The Comprehensive Digital Photography Course: The Beginner’s Guide to Getting Creative with Photography and Taking Beautiful Pictures

Table of contents :
Copyright
MY OTHER BOOKS
PART 1: BASICS OF IMAGE DESIGN
CHAPTER 1
THE LIGHT
Why is Light so Important for Photography?
The Effect of Light
Direct Light and Reflected Light
Photography is Painting with Light
Light is not the Same as Flash
Light Has a Color or the Function of White Balance
Strong Reflections Affect the Color of the Light
Light from Highly Concentrated To Diffuse
Atmospheric Landscapes
The Direction of Light
Incident
The Camera Flash and Flash Units
Natural Light, Available Light
Back Light
Grazing Light
Special Lighting Situations
Outdoor Portrait and Object Photography
CHAPTER 2
THE COLOR
Color is a Defining Design Element in Color Photos
Less Is Often More
Moods and the Automatic White Balance
Exact Color Rendering
Monochrome Color Photos
Simplicity of Colors
Vineyards in Autumn
Foreground Colors and Background Colors
Yellow is Also one of the Foreground Colors
CHAPTER 3
IMAGE SECTION
Enhance the Effect of an Image with the Image Detail
The Effect of Diagonals
The Middle is Not Always Correct
The Golden Ratio and the Aspect Ratio 4/3
The 4: 3 Image Axes
The Golden Cut
Balance in Image Design
Specify the Image Section Later
Image Statement and Image Section
Image Sections Never With the Original
Choosing the Right Format
Find the Image Section
Image Section Using a Practical Example
Find the Image Section
Angle of View and Recording Location
CHAPTER 4
DEPTH OF FIELD
The Depth of Field and the Level of Focus
Depth of Field and Size of the Sensor Surface
The Advantage of the Larger Format
Controlling Depth of Field
The aperture
The Focus Level
With The Choice of the Focus Level Influence the Focus
The Focal Length
Portrait Lenses
CHAPTER 5
FOCAL LENGTH
Use the Focal Length of a Lens as a Design Tool
What is the Focal Length?
The Focal Length of the Lens has Several Properties
The APS Sensor and the Angle of View
Portraits and the APS Sensor
The Depth of Field and the APS Sensor
Format Factor
Exposure Time and Telephoto Lenses
Use the Different Focal Lengths for the Image Design
The properties of the Focal Lengths Depend on the Angle of View
Use the Focal Length for the Design
Portrait Lens
Characteristics of the Different Focal Lengths
Wide Angle Lenses
Depth Graduation
Depth of Field
Angle of View Rejuvenation
Falling Lines
Barrel Distortion
The Standard Focal Length
Best Sharpness and Light Intensity
Sharpness and Depth of Field
Use the Advantages of the Standard Focal Length for Image Design
Telephoto Lenses
The Optical Properties of Telephoto Lenses
Depth of Field
Distortion
Angle of View rejuvenation
Light Intensity
Exposure Time
Distant Objects
Portraits
Shallow Depth of Field Means Being Careful
Focal Length and Distance Setting
CHAPTER 6
EXPOSURE TIME
Exposure Time as the Basic Camera Setting for Sharp Photos
Keep the Camera Still
Breathing Rhythm
The Camera
The Lens Used or the Zoom Level Set
Photos from a Vehicle or Plane
Long Exposure from a Tripod with SLR Cameras
Mirror Lock-Up
Remote Release
Image Stabilizer
The Exposure Time as a Creative Design Element
Freeze Movements
Freeze Movements in the Studio
Make Movements Visible
Blurred Background
Light Trails at Night
PART 2: AREAS OF PHOTOGRAPHY
CHAPTER 7
PORTRAIT AND ACT
The Lighting for Portrait and Nude Photography
Eyes and Mouth in Portrait Photo
General Rules for Portrait Photos
Facial Expression and Posture
The Photographer as a Director
Motivate the Model
Unsure In Front of the Camera
Nude Photography with Amateur Photo Models
The Difference, the Professional Photo Model
The Face as a Determining Image Factor
Mastery of Depth of Field
Nude Photography Detached From the Portrait
Atmospheric or with a Neutral Background?
The Search for the Right Environment
Railway Facilities and Old Factory Premises
The Right Light for a Portrait
Light That You Should Definitely Avoid
Light Forms
The Right Focal Length for Portrait and Nude Photography
The Right Exposure
Steady Light
Flash System
Background Cardboard
Stage Molton
Width and Distance
One Model, Many Faces
CHAPTER 8
LANDSCAPE PHOTOGRAPHY
The Recording Location Often Decides
Strong Contrasts in Landscape Photos
The Image Division in the Landscape Photo
There Are No Magic Recipes for Landscape Photos
The Optimal Exposure
CHAPTER 9
WILDLIFE PHOTOGRAPHY
Animals In Front Of the Camera
Photographing Wildlife
Photographing Wildlife in Parks
Pets In Front Of the Camera
CHAPTER 10
ARCHITECTURE PHOTOGRAPHY
Falling Lines
Compensate Falling Lines Later
Overall Sharpness
Depth of Field
Architectural Photography Indoors
The Light in Architectural Photography
Perfect Architectural Photos
Architectural Photos and the Right
CHAPTER 11
OBJECT PHOTOGRAPHY
Reflective Surfaces
What Lighting Do You need for Object Photography?
