The crafts and industries of the American Indian women of California and the Southwest

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THE CRAFTS AND INDUSTRIES OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN WOMEN OF CALIFORNIA AND THE SOUTHWEST

A T hesis P resen ted to t h e F a c u l t y o f t h e D e p a rtm e n t o f A n t h r o p o lo g y U n iv e r s ity of Southern C a lif o r n ia

In P a r t i a l F u lfillm e n t o f t h e R e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e Degree D octor o f P hilosophy

F r a n c e s E. W a tk in s J u n e 1942

UMI Number: DP23572

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P*

327

c i _ t . , p . 311

41 p a rt of d a ily d ress.

13

Twined r u s h c a p s o f t h e S h a s t a were

l a r g e r than th e c lo s e f i t t i n g h a l f sphere of th e c o a s t groups*

T u l e m o c c a s i n s were worn i n w i n t e r ,

lin e d w ith a

l a y e r o f d r y g r a s s f o r w a r m th , a n d l e g g i n g s o f t h e same m aterial * H aird ressin g The h a i r was p a r t e d i n t h e m i d d l e a n d b r o u g h t o v e r t h e s h o u l d e r s i n two t w i s t s , n o t b r a i d s , w h ic h f e l l i n f r o n t of the ears*

T h ese p i g t a i l s were u s u a l l y w ra p p ed w i t h s t r i p s

o f m ink s k i n , a s among t h e Y u r o k , o r w i t h a d e e r s k i n t h o n g t i p p e d w i t h s h e l l s , a s among t h e Hupa.

The l a t t e r a l s o made

use

y e r b a buena o r o t h e r s w e e t - s m e l l i n g h e r b s t o perfum e 14 th e ir tresses. A s i m p l e t h o n g h e l d t h e h a i r on o r d i n a r y

occasions.

The e l a b o r a t e c o i f f u r e s o f t h e s o u t h e r n a r e a

w e r e n o t i n vogue i n t h e n o r t h , w here t h e c l o s e l y - f i t t i n g b a s k e t r y c a p was w o r n . O rn a m en ts N e c k l a c e s composed o f t e n o r more s t r a n d s o f j u n i p e r and o t h e r s e e d s , s h e l l d i s k s , d e n t a l i a and p i n e - n u t s h e l l s

S. A. B a r r e t t , "The M a t e r i a l C u l t u r e o f t h e K la m a th Lake a n d Modoc I n d i a n s o f N o r t h e a s t e r n C a l i f o r n i a . , and S o u th e rn O re g o n /’ U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a P u b l i c a t i o n s o f A m e r ic a n A r c h e o l o g y a n d E t h n o l o g y , V o l . V, No. 9 , p* 258 ^

Goddard, og. c i t . ,

p . 20

42 w e r e worn by women, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e n o r t h w e s t e r n a r e a . Hupa women wore d i s k s o r o b l o n g s o f a b a l o n e s h e l l a t t a c h e d 15 to n a tiv e f ib e r co rd s. W a i l a k i women wore e a r - d r o p s o f 16 abalone s h e l l carv ed in f i s h shape. S om etim es t h e y a d d e d n o se s t i c k s ,

w ith beads h a n g in g from th e ends i n i m i t a t i o n

o f t h e men, among whom t h e c u s to m was g e n e r a l . of e la b o ra te

The v a r i e t y

je w e lr y o f f e a t h e r s and s h e l l found t o th e s o u th

did not ap p ear in t h i s re g io n . T a tto o in g Among t h e Hupa, Y u ro k , K arok a n d Wiyot women t a t t o o e d th e e n t i r e ch in .

Hupa t a t t o o i n g was f o r o r n a m e n t o n l y , beg u n

i n y o u t h an d a d d i t i o n a l l i n e s a d d e d a s t h e g i r l grew u p . S o o t was p r i c k e d i n w i t h a s h a r p f l i n t by a n o l d woman g i f t e d 17 in the a r t . S h a s t a o p e r a t o r s made u s e o f o b s i d i a n p o i n t s and c h a r c o a l .

D e s i g n s w ere t a t t o o e d on arm s and h a n d s i n 18 a d d i t i o n t o p a r a l l e l l i n e s on t h e c h i n . The S i n k y o n e , a m a r g i n a l g r o u p , a d o p t e d b o t h t h e s o l i d b l u e c h i n o f t h e Hupa 19 and th e h o r i z o n t a l cheek l i n e s of t h e Y u k i. Among t h e W a i l a k i , f u r t h e r f ro m t h e c e n t e r ,

t a t t o o i n g was r e d u c e d t o

Loc * c i t . E . M. Loeb, "The W e s t e r n Kuksu C u l t , ” U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P u b l i c a t i o n s i n A m e r ic a n A r c h e o l o g y a n d E t h n o l o g y , V o l . XXXIII, n o . 1, p . 8 7 . ^

G o d d a r d , £ £ . c i t . , p . 20

18 K r o e b e r , o £ . c i t . , 19

I b i a . • P-

146

p . 293

43 t h r e e l i n e s on t h e c h i n . P ain tin g V ery l i t t l e

d a t a c o u l d be s e c u r e d on t h i s f o rm o f

o r n a m e n t a t i o n , e x c e p t t h a t p a i n t was commonly a p p l i e d f o r cerem onies. A ppearance A ccording to e a r l y a c c o u n ts n o r th e r n C a l i f o r n i a I n d ia n women w ere q u i t e p r e t t y , e v e n when j u d g e d by E u r o p e a n s t a n ­ dards.

They w ere n o t t a l l ,

but sh ap ely , w ith sm all f e a t u r e s

and w e ll-fo rm e d hands and f e e t .

T h e i r e y e s w ere l a r g e , d a r k

a n d o f t h e alm ond s h a p e s o p o p u l a r i n V i c t o r i a n a r t .

W ith

t h e i r g r a c e f u l c a r r i a g e a n d sm ooth h a z e l c o m p l e x i o n s t h e y formed a p l e a s i n g c o n t r a s t t o t h e i r s w a rth y c e n t r a l C a l i f o r ­ nian s i s t e r s .

Of c o u r s e t h e r e were e x c e p t i o n s , an d t h e h a r d

l i v e s o f p r i m i t i v e women d i d n o t h e l p them t o grow o l d g r a c e ­ fu lly ,

b u t e v e n s o t h e o l d women w ere s p a r e d t h e p a i n f u l l y

w r i n k l e d a n d s h r i v e l e d a p p e a r a n c e s e e n i n s o many t r i b e s . S o c i a l Customs S o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , v ery lo o s e and i n d e f i n i t e in t h e g r e a t e r p a r t o f C a l i f o r n i a , became more c l e a r l y d e f i n e d i n t h e n o r t h e r n a r e a , a n o t h e r ex a m p le o f N o r t h w e s t C o a s t in flu e n c e . P ro p erty d is t i n c t i o n s , a n d w e a l t h w ere a l l - i m p o r t a n t . in the n o rth e rn a r e a .

s o c i a l custom s, p o s i t i o n s

Women d i d n o t become c h i e f s

44

E ducation C h i l d r e n , who w ere t e n d e r l y c a r e d f o r when v e r y y o u n g , w ere l o o k e d upo n a s somewhat more t h a n e a r t h l y * a n d i t was b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e y would l e a v e and go t o t h e home o f t h e im m ortals i f i l l - t r e a t e d .

G i r l s rem ained w ith the m other

u n t i l m a r r ia g e , b u t boys s l e p t in th e sw eathouse w ith th e f a t h e r f ro m a v e r y e a r l y a g e .

C h i l d r e n w ere t a u g h t a b o u t

t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e i r p e o p l e by t h e f a t h e r and g r a n d f a t h e r a t n i g h t , w h i l e d u r i n g t h e day t h e y w ere i n s t r u c t e d by t h e g r a n d m o t h e r , t h e f o u n t a i n h e a d o f a l l wisdom.

Boys l e a r n e d

t o h u n t w i t h t o y bows, a r r o w s an d s l i n g s , w h i l e l i t t l e

g irls

s o o n wove wee b a s k e t s a n d m o t h e r e d d o l l b a b i e s i n t i n y crad les.20 A d o l e s c e n c e an d i n i t i a t i o n The g i r l s T p u b e r t y cerem ony was o f g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e . E ach g i r l was i s o l a t e d an d u n d e r w e n t s p i r i t u a l and s o c i a l t r a i n i n g , a c c o m p a n i e d by c e r e m o n i e s , f o r t e n d a y s ;

So

s e v e r e was t h e o r d e a l t h a t t h e c h i l d s o m e tim e s f a i l e d t o su rv iv e.

M a id e n s w ere c a r e f u l l y g u a r d e d a n d were p u n i s h e d

s t r i c t l y f o r w rongdoing. M arriage As a man*s s o c i a l p o s i t i o n a n d s t a n d i n g i n t h e 20

G o d d a r d , o p . c i t . , p ; EO

45 community d e p e n d e d on t h e amount paid, f o r h i s m o t h e r , a d a u g h t e r was a d i s t i n c t a s s e t .

The p r i c e was j u d g e d a c c o r ­

d i n g t o t h e s o c i a l s t a n d i n g o f t h e b r i d e 1s f a m i l y an d h e r own a b i l i t i e s .

21

P r e l i m i n a r y paym ent c o n s i s t e d o f s t r i n g s

o f s h e l l money r a n g i n g i n v a l u e f ro m t h i r t y t o t h r e e h u n d r e d • d o l l a r s , w ith woodpecker s c a l p s i n a d d i t i o n .

The b r i d e Ts

fam ily prepared q u a n titie s of p re s e n ts , in c lu d in g d re s se s, w e a p o n s , b a s k e t s an d f o o d , a l l o f w h ic h w ere t r a n s p o r t e d i n a canoe w ith th e b r i d a l p a r t y , c o n s i s t i n g o f th e young p e o p le o f t h e g i r l ’ s v i l l a g e , who a c c o m p a n i e d h e r t o h e r new home, r e m a in in g t o e n j o y a tw o-day f e a s t .

When t h e y r e t u r n e d t h e y

b o r e w i t h them a n e q u i v a l e n t i n g i f t s f r o m t h e f a m i l y o f t h e groom.

The y o u n g p e o p l e made t h e i r home i n t h e man’ s v i l l a g e

but did not liv e w ith h is r e l a t i v e s .

A v e r y p o o r man m i g h t

p a y h a l f t h e b r i d e p r i c e an d work o u t t h e r e m a i n d e r w h i l e l i v i n g i n h i s f a t h e r - i n - l a w ’ s home.

C h i l d r e n o f s u c h ’’h a l f ­

m a rrie d ” couples belonged to th e m other’ s p e o p le ,

in stead of

t o t h e f a t h e r * s f a m i l y , a n d w ere c o n s i d e r e d o f low s o c i a l p o sitio n .

22

A man m i g h t r e t u r n a n u n s a t i s f a c t o r y w i f e t o h e r f a m i l y f o r b ad t e m p e r , s t i n g i n e s s , o r s c o l d i n g .

The w i f e ’ s

f a m i l y t h e n r e t u r n e d t o him t h e amount he had g i v e n f o r h e r ,

21 I b i d . , p . 56 ^

L oo. o i t .

46 u n l e s s t h e r e w ere c h i l d r e n .

I f t h e r e was one c h i l d h a l f t h e

p r i c e was r e t u r n e d , b u t t o a c c e p t more w ould r e f l e c t bn t h e c h i l d , who r e m a i n e d w i t h t h e f a t h e r * no r e d r e s s .

The w i f e , h o w e v e r , h ad

I f s h e was u n h a p p y s h e was a d v i s e d t o s i t on

t h e w in d w a rd s i d e o f t h e f i r e ,

s o t h a t h e r t e a r s m i g h t be 23 a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e e f f e c t s o f smoke. Monogamy was c o m p u l s o r y among n o r t h w e s t e r n C a l i f o r n i a trib es,

s u c h a s t h e Y u r o k , K a r o k , Hupa an d T o lo w a .

Aehomawi a n d A t s u g e w i p r a c t i c e d p o ly g a m y . c o u l d be s e n t b a c k t o h e r f a t h e r , f a t h e r w ere n o t s a t i s f i e d .

The

A b a r r e n w ife

i f h e r husband or h i s

B r i d e - p r i c e and p a t r i l i n e a l

r e s i d e n c e were g e n e r a l f o r t h e e n t i r e a r e a . D eath and m ourning Women c u t t h e h a i r o f f c l o s e t o t h e h e a d a s a s i g n o f m ourning.

S e v e r e d t r e s s e s were made i n t o a b e l t w orn

about the w a is t.

The A t s u g e w i c a r r i e d t h i s a s t e p f a r t h e r ,

f o r a w idow er c r o p p e d h i s own h a i r a n d made i t f o r h i s n e a r e s t fem ale c o u s in * - 4

in to a b e lt

Women o f many t r i b e s

smeared t h e i r heads w ith p i t c h a f t e r c u t t i n g th e h a i r .

A

widow m i g h t m a r r y when h e r h a i r h a d grown down t o h e r u p p e r arm, b u t th e o n ly e l i g i b l e

s p o u s e was h e r l a t e h u s b a n d ’ s

25 L o c . c i t . 24 K r o e b e r , o £ . c i t . ,

p . 3X6

47 b r o t h e r i 25

I f a Hupa widow f a i l e d t o s t e p b e t w e e n t h e l e g s

o f h e r d e a d h u s b a n d s h e was bound t o him f o r l i f e .

M arriage,

u n d e r t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , was c o n s i d e r e d i n f i d e l i t y , w h ic h pA w ould b r i n g bad l u c k . S om etim es a widow w ould h a l f b u r y h e r s e l f i n h e r h u s b a n d ’ s g r a v e , f a s t i n g an d w a i l i n g f o r d a y s 27 a t a tim e. Old women n e a r l y a l w a y s h a d s h o r t h a i r , b e c a u s e t h e y had o u t l i v e d so many r e l a t i v e s ,

f o r whom t h e y w ere c o n ­

s t a n t l y in m ourning. P r o p e r t y and i n h e r i t a n c e Y u r o k women i n h e r i t e d p r o p e r t y , an d a l t h o u g h t h e b u l k o f a man’ s p o s s e s s i o n s w e n t t o h i s s o n s , h i s d a u g h t e r s r e ­ ceived t h e i r s h a re ,

s o t h a t a woman whose m ale r e l a t i v e s h a d

d i e d m i g h t be r a t h e r w e a l t h y .

P r o p e r t y o f women, w i t h t h a t

o f m i n o r c h i l d r e n , was p l a c e d i n t h e

h a n d s o f m a le t r u s t e e s ,

who e v e n p r e s s e d c l a i m s and r e c e i v e d

dam ages i n t h e names o f

t h e i r w ards.

Women’ s c l a i m s were no l e s s i m p o r t a n t t h a n

t h o s e o f men, b u t t h e y were l e s s s t r o n g t o p r e s s th e m . could bequeath t h e i r p r o p e r ty to t h e i r r e l a t i v e s , c o u l d g i v e i t away b e f o r e d e a t h .

Women

or they

The h o u s e was i n h e r i t e d

R o l a n d B. D ix o n , ’’N o t e s on t h e Achomawi a n d A t s u ­ gewi I n d i a n s o f N o r t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a , ” A m e r ic a n A n t h r o p o l o g i s t , V o l . X, n o . 2 , p . 2 0 9 . 26 G o d d a r d , o p . c i t . , p . 70 27 H. H. B a n c r o f t , The N a t i v e S t a t e s , V o l . I , p ; 357

Races o f th e P a c i f i c

48 by t h e s o n s , b u t a b r o t h e r c o u l d n o t i n h e r i t i f t h e r e were d a u g h t e r s , t o whom i t w en t i n d e f a u l t o f s o n s . War War a s s u c h c o u l d s c a r c e l y be r e c o g n i z e d i n n o r t h e r n C alifo rn ia.

S o - c a l l e d w a r s were i n r e a l i t y f e u d s , w h ic h

w e r e s e t t l e d by c o m p e n s a t i o n .

C a p t i v e women w e r e r e t u r n e d

on pay m en t o f r a n s o m , s l a i n men were a l s o p a i d f o r .

The

Tolowa w ould sweep down on t h e Yurok a n d c a r r y t h e i r women 28 a n d c h i l d r e n away f o r r a n s o m . As w a r s an d f i g h t i n g w ere l o o k e d upon a s p e r s o n a l m a t t e r s , women h a d n o t h i n g t o do w i t h th e m . C erem onialism N o r t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a m e d i c i n e men were u s u a l l y women, who w ent t h r o u g h c e r t a i n p r e s c r i b e d s t a g e s t o a t t a i n t h e s ta tu s of d o cto r.

U s u a l l y p r e p a r a t i o n b e g a n w i t h a d ream ,

f r e q u e n t l y o f a d e a d p e r s o n , who p u t a " p a i n ” i n t h e dream ­ e r ’ s b o d y , a f t e r w h ic h t h e " d o c t o r d a n c e ” was made f o r h e r . D uring th e t e n days o f t h i s co n tin u ally ,

cerem ony s h e f a s t e d an d d a n c e d

in o rd e r to g a in c o n t r o l of th e " p a in ” .

An

i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e o f t h e r i t u a l was a v i g i l on a h i l l t o p , u su ally a t n ig h t,

f o l l o w e d by a s e c o n d d a n c e a r o u n d a v e r y

28 S t e p h e n P o w e r s , T r i b e s o f C a l i f o r n i a , C o n t r i b u ­ t i o n s t o N o r t h A m e r ic a n E t h n o l o g y , V o l . I l l , p . 65.

49 hot f ir e ,

in o r d e r to cook th e pain*

was r e a d y t o p r a c t i c e m e d i c i n e .

E9

A f t e r t h i s t h e woman

However, a s a l l t h i s was

v e r y e x h a u s t i n g , a Hupa h u s b a n d m i g h t t a k e h i s w i f e , w ea k en ­ ed by f a s t i n g a n d e x e r t i o n , on h i s s h o u l d e r s an d t h u s d a n c e w i t h h e r . 30 A l t h o u g h t h e r e w ere women d o c t o r s among t h e Achomawi, men were t h o u g h t t o h a v e g r e a t e r p o w e r s o f h e a l 31 m g. A c c o r d i n g t o t h e C h i m a r i k o s i c k n e s s was c a u s e d by " p a i n s " i n t h e b o d y , w h i c h , when e x t r a c t e d by t h e m a g i c a l p o w e r s o f t h e m e d i c i n e women, t u r n e d o u t t o be s m a l l d o u b l e ­ po in ted o b je c ts ,

c l e v e r l y palm ed.

Women d o c t o r s p e r f o r m e d

t h e same o f f i c e s a s m a le s h a m a n s , an d w ere a d m i t t e d t o t h e s w e a t h o u s e , from w h i c h o t h e r women w ere e x c l u d e d .

There

m i g h t be s a i d t o be two s c h o o l s o f m e d i c i n e i n n o r t h e r n C alifo rn ia.

T h e r e w ere t h e r o o t d o c t o r s , who were r e a l l y

h e r b d o c t o r s , and e u r e d by d o s i n g o r p o u l t i c i n g t h e i r p a t i e n t s w i t h d i f f u s i o n s o f v a r i o u s p l a n t s ; an d t h e s u c k i n g d o c t o r s , more i m p o r t a n t by f a r , who h e a l e d by means o f i n ­ c a n t a t i o n s , a s th e y sucked th e d is e a s e out of the s u f f e r e r ’ s body.

K roeber,

o p . c i t . , p . 63

^

Goddard,

o g . c i t . , p . 66

^

K roeber,

_og. c i t . , p . 78

50 Shaman’ s f e e s w e r e s o h i g h t h a t m e d i c i n e men u r g e d t h e i r fem ale r e l a t i v e s to t r y to a c q u ir e s h a m a n is tie powers, b e c a u s e i t was e a s y t o g e t w e a l t h t h a t way.

Shamans were

p a i d when c a l l e d t o c u r e a n y o n e , and u s u a l l y h e l d o u t f o r more t h a n was o f f e r e d .

However, a s s h e was c o m p e l l e d t o

a t t e n d a p a t i e n t w h e n e v e r c a l l e d u p o n , t h e m e d i c i n e woman o f t e n p r e t e n d e d t o be i l l when p r o f f e r e d a n i n s u f f i c i e n t fee.

Y/hen a n i n c r e a s e d amount o f a c t u a l c a s h was shown,

s h e u s u a l l y r e c o v e r e d w i t h commendable r a p i d i t y .

In the

e v e n t t h a t t h e p a t i e n t d i d n o t r e c o v e r t h e e n t i r e sum was r e t u r n e d t o him , o r t o h i s r e l a t i v e s .

Of l a t e y e a r s t h e

shaman r e t a i n e d a s m a l l f e e f o r h e r t i m e a n d t r o u b l e , p r o ­ bab ly the r e s u l t of w h ite c o n ta c t.

I f the p a t i e n t s u f fe re d

a r e l a p s e t h e m e d i c i n e woman was e x p e c t e d t o t r e a t him f o r n o t h i n g , b u t u s u a l l y r e c e i v e d some s l i g h t c o m p e n s a t i o n .

It

was g e n e r a l l y b e l i e v e d t h a t a shaman w ould e x t r a c t one o r more p a i n s ,

l e a v i n g one i n t h e b o d y , so t h a t s h e m i g h t be

c a l l e d a g a i n an d t h u s r e c e i v e more p a y .

A l s o , sham ans w ere

t h o u g h t t o b e w i t c h p e o p l e so t h a t t h e y w ould be c a l l e d t o t r e a t th e m .

I f a d o c t o r was c a l l e d , b u t d i d n o t a t t e n d f o r

some t r i v i a l r e a s o n , t i e n t died .

s h e was l i a b l e f o r t h e f e e i f t h e p a ­

I t was p a i d t o t h e f a m i l y o f t h e d e c e a s e d .

H ow ever, i n n o r t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a v e r y few m e d i c i n e men o r women w e re c a l l e d upon t o p a y t h e f u l l p e n a l t y f o r a wrong d iag n o sis.

I n t h e s o u t h , when a p a t i e n t d i e d ,

was s h o t t o d e a t h w i t h a r r o w s .

the d o cto r

51 Games a n d d i v e r s i o n s The woman* s game r e s e m b l e d t h a t o f o t h e r C a l i f o r n i a a r e a s , a n d c o n s i s t e d o f some f o rm o f d i c e .

I n m ost t r i b e s

women u s e d f o u r m u s s e l s h e l l s , w h ic h w ere d r o p p e d t o t h e pavement i n f r o n t of th e d w e ll in g h o u s e . S c o r e was k e p t 32 by means o f s m a l l s t i c k s . Modoc a n d K lam ath women u s e d f o u r b e a v e r t e e t h in p la c e o f the s h e l l s .

The W a i l a k i d i d

n o t h a v e t h i s game a t a l l . A f o r m o f s h i n n y , t h e " b a l l ” b e i n g two s h o r t s t i c k s t i e d t o g e t h e r , was p o p u l a r among t h e women o f t h e Achomawi, A tsugew i, S h a s ta and r e l a t e d t r i b e s , was p l a y e d o n l y by men. 33

b u t on t h e c o a s t s h i n n y

P o stu re E a r l y v o y a g e r s s p e a k o f women o f n o r t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a a s g r a c e f u l i n t h e i r m ovem ents, w i t h a m o d e s t , t i m i d d em eano r , a l t h o u g h some were c o n s i d e r e d c l u m s y . 34 Women s a t on th e ground o r m a ts .

When p o u n d i n g a c o r n s t h e y s a t w i t h b o t h

l e g s o v e r th e rim o f th e hopper to h o ld i t

Goddard,

_ o jd .

c it.

i

in place*

p . 61

35

S t e w a r t C u l i n , Games o f t h e N o r t h A m e r ic a n I n d i a n s t T w e n t y - f o u r t h A n n u a l R e p o r t , B u r e a u o f A m eric an E t h n o l o g y , p . 659 34

B ancroft,

o p . c i t . , p i 277

E tiq u ette Women b a t h e d d a i l y w h e r e v e r t h e r e was s u f f i c i e n t w ater.

They w ere s u p p o s e d t o b a t h e i n t h e s t r e a m b e f o r e

t h e men w ere up i n t h e m o r n i n g , o r i n a s e p a r a t e p l a c e , members o f b o t h s e x e s d i d n o t b a t h e t o g e t h e r .

for

T h e r e w ere

e la b o r a te b a th in g r i t u a l s a f t e r the m e n stru al p e rio d or ch ild b irth .

Women r a r e l y b a t h e d w i t h o u t b e i n g c o v e r e d w i t h

some k i n d o f a g a r m e n t .

53 CENTRAL CALIFORNIA The t e r m C e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a may be u n d e r s t o o d t o i n c l u d e a somewhat n e b u l o u s r e g i o n e x t e n d i n g i n a l l d i r e c ­ t i o n s f r o m Lake C o u n ty a s a h u b .

T h e r e a p p e a r s t o be some

doubt a s to th e t r i b e s com prising th e c u l t u r e a r e a , but a u t h o r i t i e s a g r e e t h a t t h e Porno, w i t h s e v e n s u b d i v i s i o n s , may be c o n s i d e r e d a s t y p i c a l e x a m p l e s o f t h e t y p i c a l C a l i f ­ o r n i a s e e d - g a t h e r i n g com plex.

I n a d d i t i o n t h e r e w ere t h e

Y u k i , K a t o , Huchnom, Wappo a n d W in tu n t o t h e n o r t h ,

three

d i v i s i o n s o f t h e Miwok t o t h e e a s t , a n d one on t h e c o a s t , an d t h e Y o k u t s e x t e n d i n g i n t o t h e s o u t h e r n r a n g e o f t h e a r e a . The Maidu o c c u p i e d t h e r i c h c e n t r a l v a l l e y o f t h e S a c r a m e n t o . The Y u k i an d K a to h e l d a r a t h e r a n o m a l o u s p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n t h e n o r t h e r n a n d c e n t r a l a r e a s , b u t w ere c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a n in a l l e s s e n tia ls .

The Huchnom an d Wappo w ere m e r e l y v a r i a ­

tio n s o f the ty p e.

The r i c h n e s s o f M aidu c u l t u r e e q u a l l e d

th a t of th e ir h a b ita t.

The Y o k u ts o f t h e San J o a q u i n Y a l l e y

show s t r o n g e v i d e n c e o f s o u t h e r n i n f l u e n c e . l i a t i o n s w ere e q u a l i n n e a r l y a l l d i r e c t i o n s ,

However, a f f i ­ so t h a t th e

Y o k u t s , W e s t e r n Mono, K e r n , T e h a c h a p i an d h u n d r e d s o f l i t t l e e x t i n c t t r i b e s o f t h e San J o a q u i n Y a l l e y an d s u r r o u n d i n g f o o t h i l l s may be u n d e r s t o o d t o p o s s e s s a s o r t o f C e n t r a l , S o u t h e r n , C o a s t an d P l a t e a u m i x t u r e .

54 H a b i t a t a n d Language The Pomo h e l d t h e e n t i r e d r a i n a g e o f t h e R u s s i a n R i v e r , b u t t h e m ost t y p i c a l d i v i s i o n l i v e d a r o u n d C l e a r L a k e , i n Lake C o u n t y . Hokan l a n g u a g e .

They s p o k e v a r i o u s d i a l e c t s o f t h e

The Miwok o c c u p i e d t h e S a c r a m e n t o V a l l e y

and s u r r o u n d i n g f o o t h i l l s , w ith th e Y osem ite V a l l e y a s t h e i r southerm ost ra n g e . co ast.

One g r o u p o f Miwok were s e t t l e d on t h e

N e a r e r t h e c e n t e r w ere t h e Wappo, a l s o v e r y s l i g h t l y

s o u th and e a s t ,

t h e K a to t o t h e n o r t h a n d w e s t , an d t h e

C o a st and i n l a n d Y uki. Miwok.

The M aidu r a n g e was n o r t h o f t h e

The K a to w ere o f A t h a p a s c a n l i n g u i s t i c

s t o c k , and

d w e lt a lo n g th e upperm ost c o u r s e s o f th e S outh Fork o f th e Eel R iver.

The Y u k i were o f Y u k i a n s t o c k .

T h e i r homes l a y

among t h e C o a s t Range o f m o u n t a i n s , i n t h e d r a i n a g e o f t h e E e l R iv e r, above th e N o rth F o rk .

T h e i r c u l t u r e was s t r a n g e l y

i n f l u e n c e d by t h e m o u n t a i n s i n w h i c h t h e y l i v e d . s e ttle m e n ts lay in the v a l le y s ,

The Wappo

but t h e i r t e r r i t o r i a l range

was m o u n t a i n o u s , a n d t h e i r c u l t u r e a n d c h a r a c t e r w ere i n ­ flu en ced th e re b y .

The Miwok p o s s e s s e d , w i t h t h e M a id u , t h e

ric h e s t t e r r i t o r y of a l l ,

b u t t h e f o r m e r f a i l e d t o make t h e

m o s t o f t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t , u n l i k e t h e n e i g h b o r i n g M a id u . D i v i s i o n o f L a b o r a n d P o s i t i o n o f Women As t h e Pomo p o s s e s s e d a t h o r o u g h l y c e n t r a l C a l i f o r ­ n i a n c i v i l i z a t i o n t h e y had a c h i e v e d a number o f s p e c i a l i z a ­ t i o n s an d r e f i n e m e n t s w h i c h d i d n o t e x t e n d t o t h e i r n e i g h b o r s .

T h e se s p e c i a l t i e s i n c l u d e d t h e i r s u p e r b b a s k e t i n d u s t r y , the count of beads, c e r t a i n approaches to a m a t r i l i n e a t e , and l i n g u i s t i c d e v ic e s of s o c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e .

The s t a t u s

o f women was h i g h com pared t o o t h e r C a l i f o r n i a a r e a s , a s m i g h t be e x p e c t e d i n a com munity w h ere t h e r e was a d e c i d e d i n c l i n a t i o n to t r a c e d e s c e n t th ro u g h th e fem ale l i n e . w ere s o m e t i m e s g i v e n t h e t i t l e the p e r q u i s i t e s of t h a t o f f i c e .

Women

o f c h i e f , w i t h o u t , how ever, C e r t a i n women were e v e n

a d m i t t e d t o s e c r e t s o c i e t i e s an d t h e r e e x i s t s a t r a d i t i o n t h a t once t h i s s o c i e t y had a fem ale c h i e f .

In the p re lim in ^

a r y i n i t i a t i o n b o t h b o y s and g i r l s t o o k p a r t . a l l o t t e d t o t h e o l d e s t woman w i t h i n i t s w a l l s . p e rh a p s th e most t e l l i n g p o i n t o f a l l ,

The home was However,

men r e l i e v e d t h e i r

b e t t e r h a lv e s o f th e drudgery of th e m anufacture of the co arsest b ask ets.

T h i s may a c c o u n t f o r t h e r e m a r k a b l y h i g h

d e v e l o p m e n t o f b a s k e t r y among t h e Pomo, i n c l u d i n g t h e manu­ fa c tu re o f v ario u s n o n - u t i l i t a r i a n v e s s e ls , f e a t h e r " je w e l b a s k e t s " and m i n i a t u r e s ,

such a s th e

some no l a r g e r t h a n

a pin head. A l t h o u g h t h e d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r a c c o r d i n g t o s e x e s was p r o b a b l y no more r i g i d l y e n f o r c e d among n a t i v e C a l i f o r n i a n s t h a n among E u r o p e a n s p r e v i o u s t o t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , c e r t a i n t a s k s w ere c o n s i d e r e d a s b e i n g m a s c u l i n e o r f e m i n i n e , a n d w ere t h e r e f o r e l i m i t e d by c o n v e n t i o n t o one s e x o r t h e o th er.

Men, f o r i n s t a n c e , w ere h u n t e r s , f i s h e r m e n , h o u s e ­

b u ild e rs; k ille d ,

t h e y d ism e m b e re d and c a r v e d t h e a n i m a l s t h e y

tanned th e h i d e s , g a th e r e d fire w o o d , b u i l t th e

r a c k s a n d b r u s h h o u s e s f o r d r y i n g f i s h an d m e a t , an d o b ­ ta in e d s a l t fo r seaso n in g food.

I n a d d i t i o n t h e y made a l l

c l o t h i n g worn by t h e i r f a m i l i e s , i n c l u d i n g c e r e m o n i a l r e ­ g a l i a ; wove t h e warm r a b b i t s k i n b l a n k e t s worn i n c o l d w e a t h e r and u s e d f o r b e d d i n g ; made t h e d i s k s o f c la m s h e l l w h i c h s e r v e d f o r money, and t h e b o a t - s h a p e d r a f t s o f t u l e r u s h e s c a l l e d b a l s a s by t h e S p a n i a r d s b e c a u s e o f t h e c o r k ­ l i k e buoyancy w i t h w hich th e y f l o a t e d .

The men a l s o made

a l l c o r d a g e , i n c l u d i n g s t r i n g , r o p e s and n e t s .

T h e s e were

c o n s id e re d s t r i c t l y m a scu lin e t a s k s , b u t i n a d d i t i o n the g e n t l e m e n a s s i s t e d t h e l a d i e s i n g a t h e r i n g a c o r n s , a n d by m an u factu rin g the c o a r s e s t b a s k e ts ,

i n c l u d i n g t h e i r own

f i s h t r a p s , n e t s , w e irs and th e baby’ s c r a d l e .

O ccasionally

t h e y r e l i e v e d t h e i r w i v e s o f t h e h e a v i e s t b u r d e n s when on t o u r . 35 Women p r o c u r e d a l l v e g e t a b l e f o o d , seeds, n u ts,

b erries,

r o o t s and g re e n s .

such as a c o rn s, They a l s o g a t h e r e d

and p r e p a r e d t h e mushrooms a n d i n s e c t s w h i c h a d d e d v a r i e t y t o t h e menu, a s w e l l a s c o o k i n g a l l f o o d .

rxF i

They c a r e d f o r

E. M. L oeb, "Pomo F o l k w a y s , " U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P u b l i c a t i o n s i n A m e r ic a n A r c h e o l o g y an d E t h n o ­ l o g y , V o l . XIX, p . 176

57 t h e c h i l d r e n a n d e d u c a t e d t h e g i r l s , who were c a r e f u l l y t r a i n e d i n manners and i n d u s t r y .

On j o u r n e y s t h e y c a r r i e d

t h e "baggage i n d e e p , c o n i c a l b a s k e t s , r e s t i n g on t h e b a c k and s u p p o r te d i n n e t s .

They were t h e h o u s e k e e p e r s , and

made many o f t h e i r own t o o l s a n d u t e n s i l s .

The m o st im­

p o r t a n t i n d u s t r y was t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f t h e m u l t i t u d e o f b a s k e t s r e q u i r e d f o r h o u se h o ld and c e re m o n ia l u s a g e , s t o r a g e , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and d r e s s .

C onsidering th a t b ask ets re p la c e d

a l l d i s h e s , p o t s , p a n s and c u p b o a r d s o f t h e m odern home t h e s e women h a d no s l i g h t t a s k t o p r o v i d e a s u f f i c i e n c y f o r a l l t h e i r n e e d s , e s p e c i a l l y a s a woman’ s b a s k e t s w ere d e s t r o y e d a t her d eath . T h e r e w e r e no f e m a l e c h i e f s , b u t t h e s i s t e r o r w i f e o f t h e c h i e f was c a l l e d "woman a b o v e " by t h e Pomo.

They

p e r m i t t e d women t o j o i n s e c r e t s o c i e t i e s by t h e same c e r e ­ mony w h i c h made t h e men c h i e f s , b u t a l t h o u g h women w ere g i v e n s p e c i a l names,

t h e y w ere n o t a l l o w e d t o t a k e p a r t i n

dancing o r c u rin g cerem onies. so rt o f f ic ia l h o stesses,

They w e r e , h o w e v e r , i n some

f o r i t was t h e i r p a r t t o l o o k a f t e r

v i s i t i n g women, an d t o s e e t h a t t h e y w ere h o s p i t a b l y e n t e r ­ tain ed .

They a l s o made s p e e c h e s w i t h t h e c h i e f s a t f e s t i v a l s .

An h o n o r a r y p o s i t i o n ,

t h a t o f f e m a l e c a p t a i n , m i g h t be c o n ­

f e r r e d on a woman b e c a u s e o f h e r p o p u l a r i t y , f o u n d e d on h e r 36 g o o d h e a r t e d n e s s and fame a s a c o o k . 3 6 X b i d . . p . 235

58 Among t h e E a s t Pomo a woman m i g h t be a p p o i n t e d c h i e f i f t h e r e was no m ale member o f t h e f a m i l y a v a i l a b l e ,

but the

a c t u a l d u t i e s o f t h e p o s i t i o n w ere p e r f o r m e d by a n o l d e r 37 m a le r e l a t i v e . The d a u g h t e r o f a K a to c h i e f m i g h t g i v e a d v i c e i n h i s a b s e n c e , w h i l e h i s w i f e s u p e r v i s e d t h e women of the v i l l a g e .

She n o t i f i e d them a s t o when t h e y s h o u l d

b a t h e , a r r a n g e t h e i r h a i r , make b a s k e t s and g a t h e r f o o d . I t was s h e , who, i n w a r t i m e , p in o le,

l e d women t o g a t h e r s e e d f o r 38 c lo v e r and w ild p o t a t o e s . Women c h i e f s w e r e n o t

unknown among t h e Y o k u t s , among whom i n h e r i t a n c e was c a r e 39 f u lly reg u lated . S ubsistence Women g a t h e r e d , p r e p a r e d , p r e s e r v e d a n d c o o k e d a l l v eg etab le food.

From t h e f o l l o w i n g l i s t o f p r o v i s i o n s

c o n s i d e r e d e d i b l e by t h e Pomo ( a n d a l l o t h e r c e n t r a l C a l i f ­ o r n i a I n d i a n s ) , i t w i l l be s e e n t h a t t h e i r menu d i d n o t 40 lack v a rie ty . A n im a l

foods

Sea f o o d s

V eg etab les,

bear

abalone

acorns

deer

sea u r c h in eggs

buckeyes

37

f r u i t s , n u ts

I b i d . , p . 238

E . M. L o eb , "The W e s t e r n Kuksu C u l t , " U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P u b l i c a t i o n s i n A m e r ic a n A r c h e o l o g y an d E t h n o l o g y , V o l . XXXIII ,* No.' 1, 1 9 3 2 , p . 5 0 . 30

K ro e b e r, op. c i t . ,

p . 496

40 L o eb , 1 9 2 6 , o £ . c i t . ,

p . 163

59 A nim al f o o d s

Sea f o o d s

Y eg e tab le s, f r u i t s , nuts

elk

s e a anemone

pe p p e rw o o d n u t s

w ild c a t

m ussels

m anzanita b e r r i e s

raccoon

eels

g r a s s e s and sm a ll seeds

o tte r

b arnacles

d if f e r e n t v a r ie tie s of

beaver

mud t u r t l e s

m ink

crabs

h az el n u ts

sk u n k

lo b sters

sugar pine n u ts

rab b its

seal

b lack b erries

co tto n tail

sea l io n

sa lm o n b e r r i e s

F ish

thim ble b e r r i e s

sq u irrels

s a lm o n

sa la l b erries

wood r a t s

riv e r tro u t

huckleberries

f i e l d m ice

b u llh ead s

red h u c k le b e rrie s

gophers

d evil fish

straw b erries

tu rtle s

In v erteb rates

rasp b erries

B irds

grasshoppers

eld erb erries

qu ail

green c a t e r p i l l a r s

clover

sparrow s

a n g l e worms

mushrooms

b lu e jays

red strip e d

n ativ e rad ish

rab b its

ro b in s

c a terp illar

ro o ts

w ild p o ta to e s

pigeons

sn ails

w ild onions

m eadow larks

ff&gg

tu le

ducks ( a l l

q u a i l eggs

anise ro o t

k in d s)

goose eggs

Condiments

(th ree v a rie tie s )

60 B irds

Eggs

Condiments

crane

duck eggs

sa lt

condor

t u r t l e eggs

p ep p e r b a l l s from th e bay t r e e

eag le crow grouse corm orant

The a b o v e m e n t i o n e d b i l l o f f a r e d e p e n d e d l a r g e l y on g e o g r a p h i c e n v i r o n m e n t , f o r s e a ane m o nes d i d n o t f l o u r i s h in the h i l l s ,

a n d e l k d i d n o t ro am t h e b e a c h e s , b u t when a n d

w h ere o b t a i n a b l e t h e v a r i o u s d i s h e s w e r e d e v o u r e d w i t h g u s t o . A c o r n s w e r e t h e s t a p l e c e r e a l a s w e l l a s t h e m o s t im p o r t a n t food f o r the a r e a .

G a t h e r e d i n s e a s o n by b o t h men

a n d women, t h e n u t s w ere s h e l l e d , p o u n d e d i n r o c k m o r t a r s w i t h p e s t l e s o f s t o n e , and t h e b i t t e r n e s s l e a c h e d o u t w i t h h o t w a t e r i n a b e d o f c l e a n s a n d by t h e women a l o n e .

Acorns

w ere s t o r e d w h o l e , a n d a c o r n m e a l p r e p a r e d i n s m a l l q u a n t i ­ tie s as re q u ire d .

The K ato p r e f e r r e d t h e i r s moldy a n d

b l a c k e n e d by l o n g im m e r s i o n i n w a t e r , s o a k e d f r o m one t o t h r e e w e e k s .

c h a r r e d by f i r e a n d

A c o r n m e a l was s o m e t i m e s

made i n t o a k i n d o f b r e a d b a k e d i n t h e a s h e s , b u t a s a r u l e i t was c o o k e d a s a t h i c k s o u p , i n b a s k e t s woven f o r t h e purpose. The more p o i s o n o u s b u c k e y e was p r e p a r e d by a n o t h e r m ethod.

N u ts were c o l l e c t e d i n th e f a l l ,

soaked in ho t

61 w a t e r an d t h e s h e l l s r e m o v e d . fire ,

Rocks w e r e h e a t e d i n a b i g

and when w h i t e h o t t h e f i r e was r e p l a c e d by a l a y e r

o f f e r n s on w h i c h t h e b u c k e y e s w ere p l a c e d , more f e r n s ,

covered w ith

th e n e a r t h sp re a d o ver th e w hole, in o r d e r t o

p re se rv e the h e a t .

At t h e e n d o f two h o u r s o r l o n g e r t h e

b u c k e y e s w ere m ashed i n b a s k e t s by s q u e e z i n g t h r o u g h t h e hands, d rie d ,

soaked in cold w a te r, a g a in squeezed,

then

l e a c h e d by t h e same m e th o d s a s a c o r n meal*—p o u r i n g h o t w a t e r o v e r t h e f l o u r p i l e d on c l e a n s a n d . I t was e a t e n c o l d . 41 S e e d s w ere b e a t e n w i t h a r a c k e t - l i k e s e e d b e a t e r i n t o s h a l l o w b a s k e t s , t o a s t e d by t o s s i n g i n t h e b a s k e t w i t h c o a l s , and fa n n e d f r e e o f c h a f f i n a w innow er.

They were e a t e n

u s u a lly as p in o le , a s o r t of th in g ru e l.

S unflow er seed

made t h e b e s t p i n o l e , a c c o r d i n g t o n a t i v e s t a n d a r d s .

R oots,

l e s s i m p o r t a n t i n t h i s r e g i o n , w ere dug w i t h a d i g g i n g s t i c k o f h a r d wood, t h e u n i v e r s a l t o o l o f t h e A m e r ic a n I n d i a n woman, w hatever h er t r i b e . an underground oven.

W ild p o t a t o e s w e r e coo ke d a l l n i g h t i n A n i s e r o o t s w ere e a t e n raw o r c o o k e d .

I n summer a n i s e r o o t s w ere dug o u t w i t h much l a b o r , b u t i n w i n t e r t h e w i l y l a d i e s s i m p l y r o b b e d t h e m ost a c c e s s i b l e g o p h e r h o l e , w h ic h o f t e n h e l d a s much a s a q u a r t o f t h e 4:2 d elicacy .

41 L o c . c i t . 42 I b i d . , p .

174

62 B e v e r a g e s w e r e p r e p a r e d by s q u e e z i n g e l d e r b e r r i e s o r m a n z a n i t a b e r r i e s by h a n d i n t o a b a s k e t .

The j u i c e was r e a d y t o d r i n k a s s o o n a s t h e s e d i m e n t had s e t t l e d . 43 G ra s s h o p p e rs were p a r c h e d i n a g r a s s f i r e

so b u i l t a s

t o s u r r o u n d th e m ; h a r d - s k i n n e d worms w ere p a r c h e d i n t h e su n an d b a k e d i n t h e u n d e r g r o u n d o v e n ; f i s h i n g worms w ere b o i l e d in b a s k e ts,

t h e n s t e a m e d ; r e d - s t r i p e d c a t e r p i l l a r s w ere a l ­

lowed t o r e m a i n i n b a s k e t s f o r t w e n t y - f o u r h o u r s , b o iled .

then

S n a i l s w ere b o i l e d o r r o a s t e d i n t h e h o t a s h e s

an d e a t e n w i t h s a l t .

S ea f o o d s , e x c e p t f i s h an d s e a l s , w ere

cooked i n h o t a s h e s .

Eggs w e re e a t e n f r e s h , w ra p p e d i n g r a s s

an d b a k e d i n a s h e s .

S e a l m e a t was c u t i n t o s t r i p s a n d r o a s t ­

e d , w h i l e f r e s h f i s h was a l s o r o a s t e d on h o t c o a l s an d e a t e n w ith s a l t . D eer m e a t a n d f i s h w ere p r e s e r v e d by d r y i n g on r a c k s , u s u a lly in the sun, o r over a f i r e in th e d w e llin g house. D e e r m e at was c u t i n t o s t r i p s o r s t r i n g s ,

t h e n l a i d on t h e

d r y i n g f ra m e o v e r a f i r e , w h i c h s e r v e d t h e d o u b l e p u r p o s e o f d r y i n g t h e meat and k e e p in g o f f f l i e s .

F i s h w ere b e h e a d ­

e d , s p l i t down t h e b a c k a n d l a i d on s t a l k s o f a s u n f l o w e r ­ l i k e p l a n t on t h e d r y i n g r a c k . turned d a ily .

Food p r e p a r e d i n t h i s way k e p t f o r f o u r or

f i v e m o n t h s . 44 43 I b i d . , p . 173 44

F i s h d r i e d i n a b o u t a week,

L oc. C i t .

63 G a t h e r i n g , p r e p a r a t i o n , p r e s e r v a t i o n an d c o o k i n g o f f o o d w a s . no s l i g h t t a s k .

The v a r i o u s p r o c e s s e s r e q u i r e d a

c o m p r e h e n s i v e w o r k i n g k n o w le d g e o f a p p l i e d b o t a n y , z o o l o g y , entom ology, o rg a n ie c h e m i s t r y * and d i e t e t i c s . S h elter A p p a r e n t l y t h e o n l y c o n c e r n women h ad w i t h h o u s e s was t o l i v e i n th e m . p arad o x ically ,

The man b u i l t t h e d w e l l i n g i n w h ic h h e ,

d i d n o t r e s i d e , n o r e v e n own.

The home was

i n t e n d e d f o r t h e u s e o f t h e women a n d c h i l d r e n ,

serv in g of

m e a ls and s t o r a g e o f h o u s e h o ld g e a r and o t h e r p o s s e s s i o n s , w h i l e t h e men l i v e d i n t h e s w e a t h o u s e . p e n d e d much on l o c a l i t y .

House m a t e r i a l d e ­

C o n i c a l a f f a i r s composed o f s l a b s

o f redw ood b a r k w ere e r e c t e d by t h e Pomo a l o n g t h e c o a s t a n d in nearby f o r e s t s .

The M aidu a n d Miwok an d many A t h a p a s c a n s

f o u n d t h i s a p r a c t i c a b l e d w e l l i n g , a l t h o u g h i t was p r o b a b l y l a r g e e n o u g h f o r o n l y one f a m i l y .

The R u s s i a n R i v e r Pomo

t h a t c h e d a framework o f p o l e s w ith b u n d le s o f g r a s s ,

to

erect a circ u lar,

The

r e c t a n g u l a r o r L-shaped d o m ic ile .

C l e a r Lake Pomo p r e f e r r e d a n o v a l d w e l l i n g t h a t c h e d w i t h grass or tu le .

T hese r e s i d e n c e s h a d t h e a d v a n t a g e o f r e ­

s e m b l i n g a p a r t m e n t h o u s e s , i n a s m u c h a s t h e r e was room f o r sev eral fam ilies.

Brush h o u s e s , how ever, r a r e l y o u t l a s t e d

more t h a n one w i n t e r , w h ic h t h e y w ere b u i l t .

o w ing t o t h e p e r i s h a b l e m a t e r i a l s w i t h I n summer s i m p l e s h e l t e r s o f b r u s h

or branches s u f f i c e d fo r a l l needs.

64 The h o u s e was s a i d t o be t h e p r o p e r t y o f t h e o l d e s t w ife l i v i n g in i t , fam ily or s e v e r a l.

w h e t h e r t h e h o u s e h o l d c o n s i s t e d o f one The g r o u n d s u r r o u n d i n g t h e d w e l l i n g was

a l s o h e r p r o p e r t y , a n d a c o r n s w ere s p r e a d t o d r y i n t h e e n e l o 45 s u r e , w h i c h was f e n c e d w i t h b r u s h . Men s l e p t i n t h e s w e a t house,

fro m w h ic h women w ere g e n e r a l l y e x c l u d e d , a l t h o u g h

o l d e r women m i g h t be s w e a t e d f o r a n i l l n e s s . m i t t e d t o e n t e r when a g r a s s game was m

Women w ere p e r p r o g r e s s . 46 No

woman was a l l o w e d w i t h i n t h e s a c r e d p r e c i n c t s o f t h e G h o s t 47 House, a c e re m o n ia l s t r u c t u r e . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e Miwok w ere s a i d t o h a v e b u i l t s m a l l c o n i c a l b r u s h o r b a r k h u t s over th e bedrock m o r ta r s ,

o r o v e r a n im b e d d ed p o r t a b l e m or­

t a r , as p r o t e c t i o n a g a in s t the w eath er. T ran sp o rta tio n A lthough C a l i f o r n i a I n d ia n s i n g e n e r a l and C e n tr a l C a l i f o r n i a I n d i a n s i n p a r t i c u l a r were s e d e n t a r y p e o p l e , m a k in g t h e i r homes i n p e r m a n e n t v i l l a g e s ,

t h e i r mode o f

l i f e r e q u i r e d a c e r t a i n am ount o f t r a v e l i n g w i t h i n c e r t a i n w ell-e stab lish ed lim its .

W i n t e r was u s u a l l y s p e n t i n t h e

p e r m a n e n t home, summer a t f i s h i n g camps a l o n g t h e r i v e r s o r by t h e s e a , a n d au tu m n w h e r e v e r t h e b e s t c r o p o f a c o r n s o r p i n e n u t s m i g h t be s e c u r e d .

45 I b i d . . , p . 158 46 I b i d . , p . 160 47 I b i d . . p . 162

T hen, t h e r e was c o n s t a n t

65 v i s i t i n g f r o m v i l l a g e t o v i l l a g e , a s w e l l a s j o u r n e y s made f o r the purpose of tr a d in g ,

over tra v e le d t r a i l s *

Everyone

w ent on t h e s e a s o n a l m i g r a t i o n s , f r o m b a b y t o g r a n d m a .

Fam ily

b e l o n g i n g s w ere t r a n s p o r t e d on t h e b a c k s o f women, s n u g l y s t o w e d i n t h e c o n i c a l b u r d e n b a s k e t s so c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

of

C alifo rn ia,

t o p p e d by t h e c u r r e n t b a b y l a c e d i n t o i t s b a s 48 ketry crad le. C e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a c a r r y i n g b a s k e t s w ere cone s h a p e d , u s u a l l y w ith rounded t i p s and w id e ly f l a r e d m ouths. w ere s e l d o m r e i n f o r c e d i n a n y way. n ets,

They

They were c a r r i e d i n

s u s p e n d e d by means o f woven p a c k s t r a p s f r o m t h e h e a d

of th e b e a re r.

C a l i f o r n i a women d i d n o t s u p p o r t b u r d e n s by

th e s t r a p p assed a c ro s s the c h e s t, as in o th e r r e g io n s . woven b a n d o r s t r a p p a s s e d a c r o s s t h e f o r e h e a d ,

A

su pp ortin g

t h e l o a d on t h e b a c k , w h i c h was b e n t s l i g h t l y f o r w a r d t o preserve a c o rre c t balance.

I n t h e e v e n t t h a t t h e l o a d was

n o t p r o p e r l y a d j u s t e d t h e h e a d m i g h t be s n a p p e d b a c k , o r t h e en tire

lo a d m ight s l i d e fo rw ard o v er th e head o n to th e g ro und.

I t was n e c e s s a r y t h a t t h e b a l a n c e o f t h e e n t i r e s t r u c t u r e be c a lc u la te d to a n ic e ty . ing b a s k e ts ,

L i t t l e g i r l s had s m a l l - s i z e d c a r r y ­

f i t t e d to t h e i r backs and to t h e i r s t r e n g t h ,

w h i l e o l d women b o r e i n c r e d i b l y h e a v y b u r d e n s .

66

E a s t Pomo b a b i e s w ere p r o v i d e d w i t h s p e c i a l c r a d l e s f o r t r a v e l i n g , woven o f r u s h e s , s u p p l i e d w i t h c a r r y i n g s t r a p , c o r d f o r l a c i n g t h e c h i l d s a f e l y a n d c o m f o r t a b l y , woven s h a d e f o r th e p r o t e c t i o n of t h e e y e s from t h e su n , a l l c o m p le te . The r e g u l a r c r a d l e s e r v e d t h e p u r p o s e i n o t h e r t r i b e s . Pomo men, a n d p r e s u m a b l y t h o s e o f o t h e r t r i b e s , a s s i s ­ t e d w i t h t h e h e a v i e s t l o a d s on r a r e o c c a s i o n s , b u t t h i s t a s k was u s u a l l y r e l e g a t e d t o t h e women, who w ould h a v e c o n s i d e r e d any m ascu lin e a s s i s t a n c e in th e l i g h t of u n w a rra n ta b le i n t e r ­ ference. G rafts B asketry In C e n tra l C a l i f o r n i a , as thro u g h o u t th e s t a t e , b a s k e t r y was t h e p r i m a r y c r a f t o f t h e women.

In d eed , the

m a k in g o f b a s k e t s a n d t h e g a t h e r i n g o f f o o d w ere t h e p r i n ­ c i p a l t a s k s o f t h e s e I n d i a n women, a r o u n d w h i c h a l l o t h e r in d u s tr ie s rev o lv ed .

B a s k e t r y may w e l l be s a i d t o have

r e a c h e d i t s h i g h e s t e x p r e s s i o n among t h e Pomo, f o r no known e x a m p l e s o f b a s k e t s , ? / h e t h e r f ro m t h e o l d w o r l d o r t h e new, a n c i e n t o r m o d e r n , s u r p a s s e d t h o s e f a b r i c a t e d by t h e women of th is t r ib e ,

in d esign or te ch n iq u e .

