The Defence of Byzantine Africa from Justinian to the Arab Conquest 9781841711843, 9781407353548

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION (1981)
PREFACE TO THE REPRINTED EDITION (2001)
CONTENTS
LIST OF MAPS
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF PLATES
CHAPTER I: SOURCES AND SCOPE OF STUDY
CHAPTER II: MILITARY HISTORY
Chapter II Appendices
CHAPTER III: MILITARY ORGANIZATION AND DEFENSIVE STRATEGY
Chapter III Appendices
CHAPTER IV: MILITARY ARCHITECTURE AND TACTICS
CHAPTER V: ENVOI-THE MIDDLE AGES
GAZETTEER AA
GAZETTEER AB
GAZETTEER AC
GAZETTEER B
GAZETTEER CA
GAZETTEER CB
NOTES TO CHAPTERS I-V
BIBLIOGRAPHY
MAPS
FIGURES AND PLATES
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REVIEW (1981-2001)
Additional Bibliography
INDEX

Citation preview

BAR  S99  2001   PRINGLE   THE DEFENCE OF BYZANTINE AFRICA FROM JUSTINIAN TO THE ARAB CONQUEST

The Defence of Byzantine Africa from Justinian to the Arab Conquest An account of the military history and archaeology of the African provinces in the sixth and seventh centuries

Denys Pringle

BAR International Series 99 Reprinted with additions

9 781841 711843

B A R

2001

The Defence of Byzantine Africa from Justinianto the Arab Conquest An account of the military history and archaeology of the African provinces in the sixth and seventh centuries

Denys Pringle

BAR International Series 99 Reprinted with additions

2001

Published in 2016 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 99 The Defence of Byzantine Africa from Justinian to the Arab Conquest

© D Pringle and the Publisher 1981, 2001 Second (revised) impression The author's moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher.

ISBN 9781841711843 paperback ISBN 9781407353548 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841711843 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges Ltd in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd/ Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 1981. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2016.

BAR

PUBLISHING BAR titles are available from:

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BAR Publishing 122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK [email protected] +44 (0)1865 310431 +44 (0)1865 316916 www.barpublishing.com

In memory of my father

lll

IV

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION (1981) The research on which this book is based was originally made possible by a State Studentship awarded by the Department of Education and Science, supplemented by additional travel grants from the Craven Committee, the Meyerstein Fund and the Committee for Graduate Studies of the University of Oxford. The idea of tackling an early medieval North African topic was first suggested to me by Barry Cunliffe, Vice-Chairman of the British Save Carthage Committee. Without the expert guidance of Peter Brown, however, and the sound advice and criticism of Sheppard Frere, it would probably never have been brought to fruition. In preparing the final version of the text, I have benefitted greatly from the comments made on earlier drafts by Averil Cameron, Martin Harrison, Cyril Mango and John Wilkinson. During the course of two visits undertaken to North Africa in 1974 (two weeks) and 1975 (five and a half months), I received help and hospitality from a large number of people. Particular thanks are due to the Antiquities Departments of Libya, Tunisia and Algeria for granting me permission to visit and photograph the sites under their care; for this and other assistance I am especially grateful to M. Nemri (Libya), A. Beschaouch (Tunisia) S.A. Baghli and Mounir Bouchenaki (Algeria). Those who supplied me during my travels either with practical advice or, equally importantly, with food, lodging and/or transport include the following: Habib Ben Hassan (Tunis), Evan P. Byrde (Annaba), Derek and Alice Eaton (Tunis), A. Ennabli (Carthage), E. Fitzsimmons (British Council, Tunis), Robert and Anne Hack (British Council, Algiers), Charles and Olwen Hackett (Misurata), Clive Holes (Algiers), Henry Hurst (British excavations, Carthage) and Matthew Kahane (Tunis). Without the generous loan of a vehicle (see Pl. XXIIIa) by James and Elizabeth Fentress, it would have been impossible for me to have visited as many sites as I was able to do. A word of thanks should also be included for the Police Force of Algiers, who successfully recovered a stolen suitcase containing one year's accumulated records and notes. In elucidating points of information or interpretation, considerable assistance has been extended to me by a number of colleagues in Britain and France. Although particular debts of this nature are recorded in the appropriate places in the Notes, I would like to thank especially: Peter Addyman (York), for information on the town and territorium of Sbei'tla; Jean Durliat (Toulouse), for discussion of epigraphic texts and the administration of Byzantine Africa; Noel Duval (Paris), for discussion of the Byzantine features at Sbei'tla and HaYdra; Elizabeth Fentress (Oxford), for advice on the Roman background to the military settlement of southern Numidia; Paul-Albert Fevrier (Aixen-Provence), for information concerning the excavations at Setif; Roger Guery (Aixen-Provence), for information on Byzantine coin hoards from Africa; James HowardJohnson (Oxford), for assistance in interpreting the sixth-century Byzantine military treatises; Michel Janon (Aix-en-Provence), for providing me with access to the

