as c ome t o l ight ( Cabrera C astro , 1 979: 6 0). .W hen t hey l ived f or a t ime i n t he V alley o f T eotihuacan t oward t he e nd o f t heir m igration, t he M exica p robably w ere i nfluenced b y c ontact w ith o r s tories a bout t he s acred c ave t here, a nd, j oining t his t o k nowledge ( or d iscovery) o f t he s pring a t t he p lace t hat w ould b e t heir c ity, s aw t he l atter a s t heir g od 's i ndicated s pot. A s t o t he p ossibility o f t his p lace h aving b een p reviously o ccupied a nd t hen a bandoned , D urän ( 1967, I I: 3 75-38 1) d escribes o ne s erious f lood w hen w ater w as b rought t o T enochtitlan f rom t he A cuecuexco i n C oyoacan a nd s tates t hat " many o f t he a ncient s tructures r emained u nder t he w ater, a nd t he c ity o f M exico w as r ebuilt...". A ccording t o t he e xcavations u nder t he c athedral c oordinated b y C onstanza V ega ( 1979: 2 0, 1 00), t here w ere t wo f loods i n t his a rea t hat w ere o f s uch m agnitude t hat t he c ity w ould h ave h ad t o b e a bandoned f or s ome t ime. O bsidian h ydration t ests d one d uring t his w ork s how t hat a s ettlement e xisted h ere a round t he e nd o f t he e leventh c entury a nd a nother t hat c orresponds t o t he f ounding o f A .D. 1 325 a nd l ater y ears. S ince c onstruction t echniques w ere t he s ame i n b oth c ases, t he s ame m aterial c ulture c ould h ave e xisted t hroughout t he v alley, t hough V ega c oncludes t hat o ne p eople c ould h ave o ccupied t he a rea t hat w as t o b e T enochtitlan a nd a bandoned t his d ue t o l ong a nd h eavy f looding a round A .D . 1 018. T wo c enturies o r s o l ater, w hen a c ontinued d rought h it t he n orthwest r egion ( to w hich t hese p eople h ad m igrated), t hey r eturned t o t heir o riginal h ome , w hose i mage h ad b een k ept a live i n m yth ( Ibid.: 5 0, 9 5). I n S ahagün 's c hronicle ( 1969, II: 2 13) w e r ead t hat i n C olhuacan ( or I T eocolhuacan?) " their g od s poke t o t hem , t elling t hem t o r eturn t o t he p lace f rom w hich t hey h ad d eparted...and t hus t hey r eturned t o t his l and t hat t oday i s c alled M exico ." A rmillas ( 1964: 6 7-7 1) s peaks o f e pochs o f d rought o r o f f looding w hich c ause p eople t o m igrate. " In a p eriod b efore t he t hirteenth c entury," h e s ays, s edentary g roups o ccupied a ll t he c entral h ighland r egion o f M exico f arther n orth t han t he L erma R iver a nd a s f ar a s t erritories t hat t oday a re s terile a nd d esolate . A nd b etween A .D . 6 00 a nd 1 200, t hat i s, b etween t he d ecline o f T eotihuacan a nd t he d istintegration o f t he T oltec e mpire, s ome p eople w ho w ere a griculturists s ettled o n l and t hat i s n ow p art o f Z acatecas a nd D urango , t aking w ith t hem a c ultural d iffusion w hich c onsequently c aused g eopolitical c hanges i n t he c entral p lateau r egion . " The f ormation o f t he T oltec e mpire, f ormed o f p eople w ho w ere d isplaced

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t oward t he n orth i n r espect t o t he o ld C entral M exican k ey z ones o f c ivilization , a nd t he e stablishment o f t heir c apital a t T ollan ...on t he n atural r oute f rom t he V alley o f M exico t o t he P a jio a nd t erritories a t t he t hen b orders o f M esoamerica, a re p roof o f t his." C limate c hanges i n T ollan b rought l ong p eriods o f d ryness a nd c onsequently t he d ecline o f T ula i n t he t welfth c entury. T here w as a g eneral e xodus o f p eople t oward m ore f ertile, s outhern, r egions. A mong t hese p eople w ere t he C hichimecs o f X olotl a nd s ome N ahua g roups f rom t he P ajio r egion w here a C uliacan h ill m entioned i n t he c hronicles i s f ound. C lavijero ( 1945, I : 2 18) s tated t hat t he r eason t he A ztecs a bandoned A ztlan w as t hat " the s terility a ffecting t he n orthern a reas a t t hat t ime w as t he c ause o f s o m any p eople l eaving a nd s earching f or l ands i n t he s outh i n o rder t o f ind a s olution t o t heir n eeds." N o w onder t he M exica-Aztecs i dealized w hat t hey c onsidered t o b e t heir o riginal h ome , s et i n a n a bundance o f w ater. T hese c limatic c hanges, t hen , b ringing w ith t hem d rought o r f loods, c aused t he m ovement o f p eople, s ome m igrating t o n ew l ands a nd o thers r eturning t o t heir f ormer t erritories. T he t enochtli, t he n opal c actus o r p rickly p ear , m ay h ave a cquired i ts c haracter a s a s acred s ymbol d uring t he p eriods o f d rought, s ince i t s eems t o h ave s olved s ome p roblems. H errera ( 1945, 25) 2 s ays t hat " in t he l and o f t he C hichimecs, w hich i s s terile a nd l acking i n w ater, [ this p lant] s erves a s f ood a nd d rink, b ecause t he p eople e at t he t unas [ or f ruit] a nd d rink t he j uice f rom t he l eaves." I n t his s tudy i t h as b een t aken f or g ranted t hat s ome s tone e xisted o n t he i sland o f T enochtitlan . T hat t he r ed a nd b lue w aters f lowed f rom o ne o r t wo c aves p oints t o t he e xistence o f s ome r ocky t errain. N evertheless, E duardo M atos, a rchaeologist i n c harge o f t he T emplo M ayor e xcavations, i nforms u s t hat u nderneath t hese s tructures o riginally t here w ere s wamps. T his d oes n ot e liminate t he p ossibility, h owever , t hat s ome r ocky p arts e xisted, w here c aves a nd s prings w ould h ave b een f ound, a nd t hat p ossibly t hey w ere b eneath t he c athedral a nd c onstituted t he M atlalatl-Tozpalatl c ave.

A rchitecture .

T win t emples

A d irect h eritage f rom a n e arlier c ulture t o T enochtitlan c ame f rom T enayuca, a c ity i n t he V alley o f M exico f ounded b y t he C hichimecs i n t he t hirteenth c entury. S ome e lements o f t his h eritage a re c ertain c eramics, n ow c alled A ztec, a nd t he f act t hat t his c ity f ormed a t riple a lliance w ith X altocan a nd A zcapotzalco , a p olitical o rganization u tilized l ater b y t he M exica i n u nion w ith T ezcoco a nd T acuba ( Pina C h i n, 1 972: 1 04). A t o ne t ime t he C hichimecs o f X olotl l ived i n t he V alley o f T eotihuacan-Tezcoco a nd t he g eneral N ortheast-Southwest o rientation o f T enayuca s uggests t hat t he C hichimecs a lso m ust h ave b een i nfluenced b y T eotihuacan, t his t ime i n t he o rientation o f t he c ity. T he T enayuca p yramid w ith i ts m ain s tairway d ivided b y t wo c entral b alustrades, t he t win t emples a t i ts s ummit, a nd i ts s erpent w all, c onstitute c lear a ntecedents o f T enochtitlan 's a rchitecture ( fig. 4 1). B ut t win t emples a re f ound i n M esoamerican a rchitecture t hat p redates T enayuca. M illon ( 1976: 2 05-248) b elieves t hat t he P yramid o f t he S un i n T eotihuacan m ay h ave h ad t win s hrines o n t op , s ince t here

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a re i ndications t hat t hese p robably e xisted o n a n e arlier s tructure, n ow c overed o ver b y t he g reat p yramid. N avarrete ( 1976: 3 490350) m entions t en t win t emples o n p yramid p latforms i n G uatemala 's c entral p lateau r egion , w hich w ere b uilt b etween A .D . 1 200 a nd 1 500 a nd w hich c ould h ave b een i nfluenced b y T eotihuacan. T he e xistence o f a t hroe-temple c omplex m ust b e m entioned, h owever , s een b oth i n T eotihuacan a nd G uatemala, f or e xample i n T ikal. M illon ( 1973: 5 1, 5 2) s tates t hat t here w ere t wenty-three o f t hese c omplexes i n T eotihuacan , s ome o f w hich w ere e arlier t han t he S un a nd M oon p yramids. P erhaps a t o ne t ime t here w ere t hree d ominating e thnic g roups o r t hree m ajor d eities, w hich l ater c hanged t o ad ual p olitical s ystem -a s f ound i n T enochtitlan w ith t he t latoani a nd t he c ihuacoatl - or a d ual r eligious r epresentation , s uch a s t he c ult t o H uitzilopochtli a nd T laloc a t t he T emplo M ayor. T enochtitlan e ventually a dopted a t riple s ystem i n t he T riple A lliance , p erhaps i n p art i nfluenced b y t he l ong a go t hree-elements f avoured b efore t he d ual s ystem c ame i nto p opularity.

S culpture A mong t he O lmecs ( ca. 1 500100 B .C .) t here a re m otifs i n t he a rt t hat c ould h ave i nfluenced l ater c ultures. S ome a re t hese, a ccording t o J oralemon ( 197 1: 1 0-33): t he f our-petal f lower , o mnipresent i n T eotihuacan ; c aves f rom w hich p ersons e merge; t he x icalcoliuhqui o r s piral, a lso f ound o n T eotihuacan c eramics , i n m osaic s tone w ork i n M itla, o n A ztec c eramics; c rossed b ands, f ound, t oo , o n T eotihuacan p ottery, w hich f orm a S aint A ndrew 's c ross o r o llin ; t he x onecuilli o r S -form , c ommon o n b oth T eotihuacan a nd A ztec c eramics; t he q uincunx, s een i n T eotihuacan a nd i n M exica a rt ( 52 o f t hese f our d ots w ith a c entral d ot a re s een a round t he f ace i n t he c entre o f t he M exica S un S tone, p erhaps c onstituting w hat N icholson -personal c ommunication c alls t he " Mexica y ear s ign"). I zapa. S ome m otifs s een i n T eotihuacan a rt a nd t hat o f o ther p eoples m ay h ave c ome f rom I zapa ( 500 B .C. A. D . 1 00) ( Quirarte , 1 973; N orman , 1 976) a nd t hese d esigns, f orms, o r t raditions w ould h ave g one f rom I zapa t o t he M aya r egion, t o t he Z apotec a rea, t o T eotihuacan , t o t he G ulf C oast , a nd, t hrough t hese, t o o ther c ultures. S ome o f t he e lements a re t he f ollowing : W ater s een a s w aves t hat f orm a k ind o f x icalcoliuhqui a nd/or an o llin. S een i n t he T epantitla m urals a t T eotihuacan a nd i n t he f rets i n M itla s tonework, a mong o thers. T he " tree o f l ife" o r w orld t ree , s een a lso i n p ictorial a nd T eotihuacan m ural p ainting ( fig. 3 6).

c odices

I ndividuals w earing g rotesque m asks w hich a re s omewhat s imilar t he b all p layers i n r elief c arvings a t D ainzü, O axaca. I ntertwined d esigns t hat a re r eminiscent o f E l T äjin a nd t he d esign i n M aya a nd M exica a rt a nd s ymbolism . S telae a ccompanied b y c ircular a ltars, a lso f ound i n T ikal.

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t o

m at

B irds p erched o n t ree t ops, s imilar t o t hose a t P alenque a nd i n s ome p ictorial c odices ( figs. 2 8, 4 3).

s een

S aurian m onsters w hose t ails r ise v ertically b ecome t rees, a s t hey d o i n t he C odex B orgia.

t hey

( fig.