Of a l l t h e b a s k e t -

m a k e r s , t h e men o f t h e Pomo a l o n e a s s i s t e d i n t h i s w o rk , a lth o u g h elsew here th e y m anufactured f i s h t r a p s , w e irs, c r a d l e s and c o r d .

67 As a r u l e t h e m e th o d f o r a n y t r i b e was l i m i t e d t o sewed o r t w i n e d b a s k e t r y , b u t Pomo women w ere e q u a l l y a d e p t w ith b o th ,

tw ining t h e i r v e s s e ls f o r d a ily u se ,

th o se used c e re m o n ia lly and a s g i f t s .

co ilin g

Men a l s o e x c e l l e d

i n t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f woven b a s k e t s , b u t l e f t t h e more d elicate

c o i l e d work t o t h e i r w i v e s .

A r t i c l e s made by

men i n c l u d e d c o a r s e o penw o rk b u r d e n a n d s t o r a g e b a s k e t s , f i v e d i f f e r e n t k in d s of f i s h t r a p s , and q u a i l t r a p s , f a ­ b r i c a t e d i n p l a i n and t h r e e - s t r a n d tw i n i n g . b ask ets in p la in ,

d iago n al,

la ttic e ,

Women wove

th r e e - s tr a n d tw ining

a n d t h r e e - s t r a n d b r a i d i n g , a s w e l l a s t h e openw ork b u r d e n and s i f t e r b a s k e t s .

F o r some r e a s o n , a s y e t u n e x p l a i n e d ,

s t i t c h e s made by men h a d a l l a n u p w ard t u r n , w h i l e t h o s e o f women u s u a l l y t u r n e d downward.

One o f t h e Pomo t e c h n i q u e s

was unknown o u t o f t h e t r i b a l l i m i t s — a s y s t e m o f t h r e e - s t r a n d t w i n i n g and b r a i d i n g ,

i n w h i c h two s t r a n d s a p p e a r e d on t h e 49 e x t e r i o r a n d b u t one on t h e i n t e r i o r o f t h e v e s s e l . The v e r s a t i l i t y o f t h e Pomo women was d e m o n s t r a t e d by t h e i r a b i l i t y t o make u s e o f d i f f e r i n g t e c h n i q u e s w i t h e q u a l s k i l l f o r t h e same f o r m s .

U n l i k e t h e women o f o t h e r

t r i b e s , whose u s e o f a c e r t a i n m e th o d o f m a n u f a c t u r e f o r e a c h t y p e o f b a s k e t was a s u n b r e a k a b l e a s t h e l a w s o f g r a v i t y ,

^

B a r r e t t , _op. c u t . , p . 147

68

Pomo women f a b r i c a t e d c a r r y i n g b a s k e t s i n p l a i n o r d i a g o n a l tw ining,

c o o k in g b a s k e t s i n b o th t h e s e m ethods and l a t t i c e

tw in e , s to r a g e b a s k e ts in a l l th r e e w eaves, w h ile seed b e a t e r s were o f t w i n e d o r w i c k e r w are a s f a n c y d i c t a t e d . V e s s e ls v a r i e d i n s i z e from t i n y cups t o c o n t a i n e r s h o ld in g nearly a b a rre l,

i n s h a p e f r o m g l o b u l a r b o w l s an d c o n i c a l

c a r r i e r s t o s h a llo w t r a y s and fa n -s h a p e d w innow ers, each ornam ented w i t h b o ld and o r i g i n a l p a t t e r n s i n re d b u d .

Ma­

t e r i a l s were l i m i t e d t o w illo w f o r w arp, w i t h p in e r o o t , Carex sedge r o o t and C e r c i s (re d b u d ) a s w e f t . C o i l e d b a s k e t s w e r e no l e s s d i v e r s i f i e d i n f o r m a n d t e c h n i q u e by t h e Pomo b a s k e t m a k e r s .

The c o n s t r u c t i o n o f

sewed b a s k e t s was c o n f i n e d t o t h e women, who, a s a n o t h e r e v i d e n c e o f v e r s a t i l i t y , made u s e o f f o u n d a t i o n s o f o n e , two a n d t h r e e r o d s . t h e Pomo.

B u n d l e f o u n d a t i o n was n o t known by

A l t h o u g h one a n d t h r e e r o d f o u n d a t i o n s w ere

m o s t g e n e r a l l y u s e d , t h e two r o d t y p e o c c u r r e d w i t h some frequency, but not in the f i n e s t b a s k e ts .

C oiled b a s k e ts

c o n s i s t e d o f o n e , two o r t h r e e s l e n d e r r o d s o f w i l l o w , r e ­ duced in f i n e r v e s s e l s t o v e r i t a b l e

t h r e a d s , a b o u t w h ic h

were sewn f i l a m e n t s o f w i l l o w , p i n e r o o t , C a r e x s e d g e r o o t and re d b u d .

A l t h o u g h no t o o l o t h e r t h a n t h e s k i l l e d f i n g e r s

o f t h e w e a v e r was r e q u i r e d f o r a t w i n e d b a s k e t , a p o i n t e d a w l o f b o n e was r e q u i r e d t o make an o p e n i n g f o r t h e i n s e r t i o n o f th e sewing f il a m e n t i n c o n s t r u c t i n g c o i l e d b a s k e t s . w o r k e r h e l d h e r w ork i n h e r l e f t h a n d ,

The

sewing w ith h e r r i g h t ,

69 so t h a t ,

seen from th e bo tto m , th e c o i l i n g f o llo w e d a

clockw ise d i r e c t i o n .

E x c e p t f o r a few e x a m p l e s among t h e

Miwok a n d Washo, t h e o n e - r o d c o i l f o u n d a t i o n i n b a s k e t r y was l i m i t e d ,

in C alifo rn ia.,

t o t h e Pomo I n d i a n s .

The f i n e s t

o f t h e c o i l e d b a s k e t s w ere made on a t h r e e - r o d f o u n d a t i o n , many m e a s u r i n g s i x t y s t i t c h e s t o t h e i n c h , t h a t t h e v e s s e l s had a s a t i n y t e x t u r e . a n d s h a p e s was a l m o s t i n f i n i t e .

s o s m o o t h l y sewn

The v a r i e t y o f s i z e s

Bowls w ere g l o b u l a r , f l a r i n g

and o v a l , r a n g in g from i n f i n i t e s i m a l m i n i a t u r e s t o tw en ty in ch es in d ia m e te r.

The s m a l l e s t known Pomo b a s k e t i s l e s s

th a n o n e - s i x t e e n t h o f an in c h in d ia m e te r, and b u t a t h i r t y seco n d o f an in c h i n h e i g h t .

The m a k e r d i v i d e d t h e w i l l o w

s p l i n t s to h a i r l i k e th in n e s s ,

sewed them on a t h r e e - r o d

f o u n d a t i o n , an d o r n a m e n t e d h e r c r e a t i o n w i t h a n e a t d e s i g n i n b l a c k on t h e n a t u r a l ground*

The woman who c o u l d d e v i s e

a n d c r e a t e s u c h a f a i r y l i k e - o b j e c t , w h ic h c o u l d by no s t r e t c h o f t h e i m a g i n a t i o n be i n t e n d e d f o r a u s e f u l p u r p o s e , was a tru e a r t i s t ,

m is tre ss of her c r a f t .

b a s k e t s were u s u a l l y g e o m e t r i c ,

P a t t e r n s on t h e l a r g e r

t h e d e s i g n s w o rk e d i n a

d e e p , r i c h b l a c k , nam ed, b u t w i t h o u t s y m b o l i c m e a n i n g . The Pomo woman a d d e d t o h e r many a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s a c r e a t i o n j u s t l y term ed a " je w e l b a s k e t " .

T h e s e gem s, manu­

f a c t u r e d i n c o i l t e c h n i q u e , w ere o r n a m e n t e d w i t h t h e f e a t h e r s of n ativ e b ird s,

chosen f o r t h e i r r ic h ,

p r i s m a t i c h u e s , and

f u r t h e r trim m ed w i t h d i s k b e a d s o f s h e l l a n d o v a l o r t r i a n g u l a r

70 i r i d e s c e n t p en d an ts of abalone s h e l l .

The f e a t h e r s w ere

c a u g h t i n e a c h s t i t c h b e f o r e i t was draw n t i g h t , a n d t h u s became a p a r t o f t h e b a s k e t i t s e l f .

T h e se b a s k e t s s e r v e d

no u t i l i t a r i a n n e e d , b u t t h e y s i g n i f i e d a h i g h e r p u r p o s e t h a n t h e q u a i n t m i n i a t u r e s , w h ic h d i d no more t h a n p r o v e t h e s k i l l o f t h e w o rk e r*

B askets e n ric h e d w ith f e a t h e r s

and s h e l l s were t r e a s u r e d g i f t s , was a s f u n e r a r y o f f e r i n g s ,

b u t t h e i r su p rem e v a l u e

when t h e y w ere b u r n e d i n h o n o r

o f th e dead a t th e m ourning cerem ony.

C h i l d r e n were u s u a l l y

g i v e n one o f t h e s e b a s k e t s when s e v e n o r e i g h t y e a r s o l d , a s th e ir f ir s t

"valu ab le g i f t " ,

lu ab le p ro p erty .

t o t e a c h them t o c a r e f o r v a ­

In a d d itio n to th e "jew el b a s k e ts " ,

covered

e n t i r e l y w i t h f e a t h e r s , b a s k e t s w ere made on w h ic h f e a t h e r d e c o r a tio n se rv e d m erely to a c c e n t re d o r b la c k g eom etric designs.

Bed f e a t h e r s , m o st f r e q u e n t l y u s e d , came f r o m t h e

p o l l o f th e r e d -h e a d e d woodpecker,

g r e e n from th e m a l l a r d

duck, y e l l o w e i t h e r from th e y e llo w -w in g e d b l a c k b i r d or w i l d c a n a r y , a n d o r a n g e fro m t h e o r i o l e . was o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e b l u e b i r d o r b l u e j a y .

Seldom -used b lu e F eather-trim m ed

b a s k e t s were f i n i s h e d w i t h a b o r d e r o f b l a c k c r e s t s from t h e h e a d s o f C a l i f o r n i a q u a i l , w h ic h were a l s o o f t e n u s e d a l o n e . A l t h o u g h , ow ing t o t h e i r v e r s a t i l i t y a n d t o t h e e x ­ ce lle n ce of t h e i r tech n iq u e,

t h e Porno w ere t h e b a s k e t m a k e r s

su p r e m e o f t h e a r e a , many o t h e r t r i b e s w ere a l s o n o t e d f o r th e ir a b ility

in th e c r a f t .

71 The c h a r a c t e r o f Maidu b a s k e t r y w as, a n d i s , tak ab le.

unm is­

P e e l e d w i l l o w s p l i n t s w ere c o i l e d on a t h r e e - r o d

fo u n d atio n ,

o rn a m e n ta tio n as r u l e in deep re d d is h -b ro w n

redbud, alth o u g h b la ck d e s ig n s a l s o o ccu rred .

P a t t e r n s w ere

c o m b in a tio n s o f sim p le g e o m e tr ic e le m e n ts a r r a n g e d w ith an eye t o g e n e r a l e f f e c t r a t h e r th a n i n t r i c a t e d e t a i l . w e a v i n g was u s e d o n l y f o r c a r r y i n g ,

Tw ined

s to r a g e and th e t r a y

b a s k e t s u t i l i z e d f o r w in n o w in g a n d p a r c h i n g s e e d s . P o s s i b l y b e c a u s e t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t was t o o e a s y t o r e q u ir e stren u o u s e f f o r t ,

c r a f t s o f t h e Miwok w e r e i n f e r i o r

to th o se of surrounding t r i b e s . composed o f f i b e r s o f w i l l o w ,

T h e ir tw in e d b a s k e t s were

o a k , s u g a r - p i n e a n d s e d g e woven

i n t o c r a d l e s , b u r d e n , w inn ow ing a n d s t o r a g e b a s k e t s a n d s i f ­ tin g tra y s. to south.

M a t e r i a l s f o r c o i l e d b a s k e t s v a r i e d from n o r t h I n th e s o u th e r n a r e a a bundle o f w h ite g r a s s stem s

was sewed w i t h f i l a m e n t s f r o m t h e u n d e r g r o u n d s t o c k o f d i f ­ feren t grasses,

ornam ented w ith d e s ig n s o f b la c k f e r n - r o o t .

To t h e n o r t h f o u n d a t i o n c o i l s w e re o f one o r t h r e e h a z e l r o d s , w ra p p e d w i t h h a z e l s p l i n t s , d e c o r a t e d w i t h o v e r l a i d d esig n s in b lack f e r n - r o o t or redbud. f l a r e d cooking v e s s e l s ,

Forms w ere l a r g e ,

s m a l l e r f o o d b a s k e t s o f t h e same

ty p e , round d ip p e rs and s h a llo w ,

c ir c u la r parching tr a y s .

I t h a s become p r a c t i c a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o d i s t i n g u i s h t h e b a s k e t s o f t h e v a r i o u s g r o u p s c o m p r i s i n g t h e members o f t h e M a r i p o s a n , Moquelumnan a n d S h o s h o n e a n f a m i l i e s w h i c h

72

i n h a b i t e d t h e San J o a q u i n a n d Lower S a c r a m e n t o V a l l e y s , f o r t h e women o f t h e s e t r i b e s n o t o n l y made a p r a c t i c e o f e x ­ c h a n g i n g b a s k e t s , b u t i n t e r m a r r i a g e b e t w e e n v i l l a g e s was common.

B a s k e t s made by women o f t h e s e t r i b e s a r e u s u a l l y

s t y l e d " T u l a r e ” o r ”K e r n n b a s k e t s , a s t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e I n d i a n s t h u s d e s i g n a t e d l i v e d i n w hat a r e now T u l a r e a n d K e rn c o u n t i e s .

A few o f t h e t y p e s , s u c h a s Mono, may

e a s i l y be d i s t i n g u i s h e d ,

b u t as a r u l e such i d e n t i f i c a t i o n

i s p r a c t i c a l l y im p o ssib le.

T u lare type b a s k e ts a r e n o ted

f o r e x c e l l e n c e o f w orkm anship, b e a u t y o f d e s i g n , e le g a n c e o f f o rm a n d r i c h n e s s o f m a t e r i a l .

B asketm akers of t h i s

r e g i o n u s e d t h e c o i l m e th o d e x c l u s i v e l y , tvftrned w i n n o w e r s ,

e x c e p t f o r a few

s e e d b e a t e r s an d w a t e r - b o t t l e s .

C oiled

b a s k e t s w e r e sewed w i t h r o o t o f a m a r s h g r a s s on a b u n d l e f o u n d a t i o n o f y e l l o w g r a s s s te m s *

B l a c k d e s i g n s came f r o m

th e ro o t of th e bracken o r brake f e r n , redbud.

r e d from stem s o f

G r a c e f u l c o n i c a l bow ls, f l a t - s h o u l d e r e d " b o t t l e ­

n e c k s ” , s h a llo w s i f t i n g t r a y s and f l a t gam bling m ats s e r v e d a l l p r a c t i c a l and c e re m o n ia l p u r p o s e s . The Mono m a n u f a c t u r e d t w i n e d a n d c o i l e d b a s k e t s o f s i m i l a r m a t e r i a l s and forms a s t h e T u l a r e - T o k u t s g r o u p , b u t o f somewhat c o a r s e r w orkm anship* w illow s h o o ts ,

Tw ined w a r e s w ere made o f

o r n a m e n t e d w i t h d e s i g n s i n r e d o b t a i n e d by

l e a v i n g th e i n n e r b a r k in p la c e and o f b l a c k s e c u re d from the in n e r core of bracken r o o t s .

Form s i n c l u d e d c o n i c a l

73 burden b a s k e ts ,

p a r c h i n g a n d w in n o w in g t r a y s ,

women’ s c a p s a n d w a t e r b o t t l e s ,

siev es,

th e l a t t e r w aterp ro o fed

b y c o a t i n g t h e i n s i d e w i t h p i n o n gum.

C o i l e d b a s k e t s were-

made o f t h e g r o u n d s h o o t s o f m o u n t a i n w i l l o w ,

ornam ented

w ith p a t t e r n s in red b u d b a rk and b la c k b rack en r o o t .

De­

s i g n s r e s e m b l e d t h o s e t o be s e e n on T u l a r e t y p e b a s k e t s . P o ttery The Y o k u t s , a t once t h e s o u t h e r n m o s t o f c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a t r i b e s a n d n o r th e if fAiio s t o f s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a I n d i a n s , made a c e r t a i n am ount o f p o t t e r y , p racticab le. filtra tio n

P o ttery ,

crude but

p r o b a b l y i n f l u e n c e d by some i n ­

f r o m t h e P u e b l o r e g i o n , was s c r a p e d sm o o th i n ­

s t e a d o f b e i n g b e a t e n t h i n by means o f p a d d l e a n d a n v i l a s in S outhern C a l i f o r n i a . craft,

P o t t e r y m aking was a s p e c i a l i z e d

t h o s e who e n g a g e d i n i t s m a n u f a c t u r e t r a d i n g t h e i r

wares f o r b a s k e ts or a c o rn m eal.

A pparently t h i s r e s t r i c ­

t i o n o f t h e c r a f t t o c o m p a r a t i v e l y few women r o s e m e r e l y from a p t i t u d e f o r t h e work.

T h e r e was n o t h i n g t o p r e v e n t

e v e r y woman i n t h e t r i b e f r o m m a k in g p o t s e x c e p t l a c k o f in c lin a tio n . S u i t a b l e c l a y was dug w i t h a d i g g i n g s t i c k , u s u a l l y some t i m e i n t h e s p r i n g , a n d s t o r e d u n t i l r e q u i r e d .

Tem­

p e r i n g m a t e r i a l s w ere s e l d o m a d d e d , a s t h e p o t t e r u s u a l l y s e l e c t e d c l a y w h i c h c o n t a i n e d t h e p r o p e r am ount o f s a n d . Enough c l a y f o r s i x o r s e v e n p o t s m i g h t be c a r r i e d home

i n t h e c a r r y i n g n e t a t one t i m e , w r a p p e d i n a n o l d d e e r s k i n . The p a s t e was k n e a d e d f i r s t w i t h t h e h a n d s on a f l a t . r o c k , th e n pounded t o th e c o r r e c t c o n s i s t e n c y v/ith a s to n e p e s t l e . The b o t t o m o f t h e v e s s e l was m o ld e d i n t o a d i s k w h ic h was s e t i n a r o u n d w in n o w in g b a s k e t h e l d i n t h e l a p and t u r n e d t o f a c i l i t a t e p r o g r e s s o f t h e work.

P o t s were b u i l t up one

c o i l or round a t a tim e, ropes o f c la y r o l l e d in the hands t o th e d e s i r e d s i z e added and p in c h ed f i r m l y in p l a c e .

Every

few rows t h e s u r f a c e was s c r a p e d w i t h a c h i p o r l a r g e a c o r n husk.

When e n t i r e l y s h a p e d t h e v e s s e l was sm o o th e d w i t h a

sm all p o lis h in g sto n e of s t e a t i t e .

As t h e c l a y d r i e d i t

became h a r d e r t h a n t h e s t o n e , f r o m w h i c h a f i n e w h i t e p ow der was r u b b e d i n t o t h e c l a y .

I n o r d e r t o s e c u r e more o f t h e

pow d er t h e p o l i s h i n g s t o n e was s c r a p e d a g a i n s t a g r a n i t e boulder,

a n d " t a l c u m ” pow d er t h u s o b t a i n e d a d d e d t o t h a t

a l r e a d y on t h e v e s s e l .

A fte r a thorough d ry in g the p o ts

were f i r e d i n a s h a l l o w p i t , p laced in the f i r e .

f i r s t h eated th ro u g h o u t,

L e n g t h o f b a k i n g t i m e d e p e n d e d on t h e

u s e t o w h i c h t h e v e s s e l was t o be p u t .

As a r u l e f i r i n g

m ight l a s t a s lo n g a s f o r t y - e i g h t h o u r s , be r e m o v e d a f t e r b u t s i x h o u r s .

A few g r o u p s ,

or th e p o ts m ight

C o o l i n g vms g r a d u a l , a n d ,

f o r m o st o f t h e s e p o t t e r y m a k in g I n d i a n s , process.

then

com pleted th e

i n c l u d i n g t h e Mono, f i n i s h e d t h e i r

p o t t e r y w ith th e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h r e e o r f o u r washes o f t h i n a c o r n m ush, a p p l i e d w h i l e t h e v e s s e l was s t i l l warm by means

75 of a brush of soaproot f i b e r .

T h i s w a sh , i t was t h o u g h t ,

p r e v e n t e d t h e c l a y f r o m s o a k i n g up l i q u i d s . W ares t h u s p r o d u c e d w e r e n e i t h e r s l i p p e d n o r d e c o r ­ a t e d , a l t h o u g h a row o f s c r a t c h e s s o m e tim e s e x t e n d e d a r o u n d th e rim .

Forms c o n s i s t e d o f f l a t - b o t t o m e d p o t s w i t h s l i g h t l y

f l a r e d w a l l s a n d s t r a i g h t o r c u r v e d r i m s , lo w o v a l b o w l s , g l o b u l a r b o w ls a n d b e l l - s h a p e d bow ls' w i t h f l a t b a s e s . a p p a r e n t l y g o v e r n e d t h e u s e t o w h ic h a v e s s e l was p u t .

S ize Sm all

b o w ls s e r v e d a s d i p p e r s , medium s i z e d bo\?ls a s f o o d c o n t a i n ­ e r s o r f o r s o a k i n g b a s k e t m a t e r i a l s , an d l a r g e v e s s e l s a s cooking p o t s . ^ B a s k e tr y so f a r dom inated C a l i f o r n i a I n d i a n c u l t u r e s t h a t o t h e r c r a f t s w ere e i t h e r n o n - e x i s t e n t o r a p p e a r e d i n a r u d im e n ta r y form .

For exam ple, th e p o t t e r y of t h e Y okuts

i n no way co m p a re d w i t h t h e b e a u t i f u l an d a r t i s t i c

b ask ets

f r o m t h e same r e g i o n . S p i n n i n g an d w e a v i n g S p i n d l e s an d loom s w e r e a b s o l u t e l y unknown i n t h i s area.

^ A. H. G a y t o n , " Y o k u t s a n d W e s t e r n Mono P o t t e r y m a k i n g , " U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P u b l i c a t i o n s i n A m e r ic a n A r c h e o l o g y a n d E t h n o l o g y , V o l . XXIV, No. 3 , p p . 2 4 0 - 2 4 7

76 Stonew ork A lthough the g r e a t e r p a r t o f c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a n food s u p p ly depended upon n u t s and s e e d s pounded i n r o c k m o r ta r s by means o f s t o n e p e s t l e s ,

t h e s e n e c e s s a r y u t e n s i l s w ere

a p p a r e n t l y n o t m a n u f a c t u r e d by t r i b e s w h ic h o c c u p i e d t h e area a t th e beg in n in g of the h i s t o r i c p e rio d . u tilize d

Modern I n d i a n s

s u i t a b l e b o u ld e rs found in th e d i s t r i c t or g r in d in g

s t o n e s made by e a r l i e r

in h a b ita n ts o f the re g io n .

These p r e ­

h i s t o r i c p e o p l e s w e r e e v i d e n t l y m ig h t y '..w o r k e r s i n s t o n e , t h e i r d escen d an ts,

if

o r s u c c e s s o r s , 7/ere so w e l l s u p p l i e d by

t h e i r e f f o r t s t h e y n e e d m a n u f a c t u r e none f o r t h e m s e l v e s .

In

m a n y - p l a c e s , w h e r e o u t c r o p p i n g s o f g r a n i t i c r o c k w ere p r e s e n t , g r e a t s l a b s s e r v e d a s a g e n e r a l m i l l i n g p l a c e f o r women o f nearby r a n c h e r ia s ,

from th e t e s t i m o n y o f dozens o f h o l e s o f

v ary in g s iz e s d o tte d over the su rfa c e of th e ro ck . Y okuts and t h e i r n e i g h b o r s ,

The

a s w e l l a s t h e Miwok, w ere p a r ­

t i c u l a r l y favored in th i s re g a rd .

In oth er l o c a l i t i e s f l a t

s t o n e s on 7/hich o p e n h o p p e r s o f b a s k e t r y c o u l d be - s e t s e r v e d the p u rp o se • Pomo women s e l e c t e d a s u i t a b l e f l a t o r s l i g h t l y c o n ­ cave b o u l d e r ,

on w h ic h was p l a c e d a b a s k e t w i t h f l a r e d w a l l s

a n d r e i n f o r c e d r i m b u t no b o t t o m , h e l d i n p l a c e by t h e l e g s o f t h e m i l l e r who w i e l d e d h e r h e a v y c o b b l e s t o n e p o u n d e r w i t h both han d s. as a r u le ,

The Miwok, who made u s e o f t h e b e d r o c k m o r t a r a l s o u t i l i z e d p o r ta b le m o rta rs s e t in to the

77 g r o u n d i n a l e v e l s p o t . 51

These p o r t a b l e m o r ta r s w ere,

a c c o r d i n g t o Miwok l e g e n d , m a n u f a c t u r e d by C o y o t e , a s u p e r ­ n a tu r a l being.

Miwok women d i d n o t u s e t h e b a s k e t h o p p e r ,

b u t b ru sh ed th e s c a t t e r e d meal back in to th e m o rta r w ith a b r u s h made o f f i b e r s o f s o a p r o o t o r a n i s e r o o t .

Very s m a ll

m o r t a r s were u s e d by t o o t h l e s s o l d s t e r s f o r p u l v e r i s i n g d r i e d m eats, teeth .

f i s h and se ed m eal, an d ,

in f a c t,

served as f a l s e

T o b ac co m i g h t a l s o be g r o u n d on t h e same m o r t a r , w h ic h

had a g ro o v ed rim f o r s h a r p e n i n g th e b a s k e tm a k e r* s bone a w l. A g r i n d i n g h o u s e o f b r u s h a n d p o l e s was u s u a l l y b u i l t o v e r t h e com m unity m i l l ,

o r o v e r t h e im b e d d ed m o r t a r .

Y okuts

m o r t a r s o f t h e b e d r o c k t y p e w ere a l s o s h e l t e r e d f r o m t h e g l a r e o f t h e s u n by t e m p o r a r y s h a d e s o f b r u s h . u se d u n t i l to o deep f o r th e p e s t l e s . c o n ic a l in shape, use.

H o l e s w ere

P e s t l e s w ere r o u g h l y

g e n e r a l l y l e f t i n t h e h o l e s when n o t i n

Q uite sm a ll m o rta rs se rv e d a s f a l s e t e e t h ,

for teeth

w e r e w orn down q u i c k l y by t h e g r i t t y m e a l w h ic h s e r v e d a s 52 the c h ie f a r t i c l e of d i e t . W h e r e v e r t h e b e d r o c k m o r t a r was i n u s e women g a t h e r e d i n g ro u p s f o r t h e i r d a i l y s t i n t o f meal p o und ing , la u g h in g and t a l k i n g , 51

t h e i r s o f t v o i c e s r i s i n g above th e d e e p e r rhythm

K roeber,

o p . c i t . t p . 448

52 I b i d . . p p . 5 2 7 - 5 2 8

of the p e s t l e s .

A l l o v e r t h e a c o r n a r e a t h e f i r s t so und

t o be h e a r d upo n a p p r o a c h i n g a r a n c h e r i a was t h e thump o f p e s t l e s m ingled w ith v o ic e s and l a u g h t e r . Costume an d A dornm ent C lothing Costume c o n s i s t e d o f l i t t l e more t h a n a d o r n m e n t i n C alifo rn ia*

In f a c t ,

men a n d l i t t l e

c o s tu m e was a d o r n m e n t a s f a r a s t h e

c h i l d r e n w ere c o n c e r n e d .

The e a r l i e s t d e s ­

c r i p t i o n of the d r e s s of a C a lif o r n i a In d ia n a p p e ars in t h e a c c o u n t by S i r F r a n c i s D ra k e o f t h e n a t i v e s e n c o u n t e r e d s o u t h o f P o i n t R e y e s , w h ic h r e a d s : . . . . t h e s k i n s o f t h o s e B e a s t s Women w o re on t h e i r B o d i e s . . . . b u t t h e Women com bing o u t B u l r u s h e s make w i t h them a l o o s e g a r m e n t , w h i c h , t y ’ d r o u n d t h e i r m i d d l e , h a n g s down a b o u t t h e i r H i p p s . . . .T h e y w e a r li k e w i s e ab o u t t h e i r s h o u ld e r s a Deer s k in g w ith t h e H a i r t h e r e o n . . . . 55 The o n l y g a r m e n t r e g u l a r l y w o r n , a n d t h a t by women, was t h e d o u b l e s k i r t o r a p r o n , ' made o f v a r i o u s m a t e r i a l s . W e a l t h i e r I n d i a n s , o r t h o s e l i v i n g i n r e g i o n s w h ere a n i m a l s abounded, a f f e c t e d s k i r t s of d e e rs k in but th e o rd in a ry d re s s o f t h e women c o n s i s t e d o f f r i n g e d k i l t s o f s h r e d d e d b a r k o r rushes.

A lo n g t h e c o a s t an d i n t h e f o r e s t s i n n e r b a r k o f

re d w o o d was s h r e d d e d a n d woven i n t o a n a r r o w w a i s t - b a n d o r

g ird le,

th e ends hanging f r e e .

W illo w b a r k r e p l a c e d re d w o o d

in th e R u ssian r i v e r v a l l e y , w hile t u l e ru s h s u p p la n te d b o th 54 around C le a r Lake. G r e e n t u l e was s h r e d d e d a n d made i n t o a tw o - p ie c e garm ent r e s e m b l i n g th e h u la s k i r t o f H aw aiian fame. E a s t e r n Pomo f a s h i o n e d a d o u b l e u n d e r g a r m e n t o f b u c k - h i d e s , worn w i t h t h e h a i r i n s i d e , w aist.

o v erlap p ed and t i e d ab o u t th e

Over t h i s , a s p r o t e c t i o n f r o m t h e c h i l l b l a s t s o f

w i n t e r a n o v e r s k i r t o f s h r e d d e d t u l e was d o n n e d b y t h e a v e r ­ a g e woman, w h i l e h e r more f a s h i o n a b l e s i s t e r made h e r s k i r t of panther sk in .

The i n n e r s k i r t was a r r a n g e d t o c o v e r t h e

b r e a s t s o f t h e y o u n g e r women.

T h i s g a r m e n t was k e p t s o f t

a n d c l e a n by t h e u s e o f t h e b r a i n s o f t h e d e e r , a f a v o r i t e e m o l l i e n t and c l e a n s e r .

I f b u t one g a r m e n t was worn t h e 55 same s u b s t a n c e s e r v e d t o c l e a n s e t h e u n d e r s i d e . The o u t e r g a r m e n t was o r n a m e n t e d w i t h a b o r d e r o f

f l i c k e r o r yellow -ham m er f e a t h e r s , w h ile b ea d s and p e n d a n ts o f a b a l o n e s h e l l h u n g f r o m t h e hem, a s t h e t a s t e w earer in d ic a te d .

of the

S k i r t s o f v e r y young g i r l s were a d o r n e d

w i t h f o u r row s o f r e d p a i n t , a t r i m m i n g rem o ve d when t h e 56 w earer a r r iv e d a t m a tu r ity . At C l e a r Lake s m a l l r a b b i t sk in b la n k e ts a ls o served as s k i r t s .

54-

K r o e b e r , o p . c i t . , p . 240

55 L o e b , 1 9 2 6 , 56 L Toc. c i t .

o jd

. c i t . , p . 154

80 B l a n k e t s com posed o f s k i n s o f v a r i o u s a n i m a l s w e re worn a b o u t t h e s h o u l d e r s .

I n a d d i t i o n t o a p r o n s Kat-o women

wore a l o n g d e e r s k i n c l o a k w h ic h c o u l d be s h i f t e d a b o u t a s p r o t e c t i o n fro m t h e w i n d . Y o k u t s women wore t h e u s u a l t w o - p i e c e f r i n g e d s k i r t , c o n s i s t i n g of a n arrow ap ro n in f r o n t , a w ider k i l t a t th e back.

The Y a u d a n c h i made t h e e n t i r e g a r m e n t o f w i l l o w b a r k ,

b u t th e Chucchansi f a s h io n e d th e back o f d e e r s k in and the f r o n t a p r o n o f some s p e c i e s o f g r a s s . served every o th e r purp o se,

R ab b itsk in b la n k e ts

f ro m o v e r c o a t t o s l e e p i n g b a g .

F o o t g e a r was r a r e l y w o rn , a l t h o u g h m o c c a s i n s o f d e e r ­ s k i n p r o t e c t e d t h e f e e t i n v e r y c o l d w e a t h e r , o r on s p e c i a l occasions.

The b a s k e t r y c a p s s o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f b o t h

n o r t h e r n a n d s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a a r e a s w ere g e n e r a l l y a b s e n t in c e n tr a l C a lif o r n ia . O rn a m e n ts O rn a m e n t s i n c l u d e d w r i s t l e t s a n d a n k l e t s o f d e e r s k i n , b r a c e l e t s o f v e r y f i n e b e a d s worn o n l y by women, a n d s e v e r a l kinds o f n e c k la c e s .

N e c k l a c e s worn b y women were s o m e t i m e s

v e r y e l a b o r a t e , woven o f s h e l l b e a d s , t r i m m e d w i t h a b a l o n e s h e l l p e n d a n t s , w o o d p e c k e r s c a l p s an d q u a i l p l u m e s .

B e ad e d

b e l t s w ere g i v e n t o t h e b r i d e ’ s f a m i l y by t h e b r i d e g r o o m . They w ere s i x o r e i g h t i n c h e s w i d e , woven o f m il k w e e d f i b e r , , w ith d e s ig n s in f e a t h e r s and w hite s h e l l d is k b ead s.

Ear

o r n a m e n t s w ere woVn b y b o t h men a n d women, a n d i n a few

81 i n s t a n c e s n o s e o r n a m e n t s w e r e a l s o w o rn .

M others p i e r c e d

t h e e a r s o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n when t h e y w ere a b o u t s e v e n y e a r s o ld .~

E a r p l u g s worn by w e a l t h y women w ere made o f e t c h e d

w in g b o n e s o f t h e c r a n e , nam ents o f b a s k e t r y .

t o w h i c h w ere a t t a c h e d c i r c u l a r o r ­

P o o r e r women made u s e o f b o n e s o f l e s s

a r i s t o c r a t i c b i r d s o r o f q u a i l p l u m e s . E a r o r n a m e n t s w ere 58 u s u a l l y m a n u f a c t u r e d by men. Nose p l u g s o f b o n e w e re worn b y b o t h men a n d women a s a r u l e , a l t h o u g h t h e i r u s e was l i m i t e d t o women among t h e Y o k u t s .

E a r o r n a m e n t s worn by

K a to women o f t e n c o n s i s t e d o f woven r i n g s o f X e r o p h y l l u m grass.

H e a d d r e s s e s o f w o o d p e c k e r f e a t h e r s , woven i n t o

b a n d s a n d worn a c r o s s t h e f o r e h e a d were i n t e n d e d f o r c e r e ­ m onial use o n ly . H am rdressing Women wore t h e h a i r l o n g , g a t h e r e d i n t o h a i r n e t s , t i e d back w ith c o rd .

The n e t s ,

or

o f m ilk w e e d f i b e r c o r d woven

i n a s q u a r e mesh, were o rn am e n ted w i t h b e a d s .

A l t h o u g h men

a s w e l l a s women t u c k e d t h e i r

th o se of the

locks in to n e t s ,

women w ere f i n e r a n d more h i g h l y d e c o r a t e d .

H a i r p i n s were

a l s o worn by men a s w e l l a s women, t h o s e o f t h e l a t t e r com­ p o sed o f d e e r l e g bone t e n o r tw e lv e in c h e s i n l e n g t h ,

57 I b i d . , p . 155 58 I b i d . , p . 156

82 tr im m e d w i t h e n c i r c l i n g r i n g s o f r e d , g r e e n a n d y e l l o w f e a t h e r s . 59 Y o k u t s women wore t h e h a i r l o n g , g a t h e r e d under a s t r i n g w hile w orking.

H a i r was f r e q u e n t l y b r u s h e d

w ith a brush of soaproot f i b e r or a n ise r o o t.

The a n i s e

was g a t h e r e d i n a b u n c h , t i e d i n t h e m i d d l e , an d t h e e n d s e v e n e d by means o f a h o t c o a l o r o b s i d i a n k n i f e . T atto o in g T a t t o o i n g was i n v o g u e among a l l women, an d some men. I t was c h i e f l y o r n a m e n t a l , a l t h o u g h among t h e K a to y o u n g g i r l s w e r e t a t t o o e d a t t h e en d o f t h e f i r s t m e n s t r u a l p e r i o d . D esig n s w ere u s u a l l y d e c o r a t i v e , i n d i v i d u a l s f o llo w in g t h e i r 60 own t a s t e . H ow ever, t h e N o r t h Pomo a l l o t t e d one p a t t e r n 61 t o each v i l l a g e , a s a s o r t o f t r i b a l m ark. The o p e r a t i o n was p e r f o r m e d b y women o f t h e f a m i l y who w ere w e l l - v e r s e d i n t h e a r t , not sw ell.

s o t h a t t h e m a r k i n g s w o u ld

The s k i n was p r i c k e d by a s h a r p d e e r b o n e , a n d

th e pigm ent ru b bed w e ll i n .

Dye c o n s i s t e d o f s o o t a n d t h e

j u i c e o f t h e w ild v i o l e t c ru s h e d t o g e t h e r and m ixed w i t h w ater in a m ussel s h e l l to a t h i c k p u rp le p a s t e .

Young

g i r l s w e r e t a t t o o e d on t h e arm s a n d l e g s , a n d on t h e f a c e 62 when t h e y w ere o l d e r . K a t o Pomo women t a t t o o e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r

59 D°c » c i t . 60 L o e b , 1 9 3 2 , p p .

c i t .,

61 L o e b , 1 9 2 6 , o p . p i t . , 62 L o c . c i t .

p . 44 p . 158

83 l i n e s on t h e f a c e a n d c h e s t .

The o p e r a t i o n r e q u i r e d a d a y

among t h e Pomo, b u t l a s t e d f o r a week f o r t h e K a t o .

Among

t h e Y o k u t s t h e a r t was more g e n e r a l l y p r a c t i c e d i n t h e n o r t h t h a n i n t h e s o u t h , a n d l e s s by men t h a n b y women.

C uts were

made w i t h f l i n t o r o b s i d i a n i n s t r u m e n t s , a n d c h a r c o a l d u s t r u b b e d i n t o t h e w o u n d s.

L in es,

z i g z a g s and rows o f d o ts

w e r e t a t t o o e d down t h e c h i n a n d a c r o s s t h e c o r n e r s o f t h e m outh.

Mono women t a t t o o e d h i g h on t h e u p p e r c h e e k s , w h i l e

Chucchansi l a d i e s m ight e x te n d the adornm ent to th e b r e a s t , abdom en, a r m s a n d l e g s . ^ P ain tin g P a i n t i n g was u s e d f o r c e r e m o n i a l p u r p o s e s , d a n c i n g and m ourning o n ly . A ppearance B o d i l y c l e a n l i n e s s was h i g h l y e s t e e m e d among c e n t r a l C a lifo rn ia In d ian s. warm w a t e r d a i l y ,

Each baby had i t s

b ath in a bask et of

o l d e r c h i l d r e n b a th e d in th e se a and

s t r e a m s a t a l l h o u r s , men a n d women a t l e a s t o n c e a d a y . 64 Wa-ppo women b a t h e d e a c h m o r n i n g , r u b b i n g t h e m s e l v e s w i t h a n g e l i c a r o o t a n d a l l o w i n g t h e w ind t o s e r v e f o r a t o w e l . F i n g e r n a i l s a n d t o e n a i l s w ere tr im m e d s h o r t w i t h f l i n t k n i v e s . 63 64

K roeber,

jo j d

. c i t . , p . 519

Loeb, 1926, op. cit., p. 256

84 A w h i t e c l a y s u f f i c e d f o r a sham poo.

The K a to b a t h e d b o t h

n i g h t and m orning, w ashing th em se lv e s w ith s o a p r o o t, d r y in g t h e bod y w i t h p e p p e r w o o d l e a v e s a n d t h e h a i r w i t h a t a n n e d d eerhide.

F in g e rs s u b s t itu te d f o r th e to o th b ru sh ,

m o u th was r i n s e d w i t h w a t e r ,

an d t h e

P e p p e r w o o d n u t s w ere chewed

a n d r u b b e d on t h e f a c e i n o r d e r t o c l e a n s e a n d p r e s e r v e t h e com plexion.

The same b e a u t i f i e r a d d e d l u s t e r t o t h e h a i r ,

as w e ll a s keeping th e t r e s s e s in p la c e .

Hands w e r e w a s h e d

b e f o r e m e a l s . 66 In o r d e r to meet th e e x a c t i o n s of p o p u la r a p p r o v a l t h e w i n n e r o f a Pomo b e a u t y c o n t e s t c o n f i r m e d t o c e r t a i n s e t stan d ard s.

She m u s t be o f s q u a r e b u i l d ,

w e i g h t a b o u t one

h u ndred and tw en ty pounds o r s l i g h t l y more, h e i g h t a b o u t f i v e fe e t four.

H er h a n d s s h o u l d be plump b u t s m a l l , a n d h e r

b reasts f l a t . be h e a v y .

Her h a i r ,

done up on t o p o f h e r h e a d ,

should

H e r l i p s s h o u l d be t h i n , h e r e a r s s m a l l a n d h e r

t e e t h w h i t e . 66 SOCIAL CUSTOMS The s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a I n d i a n s was s i m p l e *

T h e r e w ere n e i t h e r g e n s n o r c l a n f o r m s ,

p o l i t i c a l s o l i d a r i t y was a l m o s t l a c k i n g .

65 L o e b , 1 9 5 2 , p p . c i t . , p p . 4 7 - 4 8 66 L o eb , 1 9 2 6 , o p . c i t . ,

p. 258.

A l t h o u g h t h e r e was

85 some t e n d e n c y t o r e c o g n i z e p r o p e r t y d i s t i n c t i o n s t h e r e was no f o r m a l s o c i a l r a n k i n g # w ith l i t t l e

ritu alism ,

R e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e s w ere s i m p l e ,

f e t i s h i s m a n d s y m b o l i s m , b u t showed

a ten d en cy to m a in ta in a s e r i e s of dances in a fix e d o r d e r , a n d c o n s p i c u o u s s h a m a n is m .

The p u b e r t y c e re m o n y f o r g i r l s

was i m p o r t a n t an d w e l l d e v e l o p e d , b a l a n c e d b y a s o r t o f 67 s e c r e t i n i t i a t i o n f o r men. E ducation C h i l d r e n w e re c a r e d f o r by t h e m o t h e r u n t i l t h e b o y s w ere c o n s i d e r e d o l d e n o u g h t o accom pany t h e f a t h e r , t a u g h t them t o h u n t a n d f i s h .

L ittle

who

c h i l d r e n w e re a l l o w e d

t o p l a y h a p p i l y a s l o n g a s t h e y w i s h e d , a n d w ere r a r e l y p u nished,

e x c e p t by s c o l d i n g .

L ik e a l l c h i l d r e n t h e i r p l a y s

were u s u a l l y i m i t a t i o n s o f th e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e i r e l d e r s . Boys w e n t on mimic h u n t s , w h i l e l i t t l e The f i r s t

to y s given l i t t l e

g i r l s pounded a c o r n s .

g i r l s w ere s m a l l b a s k e t s ,

t h a t t h e y m i g h t grow up t o be s k i l l f u l b a s k e t m a k e r s . th e y grew o l d e r t h e l i t t l e

so As

m a i d s p l a y e d w i t h d o l l s made o f

w i l d p a r s n i p t o p s o r i m a g e s o f u n b a k e d c l a y , w h i c h w ere made t o t a l k , d a n c e . 68

o r w e r e t a k e n t o t h e d a n c e h o u s e a n d made t o

K a to d o l l s w ere o f d e e r h i d e r o l l e d o v e r a s t i c k

a n d c a r r i e d on t h e b a c k o f t h e l i t t l e m o t h e r i n a c r a d l e 67 6R

C l a r k W i s s l e r , The A m e r i c a n I n d i a n , p . 226 Loeb, 1926, op. cit., p. 222

86

made b y t h e c h i l d ’ s m o t h e r . sk a tin g arrow s, b a l l ,

Boys an d g i r l s p l a y e d games o f

an d t a g , a n d s p u n a c o r n t o p s t o g e t h e r .

A d o lescen c e and I n i t i a t i o n One o f t h e m o s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a n d w i d e s p r e a d o f C a l i f o r n i a I n d i a n c e r e m o n i e s was t h a t h e l d a t t h e p e r i o d when t h e y o u n g g i r l s o f t h e com munity a t t a i n e d m a t u r i t y . R ites held fo r g i r l s ,

e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e n o r t h , w ere o f e v e n

g r e a t e r i m p o r t a n c e t h a n t h e i n i t i a t i o n s u n d e r g o n e by b o y s . C erem onies v a r i e d i n im p o rta n c e from a sim p le o b s e rv a n c e o f c o n v e n t i o n a l t a b o o s t o r i t u a l s p r e s i d e d o v e r by a sh a m an , i n w hich th e e n t i r e

r a n c h e r ia took p a r t .

Among t h e Pomo,

f o r i n s t a n c e , no s p e c i a l d a n c e was h e l d , b u t t h e m a i d e n , on r e a c h i n g womanhood, was t a u g h t t o o b s e r v e c e r t a i n r e s ­ t r i c t i o n s common t o a l l C a l i f o r n i a I n d i a n women, and w h i c h w ere f o l l o w e d e a c h m onth f o r t h e r e s t o f h e r l i f e .

A ccording

to K ro eb er: These were num erous, e x p l i c i t and o f th e u s u a l t y p e . I f t h e woman s c r a t c h e d h e r h e a d w i t h a n y t h i n g e x c e p t a s p e c i a l b o n e o r s t i c k , s h e w ould s h e d h e r h a i r . I f she w a s h e d , h e r f a c e w o u ld become w r i n k l e d ; s h o u l d s h e work on a b a s k e t s h e w ould become b l i n d . I f she went t o f e t c h w a te r she m ight see a m o n s te r i n th e s p r i n g ; and e a t i n g m e a t w o u ld make h e r . s i c k . H er h u s b a n d a l s o r e f r a i n e d from h u n t i n g o r g am b lin g and from a t l e a s t certain relig io u s p a rtic ip a tio n s. E v id e n tly h e r con­ d i t i o n was e s s e n t i a l l y p o t e n t f o r e v i l an d e a s i l y tran sm issib le. She o c c u p i e d a s e p a r a t e h u t .

^ L o e b , 1 9 3 2 , p p . p i t . , p . 50 70 Kroeber, op. pit., p. .

87 I n many c e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a t r i b e s t a u g h t by h e r m o t h e r a t t h i s

t h e d a u g h t e r was

t im e many o f t h e c r a f t s a n d

i n d u s t r i e s s h e w o u ld p r a c t i c e i n a f t e r l i f e , k etry,

p r e p a r a t i o n o f a c o r n m eal,

the l i k e .

such as b as­

g r in d in g o f p i n o l e , and

G i f t s o f c l o t h i n g a n d o r n a m e n t s w ere u s u a l l y

p re s e n te d to the d eb u tan te a t th e co n clu sio n of the c e r e ­ mony, ivhich l a s t e d s e v e r a l day s* M arriage M a r r i a g e u s u a l l y t o o k p l a c e some y e a r s a f t e r t h e p u b e r t y cerem ony.

T h e r e was a n e x c h a n g e o f g i f t s b e t w e e n

th e f a m ilie s concerned, alth o u g h r e l a t i v e s of the g i r l r e c e i v e d more t h a n t h o s e o f t h e y o u t h .

In s p it e o f fam ily

a r r a n g e m e n t s b o y s a n d g i r l s h a d some c h o i c e i n r e g a r d t o t h e i r m ates.

Young m a r r i e d c o u p l e s l i v e d w i t h e i t h e r f a m i l y , p e r ­

m a n e n t l y s e t t l i n g w i t h o n e o r t h e o t h e r when t h e f i r s t c h i l d 71 was b o r n . D eath and m ourning Women t o o k a p r o m i n e n t p a r t i n t h e m o u r n i n g c e r e m o n i e s so c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

of t h i s re g io n .

o f women f o r b u r i a l ,

They p r e p a r e d t h e b o d i e s

w h i l e men p r e p a r e d t h o s e o f m e n . - Men

a n d women c u t t h e h a i r s h o r t a c r o s s t h e f o r e h e a d an d t e m p l e s a s a symbol o f m o u rn in g , an d c r i e d f o r t h e d e a d , g in n in g to w a il th r e e o r f o u r days b e f o r e death*

^

Loeb, 1926, op. cit., p. 277

often be­ Women c r i e d

88

by s i n g i n g ,

e x t o l l i n g the v i r t u e s of th e d eceased , and,

a v o i d i n g c a r e f u l l y a n y m e n t i o n o f t h e p e r s o n ’ s name, t o l d 72 how g o o d , how b e a u t i f u l a n d how g e n e r o u s he h a d b e e n . M o u r n i n g women a t t a c h e d p e l l e t s

of w hite c la y to the h a i r

a c r o s s t h e f o r e h e a d , w h ic h w ere worn f o r a b o u t two y e a r s , f r e s h p e l l e t s r e p l a c i n g t h o s e which f e l l o f f . n o t m arry d u r in g t h i s p e r i o d .

Widows d i d

For a y e a r a f t e r th e d e a th

women w e r e s a i d t o f e e d t h e s p i r i t s

of th e dead.

They

w a l k e d o v e r p l a c e s w here t h e d e a d p e r s o n h a d b e e n a c c u s t o m e d to p ass,

s i n g i n g m ourning songs as th e y s p r i n k l e d p i n o l e or

a c o r n m e a l on t h e g r o u n d .

S o m e ti m e s t h e y d a n c e d a n d s a n g ,

h o l d i n g h e a d s i n t h e i r o u t s t r e t c h e d h a n d s , c a l l i n g upon th e d e a d t o r e t u r n * 73 M o t h e r s p r e s s e d t h e m i l k f r o m t h e i r b r e a s t s o ver the g rav es o f t h e i r b a b ie s .

M o u r n in g women

a l s o p r a c t i c e d a f o rm o f s e l f - m u t i l a t i o n ,

scratch in g faces

and b r e a s t s w ith sh arp f i n g e r n a i l s u n t i l th e y b ro u g h t the 74 b lo o d . P ro p e rty and in h e rita n c e C e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a women h a d c o m p l e t e c o n t r o l o v e r t h e i r own p e r s o n a l b e l o n g i n g s , a n i n v a r i a b l e I n d i a n c u s t o m . They w ere a t l i b e r t y t o d i s p o s e o f t h e i r p o s s e s s i o n s a s t h e y

72 I b i d . , 7'35

p . 286

I b i d . , p . 289 Barrett, op. cit. , p. 31

89 d e s i r e d , by s a l e , happened* p ro p erty ,

e x c h a n g e o r by g a m b l i n g th e m aw a y , a s o f t e n

T h e r e was p r a c t i c a l l y n o i n h e r i t a n c e o f p e r s o n a l owing t o t h e g e n e r a l c u s t o m o f d e s t r o y i n g s u c h

p r o p e r t y d u r i n g t h e m o u r n i n g c e r e m o n y , a l t h o u g h a woman m i g h t g i v e h e r t h i n g s away d u r i n g h e r l i f e t i m e t o f r i e n d s and r e l a t i v e s . The h o u s e , among t h e Pomo, w as c o n s i d e r e d t h e p r o p e r ­ t y o f t h e o l d e s t w i f e among t h e s e v e r a l f a m i l i e s i n h a b i t i n g 75 it. T h i s w i f e was e v e n s a i d t o h a v e t h e p o w er o f e j e c t i n g 76 p e o p l e s h e d i d n o t l i k e f r o m t h e community d w e l l i n g . Among t h e K a t o t h e h o u s e was owned by t h e f a m i l y , w h i l e women owned o n l y t h e i r c l o t h i n g , p o u n d i n g b a s k e t s , soup r o c k s and w a te r b a s k e t s .

Some o f t h e d e e r s k i n b e d s

w e r e owned by women, some by men. t o y s , c l o t h i n g a n d d e c o r a t i o n s . 77

C h i l d r e n owned t h e i r

C e r e m o n ia l i s m A l t h o u g h women s h a m a n s o u t n u m b e r e d men i n many C a l i f ­ orn ia t r i b e s

t h e y w e r e o f l e s s f r e q u e n t o c c u r r e n c e among t h e

c e n tra l C a lifo rn ia In d ian s. "m edicine-m en" a b s o l u t e l y *

The Pomo p r o h i b i t e d f e m a l e The Y u k i , who t o l e r a t e d f e m a l e

^ K r o e b e r , o p . c i t . , p . 256 76 L o e b , 1 9 2 6 , o p . c i t . , p . 198 717

L o e b , 1 9 3 2 , o p . c i t . , p . 48

90 sucking d o c to rs ,

d i d n o t c o n s i d e r t h a t t h e y w ere e n t i t l e d

t o a f e e f o r t h e i r s e r v i c e s , a l t h o u g h t h e m e d i c i n e woman was d i s a p p o i n t e d ,

to put i t m ild ly ,

i f a handsome p r e s e n t

was n o t f o r t h c o m i n g i n r e c o g n i t i o n o f h e r s e r v i c e s . w ere, how everi e x c e l l e n t h e r b d o c t o r s ,

Women

i f th e y were b a r r e d

from th e h i g h e r b r a n c h e s , and t r e a t e d m inor a i l m e n ts and i n j u r i e s w i t h m a rk e d s u c c e s s . In s p ite of th e f a i r l y hig h p o s itio n of c e n t r a l C a l i f ­ o r n i a I n d i a n women t h e y h a d s m a l l p l a c e i n t h e r e l i g i o u s l i f e of th e

c o m m u n ity , o t h e r t h a n t a k i n g t h e i r s h a r e i n c e r e ­

m onies. War C e n t r a l C a l i f o r n i a I n d i a n women t o o k no a c t i v e p a r t i n w a r e f a r e , b u t t h e y f r e q u e n t l y a c c o m p a n i e d w ar p a r t i e s . Among t h e E a s t Porno t h e y r e m a i n e d b e h i n d t h e l i n e s t o p i c k up a r r o w s a n d c o l l e c t s t o n e s t o s u p p l y t h e y o u n g w a r r i o r s w ith am m unition.

A f t e r t h e men h a d s c a l p e d t h e i r s l a i n

e n e m i e s t h e women m u t i l a t e d t h e b o d i e s .

