The dangerous hour; the lore of Crisis and Mystery in Rural Greece 9780701113582

Table of contents :
Contents
Foreword
1. Introduction
Section 1. Narratives of the Villagers
2. The Life Cycle: Its dangerous periods
Tales the villagers told
Babies and Changelings
Unmarried Girls
Courtship and Wedding
The Lechona
The Elderly
3. The Occult Estate
Priests
Magicians, Sorcerers, and Witches
Mediums
Gipsies
The King
The Stranger
4. Preternatural Human Conditions and Qualities
Pollution and Purity
The Light-Shadowed Ones
The Passing of the Spirits
Demon Possession
5. On Venturing into the Other World
Dreams, Visitations, Augurs, and Omens
Incubation
Augurs and Omens
Oracles and Prescience
Death
Revenants
The Soul
6. The Extraordinary Dead
Christ
The Panaghia
The Saints
Magicians
7. Powers and Dominions: Heavenly Hierarchies and Infernal Peers
Stringlos
Charon
The Devil
The Moira
Moros
The Dangerous Hour
Koukoudi
God
Exotika and Demons
Nereids
Lamias
Kallikantzari
Angels
8. That which is Exceptional in Nature
Animals
Birds and Fowl
Dogs
Jackals
Bears
Snakes
The Liokra
Animal Objects and Substances
Human Substances with Magical Uses
Trees, Plants, and Vegetable Substances
Natural Objects, Substances and Phenomena
The Moon
Stars
The Sun
Elements and Compounds
Natural Formations: Arches and Caves
Fire
Echo
Manufactured Objects
Times and Places
9. Affliction and Deliverance
The Evil Eye
Xemetrima for Other Ills
The Wandering Navel
The Waist
Anemopyroma (Facial erysipelas)
Jaundice
Korakiasma
The Bad Pimple (Anthrax)
Moon Convulsions
Insanity
Pimples and Boils
Skin Disorders
Toothache
Urinary Disorder
Mumps
Tonsillitis
Abscesses
Measles
Wounds
10. Powers and Words
The Healing Power
The “Bad” Passes Out
The Power of Words
Names
Curses
Numbers
Gossip
Section 2. Analysis and Interpretation of Narrative Materials
11. A Profusion of Differences
Table 1. Reported regions of birth for parents of father
Table 2. Reported regions of birth for grandparents of father
Table 3. Reported region of birth for parents of mother
Table 4. Reported region of birth for grandparents of mother
Productivity of Narrative Material in Response to Stimulus Questions and Discussion
Table 5. Family narratice productivity and the presence and reputation of a healer in the family
A Diversified Heritage
Table 6. Reported awareness of preternatural lore
Table 7. Assent and dissent regarding the Exotika and Vrykolakes
ifferences Revealed by Content Code Analysis
Table 8. Major Topics appearing in the narrative material produced by the two most productive families
A Note on the Concept of ‘Culture’
12. Functions and Reflections of the Narratives: An Introduction
13. Narrative Effects
14. Intentional Narratives
15. Attitudes, Practices and Relationships within the Community
16. Intrapsychic and Interpersonal Dynamics
Conflict, Suffering, and Strain
Insanity
Muteness
A Case of Denial
Child-Rearing
Childhood Recollections and the Good Old Days
The Good Old Days: Other Interpretations
Anxiety
Preventing or Defending Against Anxiety
Philotimo
The Light-Shadowed Ones
Dreams
The Unconscious
17. Cognitive Functions
Organizing Experience
Assumptions about Nature: equivalence of internally and externally derived data
Anthropomorphism
Energy and Power
Section 3. Survivals and Parallels
18. The Past in the Present: Methods and Concepts in the Study of Historical Survivals
Methodological and conceptual difficulties
Living Conditions Compared
19. Continuities in Response to Crisis and Mystery
The Life Cycle, Its dangerous periods
Infants and New Mothers: Present beliefs summarized
Maidens, Marriages and Motherhood: Present views
Virginity and the Status of Women
Marriage and Intercourse
Marriage, Motherhood, and Misery
Child Killing
The Elderly
The Occult Estate
Priests
Magicians
Other Occult Practitioners: Witches
The Mothers as Wise Women
Strangers
Gipsies
Kings
Preternatural Conditions
Pollution
The Light-Shadowed
Demonization
Demon Possession
The Evil Eye
20. The Past in the Present (continued)
The Other World
The Extraordinary Dead
Powers and Dominions
The Exceptional in Nature
Affliction and Deliverance
Powers and Words
Survivals or Innovations. Some Unresolved Issues
21. The Past in the Present: Commentary and Summary
22. Present Parallels
Morocco
Spain
South Italy
Yugoslavia
Bulgaria
Conclusion
23. Epilogue
Appendix
Bibliography
Index

Citation preview

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THE THE

DANGEROUS

LORE

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MYSTERY

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“= DANGEROUS HOUR The Lore of Crisis and Mystery in Rural Greece

By Richard and Eva BLUM nara

With Fieldwork Assistance by

ANNA

AMERA and

SOPHIE

KALLIFATIDOU

With a Foreword by

H.R.H. PRINCE PETER OF GREECE

CHARLES

SCRIBNER’S

SONS

NEW YORK

Copyright © 1970 Richard and Eva Blum

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without the permission of Charles Scribner’s Sons.

Printed in Great Britain Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 75—99589

CONTENTS Foreword by H.R.H. Prince Peter of Greece Introduction

Section One: Narratives of the Villagers II

The Life Cycle: Its Dangerous Periods

Ill

The Occult Estate

IV

Preternatural Human Conditions and Qualities

On Venturing into the Other World VI wut Vill IX

The Extraordinary Dead Powers and Dominions: Heavenly Hierarchies and Infernal Peers

That Which is Exceptional in Nature Affliction and Deliverance Powers and Words

II

22 42 57 79 95 123 143 161

Section Two:

Analysis and Interpretation of Narrative Materials XI

A Profusion of Differences

173

Functions and Reflections of the Narratives: An Introduction

198

XIII

Narrative Effects

201

XIV

Intentional Narratives

206

Attitudes, Practices, and Relationships within the Community Intrapsychic and Interpersonal Dynamics

2i!I

Cognitive Functions

24.4

XII

XV XVI XVII

227

Section Three: Survivals and Parallels XVIII

The Past in the Present: Methods and Concepts in the 263 Study of Historical Survivals

CONTENTS

XIX XX XxXI XXII XXIII

Continuities in Response to Crisis and Mystery

271

The Past in the Present: Continued

SII

The Past in the Present: Commentary and Summary

392

Present Parallels Epilogue

358 376

Appendix

379

Bibliography

380

Index

393

TO JOSEPH

FONTENROSE AND

DANI

AND

DAISY

FOREWORD After Health and Healing in Rural Greece (1965), Richard and Eva Blum have now given us °H kaxy wpa, The Dangerous Hour. They have thus very thoroughly and exhaustively described the irrational of the Greek psyche, as it reacts to the crises and the mysteries of life. Their contribution to our knowledge of both human nature in general and of the specifically Greek outlook in times of stress and danger is very considerable and most important. It cannot fail to appear anything but arresting to all those with an acquaintance of peasant communities as opposed to urban populations. ’ The historical link with ancient Hellenic culture, going back as far as Neolithic times, is clearly demonstrated in this book. It can only serve to confirm that modern Greeks are the cultural continuators if not the physical heirs of the original Hellenes. This is a point which I am always keen to make when in discussion with those who favour the theory of the Albanian, Turkish, Frank or Slav origin of the modern Greek. This may be true in a racial sense, but it is immaterial when considering Hellenism, an allembracing outlook on life which has shown itself capable, as other superior cultures have also, of assimilating strangers and foreigners, even enemies, whatever their racial origin. By making the mind of the rural Greek better known than it has been so far, both within and without the country, Richard and Eva Blum have also contributed, I am sure, to a better understanding of the modern Hellene. Such an understanding is essential if we are to follow the development of Greece’s contemporary history, with its disconcerting and abrupt ups and downs. For in the final analysis, if my country has not shown greater stability in its public life since its liberation from foreign domination one hundred and forty-eight years ago, it is to a large extent because of the insecurity to which the individual is exposed and towards which he reacts as he feels best, guided by the beliefs and practices which he has accumulated over the ages in order to be able to face the terrible and disconcerting Dangerous Hour.

4th March 1969

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a interprets the myth of Dionysus’ second birth from the thigh of Zeus as such an ancient adoption rite, during which the adopted son had to pass from underneath his new father’s thigh to be admitted to the clan. There is one important spring in the Dhadhi region, an ancient shrine nestled beneath the crags and walls of a Minoan-Mycenaean founded citadel. Associated with that spring, as we noted in Chapter XVIII, is the saying, “Come admire me in May, drink me in August, and if you want to die, come taste me in September.” We can only speculate on the antiquity of the adage or of the beliefs represented therein. Perhaps it reflects, as one of the Doxario priests suggested, an association between drinking and the belief, found in Doxario and Dhadhi, that more people die in September than in other months. This beliefin turn may be derived from the association between the Dog Star Sirius* and pestilence.” 1 Hesiod, The Works and Days, 729.

2 Macrobius, ibid., xvii, 15.

8 See Halliday, 108, p. 42, and Frazer, op. cit., i, p. 74. 4 See Hesychius (124) s.v. Deuteropotmos (Aevrepdmorpos) hysteropotmos (dorepdrotpos) ; and Plutarch, Questiones Romanae, 5. 5 Farnell, (85), V. See also Rohde, (228), Appendix XI, for a description of, and additional references to adoption and initiation rites. 6 Sirius means “Scorcher” from the verb “‘cepudw’’, to be hot and scorching; and to suffer from seirisis, a disease to which children were said to be susceptible (Dioscorides, IV, 71).

In Hesiod’s time Sirius could be observed to rise at dawn from August 24 to September 24.

7 Homer, Iliad, V, 4-8; and as sign of impending evil, Ibid. XXII, 29.

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THE DANGEROUS

HOUR

Hesiod notes this relationship, for one of Sirius’ daughters was that Sphinx which brought the plague upon Thebes;! whereas two others sacrificed themselves to save Boeotia from the pestilence (242). The “Dog Days” are when “women are most lascivious but the men’s strength fails them most, for the star Seirios (Sirius) shrivels them, knees and heads alike, and the skin is all dried out in the heat”’.2 Omens were drawn from the aspect of Sirius rising with regard to the salubrity of the coming year at Ceos in the Aegean (as had been done in Egypt 3,000 to 4,000 3c.) Incaiagig September 1 was appointed as the beginning of the New Year and is still celebrated in many parts of Greece. A great many people believe that on this day the Angel of Death writes down the names of those who are fated to die within the coming year. Megas? ascribes to rural Greeks the belief that the pernicious fevers of this season (which afflicted the Greek countryside until the recent eradication of malaria) was caused by Herodias’ unholy crime of claiming the head of St. John the Baptist whom some call St. John the Feverish (Thermologos). Other than these relationships between illness in September we have not discovered any precise analogies in antiquity with our proverb. As for the feature of leaving a token behind, without looking back, signifying the leaving of the illness behind, the contemporary practice may be compared to that of the ancients who thought that pollution — by ritual impurity, by illness, by death, or murder, and by childbirth — must be left behind or, as Eustathius® noted “be sent away”’. Gruppe suggests that in antiquity the offering of clothes to Artemis by women who had given birth was a rite to banish the daemoniacal substances that still resided in what they had worn during this period. Thus the cult of Artemis Chitone (xereivn — Artemis of the Tunic) to whom tunics were dedicated, developed from this custom. A related custom seems to have prevailed in Sicyonia, where Pausanias’ found the statue of Hygieia in Asclepius’ sanctuary at Titane so bedecked with strips of Babylonian raiment and locks of women’s hair that one could not see the healing goddess herself underneath these coverings. The injunction of not turning around to look at what transpires during the casting behind of the polluted article recalls the ceremonies of purification during which household refuse was swept out of doors and left at the crossroads as offerings to Hecate, one’s face averted, without a backwards glance. Eustathius® cites the taboo on looking back (recall the story of Lot in the Old 1 Hesiod, Theogony 325. R. Lattimore, transl. The Theban sphinx was the offspring of an incestuous union between Sirius (also known as the dog Orthros) and his own mother Echidna (spider) ;this genealogy alone would be enough to cause pestilence and drought, just as Oedipus’ unwitting incest 2 Hesiod, op. cit., 587-92. 8 Frazer, op. cit., vi, 35-35. Regarding more detail on the relationship between

Sirius and

the plague one may consult the following authors: Apollonius of Rhodes, II, pp. 500 ff.; Diodorus Siculus, IV, 82; and Hyginus Poeticon Astronomicon. 4 Megas, op. cit., p. 151. 5 Fustathius, Commentarii ad Homeri Odysseam. See Gruppe, op. cit., p. 1272, n. 7. * Rohde, op. cit., Appendix V, presents data for the belief that materials can absorb pollution

thereby ridding the person from its contamination. Wool, the skin of animals, and eggs were used for this purpose. Eggs were called ‘‘katharsia” for this reason. 7 Pausanias, op. cit., 11, xi, 6.

8 Eustathius, op cit., XXII, 481.

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341

Testament, and that of Eurydice whom Orpheus lost for a second time to the underworld as he turned longingly around to see if she was following him in their journey towards the light). His children may not witness the descent of Oedipus into the house of Hades!; nor Theseus be polluted by the sight of his own son’s death.? The manufactured articles which are employed in magical rituals associated with sorcery, healing and the warding-off of danger are but few. Nevertheless among them are many of relatively recent origin, which cannot represent survivals. On the other hand, one recognizes clothing, fish net, beads, a mirror, as instruments or devices with past magical employment. For example in the Jdylls of Theocritus? Damoetas spat upon himself after

observing himself in a mirror so as not to suffer from the evil eye; while at the shrine of healing Demeter in Patrai, according to Pausanias,4 a mirror was employed to learn the outcome of illness. Other instruments include string and rope, writing, rings, coins, nails and pins, knives, drawn symbolic

figures, bracelets and necklaces and pottery. In the modern narratives the three major measures of time which are significant for man’s relationship to the supernatural world are day and - night, the three-phased moon month, and the two-phased year. There are, of course, important calendarial periods, the Twelve Days for example when the kallikantzari congregate, and festival and religious occasions. Nevertheless, the occurrence of calendarial moments is to be differentiated

from a sense of time based on important divisions of the day and month and year. Viewed in terms of the latter the sense of time, of its major divisions and their relationship to man’s welfare and to the activities of the powers, the orientation reflected in the narratives is clearly a survival of a very ancient tradition. With reference to day and night, Hesiod remarks “For Nights belong to the Blessed Ones’’,> an euphemism indicating that it is the time when the demons, our ‘“‘exotika’’, are abroad.

The moon month of three phases which guides the Dhadhi wise woman in her gathering of the healing herbs, which dictates when the jaundice must be cut or when the seed for ground or woman shall be sown, was a timekeeper for the ancients as well; this is evidenced by the three (moon) Seasons portrayed on the Acropolis (172) and possibly by the three Moirai which, according to Orpheus* were the three seasons of the moon. Dioscorides recommends that one be guided by the moon’s phases in the administration of healing herbs. And in the same way the two season year, still observed by the Saracatzani, was the division of the pastoral Greeks of old (172). As to the division of places in the narratives, the local sacred geography, one finds the delineation of those which are relatively safe — and that is where the village is — and those that are unsafe — and that is the wilderness where the exotika roam. Of particular danger are water sources, whereas among the man-made spots the crossroad and the cemetery are spirit-ridden. Caves and grottoes are also exceptional places. These present divisions correspond quite well to the supernatural mapping 1 Sophocles, Oedipus at Colonus, 1640 ff. 3 Theocritus, op. cit., VI, 34-40.

5 Hesiod, The Works and Days, 731.

2 Euripides, Hippolytus, 14.35

ff.

4 Pausanias, op. cit., VII, xxi, 12.

6 As quoted by Harrison (113) p. 389.

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THE DANGEROUS HOUR

of antiquity. It was in the wilderness, that is outside the village, where the Nymphs, Dryads, Oreads, Naiads, Pan, the Satyrs and other spirits lurked. Water sources were particularly dangerous, while in caves chthonic holies were often practised. The cemeteries were clearly the gathering places for the dead, as Plato mentions. He describes the qualities of the impure soul which cannot leave the vicinity of its dead shell because it is contaminated by the corporeal which is burdensome, and “‘heavy (!)1 and earthly and visible” and drags the soul back once again into the visible world: ‘“Those thick and gloomy shadows damp, oft seen in charnel vaults and sepulchres, lingering and sitting by a new made grave are loth to leave the body that it loved.’”? Crossroads were sacred to Hecate — and it was at the crossroads where stonepiles* were most often raised to which the traveller contributed his stone of riddance.

Affliction and Deliverance It is exceedingly difficult to assess the correspondence between disease conceptions in ancient Greece and those which are revealed in the material of Health and Healing in Rural Greece (35) and the narratives. Hippocrates provides the point of view of a rational innovator, a man of genius; he does not tell us what was the content of lesser rationality which preceded (and survived) him. Dioscorides enumerates disorders believed treatable with his pharmacy, but these are limited. Perusal of other texts produces occasional reference to illness, either by designation, symptoms, or consequences, but there is no such thing as a 600 B.c. survey of conceptions and designations of afflictions. It would be desirable to contrast contemporary folk conceptions with those of antiquity for specific disease entities. While the evil eye does provide an illustration of a specific survival, it is not possible to determine whether other diagnoses, such as the wandering navel or the korakiasma, were employed. One may of course speculate on the wandering navel itself. Powers and Words From the narratives one learns that the healing power, conceived as entity, or force independent of the persons of the healer but one affected by 1 Plato uses the term “‘Bapds” which villagers nowadays employ to designate heaviness in the sense of oppressive, malignant, illness and evil bringing. 2 Plato, Phaedo, 81, C, translated by D. Halliday, (108) who mentions that the revenants of the fifth century 3B.c. were black, or skeletons, and that it was wise to steal past tombstones in silence for fear of irritating the occupants to emerge and attack one. (ibid.) p. 48 3 Nilsson (180, p. 109) considers Hermes’ name to be one of the few that are etymologically transparent, meaning “he from the stone heap’’. Not all scholars would agree, but a number of them, notably Farnell, (86), Vol. V., Brown (40), and Wilamowitz-Moellendorff (267) relate these stone piles to herms which are crude, often ithyphallic, single-stone images representing the god. 4 One might wish to do a content analysis of Dioscorides as a measure of concern about illnesses. It could be assumed, for example, that the most frequently mentioned were the most worrisome among the illnesses observed to be responsive to treatment (or at least not terminal or epidemic, for none such seem to appear there). On the basis of impressions, not tabulations, stomach and intestinal disorders, genito-urinary disorders, barrenness, the desire to achieve miscarriage or contraception, rank high.

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343

his interest and state of purity or pollution, is intimately connected to the use of words, gestures and ritual accoutrements. This power, which is associated with folk healing and the magico-religious traditions but which is not applied to medical technology, can be transferred from one person to another either by its being stolen; that is, by one person overhearing the words of the healer; or passed on by teaching, in which case the student does not acquire healing capabilities until his teacher dies or declines in old age. The peculiar advantage of stealing is that both the original owner and the thief may practise the art at the same time; while for the taught rituals there can be no simultaneous capability in student and teacher. A second feature of the transmission of the healing power is that for many of the specific forms of healing, usually the “‘xemetrima’’, but apparently also for some of the hand practika and herbals, power must be transferred in a zig-zag alternate sex chain; that is, from father to daughter to son, or variants, such as merely male to female to male. The question arises as to the antecedents of the concept of healing power and of the transmission techniques of stealing and zig-zag sex-generation chain. Can these be found in ancient Greece? Again it is unfortunate that no “‘annals of folk medicine’ were published in the year 1200 B.c. by the Mycenaean Press, nor were there any how-to-do it handbooks for handling life crises. In the ancient world the Old and New Testaments come closest to our need, but their religious emphasis obscures the daily devices for healing, warding off evil and securing safety. In Corinthians (12:9 and 10) healing, along with prophecy, miracle working and the discerning of spirits,! is described as a “‘gift’? implying its specific and portable attributes. Again in Luke (g:1—6) Jesus transmitted the healing power, “‘gave them (his twelve disciples) power and authority over all devils and to cure diseases’. In Acts, in the first of the Apostolic Miracles, Peter and John cure a lame man by looking at him, speaking in the name of Christ and lifting him up; a cure which the apostles ascribe not to themselves or their own skill but to the power of God which they can employ. Later Peter (Acts 10:38) describes how “God anointed Jesus. .. with power; who went about... healing all that were oppressed of the devil; for God was with him”’. From these excerpts it can be inferred that the belief in healing as a power capable of being transferred from one person to another without any need to learn an art or science was extant two thousand years ago in the Near East. That such a belief was also found in Greece, is a reasonable

assumption, for there is evidence for the existence of a conception of “power”? as such, complex and changeable though this notion was. At times it was envisaged in its most compelling and impersonal aspect as destiny, or

due fate, or appointed lot (afoa, wempwpévy, jrotpa) to which mortals and immortals alike were subject, in varying degree. Even Zeus, the highest god on Olympus, who could change the course of human events was not permitted to extend his domain beyond that which his destiny had allotted to him to that of his brothers, equal in station. Poseidon, ruler of oceans, was quick to point this out to him.? 1Jt is not impossible that St. Paul had in mind a gift akin to that possessed by the lightshadowed when he spoke of the “‘discerning of spirits” (8vaxpicevo mvevpdrwv). 2 Homer, Iliad, XV M

209.

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At other times the ineluctable power of the “‘allotted portion” was envisaged in human form, as Moira or the Moirai (Fate or Fates), according to the tendency of Greeks, both ancient and modern, to personalize abstract concepts.

Besides the “‘Lot’? there were many other, lesser powers, some relatively independent, though subject to the will of the gods and, ultimately, to the approval of Zeus. There were Strife (Eris), Blind Folly (Ate), Fear (Deimos, Phobos), Uproar (Kydoimos), the Destroyer (Ares), and many others. In addition, the magic attributes of the gods themselves were “powers” that could lead a quasi-independent existence insofar as they resided in possessions, such as the magic zone (girdle) of Aphrodite; the winged sandals or hatand the rhabdos (the enchanter’s wand) of Hermes; Athena’s gorgoneion, (a goatskin with the petrifying Medusa’s head surrounded by snakes, that she wore on her breastplate or shield) ; Zeus’ aegis (the storm and thundercloud around his head, imagined by Homer as a shining shield fringed with tassels of gold with the gorgoneion in its centre, which thunders and lightens when it is shaken); the helmet of invisibility which the Cyclopes had given to Hades who held sway over the powers of the infernal regions. These objects could be transferred (as the aegis); or borrowed, as the girdle that made any woman irresistible; or taken by stealth, as Apollo feared his farshooting bow and newly acquired tortoise-lyre might be stolen from him by Hermes, trickster supreme. Anything out of the ordinary, a sudden passion, an inspiration, an unusual invention, or wonderful skill could become imbued by, or attributed to supernatural powers and thereby acquired qualities of the divine (70

Sayoviov) and godlike (7d Sefov). Nilsson contends that the sense of undefined “‘power”’’ is central to the meaning of “‘daimon” and can denote anyone of the gods. Stealth, trickery, lying, stealing and innovation — if done with amazing skill - were among the extraordinary “‘daimonic”’ and magic phenomena. The Homeric Hymn to Hermes abounds with these. Apollo’s question to Hermes is illuminating: The god wants to know if it was by birth, or if a god or man had given thievish Hermes the noble gift of wondrous song (favwa épya) which had so astonished and enchanted Apollo of the silver bow.! Such an innovation, for Apollo vows that no mortal nor immortal but Hermes has ever heard this new-uttered sound, had to be due to some power, most probably divine. The sequence of events illustrates how and why power could be transferred: Impressed and spellbound, Apollo accedes to Hermes’ demand for equality (even though Hermes was then only an infant) ; in return for an oath of friendship and a promise not to steal from him, he presents the prince of thieves with the wonderworking golden wand that will put to sleep those who are touched by it and has power over the living and the dead. He also gives Hermes access to the art of divination practised by the venerable, winged maidens — probably sacred bees — who are inspired to tell the truth when they have tasted the honey of Mt. Parnassus. However, there were limits on these gifts: Although Apollo is himself a mantic god, he cannot confer the power of divination without higher confirmation by Zeus; nor is he willing to let Hermes have a share of his very own, far more important, prophetic powers. 1 Homeric Hymn to Hermes, 440-6.