4 2);

T he o pen m aw o f t he E arth M onster w hich a t t he s ame t ime i s a c ave; t here a re p ersons, a nimals, a nd p lants i nside. T his i s a p opular t heme a t I zapa, a t L a V enta, i n p ictorial c odices o f t he B orgia g roup , a nd i n t he A tlas o f D urän . A t ree t hat g rows f rom a h uman o r s upernatural f igure, s een a lso i n t he s arcophagous a t P alenque, i n t he C odex B orgia, i n T ula, a nd o n t he h ack o f t he T emple o f t he S acred W ar m odel a t T enochtitlan ( fig. 4 3). C elestial b ands a nd t errestrial b ands, f ound a lso i n s ome a nd o n t he M exica T izoc S tone.

c odices

A n i ndividual s culptured o n S tele 3 a t I zapa, o ne o f w hose f eet i s m issing a nd i n i ts p lace s purts w ater i n t he f orm o f a s erpent. T his i s s imilar t o t he P ostclassic g od T ezcatlipoca, w ho h as a s o ne f oot a m irror w ith s erpentine v olutes f orming s moke. F igures d escending h ead f irst, a s s een a t o ther s ites, f or e xample T ulum ( fig. 4 2).

T he s ame m otifs a re f ound a t d ifferent s ites, t hough n ot a lways w ith t he s ame s ignificance . T he s erpent, s o o ften s een a t T eotihuacan, w as a n i mportant s ymbol i n t he p ictorial c odices a nd i n s culpture a t T enayuca a nd T enochtitlan , t o c ite o nly o ne e xample. T he s culptured s erpent w hose h ead r ests o n t he g round w hile h is t ail r ises v ertically t o f orm a c olumn o r b alustrade, e xisted i n T eotihuacan b efore i t d id i n C hichen I tzä. T he s talking c oyote o r j aguar w as p ainted o n T eotihuacan w alls e arlier t han i ts p resence i n s culptured f orm i n T ula. A f ew o ther e lements w hich p robably p assed f rom T eotihuacan t o T ula i f t hey d id n ot a ppear i n t he a rt t here i ndependently a re t he s tylized b utterf ly p ectoral, i mages o f T laloc, a nd t he T eotihuacan p lumed s erpent. N avarrete ( 1976, X III: 2 3-45) d escribes a s eries o f s culptural e lements f ound o n t he c oast o f C hiapas w hich i ndicate s trong T eotihuacan i nfluence i n t his r egion, a s w ell a s l inks w ith X ochicalco , V eracruz, O axaca, a nd C hichen I tzä. T eotihuacan p resence i s s een i n t he g lyph C aso c alled " turquoise," w hich a lso a ppears i n X ochicalco ; t he " reptile e ye" g lyph; t he g od T laloc w hose t ongue b ecomes a f lower b lossoming f rom h is m outh, w ho c arried a s erpent-lightning r ay i n o ne h and a nd w ears a h eaddress i n t he f orm o f a y ear s ymbol -a nd i s a lmost i dentical t o t he T laloc p ainted i n m urals a t T etitla a nd A tetelco , T eotihuacan , a nd r epresented i n a X ochicalco r elief c arving; a j aguar w hose s pots a re l ike f our-petal f lowers, s imilar t o t he j aguar i n a m ural a t T etitla a nd i n " The D rinkers" m ural a t C holula;

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r epresentations o f t alud a nd t ablero , a d iagnostic T eotihuacan a rchitectural s tyle. T hen t here a re d ot a nd d ash n umerals l ike t hose i n O axaca a nd t he M aya r egion , a nd -p erhaps t he m ost s triking -is a s culpted i ndividual, d ecapitated, f rom w hose n eck f lows b lood i n t he f orm o f s erpents, r eminiscent o f a p laque f rom A paricio , V eracruz, o f s imilar r epresentations a t C hichen I tzä, a nd o f t he M exica s tatue o f C oatlicue . N avarrete p oints o ut t hat t he t rade r outes t hat p robably w ent f rom t he M exican h ighlands t hrough C hiapas t o G uatemala T eotihuacan t o K aminaljuyu i n t he C lassic p eriod -left t heir m ark o n t his s trategic a rea. S ome T oltec a rtistic c anons i nherited b y t he M exica c an b e s een i n o ne e xample i n M exico 's M useum o f A nthropology: a s tatue o f a n a tlante o r t elemon w hich i s s o s imilar t o t he g reat a tlantes a t ' L ila t hat i t h ad a lways b een c onsidered T oltec u ntil a s tudy b y N avarrete a nd C respo ( 197 1) p roved i t t o b e o f M exica m anufacture , t hough i nspired b y T oltec s culpture. C lear T oltec i nfluence i s s een a t T enochtitlan 's T emplo M ayor , t he E agle P recinct, w here r elief c arvings o f w alking f igures b anquettes a re i dentical t o -o r w ere i mported f rom -T ula.

i n o n

T he c hacmool, r eclining f igure i n s upine p osition , i ts h ead l ifted, a n a ltar-type p late o n i ts s tomach, i s o ne d iagnostic o f T oltec s culpture. I t h as b een f ound a t d ifferent s ites r anging f rom W est M exico t o T ula a nd o n d own t o t he M aya z one -especially i n C hichen I tzä , i n E l S alvador, a nd a c hacmool-type c lay f igure w as e xcavated i n C ulhuacan , V alley o f M exico , w hich S e jcurne ( 1970) b elieves t o b e a f orerunner o f t he l ater s culpture. I n T enochtitlan 's T emplo M ayor a c hacmool, s till p ainted w ith i ts o riginal c olours, i ts n ose f ormed o f r ubber ( material a ssociated w ith w ater d eities), c ame t o l ight a t t he t op o f t he p yramid i n f ront o f t he s hrine t o T laloc, w ater g od. T he c hacmool m ay b e a c ontinuation o f t he s upine f igure f rom w hose e ntrails g rows a p lant, s een s o f requently i n p ictorial c odices, a ccording t o P l arbro D ahlgren ( personal c ommunication). T he p late o n t he c hacmool w here a n o ffering p robably w as p laced w ould h ave s ubstituted t he s acred p lant b ut i n b oth c ases t he o ffering o r f lora w ould h ave b een a m eans o f c ommunication w ith t he g ods.

M ural p ainting C lara H . M illon ( 1972: 7 -8) h as s uggested t hat s ome r oots o f N ahuatl p hilosophy c an b e f ound i n T eotihuacan . C oncretely, s he r efers t o t he m ural c alled t he " Mythological A nimals," p ainted c a. A .D . 3 00, i n w hich a p lumed s erpent i s c onfronted b y a s trange g reen a nimal. W ater w ith w aves s uggests a d eluge, t he s cene i s f ull o f j aguars, o ther f elines, f ish, a nd d ifferent c reatures. J aguars d evour f ish w hile a c rocodilian m onster l ike t he m ythological c ipactli, s ymbol o f t he e arth, o bserves w hat i s g oing o n . C . M illon s ees a c onnection w ith t he c reation m yth o f t he F our S uns a nd t heir d estruction b y f loods, f ire , w inds, a nd j aguars, w hen m en w ere t ransformed i nto f ish a nd j aguars d evoured g iants. T his T eotihuacan m ural, t hen , p ossibly p lanted t he s eed o f t he F our S uns m yth, a s i t i s d escribed i n t he H istoria d e M exico ( 1973: 1 03104).

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A nother p ossible f orerunner o f M exica m yth a nd s ymbol h as a lready b een m entioned. I t i s t he " Tlalocan" m ural i n T epantitla ( figs. 3 6, 3 7), w here t he t errestrial p aradise s cene f its t he M exica d escription o f t he i deal p lace o f f ertility ( SAH , 1 938, I : 2 87, C aso , 1 942), a nd t he c entral f igure f rom w hose b ody a t ree g rows a nd w hich s tands o n a c ave w here r ed a nd b lue w aters f low , c ould b e i nterpreted a s a t heme s uggesting t he T enochtitlan i nsignia. T he m ural p aintings a t C acaxtla, T laxcala, c onstitute p ictorial e vidence o f i nfluences t hat w ent b ack a nd f orth o ver M esoamerica, T eotihuacan a nd M aya f orms a nd s ymbols a re e specially m anifest h ere.

C eramics T he i mportance o f c eramics a s a l ink b etween c ultures h as b een m entioned i n t he d iscussion o f t rade r outes. R attray ( 1979: 5 1-59) h as s aid t hat t he r elations o f T eotihuacan w ith t he M aya r egion, t he G ulf C oast, a nd O axaca, a re e videnced b y t he c eramics f rom t hese r egions f ound a t T eotihuacan. D uring t he C lassic p eriod, T eotihuacan e stablished f actories -t rading s tations c ontrolled b y f actors - w here g oods w ere s tored a nd t hen d istributed, a t E l T ajin , i n t he M ixtequilla, a nd a t M atacapan , a mong o thers, a nd t he M erchant 's B arrio a t T eotihuacan a pparently w as i nhabited b y m erchant-emissaries w ho h ad d istant a ssociations. E xport p ottery p ar e xcellence w as t he T hin O range w are. S ome s ettlements i n T laxcala s eem t o h ave b een w ay s tations o n t he T eotihuacan t rade r oute w hich a fter c rossing T laxcala b ranched o ff t oward t he c entral G ulf C oast r egion, t he P uebla V alley a nd O axaca ( Vega S osa , 1 98 1: 4 9). C eramics f rom V eracruz h ave b een f ound i n T laxcala s ince P reclassic t imes. I n C acaxtla c eramics c ame f rom s outhern P uebla a nd t he G ulf C oast d uring t he m iddle C lassic, A .D . 3 00-600, a s w ell a s o thers w hich a re s imilar t o l ate T eotihuacan w ares ( Löpez d e M olina, 1 98 1: 1 7 1173). C acaxtla h as b een m entioned a s a n i mportant c entre o f c ontact w ith o ther r egions. T here a re e vidences h ere o f a c ult t o a w ater d eity w hich m ay o r m ay n ot b e r elated t o t he T eotihuacan T laloc, b ut r ather m ay h ave s prung f rom a c ult t o a s acred s pring w hich h as c ontinued t hrough c olonial a nd m odern t imes a t t he t own n ow c alled S an M iguel d el M ilagro C a. A .D . 8 00-900 t he M atlatzinca o f T eotenango i n t he T oluca V alley h ad b egun t o b uild c eremonial s tructures i n T eotihuacan s tyle, w ith t alud a nd t ablero . T eotihuacan i nfluence w as f elt a ll o ver t his v alley, n ot o nly i n a rchitecture b ut i n t he p resence o f " portrait" t ype c lay f igurines ( Sugiura, 1 98 1: 1 62). R elations b etween w hat i s n ow t he s tate o f M orelos a nd o ther r egions o f M esoamerica b egan e arly . A ngulo ( 1979) c laims t hat t hese b egan w ith t he O lmec p resence i n C halcatzingo , b efore o ur p resent e ra , a nd c ontinued u p t o t he c onstruction o f b otanical a nd z oological g ardens a t O axtepec b y t he M exica t latoani M otecuhzoma I . A g reat d eal o f T eotihuacan p ottery h as b een f ound n ear h ere, a t Y auhtepec. C ulhuacan, w here t he M exica l ived s ome t ime b efore f ounding T enochtitlan , s upposedly w as s ettled i n A .D . 6 96, a ccording t o

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C himalpahin (1965: 5 7). S ejourne, i n h er e xcavations a t C ulhuacan, f ound f igurines t hat w ere " undoubtedly T eotihuacan ," a nd c eramics t hat a re s imilar t o T eotihuacan I V ( 1970: 6 3). T here w as a T oltecC hichimec s ettlement h ere, a lso, a fter t he t enth c entury. N oguera ( 1975: 1 83185) s tates t hat A ztec I c eramics a re t he e arliest h ere a nd i n r eality s hould b e c alled C ulhuacan . T his w are i s r elatively a bundant a t s ites i n t he V alley o f M exico , P uebla, T laxcala, M orelos, a nd a t s ome p laces i n O axaca. C eramics c alled A ztec I s hould b e I " Tenayuca," s ays N oguera; t rue A ztec c eramics w ere b ased o n " Aztec I " a nd " Aztec I I" b ut d eveloped l ater . A t S tar H ill, o n t he I ztapalapa s ide, R einhold f ound s ome A ztec p ottery a nd a f air a mount o f c eramics d ating f rom t he L ate P reclassic t hrough T eotihuacan I I ( ca. 1 50-300 A .D .), a s w ell a s L ate P ostclassic T ezcoco c eramics ( personal c ommunication). H is f indings, w hich i nclude c hild b urials, p oint t o S tar H ill, e specially t he s ummit, a s a s trictly c eremonial s ite. T his s acred m ountain c an b e c onsidered a p lace o f c ommunication b etween c ultures o ver m any c enturies. A s h as b een s een , i n M esoamerica t here w ere c ontinual r elations b etween d ifferent r egions, i n m ost t ime p eriods. T he t ransference o f i deas, m aterial c ulture, a nd i mages f rom o ne g roup t o a nother , f rom o ne e poch t o a nother , m ust h ave b een a r egular o ccurrence. I n t his w ay , t hrough t rade , r eligious p ilgrimages, i ntermarriages, t he b all g ame , a nd o ral a nd p ictorial t raditions, t he M exica m ust h ave a cquired m uch o f t heir i deology.