C a p t u r e d women

and c h i l d r e n w e r e a d o p t e d i n t o t h e t r i b e by t h e Pomo, a l ­ t h o u g h i t was s a i d t h a t i n e a r l i e r d a y s t h e Pomo made a s p e c i a l p o i n t o f d e s t r o y i n g t h e women o f t h e i r e n e m i e s , a r g u i n g t h a t t h e d e a t h of one woman e q u a l l e d t h a t o f f i v e

78 L o e b , 1 9 2 6 , op., c i t . , p . 192

Games a n d d i v e r s i o n s Women e n j o y e d a number o f g a m e s , c h i e f among them a g a m b l i n g game p l a y e d w i t h d i c e o f v a r i o u s s o r t s , t r a d i t i o n ­ a l l y r e s t r i c t e d t o women. stick s,

usu ally f l a t

B ice c o n s i s t e d of s i x w illo w

on one s i d e a n d r o u n d e d on t h e o t h e r .

S o m e ti m e s one s i d e w a s l e f t p l a i n an d t h e r e v e r s e d e c o r a t e d w ith b u rn t p a tte r n s .

Among th e K a to t h e s e d i c e w e r e f l a t

and b l a c k e n e d on one s i d e .

S t i c k d i c e were throw n a lo n g

th e g ro u n d , and c o u n ts ta k e n from th e upperm ost s i d e . P l a y e r s o f t e n w a g e r e d t h e i r most p r e c i o u s p o s s e s s i o n s , i n c l u d i n g t h e c l o t h e s t h e y w o r e , d u r i n g t h e s e g a m e s . 79 Y o k u t s d i c e c o n s i s t e d of h a l v e s o f n a t i v e b l a c k w alnut s h e l l s f i l l e d w ith asp h altu m i n l a i d w ith b i t s abalone s h e l l .

of

They w e r e t o s s e d on t o a w i d e f l a t b a s k e t

t r a y , made f o r t h e p u r p o s e . A l t h o u g h women w e r e a d m i t t e d t o t h e men’ s g a m b l i n g game, p l a y e d i n t h e s w e a t h o u s e , a s s p e c t a t o r s o n l y , t h e y j o i n e d i n o t h e r gam es p l a y e d by b o t h s e x e s . of-w ar,

f o r exam ple,

The Pomo t u g -

i n w h i c h men p u l l e d a g a i n s t women, was

the occasio n of g r e a t h i l a r i t y .

E n tire v i ll a g e s took p a rt

i n f o o t b a l l g a m e s , men a n d vfomen j o i n i n g a g a i n s t a common opponent.

Women a l s o p a r t i c i p a t e d i n r u n n i n g r a c e s , a n d 80 w r e s t l e d w i t h e a c h o t h e r , b u t n o t w i t h men. A game

79 I M S . - . p * 212 80 I b i d . , p . 215

92 r e s e m b l i n g s h i n n y , p l a y e d w i t h s h o r t c y l i n d e r s o f wood p r o p e l l e d by c u r v e d s t i c k s ,

was l i m i t e d t o women.

S i n g i n g i n c h o r u s i n t h e e v e n i n g was a f a v o r i t e p a s t i m e o f women.

A woman was u s u a l l y h i r e d a s s o l o i s t 81 to s in g fo r s o c i a l f e s t i v i t i e s .

P o stu re P o s t u r e o f women was s t r i c t l y tio n , alth o u g h l i t t l e

r e s t r i c t e d by c o n v e n ­

d a ta cou ld be s e c u r e d .

As a r u l e

women s a t w i t h one l e g o u t s t r e t c h e d a n d t h e o t h e r f o l d e d 82 b e n e a t h th e m , a s among t h e Y o k u t s . E tiq u ette F in e r p o in ts of e t i q u e t t e ,

s c r u p u l o u s l y o b s e r v e d by

I n d i a n s , w e r e s e l d o r n r e p o r t e d by o b s e r v e r s , a n d t h u s no d a ta were a v a i l a b l e .

8 1 I b i d . , p . 223 K roeber,

oja* c i t . . p . 579

95 THE SOUTHERN CAH BOSNIA AREA The S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a in ta n g ib le

c u l t u r e a r e a e x te n d e d from an

l i n e e x t e n d i n g a p p r o x im a te l y from th e T eh aeh ap i

R ange t o P o i n t C o n c e p c i o n i n t h e n o r t h t o a n i n d e f i n i t e 83 b o u n d ary n o t f a r s o u t h of th e M exican b o rd er* A sub-area o r e x t e n s io n in c lu d e d the C olorado R iv e r and s u r ro u n d in g d e se rt reg io n s.

T r i b e s o f s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a w ere o f

t y p i c a l C a l i f o r n i a c u l t u r e t y p e , b u t ¥/ith d e f i n i t e v a r i a ­ t i o n s , due in p a r t to th e i n f l u e n c e o f P l a t e a u , P u eb lo and C o lorad o R iv e r g r o u p s , and i n p a r t t o e n v iro n m e n t and n a ­ t u r a l d iv e r s i t y o f ideas and a b i l i t i e s . H a b i t a t a n d L an g u a g e W ithin t h i s

s o u t h e r n t h i r d o f t h e s t a t e were d i s t r i ­

b u te d t r i b e s o f In d ia n s sp e ak in g s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t languages o f I-Iokan a n d S h o s h o n e a n l i n g u i s t i c

sto c k s, as w ell as d ia ­

l e c t s o f Yuman, Chumash a n d S a l i n a n f a m i l i e s . t r i b e s i n c l u d e d t h e Owen’ s V a l l e y P a i u t e ;

Shoshonean

t h e Mono, P a n a m i n t

o r K o s o , T u b a t u l a b a l j K a w a i i s u , Vanyume, C h e m e h u e v i, S e r r a n o , C ah u illa, trib es

Cupeno a n d f o u r o f t h e s o - c a l l e d M i s s i o n I n d i a n

( F e r n a n d e n o , J u a n e n o , L u i s e n o an d G - a b r i e l i n o ) .

The

s o u t h e r n Hokan s t o c k o f t h e Yuman g r o u p i n c l u d e d t h e M i s s i o n D iegueno,

t h e Kam ia, Yuma, H a l c h i d o m a a n d Mohave; w h i l e t h e

n o r t h e r n Hokan w e r e c o m p r i s e d o f two g r o u p s — t h e S a l i n a n

Kroeber, op. cit., p. 898

94 i n c l u d i n g th e A n to n ia n o , P lay a n o and M igueleno, and th e Chumash w h i c h i n c l u d e d t h e O b i s p e n o , Cuyama, P u r i s i m e n o , S a n t a I n e z , E m i g d i a n o , Y enturerT o, a n d , m o s t i m p o r t a n t ,

the

B arbareno. W i t h i n t h e r a n g e o f t h i s t e r r i t o r y may be f o u n d t h e h i p e s t and lo w e s t a l t i t u d e s

in th e U nited S t a t e s .

a re high m o u n tain s, t r u e d e s e r t s , b roken f o o t h i l l s ,

There fru it­

f u l v a l l e y s and lo n g s t r e t c h e s o f b a r r e n s e a c o a s t , a l l

of

w h ic h e x e r t e d a s t r o n g i n f l u e n c e on t h e c u l t u r e s o f t h e r e g i o n , w h i c h have p r o v e d t h e m s e l v e s e l a s t i c e n o u g h t o be a d a p te d to th e se v a ry in g co n d itio n s*

The G a b r i e l i n o may

be c o n s i d e r e d t h e ty p e c e n t e r o f th e a r e a , a s p o s s e s s i n g t h e g r e a t e s t number o f t y p i c a l t r a i t s ,

and a s h a v i n g a

m a r k e d i n f l u e n c e on s u r r o u n d i n g t r i b e s .

T his i n f l u e n c e

f a d e s t o a minimum among t h e Yuman g r o u p s t o t h e s o u t h , and i s b a r e l y d i s c e r n i b l e among t h e P a i u t e g r o u p s o f t h e e a ste rn b o rd erlan d .

I n s p i t e o f many d i v e r s i t i e s i n o c c u ­

p a t i o n s a n d m a t e r i a l s c u l t u r e s o f s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a Y/ere tr u ly C a lifo rn ian . E l v i s i o n o f l a b o r a n d p o s i t i o n o f women Women’ s t a s k s i n t h e

s o u t h e r n a r e a w ere a p p r o x i m a t e l y

t h e same a s among c e n t r a l a n d n o r t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a a r e a s . Where t h e r e was a g r i c u l t u r e ,

a s among t h e Mohave a n d Yuma,

f a r m i n g was a d d e d t o t h e i r o t h e r d u t i e s .

95 Women c h i e f s w e r e o f f r e q u e n t o c c u r r e n c e among t h e G ab rielin o ,

a n d a d a u g h t e r of a c h i e f o f t h a t t r i b e was

given a s p e c i a l t i t l e .

The ftank o f c h i e f ’ s d a u g h t e r was

r e c o g n i z e d among t h e Chum ash.

Women o f t h e L u i s e n o m i g h t

hold th e . p o s i t i o n of r e l i g i o u s

ch ief.

S u bsisten ce A c o r n s , when a v a i l a b l e ,

rem ained th e s t a p l e fo o d ,

r e p l a c e d by n u t s o f p i n o n a n d p i n e i n h i l l d i s t r i c t s and by m e s q u i t e b e a n s i n t h e d e s e r t .

The d i e t o f i n s e c t s ,

c l u d i n g l a r v a e and o t h e r s u c h d a i n t i e s

in ­

i n c r e a s e d ow ing t o

t h e g e n e r a l b a r r e n n e s s o f much o f t h e t e r r i t o r y ,

w hile

e v e r y e d i b l e s e e d p l a n t an d a n i m a l was u t i l i z e d .

F ish and

a c o r n m e a l were o f c h i e f i m p o r t a n c e a l o n g t h e c o a s t . a s i n th e n o r t h e r n and c e n t r a l r e g i o n s , a n d i n s e c t f o o d s , men t h e m e a t a n d f i s h .

p ro v id ed v e g e ta b le Food was p r e p a r e d

b y t h e same m e t h o d s , w i t h a n i n c r e a s e d u s e o f p estle

Women,

m ortar

and

o r t h e m e t a t e a n d mano. Long p o d s o f t h e m e s q u i t e w e r e g a t h e r e d by commu­

n ity e ffo rt,

t h e n w e r e c r u s h e d b y t h e women i n wooden

m o rtars w ith stone p e s t l e s .

Owing t o t h e h e a t o f t h e

d e s e r t s u n much g r i n d i n g w as done by t h e l i g h t o f t h e 84 moon. F r u i t and s e e d s o f th e o p u n tia form ed an im p o rta n t

84 D a v i d P r e s c o t t B a r r o w s , B t h n o b o t a n y o f t h e C o a h u i l a I n d i a n s o f S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a , p p . 69 and 71

96 ad d itio n - to d e s e r t f o o d s tu f f s . s o r t of su g a r from a r e e d ,

ftp; ^

P a n a m i n t women p r e p a r e d a

P h r a g m i t e s v u l g a r i s , ?/hich t h e y

c u t i n summer, d r i e d , g r o u n d and s i f t e d .

The s t i f f s t i c k y

f l o u r w as r o a s t e d , r e s e m b l i n g t a f f y f l a v o r .

86

N e a r l y a l l f o o d s t u f f s were r e d u c e d t o p o w d e r a n d s e r v e d a s mush o r a s a t h i n p o r r i d g e , 87 sto le .

c a l l e d by th e S p a n is h

A lth o u g h b a s k e t c o o k in g p r e v a i l e d o v er most o f th e a r e a , p o t t e r y was m a n u f a c t u r e d i n t h e d e s e r t , Y/hile c o o k i n g p o t s o f s t o n e w ere c a r v e d by t h e G a b r i e l i n o a n d Chumash, who s e c u r e d m a t e r i a l s f r o m s t e a t i t e

q u a r r i e s on C a t a l i n a

I s l a n d and t h e a d j a c e n t m a in la n d . The Owens V a l l e y P a i u t e a p p r o a c h e d a g r i c u l t u r e , though th e y did n o t q u i t e r e a c h t r u e a g r i c u l t u r e . raised ,

by i r r i g a t i o n ,

a l­

They

a tu b e r, but they n e ith e r p la n te d

n o r c u l t i v a t e d the r o o t .

88

The Yuma a n d Mohave were f a r m e r s , r a i s i n g beans and squash in th e f e r t i l e

corn,

r iv e r v a lle y s , alth o u g h

a g r i c u l t u r e did n o t re a c h th e h e ig h ts in th e s e t r i b e s i t ' a c q u i r e d among t h e Pima an d P u e b l o .

8 5 I b i d . , p . 68 ®6 O t i s , T. M ason, Woman* s S h a r e i n P r i m i t i v e C u l t u r e . P* 24

B a r r o w s , oj>. c i t . , p .

54

J u l i a n H. S t e w a r d , " E t h n o g r a p h y of t h e Owens V a l l e y P a i u t e , " U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f or n i a P u b l i c a t i o n s i n Ameri c a n A r c h e o l o g y an d E t h n o l o g y , v o . X X X III, No. 3 , p . 247

97 S h elter D w e llin g s c o n s i s t e d of g ra s s and p o le s h e l t e r s , u s u a l l y d o m e - s h a p e d , h u t i n c l u d i n g some r e c t a n g u l a r b u i l d ­ in g s in th e extrem e s o u th .

The h u t s t h e m s e l v e s were s u p ­

p l e m e n t e d by t h e u s u a l w i n d - b r e a k s a n d s u n - s h a d e s o f b r u s h and p o l e s , e i t h e r co m p o sed o f r o o f l e s s w a l l s o r o f r o o f s s u p p o r t e d by p o l e s .

M a te ria ls co n siste d of t u l e re e d s,

b ru s h from b u s h e s grow ing in th e v i c i n i t y , and w illo w p o les. Men l i v e d w i t h t h e i r f a m i l i e s i n t h e d w e l l i n g h o u s e , u s in g the sw eat house o n ly f o r b a t h s and c e re m o n ie s .

The

Mohave an d D e s e r t C a h u i l l a p e r m i t t e d women a n d c h i l d r e n t o a s s e m b l e i n t h e s w e a t h o u s e , b u t among t h e r e s t o f t h e S outhern C a lif o rn ia t r i b e s

t h e same r u l e s a g a i n s t f e m i n i n e

i n t r u s i o n were i n f o r c e a s i n t h e n o r t h e r n a n d c e n t r a l a r e a . T ran sp o rtatio n Women c a r r i e d t h e l o a d s d u r i n g m i g r a t i o n s f r o m camp to perm anent v i l l a g e s . b ask ets,

B urdens w ere p l a c e d i n l a r g e c o i l e d

suspended in w ide-m eshed c a r r y i n g n e t s ,

b y woven s t r a p s p a s s i n g a c r o s s t h e . f o r e h e a d .

supported

The Owens

V a ll e y P a i u t e and o t h e r s o f t h e Shoshonean t r i b e s u t i l i z e d t h e t y p i c a l P a i u t e woven c o n i c a l c a r r y i n g b a s k e t ,

su pported

by m eans o f t h e p a c k s t r a p . A lthough r a n c h e r i a s w ere perm an en tly l o c a t e d th e r e was c o n s i d e r a b l e t r a v e l i n g ,

fro m s e a c o a s t t o f o o t h i l s ,

98 for fish , co ast.

s a l t and p i n e n u t s by t r i b e s l i v i n g n e a r t h e

D e s e r t p e o p l e u s u a l l y s o u g h t c o o l e r m o u n t a i n camps

f o r t h e summer, r e t u r n i n g t o t h e same camps y e a r a f t e r y e a r , each having i t s

own h u n t i n g r a n g e .

P o tte ry and o th e r

p o s s e s s io n s were cached in ro c k s h e l t e r s

or n e a r c o n v e n i e n t

l a n d m a r k s , and o n l y l i g h t e r a r t i c l e s c a r r i e d on t h e j o u r n e y . B a s k e t s came b a c k l o a d e d w i t h s u p p l i e s . C rafts In a d d itio n to

the o m n ip re s e n t b a s k e tr y ,

C a l i f o r n i a I n d i a n s made p o t t e r y ,

so uth ern

s t o n e a n d bone a r t i f a c t s

a n d o r n a m e n t s , d i d some w o rk i n w oo d, and f a b r i c a t e d r e a l l y b e a u tifu l sh ell

jew elry .

These a b o r i g i n a l c r a f t s w ere e a r l y

r e p l a c e d b y t h o s e o f S p a n i s h a n d M e x ic a n o r i g i n ,

in trod uced

by the M ission f a t h e r s .

alth o u g h

More p e r i p h e r a l t r i b e s ,

l e s s a f f e c t e d b y E u r o p e a n i n f l u e n c e s , w ere u n f o r t u n a t e l y more l i m i t e d a s t o t h e number o f c r a f t s t h a n t h e Chumash and' t h e i r n e i g h b o r s . B asketry B asketry,

here as elsew h ere in C a l i f o r n i a , rem ained

t h e m o st i m p o r t a n t c r a f t .

Women w e r e t h e b a s k e t m a k e r s .

c h i e f t e c h n i q u e was c o i l i n g ,

The

a lth o u g h tw ined w ater b o t t l e s ,

w in n o w e r s a n d c a p s were m a n u f a c t u r e d i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f the a r e a .

" M i s s i o n " t y p e b a s k e t s a r e s t i l l made b y a f e w

C a h h i l l a a n d D i e g u e n o women.

99 S p l i n t s o f j u n c u s r u s h , w i l l o w o r sumac, w ere sewed o v e r a t h i c k i s h f o u n d a t i o n b u n d l e o f g r a s s s t e m s , m a k in g a r a t h e r h e a v y and s t u r d y b a s k e t .

Forms i n c l u d e d b o w l s o f

v a r i o u s s i z e s , f r o m s e m i - c o n i c a l c a p s w orn by t h e women t o d e e p , w id e s t o r a g e v e s s e l s , a n d s e r v e d a l l d o m e s t i c p u r p o s e s from b a t h i n g t h e baby to c p o k in g th e m e a ls .

O rnam entation

c o n s i s t e d o f s i m p l e g e o m e t r i c p a t t e r n s i n b l a c k or n a t u r a l s h a d e s of j u n c u s r u s h .

P e rh a p s the most c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

s p e c i m e n s w ere t h o s e o f s o f t l y b l e n d i n g s h a d e s o f y e l l o w and b ro w n j u n c u s .

T w ined w a t e r b o t t l e s were r e n d e r e d w a t e r ­

p r o o f by s h a k i n g lum ps o f a s p h a l t u m w i t h s m a l l h o t s t o n e s a b o u t t h e i n t e r i o r u n t i l t h e w a l l s w ere c o a t e d s m o o t h l y a n d evenly w ith t a r .

Some o f t h e s e p i t c h e d c a n t e e n s w e r e o r ­

n a m e n t e d w i t h t i n y s h e l l o r bone d i s k s s e t i n b i t u m e n , a s ty le p a r t i c u l a r l y p o p u la r along th e c o a s t.

H ill trib e s

s u b s t i t u t e d p i S i n gum f o r a s p h a l t u m . B ask ets o f the

Owens V a l l e y P a i u t e w ere more n e a r l y

r e l a t e d to those o f the P a i u t e .

Women’ s c a p s w e r e t w i n e d

i n s t e a d o f c o i l e d , a n d woven c o o k i n g b a s k e t s ?^ere i n general use.

They made u s e o f p a i n t e d d e s i g n s f o r some

of t h e i r b a s k e t s . M ost b e a u t i f u l a n d a r t i s t i c

o f th e so uthern C a lifo rn ia

b a s k e t s were c r e a t e d by P a n a m i n t women o f D e a t h V a l l e y , who m a n u f a c t u r e d b a s k e t s o f f i n e w o rk m a n s h ip u n d e r t h e l e a s t fav o rab le circu m stan ces.

T h eir b a s k e ts resem ble th o se o f

100 t h e T u l a r e - Y o k u t s g r o u p * h o w e v e r , m ore t h a n t h o s e o f o t h e r southern C a lifo rn ia n s . P o ttery P o t t e r y was m a n u f a c t u r e d b y t h e women o f c e r t a i n sou th ern C a lifo rn ia d e s e rt t r i b e s ,

in c lu d in g th e C a h u illa ,

B i e g u e n o , Mohave, and Owens Y a l l e y P a i u t e .

The w are o f t h e

l a t t e r r e s e m b l e d t h a t o f t h e Y o k u t s , Mono a n d D e a t h Y a l l e y In d ian s.

I t was made by t h e c o i l e d m e t h o d , s i m i l a r t o t h a t

o f t h e P u e b l o women, s c r a p e d , s m o o t h e d w i t h t h e f i n g e r s d ip p e d i n a sy ru p from t h e m allow p l a n t ,

ru d ely f i r e d ,

an d

used fo r dom estic p u r p o s e s .^ 9 The C a h u i l l a , B i e g u e n o , S e r r a n o a n d o t h e r d e s e r t t r i b e s m a n u f a c t u r e d v e r y f i n e p o t t e r y by t h e p a d d l e a n d a n v i l m e t h o d , p r o b a b l y l e a r n e d f r o m Yuman t r i b e s t o t h e e a s t o f th e m .

Y e s s e ls , c h i e f l y cooking p o ts ,

larg e sto rag e j a r s ,

o l l a s and

w i t h b u t few b o w l s , w ere g r a c e f u l a n d

s y m m e tric a l, u s u a l l y u n d e c o ra te d save f o r th e b e a u t i f u l n a t u r a l m o t t l e d s h a d e s o f t h e f i r e d c l a y , w h i c h seemed t o have caught th e to n e s of a d e s e r t s u n s e t .

O ccasionally

l i n e s a n d d o t s were a d d e d w i t h m i n e r a l p a i n t . S p in n in g and w eaving S p i n n i n g and w e a v i n g w e r e i n t r o d u c e d by t h e F r a n ­ c i s c a n f a t h e r s i n the m i s s i o n s ,

b u t w ere unknown p r e v i o u s l y .

101 S t o n e work A lthough l i t t l e

i s known d e f i n i t e l y o f t h e m e t h o d s

e m p lo y e d i n t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f s t o n e p o t s , he l i t t l e

t h e r e seem s t o

d o u h t t h a t s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a I n d i a n women m ad e,

or a t l e a s t a s s is te d of s t e a t i t e

i n m aking,

suc h c o n t a i n e r s .

( a l s o known a s s o a p s t o n e a n d t a l c )

Q uarries

have been

l o c a t e d i n v a r i o u s p l a c e s a l o n g t h e c o a s t a n d on t h e i s l a n d of S anta C a ta lin a ,

a l l s h o ? /in g e v i d e n c e s o f p r e h i s t o r i c

w o r k i n g s i n w h ic h t o o l s o f s t o n e h a v e b e e n f o u n d . is p ractica lly of h e a t,

S te a tite

the o n ly s to n e w hich s u r v i v e s th e a p p l i c a t i o n

so t h a t e o o k i n g p o t s a n d s l a b s o f t h i s m a t e r i a l

were a l m o s t i n d e s t r u c t i b l e .

B o i l i n g s t o n e s were a l s o made

o f s t e a t i t e f o r b a sk et cookery. ce re m o n ia l and d o m e s tic u s e ,

C on tain ers,

b o w ls f o r

o r n a m e n t s a n d c h a r m s w ere

m a n u f a c t u r e d f r o m t h i s e a s i l y w o rk e d y e t t o u g h m a t e r i a l . Bowls w e r e s y m m e t r i c a l i n f o r m , many d e c o r a t e d w i t h i n ­ c i s e d g e o m e t r i c p a t t e r n s , a n d seme by t h e a d d i t i o n o f s h e l l beads s e t

in a sp h a ltu m .

Bowls o f s a n d s t o n e a n d g r a n i t e ,

many s h o w i n g t r a c e s o f a s p h a l t u m i n l a i d o r n a m e n t a t i o n a r o u n d th e r im s e r v e d b oth c e re m o n ia l and u t i l i t a r i a n purposes. M e t a t e s and manos f o r g r i n d i n g s e e d s p r o b a b l y p r e ­ ceded th e u se o f th e m o rtar and p e s t l e f o r pounding, p ro b a b ly in tr o d u c e d w ith t h e use of th e a c o rn as food. N ativ es of so u th e rn C a lif o r n ia continued the f a b r i c a tio n

102 o f t h e i r m i l l i n g s t o n e s u n t i l m o d e rn t i m e s , a n d t h e s t o n e m o r t a r w i t h c o i l e d b a s k e t h o p p e r i s s t i l l i n u s e i n some iso late d d is tr ic ts .

In a d d itio n to th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

p o r t a b l e m o r ta r , p erm an en t m i l l s were s i t u a t e d w h e re v e r g r a n ite o u tcroppings e x i s t e d .

I n t h e Chumash a r e a r i n g s

o f s t o n e w e r e s l i p p e d o v e r t h e h a n d l e o f t h e women’ s d i g g i n g 90 s t i c k t o add w eig h t. Costume a n d A dornm ent C loth ing Women wore t h e u s u a l b r i e f a p r o n a n d s k i r t o f s h r e d d e d b a rk or r u s h , w ith c a p s of c o i l e d b a s k e t r y , many o r n a m e n t s o f s h e l l , carved.

s t o n e and b o n e ,

supplem ented w ith

o ften b e a u tifu lly

I n l a n d G a b r i e l i n o women w ore a d e e r s k i n w r a p p e d

a b o u t t h e w a i s t , r e p l a c e d by t h e i r c o a s t a l s i s t e r s w i t h 91 s k in s of sea o t t e r . I n t h e r e g i o n o f San J u a n C a p i s t r a n o a p r o n s made o f n e t s o r a f r i n g e o f g r a s s r e a c h i n g t h e k n e e s 92 rw ere w orn. L u i s e n o women p r e f e r r e d a b a c k s k i r t o f t h e s o f t i n n e r b a r k o f c o t t o n w o o d o r w i l l o w , worn w i t h a f r o n t 93 apron o f p a r tl y n e tte d c o rd s. L i t t l e g i r l s w o re s k i r t s 90 K r o e b e r , ^

opi. c i t . , p . 563

Hugo R e i d , The I n d i a n s o f Los A n g e l e s C o u n t y , p . 12

J o h n P . H a r r i n g t o n , A New O r i g i n a l V e r s i o n o f B o s c a n a ’ s H i s t o r i a a l A c c o u n t o f t h e S an J u a n C a p i s t r a n o I n d i a n s o f S outhern G a l i f o r n i a , S m ithsonian M iscellan e o u s C o lle c ­ t i o n s , V o l . 9 2 , n o . 4 , p . 29 ^ P h i l i p S . S p a r k m a n , 11The C u l t u r e o f t h e L u i s e n o I n d i a n s / ’ U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a P u b l i c a t i o n s i n A m erican A r c h e o l o g y a n d E t h n o l o g y , V o l . V I I I , n o . 4 , p . 2(JT

103 94 o f r e d d i s h m ilkw eed tw in e , n e t t e d a t t h e to p and f r i n g e d , QR M e s q u i t e b a r k s e r v e d a s a p r o n s f o r d e s e r t I n d i a n women, R a b b its k in b la n k e ts* w ith ro b es of s e a l and o t t e r f u r s u f ­ f ic e d f o r co ld e r w eather,

L u ise n o , D iegueno and p r o b a b ly

o t h e r s w o re s a n d a l s o f y u c c a f i b e r t o p r o t e c t t h e f e e t f r o m r o u g h o r t h o r n y g r o u n d . 96 O rn a m e n t s T h e r e was a n o t a b l e i n c r e a s e i n t h e am ount o f work i n s t o n e , b o n e an d s h e l l i n s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a ,

esp ecially

i n t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f b e a d s and o t h e r o r n a m e n t s , s u c h a s p e n d a n t s and h a i r p i n s .

The a b a l o n e i n p a r t i c u l a r h a d a

b e a u t i f u l i r i d e s c e n t s h e l l fro m w h ic h p e n d a n t s , s p a n g l e s o f v a r i o u s k i n d s w ere m ade.

b eads and

S t e a t i t e a l s o sup­

p l i e d an e f f e c t i v e m a t e r i a l f o r b e a d s , p e n d a n ts and charm s. G a b r i e l i n o women a n d c h i l d r e n b e d e c k e d t h e m s e l v e s w ith blossom s th ro u g h o u t th e flo w e r s e a s o n s ,

tw is tin g the

b lo o m s i n t o t h e h a i r o r i n t o n e c k l a c e s r e s e m b l i n g t h e H a w a i i a n l e i . 97

^ C o n s t a n c e G o d d a r d D u b o i s , "The R e l i g i o n of t h e L uiseno In d ia n s of S o u th ern C a l i f o r n i a , " U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a P u b l i c a t i o n s i n A m e r i c a n A r c h e o l o g y an d E t h n o l o g y , V o l . V I I T , N o . . 3 , p . £91 95 L u c i l e H o o p e r , "The G a h u i l l a I n d i a n s , " U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P u b l i c a t i o n s i n A m e r ic a n A r c h e o l o g y a n d E t h n o l o g y , V o l . XVI, No. 6 , p . 357 96 K r o e b e r , joj>. c i t . , p . 7S1 ^

R eid,

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c i t .,

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104 Nose r i n g s o f bone w ere a f f e c t e d by B a r b a r e n o women, b u t t h e s t y l e was d i s d a i n e d by o t h e r s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a women.

98

H aird ressin g The h a i r o f t h e women was u s u a l l y worn l o n g ,

fre­

q u e n t l y p i l e d ' h i g h on t h e h e a d a n d d r e s s e d w i t h l o n g h a i r p i n s o f bone a n d o r n a m e n t s o f s h e l l , flo w ers.

f e a t h e r s and

Men a l s o a f f e c t e d s u c h f a n c i f u l c o i f f u r e s .

D i e g u e n o a n d Mohave women c u t t h e h a i r i n b a n g s t o t h e eyebrow s.

D e s e r t C a h u i l l a women c o v e r e d t h e i r h a i r w i t h

a s p e c i a l k i n d o f c l a y w h ic h t h e y l e f t f o r two o r t h r e e days,

t h e n w a sh e d o f f ,

l e a v i n g th e h a i r s o f t and f l u f f y .

99

Women among t h e Mohave t i e d t h e i r l o c k s up i n a m i x t u r e o f c l a y a n d m e s q u i t e gum w h i c h l e f t i t

b la c k and g l o s s y .

The

h a i r was f r e q u e n t l y w a s h e d a n d b r u s h e d . m

T atto o in g A pparently a l l m o s t men t a t t o o e d .

s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a I n d i a n women a n d

M e th o d s a n d m a t e r i a l s ?/ere a p p r o x i m a t e l y

t h e same a s i n t h e c e n t r a l a n d n o r t h e r n a r e a s .

B ancroft, 99

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729

105 P ain tin g S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a I n d i a n women p a i n t e d t h e u p p e r p a r t s o f t h e i r b o d i e s brown w i t h c l a y , ' 1"0 '1’ p r o b a b l y a s a p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t sun and w ind.

Young a n d m i d d l e - a g e d

G a b r i e l i n o women s m e a r e d r e d o c h r e t h i c k l y o v e r t h e i r f a c e s t o p r e v e n t s u n b u r n , w h i l e y o u n g g i r l s who w ere i n l o v e rouged t h e i r cheeks w ith ochre.

10g

Face p a i n t i n g w ith

d e s i g n s d o e s n o t se e m t o h a v e b e e n g e n e r a l l y p r a c t i c e d e x c e p t among t h e Mohave, w h e r e y o u n g women r a h e l y a p p e a r e d a t cerem ohies or p a r t i e s w ith o u t s t r i k i n g p a t t e r n s in re d 103 o r y e l l o w p a i n t e d on t h e i r c h e e k s . Appearance I n d i a n women o f t h e s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a c o a s t a n d C h a n n e l I s l a n d s w e r e d e s c r i b e d by e a r l y v o y a g e r s a s h a v i n g f i n e f o r m s , b e a u t i f u l e y e s an d a m o d e s t m a n n e r . 104 D i e g u e n b women w e r e r e p o r t e d a s b e a u t i f u l l y d e v e l o p e d a n d s t r a i g h t a s a n a r r o w . 105 S h o s h o n e a n women w ere more c l u m 106 s i l y b u i l t , b u t w ith w e ll-fo rm e d hands and f e e t . 101

B ancroft,

102 R e i d ,

op. c i t .,

op. c i t . ,

K roeber,

p . 416

p . 23

o p ; c i t . , p . 729

B ancroft, pp. p i t . , 105 I b i d . , p . 4 0 3 106 I b i d . , p . 423

p . 402

106 Mohave women i n c l i n e d t o s t o u t n e s s , b u t h a d a n e r e c t , p l e a s i n g and g r a c e f u l c a r r i a g e .-^ 7 S o c i a l C ustom s S o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n was t y p i c a l l y C a l i f o r n i a n , a s d escrib ed e a r l i e r in t h i s

chapter*

E ducation The y o u n g w ere t a u g h t t o l o v e t r u t h , v e n e ra te o ld ag e.

do goo d a n d

C h ild re n rem ained u n d er th e c o n t r o l o f

t h e i r p a r e n t s u n t i l t h e a g e o f p u b e r t y , when t h e y w e r e p u t 108 in charge of th e c h i e f . J u a n e n o g i r l s w ere t o l d t h a t i f t h e y w e r e i n d u s t r i o u s t h e y w ould be v e r y much l i k e d a n d many men w o u ld s e e k th e m .

L ittle

g i r l s w ere g i v e n s m a l l

t r a y b a s k e t s an d t a u g h t t o pound s e e d s .

They w ere a l s o

t a u g h t t o g a t h e r a n d co o k s e e d s .

T h ey w ere e x p e c t e d t o r e m a i n i n r e t i r e m e n t a n d t o be r e a d y a n d o b e d i e n t . 109 A dolescence and i n i t i a t i o n The g i r l * s p u b e r t y c e re m o n y was a c c o m p a n i e d by a n in itiatio n

of the boys.

A c c o r d i n g t o R e i d t h i s was a j o y ­

f u l o c c a s i o n among t h e G a b r i e l i n o .

The m a id e n u n d e r w e n t

a form o f p u r i f i c a t i o n d u r i n g w hich a steam b a t h in d u c e d

K roeber, pp.

c i t . , p . 728

-*-08 B a n c r o f t , o p . c i t . , p . 414 1 OQ Harrington, op. cit., p. 20

10? b y p o u r i n g w a t e r on h o t s t o n e s was g i v e n t o h e r . c e r e m o n y was a c c o m p a n i e d by s i n g i n g .

110

The

The L u i s e n o g i r l 1s

c e r e m o n y was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e w o r s h i p o f C h i n g n i c h n i c h , a n d p a r t o o k somew hat o f t h e n a t u r e o f a n i n i t i a t i o n .

G irls

w ere " r o a s t e d ” by l y i n g on warm s t o n e s f o r t h r e e d a y s , w h i l e a t n i g h t men a n d i n t h e d a y t i m e women d a n c e d a r o u n d them .

The c h i l d ’ s f a c e was c o v e r e d by a b a s k e t ,

a s c r a t c h e r of abalone

(h alio tis)

e x t e n t s h e was made t o f a s t . b a c c o was p a r t o f t h e r i t e .

she used

s h e l l , and t o a c e r t a i n

Sw allow ing o f a p i l l o f t o ­ The f i n a l a c t was a r a c e , a f t e r

w h i c h t h e g i r l s w ere p a i n t e d by t h e c h i e f ’ s w i f e , a n d a t some t i m e d u r i n g t h e c e r e m o n y t h e g i r l s w ere t a t t o o e d .

As

a r u l e t h e r i t e was p e r f o r m e d f o r s e v e r a l g i r l s a t one . . Ill tim e • Among t h e D i e g u e n o t h e m a t t e r o f a d o l e s c e n c e c o n ­ c e r n e d t h e m a id a n d h e r i m m e d i a t e k i n s f o l k r a t h e r t h a n t h e t r i b e o r v i l l a g e as a g ro u p .

I t r e l a t e d p r im a r ily to th e

g i r l ’ s w ell-b e in g d uring l i f e .

The r i t e s w e r e c o n s i d e r e d 112 t o be o f p r a c t i c a l r a t h e r t h a n s y m b o l i c s i g n i f i c a n c e .

M arriage Monogamy was t h e g e n e r a l c u s t o m e x c e p t f o r c h i e f s ,

R e i d , _op. c i t . , p . 21 K roeber,

o p . c i t . , p . 675

112 I b i d . - . p . 716

108 on whom f e l l t h e g r e a t e s t b u r d e n o f p r o v i d i n g f e a s t s a n d en tertain m en t, w iv es.

a n d who t h e r e f o r e h a d u s u a l l y two o r m ore

G i f t s were e x p e c t e d by t h e f a m i l y o f t h e b r i d e ,

le s s f o r the i n t r i n s i c v alu e th an as e x p re ssio n s of the 114 w o rth of th e m aiden. A r e p u ta tio n f o r h un tin g, in d u s try a n d a b i l i t y was o f e q u a l i m p o r t a n c e f o r t h e g ro o m . t i m e s g i f t s w ere e x c h a n g e d b e t w e e n t h e f a m i l i e s .

Some­ The y o u n g

c o u p l e s e t up t h e i r own home a t o n c e . D eath and m ourning B a s k e t s a n d m a t s made by a woman who h a d d i e d w e r e h u n g on a p o l e o v e r h e r g r a v e .

F r e q u e n t l y a n o l d woman s a v e d h e r b a s k e t s f o r h e r f u n e r a l . 115 Women s a n g f u n e r a l songs and p r e p a r e d th e f e a s t .

Widows w ere e x p e c t e d t o

o bserve food r e s t r i c t i o n s f o r a y e a r a f t e r the d e a th of t h e h u s b a n d , a n d t o w e a r h i s h a i r on t h e i r h e a d s f o r t h e lift same p e r i o d . H a i r was c u t a s a s y m b o l o f m o u r n i n g . P r o p e r ty and i n h e r i t a n c e Women i n s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a ,

a s in the r e s t of

t h e a r e a owned t h e i r p e r s o n a l p r o p e r t y , b ask ets,

c l o t h i n g and o rn am en ts.

I f a n o l d C a h u i l l a woman

114 I b i d . , p . 646 115 B a n c r o f t ,

op. c i t . ,

K roeber, op. c i t .,

in clu d in g to o ls ,

p . 414 p . 556

109 h a d some e s p e c i a l l y f i n e b a s k e t s w h i c h s h e w i s h e d t o l e a v e 117 t o a f r i e n d , s h e made a p r e s e n t o f th e m b e f o r e s h e d i e d , o t h e r w i s e t h e y w o u ld be p l a c e d on h e r g r a v e o r b u r n e d d u r i n g th e m ou rn in g cerem ony.

T h e r e w ere no l a w s g o v e r n i n g p r o ­

p e r t y i n h e r i t a n c e , b e c a u s e m o s t p r o p e r t y w as d e s t r o y e d a f t e r d eath . Among t h e J u a n e n o c h i e f t a i n s h i p was h e r e d i t a r y i n t h e m a le l i n e , a l t h o u g h s o n s o f a d a u g h t e r w e r e e l i g i b l e 118 i n t h e e v e n t t h a t t h e r e w e r e no d i r e c t h e i r s . Among t h e G a b r i e l i n o t h e o f f i c e m i g h t be i n h e r i t e d b y a woman i f t h e r e were no m a l e h e i r s ,

o r a widow m i g h t a c t a s r e g e n t f o r

h er son.

The o f f i c e o f r e l i g i o u s c h i e f was h e r e d i t a r y among 11Q t h e L u i s e n o a n d women w ere known t o h a v e h e l d t h e o f f i c e . A

C erem onialism S o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a women w ere e x c l u d e d f r o m t h e r a n k s of shamans.

They t o o k p a r t i n t h e r e l i g i o u s an d

m o u r n i n g c e r e m o n i e s , b u t h e l d no o f f i c e s . War T h e r e was l i t t l e o rn ia.

o c c a s i o n f o r w ar i n s o u t h e r n C a l i f ­

Women a n d c h i l d r e n a c c o m p a n i e d men on r a i d s ,

H o o p e r , jop. c i t . , 118 j^r o e h e r f o p .

p.

356

c i t . , p p . 645-646

119 S p a r k m a n , p p . p i t * ,

p . 201

110

carry in g p ro v isio n s.

In b a t t l e th ey g a th e re d f a l l e n

a r r o w s f o r t h e u s e o f t h e w a r r i o r s . 120 w e r e s o l d o r k e p t a s s l a v e s . 121

F e m a le p r i s o n e r s

The G a b r i e l i n o c o n s i d e r e d

c o w a r d i c e among men a n d women a s a, d i s g r a c e .

ipp

Games a n d d i v e r s i o n s Women p l a y e d v a r i a n t s o f t h e d i c e gam e, a s i n c e n t r a l and n o r th e r n C a l i f o r n i a . fille d

The Chemehuevi u s e d gumip g s h e l l s o f n a tiv e w aln u ts i n l a i d w ith s h e l l .

D i e g u e n o a n d Mohave women p r e f e r r e d f o u r l i t t l e pa i n t e d i n d i f f e r e n t d e s i g n s .

3 124

-

boards

Mohave women a l s o p l a y e d

a f o r m o f t h e r i n g - a n d - p i n game i n w h i c h t h e r i n g s w e r e made f r o m r o u n d s o f pum pkin r i n d .

Among t h e L u i s e n o

a n d o t h e r c o a s t a l g r o u p s women p l a y e d a c o m p l i c a t e d game by t h r o w i n g m a rk e d s t i c k s . Women a l s o s a n g f o r t h e p e o n game o f t h e m e n . 126 P osture C o n v en tio n al C a lif o r n ia p o s tu r e s p r e v a ile d , ex c ep t IPO

B a n c r o f t , o p . c i t . , p . 407

121 I b i d . , p . 408 122 K r o e b e r , _otd. c i t . ,

p . 21

123 I b i d . , p . 597 W i s s l e r , o p . c i t . , p . 721 12^ K ro e b er,

op>. c i t . t p . 741

126 Dubois, op. cit., p. 167

Ill among t h e Mohave, w h e r e women r e s t e d w i t h o u t s t r e t c h e d l e g s o r s a t w i t h th e m c r o s s e d ,

t a i l o r fash io n .

Both t h e s e p o s ­

t u r e s w e r e c o n s i d e r e d i n d e l i c a t e by o t h e r t r i b e s , w h e r e women s a t w i t h b o t h l e g s f o l d e d u n d e r t h e m , o r w i t h one 127 le g s t r e t c h e d out and th e o th e r f o ld e d b ack . B tiq u ette No d a t a .

Kroeber, op. cit., p. 728

CHAPTER III THE TILLAGE TRIBES T h e s e I n d i a n s c o m b in e d a g r i c u l t u r e w i t h an e x t e n s i v e u s e of* w i l d f o o d s ,

t h u s p l a c i n g t h e m s e l v e s c u l t u r a l l y midway

betw een th e n o n - a g r i c u l t u r a l food g a t h e r e r s o f th e C a l i f o r n i a a r e a a n d t h e P u e b l o , who d e p e n d e n t i r e l y on t h e i r f i e l d s f o r sustenance.

T h e ir environm ent, a r i d and even d e s e r t l i k e ,

was u n f r i e n d l y t o t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f c r o p s , s u f f i c i e n t i r a t e r was a t t a i n a b l e q u e n t l y by u s e o f i r r i g a t i o n .

but w herever

f a r m i n g was p r a c t i c e d ,

fre­

E x c e p t among g r o u p s who

dw elt in c e r t a i n fa v o re d r e g io n s n a t i v e s o f t h i s f a r s o u th ­ w e s t e r n a r e a were f o r c e d t o f a l l b a c k upon w ild p l a n t s w henever th e s c a n ty r a i n f a l l f e l l below n o rm a l.

In a

t e r r i t o r y e x t e n d i n g from th e p i n e - c o v e r e d p l a t e a u s and m o u n ta in s o f n o r t h e r n A riz o n a t o th e p a r c h e d h i l l s and d e s e r t s o f t h e s o u t h w e s t e r n s e c t i o n o f t h e same s t a t e o n l y th e v a l l e y s o f th e Y erd e, G i l a , S a l t and C olorado r i v e r s a f f o r d e d s o i l and m o is tu re s u f f i c i e n t f o r p l e n t i f u l c r o p s . H ow ever, w h e t h e r t h e p r o d u c t s o f t h e f i e l d s s u p p l e m e n t e d w i l d f o o d s , a s among t h e W a l a p a i a n d P a p a g o , o r w h e t h e r w i l d f o o d s s u p p l e m e n t e d t h e h a r v e s t , a s among t h e P im a , e a c h t r i b e d e p e n d e d on a g r i c u l t u r e f o r a t l e a s t p a r t o f th e food e a te n .

H a b i t a t a n d L an g u a g e The I n d i a n s o f t h e v i l l a g e

trib es

liv e d in perm anent

o r s e m i - p e r m a n e n t s e t t l e m e n t s u s u a l l y com posed o f b r u s h h u ts s itu a te d near t h e i r f i e l d s .

P a r t o f t h e y e a r was

s p e n t i n camps l o c a t e d w h e r e v e r t h e p r i n c i p a l w i l d c r o p s , such as m escal,

s a h u a r o a n d m e s q u i t e grew m o s t p l e n t i f u l l y .

F am ilies tr a v e le d e x te n s iv e ly w ith in the lim i t s of t h e i r own t e r r i t o r y .

Because o f th e m ild n e s s o f th e c lim a te in

much o f t h e a r e a b r u s h s h e l t e r s w e r e f r e q u e n t l y t h e o n l y p ro te c tio n req u ired .

The a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l c u s t o m o f a b a n ­

d o n in g or d e s t r o y i n g th e h a b i t a t i o n i n w hich a d e a t h had o c c u r r e d may h a v e b e e n p a r t l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e i m p e r ­ manent c h a r a c t e r o f th e h o u s e s .

However f a r a f i e l d f a m i l i e s

o r groups m ight t r a v e l , a l l r e tu r n e d to the e s t a b l i s h e d homes f o r a t l e a s t a p a r t o f t h e y e a r . These A rizo n a t r i b e s

i n c l u d e d members o f two l i n ­

g u i s t i c f a m i l i e s —-Piman a n d Yuman. g r e a t U to-A ztecan l i n g u i s t i c a n d Pima I n d i a n s . same c u l t u r a l l y ,

fam ily ,

P im a n , a member o f t h e in c lu d e d th e Papago

T h e s e two t r i b e s were v i r t u a l l y

the

b u t t h e P im a , who o c c u p i e d t h e v a l l e y s

o f t h e G i l a and S a l t r i v e r s , have p r a c t i s e d a g r i c u l t u r e by t h e a i d o f i r r i g a t i o n

sin ce p r e h is t o r ic

t i m e s by m eans

o f a sy stem o f c a n a l s i n t o w hich th e w a te r o f t h e r i v e r s was d i v e r t e d .

Of l a t e y e a r s w h i t e s e t t l e r s h a v e c o n t r o l l e d

th e w ater supply,

c a u s i n g g r e a t h a r d s h i p s i n Pima v i l l a g e s .

114 Because o f th e f e r t i l i t y

o f t h e Pima h a b i t a t t h e s e I n d i a n s

have been exposed t o E uropean i n f l u e n c e s i n c e th e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a n d h a v e t h e r e f o r e a d o p t e d many o f t h e c u s t o m s o f t h e w h i t e man.

The P a p a g o , p r a c t i c a l l y i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h e

Pima i n e a r l y d a y s ,

s t i l l r e t a i n many o f t h e a n c i e n t w a y s .

T h e i r t e r r i t o r y f o r m e r l y e x te n d e d fro m s o u t h and s o u t h e a s t o f t h e G i l a R i v e r i n t h e m a in a n d t r i b u t a r y v a l l e y o f t h e Rio S a n ta C ruz, c o n t i n u i n g a c r o s s th e P a p a g u e r ia i n t o S o n o r a , M e x i c o , w h e r e many s t i l l l i v e .

Much o f t h i s a r e a

c o n s i s t e d o f low , s e m i - d e s e r t i c h i l l s .

The u n c e r t a i n t i e s

o f t h e w a t e r s u p p l y c o n t r o l l e d t h e m ove m ents o f t h e p e o p l e , who w e r e , a n d s t i l l a r e ,

g reat tr a v e le r s w ith in th e ir t e r r i ­

to ria l lim its. The Yuman t r i b e s o r i g i n a l l y o c c u p i e d a n e x t e n s i v e te rrito ry S tates,

in th e extrem e so u th w est p o r t i o n o f th e U n ite d

e x t e n d i n g i n t o Lower C a l i f o r n i a .

T ribes w ith in

th e U n ite d S t a t e s b o u n d a rie s in c lu d e th e B iegueno, a s o u t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a g r o u p , t h e M ohave, who made t h e i r homes on b o t h s i d e s o f t h e R i o C o l o r a d o b e t w e e n t h e N e e d l e s a n d t h e e n t r a n c e t o B l a c k V a l l e y , a n d who a r e g r o u p e d c u l ­ t u r a l l y w ith th e In d ia n s of so u th ern C a lif o r n ia ;

th e M ari­

copa who f o r m e r l y o c c u p i e d t h e r e g i o n a t t h e m o u th o f t h e G ila r i v e r ;

t h e H a v a s u p a i who r e m a i n i n t h e i r o l d home

i n C a t a r a c t C a n y o n , m a in b r a n c h o f t h e G r a n d Canyon; t h e W a l a p a i who f o r m e r l y o c c u p i e d t h e m i d d l e C o l o r a d o r i v e r

115 f r o m t h e G r e a t Bend e a s t w a r d i n t o t h e i n t e r i o r o f A r i z o n a ; a n d t h e Y a v a p a i , w hose f o r m e r r a n g e i n c l u d e d t h e v a l l e y o f t h e R i o Y e r d e a n d t h e B l a c k Mesa f r o m S a l t R i v e r a s f a r a s B i l l W illiam s m ountain, in - w e s te rn A riz o n a .

The C o c o p a ,

who o r i g i n a l l y made t h e i r homes on t h e R io C o l o r a d o , moved i n t o t h e m o u n t a i n s o f l o w e r C a l i f o r n i a an d a r e t h u s o u t s i d e th e lim its of t h i s stu d y . The M a r i c o p a , o w in g t o o p p r e s s i o n b y Yuma a n d M ohave, l e f t t h e i r f o r m e r home t o j o i n t h e Pima i n t h e G i l a a n d S a l t r i v e r v a l l e y s , a n d h a v e become c u l t u r a l l y

i d e n t i f i e d w ith

the l a t t e r in s p ite of l i n g u i s t i c d if f e r e n c e s .

The H a v a -

s u p a i , a t one t i m e a b r a n c h o f t h e W a l a p a i , h a v e d e v e l o p e d a g r i c u l t u r e to a g r e a t e r e x te n t as a r e s u l t of th e c h a ra c te r of th e ir h a b ita t.

The Y a v a p a i , a l t h o u g h r e s e m b l i n g i n

l a n g u a g e a n d c u l t u r e b o t h H a v a s u p a i a n d W a l a p a i , w ere known a s th e Apache-M ohave. C alifo rn ia)

Mohave, Yuma ( s i t u a t e d i n Lower

a n d Cocopa c u l t u r e s w ere v e r y n e a r l y a l i k e .

At t h e p r e s e n t t i m e t h e Pima a n d M a r i c o p a a r e s i ­ t u a t e d on t h e G i l a a n d S a l t , r i v e r r e s e r v a t i o n s ;

th e Papago

o c c u p y t h e G i l a Bend r e s e r v a t i o n a n d t h e P a p a g o r e s e r v a t i o n a t S an X a v i e r ; t h e Mohave a r e l i v i n g on t h e C o l o r a d o r i v e r reserv atio n ,

t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e Ghemehuevi a n d R a w a i ; t h e

H av asu p ai occupy an i s o l a t e d r e s e r v a t i o n i n th e C a t a r a c t C a n y o n , t r i b u t a r y t o t h e G r a n d Canyon; t h e W a l a p a i i n h a b i t t h e i r own r e s e r v a t i o n i n n o r t h w e s t e r n A r i z o n a ; a n d t h e

1X6 Y a v a p a i a r e d i v i d e d b e t w e e n Gamp McDowell on t h e R i o V e r d e and th e Y avapai r e s e r v a t i o n . situ ated

A ll of th e se r e s e r v a t i o n s a re

in w e ste rn A rizo n a. P i v i s io n o f l a b o r and P o s i t i o n o f Women

I n d u s t r y was c o n s i d e r e d t h e m o d e l a n d i d e a l v i r t u e among t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e s o u t h w e s t e r n v i l l a g e s .

From t h e i r *

e a r l i e s t y e a r s c h i l d r e n were t a u g h t t o p e r f o r m t a s k s s u i t e d to t h e i r s tr e n g t h ,

f o r t o be l a z y was a d i s g r a c e t o t h e

fa m ily as w e ll as to th e i n d i v i d u a l .

In a lan d dependent

on a s c a n t y a n d u n c e r t a i n w a t e r s u p p l y t h e r e w ere y e a r s when o n l y c o n s t a n t d i l i g e n c e p r e v e n t e d s t a r v a t i o n .

T h o se

w e r e t h e s e a s o n s when t h e women were f o r c e d t o g a t h e r s u f ­ f i c i e n t w ild food to answ er th e needs o f t h e i r fa m ilie s * The m o n t h s b e f o r e t h e f i r s t r a i n s o f s p r i n g a n d summer w ere a p t t o be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by s c a r c i t y o f f o o d . W herever g a t h e r i n g m ust p r o v i d e a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e f o o d s u p p l y e c o n o m i c i n d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e com munity on t h e women i s i n c r e a s e d , f o r p r i m i t i v e women h a v e a l w a y s been th e g a t h e r e r s ,

a s men h a v e a l w a y s b e e n t h e h u n t e r s .

T h i s law was a m p ly d e m o n s t r a t e d i n t h e s e c t i o n o f t h e r e p o r t r e l a t i n g to the C a lifo rn ia a r e a . n a tu ra l d iv is io n of la b o r,

As a s o r t o f

i t s o r i g i n l o s t i n t h e dawn o f

m a n k i n d , men h a v e s u p p l i e d ' a n i m a l f o o d , women w i l d v e g e t a b l e food.

T his l a t t e r

t a s k r e q u i r e d o f women a f u l l k n o w le d g e

117 o f th e b o ta n y o f t h e i r hom elands, uses of v arious p la n ts .

s e a s o n s o f g r o ? / t h an d

T h i s k n o w le d g e came t o th e m e a s i l y

a n d n a t u r a l l y , a f t e r t h e f i r s t d i s c o v e r i e s , w h i c h may h a v e been p a i n f u l enough.

C h i l d r e n began t o l e a r n from t h e i r

m o t h e r s , g r a n d m o t h e r s a n d a u n t s a s s o o n a s t h e y w ere c a ­ p a b le of o b s e r v a t i o n . A l t h o u g h men d i d t h e i r p a r t c e r t a i n t a s k s f e l l n a t u r a l l y t o t h e s h a re of th e w om en-folk. w h e r e , women w ere t h e w a t e r c a r r i e r s .