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CONTINUED 345 An example of borrowing “‘power’’, once again by trickery, is to be found in the lad, when Hera wishes to seduce Zeus into lovemaking so that he will not pay attention to the conduct of the Trojan war, and give the Greeks a chance to improve their position. With this in mind she visits Aphrodite to whom she tells a lie, and succeeds thereby in borrowing her elaborate girdle on which were wrought all ‘“‘beguilement, passion of sex, and the whispered endearment that steals the heart away”. Healing power was also believed to be a gift of the gods. “Remedies for toil-frought mortals Apollo gave to the sons of Asclepius.”? The Magnesian Centaur, kindly Chiron, passed on to Asclepius the knowledge of medicinal plants and roots; how to heal painful ills inflicted by farhurled stones, and wounds made by bronze; how to deliver men from wasting illness and from pain by “kindly incantations”, soothing potions, simples, or by surgery.® Athena did even more; she provided Asclepius with the blood of the Gorgon — a double edged magic — for “‘that which flowed from her left side he used for the perdition of mankind ;while that which flowed from her right he used for their salvation, and by that means he raised the dead’’.4 We need not multiply our examples, for Asclepius illustrates admirably the still prevalent practice of intermingling the empirical medical techniques, which are transmitted through instruction from teacher to student, with magical and supernatural inverventions acquired directly from one who is in close touch with the divine, or is a healing ‘“‘daimon’’ himself. We have seen that direct acquisition of powers can be by borrowing, stealing, or by gift. There was probably also another method, that by claiming descent from the healer and adopting the name of the healer if it had connotations of magical powers, as names frequently did. No doubt the name of Asclepius possessed in itself a healing virtue that could be invoked by its bearer. His temple priests and physicians, later on most physicians, called themselves Asclepiads, but were not necessarily related to each other; although in some temples the office of priest was hereditary, in others it was not. The ancients were at great pains to prove that Hippocrates was in fact in direct line of descent from Asclepius, disagreeing only on whether he was 17th in line,5 or 18th,® or 19th.” As to the transfer of healing itself through stealing, we are not on firm ground. That stolen objects are powerful in magic is a folklore motif (251) outside Greece.§ We have seen that in ancient Greece the god of stealing is also the god of magic, the trickster Hermes. His son Autolycus was a magician and thief as well; he, like his father could make himself invisible

and the stolen objects unrecognizable. Hermes’ greatgrandson was another trickster, ingenious Odysseus, master of the spellbinding lie; and master of the enchantress Circe; his epithet (zroAvtpozos’)® suggests that his ingenuity 1 Homer, Iliad, XIV, 215-17. R. Lattimore, transl. Note that trickery, beguilement, whispering, and stealing were in themselves integral parts of magic. 2 Euripides, Alcestis, 965-71. 3 Pindar, Odes, III, 45-67. 4 Apollodorus, op. cit., III, x, 3, 8-9.

5 Toannes Tzetzes, Chiliades, VII, 944-6.

6 Hippocrates, Epistolae, 2 (IX, p. 314, 5 ed. Littré). 7 Soranus, Vita Hippocritis,t. 8 See Hartland, (14), III, p. 201; and Feilberg, “Stjaele” III, 576 a; and “‘Tigge”’ III, 793 b (as quoted by Stith Thompson (215)). ® Ingenious, changeable, trickster, resourceful. mM*

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was, if not magical, at least closely akin to it; it is the same epithet that Apollo uses in addressing the crafty rogue and deceiver Hermes.’ To modern man, accustomed to specialization of function and ordering the universe into separate categories, it seems hard to understand what possible relationship there could exist between stealing, lying and magic. It is otherwise for rural folk who know reality as those events which recur predictably, monotonously and boringly; and who recognize the supernatural by its novelty, drama and awesomeness. The bard, who will entertain, cannot rely upon the happenings of everyday life, of reality; he must sing of the yet unheard; inevitably it is a song of the supernatural, a song of lies with which he asks the muse to inspire him. Nowadays the villager, hungry for excitement, asks the stranger: ‘“Tell me the news, tell me anything, tell me a lie, but do

tell me something.” As for the relation of thieving to magic, Linforth (152) proposes that stealing, as generally conceived in folklore, is not a rational device for acquisition but itself a manifestation of magical power (just as we would suggest that the lie is not a rational device to deceive, but a sign of divine inspiration and a means of conveying the supernatural). In this connection it is worthy of note that the xemetrima, the ‘“‘words” which are stolen, are sometimes referred to by the wise women as “‘lies”. In one sense this may represent the concealment of the sacred by the profane. Nevertheless, Hermes, the god of magic, was himself the god of lies as well as of theft, and it may be more than coincidence that he was also the sender of sleep and dreams, the guide of the dead and a healer. His magic wand became transformed over the years into the snake-entwined caduceus, the snake itself having — as indicated before — powers associated with prophecy, dreams, healing and magic.? It was this same caduceus that Asclepius himself is sometimes portrayed as holding (139) and which remains to our day the symbol of healing power. In legend Hermes is referred to as a healer on several occasions: once when he aided Athena in curing the daughters of Proetus of madness, (86) (139); another time when he aided in the birth of Dionysus; and once when he halted the plague at Tangraa by carrying a ram on his shoulder while he made a circuit of the walls. Later development saw Hermes Trismegistus (the Greek name for the Egyptian god Toth) as its most powerful deity. The ‘“Thrice-greatest’’ was invoked by witches, wizards and alchemists as recently as the Middle Ages and the Renaissance (42). Toth was the scribe of the gods and, in addition, he was the patron of healing, of magic, of astronomy and all the arts and inventions dependent on writing. Herodotus in the fifth century B.c. had already identified him with Hermes, and by the third century B.c. the identification was official.® There is one more link between theft and healing. The skills of the healer (those arts and techniques that can be transmitted by instruction) were not divulged to just anyone. The Asclepiads, the priest-physicians who claimed adoption or descendance from Asclepius, held that their knowledge was hereditary from him and their law was that ‘‘sacred things may be revealed only to the elect, and should be confided to the profane only when they have 1 Homeric Hymn to Hermes, 439. 2 See Apollodorus, op. cit., I, ix, 113; III, iii, 1; vi, 7.

3 See (go), I, ch. 4.

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been initiated in the mysteries of the science”’ (139). The vow of silence so enjoined is seen in the Hippocratic Oath. One may speculate that this aura of secrecy may also be functionally — rather than magically — related to the development of the belief that theft was a necessary means for a non-initiate or non-kinsman to acquire the healing skill. If this were so, one would expect that in the beginning at least, transmission by teaching would have been a characteristic of kinsmen; whereas transmission by theft would have characterized the extension of the healing role outside the family.1 This may or may not have been the case before; in any event observations and the narratives of the contemporary scene do not show evidence of such a division. With reference to the zig-zag sex chain for passing along the healing power we are unable to find any parallels, either in history, or in the perusal of anthropological accounts. It is our hope that other scholars may be able to shed some light on the phenomenon. Conceivably it may be related to the legend that Asclepius had a daughter, Hygieia; perhaps the father to daughter tradition was reflected in that mythical pair, although we can draw on no substantiating evidence.? Whatever the origins for the chain, contemporary folk have no rationale for it. One can speculate that the practice once served to prevent inheritance of a real social power in one sex alone; the practical consequences of the pattern are that neither men nor women secure a lineal claim (some) healing prerogatives. In this sense it is a compromise between matrilineal and patrilineal inheritance. It is also possible that some rather liberal beliefs about cross-fertilization are implied (like crop rotation in modern agricultural practice), the power being reinforced or infused with female attributes or powers for one generation, and then benefiting from male powers in the next; each generation providing a kind of sex-linked nourishment to replenish the healing energy. Turning now to the contemporary belief that illness passes* from the sufferer to the healer, that the “‘bad”’ passes out; one sees that conceptually

the “‘bad”’ is an entity much like a demon or genius. The notion that the ‘‘bad’’, whether it be spirit, substance or pollution can be removed from one person and placed within another — or in or upon an inanimate object such as the sea, a rock, or an arch — is fundamental to much of the ritual of

healing in the Doxario region. It is this same idea which underlies the practice of scapegoating, as found in antiquity; a criminal for example, was heaped with the “bad” of Athens and, becoming the pharmakos, was driven outside the city. It is this belief which underlay the use of the fleece in cures — then and now. It was a concept also found among the Hebrews “.. . all their transgressions . . . putting them upon the head of a goat, and shall send him away . . . And the goat 1 The myth of Prometheus, the fire-thief, the first magician, may be interpreted in this vein. Clearly he was an outsider, of the race of the Titans, the very ones who had just been feuding with the Olympian gods. As a Titan, Prometheus was surely a most unlikely candidate for initiation into the Olympian fire-magic. His recourse, quite reasonably, was to steal it. * Hygiecia was associated with other healers as well: with Amphiaraus at Oropos and with

Hermes (Gruppe, op. cit., p. 1337, n. 2). Heracles as a healer was associated with Auge, who may have been, like Eileithyia, a goddess of birth. 3 While yawning or sneezing are means by which the bad passes out, these are not necessary

for the cure.

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shall bear upon him all their iniquities . . .”’! and which is found — then and

now — in the belief that Christ would do the same, ‘“‘Behold the Lamb of God, which taketh away the sin of the world”.? Taking the sin and the “bad” upon himself, makes Christ understandable to the villagers as a healer; for this is also what the village wise women do; they take the pains and the “‘bad”’ of the sufferer upon themselves. As Frazer (95) points out, this form of riddance by which evil is diverted has characterized healing rituals in places as diverse as India, New Zealand, Ceylon and Scotland. Nevertheless, we do not have direct evidence for the passing of the ‘“‘bad”’ from sufferer to a human healer in ancient Greece and can only presume that — with all of the material so consistent — it was most likely a folk tradition long ago. In this regard one may once again note the association with Hermes. When Hermes was tried by the gods for the murder of Argus Panoptes, the hundred-eyed, all the gods flung stones at him as a way of ridding themselves of the pollution of blood; the stones made a heap, so the etiological myth had it, which was one reason offered for passers-by adding a stone to the cairns or herms® on the roadside and in special places (95). One may take the stone piling as a magical device for securing good luck which, as one aspect, takes the “‘bad” from the passer-by and places it upon the herm. The essence of the power for healing is language. The words of the xemetrima are the magical core about which the wise woman builds her healing repertoire. The incantation is rhythmical and unvarying; its content need not be understood by either healer or sufferer and, in theory at least, should not be overheard by the latter. Given the practice, can it be said that the incantation too is a survival from pre-Christian times? The answer is “‘yes”’. Pindar,® in describing healing, refers to the use of surgery, pharmacy and ‘the charm’s enchanting sound’? when speaking of Asclepius’ cures; while among the Orphics® magical incantations were an ingegral part of the healing rituals for expiation and riddance. Of course that which had power to help could also be used to harm; and so one finds the formulary of words employed in sorcery, the ““Ephesian Grammata”’ mentioned by Menander;? and inveighed against in Plato’s discourse on the binding curse® in which he speaks of “magic, incantations, and spells’, and by other writers.® There is every reason to consider that the ancients were as profoundly convinced of the power of words as are the moderns. To invoke a person’s 1 Leviticus, 16, 21. 2St. John, 1, 29. 3 See Footnote ° on p. 342. 4We say “in theory” because observation suggests that many wise women utter the xemetrima loudly enough to be heard. The choice of whether to steal or not to steal is then left up to the listeners. 5 Pindar, Odes, Pythian IIT, 47-53. 6 It is not within the scope of the book to discuss in detail the scholarly dispute regarding the existence of a unified set of Orphic beliefs, practices and systematized ritual as such. For a searching criticism of the evidence see Linforth (752). In view of the unsettled state of affairs, we employ the terms “Orphics” and “‘Orphism’’ loosely to designate the various sects, thinkers, and brotherhoods associated with the name of Orpheus.

7 Menander, The Slave, Fragment 371 K. § Plato, Laws, 909 B and 933 A-E.

® For review see Dodds (68); and for an interesting Egyptian how-to-do-it text in Greek, see Elworthy, (72), p. 396.

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name, for example, by writing it on a tablet and burying it with a curse in a grave, was common sorcery in the fourth century (68). Hesiod feared to name “‘the Blessed Ones’’, while Odysseus, as we have noted, wisely avoided giving Cyclops fis name and thereby avoided later danger. It was that power of the name which was used in invoking — or averting — the gods and demons in Greece and elsewhere (85), (95). But to invoke one must know the “silent name of the divinity”.1 As a ritual precaution the divine name was secret; for as Farnell? explains, in primitive psychology “‘nomina sunt numina’’, a principle that was valid in all the old religions of the Mediterranean area. The name is part of the personality — as we have discussed earlier — and the soul or power of the individual inheres in it: therefore he who has the name of the person, whether human, superhuman, or divine, can exercise a certain control over him by means of its magical application.

As for averting malevolent “‘daimons”, one method was to avoid their fearsome names and either to rename them, or give them a new and reassuring epithet: Zeus the Thunderer would be invoked as Zeus the mild; the Erinyes (the Furies) would become the Eumenides (the Gracious Ones). In any event, the ritually correct name, the one pleasing to the divinity, must be used. The chorus invokes Zeus in this manner: ‘‘Zeus, whatever he may be, if this name pleases him in invocation, thus I call upon him.” There is a close relationship between speech and supernatural power. Humans invoke and avert the gods and spirits (and one another) through names or euphemisms and control their actions through promises, threats and formularies; all of which are words. The gods, on their part, may strike at man by depriving him of his speech and thereby rendering him helpless or even dead. Such are the beliefs encountered in the modern narratives. These emphasize how the exotika strike men dumb who speak unwisely, while men more wise hold their tongues when in the company of unfriendly powers. Was it so in the days gone by? Probably, but the evidence is not clear. Certainly there was an awe of powers and gods which made men reluctant to speak, as Murray observed, “in great moments we (the ancient Greeks) must avoid speaking any words at all, lest there should be even in the most innocent of them some unknown danger.” Those who beheld the final spectacle at Eleusis were bidden to hold their tongues, ‘A great awe of the gods holds back the voice”® and even the names of the priests of Eleusis were forbidden utterance whilst they lived.* The sacred objects carried by the women during the festival of the Arretophoria were supposed to be secrets which the participants must not reveal. The name of the festival itself indicates the carrying of “sacred things that may not be named”’,” arretos (dppnros) signifying that which is not to be spoken. 1 Euripides in (Fragment 781) Phaethon, 13: da71s ra avyOvr’ ovdpar’ olde Sayovev. 2 Farnell, 85, p. 32 and p. 184. See also Frazer, op. cit., ii, pp. 382 ff.

3 Aeschylus, Agamemnon, 160, R. Lattimore translation. 5 Homeric Hymn to Demeter, 4.79. 4 Murray, (173) p- 32.

8 Lucian, Lexiphanes, X. 7 See Harrison, (113), p. 266; for the text of the scholiast on Lucian’s The Dialogues of Courtesans, II, 1, in Greek with English translation; see Harrison, (rr2), pp. 121-2. A discussion of the etymology of Arretophoria is to be found in Deubner, (63), pp- 9-14.

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In addition the voice itself had power. There were some of whom it was said that they were able to kill with their voice alone (72); and of this, one might be deprived as Pliny describes an Italian belief: a man seen by a wolf before it was itself sighted would lose his speech. But these fragments of belief do not a document make; and while it is reasonable to propose that the Greeks, like the Hebrews” would have included being struck dumb among the danger from the powers, there is none among the writers who say so. That such was the case is implied in the scene between Socrates and Phaedrus on the banks of the river Ilyssus at a place sacred to Pan and the nymphs. Hesiod® comes close when he introduces his set of warnings on how to avoid offence to the powers with the admonition, “The best (reserve of resource) that men can have is a sparing tongue.”’ While his warning is in keeping with his general counsel of moderation and is consistent with his later discussion of avoiding gossip, the warning appears in an introduction to taboos; its association may well be more than coincidental. Callimachus* describes how once the nymph Chariclo, mother of the seer Teiresias, and the goddess Athena were bathing in the river Hippocrene during the noontime (!) calm. Teiresias came to the spot to quench his thirst and “without wishing it”? beheld what was not lawful for him to see. Athena angered, spoke to him and “night fell upon the youth’s eyes. He stood speechless, for sorrows glued his knees and helplessness withheld his voice”. Elsewhere in folklore it is also found that dumbness is the punishment for breaking a taboo.® As a final element in the narratives for which early antecedents can be sought, we come to the emphasis placed upon numbers. The magic numbers most mentioned today are 40, 12, 9, 7, and 3. Turning first to Dioscorides,

we find that 40 and 3 are the magic numbers which he associates with healing rituals. The potency of the magic number 40 can be traced back into deepest antiquity. It is frequently mentioned in the Old Testament; in the Babylonian religion it was the number which stood for the god of Magic, Ea. For the Pythagoreans all numbers took on exceptional and preternatural significance, but among them 7 seems to have been particularly important. As for ritual days in ancient Athens, the third, ninth and thirtieth (the latter of which is no longer significant) were important; with the importation of Chaldean astrology into Greece the number twelve, for the Zodiac, became significant; whereas seven and nine were redefined as astrologically important as well (58). One concludes that each of the magical numbers emphasized in the rituals of the Doxario region today was also magically significant at one or another period in pre-Christian Greece. Survivals or Innovations. Some Unresolved Issues

There are several contemporary beliefs with which we have already dealt in the last two chapters that deserve further attention. The question 1 Pliny, op. cit., VIII, xxxiv, 81. 8 Hesiod, Works and Days, 179.

2 See Luke, 1:20.

4 Callimachus, The Bath of Athena, 72-89. * See Stith Thompson, (257), XX XIX, No. 100, C 944, who gives references to Feilberg, Bidrag til en Ordbog over Fyske Almuesmal (4 vols, see “stum’’) Kobenhavn, 1886-1914.

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about them is whether or not we are dealing with survivals, with recent cultural acquisitions, or — as is so often the case — with concepts which combine both the old and the new. For us these issues are particularly interesting because of our own inability to establish their antecedents; these are concepts which for the most part have received little or no mention by other students of ancient or modern Greece. Among the phenomena already mentioned are the two characteristics for the transmission of healing power; the one passed on through the alternate sex zig-zag chain over the generations; and the other having different consequences to the healer when power is “‘stolen””, which means that both thief and healer may work and be efficacious; and when that power is taught. If taught, regardless of when the rituals are handed over, the power depends upon the decline or death of the old healer before the younger one will be effective. Also uncertain in origin is the widespread dumbness which is said to occur when one is struck by the exotika. With the magical significance attached to words — and the immense social significance of speech for congress with spirits as well as with mortals — it is likely that being struck dumb was very well known in ancient Greece. Nevertheless, only the few documents mentioned earlier have come to our attention. A third feature of interest is the local concept of Christ as magician, healer, light-shadowed and revenant. That he is also a risen saviour, according to the Orthodox doctrine, is true and it is as a saviour that Christ has been

compared in antiquity to the other mystery deities: Attis, Osiris, and Adonis. While this aspect is crucial to his worship one suspects that the tendency to define and understand the new in terms of the familiar existed in antiquity as well as today; if that be the case, Christ’s attributes would have been a mixture of those preternatural powers and qualities familiar to rural folk. We are also uncertain about the development, as we deduce it, of a concept of pollution based not upon awesome chthonic powers or acts or substances surrounded by taboo, but of a pollution existing in disbelief, i.e. ‘““we are demonized”. It is possible of course that such a notion is but one side of the early fear that the gods would strike the insolent, that hubris would be avenged. If so, it is not that disbelief is a pollution but only that there is danger surrounding the person who expresses it. Blasphemy must, it can be reasoned, call forth retribution and it would be an unwise man who associated with one so much in jeopardy from the gods. This interpretation, while consistent with early beliefs, does not satisfy the circumstances in which contemporary villagers describe how they are now themselves the demons driving other spirits away. It is as if, in the process of partially abandoning the pagan deities and taking upon themselves the former attributes of “barbarians” and strangers, the villagers not only have felt a sense of sorrow and loss but have concluded that their embrace of Christianity has put them beyond the pale, deprived of the benefits and intimacies with the very old traditions and gods just as though they themselves were polluted in the traditional sense. We await the comment of others upon this inter-

pretation. A fifth point about which we are unclear is whether or not the disdain expressed by the moderns for the priesthood is really explained by our

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postulates — to the effect that the priest is a walking “super-ego’’, a conscience incarnate, generating guilt which must be attributed to the one who has produced it; a reaction reinforced by the priest’s association with what is still an outside city tradition marked by actual corruption. Nor are we content with the Radin notion that the priest-magician as trickster in fact, or isolated, sensitive, sometimes-possessed,

innovator

is necessarily

the

object of suspicion, fear and dislike. Radin’s notion and ours are based upon contemporary observations. What is lacking is material describing the reaction of the ancient Greeks to their priests. On another issue, Lawson’s suggestion that the ancients believed, in one sector of their being, that death constituted a marriage to the gods, while a very beautiful conception, seems to us neither proven nor disproven for old times or modern ones. Lawson cites the evidence of antiquity and now, and has allowed us to make the same comparison. In our narratives — and in practice — there is evidence to support his thesis. But with the variety of beliefs about the after-life, including an immense uncertainty, vagueness and even disinterest twenty-five hundred years ago and now (suggesting that Greece has finally recovered from the “failure of nerve” of which Professor Murray accused the Hellenes) one cannot feel comfortable in what may be an overinterpretation of the available information. A sherd is a sherd and not a pot; literary fragments do not make a world-view. The final point about which we have the most intense curiosity accompanied by the least satisfactory information has to do with the historical antecedents for the notion of the light-shadowed. Politis, Lawson, Argenti

and Rose, perhaps other scholars have given the light-shadowed a passing glance. Perhaps in their travels the concept did not loom as large as it does in the Doxario region where it forms a crucial personality distinction. We must accept the likelihood that the present notion, like so many other Greek categories and concepts, has little internal consistency, being a collection of beliefs associated in one or two central ways but reflecting quite an accretion of diverse periods of history and thought. Even so, we find it difficult to come to terms with any of its origins. Souls and shadows, seers and revelations, initiates and the naive, epileptic shamans and stolid laymen, those returning to Paradise and those far away, those near to death and far away, the imaginative and the dull, the tricked and tricking; all seem to enter in.

Nevertheless, the term itself must have had a beginning and that beginning in turn required a foundation of beliefs and experiences. How welcome it will be if someone — perhaps himself with a light-shadow so that he can truly see — will elucidate its origins. Finally we have found only a little enlightenment in modern or ancient sources for the use or origins of the liokra, the magical “horned snake’’ so important as a healing fetish in the Doxario region.