T he i mportance o f i nfluences f rom t he p ast i s s tressed i n an umber o f t he h istorical c hronicles o f t he X VI c entury t hat d escribe p rehispanic M exico. N avas ( n .d.: 1 40, 1 55, 1 56) f or e xample, s tates t hat t he d escendencia a ntigua n otoria ( notable a ncient l ineage) o f t he g reat l ords w ent b ack t o t he " beginning o f t he w orld." W e c an n ever k now e xactly h ow t he M exica o f T enochtitlan v iewed t heir p redecessors b ut u ndoubtedly t hey e steemed t hem h ighly. T he f inds i n M exico C ity 's T emplo M ayor t hat s how T oltec a nd T eotihuacan i nfluence s eems t o s ubstantiate t his, f or t he R ed T emple a t t his s ite, s imilar t o T eotihuacan i n p rofile a nd d ecoration, g reenstone m asks t hat a re a lmost i dentical t o m any a t T eotihuacan , a nd T oltec s tyle r eliefs o f w alking w arriors o r p riests i n t he E agle P recinct, w ould n ot b e f ound i n t his m ost s acred a rea i f t his w ere n ot s o.

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N OTES T O C HAPTER V II 1 . T hat t he T eotihuacanos c onsidered t he 1 5° 2 8 E o f N o rientation t he " sacred d irection ," w hich w as l ater f ollowed b y o ther p eople, i s s een i n t he o rientation o f c ertain c entres: A veni a nd G ibbs ( 1976: 5 10-5 17) m ention T ula , T enayuca, a nd t he T eporteco , a nd, b ased o n T ichy 's w ork, o ther s ites s uch a s X ochitecatl a nd C acaxtla c an b e a dded t o t his l ist .

2 .

T he e xplanation f or t his " announcement" i s t hat t he h eliacal r ising a nd t he p assage o f t he s un t hrough t he z enith o ccurred a pproximately o n t he s ame d ay a t T eotihuacan ( Aveni, e d., 1 975: 1 70). T he o bservation o f t he P leiades w as b asic t o f armers, n ot o nly i n M esoamerica b ut i n o ther a reas. F or t he P awnee a nd o ther p eople i n N orth A merica t his s tar g roup a ppears i n t he e ast i n t he a utumn, a nd s ince t he m ovement o f t he e arth m akes i t s eem t hat i t i s t he P leiades g roup t hat m oves, t his c onstellation a pparently c omes c loser t o t he w estern h orizon e ach d ay. D uring t he w inter t he P leiades r each t he z enith a nd t hen s lowly d escend t oward t he w est, w here t hey d isappear i n t he s pring. B ecause o f t hese m ovements t he P leiades a re t hought t o a nnounce t he a rrival o f w inter a nd f rost , s o w hen t hey f irst a ppear t he f armer k nows i t i s t ime t o h arvest. A nd w hen t he P leiades d isappear i n t he s ky i t i s t ime t o p lant. ( Ceci, 1 978: 3 02-303).

3 .

T hese 1 965.

d ates

a re f rom J imenez M oreno ,

1 977,

a nd

M artinez

M arin ,

N igel D avies ( 1977: 1 60163) f eels t hat t he c hronicles, w hen s peaking o f T opiltzin-Quetzalcoatl, a re a ctually r eferring t o d ifferent i ndividuals, p erhaps b earing a t itle, " Quetzalcoatl," a nd e ven b elonging t o d ifferent e thnic g roups. D ata f rom d ifferent c hronicles a re c ontradictory a nd o ften c onfusing. A s t o t he o rigin o f Q uetzalcoatl ( or t he p eople a ssociated w ith t his p ersonage), t he A nales d e C uauhtitlan ( 1945: 4 ) c laims t hat Q uetzalcoatl c ame f rom t he H uasteca r egion ; M unoz C amargo ( 1966: 4 0-44) b elieves t he w estern p art o f M exico w as t he o riginal h ome ; T orquemada ( 1943, I : 2 55) t alks o f ag roup o f h igh c ulture t hat w ent t o T ula f rom P Anuco, i dentified b y D avies ( 1977: 1 64165) a s t he N onoalcas : p eople f rom t he s outh-east w ho s poke N ahuatl " differently," t hey w ere a n i ntellectual e lite . S ahagün ( 1969, I II: 1 84189) s ays t hat t he T oltecs, p eople o f Q uetzalcoatl, c ame f rom " Chichimec t erritory," s pent m any y ears i n T üllantzinco ( the p re-Tula), a nd f rom t here w ent t o s ettle T ollan-Xicotitlan ; h e a dds t hat t hese p eople w ere N ahuatl s peakers. T he F lorentine C odex, h owever , m entions t hat t hey s poke N ahuatl s omewhat d ifferently f rom t he l ater M exica , a nd t hat t hey w ere t he T oltec-Chichimecs w ho d rove t he T oltecs o f T opiltzin-Quetzalcoatl o ut o f T ula ( 196 1, X : 1 75). ( See a lso N igel D avies, T he T oltecs u ntil t he F all o f T ula, 1 977, a nd T he T oltec H eritage, 1 980, U niversity o f O klahoma P ress, N orman.)

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J udging f rom t he d ifferent s ources a nd d ifferent o pinions r egarding t he T oltecs a nd T ula, w e c onclude t hat T ula w as f ounded n ot a t o ne s ingle m oment n or b y o ne p eople, b ut w as s ettled g radually w ith t he f usion o f g roups f rom d ifferent r egions. T eotihuacan h abitation h ere a lso i ndicates e arly -a t l east C lassic -settlement. B ut T ula, l ike C ulhuacan , a nd t he " sacred a ncestor" T eotihuacan, w as t o i nfluence t he M exica g reatly a s f orebears, a s c reators o f t raditions, a nd i n a rt.

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C HAPTER V III:

S UMMARY A ND C ONCLUSIONS

A ntecedents o f t he T enochtitlan m yth a nd i nsignia. T he i nsignia o f M exico-Tenochtitlan a nd t he f oundation m yth o f t he M exica c apital h ave b een s tudied i n o ral t radition , i n s acred g eography, i n i conography, i n a rchaeological r emains, a nd i n r eference t o c ultures t hat w ere e arlier i n t ime t han t he M exica. H ere w ill b e g iven a b rief s ummary o f t his s tudy a s w ell a s c onclusions. T he o b ject o f t he s tudy h as b een t o a ttempt t o d iscover t he r oots o f b oth t he m yth a nd t he s ymbol. T he h ypothesis p resented i s t hat t raditions w hich i nspired t he f oundation m yth a nd p ictorial e lements t hat f ound t heir w ay -individually o r c ollectively -i nto t he i nsignia c onsisting o f t he e agle, t he n opal c actus, t he r ock o r c ave, a nd w ater, w ere a dopted a nd a dapted b y t he M exica f rom o ther c ultures w ith w hich t hey h ad c ontact o r f rom w hom t hey i nherited p art o f t heir i deology. O ne o f t hese c ultures w ould h ave b een t he T eotihuacan, a nother t he T oltec, b ut s ome e lements i n i solated f orm c an b e f ound a s e arly a s t he O lmec o r I zapa. T he m eaning o f t hese d ifferent p arts o f t he m yth a nd s ymbol m ust h ave b een d ifferent a t d ifferent t imes a nd w ith p eople o ther t han t he M exica, b ut t he f ounders o f M exico-Tenochtitlan w ere a dept a t i nterpreting e xisting i deas a nd i mages, a nd a pplying t hem t o t heir o wn b eliefs a nd h istory. T he A ztec m igration m yth i s w ell k nown t o s tudents o f M exican h istory, w here s even g roups o f p eople l eft t heir h omeland i n A ztlanC hicomortoc-Colhuacan a nd w andered u ntil t hey f ound t heir i deal p lace i n t he V alley o f M exico. A ll t his t ime t hey w ere g uided b y t heir g od H uitzilopochtli. T he p resent s tudy c oncentrates o n t he r ole p layed b y C opil, H uitzilopochtli 's n ephew , w hose h eart w as t nrown i nto t he r eeds a nd r ushes a nd f rom w hich t he n opal c actus o r p rickly p ear g rew , t hus m arking t he s pot f or t he f ounding o f M exico-Tenochtitlan . T he n ame o f t he f ounders o f t his c apital h as b een e xamined, f rom t he t ime t hey f ormed p art o f t he A ztecs ( who t ook t heir n ame f rom A ztlan, t he p oint o f d eparture), t o t he i ncident a t C oatlicamac w hen a g reat t ree s plit i n t wo, s ign t hat t hey w ere t o a bandon t he o ther m igrants a nd c hange t heir n ame t o M exican o r M exica. T his h as b een c alled t he b eginning o f t rue M exica h istory. S ome c hroniclers h ave c laimed t hat t he n ame M exica , h owever , w as d erived f rom M eci, o ne t he g od-bearers o n t he m igration, o r f rom M ecitli, " People o f t he m aguey a gave a nd o f t he h are." A fter t he M exica-Aztecs h ad f ounded T enochtitlan , " Place o f t he t enochtli, n opal c actus f ruit," t hey w ere c alled T enochca. W hy d id t hese p eople m igrate? E vidently t hey w ent i n s earch o f a b etter l ife. C ristobal d el C astillo s tates t hat t he M exica, w hen l iving i n A ztlan w ere v assals o f am ore p owerful d ivision o f t he

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A ztecs, w ho m istreated t hem . T hey a lso w ished t o h ave t heir o wn l ands, t heir f reedom . I n A ztlan t hese p eople w ere n ot o nly f armers, t hey w ere b asically f ishermen. T he i mage o f a quatic r iches n ever l eft t hem a nd w hile o n t heir l ong m igration t hey b uilt d ams a nd f ormed a rtificial l akes. I t w as n ot u ntil t hey c ame t o t he V alley -or r ather , B asin o f M exico t hat t hey a gain f ound a w atery p aradise, a l and c overed b y f ive l akes a nd m arshy i slands ( figs. 4 4, 4 5). T he m igrating g roup h ad s plit u p a n umber o f t imes: a t P atzcuaro, w here s ome m embers w ere a bandoned w hile b athing, a t C oatlicamac, w hen M alinalxochitl, m other o f C opil, w as a bandoned b ecause o f h er s orcery, a nd a t C oatepec-Tula w here H uitzilopochtli d efeated h is s ister C oyolxauqhui a nd t heir f our h undred b rothers. T he s truggle f or l eaders hip i s e vident i n t hese s eparations, c ausing n ot o ne b ut v arious m igrations. B ut t here a re o ther p ossible r easons f or t he m igration. O ne i s t hat t he M exica h ad o riginally l ived i n t he V alley o f M exico, h ad l eft i t d ue t o c onstant f looding, h ad g one t o o ther r egions, a nd h ad r eturned t o t he c entral p lateau w hen d rought i nvaded t heir n ew t erritories a nd f avourable c onditions h ad b een r estored t o t he V alley o f M exico. S ahagün m entions t hat t he M exica r eturned t o t his a rea a nd A rmillas d id a s tudy o n t he m ovements o f p eople i n p rehispanic M exico d ue t o c limatic c hanges. I f t he h ypothesis o f t he r eturn o f t he M exica t o l ake-filled l ands c an b e t rue, t he m emory o r t radition o f a l ong-ago w atery p aradise c ould h ave d riven t hem o n u ntil t hey a gain f ound t he l and o f r oods a nd r ushes. T he i dea t hat e ither t he M exica o r p eople w ith a s imilar m aterial c ulture o ccupied , c enturies e arlier, t he p lace w here T enochtitlan w as b uilt, h as b een p roposed, a lso , b y C onstanza V ega, w ho c oordinated e xcavations u nder t he M etropolitan C athedral, n ext t o t he T emplo M ayor , w here r emains s uggesting t his e arly o ccupation w ere f ound. T hat a n a quatic e nvironment w as b asic t o t he M exica c ulture e arly i n t heir h istory i s s een i n t he i dentification o f H uitzilopochtli, t he p rincipal g od, a s t he i zcahuitli, a n e dible l ake w orm , a t t hat t ime. H uitzilopochtli w as, a fter a ll, t he s on o f T laloc, b ut a s t he c haracter o f M exica s ociety c hanged, s o c hanged H uitzilopochtli. H e b ecame a h ummingbird, a n e agle, f inally a g od o f w ar , a nd, a ccording t o O viedo , " the s un."