H ere, as e l s e ­

G i r l s were t a u g h t

when v e r y y o u n g t o b a l a n c e f u l l j a r s on t h e i r h e a d s ,

or to

s u p p o r t o l l a s i n n e t s on t h e i r b a c k s a s t h e y r a n t o d i s ­ ta n t s p rin g s f o r the d a i ly su p p ly . run,

I t was n e c e s s a r y t o

f o r i n many r e g i o n s e n e m i e s l u r k e d a b o u t ,

p o u n c e upo n p a r t i e s o f u n p r o t e c t e d women. o f a P a p a g o woman "You s e e , days.

ready to

I n t h e words

women h a d t o r u n i n t h o s e

T h a t was w h a t s a v e d t h e i r l i v e s .

Many h o u r s t h e y

h a d t o r u n a n d when t h e y came b a c k e a c h f a m i l y h a d two little

j a r s o f w ater to l a s t f o r th e d a y ."

1

Where v i l l a g e s

a n d camps w e r e s i t u a t e d n e a r s t r e a m s o r d u r i n g t h e r a i n y s e a s o n , w a t e r was more e a s i l y a n d s a f e l y p r o c u r e d , a n d women h a d more l e i s u r e .

1 R u t h M. U n d e r h i l l , " C h o n a : t h e A u t o b i o g r a p h y o f a P a p a g o Woman," M e m o ir s o f t h e A m e r i c a n A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n , no. 46, p. 7.

118 I t was t h e women who p r e p a r e d a n d c o o k e d v e g e t a b l e fo o d s and i n m o s t - c a s e s a n im a l food as w e l l . v e s te d the c u l t i v a t e d

They h a r ­

crops and p r e p a r e d fo o d s f o r s t o r a g e .

I n many t r i b e s t h e y a l s o a s s i s t e d i n p l a n t i n g . the m i l l e r s , m etates,

g r in d in g s e e d s , w ild and c u l t i v a t e d ,

i n one t r i b e ,

th e M aricopa,

They made b a r k c l o t h i n g , a n d t h e o l d women wove r a b b i t s k i n

Women w e re a l s o t h e c a r r i e r s ,

from v i l l a g e granary.

on t h e i r

o r p o u n d in g a c o r n s , m e s q u ite bean s and o t h e r food

i n s t o n e o r w ooden m o r t a r s .

capes.

They w e r e

tra n s p o rtin g su p p lies

t o camp, o r b e a r i n g t h e h a r v e s t f r o m f i e l d t o

Among t h e N o r t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i o n l y d i d t h e women

b u ild th e h o u ses, a lth o u g h H avasupai m atrons a s s i s t e d w ith l i g h t e r p a r t s o f th e w ork. The m o s t i m p o r t a n t c r a f t o f t h e r e g i o n , b a s k e t r y , was e n t i r e l y i n t h e h a n d s o f women, a n d w h e r e v e r p o t t e r y was made t h e y h a d a m o n o p o ly o f t h a t t r a d e ,

also .

A lthough

women d i d n o t weave t h e y p r e p a r e d t h e c o t t o n a n d sp u n t h e t h r e a d i n t h e o n l y t r i b e s w h e r e w e a v i n g was p r a c t i s e d , Pima a n d M a r i c o p a .

the

At t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , a l t h o u g h w eaving

is a n early fo rg o tten a r t ,

a 'few M a r i c o p a women weave

c ra d le bands. A l t h o u g h t h e r e w e r e no f e m a l e c h i e f s ,

f e m a l e sh a m an s

w e r e f r e q u e n t e x c e p t amohg t h e H a v a s u p a i a n d Y a v a p a i , w h i l e fe m in in e h e rb d o c t o r s to o k c a re of m inor a i l m e n t s . Among t h e M a r i c o p a , Pima a n d P a p a g o c r a d l e s w ere

119 c o n s t r u c t e d by men f r o m m a t e r i a l s c o l l e c t e d by women.

Hava­

s u p a i , W a l a p a i a n d Y a v a p a i women made t h e i r own c r a d l e s . E x c l u s i v e t a s k s o f men c o n s i s t e d o f h u n t i n g , ( w h e r e f i s h was e a t e n ) a n d w a r .

fish in g

They a l s o p r e p a r e d a l l

s k i n s and m a n u fa ctu red a l l s k in c l o t h i n g , m e n t s w orn by t h e i r w i v e s a n d c h i l d r e n .

in clu d in g gar­ Men a l s o d i d t h e

w e a v i n g f r o m t h r e a d p r e p a r e d by women, k i l t s a n d s h a w l s w orn by M a r i c o p a , a n d Pima women a s w e l l a s t h e i r own b reech clo th s.

P r o b a b l y t h e same c u s t o m p r e v a i l e d among

th e Papago, but s in c e very e a r l y tim e s th e y have tr a d e d f o r woven a r t i c l e s

from t h e P im a.

Men w ere t h e h o u s e b u i l d e r s ,

e x c e p t among t h e N o r t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i . H avasupai,

c u ltiv a tio n

some a s s i s t a n c e assiste d

E x c e p t among t h e

o f c r o p s was t h e work o f men, w i t h

i n p l a n t i n g f r o m ?/omen.

Men a l s o f r e q u e n t l y

in g a t h e r i n g and p r e p a r a t i o n of m e sc a l.

M aricopa

men c o o k e d s m a l l game a n d f i s h , a l t h o u g h t h e women c o o k e d M ountain sh e ep and d e e r m e at.

W e s t e r n Y a v a p a i men c o o k e d

d e e r meat f o r t h e i r f a m i l i e s .

Y a v a p a i men g a t h e r e d f i r e ­

wood, a l t h o u g h t h a t i s u s u a l l y c o n s i d e r e d woman’ s w o r k , a n d M a r i c o p a men b u r n e d down t r e e s a n d b r o k e up t h e wood w h i c h t h e women c a r r i e d home.

W ith th e e x c e p t i o n o f c a p e s

made by o l d M a r i c o p a women, men a p p e a r t o h a v e woven t h e r a b b i t s k i n b l a n k e t s w h e r e v e r t h e y w e re w o rn . T h e s e d i v i s i o n s o f l a b o r w ere a p p a r e n t l y more t h e r e s u l t o f c o n v e n t i o n a l h a b i t s th a n any form o f ta b o o .

120

P rid e,

shame a n d c u s t o m a p p a r e n t l y p r e v e n t e d o v e r s t e p p i n g

of i n d u s t r i a l bou n d aries. d u cted cerem onies,

A l t h o u g h men a r r a n g e d a n d c o n ­

i t was t h e women who p r e p a r e d t h e f o o d

f o r f e a s t s a n d b o t h men a n d women e n j o y e d f r e q u e n t s o c i a l dances,

games a n d r a c e s . P eo p les l i v i n g a lo n g r i v e r v a l l e y s ,

where s u p p l i e s

w e r e more c e r t a i n a n d p l e n t i f u l , w ere s e e m i n g l y more c a r e ­ f r e e and e a s y - g o i n g th a n th e i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e d e s e r t regions* Many v i l l a g e

t r i b e s have been i n c o n t a c t w ith

E uropean c o l o n i s t s f o r so lo n g t h a t th e y have l o s t o r d i s c o n t i n u e d many o f t h e i r o l d c r a f t s a n d c u s t o m s , a s , fo r in stan ce,

t h e Pim a,

C o n t a c t s w it h o t h e r t r i b e s have

a ls o had t h e i r in f lu e n c e .

The M a r i c o p a , a Yuman g r o u p ,

j o i n e d t h e Pima a b o u t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 1 9 t h .

century

and have p r a c t i c a l l y l o s t t h e i r c u l t u r a l i n d i v i d u a l i t y in a d o p t in g th e custom s o f t h e i r n e ig h b o r .

Women o f t h e

N o r t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i , who l i v e d f o r some t i m e w i t h t h e S a n C a r l o s A p a c h e s on t h e S an C a r l o s R e s e r v a t i o n , b u i l d t h e h o u s e s a s do A p ac h e women, a l t h o u g h t h i s

i s n o t the

c u s t o m among o t h e r Yuman t r i b e s , S u b sisten ce F ood c u s t o m s v a r i e d w i t h i n t h e a r e a , a c c o r d i n g t o w h e t h e r t h e I n d i a n s d e p e n d e d t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t on a g r i ­ c u ltu r e or w ild fo o d s.

The H a v a s u p a i , P i m a , Yuma a n d

121

Mohave r e l i e d

c h i e f l y on f a r m i n g , w h i l e t h e o t h e r s e i t h e r

supplem ented or r e p l a c e d a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c ts w ith w ild p lan ts. p la n t,

A l l t r i b e s d i d some g a t h e r i n g , a n d e v e r y e d i b l e ro o t,

stalk ,

leaf,

s e e d , n u t , f r u i t a n d b e r r y was

c u l l e d b y t h e i n d e f a t i g a b l e women. d e r e d a d e l i c a c y by som e.

Even p o l l e n was c o n s i ­

Mot o n l y d i d t h e y s u p p l y t h e i r

own n e e d s , b u t f r e q u e n t l y s e c u r e d a r t i c l e s trib es

f o r tr a d e w ith

in le s s favored re g io n s . Women’ s s h a r e i n a g r i c u l t u r e was c o m p a r a t i v e l y s l i g h t .

They u s u a l l y a i d e d i n p l a n t i n g , made by t h e d i g g i n g s t i c k s

dropping corn i n th e h o le s

o f t h e men a s t h e y f o l l o w e d a l o n g

th e row s.

T h eir r e s p o n s i b i l i t y th en r e s te d u n t i l th e h a r ­

v e s t tim e,

when c r o p s w e r e c a r r i e d home i n c a r r y i n g f r a m e s

o r burden b a s k e ts ,

t o be p r e p a r e d f o r s t o r a g e .

The p r i n ­

c ip a l crops c o n s iste d of s e v e ra l v a r i e t i e s of corn, beans, pum pkins, s q u a s h , g o u r d s , an d som etim es s u n f l o w e r s r a i s e d f o r the se e d ,

con sid ered a d e lic a c y .

C o t t o n was grown by

t h e P im a , a n d a l s o by t h e P a p a g o i n a n c i e n t t i m e s . had n o t any p a r t in i r r i g a t i o n .

W he at, a f t e r i t s

Women in tro ­

d u c t i o n by t h e S p a n i s h , a l m o s t r e p l a c e d c o r n on Pima f a r m s . The H a v a s u p a i g a t h e r e d c o r n i n a l l s t a g e s o f r i p e ­ n e s s , ‘c o o k i n g i t

i n many d i f f e r e n t Y / a y s G - b o i l e d , r o a s t e d

in p i t s ,

M a t u r e c o r n was g a r n e r e d by t h e men an d

d ried .

women who p l a n t e d i t .

?7omen w a l k e d a l o n g , b r e a k i n g e a c h

e a r from t h e s t a l k and t h r o w in g i t

in to th e burden b ask et

122

on h e r h a c k .

The e a r s w e r e s p r e a d i n t h e s u n t o d r y ,

s to r e d in sto n e cham bers, e i t h e r in p i l e s or heaps of s h e lle d k e r n e ls . w ay.

S q u a s h was p e e l e d ,

flesh

sliced s p ira lly ,

in to b un d les.

of husked cobs

B e a n s w ere s t o r e d t h e same

s e e d s removed, p a r t l y d r i e d ,

the

th e n c o m p le te ly d r i e d and f o ld e d

2

A g r i c u l t u r e was o f f a r l e s s W alapai and Y a v a p a i, h ab itat.

th en

i m p o r t a n c e among t h e

o w in g p e r h a p s t o a l e s s f e r t i l e

The N o r t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i p l a n t e d c o r n i n damp

bottom lands b efo re th ey tr a v e l e d so u th , h a r v e s tin g t h e i r c r o p on t h e r e t u r n t o t h e n o i ? t h . i n th e sun a f t e r h u s k in g .

R i p e m a i z e was d r i e d

W estern Y avapai p l a n te d cro p s

o f c o r n , b e a n s , p u m p k in s a n d w a t e r m e l o n s w h i c h w ere l e f t t o grow w h i l e t h e I n d i a n s w e n t t o t h e m o u n t a i n s . 5 and c h i l d r e n g a th e r e d th e c ro p s .

Women

The M a r i c o p a d i d no f a r m i n g , a n d t h e Yuma an d Mohave r a i s e d the u su a l crops of beans,

squash and w aterm elon.

I n d i a n women o f more f a v o r e d r e g i o n s o f N o r t h Amer­ i c a w o u ld h a v e s t a r v e d t o d e a t h i f

co n fro n ted w ith the

m eager and u n a p p e t i z i n g a r r a y o f w ild p l a n t s w ith w hich

2 L e s l i e S p i e r , "H avasupai E th n o g ra p h y ," A nthropo­ l o g i c a l P a p e r s , A m e r i c a n Museum o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y , v o l . 19, p a r t I I I , 1928, p p . 104-105 ^ E . W. G i f f o r d , " N o r t h e a s t e r n a n d W e s t e r n Y a v a p a i , " U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a P u b l i c a t i o n s i n A m erican A rc h eo lo g y and E th n o lo g y , v o l . 34, no. 4 , 1 9 3 6 , pp. 262-263

125 th e ir siste rs

of th e f a r southw est nou rish ed t h e i r f a m il ie s .

S p in y c a c t u s f r u i t s , m i c r o s c o p ic s e e d s , h i t t e r a c o r n s and f i b r o u s p l a n t stem s a p p a r e n t l y o f f e r e d l i t t l e of sustenance.

i n t h e way

And y e t t h e s e women h a d e x p e r i m e n t e d w i t h

and conquered a l l .

A fte r the f i r s t r a in s green leav es

a p p e a r o v e r e x p a n s e s o f s e e m i n g d e s e r t , many o f th e m s u ­ p p l y i n g g r e e n v e g e t a b l e s m o s t welcome a f t e r m o n t h s o f d r i e d foods.

I n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h I n d i a n custom th e Papago p r a c ­

tic a lly

l i v e d on v a r i o u s g r e e n s w h i l e t h e y l a s t e d .

t h e a f t e r n o o n my m o t h e r - i n - l a w w o u ld s a y t o u s , and g a t h e r A m a ra n th .’

TTI n

Tl e t u s go

So I a n d my s i s t e r s - i n - l a w w o u ld t a k e

o u r c a r r y i n g n e t s , w a lk a b o u t h a l f a m i l e f r o m t h e camp a n d fill

t h e m . . . . T h e n we made s o u p a n d t h a t was a l l we h a d f o r

su p p e r... The M a r i c o p a , who r e l i e d a l m o s t e n t i r e l y on n a t u r e f o r t h e i r food su p p ly , beans,

sahuaro f r u i t ,

in c lu d e d in t h e i r d i e t m esquite s c r e w b e a n s , many v a r i e t i e s o f w i l d

s e e d s and b e r r i e s , n u t s o f t h e ironw ood t r e e , ch o lla cactu s,

f r u i t o f O p u n t i a c a c t u s an d y u c c a b a c c a t e ,

and l e a v e s and stem s o f v a r i o u s p l a n t s .

M e s c a l was l e s s

i m p o r ta n t t o th e M aricopa th a n t o o t h e r t r i b e s a re a , as i t

beans of

grew f a r t h e r f r o m t h e i r h a b i t a t .

g a t h e r e d by men, who w e n t f a r a f i e l d

^ Underhill,

o jd

. cit., p. 15

of th e I t Y/as

to fin d i t ,

so t h a t

124 i t was e a s i e r t o buy o r t r a d e f o r n e e d e d s u p p l i e s f r o m t h e Papago.

A lthough of l i t t l e

im portance- a s a s t a p l e fo o d ,

t h e M a r i c o p a a l s o made u s e o f r o o t s a n d p o l l e n o f t u l e r u s h e s . 5 D u r i n g t h e m e s q u i t e s e a s o n women w ere b u s y f r o m early u n til la te

g a th e rin g the long bean-pods.

Fam ily

p a r t i e s camped u n d e r t h e b u s h e s , a n d women g a t h e r e d b e a n s w h i l e t h e men, who a c c o m p a n i e d them a s g u a r d s a g a i n s t raid in g trib e s ,

hunted jack r a b b i t s o r f is h e d *

W i ld f o o d s f a v o r e d by t h e Pima c o n s i s t e d o f s a h u a r o fru it,

m esq u ite beans and e d ib le a g a v e s.

The P a p a g o ,

lik e

the o th e r peoples of the a re a , e x p lo ite d the v eg etab le r e ­ so u rce s o f th e d e s e r t to th e utm ost. su p p ly n o t o n ly n u trim e n t,

O f t e n one p l a n t w ould

b u t t w i g s f o r b a s k e t r y , wood f o r /»

im plem ents and sap f o r dye.

E xpeditions fo r g a th e rin g

v a r i o u s c r o p s l a s t e d f r o m one d a y t o s e v e r a l w e e k s .

Day

t r i p s w e r e made by women a l o n e , who u s u a l l y w e n t i n f a m i l y g r o u p s , b u t i f a n e x c u r s i o n was f o r a l o n g e r p e r i o d t h e e n t i r e f a m i l y went a l o n g .

W h ile women p i c k e d s e e d s , n u t s ,

o r f r u i t s men h u n t e d , a n d y o u n g g i r l s a n d b o y s f e t c h e d w ater.

S a h u a r o f r u i t was more i m p o r t a n t among t h e P a p a g o

® L e s l i e S p i e r , Yuman T r i b e s o f t h e G i l a R i v e r , (C hicago: U n i v e r s i t y o f C h i c a g o P r e s s , 193*3] p p . 5 0 - 5 8 ^ E . F . C a s t e t t e r a n d Poxth M. U n d e r h i l l , "The E t h n o b i o l o g y o f t h e P a p a g o I n d i a n s , " U n i v e r s i t y o f New M e x ic o E t hn ob i o l o g i ca 1 S t u d i e s i n t h e S o u t h v / e s t , B u l l e t i n , B i o l o g i c a l S e r i e s , V o l . 4 , No. 3 , p . 13

125 th a n any o th e r so u th w e ste rn t r i b e .

Some s i x h u n d r e d f a m i ­

l i e s g a t h e r e d ab o u t 100,000 pounds o f th e f r u i t a n n u a l l y . S a h u a r o eamps r e s e m b l e d som ew hat m a p le s u g a r camps o f New E ngland.

Each f a m i l y had i t s

own camp on a s a h u a r o s l o p e ,

c o n s i s t i n g o f a b r u s h s h e l t e r i n w hich an o l l a a n d p r o b a b l y m e t a t e and c o o k in g p o t were l e f t from y e a r t o y e a r .

Every­

body lo o k e d fo rw a rd w i t h p l e a s u r e t o th e f i r s t , f r e s h and sw eet food o f th e y e a r . the f r u i t as i t rip e n e d . sh aft or a t

It

t o o k a b o u t two w e e k s t o g a t h e r

The f r u i t grew a t t h e t o p o f a

t h e t i p s o f b r a n c h e s , f a r o u t o f r e a c h , a n d was

h o o k e d down w i t h a l o n g h o o k s p e c i a l l y made f o r t h e p u r p o s e . The r e d p u l p was s c o o p e d f r o m t h e t h o r n y s h e l l a n d t o s s e d i n t o a w a t e r t i g h t b a s k e t on t h e woman’ s b a c k , w h i l e t h e d i s c a r d e d s h e l l was t h r o w n away w i t h r e d l i n i n g u p p e r m o s t , in ord er to h asten r a in .

F u l l b u fd e n b a s k e t s were e m p tie d

from tim e t o tim e i n t o a l a r g e fille d ,

c a r r y i n g b a s k e t , w h i c h , when

was t r a n s p o r t e d t o camp.

There,

th e m other or

m o th e r-in -la w su p e rin te n d e d th e soaking of th e p u lp in a w a te r-tig h t b ask et,

d r a i n e d t h e w a t e r , b r o k e up t h e m a s s e s

and shook o u t th e s e e d s .

The p u l p was t h e n b r o u g h t t o b o i l

w ith w ater in a c la y p o t,

s tra in e d in a b ask et,

the liq u i d .

a g a i n b o i l e d down i n t o s y r u p w h i c h was s e a l e d i n a j a r u n t i l tim e f o r m aking t h e c e r e m o n i a l d r i n k . from s t r a i n e d p u lp , needed.

Jam was made

o r i t m i g h t be d r i e d a n d c o o k e d a s

S eed s w ere washed and d r i e d ,

th e n p a rc h e d and

186 s t o r e d away.

When r e q u i r e d t h e y w ere g r o u n d i n t o f l o u r

f r o m w h i c h m e a l c a k e was m ade, o r t h e o i l was e x t r a c t e d .

7

P erh ap s th e m ost v a lu a b le o f s o u th w e s te rn w ild food was t h e m e s c a l ,

th e f l e s h y l e a f b a s e s and t r u n k o f v a r io u s

sp ecies o f agave.

So i m p o r t a n t was t h i s s w e e t a n d n u t r i ­

t i o u s f o o d t h a t b o t h men a n d women a s s i s t e d tio n .

Hot o n ly th e s t a f f o f l i f e

in i t s p re p a ra ­

f o r t h e Y a v a p a i , Yuma

a n d M oha ve, a n d an. i m p o r t a n t s u p p l e m e n t a r y f o o d f o r o t h e r t r i b e s of the r e g io n ,

i t was t r a d e d t o I n d i a n s who l i v e d a s

f a r away a s t h e P u e b l o .

I n m o s t r e g i o n s m e s c a l c o u l d be

h a r v e s t e d a l l t h e y e a r r o u n d , a s t h e p l a n t s came t o m a t u r i t y . The p r o c e s s o f r e n d e r i n g t h i s r a t h e r u n a t t r a c t i v e f o o d p a l a ­ t a b l e was som ew hat c o m p l i c a t e d , b u t e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same f o r th e e n t i r e a r e a .

T ools r e q u ir e d in c lu d e d th e m escal c h i s e l

o f h a r d w ood, t h e f l a t b l a d e o f w h i c h was f r e q u e n t l y h a r ­ dened in th e f i r e ,

w i t h w hich t o u p r o o t t h e p l a n t , and a

k n if e f o r trim m in g th e s t i f f ,

flesh y leav es.

H avasupai and

W a la lp a i k n i v e s c o n s i s t e d o f a s t i c k i n t o w hich a b la d e o f f l a k e d s t o n e was i n s e r t e d i n t o t h i s s i d e o f t h e h a n d l e .

8

D i g g i n g s t i c k s w ere u s u a l l y d r i v e n u n d e r t h e p l a n t by m e ans of a co b b le-sto n e.

The t r im m e d p l a n t s w e r e r o a s t e d i n p i t s .

^ I b i d . , PP* 8 0 - 2 1 Q A. L. K r o e b e r , e d i t o r , " W a l a p a i E t h n o g r a p h y , ” M e m oirs A m e r i c a n A n t h r o p o l i g i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n , n o . 4 2 , p. 49

127 These p i t s w ere: . . . u s u a l l y c i r c u l a r d e p re s s io n s in the ground, s ix to tw enty f e e t in c irc u m fe re n c e , s lo p in g e v e n ly to th e c e n t e r , a f o o t to th r e e f e e t in d e p th , and l i n e d w ith coarse g ra v e l. A f i r e was b u i l t i n t h e p i t , r a k e d o u t a f t e r t h e s t o n e h a d become h o t , a n d t h e m e s c a l p l a n t s put in and co v ered w ith g r a s s . A f t e r two d a y s 1 s t e a m ­ i n g t h e p i l e was o p e n e d a n d t h e m e s c a l r e a d y f o r consum ption. Among t h e P i m a , w i t h ?/hom m e s c a l was a n i n c i d e n t a l r a t h e r t h a n s t a p l e f o o d , men p r i e d o f f t h e h e a d s a n d t r im m e d the p la n ts ,

w h i l e t h e women g a t h e r e d f u e l f o r r o a s t i n g .

P a r t i e s o f Y a v a p a i women c o l l e c t e d a s s i s t e d in p r e p a r in g the p i t .

the p la n t,

w h i l e men

E a c h woman m a rk e d h e r own

m e s c a l h e a d s w i t h a s p e c i a l m a rk o r s c r a t c h on t h e l e a f s t u b s , a s a l l w ere r o a s t e d a t one t i m e . c e n t e r s w e r e p o u n d e d on f l a t r o c k s ,

A fte r r o a s tin g the

d r i e d i n t h e sun and

c a r r i e d home on s p e c i a l l i t t e r s . P r e p a r e d m e s c a l w o u ld k e e p f o r y e a r s .

i n t h i s way

P r e p a r e d m e s c a l was u s u a l l y

chew ed u n t i l a l l n o u r i s h m e n t was e x t r a c t e d , when t h e wads o f f i b e r w ere e j e c t e d from th e A l l s e e d s were w innow ed sun d r ie d and p a rc h e d b e fo re the r u le ,

m outh. in shallow b a s k e ts , th en

sto rag e.

B a s k e t p a r c h i n g was

a l t h o u g h among t h e p o t t e r y m a k i n g t r i b e s s e e d s

were som etim es ( b u t n o t a l w a y s ) , p a r c h e d o v e r t h e f i r e

on

^ F . W. H o d g e j e d i t o r , H andbook o f t h e A m e r i c a n I n d i a n s N o r t h o f M e x ic o , B u l l e t i n 30, B ureau o f A m erican E t h n o l o g y , v o l . I I , p . 846 ^

Gifford, _pp. cit., p, 259

128 larg e p o tsh erd s,

P i£ o n n u t s form ed an i m p o r ta n t p a r t o f

th e d i e t whenever a v a i l a b l e . and e i t h e r e a te n p l a i n ,

They w e r e u s u a l l y p a r c h e d ,

o r ground i n t o m eal and u se d f o r

flav o rin g . Women s p e n t t h e g r e a t e r p a r t o f t h e i r t i m e g r i n d i n g seeds* a n d g r a i n i n t o c o a r s e m e a l f o r m u sh , p u d d i n g s c o o k e d in e a rth ovens,

lo av es and cak es.

G rin d in g u t e n s i l s con­

s is te d of a f l a t g rin d in g sla b or m etate, s m a l l e r h a n d s t o n e , c a l l e d a mano.

to g e th e r w ith a

M e s q u i t e b e a n s were

p o u n d e d i n wooden m o r t a r s w i t h s t o n e p e s t l e s , t h e m o r t a r and p e s t l e were u se d l i t t l e the C a lifo rn ia a re a .

alth o u g h

i n com parison w ith

G i r l s l e a r n e d t o g r i n d on t h e m e t a t e

when v e r y y o u n g , f o r n o t o n l y t h e i r v a l u e a s w i v e s b u t t h e w e l l - b e i n g o f t h e i r f a m i l i e s d e p e n d e d on t h e i r m i l l i n g a b ility .

The g r i n d e r k n e l t b a c k o f t h e s l a b , w h i c h was

s l i g h t l y r a i s e d a t th e end, and p u l v e r i z e d th e c o rn or p a r c h e d s e e d s by r u b b i n g t h e s m a l l o v a l o r r e c t a n g u l a r mano back and f o r t h a lo n g th e s l a n t e d s u r f a c e , w h ile th e meal f e l l i n t o a s h a llo w b a s k e t a t th e low er en d .

M e a l was n e v e r

ground and s t o r e d , b u t p r e p a r e d f r e s h l y a s n ee d ed . M e a t , p r o c u r e d b y t h e men, was p r e s e r v e d b y d r y i n g in s t r i p s . C o o k i n g was n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y c o m p l i c a t e d , a s t h e m a j o r i t y o f fo o d s were cooked a s s t e w s .

Pima women c o o k e d

i n a s p e c i a l r o o f l e s s k i t c h e n w ith w a l l s o f arrow w eed.

129 'T h e f i r e p l a c e cooking p o t;

c o n s is te d o f th r e e sto n e s to su p p o rt the cooking u t e n s i l s

p o ttery v e sse ls,

c o n s is te d of h a l f a dozen

and b a s k e t b o w ls.

r o d e n t s w e r e r o a s t e d on t h e c o a l s ; u n t i l w e ll done, C ereals,

D ried meat or sm a ll f r e s h m e a t was b o i l e d

som etim es w ith c o a r s e - g r a i n e d f l o u r .

i n c l u d i n g m e s q u i t e f l o u r a n d c o r n m e a l w ere b a k e d

as lo av es in th e a s h e s, dum plings.

11

b o iled

i n w a t e r a s mush o r a s

B a k i n g a s t o r t i l l a s may h a v e b e e n i n t r o d u c e d

by t h e S p a n i s h o r by M e x i c a n I n d i a n s . The P a p a g o woman k e p t h e r g r a n i t e m e t a t e , lo g m o rta r, porous w ater j a r ,

cottonw ood

co o k in g p o ts and u t e n s i l s o f

b a s k e t r y i n t h e r o o f l e s s e n c l o s u r e w h ic h was h e r k i t c h e n . M a r i c o p a women c o o k e d u n d e r a s h a d e d u r i n g t h e summer m o n t h s , b u t i n w i n t e r t h e k i t c h e n m i g h t be a n y w h e r e in the open, U ten sils

s o m e t i m e s p r o t e c t e d by a n a r r o w w e e d w i n d - b r e a k .

c o n s is te d o f c la y cooking p o ts and bow ls, l a d l e s

o f c l a y a n d wood, mush s t i r r e r s a n d b a s k e t s ,

th e l a t t e r

t r a d e d f r o m t h e Pima a n d r e g a r d e d w i t h e x a g g e r a t e d v a l u e . M e s q u i t e f l o u r was t h e s t a p l e f o o d , p r e s e r v e d i n c a k e s made by p a c k i n g l a y e r a f t e r

la y e r in to a h o le.

O th er f o o d s were

h a l f - b r o i l e d , r o a s t e d o r b o i l e d t o be d r i e d f o r s t o r a g e . B a k i n g i n t h e a s h e s was t h e m o s t p o p u l a r f o r m o f c o o k e r y , a l t h o u g h b o i l i n g was t h e m a i n s t a y f o r v e g e t a b l e s . was f r e q u e n t l y a com m unity a f f a i r .

Cooking

I f a woman c o o k e d a b i g

p o t o f s t e w e d p u m pkin s h e w e n t a b o u t t h e v i l l a g e g a t h e r i n g H F r a n k B u s s e l l , The Pima I n d i a n s , 2 6 t h . A n n u a l R e ­ p o r t , B ureau of A m erican E t h n o l o g y , pp. 68-69

130 b o w l s f r o m o t h e r women, i n w h ic h s h e s h a r e d o u t h e r p u m p k in u n t i l i t was a l l g o n e ,

t h e n t h e f u l l b o w l s w ere c a r r i e d

b a c k t o t h e i r o w n e r s , who i n t u r n b r o u g h t h e r a p o r t i o n o f w h atev er th e y had p r e p a r e d .

I t was a l a z y woman who h a d

n o t cooked t h e f i r s t m eal o f t h e day b e f o r e s u n r i s e . s e c o n d a n d l a r g e s t m e a l was s e r v e d l a t e

The

in the a fte rn o o n

or e a r ly ev en in g . 1P H a v a s u p a i women f i r s t p o u n d e d t h e i r c o r n , b e a n s o r s e e d s w i t h t h e e n d o f t h e mano b e f o r e c r u s h i n g them w i t h a p o u n d in g , ro c k in g m otion o f th e s to n e .

As t h e m e a l was

b r u s h e d i n t o t h e t r a y b a s k e t i t was t h r o w n i n t o t h e a i r from th e s id e o f th e hand,

so t h a t t h e l i g h t e r p a r t i c l e s

m i g h t be b lo w n away a s c h a f f . on t h e g r o u n d .

The m e t a t e l a y a l m o s t f l a t

C l e a n m e a l was r e - g r o u n d t o t h e r e q u i s i t e

degree of f in e n e s s .

M o r t a r s and p e s t l e s o f s t o n e were

used f o r g r in d in g c o rn , pinon n u ts o r d r i e d m eat.

A ll seeds,

i n c l u d i n g c o r n , w ere p a r c h e d i n a b a s k e t t r a y b e f o r e g r i n d ­ in g .

A lth o u g h H av a su p ai cooks u s u a l l y p r e f e r r e d c l a y p o t s ,

s t o n e b o i l i n g was n o t uncommon. r a i s e d f ro m t h e f i r e

S m a ll , r e d - h o t s t o n e s were

by means o f g r e e n w i l l o w t o n g s a n d

d r o p p e d i n t o t h e b a s k e t o f w a t e r ; when t h e w a t e r came t o a b o i l t h e f o o d was s t i r r e d

i n , and t h e r e m a in in g s t o n e s

p i c k e d o u t when t h e s t e w came t o a b o i l .

^

Spier, 1933, op. cit., pp. 78-81

Tongs w ere u s e d

131 f o r many p u r p o s e s ,

su ch as g a t h e r i n g p r i c k l y p e a r s and

s t i r r i n g mush a n d s t e w .

The b a r r e l c a c t u s was s o m e t i m e s

used as a c o n ta in e r fo r sto n e b o ilin g .

One e n d was c u t

away, t h e s p i n e s b u rn e d o f f and t h e p u lp rem oved.

The

H a v a s u p a i h a d many w ays o f c o o k i n g c o r n , b o t h g r e e n a n d d ry *

W afer b r e a d ,

r e s e m b l i n g t h e p i k i o f t h e H o p i , was

a very p o p u lar food.

In fa c t,

the e n t i r e H avasupai

c u i s i n e s u g g e s t s more P u e b l o t h a n v i l l a g e I n d i a n i n f l u e n c e . W alapai cooks b o i l e d most o f t h e i r food i n p o t s , a l t h o u g h m e a t s w ere r o a s t e d i n a p i t o v e n s i m i l a r t o t h e m escal p i t ,

but sm aller.

S t o r a g e b a g s made o f m o u n t a i n

s h e e p s k i n o r b u c k s k in were hung i n c a v e s o r from l e d g e s , 14 f i l l e d w ith s e e d s , meal or je rk e d m eat. S eeds were p a r c h e d a n d g r o u n d , c o o k e d a s mush o r s t e w e d w i t h o t h e r v e g e ta b l e s or m eat. Both N o r t h e a s t e r n and W estern Y avapai u s e d th e b e d r o c k m o r t a r , a l t h o u g h s u c h m o r t a r s w ere n e v e r made by th e l a t t e r .

M e ta te s were u s u a l l y found i n th e v i c i n i t y

of an cien t ru in s,

a n d manos w e r e a l w a y s f o u n d , n e v e r m a d e .

Cooking m ethods c o n s i s t e d o f b o i l i n g i n p o t s ,

sto n e-

b o i l i n g ' i n h o l e s in , t h e r o c k s o r i n a b a r r e l c a c t u s , r o a s t i n g in c o a ls and a s h e s ,

S p ier,

1928,

K roeber,

b a k in g i n th e e a r t h oven

op. c i t . ,

p p . 115-117

op>. c i t . , p . 50

132 and p a r c h in g i n b a s k e t s .

The W e s t e r n Y a v a p a i a l s o u s e d

b a s k e ts f o r stone b o i l i n g . food.

M e s c a l was t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t

D e e r , a n t e l o p e a n d m o u n t a i n s h e e p m e a t was d r i e d on

b ushes i n th e shade or in th e h ou se, and s t o r e d in faw n sk in 15 bags. The S o u t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i made c o n s i d e r a b l e u s e o f acorns,

v/hich w e r e s t o r e d a f t e r p o u n d i n g , b u t w ere n o t

leached b efore e a tin g .

P ine n u t s , w a ln u ts,

sa h u a ro , m esquite b e a n s , v erd e and o th e r t r e e s ,

cactus f r u i t s ,

s e e d s of th e ironw ood t r e e ,

p alo-

a l l b e r r i e s n a t i v e t o th e r e g io n and

c e r t a i n b u l b s were e a t e n o r made i n t o b e v e r a g e s . The s o u t h w e s t e r n I n d i a n s , t h e i r food cooked.

They a t e l i t t l e

t h e i r m eals h o t r a t h e r th a n c o ld . p l a n t s grow ing in t h e i r h a b i t a t , c o o k e ry so t h a t ,

lik e a l l o th e rs,

preferred

ra w f o o d , a n d l i k e d Women u t i l i z e d a l l

and a l s o v a r i e d t h e i r

e v e n w h e r e f o o d s w ere t h e same d i f f e r e n t

c o m b in a t io n s an d f l a v o r i n g p r e v e n t e d t i r e s o m e m onotony. W ithout u n d e r s t a n d i n g th e c h e m i s t r y o f v i t a m i n s o r c a l o r i e s t h e s e women s u p p l i e d a b a l a n c e d d i e t , ce re als,

in c lu d in g m eat,

sugar (m e s c a l) , g re e n v e g e ta b le s and f r u i t s .

T hey u n d e r s t o o d t h e v a l u e o f e n e r g y - b u i l d i n g f o o d s , a n d , c o n tra ry to the u s u a l b e l i e f ,

In d ia n s of the so u th w estern

v i l l a g e s c o n s i d e r e d g l u t t o n y a s w orse th a n a s o c i a l e r r o r .

15 Gifford, 1936, op. cit., p. 255

133 It

is

i n t e r e s t i n g to n o te t h a t ,

and l i m i t e d r e s o u r c e s ,

in s p ite of d e se rt h a b ita t

d i e t a r y d i s e a s e s s o common i n t h e

e a s t e r n h e m i s p h e r e a n d many m o d e rn A m e r i c a n d i s t r i c t s w e r e , a n d a r e , a b s o l u t e l y unkn ow n , t h a n k s t o t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e o f t h e women u p o n whom d e v o l v e d t h e p r o v i d i n g o f t h e m a j o r p o r t i o n o f t h e fo o d supply# S h elter A lthough i n th e so u th w e ste rn v i l l a g e a r e a , as in C alifo rn ia,

h o u ses w ere, f o r th e most p a r t ,

b u i l t by men,

t h e s t r u c t u r e s d i d n o t become t h e p r o p e r t y o f t h e women, b u t b elo n g ed a p p a r e n t l y to th e fam ily#

In f a c t,

th ere

a p p e a r t o be no d e f i n i t e s t a t e m e n t s a s t o o w n e r s h i p o f t h e home a n d t h e v a r i o u s s h e l t e r s a p p e r t a i n i n g t o i t .

Dwel­

l i n g s t h e m s e l v e s were s i m p l e b r u s h and p o l e s t r u c t u r e s e r e c te d ab o u t an o v a l, round o r r e c t a n g u l a r d e p re s s io n a n d f r e q u e n t l y b a n k e d o r c o v e r e d w i t h e a r t h , h a v i n g no o p e n i n g s o t h e r t h a n d o o r a n d smoke h o l e # quate f o r cold w eath er,

These were a d e ­

w h i l e mere s h e l t e r s

su fficed fo r

summer, some o f w h i c h w e r e r o o f e d s h e d s , w a l l e d on one o r two s i d e s , w h i l e o t h e r s w e r e r o o f l e s s w in d b r e a k s . F u r th e r s tu d y in th e f i e l d m ight d e te rm in e w hether t h e s e x o f t h e h o u s e b u i l d e r was d e t e r m i n e d by t h e q u e s t i o n of m a trilo c a l or p a t r i l o c a l re s id e n c e .

P atrilo c al re s i­

d ence p r e v a i l e d f o r t h e f i r s t m onths o r y e a r s o f m a r r i a g e among P i m a , P a p a g o , M a r i c o p a a n d M ohave, w h e r e b u i l d i n g

154 was e n t i r e l y a m a l e o c c u p a t i o n .

Among t h e H a v a s u p a i a n d

W a l a p a i w h e r e t e m p o r a r y m a t r i l o c a l r e s i d e n c e was t h e r u l e , t h e women o f t h e H a v a s u p a i a s s i s t e d i n h o u s e b u i l d i n g , W a la p a i. women d i d n o t .

but

For th e Yavapai m a t r i l o c a l r e s i ­

d e n c e . f o r t h e f i r s t s i x m o n t h s o r y e a r was f o l l o w e d by p a t r i l o c a l r e s i d e n c e f o r a l i k e p e r i o d , when t h e y o u n g people e s ta b li s h e d

t h e i r own home.

H ouse b u i l d i n g was t h e

man’ s t a s k among t h e W e s t e r n Y a v a p a i , b u t was t h e work o f N o r t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i women, co n tacts.

p o s s i b l y t h e r e s u l t o f A p ac h e

In a l l of th e se t r i b e s

such r e s id e n c e w ith th e

f a m i l i e s o f th e young c o u p le l a s t e d b u t a s h o r t tim e , r a r e l y c o n t i n u i n g a f t e r t h e b i r t h o f t h e se c o n d c h i l d , and u s u a l l y only u n t i l th e b i r t h of th e f i r s t

ch ild .

H a v a s u p a i women p e r f o r m e d o n l y t h e l i g h t e s t d u t i e s in c o n n e c tio n w ith house b u i l d i n g .

Men c u t a n d s e t t h e

h e a v y bea m s a n d f l e x i b l e p o l e s , a n d t o g e t h e r men a n d women c o v e re d t h e fram ew ork w i t h b r u s h and th e n w ith e a r t h .

In

w i n t e r dom e-shaped h a b i t a t i o n s w ere c o n s t r u c t e d i n s h e l t e r ­ ed c l e a r i n g s i n dense p in o n or j u n i p e r t h i c k e t s a t o p th e p lateau ;

i n summer r e c t a n g u l a r s h e l t e r s w i t h d i r t c o v e r e d

r o o f s t o s h e d r a i n w ere b u i l t i n C a t a r a c t C a n y o n , s u r 17 r o u n d e d by a num ber o f b r u s h s h a d e s .

16 I b i d . , p . 298 17 S p i e r ,

1928, op. c i t . ,

p.

173

135 N o r t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i h u t s w e r e o f a n e v e n m o re im ­ perm anent c h a r a c t e r .

They t r a v e l e d f r e q u e n t l y f ro m camp

t o camp, e r e c t i n g new d w e l l i n g s w i t h e a c h move.

I t took

one woman a s i n g l e d a y t o b u i l d one o f t h e i r d o m e - s h a p e d w ick iu p s.

G c o t i l l a b r a n c h e s , s p i n e s rem oved, s e rv e d f o r

fram e p o l e s in low er a l t i t u d e s .

A s t o n e was i m b e d d e d a t

the base o f each branch to a c t a s a brace a g a in s t le v e ra g e when t h e l i m b was b e n t t o s h a p e t h e r o u n d e d r o o f .

The

f r a m e was o f t e n c o v e r e d w i t h a s many a s t h r e e l a y e r s o f th atch ,

th e innerm ost of s t a r bushes ( P te le a s p . ), the

c e n te r o f Johnson g r a s s , a kin d o f jo in te d cane, and th e o u t e r m o s t o f b e a r g r a s s (N o l i n a m i c r o c a r p a ) o r j u n i p e r ^b a r k, . 18 T ran sp o rtatio n I n t h i s a r e a , a s e l s e w h e r e among t h e A m e r i c a n I n ­ d i a n s , women w e r e t h e b u r d e n b e a r e r s .

Each group or t r i b e

was f r e q u e n t l y on t h e move* w i t h i n i t s

own d i s t r i c t ,

tra ­

v e l i n g f r o m w i n t e r q u a r t e r s t o h a r v e s t i n g camps a n d summer field s,

v i s i t i n g r e l a t i v e s and f r i e n d s ,

o r m a k in g l o n g

jo u rn e y s in o rd e r to tr a d e w ith o th e r t r i b e s . e x p e d iti o n s , w hether long or s h o r t,

On t h e s e

i t was t h e d u t y o f t h e

women t o c a r r y s u p p l i e s , u t e n s i l s a n d b a b i e s , a s w e l l a s

Gifford, 1936, op>. cit. , p. 271

156 c r o p s g a t h e r e d on t h e way*

T h e r e was more t o t h i s

t h a n m e re s e x - d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n

of lab o r.

c u s to m

Each t r i b e had i t s

t r a d i t i o n a l enem ies l y i n g in w a it t o k i l l o r c a p t u r e ,

in

a d d i t i o n t o s u c h p r o f e s s i o n a l r a i d e r s a s t h e A p a c h e , who m i g h t swoop down a t a n y t i m e . to prevent d is a s te r .

Men m u s t go a r m e d a n d a l e r t

Game e n c o u n t e r e d on t h e m a r c h made

w elcome a d d i t i o n s t o t h e l a r d e r , a n d men w e r e a l w a y s r e a d y to h u n t.

When t r a v e l i n g a l o n e men t r a n s p o r t e d t h e i r own

su p p lies• S u ch b u r d e n s o m e a r t i c l e s a s m e t a t e s , m o r t a r s , a n d l a r g e p o t t e r y j a r s w e r e s e l d o m moved f r o m p l a c e t o p l a c e . E x t r a s u p p l i e s were k e p t a t r e g u l a r l y v i s i t e d camps. s h o r t jo u rn e y s and v i s i t s

On

t h e y w o u ld n o t be r e q u i r e d .

S o m e ti m e s s t o c k s o f f o o d w e r e c a c h e d n e a r summer o r w i n t e r camps.

Even s o ,

t h e women w e r e h e a v i l y l a d e n ,

in s p i t e of

t h e u n u s u a l s t r e n g t h and s e n s e o f b a la n c e w hich e n a b le d t h e m t o a c c o m p l i s h s o much*

A f t e r h o r s e s w ere i n tr o d u c e d

i n t o t h e s o u t h w e s t h e a v i e r b u r d e n s w ere t r a n s p o r t e d on t h e i r b a c k s , b u t women s t i l l b o r e l e a d s i n p a c k b a s k e t s and c a r r y in g fra m e s . A P a p a g o woman, d e s c r i b i n g a j o u r n e y t o v i s i t P a p a g o f a r m e r s i n n o r t h e r n M e x i c o , s a i d t h a t many t r a v e l e d t o g e t h e r f o r f e a r o f th e Apache; Then we s t a r t e d o u t , t h e c h i l d r e n a n d t h e b e d d i n g a n d a s m a l l g r i n d i n g s t o n e on a h o r s e , a n d we women ru n n in g b e s id e w ith our c a r r y in g n e t s , w ith a l l the

137 p o t s , a n d p e r h a p s a b a b y o n . t o p . . . . A t n i g h t we camped a n d my m o t h e r - i n - l a w c o o k e d a b i g p o t o f g r u e l . Next d a y I c a r r i e d i t among my p o t s s o we c o u l d s t o p a n d e a t i t a t m idday. I u s e d t o be s o h o t a n d t h i r s t y on t h a t jo u rn ey .I9 Before th e a d v e n t of th e h o rs e th e " s m a ll” g r in d in g s l a b a n d t h e b e d d i n g w o u ld h a v e b e e n a d d e d t o t h e w o m a n 's lo ad .

C h i l d r e n w e r e u s u a l l y l e f t a t home i n t h e c a r e o f

r e l a t i v e s u n t i l o l d e n o u g h t o k e e p up w i t h t h e i r e l d e r s . B abies,

o f c o u r s e , accom panied t h e i r m o th e rs . Pim a a n d P a p a g o c a r r y i n g f r a m e s w e r e e s s e n t i a l l y t h e

sam e, d i f f e r i n g o n ly i n d e t a i l .

T h ey c o n s i s t e d o f w i d e ­

m o u t h e d c o n i c a l s a c k s o f op en w o rk l a c e c o i l i n g , on w ooden f r a m e s .

su p p o rted

The Pima f r a m e was n o t a s p r o m i n e n t a n d

d i s t i n c t i v e a s t h a t o f t h e P a p a g o , w h i l e t h e n e t was l o n g e r a n d n a r r o w e r . PO I t h a d b e e n s u p e r s e d e d b y f r a m e s o f P a p a g o w orkm anship b e f o r e t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 2 0 t h / c e n t u r y , t h a t t h e s o - c a l l e d Pima k i a h a o r k i h u i s

in r e a l i t y

Papago s t y l e , and u s u a l l y o f Papago w orkm anship.

so

of

B o th

P a p a g o a n d Pima made u s e o f t h e f i b e r s o f v a r i o u s a g a v e s for th e ir n ets.

In a d d itio n to th e in tr ic a c y of lace

c o i l i n g th e Papago p a i n t e d r e d e a r t h and b lu e i n d i g o p a t t e r n s o v e r th e n e t t e d d e s i g n s , and f u r t h e r ornam ented th e p o le s

19 U n d e r h i l l ,

op. c i t . ,

pp. 43-44

M. L. K i s s e l l , " B a s k e t r y o f t h e Pima a n d P a p a g o I n d i a n s , " A m e r i c a n Museum o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y , A n t h r o p o l o g i ­ c a l P a p e r s , v o l . 1 7 , p a r t 4 , p* 1 3 5 .

w ith red p a in t f o r y o u th fu l c a r r i e r s .

The n e t was l a c e d

t o t h e s a h u a r o r i b f r a m e w i t h c o r d s o f human h a i r .

The

f r a m e r e s t e d on t h e g r o u n d u n t i l l o a d e d , when t h e woman s a t on t h e e a r t h ,

shoving h e r back u n d e r th e f r o n t of th e

k i a h a , a s she s l i p p e d th e t w i l l e d c a r r y i n g band o v e r t h e c ro w n o f h e r h e a d .

She h e l d t h e r i m w i t h one h a n d w h i l e

s h e h e l p e d h e r s e l f t o h e r f e e t b y m e an s o f a s l e n d e r , s tr o n g cane c a l l e d th e k ia h a s t i c k . l i g h t i t was n o t n e c e s s a r y t o hands g ra sp e d the s t i c k .

When t h e l o a d was

s te a d y th e rim ,

so t h a t b o th

A f t e r r i s i n g t h e s t i c k m i g h t be

t h r u s t i n t o th e f r o n t of th e load o r used as a s t a f f .

P im a

women w o re t h e i r p a r t e d h a i r h a n g i n g l o o s e l y o v e r e a c h s h o u l d e r w h ile c a r r y i n g t h e fra m e , b u t t h e Papago a l l o w e d a b r a i d to hang o v er th e s h o u ld e r s .

T h e s e f r a m e s w ere i n ­

d is p e n s a b l e b e fo re th e i n t r o d u c t i o n of th e h o r s e .

F uel,

f o o d , m a t e r i a l s f o r v a r i o u s m a n u f a c t u r e s , a n d w a t e r w ere carried in i t s

i n t h e f r a m e s , a n d a s a r u l e t h e b a b y was p e r c h e d c r a d l e on to p o f t h e l o a d .

The m a t e r i a l s f o r t h e

n e t s w e r e g a t h e r e d , p r e p a r e d a n d s p u n b y t h e women, who El u s u a l l y made a s o c i a l e v e n t o f t h e s p i n n i n g . To u n l o a d t h e c a r r i e r b e n t f o r w a r d when t h e e n t i r e l o a d was t h r o w n c l e a r o f t h e h e a d , u n l e s s t h e n e t was f i l l e d w i t h w a t e r J a r s , when i t was more c a r e f u l l y u n l o a d e d . The k i a h a was d i s t i n c t l y a woman*s a p p l i a n c e , a s s o c ia te d w ith her l i f e 21 I b i d . , pp.

h isto ry .

225-232

clo sely

S m a l l f r a m e s v/ere made

159 for l i t t l e down t o f i t

g i r l s of eig h t or ten ,

o r l a r g e r on es w ere c u t

th e i r slen d er hacks.

G i r l s were e a r l y t a u g h t

m ethods o f l o a d i n g ,

so t h a t b u r d e n s w o u ld be s t a b l e a n d o f

p ro p er bulk to a c q u ire

the n e c e s s a r y c o o r d in a tio n of nerve

a n d m u s c l e w h i c h w o u ld i n l a t e r y e a r s e n a b l e th e m t o l i f t l o a d s e x c e e d i n g t h e i r own w e i g h t .

I n t h i s way g i r l s b e ­

came e n u r e d t o t h e f a t i g u e o f l o n g j o u r n e y s .

M aidens had

long and g a i l y s p o t t e d fram e s t i c k s a t th e f r o n t o f th e k i a h a , a n d t h e i r h e l p i n g s t i c k s w ere o r n a m e n t e d w i t h a lo n g d e e r s k i n f r i n g e , w hich f l u t t e r e d w ith e v e r y s t e p .

22

F i n e n e t s we u s e d t o h a v e i n t h o s e d a y s , a l l d y e d w ith r e d and b l u e . Gone s h a p e d w i t h t a l l r e d s t i c k s t o k e e p them i n s h a p e . When t h e n e t was on a g i r l * s b a c k t h o s e r e d s t i c k s w o u ld s t a n d up on e i t h e r s i d e of her face. We u s e d t o t h i n k a p r e t t y g i r l l o o k e d b e s t t h a t way. T h a t was how t h e men l i k e d t o s e e h e r *. Pim a a n d P a p a g o women a l s o made u s e o f t h e h e a d r i n g , upon w hich r e s t e d t h e p o t t e r y w a te r j a r ,

or sh allo w b ask et

bowl p i l e d h i g h w ith c o r n , b e a n s , p e p p e r s ,

squash o r c a c tu s

fru it,

s o m e t i m e s w i t h t h e b a b y p e r c h e d on t h e l o a d .

The

little

h e a d r i n g o f p l a i t e d y u c c a l e a f was p l a c e d on t h e

c r o w n o f t h e h e a d , a c t i n g a t t h e same t i m e a s a s u p p o r t f o r th e lo a d and a p r o t e c t i o n f o r th e s c a lp ;

22 R u s s e l l , £ p . c i t . , U nd erh ill,

p . 141

op. c i t ., p . 6

140 A woman s o l a d e n i s a p r e t t y s i g h t a s s h e s t e p s a lo n g w ith easy g a i t and e r e c t c a r r i a g e , b a la n c in g w i t h o u t t h e a i d o f h e r hands t h e g r e a t w e ig h t upon h e r w e ll - p o is e d head, f o r i t i s t h i s p r a c t i s e of t r a n s p o r t i n g b u r d e n s upo n t h e h e a d w h i c h h a s g i v e n her th a t grace of b ea rin g . M a r i c o p a women u s u a l l y c a r r i e d t h e i r l o a d s u n s u p p o r ­ t e d on t h e h e a d , w h i l e men b o r e b u r d e n s on t h e i r

sh o u ld ers.

W h i l e s h e p o s s e s s e d n o c a r r y i n g n e t , a woman m i g h t f a s h i o n a b a g o f s o r t s by t y i n g t h e c o r n e r s o f h e r b l a n k e t t o g e t h e r , t h e n s u p p o r t i n g t h e k n o t on h e r f o r e h e a d ;

som etim es th e

b l a n k e t was s o t i e d a r o u n d t h e w a i s t t h a t t h e c o n t e n t s r e s t e d on t h e s m a l l o f t h e b a c k .

P ots of w ater, b a sk e ts

of m e sq u ite beans and th e baby in i t s

c r a d l e w e re c a r r i e d

on t h e h e a d , r e s t i n g on t h e h e a d r i n g made o f i n n e r b a r k o f w illo w .

R e c e n t l y t h e b a r k h e a d r i n g h a s b e e n r e p l a c e d by a

r o l l of c lo th .