XXI

THE PAST IN THE. PRESENT: COMMENTARY AND SUMMARY HERE is ample evidence compiled by scholars, notably Argenti and Rose (20), Lawson (147), Megas (165), Nilsson (180), Rodd (227), Schmidt (239), Wachsmuth (257), and others to show that a wide range of beliefs and customs in modern Greece (or at least in late nineteenth and early twentieth century rural Greece) are direct survivals from antiquity; some dating beyond Minoan-Mycenaean times, others from Classical and more recent periods. When the material from observation and _narrative drawn from our study in the Doxario region is examined for evidence of survivals, it confirms the findings of these great classicists and folklorists, and shows that much of what occurs in-Dhadhi and Panorio is found elsewhere in Greece. Having limited ourselves primarily to the material which emerges from the consideration of crisis and mystery, that is, to preternatural phenomena associated with maintaining life and health and to avoiding pain and death, our findings are much more limited than those of wide-ranging travellers such as Lawson and Schmidt. On the other hand, its limitations in scope may reap some advantage in depth; we believe we have a representative sample of the beliefs in these villages associated with periods of crises. Examining these, we find that for the general categories upon which our chapter structure has been based there is no major orientation or set of assumptions about life, death or the supernatural which cannot be found to have ancient antecedents. On the other hand, within these broad categories there are many specific practices which were more recently introduced. One finds elements in common over at least twenty-five hundred years fos the notions of vulnerable periods in the life cycle and the sources of danger to each, for the nature of the social roles which require, or permit contact with the supernatural world and the membership in the occult estate. Continuities were seen in the ideas about the preternatural conditions and qualities of human beings, the style and meaning of contact with the other world — including death’s own adventure; in the ideas about the return of the dead and their powers, the range and characteristics of the gods and demons — and how one must deal with them. Parallel beliefs were described about the extraordinary objects, subjects and phenomena in the natural

world — and how they influence and can be influenced; about the concepts regarding affliction and deliverance, their cause and cure; and about the remarkable powers embodied in words and speech. There is no one of the foregoing sets of beliefs which is not of great importance to the understanding of how the Greek shepherd and peasant — whether today or yesterday — would view the world about him and would to act to secure himself from disaster or seek relief from anguish. Were we the show to us single out those sectors of belief and action which appear to wt

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extensive continuity between the ancient and the modern world, not only in the details of the structure but in the continuing significance, indeed

intense importance, to the conduct of life, we would remark upon two

areas. For one, there is the role of the older woman in protecting, healing and giving succour. Her function is intimately linked with her reproductive capacity, with her ties to a mother goddess, with her own motherly love, with her treasury of lore — in which the secrets of nature and the powers are stored — and with her position in the family and community. To bear life and to protect it, this has been her charge through the ages, and in responding to

it she has (in spite of the zig-zag transmission) managed to preserve the magic, the rituals, and the knowledge of the ways of the preternatural forces that have been bequeathed over the generations. The second sector of belief which we would remark upon as rich in survivals and significance is the broader concern, involving awe, dread, terror, reverence, hope and cunning exploitation, about man’s relationship to the demons, gods and powers. It is the religious experience which is profound and continuous and which, in its emotions, expressions, dynamisms and conceptual structures (as distinct from content) has also preserved a rich and varied heritage. The relationship of man to more-than-man still allows for a division of approach into that which involves taboo, propriety, pollution and riddance and — less frightful and more elaborate — that which involves service, morality, exchange and communion. Within both sets of relationships man attempts to maintain an order, command events, and act so as to gird himself about with precautions and transform, as best he may, his weaknesses into strengths. In his feelings and his doings he has preserved forms of relationships, a content of experience, and specific styles of conduct — magical, ritual, moral — nearly intact over millennia. Both of these important sectors require, at least in part, that individuals experience pain and anguish, and become aware of uncertainty, human inadequacy, and the loss, or threat of loss, of that which is loved or needed. Both sectors provide that experience and awareness are interpreted in terms of local traditions and views of the world, ones mediated through family sharing and informal community instruction. Both are concerned with protecting, healing, understanding, and mastering; both provide for hope

and enrichment, and for styles of human relationship based upon support and recognized interlocking needs and obligations. Both sectors involve experiences that are intimate, personal, and emotional; neither require consistency, rationality, or the presence of elaborated integrated and impersonal institutional, technological, or intellectual structures. It is most probable that constants must exist within and outside man if there are to be constants in his beliefs in the spheres of crisis and mystery. If that be so, then the characteristics which have been set forth as common to the two sectors upon which we have focused as particularly important in their continuity over time must have been the same in antiquity as now, and in their sameness must reflect parameters within the personalities of peasants and shepherds, and within their culture and economy. To what extent these parameters are genetically derived or are a function of environment, necessarily then being matters of learning, one cannot be sure. One can be

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sure that both genetic [in the sense of psychic capacities and structures which are biological givens] and environmental [both physical and cultural] determinants play a role in the evolution and continuation of these significant beliefs. Having spoken of continuities, we may next inquire, what are the changes? They are, of course, manifold. There is no major set of beliefs which has not: been subject in one detail or another to modification or qualification over the years; for many concepts the alterations have been profound. The flux of Greek history did not cease with the advent of Byzantium; the rural village is no cultural fossil preserved intact as a memorial to the glory of ancient Greece, immune from the new ideas and instruments of invaders, traders, travellers and returning sons, or resisting the inventions

generated spontaneously from among its own people. Indeed the villages are new themselves: Dhadhi founded on ancient site by Asia Minor refugees; Panorio’s ancient land occupied by fourteenth-century Albanians, and the Saracatzani, however direct their lineage from Achaeans or even Pelasgians, have driven their flocks to the Doxario region only within the last two generations. So there has been change; but it is of a different order than that which has survived. Within the terms of reference of this volume we postulate that the most important changes have been formal and institutional, in contrast to the continuities which have been informal and personal. What has developed has been a national state with its attendant bureaucracy, centralization and rationally-administered pressures towards conformity. Simultaneously there has been the advent of Christianity whose dogma and apparatus have the same features as the state itself. The effect has been to complicate village life; to add to the informal and personal elements a superstructure mediated through political, educational, military and religious, and commercial institutions. This more impersonal superstructure may strive after greater regional or national homogeneity, but what it provides in the village is heterogenity, as individuals are made aware of diverse ideas, tools, and options. It also leads, we believe, to that

division reflected in the narratives, and in the comparison of actions versus beliefs, whereby the local healing-magical-religious traditions are in conflict with city-authoritarian-technological traditions. Thus there occurred an extension of the national state and the national church, an extension which is an on-going process through history as governments deploy their institutions and representatives throughout rural areas and, in turn, recruit the rural folk to participate in that government. In spite of this, the villagers have not abandoned the healing of the hearth, nor the religion of personal experience; instead they have augmented these by incorporating and accommodating additional elements: the content of Christianity, knowledge of empirical medicine; the broad — and necessarily contradictory and ambiguous ~ structure of theory and fact which constitute the ‘greater traditions” of which Redfield speaks. Following the extensions of the church and state there have come, within the last century and more dramatically within the last generation, the great upsurges in industry, commerce, science and technology. These have been slow to make their impact on rural Greece, but within the last few years —

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and in the next few — have had and will have effects more dramatic than any other change within the last two thousand years. At present technology is merely competing with the old traditions; a competition which, as we noted earlier, has been relatively free from stress. Presumably this is because interpersonal organization and village values are still sustained; in addition the peasant’s own willingness to be inconsistent,1 open-minded and modern is a considerable asset. Nevertheless rapid change in any social system is likely to prove disruptive and today’s easy competition between tradition and technology will probably be followed by more stressful ones — as the narratives themselves imply. If advances in medical care and public health, in agricultural technology and cash crop farming, in communication, education and commerce continue at such a pace as to alter the composition, intimacy, and network of obligations within the family and within the village; if life styles, childrearing methods, and community values are challenged by massive intrusions from the city world, one must expect that a study of survivals done twenty-five years from now would provide quite different results.? Even those sectors with the strongest links to the past must be expected to give way to the outside technological practice of religion and healing. Such changes would of course be psychological and moral ones as well as institutional and sociological. The direction of the former can be anticipated by attending to the seeds that have been lying fallow in the rural soil ever since the introduction of Christianity and, more recently, of European technology. These seeds carry the doctrines of sin and individual responsibility. The one is embodied in the Protestant Devil, the other in the Protestant Ethic. The Devil as a single-mindedly evil fellow has not made much headway in Greece; neither has the notion of individual responsibility. The one has been ignored in favour of multi-faceted, ambivalent deities; the other has never been even considered. In villages where the individual is submerged in family and community ties, and where personal pride is a matter of one’s capacity to participate socially and biologically — with a liberal sprinkling of unblemished philotimo and hubris if the opportunity 1 Inconsistency itself is certainly a constant over the ages. Alexander of Aphrodisias, De Anima Libri Mantissa, p. 182, lamented it, noting how in his time people urged the inevitability of fate but nevertheless asked for good fortune, prayed to the gods, and used omens as if by knowing they could shape their fated events. Indeed Hippocrates recommended it (De Insomniis, Sec. IV, Ch. II, 87), ‘“While praying to the gods a man ought also to use his own exertions”. Traditionally Greek healing has combined several approaches. 2 Robert Redfield, in his truly superb book, The Primitive World and Its Transformations, calls attention to this transition from the ‘‘moral” to the “‘technical” order. It occurs, he says, when a folk society organized about the organization of judgements about what is right

among men is replaced by one in which the coordinating bond is based on utility and necessity. The transition takes place when an intellectual religion is developed which the folk cannot understand, one in which the moral order comes under public and state management. It is then (and here Redfield cites Toynbee), that disintegrating forces compete with integrating ones, that intellectual rebels arise to proclaim rationality and scepticism, where faiths compete, where no one system of belief commands the loyalty of the people. It is this which Redfield calls a civilization; its very disintegration generating new ideas and further transitions which may in turn form new but technical bonds among the people. Redfield places peasant communities mid-way on the continuum; they combine, he says, the primitive brotherhood of a folk with the economic nexus of civilized society; the pecuniary spirit assuring peaceful relationships with the city folk with whom commerce is conducted.

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arises — there is no room for either Satan or painfully guilt-ridden individuality. But the Devil and the Ethic are ready and waiting. If the anticipated institutional changes take place, and if they have their typical effects on life styles and values, one can expect to see the Devil and the Ethic proselytising successfully among the increasingly anonymous city dwellers and especially among the rootless and alienated organizational and soon-to-be automated men which a modern society both spawns, entraps and superficially rewards. There is evidence that it is happening already.* Until such time as these two bedfellows — and their many associates in urbanization and technology — make their triumph, it is not likely that the present moral structure of the peasant village or shepherd encampment will alter. Until recently at least the institutional innovations of state and church had not marred the intimacy of the hearth, nor changed the basic attitudes of the villager towards life or death; nor had they replaced his age-old ways of dealing with crisis, nor his pervasive and richly endowed sense of the mysterious. But change is in the air, and what the intrusion of the state could not perform seems likely to be accomplished by the technological revolution of the last half of the twentieth century.

1In recent years Protestant sects, especially fundamentalist, have been making converts in Greece. Even in isolated tradition—centred Panorio one man has been secretly converted. Who? A young man, a deviant because he is a bachelor and without a family, one who has served time in prison for a rape of which fellow villagers do not accuse him. Who else but a man without the support and obligations of family, one who has known punishment based on city law rather than village traditions, would be a candidate for the Ethic of individual responsibility and the Satanic persuasion of sin? If family life dissolves in commerce with the city and if city law intrudes on the informal village codes we may expect more of his villagers to join him in the banned and secret rites of Protestantism (in his case the Seventh Day Adventists).

XXII PRESENT PARALLELS T will be the task of the present chapter to illustrate a few of the parallels |yet contemporary rural Greek beliefs and practices and those of other Mediterranean or Slavic ethnic regions. In the two previous chapters there were occasional references to parallels between ancient Greek beliefs and those found elsewhere in the Mediterranean and Near Eastern worlds. Recall that in illustrating the magical concepts, the use of the binding curse, the prevalence of witchcraft and sorcery, the styles of belief in gods and spirits, chthonic or aerial, and in

man’s congress with the supernatural, the power of words and the force of ritual, the nature of death, and the substances and ways of healing, one saw

similarities between Greek culture and Sumerian, Egyptian, Hebrew, Babylonian, Minoan or Roman cultures. These were, of course proximate cultures continually exchanging — as long as they survived — ideas and tools through commerce and conquest. Their environments and ways of life were not greatly dissimilar and they shared, at least for some portion of their populations, common origins. It is no wonder then that scholars have demonstrated their communalities as well as their differences (30, 47, 48,

49; 50, 55, 138, 153, 169, 225, 263).

Beyond the parallels of proximate people there were similarities among those more distant. The elements of magic and religion, the empirical methods for healing, or the structure of community life and values for peasants and shepherds of ancient Greece would be, by no means, strange to their ancient contemporaries in the Indus Valley, on the Persian plains, on the North African littoral, or the steppes of central Asia. It was beyond the scope of these chapters to consider those similarities, or to acknowledge the important divergencies among and within these ancient civilizations. It is sufficient to point to the fact of similarity and to recommend it to the reader’s consideration and further study. Among the contemporary Mediterranean ethnic areas one may select Morocco, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, South Italy and Spain as containing communities which have been objects of anthropological study relevant to the concerns of these volumes. We will begin with Morocco. Morocco

In 1926 Westermarck published his scholarly work, Ritual and Belief in Morocco of which a considerable part is devoted to religion and to healing. One of the most important features of Moroccan belief which is described is that of “baraka’’, holiness or blessed virtue. Beneficial power is attributed to persons, plants and things; the power is not a function of their real property, but rather involves a sense of the mysterious, the notion of wonder-working, the idea of the preternatural. It is “‘baraka’? which a medicinal herb has beyond its pharmaceutical effects; it is baraka which resides within a

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person and allows him to work miracles or otherwise perform acts in violation of the ordinary rules of nature. Among humans Mohammed possessed more baraka than any other; this was his power as healer and magician. Baraka not only resides within persons, particularly the saints, but in words as well. Prayers, for example, are efficacious as are incantations. As for the saints, they may be living as well as dead and are, in fact, defined as such by the power they hold. Their power may be harmful as well as beneficial; they may heal by prayer, incantation and laying on of hands; but they also do harm, causing disease to those who have aroused their ire. The healing virtues may be specific for a given disease. Particular families are reputed for the ability of certain of their members to cure one or several ailments. During the healing ritual the healers take care to protect themselves from the transfer of the sickness from the ill to themselves; a typical move is to fold the gown about oneself so as to shut out the evil force. Death serves to increase the baraka of some saints. These persons do not disappear but rather return, in spirit guise, to continue their miracles. As time goes on they become specialists, renowned, just as are the living healers, for their ability to heal particular ailments. To the shrine of the saint the ill — or in the case of children, the mothers of the ill — will wend

their way, staying there until such time as the saint appears in a dream, advising them, and telling them they may leave. Should the saint not appear one presumes discouragement will eventually drive the supplicant elsewhere. At the shrine, some of which are equipped with rooms for the supplicants, the ritual calls for an offering to the saint (something white rather than black)! and the invocation of his name. Gifts of money or of food (egg, milk,

bread, corn, honey, olive oil), of candles, or of live animals offered in

sacrifice are traditional. Sometimes the petitioner will not give a gift but will promise one in return for the saint’s granting of his desire. Every dead saint, Westermarck says, resents a person who approaches him in a state of uncleanliness; “‘baraka . . . is extremely sensitive to external pollution”. Some shrines forbid women entrance; unbelievers — Christians or Jews — can injure the power of the saint by their proximity to his shrine. The saintly place may have a beneficial influence; the water, for example, which flows from a near-by spring will be conceived to have curative or protective powers, or a cairn of stones, whitewashed for purity,” will possess preternatural power. There is power within the bad as within the good; evil spirits exist as “djinns” (“nuns”) or devils. They will attack humans unless warded off with sacred words, spoken or written charms from the Koran, Holy Writ, or

by talismans. Power is by no means a constant with which one is endowed. ‘Too much prayer will weaken one just as pollution will attenuate. The primary sources of pollution to personal baraka are to be found in women, especially menstruating women, those who have recently engaged in sexual intercourse, those having a bodily discharge (including post-parturant women who are unclean for forty days) or bodily impurity. Murderers are also polluted. A to the 1 One is reminded of the ancient Greek practice by which white offerings went powers. chthonic the to black and Olympians

2 “ETerms” in Greece are still painted white and serve as guardian markers.

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full stomach is also considered a pollutant, as is excrement, blood, breath, and earth. Fasting, washing, and abstinence are means of purification.

The djinns habitually live underground and are said to resemble human beings, indeed will have intercourse with them if given the opportunity. They also live in trees, caves, springs and streams, and in fires or fireplaces. They live in darkness and fear light. They can change their shape and may appear as monsters of one sort or another. Their most frequent act is to cause illness, usually sudden illnesses such as convulsions, sudden pain, erupting madness or, among groups, epidemics. Westermarck cites an instance in which a djinn was said to have caused cholera by shooting arrows at his victims, and thereby entering their bodies.+ Those most vulnerable to the attacks of the djinn are as follows: the very good or religious persons, those susceptible to strong emotions such as anger or fear, little children and those undergoing rites of passage, newborn, women in childbed, brides and bridegrooms, and the dead before burial. The djinn, it is noted, are to be found wherever there is blood.

Should ordinary devices for dispelling the demon djinn fail, such as incantations, herbs (coriander), salt, blood, iron, silver coins, tar, strong smells, or sounds, or a sacrificed black animal which binds the djinn to leave the victim alone, then one may seek the intervention of more powerful humans, or of the sainted dead. In the former case one may use male or female exorcisers, “haunted women” (presumably ones possessed and

magically empowered), while in the latter one prays to the saint or visits his shrine. While the ordinary Moroccan shepherd or peasant avoids the djinn at all costs, there are two classes of individuals who employ the demons for benefit. One class consists of magicians who can summon the demons and, through magic, bid them act in their behalf; the other class are local

Negroes (in contrast to the Berbers and to those population elements derived from South-western Asia or elsewhere in the Mediterranean) who worship the djinn and sacrifice to them — again with black animals. Nevertheless, whatever the practice of the Negroes, most of the local people associate the demons with feelings of uncanniness, with the fear of unknown powers and danger, and with a force which works primarily for the bad. This force is associated with baraka in that both belong to the world of mystery.

While the djinn are members of a general class of beings, there are among them individuals with more distinctive features. Some cause specific diseases; others may be employed in witchcraft, one is known to live in a particular spring and to try to seduce men or to kill bathers. Sitan (Satan) is the most famous of them, chief of evil, tempter supreme. According to Westermarck, he is the one who is blamed when someone-is “‘possessed” by anger or “overcome” by fear; he misleads in dreams; he is responsible for lustful, quarrelsome or irreligious behaviour. This Satan also goes under the name of “Iblis”? which is etymologically related to the Greek Diavolos. Not all danger comes from djinn or angered saints. The evil eye also causes misfortune. Westermarck observes that the beliefs surrounding it, and the devices used to ward it off, are much the same in North Africa as 1 As in the Jliad when Apollo’s arrows bring the plague.

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they are in Europe and as they were, in antiquity, in Egypt, Babylon, Phoenicia, India, Etruria, Chaldea and Greece. Among the counter measures one finds charms, mirrors, numbers, gestures, counter-eyes, horns, crescents, etc.

Another source of preternatural danger is to be found in curses and oaths, both in word and gesture. Among the curses, that of the parent upon the child is the most terrible and indeed is more powerful than the words of the saint. Women too are very dangerous in their curses; their power is drawn from their pollution. Westermarck observes that even the most terrible of curses will not hurt the innocent but that the degree of harm increases with the guilt of the one accursed. The stranger is surrounded with preternatural possibilities. He is met with fear and awe, and the rites of hospitality are designed to place him under an obligation to avoid harming his hosts. A conditional curse, “‘Ar,” serves to bind the stranger guest to his obligations. It is the unknown power and intention of the stranger which is associated with his uncanniness ;he may be a saint in disguise; in any event he is a potential doer of good or evil. Much of what constitutes social hospitality contains, observes Westermarck, an undertone of magical ritual. There is, of course, because of the danger they pose an element of what moderns might call “preventive war” in the host’s intention towards his guest. To protect the stranger from being killed, superior powers are placed about him. As Zeus Xenios worked in Greece of old, so does Allah today serve as guardian. The “Ar” which emanates from preternatural sources also serves in

function to bind humans to social obligations and to personal desires; in this sense it may be likened to a binding curse, implicit in which is assumed to be the natural law, the inevitable retribution. Thus it is that by an offering of sacrifice one obligates a saint to one’s wish, or may employ his power in one’s own protection. Westermarck cites in this context the warning of Apollo: “terrible both among men and gods is the wrath of a refugee when one abandons him with intent”’.? Withcraft is practised in Morocco. Its aims can be benevolent or wicked; it can function to ward off dangers, a supernatural prophylaxis, or to bring about specific damage. It is believed capable of producing impotence, barrenness, love, illness and death. Some of the magic of witchcraft is to be found in the naming of names, or in the like invoking like; one may produce illness or death by speaking of it; one may control another by writing his

name on a charm; one may transfer a disease from one person to another by means of a spell. Disease may also be cast out by means of a rock added toa cairn of a saint. Dreams come as visitors to the sleeper, and what is seen in dreams has preternatural significance. Dreams may foretell the future, as may other omens and signs; they may also influence the future. Prophetic dreams are especially associated with shrines of the saints, and with sacred caves where the petitioner may sleep while he awaits the visitation which will answer his questions.

With reference to the dead, it has already been noted that the exceptional dead continue to effect and to communicate with the world of the living.

1 Aeschylus, Eumenides, 5, 232.

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For all of the dead there is the implication in ritual that the spirit remains on earth for a time; this is seen in the meal which is taken at the grave on the funeral day and in the practice of the rites there on the fortieth day after death. Should an unmarried girl die, she will be dressed as a bride. The funeral rituals are, according to Westermarck,

much

the same

as those

found in Greece and in Semitic lands. There are violent demonstrations of grief with wailing and lamentation, rending of clothes and cutting of hair. Water is sprinkled on callers to wash off pollution, and the house is purified with incense. Mourners are considered death-polluted and thereby contagious. The non-saintly dead may appear to the living and, if angry, may punish them. The corpse contains magical powers which are employed in sorcery, and it is believed that curative powers reside in the place where a man has been murdered. As there are periods in life when one is particularly vulnerable to danger — marriage, childbirth, infancy, death — so there are year times which are dangerous to all. Both life cycle and year cycle times are surrounded with protective rituals designed to ward off the dangers from the supernatural world or, as in the case of wedding couples, mothers, and babies, from the

evil eye of their neighbours. Of the year times it is the mid-summer Westermarck notes as most dangerous, while it is August which is the of sickness and death. It is hardly necessary to mark these parallels which the reader can himself. If the Moroccans called their djinn “‘exotika’’ and recognized

which month see for within

them the subclasses of “‘nereids” and ‘“‘kallikantzari’’, while if the Greeks

spoke of power as “baraka” and binding rituals and obligations as ‘‘Ar’’, certain correspondences would be nearly exact, even to the words employed. Because Westermarck did not seek to identify all of the phenomena of interest to us, nor did we seek to identify Moroccan beliefs in the design of our inquiry, it is not possible to perform any quantitative exercise which might allow us to report a percentage of agreement or disagreement between the beliefs of the Doxario area and those of Westermarck’s Morocco. What does appear dramatically evident is that the world of the preternatural, the approach to crisis, the content of mystery, the conceptual modes employed to harness power to desire, the ambivalence of power and the forms of supernatural danger; these are all as close to corresponding as one might expect between any two contiguous culture areas, let alone between two which are divided by eighteen hundred miles of ocean, a dramatically different recorded history, and the quite separate institutions of Christianity and Mohammedanism. In some ways Morocco of the 1920s appears to have been more like ancient Greece’s hinterland than is Doxario today, but Morocco of 1920 and Schmidt’s Greece of 1870 were probably the same. If these assumptions were to be true, it would merely serve to confirm further the dramatic change which has overtaken rural Greece these last few years. It would also confirm what anthropologists interested in pre-history have already described; a common cultural origin for the peoples of South-west Asia and the Mediterranean; a culture that shows its unity in the stable peasant and shepherd life styles, relatively independent of the intellectual or institutional changes and ferments in the great cities which were centres of grand and

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idiosyncratic but short-lived civilizations. Based simply on the comparison of three phases of culture: classical Greece, modern Doxario and 1920 Morocco it can be suggested that rural life in both Greece and Morocco is permeated with beliefs and practices that must have their origins (assuming now no dramatic innovations in folk culture in Morocco at least since Phoenician-Carthaginian days) prior to the rise of Greek civilization. This suggests that much of what has survived is at least neolithic, and that the contemporary parallels draw on this pre-historic substrate.