V

phototheque and other archive material in the Institut d' Archeologie Mediterraneenne, Aix-en-Provence; Jean Lassus (Aix-en-Provence), for information and discussion concerning the fort of Timgad; Peter Megaw (Paphos), for information on the [Crusader castle] of Saranda Kolones, Cyprus; and Colin Wells (Ottawa), for discussion of the identification and interpretation of Roman and Byzantine military stables. For assistance with the reading and interpretation of the inscriptions from Ai'n Djelloula and Henchir Sguidan I am also very grateful to Averil and Alan Cameron (London), Michael Crawford (Cambridge), James Diggle (Cambridge), Joyce Reynolds (Cambridge) and John Martindale (London). The translation and typing of the Arabic summary was kindly arranged by Mrs Nahla Assali of the University of Bir Zeit. R.D.P. Jerusalem, 13. vii.1980

PREFACE TO THE REPRINTED EDITION (2001) The first edition of this book has now been effectively out of print for twenty years, as the print run sold out within a year of publication. Over the succeeding years a succession of people have asked me for assistance in obtaining copies, which in most cases I was unable to render. I am therefore extremely grateful to John and Erica Hedges and Antony Hands of BAR for agreeing to undertake a reprint. It did not seem sensible or appropriate to attempt a complete revision of what began life as a doctoral thesis over twenty years ago. The text and illustrations are therefore presented here exactly as they were in the first edition (and with the same pagination), with no more than some minor amendments and corrections. The present edition, however, concludes with two additions. The first is a short bibliographical section, giving details of some major publications relating to the theme of the book that have appeared since 1981. The second is a general index, which was a major omission from the first edition but something that I was unable to supply at the time. R.D.P. Cardiff, 19.vi.2001

VI

CONTENTS

Page Preface Contents List of maps List of figures List of plates Arabic summary

CHAPTER

I

CHAPTER II.

1.

2. 3.

4. 5. 6. 7.

8.

·v

vii X

xi xiii xix

SOURCES AND SCOPE OF STUDY

1

MILITARY HISTORY

9

Vandals, Romans and Moors The Vandal War (A.D. 533-534) Solomon's first governorship and the mutiny of Stotzas (A.D. 534-538) Solomon's second governorship (A.O. 539-544) Military crisis (A.O. 544-546) The governoship of John Troglitas (A.O. 546-c.552) The later sixth century and the reforms of the emperor Maurice (A.D. c.552-602) The seventh century

Appendix 1. Order of battle of the Byzantine expeditionaryforce (A.D. 533) 2. Praetorian prefects and military commanders in Africa

CHAPTER

1.

2.

3.

Ill. MILITARY ORGAIZATION AND DEFENSIVE STRATEGY

The structure of military command inAfrica The field commander, magister militum and exarch of Africa The duces The provinces of Byzantine Africa The composition of the Byzantine army in Africa The field army The ducal armies The garrison structure of Byzantine Africa (1) Direct evidence for types of garrison: comitatenses, limitanei, gentiles

vii

9 17 22 27 31

33 39 43

51 52

55 55 55 58 60 65 67 70 72 72

Page 4.