M yth , o ral t radition , a nd s acred g eography M yth a nd o ral t radition a re b asically m eans o f c ommunication . T hey a re d idactic, t heir f unction c an b e t hat o f t eaching. T hey h old g roups t ogether b y p roviding a c ommon h istory, o ften b ased o n f act. T hey a lso p rovide e ntertainment a nd f ind t heir w ay i nto r itual a nd t heatre. T hey j ustify s ome h istorical f acts o r g enealogies, t hey a re i n t he a rt o f p eoples. M yth , t raditions, a nd p lastic r epresentation a re o ften u seful t ools f or t he r econstruction o f h istory. T he m yth o f C opil, e xplained i n f ull a t t he b eginning o f t his s tudy, w as t o h ave l ong r ange c onsequences, a s w ere o ther m yths i n M exico ( such a s t he C reation o f t he F ifth S un o r t he v ictory o f H uitzilopochtli o ver C oyolxauhqui a t C oatepec). C opil w as b orn t o

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M alinalxochitl a fter h er e xpulsion f rom t he g roup c ontrolled b y H uitzilopochtli, a nd w as b rought u p o n s tories o f t his t reachery. H e r esolved t o k ill h is u ncle b ut w hen h e a ttempted t his a ssassination H uitzilopochtli o verpowered h im , c ut o ut h is h eart, a nd h ad i t t hrown i nto t he r eeds. I t l anded o n a r ock o r c ave f rom w hich r ed a nd b lue w aters f lowed, a nd f rom t he h eart a p rickly p ear c actus g rew . W hen a n e agle p erched u pon t his n opal c actus, w ith a s erpent o r b ird i n h is b eak, t his w as t o b e t he s ign f or t he f ounding o f t he M exica c apital a t t hat s pot. A ccording t o t he m yth , a ll t he y ears o f t he M exica w anderings w ere d edicated t o s earching f or t his s ign a nd t heir " promised l and ." I t i s e vident , o f c ourse , t hat m yths n ot o nly e ducate a nd e xplain, b ut a lso e xcuse. T hrough a ll t he s tories t old b y e arly c olonial c hroniclers t here r uns t he t hread o f M exica s upremacy, o f t heir b eing t he c hosen p eople o f t heir g od w ho l ed t hem t oward t heir g oal. E ach t ime t he M exica s eparated f rom t he m ain g roup i t w as b ecause H uitzilop ochtli t old t hem t o b ecause t hey w ere s uperior t o t he o thers. T he t ruth p robably l ies i n d isagreements a mong p eople w ith k inship t ies a nd a s truggle f or l eadership t hat e ventually w as w on b y H uitzilopochtli 's f ollowers, a t l east i n t he V alley o f M exico . T he C rönica X , w hich t ells m uch o f t his s tory , w as, a fter a ll, a n o fficial a ccount o f t he M exica-Aztecs, t old f rom t heir p oint o f v iew . I t g oes w ithout s aying t hat m yths s hould b e s tudied i n t he c ontext o f t he s ociety t hat c reated t hem . I n t he M exica f oundation m yth s acred n atural p henomena p lay a n i mportant p art. I n t his s tudy t he e lements i n t he v isual s ymbol a nd t hose m entioned i n t he m yth a re e xamined. T he b ird , r epresented i n t he i nsignia b y t he e agle, w as a ssociated w ith t he s un , w ith s oaring v ictory, t he h eart o f a s acrificed c aptive w as t he " eagle f ruit." I t w as a b ird, p erhaps a h ummingbird, o ne o f H uitzilopochtli's d isguises, w ho s tarted t he M exica o n t heir m igration b y s inging " tihui...", " let 's g o." T he b ird p erched o n a t ree -t he c actus w as c alled a t ree i n t he c hronicles - w as a f airly c ommon m otif i n c ultures p rior t o t he M exica. I t i s f ound i n p ictorial c odices a nd s culpture f rom I zapa t o T eotihuacan, t o t he P uebla-Tlaxcala r egion a nd t o t he M aya a rea, a lways i n r epresentations w ith s acred m eaning. T he e agle o n t he n opal i s s een i n a r elief c arving o n t he b ack o f t he T eocalli d e l a G uerra S agrada, t he T emple o f t he S acred W ar, n ow i n t he M exica H all o f M exico 's N ational M useum o f A nthropology. T he c actus g rows f rom t he a bdomen -in t he f orm o f ag aping m outh - o f a s upernatural b eing. R epresentations o f t his t ype, w here a t ree w ith a b ird o n t op g rows f rom t he e ntrails o f a h uman o r a nimal f igure i n s upine p osition, i s c ommon i n t he C odex B orgia w hich p robably w as p ainted i n t he f ifteenth c entury. I t i s p ossible t hat t he M exica h ad c ome i nto c ontact w ith p ictorial d ocuments o f t his t ype, o r e lse k new o f c ertain p ictorial t radition t hrough a rtistic c anons t hat p assed f rom o ne p eriod a nd o ne c ulture t o a nother. A s o ne e xample , t he b ird a nd t he t ree g rowing f rom a d ivine b eing a re f ound, t oo , i n t he T epantitla m ural a t T eotihuacan . I n m ythology t he h eart a nd t he h ead o ften h ad t he s ame s ymbolism i n c ertain c ultures, s ince i ntelligence a nd e motion r eside i n o ne o r t he o ther , o r i n b oth. T he h ead c ould s ignify p ossession o f a

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t erritory, a s d id a h ead ( of T enoch? o f C opil?) c arved o n t he b ase o f a s tone c actus w hich w as a b oundary m arker b etween T enochtitlan a nd T latelolco . U sually a p lant o r t ree w as g rowing f rom a h eart. T he t ree i n A ztec t hought r epresented l eadership , p ower, d omination . C opil, r epresented b y h is h eart f rom w hich g rew a t ree, w as t he s ymbol o f a g roup d ominated b y a nother, m ade t o f orfeit t heir l eadership t o t he M exica . T he t ree h as m any m eanings. I t h eld e arth a nd s ky t ogether , i t s tood a t e ach o f t he w orld 's f our q uarters, i t s ymbolized t he r uler w ho p rotected h is p eople a s t he t ree b ranches g ave s hade a nd p rotection, i t w as t he t onacaquähuitl, t he t ree o f s ustenance. T he r ock f rom w hich t he c actus g rew w as a nother p iece o f s acred g eography, s ince s ome p eople b elieved t hey w ere d escended f rom g reat r ocks, a s o thers w ere b orn o f t rees. T he r ock a lso s ymbolized t he m ountain a nd w ithin m ountains w ater w as k ept f or t he f ormation o f r ivers, f or . these g reat h ills w ere t he w omb o f C halchiuhtlicue, w ater g oddess. T he r ock o r h ill w as a lso t he h ome o f c aves, a nd a ll c aves i n M esoamerica w ere a nd a re s acred. S ome o f t he p eople o n t he A ztec m igration w ere b orn o f c aves, t hey c ame o ut o f C hicomortoc, t he S even C aves, t he p lace o f c reation . T he c ave i s s een a s t he e arth 's u terus, f rom w hich g ods, h umans, a nd e ven c elestial b odies e merge. A nd i t w as f rom a s acred c ave a t t he p lace w here C opil 's h eart f ell w here t he r ed a nd b lue w aters f lowed. R ed a nd b lue s treams a lso f low f rom a c ave i n i e T epantitla p ainting. W ater w as a p urifying e lement, a s w as f ire, w hich p urified N anahuatzin w hen h e l eapt i nto f lames i n T eotihuacan t o b e t ransformed i nto t he s un . P urifying " blue a nd y ellow" w aters w ere t hose w hich b athed a n ewborn c hild. T ransgressors w ho c onfessed t heir e rrors t o T lazolteotl, M other G oddess w ho " ate" t hese t ransgressions , w ere c leansed w ith " blue a nd y ellow" w aters, a m etaphor f or p urification . A mong t he f orms f ound i n n ature w hich c onstitute t he T enochtitlan i nsignia -u ndoubtedly d esigned l ong a fter t he f oundation o f t he c ity b ut b ased o n s ymbols t hat h ad c ome d own t o t he M exica t hrough t radition a nd p lastic r epresentations -the c ombination o f w ater w ith a r ock o r h ill f orm t he a ltepetl, " water a nd h ill" o r " water w ithin a h ill ," a nd t his w ord m eans " city," p robably b ecause b oth l and a nd w ater a re n ecessary f or a s ettlement. T he e agle w ith a s erpent i n i ts b eak r epresents p ower , c onquest . T hat t hese t hings g rew f rom C opil 's h eart i ndicates d omination o ver a dversaries. S o e lements o f s acred g eography, o f n atural p henomena, j oined t ogether i n o ne s ymbol, f ormed a n i mage o f s upremacy t hat t he M exica w ished t o p ortray. T he p romised l and . I n m any c ultures t he n avel o f t he w orld, t he c entre o f t he u niverse, i s a p aradisaical p lace b ursting w ith r ich v egetation, f illed w ith a ll k inds o f t reasures, a nd o ften a ssociated w ith f orebears w ho w ere m odels o f p erfection . F or t he M exica t he p romised l and t o w hich t heir g od w ould l ead t hem w as t o f it t his d escription . I t w ould r eflect A ztlan-Chicomortoc-Colhuacan , g lorified i n m yth. T heir a ncestors f ormed p art o f t his p icture , a lso , f or C olhuacan m eans " Place o f G randfathers," a nd T eocolhuacan, a lso

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m entioned a s a n e arly A ztec h ome , i s t he " Place o f S acred G randfathers" o r a ncestors. H uitzilopochtli w as g uiding h is p eople t o t he p ermanent l and h e h ad p romised t hem , a l and w here t heir n ame w ould b e e xalted, w here t hey w ould b e l ords o f g old a nd s ilver, o f r ich f eathers o f a ll c olours, o f p recious s tones, o f m ulticoloured c otton, o f c acao o f d ifferent c olours, a nd w here t hey w ere t o b uild t emples a nd h ouses o f e meralds a nd r ubies, a ccording t o D urän 's c hronicle . T ezozomcc m entions t hat C opil a nd h is p eople a lso w ent i n s earch o f q uetzal f eathers, o f c acao o f m any c olours, o f m ulticoloured c otton. T hese p romises o f r iches a re r eminiscent o f T ula, w here Q uetzalc oati h ad h ouses o f f our r ooms e ach, a s S ahagün r elates i t. T hese f aced t he f our w orld d irections a nd w ere m ade o f e meralds a nd t urquoise, o f s hells o f m any k inds, o f p recious s tones, a nd t he r ooms i n o ne h ouse w ere a ll c overed w ith e xquisite f eatherwork i n v arious c olours. T he f eathers i n a ncient M exican t hought w as a m etaphor f or t he p recious, a s w as j ade ( called " emerald" i n t he c hronicles). E vidently t he f eathers, p recious s tones, c otton , c acao , a nd o ther c oveted g oods ' , a ll i n c olours r elated t o t he w orld q uarters, s ymbolized t he r iches a t t he e nd o f t he t rail, a c ontrol o ver p eople i n t he f our d irections, o f t rade a nd t ribute . A s h eirs o f t his t radition f rom ' Ada , t he M exica c ould c onquer t heir k nown w orld. H eritage f rom c ultures e arlier t han t he M exica . A mong t he t raditions i nherited b y t he M exica f rom c ultures t hat f lourished b efore t heirs p robably T eotihuacan w as t he m ost i nfluential. A mong t he t raits t hat m ust h ave i nfluenced t he f ounders o f T enochtitlan w as t he p ictorial t radition a s e videnced b y m ural p ainting : t he M ythological A nimals w ho s eem t o b e a ctors i n t he A ztec m yth o f t he F our S uns; t he T epantitla " Tlalocan" m ural w here a d ivine b eing f rom w hose h ead g rows a t wisted t ree o n w hich p erch b irds a nd b utterflies, t he f igure s et u pon a c ave f rom w hich f low r ed a nd b lue s treams o f w ater - k nowledge o f w hich , e ven t hrough o ral t radition , c ould h ave p lanted t he s eed i n t he m inds o f t he M exica m yth-creators o f w aters o f t wo c olours f lowing f rom a c ave, w hich h elped m ark t he s ite f or t he f ounding o f T enochtitlan . A nd t he b irds a nd b utterflies o n t he t ree o r p lant b ring t o m ind t he m yth o f t he A ztec w arriors w ho , a fter d ying o n t he b attlef ield o r o n t he s acrificial s tone, h elped c arry t hc s un a cross t he s ky, t hen w ere t ransformed i nto b irds a nd b utterflies w ho s pent t heir t ime s ucking h oney f rom f lowers. T he c reation o f t he F ifth S un -t he e ra o f t he A ztecs -t ook p lace i n T eotihuacan . I f t his m yth w as i nvented b y t he M exica-Aztecs, a s i t p robably w as, i t s hows t he a we a nd r espect f or t hat g reat C lassic c entre . T hat t he f our d oors o f t he c eremonial c entre o f T enochtitlan w ere a lso o riented t o t he f our d irections i n m emory o f t he g ods w ho f aced t hese d irections a fter t he c reation o f t he F ifth S un i n o rder t o s ee w here i t w ould r ise , i s p roof o f t he d esire t o a ssociate t he T enochtitlan p recinct w ith T eotihuacan, a nd p erhaps a cquire s ome v ital f orce b y t ransferring i ts s acred o rientation t o t he o ther c ity s ome s ix c enturies l ater. T he " sacred d irection ," t he N E-SW a xis o f T eotihuacan, f ound i ts i mitators, t oo , i n l ater c ities a nd a lso i n t he r eorganization o f t he c hinampas i n t he f ifteenth c entury. M exica r ulers w ent t o T eotihuacan e very t wenty d ays t o w orship t here, p robably v iewing t he g reat b ut n ow d ead m etropolis a s a s acred