Spain J. A. Pitt-Rivers has made an absorbing study of an Andalusian village, The People of the Sierra. His emphasis has not been on the content of beliefs but on the social structure of a rural community. He begins by observing the heterogeneity within the village; people do not all hold the same beliefs. The primary division is between the local values and the demands and regulation of the central government, or to put it in the terms we have applied to Doxario, between the informal local system and the outsideauthority-technology system. Within the village, which has 3,000 citizens, there is a general sense of solidarity as members of a self-contained community, and within each sex group. There is a chasm between the sexes, and there is one very important sex-linked psychological attribute: manliness. It is a trait and a virtue defined by fearlessness, sexuality, aggressiveness, and the defence of one’s own and one’s family pride. The female quality which is central, ““verguenza”’ is essentially “shame”. According to Pitt-Rivers, it is a sense of propriety, the capacity to blush. What is moral and what is legal are not identical; the latter is defined by government and may be pitted in conflict with the former, which is defined by community usage. Outside both systems are found the gipsies, “shameless ones”? against whom the sanctions of shame are ineffective. A central figure in the informal system of the community is the “‘sabia’’ or wise woman. In a town of 3,000 there were two such women. A sabia is believed to possess supernatural powers, her “grace” is a gift and a personal attribute. Sights of such a gift include being a twin, being born on Good Friday, or having been visited by the Holy Virgin in one’s dreams; in addition to the signs, a sabia must be trained to her role. Her skills include the ability to find lost or strayed objects, to discover the name of a thief, to learn whether persons absent are well, to make people fall in love, or end quarrels, or pacify a violent husband, to protect from acts of God, to ensure that one dying without receiving the last unction from a priest does not go to Hell, and midwifery and healing through supernatural, “‘pseudomedical’”’, and medical techniques. In their work the sabias ordinarily invoke the aid of the Christian powers but occasionally call on Astarte or Venus as well. They believe themselves able to harness the miraculous powers of the saints; they also employ herbs and minerals which are believed to have magical powers residing within them. While the sabia uses her magical powers for the good, the witch or “bruja” employs the same powers for the bad. It is the bruja who can make people

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lose things, who gives the thief protection, who hides a wife’s unfaithfulness

from her husband, can arouse illicit passions, cause madness, or produce

illness or death through sorcery. While the two roles, witch and wise woman, are potentially separate, the villagers know the powers are the same and that the appellation depends upon how they are employed. As a consequence, Pitt-Rivers says the villagers are ambivalent about their sabias. With reference to healing, the sabia is only one of several alternatives to a physician. A variety of male and female healers, all called “curandero” (or “‘curandera”’ in the case of females) offer their services. Some are simply patent medicine vendors, some are bone setters, and some are magicians. Pitt-Rivers notes that natural and supernatural techniques are mingled, but there is an important distinction: men can never have the grace of the sabia’s power so they must heal through skill. Consequently they are bone setters and the like; a skill which, although learned, is passed down a

family line. There is one exception; the effeminate man may have the grace of powers. Priests are present too, but the people, while trusting the saints, are anti-clerical. Sorcery is more often ascribed to men than women; the most common motive is jealousy. To accomplish sorcery one ordinarily reads a book of magic; one of the how-to-do-it techniques is to direct the spirits to do the harm. While men are more often prone to use sorcery, it is women who have the evil eye or who, during their menstrual period, possess involuntary destructive forces. A few women have a special power, “‘calio”’, secret and dangerous, associated with their sexuality, but again independent of their will and, in this case, unrelated to the period of menstruation. The evil eye produces, as its effects, sickness or death. Gipsies are particularly dangerous in this regard, while young children are most vulnerable. Generally it is the women who control or contain the powers of the supernatural world. The sabia is admired and considered a good person. She charges no set fee for her services but acts out of ‘‘goodness” and gladly takes whatever payment the patient wishes to give. The physicians and the pharmacists, on the other hand, are disliked; a sore point is their charging of fees which the local folk speak of as extortion. Nevertheless, it is to the physician that they are said first to visit when ill and only if he fails, will they seek the healing of the sabia or curandero, Pitt-Rivers finds it useful to categorize two separate controlling systems within the community: the ruling group tied in with government and law, and the “‘infrastructure” representing the sentiments and sense of local solidarity and values. ‘Thus he sees the sabia deriving her power from the moral order while her competitor, the priest, derives his from central governmental authority. This same conflict pits curanderos against the doctor, and the country midwife against the trained nurse. Even though the systems are conflicting, it is Pitt-Rivers’ observation that all villagers participate in both; the tension between the two systems is reflected in unstable relationships in the town. In this setting he finds that confidence and deception become very important with the former, locally spoken of in terms of “‘the state of the heart”’, as a final source of interpersonal stability. It would appear that there are parallels between the Doxario region and

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Andalusian Sierra, although important discrepancies also are to be seen. They hold in common the roles and some of the functions of the wise woman; the split between local and external values and authority; the distance between villager and doctor or priest; the belief in magic, sorcery, spirits; the manipulation of the saints and surviving pagan deities; the fearful role of the gipsy; the presence of the evil eye; some concepts of pollution with reference to the female; and the importance to individuals of propriety and

pride. Nevertheless, as Pitt-Rivers describes it, his village seems to have less

in common with the substrate of beliefs found near Doxario than does rural Morocco. The Latin, and at one-time Hippocratic health concepts of hot and cold, exist in Spain but not in Greece. There is no evidence of spirit of woodland, stream or wild, nor do the ancient division of powers (chthonic and aerial) emerge. The wise women range far more afield in their work in Pitt-Rivers’ town, are fewer in number, and much more specialized in their role. Similarly their opposite, the bruja, is not to be found in Doxario in the dedicated-to-evil sense that it — and the corresponding English word of “witch” — imply. Concepts of pollution and purity seem less important and less elaborated; one gains the impression that the Christian church in its priests and practice is closer to the formal Catholic traditions and less infiltrated by local lore than in the case in Orthodox Doxario. To conclude from this somewhat limited evidence, for Pitt-Rivers’ study attended to somewhat different concerns than ours, it appears that the parallels between Greece and Spain are considerable, and that the content of folk beliefs about healing and magic are sufficient to indicate that the parallels existed prior to, rather than being a result of, Roman and then Christian dominance.

Some of the many differences may be attributed to the greater size and more elaborate institutional structure of the Sierra village; there seems to be more specialization, more integration with city traditions, and very much less intimacy with the world of supernaturals or with an animistic nature. Whether these supernaturals, and the accompanying sense of intimacy and personal mystery, have been lost over time with the growth of Spanish urban civilization, or whether the Iberian settlers failed to possess such orientations and gods, remains a question.

South Italy Phyllis Williams, in her book South Italian Folkways in Europe and America, provides considerable information on religion and healing in South Italy, of which allows us to compare aspects of the beliefs of that region with those coor ion integrat of lack the to pointing by begins She area. the Doxario dence operation between village folk and the central government. Indepen itself village The istic. character from and suspicion of outside authority is and from isolation able consider with life of is the social centre and focus and district, and town same the of people ties bond A . distrust of outsiders sets them aside from others. found With reference to rural religion she observes that Christianity remoter in name but g anythin in never acceptance in larger towns but “‘paganus”’ regions; she notes that the word “pagan” was derived from tion of implica the meaning peasant or country dweller; and she points out

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conflict between city Christians and country non-Christians as important in the earliest Christian period. The conversion of the peasants, says Williams, “‘came gradually and never involved much more than changes in outward form”. The religion of today contains many pre-Christian elements, as well as Mohammedan, and Christian components. Objects such as statues and stones are worshipped, individual saints are thought to have specific powers and qualities, for example St. Rocco is effective against illness, St. Lucy for the eyes, St. Anna for childbirth, etc. The early saints were derived from or substitutes for Greek and Roman deities and the nature spirits. She cites Laing, Survivals of Roman Religion, describing an ancient statue of Ariadne revered under a new name as Saint Venere and a torso of Juno worshipped as Saint Helen. Each child is believed to be born with a guardian angel, while a house spirit is invested in each dwelling. The system is polytheistic with each village having local deities; the most popular of which is a female goddess considered the local Madonna. The approach to men and gods is the same; gifts and threats are employed to cajole, coerce and obligate. There is preternatural power among men as among the gods; witches and wizards exist (““maghi’” and “‘maghe”’ from the Greek “‘magos’’ and “‘mayissa’’) and the “strix’” (from the same word in Greek, which has become “‘stringlos”’ and “‘stringla” in modern times). The magicians can heal illnesses, dissolve spells or — if seeking the bad — can harm and kill. Spirits, like the strix, may also harm; the notion of the demon substituted for the baby, the traditional changeling theme, is encountered in accounting for babies with enteritis or ailments derived from malnutrition. Against supernatural dangers and trickery one may employ magic and ritual; salt or garlic is a powerful protective agent; the sign of the cross is apotropaic, etc. The evil eye is prevalent and is, says Williams, symptomatic of the blamethrowing assumption that misfortune is to be attributed to the envy of other humans rather than to accident or natural process. Distrust of the actions of his neighbours is fundamental to his interpersonal orientation. There are several healing specialists: witches, barbers, midwives

and

herbalists. These provide service without set fees; diagnosis is made on the basis of external characteristics. Tuberculosis is believed to be transmitted through the blood. For children chronically ill a treatment is to dress them in black in the habit of St. Anthony, the patron of children. Diseases are attributed to excess of acid, or salt, or too much blood in one place. A certain fatalism is encountered; each illness is thought to have its course which inevitably will be run. Medicaments include olive oil, wine, vinegar, garlic, onion, and other herbs; animal substances including wolf, chicken, viper, frog, pig, sea horse, and mouse are used; while other substances employed are saliva, salt, sulphur, mother’s milk, urine, and blood. Bleeding, cupping, and scarifying are also treatment techniques. These folk remedies are used concomitantly with medical care and the physician is used in addition to local cures. Erysipelas and cancer are particularly dreaded; the name of the former is never invoked for fear it would conjure the ailment. The disease is considered to be an evil spirit which enters the body. Mental illness is also thought due to spirits, ones which possess the sufferer and are to be exorcised by abuse of

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the patient’s body. Hospitalization is resisted because one who dies there will not receive the immediately necessary funeral rituals; the consequence of which is that the soul will be delayed in its passage to Purgatory. Those so delayed may become ghosts who abide on earth; in particular hospitals are ghost-ridden. Patients in delirium are thought to be talking to the ghosts. Williams’s excellent book is in the form of a survey of general beliefs and does not focus on details, nor on observations in any particular community. Nevertheless, the generalizations are sufficient to enable us to identify many parallels with rural Greece, in particular the survivals of earlier religious beliefs, and the conflict between local and outside traditions and sources of authority. Important parallels are: substances used in healing, the practice of magic, the presence of witches and folk healing specialists, the notion of diseases as separate animated spirits which attack and possess the ill, the evil eye, simultaneous employment of folk and technical medicine and the fear that those who die without proper ritual will linger on earth. Discrepancies appear to exist in the greater specialization of folk healers and in the assignment of barbers to a healing role, in the diagnostic and disease cause notions, and in the reasons offered for antipathy towards hospitalization. For many areas of belief, especially with reference to the local pantheon of spirits, beliefs about death, preternatural qualities, healing words and

powers, and other important areas, there are no data which allow us to compare rural Greece with South Italy. The parallels that do exist are sufficient to conclude that both regions draw on a common pre-Christian culture; that the developments in peasant societies have been similar enough to maintain many early survivals and to generate a social system which, in its emphasis on local traditions, its distrust of outsiders, its emphasis on manly virtue (‘“omerta” in Italy) and local solidarity - compounded by strong ambivalence towards one’s neighbours and an awareness of their potentially damaging wishes and acts, is much the same in rural Italy as in rural Greece.

Yugoslavia Patience Kemp has reported on Serbia, Bosnia, Dalmatia, Montenegro and Macedonia in her 1935 book, Healing Ritual: Studies in the Technique and Tradition of the Southern Slavs. Hers are a most important set of observations. Her primary conclusion is that the majority of customary rites, whether small or great, were connected in some way with the achievement and preservation of health. Health is a central issue and a prime goal for magico-religious activities among the rural Slavs. The forms and content of rituals vary considerably; it is difficult, she notes, to distinguish those that are institutional and traditional from those that are spontaneously generated, sporadic, and necessarily idiosyncratic. The implication is one of heterogeneity of practices within a general framework of belief, and of individual or family freedom for improvisation on cultural themes. With reference to beliefs, Kemp remarks upon the difficulties attending the observer who would impose order on concepts which are disorderly, for

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among the rural Slavs there is no standard for logic, coherence, or con-

sistency against which local beliefs must be tested. Nevertheless, Kemp does identify certain prevalent sets of beliefs. Among these are concepts of bodily organs as semi-autonomous and animated, each possessing independent qualities, likes, and directions. Organs, of which the stomach is the most

important, are attributed ghost personalities so that the heart, while anatomically real, may also be conceived as a non-anatomical spirit; the organs then, and the fluids, are “‘spirit-bearers”. These beliefs are submerged among a larger set of concepts of soul and spirit which include doctrines of transmigration, and which are employed in individualizing qualities, days, and other objects, animating them. Strength, for example, may be a quality of a person, but it is not integral with the individual; rather its nature and origins are external to an individual and linked with an animated entity, a separate force, which the person may call upon from time to time. These animating, individualizing tendencies extend to illnesses; in consequence, many ailments are believed to be caused by spirits, by ghost animals, or animals corporeal. Cures vary. One offers food so as to bait and catch the demon or animal which has caused the illness that, once captured,

is then destroyed or passed along to someone else. Magical manipulations may, for example, require a frog to be killed in order that a goitre may be cured, for it is held that goitre is a real frog in the throat. Hence, like affecting like, the frog inside will die as does the one in the hand. Ex voto offerings are made to saints, for the saint is believed responsible for ailments caught on that saint’s day; the ex voto returns the afflicted part to the giver. What can give an ailment can remove it; consequently the Plague, personified as a woman, may cure as well as kill, “only he whom the Plague wishes to heal can recover”. Guilt figures in the interpretation of illness, for sickness of whatever nature is seen as a punishment inflicted upon the evil doer or his descendants. The punishment may be offered by God, by a saint, or by other humans. Nevertheless, at particular periods in life persons are more vulnerable; for children, for brides, and for pregnant women the risk is greatest. To protect oneself from the onslaught of illness there are health taboos, their number being multiplied for the vulnerable ones. Taboo, of course, implies dangerous powers; it is not surprising that taboo violations result in illness nor that taboos surround death and birth. Consequently, particular dangers are associated with the spirits of the dead and with birth; for example, many illnesses are believed to be contracted in utero. Taboos are specific and are to be observed at times of crisis or special occasions. Nevertheless, the instructions of the taboo, that is the prohibitions

and constraints, are widely generalized so that a few general sets of instructions describe the kinds of taboos for which. observance is required in a variety of settings. There is magic of curse and magic of cure; most link the spell to an act or an object, demonstrating and tying the wish of the person to a deed. But magic is not without its dangers; rural folk are aware that power may go awry and produce untoward effects. Thus, the direction of magic is a matter of intent; the folk healer seeks a cure, while the witch may seek

either the bad or to remove the effects of earlier sorcery, but since the same

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person may do either, the roles are by no means always separate. Any healer is, in consequence, suspect and whether he is villager or physician, the patient will wear an extra charm when he seeks their aid. As magic can do harm, so illness may be caused by the evil eye. It may also result from the unkind intentions of spirits; whether these be of the wind or of the water, the latter taking the form of water nymphs. At a very

different level one may cause one’s own ailments, for strong emotions are considered pathogenic. Tuberculosis, for example, is attributed to anxiety, sorrow, unrequited love — or over-work. Among the disease spirits Plague and Cholera have been predominant, and the former of these is ranked by Kemp as a disease goddess in close association to a personified Death. It is to be noted that male spirits of disease are rare; the females take the honours in doing harm. Among the healing spirits there are males; among these is St. Elias, the Thunderer, who, in legend, divines and cures through the use of “‘thunder arrows’’. Kemp identifies the following forms of healing ritual: propitiation, exorcism (compulsory transference), disposal or destruction of disease, rites of passage, cathartic rites, and rituals of divination and identification. There is among these much transference and interchange. Among the sacrifices which may be offered are libations, blood offerings without fire, laying objects at a shrine, feeding creatures or spirits, alms-giving, sin- and scapeofferings, communal meals, and burnt offerings. Most frequently employed in healing are sacrifices directed to spirits of nature. In considering the rituals employed in healing, Kemp observes that these are practical and private in contrast to religious rituals, which are ceremonials involving the whole community. Healing is expedient and personal, whereas religious ceremonials are obligatory and matters of morals or propriety. Nevertheless, the forms of religion: rituals, devices, and powers, are employed in healing. What does not enter in, is any feeling of awe or reverence. There are exceptions when the community does engage in healing ceremonies; these occur when the entire group is threatened by the out-

break of an epidemic and at these times, in the presence of others, the serious religious sentiment makes its appearance. Divination is important in healing for several reasons. By employing it in

diagnosis, that is, by naming the illness and its cause, anxiety is relieved. Secondly the name determined, the healer gains power to manipulate it. Thirdly, a divination which produces propitious signs for cure is believed to facilitate the outcome. There is no consistency in healing methods; all possible devices and antidotes may be employed sequentially or concurrently. The physician will be employed along with prayers to Christian powers, with folk medical substances, and with magic and spells. The usual sequence is one of convenience ; one does the easiest things first and in so doing, if both a spell and a drug are available, the peasant will neither know nor care which accomplished the cure. Kemp contends that this approach reflects uncertainty, a lack of knowledge as to probable outcome or therapeutic effects, and pessimism; ancient 1 These are apparently the same as the thunderbolts of Zeus, the “thunder axes”’ of which times, which Harrison (Epilegomena) discusses; they are the celts of prehistoric times, kia). (astrapopele axes” “lightning as of speak peasants modern Greek

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the peasant does not expect a happy result and, of necessity, will try anything and everything which appears reasonable, convenient, or hopeful. With reference to physicians, it is deemed crucial that the patient have faith in the doctor and his methods. Scepticism is an offence and a danger, for magical forces are at work; one who treats them lightly, or doubts their efficacy, exposes himself to hazards most dire. Implicit is the concept, already met in discussing healers and witches, that powers of magic may move for good or bad depending upon the intent, disposition, and ritual care of the worker. Given these several possibilities for the results of the operation of magical power, it is not surprising that spirits of any kind may cause good or ill. As the Plague can cure, other illness-producing demons may do so as well; indeed some may even teach men how to heal; one chosen by the nymphs may learn her methods. Similarly, those who have been ill and who recover are, by virtue of their intimate exposure and eventual mastery of threat, believed more capable of healing others ill with their past ailment. In any case the healer, whatever his role, has a special attribute, some

special secret or knowledge or experience that qualifies him; this is the case for the technical healer, the user of herbs or manipulations, or the sorcerer.

Natural gifts may enter in, talent in the sense that it too is a separate power with which one is endowed. Special healing skills are found in one who is friendly with the demons of disease, or in one who has the power to separate the soul from the body. The healing knowledge once acquired may be passed along to others, although if its content is magical, it will be handled secretively. Among the healers there is a strict code of conduct. The sense of obligation to one’s neighbours is great and, in matters of rational and empirical treatment, information will be passed along. Specialization is usual; each healer has particular techniques useful for particular ailments; no one healer employs a wide range of the substances or rituals available; rather each limits himself to a potent few. With most healers the treatment aims for symptom relief; diagnosis and cure are not combined into any system, nor are the approaches internally consistent. For the most part the empirical and the magical will be employed together, and individual inventions, or spontaneous efforts will be interlaced with ritually prescribed and medically learned methods. In reviewing the curative methods, Kemp concludes that the major ones are borrowed from sources outside the village; especially important are the “debased traditions of ancient science”. She recognizes Oriental (Near Eastern) magic, presumably spread through Greece to the South Slavs, and the maxims of medicine from Greek and Roman times, and presumably from more recent medical knowledge as well. In concluding the review of Kemp’s findings, several other observations should be recorded. One is the magical importance of the stranger who, as guest, may bring or carry away evil, and who has a place of great importance in the social code. Associating oneself and family with the stranger, and with others in power, is done through rituals either of hospitality, or — if a more lasting tie is sought, through adoption and formal alliance. As with

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men, so with the gods; the ritual of redemption from death is identical in form and anticipated effect as that employed in adoption or alliance. Another observation is on the content of legends and stories. Kemp states that the primary theme appearing there is one of the invulnerable hero and the means through which such power and security may be obtained. How to be strong, how to maintain life and fend off pain and death are the central features of the stories to which Kemp listened. And it is magic which is the method of choice; the hero is protected by a talisman; he has been

born of supernaturals; he has undergone a change of sex; or his strength — with its independent resident spirit — is secreted from harm. Typical of these is the Greek myth of Meleager? which she finds in Slavic lore, Kemp’s descriptions demonstrate the existence of parallels in belief, in custom, and in cognitive styles between rural Yugoslavia and the Doxario region. They also suggest some very important differences. The former revolve about healing rituals, magical operations, the role of healers and strangers, the critical periods of vulnerability and taboos surrounding them, the presence of saints, spirits, demons, and disguised pre-Christian deities as powers to harm and heal, the social and motivational context of healing versus the community religious ceremonies, and the inconsistency and simultaneous employment of various “‘systems” designed to cure ailments. Among the differences are the concepts of bodily organs as independently animated with ghost forms, the identity of disease name and causative spirit animal name, the role of animals or spirit animals as disease causes, the emphasis upon guilt and sin as the basis for punishments which take the form of disease, the restriction of illness-causing spirits to females, the preponderance of ancient science in current folk practice, the lack of awe associated with healing rituals, the degree of specialization and restriction in the work of folk healers, and the emphasis in folklore of the theme of the invulnerable hero. In at least two respects the strong hero, like Meleager and the female identity of Plague, the rural Slavs are more akin to ancient Greece than are the modern Doxario region folk. In the other matters the beliefs appear to be quite distinct, not only in form but in orientation, from those found in ancient or in modern Greece. Admittedly the evidence is insufficient; Kemp’s study was broader in area and more

restrictive in focus than was ours. Further, as we indicated earlier, there is

no way of being sure what rural Greeks in 1200 B.c. or 600 B.C. might have believed. Nevertheless, with the data on hand we would venture to propose that while the parallels unquestionably suggest elements drawn from the same cultural reservoir — as well as life styles among shepherds and peasants similar enough to maintain these as constants over time — the differences are so pronounced as to indicate contact with, if not partial population origins derived from, a culture distinctively separate from that which was and is Greek; or more carefully stated, from that out of which the Greeks them-

selves had their beginnings.

Siberian 1 One is reminded of the power of the shaman which is attributed, among the churches for example, to the man who becomes a transvestite.

live as long 2 The moirai had told Meleager’s mother, shortly after his birth, that he would

from the fire, as a certain log remained unburnt. Accordingly, she snatches the flaming log at him for extinguished it and hid it, for the time being. The day she burnt the log, furious 315). p. (see wounded mortally was Meleager brother, killing her

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Bulgaria Balkan Village by Irwin Sanders presents a description of a small town (population about 1,600) near Sofia. The emphasis is on the style of life, and on social and political structure; nevertheless, it provides some in-

formation on the response to crisis. The psychological portrait which emerges is of a well integrated, stable community without known crime, divorce, or

internal tension. The peasant is pictured as “‘secure, stolid, practical’’, as well as penurious and intimately conscious of his place in the community. Neither uncertainty nor anxiety are noted, nor polar extremes, nor oscillating ambivalence are met. It is a village iri which the priest, at least until the coming of Communism, was highly respected and, as God’s intermediary, his company and good opinion were prized. The priest’s aid is invoked in times of drought, severe illness, or sterility in the wife. When someone is ill

prayers will be offered and candles burned, holy water will be sought from the priest and a few may rely on miraculous powers of an ikon. According to Sanders, the peasant takes a dualistic view of the universe. God symbolizes the forces for the good which must be propitiated. The priest is identified with these. The forces of evil are identified with the Devil and these must be placated. In the village are a few old women “‘babi”’ (grandmothers or, in the Greek sense, wise women) who are “‘priestesses of superstition”’, whose incantations are considered to work wonders, and who give advice on averting the evil eye. One infers from Sanders’s account that their role is unimportant and their functions not subscribed to by all the townsfolk. The peasants do not discuss “‘white magic’’ in the priest’s presence, nor is it incorporated in the Orthodox ritual, “‘so complete is the dichotomy between the Good and the Bad”’. Religion, as it is practised in this Bulgarian town, is neither personal, nor pervasive, nor awesome; it 7s a matter of form and ceremony to which all subscribe. The religious ritual which comprises the funeral rites does apparently involve informal non-Christian elements, but these “‘superstitious practices” are not described except to indicate that the priest does not perform them and may even avert his eyes so as not to see them done. Death is conceived as a continuation of earthly life in another, but invisible world. The family are obliged to prepare the dead, who are called “‘travellers”’, for a journey, and for that reason they are buried in ordinary clothes. One’s guardian angel, which everyone has from birth, will guide them (the dead) after the funeral to every place on earth which they have ever visited. This journey must be completed within forty days; after that a great river must be crossed, for which passage money must be paid, and the other world entered. Those who are about to die may be visited by neighbours and given messages to deliver to those already dead who reside in the other. world. Some of the dead may not go to the other world. Should the funeral ritual and family preparations not be done properly, the travellers may wander about lost. Should a cat or dog jump over the corpse the danger is that they will become vampires, and as such return to terrorize the village. The corpse suspected of being a vampire will have a stake driven through the heart. There are omens which announce death; a meteorite presages disaster;