5. 6. 7. 8.

The garrison structure of Byzantine Africa (2) The relation of settlement status to garrison type The sizes of garrisons The building of fortifications Strategy and the siting of fortifications (1): General principles Strategy and the siting of fortifications (2): The archaeological evidence Refortification and renouatio in Byzantine Africa

Appendix 1. Cities referred to in de Aedificiis (A.D. 553/555) 2. Forts referred to in de Aedificiis (A.D. 553/555) 3 Settlements referred to as cities during the reign of Justinian, but not referred to as such in de Aedificiis 4. Settlements referred to as cities later than the reign of Justinian 5. The ranking by size of Byzantinefortifications in Africa 6. Sixth- and seventh-century coin hoards.from Africa

CHAPTER

1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

IV.

MILITARY ARCHITECTURE AND TACTICS

Introduction Building techniques The layout of fortifications Towers (turres, burgi) Forts (castra, castella) Fortresses, citadels and town walls Walls and lines of defence Towers Gateways Internal structures and services Conclusion

CHAPTER V.

79 79 83 89

94 99 99

121 123 124 124 126 128

131 131 133 139 140

143 145

147 152 158 164 166

167

ENVOI - THE MIDDLE AGES

GAZETTEER

AA. AB. AC.

B.

Sites at which official sixth-century fortifications are attested by documentary and/or epigraphic evidence Sites whose structural remains are strongly suggestive of official sixthcentury fortification, when compared with examples in Gazetteer AA Sites probably provided with official fortifications in the sixth century, but for which the evidence, whether documentary, epigraphic or archaeological, is not conclusive Sites whose structural evidence suggests only the possibility of official sixth-century fortification

viii

171 253

279

289

CA. CB.

Fortified sites referred to by Procopius Corpus of sixth- and seventh-century inscriptions relating to (a) the construction of fortifications (b) military matters in general

305 315 332

Notes to Chapters 1-V

341

Bibliography (a) Latin, Greek and Oriental (non-Arabic) sources (b) Arabic sources (c) Works published since 1600

449 456 458

Maps 1-7 Figures 1-49 Plates 1-LXXXIV

515 543 609

Bibliographical review (1981-2001)

693

Index

708

ix

LIST OF MAPS Pages 515-541

1.

2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7.

Africa: Physical The Ad Decimum campaign, A.D. 533 Africa: Distribution of Byzantine fortifications under Justinian Africa: Distribution of Byzantine fortifications after Justinian Africa: Location of fortifications of uncertain Byzantine identification Africa: Location of towns referred to by George of Cyprus (A.D. c.600) Byzantine Africa: Communications (after Salama 1951)

X

Page 517 521 525 529 532 537 541

LIST OF FIGURES Pages 543-608

l.

2. 3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8. 9. IO. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