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a ncestor o f t heir o wn c ity. T he c ave u nderneath t he P yramid o f t he S un , w hich I b elieve w as k nown t o t he M exica b ecause A ztec s herds w ere f ound a t i ts e ntrance, w ould h ave c aused a nother p ermanent i mpact o n t hese P ostclassic p eople b ecause o f i ts s acred c haracter, a nd m ay h ave i nspired a l ater c ave c ult, p art o f w hich w ould h ave b een t he e xistence o f t he M atlalatl-Tozpalatl c ave i n t he f oundation m yth . TWin t emples a t t he s ummit o f T eotihuacan 's P yramid o f t he S un , i f t hey r eally d id e xist, m ay w ell h ave b een t he m odel f or t win t emple c omplexes i n T enayuca, i n G uatemala , a nd i n T enochtitlan 's T emplo M ayor .

T ula, w hich h ad r elations w ith T eotihuacan s ince t he C lassic p eriod, p artly b ecause o f t he l ime i ndustry , m aterial n ecessary f or t he s tucco b ase o f p aintings i n T eotihuacan ( and i ncidently w ith O axaca v ia T eotihuacan f or t he s ame r eason ), p artly t hrough t he o bsidian t rade, e ventually a cquired t he c haracter o f s acred a ncestor f or t he M exica. O ne a necdote r elated b y D urän r efers t o t his: w hen t he S paniards f irst r eached t he c oasts o f M exico , M otecuhzoma s ent t hem r ich g ifts a nd w as g iven i n r eturn s ome g lass b eads a nd b read . T he b read w as c onsidered f ood o f t he g ods a nd t he S paniards c hildren o f Q uetzalcoatl, a s t he M exica b elieved t hemselves t o b e, s o t he d ry b iscuit w as t aken i n a s olemn p rocession t o T ula , w here i t w as b uried i n Q uetzalcoatl 's t emple. T he M exica, t oward t he e nd o f t heir m igration, r eached T ula w here t hey s tayed a w hile. H uitzilopochtli's m iraculous b irth a nd t he d efeat o f h is s ister a nd b rother t ook p lace t here, a t C oatepec-Tula. M yths o f t he T oltecs t old o f Q uetzalcoatl 's h ouses o f p recious f eathers a nd r ich m aterials. S ahagün , i n t he F lorentine C odex, s tates t hat w hen Q uetzalcoatl a bandoned T ula h e b urned a nd b uried a ll f ine t hings, h is h ouse o f g old, h is h ouse o f s hells, t he c acao t rees, a nd s ent " all t he p recious b irds, t he r esplendent t rogons, t he l ovely c otingas, t he r oseate s poonbills...away b eforehand...they w ent t oward A nauac" ( 1978: 3 3), t he V alley o f M exico , w here t heir t raditions o f " the p recious" w ere a bsorbed b y t he M exica. A nd, T ezozomcc t ells u s, w hen M otecuhzoma X ocoyotzin t ried t o f lee f rom p roblems c aused b y E uropean i nvaders, h e w ent t o h ide i n c aves a t C incalco , w here H uemac, l ast r uler o f T ula, w as s upposed t o h ave g one. C olhuacan i n a ncestral t ies f or t here f or s ome t ime C ulhua n oble w oman , s elves T oltec .

t he V alley o f M exico i s a nother T oltec c ity w ith t he M exica, s ince t he C ulhuas a llowed t hem t o l ive a nd t he f irst M exica t latoani w as d escended f rom a t herefore g iving t he M exica t he r ight t o c all t hem-

T hese a re p erhaps t he m ost i mportant c entres t hat i nfluenced t he p eople o f T enochtitlan , t hough t here a re o thers. T he t rade r outes, a lso , w ere b asic i n t aking m aterial g oods, r eligious i deas, c ustoms, t raditions, a rt s tyles, f rom o ne r egion t o a nother, f rom e arly t imes r ight u p t hrough T eotihuacan a nd t he C lassic t o t he M exica. T he h ypotheses p resented i n t his s tudy w ere a nalyzed n ot o nly a ccording t o o ral t radition a nd c olonial w ritten s ources, b ut a lso t hrough p ictorial e vidence a nd a rchaeology. T he h eart a nd h ead o f C opil o r a n i mage t hat c ould h ave s uggested t he C öpil s tory h ave b een

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m entioned, a nd t he s acred c haracter o f n atural p henomena r elated t o t he m yth a nd s ymbol w as s tudied . A rchitectural e lements k nown t hrough a rchaeological e xcavations t hat p rove a ssociations b etween o ne p lace a nd a nother , f or e xample t he t alud a nd t ablero i n T eotihuacan a nd i n T ikal, a nd w hich u ltimately i nfluenced o ther c ultures, h ave b een n oted. I t h as a lso b een n oted t hat w ords, r hythmn , s ong ( especially t he c antares, w hich a re s ometimes e pic p oems , s o p opular a mong t he M exica), i n f act, m any c ontrolled s ounds i ncluding t he b eat o f d rums a nd t ramping o f f eet , a s w ell a s v isual e lements, s erved a s m nemotecnia t o s timulate t he m emory a nd t ransmit h istory, g enealogies, r eligious d octrines, t o t he p eople w ith t he h elp o f i mages a nd s ounds. I n c onclusion , i t h as b een d emonstrated t hat T enochtitlan i nherited m aterial a nd i deological e lements f rom o ther c ultures, p erhaps m ainly f rom T eotihuacan . A s E liade h as p ointed o ut, t he s acred c haracter o f a s ite c an b e t ransferred t o a nother t hrough o rientation , a rchitecture, a rt n orms, o ral t radition , a nd t he m agic-religious a ssociation o f p eople w ith t heir n atural e nvironment . I n t his t ransference n ot o nly T eotihuacan w as p redominant b ut o ther c entres s uch a s C ulhuacan , T ula , C holula , a nd X ochicalco . T his t ype o f s tudy, o f i nfluence e xercised b y o ne g roup u pon a nother , i s n ot t o b e c onfused , o f c ourse , w ith d iffusionism . T he M exica c learly t ook i deas , a rt m otifs, t raditions, c ustoms, f rom o ther p eople w ho h ad p reviously d eveloped t hem , t hen , w ith t he i ngenuity o f t he M exica , t hey m olded m any o f t hese e lements i nto a s tyle a nd p hilosophy o f t heir o wn . I n t he m yth a nd i mage o f C opil a nd h is d efeat a t t he h ands o f H uitzilopochtli, i t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat h is u ncle d ecapitated h im a nd t hen e xtracted h is h eart . H uitzilopochtli a lso d ecapitated a nd c ut o ut t he h eart o f C oyolxauhqui, h is s ister-enemy. D ecapitation a s a s ymbol o f c onquest a nd a lso o f r ebirth i s s een w ith c ertain f requency i n M esoamerica . O ne e xample i s i n r ites o f a gricultural f ertility w here t he h ead o f t he s acrificed v ictim r epresents t he f ruit t hat f alls. A nother i s s een i n t he P opol V uh , w here H un H unahpu i s d ecapitated , h is h ead p laced i n a t ree, a nd t his t ree t hen p roduces m uch f ruit. A s t o C opil, h e a nd h is m other M alinalxochitl m ust h ave b een m embers o f o ne o f t he s even c alpulli t hat l eft A ztlan , a nd a t o ne p oint M alinalxochitl t urned o ver t he l eadership t o h er s on . C opil 's p osition a mong t he A ztecs m ust h ave b een h igh . H is n ame , C opil, i s d erived f rom c opilli, w hich m eans " diadem ," t hat w orn b y a r uler . F urthermore , h e i s p ortrayed i n t he C odex A zcatitlan w ith h is h air d ressed i n t he m anner o f a l eading w arrior . A t a t ime o f s truggle f or s upremacy a mong t he r elated g roups t he M exica h ad t o c ut o ff t he h ead t hat w ore s ymbols o f p ower , j ust a s t hey h ad a lso t o c ause t he d ownfall o f t he f action s ymbolized b y C oyolxauhqui a nd h er b rothers t he H uitznahua . B ut i t w as i mportant t o t ransfer s ome o f t he f ormer a uthority o f t hese t wo d ivisions. T hus, w e f ind t hat a r espected t itle f or s ome M exica f unctionaries w as H uitznahua, a nd o ne o f t he l eading b arrios i n T enochtitlan w as t hat o f H uitznahua. T he m ain s ymbolism o f t he T emplo M ayor r ested o n t he d efeat o f C pyolxauhqui, w hose s hattered i mage w as p laced i n s tone a t t he f oot o f H uitzilopochtli 's t emple. T he m yth o f t his d ecapitated a nd d ismembered s ister o f H uitzilopochtli w as r eenacted e ach y ear i n t he f estival o f P anquetzaliztli, f or a ll t he

9 9

p eople t o s ee a nd r emember. C opil, w ho a lso r epresented a t hreat t o M exica a uthority, p erhaps a n o pposing i deology b ased o n am atrilineal s ociety r epresented b y h is m other , h ad , t oo , t o b e e liminated y et r emembered. T he t enochtli t hat g rew f rom h is h eart c ame t o b e a r eminder , i n t he f orm o f t he T enochtitlan i nsignia, o f t he t riumph o f t he M exica r epresented b y H uitzilopochtli o ver t he o ther A ztecs. T here i s n o s imple e xplanation o f t he f oundation m yth a nd o f C opil 's h eart a s t he s eed f or t he n opal c actus w hich b ecame t he s ymbol o f T enochtitlan. T he m yth a nd i mage a re w oven w ith t hreads o f m any c olours, t aken f rom n atural p henomena, s acred a ncestors, a rt a nd t raditions, a nd t he m essianic m ission o f a p eople w ho c onsidered t hemselves c hosen . T he r ed a nd b lue s treams o f w ater f lowing f rom a c ave, s een i n T eotihuacan m urals a nd c onstituting o ne o f t he i mportant s ymbols i n t he f oundation m y t h , b ecame a ssociated w ith t he " gold a nd s ilver, p recious f eathers a nd p recious s tones" r epeated i n o ral t ransmissions, w hich i n r eality w ere a m etaphor f or s ecurity, r iches d erived f rom t rade a nd t ribute, a nd s tability i n g overnment, a m etaphor m isinterpreted b y s ome. T his m yth, s till a live w hen t he S panish c onquered M exico i n 1 52 1, w as t hought n ot t o d escribe t he " promised l and" b ut t o r efer t o r eal t reasure. D urän d escribes C ortes 's s earch f or t his t reasure : W hile t he n ew p lan f or t he c ity w as b eing d esigned a nd t he M arquis [ Cortes] r ested, t hey [ the S paniards] b egan t o s earch f or t he t reasure [ supposedly] h idden i n t he p alace c hambers, w hich t he T laxcalans a re s aid t o h ave h idden b y p lacing i t i n a c ertain d eep s pring t hat e xisted i n t he c ity, w here t he M exicans b elieved t hat r ed w ater a nd b lue w ater f lowed, a nd w here w hite f rogs a nd w hite w ater s nakes c ame o ut. B ut t he S paniards n ever s aw t his s pring a nd n ever k new w here i t w as ( II: 7 1) T he E uropeans f ailed t o u nderstand t hat t he r ed a nd b lue w aters s ymbolized a ll t hat t he M exica h ad b een s earching f or d uring t heir l ong m igration , a nd h ad f inally f ound a mong t he r eeds, a mong t he r ushes, w here C opil 's h eart l ay.