When men a n d women t r a v e l e d t o g e t h e r women

c a rrie d a l l burdens. H a v a s u p a i , W a l a p a i a n d Y a v a p a i women b o r e t h e i r b u r ­ d e n s on t h e i r b a c k s i n c o n i c a l t w i n e d b a s k e t s s u p p o r t e d by a tump l i n e p a s s i n g a c r o s s t h e f o r e h e a d .

B u r d e n s w ere n e v e r

b a l a n c e d on t h e t o p o f t h e h e a d . C r a d l e s o r b a b y c a r r i e r s may w e l l be i n c l u d e d among t h e m eans o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . P4

K isse ll, S p ier,

op. c i t . ,

1953,

o jd.

T h o s e o f Pima a n d P a p a g o w ere

p . 159

c i t . , p . 330

141 made o f m e s q u i t e r o o t , rods,

sahuaro r i b s ,

c a t ’ s c la y and w illo w

bound w ith sinew th o n g s o r f i n e m e s q u ite r o o t s .

They

w e r e p l a c e d on t o p o f t h e l o a d e d k i a h a o r r e s t e d h o r i z o n t a l l y on t h e m o t h e r ’ s h e a d , t h e a r c h e d h o o p i n f r o n t s e r v i n g f o r 26 a handle. I n h i s r e p o r t on t h e P i m a , R u s s e l l s a y s : The b a b i e s when s t r a p p e d c l o s e l y i n t h e c r a d l e s a r e f r e q u e n t l y c a r r i e d on t h e h e a d s o f t h e i r m o t h e r s , who may a t t h e same t i m e h a v e n o i n s i g n i f i c a n t b u r d e n s i n t h e ir hands. When t h e c h i l d r e n a r e a b o u t a y e a r o l d t h e y a r e c a r r i e d a s t r i d e t h e h i p , u n l e s s up o n a j o u r n e y , when t h e y a r e s h i f t e d a r o u n d t o t h e b a c k , s t i l l a s t r i d e , a n d t h e r e s u p p o r t e d by a s h a w l o r l a r g e c l o t h b o und around th e w a is t. The w r i t e r h a s s e e n women w i t h c h i l ­ d r e n tw o o r t h r e e y e a r s o l d on t h e i r b a c k s , e a c h c a r r y ­ i n g a s a c k o f w h e a t on h e r h e a d a n d l i g h t e r b u n d l e s i n her hands. M a r i c o p a women c a r r i e d t h e c r a d l e u n d e r t h e a r m , fla t,

w ith th e i n f a n t ’ s head fo rw ard .

c a r r i e d on t h e b a c k ,

The c r a d l e was n e v e r

so h a d n o c a r r y i n g s t r a p .

B a rtlett,

i n 1 8 5 2 , m e n t i o n e d s e e i n g women c a r r y i n g t h e c r a d l e on t o p 28 o f a b a s k e t o f g r e e n c o r n , b a l a n c e d on t h e h e a d . H a v a s u p a i women c a r r i e d t h e c r a d l e i n t h e i r a r m s rath er

t h a n on t h e b a c k , p r o b a b l y b e c a u s e o f t h e i r more 29 sed en tary l i f e . 26 K i s s e l l ,

op. c i t . ,

27 R u s s e l l , p p . c i t . ,

p.

142

p . 104

28 J . R. B a r t l e t t , P e r s o n a l N a r r a t i v e o f E x p l o r a t i o n s a n d I n c i d e n t s i n T e x a s , New M e x i c o , C a l i f o r n i a , S o n o r a a n d C h ih u a h u a , c o n n e c te d w i t h t h e U n ite d S t a t e s and M exican B o u n d a r y C o m m is s i o n , d u r i n g t h e y e a r s 1 8 5 0 , * 5 1 , ’ 5 2 , a n d ’ 53 (New Y o r k : D. A p p l e t o n a n d Company, 1 8 5 4 ) v o l . I I , p . 231 ^

Spier, 1928, pp. pit., p. 302

143 Among t h e N o r t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i t h e woman c a r r i e d t h e c r a d l e on t h e b a c k , s u s p e n d e d by a b u c k s k i n p a c k s t r a p ,

or,

more r a r e l y ,

on t o p o f a b u r d e n b a s k e t e q u i p p e d w i t h v e r t i ­

cal stick s.

W e s t e r n Y a v a p a i women c a r r i e d t h e e a r l y t y p e

c r a d l e u n d e r t h e arm, a g a i n s t t h e h i p w i t h t h e head fo rw a r d , o r f l a t on t o p o f t h e b u r d e n b a s k e t . moved t h e c r a d l e was f a s t e n e d f l a t burden b a s k e t,

I f camp was b e i n g

on t h e t o p o f a l o a d e d

r e s t i n g a g a i n s t two v e r t i c a l s t i c k s p r o j e c ­

t i n g from t h e ed g e o f t h e b a s k e t and t i e d it

could not s l i p .

s e c u r e l y so t h a t

More r e c e n t l y t h e y h a v e l e a r n e d , f r o m

t h e N o r t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i , t o c a r r y t h e c r a d l e on t h e b a c k . 3^ S o u th e a ste rn Y avapai c r a d le s r e s t e d a g a in s t the m o t h e r ’ s b a c k , s u s p e n d e d from a b u c k s k i n p a c k s t r a p w hich p a s s e d o v e r h e r h e a d . 31 Among t h e H a v a s u p a i , Y a v a p a i , a n d p r o b a b l y t h e r e ­ l a t e d W a l a p a i , c r a d l e s w ere made by women o n l y . women g a t h e r e d t h e m a t e r i a l s ,

M aricopa

b u t men made t h e c r a d l e s

b e c a u s e t h e y c o u l d l a s h th e m t i g h t e r ; men a p p a r e n t l y made P a p a g o a n d Pima c r a d l e s . C rafts In c o n tra s t to th e C a lifo rn ia a r e a ,

w here, ex c ep t

among a f e w g r o u p s , h a n d i c r a f t s w ere l i m i t e d t o b a s k e t -

G iffo rd ,

1936,

c i t . , p . 283

E . W. G i f f o r d , ’’The S o u t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i , ” U n i ­ v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P u b l i c a t i o n s in A m erican A rc h eo lo g y a n d E t h n o l o g y , v o l . 2 9 , n o . 3 , 1 9 3 2 , p . 219

143 m a k i n g , women o f t h e s o u t h w e s t v i l l a g e s made b o t h b a s k e t s a n d p o t t e r y , a l t h o u g h t h e f o r m e r was t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t craft.

I n a d d i t i o n P a p a g o a n d Pima women t w i s t e d a g a v e

f i b e r s in to cord,

w h i l e t h e women o f t h e Pima a n d M a r i c o p a ,

and p r o b a b ly Papago i n e a r l y d a y s , p r e p a r e d and spun c o t t o n f o r t h e men’ s w e a v i n g .

W i t h i n r e c e n t y e a r s M a r i c o p a women

h a v e woven c r a d l e b a n d s f o r ' t h e c r a d l e s . T h r o u g h o u t a l m o s t t h e e n t i r e a r e a men w ere d r e s s ­ m akers,

s u p p l y i n g s k i n a n d woven c o t t o n c l o t h i n g f o r t h e i r

fam ilies,

s o t h a t women n e i t h e r wove n o r d r e s s e d s k i n s .

L ittle th e m akers o f

i n f o r m a t i o n was f o r t h c o m i n g a s t o t h e s e x o f t o o l s and u t e n s i l s o f s to n e ,

wood a n d b o n e ,

s o t h a t t h e p r o c e s s e s w i l l n o t be d e s c r i b e d a s w i t h p u r e l y fem inine c r a f t s . B asketry Basket

m aking r e a c h e d th e h i g h e s t d e g re e o f e x c e l ­

l e n c e among t h e Pima a n d P a p a g o , u sefu l, fre t,

s tu r d y c o i l e d bow ls,

e x e m p l i f i e d by g r a c e f u l ,

ornam ented w ith c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

c r o s s and s p i r a l d e s ig n s in black*

O ther form s o f

c o i l e d w a re w e r e n o t c o n s t r u c t e d u n t i l a f t e r a demand h a d b e e n c r e a t e d by w h i t e p e o p l e d w e l l i n g i n t h e r e g i o n , when j a r s w ith c o n s t r i c t e d n e c k s , w aste b a s k e ts and o t h e r f a n c y fo rm s were m a n u f a c t u r e d . was p r a c t i c a l l y i d e n t i c a l .

B a s k e t r y o f t h e Pima a n d P a p a g o The P a p a g o ,

l i v i n g in th e dry

144 f o o t h i l l s had l e s s

choice in t h e i r s e le c tio n of b ask et

m a t e r i a l s t h a n t h e P i m a , who d w e l t i n a w e l l - w a t e r e d v a l l e y . I t i s som ething o f an an a ch ro n ism t h a t th e in h o s p i ­ t a b l e d e s e r t p r o v i d e s s u b s t a n c e s w i t h w h i c h h an d so m e a n d d u r a b l e b a s k e t s may be f a b r i c a t e d ;

I t must have ta k e n lo n g

and p a t i e n t e x p e r im e n ta tio n f o r b ask etm a k ers of th e s o u th ­ w e s t t o l e a r n w h i c h p l a n t s were m o s t s u i t a b l e f o r t h e i r p u r p o s e s , w h a t p a r t s c o u l d b e s t be u t i l i z e d , tim e o f y e a r to o b t a i n t h e i r m a t e r i a l s ,

the p ro p er

and th e p r o c e s s by

w h i c h t h e f i b e r s s h o u l d be t r e a t e d b e f o r e t h e b a s k e t c o u l d be woven.

F u n c t i o n a l s o e n t e r e d i n t o t h e c h o i c e o f raw

m aterial.

W illow s h o o t s ,

h e re as th e w orld o v e r, rem ained

th e elem ent b e s t s u i t e d to b a s k e try n ee d s.

A ccording to

Mary L o i s K i s s e l l i n h e r r e p o r t on P a p a g o a n d Pima b a s k e t r y , th e in flu e n c e of the h a b i t a t as r e f le c te d o f t h e b a s k e t m a k e r s was a l s o i l l u s t r a t e d The P a p a g o , who l i v e d

in the c h a r a c te r s in t h e i r w ares.

in sm all fam ily g ro u p s, n e c e s s a r i l y

l i m i t e d by t h e amount o f w a t e r a v a i l a b l e i n s h a l l o w w e l l s , were s i l e n t ,

sed ate,

c o u ra g e o u s , p e r s e v e r i n g and p a t i e n t .

The P i m a , s u p p l i e d w i t h s u f f i c i e n t s t o r e s f r o m t h e i r f e r t i l e f i e l d s t o g i v e th e m a c e r t a i n am ount o f l e i s u r e , w e re o f buoyant,

jo y o u s, s o c i a l ,

easygoing and a r t i s t i c

Kissell, op. cit., p. 259

tem peram ent.

145 P a p a g o b a s k e t s w ere s u b s t a n t i a l ,

b r o a d e r and f l a t t e r o f

b a s e ; Pima b a s k e t s w ere l i g h t e r , m ore a r t i s t i c , g r a c e f u l l y from rounded b a s e s . make q u a i n t a n d d a i n t y l i t t l e

flarin g

Pima women t o o k t i m e t o m i n i a t u r e b a s k e t s , unknown

to Papago craftsw om ens C o i l i n g was o n l y one o f t h e t e c h n i c s u t i l i z e d b y P a p a g o a n d Pima b a s k e t m a k e r s .

E x p erts,

t h e women a l s o

wove p l a i t e d o r t w i l l e d b a s k e t s , m a t s a n d h e a d r i n g s , a n d n e t t e d t h e c o n i c a l o p e n w o rk b a g s a t t a c h e d t o t h e c a r r y i n g fram e.

T w i n i n g was p r e s e n t o n l y a s w r a p p e d w e a v i n g o f

p a r a l l e l ro d s o f s a h u a r o c a c t u s bound w ith a n im a l sin e w , s k in th o n g s, and o f l a t e y e a r s , w ire.

s t r i p s of co tto n c lo th or

T w ined f o r m s i n c l u d e d c o o p s a n d c a g e s f o r w i l d f o w l ,

hanging s h e lv e s ,

d o o rs f o r h u ts and s to r a g e sh e d s ,

crad les

rz *2

(w oven b y men) a n d o v a l s i e v e s . P laited

t e c h n i c s a n d f o r m s w ere s i m i l a r t o t h o s e

f o u n d t h r o u g h o u t M e x ico a n d may r e p r e s e n t a s o u t h e r n i n ­ flu en ce.

R e c t a n g u l a r c o v e r e d b a s k e t s u s e d by m e d i c i n e men

a n d women w e re i d e n t i c a l w i t h s p e c i m e n s o f H u i c h o l m e d i c i n e b ask ets as to s iz e ,

form and w orkm anship.

O ther form s

i n c l u d e d s l e e p i n g m a t s , m a t s on w h i c h t o e a t a n d on w h i c h g rain s,

b e a n s and o t h e r v e g e t a b l e s were d r i e d , h e a d r i n g s o f

th e ty p e i n u se th ro u g h o u t th e s o u th w e st, headbands and back

33 Ibid., pp. 135-141

146 m ats f o r th e k i a h a , and c y l i n d r i c a l b a s k e t s f o r h o ld in g trin k e ts,

c l o th in g and f o o d s t u f f s .

The P a p a g o made u s e o f

th e th o r n y l e a v e s o f th e palm ea, w hich w ere s t r i p p e d and sp lit,

th en soaked in an underground, e a rth -c o v e re d p i t

b e f o r e use#

Among t h e Pima t h i s t y p e of- b a s k e t r y d i s a p p e a r ­

e d some t i m e a g o , b e c a u s e t h e c a n e s w i t h w h i c h t h e b a s k e t s w e r e woven d i e d o u t f o l l o w i n g d i v e r s i o n o f t h e w a t e r s o f s t r e a m s a l o n g w h i c h t h e y g r e w , by w h i t e s e t t l e r s .

P laited

b a s k e t s w ere f o r l i g h t u s e o n l y , a s t h e y w e r e n o t s u f f i c i ­ e n t l y s u b s t a n t i a l f o r g e n e ra l household u sa g e.

M edicine

b a s k e t s w e r e woven b y t h e w i v e s a n d m o t h e r s o f m e d i c i n e men, a n d b y m e d i c i n e women f o r t h e i r own u s e . C o ile d form s in c lu d e d , crude g r a n a r i e s ,

i n a d d i t i o n t o th e bow ls,

b u i l t up s p i r a l l y by m e r g i n g t h e f o u n d a ­

t i o n a n d c o i l i n g e l e m e n t s so t h a t one e l e m e n t p e r f o r m e d t h e w o rk o f b o t h .

T h e s e w ere made o n l y b y t h e P im a , who made

u se o f th e f r e s h and p l i a n t stem s o f arrow w eed. b i n s o f t h i s t y p e w ere b e e h i v e s h a p e d ,

Papago

the base u s u a lly of

cottonw ood, w illo w or b e a r g r a s s , w ith arrowweed w a l l s . C o i l e d g r a n a r i e s , g l o b u l a r a n d b e l l - s h a p e d , w e r e made by both t r i b e s .

T h o s e o f t h e Pima w ere c o n s t r u c t e d o f g r e e n

w illo w , m e s q u ite and a c a c i a b a r k ,

se w e d on a f o u n d a t i o n

of w heat s t r a w s , w hich e a r l y r e p l a c e d n a t i v e g r a s s e s ; Papago p r e f e r r e d th e le a v e s o f s o t o l ( y ucca e l a t a ) and g re e n m e s q u ite f o r sewing s p l i n t s o v er a f o u n d a tio n o f

the

147 beargrass,

s o m e t i m e s r e p l a c e d by w h e a t s t r a w o r o c o t i l l a .

The b a s k e t m a k e r u s u a l l y s t a r t e d h e r w ork f r o m t h e o u t s i d e , then as the g ran ary in c re a se d in s iz e , in sid e,

she w orked from t h e

b u i l d i n g t h e w a l l s up a r o u n d h e r s e l f * A l l o t h e r P a p a g o a n d Pima b a s k e t s w e r e w o r k e d i n

c lo s e c o i l i n g , v/ith bundle f o u n d a tio n ,

com posed o f b e a r ­

g r a s s o r S p a n i s h b a y o n e t ( y u c c a b a c c a t a ) among t h e P a p a g o , a n d o f c a t t a i l o r p o o r e r p a r t s o f c o t t o n w o o d t w i g s among t h e Pima*

S e w in g e l e m e n t s w e r e t h e same f o r b o t h — s p l i n t s

o f w i l l o w a n d c o t t o n w o o d , f o u n d c h i e f l y i n t h e Pima h a b i t a t . Papago b a s k e ts o f to d ay w ith yucca l e a f - s e w i n g , among t o u r i s t s , use.

so p o p u la r

w ere made o n l y f o r t r a d e , n o t f o r

t h e i r own

B e f o r e t h e c o m in g o f t h e w h i t e man c o i l e d b a s k e t s

were o f bowl shape o n ly , an d u s e d f o r a l l p u r p o s e s , from w ater b u ck et to p a rc h in g t r a y . w in n o w i n g s e e d s a n d g r a i n ,

S h a l l o w b a s k e t s w ere f o r

to r e c e i v e th e gro u n d m eal from

t h e g r i n d i n g s l a b , f o r m ix in g dough and f o r s e r v i n g cooked foods; The t r a y i s t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y u s e d b a s k e t o f t h e s e t r i b e s , in th e p r e p a r a t io n of a l l k inds o f f o o d * .* it i s a c o n s t a n t h e l p e r i n t h e i r c u l i n a r y work, t a k i n g t h e p l a c e o f t h e w h i t e m a n ’ s p a n , bow l a n d p l a t e , f o r t h e c u t t i n g up and g e t t i n g re a d y f o r co o k in g s q u a s h e s , pum pkins, r o o t s , b e a n s and o t h e r v e g e t a b l e s , d i f f e r e n t k in d s o f m e ats, f r u i t s , b e r r i e s , se ed s and c e r e a l s . T his c o n tin u e d u se o f th e b a s k e t t r a y has g r e a t l y e n ­ d e a r e d i t t o t h e I n d i a n woman, who h a n d l e s i t w i t h l o v i n g c a r e , k n o w i n g how r e p e a t e d l y i t h a d m i n i s t e r e d t o h e r w a n t s . 34

34 Ibid., p. 193

148 D e s i g n s w e r e w o rk e d i n w i t h t h e c u r v e d b l a c k h o o k s o f the m a rty n ia ,

p o p u l a r l y known a s d e v i l Ts c l a w , w h ic h t h e y

p l a n t e d i n t h e i r f i e l d s , a l t h o u g h i t grew w i l d i n g r e a t p le n ty .

The Fima p r e f e r r e d p o s i t i v e d e s i g n s ,

th a t is ,

dark

p a t t e r n s on a l i g h t g r o u n d , b u t t h e P a p a g o v a r i e d t h i s w i t h n eg ativ e d e sig n s,

i n w hich t h e l i g h t n a t u r a l c o l o r form ed

th e p a t t e r n a g a i n s t th e b la c k m arty n ia ground.

V ariatio n s

o f th e f r e t p a t t e r n were th e o l d e s t and m o st p o p u l a r o f a l l d e s ig n s ; o th e r p o p u la r p a t t e r n s in c lu d e d an equal-arm ed c r o s s d e v e lo p e d from a f lo w e r p a t t e r n , and a s p i r a l , m odi­ f i e d w ith co m binations of te r r a c e d e le m e n ts. M a r i c o p a women, who were p r i m a r i l y p o t t e r s , made few b ask ets.

Huge g r a n a r i e s w e r e m a n u f a c t u r e d a f t e r t h e Pima

m ethod, b o t t o m l e s s , w ith t h i c k w a l l s .

Men a s w e l l a s women

assiste d

i n m aking g r a n a r i e s .

I n m o re r e c e n t t i m e s s t o r a g e

b ask ets,

c o p i e d f r o m t h o s e o f t h e P im a , w e r e made o f w i l l o w

b a r k c o i l e d on a f o u n d a t i o n o f l o n g w h e a t s t r a w s .

S ifters

w e r e made by b i n d i n g w i l l o w t w i g s l a i d c r o s s w i s e t o a w i l l o w hoop.

The m o s t i m p o r t a n t ,

and p o s s i b l y o n ly n a t i v e b a s k e t

o f t h e M aricopa w a s’ a c o i l e d bu rden b a s k e t ,

shaped l i k e a

deep bow l, w i t h f l a t b o tto m and f l a r i n g w a l l s .

The s e w i n g

e l e m e n t o f t h e b a s e was m a r t y n i a a n d o f t h e w a l l s w i l l o w sp lin ts,

on a b u n d l e f o u n d a t i o n o f f i n e l y

c o r a t i v e e le m e n ts w ere o f m a r t y n i a .

s p lit tu le.

T h e s e w ere c a l l e d

" m e s q u i t e b a s k e t s " b e c a u s e t h e i r p r i n c i p a l u s e was f o r

D e­

149 g a th e r in g m esquite b ea n s. narrow c o i l s ,

The b a s k e t s w ere w e l l m a d e , w i t h

because, acco rd in g to L e slie S p ie r:

They p r e f e r r e d b e c a u s e th e y were w eav e.’ A f i n e l y a t t i t u d e was t h a t a l l , p a in s should

t o weave th e m o f s u c h f i n e n e s s valu ab le: *t h e y t o o k s o l o n g t o woven b a s k e t w o re w e l l . The i f t h e y t r o u b l e d t o make th e m a t be t a k e n t o make a c l o s e f a b r i c . 33

Of t h e o t h e r Yuman t r i b e s ,

H a v a s u p a i women w e r e t h e

most a b l e and v e r s a t i l e b a s k e tm a k e r s .

As t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t

d o m e s tic u t e n s i l e a c h h o u s e h o ld b o a s te d a dozen o r m ore,

in ­

c l u d i n g tw o o r t h r e e b u r d e n b a s k e t s , h a l f a d o z e n t r a y s f o r fo o d stu ffs,

one o r two p a r c h i n g t r a y s , a w a t e r b o t t l e o r

tw o , a n d f o r m e r l y , b o i l i n g b a s k e t s , now r e p l a c e d b y t h e m e t a l p o t s o f t h e w h i t e man.

S p ier says:

B a s k e t r y i s e n t i r e l y woman’ s w o r k , t o w h i c h t h e y d ev o te most of t h e i r sp a re tim e , p a r t i c u l a r l y th e lo n g m i d d a y p e r i o d when h o u s e h o l d d u t i e s a r e l i g h t . W h e re e v e r women g a t h e r , b a s k e t r y may b e s e e n ; t h e h o s t e s s w orking a t h e r p r o d u c ts , th e g u e s t p lu c k in g and p r e p a r ­ i n g t w i g s f r o m t h e n e a r b y b u s h e s , o r more commonly h e lp in g th e h o s t e s s a t such t a s k s . Women do n o t u s u a l l y c a r r y t h e i r u n f in is h e d w ares f u r t h e r th a n a n e i g h b o r ’ s camp, n o t e v e n t h e c o i l e d b a s k e t s w h i c h a r e w o rk e d on o n l y i n t e r m i t t e n t l y a n d r e g a r d e d much a s o u r women do e m b r o i d e r y . Tw ined b a s k e t s a r e w o r k e d on more c o n s e c u t i v e l y ; a t r a y b a s k e t , d e p e n d i n g on i t s s i z e , may be c o m p l e t e d i n a f e w d a y s ; a b u r d e n b a s k e t i s w o rk e d a t o f f a n d o n f o r a m o n t h . They c o n s i d e r t w i n i n g h a r d work b e c a u s e c o n t i n u e d p u l l i n g a t t h e s t i f f w efts b r u is e s th e f in g e r s b ad ly . E x p ertn ess i s r e c o g n i z e d a n d p r i z e d ; a fe w women a r e w i d e l y a c k n o w l e d g e d a s p r e e m i n e n t . 36

35 S p i e r ,

1933, o p . c i t . ,

36 S p i e r , 1 9 2 8 ,

p p . 122-123

op. c i t . , p.

124

150 T w in ed w a r e s , m o s t i m p o r t a n t f o r h o u s e h o l d u s e , c o n s is te d o f c o n ic a l burden b a s k e ts , se v e ra l shapes,

w ater b o t t l e s of

s h a l lo w bow ls and t r a y s ,

and d e e p e r bow ls f o r s to n e b o i l i n g . cluded sh allo w b o w ls, t r a y s ,

parching tra y s

C oiled b a s k e ts in ­

and cooking b a s k e t s .

In s p it e

o f t h e c o a r s e n e s s a n d u n e v e n n e s s o f t h e ir/ o r k , v e s s e l s w ere u s u a lly w a t e r - t i g h t , a lth o u g h th o se f o r h o ld in g l i q u i d s w e r e g e n e r a l l y c o a t e d w i t h p i n o n gum, m e s c a l j u i c e o r co rn m e al mush.

The l a r g e s t o f t h e t w i n e d b u r d e n b a s k e t s

e x te n d e d a l m o s t from w a ll t o w a l l o f th e n a rro w t r a i l l e a d ­ i n g f r o m t h e summer r e s i d e n c e i n C a t a r a c t Canyon t o t h e p lateau . g irls,

A s m a l l e r s i z e was made f o r t h e u s e o f yo u n g

and a s t i l l

sm aller to f i t

ju s t le a rn in g to balance lo a d s . curved in to th e p o in t,

g irls

The w a l l s o f t h e s e b a s k e t s

w i t h two l o o p s i n s e r t e d i n t h e s i d e

o f t h e b a c k , w h i c h was s l i g h t l y strap .

the backs o f l i t t l e

flatten ed ,

f o r the c a rry in g

W a t e r b o t t l e s w ere b i c o n i c , w i t h p o i n t e d b a s e a n d

n a rro w m outh, r e p e a t i n g t h e n i p p l e e f f e c t o b s e rv e d i n carry in g b ask ets; base,

o r t h e y m ig ht have a f l a t o r rounded

som etim es pushed in w a rd .

C anteens c a r r i e d w hile

t r a v e l i n g w ere o f h o u r g l a s s s h a p e , w i t h f l a t b o tto m , n a rro w neck and a s o r t o f c o n s t r i c t e d w a i s t l i n e ,

c a r r ie d a t the

s m a l l o f t h e b a c k by a c o r d e n c i r c l i n g t h e w a i s t o f t h e c a r r i e r and th e c o n s t r i c t e d p o r tio n of th e b o t t l e . w ere s t o p p e d w i t h l e a v e s o r a c o r n c o b .

T hey

The woven b o t t l e

151 was v i g o r o u s l y r u b b e d w i t h a c o r n - c o b s o t h a t f r a g m e n t s o f t h e cob f i l l e d from t h e m outh,

in uneven s p o ts ,

th e n wet by s p r a y i n g w a te r

s m e a r e d w i t h so a p w e e d p a s t e ,

co ated w ith

r e d p a i n t po w d er m ix e d w i t h w a t e r a n d d r i e d i n t h e sun* S i x o r s e v e n c u p f u l s o f p i n o n r e s i n was b o i l e d down, poured i n t o

the b o t t l e ,

w h i c h was t u r n e d on i t s

th en

sid e not

to o n e a r a bed o f c o a l s u n t i l a l l i n t e r s t i c e s were f i l l e d , t h e n m ore m e l t e d gum was s p r e a d o v e r t h e o u t s i d e *

Such

b a s k e t b o t t l e s were c o m p l e t e l y w a t e r - t i g h t . T w ined b a s k e t s w ere made o f a c a c i a , a l t h o u g h c o t t o n ­ wood o r w i l l o w s h o o t s w e r e s o m e t i m e s s u b s t i t u t e d f o r t h e b e tte r m a terials.

D ia g o n a l t w i n i n g form ed t h e b a s i s o f

tw in e d b a s k e t s ,

b u t t h r e e - s t r a n d t w i n i n g was i n t r o d u c e d

fo r d eco ratio n .

T rays f o r f i n e se e d s and f o r p a rc h in g

w e r e c o a t e d w i t h a p a s t e made o f m e s c a l t i s s u e .

C oiled

b a s k e t s w e r e sewed on a t h r e e - r o d f o u n d a t i o n a n d t h e s e w i n g e l e m e n t a n d f o u n d a t i o n w e r e made o f a n a t i v e p l a n t w h i c h grew up t h e c a n y o n some d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e v i l l a g e . O r n a m e n t a l d e s i g n s w ere o f c u l t i v a t e d m a r t y n i a , p l a n t e d i n t h e f i e l d s a t t h e same t i m e a s t h e c o r n .

S im ple d e s ig n s

w e r e c o n s i d e r e d m o s t d e s i r a b l e by t h e I n d i a n s t h e m s e l v e s . W alapai b a s k e t r y r e s e m b le s t h a t o f th e H avasupai t o a g reat ex ten t, th e ir neighbors.

b u t W a l a p a i women w ere n o t a s s k i l f u l a s D o m e stic w a re s were u s u a l l y w orked i n

d i a g o n a l t w i n i n g , made f r o m s p l i n t s o f t h e s q u a w - b u s h .

152 Forms i n c l u d e d c o n i c a l b u r d e n b a s k e t w i t h n i p p l e s h a p e p o in t,

fla t

t r a y s f o r w in n o w in g a n d p a r c h i n g s e e d s a n d

a s r e c e p t a c l e s , and the p itc h e d w ater b o t t l e red p a in t.

coated w ith

H a v a s u p a i a n d W a l a p a i women m a n u f a c t u r e d t h e

s e e d - b e a t e r o f w ic k e r w ork, a lm o s t i n d i s p e n s a b l e t o s e e d g a th erin g people.

C o ile d b a s k e t s were n e v e r a s im p o r t a n t ,

a l t h o u g h a c o i l e d mush t r a y o f w i l l o w was u s e d .

M aterials

i n c l u d e d s q u a w - b u s h a n d b l a c k w i l l o w , se w e d on a t h r e e - r o d 57 fo u n d atio n . D e s ig n s were worked i n b l a c k m a r t y n i a o r a r e d dye o b t a i n e d . f r o m t h e r o o t o f y u c c a b a c c a t a . Y a v a p a i b a s k e t r y was a l s o o f t h e H a v a s u p a i - W a l a p a i ty p e.

The N o r t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i c o n s t r u c t e d t h e i r t w i n e d

u t e n s i l s o f sumac s p l i n t s

( Bhus e m o y r i ) .

Forms w e r e l i m i t e d

t o c o n i c a l b u r d e n b a s k e t s , w in n o w in g a n d p a r c h i n g t r a y s , and p i t c h e d w ater b o t t l e s .

Wooden p i n s on t h e i n s i d e o f

the burden b a s k e t se rv e d to anchor th e tu m p lin e.

Large

b u r d e n b a s k e t s w e r e u s e d f o r t r a n s p o r t i n g a c o r n s a n d wood, w h i l e s m a l l e r , more t i g h t l y s e e d s and b e r r i e s . and m a rty n ia . burden b a s k e t.

It

tw ined b a s k e t s s e rv e d f o r s m a ll

Warps w e r e o f s u m a c , w e f t s o f m u l b e r r y t o o k two t o t h r e e

days t o com plete a

P l a i n t w i n e d w a t e r b o t t l e s w e re c o n i c a l ,

o r had f l a t b a s e s ,

tu m p lin e loops f a s te n e d w ith m a rty n ia

f i b e r s , a n d w ere c o a t e d w i t h m e l t e d pirTon gum by m e ans

37 Kroeber, op. cit., pp. 8G-81

153 of a s tic k .

C oiled b a s k e tr y in c lu d e d p itc h e d w ater b o t t l e s

a n d d r i n k i n g c u p s , d i s h e s , w in n o w in g a n d p a r c h i n g t r a y s . S a l i x l a s i o l e t i s and s a l i x l a e v i g a t , fo rm e rly used f o r th e t h r e e - r o d f o u n d a tio n and sew ing s p l i n t s ,

w e re l a t e r r e p l a c e d

b y a d e s e r t w i l l o w f o u n d a t i o n se w e d w i t h m u l b e r r y o r c o t t o n ­ wood s p l i n t s .

C o i l e d w a t e r b a s k e t s , a m o d e rn i n n o v a t i o n ,

h a v e p r o v e d more d u r a b l e t h a n t h e t w i n e d t y p e .

Some, w a t e r ­

p ro o fe d i n s i d e w ith th e j u i c e o f cooked m e sc a l,

served as

c o n ta in e rs f o r cold d e c o c tio n s .

D e s i g n s on c o i l e d b a s k e t s 38 were o f m a r ty n i a o r th e r e d i n n e r b a r k o f s o a p r o o t . The W e s t e r n Y a v a p a i m a n u f a c t u r e d t w i n e d p i t c h e d w a t e r b o ttles, tray s*

c o n i c a l b u r d e n b a s k e t s and w innow ing an d p a r c h i n g W ater b o t t l e s had f l a t b a s e s .

The c o n i c a l b u r d e n

b a s k e t resem bled t h a t o f th e Havasupai in shape.

I t was

c o n s t r u c t e d o f le m o n b e rry warp w ith w e ft o f m u lb e rr y t w i g s , ornam ented w ith bands of b la c k m a r ty n ia . r e in f o r c e d w ith buckskin. m a terials,

The p o i n t was

T r a y s w ere made w i t h t h e same

b u t p a r c h i n g b a s k e t s were l e f t u n d e c o r a t e d .

C o i l i n g was on a t h r e e - r o d f o u n d a t i o n o f w i l l o w o r l e m o n ­ b e r r y se w e d w i t h m u l b e r r y , w i t h d e s i g n s o f m a r t y n i a . o n l y c o i l e d v e s s e l was u s e d f o r s e r v i n g m ush a n d o t h e r foods.

The w i c k e r s e e d - b e a t e r o f c a t Ts c l a w s t e m s h a d

38 Giffords 1936, op. cit.. pp. 181-182

The

154 t h e h a n d l e t i e d w i t h s o a p r o o t f i b e r s . 39 S o u t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i women t w i n e d c r a d l e s , b a s k e ts and p a rc h in g t r a y s , cooking b a s k e t s .

burden

b u t c o i l e d t h e i r w in n o w in g a n d

They made c o n s i d e r a b l e u s e o f v a r i o u s s u b ­

s ta n c e s rubbed in to the b a s k e ts f o r w a te r- p r o o fin g .

Some

w e r e c o a t e d w i t h p i n o n gum, o t h e r s s m e a r e d w i t h b o i l e d d ecoctions of c e r ta in

seeds,

o r th e j u i c e from th e s t i c k y

leav es of c e r ta in d e s e rt p la n ts .

T w in ed w a t e r b o t t l e s w e re

p i t c h e d w i t h p i n o n gum, b r u s h e d on t h e o u t s i d e a n d p o u r e d i n t o t h e i n t e r i o r . 40 T o o ls u s e d i n t h e m a n u f a c tu r e o f b a s k e t s w ere few . K nives f o r c u t t i n g ,

t r i m m i n g a n d s m o o t h i n g s p l i n t s w e re

o r ig in a lly of sto n e ,

l a t e r of m etal.

Awls f o r s e w i n g

c o i l e d b a s k e t s w e r e o f s h a r p e n e d wood a n d b o n e ,

cactus

t h o r n s and th e n e e d l e l i k e p o i n t s o f m e sc a l and yucca leav es,

i n n e a r l y a l l i n s t a n c e s r e p l a c e d by s t e e l p o i n t s

s e t i n wood o r gum h a n d l e s .

Women u s u a l l y made t h e i r own

to o ls. P o ttery A l t h o u g h t h e women o f a l l some p o t t e r y ,

t h e v i l l a g e t r i b e s made

th e c r a f t n ev er a t t a i n e d th e h igh degree of

developm ent o f P ueb lo ce ra m ic s * nor even of th e p r e h i s t o r i c 39

G iffo rd ,

40 I b i d . ,

1 9 3 2 , jop. c i t . ,

p p. 218-819

p . 282

155 p e o p l e s o f t h e same r e g i o n .

W ith th e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e

S o u t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i , a l l w a r e s w ere m a n u f a c t u r e d b y t h e p a d d le and a n v i l m ethod. the p o tte r y m akers.

Women w e r e , w i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n ,

Like b a s k e t r y ,

t h i s was a p u r e l y

fem inine c r a f t . P o t t e r y o f P a p a g o , Pim a a n d M a r i c o p a d i f f e r e d l i t t l e . T h a t o f t h e P a p a g o a n d Pim a m i g h t be t e r m e d i d e n t i c a l .

Pa­

p a g o women made many v e s s e l s f o r t r a d e w i t h n e i g h b o r i n g trib es.

T h e y w o u ld b r i n g j a r s h o l d i n g two o r t h r e e q u a r t s

f i l l e d w ith sa h u aro sy ru p to exchange f o r g r a i n .

T hey w ere

p ro u d o f t h e i r f i n e h a n d i c r a f t i n b a s k e t s and p o t t e r y , w hich t h e y t r a d e d f o r woven g o o d s a n d f o o d .

In re f e r e n c e to

p o t t e r y t h u s made f o r t r a d e , a P a p a g o woman s a y s :

"¥/e women

s t a y e d a t t h e f o o t o f t h e h i l l s and dug c l a y f o r p o t t e r y . Then my m o t h e r - i n - l a w made p o t s , f o r s h e was c l e v e r . young g i r l s sto n es.

s a t p o l i s h i n g them a l l day w i t h l i t t l e

We

sm o o th

Oh, b e a u t i f u l p o t s we made a n d e a r n e d o u r f o o d . . " Pima women o b t a i n e d t h e i r c l a y f r o m s p e c i a l p i t s .

T h a t u s e d f o r d o m e s t i c w a r e s was so m i x e d w i t h q u a r t s p e b b l e s t h a t i t h a d t o be winnowed b e f o r e u s i n g .

C lays

f r o m o t h e r p i t s w e re t e m p e r e d w i t h s a n d a n d g r o u n d s h e r d s .

4.1

Underhill, _op. cit. , p. 44

41

156 The c l a y ,

d rie d in th e sun,

was s i f t e d a n d m i x e d w i t h w a t e r ,

t h e n k n e a d e d a f e w m i n u t e s , made i n t o lumps a n d l e f t o v e r n ig h t.

The b a s e o f t h e new v e s s e l was b e g u n by s p r e a d i n g

th e p a s t e o v e r th e bottom o f an old p o t o f p r o p e r s i z e , sm oothing i t

down w i t h a p a d d l e o f wood.

then

I t w as a l l o w e d t o

d r y u n t i l f i r m e n o u g h t o r e m o v e f r o m t h e mold*

The m a r g i n

o f t h e new b a s e was m o i s t e n e d w i t h t h e f i n g e r s ,

and a c o i l

o f c l a y , r o l l e d b e t w e e n t h e p a l m s o f t h e h a n d s was p i n c h e d i n t o p la c e around th e edge.

Two o r t h r e e r o l l s o f c l a y v/ere

re q u ire d to e n c ir c le the v essel*

A c i r c u l a r s t o n e was t h e n

h e l d a g a i n s t t h e i n s i d e , w h i l e t h e n e w l y a p p l i e d c o i l was p a t t e d f l a t a n d s m o o th w i t h a c o n c a v e wooden p a d d l e on t h e o utside*

As i t was n e c e s s a r y t o a l l o w e a c h c o i l t o d r y

s l i g h t l y b e f o r e p l a c i n g t h e n e x t , s e v e r a l v e s s e l s were u s u a l l y made a t o n c e , s o t h a t no t i m e w o u ld be w a s t e d . th e v e s s e l in c re a s e d in s iz e lo o se sand p la c e d around i t

i t was s e t on t h e g r o u n d a n d to serve as a support as i t

was t u r n e d s l o w l y a b o u t t h e h a n d s .

As t h e l o w e r c o i l s

d r i e d t h e y w ere smoothed w i t h a p o l i s h i n g s t o n e , f r o m t h e b o t t o m u p y /a rd . bow l o f w a t e r a t h a n d ,

As

stro k ed

The p o t t e r a l w a y s w o rk e d w i t h a in o rd e r to r e g u la te

t h e dampness

of the p a s t e . The s l i p was com posed o f d a r k r e d s h a l e , g r o u n d i n w ater u n t i l t h i c k , a p p lie d w ith th e hands im m ediately a f t e r c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e v e s s e l , w h i c h was t h e n r u b b e d a n d b u r n i s h e d

157 w ith th e p o lis h in g sto n e .

I n t h a t d ry c l im a te p o t s were

ready f o r f i r i n g a f t e r d ry in g o v e rn ig h t.

A fte r the f i r e

h a d b u r n e d i n a s h a l l o w p i t f o r some t i m e t h e h o t d r y d e ­ p r e s s i o n was c o v e r e d w i t h d e c a y e d w i l l o w wood o r d r y m e s ­ q u ite ,

t h e v e s s e l was l a i d on i t s

s i d e on t h i s l a y e r a n d

c o v e r e d w i t h s t i c k s b u i l t up ril o g - c a b i n n s t y l e , a n d s e t afire .

I f t h e v e s s e l was t o be d e c o r a t e d , a b l a c k p i g m e n t

made f r o m gum o b t a i n e d b y b o i l i n g m e s q u i t e c h i p s was n e x t a p p lie d w ith a sharpened s t i c k ,

t h e n t h e p o t was a g a i n

h eated u n t i l the p a in t tu rn e d b la c k . Pima a n d P a p a g o women made e s p e c i a l l y f i n e l a r g e o lla s,

u n s l i p p e d , w h i c h w e r e u s u a l l y s e t on a t h r e e - f o r k e d

p o s t under the a r b o r .

O ther form s in c lu d e d co o k in g p o ts

made i n g r e a t e r q u a n t i t i e s t h a n t h e o l l a s , sm oothed, bean p o ts , can teen s, far a fie ld

le ss carefu lly

o f w hich s e v e r a l w ere fo u n d in e v e r y k i t c h e n ; a form p e c u l i a r t o t h e s e I n d i a n s ;

g lo b u lar

t o b e c a r r i e d i n t h e k i a h a w h e n e v e r women w ent (men l e a r n e d t o e n d u r e t h i r s t w h i l e t r a v e l i n g ,

s o c a r r i e d no w a t e r w i t h t h e m ) ; p a r c h i n g p a n s , shallow d is h e s ,

larg e oval

th e m argin ex te n d e d f o r h a n d le s ;

slig h tly

concave d is k s used f o r b ak in g w afer bread and t o r t i l l a s ; a n d , among t h e P a p a g o a t l e a s t ,

s m a l l e r bow ls u sed f o r

e a tin g d ish es. B r o k e n p o t t e r y was mended w i t h gum f r o m t h e c r e o s o t e , ,4 2 bush. Russell, op. cit.» pp. 124-130

158 The m e t h o d of* p o t t e r y m a n u f a c t u r e was e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same f o r t h e M a r i c o p a , w i t h whom i t was a m o re i m p o r t a n t craft, poses,

p o ts r e p la c in g b a s k e ts f o r n e a r l y a l l household p u r ­ L ittle

g i r l s b e g a n t o make t i n y p o t s i n i m i t a t i o n o f

t h e i r m o t h e r s when b u t f o u r o r f i v e y e a r s o l d . ately ,

U nfortun­

t h e q u a l i t y o f M a r i c o p a p o t t e r y was f a r f r o m commen­

s u r a te w ith the q u a n tity .

I t was o f d e f i n i t e l y i n f e r i o r

grade. The c l a y u s e d by t h e M a r i c o p a was common a d o b e , f o u n d a n y w h e r e n e a r t h e h o u s e , dug o u t w i t h a sticJ^:, d r i e d i n t h e s u n , p u l v e r i z e d on t h e m e t a t e a n d t e m p e r e d w i t h f i n e sand.

A d o u b l e h a n d f u l o f c l a y was m i x e d w i t h a s c a n t d o u b l e

h a n d f u l o f sa n d o r powdered a n c i e n t p o t s h e r d s ,

t h e n m ix e d

w i t h w a t e r a n d k n e a d e d t o t h e c o n s i s t e n c y o f t h i c k dough* A l t h o u g h w o rk c o u l d be s t a r t e d a t o n c e , s e t the p a s te a s id e u n t i l n ex t day, keep i t m o i s t .

i t was b e t t e r t o

covered w ith d i r t t o

The b a s e was s h a p e d a n d t h e w a l l s b u i l t up

a s p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d f o r Papago and Pim a, b u t a p p a r e n t l y w i t h no p a u s e s f o r d r y i n g . or l i g h t e r w eight c la y , ta ll,

A n v i l s were r o u n d e d f l a t

stones,

e i t h e r mushroom s h a p e d o r l i k e a

n a r r o w bow l w i t h r o u n d e d b a s e .

m e s q u i t e wood, o f t h r e e t y p e s .

P a d d l e s w e r e made o f

C om pleted v e s s e l s were s e t

a s i d e u n t i l d r y enough t o h a n d le ,

th e n sm oothed i n s i d e and

out w ith a r o u g h is h s to n e , and f i n a l l y allo w ed to dry th o ro u g h ly in th e sun.

A fire

o f m e s q u i t e wood was b u i l t

159 I n a s h a l l o w p i t a n d s m a l l s t o n e s p l a c e d on t h e c o a l s . S e v e r a l p o t s w e r e s e t on t h e i r s i d e s t o warm n e a r t h e f i r e , t h e n p l a c e d on t h e s t o n e s ,

c lo s e to g e th e r but not to uching ,

and a c o n i c a l w a l l o f m e s q u ite s t i c k s b u i l t up a ro u n d them . F i r i n g l a s t e d a b o u t tw o a n d a h a l f h o u r s , t h e n t h e p o t s w ere f i s h e d o u t w ith a p a i r o f s t i c k s and a f i n e g r u e l o f g r o u n d m e s q u i t e b e a n s p o u r e d i n t o them w h i l e h o t , th e m n o n - p o r o u s .

t o make

D e c o r a t i o n a n d r e f i r i n g w e r e t h e same a s

t h a t o f Papago and Pim a.

V essels c o n siste d p r in c ip a lly of

w i d e - m o u t h e d v e s s e l s a n d b o w ls *

J a r s w ith s m a ll m ouths

were i n t e n d e d t o h o ld s a h u a r o s y r u p o r s c a l p s .

F orm s i n ­

c lu d e d l a r g e porous r e d j a r s f o r c a r r y in g and s t o r i n g w a te r , u n d e c o r a t e d c o o k i n g p o t s o f t h e same s h a p e b u t s m a l l e r , r o u n d e d b o w l s o f many s i z e s , handles,

cu p s, p a rc h in g pans w ith rim

sm all-m outhed " s a h u a ro syrup j a r s " ,

g l o b u l a r j a r i n t e n d e d f o r enemy s c a l p s , sizes,

and th e g r i d d l e f o r w a fe r b r e a d .

th e s p e c ia l

la d le s of v ario u s Bow ls a n d c u p s

were s l i p p e d w ith r e d o r w h i t e , and d e c o r a t e d w i t h d e s i g n s i n b-u-,l a c k, . 4 3 When c l a y c o o k i n g p o t s w e r e s u p e r s e d e d by m e t a l u t e n s i l s p u r c h a s e d f r o m t h e w h i t e man, H a v a s u p a i women l i m i t e d t h e i r p o t t e r y m a k i n g t o on e t y p e o f v e s s e l — a sm all,

coarsej

u n slip p e d , und eco rated p o t,

resem b lin g the

43 Spier, 1933, op. cit., pp. 104-110

160 w a r e s m a n u f a c t u r e d by women o f t h e n o m a d i c t r i b e s o f t h e so u th w est.

I t was g l o b u l a r i n s h a p e , w i t h c o n s t r i c t e d n e c k

and o u t - t u r n e d r in u

The c l a y came f r o m a d e p o s i t a t P i n e

S p r i n g s , wwst o f C a t a r a c t C anyon, a n d was d u g o u t i n c h u n k s w ith an a n t l e r p i c k , th e n cru sh ed to pow der, tem pered w ith f i n e s t o n e s from a n a n t h i l l , c o n s is te n c y of s t i f f dough. on a t r a y b a s k e t , stick .

an d k n e a d e d w i t h w a t e r t o t h e C y l i n d e r s o f p a s t e w ere c o i l e d

p a t t e d on t o p w i t h a s m a l l ,

fla t,

sm o o th

B a s k e t a n d p a d d l e w ere k e p t m o i s t w i t h a c o n c o c t i o n

of b o iled a n tle r ,

r o o t s o f w ee d s a n d o t h e r i n g r e d i e n t s .

The s i d e s w e r e b u i l t up by t h e c o i l i n g p r o c e s s , w ith p a d d le and a n v i l .

smoothed

The l i q u i d was a l s o r u b b e d i n t o t h e

com pleted v e s s e l w ith th e a n v i l s to n e ,

to prevent crack in g .

The p o t was d r i e d i n t h e s u n f o r tw o d a y s b e f o r e f i r i n g . fire

o f a n y d r y wood w as a l l o w e d t o b u r n t o c o a l s ,

the c o a ls

r a k e d away a n d t h e p o t p l a c e d u p r i g h t on t h e h o t e a r t h , b u ried ,

i n s i d e and o u t,

s e t on t o p ,

A

then

w ith th e c o a l s , a sm all b ru sh b la z e

and a llo w e d to bake a l l day and a l l n i g h t .

one v e s s e l was f i r e d a t a t i m e .

O n ly

The f i r s t f o o d c o o k e d i n

t h e new v e s s e l was c o r n m e a l m ush, o f w h i c h a l a d l e f u l l was g iv en each v i s i t o r , d im inished.

a n d more c o o k e d i n t h e p o t a s t h e s u p p l y

I f th e base cracked in f i r i n g a clay o b tain ed

f r o m t h e c r e e k b e d was s m e a r e d o v e r t h e c r a c k s . 44 were a l s o made.

Clay p i p e s

B a t a r e g a r d i n g W a l a p a i p o t t e r y w e r e b a s e d on h e a r s a y , 44 Spier, 1928, op. cit. , pp. 138-140

161 b u t i t was p r o b a b l y s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e H a v a s u p a i . The N o r t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i h a v e c e a s e d m a k i n g p o t t e r y , a l t h o u g h i t was f o r m e r l y made b y t h e c o i l m e t h o d , w i t h p a d d l e and a n v i l .

Form s c o n s i s t e d o f d i f f e r e n t s h a p e s o f b o i l i n g

p o t s f o r v e n is o n and se e d ,

sm a ll pan s and a b o t t l e n e c k j a r 45 f o r c a rr y in g w ate r in th e burden b a s k e t. W e s t e r n Y a v a p a i p o t t e r y w as a l s o f a s h i o n e d w i t h

p a d d le and a n v i l ,

by b u i l d i n g c o i l s f r o m a f l a t b a s e .

Types

i n c l u d e d a s h a llo w d i s h f o r f o o d , and deep bow ls w i t h o u t curved rim s f o r c a rry in g ,

bo th u n d ec o ra ted .

The c l a y was

t e m p e r e d w i t h f i n e g r a v e l o r p o t s h e r d s c r u s h e d on t h e m e t a t e . A v e g e ta b le tem per,

c o n s i s t i n g of sm a ll c a c tu s w ith th e

t h o r n s b u r n e d o f f , m a sh ed a n d m ix e d w i t h c l a y a n d c h o p p e d r o o t s o f g r a s s , made t h e c l a y s t i c k t o g e t h e r .

C om pleted

p o t s w ere co v e re d w ith a r e d s l i p w i t h th e b a re h a n d s . They w e r e f i r e d w i t h a n y k i n d o f wood, 46 on t h e i r s i d e s i n t h e c o a l s .

the v e s s e ls l a i d

N o r t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i women made t h e c l a y p i p e s smoked by t h e men, b u t W e s t e r n Y a v a p a i men f a s h i o n e d t h e i r own p i p e s . 47 A l t h o u g h p o t t e r y m a k i n g was a woman’ s c r a f t among

Gifford, 1936, op. cit., p. 280 45 Ibid., p. 181 47 Ibid., pp. 263-264

162 t h e S o u t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i , n o t e v e r y woman was a p o t t e r . C l a y was c r u s h e d on a m e t a t e , w in now ed a n d m i x e d w i t h w a t e r . No t e m p e r i n g m a t e r i a l was ad d e d *

The r e d m i n e r a l p i g m e n t

u s e d f o r f a c e p a i n t m i g h t be p o w d e r e d a n d a d d e d t o t h e c l a y t o make r e d p o t t e r y .

V e s s e l s were c o i l e d i n t h e P u e b lo

f a s h i o n , w ith o u t u se o f p a d d le and a n v i l .

The b a s e was

c o i le d , a d d i t i o n a l c o i l s pinched in p la c e w ith th e f in g e r s an d smoothed w ith a s h e r d s c r a p e r , w hich a l s o s e r v e d t o p o lis h th e v e s s e l.

T h e re were t h r e e f o r m s - - a p o t f o r

b o ilin g , a b o ttlen eck ed o lla d rin k in g . days,

f o r w a te r and a bowl f o r

C o m p l e t e d v e s s e l s w ere d r i e d i n t h e s u n f o r two

th e n f i r e d in an u p r ig h t p o s i t i o n in © f i r e

of stic k s, w h i c h f e l l i n s i d e t h e p o t s a n d h e l p e d i n t h e b u r n i n g . 48 S p in n in g and w eaving A lthough in th e C a l i f o r n i a a r e a th e t w i s t i n g o f fib e rs in to

c o r d a g e was i n t h e m a in t h e w o rk o f t h e men,

t h i s t a s k d e v o l v e d u p o n t h e women among t h e P a p a g o a n d Pim a.

N o t o n l y d i d t h e s e women u n d e r s t a n d t h e t e c h n i c o f

f a s h i o n i n g c o r d s f r o m w i l d p l a n t s by r o l l i n g p r e p a r e d f i b e r s on t h e b a r e t h i g h , b u t t h e y , a s w e l l a s t h e c u l ­ t u r a l l y r e l a t e d M a r i c o p a , made u s e o f t h e s p i n d l e i n f a s h i o n i n g c o t t o n y a r n f o r w eaving.

W e a v in g , h o w e v e r , was

t h e w o rk o f men, a l t h o u g h o f l a t e some M a r i c o p a women h a v e

Gifford, 1932, _ojd. cit., p. 220

163 a d o p te d th e c r a f t f o r th e m a n u fa c tu re of b e l t s and c r a d l e bands.

In C alifo rn ia

liz e d fo r f is h n ets, use,

tw in e d f i b e r c o r d s were u s u a l l y u t i ­ h a i r n e t s and k i l t s f o r c e re m o n ia l

t h e r e f o r e i t s m a n u f a c t u r e was r e s t r i c t e d t o men.

D ata

f o r t h e H a v a s u p a i , W a l a p a i , Y a v a p a i , Mohave a n d Yuma p r o v e d i n c o m p l e te a s t o m ethod o f m a n u f a c t u r e a s w e l l a s t h e se x o f t h e m a k e r s , b u t a l l made a n e x t e n s i v e u s e o f c o r d s . P a p a g o a n d Pima women u s e d f i b e r s o f a g a v e f o r n e t s f o r t h e i r c a r r y i n g f r a m e s , w h i c h w e r e w o rk e d i n l a c e c o i l ­ in g .