Key to Figures Carthago: Wall of Theodosius II and its relation to the Roman street grid (after Bordy 1907, with additions) Thamugadi: Plan of fort (after Stawski and Christem [for chapel], with additions) Theueste: Tower k (after Maitrot 1911) Tipasa (Tifech): Tower c (after Chabassiere 1866) Tubunae: Tower d (after Grange 1901) Thubursicu Bure: Tower a (after Saladin, in Diehl 1896) Bordj Hallal: Tower o (after Sadoux, in Diehl 1896) Tigisi: Tower i (after Chabassiere 1866) Tipasa (Tifech): Tower e Vaga Theodoriana: Tower of the qasba (after Diehl 1896) Comer-tower types: a. Gadiazifala: Tower a (after Gsell 1898) b. Thamugadi: Tower i (after Stawski) c. Tubunae: Tower c (after Grange 1901) d. Limisa: Tower a (after Belkhodja 1968) e. Agbia: Tower b (after Diehl 1896) f. Mactaris: Bastion b (after Perron, in Charles-Picard 1974) Thelepte: Towers/ and b (after Diehl 1896) Tubunae: Gate b (after Grange 1901) Thamugadi: Gate b (after Stawski) Ksar Belezma: Gate b (after Ballu 1926) Theueste: Gate n, incorporating the Arch of Caracalla (after de la Mare, in Letronne 1847, with additions) Lepcis Magna: Tower and postem B4 (after Bartoccini 1961) Limisa: Gate b (after Belkhodja 1968) Sabratha: Gate c Theueste: Gate c or 'Porte de Solomon' (affer Maitrot 1911) Mileu: Tower m (after Lassus 1956) Lepcis Magna: Gate B2 (after Goodchild and Ward-Perkins 1953) Tigisi (Tifech): Gate a (after Lancel and Pouthier 1957) Madauros: Plan of fort (after Gsell and Joly 1914) Madauros: Gate c (after Gsell and Joly 1914) Thugga: Plan of fort (after Poinssot (C) 1958) Upenna: Plan of fort Ksar Belezma: Plan of fort (after Diehl 1896, with additions) Chusira: Plan of fort (after Diehl 1896) Agbia: Plan of fort (after Diehl 1896) Limisa: Plan of fort (after Belkhodja 1968)

XI

Page 544 545

547

549

551

553

555

556 557 558 559 560 561 562 563 564 565

17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23a 23b. 24. 25a. 25b. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31a. 31b. 32a. 32b. 33. 34. 35. 36a. 36b. 37a 37b. 38a. 38b. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45a. 45b. 46a 46b. 47a. 47b. 48a. 48b. 49.

Tubernuc: Plan of fort (after Poinssot (L) and Lantier 1926) Ammaedara: Plan of enceinte (after Saladin 1887a) Anastasiana: Plan of fort (after de la Blanchere, in Diehl 1896) Cululis Theodoriana: Plan of enceinte (based on Roisin, in Atlas Tun. 50, with additions) Bagai: Plan of enceinte and fort (after Diehl 1896) Bordj Hallal: Plan of enceinte (after Diehl 1896, with alterations) Gadiaufala: Plan of fort (after Gsell 1898) Ksar Graouch: Plan of fort (after Cintas 1954) Calama: Plan of enceinte (after Ravoisie 1846) Tigisi (Tifech): Plan of enceinte (after Chabassiere 1882) Lari bus: Plan of enceinte (after Diehl 1896) Lepcis Magna: Plan of enceintes (after Goodchild and Ward-Perkins 1953) Mileu: Plan of enceinte (after de la Mare 1850) Sabratha: Plan of enceinte (after Bartoccini 1964) Sitifis: Plan of fort (after Ravoisie 1846 and Diehl 1896) Sufes: Plan of fort and enceinte (after Diehl 1896) Thagura: Plan of fort (after Gsell 1898) Kef el-Kherraz: Plan of fort (after Gsell 1898) Thubursicu Bure: Plan of enceinte (after Saladin, in Diehl 1896) Theueste: Plan of enceinte (after Gsell 1901) Thelepte: Plan of enceinte (after Diehl 1896) Ksar Otsman: Plan of enceinte (after Gsell 1898) Mactaris: Plan of fort built around the Severan Baths (after Perron, in Charles-Picard 1974) Zattara: Plan of enceinte (after Gsell 1898) Rusguniae: Plan of enceinte (after Chardon 1900) Thubursicu Numidiarum: Plan of fort built around bath building (after Ballu 1919, with additions) Musti: Plan of fort (after Beschaouch 1968) Gastal: Plan of fort (after Gsell 1898) Diana Veteranorum: Plan of fort (after Gsell and Graillot 1894b) Thamallula: Plan of fort (after Gsell, in Diehl 1896) Tignica: Plan of fort (after Saladin 1892) Tipasa (Tifech): Plan of enceinte (after Gsell 1898) Tubunae: Plan of fort (after Grange 1901) Zarai: Plan of fort (after Gsell 1893) Choba: Plan oflate Roman and Byzantine enceintes (after Gsell 1898) Carthago: Byrsa "palace" (after Lezine 1968c) Apollonia-Sozusa: Part of the ducal palace (after Goodchild 1960) Sitifis: "Maison du rempart" (after Fevrier (PA) 1965) Gasr Duib: Late Roman fortlet (after Goodchild and Ward-Perkins 1949) Henchir el-Gueciret: Late Roman ksar (after Pericaud and Gauckler 1905) It-Tuba(Syria): Late Roman house (after Butler (HC) 1920) Sufetula: Northern Byzantine fortlet (after Duval (N) and Baratte 1973) Sufetula: Southern Byzantine fortlet (after Duval (N) and Baratte 1973) Sousse: The late eighth-century ribiit (after Lezine 1956)