1 00

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T he V alley o f M exico a t t he b eginning o f t he s ixteenth c entury. A fter S anders, 1 980, a nd P orter W eaver, 1 972.

1 02

f ig.

3 -In t he C odex B oturini o r T ira d e l a P eregrinaciön ( above), H uitzilopochtli i s i dentified b y h is b ird h eadd ress, t he h uitzitzilin o r h ummingbird. H e i s w ithin t he h ill o f C olhuacan i n t he y ear 1 -Flint K nife. T he s even g roups o f m igrants, r epresented b y s even t emples, a re o n a n i sland t hat u ndoubtedly i s A ztlan . T he f emale g od-bearer C himalma i s s eated b elow t he m ajor t emple, t hat o f t he M exicaA ztecs, a nd i s i dentified b y h er n ame g lyph, c himalli o r s hield. B elow , t he i sland A ztlan w ith o nly 1. f our t emples a nd a h ill, a s d epicted i n t he C odex A ubin, 1 979:

1 03

Ge .% o r o s tr 9e , a gg i b i l tek a e t ke-e t , „ er f ig. 4 a ) T he H uixachtecatl H ill n ext t o C olhuacan, a ccording t o t he U psala M ap , 1 550. b ) C olhuacan, " Place o f A ncestors," i s r epresented a s a c urved h ill, f rom t he N ahuatl c oltic, " twisted t hing." T he H uitzuco p laque, f rom S eler, 1 963. c ) C olhuacan i n t he C odex A zcatitlan, 1 949, p late I II.

1 04

f ig.

5 -A bove, t he A ztecs l eave A ztlan, g uided b y H uitzilopochtli, w ho w ears h is h ummingbird h elmet. . C odex A zcatitlan, 1 949, p late I I. B elow , i n t he C odex V äticanus R ios, 1 964, I II: 1 98, f our g od-bearers f ace a h ill w hich s upposedly w as A ztlan, w ith t he g oddess T onacacih uatl o n i ts s ummit. T he f igure a t t he l eft i s i dentified a s H uitzilopochtli.

1 05

f ig.

6

In C oatlicamac, w here a s hrine w as b uilt f or H uitzilopochtli, a g reat t ree b roke. T his w as a s ign t hat t he A ztecs s hould b reak o ff f rom o ther m igrants a nd c hange t heir n ame t o M exican o r M exica. C odex B oturini o r T ira d e l a P eregrinaciön .

f ig. 7

-P enafiel, 1 885: 1 85, i nterprets t he T enocht itlan t oponym a s T eonochtitlan : t he s un a t t he b ase o f t he n ochtli, c actus, i s t eo (t1), " sacred, l egitimate."

1 06

f ig. 8 -A bove, t he A ztecs l eave C hicomortoc, t he S even C aves, a t t he b eginning o f t heir m igration . D urän A tlas, p late I , 1 963. B elow t he S even C aves a re r epresented a s a g reat m ountain-earth m onster, w ith H uitzilopochtli b efore i t. C odex A zcatitlan, 1 949, p late V .

1 07

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9 -T he g od-bearers o r t eomamaque l ead t he m igration. T he o nly w oman , C himalma, i s i dentified b y h er n ame g lyph, t he r ound s hield o r c himalli. A bove, C odex A ubin, 1 979: 1 2. B elow, T ira d e l a P eregrinaciön.

1 08

f ig.

1 0 -T he b irth o f H uitzilopochtli a t C oatepec. C oatepec i s r epresented b y s erpents ( coati) a nd a h ill ( tepetl). C odex A zcatitlan , 1 949, p late V I.

1 09

f ig.

1

-T he l ake t he A ztecs c rossed w hen l eaving A ztlan i s p ersonified, p erhaps a s aw ater d eity. T he l ittle ihul...", l et 's g o. C odex b ird i s c alling u t M exicanus, 1 952, p late X VIII.

1 10

f ig.

1 2 -T he M exica l eft t heir c aves t o g o o n t he m igration. T he b ird a t t he t op m ay b e o ne w ho s ang " tihui...". D urän, A tlas, p late I , 1 963.

11

f ig.

1 3 -A t t he f oundation s cene, t he e agle i s e ating a b ird. T he p erson a t t he r ight b ears t he n ame g lyph " Tenoch" a nd w as o ne o f t he m ythic f ounders o f t he M exica c apital. D urän, A tlas, p late 3 2, 1 963.

1 12

fig. 14 - The tenochtli, "stony" prickly pear cactus, grows fran the entrails of the conqueroo Copil, while the head of Huitzilopochtli, triumphant, is alx>ve Copil's. Codex Azcatitlan, 1949, plate XII.

113

f ig.

1 5 -A d ecapitated h ead i s c arved o n t he b ase o f t he s culpture o f a c actus. A p lant s eems t o g row f rom h is h ead. M exica c ollection, c ourtesy N ational M useum o f A nthropology , M exico .

1 14

f ig.

1 6 -A bove, T he t radition o f C hicomortoc, t he S even C aves, b irthp lace o f e thnic g roups, is n ot e xclusively A ztec. T he S even C aves a re s een h ere i n t he L ienzo A ntonio d e L eon f rom t he O axaca r egion . B elow , a t emple a bove a s acred c ave f rom w hich f low r ed a nd b lue w aters i s r epresented i n t he C odex S elden 3 135: 9 , 1 964, w here i t m ay h ave e tymological s ignificance o r m ay b e p art o f t he t radition o f s acred c aves.

1 15

XacArmikCIS

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1 7 -In t he C ödice R amirez, 1 944, p late I , t he S even C aves o f o rigin a re r epresented s imply a s c ircles w ith t he n ame o f e ach g roup w ritten a bove.

1 16

f ig.

1 8

T he d iscovery o f t he e agle a nd t he c actus, s ite f or t he f ounding o f t he M exica c apital, a s s een i n t he C 6dice R amirez, p late X I, a bove, a nd i n a d etail o f t he C odex M endoza, p late I , b elow .

1 17

f ig.

1 9 -Plate I o f t he C odex M endoza, 1 964. T he e agle, t he c actus, a nd t he r ock a re i n t he c entre, a bove a s hield w hose s even f eather b alls m ay r epresent t he o riginal s even m igrants.

1 18

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f ig. 2 2 -T he p overty o f t he M exica a t t he t ime o f t heir s ettlement i s e vident i n t heir f irst t emple o r h ouses, s imple h uts. T he l ake i s s een s eparate f rom t he c actus a nd r ock , i nstead o f s urrounding t hem . C odex A ubin,

1 979:

1 2 1

5 1.

f ig.

2 3 -In t he c arving o n t he b ack o f t he s tone m onument, t he T emple o f S acred W ar ( Teocalli d e l a G uerra S agrada), t he c actus g rows f rom a s upernatural f igure a nd t he n opal f ruits a re h earts. I nstead o f a s erpent t he e agle h as i n i ts b eak t he a tl t lachinolli, f ire-water s ymbol, w hich m ay h ave b een m isinterpreted b y e arly c hroniclers a s a s nake. M exica H all, c ourtesy N ational M useum o f A nthropology, M exico.

1 22

f ig . 2 4 -A b ird p erches o n a t ree w hich g rows f rom a s upernatural b eing i s c ommon i n c ertain p ictorial m anuscripts. A bove, C ödice B orgia, 5 1, 1 963. B elow , C odex D resden, p late 3 , 1 972.

1 23

f ig.

2 5 -E ach w orld d irection i s a ssociated w ith a b ird, a t ree, a nd a d eity. C odex Kjervary-Mayer, T V : 1 , 1 964.

1 24

f ig. 2 6.

-Birds a ccompany t he L ords o f t he D ay i n t he t onalpohualli, t he d ivinatory c alendar. C odex B orbonicus, p late 1 6, 1 974.

1 25

f ig.

2 7 -A t ree o r p lant w hich d ivides t o f orm t wo b ranches w as a c ommon n orm i n p rehispanic a rt. T he b ird i s i n t he p osition s een i n t he C odex B orgia a nd i n t he T enochtitlan i nsignia, w here i t i s t he e agle. S tone b ox, M exica c ulture, c ourtesy N ational M useum o f A nthropology, M exico.

1 26

f ig. 2 8 -In P alenque, o n t he s arcophagus o f t he T emple o f I nscriptions, ab ird i s o n a t ree t hat g rows f rom a h uman f igure.

1 27

f ig.

2 9 -T he b ird o n t he t ree o r p ole i s a lso f ound a t I zapa, o n s culpture e xecuted t wo o r t hree c enturies b efore t he p resent e ra. A fter N orman , 1 976: 1 33.

1 28

g o %

f ig. 3 0 -T he M exica a re e ating n ext t o t he s hrine f or t heir g od a nd t he t ree t hat s hattered. T ira d e l a P eregrinaciön .

1 29

f ig.

3 1

f ig.

-B elow , i n t he g lyph f or X ochicuauhtitlan t he t ree h as a m outh a nd t eeth, w hich i s a . l inguistic r epresentation f or t he n ame o f t he s ite: x ochi(t1) m eaning " flower", c uauh, " tree", t lan (tli), " teeth", C odex M endoza, I , p late L II, 1 964.

3 2

A bove, t he s plit t ree i s s een i n t he C odex B orbonicus, p late X V, 1 974, a ccompanying t he g oddess I tzpapalotl. H ere i t i s s aid t o r epresent T amoanchan, " Our u ltimate h ome."

1 30

f ig.

3 3 -T he a tl t lachinolli, " water a nd f ire," " flaming w ater," i s t he s ymbol f or w ar o n t he T eocalli d e l a G uerra S agrada i n t he M exica H all o f t he N ational M useum o f A nthropology, M exico.

1 31

f ig. 3 4 -T he f orm o f t he o llin, " movement o f t he s un," i s s omewhat s imilar t o te h Fg e e71 ; ary-Mayer p late i n f ig. 2. 5 I ts c olours, b lue o r g reen a nd r ed o r y ellow, a re t hose o f t he a tl t lachinolli. a ) C odex B orbonicus, p late X IV , b ) C odex B orgia, p late 1 0, c ) B orgia, X XV , d ) T onalamatl d e A ubin .

1 32

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f ig. 3 5 -C lay s tamps f rom T eotihuacan w ith t he o llin s ymbol. H eyden, 1 966.

1 33

A fter

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3 6 -T he t ree t hat g rows f rom t he c entral f igure i n t he " Tlalocan" m ural a t T epantitla, T eotihuacan , h as a n X f orm, s imilar t o t he o llin. T he f igure i s o n a s tylized c ave f rom w hich f low s treams o f r ed a nd b lue w ater. T eotihuacan H all, c ourtesy N ational M useum o f A nthropology, M exico.

1 34

, : ce , cl£ ,ÜL Ga ( J S

f ig.

3 7 -A round t he b orders o f t he T epantitla p ainting i nterlacing s treams o f w ater r un, o ne r ed, o ne b lue. T eotihuacan H all, c ourtesy N ational M useum o f A nthropology, M exico.

1 35

fig. 38 - The pecked cross petroglyph, an important Teotihuacan marker •

136

13 7

t h e f o L n i o f a f o u r p e t a l

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4 0 -A bove, t he R elaciön G eogräfica d e T eotihuacan 1 580 s hows t he " Oracle o f M ontezuma" i n t he s pace b efore t he P yramid o f t he S un a nd t he P yramid o f t he M oon . I t c ould p ossibly r efer t o t he c ave u nder t he S un p yramid. P aso y T roncoso, 1 905: 2 09. B elow , t he C ödice X olotl s hows t he t wo T eotih uacan p yramids w ith t he s ymbol o f t he c ave b eneath. 1 951, p late I II.

1

. 3 8

HI

f ig.

4 1

-T win t emples o n t op o f p yramids. U pper l eft, T enochtitlan, C ödice M ätritense. U pper r ight, T enayuca, M arquina 1 95 1. L ower l eft, T enochtitlan, D urgn , A tlas. L ower r ight, T enochtitlan, D urgn , A tlas.