Women w e n t t o t h e h i l l s

le av es,

in p a r t i e s to g a th e r the

p r e p a r i n g th e m f o r u s e on t h e s p o t ,

was l i g h t e r t o c a r r y home. from th e l e a v e s ,

a s the f i b e r

They s c r a p e d t h e p e e l an d p u l p

s o f t e n e d by r o a s t i n g o v e r n i g h t i n a p i t ,

w i t h s c r a p e r s o f d e e r s c a p u l a , a f t e r which t h e f i b e r s had o n l y t o be w a s h e d a n d d r i e d . s o c ia l ev en t,

s e v e r a l women g e t t i n g t o g e t h e r t o g o s s i p a n d

g i g g l e a s t h e y w orked. e a rly days,

S p i n n i n g was s o m e t h i n g o f a

C o rd was s p u n on t h e b a r e t h i g h i n

l a t e r on t h e l e g ,

o w ing t o t h e w h i t e men’ s t o o

e a s i l y shocked se n se o f m odesty.

K i s s e l l d e s c r ib e s the

process as fo llo w s: The s p i n n e r s i t s on t h e g r o u n d w i t h h e r l e f t l e g u n d e r h e r , t h e r i g h t s o b e n t a s t o be o f s e r v i c e d u rin g the sp in n in g . On t h i s s h e p l a c e s tw o s t r a n d s o f f i b e r w i t h h e r l e f t h an d , and w i t h th e palm o f t h e r i g h t , r o l l s t h e two s i m u l t a n e o u s l y away f r o m h e r , t h u s g i v i n g th e m a h a r d t w i s t . T h e s e two t i g h t l y t w i s t e d s t r a n d s a r e r e l e a s e d by s l i g h t l y r a i s i n g th e hand, and th e n b r i n g i n g i t l i g h t l y tow ard h e r , th u s u n i t i n g and t w i s t i n g t h e tw o s t r a n d s i n t o a t w o - p l y c o r d , b y

164 ro llin g

i n a n o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n . 49

T h e s e c o r d s w ere l a t e r u s e d i n t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f open l a c e - l i k e

carry in g n e ts,

s u p p o r t e d by wooden f r a m e s .

B o t h f i b e r s a n d t w i s t e d c o r d s e r v e d a s a r t i c l e s o f commerce w i t h P a p a g o a n d Pim a women. C o t t o n t h r e a d was s p u n on a s t i c k s p i n d l e by P a p a g o , Pim a a n d M a r i c o p a women, a l t h o u g h t h e c r a f t was d i s c o n t i n u e d b y t h e P a p a g o i n a n c i e n t t i m e s when t h e y b e g a n t o b a r t e r f o r woven k i l t s a n d s h a w l s w i t h t h e Pima i n s t e a d o f w e a v i n g th e m th em selv es.

B e f o r e t h e d a y s o f t h e t r a d e r t h e c l o t h i n g worn

b y t h e s e p e o p l e c o n s i s t e d o f s q u a r e s o f woven c o t t o n c l o t h w rapped a b o u t t h e body.

A w hite n a t iv e c o t to n , w ith sm all

b o l l s , was c u l t i v a t e d i n t h e f i e l d s ,

d r i e d i n t h e p o d on

th e r o o f - t o p s and s t o r e d i n la r g e p o t t e r y j a r s u n t i l w in te r , 50 when women h a d l e i s u r e f o r s p i n n i n g . M e th o d s o f r e m o v i n g t h e s e e d s known t o t h e s e women a r e s t i l l p a r t s o f M e x ic o a n d m i d d l e A m e r i c a . o u t , u s u a l l y on a m a t , f l a t s t o n e ,

The c o t t o n was s p r e a d or raw hide, and b e a te n

w i t h one o r tw o s l e n d e r r o d s u n t i l c l e a n . l a i d t h e i r c o t t o n on a f l a t weed a c r o s s i t .

i n u s e i n many

M a r i c o p a women

s to n e and r o l l e d a sm ooth a r r o w ­

T h e y t h e n s p r e a d t h e g i n n e d c o t t o n on a

c l e a n bed o f san d o r san ded e a r t h . d e s c rib e s the p r o c e s s :

4:9 K i s s e l l ,

op.

c o t.,

p . £29

50 R u s s e l l , p p . p i t . ,

p . 150

L e slie S p ie r th u s f u rth e r

165 A s c ra p e d arroww eed, ab o u t th e s i z e o f an a rro w , was s t r u n g t o f o r m a t a u t l i t t l e bow. The b o w s t r i n g was h e l d c l o s e a b o v e t h e c o t t o n a n d t h e n p l u c k e d . The * t o o t h 1 o f t h e s t r i n g c a u g h t up t h e l o o s e f i b e r s ; i t s v i b r a t i o n s w r a p t th e m i n t o a c o m p a c t r o l l a r o u n d the s t r i n g . T h i s was t h e n p u l l e d o f f t h e s t r i n g t o serve as a s li v e r ready fo r sp in n in g . The f i r s t s t e p was t o r o l l t h e s l i v e r i n t o a l o o s e y a r n b e t w e e n p a l m and t h i g h . S p i n d l e s w ere s t r a i g h t ,

sm ooth,

slen d er s tic k s about

two f e e t i n l e n g t h , w h i c h p a s s e d t h r o u g h a h o l e i n t h e c e n ­ t e r o f th e s p in d le w horl, a s t r a i g h t s t i c k o r, a c c o rd in g to 52 B a r t l e t t , a b l o c k o f wood, M aricopa s p i n d l e w h o rls were made f r o m t h e d e n s e i n n e r p a r t o f t h e g i a n t c a c t u s .

L ieu ­

t e n a n t Emory d e s c r i b e d t h e s p i n n i n g m e t h o d s o f a Pima woman he o b s e rv e d i n 1846, a s f o l l o w s : H e r l e f t l e g was t u c k e d u n d e r h e r s e a t a n d h e r f o o t tu rn e d s o le upw ards. B e tw e e n h e r b i g t o e a n d t h e n e x t was a s p i n d l e a b o u t 18 i n c h e s l o n g , w i t h a s i n g l e f l y of fo u r or s ix in c h e s. E v e r ,a n d a n o n s h e g a v e i t a t w i s t i n a d e x t e r o u s t a n n e r , a n d i t s e n d was d r a w n a c o a r s e c o t t o n t h r e a d . 5 *5 M a r i c o p a women t w i r l e d

the sp in d le w ith th e f in g e r s

o f t h e l e f t h a n d a s t h e l o w e r e n d r e s t e d on t h e g r o u n d , s t o p p i n g f r o m t i m e t o t i m e t o u n w in d t h e p a r t i a l l y

spun

y a r n , w h i c h was w o rk e d s m o o t h b e t w e e n t h e n a i l s o f t h e 54 r i g h t h a n d b e f o r e i t w as r e s p u n .

^

S p ier,

1933,

op.

c i t .,

p . 113

^ B a r t l e t t , o p . c i t . , p . 225 53 W. H. Emory, N o t e s o f a M i l i t a r y R e c o n n o i s s a n c e from F o r t L e a v e n w o rth i n M i s s o u r i t o San D i e g o , i n C a l i f o r n i a . . . m a d e i n 1 8 4 6 - 7 ( W a s h i n g t o n : V /endell & Van B e n t h u y s e n , p r i n t e r s , 1 84 8 ) p . 85 ^ Spier, 1933, op. cit.., p. 113

166 E a r l y a c c o u n t s a s s i g n w e a v i n g t o t h e o l d men, a n a tu ra l d iv isio n of lab o r,

a s i t w as a s u i t a b l e a n d n o t

to o d i f f i c u l t c r a f t f o r th o s e to o slow f o r h u n t or war, b u t s t i l l cap ab le of le s s a c tiv e p u r s u i t s .

P rep aratio n of

t h r e a d b y women f o r men* s u s e was a p p a r e n t l y a s o u t h w e s t e r n tra it. It

i s d o u b t f u l i f P im a a n d P a p a g o women e v e r u n d e r ­

s to o d th e a r t o f w eaving. S p ier says:

As f o r t h e M a r i c o p a ,

L eslie

"When c l o t h a n d b l a n k e t s bec am e a v a i l a b l e f r o m

t r a d e r s , , t h e o l d a r t w aned a n d m an’ s, p a r t i n i t

lapsed en­

tire ly .

Nowadays o n l y women w e a v e , m a k i n g o n l y c r a d l e b a n d s 55 as p a r t of th e c o n s tru c tio n of c r a d l e s . ” A l t h o u g h w e a v i n g was a t one t i m e p r a c t i s e d b y many o f so u th w estern v i l l a g e In d ia n s ,

i n c l u d i n g t h e Yuma a n d Cocopa

a s w e l l a s P a p a g o , P im a a n d M a r i c o p a , c r a d l e b a n d s woven by M a r i c o p a women a r e t o d a y a p p a r e n t l y t h e o n l y r e m n a n t s o f t h e an cien t art*

The b a n d s a r e a b o u t two t o t h r e e i n c h e s i n

w i d t h a n d some tw o y a r d s l o n g ,

s u f f i c i e n t t o w ra p s e v e r a l

t i m e s a r o u n d t h e c h i l d when f a s t e n e d on t h e c r a d l e f r a m e . . T hey a r e woven on t h e u s u a l h o r i z o n t a l lo o m , w eaving".

i n "warp

W arps a r e o f s e v e r a l c o l o r s a s t h e y c o m p r i s e

th e p a tte r n ,

w h ile th e w eft i s a lm o st co m p letely hidden

55 Ibid.. p. 42

167 b y t h e w arp t h r e a d s *

The w e f t i s wound i n t o l i t t l e

hanks,

i n s e r t e d i n t h e w a r p w i t h t h e m a n i p u l a t i o n o f t h e s h e d s by t h e w e a v e r*

Warp a n d w e f t t h r e a d s f o r m f r i n g e s a t t h e e n d s

o f t h e c o m p l e t e d b and s*

D esigns a r e sim ple l o n g i t u d i n a l , . c

and tr a n s v e r s e l i n e s ,

/»

len g th w ise s t r i p e s predo m in atin g .

O ther c r a f t s S k i n d r e s s i n g w as t h e w ork o f men e x c l u s i v e l y , a t l e a s t among t h e s k i n - w e a r i n g t r i b e s , th e y w ere t h e sh o e m a k e rs .

and i n a l l i n s t a n c e s

A cco rd in g t o B u s s e l l , how ever,

P im a women u n d e r s t o o d t h e a r t o f t a n n i n g h i d e s . ni t

i s p r o b a b l e t h a t G i l e n o women d i d l i t t l e

nough s k in d r e s s i n g to keep th e a r t

He s a y s :

m ore t h a n e -

l i v e w ith them .

At

p r e s e n t t h e r e a r e v e r y f e w who know a n y t h i n g a b o u t i t . . ,T57 S k i n s were so a k e d i n w a t e r , a deer*s r i b bone.

s c r a p e d on a n i n c l i n e d l o g w i t h

B rains of an im als,

d r i e d i n cake form

and s a h u a r o s e e d s were t a n n i n g m a t e r i a l s , an d t h e ta n n e d s k i n s were c o l o r e d r e d w i t h a dye from th e r o o t s o f K ra m e ria p arv ifo lia * A p p aren tly th e a n c ie n t i n h a b i t a n t s o f th e so uthw est m a n u f a c t u r e d g r i n d i n g s l a b s a n d manos i n s u c h u n l i m i t e d q u a n t i t i e s t h a t t h e i r s u c c e s s o rs found th e e a r l y s i t e s v e r i ­ t a b l e m ines f o r t h e s e n e c e s s a r y and u n w ield y u t e n s i l s .

56 I b i d . ,

p p . 1 1 5 -1 1 9

R u ssell,

op. o i t *. p.

117

168 O therw ise,

su itab le

pecked in to shape. m o d i f i e d by u s e .

s t o n e s were fo u n d i n a n a t i v e

s t a t e and

Manos w e r e u s u a l l y n a t u r a l p e b b l e s , ¥/hen a m e t a t e became s m o o t h w i t h u s e t h e

owner p eeked t h e g r i n d i n g s u r f a c e w i th a s m a ll r o u n d i s h ham m erstone. T h e r e w e r e l i k e w i s e no a v a i l a b l e d a t a r e g a r d i n g t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f w ooden m o r t a r s . c o n siste d of n a tu ra l p eb b les. e i t h e r came f r o m r u i n s ,

P e s tle s of sto n e u su a lly P o lish in g sto n es fo r p o tte ry

o r s m a l l homogeneous unworked p e b b l e s

were p i c k e d up b y t h e p o t t e r s .

Those f o u n d i n r u i n s w e r e

p r e f e r r e d , as th e y had been used u h t i l p ro p e rly aged. Awls o f wood a n d bone w e re u s u a l l y made by t h e women who u s e d th e m , a l t h o u g h among t h e N o r t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i men made t h e a w l s o f b o n e u s e d b y women i n b a s k e t m a k i n g .

T his

may h a v e b e e n b e c a u s e men u s e d a w l s o f t h e same t y p e f o r se w in g s k i n garm ents#^® I n t h e m a i n , h o w e v e r , members o f e a c h s e x made t h e t o o l s a n d u t e n s i l s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e i r own c r a f t s a n d i n d u s ­ tries.

O nly when b o t h men a n d women u s e d t h e same t o o l ,

u su ally fo r d iffe re n t th in g s,

was t h i s r u l e b r o k e n .

C o s tu m e a n d A d o rn m en t The c l i m a t e o f t h e s o u t h w e s t e r n v i l l a g e a r e a was seldom m ild enough to p e r m it th e t o t a l a b s e n c e o f c l o t h i n g ,

58 Gifford., 1936, og. cit., p. 379

169 a l t h o u g h i n t h e w arm er a n d m o re s o u t h e r l y p o r t i o n s t h e c o s t u m e was r e d u c e d t o b a r k a p r o n s , d e e r s k i n o r woven k i l t s f o r women a n d s c a n t y b r e e c h c l o t h s f o r men. a r r a y of s h e l l jew elry ,

The c o l o r f u l

so p l e n t i f u l on t h e P a c i f i c

was h e r e r e d u c e d t o a few n e c k l a c e s .

co ast,

T h e r e was some m e n t i o n

o f t h e women d e c k i n g t h e m s e l v e s w i t h w r e a t h s a n d l e i s o f flo w ers,

a s was a l s o a common C a l i f o r n i a n p r a c t i c e .

i n g was g e n e r a l t h r o u g h o u t t h e a r e a ,

T atto o ­

b u t th e m ost p o p u la r

a n d w i d e s p r e a d b e a u t i f y i n g a i d was t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f p a i n t , w h i c h s e r v e d t o s u p p l e m e n t t h e b r i e f g a r m e n t s w o rn i n t h e s o u t h , a s w e l l a s f o r m e re o r n a m e n t a t i o n i n f a n c i f u l d e ­ s i g n s , much a s m o d e r n women a p p l y p o w d e r , r o u g e , a n d l i p ­ stick . S a n d a l s a n d m o c c a s i n s o f t h e l e g g i n g t y p e w e r e w o rn on j o u r n e y s i n t h e c a c t u s c o u n t r y , b a r e f o o t a t home.

b u t women u s u a l l y w e n t

Raw hide s a n d a l s came i n t o g e n e r a l u s e

a f t e r th e in tro d u c tio n of c a ttle # H a i r d r e s s i n g w a s , a s a r u l e , m o r e e l a b o r a t e among men t h a n women, a l t h o u g h t h e l a t t e r h a d t h e i r own s t y l e s . Use o f t h e f i b e r h a i r b r u s h was a g e n e r a l c u s t o m . se v e ra l sp ecies of yucca, p a r tic u la r ly a s soapweed,

o r a m o le by t h e S p a n i s h ,

R oots o f

t h a t v a r i e t y known su p p lie d an e x c e ll e n t

s u d s y c l e a n s e r w h e r e v e r w a t e r was s u f f i c i e n t l y p l e n t i f u l t o be w a s t e d on b a t h i n g .

Under any c i r c u m s t a n c e s c l e a n l i n e s s

m i g h t be c o n s i d e r e d a m a t t e r o f c o m p a r a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e ,

170 d e p e n d i n g on t h e p o i n t o f v i e w .

The m o d e r n t r e n d h a s b e e n

to c o n s id e r c l e a n l i n e s s , a s e x e m p lif ie d by b a t h i n g , same c l a s s w i t h v i r t u e . clean lin ess,

ness.

T he I n d i a n s s e t a s t a n d a r d o f

but did not ca rry i t

Each t r i b e

had i t s

in th e

to excess.

own i d e a s o f p h y s i c a l a t t r a c t i v e ­

A m o d e s t b e a r i n g u s u a l l y a c c o m p a n i e d goo d l o o k s ,

e x c e p t among t h e Mohave women, who h a d a f r e e a n d e a s y way a b o u t them*

C o n v e n t i o n a l b e a u t y was a s we11 d e f i n e d a s t h e

r u l e s o f a modern b e a u t y c o n t e s t . C lothing Men made a l l t h e c l o t h i n g i n t h i s a r e a , f r in g e d b a rk ap ro n s and b a rk shaw ls.

W ith t h e a d v e n t o f

th e w hite t r a d e r and th e modest m is s io n a ry ,

c l o t h i n g worn

by A m e r i c a n I n d i a n s u n d e r w e n t a s h a r p c h a n g e * m ents,

except

N ative g a r ­

s t y l e s a n d m a t e r i a l s w ere l a r g e l y r e p l a c e d by manu­

f a c t u r e d f a b r i c s s e c u r e d f r o m t h e t r a d e r , a l t h o u g h i n some i n s t a n c e s th e f a s h i o n s o f th e garm ents w hich f i r s t s u p p la n te d n a t i v e c l o t h i n g have rem ained unchanged u n t i l th e p r e s e n t tim e. Pima a n d P a p a g o women w o re s i m p l e a n d r a t h e r s c a n t y c o s t u m e s , c o n s i s t i n g o f a s h o r t s k i r t o f d e e r s k i n o r woven o f w hite c o t t o n .

R u s s e l l d i s c u s s e s f o u r p e r i o d s o f t h e Pima

c o s t u m e , t h e f i r s t c o n s i s t i n g o f a k n e e - l e n g t h k i l t made o f th e in n e r bark o f th e w illo w ; second, a le n g th of w hite c o t t o n c l o t h w rapped a b o u t t h e w a i s t ,

tu c k e d in a t the

171 s i d e o r f a s t e n e d w i t h maguey c o r d , a b e l t , in p la c e .

The t h i r d

sty le

or m erely tu ck ed

c o n s i s t e d o f a s l e e v e l e s s chem ise

a n d r e b o s o w orn d u r i n g t h e M e x i c a n p e r i o d .

These f i n a l l y

g a v e way t o " p l a i n a n d s e r v i c e a b l e c l o t h i n g p u r c h a s e d f r o m w h i t e s . "59

The c o t t o n k i l t s w e r e d o u b l e d , a n d i n v e r y e o l d

a n d w in d y w e a t h e r t h e o u t e r f o l d o f t h e k i l t was d r a w n up around th e neck and s h o u ld e r s . th is

com parative p r o t e c t i o n ,

Widows w ere d e n i e d e v e n

f o r th e y dared n o t r a i s e the

b la n k e t above th e a r m p its d u r in g th e p e r io d of m ourning. P a p a g o women w o re a s i m i l a r k i l t o f d e e r s k i n , if

th ey p o sse sse d th e w h erew ith al to t r a d e ,

o b t a i n e d from t h e Pim a.

or,

of co tto n c lo th

An o l d P a p a g o woman d e s c r i b e d t h e

d r e s s w o rn i n h e r y o u t h a s f o l l o w s : G i r l s h a d n o t h i n g on a b o v e t h e w a i s t . We d i d n o t wear c l o t h e s t h e n . They h a d s t r i p s o f h a n d - w o v e n c l o t h in f r o n t and b eh in d , t i e d around t h e i r w a is ts w i t h a s t r i n g , f o r we d i d n o t know how t o sew th e m to g e th er. O n ly d e e r s k i n s o u r men knew how t o sew, b u t o u r p e o p l e h a d t r a d e d t h i s c l o t h f r o m M e x ic o a n d we t h o u g h t we w ere v e r y f i n e . And w i t h good r e d p a i n t a b o v e t h e w a i s t i t was f i n e . And warm t o o . ^ Q M a r i c o p a g a r m e n t s w e r e made by o l d men a n d women, t h e f o r m e r m a k i n g b r e e c h b l o t h s w o rn b y men, t h e l a t t e r , b a r k s k i r t s w orn by women. w illow b a rk ,

The f r i n g e d b a r k s k i r t was o f

f in e ly shredded in to f r in g e ,

w hich hung i n a

t h i c k bu sh y m ass from a b e l t c o r d a t t h e w a i s t t o m i d - c a l f . 59 R u s s e l l ,

o p . c i t . , p . 157

U n d erh ill,

op. p i t . ,

p. 6

172 I t was made i n one p i e c e ,

c o v e rin g th e s id e s as w e ll a s the

b a c k a n d f r o n t o f t h e body*

Under t h e o n e - p i e c e o u t e r s k i r t

was worn a n u n d e r g a r m e n t c o n s i s t i n g o f two l i t t l e

aprons

c l o s e l y woven o f w i l l o w b a r k o r c o t t o n t a i l r a b b i t s k i n . B a r t l e t t a ls o d escrib ed s k i r t s of co tto n c lo th ,

wrapped

around th e h ip s l i k e w i t h a woven b e l t ,

t h o s e o f Pima women, a n d f a s t e n e d 61 o r s im p ly tu c k e d in* The b a r k g a r m e n t

was no d o u b t w orn b e f o r e t h e M a r i c o p a a d o p t e d Pima c l o t h i n g a l o n g w i t h o t h e r P im an c u s t o m s .

R a b b i t s k i n c a p e s w e r e woven

by o l d women, o t h e r r a b b i t s k i n g a r m e n t s by o l d men. s k i n s w ere c u t s p i r a l l y

in to

strip s,

and allo w ed to dry as s p i r a l c o rd s.

The

w r a p p e d on t h i n s t i c k s The f u r r y s t r i p s w e re

t h e n woven w i t h w i l l o w b a r k c o r d i n t o a warm g a r m e n t .

L ittle

g i r l s m ight wear a t i n y r a b b i t s k i n b l a n k e t as a k i l t b e f o r e th e y donned th e b a r k s k i r t s

o f womanhood.

Bark s a n d a l s ,

l a t e r r e p l a c e d by t h o s e o f r a w h i d e , w e r e w o rn by b o t h men a n d women w h i l e t r a v e l i n g .

A l l s k i n s w e r e d r e s s e d by men,

who a l s o made t h e m o c c a s i n s . H a v a s u p a i men made a l l c l o t h i n g .

Women’ s c o s t u m e s

w e r e a t t h e same t i m e w a r m e r a n d more e l a b o r a t e o f P a p a g o , Pima a n d M a r i c o p a .

than those

The c o m p l e t e c o s t u m e o r

e n s e m b l e c o n s i s t e d o f a s h o r t u n d e r a p r o n , a d r e s s composed o f tw o a p r o n s o f d i f f e r e n t l e n g t h s ,

61 Bartlett,

op. c i t ., p* 228

t h e l o n g e r worn i n f r o n t ,

173 m o c casin s o f d e e r s k in and a r a b b i t s k i n b l a n k e t . g a r m e n t was a s h o r t ,

The u n d e r ­

c r e s c e n t - s h a p e d a p r o n w o rn i n f r o n t ,

and se rv e d as a s le e p in g garm ent a s w e ll as a p e t t i c o a t . The f r o n t p o r t i o n o f t h e d r e s s r e a c h e d f r o m b r e a s t t o a n k l e s , d e p e n d i n g f r o m t h e n e c k by a b r o a d l o o p o f s k i n , som ew hat i n t h e f a s h i o n o f a b u t c h e r * s a p r o n . e n c ir c le d the w a is t.

A nother lo o p

The n e c k o f t h e s k i n was t u r n e d b a c k

to form a b ro ad d e c o r a te d f l a p o v er th e b r e a s t ,

th e sid e

e d g e s o f t h e g a r m e n t w ere f r i n g e d , w h i l e t h e l o w e r e d g e was slit

i n t o long s t r i n g s .

I t was c o l o r e d r e d , o u t s i d e ,

was f u r t h e r o r n a m e n t e d w i t h f r i n g e s a n d s t r i n g s bone t u b e s o r d e e r claw s a t t a c h e d a s r a t t l e s .

and

of sh o rt The b a c k

a p r o n hung from t h e w a i s t t o t h e a n k l e s , an e x t e n s i o n a t each sid e serv in g as t i e - s t r i n g .

Two l o n g h o r n - s h a p e d

p ie c e s of sk in , w ith notched edges, m i d d l e w a i s t l i n e so a s t o f a l l , th e o u ts id e . p lace,

were a t t a c h e d a t t h e

by way o f d e c o r a t i o n ,

The b a c k a p r o n was d o n n e d f i r s t ,

tie d

over

in

t h e n t h e f r o n t s l i p p e d on o v e r t h e h e a d , a n d a

d e e rs k in b e l t of sem ilunar shape, s l i t

in frin g e s ,

resem b­

l i n g a s h o r t f a n c y a p r o n , was a r r a n g e d t o h a n g i n f r o n t . A H opi woven b e l t ,

added a s a g i r d l e ,

com pleted th e costum e,

w h i c h was f u r t h e r e m b e l l i s h e d w i t h s t r i n g s

of r a t t l e s

d e e r o r m o u n t a i n s h e e p hoo'f s , t i e d a l o n g t h e b e l t ,

of

and w ith

t u b e s c u t from t h e l e g bones o f j a c k and c o t t o n t a i l r a b b i t s and w i l d c a t s .

T hese were l a t e r s u p p le m e n te d o r r e p l a c e d by

174 tin

jin g le rs.

M o c c a s i n s r e s e m b l e d t h o s e worn b y P u e b l o

women, w i t h l o n g l e g - w r a p s . an k le in s te a d o f the c a l f ,

The f l a p ,

wrapped a ro u n d th e

fa s te n e d w ith a s in g le t i e - s t r i n g ,

t h e en d t u c k e d u n d e r a f o l d .

The m o d e r n d r e s s o f t h e H a v a -

s u p a i , w hich r e p l a c e d th e d e e r s k i n co stu m e,

co n sisted of a

g i n g h a m m o t h e r h u b b a r d , b e l t e d a t t h e w a i s t a n d w orn w i t h a m u slin u n d e r s k i r t .

A s h a w l made o f f o u r b a n d a n n a s se wed

t o g e t h e r was t i e d u n d e r t h e c h i n so t h a t t h e e n d s h u n g t o gg the h e e ls in back. W a l a p a i women w ore a t w o - p i e c e f r i n g e d a p r o n d r e s s l i k e t h a t of th e H avasupai,

le ss elab o rate,

undergarm ent.

w h ere d e e r w e r e s c a r c e s h o r t

In d i s t r i c t s

s k i r t s of c h o k ia ls bark sh red s, to g e th e r w ith s t r i p s w aist.

w ith o u t the

doubled o v er and tw ined

of yucca le a v e s ,

were t i e d a b o u t th e

D e e rsk in t h r e e - p i e c e m occasins and yucca f i b e r

s a n d a l s w ere w orn on l e a v i n g camp.

A s o r t o f tem porary

l e g g i n g was made by b i n d i n g a p i e c e o f d e e r s k i n a r o u n d t h e 63 l e g when g o i n g t h r o u g h b r u s h . V a r i a t i o n s o f t h e t w o - p i e c e a p r o n d r e s s , made by m en, w e r e w o rn by Y a v a p a i women.

T h e r e was no u n d e r g a r m e n t .

The N o r t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i s t y l e d r e s s was h e l d i n p l a c e a t t h e w a i s t by m eans o f a d e e r s k i n b e l t t i e d

i n a bow k n o t

Spier, 1928, op. cit., pp. 183-190 63

Kroeber, _op. cit. , pp. 99-100

on t h e r i g h t s i d e .

The s l e e v e l e s s a n d b a c k l e s s d r e s s was

w o rn summer a n d w i n t e r . b lan k et,

A b la n k et of d eersk in ,

se rv e d as c lo a k ’ in cold w e a th e r,

over the b r e a s t .

o r a N avaho

the c o rn e rs k n o tte d

The n e c k a n d w a i s t l o o p s o f t h e f r o n t a p r o n

o r d r e s s were n o t f i r m l y f a s t e n e d ,

a s by t h e H a v a s u p a i, b u t

w e r e t h o n g s t i e d e a c h t i m e t h e d r e s s was p u t o n .

In th e

w i n t e r a s m a l l f r o n t u n d e r - a p r o n was h u n g f r o m t h e b e l t . A l t h o u g h a f e w W e s t e r n Y a v a p a i women w ore b a r k s k i r t s l i k e t h o s e w orn b y t h e Yuma i n summer, tw o -p iece d e e rs k in d r e s s .

the m a jo rity p r e f e r r e d

S ize and s t y l e o f th e d r e s s d e ­

p e n d e d on t h e a m o u n t o f s k i n a v a i l a b l e . b u t one d e e r s k i n ,

th e

I f th e w ea re r had

s h e w ore f r o n t a n d b a c k a p r o n s ,

th e s id e s of her le g s b a re , but i f

le av in g

s h e was t h e f o r t u n a t e

p o s s e s s o r o f tw o s k i n s , e a c h a p r o n was made o f a n e n t i r e d eersk in , was t i e d

com pletely co v e rin g th e s id e s . in f r o n t,

under th e d re ss,

b etw een th e knee and a n k l e .

The d e e r s k i n b e l t

w h i c h r e a c h e d midway

The e d g e was f r i n g e d .

m o c c a s i n s w e r e e a c h made o f h a l f a d e e r s k i n . t o t h e k n e e , worn i n t h r e e f o l d s , were n e v e r p u l l e d t o f u l l l e n g t h .

H ig h

They r e a c h e d

s e c u r e d by a th o n g ,

but

S o l e s were o f r a w h i d e .

W e s te r n Y a v a p a i m o c c a s in s were s h o r t e r ,

not fo ld ed over,

a n d t h e s o l e s o f t h i c k d r e s s e d b u c k s k i n w e re b r o u g h t up 64 o v e r th e f o o t , g a t h e r e d , and f a s t e n e d t o th e u p p e r s .

64

Spier, 1936, op. cit., pp. 274-275

176 S o u t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i women w o re d r e s s e s o f t h r e e sty les,

a l l made by men.

The f i r s t

worn by women o f t h e P l a i n s a r e a .

type resem bled d r e s s e s I t was made of- t h r e e o r

f o u r d e e r s k i n s , re a c h e d from th e s h o u l d e r s t o th e a n k l e s , pro v id ed w ith s le e v e s .

A s e c o n d s t y l e was r e m i n i s c e n t o f

t h a t a f f e c t e d by t h e w e s t e r n A p a c h e , c o m p o s e d o f d o u b l e o v e r l a p p i n g a p r o n s o f d e e r s k i n hung o v e r a b e l t a t th e w a is t, and a p o n c h o -lik e tu n ic w ith f r in g e d arm h o les, b e lte d a t th e w a is t.

O c c a s i o n a l l y a d e e r ’ s d e w c la w t i p p e d e a c h

strip

o f t h e f r i n g e se w e d t o

th ird

s t y l e was a s i m p l e t u b u l a r s k i r t o f d e e r s k i n ,

in g from w a i s t to a n k l e .

the botto m o f th e a p r o n .

or s l i g h t l y below .

A p ac h e s t y l e s ,

extend­

The h e i g h t o f t h e d e e r s k i n b o o t s

d e p e n d e d on t h e l e n g t h o f t h e s k i r t , th e knee,

The

b u t u s u a l l y came t o

These b o o t s re s e m b le d c e r t a i n

h a v in g raw h id e s o l e s w ith t u r n - u p t o e s and

an o r n a m e n t a l p a d d e d c i r c l e

in f r o n t.

A w h o l e d e e r s k i n was

n e e d e d t o p r o v i d e m a t e r i a l f o r a p a i r o f women’ s b o o t s . The l o w e r e d g e was c u t t o a f r i n g e a n d p a i n t e d w i t h r e d m in e ra l p a i n t o r g re e n v e g e ta b le p igm ent.

So t h i c k w e r e

th e fo ld e d uppers th a t a r a ttl e s n a k e could n o t s t r i k e 65 t h r o u g h th e m . W h ile b a r k s k i r t s w e r e a i r y a n d c o o l ,

d eersk in d resses

p r o t e c t e d t h e s k i n when t h e w e a r e r was t r a v e l i n g , i n t h e summer t i m e * ^

Gifford, 1932, crp. cit., pp. 226-228

esp ecially

177 O rnam ents J e w e l r y was c o m p a r a t i v e l y m e a g e r i n t h e s o u t h w e s t e r n area,

w o rn t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t by men t h a n women. Pim a men a n d women w o re s t r a n d s o f b e a d s a s e a r

ornam ents and n e c k l a c e s .

M a te r ia ls in clu d ed beads cu t

f r o m s e a s h e l l s o b t a i n e d by t r a d e , w o r k e d s t o n e , p l a i n bone, and t u r q u o i s e u s u a l l y c u t i n t o f l a t , p endants.

c a rv e d and rectan g u lar

B r a c e l e t s o f s i m i l a r m a t e r i a l s w e r e w orn on b o t h

a r m s b y women, who a l s o t w i n e d c o r o n e t s o f s u n f l o w e r s o r corn husks in t h e i r h a i r . ^

The P a p a g o p o s s e s s e d o r n a m e n t s

o f t h e same t y p e . Of t h e K a v e l t c a d o n - M a r i c o p a I n d i a n s P e d r o F o n t w r o t e i n 1769:

"The men go v e r y h e a v i l y l a d e n w i t h b e a d s a n d p e n ­

d a n ts aro u n d t h e i r neck s and in t h e i r e a r s ;

in d eed I d id n o t 67 s e e a s i n g l e woman w i t h so much a d o r n m e n t . " And n e a r l y two h u n d r e d y e a r s l a t e r J o h n R u s s e l l B a r t l e t t o b s e r v e d o f t h e M a r i c o p a a n d P im a :

"O ccasio n ally a f a i r

one g e t s a

s t r i n g o f beads;

saw m ore men a n d b o y s

w ith ornam ents

t h a n w o m e n . . . " 6®

but I

An e x p e r t M a r i c o p a woman o p e r a t o r p i e r c e d

t h e b a b y Ts e a r l o b e s a t

b i r t h a t th e re q u e s t of th e m other.

^ R u s s e l l , _op. c i t . , p . 163 67 B o l t o n , H. E . , A n z a * s C a l i f o r n i a E x p e d i t i o n s (B erkeley, C a lifo rn ia : U n iv e rsity of C a lifo rn ia P re ss, 1 9 3 0 ) , v o l . I V , p . 53 Bartlett, op. cit., p. 2 2 9

178 E ar p e n d a n ts o f s h e l l s and l a t e r o f g l a s s b ead s hung a s f a r down a s t h e c o l l a r b o n e .

Women i n r e c e n t t i m e s w o re n e c k ­

l a c e s o f g l a s s b e a d s s t r u n g i n t h e Yuma-Mohave f a s h i o n , hanging to w a is t. H a v a s u p a i n e c k l a c e s w e r e o f Mohave w o r k m a n s h i p , o b ­ t a i n e d th ro u g h t r a d e w ith th e W alapai. c h ild re n as w ell as a d u l ts .

T h e y w e r e worn by

B a b i e s w ere b u t a f e w d a y s o l d

when t h e i r e a r s w e r e p i e r c e d w i t h a s h a r p t w i g , a b i t o f c o t t o n c o rd drawn th r o u g h t h e o p e n in g , and g r e a s e o f d e e r o r m o u n t a i n s h e e p r u b b e d on t o s o o t h t h e p a i n .

Ear pendants

o f t u r q u o i s e o r a b a l o n e s h e l l b e a d s s t r u n g on s h o r t c o t t o n c o r d s p r o c u r e d f r o m t h e H opi w e r e w o rn by men, women a n d ch ild ren .

T h o s e o f t h e women hung l e v e l w i t h t h e c o l l a r .

B r i g h t r e d f i n g e r r i n g s w e r e made f r o m t h e f l a t

spines of

t h e b a r r e l c a c t u s by m e a n s o f a j u d i c i o u s a p p l i c a t i o n o f h e a t . 69 S i l v e r r i n g s b ec am e p o p u l a r d u r i n g t h e 1 9 t h . cen tu ry . YTalapai n e c k l a c e s w e r e made o f s h e l l s t r a d e d f r o m t h e M ohave.

The same s h e l l s a l s o s u p p l i e d m a t e r i a l s f o r e a r a n d n o s e p e n d a n t s . 70 S trin g s of g la s s beads re p la c e d ,

in h is to ric

tim es,

t h e r e d - s e e d n e c k l a c e s f o r m e r l y worn by N o r t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i

69

Spier, 1933,

0£,

Kroeber,

cit. , p. 104

033.

cit., p. 194

179 women.

T h e r e w e r e no s h e l l b e a d s .

W e s t e r n Y a v a p a i men

a n d women w ore n e c k l a c e s o f s m a l l w h i t e g l a s s t r a d e b e a d s o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e Yuma,

Women made t h e i r n e c k l a c e s o f

many s t r a n d s by c o i l i n g l o n g s t r i n g s

o f b e a d s on t h e g r o u n d ,

t h e n t y i n g th e m w i t h s t r i n g a t e a c h e n d . t i e d a t th e back of th e neck, b e a d s r e s t e d on t h e c h e s t . tu ted

The s t r i n g s w e r e

so t h a t th e bunches o f s t r u n g

W h i te g l a s s b e a d s w e r e s u b s t i ­

f o r s h e l l e a r o r n a m e n t s by b o t h men a n d women.

A

s i n g l e b e a d m i g h t be s t r u n g on a d e e r s k i n t h o n g w h i c h was p a sse d th ro u g h the hole

in the lo b e ,

o r a loop o f beads 71 m i g h t h a n g down a n i n c h o r tw o f r o m t h e e a r . S o u t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i women, u n l i k e t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e i r s e x , w ore no j e w e l r y , a n d a l t h o u g h t h e i r e a r s w ere 72 p e r f o r a t e d , t h e y were n o t o rn a m e n te d w i t h e a r r i n g s . H air d re s s in g The women o f t h e s o u t h w e s t e r n v i l l a g e s d i d n o t attem p t to im ita te h alves.

th e e la b o ra te c o if f u r e s of t h e i r b e t t e r

A c c o r d i n g t o R u s s e l l t h e Pim a women w ore t h e i r

t r e s s e s h anging lo o s e , w h ile th e Papago p l a i t e d t h e i r s 75 tw o b r a i d s .

in

?/hen a P a p a g o g i r l "cam e o f a g e n , h e r h a i r was c u t

^

G iffo rd ,

1936,

op. c i t . , p p . 275-276

^

G iffo rd ,

1 9 3 2 , _op. c i t . ,

rtrz

Russell, pp. cit., p. 233

p . 229

180 to her sh o u ld e rs; We women c a n n o t h a v e h a i r a s l o n g a s t h e men; i t w ould g e t i n o u r way when we w o r k , . B ut we l i k e t o have i t t h i c k and s h i n y . ♦ . t h e r e w a s - q u ite a l a p f u l t h a t my m o t h e r c u t o f f , a n d s h e s a v e d i t t o make h a i r r o p e s f o r o u r c a r r y i n g b a s k e t s . . ” 74 P a p a g o I n d i a n s b e l i e v e d t h a t h a i r w a sh e d i n s o a p r o o t f i b e r w o u l d n e v e r grow g r a y , Pima women w ore t h e i r h a i r l o n g o r d i n a r i l y , i t was c u t s h o r t f o r m o u r n i n g , le n g th .

but as

i t r a r e l y rem ained o f any

When a t w ork t h e h a i r was t w i s t e d up on t h e h e a d ,

t i e d w i t h a b i t o f c o r d o r c l o t h , b u t when l e s s v i g o r o u s l y o c c u p i e d o l d e r women a l l o w e d t h e i r s were c u t to th e e y e s . g lo ssy h a ir, ed u n t i l i t

t o hang l o o s e .

Bangs

Women were v e r y p r o u d o f t h e i r t h i c k ,

w h i c h t h e y combed w i t h t h e i r f i n g e r s a n d b r u s h ­ s h o n e , u s i n g a b r u s h made o f s a c a t o n g r a s s ,

l a t e r r e p l a c e d b y o n e o f m aguey f i b e r .

A b o u t o n c e a week

t h e h a i r was p l a s t e r e d w i t h a m i x t u r e o f b l a c k r i v e r mud a n d m e s q u i t e gum, w h i c h was a l l o w e d t o r e m a i n o v e r n i g h t . S o m e t i m e s t h e gum was d i l u t e d w i t h warm w a t e r a n d a p p l i e d a s a w a sh b e f o r e t h e mud was a d d e d .

T his m ix tu re k i l l e d

v e r m i n a t t h e same t i m e i t c l e a n s e d t h e h a i r .

I t was

th o u g h t t h a t i t d a rk e n e d th e h a i r and k e p t i t from grow ing g r a y . 75

U n d erh ill,

o p . c i t . t p . 33

75 R u s s e l l , _op. c i t , , p .

159

181 M a r i c o p a women b a n g e d t h e i r h a i r a t t h e e y e b r o w s , b u t allow ed i t

to f a l l lo o s e ly to th e w a is t a t the back.

A ppar­

e n t l y s t y l e s o f h a i r d r e s s i n g h a v e n o t c h a n g e d s i n c e Mr. B a r t l e t t p a s s e d t h r o u g h t h e Pima c o u n t r y w i t h h i s b o u n d a r y com m ission: N o t h i n g i s w orn on t h e h e a d , n o r i s t h e h a i r e v e r tie d up. In f r o n t i t i s c u t o f f square a c ro s s the eyebrow s; th e r e s t i s s u f f e r e d to hang l o o s e l y o v e r t h e e a r s , n e c k a n d a b o u t h a l f - w a y down t h e b a c k , a f f o r d i n g a p r o t e c t i o n t o t h e s e p a r t s from th e i n t e n s e h ea t of th e sun. H a i r was a l w a y s s i n g e d , n e v e r c u t . h a i r singed a l l

Even b a b i e s had t h e i r

over th e head w ith a l i t t l e

f i r e b r a n d , and

t h e l o c k s o f s m a l l g i r l s w e r e k e p t s h o r t i n t h e same m a n n e r . The h a i r was n o t sh a m poo ed w i t h a m o l e , b u t i t was f r e q u e n t l y t w i s t e d i n a k n o t on t o p o f t h e h e a d a n d p l a s t e r e d w i t h a d e c o c tio n o f b la c k m esquite b ark , th en brushed o u t.

w h i c h was l e f t u n t i l d r y ,

T h i s made t h e h a i r g l o s s y , a n d a t t h e

same t i m e d i s p o s e d o f v e r m i n .

I t was b r u s h e d w i t h a b u n d l e

o f s t i f f f i b e r s . * 77 H a v a s u p a i women a l s o w ore b a n g s c u t b e l o w t h e e y e ­ brows, e x te n d in g to th e o u ts id e o f th e e y e s, w hile th e h a i r a t t h e s i d e s a n d b a c k was c u t t o t h e s h o u l d e r s o r a little

below .

A lth o u g h th e s id e l o c k s had a te n d e n c y t o

f a l l i n f r o n t o f t h e e y e s th e y were n e v e r b r u s h e d b ac k o f

7^ Bartlett, 77

0£.

cit., p. £28

Spier, 1933, op. cit ^. pp. 99-100

182 th e sh o u ld e rs,

hut e i t h e r caught under th e ch in or the

t r e s s e s on e a c h s i d e a b o v e t h e e a r s w e r e d r a w n b a c k a n d t i e d to g e th e r a t th e back o f th e head .

Women b r u s h e d t h e i r

h a i r w i t h s t i f f f i b e r b r u s h e s , and o c c a s i o n a l l y washed i t w ith yucca r o o t s .

no

W alapai s t y l e s o f h a i r - d r e s s i n g and custom s f o r th e c a r e o f t h e h a i r were p r a c t i c a l l y i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h o s e o f th e H avasupai. The p r e v a i l i n g e y e b r o w l e n g t h b a n g was p o p u l a r among a l l th r e e d i v i s i o n s o f th e Y avapai, a s w e ll as th e sh o u ld e r bob.

N o r t h e a s t e r n a n d W e s t e r n Y a v a p a i b r u s h e s w e r e com­

p o s e d o f b u n d l e s o f g r a s s r e s e m b l i n g broom s t r a w s .

The

u s u a l c o n c o c t i o n o f m e s q u i t e b a r k a n d mud was a p p l i e d t o disco urag e l i c e ,

dy e t h e h a i r a n d e n c o u r a g e g r o w t h .

T atto o in g The c u s t o m o f t a t t o o i n g was g e n e r a l ,

alth o u g h i t

u s u a l l y h a d no c e r e m o n i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . P a p a g o women h a d f o u r l i n e s t a t t o o e d f r o m t h e m outh to th e chin,

in zig zag s,

d o ts or s tr a i g h t l i n e s .

The o p e r a ­

t i o n m i g h t be p o s t p o n e d u n t i l a f t e r m a r r i a g e , a s i n t h e c a s e o f Ghona a s r e c o r d e d b y B u t h U n d e r h i l l , w hose f a t h e r - i n - l a w s u g g e s t e d t h a t s h e be t a t t o o e d :

Spier, 1928, op. cit., pp. 192-193

183 So my m o t h e r - i n - l a w t a t t o o e d t h e s e f o u r m a r k s on my chin, I l a y on t h e f l o o r w i t h my h e a d i n h e r l a p a n d she p r ic k e d th e l i n e s w ith c a c tu s t h o r n s . Then s h e rubbed in greasew ood r o o t . I t h u rts f r ig h tf u lly but i f y o u k e e p s t i l l , t h e m a r k s come o u t n a r r o w a n d c l e a r . I f you w rig g le th e y a r e a l l b l u r r e d . I did n o t w ig g le . . .M ine came o u t v e r y p r e t t y a n d , f o r f o u r d a y s , w h i l e t h e y h e a l e d , I a t e o n l y c a c t u s - j o i n t s t o make th e m b l u e . 79 A fe w l i n e s w e r e t a t t o o e d on t h e f a c e s o f Pima men a n d women, by means o f c h a r c o a l p r i c k e d i n w i t h t h o r n s o f p ric k ly pear.

Two t o f o u r t h o r n s w e r e t i e d t o g e t h e r .

W i l l o w o r m e s q u i t e c h a r c o a l was p u l v e r i z e d a n d k e p t i n b a lls.

A l t h o u g h b o t h men a n d women p e r f o r m e d t h e o p e r a t i o n ,

women w e r e p r e f e r r e d , p le asa n t p ro cess.

a s b e i n g more c a r e f u l .

I t was n o t a

D e s ig n s w ere drawn w i t h c h a r c o a l , p r i c k e d

i n w i t h t h o r n s , a n d t h e f a c e was f r e q u e n t l y w a sh e d t o s e e i f t h e c o l o r was p r i c k i n g i n w e l l .

It

t o o k a t l e a s t one

f u l l d a y , a n d u s u a l l y two o r m o r e .

The f a c e was s w o l l e n

f o r f o u r d a y s , d u r i n g w h i c h p e r i o d c h a r c o a l was r u b b e d i n t o t h e w ounds d a i l y .

F i n a l l y t h e o p e r a t i o n was c o n c l u d e d w i t h

an a p p l i c a t i o n of squash seeds m acerated in w ater. Women w e r e t a t t o o e d a n y c o n v e n i e n t t i m e b e t w e e n t h e ages o f f i f t e e n and tw e n ty . were o f t e n t a t t o o e d

For in s ta n c e ,

ju s t a f t e r m arriag e.

b r i d e s and grooms The' a r e a c o v e r e d

was m ore e x t e n s i v e t h a n among P a p a g o women.

P attern s u su ally

c o n s i s t e d o f a l i n e a lo n g th e m argin of th e low er e y e l i d , two v e r t i c a l l i n e s on e a c h s i d e o f t h e c h i n , e x t e n d i n g f r o m

79

Underhill, op. cit., p. 39

184 t h e l i p t o t h e i n f e r i o r m a r g i n o f t h e j a w , u n i t e d by a b r o a d b a r c o v e r i n g t h e w h o l e o u t e r t h i r d o f t h e m ucous m em brane o f t h e l i p on e i t h e r s i d e , 88 M arico p a boys and g i r l s w ere t a t t o o e d a t p u b e r t y by e x p e r t women o p e r a t o r s .

The a r t i s t

donated h e r s e r v ic e s

f o r t h i s im p o r ta n t o p e r a t i o n , w hich, a lth o u g h p erfo rm ed w ith o u t a r i t u a l ,

was i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e p e o p l e who w e r e n o t

t a tto o e d co u ld n o t e n t e r i n t o th e lan d of th e dead.

E ig h t

o r n i n e c a c t u s t h o r n s w e r e h e l d i n a ro w b e t w e e n t h e f i n ­ gers,

a n d when b l o o d f l o w e d f r o m t h e p u n c t u r e s a b l a c k

m i n e r a l p i g m e n t , o b t a i n e d i n t h e m o u n t a i n s , was r u b b e d i n , t h e s p o t washed and t h e p r i c k i n g begun a g a i n .

I t was s a i d

t h a t t h e o p e r a t i o n c a u s e d n o p a i n on f o r e h e a d o r a r m , b u t t h a t t h e l i p s w e re f r e q u e n t l y s o s w o l l e n t h a t t h e u n f o r ­ tu n a te c h i ld r e n could n o t e a t .

G i r l s w ere t a t t o o e d on t h e

c h i n a n d s o m e t i m e s on t h e a r m .

Two s t r a i g h t , n a r r o w , a l m o s t

v e r t i c a l l i n e s w e r e d r a w n downward on t h e c h i n f r o m e a c h c o r n e r o f t h e m outh.

O c c a s io n a lly th e sp a c e s betw een th e

l i n e s were s o l i d l y f i l l e d

j u s t a t t h e c o r n e r o f th e m outh.

D e c o r a t i o n s on t h e a r m s c o n s i s t e d o f a d o u b l e l i n e ,

drawn

l i k e an ’ S ’ , above th e e lb o w .81 T a t t o o i n g was s i m p l y a m a t t e r o f d e c o r a t i o n among

88 R u s s e l l , 81 S p i e r ,

op. c i t . ,

1933, £ p .

p . 161

c i t .,

p< 101

185 t h e H a v a s u p a i , r e s o r t e d t o b y men, women a n d c h i l d r e n . D e s i g n s w e re p r i c k e d i n w i t h c a c t u s n e e d l e s w h i c h h a d b e e n m o is te n e d and d ip p e d i n t o powdered c h a r c o a l . was r u b b e d i n t o t h e w ounds u n t i l t h e y h e a l e d .

More c h a r c o a l P attern s

c o n s is te d of v a r io u s sm a ll e lem en ts in th e m iddle of th e forehead,

in clu d in g a sin g le

on e a c h c h e e k .

circ le,

and som etim es a s p o t

op

Y /a l a p a i women t a t t o o e d m ore g e n e r a l l y t h a n men, b u t i n a l l c a s e s t h e o p e r a t i o n was d e c o r a t i v e i n p r i n c i p l e . Women t a t t o o e d d e s i g n s on f o r e h e a d , c h i n , s o m e t i m e s on c h e e k s , hands.

forearm , w ris t,

c a lv e s o f th e le g s o r backs of the

The o p e r a t i o n was m ore o r l e s s i n f o r m a l .

N ine o r

t e n - y e a r - o l d c h i l d r e n w e r e t a t t o o e d by t h e i r m o t h e r s , w h i l e o l d e r c h i l d r e n v o l u n t a r i l y p r i c k e d i n t h e i r own d esig n s.

V e r y o f t e n a g r o u p o f c h i l d r e n w o u ld f o r c i b l y

t a t t o o an u n p o p u l a r boy o r g i r l . w ith a th in sharp s t i c k , and w a te r . n eedle,

The d e s i g n was draw n

f i r s t dipped in ground c h a rc o a l

The d e s i g n was t h e n p r i c k e d i n w i t h a c a c t u s

th e b lo o d washed o f f and a second a p p l i c a t i o n of

i n k a l l o w e d t o d r y f o r tw o o r t h r e e d a y s . r a n f r o m t h e l o w e r l i p down t o t h e c h i n ,

T atto o lin e s one i n t h e m i d d l e

a n d f r o m two t o s i x d i a g o n a l l y o u t w a r d f r o m t h e l o ? / e r l i p .

Spier, 1928, op. cit., p. 197 83 Kroeber, pp. cit., pp. 104-105

83

186 O nly women t a t t o o e d among t h e N o r t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i , e ith e r as g ir ls , p rick ed

or a f t e r m arriag e.

the d e s ig n s i n ,

The woman o p e r a t o r

u sin g th re e o r fo u r c a c tu s n ee d les

and any k in d o f c h a r c o a l .

S o m e t i m e s a g r e e n p i g m e n t was

o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e chew ed l e a v e s o f a t r e e w h i c h g r e w a t h igh a l t i t u d e s .

The h o l e s f / e r e p r i c k e d c l o s e t o g e t h e r a n d

th e pigm ent rubbed i n . zigzag lin e s or d o ts .

P a t t e r n s c o n s is te d o f s e r r a t e and Men a n d women o f t h e W e s t e r n Y a v a p a i

were t a t t o o e d a s a m a t t e r o f v a n i t y . to r,

For a g i r l , th e o p era­

a n o l d woman p r o f i c i e n t i n t h e a r t ,

was p a i d a d e e r s k i n .

M e s q u i t e c h a r c o a l was m ix e d w i t h a s o l u t i o n o f d e e r b r u s h o r m e s q u i t e l e a v e s , m a s h e d on a r o c k a n d s o a k e d i n c o l d w ater.

The s k i n o f t h e c h i n was p r i c k e d a n d t h e c o l o r i n g

rubbed in .

The o p e r a t i o n t o o k l e s s t h a n one d a y .

Once i n 84 a w h i l e women t a t t o o e d p a t t e r n s on t h e c a l f o f t h e l e g . S o u t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i g i r l s w ere t a t t o o e d on c o m in g of age.

Rows o f l i n e s a n d a fe w d o t s w ere p r i c k e d i n t o

chin w ith a l i t t l e

bundle of c a c tu s or m e sq u ite s p in e s ,

g r e e n v e g e t a b l e p i g m e n t was r u b b e d i n , 85 The p i g m e n t s w ere n o t w a s h e d o f f .

G iffo rd , 85 G i f f o r d ,

the

fo llo w e d by c h a r c o a l .