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while the owl hooting at sunset or the appearance of a snake in a dream, are announcements of coming death. Pre-Christian elements are also found in some preparations of the corpse conducted by the “babi” and in the funeral rituals which involve wailing and the offering of food (boiled wheat) at the grave. Birth is also surrounded with pre-Christian beliefs. The post-parturant women are considered unclean for forty days; at the end of this period they undergo a purification ceremony in the church. During the forty days they dare not go outside after sunset unless they carry fire, ostensibly against the devil. The babies’ clothes must be brought in before sunset; it is important that babies’ wash water should never be thrown out of doors in the night. Should the baby be born deformed, it is attributed to the parents’ intercourse on the forbidden nights of Tuesday, Thursday or Saturday; these are the evenings before holy days which individuals are supposed to approach in a state of purity, free of the contamination of recent intercourse. Sanders notes that this explanation for abnormality in an infant is not really a matter of conviction, but provides only a convenient device for explaining an unusual occurrence. During pregnancy the woman is given whatever cooking food she smells and desires; it is thought that her failure to receive what she wants will lead to miscarriage. At the birth, which is usually assisted by a midwife, folk medicine is employed, water and incense. A other home remedies consulted, and should

reflected in the use of herbs, garlic, cloves, and holy sick infant will be rubbed in urine. Should this, or

not work, the neighbours and the “babi” will be their advice be to no avail, then the physician is sought. The reluctance to use the doctor is attributed to the desire to save money. It is rationalized in part by fatalism. ‘The peasants say that if God has given the child days, he will live; if God has not given him days, he will

die. Sanders does not discuss illness concepts in any detail. He indicates that cause is frequently assigned to God, who punishes humans for their sins. On the other hand, when the “babi” work as healers they use methods designed to diagnose and cure ailments derived from the envy and admiration of the evil eye. One typical method is to incant while dropping hot coals into water. The people of the village which Sanders studied derive their origins, no doubt with liberal admixtures from other ethnic groups, from the Pechenegi peoples who were Mongol nomads from Central Asia; a people who practised parricide, polygamy, human sacrifice, who burned widows at the funeral of the husband, who stole brides and who worshipped fire. These practices are neither present nor remembered except for bride stealing, which remains one way by which wives are chosen ;and for parricide, which figures strongly in folklore. These nomadic folk intruded upon the earlier resisted local stock and were in turn dominated by Byzantium, which they less and e oppressiv ineffectively, and by the Turks, who were considered less offensive than the Greeks. parallels In comparing Sanders’s town, Dragalevtsky, with Doxario we find of the nt viewpoi the account s Sanders’ of basis the On and differences. good of view mized Bulgarian peasant, his certainty, security, and dichoto

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and evil does not correspond with our view of the Greeks near Doxario. To identify God and the priest with the good and to keep one’s work, and one’s own practice of Christianity free from any taint of pre-Christian ritual, is certainly not the approach of the people of Doxario. Similarly, the unimportance of the wise woman, her very limited healing role, and the failure of all village women to share in such a magical-nurturent activity is very different. Marriage customs and the folk stories recollecting the nomadic past also stand in contrast to the Doxario way. Guilt over illness and the prevalence of its attribution to God’s punishment as well as certain death beliefs and the concept of the bloodthirsty vampire also are not paralleled. There are Bulgarian beliefs which do’ not correspond to contemporary Doxario although they do correspond to ancient Greek notions (and to some found elsewhere in Greece today). Among these is the one to the effect that the dead must cross a great river and be prepared to pay their passage; identical, it would appear, with the ancient notion of Charon ferrying the dead for a fee over the Styx. Parallels, some of them quite attenuated by the Bulgarians’ apparent lack of involvement in magic and pre-Christian beliefs, are nevertheless quite striking. They are seen in the vulnerability of infant and mother (although not reported for the marriage couple) and the dead (which is limited to the vampire concept and the Bulgarian-Greek idea of reyenants being produced by animals jumping over the corpse). Implicit in the taboos about the new mother and baby are ancient moon goddess beliefs, although these are not reported as consciously associated with the moon in the minds of the Bulgarian villagers. Pollution and purification are encountered in the abstinence requirement prior to holy days and in the purification ritual for the forty-day post-partum mother, but again the unimportance and very limited scope of these concepts in the Bulgarian town is remarkable. The presence of omens, the role of owls and snakes as death forerunners (although the meteorite as presaging disaster was an idea not encountered in our Greek villages) the symbolism of dreams, the amulets against the ubiquitous evil eye, the practice of sending messages to the dead (but not the belief that the dead must revisit each earthly place they have been) are also parallels. We have the impression that pre-Christian beliefs and present social customs are so similar, in some respects, that Doxario folk and Dragalevtsky people must have drawn on similar pre-Christian cultural stores; perhaps sharing the same origins with reference to some of their stock or, lacking that intimately exchanging ideas over the millennia. On the other hand, the differences are such that they do not only demonstrate the much greater urbanization and Christianization of Dragalevtsky, but suggest the partial origins of its folk in a culture not recognizably.akin to that of the ancient or modern Greeks, Conclusion

In concluding this chapter it would appear necessary only to affirm the existence of important parallels in the structure of concepts, the psychological approach to crisis and mystery, the social institutions and activities

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associated with healing, death and the critical life periods, and the specific details of magical and religious beliefs for peoples in the Balkans and about the shores of the Mediterranean Sea. The parallels are so great as to confirm not only the relative similarity of peasant life in a variety of settings, but the probability of intense contact over the centuries, and origins derived from a common cultural base; a conclusion much in keeping with archaeological, anthropological and historical evidence. These similarities are not to be stressed at the cost of overlooking differences. The differences are crucial, demonstrating the importance for matters of belief with regard to life and death, of the imposition of varying religious heritages (in these instances Muslim, Catholic and Orthodox) of the stages of urbanization or the extent of contact with urban centres, of presumably differing (prehistorical) cultural origins for some or all of the local populations (most apparent in Spain and Bulgaria; least in Morocco and South Italy); and of what appears to us as a matter of attitude and intensity: the variations in the intimacy with which each individual and family approaches nature and the gods; the sense of mystery, excitement and enrichment which derives from immersion in local lore and legend and with magic and religion; and the intensity of life itself and the ensuing polarity or moderation which characterizes styles of life. With reference to these latter psychological characteristics, the evidence is not sufficient, due no doubt to the varying interests and personality dispositions of the observers, to draw any certain conclusions. It is our impression that the Greeks of Doxario are immersed, intense, excited and enriched by their lore and by the challenges of life itself. On the basis of our reading the reports of other investigators it would be our impression that the Bulgarians and the Yugoslavians are much less so. It is of course evident that the study of parallels suffers extreme deficiencies of methodology as we have here approached it. What is needed is a series of studies in each of these cultures, each of which employs similar sampling methods within the culture and within the community. When comparable samples have been drawn, and inquiries focused on the same issues, Comparative studies will achieve that degree of sophistication and replication which will replace our speculations and impressions with facts.

XXIII EPILOGUE KE trust that we have shown the richness and demonstrated the function of narrative material in rural Greek culture. We have indicated how these narratives may be employed to derive inferences about relationships within the community, about intrapsychic operations and cognitive processes, and about the distribution of beliefs within and among peasant villages and shepherd encampments. We have also shown how accounts which deal with the central issues of life and death, which tell about pain and its healing, of illness and its prevention, demonstrate the continuity of belief over historical time and may be presumed to demonstrate further its continuity at least from the Neolithic period if not before. These survivals, and the accompanying study of parallels among other ethnic groups, have a useful employment in the study of culture history as well as psychic processes. It is clear that peasants and shepherds living far apart from one another in the Balkans and around the Mediterranean share many specific beliefs. Beyond that, they have in common similar general concepts and techniques of magic and rituals of a religious nature. But the similarities are not limited to peasants and shepherds; while our own style of life may be much removed from field and village, our own ways of thinking, of dealing with crisis and of anticipating death will be found to have much in common with these people. The study of survivals and parallels must not be limited to the rustic heirs of ancient Greek greatness; it must be extended to ourselves. We have, of course, hidden much of ourselves behind the machinery of technology, and we conceal more beneath our vaunted rationality. Yet our humanity is the same as theirs, whether we refer to biological endowments, psychic structures, family and community networks, or a distant common Neolithic past implemented by the heritage of the Classical age. And s0 it is that when we look about us — or within us — that we find something of the same man, or woman, that we have seen in rural Greece. We too must face uncertainty and death, must know pain and illness, must cope with weakness and desperation. And more fortunately, we may also enjoy beauty, appreciate complexities understood, and feel strength in powers greater than our own. We too have our priests and healers, our magic and rituals, our omens and prophets, and our religions with their immortals and extraordinary dead. The extent of our commitment to the irrational and the degree to which we may be filled with enthusiasm or capable of flights of ecstasy depends of course upon our personal predilections — and the current state of our anxiety and need; nevertheless even within this technological organized apparatus of an urban society we shall find, as our own crises occur, or our Own mystery approaches, that many of us have more in common with a Greek shepherd than with the twentieth century model of the fully rational man. For all our civilized superstructure there is much of the primitive within.

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One says “‘primitive” with hesitancy; it implies something that should be behind us, wisely abandoned as we elaborate our science and social control. Yet anyone who senses awe or dread, who probes within himself in the psychotherapist’s office, or fantasies how the faeries dance among the mushroom rings deep in the encircling wood, will recognize — and perhaps enjoy — that primitiveness which is not so easily escaped. It is perhaps our nature, as numerous studies attest (95, 96, 144, 146, 149, 224, 233, 248, 265), to rest our reason from time to time, and the more the stress and the greater our weakness, to unleash our primal selves. In this sense the Greek peasant is more fortunate than are we. He need not be ashamed, at least among his neighbours, of his demonology, of his magic, nor of his sense of intimacy with preternatural powers. ‘These are not just aspects of his private self, but acknowledged elements of his world; for his culture not only accepts the irrational, but it provides a convenient structure for it. There are many demands upon him, many painful obligations; but to be a rational man is not one of them. In America and Northern Europe on the other hand, especially in those sectors peopled by the beneficiaries of education, materialism, and urbaniza-

tion, the social demands may be much less pressing — for example the envy of our associates less evident, although not necessarily less of a fact — and the frequency and intensity of personal crises less great, but that we must be rational is not to be denied. In consequence, when our moments of uncertainty and inadequacy do arise, especially those surrounding tragic events, we are required — in the best Anglo-Saxon tradition (266) to suffer our pains in silence and to maintain, unflinching, the mask of reason. Since our unreason begins at birth, since primal process accompanies us through life, and since much of our commitment to irreversible irrationality is reckoned from a time before we were equipped to forfend it and even before we knew it to be disapproved — it is asking rather a great deal, even of the exceptional man, to be what his modern role demands. In consequence, our Western irrationality is more often private and perverse, practised in the secret recesses of our minds or chambers, unsupported by moderating social structures, and without the ordinary pleasures of a shared human experience. Hence our irrationality must be in itself a source of discomfort above and beyond the events which have led us to it. Without cultural sanction it is painful and aberrant, reluctantly admitted on the psychoanalytic couch, denied in common congress. Spontaneously seeking remedy for this private distress, striving to make a private demonology into a public worship, many seek to establish fellowships of the irrational where expression, direction,

approval, and perhaps aesthetic elaboration are allowed; and so arise the cults of the West, for the most part ephemeral doings that wither and die under the cold blast of an unsustaining milieu or survive through perpetual transformations and disguise. Our own irrationality is denied elevation to a dramatic folklore since few dare speak it and few dare listen. Nevertheless it exists, inherent within our psychological structure, and clearly emergent in response to life stress. If social institutions are at all functional and satisfying we must expect them our to accommodate that irrationality. We must anticipate that many of

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cultural offerings cater to that irrationality, even though by necessity in disguise! or even by purporting to counteract it. The second point can be made that the individual may not only be somewhat at a distance from his fellow in an urban society — “‘alienation”’ is the presently fashionable way of describing this individualization and insulation — but he is also required to be at a distance from some important aspects of himself, or better stated, he is required to repress, denounce or rationalize his inevitable irrationality. Thus we not only engender painful feelings about it, but generate institutions — and procedures — to help individuals cope with the result. Psychiatric care is, in some small part, one of these; the cult of the artist is another, the “drug movement”’ (34) (the use of hallucinogenic drugs) is a third. Perhaps the paradoxical institution of humanistic or rational ‘‘religions”’ is another. A third point is that rationality is a luxury. It can flourish only when protected and nourished; people who live in misery can hardly afford it; its magnificent edifice cannot be ordinarily sustained even in urban man, when support is withdrawn, nor when there come those awful challenges of dire disease, social disorder, or the deprivation of love. Only a man with tre-

mendous character strength — and that presumably the product of earlier nurturance — and dedication to his own twentieth century image can cling to the rocky crag of reason in the face of even temporary disaster; others will fall into the jungle, rampant wild, and disordered growths of superstition; with blind emotion, prejudice, and the propitiation of powers outside to replace those that clearly no longer exist within. In a sense then rationality can be sustained only by power: either the power of the individual to control events and thereby protect himself, in a sense shaping his environment to affirm the omnipotence ordinarily sought through magical means — and we may see modern science and technology as devoted precisely to this goal, or the power to control himself, foregoing the pleasures — indeed the demand for primal extrusions — and opening himself without deception to the immensity of his suffering. If we are to draw a moral from the lesson of contemporary Greece it would be to state that the study of contemporary culture offers more than knowledge about history and rural culture, social structure and personality; indeed, offers more than aesthetic rewards and the excitement of being involved with an intense and dramatic people. It offers, especially through its narratives, insight into our own inner life. When Freud took it upon himself to study Sophocles, he knew this; so did Jane Harrison when she examined ancient Greek religion to find the themes in Everyman’s religion; and so did Gilbert Murray when he observed that Greece has had in nearly every arena of thought the “‘triumphant but tragic distinction of beginning at the very bottom and struggling, however precariously, to the very summits”. ‘The Greeks, so Murray saw, expressed the most primitive depths and aspired — to achieve — the greatest heights. Not only our past, but some portion of our present, even of our future, may better be understood from

the experience of Greece.

1 Benjamin Paul, paraphrasing Francis Hsu (187) states that “the common man in China will accept science if it is disguised as magic, whereas the common man in America will accept magic if it is disguised as science’.

APPENDIX IRECT questions put to each family in the three study villages: Many places in Greece have stories about healers, priests, saints, mayissa, mayeftra, doctors, or others who have had truly remarkable powers to fight illness or to combat death itself. Do you remember any such

stories or legends about a man with power to combat death or sickness or chaos? Do you remember any stories from the old times, or perhaps even not so long ago, of wonderful or miraculous events where a man or woman from this region fought with death and won, or even came back from the dead? We have also heard from others stories from the old days, or some from not so long ago, of strangers or nymphs, lamias, or spirits who have come bringing death or danger, and how there has been someone who understood their ways, who was able to protect the village, or a threatened person from harm. Do you know any such stories? We have also been told stories of revenants who have returned to punish someone or to bring illness, or danger to a village. Have you heard such stories?

BIBLIOGRAPHY E have adopted the following conventions for use in this bibliography: The style is according to the Modern Language Association (see the MLA Style Sheet, compiled by W. R. Parker) with a few changes that were necessary to make the differing approaches of classical and scientific references compatible. For classical references, when the works of an author appear in a number of volumes, the complete reference is given only to the first volume of a given series. It is often the case that later volumes have different editors, translators and publication dates. When citing a later volume, we shall refer only to the translator (if any) and the year of publication. For scientific publications, when the same author has several publications, these are listed in the sequence of publication.

1. Abbott, G. F., Songs of Modern Greece, Cambridge University Press, 1900. 2. Achilles Tatius, Greek with English translation by S. Gaselee, The Loeb Classical Library, E. Capps, T. E. Page, W. H. D. Rouse, eds., London, William Heinemann, 1917. 3. Aeschines, Against Timarchus, in Speeches of Aeschines, Greek with English translation by C. D. Adams, The Loeb Classical Library, E. Capps, T. E. Page, W. H. D. Rouse, eds., London, William Heinemann,

IQIQ. 4. Aeschylus, Aeschyli, Septem quae supersunt Tragoediae: Seven against Thebes, G. Murray, ed., Oxford, at the Clarendon Press, 1937. 5. Aeschylus, ibid., Eumenides, 1937. 6 (a). Aeschylus, ibid., Agamemnon, 1937. 6 (b). R. Lattimore, translation, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1959. 7. Aeschylus, The Libation Bearers, R. Lattimore, translation, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1959. 8. Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound, D. Grene, translation, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1959. g. Aeschylus, The Suppliant Maidens, Greek with English transl. by H. W. Smyth, The Loeb Classical Library, E. Capps, T. E. Page and W. H. D. Rouse, eds., London, William Heinemann, 1922. ro. Alexander of Aphrodisias, Alexandri Aphrodisiensis de Anima Libri Mantissa. In vol. II of Supplementum Aristotelicum: De Anima Liber cum Mantissa. I. Bruns edidit, Berolini, Typis et impensis, G. Reimer, 1887 (in Greek). rz. Allbaugh, L., Crete: A Case Study of an Underdeveloped Area, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1953. 12. Allport, F. Theories of Perception and the Concept of Structure, New York, Wiley and Sons, 1955. 13. Allport, G. W. and Postman, L., The Psychology of Rumor, New York, Henry Holt, 1947. 14. Anderson, O. W. “Infant Mortality and Social and Cultural Factors: Historical

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78. Apollonius of Rhodes, Argonautica, E. V. Rieu, transl. under the title

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52. Clébert, J. P., The Gypsies, C. Duff, transl., New York, E. P. Dutton, 1963. Js: Clemens, Titus Flavius, Alexandrinus, Greek with English transl. by G. W. Butterworth, The Loeb Classical Library, T. E. Page, E. Capps, W. H. D. Rouse, L. A. Post, E. H. Warmington, eds., London, William Heinemann, 1960. J54- Clements, F. E., ‘‘Primitive Concepts of Disease’’, American Archaeology and Ethnology, Berkeley, University of California publications, 1932,

32, 185-253.

55: Coon, Carleton 8., The Origin of Races, London, Jonathan Cape, New

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1945n”? in H. A. 71. Eliade, M., “The Yearning for Paradise in Primitive Traditio r, 1960. Brazille George York, New king, Mythma Murray, Myths and 1958. 72. Elworthy, F. T., The Evil Eye, New York, Julian Press, C. H. Beck, en, Miinch land, Griechen alten im Ehe 73. Erdmann, W., Die 134" for Nicolas Blastus 74. Etymologicum Magnum Graecum, Zacharias Callierges 1499. , Venice ed., and Anna Notaras, Marcus Musurus, brevique adnotatione 75. Euripides, Euripidis Fabulae, Alcestis, Recognovit Clarendoniano, apheo typogr E critica instruxit G. Murray, Oxonii, 1958. 76 (a). Euripides, ibid., Medea, 1958. University of Chicago 76 (b). English transl. by R. Warner, Chicago, The Press, 1959. 77 (a). Euripides, ibid., Hecuba, 1958. o, The University of 77 (b). English transl. by W. Arrowsmith, Chicag o Chicag Press, 1959. 78. Euripides, ibid., Hippolytus, 1958. 79 (a). Euripides, ibid., Jon, 1958. Berlin, Weidmann, 79 (b). Erklart von U. v. Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, 1926. 8o. Miivides, ibid., Iphigenia Taurica, 1958. In Tragicorum Graecorum 81. Euripides, Erechtheus, Fragment No. 360, e, In aedibus B. G. Lipsia a, secund Fragmenta, A. Nauck recensuit, ed. eri, 1889. Teubn r, transl., Chicago, The $2. Euripides, Iphigenia in Aulis, C. R. Walke

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87 (b). Vol. II, in Religionsgeschichtliche Versuche und Vorarbeiten, A. Dieterich & R. Wunsch, eds. vol. 6, Giessen, Verlag A. Tépelmann, 1910.

88. Fejos, P., “Man, Magic, and Medicine’, in Medicine and Anthropology, New York, International Universities Press, 1959. 89. Fermor, P., Mani, New York, Harper & Bros., 1958. go. Festugiére, A. J., La Révélation d’Hermés Trismégiste, Vol. I, L’astrologie et les sciences occultes, Paris, Librairie Lecoffre, J. Gabalda et Cie., ed.,

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92. Fiske, D. W. and Maddi, S. R., Functions of Varied Experience, Homewood, Dorsey Press, 1961. 93: Fontenrose, J., Python: A Study of Delphic Myth and its Origins, Berkeley and Los Angeles, University of California Press, 1959. 94: Frankfort, H., The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient, Harmondsworth, Middlesex, Penguin Books, 1954. 95: Frazer,! J. G., The Golden Bough, A Study in Magic and Religion, in 13 vols., London, Macmillan, 1951. 96. Freud, S., Collected Papers in 5 vols., London, the Hogarth Press, 1953. 97: Friedl, Ernestine, Vasilika: A Village in Modern Greece, New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1962. 98. Frisk, H., Griechisches Etymologisches Wérterbuch. Heidelberg, Carl Winter Universitatsverlag, 1960. 99: Garnett, Lucy and Stuart-Glennie, J. S., Greek Folk Poesy, in 2 vols., roo.

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1 Frazer’s index system to the volumes is used as follows: i. The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, vol. 1. ii. The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, vol. 2. ili. Taboo and the Perils of the Soul. iv. The Dying God. Vv. vi. Vil. Vill. ix. xs xi. Xii. xiii.

Adonis Attis, Osiris, 3rd ed., vol. 1. Adonis Attis, Osiris, 3rd ed., vol. 2. Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild, vol. 1. Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild, vol. 2. The Scapegoat. Balder the Beautiful, vol. 1. Balder the Beautiful, vol. 2. Bibliography and General Index.

Ibid dedea Aftermath; supplementary volume. ddan

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ne rsaT

i

-

si art es ei aa _ ye pa Ps i Pa sr os ax.

baat

nibh

'

rig. Ped

d ae

INDEX Abbot, G. F., 239 n. 1, 303 abortion, 223, 282 n. I abscesses, 159

Achaens, 277, 293, 336, 355

Acheloos, 329 n. 5 Achilles, 277, 280, 281, 284 n. I, 290, 301 Achilles Tatius, 276 aconite, 338 acquisitive drive, 221 Acropolis, 26, 127, 278, 341 Actaeon, 299 Adams, F., 292 n. 3, 306 Adelphos see Delphi Adonis, 274, 283, 322, 351 adoption, 339 adultery, 223 Aegean, 340 Aegisthus, 278 aerika, 14, 23, 25, 50, 54, 95, 103, 107, III,

114, 194 Aeschines, 276 Aeschylus, 275, 302 n. 7 and 9, 303 n. I, 304

Nn. 5, 307, 308 n. 1, 311, 315, 318, 319, 332, 349 n. 6, 7, 361 n. I

Aethenaeus, 277 Aethra, 281

Agamemnon, 278-80, 284 n. 1, 290, 318, 319 Agave, 282, 283 aggression, sexual, 216, 218

Aghia Marina, 250 Aglaurus, 274 Agni, 318 agnostics, 185, 195, 234 Aiolos Hippotades, 274 Ajax, 302 Albania, 3, 176, 266, 355 Alcathoe, 278 alchemy, 252 Alcippe, 278 Alexander of Aphrodisius, 356 n. 1 Alexander the Great, 38, 279 Allbaugh, L., 276 allegory, 240 Allport, F., 8

alum see copper sulphate Amphidromia, 272 Amphiaraus, 293, 323 Amphitrite, 323

amulets, constituents of, 34, 110, 121, 134,

140, 165 against the evil eye, 145, 309, 374

against the exotika, 109, 110, I

against kallikantzari, 121, 259

to ward off danger, 284, 295

anathema, 25, 72, 75 127, 314, 320

Andros, 294 Angel, J., 268-9 angels, 107, 122, 327, 328 n. 1 derivation of, 328

guardian, 304, 366, 372 of death, 304, 340 anemopyroma see erysipelas anger, 24, 160, 169, 215, 229, 360 animals, 123-4, 146, 189, 311-12,

334-5,

366, 368, 371, 374

and cures, 129-30, 208, 360 ghosts of, 368 animism, 249 Annunciation, 46 Anthesteria,

160 n. 1, 287, 300, 304, 319,

330, 331 Anthesterion, 304. anthrax, attitude towards, 16, 35, 143, 1553 257, 259 in sheep, 98 treatment of, 138, 155 anthropomorphism, 249 anti-Semitism, 211 Antimachia, 288

Antiope, 276 Antoninus Liberalis, 278 anxiety, about children, 228, 230, 271, 2735 281 about strangers, 37, 234 attitude to, 3 between sexes, 216, 219

cause of TB, 369 defences against, 228, 235-6 due to change, 211, 233 due to fear, 216

due to vulnerability, 11, 12, 237, 271, 273 in narratives, 5, 199, 201, 223, 225, 228, 230, 231, 232, 237 persistence of, 225 reasons for, 5, 234-5

reduction of, 240, 369

Aphrodite, 299, 300, 304, 344, 345

Homeric Hymn to, 304 Apis, 273 n. I Apollo, and Hermes, 344, 346 birth of, 272, 324 Delian Hymn to, 272 disease ascribed to, 339 punishment by, 306 Smintheus, 292-3, 336, 337 thé destroyer, 260 the healer, 260, 322, 345-6 Apollodorus, 273 n. I, 274 n. 3, 299, 307; 328 n. 2, 345 n. 4 Apollonius, 276 n. 3, 294, 303 Apollonius of Rhodes, 340 n. 3 Apostle’s Creed see Credo apotoropaism, 24, 239, 251, 272, 279, 296, 298, 366, see also magic, ritual apparitions, 51, 311, 326 appendicitis, 101

approach, 254

symbolic-intentional-concensus,

THE

394

DANGEROUS HOUR

Apuleius, 295 Ar, 361-2 Arabia, 128 n. 1 Arabs, 332 Arachova, 24 Arcadia, 278, 322, 332 arches,

138-9, 168, 251, 338-9, 347

Ares, 278, 309, 344

Argenti, P. P. and Rose, H. J., 166, 314,

326, 332, 352, 353

Argive, 275

Argos, 294, 325

Argus Panoptes, 348 Ariadne, 366 Aristophanes, 274, 275 n. 2, 276, 284, 304 n.