13 9

f ig.

re s aurian rees w hose r oots a 4 2 -T ymbols. m onsters o r e arth s ubin, 1 979: U pper l eft, C odex A odex B orgia, 1 3. U pper r ight, C zapa, a fter 1 963: 1 4. B elow , I N orman, 1 976: 9 3.

1 40

f ig.

4 3 -Bird o n a t ree t hat g rows f rom a s upernatural b eing w hich h as a s kull h ead a nd c laws i nstead o f f eet, t raits c haracteristic o f e arth d eities. C odex B orgia. F rom t op t o b ottom, p lates 4 9, 5 2, 5 0.

1 4 1

Atuf

f ig.

4 ) 144 ; f ee 4 , 64 1t a r A le fl i( i ld)

4 4 -T he M exica s ought a n a quatic e nvironment f or t heir c apital. The C odex V aticanus-Rios p ortrays T enochtitlan i n t he m iddle o f a l ake. 1 964, I II: 2 24.

1 42

a a n i n i s d c a t i o n

t h s i w a s t h e i r

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1 43

A BBREVIATIONS

A DV

A kademische D ruck u . V erlagsanstalt

A GN

A rchivo G eneral d e l a N aci6n , M exico

A HMNA

A rchivo H istörico, M useo N acional d e A ntropologia, M exico

A MK

A ntigl iedades d e M exico , K ingsborough

C ISINAH

C entro d e I nvestigaciones S uperiores d el I nstituto N acional d e A ntropologia e H istoria ( now C IESAS)

D U

F ray D iego D urän

E NAH

E scuela N acional d e A ntropologia e H istoria, M exico

F C

F lorentine C odex

H M

H istoria d e M exico

H MAI

H andbook o f M iddle American I ndians

H MP

H istoria d e M exico p or s us p inturas

I CMC

I nteracciön C ultural e n M exico C entral

I II

I nstituto I ndigenista I nteramericano

I NAH

I nstituto N acional d e A ntropologia e H istoria, M exico

I NI

I nstituto N acional I ndigenista , M exico

M NA

M useo N acional d e Antropologia, M exico

N WAF

N ew W orld Archaeological F oundation

S AH

F ray B ernardino de S ahagün

S EP

S ecretaria d e E ducaciön P üblica, M exico

S HCP

S ecretaria d e H acienda y C redit° P üblica, M exico

S MA

S ociedad M exicana d e A ntropologia

U NAM

U niversidad N acional A utönoma d e M exico

1 44

B IBLIOGRAPHY

A costa , J oseph d e, 1 962. H istoria n atural y m oral d e l as I ndias, e n l a q ue t rata d e l as c osas n otables d el c ielo , e lementos, m etales, p lantas y a nimales d ellas, y l os r itos y c eremonias, l eyes y g obierno d e l os i ndios, 2 nd e dition. E dited b y E dmund( ) O 'Gorman. F ondo d e C ultura E conömica, M exico . A costa S aignes, M iguel, 1 946. " Los t eopixque." R evista M exicana d e E studios A ntropolögicos, 8 : 1 47-205. S MA , M exico . A dams, R obert M cC, 1 966. T he E volution o f U rban S ociety. E arly M esopotamia a nd P rehispanic M exico . A ldine , C hicago . A lcina F ranch , J ose , 1 973. " Juan d e T orquemada, 1 5641624." H MAI G uide t o E thnohistorical S ources, v ol. 1 3: 2 56-275, e ditor H oward F . C line. U niversity o f T exas P ress, A ustin . A lva I xtlilxochitl , F ernando d e , 1 952. O bras H istöricas. A lfredo C havero . 2v ols. E ditora N acional, M exico . A lvarado T ezozomoc, H ernando , 1 944. C rönica M exicana. O rozco y B erra . E ditorial L eyenda, M exico .

E dited b y

N otes b y M anuel

A lvarado T ezozomoc, H ernando , 1 949. C rönica M exicaiotl. T ranslated f rom t he N ahuatl b y A driän L e6n . U NAM-INAH , M exico . A lvarez S olorzano , T icul, a nd M anuel G onzälez E scamilla , 1 987. A tlas C ultural d e M exico. F auna. S EP-INAH Grupo E ditorial P laneta, M exico . A nales d e C uauhtitlan .

S ee C ödice C himalpopoca.

A ngulo , J orge , 1 979. C halcatzingo . G ula O ficial d el S itio A rqueolögico. I NAH-SEP, M exico. A rmillas, P edro , 1 964. " Condiciones a mbientales y m ovimientos d e p ueblos e n l a f rontera s eptentrional d e M esoamerica ." H omenaje a F ernando M arquez M iranda : 6 2-82. M adrid & S eville . A rmillas, P edro, 1 97 1. 4 010: 6 53-66 1.

" Gardens o n S wamps."

S cience, v ol.

1 74, n o .

A veni, Anthony F . 1 975. " Possible A stronomical O rientations i n A ncient M esoamerica." I n A rchaeoastronomy i n P re-Columbian A merica: 1 631 90, A nthony F . A veni e ditor. U niversity o f T exas P ress, A ustin & L ondon . A veni, A nthony F . 1 977. " Concepts o f P ositional A stronomy e mployed i n A ncient M esoamerican A rchitecture." I n N ative A merican A stronomy: 3 -20. 2 nd e dition. U niversity o f T exas P ress, A ustin & L ondon. A veni, A nthony F . 1 980. S kywatchers o f A ncient M exico . T exas P ress, A ustin & L ondon.

1 45

U niversity o f

A veni, A nthony F ., a nd S haron L . G ibbs, 1 976. " On t he O rientation o f P re-Columbian b uildings i n C entral M exico." A merican A ntiquity , 4 1 ( 4): 5 10-5 17. W ashington, D .C . A veni, A nthony F ., E .E . C alnek, a nd H . H artung , 1 988. " Myth, E nvironment, a nd t he O rientation o f t he T emplo M ayor o f T enochtitlan ." A merican A ntiquity, v ol. 5 3 ( 2): 2 87-309. W ashington, D .C .

B all, H ugh G ., a nd D onald L . B rockington, 1 978. " Trade a nd t ravel i n P rehispanic O axaca." M esoamerican C ommunication R outes a nd C ultural C ontacts: 1 07114. N WAF, P rovo, U tah. B allesteros G aibrois, M anuel, 1 973. " Antonio d e H errera, 1 5491625." H MAI, G uide t o E thnohistorical S ources, v ol. 1 3: 2 40-255. H oward F . C line, e ditor . U niversity o f T exas P ress, A ustin & L ondon . B arlow , R obert H . 1 945. " La C rönica X ." R evista M exicana d e E studios A ntropolöqicos, v ol. V II, n os. 1 , 2 , 3 : 1 -23. S MA, M exico . B arlow , R obert H . 1 949. " El C ödice A zcatitlan." J ournal d e l a S ociete d es A mericanistes, N ouvelle S erie, v ol. X XXVIII: 1 03135. M us e d e l 'Homme, P aris. B arlow , R obert H . 1 948. " The E xtent o f t he E mpire o f t he C ulhua M exica." I bero-Americano 2 8. U niversity o f C alifornia P ress, B erkeley & L os A ngeles. B erdan, F rances F rei, 1 978. " Ports o f T rade i n M esoamerica: a R eappraisal." M esoamerican C ommunication R outes a nd C ultural S ystems: 1 87198. N WAF, P rovo, U tah . B ayer, H ermann , 1 965. M ito y s imbologia d el M exico A ntiguo, v ol. X . S ociedad A lemana M exicanista, M exico . B ittman S imons, B ente , 1 968. L os m apas d e C uauhtinchan y l a H istoria t olteca-chichimeca. S erie I nvesitgaciones 1 5. I NAH , M exico . B ittman S imons, B ente, a nd T helma D . S ullivan , 1 978. " The p ochteca." M esoamerican C ommunications R outes a nd C ultural S ystems: 2 11-218. N WAF , P rovo , U tah. B olle, ' < cos W . 1 978. " Myth a nd M ythology." E ncyclopaedia B ritannica, v ol. 1 2: 7 93-804. 1 5th e dition . B enton P ublishers, C hicago , L ondon , T oronto , G eneve, T okyo, M anilla, S eoul. B roda, J ohanna , 1 978. " Consideraciones s obre h istoriografia e i deologia m exicas: l as c rönicas i ndigenas y e l e studio d e l os r itos y s acrificios." E studios d e C ultura N ahuatl, v ol. 1 3: 9 7I nstituto d e I nvestigaciones H istöricas, UM W , M exico . 11.

1 46

B rotherston , G ordon , 1 976. s igns f or d irection ." 3 9-42. B erlin .

" Mesoamerican d escription o f s pace I I: I bero-Amerikanisches A rchiv N .F . 2 ( 1):

B rundage , B urr C artwright, 1 972. P ress, A ustin & L ondon .

AR ain o f D arts.

B udge, E .A . W allis,

1 972.

T he M ummy.

B udge , E .A . W allis, Y ork.

1 973.

O siris.

U niversity o f T exas

D over , N ew Y ork .

2 nd e dition, 2 v ols.

D over, N ew

C abrera C astro , R uben , 1 979. " Restos a rquitect6nicos d el R ecinto S agrado e n e xcavaciones d el M etro y d e l a r ecimentaciön d e l a 5 C atedral y e l S agrario ." E l R ecinto S agrado : 5-66. C onstanza V ega, e ditor. S EP-INAH , M exico. C alnek, E dward D . 1 972. " Settlement P attern a nd C hinampa A griculture a t T enochtitlan ." A merican A ntiquity, v ol. 3 7, n o . 1 : 1 04115. W ashington, D .C . C alnek , E dward D . 1 979. " Commentaries o n t he p resentation b y E duardo M atos M octezuma." C enter a nd P eriphery: t he T emplo M ayor a nd t he A ztec E mpire, S eminar a t t he M esoamerican A rchive a nd R esearch P ro ject, U niversity o f B oulder , C olorado . ( Oral p resentation ). C alnek, E dward D ., W oodrow B orah, A lejandra M oreno T osacano, K eith A . D avis, a nd L uis U nikel, 1 974. E nsayos s obre e l d esarrollo u rbano d e M exico . S EP-Setentas 1 43, S EP, M exico . C ardös d e M endez, A malia , 1 959. E l c omercio d e l os m ayas a ntiguos. A cta A ntropolögica, e poca 2 , v ol. 2 , n o . 1 . E NAH , M exico . C arlson, J ohn B . 1 98 1. " A g eomantic m odel f or t he i nterpretation o f M esoamerican s ites: a n e ssay i n C ross-Cultural c omparison." M esoamerican S ites a nd W orld-Views: 1 43-2 16. E lizabeth P . B enson, e ditor. D umbarton O aks, W ashington, D .C. C arrasco, P edro , 1 976. " La s ociedad m exicana a ntes d e l a C onquista." H istoria G eneral d e M exico , v ol. 1 : 1 65-286. E l C olegio d e M exico , M exico. C aso , A lfonso, 1 927. E l T eocalli d e l a G uerra S agrada. M onografias d el M useo N acional d e A rqueologia, H istoria y E tnografia. S EP, M exico . C aso, A lfonso , 1 942. " El p aralso t errenal e n T eotihuacan." A mericanos, n o . 6 : 1 27136. M exico .

C uadernos

C aso , A lfonso , 1 956. " Los b arrios a ntiguos t e T enochtitlan y T latelolco." M emorias d e l a A cademia M exicana d e l a H istoria, v ol. X V , n o . 1 : 7 -63. M exico .

1 47

C assirer, E rnst, 1 946. L anguage a nd M yth . S .K . L anger. D over, N ew Y ork.