1 9 3 6 , _op. c i t . , p . 276 1932,

op. c i t . ,

229

187 P ain tin g P a i n t was f r e q u e n t l y a p p l i e d f o r w a r m th a s w e l l a s f o r ornam entation*

A t h i c k c o a t i n g o f p i g m e n t m ix e d w i t h

g r e a s e s e rv e d n o t o n ly to p r o t e c t th e s k i n from th e c o ld , h u t from th e sun a s w ell*

Use o f p a i n t f o r s u n b u r n was

w idespread, n o t only in the so u th w e st,

but throughout

A m erica• P a p a g o women o f t e n c o v e r e d t h e i r b o d i e s w i t h g r e a s e f o r t h e w a r m th i t a f f o r d e d , a n d on c e r e m o n i a l o c c a s i o n s Off th e y added r e d and w h ite p a i n t to th e g r e a s e . A fte r the g i r l s had f e t c h e d th e w a te r i n th e m o rn in g , a c c o r d in g t o a Papago in fo rm a n t,

th e y " p a in te d th em selv es w ith b e a u t i f u l 87 r e d p a i n t , a l l i n d o ts and s p l a s h e s . . . " The Pima u s e d p a i n t f o r a n u m b e r o f p u r p o s e s .

Newly

born b a b ie s had t h e i r fa c e s covered w ith a p a s te of r e d o c h e r m ixed w i t h t h e m o t h e r ’ s m i l k , L a t e r p a i n t was m i x e d w i t h g r e a s e , a p p l ie d and p a i n t added.

t o im prove th e s k i n . o r t h e g r e a s e was f i r s t

I t served as a s o r t of salv e in

co ld w eath er to p re v e n t ch ap p in g ,

o r f o r w arm th.

As a

r u l e a d u l t s p a i n t e d o n l y t h e f a c e , b u t on f e s t i v e o c c a s i o n s , or f o r cerem onies,

t h e e n t i r e b o d y was o r n a m e n t e d .

i l y p a i n t was a p p l i e d w i t h t h e h a n d s ,

C a s t e t t e r and U n d e rh ill, 87

Underhill, _op. cit., p. 9

o jd .

b u t on s p e c i a l

c i t . , p. 6

O rdinar­

X88 o c c a s i o n s , when n a r r o w e r l i n e s w e r e d e s i r e d , a t w i g o f a r r o w w e e d was u s e d .

A l t h o u g h men a n d women p a i n t e d t h e i r

b o d i e s a n d u s e d t h e same c o l o r s f o r t h e i r f a c e s , m e n ts w ere a p p l i e d i n d i f f e r e n t p r o p o r t i o n s .

th e p ig ­

¥Fomen em­

p h a s i z e d t a t t o o e d l i n e s by u n d e r l i n i n g them w i t h p a i n t , a n d b l a c k l i n e s w e r e d raw n u n d e r t h e e y e s .

D e sig n s w ere

sim ple and m e a n in g less v e r t i c a l and tr a n s v e r s e l i n e s . P e o p l e p a i n t e d t h e i r own f a c e s , a m irro r.

u sin g an o lla

As a r u l e p a i n t was n o t w a s h e d o f f ,

of w ater f o r but as the

p a t t e r n s becam e e f f a c e d a d d i t i o n a l l i n e s w e r e a d d e d .

H air

was a l s o o r n a m e n t e d w i t h p a i n t , women p a i n t i n g t h e i r t r e s s e s w ith s p o ts and bands of w h ite .

P igm ents c o n s is te d of y e llo w

o c h e r , y e l lo w p o l l e n o b t a i n e d from t h e c a t - t a i l r u s h , a r e d o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e Mohave a n d Yuma b y t r a d e , s p e c u la r ore a ls o

a b lu is h b lack

s e c u r e d t h r o u g h t h e Yuma, a n d a r e d a n d QQ

w h i t e b r o u g h t f r o m t h e s o u t h by t h e P a p a g o . M a r i c o p a men a n d women c o n s i d e r e d f a c e p a i n t i n t h e li g h t of a co sm etic. grease.

They u s e d r e d p a i n t m ix e d w i t h d e e r

C happed h a n d s w ere r u b b e d w i t h a l o t i o n made o f

p u m p k in s e e d s , p a r c h e d , g r o u n d a n d s o a k e d i n w a t e r .

Women

used b la c k p a i n t o n ly to b la c k en t h e i r e y e l i d s and ey eso ck ets.

GQ

^

Q Q

° R u ssell,

89 S p i e r ,

o p . c i t . , p . 161

1933,

op.

c i t . . 101

189 F o r t h e H a v a s u p a i f a c e p a i n t i n g was t h e c u s t o m f o r b o th se x es and a l l a g e s .

Young g i r l s i n p a r t i c u l a r a f f e c t e d

th e a r t i n o r d e r to add to t h e i r charm s.

Fram ing th e f a c e

w i t h i n t h e h a i r l i n e was a f a v o r i t e p r a c t i c e w i t h o l d women, A s i n g l e r e d s p o t on e a c h c h e e k b o n e was a n o t h e r v e r y p o ­ p u l a r d e c o r a t i o n , b u t t h e r e w as g r e a t l a t i t u d e p e r m i t t e d i n u s e , form and c o l o r i n g .

When t h e o l d s t y l e o f a p r o n

d r e s s was i n v o g u e ,

t h e women s o m e t i m e s p a i n t e d t h e i r l e g s

from a n k le t o k n e e .

A lth o u g h d e s ig n s were u s u a l l y i n r e d ,

b lack ,

s i e n n a o r w h i t e m i g h t a l s o be u s e d .

Bed a n d b l a c k

w e r e m i n e r a l p i g m e n t s , w h i t e made o f r o a s t e d a n d g r o u n d gyp sum , a n d s i e n n a o f t h e d r i e d j u i c e o f r o a s t e d m e s c a l . P a i n t b ru sh e s c o n s i s t e d o f a sm all b undle o f yucca f i b e r s 90 w e t w i t h s a l i v a a n d r u b b e d on t h e lump o f p a i n t . The W a l a p a i p a i n t e d f o r w a r m th a n d

b eau ty.

Women

d e c o r a te d t h e i r f a c e s w ith l i n e s o f r e d , b la c k and w h ite m i n e r a l p ig m e n ts , t h e r e d m ixed w ith d e e r

grease.

The

t a s t e o f th e in d iv i d u a l a p p a re n tly governed ch o ice of Q d esig n s. Among t h e Y a v a p a i p a i n t s e r v e d a s a c o s m e t i c a n d a n em b ellishm ent.

Men a n d women p a i n t e d t h e i r e y e l i d s b l a c k

w i t h powdered p y r o l u s i t e .

Women p a i n t e d t h e i r f a c e s w i t h

90 S p i e r , 1 9 2 8 , o p . c i t . , p p . 1 9 4 - 1 9 7 91 Kroeber, op. pit., p. 104

190 w h i t e e a r t h i n many s t y l e s f o r a d a n c e .

Men and women f r e ­

q u e n t l y c o v e r e d t h e e n t i r e f a c e w i t h r e d , t h e n drew t h r e e f i n g e r t i p s down e a c h c h e e k l e a v i n g t h r e e z i g z a g l i n e s . T h is s t y l e was p a r t i c u l a r l y f a n c i e d f o r a d a n c e ,

lo u n g

p e o p l e u s e d w h i t e p a i n t d a i l y a s a sunburn p r e v e n t i v e , w a s h in g i t

o f f in th e e v e n in g .

P ig m e n ts c o n s i s t e d o f b l a c k

p y r o l u s i t e , w h i t e e a r t h , brown m e s c a l s y r u p , dark r e d m ul­ b e r r y o r w i l d g r a p e j u i c e and b r i g h t r e d c a c t u s f r u i t j u i c e . Women u s e d b l a c k p a i n t u n d er t h e e y e s , an a b o r i g i n a l e q u i v a l e n t o f modern e y e s h a d o w . th e f a c e ,

Y a r io u s p a t t e r n s o rn a m en ted

o r i t was w h it e n e d f o r a d a n c e .

Bed p a i n t m ixed

w i t h d e e r g r e a s e sm eared on t h e f a c e and l e g s s e r v e d a s a p r o t e c t i o n from c o l d i n w i n t e r , and was u s e d by c h i l d r e n 92 and a d u l t s a l i k e . S o u t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i women p a i n t e d h o r i z o n t a l r e d s t r i p e s o v e r t h e c h e e k s , v e r t i c a l l i n e s on t h e c h i n , y e l l o w o v e r t h e c h e e k b o n e s , and so m e tim e s a h o r i z o n t a l band o f Q*X

b la c k exten d ed a c r o s s th e e y e s . ° A p p ea ra n ce

S ta n d a r d s o f b e a u t y f o r a n y one r a c e o f p e o p l e a r e se ld o m a p p r e c i a t e d by members o f a n o t h e r r a c e .

E a r ly t r a ­

v e l e r s among Yuman and Piman g ro u p s o f I n d i a n s managed t o

92 G i f f o r d , 1 9 3 6 ,

0£

. c i t . , p* 277

93 G i f f o r a , 1 9 3 2 , £ £ . c i t . ,

p . 230

191 r e s t r a i n t t h e i r e n t h u s ia s m when i t

came t o d e s c r i b i n g t h e

a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e women, who c e r t a i n l y d i d n o t m easu re up t o 18th* c e n t u r y o r V i c t o r i a n c r i t e r i a .

H ow ever, t h e c o n ­

s e n s u s o f o p i n i o n seem s t o have b een t h a t b o t h men and women were w e l l - d e v e l o p e d w i t h good p r o p o r t i o n s . A c c o r d in g t o t h e i r own i d e a s , Pima women s h o u ld be n e i t h e r f a t n o r t h i n , and s h o u ld "have good h a i r and a good fa ce. M a r ico p a g i r l s s h o u ld be broad i n t h e h i p s , and c r a d l e s i n t e n d e d f o r g i r l b a b i e s were b u i l t w i t h broad c r o s s - b a r s to b r in g about t h i s d e s ir a b le r e s u l t . was a l s o c o n s i d e r e d a t t r a c t i v e .

P lu m p ness

95

H a v a su p a i men a g r e e d t h a t t h e i d e a l o f b e a u t y f o r women i n c l u d e d b r o a d , p e r f e c t l y o v a l f a c e s w i t h o u t p ro m in e n t c h e e k b o n e s , and c l e a r , u n w r in k le d t a n o r b u f f c o m p le x io n s . Y a v a p a i women h a v e a lw a y s b e e n n o t e d f o r t h e i r good l o o k s , n o t o n l y among t h e I n d i a n s , b u t by w h i t e p e o p l e a s 96 w e ll. No d o u b t t h e p r o u d , e r e c t c a r r i a g e o f t h e women o f t h is r e g io n , th e

r e s u l t o f r u n n in g l o n g d i s t a n c e s

w it h b u r ­

d e n s b a la n c e d on

t h e h e a d , made t h e s t r o n g e s t i m p r e s s i o n

E uropean v i s i t o r s . Of S o u t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i women Z a r a te s a i d ,

R u s s e l l , o p . c i t . » p . 183 95 S p i e r ,

1933,

op. p i t . ,

p . 220

9® Spier,

1932, op. eit., p. 328

" th e

on

192 women a r e handsome w i t h b e a u t i f u l e y e s , and a r e a f f e c t i o n a t e . “97 S o c i a l Customs The women had t h e i r s h a r e i n t h e s o c i a l and r e l i g i o u s p r a c tic e s o f th e ir tr ib e s .

Women w er e sham ans, a s w e l l a s

m id w iv e s and h erb d o c t o r s .

They t o o k t h e i r p a r t i n t r a i n i n g

t h e c h i l d r e n and p r e p a r i n g yo u n g p e o p l e , e s p e c i a l l y g i r l s , f o r t h e ir p a rt in a d u lt l i f e . of sto red fo o d .

They c o n t r o l l e d t h e s u p p l i e s

They had t h e i r own gam es, and so m e tim e s

j o i n e d i n t h o s e o f t h e men.

They t o o k p a r t i n t h e r i t u a l s

o f t h e i r r e l i g i o n , and i n c e r e m o n i a l and s o c i a l d a n c e s . And f i n a l l y ,

t h e y had a s t r o n g , a l b e i t i n d i r e c t ,

in flu e n c e

on t h e c o u n c i l s o f t h e t r i b e . E d u c a t io n T r a in in g c o n s is t e d p r i n c i p a l l y o f c o n s ta n t r e p e t i ­ t i o n s o f a d v i c e and a d m o n it io n by t h e f a t h e r and m o th e r , u s u a lly th e form er.

G randm other and g r a n d f a t h e r c u s t o m a r i ­

l y t o l d t h e l e g e n d s and m yths o f t h e t r i b e t o t h e c h i l d r e n , t h u s c o m b in in g e n t e r t a i n m e n t w i t h i n s t r u c t i o n .

G i r l s w ere

t a u g h t t o c a r r y b u r d e n s , t o g a t h e r and p r e p a r e w i l d p l a n t s , t o g r i n d on t h e m e t a t e , t o c o o k , and t o make b a s k e t s and p o t t e r y a s s o o n a s t h e i r s t r e n g t h and u n d e r s t a n d i n g p e r ­ m itte d .

Gifford, 1932, op. cit.. p. 178

193

The Papago c o n s i d e r e d t h a t a g i r l o f t e n s h o u ld r e l i e v e h e r m o th er o f t h e h o u se w o r k , a l t h o u g h s h e was n o t a l l o w e d t o do much g r i n d i n g u n t i l o l d e r and s t r o n g e r .

A

P apago f a t h e r w ould waken h i s c h i l d r e n b e f o r e dawn, and a d v i s e them a s f o l l o w s ,

s p e a k in g i n © lo w , g e n t l e v o i c e :

Open y o u r e a r s , f o r I ©m t e l l i n g y o u a good t h i n g . Wake up and l i s t e n . Open yo u r e a r s . L e t my words e n t e r t h e m . . .You g i r l s , y ou s h o u ld g r i n d t h e c o r n . So y ou w i l i f e e d t h e men and t h e y w i l l f i g h t t h e enem y. You s h o u ld p r a c t i s e r u n n in g . So i n tim e o f w ar, y o u may s a v e y o u r l i v e s . 98 T h is c o n s t a n t s t r e a m o f a d v i c e ,

from f a t h e r , from

m o th e r , from r e l a t i v e s and from o l d e r women c o n t i n u e d u n t i l c h i l d r e n w ere grow n .

C h ild r e n were se ld o m p u n i s h e d , f o r i t

was t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d t h a t t h e y d id n o t m is b e h a v e on p u r­ p ose.

They w ere s u r r o u n d e d , a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e , w it h a

s e n s e o f s e c u r i t y and w e l l b e i n g . An o l d P apago woman s a i d : We l i k e c h i l d r e n , y o u know. We t a l k t o them q u i e t l y and t e l l them what t o d o , b u t we do n o t s c o l d . When our c h i l d r e n e r e r u n n in g a b o u t t h e h o u s e , i n and a rou n d e v e r y t h i n g , we l e t them r u n . I f t h e y b rea k so m eth in g , th en t h a t th in g i s j u s t b ro k en . We do n o t say a n y th in g . S om etim es t h e y ru n a c r o s s t h e c i r c l e when we a r e d a n c in g . Or when t h e m e d ic in e man i s g o i n g a b o u t w i t h h i s b r a n c h o f t h o r n s , r e m o v in g s i c k ­ n e s s t h e y m ig h t t r y t o g r a b i t . No o n e w o u ld s p e a k about t h a t . We l i k e them t o be h a p p y . " T h ose w ere lu c k y c h i l d r e n , e v e n i f t h e y d i d go

" U n d e r h ill, " ib id .,

op. c i t . , p . 5

p* 49

194 n a k e d , w orked h a r d , en d u r e d h un ger an d t h i r s t , and t o o k d ir t b a th s. A c c o r d in g t o R u s s e l l t h e f a t h e r u s u a l l y t o o k more i n t e r e s t i n t r a i n i n g t h e Pima g i r l th a n h e r m o th e r .

He

g a v e h e r a d v i c e s u c h a s t h i s Pima f a t h e r g a v e h i s d a u g h te r : S t a y a t home w i t h y o u r m o th e r . Watch and h e l p h e r h a n d le t h e c o o k in g p o t s , t h e m o r ta r end m e t a t e , t h a t y o u may know how t o p r e p a r e t h e s e e d s o f F i m e r i a . Keep t h e f i r e a l i v e and h a v e wood e v e r r e a d y . S ee t h a t t h e d r i n k i n g o l l a i s n e v e r em p ty . I f y o u do t h e s e t h i n g s w e l l , y o u w i l l n o t gad a b o u t a f t e r y o u a r e m a r r ie d and l e a v e y o u r h e a r t h v a c a n t so t h a t y o u r h usb an d may come home t o f i n d t h e f i r e o u t o r t o p u t i t t o y o u r d i s c o m f i t u r e ; f o r i t i s t h e o f f i c e o f man t o k i n d l e t h e f i r e b u t t h e p a r t o f woman t o k e e p i t b u r n in g . From t h e t e n o r o f much o f t h e a d v i c e i t was p l a i n t h a t women w ere f a r from b e i n g d ow n trod d en h o u s e h o ld d r u d g e s . I f women d i d n o t gad a b o u t and n e g l e c t t h e i r homes su c h c o n s t a n t w a r n in g s w ou ld n o t h a v e b een n e c e s s a r y . The P im a, u n l i k e m ost o t h e r I n d i a n s , p u n is h e d and sc o ld e d t h e ir c h ild r e n .

L i t t l e o n e s w ere s la p p e d and

s h a k e n , and i f a g i r l stu m b le d and b ro k e an o l l a

on t h e

way f o r w a t e r , h e r e l d e r s s c r a t c h e d h e r naked arm w i t h th e s h e r d s .

When a g i r l was s e v e n o r e i g h t sh e b eg an

t o h e l p w i t h t h e c o o k i n g , and s h e made h e r f i r s t b a s k e t a t th e age o f n in e or t e n .

Some g i r l s were s o l a z y t h a t

t h e y n e v e r made more th a n t h e one b a s k e t r e q u i r e d d u r in g t h e i r p u b erty cerem ony. ^ Russell, op. cit.. p. 191 •L0*‘ Ibid., pp. 190-191

195 M aricop a c h i l d r e n w ere t o l d t o b e h a v e , t o be k in d to everyone.

They w ere t a u g h t n e v e r t o a n sw e r a s e o l d i n g ,

and w ere f o r b i d d e n t o a s k q u e s t i o n s .

A lt h o u g h n e v e r sp a n k ­

e d , n a u g h ty c h i l d r e n w ere s o m e tim e s sh a k e n u n t i l t h e y c r i e d . P a r e n t s were v e r y i n d u l g e n t , r a r e l y p u n i s h i n g , b u t demanded and r e c e i v e d i m p l i c i t o b e d i e n c e .

C a p t iv e c h i l d r e n were

g i v e n t o o l d men add r a i s e d by t h e i r f a m i l i e s v e r y k i n d l y , e s p e c ia lly i f siste r .

t h e man’ s d a u g h te r was fo n d o f h e r a d o p te d

A t o d d l i n g g i r l was g i v e n a l i t t l e

b asket to use

l i k e h e r m o th e r , and when a s young a s two y e a r s s h e was t a u g h t t o c a r r y l i g h t b u r d e n s b a la n c e d on h e r h e a d .

G ir ls

o f f o u r w ere b e g i n n i n g t o l e a r n t o g r i n d and t o make p o t ­ t e r y , b u t more i n i m i t a t i o n o f t h e i r m o th e r s t h a n i n e a r n e s t . When o ld en ou gh t o u n d e r s t a n d c h i l d r e n w ere t o l d t h e o l d t a l e s by t h e i r g ra n d m o th e r , who a c c o m p a n ied h e r s t o r i e s w i t h a com m entary o f a d m o n it io n a d d r e s s e d t o t h e g i r l s .

102

When l i t t l e H a v a s u p a i g i r l s w ere s c a r c e l y more th a n b a b i e s t h e m o th er b eg a n t o t e a c h them by sh o w in g them how t o p e r fo r m h e r t a s k s .

As t h e c h i l d grew o l d e r t h e m o th er

co n tin u e d h er i n s t r u c t i o n s ,

t e l l i n g h e r d a u g h te r t o be i n ­

d u s t r i o u s and s h e w ould be p r o s p e r o u s .

G ir ls o f a d o le sc e n t

a g e re m a in e d e n t i r e l y u n d er t h e s u p e r v i s i o n o f t h e m o th e r . B o t a n i c a l k n o w le d g e a b s o r b e d in t h i s way i n c l u d e d t h e e n t i r e

Spier, 1933, op. cit.. pp. 320-323

196 range o f n a t iv e eth n o b o ta n y .

C h ild r e n were se ld o m p u n i s h e d , 103 b u t f r e q u e n t l y p e t t e d and c a r e s s e d . W alap ai g i r l s w ere g i v e n a d v i c e by t h e i r f a t h e r s , t o l d t o g e t up e a r l y and b r i n g w a t e r , t o c o o k and be good h o u s e w i v e s , b u t l e a r n e d c h i e f l y by i m i t a t i n g t h e i r m o t h e r s . I t was t h e gran d m oth er o f t h e N o r t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i m aid en who t a u g h t h e r t h e h o u s e h o l d a r t s , w h i l e h e r m o th e r , f a t h e r and u n c l e s g ave a d d i t i o n a l i n s t r u c t i o n .

Among t h e

W este rn Y a v a p a i th e m o th er t a u g h t h e r d a u g h t e r s t h e woman’ s a r t s g r a d u a l l y , b e g i n n i n g w i t h b a s k e tm a k in g , p o t t e r y or c o o k i n g , b u t i t was t h e f a t h e r who, e a r l y i n t h e m o rn in g and a t n i g h t , a d v i s e d c h i l d r e n i n r e g a r d t o r u l e s o f c o n d u e t . 105 Among t h e S o u t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i t h e m o th er b eg a n t o t e a c h h e r d a u g h t e r s how t o h e l p g a t h e r p l a n t f o o d and p r e ­ p a r e t h e o v en f o r r o a s t i n g m e s c a l r o o t s when t h e c h i l d was a b o u t e i g h t y e a r s o f a g e , b u t th e i n s t r u c t i o n o f g i r l s was 1 Ofi l a r g e l y i n t h e h an d s o f t h e i r g r a n d m o th e r s . A d o l e s c e n c e and i n i t i a t i o n Some o b s e r v a n c e o f t h e com in g o f womanhood o c c u r r e d

S p ie r ,

1 9 2 8 , o p . c i t . » p . 322

K r o e b e r , o p . c i t . > p . 124 105 G i f f o r d , 1 9 3 6 , o p . c i t . ,

p . 301

106 G i f f o r d , 1 9 3 2 , p p . c i t . , p . 198

104

197 among a l l s o u t h w e s t e r n v i l l a g e

tr ib e s,

a lt h o u g h i t

fa ile d

to

r e a c h t h e im p o r ta n c e o f t h e r i t e s i n C a l i f o r n i a . Upon com ing o f a g e t h e Papago g i r l was i s o l a t e d i n t h e Hl i t t l e

h o u s e * , a s t h e m e n s t r u a l h u t was c a l l e d .

She

was s u p p l i e d w i t h new f o o d and d r i n k i n g u t e n s i l s , and c a r e d f o r by a woman r e l a t i v e s e l e c t e d f o r h e r i n d u s t r i o u s h a b i t s . Of h e r own i n s t r u c t r e s s , a P apago woman s a i d :

"She was t h e

m o st i n d u s t r i o u s woman we h a d , a lw a y s r u n n in g w i t h t h e c a r r y ­ in g b a s k e t."

T h is woman gave a d v i c e t o h e r c h a r g e , w h i l e

t h e o t h e r g i r l s o f t h e camp l i s t e n e d from a d i s t a n c e *

L ater

t h e g i r l s a p p r o a c h e d and p l a y e d a game r e s e m b l i n g j a c k s t o n e s w ith th e h e r o in e o f th e o c c a s io n .

A fter a p u r ific a tio n

cerem ony on t h e f o u r t h d ay o f h e r s e c l u s i o n t h e c h i l d was g i v e n new c l o t h i n g and h e r h a i r was c u t .

The p u b l i c c e r e ­

mony w h ich f o l l o w e d c o n s i s t e d o f d a n c i n g , s u p e r v i s e d by a m e d ic in e man, and l a s t e d e a c h n i g h t f o r a m onth.

A d ebu­

t a n t e ’ s f a m i l y was o f t e n im p o v e r is h e d , f o r n o t o n l y was i t n e c e s s a r y to p r o v id e n i g h t l y f e a s t s f o r th e d a n c e r s, but t h e y were a l s o g i v e n g i f t s .

The cerem on y w as c o n c lu d e d

w i t h a n o t h e r p u r i f i c a t i o n , a f t e r w h ic h t h e e x h a u s t e d c h i l d , who had d an ced e v e r y n i g h t f o r a m onth, c o u ld g e t some sle e p .

Her d ay s had b een s p e n t f e t c h i n g w a t e r and f i r e w o o d , 107 or g r i n d i n g c o r n . S m a ll wonder t h a t some g i r l s f a i l e d

Underhill, ©£. cit., pp. 33-34

198 t o s u r v i v e s o s t r e n u o u s a "com ing ou t" p a r t y . The Pima cerem ony was l e s s e l a b o r a t e . a cted as p r e c e p tr e ss.

A woman f r i e n d

The two l i v e d a p a r t from t h e i r f a m i­

l i e s f o r f o u r d a y s , w h i l e t h e o l d e r woman i n s t r u c t e d t h e g i r l i n d o m e s t i c d u t i e s and a p p r o v ed p r i n c i p l e s o f c o n d u c t . The g i r l wove a b a s k e t t o be g i v e n t o h e r c o m p a n io n . 108 d a n c e was h e l d f o r f o u r n i g h t s . A M aricop a g i r l was s e c l u d e d i n a l i t t l e e ig h t days.

A

lo d g e f o r

The r i t e was more i n t h e n a t u r e o f t h o s e p r a c ­

t i c e d i n C a l i f o r n i a , e m p h a s iz in g t h e f u t u r e p h y s i c a l w e l l ~ b e in g o f th e c h ild ,

t o g e t h e r w it h " r o a s t i n g ” a s an e s s e n t i a l

to th e o c c a s i o n .^ 9 H a v e s u p a i o b s e r v a n c e s w ere v e r y s c a n t y . W alapai r i t e s

c o n s is te d o f p la c in g th e g i r l over

warm s t o n e s , b a t h i n g by t h e m o th e r , and r u n n in g , a cc o m p a n ied by v a r i o u s f o o d t a b o o s , b u t no d a n c e was h e l d .

110

Y a v a p a i g i r l s g a t h e r e d w ood, f o o d and w a t e r , w h ic h t h e y d i s t r i b u t e d t o v a r i o u s cam ps, i n o r d e r t o make them i n d u s t r i o u s th r o u g h l i f e .

R u sse ll,

111

o p . c i t . , p . 182

109 S p i e r , 1 9 3 3 ,

0£ .

C i t . , p . 324

K roeber, op . c i t . , pp. 136-138 3-3.1 G i f f o r d , 1 9 3 2 , p p . c i t . , p . 198

199 M a r r ia g e M a r r ia g e was u s u a l l y a r r a n g e d by t h e p a r e n t s o f t h e you ng p e o p l e , and was a cc o m p a n ied by g i f t s .

Among t h e P a­

pago i t was t h e g i r l * s p e o p l e who c h o s e h e r m a te— h e r m o th er and f a t h e r ,

o r , i f t h e l a t t e r was n o t l i v i n g , h e r b r o t h e r s .

She had no c h o i c e i n t h e m a t t e r , a l t h o u g h s h e was u s u a l l y sou n d ed o u t a s t o h e r f e e l i n g s . Pima g i r l s

There was no cerem on y.

c h o s e t h e i r own h u s b a n d s , w i t h p r e f e r e n c e

f o r a man who was n o t l a z y .

The cerem ony was s i m p l e , ©nd

p olygam y n o t u n u s u a l . M a rico p a p a r e n t s c o n t r o l l e d t h e c h o i c e o f t h e h u s ­ b and , and t h e g i r l was su p p o se d t o g i v e some p r o o f o f h er a b i l i t y t o p r o v i d e f o r a f a m i l y by g r i n d i n g a c e r t a i n quan­ t i t y o f g r a in .

There was no cerem on y, a l t h o u g h th e g i r l was

g i v e n p r e s e n t s by h e r h u sb a n d * s f a m i l y . Among t h e H a v a su p a i t h e man c h o s e h i s b r i d e and made th e ad van ces.

T here was no cerem o n y , o t h e r th a n t h e p r e ­

se n ta tio n o f g i f t s

to th e g i r l ’ s fa m ily .

A W alap a i you ng man c a l l e d upon t h e g i r l o f h i s c h o i c e w it h a d e e r o v e r h i s s h o u l d e r .

I f fu rth er v i s i t s

w ere w elcom ed by t h e you ng la d y and h e r f a t h e r , who a p p a r ­ e n t l y had c o n s i d e r a b l e a u t h o r i t y i n t h e a f f a i r ,

t h e m a r r ia g e

took p la c e w ith o u t f u r t h e r ad o. Y a v a p a i m a id e n s d id n o t marry u n t i l t h e y were o v e r t w e n t y , when a m atch was u s u a l l y a r r a n g e d by t h e i r p a r e n t s .

800 The b r id e g r o o m g a v e two o r t h r e e b u c k s k in s o f h i s own ta k in g .

Three b u c k s k in s w ere g i v e n f o r a g i r l who was

e s p e c i a l l y a t t r a c t i v e , v i r t u o u s and a good c o o k . B e t t e r th a n i n a n y o t h e r way, d i v o r c e d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e in d e p e n d e n t p o s i t i o n o f t h e s e women, who w ere f r e e t o l e a v e t h e i r h u sb an d s a t any t i m e .

D iv o r c e was u s u a l l y a s

u n c e r e m o n io u s a s m a r r i a g e , b u t women d id n o t b r e a k up a m a r r ia g e f o r f r i v o l o u s r e a s o n s .

P olygam y was p r a c t i c e d

among t h e s e t r i b e s ; monogamy, h o w e v e r , u s u a l l y p r e v a i l e d . S o m etim es i t

so h app en ed t h a t when a man b r o u g h t home a n ­

o t h e r w i f e ( e v e n when c h o s e n f o r him by h i s f a m i l y ) , t h e f i r s t w i f e i n d i g n a n t l y l e f t him . Among t h e P im a, women u s u a l l y t o o k t h e i n i t i a t i v e , g o i n g home o r w i t h a n o t h e r man, a l t h o u g h t h e l a t t e r p r a e , 118 t i c e was n o t e n c o u r a g e d . C a u ses f o r s e p a r a t i o n and d i v o r c e among t h e M a r ico p a were i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y , i n f i d e l i t y and b a r r e n n e s s .

P lu r a l

m a r r ia g e was n o t common, a l t h o u g h some men had a s many a s 113 t h r e e or f o u r w i v e s , and d i v o r c e was f a i r l y f r e q u e n t . The H a v a su p a i had no d i v o r c e , b u t p e r m i t t e d a r b i t r a r y s e p a r a tio n .

P o s s i b l y t h e f a c t t h a t t h e husband c o n s u l t e d

h i s w i f e a s t o t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f m a r r y in g a s e c o n d s p o u s e

Russell, o£. cit., p. 184 113 Spier, 1933, erg. cit., p. £24

201 had s o m e t h in g t o do w i t h i t .

The h usband a c c e p t e d t h e

w ife ’ s d e c isio n . I n c o m p a t i b i l i t y and j e a l o u s y w ere t h e chief* c a u s e s of* d i v o r c e among t h e W a la p a i.

S e p a r a t i o n m ig h t be by t h e

d e s i r e o f husband o r w i f e , and t h e c h i l d r e n a p p a r e n t l y w en t w i t h t h e p a r e n t who c o u l d b e s t p r o v i d e f o r them .

P olygam y

was i n f r e q u e n t . ^ 5 A N o r t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i man l e f t a w i f e who was c r a n k y , t o o l a z y t o g e t w a t e r , or a p o o r c o o k . W ives were f r e e t o d i v o r c e t h e i r S o u t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i h u sb an d s w it h o u t q u e s t i o n . D ea th and m ournin g I n t h e e v e n t o f a d e a t h t h e h o u s e w here i t o c c u r r e d was f r e q u e n t l y d e s t r o y e d , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e p e r s o n a l b e ­ lo n g in g s o f th e d e c e a se d .

T here were s t r i c t m ourning c u s ­

to m s, e n f o r c e d p a r t i c u l a r l y upon w idow s and w id o w e r s , who w ere b a r r e d from r e m a r r ia g e f o r a s t a t e d p e r i o d o f t i m e , r a n g i n g from o n e t o f o u r y e a r s , a c c o m p a n ie d by l e v i r a t e and s o r o r a t e . , G u t t i n g o f t h e h a i r a s a s i g n o f m ourning was a u n i v e r s a l cu sto m . As a r u l e Pima women c u t t h e i r h a i r a t t h e e a r l o b e s f o r t h e l o s s o f a h u sb a n d , c h i l d or o t h e r c l o s e

114 S p i e r ,

1928, op . c i t . , p . 224

115 Krc>e b e r ,

o p . c i t . , p . 141

202 r e l a t i v e , b u t an a g e d widow o f t e n cr o p p ed h e r s c l o s e t o h e r h ea d " b e c a u s e sh e f e l t

t h e w o r s t ."

The p r e s c r i b e d p e r i o d

o f m o u rn in g was f o u r y e a r s , a l t h o u g h fe w women o b s e r v e d i t th a t lo n g .

D u r in g t h e e n t i r e t im e t h e y were c o m p e lle d t o

c r y t h e name o f t h e d e c e a s e d p e r s o n a lo u d e v e r y C o r n in g a t d a y b r e a k , t h e y w ere riot a l l o w e d t o wash t h e i r h a i r , n o r t o r a i s e t h e i r b l a n k e t s a b ov e t h e a r m p it s e v e n i n t h e c o l d e s t w e a th e r .11®

A w idow er m a r r ie d h i s d e c e a s e d w i f e ’ s s i s t e r . 117

P e r s o n a l p r o p e r t y and t h e h o u s e w ere d e s t r o y e d a f t e r a d e a t h . 11® L en g th o f t h e p e r i o d o f m o u rn in g was n o t f i x e d among t h e M a r ic o p a , l a s t i n g from a fe w m onths t o two y e a r s f o r 119 w idow s and w id o w e r s . The l e v i r a t e was c o m p u ls o r y , and a l t h o u g h t h e r e was no o b l i g a t i o n ,

th e p r a c tic e o f th e s o -

r o r a t e was c u s t o m a r y .

R em a rria g e was p e r m i t t e d a f t e r a 120 y e a r , b u t some men and women n e v e r m a r r ie d a g a i n . A H a v a su p a i widow m ig h t mourn f o r s i x m onths o r l o n g e r , b u t many women r e m a r r ie d w i t h i n a fe w m onths o f t h e h u sb a n d ’ s d e a t h .

D u r in g t h e p e r i o d o f m ournin g t h e

widow n e g l e c t e d h e r a p p e a r a n c e .

lP i

A lth o u g h l e v i r a t e was

X16 R u s s e l l , o p . c i t . » p . 195 117 I b i d . , p . 1 8 3 1 18 I b i d . , p . 193 119 S p i e r , 1 9 3 3 , o p . c i t . , p . 303 120 I b i d . . p . 2 2 3 121 S p i e r , 1 9 2 8 , o p . c i t . . p . 2 9 3

203 n o t c o m p u ls o r y , i t was p e r m it t e d ,.

The s o r o r a t e was c o n s i -

d e r e d a good t h i n g i n t h e a b s t r a c t ,

1p p

b u t was r a r e l y p r a c t i c e d .

The W ela p a i burned t h e h o u se and p o s s e s s i o n s o f t h e dead person.^*23

N e i t h e r l e v i r a t e n o r s o r o r a t e w ere com pul­

s o r y , b u t i f a widow m a r r ie d t o o so o n t h e h u sb a n d * s f a m i l y m ig h t c l a i m c o m p e n s a t i o n .

H ow ever, i f

sh e showed t h e p r o p e r

r e s p e c t f o r t h e dead sh e was u s u a l l y a l l o w e d t o c h o o s e h e r own s e c o n d m a te .

124

N o r t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i a l s o burned t h e b e l o n g i n g s o f t h e dead on t h e f u n e r a l p y r e , i n c l u d i n g a b a s k e t , i f t h e d e ­ c e a s e d was a woman. o n c e and a l l o w e d i t

The widow or w id ow er s h i n g l e d t h e h a i r t o grow o u t .

W estern Y a v a p a i women w a i l e d f o r t h e dead e a c h m o rn in g f o r tw o or t h r e e y e a r s .

I f a widow c e a s e d g r i e v i n g a f t e r a

y e a r o r two sh e m ig h t m arry a r e l a t i v e o f h e r l a t e h u sb a n d .

125

P r o p e r t y and i n h e r i t a n c e T here w ere no women c h i e f s among a n y o f t h e s o u t h ­ w estern v i l l a g e

tr ib e s,

a l t h o u g h t h e c h i e f t a i n s h i p m ig h t be

i n h e r i t e d by t h e so n o f a s i s t e r o f t h e c h i e f . P e r s o n a l p o s s e s s i o n s were t h e a b s o l u t e p r o p e r t y o f t h e 182 I b i d . . p . 22 3 1 2 3 g p o e ij e r , o p . c i t . . p . 147 124 I b i d . , p . 141 125 G i f f o r d ,

19 3 6 , o p . c i t . . pp. 302-303

£04

o w n er, w h e th e r man, woman o r c h i l d , and t h e owner was f r e e t o do a s h e o r sh e c h o s e w i t h them .

Even c h i l d r e n c o u ld

d i s p o s e o f t h e i r b e l o n g i n g s by g i f t * s a l e or g a m b lin g them a w ay .

P r i v a t e o w n e r s h ip o f la n d d id n o t e x i s t u n t i l t h e

a r r i v a l o f t h e w h i t e man, b u t u se o f c u l t i v a t e d f i e l d s u s u a l l y d e s c e n d e d i n t h e m a le l i n e , f o r men were t h e c u l t i v a t o r s . L in e a g e was t r a c e d i n t h e m a le l i n e . t h e i r own f i e l d s , T h ere was l i t t l e

Widows m ig h t h a v e

b u t t h e y w ere c u l t i v a t e d by m ale r e l a t i v e s . to i n h e r i t , a s in th e m a jo r ity o f c a s e s p er­

s o n a l e f f e c t s were d e s t r o y e d a t t h e d e a t h o f t h e ow ner. Among t h e M aricop a l a n d h o l d i n g s were i n h e r i t e d from t h e f a t h e r and t h e r i g h t to new f i e l d s b e lo n g e d t o t h o s e who fir st

c u l t i v a t e d them .

The o n l y women who owned f i e l d s w ere

w idow s who had no m a le members o f t h e i r f a m i l i e s t o p l a n t f o r th em .

T i t l e s t o t h e f i e l d s were v e s t e d i n t h e men, b u t a l l

members o f t h e f a m i l y had a p r e s u m p t iv e r i g h t t o t h e i r u s e . Widows and d a u g h t e r s i n h e r i t e d t h e i r r i g h t t o t h e i r s h a r e o f t h e p r o d u c t s o f t h e f i e l d s c u l t i v a t e d by th e h u sb an d or 126 fa th er. C l o t h i n g , t o o l s and u t e n s i l s were p e r s o n a l p r o ­ p e r t y and s o l e l y t h e a f f a i r o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l . T i t l e s t o H a v a su p a i la n d s w ere a l s o v e s t e d i n t h e h a n d s o f t h e men.

Widows s o m e tim e s t i l l e d

t h e i r own f i e l d s .

A d a u g h t e r t r a n s f e r r e d h e r p l a n t i n g a c t i v i t i e s from t h e 1 PR

A‘5

S p ier,

1933,

og.

c i t . . pp.

6G-61

205

f i e l d s o f h e r f a t h e r t o t h o s e o f h e r h u sh an d a f t e r m a r r i a g e , Land was i n h e r i t e d i n t h e m ale l i n e .

The widow and d a u g h t e r s

s h a r e d i n t h e u s e o f t h e l a n d , b u t t h e i r c h i l d r e n d id n o t in h e r it i t .

I f a man had n o s o n s l i v i n g , h i s b r o t h e r s and

t h e i r s o n s w ere t h e h e i r s .

However, d a u g h t e r s r e t a i n e d some

r ig h t t o sh a re th e use o f t h e i r p a r e n ts ’ la n d s , f o r a por­ t i o n was o f t e n s e t a s i d e f o r t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n . And, o f c o u r s e , i f widowed o r d iv o r c e d t h e y had t h e r i g h t t o f a l l back on t h e i r f a t h e r s ’ f i e l d s f o r s u p p o r t .

If a

widow r e m a r r ie d t o o so o n t h e la n d o f h e r d e c e a s e d husband re v er te d to oth er h e ir s .

A woman’ s p e r s o n a l p o s s e s s i o n s

c o n s i s t e d o f h e r u t e n s i l s , p o t s , b a s k e t s and f i e l d

to o ls,

i n a d d i t i o n t o h e r own b l a n k e t s , c l o t h i n g and o r n a m e n ts. T h ese a r t i c l e s w en t t o h e r c h i l d r e n o r h e r own f a m i l y ,

127

Land was e l a im e d by f a m i l i e s o r s e t t l e m e n t s o f r e ­ l a t e d f a m i l i e s among t h e W a la p a i, b u t a s t h e y d id l i t t l e f a r m in g t h e p r i v i l e g e c o n s i s t e d o f h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g r i g h t s , w h ic h m ig h t be a l l o w e d o t h e r s w i t h o u t c o s t . p a r e n t l y s e x had l i t t l e

t o do w i t h t h e m a t t e r .

Ap­

A woman

owned h e r own b a s k e t s , u t e n s i l s and b l a n k e t s , b u t m ost p e r s o n a l p r o p e r t y was d e s t r o y e d a t d e a t h .

S p ier , 1928, 12® K r o e b e r ,

op.

op.

c i t .,

c i t .,

pp.

p.

231

160-161

123

C e r e m o n ia lis m A lt h o u g h women d id n o t d i r e c t p u b l i c c e r e m o n ie s t h e y t o o k p a r t i n th em , and i n many t r i b e s t h e r e w ere woman s h a ­ mans w i t h e q u a l r i g h t s and p r i v i l e g e s a s t h o s e p o s s e s s e d b y men.

W ives and d a u g h t e r s o f w a r r i o r s f o l l o w e d c e r t a i n

r i t u a l s , and a l l women t o o k p a r t in t h e war and s c a l p d ances• P apago and Pima m e d i c i n e women o c c u p ie d p o s i t i o n s a s i n f l u e n t i a l a s t h o s e o f t h e men, a l t h o u g h fe w e r i n num ber. T here w ere t h r e e c l a s s e s o f m e d ic in e men among t h e P im a, a l l o f w h ic h i n c l u d e d women i n t h e i r m em b ersh ip . T h ere w ere t h o s e who w ere known a s SHatcokam, e x a m in in g p h y s i c i a n s , who numbered a s many women a s men i n t h e o r d e r . T h i s was t h e m o st numerous and i n f l u e n t i a l c l a s s i n com m un ity.

th e

E n tr a n c e i n t o t h e s o c i e t y was c h i e f l y th r o u g h

h e r e d i t y , and members w ere a lw a y s i n d a n g e r o f p a y i n g f o r t h e p r i v i l e g e w it h t h e i r l i v e s .

F em ale d o c t o r s o f t h i s

c l a s s s p e c i a l i z e d i n t r e a t m e n t o f a b d o m in a l t r o u b l e s f o r b o t h men and women, b u t t h e y n e v e r t r e a t e d c h i l d r e n * o f t h e S ^ a t c o k a m t r e a t e d women f o r a l l d i s e a s e s .

Men

T here

w ere f e w e r women among t h e M a k a i. o r m a g i c i a n s , who had power o v e r c r o p s , w e a t h e r and w ar.

That women w ere a d m it t e d

a t a l l was an i n s t a n c e o f t h e i r p o s i t i o n i n t h e com m unity. B etw een th em , t h e s e two o r d e r s r e a l l y r u l e d t h e t r i b e , w i e l d i n g an i n f l u e n c e f a r g r e a t e r th a n t h a t o f t h e c h i e f s .

£07 The t h i r d o r d e r , t h a t o f t h e t r u e p h y s i c i a n s , was c a l l e d H a i - i t c o l t a m # m ean in g l i t e r a l l y t o d r in k * "

or h e a le r s , ft

" s o m e th in g g i v e n

Members o f t h i s s o c i e t y w ere h e r b - d o c t o r s , who

t r e a t e d m in o r i l l n e s s e s and s im p le i n j u r i e s , and were n o t a s h i g h l y e s te e m e d a s t h e d o c t o r s who c u r e d by m a g i c a l p r a c tic e s# S on g s su n g by Papago m e d ic in e men and women t o h e a l t h e s i c k w ere g i v e n them by t h e s p i r i t s o f t h e o l d - t i m e P a p a g o , who a l s o t a u g h t them how t o c u r e d i s e a s e #

S om etim es

m e d ic in e women s a n g t h e i r own s o n g s , b u t a f e m a le shaman m ig h t have a man s i n g t h e s o n g s g i v e n h e r by t h e g h o s t s o f t h e dead#

The a r t i s t i c

im p u ls e s o f t h e Papago w ere c h i e f l y

e x p r e s s e d i n s o n g s , c e r e m o n ia l and s e c u l a r , many t r u l y p o e ­ tic

in f e e l i n g .

Owl Woman, a Papago m e d ic in e woman, who

r e c e i v e d h e r s o n g s from t h e s p i r i t s whom s h e had known i n l i f e ,

o f t h e d e a d , some o f

had them s u n g f o r h e r b y a man

a s s i s t a n t w h e n e v er s h e was c a l l e d upon t o t r e a t t h e s i c k * She c o u ld t r e a t w i t h o u t s o n g s , b u t p r e f e r r e d them* t h e f o u r p a r t s o f t h e n i g h t had i t s f o u r , su n g i n s e q u e n c e .

Each o f

own s o n g s , i n g r o u p s o f

B etw een t h e g r o u p s o f s o n g s sh e

t r e a t e d t h e p a t i e n t by s t r o k i n g him w i t h a bunch o f ow l f e a t h e r s on w h ic h had b e e n s p r i n k l e d a s h e s from t h e f i r e *

150

129 B u s s e l l , op* c i t * * p p . £ 5 6 - 2 5 7 ISO P r a n c e s D en sm ore, Papago M u s i c * B u l l e t i n 9 0 , B ureau o f A m erican E t h n o lo g y (W a s h in g t o n : 1 9 2 9 ) pp* 1 1 5 - 1 1 6

208 Ko s o n g s a cc o m p a n ie d t h e a c t u a l t r e a t m e n t .

She b eg an w i t h

t h e s o n g "Brown Owls1*: "Brown o w ls come h e r e i n t h e b l u e e v e n i n g , They a r e h o o t i n g a b o u t , They a r e s h a k i n g t h e i r w in g s and h o o t i n g . "

2.31

A s o n g o f u n u s u a l p o e t i c b e a u t y was su n g e a r l y i n t h e n i g h t : " In t h e g r e a t n i g h t my h e a r t w i l l g o o u t , Toward me t h e d a r k n e s s com es r a t t l i n g , In t h e g r e a t n i g h t my h e a r t w i l l go o u t . " x And a t dawn sh e sa n g : "The m orn in g s t a r i s u p . I c r o s s t h e m o u n ta in s i n t o t h e l i g h t o f t h e s e a . "

2.33

I f , h o w e v e r , sh e saw t h a t h e r p a t i e n t w ould d i e sh e r e f u s e d t o c o n t i n u e t h e t r e a t m e n t , s i n g i n g t h i s so n g : "I t h i n k I h a v e fo u n d o u t . I t h i n k I h a v e fo u n d o u t • W ith t h e ow l s o n g s I h a v e fo u n d o u t and I w i l l r e t u r n home ."^*4 M e d ic in e b a s k e t s , i n w h ic h m e d ic in e men and women c a r r i e d t h e o b j e c t s c o n n e c t e d w it h t h e i r r i t u a l s , w ere o f s p e c i a l form fo u n d a s f a r s o u t h a s c e n t r a l M e x ic o . w ere r e c t a n g u l a r , w i t h d e e p , o v e r l a p p i n g c o v e r s , w eave.

They

in t w i l l e d

T h ose u s e d by m e d i c i n e men were made by t h e i r w i v e s

o r m o t h e r s , b u t m e d ic in e women made t h e i r own.

Such a b a s ­

k e t , u s e d by a P apago f e m a le shaman, c o n t a i n e d f e a t h e r s f o r

1 31 I b i d . , p . 117 132

I b i d . , p . 126

133

I b i d . . p . 13 3

134

I b i d . , p . 134

p a i n t i n g t h e body on c e r e m o n ia l o c c a s i o n s ; t h r e e r a i n s t i c k s , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e owner had b een a m e d ic in e woman f o r t h r e e y e a r s , and w h ic h , w i t h i n c a n t a t i o n s and r h y th m ic b e a t i n g s upon t h e b a s k e t , w ould c a l l f o r t h r a i n ; a t a i l f o r c u r i n g human i l l n e s s ex tra lo o se fe a t h e r s .

( k in d n o t s p e c i f i e d ) ; and some

A n o th e r Papago m e d i c i n e woman c a r r i e d

a r t i c l e s w h ic h w ere u s e d t o s e c u r e an i n f a n t from a p p r o p r ia ­ t i o n by e v i l s p i r i t s . Shamanism d i s a p p e a r e d from among t h e M aricop a lo n g a g o , a l o n g w i t h o t h e r r f o r m s o f r e l i g i o u s ce re m o n y , b u t from a l l i n d i c a t i o n s women s h a r e d h o n o r s w i t h t h e men. T h ere w ere no m e d ic in e women among t h e H a v e su p a i and Y a v a p a i , b u t W alapai women c o u ld be d o c t o r s a s w e l l a s men, 136 a l t h o u g h t h e number was s m a l l . B a ta r e g a r d i n g s w e a t h o u se c u sto m s w ere m e a g e r . M aricopa women u s e d t h e s w e a t h o u s e , w h ic h was b u i l t n ea r t h e d w e l l i n g o f t h e ow n er, w i t h o u t p a y . S w e a t i n g was f o r 137 cure o f i l l n e s s o n ly . Women u s e d t h e Yfalapai s w e a t h o u s e 138 s e p a r a t e l y from t h e men. N o r t h e a s t e r n and W estern Y ava­ p a i women s o m e tim e s u s e d t h e s w e a t h o u s e f o r i l l n e s s , b u t a p p a r e n t l y S o u t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i . women d i d n o t .

K is se ll,

op. c i t . ,

^■36 K r o e b e r , o p . c i t . , 137

S p ie r ,

pp. 1 6 5 -1 7 1 p . 185

1 9 3 3 , o p . c i t . , p . 92

138 K r o e b e r , p p . c i t . , p . 117

210 War Women d id n o t go t o w ar, b u t d i d t a k e p a r t i n t h e v i c t o r y and s c a l p d a n c e s • Women i n t h e f a m i l i e s o f P apago men who k i l l e d an enemy u n d erw en t a r i g i d p u r i f i c a t i o n ce re m o n y , w h i l e t h e w i f e s h a r e d t h e r i t e s o f t h e husband*

W h ile t h e husband

and f a t h e r was away f i g h t i n g t h e f a m i l y o b s e r v e d c e r t a i n r u l e s o f c o n d u c t*

When word came t h a t t h e husband was an

Enemy S l a y e r t h e w i f e w en t i n s t a n t l y w i t h t h e w i f e o f h e r h u sb a n d ’ s s p o n s o r t o a p r e p a r e d s h e l t e r , w here s h e re m a in e d f o r s i x t e e n d a y s , u n d e r g o in g t h e same r i t u a l a s h e r h u sb a n d . The s p o n s o r was u s u a l l y c h o s e n b e c a u s e h i s w i f e was a good p o t t e r , b e c a u s e many new b o w ls w ere n e e d e d f o r t h e cerem ony* A n o th e r woman made a s p e c i a l c e r e m o n i a l b a s k e t i n w h ic h t h e s c a l p was t o be k e p t .

The d a u g h t e r s o f t h e h o u s e h o ld c o u l d

n o t j o i n i n t h e r a c e o f y o u n g g i r l s t o b r i n g home t h e wea­ p o n s o f t h e w a r r i o r s , n o r i n t h e s c a l p d a n ce w h ic h fo llo w e d ? ' Pima women t o o k no a c t u a l p a r t i n w a r f a r e , b u t t h e y f r e q u e n t l y showed g r e a t c o u r a g e and r e s o u r c e i f t h e enem y.

c a p t u r e d by

D u r in g t h e cerem ony o f t h e v i c t o r y d an ce women

p l a y e d a v e r y p ro m in e n t p a r t , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n m o u rn in g f o r 14G r e l a t i v e s who had f a l l e n i n b a t t l e .

139 u nd e r h i l l , R u s se ll,

o p . o i t *, p p . 1 2 - 1 8

op* c i t * , p . 2 0 3 , 205

211 Women a c c o m p a n ied W alap a i war p a r t i e s i n t h e c a p a c i t y o f c o o k s , and t h e y a l s o d a n ced w i t h t h e men a ro u n d t h e p o l e b e a r i n g t h e s c a l p i n t h e s c a l p or v i c t o r y d a n c e . W estern Y a v a p a i women a cc o m p a n ied war p a r t i e s , c a r r y 142 i n g k n i v e s w i t h w h ic h t o s t a b t h e enemyy S o u t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i women w ere v e r i t a b l e Amazons. They g a t h e r e d f o o d and p r e p a r e d t h e f e a s t f o r t h e war d ance p r e c e d i n g a f o r a y , a s w e l l a s f o r s u p p l i e s t o be c a r r i e d by t h e w a r r i o r s #

They t o o k p a r t i n t h e ce r e m o n y , d a n c in g

in

a sep a ra te c i r c l e ,

to

accom pany a war p a r t y l e f t h e r c h i l d r e n w i t h t h e i r

p a ren ts.

w ith o u t w eapons.

Armed o n l y w i t h a k n i f e ,

A woman whoc h o s e grand­

s h e u s u a l l y w en t i n t h e

h ope o f s c a l p i n g an enemy who had k i l l e d a r e l a t i v e . was s u c c e s s f u l s h e d a n c ed arou n d t h e b o d y .

I f sh e

Women who w ent

w i t h t h e war p a r t y h e l p e d c a r r y t h e p lu n d e r home, w h i l e o t h e r women w ent f o r t h t o m eet t h e r e t u r n i n g w a r r i o r s and 143 b o r e t h e p lu n d e r and s c a l p s b a ck t o camp. Games and d i v e r s i o n s In a d d itio n to v i s i t i n g ,

g o s s i p , w o r k in g b e e s and

s o c i a l d a n c in g t h e women e n j o y e d a number o f ga m es, u s u a l l y a t y p e o f d i c e o r g a m b lin g game, b u t o c c a s i o n a l l y s o m e th in g

141 K roeber,

0£

. c i t . , p . 174

142 G i f f o r d ,

1936,

•*-4 3 G i f f o r d ,

1932,

0£ .

c i t . . p . 305 c i t . . pp. 183-184

212 more a c t i v e ,

s u c h a s r a c i n g or s h i n n y .