4, 315, 316 n. 3, 329 n. 4, 334 n. 2

Aristotle, 303 Armenians, 332 Arretophoria, 349 Artemidorus, 315 Artemis, and childbirth, 272, 309 and fertility, 260, 281, 323 as virgin goddess, 260, 276, 299 mysteries of, 325, 338, 340 Artemis Brauronia, 272, 279, 299 —Eileithyia, 272 Ephesian, 293 temple of, in Ephesus, 89 n. 1 Taurian, 299 n. 2 Arsinoe, 282

Arvanitiki, 149, 266 asceticism, 278 Asclepiades, 291 Asclepion, 62, 287 Asclepius, and healing, 294, 298, 322, 323,

334, 336, 345, 348

and incubation, 62

“elafis” of, 127 n. 1 fate of, 306, 321 n. 1 functions of, 294 sanctuary of, 278, see also zig-zag chain Asia, 358 Asia, Central, 337 Asia Minor, and emigration, 3, 43, 82, 86,

131, 212 migrations to, 264-5, see also Apollo

Aspasia, 277

asphodel, 159 Asphodel Valley, 159 n. 1 assault, 223 assenters 184

Astarte, 363

astrology, 252, 297, 325, 338, 350 Ate, 344

Athamas, 282

Athena, 284 n. 1, 287, 288, 295, 299, 324-5,

344, 345, 346, 350

Athenaeus, 277, 279 Athens, 127, 287, 299, 339 Atreus, 278 attention, 203, 271, 273 Attic laws, 275 Attic speech, 302 Attica, 268, 272 attitudes, 206, 207, 211, 213, 214, see also

change, community

augury, 58, 63-4, 189, 312

Austin, G. A., 245 n. I authorities, supernatural, 217, 226, 272 authority, and family, 215-16, 219, 230, 232 and attitude of villagers, 213, 215, 225,

233, 234, 237, 242, 259, 365

nature of, 225, 260, see also dependency awe, 63, 80, 132, 141, 205, 207, 209, 270,

287, 294, 295, 299, 349, 354, 369,

Bie

Azande, 43 “babi”, 372-3 babies, before baptism, 11, 271, 272

as strangers, 42 clothing of, 12, 15, 135, 373 in antiquity, 272

in narratives, 12-15, 83-4, 135 protection of, 134-5 purification of, 272, risked, 219-20, 228,

282, see also baptism, changelings, Panaghia, vulnerability Babylon, 297, 336, 361 Babylonians, 336, 358 Bacchus, 329, see also Dionysus

“Bad”, 17, 103, 137, 145, 164, 248, 251, 347-8, 368 : “Bad Ones”’, see kakiades ““balsamo”’, 129, 130, 160, 337 baptism, and consecration, 24

and the Panaghia, 59, 83-4 dangers of, 234, 238 importance of, 13-14, 51, 59, 82, 174, 188, 219, 234, 238, 316, see also vulnerability, strangers baraka, 358-60, 362 barbers, 366, 367 barrenness, 273-4, 281, 331, 342 n. 4 basil, 61

beads, 123, 140, 309, 341 beans, 60, 159, 247, 292 bears, 37, 111, 125, 334 Becker, W. A., 280 n. 3

beliefs, healing-magical-religious, 182-4, 209 Hellenistic, 297 Orphic, 348 parallels, 358-75 survival of, 2, 6, 183-5, 238—43, 263-4,

266, 289, 291, 367, 373, 376

belladonna, 292 Bent, T., 324 bestiality, 98, 223, 242

bewitchment, 15, 18, 256-7, 280, see also spells bigamy, 223 binding curses see curse, binding binding spells see spells birds, 123-4, 129, 295, 311, 325, 335 birth, 6, 11, 19, 37-8, 234, 271-2, 281, 298 n. I, 324, 368, see also lechona, vulnerability bishops, 27, 88, 290

blame-throwing,

273, 309, 366

215, 220, 225, 228, 238,

blasphemy, 351 bleeding, 366 blindness, 85, 91, 242, 299

INDEX blood, and disease, 16, 31, 208, 366 concepts,

131-2

feud, 17, 267, 319

menstrual, 17, 22, 23, 131, 170, 299, 337 offerings, 369

power of, 50, 79, 129, 131, 132, 337, 345;

360, 366 shedding of, 279 taboos, 299 ties, 192, 212, see also pollution, ritual (healing Blum, R. H. and E. M., 3 et seq., 24, 131,

133, 143-4, 269, 327

Bliimner, H., 279 Boeotia, 267, 272, 340 boils, 106, 157, 259 bones, 22, 63-4, 131, 257, 324, 336-7 Bowra, C. M., 306 bread, 12, 20, 45-6, 51,

Ji,

113,

122,

134,

139, 258, 337, 359

breath, 360 bride price, 276 brides, dangers surrounding, 169, 206

R.

B.

and

Feldman,

H.,

322 change, 211, 269, 356 changelings, 12, 37, 231, 272, 366 chaos, 260

Chariclo, 350 Charilia, 330 charms, against the ‘“‘Bad Hour’’, 50

against the evil eye, 145, 309, 361 against evil spirits, 50 against illness, 137 against the nereids, 186 at weddings, 19 constituents of, 50, 98, 133, 138 power of, 34, 116 Charon, and night owl, 330 concepts of, 95, 315, 327-8, 374 personification of, 98, 223, 249 springs of, 45 chastity, 46 n. 2, 276-8 cheese, 12, 139

18, 19, 24,

dowry, 28 n. 1, 271, 276-7, 280

stealing, 373, see also curses, vulnerability, marriage Briseis, 280 brothers, 215-17, 315 n. I Bruner, 245 bubonic plague, 104, 143,

395

Chamberlain,

child killing, 281-4 child-rearing, 230-1 childbirth see birth childhood, 5, 203, 231-5, 238, 285, 361 children, 203, 206, 271, 281-2, 284, 305, 317, see also vulnerability, babies, baptism

Chiron, 336, 345

259,

see also

Koukoudi buckthorn, 338 Bulgaria, 2, 372-5

burial, 72, 75-6, 249, 258, 266, 317-20, see also death, funerals, ritual Butler, E. M., 252, 326 Buzyges, 287

cholera, 330, 360, 369 Christ, and magic, 81, 165, 255, 351 and soul-wandering, 78 and illness, 208 belief in, 185, 194, 210, 321-2, 327, 333

power of, 79-81, 217, 333, 343, 348, 351 in narratives, 62, 70, 77, 78, 80-2, 255 resurrection of, 70, 80, 81, 283

Byzantine, 38 Byzantium, 38

Christ of Spata, 55, 81, 82, 137, 156, 333 Christianity, 105, 183-4, 195, 217, 278, 289,

Calchas, 290 Callimachus, 299, 350 *‘calio”’, 364 Campbell, J. K., 267

Christmas, 120-2, 259, see also Kallikantzari Chryses, 292

290, 307, 321, 323-6, 333, 362

Circe, 279, 294, 295,3

candles, 18, 31, 139, 141, 256

Classical age, 266, Soa.ae 276 Clazomenae, 294 Clébert, J. P., 297 n. 1 Clemens, T. F., 393 n. 3

cannibalism, 241 Cappadocia, 46, 79, 91

cleverness, 207, 221

Canaanites, 282

cancer, 45, 48, 144, 165, 249, 366 carbuncles, 259 Cassandra, 294, 295

Castor, 79, 323 Catal Hiiyiik, 309

cats, 30, 48, 54 caves, 13, 138-9, 338, 341-2 Cecrops, 299, 329

cemeteries, 34, 73, 90, 133, 141-2, 190, 256, 41-2 centaurs, 331, 336 Ceos, 336, 340 este haemorrhage, 186 Ceylon, 348

Clements, F. E., 337 clothing, babies’, 12-13, 15, 135, 324, 373 and dead, 316-17 sick people’s, 139, 147, 324 in magic rituals, 251, 288-9, 337, 339-41

priestly, used to used to used to

288-9 control exotika, 130-1, 219 maintain power, 130 ward off danger, 341

cloves, 373

Clymenus, 278 Clytemnestra, 280, 281

cocks (roosters), 54, 71, 113-14, 122-4, 141,

169,330, 334

chaimali, 116

cognition,

Chaldea, 325 Chaldeans, 297 Chalkis, 29, 33, 36

199, 225, 244-70 passim

combat myth see myth

Colchis, 276, 294, 307, 336 Communion, Holy, 69, 75, 77-8

THE

396

DANGEROUS

culture, 4, 195-7, 203, see also beliefs cupping, 150, 151, 152, 153, 155, 366 curse, binding, 11, 18, 19, 28, 31, 75, 169,

community, activities, 19, 192-3

attitudes, 195-7, 204, 213, 221, 281

beliefs, 182-4, 208-9

188, 216, 252, 254, 257, 358, 361

crises, 222

demands, 206, 219, 271-4 diversity within, 184

life, 220-5 of the dead, 224

outside influences,

212-13,

224-5,

356,

protection, 287 relationships, 192, 199, 204, 211-14, 376 reputation, 179, 212, 236 rites, 287 solidarity, 211-13, 221, 235, 363, 367 support, 185, 224-5, see also values communication, unconscious, 232 competition, 271 conception, immaculate, 273

concepts, 177, 183, 194, 244-5, 373, 376

conflicts, around new babies, 271 in diagnosis and healing, 269 in narrative, 7 intrapsychic, 227 marital, 284, see also beliefs conscience, 224, 232 consciousness, 249, 303, 308 Constantine, King, 38 content code analysis, 185-7 content, latent, 205, 206, 208, 213, 219, 233,

240 continuities see under beliefs Cooper, J. M., 312 copper, 32, 138, 164, 338 copper sulphate, 138, 155, 156 Corfu, 88, 162 Corinth, 167, 283, 294

corn, 359 corruption, 214, 218 Cos, 279, 2 courtship, 6, 11, 17-19, see also marriage cows, 60

Crawley, E., 279 cremation, 266, 267, 317-19, see also burial, dead Creon, 290 Crete, and mother goddess cult, 289 experiences in, 48, 73, 86, 92, 127 life expectancy in, 268 virginity in, 278 criminals, 191, 223, 319 cripples, 25 crises, 1, 3, 4, 8, 228, 253, 264, 267-9, 353,

374

of motherhood, 81, 278, 284 Cronus, 275 cross, 29, 33, 50, 156, 366

crossroads, 15, 97, 141, 142, 341-2 Ctesius, 335 cults, bond of, 294 deities, 58 Eleusinian, 272 great mother, 281 of Artemis Chitone, 340 of Demeter, 288, 325

of mother goddess, 289 Roman mystery, 291

HOUR

and counter-measures, 19, 31, 137, 156 reasons for using, 216, 361 methods of invoking, 252, 257 God’s, 56 of fig-trees, 52 priests’, 72, 166 written, 34, 165 curses, 19, 28, 75, 165-7, 190, 208, 229, 250, 256, 361, 368, see also words, magic, power of Cybele, 323

Cyclops, 331, 344, 349

cypress, 52, 133, 141 Cyprian, 325 Cyprus, 271 n. I

Dactyls, Cretan, 293 Idean, 293 n. 2 Phrygian, 293 Dalmatia, 367 Damartius, 282

Damnameneus, 293 Danaids, 314

danger, 7, 11, 123, 212, 249, 253, 271, 353

Dangerous Hour see under Hour, Dangerous daughters, 215, 230, 273, 276-7 David, star of, 159, 162 Dawson, W. R., 304, 336

dead, bones of, 314, 337 concepts about, 189, 224, 302,

313-14,

316, 372

disposal of, 266, 317-20 extraordinary, 79-94, 314, 321-7, 37

361,

messages to, 68, see also burial, pollution,

revenants, vulnerability

Death, 96, 249, 304, 315, 320, 340, 369

death, concepts about, 1, 3, 46, 57-8, 208,

223-4, 253, 312-17, 320, 352-3, 357-8, 372, 376

and animals, 123-5 and baraka, 359 and dying, 72-5 causes of, 249

continuity of beliefs, 263-4, 284, 301-2, 352-3 defiance of, 4, 181-3 in narratives, 66-76, 223-4, 311 parallel ideas, 361-2, 371-5 priests and, 24 prophecies of, 64-6 Stringlos and, 254, see also burial, ritual, words deceit, 207, 214, 284 defence, 212

deformity see pollution Deimos, 344

Delphi, 18, 24, 36, 64, 188, 265, 330, 337,

see also oracles Demeter, 272, 275, 281, 284, 288, 315-16,

323, 324, 341

Democritus, 292

demonization, 42, 53, 55, 298, 307-8, 351

INDEX demons, and the newborn, 11, 366

behaviour of, 18, 33, 55, 108, 143, 156,

164, 332; 341

belief in, 308, 344 counter-measures against, 117, 118, 368 described, 107, 111, 186 exorcism of, 20, 55, 117, 256 illness and, 370-1 metallurgical, 293 possession by, 43, 55-6, 156, 248, 298,

308-9

summoning, 325, 360

synonyms for, 95, 295, 308, 327, 341

wind, 304, see also light-shadowed Demosthenes, 277, 287, 314 dependency, 207, 231, 233, 235, 237, see also authority desertion, 223 “despotis”, 75 Deubner, L., 321 n. 2, 331 n. I, 349 Nn. 7 Devil (Diavolo),

17, 20, 72, 99, 111, 208,

327, 332; 333, 356-7, 372

devils, behaviour of, 111, 117-18, 133 in narratives, 14, 24, 33, 49, 54, 60, 111, 117, 186, 191 synonyms for, 107, 327-8, 359 treatment of, 33, see also light-shadowed Dhadi, 3, 8, 29, 43, 173-8, 264-5, 312, 339;

S55 diabetes, 39-40, 129, 169 diarrhoea, 12, 134, 135, 153 Diavolo see Devil

diavolosynerghies, 115 Diels, H., 303 Diodorus, 293 Dionysus, 282-3, 288-9, 294, 303, 307 n. I, 321 n. 1, 329, 331; 339 Dionysus-Zagreus, 283, 322 Dioscorides, 280, 295, 339 n- 6, 342, 350 and animal substances, 296, 334, 335,

336

and human substances, 337 and plants, 104 n. I, 115 n. 1, 159 Nn. I, 160 n. 1, 296, 338, 341 travels of, 296 diphtheria, 61 disease, 41, 47, 65, 253, 280, see also illness disorders, epidemic, 268 functional, 295

psychosomatic, 257 displacement, 220, 228, 235, 237 dissenters, 184, 185 Ditmars, R. L., 128 n. 1, 335 n. 2 divination, 252, 293, 310, 311-12, 344, 369 divorces, 99, 372 “djinns”, 359, 360, 362

156, doctors, 25, 32, 133 1. 1, 135) 143-4, 225, 160, 174, 181, 192, 209, 211-14,

227, 256, 259, 269-70, 327, 364, 366,

379, 374 Dodds, E. R., 284, 303 n. 3, 305, 307 0. I,

308, 312, 348 n. 9

dogs, 20, 30, 102-3,

107, 109, III, 12374,

130, 188-9, 246-9, 255, 312, 334

Doric stock, 266

dowry see brides

Doxario, 3, 43, 212, 286, 339, 355

397

Dragalevtsky, 373, 374

‘drakos”, 14 dread, 141, 203, 205, 209, 354 dreams, foretelling death, 58, 61, 311

functions of, 239-40, 248, 285 god-sent, 312 guiding, 59, 60 healing and, 317 in narratives, 58-62, 75, 188, 311, 314 incubation, 312 interpretations of, 60-1, 75, 240, 287

preternatural significance of, 361 prophetic, 188, 253, 356, 361 revelations in, 4 visitations in, 57-62, 312 warning, 59, IOI drought, 61, 372 drugs, 212-13, 296, 336, 342, 369, 378 dryads, 342 duality, 24 dumb see muteness dynamics, 2, 227, 199 dysentery, 257

Ea, 350

ear ache, 129

earth, 23, 32, 138, 293, 318, 337, 338, 366 and dead, 70-2, 249

Eastern, 63, 126, 193, 322 Echetus, 276 echo, 140, 208, 338

ecstasy, 218, 219, 238, 376 Edelstein, L. and E., 294 n. 2 Edman, I., 322

Egypt, 273 n. 1, 325, 340 Egyptians, 82, 87, 272, 332, 336, 337) 358

Eileithyia, 272, 324 “elafroiskiotis” see light-shadowed elderly, 11-12, 21, 220, 284-6 Electra, 318-19 electricity, 43, 127, 147 Eleusinians, 272, 282, 315, 316, 322 Eleusis, 288, 298, 349 Eliade, M., 238 Elis, 306 Elpenor, 329 Elworthy, F. T., 241 n. 1, 291 n. 2, 309; 334;

348 n. 9

emanations, 80, 132

emasculation, 289 n. 3

“emorphia”, 155-6

emotion, 5, 6, 181, 183, 199, 208, 214, 224,

240, 241, 243, 249, 257, 369

Empusa, 328-9, 332 enteritis, 366 envy, and evil eye, 221, 241-2, 258, 366,

“her

and gossip, 169 dangers of, 207, 258, 279, 285, 360, 377 in family relationships, 220, 236 in narratives, 201

of motherhood, 271-3 of possessions, 234, 271 propitiation of, 207 Ephesus, 89, 276 Epidauros, 287 n. 2 epidemics, 41, 250, 268, 369

THE

398

DANGEROUS

HOUR

epilepsy, as a sacred disease, 292 concealment of, 223 explanation for, 43, 56, 248, 305, 308

behaviour of, 30, 50, 51, 53, 80, 108-10,

remedy for, 335 epileptics, 51, 55-66

231 defences against, 51, 109, 110, 121, 133 described, 107 domains of, 133, 141, 142, 341 in narratives, 12, 25, 51, 54, 55, 65, 72, 07, 108-12, 114, I9I, 231 magic and, 23, 25 meaning of, 12 n. I, 23, 95; 107, 124, 204 muteness and, 80, 109, 116, 165, 166, 229, 349 protection against, 49, 53, 108, 110, 253,

epiphany, 62, 295 Epirus, 294 Epopeus, 274 Erdmann, W., 275 n. 3, 277, 278, 279 n. 3 Erechtheus, 274, 282, 329 Erinyes, 304 Eris, 344 Erymanthus, 299

erysipelas, 46, 135-6, 143, 149, 154, 163, 187, 254, 366 ethnocentrism, 211, 212, 240, 266 Eucrates, 317, 320 Euhemerists, 79, 349

Eumenides, 282, 349

Euripedes, 275, 280, 282, 283, 284, 288, 296,

299, 307 n. 1, 316

Eurydice, 306, 341 Eurytania, 176 Eustathius, 340 Evans-Pritchard, E. E., 43

243, 248, 257-8, 369

146,

194,

208,

146, 309

165, 252, 254, 361

in narratives, 35, 39, 40, 47, 106, 145-9,

186, 188, 241 in other countries, 30 n. 1, 309, 360-8, 372, 373

notions of, 309-10

possessors of, 145-9, 296 power of, 48, 131 substances used for, 133, 139, 145, 146,

147, 148, 341

symbolism of, 221, 241, 258, 366, see also survivals, xemetrima ex votos, 53, 85, 86, 93, 138, 246, 323-4, 336,

368 excommunication, 75

excretions see faeces, urine

exorcism, and transference, 164, 369 by magicians, 117 by priests, 75, 115, 256 methods of, 75, 94, 97, 115, 117, 125, 168, 360

exotika, ailments caused by, 143, 149, 156,

243, 248

and and and and

favours asked, 35, 102-3 changing ideas, 53-5, 194, 199 light-shadowed, 50, 53, 237, 302, 307 other shapes, 123, 124, 248, 328-9,

334

and the hearth, 140 and lechona, 134

aerika,

Hour,

Bad,

nereid,

experience, ecstatic, 216 intrapsychic, 248 externalization, 29, 212, 241, 308 eye beads, 121, 140 188,

family, and the community, 220-2, 235, 273 continuity, 317 143-9,

counter-spells against, 30 n. 1, 40, 47-8, 117, 125, 139, 145-9,

also

Stringlos

228, 232, 337, see also magia, magicians, pollution

charms against, 121, 127, 139, 140, 145,

diagnosis of, 23, 252 forms of, 43

see

factionalism, 185, see also community faeces, 101, 125, 129, 132, 152, 157,

event-structure theory, 8 evil, 372 evil eye, ailments caused by, 101,

attitude towards, 143, 221-2, 241, 285, 296 causes of, 43, 257

114, 183, 195, 341

belief in, 49, 121, 184-6, 195, 204, 229,

disruptive acts within, 201, 227, 273 esteem, 236 honour, 11-12, 15, 17, 273, 278 relationships, 215, 320-2, 235, 267, 273,

317, 356, 376

symbolized, 241 tensions within, 220, 273, see also blamethrowing, philotimo, husband, motherhood, women

fantasies, 6, 216, 218, 248, 263, 274, 284, 377 childhood, 231, 232

Farnell, L. R., 289 n. 2, 321 n. 1, 339, 342 Nn. 3, 349 Nn. 2

fatalism, 214, 285, 313, 314, 366, 373

Fates see Moira father see family, incest, authority, women fear, ailments caused by, 153 in stories, 7 of cemeteries, 141 of disrupting communities, 33, 222 of ghosts, 92, 319 of ridicule, 38 of strangers, 36, 296 of Stringlos, 97 “‘fectia”, 146 feeble-minded see retardation Fehrle, E., 277, 287 Feilberg, H. F., 345 n. 8, 350 n. 5 Fejos, P., 252, 320 fennel, 115 n. 1 fertility, 115-42, 271, 288, 293, 323, 331 festivals, 174 Festugiére, A. J., 326 n. 1 fig-trees, 338

and illness, 208

and the Koukoudi, 89, 104, 133, 251, 330 fertility and, 330-1 danger from, 50-2, 93, 132-3 heaviness of, 52, 80, 132-3, 337

INDEX goitre, 368

figs, 60, 330-1 fire, 104,

_

120,

139-40,

208, 311-12,

338,

369, 373

Fischer, J. L., 200 fish, 60

fish-net, 137, 140, 341 flattery, 213

fleece, 65, 129, 335, 336, 347, see also Golden Fleece flowers, 52, 134, 146 flu, 105

grief, 106, 227

German, 337 Greek, 3 Polish, 241 n. 1

grooms see husband Gruppe, O., 278 n. 1, 279 n. 1, 288 n. 2, 293 . 1, 340, 347 n. 2 guilt, 212 n. 1, 228, 231, 290, 296, 299, 352,

Fontenrose, J., 181, 260, 281 n. 1 foresight, 49, 60, see also prophecy

368, 384

fortune, 100, 125, 221

gunpowder, 50-1, 76, 117, 121, 140 Guthrie, W. K. C., 314, 320, 334

foxes, 311 France, 99, 335 Franks, 99 Frazer,J.G., 251-2, 282, 288, 299, 300 n. 1,

305, 316, 318 n. 1, 330-1, 334, 339 0. 3, 340 n. 3, 348, 349 n. 2

Freud, S., 235, 378 Friedl, E., 267 Frisk, H., 328 n. 1

Hades, 80, 292, 304, 305, 315, 318, 344 House of, 329 haemorrhage, brain, 114, 186

Hagia Triada sarcophagus, 289

hair clippings, 29, 32, 34, 130, 337

Halirrhothius, 278 Hall, H. R., 318 n. 1 Halliday, W. R., 282, 288, 289, 293, 294 n.1, 305 hallucinogens, 292, 378 Halos in Thessaly, 282 Hamilton, 287 n. 1, 309 n. 1 Harpalyce, 278 harpies, 304

frogs, 335, 366, 368

function, atropaic, 264 funerals, 68-73, 313, 317, see also ritual Furies, 302, 339, 349 Gabriel, angel, 273 n. 1 Galen, 336 Galilee, 80