T ranslated i nto E nglish b y

C astillo, C ristobal d el, 1 908. H istoria d e l os M exicanos. T ranslated f rom t he N ahuatl b y F rancisco d el P aso y T roncoso. F lorence , I taly. C ervantes d e S alazar , F rancisco, 1 936. C rönica d e N ueva E spana. P apeles d e N ueva E spana, c ompiled b y F rancisco d el P aso y T roncoso . T hird s eries, 3 v ols. H auser y M enet, M adrid ( 19 14). T alleres G räficos d el M useo N acional d e A rqueologia, H istoria y E tnografia, M exico . C hapman, A nne M . 1 959. P uertos d e I ntercambio e n M esoamerica P rehispänica. S erie d e H istoria 3 . I NAH, M exico . C harlton, T homas H . 1 977. " Teotihuacan: t rade r outes o f am ultitiered e conomy." L os P rocesos d e C ambio, v ol. I I: 2 85-292. X V M esa R edonda; G uanajuato . S MA , M exico . C himalpahin C uauhtlehuanitzin , F rancisco d e S an A nton M unon , 1 965. R elaciones o riginales d e C halco A maquemecan . T ranslation f rom t he N ahuatl b y S ilvia R endön . F ondo d e C ultura E conömica, M exico . C himalpahin C uauhtlehuanitzin, D omingo F rancisco d e S an A nton M unon, 1 983. O ctava R elaciön . E dition a nd t ranslation f rom t he N ahuatl b y J ose R uben R omero G alvän . S erie d e C ültura N ahuatl, F uentes 8 . I nstituto d e I nvestigaciones H istöricas, U NAM , M exico. C irlot, J .E. 1 962. b y J ack S age.

A D ictionary o f S ymbols. T ranslated i nto E nglish P hilosophical L ibrary, N ew Y ork .

C lavijero , F rancisco J avier, 1 945. v ols. P orr i la, M exico .

H istoria A ntigua d e M exico .

4

C obean, R obert H ., A lba G uadalupe M astache, A na M aria C respo, a nd C lara D iaz O . 1 98 1. " La c ronologia d e l a r egiön d e T ula." I CMC : 1 872 14. I nstituto d e I nvestigaciones A ntropolögicas, U NAM , M exico . C obean , R obert H ., M ichael D . C oe, E dward A . P erry J r., K arl K . T ürekian, a nd D inkar P . K harkar , 1 971. " Obsidian t rade a t S an L orenzo T enochtitlan , M exico." S cience , 1 74: 66-67 1. A merican 6 A ssociation f or t he A dvancement o f S cience. W ashington, D .C . C odex A ntonio d e L eön .

S ee L ienzo .

C odex B orbonicus, 1 974. C ommentaries b y K arl A nton N owotny a nd J acqueline d e D urand-Forest. A DV , G raz, A ustria. C odex B oturini.

S oc T ira d e l a P eregrinaciön .

C odex D resden , 1 972. C ommentary b y J . E ric S . T hompson . P hilosophical S ociety. P hiladelphia.

1 48

A merican

C odex M exicanus, 1 952. C ommentary b y E rnest M engin . J ournal d e l a S ociete d es A mericanistes, N ouvelle S erie, v ol. X LI: 3 87-498. M us e d e l 'Homme, P aris. C odex V aticanus 3 773-B , A ustria. C odex X ölotl.

1 972.

S tudy b y F erdinand A nders.

A DV, G raz,

S ee D ibble.

C ödice A ubin ( C5dice d e 1 576),

1 980.

2 nd e dition .

I nnovaciön , M exico.

C ödice A zcatitlan , 1 949. C ommentary b y R obert B arlow . J ournal d e S ociete d es A mericanistes, N ouvelle S erie, v ol. X XXVIII: 1 0 1135. M us e d e l 'Homme . P aris. C ödice B orgia.

S ee S eler .

C Odice C himalpopoca : A nales d e a lauhtitlan y L evenda d e l os S oles, 1 945. P rimo F eliciano V eläzquez, e ditor. I mprenta U niversitaria , M exico . C 6dice F ejerväry-Mayer , 1 964. v ol. I V . S HCP, M gxico . C 6dice L aud, 1 964. S HCP, M exico .

C ommentary b y J ose C orona N unez.

C ommentary b y J ose C orona N unez.

A MK ,

A MK, v ol. I .

C ödice M endocino ( Codex M endoza), 1 964. C ommentary b y J ose C orona N unez. A MK , v ol. I . S HCP, M exico . C 6dice R amirez, 1 944. R elaciön d el o rigen d e l os i ndios q ue h abitaban e sta N ueva E spana s egün s us h istorias. L eyenda, M exico . C ödice S elden ,

1 964.

I nterpretation b y A lfonso C aso .

C ödice T elleriano-Remensis, 1 964. A MK , v ol. I . S HCP, M&doo . T udela.

S MA , M exico .

C ommentary b y J ose C orona N unez.

S ee T udela d e l a O rden .

C ödice V aticano-Rios ( Codex V aticanus L atino 3 738), 1 964. b y J ose C orona N unez. A MK , v ol. I II. S HCP, M exico .

C ommentary

C oggins, C lemency, 1 980. " The s hape o f t ime : s ome p olitical i mplications o f a f our-part f igure." A merican A ntiquity, v ol. 4 5, n o. 4 : 7 27-739. W ashington, D .C . C onquistador A nönimo , E l, 1 94 1. R elaciön d e a l9unas c osas d e l a N ueva E spana y d e l a g ran c iudad d e T emestitan M exico , e scrita p or u n c ompahero de H ernän C ortes. E ditorial A merica, M exico . C ortes, H e m: an ,

1 963.

C artas y D ocumentos.

1 49

P orrüa, M exico .

" Costumbres, e nterramientos y d iversas f ormas d e p roceder d e l os i ndios d e N ueva E spana," F ederico G ömez d e O rozco, v ersion , 1 945. T lalocan I I, n o . 1 : 3 7-63. L a C asa d e T läloc, M exico . C respo, A na M aria, a nd A lba G uadalupe M astache, 1 98 1. " La p resencia e n e l a rea d e ' Ada, H idalgo , d e g rupos r elacionados c on e l B arrio d e O axaca d e T eotihuacan ." I CMC: 9106. I nstituto d e 9 I nvestigaciones A ntropolögicas, U NAM , M exico . C rooke , W . 1 908. " Ancestor W orship : I ndia." E ncyclopaedia o f R eligion a nd E thics, J ames H astings, e ditor . V ol. I : 4 50-454. C harles S cribners S ons, N ew Y ork .

D ahlgren , B arbara, E bma P erez-Rocha, L ourdes S uärez D iez, a nd P erla V alle d e R evueltas, 1 982. C orazön d e C opil. I NAH, M exico. D avies, N igel, L ondon .

1 973.

T he A ztecs.

A H istory .

M acmillan L ondon L td.,

D avies, N igel, 1 977. T he T oltecs, u ntil t he F all o f T ula . o f O klahoma P ress, N orman .

U niversity

D avies, N igel, 1 978. " The m ilitary o rganization o f t he A ztec E mpire ." M esoamerican C ommunication R outes a nd C ultural S ystems: 23-230. 2 N WAF, P rovo , U tah . D avies, N igel, 1 980. P ress, N orman .

T he T oltec H eritage.

U niversity o f O klahoma

D e l a F uente, B eatriz, 1 977. L os h ombres d e p iedra . I nvestigaciones E steticas, U NAM , M exico .

I nstituto d e

D e V os, J an , 1 98 1. " Posibilidades y l imitaciones d e l a t radiciön o ral y r itual c omo f uente h istörica. E l c aso c oncreto d e l a c omunidad d e B achajön , p ueblo t zeltal d e l os A ltos d e C hiapas." O ral p resentation i n t he X VII M esa R edonda, S MA , S an C ristöbal l as C äsas, C hiapas. D iaz d el C astillo , B ernal, 1 939. H istoria v erdadera d e l a c onquista d e l a N ueva E spana. 3v ols. P edro R obredo, M exico . D iaz O yarzabal, C lara L uz, 1 98 1. " Chingü y l a e xpansiön t eotihuacana." I CMC : 1 07112. I nstituto d e I nvestigaciones A ntropolögicas, U NAM , M exico . D ibble, C harles E . M exico.

1 95 1.

C ödice X ölotl.

I nstituto d e H istoria, U NAM ,

D 'Olwer, L uis N icolau, a nd H oward F . C line, 1 973. " Bernardino d e S ahagün , 1 4991590." H MAI, G uide t o E thnohistorical S ources, v ol. 1 3: 1 86-207. H oward F . C line, e ditor. U niversity o f T exas P ress, A ustin & L ondon.

1 50

D resden C odex , T he, 1 972. C ommentary b y J . E ric S . T hompson. P hilosophical S ociety, P hiladelphia.

A merican

D umezil, G eorges, 1 97 1. E l d estino d el g uerrero . T ranslated f rom t he F rench b y J uan A lmela. S iglio X X E ditores, M exico, A rgentina , S pain. D urän , F ray D iego, 1 963. A tlas d e l a H istoria d e l as I ndias d e N ueva E spana y I slas d e T ierra F irme. L ibreria A nticuaria, M exico . D urän , F ray D iego, 1 967. d e l a T ierra F irme. P orrüa, M exico .

H istoria d e I ndias d e l a N ueva E spana e I slas A ngel M aria G aribay K ., e ditor. 2v ols.

D urän , F ray D iego , 1 97 1. B ook o f t he G ods a nd R ites a nd T he Ancient C alendar . E dited a nd t ranslated i nto E nglish b y F ernando H orcasitas a nd D oris H eyden. I ntroduction b y M iguel L eönP ortilla. U niversity o f O klahoma P ress, N orman .

E liade, M ircea, 1 959. T he S acred a nd t he P rofane. T ranslated f rom t he F rench b y W illard R . T rask . H arcourt , B race & W orld , N ew Y ork .

F euchtwang, S tephan D .R. 1 974. A n A nthropological A nalysis o f C hinese G eomancy. E ditions V ithagna, V ientiane, L aos. F lannery, K ent V . 1 976. " Evolution o f C omplex S ettlement S ystems." T he E arly M esoamerican V illage: 1 62173. A cademic P ress, N ew Y ork, S an F rancisco , L ondon. F lannery, K ent V ., a nd J oyce M arcus, 1 976. " Formative O axaca a nd t he Z apotec C osmos." A merican S cientist, v ol. 6 4: 3 74-383. T he S cientific Research S ociety, N ew H aven , C onn . F lorentine C odex . G eneral H istory o f t he T hings o f N ew S pain , 1 9501 982. T ranslation f rom t he N ahuatl b y A rthur J .0. A nderson a nd C harles E . D ibble . T he S chool o f American R esearch a nd T he U niversity o f U tah . S anta F e, N ew M exico . 1 2 v ols. F reedman, M aurice, 1 97 1. C hinese L ineage a nd S ociety: F ukien a nd K wangtung . L ondon S chool o f E conomics M onographs o n S ocial A nthropology 3 3. T he A thlone P ress a nd H umanities P ress, L ondon & N ew Y ork . F ried, M orton H . 1 960. " On t he e volution o f s ocial s tratification a nd t he s tate." C ulture i n H istory : E ssays i n h onor o f P aul R adin , S tanley D iamond, e ditor. C olumbia U niversity P ress, N ew Y ork . F reud, S igmund , 1 938. T he B asic W ritings o f S igmund F reud, A .A . e ditor. T he M odern L ibrary, N ew Y ork. F ustel d e C oulanges, N uma D enis, 1 97 1. C uäntos" 1 8 1. P orrüa, M exico .

1 51

L a c iudad a ntigua.

B rill,

" S pan

Gamio, Manuel, 1922. La poblacion del Valle de Teotihuacan. 3 vols. Secretaria de Fanento, Mexico. Ga.rcla Cook, Angel, and Raul M. Arana A. 1978. Rescate argueologico del monolito Coyolxauhgui. SEP-INAH, Mexico. Garcla de Leon, Antonio, 1969. "El universo de lo sobrenatural entre los nahuas de Pajapan, Veracruz." Estudios de Cultura Nahuatl, vol. VIII: 279-312. Instituto de Investigaciones Historicas, UNAM, Mexico. Garibay, K., Angel Marla, 1953-1954. Historia de la Literatura Nahuatl. 2 vols. PorrGa, Mexico. Garibay, K., Angel Maria, ed. 1973. Teogon1a e historia de los mexicanos. Tres O:§>usculos del siglo XVI. 2nd edition. "Sepan Cuantos" 37. Porrua, Mexico. Garibay, K., Angel Marla, 1958. Veinte himnos sacros de los nahuas. Fuentes Indigenas de la cultura Nahuatl: Infonnantes de Sahagull 2 • UNAM, Mexico. Gibson, C1arles, 1964. The Aztecs under Spanish Rule. University Press, Stanford.

Stanford

Glass, John B., and Donald Robertson, 1975. "A Census of Native Middle American Pictorial Manuscripts." HMAI, Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources, vol. 14: 81-252, Howard F. Cline, editor. University of Texas Press, Austin. Ganara.

See I.Dpez de Ganara.

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