xii

566 567 568 569 570 571 572 573 574 575 576 577 578 579 580 581 582 583 584 585 586 587 588 589 589 590 591 592 593 594 595 596 597 598 599 600 601 602 603 604 605 606 607 608

LIST OF PLATES Pages 609-694

Page

I.

II.

III.

IV.

V. VI.

VII.

VIII. IX. X.

XI.

XII. XIII. XIV.

xv.

a.

Ammaedara: Byzantine enceinte, viewed from S across the Oued Hai"dra b. Ammaedara: Byzantine enceinte, S wall viewed from SW a. Ammaedara: Byzantine enceinte, E wall viewed from S b. Ammaedara: Byzantine enceinte, Gate d from inside the enceinte a. Ammaedara: Byzantine enceinte, Tower c and postem fromE b. Ammaedara: Byzantine enceinte, Tower c and postem from W, showing internal arcading of the curtain wall a. Ammaedara: Byzantine enceinte, Gate ab, through which the road from Carthage entered the enceinte Ammaedara: The citadel church from the E b. a. Anastasiana: Byzantine fort from SW b. Anastasiana: Byzantine fort, Inscription 32 a. Bagai: Byzantine enceinte, part of robbed SW wall, looking NW b. Bagai: Byzantine enceinte, robbed SW wall, looking SE from Bastion s a. Bordj Hallal: Byzantine enceinte, SW wall seen from Tower n b. Bordj Hallal: Byzantine enceinte, Comer-tower n from W a. Bordj Hallal: Byzantine enceinte, Tower o from N b. Calama: Inscription 19 a. Chusira: Byzantine fort, Tower a from NW b. Chusira: Byzantine fort, Tower e from E a. Cululis: Byzantine enceinte, N wall looking W from Comer-tower e b. Cululis: Byzantine enceinte, detail of the foundations of the curtain wall between a and b a. Cululis: Byzantine enceinte, Inscription 4 b. Hippo Regius: stretch of posible Byzantine walling on the NW flank of the Gharf el-Artran a. Ksar Belezma: Byzantine fort, robbed E wall, looking S b. Laribus: Byzantine enceinte, Towersj and k from S a. Laribus: Byzantine enceinte, Tower a from S b. Laribus: Byzantine enceinte, Tower a from N a. Laribus: Byzantine enceinte, Tower z from W b. Laribus: Byzantine enceinte, Tower z from S a. Lepcis Magna: Byzantine enceinte, Gate B2

xiii

609 609 610 610 611 611 612 612 613 613 614 614 615 615 616 616 617 617 618 618 619 619 620 620 621 621 622 622 623

xv. XVI.

b. Lepcis Magna: Byzantine enceinte, detail of characteristic sixth-century shelly mortar on Gate B2 a. Lepcis Magna: Byzantine enceinte, Tower and Postern Bl 6 b.

XVII. XVIII

a. b. a. b.

XIX.

xx XXI.

a. b. a. b. a. b.

XXII. XXIII.

a. b. a. b.

XXIV.

XXV. XXVI. XXVII.

a. b. a. b. a. b. a. b.