I t w ould seem t h a t P apago women w ould h a ve had s u f f i ­ c i e n t r u n n in g i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e i r d a i l y w ork, b u t r a c e s b e tw e e n i n d i v i d u a l s and v i l l a g e s w ere a f a v o r i t e form o f r e c r e a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y among g i r l s and young women. o n e Papago woman r e c a l l e d

’’When I had f i n i s h e d my work I

a lw a y s w anted t o r a c e , and I was a good r a c e r , 144

f a s t e s t o f the g i r l s .* 1

As

I was t h e

R a c e s w ere h e l d on a l e v e l t r a c k

k e p t c l e a r o f o b s t a c l e s by t h e y ou n g men.

Young m a r r ie d

p e o p l e w en t lo n g d i s t a n c e s f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f r a c i n g , accom ­ p a n ie d by g a m b lin g .

S t i c k d i c e was t h e woman’ s gam e.

The

P apago woman q u o te d a b o v e t o l d M is s U n d e r h i l l : And I was a g a m b le r . Y e s , a lw a y s h ave I b e e n a g a m b ler and a lu c k y o n e . When I had grou n d t h e c o m and f e t c h e d t h e f i r e w o o d f o r t h e d a y , I u s e d t o run o u t t o t h e h o u s e s w h ere’ my g i r l c o u s i n s l i v e d : ’ Gome on— l e t ’ s th ro w d i c e . ’ We had d i c e w h ich we made o f s t i c k s , p a i n t e d b l a c k on on e s i d e w it h c h a r c o a l from th e f i r e . E v e r y g i r l had f o u r , we k e p t them a lw a y s w it h u s a s we k e p t ou r r e d p a i n t . We s a t i n a c i r c l e and a l l t h e p e o p l e g a t h e r e d t o w atch u s and b e t on th e game. Each g i r l i n tu r n t a p p e d h er s t i c k s on a s t o n e and th r ew th em . Two p o i n t s i f a l l b l a c k , one i f a l l w h i t e . And i f o f d i f f e r e n t c o l o r s , l e t t h e n e x t one t h r o w l We b e t e v e r y t h i n g on t h a t game* I had b a s k e t s w h i c h , I had made and a m a t. My f a t h e r had b r o u g h t me s h e l l b e a d s from t h e R iv e r C o u n try and a l l t h o s e t h i n g s I w a g e r e d . My m o th er d i d n o t m ind; sh e was l o o k i n g o n . She w ould n o t s a y a word i f I b e t e v e r y t h i n g I h a d , e v e n , 4tmy c l o t h e s . But I n e v e r b e t h e r t h i n g s o r my s i s t e r s ’ 144

U n d erh ill, c it.

op.

c jlt.,

p.

29

215

The Pima h e l d s o c i a l d a n c e s w h ic h b eg an i n t h e morn­ i n g and l a s t e d a l l d a y , a cc o m p a n ied by f e a s t i n g *

D a n c er s

s t o o d i n a c i r e l e w i t h arms a c r o s s t h e s h o u l d e r s o f t h o s e n e x t t o them , s t a m p in g t h e f e e t and b e n d in g t h e i r b o d i e s . Men and women came w i t h f r e s h l y p a i n t e d f a c e s and b o d i e s , women w i t h s h i n i n g h a i r , and e a c h b r o u g h t f o o d f o r t h e fea st.

D a n c in g n e v e r s t o p p e d , b u t a fe w a t a tim e dropped 146 out to e a t , then re tu rn ed to the d an ce. R a c in g was l e s s in d u lg e d i n by women th a n among t h e P a p a g o , a l t h o u g h a woman o c c a s i o n a l l y ran a g a i n s t a man, sh e t h r o w in g a d o u b le b a l l means o f a s t i c k , w h i l e he k i c k e d a b a l l b e f o r e h im . Women p l a y e d a form o f s h i n n y , u s i n g a d o u b le b a l l t o s s e d w ith s t i c k s u n t i l i t game.

c r o s s e d t h e g o a l l i n e , w in n in g t h e

A p l a y e r who to u c h e d t h e b a l l w i t h h e r hands iras

b a r r e d from t h e gam e. g a m e s.

Pima women p l a y e d t h r e e g a m b lin g

One game, r e s e m b l i n g j e c k s t o n e s , was p la y e d w i t h

f i v e c a r e f u l l y c h o s e n rounded p e b b l e s , one o f w h ich was t o s s e d i n t o t h e a i r w h i l e t h e p l a y e r c a u g h t up one o f t h e p e b b l e s r e m a in in g on t h e ground b e f o r e t h e t o s s e d s t o n e fe ll.

The game p r o c e e d e d i n t h e same manner a s j a c k s ,

th e

f i g u r e s g r o w in g i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t a s t h e p l a y p r o g r e s ­ sed.

The game o f s t i c k d i c e was p la y e d w i t h e i g h t s t a v e s

i n two s e t s o f f o u r e a c h , c o l o r e d b l a c k on t h e ro u n d ed s i d e ,

R u ssell,

op.

c i t . , p.

170

214

r e d on t h e f l a t s i d e , P l a y r e s e m b le d t h a t p r e v i o u s l y d e s ­ c r i b e d f o r t h e Papago game.

The t h i r d g a m b lin g game, a l s o

p l a y e d by men, c o n s i s t e d o f a l o c a l v a r i a n t o f t h e r i n g - a n d p i n gam e.

R in g s o f g r a d u a te d s i z e w ere c u t from c u l t i v a t e d

g o u r d s , s t r u n g on maguey c o r d , k e p t from s l i p p i n g by a r e c ­ t a n g u l a r b i t o f t h e gou rd s l i g h t l y l a r g e r th a n t h e o p e n in g s in the s m a lle s t r in g .

The o t h e r end o f t h e co r d was f a s t e n e d

t o a sharpened s t i c k .

The o b j e c t o f t h e game was t o t o s s t h e

r i n g s i n t h e a i r , a t t h e same t im e a t t e m p t i n g t o c a t c h them on t h e wooden p i n .

T here was a r e g u l a r s e r i e s o f c o u n t s ,

a g r e e d upon i n a d v a n c e , marked upon a w h o r l- s h a p e d d ia g ra m 147 drawn on t h e s a n d . The M aricop a h e l d t h e i r b i g s o c i a l d a n c e s i n w i n t e r , s t a r t i n g e a r l y i n th e e v e n i n g and l a s t i n g u n t i l s u n r i s e , u s u a l l y on m o o n li g h t n i g h t s .

The round d a n c e was m o st

p o p u l a r , men and women a l t e r n a t i n g t o form a c i r c l e a b o u t th e s in g e r .

B e a u t i f u l g i r l s w it h l o n g h a i r w ere c h o s e n f o r 148 t h is dance. Women p l a y e d d o u b l e - b a l l s h i n n y and t h e i r own p a r t i c u l a r d i c e gam e.

They p l a y e d s h in n y a l l y e a r

round, b e t t in g s t r in g s o f b ea d s.

The " b a l l ” was a s t r i p

o f l e a t h e r or w i l l o w b a rk a b o u t n i n e i n c h e s l o n g , w i t h a heavy knot a t each end.

147 I b i d . , p . k 4® S p i e r ,

The s t r a i g h t s t i c k s w ere some

179

1933,

oj>. c i t . . p .

268

215

fo u r f e e t lo n g .

G o a ls w ere a b o u t tw o hundred y a r d s a p a r t .

The number o f p l a y e r s w ere u n l i m i t e d , b u t even* a s t h e women o p p o n e n ts s t o o d i n p a i r s o v e r t h e f i e l d ,

w h i l e one o f t h e

two l e a d e r s i n t h e c e n t e r t o s s e d t h e b a l l i n t o t h e a i r by t w i s t i n g her s t i c k in th e le a t h e r .

The o b j e c t o f t h e game

was t o th r o w t h e b a l l o v e r t h e o p p o n e n t ’ s g o a l l i n e .

The

d i c e game r e s e m b le d t h a t o f t h e Papago and Pima i n a l l e s s e n ­ tia ls.

P o i n t s were c o u n t e d on a row o f s m a l l s t o n e s a t th e

s id e o f each p la y e r .

149

The H a v a su p a i e n j o y e d am ple tim e f o r d i v e r s i o n . l ik e d to gath er a t a n e ig h b o r ’ s s h e l t e r ,

o s t e n s i b l y f o r work,

b u t i n r e a l i t y f o r g o s s i p and o f t e n a game o f d i c e .

O ther

p l e a s u r e s i n c l u d e d games o f ch a n c e and s k i l l , r a c i n g , p r a c tic e ,

Women

so n g

t a l e s t o l d on w i n t e r n i g h t s when i t was t o o c o l d

f o r g h o s t s t o be a b r o a d , p i c n i c s g o t t e n up f o r g a t h e r i n g w ild f o o d s t u f f s , p h ila n d e r in g .

v i s i t s t o n e i g h b o r i n g t r i b e s , and t h e u s u a l

D u r in g t h e m id d le o f t h e d a y , p a r t i c u l a r l y ,

d i d t h e women and y o u n g e r men e n j o y g a m b lin g , and b y m id­ a f t e r n o o n games w ere i n f u l l sway a t one or tw o o f t h e v i l l a g e cam ps.

Women and men p la y e d s h in n y i n t h e s p r i n g

b e f o r e p l a n t i n g , w a g e r in g f u t u r e c r o p s and b u ck sk in s: on t h e o u tc o m e , b u t t h e s e x e s n e v e r p l a y e d t o g e t h e r . was o f d e e r s k i n , s t u f f e d w i t h damp d e e r h a i r , 149

Ib id .,

pp.

334-342

The b a l l

drawn up and

216

t i e d w i t h a t h o n g , so m e tim e s d e c o r a t e d w i t h r e d p a i n t .

The

s t i c k was a b ra n ch w i t h a s h o r t s e c t i o n o f th e tr u n k f o r m in g a crook.

There w ere f i v e o r s i x p l a y e r s on a s i d e , g a t h e r e d

b e h in d a l e a d e r .

The p u r p o s e o f t h e game was t o d r i v e t h e

b a l l o v e r t h e l i n e o f t h e g o a l p o s t s by means o f t h e s t i c k , o r by k i c k i n g .

P l a y e r s w ere a l l o w e d a n y t a c t i c s s h o r t o f

t o u c h i n g t h e b a l l w i t h t h e hand t o a c h i e v e t h i s a n d , i n ­ c l u d i n g k i c k i n g , p u s h in g and s h o v i n g members o f t h e o p p o s i t e team .

Women p l a y e d b a s k e t d i c e , a game r e s e r v e d f o r t h e

w in te r se a so n .

Four p l a y e r s on a s i d e u s e d d i c e made o f

t h e s p l i t h in d l e g b o n e s o f w i l d c a t ^ . w i t h r e d bands p a i n t e d © cross th e concave sid e *

Four d i c e w ere t o s s e d i n a f l a t -

b o tto m ed t r a y b a s k e t w i t h s h a r p l y r i s i n g s i d e s .

C ounts

d ep en d ed on t h e number o f p l a i n and d e c o r a t e d f a c e s w h ic h tu r n e d u p . sin g le p ile ,

C o u n te r s w ere t e n l i t t l e

s t i c k s arranged in a

from w h ich e a c h p l a y e r drew h e r s c o r e u n t i l i t

was e x h a u s t e d ,

t h e n t h e y drew from e a c h o t h e r ’ s p i l e s u n t i l

one s i d e had won t h e w h o le t e n .

S t i c k d i c e w ere p la y e d by

f o u r men or f o u r women on a s i d e , a t a n y s e a s o n o f t h e y e a r * T h ere w ere t h r e e d i c e c o n s i s t i n g o f f l a t b i l l e t s marked w it h r e d on t h e f a c e * c i r o l e o f sm a ll s t o n e s , d i c e on a l a r g e r f l a t

o f wood,

P l a y e r s s a t a b o u t an in c o m p l e t e

s e r v in g a s c o u n te r s , t o s s i n g th e

sto n e in th e c e n t e r ,

i n su ch a manner

t h a t t h e s t i c k s bounced and f e l l on t h e grou n d b ey o n d . C ou n ts w ere marked by m ovin g a l i t t l e

s t i c k around t h e c i r c l e

217

o f sm a lle r s t o n e s . 150 won t h e game*

The f i r s t s i d e t o c o m p le te t h e c i r c u i t

W a la p a i women s p e n t more tim e th a n men i n g a m b lin g a t t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r game o f s t i c k d i c e , p l a y e d l i k e t h a t o f t h e H a v a s u p a i. Y a v a p a i women a s w e l l a s men e n j o y e d s o c i a l d a n c e s and t h e f e a s t i n g w h ic h w ent w i t h them.

N o r th e a ste r n Yavapai

women were s a i d t o have l e a r n e d t o p l a y games o n l y r e c e n t l y , a l t h o u g h t h a t h a r d l y seem s p r o b a b l e . s t ic k d ic e ,

The game o f t h r e e -

s a i d f o r m e r l y t o have b een p la y e d o n l y by men,

was r e c e n t l y t a k e n o v e r by women.

Two o r t h r e e p a i r s o f

p l a y e r s p la y e d a s p a r t n e r s , e a c h p a i r s i t t i n g t o g e t h e r . F o r t y s t o n e c o u n t e r s w ere a r r a n g e d i n a c i r c l e w i t h f o u r o p e n in g s, p la y .

c o u n t s marked b y a s m a ll s t i c k moved w i t h e a c h

The d i c e , made o f s p l i t dead w i l l o w or s a h u a r o ,

p a i n t e d r e d on one s i d e , w ere c a s t en d s down o n t o a f l a t s t o n e s o t h a t t h e y b o u n ced on t h e g ro u n d .

P l a y e r s w a gered

b u c k s k in , b ow s, a r r o w s and sa h u a r o ca k e ( t h e manf s p r o p e r t y ) on t h e gam e. The W estern Y e v a p a i woman’ s t h r e e - s t i c k d i c e game was p l a y e d c h i e f l y i n t h e summer, i n t h e same m anner a s t h a t o f t h e N o r t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i game*

■*•50 s p i e r ,

1928,

OjD. c i t . ,

D iv is io n s in th e c i r c l e

pp.

335-341

218

o f c o u n t e r s w ere c a l l e d r i v e r s , and w in n in g was ” jum ping in the r i v e r * ” P ostu re In n e a r l y e v e r y t r i b e t h e r e w ere c o n v e n t i o n a l p o s ­ t u r e s f o r women and men*

Women a lw a y s s a t on t h e g ro u n d ,

and w ere v e r y c a r e f u l t h a t t h e f r i n g e d ap ro n or d e e r s k i n d r e s s was a r r a n g e d t o p r e v e n t e x p o s u r e * 151 Papa go and Pima b a s k e tm a k e r s s a t t a i l o r f a s h io n * ; . Among t h e M a ricop a women s a t w it h c r o s s l e g s , t h e o u t s i d e e d g e s o f t h e f e e t f l a t on t h e g r o u n d .

They a l s o

s a t w i t h f e e t drawn u n d er them i n su c h a manner t h a t t h e y r e s t e d on t h e f e e t , n o t t h e s h i n s *

T h is was a work p o s i ­

tio n .

When g r i n d i n g , m akin g p o t t e r y o r p e r f o r m in g o t h e r

ta sk s,

t h e f e e t w ere drawn b e n e a t h t h e w ork er s o t h a t s h e

s a t on h e r f e e t r a t h e r th a n h e r s h i n s , f o ld e d back, e x te n d in g t o th e r i g h t . Mohave an d P u e b lo s t y l e ,

or b o th l e g s w ere Som etim es t h e y s a t

l e g s o u t s t r e t c h e d and a n k l e s

c r o s s e d , o f t e n r o c k i n g a c r a d l e h e l d i n t h e la p by s h i f ­ t i n g i t from s i d e t o s i d e . ded, th e o th e r fo ld e d back.

A g a in , one l e g m ig h t be exten-* 152

H a v a su p a i women had s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t s i t t i n g p o s i ­ tio n s .

They u s u a l l y s a t on t h e i r c r o s s e d l e g s , 151

K isse ll,

152 s p i e r ,

op. c i t . ,

p . 206

1 9 5 3 , p p . c i t . , p . 329

th e f e e t

219

t u r n e d i n s t e p down.

To a c h i e v e t h i s p o s i t i o n t h e y k n e l t ,

c r o s s e d t h e a n k l e s and s a t on t h e c a l v e s o f t h e i r l e g s . They a l s o k n e l t on on e k n e e , u n d er them .

t h e n s a t w i t h t h a t l e g d o u b le d

When l e a n i n g a g a i n s t a s u p p o r t b o t h l e g s w ere

o u ts t r e t c h e d , a n k le s c r o s s e d .

S om etim es t h e y s a t w i t h

crossed le g s ,

W h atever t h e p o s i t i o n t h e

t a ilo r fa sh io n .

d r e s s was p u l l e d s h a r p l y b ack b e tw e e n t h e l e g s .

153

W alap ai women u s u a l l y s a t c r o s s - l e g g e d , o r w it h l e g s c u r l e d b e n e a t h th em .

A lt h o u g h i t was c o n s i d e r e d i l l -

m annered t o s i t w i t h o u t s t r e t c h e d l e g s , a woman m ig h t r o c k 1 54 a c r a d l e on h e r k n e e s i n t h i s p o s i t i o n . Among t h e N o r t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i women g r i n d i n g on m e t a t e s o r m aking b a s k e t s s a t w it h one f o o t u n d e r th em , th e o th e r a t th e s i d e .

They a l s o s a t c r o s s - l e g g e d when 155 g a m b lin g , so m e tim e s w i t h t h e k n e e s drawn u p . W estern Y a v a p a i women s a t w it h one l e g f l e x e d t i g h t e r , th e fo o t s t r a ig h t back, th e o th e r le g f le x e d f o o t r e s t e d a g a in s t th e th ig h o f the f i r s t k n e e s w ere f l a t on t h e g r o u n d .

S p i e r , 1 9 2 8 , o p . c i t . » p . 329 154 jcro e b e r, o p . c i t . , p . 126

156

L oe.

e lt.

l e g , w h ile th e

They a l s o r e s t e d w i t h e x ­

ten ded l e g s . ^ ^

1 55 G i f f o r d ,

so th a t th e

1936, pp. c i t . ,

p . 290

280

E t i q u e t t e end h y g i e n e Among no p e o p l e , p r i m i t i v e o r c i v i l i z e d , were t h e c o n v e n t i o n s more s t r i c t l y e n f o r c e d th a n among t h e A m erican I n d i a n s , and t h e t r i b e s o f t h e s o u t h w e s t e r n v i l l a g e s w ere no e x c e p t i o n t o t h e r u l e .

Women i n p a r t i c u l a r f o l l o w e d

c e r t a i n r u l e s o f c o n d u c t , and where t h e s e w ere r e l a x e d , a s among t h e -Mohave, who p e r m i t t e d t h e i r w om en fo lk more l a ­ t i t u d e th a n m o s t , t h e p e o p l e were s e v e r e l y c r i t i c i z e d . Most o f t h e s e r u l e s w ere no more th a n c o n v e n t i o n a l i t i e s , b u t a d h e r e d t o a l l t h e more c a r e f u l l y f o r t h a t r e a s o n , perhaps. A c a r e f u l p apago f a t h e r w ould n o t p e r m it h i s d a u g h te r t o a t t e n d p u b l i c d a n c e s and f e a s t s , n o t e v e n t h e "com ing o f age" p a r t i e s o f h er f r i e n d s , n o r was s h e a l l o w e d t o wander a b o u t by h e r s e l f . f r e e d o m . 15?

A f t e r m a r r ia g e a g i r l had more

Men w ere u s u a l l y s e r v e d f i r s t among t h e M a r ic o p a , women and c h i l d r e n e a t i n g l a t e r .

V is ito r s o f e ith e r sex,

w h e th e r r e l a t e d o r n o t , were s e r v e d b e f o r e members o f t h e h o u se h o ld . them .

F oods w ere s e r v e d by t h o s e who had p r e p a r e d

Men c o o k e d s m a l l gam e, i n c l u d i n g r a b b i t s , q u a i l

and f i s h , and s e r v e d su c h d i s h e s t o t h e i r f a m i l i e s .

Women

p r e p a r e d a l l v e g e t a l f o o d , by f a r t h e g r e a t e r p o r t i o n o f

U n d erh ill,

ojd.

c i t .,

p.

30

221 t h e d i e t , d e e r and m o u n ta in s h e e p m e a t, s e r v i n g t h e s e fo o d s th e m se lv e s.

Thus i t a p p e a r e d t h a t men were f a v o r e d

a s t o t h e amount o f s e r v i c e t h e y r e c e i v e d , when i t was i n r e a l i t y more a s m a t t e r o f g i v e and t a k e .

1 RA

H a v a su p a i c o n v e n t i o n s w ere n o t s t r i c t , a l t h o u g h t h e w i f e was e x p e c t e d t o f o l l o w h e r h u sb a n d , a common p r a c t i c e among p r i m i t i v e t r i b e s and p r o b a b ly a r i s i n g more from t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r t h e armed man t o p r e c e d e t h e la d e n and h e l p l e s s woman th a n from a n y c o n s c i o u s s u b j e c t i o n o f t h e f e m a l e . The w i f e a t e a f t e r s e r v i n g t h e m e a l, i f t h e h usband e n t e r ­ t a i n e d g u e s t s , a g e n e r a l cu stom i n many s o c i e t i e s w here a woman d o e s h e r own h o u se w o r k .

I t was n o t p r o p e r f o r a

w i f e t o e n t e r t a i n a man a l o n e i n t h e a b s e n c e o f h e r h u sb a n d , a n o t h e r r u l e o f e t i q u e t t e n o t unknown i n c i v i l i z e d

so c ie ty .

She c o u ld n o t , h o w e v er , e v e n w a lk w i t h h e r b r o t h e r o r f a t h e r , who, i f th e f i e l d s ,

t h e y r e q u e s t e d h e r t o b r i n g s o m e t h in g from

w a it e d u n t i l s h e r e t u r n e d w it h t h e a r t i c l e .

A fte r th e in tr o d u c tio n o f th e h orse e t i q u e t t e p r e sc r ib e d t h a t a woman c o u ld n o t r i d e a b o u t t h e v i l l a g e , e v e n w i t h h e r h u sb a n d , f o r f e a r o f c a u s i n g a d v e r s e comment, a l t h o u g h s h e m ig h t go on h o r s e b a c k i f

sh e had a l o n g d i s t a n c e t o

t r a v e l . 159

158 S p ie r ,

1936,

op.

c i t . , pp.

15^ S p ie r ,

1932,

op.

c i t .,

80-81

p* 2 2 8

222

W alapai women w ere n e v e r l e f t a l o n e i n a h o u s e o r camp, b u t were s e n t t o s t a y w it h a r e l a t i v e when t h e husband was away on t h e h u n t o r t r a v e l i n g .

I n t h e i r own h om es,

W alap ai women w ere c o m p l e t e l y a t e a s e ,

jo in e d in th e g e n e r a l

c o n v e r s a t i o n , gam bled w i t h t h e men and a t e w i t h t h e i r h u s 160 b ands. C l e a n l i n e s s was more a m a t t e r o f w a te r s u p p ly th a n a b e lie f in s a n ita tio n .

Where w a t e r was p l e n t i f u l , a l o n g t h e

v a l l e y s o f t h e C o lo r a d o and G i l a r i v e r s ,

t h e n a t i v e s b a th e d

f r e q u e n t l y , o n ce a d ay and e v e n o f t e n e r , b u t i n t h e a r i d f o o t h i l l s and sa n d y d e s e r t s , where e v e r y drop o f l i q u i d was p r e c io u s,

t h e p e o p l e managed v e r y w e l l w i t h d ry w a s h i n g s .

To q u o te a P apago woman: When we had f i n i s h e d ( e a t i n g ) we d id n o t wash t h e d ish e s* How c o u ld w e, w i t h no w a t e r . . . ( w e w ip ed our f i n g e r s ) on t h e grou n d and ru b bed our h an d s t o g e t h e r . . Then we made our t o i l e t . We w ashed our f a c e s i n a l i t t l e c o l d w a t e r , b u t we d i d n o t b a t h e . R ubbing y o u r s e lf w ith e a r th d oes j u s t as w e l l . 16! B a t h in g was a d a i l y p r a c t i c e among t h e P im a, a l t h o u g h o t h e r w i s e women w ere n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y n e a t a b o u t t h e m s e l v e s nor t h e i r b e l o n g i n g s . H a v a su p a i men and women b a th e d i n t h e s w e a t lo d g e and creek in d is c r im in a te ly . in th e c r e e k .

C l o t h i n g was se ld o m w a sh ed .

K roeber, £ £ . 161

Women a lw a y s wore t h e i r s l i p s w h i l e

U n d e rh ill,

162 S p i e r ,

c i t . , p . 186

oj>. c i t . .

1928,

0£.

p.

c it.,

9 p.

327

825

The r o o t ste m and l e a v e s o f t h e S p a n is h b a y o n e t o r s o a p r o o t y u c c a s u p p l i e d N o r t h e a s t e r n and W este rn Y a v a p a i w i t h a l a t h e r f o r b a t h i n g and sh am p ooin g h a i r *

The r o o t s

were pounded on a r o c k w i t h a h am m ersto n e, t h e n worked i n w a ter.

N o r t h e a s t e r n Y a v a p a i made u s e o f t h e l e a v e s o f

a n o t h e r p l a n t f o r w a s h in g new b a s k e t s .

163 G if f o r a,

1 9 3 2 , op.

c i t . . p.

165

279

CHAPTER I T

THE SOUTHWESTERN ATHAPASCANS The s o u t h w e s t e r n d i v i s i o n o f I n d i a n s s p e a k i n g l a n ­ g u a g e s o f t h e w id e s p r e a d A th a p a sc a n l i n g u i s t i c f a m i l y o c c u p i e d an enorm ous s t r e t c h o f t e r r i t o r y e x t e n d i n g from n o r t h e r n M e x ie o i n t o t h e s o u t h e r n p o r t i o n s o f C o lo r a d o and U ta h , and from w e s t e r n A r iz o n a t o t h e w e s t e r n b o u n d a r ie s o f K an sas and T e x a s , New M e x ic o .

i n e l u d i n g p r a c t i c a l l y a l l o f A r iz o n a and

T h is t e r r i t o r y i n c l u d e d m o u n ta in o u s t e r r a i n

and d e s e r t w i t h i n i t s v a s t l i m i t s , a s w e l l a s many s m a l l but f e r t i l e

v a lle y s.

Thus t h e s o u t h w e s t e r n A th a p a s c a n s

com b ined h u n t i n g and g a t h e r i n g w i t h t h e i r c o n c o m it a n t o f nom adism , w i t h f a r m in g . P e o p le w ere s t r o n g and w a r l i k e , and f r e q u e n t l y t o o k what t h e y w anted by f o r c e from n e i g h b o r i n g t r i b e s . oth er t r a i t s

Among

th e A th a p a s c a n s s h a r e d i n g e n e r a l was a p o s i ­

t i v e g e n iu s f o r th e a s s i m i l a t i o n o f th e c u ltu r e s o f t h e i r n e i g h b o r s , s o t h a t t h e p r o b le m o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n e n t e r e d c o n s i d e r a b l y i n t o t h e i r d e v e lo p m e n t i n t h e s o u t h w e s t . T h i s , h o w e v e r , w i t h o u t g r e a t l y a f f e c t i n g la n g u a g e or ch a ra cter. H a b i t a t and Language The p e o p l e s co m p o sin g t h i s group w ere t h e N eva h o, a hom ogeneous t r i b e w h ich o c c u p ie d t h e r e g i o n s o u t h o f t h e

0

225 San Juan r i v e r i n n o r t h e a s t e r n New M e x ic o and n o r t h w e s t e r n A r i z o n a , and t h e A p a c h e , i n r e a l i t y a group o f t r i b e s s u r ­ r o u n d in g th e . Navaho on a l l s i d e s e x c e p t t h e n o r t h , where d w e lt members o f t h e S h o sh o n ea n f a m i l y and t h e P u e b lo . S o c i a l and c e r e m o n i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s o f t h e Navaho and A pache were g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e P u e b l o , f a r more advanced a lo n g th o s e l i n e s

th a n t h e i r nom adic n e i g h b o r s ,

who d i s p l a y e d t h e i r a d a p t a b i l i t y i n t h i s r e s p e c t a s i n more m a t e r i a l t r a i t s .

W ith t h e n a i v e e g o t i s m o f m ost p r i ­

m i t i v e r a c e s when t h e y c o n s i d e r t h e m s e l v e s i n r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r p e o p l e s , a l l A t h a p a s c a n s , w h e th e r l i v i n g i n t h e f a r n o r t h , on t h e P a c i f i c

c o a s t o r i n t h e s o u t h w e s t , make u s e

o f some term r e l a t e d t o t h e word t i n n e , w h ic h means s im p ly '‘p e o p le " o r " t h e p e o p l e ” .

O ther names w ere g i v e n them by

t h e i r n e i g h b o r s , e i t h e r a s d e s c r i p t i v e o f some c h a r a c t e r i s ­ tic

or r e l a t i n g to g e o g r a p h ic a l s i t u a t i o n .

c a l l e d t h e m s e l v e s B i n e , m eaning p e o p l e .

The Navaho

The Apache r e ­

f e r r e d t o t h e m s e l v e s a s Nyd e t B i n e , T in d e o r I n d e , a l l w it h t h e same m e a n in g .

The Navaho a p p a r e n t l y r e c e i v e d t h e i r

p r e s e n t name from t h e S p a n is h , from a Tewa w ord .

In t h e

1 7 t h y c e n t u r y S p a n is h e x p l o r e r s r e f e r r e d t o a s p e c i a l band o f I n d i a n s d w e l l i n g i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f N avahu , a Tewa p u e b l o , a s A p a ch es de Nava .jo, a s d i s t i n g u i s h e d from o t h e r Apache b a n d s . E n g lish *

The N avaho u s e t h i s name o n l y when s p e a k in g

226

A pache b an d s w ere e a c h named f o r some l o c a l o r tem ­ p o rary h a b i t a t , or t r i b a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ,

t h u s e a u s i n g un­

t o l d c o n f u s i o n t o t h o s e who t r y t o i d e n t i f y t r i b a l g r o u p s th r o u g h p o p u la r n a m es.

H ow ever, t h e c h i e f d i v i s i o n s may be

s a i d t o i n c l u d e t h e W estern A p a ch e, t o w h ich b e l o n g t h e San C a r lo s an d W hite M ou n tain b a n d s; t h e C h i r ic a h u a , an im p o r­ t a n t s u b d i v i s i o n named f o r t h e i r fo r m e r m o u n ta in home i n s o u t h e a s t e r n A r iz o n a ; t h e J i c a r i l l a ,

s o c a l l e d by t h e S pan ­

ia r d s b ecau se o f t h e ir e x p e r tn e ss (o r la c k of e x p e r tn e ss) i n b a s k e t m a k in g , who d w e lt i n t h e m o u n ta in o u s r e g i o n o f s o u t h e a s t e r n C o lo ra d o and n o r t h e r n New M e x ic o , r a n g in g a s f a r a t t im e s a s w e s t e r n K ansas and Oklahoma and n o r t h w e s t e r n T e x a s ; and t h e M e s e a l e r o s , a l s o g i v e n t h e i r name o f nm e s c a l e a t e r s ” by t h e S p a n is h b e c a u s e o f t h e i r d e v o t i o n t o t h a t p a r t i c u l a r f o o d , w hose p r i n c i p a l r a n g e was b e tw e e n t h e R io Grande and t h e R io P e c o s i n New M e x ic o , b u t who w andered i n t o t h e S ta k e d p l a i n s and so u th w a rd i n t o C o a h u ila , M e x ic o . The Kiowa A p a c h e , who j o i n e d t h e Kiowa t r i b e a t a v e r y e a r l y d a t e , and t h e L ip a n , w i t h t h e i r home i n M e x ic o , do n o t e n t e r in to t h is stu d y. B oth Apache and Navaho w ere w a r l i k e p e o p l e , p r e d a t o r y n e i g h b o r s and i n i m i c a l t o e x t e r n a l a u t h o r i t y .

They w ere t h e

bane o f t h e more p e a c e f u l s o u t h w e s t e r n t r i b e s a s w e l l a s C a u c a s io n s e t t l e m e n t s o f h i s t o r i c t i m e s , u n t i l t h e y were f i n a l l y subdued a t t h e en d o f t h e 1 9 t h y c e n t u r y .

The

227

Navaho s u b m it t e d t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n 1 8 6 3 , a f t e r t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e i r f l o c k s , and s i n c e 1867 t h e y h a ve i n ­ h a b i t e d a r e s e r v a t i o n s e t a p a r t f o r them i n A r iz o n a and New M e x ic o , c o m p r is i n g a l a r g e p e r t o f t h e i r a n c i e n t d o m a in . T h e ir t e r r i t o r y e x t e n d s from t h e Jem ez P u e b lo t o t h e L i t t l e C o lo r a d o , from n o r t h o f t h e San Juan r i v e r t o t h e p r e s e n t S a n ta Fe r a i l r o a d , w h ic h f o l l o w s t h e o l d l i n e o f t h e Navaho r a n g e on t h e s o u t h .

I n a c t u a l a c r e a g e t h e Navaho h a s g a i n e d ,

j u s t a s t h e t r i b e h a s g a i n e d i n numbers s i n c e i t t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e w h i t e man.

came u n d er

They l i v e now, a s o f o l d ,

i n i s o l a t e d f a m i l y g r o u p s i n e a r t h - c o v e r e d p o l e l o d g e s , and g a i n t h e i r l i v e l i h o o d from h e r d s o f s h e e p and c a t t l e a c q u i r e d from t h e w h i t e s . The A p a ch e, more d e t e r m in e d , l i v i n g i n c o u n t r y more d i f f i c u l t o f a c c e s s , and d e p e n d e n t on w i l d f o o d s i n s t e a d o f f l o c k s and h e r d s , w ere n o t f i n a l l y co n q u e r e d u n t i l 1 8 8 6 , and i n p o i n t o f f a c t , a band o f C h ir ic a h u a a c t u a l l y a t t a c k e d a Mormon s e t t l e m e n t a s l a t e a s Novem ber, 19G0.

At p r e s e n t

t h e Apache a r e d i s t r i b u t e d among s e v e r a l r e s e r v a t i o n s . C h i r i c a h u a , rem oved t o F o r t S i l l ,

The

Oklahoma, a s p r i s o n e r s o f

w ar, w ere r e l e a s e d i n 1 9 1 3 , w hereupon a l a r g e grou p o f d e s ­ c e n d a n t s o f t h e p r i s o n e r s r e t u r n e d t o New M e x ico t o s h a r e t h e M e s c a l e r o R e s e r v a t i o n , w h i l e a b o u t one hundred re m a in e d t o s e t t l e n e a r A p a ch e, Oklahoma, w here t h e y had b e e n r e s i d i n g u nd er n o m in a l r e s t r a i n t f o r s e v e r a l g e n e r a t i o n s .

The

228

M e s c a le r o h a v e t h e i r own r e s e r v a t i o n i n s o u t h e r n New M e x ic o . The J i c a r i l l a ,

a f t e r a number o f m o v e s, w er e f i n a l l y r e ­

t u r n e d by t h e go vern m en t t o t h e i r own r e s e r v a t i o n i n t h e T i e r r a A m a r illa r e g i o n i n n o r t h - e e n t r a l New M e x ic o .

The

w e s t e r n A p a c h e , c o m p r is i n g a number o f b a n d s , a r e now s e t ­ t l e d on t h e F o r t Apache and San C a r lo s r e s e r v a t i o n s i n A r iz o n a . B e f o r e t h e i r p erm anent e s t a b l i s h m e n t on r e s e r v a t i o n s t h e A p ach es were a nomadic p e o p l e , d w e l l i n g i n b r u sh h u t s , s u b s i s t i n g on t h e p r o d u c t s o f t h e c h a s e and n a t i v e p l a n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y m e sc a l.

The a r t o f t h e men was w ar, t h a t o f

t h e women, b a s k e t m a k in g . form o f e x i s t e n c e ,

The Navaho p r o b a b ly l e d t h e same

rendered a l i t t l e

more s u r e by t h e c u l ­

t i v a t i o n o f s m a l l f i e l d s o f co r n and b e a n s , b e f o r e t h e a c ­ q u i s i t i o n o f f l o c k s and h e r d s tu r n e d them i n t o s h e p h e r d s . D i v i s i o n o f Labor and P o s i t i o n o f Women A lt h o u g h t h e c u l t u r e s o f t h e two d i v i s i o n s o f t h e A th a p a sc a n t r i b e s o f t h e s o u t h w e s t w ere s a i d t o be b a s i c a l l y t h e sam e, t h e p o s i t i o n and i n f l u e n c e o f women i n e a c h was r a d ic a lly d iffe r e n t.

W hereas e a r l y o b s e r v e r s r e p e a t e d l y

r e f e r r e d t o Apache women a s d r u d g e s ,

s u b s e r v i e n t i n a l l w ays

t o t h e men, s y m p a t h i s i n g w i t h t h e i r w r e tc h e d c o n d i t i o n , t h e s i t u a t i o n i n r e g a r d t o t h e Navaho was j u s t t h e o p p o s i t e . The s t a t u s o f Navaho women was d e s e r v e d l y h i g h .

They c o n ­

t r o l l e d f a m i l y a f f a i r s and w ie l d e d g r e a t i n f l u e n c e i n t h e

ZZ 9 c o n c e r n s o f t h e t r i b e a s w e l l a s o f t h e i r im m e d ia te f a m i­ lie s. S i n c e t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e Apache on r e s e r v a t i o n s t h e i r a n c i e n t mode o f l i f e

h a s become g r e a t l y m o d i f i e d , f a r

more t h a n among t h e I n d i a n s o f t h e s o u t h w e s t e r n v i l l a g e s , and t h e r e l a t i v e ec o n o m ic p o s i t i o n s o f men and women h ave c o m p le te ly a l t e r e d .

O c c u p a t io n s o f men h ave a u t o m a t i c a l l y

c e a s e d , w h i l e t h o s e o f women h ave c o n t i n u e d and i n c r e a s e d . That t h e men w ere n o t i n h e r e n t l y l a z y i s

shown by t h e i r

s u c c e s s a t g a i n f u l o c c u p a t i o n s when s u c h May be s e c u r e d . Navaho men a l s o h a ve l o n g b e e n w elcom e a s l a b o r e r s on g ov ern m en t p r o j e c t s , r a i l r o a d s and r a n c h e s .

H o stilitie s

w h ich a cc o m p a n ied e a r l y r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e tw e e n w h i t e s and N avaho-A pache g ro u p s a p p a r e n t l y p r e v e n t e d a n y r e a l u n d e r ­ sta n d in g o f t h e ir n a t iv e m a te r ia l c u lt u r e s .

S in c e th e

e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f p e a c e t h e ec o n o m ic s i t u a t i o n among t h e N avaho, a l t h o u g h s t r o n g l y i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c , h a s c o m p l e t e l y changed.

I t h a s , m o r e o v e r , b een t h o r o u g h ly s t u d i e d from

n e a r l y e v e r y a n g l e by c o m p e te n t i n v e s t i g a t o r s .

The A p a ch e,

u n f o r t u n a t e l y , h a v e b e e n l a r g e l y n g g l e c t e d , and s u c h s t u d i e s a s h a v e b e e n u n d e r ta k e n h a v e d e a l t w it h s o c i a l and r e l i g i o u s p r o b le m s r a t h e r t h a n m a t e r i a l e u l t u r e . The Navaho women d id a l l t h e c o o k i n g , t o o k c a r e o f t h e h o u se and c h i l d r e n , s k in n e d d o m e s t i c a n im a l s a f t e r b u t c h e r i n g , p r e s e r v e d and co ok ed t h e m e a t , made a l l t h e

230 c l o t h i n g f o r women, e x c e p t m o c c a s i n s , wove b l a n k e t s f o r d o m e s t ic u s e and f o r t r a d e , and made some b a s k e t s and p o ttery .

The b u i l d i n g o f th e home was t h e work o f men, b u t

t h e d w e l l i n g became t h e p r o p e r t y o f t h e w i f e when c o m p le t e d . A g r i c u l t u r e , f o r m e r l y t h e work o f s l a v e s from o t h e r t r i b e s , became t h e work o f b o th Navao men and women a f t e r t h e d i s ­ c o n t in u a n c e o f s l a v e r y .

The h e r d s o f s h e e p from w hich t h e

Navaho o b t a i n e d t h e i r l i v e l i h o o d w ere u nd er t h e s u p e r v i s i o n o f women and c h i l d r e n , a s t h e y a r e t o d a y .

Women g a t h e r e d

s u c h w i l d p l a n t s a s were added t o t h e d i e t .

In e a r ly d ays

t h e t a s k s o f t h e men r e s e m b le d t h o s e o f t h e A p ach e, w it h t h e a d d i t i o n o f many c o m p l i c a t e d r i t u a l s and h e a l i n g c e r e ­ m o n ie s .

They w ere t h e m akers o f m o c c a s i n s , k n i t t e d t h e

f o o t l e s s s t o c k i n g s o r l e g g i n g s worn by men. women s h a r e d i n t h e r a i s i n g o f c h i l d r e n .

B o th men and

T here was no p o s i ­

t i o n w i t h i n t h e Navaho t r i b e t h a t women m ig h t n o t s h a r e . T h ere w ere m e d i c i n e women, a l t h o u g h t h e y w ere fe w i n number, w h i l e many who d i d n o t p r a c t i c e t h e a r t m em orized e h a n t s sung in h e a lin g ce r e m o n ie s.

G la d y s R e ic h a r d sums up t h e

p o s i t i o n o f Navaho women a s f o l l o w s : The Navaho woman e n j o y s g r e a t e c o n o m ic and s o c i a l p r e s t i g e a s t h e head o f t h e h o u s e and c l a n and a s t h e m anager o f e c o n o m ic a f f a i r s , and s h e i s n o t e x c lu d e d from r e l i g i o u s r i t u a l o r from a t t a i n i n g p o l i t i c a l h onors. The man e n j o y s t h e p r i v i l e g e s and p r e s t i g e o f t h e p o l i t i c a l and r e l i g i o u s l i f e and i s by no means unknown t o , or u n lo v e d b y , h i s c h i l d r e n . 1

^ G la d y s A. R e ic h a r d , S o c i a l L i f e o f t h e Navaho I n ­ d i a n s , Columbia U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 2 8 , p . 55

231

The A pache w ere nom ads, d e p e n d e n t on su c h w i l d f o o d s and game a s w ere p l e n t i f u l i n t h e i r h a b i t a t , s u p p le m e n te d by a v e r y s m a l l amount o f a g r i c u l t u r e .

As t h e o n l y and im p o r­

t a n t b u s i n e s s o f men was h u n t i n g and r a i d i n g ,

t o t h e women

n a t u r a l l y f e l l t h e c a r e o f t h e camp, t h e b u i l d i n g o f t h e f l i m s y b r u s h s h e l t e r s i n w h ic h t h e y l i v e d ,

g a th e r in g o f

v e g e t a b l e f o o d s , p r e s e r v a t i o n and p r e p a r a t i o n o f a l l m e a ts and v e g e t a b l e s , and t h e b e a r i n g o f b u r d e n s and b a g g a g e on t h e m arch .

I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e A pache woman p e r fo r m e d t h e

d u t i e s o f an y nom adic h o u s e w i f e .

B efo re r e s e r v a t i o n days

t h e men f o u g h t , h u n t e d , made t h e i r war and c e r e m o n i a l p a r a ­ p h e r n a l i a and g a m b le d .

Much o f t h e i r l i v e l i h o o d was g a i n e d

by r a i d i n g more f o r t u n a t e t r i b e s ,

such a s th e a g r i c u l t u r a l

Pima and P u e b l o , w i t h t h e i r f u l l s t o r e h o u s e s .

A fte r th e

i n t r o d u c t i o n o f d o m e s t i c a n im a l s t h e y became a d e p t s a t c a t t l e r u s t l i n g and h o r s e t h i e v i n g , d e s c e n d i n g on t h e f l o c k s and h e r d s o f I n d i a n s and C a u c a s ia n s a l i k e .

Men and women b o t h

d r e s s e d s k i n s o f a n i m a l s , and women p r o b a b ly m a n u fa c tu r e d c l o t h i n g , a l t h o u g h i n f o r m a t i o n i s r a t h e r v a gu e on t h a t p a r ­ t ic u la r p o in t.

B oth men and women made m o c c a s i n s .

were s k i l l e d b a s k e t m a k e r s , and a l s o made a l i t t l e

Women o f the

t y p i c a l , ro u g h c o o k in g p o t t e r y fo u n d t h r o u g h o u t t h e r e g i o n . They c u l t i v a t e d t h e f i e l d s d u r in g t h e p r e - r e s e r v a t i o n p e r i o d , and g a t h e r e d t h e h a r v e s t .

On t h e r e s e r v a t i o n men h e l p e d w i t h

t h e p lo w in g and i r r i g a t i o n o f t h e f i e l d s .

Among t h e w e s t e r n

232

Apache women made t h e c r a d l e s , brewed t i s w i n ,

th e i n t o x i ­

c a t i n g d r in k o f t h e t r i b e , made b e l t s and o t h e r b ead w ork, and d r e s s e d t h e h a i r o f t h e i r h u sb a n d s a s w e l l a s t h e i r own. T h at women had some p o s i t i o n and i n f l u e n c e , h o w e v e r , was p r o v e d by t h e p r e s e n c e o f m e d ic in e women i n a l l t h e b a n d s . Among t h e W este rn Apache m e d ic in e women a s s i s t e d

in h e a lin g

c e r e m o n ie s, le d c e r t a i n o f th e r i t u a l d a n c es, in c lu d in g th a t h e l d f o r g i r l s a t m a t u r i t y , and g a t h e r e d c a t - t a i l p o l l e n f o r r e lig io u s u se. C h ir ic a h u a women f e t c h e d wood and w a t e r , g a t h e r e d w i l d f o o d s , p r e p a r e d and c o o k e d t h e f o o d ,

cared fo r th e c h ild r e n ,

wove b a s k e t s , ta n n e d t h e h i d e s and made t h e c l o t h i n g .

The

s h a r e o f t h e men w as h u n t i n g , r a i d i n g , f i g h t i n g and m aking w eapons.

Young w iv e s and m a id e n s were e x p e c t e d t o a c c o m p l i s h

l e s s th a n t h e o l d e r women, b u t a s g i r l s m ig h t be m a r r ie d a s y o u n g ©s t w e l v e , t h a t d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r m e r e ly r e l i e v e d t h e c h i l d r e n o f t a s k s b eyon d t h e i r s t r e n g t h . The d u t i e s o f M e s c a le r o women were c l o s e l y a l l i e d t o th o s e o f th e C h ir ic a h u a . J ie a r illa

women, i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e u s u a l d u t i e s ,

had im p o r t a n t r i t u a l d u t i e s c o n n e c t e d w it h t h e war and h u n tin g a c t i v i t i e s

o f t h e i r m ale r e l a t i v e s .

The r i t u a l

d u t i e s o f t h e w i f e o f a man away on a h un t had an im p o r ta n t i n f l u e n c e on h i s s u c c e s s , w h i l e t h e c o n d u c t o f t h e f e m a le s p o n s o r o f a w a r r io r was o f e q u a l moment.

S u b siste n c e A lt h o u g h f o o d h a b i t s w ere a l t e r e d w i t h t h e t r a n s f e r from nom ad ic t o r e s e r v a t i o n l i f e ,

c h a n g e s were n o t s o g r e a t

among t r i b e s r e m a in in g more o r l e s s ta t •

in t h e ir o r ig in a l h a b i­

The a c q u i s i t i o n o f f l o c k s w h ic h ch anged t h e Navaho

from h u n t e r s and g a t h e r e r s t o f a r m e r s and h e r d e r s a l s o a f f e c t e d t h e i r d i e t and m eth od s o f c o o k e r y .

The t r a d e r ' s

w h e a t f l o u r r e p l a c e d c o r n ground on t h e m e t a t e .

A sta b le

f o o d s u p p ly d id away w it h t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r c o l l e c t i o n o f w ild fo o d s ex c ep t in unusual se a so n s or a s d a i n t i e s .

Many

p l a n t s w h ic h had a p p e a r e d a t m e a ls w ere now lo o k e d upon a s fodder fo r sh eep. a lte r e d .

Apache s u b s i s t e n c e c u sto m s w ere l e s s

Farm ing i n c r e a s e d and b e e f s u p p la n t e d w i l d a n i m a l s

a s f o o d , b u t w i l d p l a n t s s t i l l form ed an im p o r ta n t p a r t o f th e d i e t . E a r l y Navaho f o o d s i n c l u d e d c o r n , m e a l made from" t h e s e e d s o f many d i f f e r e n t p l a n t s ,

b e a n s , m e lo n s , s q u a s h e s ,

v e n i s o n , f l e s h o f o t h e r a n i m a l s , and t e a s made from n a t i v e herbs.

F i s h h a v e n e v e r b een e a t e n by t h e N a va h o.

More r e ­

c e n t l y c o m m e r c ia l c o r n m e a l and w h ea t f l o u r , m u tto n and b e e f h ave b e e n s u b s t i t u t e d f o r c o r n ground on t h e m e t a t e and d e e r m ea t; m e lo n s , w h e a t and p o t a t o e s were ad ded t o t h e p r o d u c t s o f t h e farm ; w h i l e c o f f e e , n a tiv e d r in k s.

t e a and e v e n g o a t ' s m i l k r e p l a c e d

Only a few o f t h e o l d r e c i p e s a r e s t i l l f o l ­

lo w e d , c h i e f l y f o r c e r e m o n ia l f e a s t s ,

su ch a s t h e g i r l ’ s

com in g o f a g e ce re m o n y , and t h e N ig h t Chant* la tte r ,

D u r in g t h e

f o r i n s t a n c e , many o f t h e o l d f o o d s a r e s e r v e d ,

i n c l u d i n g a s p e c i a l w h i t e c o r n m eal m ush, g r e e n s from th e l e a v e s and b r a n c h l e t s o f b e e weed; a w a te r y s t e w or g r a v y made from t h e same i n g r e d i e n t s ; a s w e e t b r e a d made p a r t l y o f chewed m eal baked i n an u n d erg ro u n d o v e n ; a s o r t o f ca k e o r d u m p lin g made from t h e p u lp o f g r e e n c o r n wrapped i n c o r n h u s k s and b o i l e d i n w a t e r , r e s e m b l i n g when done t h r e e d eer’ s ears;

t h e Navaho v a r i e t y o f w a fe r b r e a d made from

d i f f e r e n t c o l o r e d c o r n m e a ls ; p u lp o f u n r ip e c o r n , ground and baked on g r e e n h u s k s sa n d w ic h e d b e tw e e n l a y e r s o f em­ b e r s ; v e r y t h i n mush; s t i f f c a k e s made o f chewed and baked c o r n m e a l, e n c a s e d i n c o r n h u sk s and baked a g a i n i n h o t a s h e s ; a t h i n b a t t e r s p r e a d on h o t c o a l s t o b ake; d r i e d g r e e n c o r n ground w i t h w a t e r t o a p u lp t h e n e n c a s e d i n c o r n h u sk s f o l d e d a t t h e e n d s and baked b e tw e e n c o r n l e a v e s and hot c o a ls;

c o r n m e a l d u m p lin g s wrapped i n h u s k s and b o i l e d ;

p l a i n b o i l e d c o r n m ea l d u m p lin g s ; g r a y mush made o f co rn m ea l m ixed w i t h c e d a r a s h e s ;

th ic k f l a t cakes o f s a lt e d

m e a l baked on a h o t s t o n e ; b o i l e d g r e e n s from t h e l e a v e s o f 8 an u n i d e n t i f i e d p l a n t * C e r t a i n l y t h e a b o v e menu s u g g e s t s t h a t i n a n c i e n t t i m e s t h e Navaho c u i s i n e d id n o t l a c k f o r v a r i e t y , and i t

c o m p r is e s b u t a s m a l l p o r t i o n o f what was

^ W a sh in g to n M a tth e w s, The N ig h t C h a n t, a Navaho Ceremony, 1 9 0 2 , Memoirs A m erican Museum o f N a t u r a l H i s t o r y , V o l . V I, p p . 4 7 - 4 8

235

ea ten .

T here w a s , f o r i n s t a n c e , a c e r t a i n mush o f c o r n

m eal s t i r r e d i n t o b o i l i n g w a t e r w i t h c e d a r a s h e s added f o r f l a v o r and c o l o r .

A n o th e r mush c o n s i s t e d o f e q u a l p a r t s o f

c o r n m ea l and w a t e r , s t i l l a n o t h e r o f c r a c k e d c o r n . o f co r n b o i l e d ,

t h e n h u l l e d on t h e m e t a t e and f i n a l l y ground

f i n e served a s con cen trated r a tio n fo r t r a v e lin g . be e a t e n p l a i n ,

K e r n e ls

I t c o u ld

or m o is t e n e d w i t h w a t e r , i n d i s p e n s a b l e v a -

l u e s f o r r a i d i n g o r war p a r t i e s , o r f o r a man t r a v e l i n g a l o n e . C o o k in g u t e n s i l s w ere s i m p l e , - - a c o o k in g p o t o r tw o , m e t a t e and rnano, and f l a t s t o n e g r i d d l e f o r w a fe r b r e a d . The u n d er g ro u n d oven was u s e d f o r b a k in g c o r n p u d d in g ; mush and s t e w s were b o i l e d i n e a r t h e r n b o v /ls , s t i r r e d w it h bun­ d l e s o f from on e t o e l e v e n b l a c k g re a se w o o d s t i c k s * number o f s t i c k s was a lw a y s u n e v e n .

The

Cups w ere made o f

g o u r d s , p o t t e r y , b u r n t - o u t p i n e w a r t s , o r worn and h o l l o w e d m i l l s t o n e s c h ip p e d t o c o n v e n i e n t s i z e .

4

A lt h o u g h a g r i c u l t u r e was one o f t h e m ost im p o r t a n t i n d u s t r i e s o f t h e N avaho, a c c o u n t s o f Navaho fa r m in g h a v e been m eager.

The e a r l y o b s e r v e r s i n t h e r e g i o n o v e r l o o k e d

t h e s m a l l , h id d e n f i e l d s i n t h e i r i n t e r e s t i n t h e f l o c k s o f sh eep d o t t i n g th e barren h i l l s .

Only r e c e n t l y h a s t h e im­

p o r t a n c e o f fa r m in g i n Navaho c u l t u r e b e e n f u l l y r e c o g n i z e d . 3 F r a n c i s c a n F a t h e r s , An E t h n o l o g i c a l D i c t i o n a r y o f t h e Navaho L a n g u a g e , p p . 2Q4-