Galli, 289 n. 3

Harrison,J. E., 238, 278, 283 n. 1, 288, 304,

garlic, 50, 134, 135, 337; 366, 373

Garnett, L., and Stuart-Glennie, J. S., 303,

304 n. I gello, 46 n. 2

generalization, 255 Genesis, 128 n. 1, 335

genius, 56, 303-5, 308-9, 320, 327-8, 332 Germans, 25, 26, 46, 61, 70 110,

III,

124,

190,

208, 302-4, 306, 315, 319, 367, 368

etymology of, 239 n. 1, 302, 303 gipsies, 286, 296-7

astrological link with, 58, 136, 297 fear of, 36-8, 105, 125, 222, 287 in narratives, 37-8, 190-I

Spanish, 363-5 Turkish, 37, 136, see also strangers

Glotz, G., 275 n. 3, 278 n. 3 Gliicksburg, 38 goats, 76, 99; 347-8

God, as a protector, 117 as a supernatural, 208 behaviour of, 107, 249 belief in, 105-7, 177, 185, 188-9, 194, 251, 321, 327, 372, 374 illness and, 208

Gorgon (pl. gorgons), 304, 306, 345 Gortyn, law of, 275 gossip, 15, 168-70, 204, 207, 350, see also envy graves, 20, 27, 32, 34, 138, 223, 268, 295, see Greek city states, 38 Greek Turkish War, 43 Gregorian calendar, 106

folklore, French, 337

76, 92,

Golden Fleece, 276, see also fleece Goodnow, J. J., 245 n. 1

also burial, dead, ritual

folk tales, 203

“shiallou’”’ see gello

gold, 44, 85-7, 105, 138, 291, 338

greed, 43, 117, 149

folk healers see healers, medicine, folk

ghosts, 51-2,

399

punishment by, 105-6, 368 relationship to, 232

307, 314, 318 n. I, 319, 321 N. 2, 324,

331 N. I, 334, 336-8, 341 n. 6, 349 n. 7, 369 n. 1, 378

Hartland, E. S., 345 n. 8 hatred, 30, 201, 207, 271 Hatzimichalis, A., 267 headaches, 50, 86, 135, 146-9, 156, 163, 256-7 healers, as story tellers, 178-81 attitude to local, 209, 225 characteristics of, 180-1, 238-9, 270, 370 code of, 370 fear of, 369

folk, 194, 195, 269-70, 366, 367

in antiquity, 345— in families, 178-81, 295-6 in other countries, 364 magical, 23 methods of, 129, 135, 145, 146, 368 pantheon of, 321-3 priests as, 24 reputation, 179-80 role of, 286, 366, 371 skills, 129, 180 specialization of, 327, 359, 366, 370

sympathetic discomfort, 16 transmission of powers, 161-4, 180, 3437> 351, 354, 37°

THE

400

DANGEROUS

holy water, 22, 85-6,

healers—cont. wise women as, 22, see also doctors, practika, xemetrima healing, attitude towards, 207, 225, 254-6 magical, 22, 139, 178, 222, 225, 227, 256,

256, 372, 373

Homeric age, 267, 272, 276, 278, 279, 281

warriors, 280, 299 homicide see murder

modern, 268-9 parallels, 350, 375

homosexuality, 223

honey, 337

powers, 345 religious, 2, 81, 106, 369 saints and, 79

Horus, 336 hospitality, 36, 212, 286, 296, 361 Hour, Bad, and anger, 55 and night, 54, 103, 111, 123

substances used in, 131, 135, 160, 256

success of, 210, 370, see also “‘balsamo”’’, Panaghia, power, medicine, folk heart attacks, 97 hearts, 368 “heavy”’, quality, 84, 332 fragrance, 133 shadowed, 132, 302, 337 Hebrew culture, 358

Hecate, 306, 329, 332, 338, 342 Hector, 281, 301, 309, 316 Hecuba, 281

Hegel, 260 Helenos, 294 Heliodorus, 309

Helios, 294, 309, 337

Hell, 77, 313-14, see also Hades, other world Helle, 336 Hellenistic age, 268 hemp, 292 henbane, 292 hens, 123-4

Hera, 272, 275, 283, 300, 323, 325, 345 115,

123,

133-4,

255, 296, 341, 360, 366, 373

186,

herm, 342 n. 3, 348 hermaphrodites, 111, 222, 288-9, see also strangers

Hermes, 278 n. 1, 344-6, 348 Homeric Hymn to, 344 Psychopompos, 80 Trismegistos, 346 Hermotimos, 294. hernia, umbilical, 149, 152 n. 1

Herodias, 340 Herodotus, 273 n. 1, 278, 316, 332 n. 1, 336, 34 6 Herostratus, 89 n. 1 Hesiod, 6, 267, 272, 274, 279, 285, 299, 304, 305, 320 N. 3, 329 N. 3, 332 Nn. 5, 339, 340 nN. I, 341, 349, 350 n. 3 Hesychius, 339 hierarchies, 209, 213 Hippasos, 282,

Hippocrates, 292, 295, 306, 342, 345, 356 Hitler, A., 81

“holies”, 74 Holy Ghost, 273 n. 1 holy orders, 278

holy springs, 137, 324

as a bear, 103 as a dog, 20, 102-3 behaviour of, 55, 97, 101, 102, 104, 111, 116-17 charms against, 50, 133, 138 cure of, 112, 151, 169 death and, 188 description of, 95, 97, 103

in narratives, 191, 306 other forms of, 104 technique against, 207 —Dangerous, ailments caused by, 143 and philotimo, 236 and Empusa, 332 as excuse, 236 counter-measures

against, 250, 337

forms assumed by, 123, 249, 329 in narratives, 101-4, 186 origins of, 331-2

synonyms for, 12 n. 1, 244

Heraclos, 288, 293, 359 n. 2

Ne 1 Hippodamia, 274 Hippolytus, 306

104, 137, 146, 147,

Homer, 241 n. 1, 247, 267, 275, 278-80, 290 n. 6, 296 n. 1, 299, 302, 308-9, 311, 323 0. 3, 329 N. 2, 339 N. 7, 343 N. 2, 344, 345 0. I

269, 371 methods, 3, 177, 179, 186-9, 195, 312, 359, 369-70

herbs, 22, 33, 44-7,

HOUR

treatment for, 101, 102, 156 —Shameful, 95 n. 2 —Upgly, 12 n. 517m. 2) 95 mar hubris, 100 n. 2, 207, 213, 221, 236, 241,

351-6

husband, 11, 41, 60, 215-19, 230, 242, 273— 6, 279, see also philotimo, women

Hygieia, 340, 347

Hyginus, 274, 278, 340 n. 3 hypnotism, 36, 127 hysterical repression, 229 Tasion, 275 Iblis, 360 idealism, 233, 237 TiePOn 76074: Iliad, 298, 299 Ilyssus, river, 350 illness, attitude to, 6, 223, 227 causes of, 5, 6, 208, 221, 249, 280, 368,

373 |

definition of, 207-8 prophecy and, 64

shameful, 157-8, 222, 236 warding off, 41 imagination, 231, 263 immortals, 327-34 impotence, 11, 18-19, 28 n. 1, 64, 252, 254,

.

257; 273, 279, 293, 295, 331 22, 165, 229, 250, 252, 284,

incantations,

298, 348, 359-60, 373

401

INDEX incantations—cont. silence, 250, 348 warding-off, 295, 309, see also lies, ritual, xemetrima incense, in charms, 50, 98, 104, I2I1, 134,

168, 337

in childbirth, 373 in healing compounds, 147, 160 to ward off danger, 170, 256 incest, 231 the male authority, 216, 242 and insanity, 228 as community problem, 223, 231 concealment of, 220, 223, 273 in myths, 274-5, 278 incubation, 62-3, 297, see also dreams incubation shrines, 287 India, 81, 297 n. 1, 348 Indo-European deities, 317 Indus Valley, 358 infant abandonment, 223 infant mortality, 268 n. 1 infanticide, 223, 231, 271, 282-4 infidelity, 14, 218-19 inheritance, 265 inhumation see burial injections, 102, 148 initiates, 238 initiation, 294, 339, 347; see also rites insanity, and prophecy, 64, 294, 300, 307 attitude towards, 206, 22

causes of, 108, 111, 156, 248 concealment of, 223 defined, 228 treatment for, 77-8, 108, 156 institutions, political, 267

religious, 217, 286 social, 267 intelligence, 181 intercourse (sexual), 54, 96, 102, 242 and fear, 216, 234 pre-marital, 278

and prohibition, 46-8, 373 magical associations of, 19 secret, 279

with revenants, 72 with the dead, 316, see also curse binding, pollution introversion, 237 Iphianassa, 294 Iphigenia, 277, 282, 299 n. 2 Iphiclus, 293 iron, 138, 338, 360 Iron age, 268, 286 irrational, 5, 377-8, see also rationalism Isaeus, 277 Isocrates, 315

Italy, 2, 26, 358, 365, 375 itch, 52, 80, 129

James, E. O., 318 n. I Janus, 260 Jason, 276, 336

155, 34! jaundice, 53, 135, 143, 149) 11, 24, 31-2, 34, 106, 211, 221, 248, 364

jealousy,

Jerusalem, 291

Jesus see Christ

Jews, 25, 30, 81, 188, 211, 336, 359 jumping see leaping Juno, 366 Kakiades, 110 Kalamos, 25

kalkes see kallikantzari

kallikantzari, and the hearth, 119-22, 140,

232, 259, 300 at Christmas, 119-22, 140, 259, 314, 319, 341 behaviour of, 110, 122, 165, 232 belief in, 183, 247 birth of, 46 n. 2 charms against, 120, 121, 133, 259 described, 107 in narratives, 110, 118-22, 150-1

origins of, 327, 331 parallels, 362 treatment of, 119, 120, 121

Kanake, 274 Karpathos, 86 Kazantzakis, N., 291 Kemp, P., 197; 367, 368, 369, 370-1

Keos, 324

Kephalonia, 108

Keres, 58, 77, 304-5, 314, 320, 328 kidnapping, 219 killing, 15, 17, see also murder Kimon, 275 kings,

36,

38-9,

286,

296,

297,

306,

317 kinship ties, 222, 267, 294, see also family klidonas, 311 n. 2 knives, 341

black-handled, 15, 32, 117, 136, 140, 151,

158 knots, 19, 137, 168, 252 kolevelonides, 121

kolliva, 69, 313 “‘kombolio” see rosary “korakiasma’”’, 143, 155, 342 Koran, 359, see also Mohammedanism Koukoudi, 327 killing of, 89, 91,

104,

133,

188, 251,

in narratives, 65, 89, 91, 104-5, 190-1 protection against, 105, 138, 139, 250, 259, 330 Kramer, S. N., 282 n. 2 Kydoimos, 344 Lacedaemonia, 325

Lackman, R., and Bonk, J. W., 6

lafitis see snake, liokra

Laing, J. G., 366 Lais, 277 lamb, 63, 65, 348, see also sheep lamias, 115, 119, 181, 183, 185-6, 246, see also Empusa, nereid Lattimore, R., 285, 318 laurel, 81

Lavrion, 71 law, Athenian, 275-7 Spartan, 275, see also Gortyn talion, 242

402

THE

DANGEROUS

Lawson, J. C., 6, 304-5, 311-16, 319 n. 1,

320, 323 n. 1, 324 n. 1, 326, 328, 331-3,

352, 353

leaping, 288, 320, see also revenants

lechona,

dangers

surrounding,

11,

HOUR

exorcism of, 75 hidden, 295

power of, 18, 47, 188, 256 use of, 29, 31-5, 129, 130, 252, 256

25,

magic, attitude towards, 23, 24, 121, 178,

impurity of, 19-20, 42, 46 n. 1, 48, 272,

193-5, 206, 232, 253, 258, 260, 370, 376-7 bad, 23, 32, 33, 295, 370 black, 30, 94, 99, 130, 252, 256

49, 104, 111, 134, 149, 167, 257, 271,

300

359

protection of, 104, 111, 135, 137, 139, 149

taboos surrounding, 14, 19-20, 48-9, 132, 188, 271, 374, see also vulnerability, pollution Leimone, 276 lemon trees, 61 Lesbos, 274. Leto, 272

Leucippe, 282

Leucippus, 278, see also Hermes Leucothea, 359 Levadia, 110 Levendis, 86, 237 libations, 369

Lewis, C. S., 332 n. 4 Liddell, H., and Scott, R., 127 n. 1, 152 n. 3,

288, 299 n. 3

lies, 7, 12, 14, 17, 72, 82, 195, 207, 221, 3456, see also xemetrima life expectancy, 268-9 light-shadowed, conceptions of, 42, 51-5,

107, 190, 237-9, 298-308, 352

defined, 239 n. 1 in narratives, 48-53, 110 pollution of, 129, 307 purity, of, 49-52, 236, see also vulnerability light-spirited, 52, 303 lightning, 107

ligaria see osier

lime, 138, 359

Linforth, I. N., 346, 348 n. 6 Linton, R., 317

liokra, 128-9, 137, 165, 168-9, 334-5, 352,

see also snake liokrino see unicorn literacy, 7 Little, A. M. G., 288 n. 2 liver, 73-4, 120, 325 living conditions, 267 lochia, 132, see also pollution locks, 18-19, 47, 140, 252 Lord’s Prayer, 96, 117, 136, 147, 154 love, 201, 218, 271 Lucian (of Samosata), 289 n. 3, 317, 320,

325, 349 n. 6-7

Lycus, 303

Macedonia, 89, 90, 367 McNeill, W. H., 267

Macrobius, 338, 339 n. 2 madness, 294, 295, 303, 308, see also insanity “magarismene’’, 48 Magi, 291, 292

magia, constituents of, 22, 23, 30-2, 34, 130, 165 counter-spells against, 139

Christ and, 80-1

circles, 37, 41, 125, 138, 139, 250, 259, 265, 330

classification, 252 contagious, 252 dangers of, 368 deceit and, 345-6 Ephesian, 293

good, 23, 33, 94, 116, 295, 370

holophrastic, 251, 252 homeopathic, 252 human qualities and, 42-56 in cities, 194 in Classical age, 292 in myths, 292-3 in narratives, 4, 7, 81, 178, 190, 206 in other countries, 359, 365, 367, 370, 371,

375-6

in pre-Classical age, 294 of cures, 5, 269, 368 of curses, 368 Oriental, 370 practitioners of, 89, 295, 307 protective, 37, 41, 138 ritual, 252 role of, 5 secrecy, 346-7 sympathetic, 252 texts on, 80, 94 threat of, 11

tools of, 22, 23, 293, 341 white, 372 women and, 216, see also magical devices, 348 magical healing see healing magical system, 253, 257 magical treatment, 137, see magicians, and exotika, 23, and extraordinary dead, and priests, 23-4 attitude

towards,

ritual, magical

also healing 253 325

214, 225, 260, 2g1-2,

294

bad, 32, 286

good, 23, 32, 116, 286 healing role of, 181, 255-6, 269, 286, 366 hereditary, 22, 23, 110 in narratives, 18, 28, 89, 94, 109, 116, 188 male, 22, 23, 286

mythical, 291-4 powers of, 27-35, 286, 366 practice of, 33, 89, 94, 109, 110, 116, 117, 165, 222 traditions

of, 23,

practitioners of

286, see

magnetism, 31, 43, 80, 127, 180

maidens, 273-6, see also virginity Makareus, 274, 275

also magic,

INDEX malaria, 59, 139, 257

Minotaurus, 282

male fears, 217-18 malice, 169, 207, 221, see also hatred manipulation, 96, 368, 369, 370 Mannhardt, W., 252, 331 n. I *‘manteis”’, 286, 301

Mantheos, 35, 110, 118, 130, 174, 295, 307 mantis, 302

maranthos, 115 marihuana, 292 n. I

Mary, Virgin, 49 n. 1, 282, 363, see also Panaghia mastery, psychological, 204 “mastich”, 104. n. I match-makers, 16, 280 matricide, 300, 302

mayissa, see wise women measles, 159 Medea, 276, 283, 294, 295 medicine, folk, 125, 133-41, 143-60, 180-1, 194-5, 207-9, 342-3 and commun‘ty, 225 and drugs, 292 efficacy, 254-8 in other countries, 364, 366, 368-70, 373 popularity, 269-70 mediums, 29, 36-7, 52, 286 Medusa, 330 Megara, 29, 36 Megas, G. A., 136 n. I, 311 n. 2, 331, 340, 353 Melampus, 293, 294 Meleager, 315, 371 Melicertes, 282

Melissa, 316 memory, of childhood, 231, 232 of the dead, 223-4 and distortion, 199, 256 and oral tradition, 270 Memphis, 325 Menander, 348 Menelaos, 278 meningitis, 103 menstruation, and impurity, 20, 46, 48, 155,

188, 299, 359

and magic, 17

and taboos, 20, 48, 155

dangers of, 20, 46 power of, 131, 299 Mertens, R., 128 n. 1, 335 n. 2 meteorites, 374 Methana, 330

methodology, 3, 174, 185, 196, 197, 199,

200, 264, 375

Mexico, 292 n. I

mice, 129, 336-7, 366, see also mouse oil midwives, 37, 213, 225, 271, 281, 282 n. 1,

366, 373 126-9,

Minyas, 282 miracles, and birth, 58 and death, 182-3 and the Panaghia, 25, 49, 82-8 and the pure, 44, 45 at Church of Christ, 82

at Church of St George, 91 gifts for, 85, 138

in narratives, 45, 46, 49, 66, 77, 85, 87-8,

marriage, 6, 44, 137, 192, 218, 273, 275, 277-81, 284, 374

milk, 50, 76, 79>

493

132,

335,

366

see also baraka, Christ

Mireaux, E., 267, 279 mirrors, 33, 78, 341, 361 miscarriage, 28, 46, 47, 84, 168, 252, 273,

342 n. 4, 373

mistletoe, 338 Mithra, 325 Mnesiptolema, 275 moderation, 206, 210

Mohammed, 359 Mohammedanism, 362, 365, 375 Moira (pl. Moirai), 100, 169, 304, 313, 315,

327-8, 341, 344, 371 n. 2

Molossus, 276

money, 221, 257 Montenegro, 367 mood, 196, 253 moon, afflictions caused by, 13, 135, 149,

208, 249, 257

and fertility, 135, 258 and treatments, 4-5, 12, 134-6, 155, 256, 296 bringing down, 295 convulsions, 101, 143, 156

danger of, 123, 135, 143, 257; 338; 374 herbs gathered under,

135-6, 154, 296,

338, 341

light-shadowed and, 53 magic and, 338 mice and, 337

Mopsi, 293, 295

morbidity experience, 268 morbidity survey, 174 n. 2 Morocco, 2, 358-63, 375 Moros, 72, 100-1, 124, 138, 143, 191, 246,

248, 332

Moslems, 87, see also Mohammedanism mother, 215, 219, 228-30, 271, 273, 284, 298 motherhood, 206, 219-20, 230, 273-4, 281,

284. mouse, of Apollo, 337 mouse oil, 129-30, 160, 178, 255, 336 mumps, 149, 159, 162 murder, 16, 184, 320 and haunting, 137 concealment of, 220, 223 fear of, 216, see also pollution sites of, 111 Murray, G., 349 n. 4, 352, 378 Murray, H., 5

muteness, 77, 84, 87, 117, 137, 166, 229,

257s 259, 350-1

Miltiadis, 29, 30, 110, 295, 307 Minoan-Mycenaean beliefs, 330, 338, 353 burials, 297, 314, 319 settlements, 3, 69, 264, 324 Minoan period, 317, 358

Mycenaean period, 317 Myron, Holy, 147 myrrh, 81 Myrrha, 274

Minos, 294

mystery,

I, 2, 4, 8, 263-4, 374

THE

404

DANGEROUS

myth, 203, 236, 240, 294 combat, 161, 183, 184, 260

olive oil, 133, 146, 148-9, 152, 159, 168,

mythology, 5, 260, see also priests

252, 254, 267, 311, 337, 366 omens, 58, 63, 311-12, 325, 374, 376

nail parings, 22, 32, 130, 337

nails, 29, 31, 34, 140, 155, 341

names, 95, 119-20, 144, 165, 222, 331

narratives, analysis of, 176-201 characteristics of, 6-8 content of, 188, 198-9, 202-3, 211, 219,

B22-9 effects of, 2, 199, 201-5 intentional, 199, 205-10 logic of, 245-60 of danger, 12 psychological implications, 227-43 revivalist, 208, 209 “set”? for, 203-4 themes, 2, 5, 109, 201, 222-3, 263, 269 Nausikaa, 296 navel see wandering navel Neaerea, 281

necrophilia, 223, 329 negroes, 72 n. I, 101, 360

Neoptelemus, 316 nephritis, 115 n. 2 nereid, nereida (pl. nereids), ailment caused by, 116, 118, 236, 243, 250, 324 and lechona, 20

and light-shadowed, 50 and water, 49, 113, 116, 118, 123, 137 and women, 218, 274, 284 behaviour of, 13, 20, 51, 54, 95, 104, 110,

112-13 belief in, 4, 49, 54, 107, 118, 181, 183, 186, 246-7, 259, 260, 362 control of, 112, 115, 131, 251

description, 12 n. 1, 107 functions of, 218-19, 284 Greek, 114

treatment 327-8

of, 104, 112-13, 115-17, 324,

Turkish,

114,

see

also

polarity,

Neumann, E., 289

New Testament, 273

Nicomache, 275 night, 341 nightmares, 51, 248

Nikephoros, King, 39 Nilsson, M. P., 278-9, 284, 287, 288, 293, 298 n. 1, 300, 314, 318 n. 1, 320, 324 n.

_ 3» 326, 338, 344, 353

Niobe, 281

noon, 329, 331-2, 350 nostalgia, 43-5, 231, 233 numbers,

167, 188, 229, 350, 361

nuns, 39, 62, 156 nymphs see nereid

Oedipus, 265 offerings, 6

belief in, 64-6 Delphic, 64, 302 dream, 240, 294 Oreads, 342 Orestes, 300, 302, 304-7, 318 Oropos, 293 Orpheus, 283, 306, 322, 341 Oschophoria, 288 osier, 160 n. I

Osiris-Serapis, 322 Orthodox Christian dogma, 183, 185, 193,

195, 209, 211, 232, 238, 256, 267, 319, 325 pantheon, 183, 208, 232, 372 other world, 4, 311-21, 372, see also Hades, Paradise Ovid, 274 n. 3, 299, 330 owls, 373-4

pain, 1, 3, 92, 125, 183, 223, 243, 248, 253, 353> 377

Palaikastro, 288 Paleopetra, 92

Palestine, 94, 128 n. 1, 335 *‘paliomerologites’’, 106 pallake, 277

Pan, 276, 305, 329, 331, 332, 342, 350, see also Stringlos Panaghia, ambivalent nature of, 260, 323, 334 and fertility, 83, 322 and health, 68, 85, 208, 210, 322

in magic, 23, 25 in narratives, 13, 50, 51, 65, 102, 103, 104, 110-18, 186, 191, 242

186,

onion, 366 oracles, and prophecy, 282, 301

order, 260

function of, 2, 7, 222-3

women Nero, 294

HOUR

oil of the dead, 17, 32, 133, 170 oleander, 134

and holy springs, 137-8 and mothers, 83-4, 260, 271 and women, 83, 87, 217, 322-3, 327 bad luck and, 63 belief in, 248 child-offerings to, 45, 58-60, 83-4, 219— 20, 228, 260, 274, 283-4

importance of, 105, 227, 232, 321-3, 327 in dreams, 58-61, 63, 83, 248, 253, 257 in narratives, 25, 45, 49, 58-63, 68, 82-8,

90, 156, 167, 189, 257

powers of, 96, 165, 227, 232

Sleeping of the, 49, 85, 87, 193, 320

visions of, 85, see also miracles, muteness

Panorio, 8, 173-4, 178, 192-5, 246, 265-6, 312, 355 Paphos, 274 Paradise, 77, 238, 313-15 paralysis, 19-20, 82, 87, 186, 250, 257 “parigoria’”’, 68, 238, 313-14, 319 ‘parmos’’, 136 Parnassus, Mt., 344

parricide, 373 Parthenon, 194 patriarchal society, 272 Patroclus, 301, 329

INDEX Paul, B., 378 Paul, King, 38 Pauly, A. F., and Wissowa, G., 314 n. 1, 318

n. I Pausanias, 278, 293, 298 n. 1, 299, 300, 321

n. I, 324 n. I, 329 n. 6, 340, 341

Pelasgus, 275 Pelion, Mt., 331 Pelopia, 278 Peloponnesus, 41, 77, 111, 175 penicillin, 256

Pentheus, 282, 289, 296, 307 n. 1 Periander, 316

Pericles, 277 “‘perideipnon”’ see “‘parigoria”’ Perseus, 324 Persia, customs in, 275 plains of, 358 Persians, 332, 337 personality, and culture, 4, 5 development of, 237 of listeners, 202 of narrators, 196, 198, 232 predictions, 5 structure, 198 “petrahali’, 25 peyote buttons, 292 n. I Phaeacian, 276

Phaedra, 295 Phaedrus, 329, 350 Phaistos, 278 phantoms, 303 pharmacy, 296, 342, see also drugs Philip of Macedon, 38 Philippedes, 303, 305

Philo Judeaus, 275 philotimo, and anxiety, 216, 273 challenge to, 15, 210, 221, 356 defence of, 210, 212

protection of, 212, 215, 222, 230, 242 rites serving, 286, see also blame-throwing Phineus, 306 Phobos, 344 Phoenicians, 282

Photius, 300 photographs, 78 Phrixus, 336 Phrygians, 325 Phryne, 277 Phylacus, 293 piety, 217-18, 220, 225, 228, 230, 354 piety-pollution system, 206 piety-propriety code, 220, 230

pigs, 27, 65, 366

pimple, bad see anthrax pimples, 157, 168

Pindar, 305, 314-15, 345 n- 3, 348

pins, 34, 34! Pitt-Rivers, J. A., 363, 364, 365

plague, 104, 143, 293, 298, 330, 336, 369, see also Koukoudi

Plague, as a spirit, 368, 369, 370-1 plants, 291-2 Plato, 272, 275, 281, 282, 292, 295, 301-4, 312, 316 n. 2, 320 n. 2, 328 n. 4, 334 n.