XXVIII.

a. b.

XXIX.

a. b.

XXX. XXXI.

a. b. a. b.

fromN Lepcis Magna: Byzantine enceinte, Tower and Postern Bl 6 fromS Limisa: Byzantine fort, SE wall and cistern from NE Limisa: Byzantine fort, from E Limisa: Byzantine fort, Gate band Tower c from the interior Limisa: Byzantine fort, Tower a viewed across the fort's interior Limisa: Byzantine fort, Tower d from S Madauros: Byzantine fort, Gate c, built over remains of the Roman forum Madauros: Byzantine fort, interior of fort seen from the seats of the Roman theatre Madauros: Byzantine fort, Postern a from inside the fort Madauros: Byzantine fort, viewed from W, showing the hemi-cycle of the theatre with Byzantine superstructure Madauros: Byzantine fort, foundations of Tower e and other works of the First Phase Mileu: Byzantine enceinte, Gate a (Bab el-Bled) Mileu: Byzantine enceinte, Tower m Mileu: Byzantine enceinte, Tower g, showing nineteenthcentury refurbishment Mileu: Byzantine enceinte, W wall looking N from Tower g Mileu: Byzantine enceinte, Tower m, interior Sabratha: Byzantine town wall between e and f, cutting through an abandoned Roman insula, looking E Sabratha: Byzantine enceinte, looking E from d Sabratha: Byzantine enceinte, W of Gate c Sabratha: Byzantine enceinte, Gate c from S Sabratha: Byzantine enceinte, Gate c from N Sabratha: Byzantine enceinte, Gate c from SE Sicca Veneria: The Turkish qasba, from the W, with trace of the Byzantine town wall Sitifis: Byzantine fort, W wall from NW Sitifis: Byzantine fort, Tower c from SW, with later enceinte in the foreground Sitifis: Byzantine fort, Tower d from NW Sitifis: Byzantine fort, Curtain wall between a and k, illustrating the change in masonry between sectors built by different working parties Sitifis: Byzantine fort, blocked Postern Gate b Thagura: Byzantine fort, interior of Tower a Thagura: Byzantine fort, from W Thagura: Byzantine fort,curtain wall between Towers c and b, looking towards Tower b

xiv

623 624 624 625 625 626 626 627 627 628 628 629 629 630 630 631 631 632 632 633 633 634 634 635 635 636 636 637 637 638 638 639 639

XXXII. XXXIII.

a. b. a. b.

XXXIV. XXXV.

XXXVI.

XXXVII. XXXVIII.

XXXIX.

a. b. a. b. a. b. a. b. a. b. a. b.

XL.

a. b.

XLI. XLII. XLIII.

XLIV.

a. b. a. b. a. b. a. b.

XLV.

a. b.

XLVI.

a. b.

XLVII.

a. b.

Thagura: Byzantine fort, Tower a from S Thagura: Byzantine fort, Tower b from SW Thagura: Byzantine fort, site of Tower c, commanding a view to the NE Thagura: Byzantine fort, curtain wall between Towers a andb Thamugadi: Byzantine fort, general view from NW Thamugadi: Byzantine fort, W wall viewed from NW Thamugadi: Byzantine fort, Gate b from N Thamugadi: Byzantine fort, blocked Postem Gate e, from outside Thamugadi: Byzantine fort, Gate b, rebate for inner wingdoor and slot for draw-bart Thamugadi: Byzantine fort, Gate b, outer slot for portcullis Thamugadi: Byzantine fort, Postem h Thamugadi: Byzantine fort, entrance-passage to Tower i Thamugadi: Byzantine fort, redundant keying blocks (tusking) on the inner face of the W wall Thamugadi: Byzantine fort, vault in Tower d Thamugadi: Byzantine fort, E part of fort's interior, seen from Tower g Thamugadi: Byzantine fort, roadway running parallel to E wall of fort Thamugadi: Byzantine fort,detail of barrack blocks seen from Tower g Thamugadi: Byzantine fort, manger in the lower floor of one of the barrack cells built against S wall of fort Thamugadi: Byzantine fort, chapel viewed from SE Thamugadi: Byzantine fort, bath building viewed from NE Thamugadi: Byzantine fort, Inscription 25 Thamugadi: Byzantine fort, Inscription 27 Thelepte: Byzantine enceinte, E wall looking S from Comer-tower b Thelepte: Byzantine enceinte, W wall looking S towards n Thelepte: Byzantine enceinte, peristyled building (m) flanking the inner face of the N wall Thabudeos: western part of trapezoidal late Roman fort, looking S Theueste: Byzantine enceinte, Gate c (Porte de Solomon), fromW Theueste: Byzantine enceinte, Gate c (Porte de Solomon), from SE Theueste: Byzantine enceinte, Gate c (Porte de Solomon), fromE Theueste: Byzantine enceinte, Comer-tower d seen from rampart walk to N Theueste: Byzantine enceinte, Gate n (Arch of Caracalla) from NW Theueste: Byzantine enceinte, Gate n (Arch of Caracalla) from inside the enceinte, showing stairs to rampart walk

xv

640 640 641 641 642 642 643 643 644 644 645 645 646 646 647 647 648 648 649 649 650 650 651 651 652 652 653 653 654 654 655 655

XLVIII.

a. b.

XLIX.

a. b.

L.

a. b.

LI.

a. b. a. b.

LII.

LIII.

a. b.

LIV.

a.

LV.

b. a. b.

LVI.

a. b.

LVII.

a. b.

LVIII.

a. b.

LIX. LX.

a. b. a.

LXI.

b. a. b.

LXII.

a. b.

Theueste: Byzantine enceinte, S wall looking W from Towerd Theueste: Byzantine enceinte, inner face of the curtain wall between e and/, incorporating part of the Roman theatre (systematized in 1886) Thubursicu Bure: Byzantine enceinte, Tower a from W Thubursicu Bure: Byzantine enceinte, Towers d and c from NE with later rebuilding in opus africanum Thubursicu Bure: Byzantine enceinte, Gate b Thubursicu Bure: Byzantine enceinte, Gate b. Remaining fragment of Inscription 39 surmounting the Byzantine arch Thugga: Byzantine fort enclosing the forum and capitol Thugga: Byzantine fort, Tower a from inside the fort Thugga: Byzantine fort, Tower a and Postem b from NW Thugga: Byzantine fort, inner face of wall E of Tower d, showing buttressing for internal arcades Thugga: Byzantine fort, Tower d from E Thugga: Byzantine fort, interior of Tower d, showing entrance-passage and ?inserted comer buttresses Theueste: Byzantine enceinte, Gate n (Arch of Caracalla) from inside the enceinte Thugga: Byzantine fort, Postem Gate b from NWp Tubernuc: The Romanforum temples (x) which stand in the centre of the Byzantine fort, viewed from E Tubernuc: Byzantine fort, SW wall, including Towers e (foreground) and d, and the ruins of the mosque (v), looking SE Tubernuc: Byzantine fort, SE wall viewed from Tower b Tubernuc: Byzantine fort, structures in opus africanum built over the buried remains of Tower a, from S Vaga Theodoriana: Byzantine and Turkish qasba dominating the modem town of Beja, seen from SE Vaga Theodoriana: Byzantine tower incorporated into the Turkish qasba, from W Agbia: Byzantine fort, from NW Agbia: Byzantine fort, W wall from SW, with Tower din foreground Agbia: Byzantine fort, Tower b from NW Agbia: Byzantine fort, Tower c from NE Agbia: Byzantine fort, Tower d from NE showing later additions in opus africanum Agbia: Byzantine fort, site of Tower a, from S Diana Veteranorum: Byzantine fort, SW wall seen from Tower/ Diana Veteranorum: fortlet (ksar) built around the Arch of Macrinus Diana Veteranorum: Byzantine fort, NW gate (b) from outside, showing later constriction and blocking Diana Veteranorum: Byzantine fort, NW gate (b) from inside the fort

xvi

656

656 657 657 658 658 659 659 660 660 661 661 662 662 663

663 664 664 665 665 666 666 667 667 668 668 669 669 670 670

LXIII.

a. b.