1, 338, 342 n. 1, 348

pleuritis, 16

405 Pliny, 291-2, 294 n. 3, 299 n. 4, 330, 335; 336, 337, 338, 350

Ploss, H., 298 n. 1 Plutarch, 275, 277, 279, 280, 282, 288, 300,

, 339 2. 4 poison, 338 polarity, 24, 201, 202, 209, 231, 260 Politis, N., 303 n. 6, 331, 352 pollution, burial and, 317 by blood, 298, 348 by deformity, 298 by donkey’s milk, 50, 129, 305 by drunkenness, 298 by faeces, 47, 132, 188, 232, 298 by gipsies, 287, 298 by illness, 340 by intercourse, 298, 359 by lechonas, 188, 298, 300 and awe, 138, 271, 272

and penalties, 20, 132 period of, 11, 19-20, 46 protection against, 300, 340, 371 by menstruation, 48, 188, 299 by murderers, 6, 340, 359 by revenants, 73-4, 132, 232,

320

300,

by strangers, 298 by the dead, 298, 300, 340, 362 by tortoise blood, 50, 79, 129, 335 by urine, 71, 132, 298 concepts of, 42, 53, 206, 232, 298, 300,

307-8, 351

control of, 242, 298, 300, 306, 374 in former times, 298-300 in narratives, 209

kallikantzari and, 232 light-shadowed and, 190, 307 mothers and, 298 of evil-eye, 47-48 polluted objects, 19, 340 Pollux, 323 Polydos, 294

polygamy, 373

Polyxena, 277, 281, 316 Pontos, 264 portents, 58, 191

Poseidon, 79, 309, 323, 329) 343

possession, demon see under demons poverty, 223, 271

power, healing, 129, 161-4, 248, 252, 342-3,

351, 359

magical, 22, 37, 370

of blood, 131, 132 of Christ, 80

of epileptics, 56 of strangers, 36 of the evil eye, 43

of the supernaturals, 24, 95, 328, 344 of words, 165, 363-4 pollution and, 232 prophecy and, 311 transferability of, 251, 344-5, 351, see also healers

powers, 4, 36, 214, 250, 286, 327, 333-4, 344

practika, 129, 150, 187, 269, 343, see also wise women, healers

THE

406

DANGEROUS HOUR

prayers, 44, 250, 256, 359, 369

Pythagoras, 291-2

Pythia, 304, 307

Praxithea, 282

pre-Christian attitudes, 272 elements, 183, 184, 326 heritage, 183 hierarchies, 209 practices, 25, 272, 289

Radin, P., 8, 289, 305, 352 rage, 308 rain, 61

rape, 25, 216, 223, 273, 278, 357 n. I

survivals, 185, see also ritual pregnancy,

I1,

15-16, 47) 84, 93,

223, 254, 273, 368, 373

102,

107,

prescriptions, ritual, 254

Priam, 316 priesthood, 351-2 priestesses, 286, 372 priests, and cures, 50, 115, 159, 170, 287 and dead, 224

and dress, 289 and exorcism, 19-20, 50, 53, 77, 97, 122 and healing, 269, 287 and magic, 225-6, 256, 289, 352 attitudes to, 53, 88, 106, 189, 206, 209-14, 217-18, 225-6, 289 bad luck and, 189, 286, 289, 312 continuity of, 291

rating scales, 3 rationalism, 2, 234 rationalizations, 7, 220, 225, 227, 228 reaction formation, 212

reason, 376-8 rebellion, 274, 284 rebelliousness, 214 rebirth, 339, see also revenants reciprocity, 253 recreation, 192 Redfield, R., 355, 356 n. 2

reeds, 34, 137, 159

reification, 244 n. 1, 247 remedies, folk see medicine, folk reputation, for healing, 180 of women, 219, 276 village, 212, see also community

corruption of, 25, 27, 209, 217

respect, 207

nature of, 260 power of, 22-7,

responses, idiosyncratic, 227 reverbrating, 202, 203 restrictions, institutionalized, 216 resurrection, 283 retardation, 102, 106, 109, 223, 229-30 revelations, 290, 350 n. I revenants (vrikolakes), belief in, 54, 58, 118,

evil-doing, 19, 24-6 in Bulgaria, 372 in mythology, 293-4 in Spain, 364 in the past, 287-8, 299

166; 48h, esq 27, 286 problems of, 225 role of, 23-7, 193, 214, 286-7, 290, 326— 7> 352

status of, 183, 218 propaganda, 7

prophecy, 57, 64-5, 287, 290, 301-2, 311— 12, 314, 344, 346, 361

propitiation, 24, 369, 372 propriety, 220, 223, 225, 230-1, 236, 241,

297; 354, 363, 365

“prostitutes” see gossip prostitutes, 168, 170, 277-8 protection, 354 Protesilas, 279 Protestantism, 356-7 Proteus, 294. Psamatha, 330 Psellus, 312, 325

puberty, 298 public health, 268, 269 Purgatory, 367 purification, 340, 360, 373-4 and death, 301

and healing power, 161 purity and healing, 312 and transmission of “‘bad’’, 164.

and miracles, 44, 45, 49, 52, 307

concepts of, 42, 78, 161, 298-9 of holy place, 359 of women, 276, see also light-shadowed, pollution psychic function, 199 psychic processes, 24.1 psychoanalytic theory, 232

181-5, 190, 374

conditions producing, 54, 66, 70-6, 137, 166, 258-9, 288, 302, 314, 316 n. 1, 320, 374

destruction of, 71-6, 267, 319 illness and, 208

in antiquity, 342 n. 2 in narratives, 70-6, 122, 167

places for, 142 pollution and, 73-4, 132, 232 reasons for becoming, 166, 314, 319, see also Christ, exorcism, pollution Rhea, 275, 293 n. 2 rheumatism, 4 Rhodes, 4 Ridgeway, W., 318 n. 1 ridicule, 15, 38, 210, 225, 237, 291 rings, 60, 138, 140, 168, 341 rites, adoption of, 339, 370 cathartic, 369 child-dedication, 284

death, 313 Dionysian, 282 funeral, 313, 320, 362, 367, 372, see also burial health, 367, 369 hospitality, 36—7, 286, 296, 361, 370 initiation, 283 n. 1, 339 of passage, 24, 369 religious, 23, see also exorcism ritual, against the evil eye, 139, 252 apotropaic, 24, 258, 259, 296, 366 attitude towards, 207, 376 Babylonian, 336 baptism, 238

INDEX ritual—cont. diagnosis-healing, 22-3, 254 for the dead, 139, 224 funeral, 258, 312, 313, 367

healing, 137, 138, 164, 165, 177, 251, 359;

nature, 260

366, 369

role of, 323

hospitality, 212, 296, 370

importance.of, 235 impurity, 340 in narrative, 209

St Gerassimos,

magical, 130, 133-4, 138, 252-3, 341

numbers, 350 practices, 5-6, 180, 283, 367 pre-Christian, 373 propitiating, 24 protective, 137, 362, 366 purification, 340, 373 religious, 23, 134, 156, 225, 359, 369, 372 spring, 282 Taurian, 299 ““tendance’’, 24 techniques

407

St Elias, 49, 141, 305, 309, 337, 369 St Fanourios, 90 St George, 53, 91, 141, 165, 236, 246, 307 narratives about, 39, 46, 64-5, 90-1 as slayer of Koukoudi, 89, 105, 251, 323

of, 206, 207, see also curse,

binding, death

St St St St St St

108

Helen, 366 John, 77, 88, 131, 193, 343 John the Baptist, 340 Kosmas, 79, 88, 323 Lucy, 366 Luke, 273 n. 1, 309

St Marina, 76, 79, 323, 324 St Matthew, 241 St Modhistos, 92, 250, 323 St Nikephoros, 258 St St St St

Nikolas, 60, 79, 92, 189, 250, 309 Pantelimon, 61, 94, 323 Paraskevi, 92, 93, 131, 323, 324 Paul, 305 n. 1, 306, 343 n. 1

St Peter, 37-8, 58, 92, 343 St Rocco, 366

Rizos, 124

rock, 138-9, 208, 339, 347 Rodd, R., 291 n. 1, 352-3 Rohde, E., 314 n. 1, 318 n. 1, 332 n. 3, 339

n. 5 Rome, 26, 260, 294 culture of, 358

St Serafim, 61, 94, 189, 323 St Venere, 366

saints, and healing, 79-80, 82, 131, 137, 141,

323, 359, 368, 371

and illness, 208, 237

as protectors, 217, 271, 314, 323

beating of, 250 idea of, 247, 259, 326 in narratives, 88-94, 188-9, 232 offerings to, 69, 324 origins of, 309, 323-4, 326-31, 366

empire of, 268, 291 roosters see cocks

rosary, 117 Roscher, W. H., 293 n. 4 Rose, H. J., 302, 314

power of, 80, 82, 96, 165, 181, 232, 324,

rue, 115, 121, 133, 337; 338 Rumelia, 176

rumour studies, 8 rural culture, 1, 181, 355 rush, 104 n. I Russell, Claire and Russell, W. S., 237 n. I

327 saliva, 366

salt, 50, 138, 145, 147, 338, 360, 366 Salmoneus, 306

Samter, E., 298 n. 1

Sanders, I., 267, 372-3 Santorini, 12 n. 1

‘sabia’, 363 ‘Sacred Springs’, 282 sacrifices, animal, 69, 84-5, 92, 250, 303,

Saracatzani, 3, 106, 173, 176, 312, 322, 355 Satan see Devil

child, 83, 99, 282-4, see also Panaghia human, 304, 373 in Yugoslavia, 369 personal, 242

Savage, C. A., 277 scapegoats, 237 scapulamancy, 63, 189, 257, 258, 287, 310I2

324, 359, 360

é

substitute, 305

Sahara, 128, 335 St Anna, 88-9, 366 St Anthony, 366

schizophrenia, 33, 77, 259 schoinos, 104, 163

Schmidt, B., 6, 128, 314, 320, 326, 335, 353, 382 Schmidt, K. B., and Inger, R. F., 128 n. 1,

St Antonius, 89, 189, 323

B30

St Artemidos, 324 St Artemisios, 79, 89, 309

sea, 32, 34, 60, 164, 188, 250, 347

St Athanasios, 50, 61, 62, 189, 193, 305

as destroyer of Koukoudi, 251, 323 St Constantine, 44, 63, 89 St Damianos, 79, 88, 323 St Demeter, 309

satyrs, 329, 331, 342

89, 91, 105,

St Dimitrios, 41, 63, 69, 89, 90, 141, 189,

250, 259, 323-4 St Dionysios, 79, 309 St Eleutherios, 271, 309, 323, 324

second sight, 42, 52, 57 second world, 4, 23, 183, 239 secrecy, 346-7 security 5, 228, 235-6, 267, see also family security mechanism, 235 seers, 239, 290, 293, 294 Semele, 329 Semites, 282, 337 sensory data, 246, 249, 251, 256 sensory deprivation, 7

408

THE

DANGEROUS HOUR

Sennacharib, 336 Serbia, 367 serfs, 267

concepts about, 57-8, 69, 76-8, 301-2.

Sethon, 336

wandering, 77, 78, 208, 252, 294, 311, 314, 320, 337, 372, see also Keres, mice

305, 311, 314, 368

throwing, 43, 80-1, 314

sex, 187, 208, 214-16, 218, 223, 242, 288-0, 345, 363, see also intercourse, sexual Seyfert, O., 294 shadows, 51-2, 71, 103-4,

110, 117, 300,

302-3, see also light-shadowed, heavyshadowed shamanism, 42, 305, 37I n. I shame, 208, 228-9, 290, 363 sheep, 64, 97-8, 158, 346, see also scapulamancy

Spain, 2, 358, 363-5, 2S:

Sparta, 275, 278-82 Spata, 82, 137, 156, 272 Spathi, 174, 192, 212 sperdoukli” see asphodel

spells, 15, 18, 37, 137, 366, see also curse, magic

spirit-bearers, 368 spirits, concepts about, 23, 96, 181, 191,

239, 368-70

shrines, 250, 264, 293, 359

Sicyonia, 340

etymology of, 303

Sileni, 331 silver, 138, 338, 360 “simadi’’, 33 Simonides, 304 sirens, 304

evil, 14, 50, 97, 108, 133

healing, 368, 371 in antiquity, 304—7 in other countries, 365, 368-9 intrusion by, 252, 366 personified, 37, see also exotika, shadowed

Sirius, 76, 339, 340

Sisyphus, 316 sixth sense, 64

spitting, 40, 145, 341 springs, 123, 166, 264, 339, 341-2, 359

skin ailments, 167-8 skino see schoinos slander, 223 smallpox, 330

smoke, 60, 139, 157, 338 snake, 125~7, 208, 239, 249, 311, 334-5, 346, 366, 374 :

of death, 70, 373, see also liokra snakeskin, 36, 126, 127, 331, 334 sneezing, 347

soap, 32, 252 social position see status social learning, 247 social roles, 268, 291 sociological revolution, 269 Socrates, 281, 301, 302, 320, 328-9, 334, 350 Sofia, 372 Solomon, 80, 94, 325 Solomonaiki, 31, 94, 99, 325 Solon, 277, 280-1, 317 soot, 139-40, 163 Sophocles, 243, 285, 290 n. 3, 302-3, 315,

316 n. 1, 341 n. 1, 378 Soranus, 347 n. 7 sorcerers, and magia, 75, 137, 139 curse of, 165 in narratives, 30, 34-5 role of, 23, 27, 370 tools used by, 22, 29, 31, 130, 131 sorcery, and illness, 208, 243

and magical ailments, 144, 252 as excuse, 236 attitude towards, 124, 194, 254, 257, 358 counter-measures against, 29, 32, 188 elderly and, 285 in narratives, 28, 29, 31, 35, 475 75, 133 in other countries, 364-5 practitioners of, 23, 80, 94, 364. women and use of, 216, exorcism, magic Sosias, 264,

soul, capture of, 252, 314, 320 children, 18

light-

280, see also

stars, and gipsies, 136, 297 communication with, 158, 295 illness caused by, 149, 187, 208 power, of, 136 preternatural significance of, 338 “seen” by, 136, 143 status, 180, 267, 273, 276

stealing, 106, 162-4, 345-8, 351 Stebbins, Dr R., 128 n. 1 sterility, 254, 372 Stesichorus, 304 “‘stichio”’ see ‘“‘stoicheion’’, light-shadowed stimulus-bound, 255 “stoicheion”’, 239, 303-4 stomach, 36

stones, 138, 338, 342, 348, 359 strangers,

as omens,

3II

attitude towards, 42, 211-13, 235, 286, 296-7, 361 bad luck brought by, 39-41, 63, 312 infants as, 37, 42 powers of, 36, 40, 83, 174, 181, 191, 286,

296, 297, 361

suspicions of, 37, 40, 212, 220, 222, 286 warnings against, 40, 207, 219, see also hermaphrodites, pollution, rites streams,

123

Stringla, 330, 366 Stringlos, 12 n. 1, 95 and death, 65, 76, 254, 330 animals and, 124-5 as construct, 243-4

behaviour of, 97, 330 belief in, 96-8, 118, 121, 196, 247-8, 327 counter-measures

against,

196 derivation of, 330-1, 366

97, 98,

133,

forms of, 14, 37, 50, 95, 97, 98, 123, 139, 177, 196, 329 knowledge of, 180, 183, 196 narratives about, 96-8, 188, 191, 231

strix, 330, 366, see also owl.

INDEX structures, institutional, 214, 264 psychic, 376 social, 195, 214 suggestion, 177, 257

suicide, 16, 76, 190, 228, 265, 292, 317, 320 Suidas, 315 n. 2 Sullivan, H. S., 235 sulphur, 366

Sumer, 49, 358

Summers, M., 314, 320

sun, 136-7, 208, 249, 253, 337-9

super-ego, 224 supernatural see magic “supernatural underground’’, 23 and magical devices, 341 survivals, 280 and methodological problems, 263-6, 270 and trances, 294 understanding of, 350-3 and unresolved issues, 350-2, see also beliefs

suspicion, 37, 39, 41, 191

swearing, 20, see also curses sweat, 130

Sybaris, 330 sycamore, 59, 73 symbolism, 201, 232, 240, 246-7, 250, 258, 287, 311 systems, authority-technology, 213, 225, 227, 269 healing-magical-religious, 207, 209, 213, 218, 225, 227, 232, 256, 257, 269 ideological, 232 magico-religious, 210 outside-city-technology, 207, 225 “symbolic”, 287, 189 value, 206, see also traditions

taboos, 11, 42, 132, 141, 190, 209, 271, 279,

292, 299, 307, 340, 350, 351, 354, 368,

371; 374 talion see law talismans, 303, 359, 371 “tama”’ see vows Tammuz, 283 Tantalus, 280, 306 Tartarus, 306

techniques, magical-religious, 284 propagandistic, 208, 234 technology, effects of, 355-6, 376, 378 Tegea, 332 Teiresias, 290, 292, 293, 299, 350 Telchines, 293, 295, 304, 306 temptation, 44, III, 115 “tendance’’, 24 Tenedos, 282, 336 Tenos, Panaghia of, 25, 45-6, 49, 59, 82-7, 189, 219-20 test, projective, 202 Thais, 277 thaumaturgy, 252 Thebes, 36, 176, 188, 243, 296, 340 theft, 223 Themis, 79 Themistocles, 275

Theocritus, 312, 331, 334 n. 3, 34! Thera, 12 n. 1, 46 n. 2, 331

409

Thessalonians, 284, 295 Thessaly, 267, 282

Thompson, S., 345 n. 8, 350 n. 5 Thomson, G. D., 298 n. 1 thought, dichotomized, 212 Thyestes, 278

time, 141, 341, 362 Titane, 340 tokens, 28, 33, 137; 165, 251, see also magia, “simadi” tonsillitis, 149, 159 toothache, 136, 149, 158 tortoise, 335 Toth, 346, see also Hermes tradition, 234, 265, 286-7 traditions, conflict of, 4, 143, 201, 269-70, 343, 355, see also beliefs, magicians, priests, systems trance, 51, 57, 72, 78 n. 1, 100, 156, 294 transference, 251, 343, 345, 369, see also exorcism transmission, of healing power see under healers of illness, 164, 248, 251, 361, 366 transubstantiation, 283 n. I transvestism, 288, 289, 371 n. I Transylvania, 337 travellers, 37, 372, see also strangers trees, 337

Troy, 280-1, 294, 336 tuberculosis,

16, 19,

126,

144,

165, 248,

250-1, 257, 366, 369

Turkey, 3, 25, 32, 43, 126, 220 turquoise see copper sulphate Tychi see fortune Tychiades, 320 Tyndareus, 280 typhoid, 101, 150, 257

Ulysses, 292, 296, 300, 304-5 unconscious, 202, 240-3

underworld, 315-16, see also Hades unicorn, 335 unmarried girls, 15-17,

see also maidens,

virginity

urine, 20, 71, 132, 158, 337, 366, 373 Valetta, N., 290 n. 2

values, 208, 215, 220, 225, 233 integrating, 222 moral, 7 community, 198, 215, 221, see also beliefs, traditions

vampires, 372, 374.

“‘vasilikos’’ see basil venereal diseases, 144, 157, 158 Venetians, 38 vengeance, and community, 206, 221 code of, 12, 210, 273

in dreams, 240 women’s, 216-18, 242 Venus, 363 verbal ability, 177, 181

Vermeule, C., 332 n. 2 Verrall, A. W., 321 n. 2

village see community vine branches, 134, 148

THE

410

DANGEROUS

vine leaves, 134, 337 vinegar, 36 vipers see snakes Virgil, 316 virginity, 15, 273-9, 284 virility, 279-80 visions, 4, 51, 110, 304, 306, 311 visitations, 57-62, 285, 297, 361 Vittora, 77, 191, 248, 251, 285, 305, 308, 320 vows, 63, 85 vrachnas’’, 332 vrikolakes see revenants Vrilissia, 76 vulnerability, of brides, 169, 206, 360, 368 of children, 368, 374 of dirty, 48 of good, 360 of grooms, 169, 206, 360 of the aged, 12 of the lechona, 46, 49, 134, 271, 272, 374 of the light-shadowed, 305, 306 of the unbaptized, 13, 135, 271-2, 306,

360, 374

of the unburied, 360 of women, 360, 368, 374 periods of, 11, 353; 37! Wachsmuth, C., 253, 295, 353 waist, 143, 153-4 wandering navel, 143, 149-53, 180, 187, 342 warts, 136, 137, 187 water, 18, 30, 64, 109, 362

power of, 123, 137, 208, 312, 338, 359

silent, 117, 166, 239 weddings, 11, 17-19, 24, 48, 68, see also brides, husband, marriage wells, 123 Westermarck, E., 197, 358-62 whirlwinds, 104, 114, 133, 333 Whitman, C. H., 270, 318 n. 1-2

widows, 373 Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, U. von, 283 n. 1,

318 n. 1, 323 N. I, 324N. 3, 342 n. 3 Williams, P., 365, 366, 367

wine, 23, 134, 337; 366

wise women, and healing, 13, 22, 25, 30-3,

36, 148, 156, 254, 257, 269, 286, 248, 353

and power, 181, 230, 251 and wisdom, 180, 230 as part of community, 23, 222, 224, 269, 286 belief in, 225, 254, 269 exotika and, 307 in narratives, 25, 30, 32, 188, 206 in other countries, 363-5, 372, 374, see also practika, babi”, sabia” witchcraft, 43, 216, 222, 285, 293, 338, 361 witches, and evil eye, 43, 222 as evil-doers, 19, 22-3, 284

HOUR

as healers, 25, 225, 257, 269, 366, 369 belief in, 28-9, 30, 75, 269 in ancient Greece, 294, 295 in narratives, 28-9, 30, 75, 188, 206 in other countries, 365-7

magical powers, 27-9, 34, 36, 75, 286 protection of community by, 222 wizards, 29, 366 wolves, 350, 366

women, 17, 48, 99, 214-19, 234; 274, 276-7, 279-80, 284 and burial, 317 and children, 230 ‘and magic, 364 and pollution, 359, see motherhood, Panaghia

also

mother,

wool, 12, see also fleece

words, as a defence, 236, 359 discharging, 30 healing, 348, 367 power of, 165, 229, 296, 348-9 stealing’, 342-50, 353 spellbinding, 325 spellbreaking, 149, see also xemetrima, lies worry, 101, 106, 223

Xanthias, 316 n. 1, 329 xemetrima, against Dangerous Hour, 101-3

and user, 146, 147 efficacy, 256 for anemopyroma, 145, 154, 163, 254 for bewitchment, 103, 132 for evil eye, 131, 133, 139, 145-9, 162, 163, 168 for other illnesses, 53, 149, 154, 156, 159, 162-3 for wandering navel, 151-3, 187 healing power of, 22, 49, 156, 161-3, 165,

296, 343, 348

secrecy about, 88 used under the moon,

12, 13, 135

used with other substances, 133, 134, 138 used with water, 88, 137 words, 346, 348, see also healers Yama, 318

yawning, 164, 347 Yugoslavia, 2, 358,

367-71

Zacharias, 273 n. I Zagreus see Dionysus

Zeus, 273 n. 1, 274, 275, 278, 280, 293, 295, 296, 300, 302, 306, 307, 329, 343-5, 349 | Laphystian, 282 Teleios, 287 ? Xenios, 361

zig-zag chain, 161, 343, 347, 351, 354, see also power, healing

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