LXIV.

LXV.

LXVI. LXVII.

a. b. a. b. a. b. a. b.

LXVIII. LXIX.

LXX.

LXXI. LXXII. LXXIII.

LXXIV. LXXV.

LXXVI. LXXVII.

LXXVIII. LXXIX. LXXX. LXXXI.

a. b. a. b.

a. b. a. b. a. b. a. b. a. b. a. b.

a. b. a. b. a. b. a. b. a. b. a.

Diana Veteranorum: Byzantine fort, entrance-passage to Comer-tower c, from inside the fort Diana Veteranorum: Byzantine fort, excavated interior of Comer-tower c Mactaris: Byzantine fort built around the Severan baths, from NE Mactaris: Byzantine fort, Gate c from NE Mactaris: Byzantine fort, Gate a and Bastion b, from SW Mactaris: Byzantine fort, remains of two-storeyed barracks inside Gate a Musti: Byzantine fort, from S Musti: Byzantine fort, stair to rampart walk inside Gated Musti: Byzantine fort, Gate a flanked by Bastion b, seen from NE Thugga Terebentina: Byzantine fort, NW wall seen from W comer-tower Thubursicu Numidiarum: Byzantine fort, from SE Thubursicu Numidiarum: Byzantine fort, S wall from SW Thubursicu Numidiarum: Byzantine fort, from S Thubursicu Numidiarum: Byzantine fort, S wall and gate seen from within the Roman bath building around which the fort is built Thubursicu Numidiarum: Ksar el-Kebir, looking NE across the central court towards the entrance Thubursicu Numidiarum: fortified church, seen from E Tignica: Byzantine fort, N wall from NE Tignica: Byzantine fort, E wall from SE Tignica: Byzantine fort, bent entrance within Tower d Tubunae: Byzantine fort, part of S wall Tipasa {Tifech): Byzantine enceinte from SE Tipasa (Tifech): Byzantine enceinte, E wall looking S from around Tower i Tipasa (Tifech): Byzantine enceinte, W wall from Tower a Tipasa (Tifech): Byzantine enceinte, Tower c from SW Upenna: Byzantine fort, S wall looking W from Gate e Upenna: Byzantine fort, interior of Tower d, showing the spring of the barrel-vault and the lintel of the diagonal entrance-passage Upenna: Byzantine fort, Tower b from E Upenna: Byzantine fort, Tower c from S Upenna: Byzantine fort, eroded W side of Gate e, showing masonry construction technique Tignica: Byzantine fort, arrow-slit in N wall of Tower b Zarai: site of Byzantine fort seen from NE Clupea: Turkish fort from SW Sufetula: interior of the Northern fortlet Sufetula: stables inside the Northern fortlet Sufetula:Northem fortlet, basement Sufetula:Northem fortlet, basement Bordj Y ounga: ninth-century ribiit, NE postem gate

xvii

671 671 672 672 673 673 674 674 675 675 676 676 677 677 678 678 679 679 680 680 681 681 682 682 683 683 684 684 685 685 686 686 687 687 688 688 689

LXXXI. LXXXII.

LXXXIII. LXXXIV

b. Bordj Younga: ninth-century ribat, inner face of NE wall Bordj Younga: ninth-century ribat, junction of NE and SE walls b. Bordj Younga: ninth-century ribat, E comer tower a. Lemta: ribat, NE comer-tower b. Sousse: eighth-century ribat, viewed from SE a. Sousse: The western part of the ninth-century town walls, looking S b. Sousse: internal arcading of the ninth-century S wall of the town, looking W towards the qasba

689

a.

xviii

690 690 691 691 692 692

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