Sensitivity to Light, a Significant Advantage of Digital Photography
The Minimum Requirements for Object Photography
Buying a Flash System?
Special Lighting Devices in Object Photography
The Light Tent
The Light Table
The Makeshift Shooting Table
Watches and Jewelry
Soft Backlit Photos
CHAPTER 12
PANORAMIC PHOTOGRAPHY
Basics for the Preparation of Panoramic Pictures
Exposure
Specific Examples of Panoramic Images
The Next Steps after Assembling the Panorama Picture
What You Have to Pay Attention to When Using a Tripod
People or Animals in the Panorama Photo
Portrait or Landscape Format?
Partial Panoramas
360 ° Panoramic Photos
Embed the Panorama Picture in a Website
PART 3: PHOTOGRAPHY TECHNIQUES
CHAPTER 13
UNDERSTAND THE CAMERA
Similarities with the Human Eye
The Regulation of the Amount of Light
The Automatic Focus
The Focal Length or the Angle of View
The Main Differences Between the Human Eye and a Camera
Regulation of the Amount of Light
High-Contrast Situations or Image Motifs
Distance Setting or Autofocus
Automatic Functions and Motif Programs
CHAPTER 14
CAMERA SETTINGS
The Main Camera Settings
How to Get the Focus Where You Want It
The Two Basic Settings of the Autofocus
Continuous Autofocus Adjustment
Autofocus Problem
Measuring Methods and Measuring Fields
The Integral Measurement
The Measurement Emphasized In the Middle
The Spot Metering
Alternative to Spot Metering
ISO Sensitivity
White Balance
What Does White Balance Actually Mean?
Storage Format for Photos
JPEG Quality Levels
Different Raw Data Formats
Color Space
CHAPTER 15
THE RIGHT EXPOSURE
Exposure Setting With the Automatic Functions of the Camera
The Different Programs
Fully automatic, Selector Wheel P
Automatic Timer, Aperture Preselection, AV Dial
The Automatic Shutter, Time Delay, TV Dial
Make Movements Visible or Freeze
ISO Preselection, Automatic Shutter and Aperture
Why ISO Code?
The Measuring Ranges
Integral Measurement
The Center-Weighted Measurement
The Spot Measurement
Automatic Functions Occasionally Also a Little Problem
Set the Correct Exposure Manually
The Sensor Sensitivity
ISO Setting and Manual Exposure
Small Test for ISO Automatic
The ISO Values
What is ISO Value?
Priorities or Compromises
Light Sensitivity Is the Basis for the Correct Exposure Setting
The Regulation of the Amount of Light
Full Aperture Steps
Relationship between Aperture and Exposure Time
Optimal Exposure
How to Get the Optimal Exposure
A Simple Way to Find the Optimal Exposure
A Major Advantage of Digital Photography
CHAPTER 16
THE WHITE BALANCE
The Color of Light and Its Measurement
The Function of White Balance
Presets for White Balance
The Manual White Balance
Manual White Balance Not Possible
Color Moods and White Balance
Artificial Light and White Balance
Absolutely Correct Images for Printing
No Rule without Exception
The White Balance and Indirect Flash
The White Balance and the Raw Data Format
The Different Raw Data Formats
The Way Out Of the Jungle of Raw Data Formats
Software for the Archiving and Processing Of Raw Data Formats
CHAPTER 17
THE CAMERA
Minimum Requirements for a Digital Camera
Cameras Suitable For Creative Photography
Mirrorless System Cameras
Aps Sensor, Full Frame or Even the Digital Medium Format?
APS Sensor
Disadvantages of the APS Sensor
Advantages of the APS Sensor
The Full Format
Digital Medium Format Cameras
APS Sensor or Full Frame
Further Selection Criteria When Buying a Camera
The Casing, the Body
The Material of the Case
The Quality of the Closure
Casing Protection against Dust and Splash Water
The Display
The Mirror Mechanism
Mirror Lock-up
Image Stabilizer
The Sensor Sensitivity (ISO settings)
The Pixel Madness
The Autofocus and the Measuring Fields
Exposure Programs
Types of Cameras
Cameras with a Built-In Lens
Pocket Cameras
Bridge Cameras
Mirrorless System Cameras
Digital SLR Cameras
CHAPTER 18
LENSES
Kit Lens, Yes or No?
The Focal Length Range Of Zoom Lenses
Two Zoom Lenses for the Most Important Focal Length Range
Three Zoom Lenses for a Larger Focal Length Range
Important Selection Criteria for Lenses
Light Intensity
Sharpness Performance
Does it Always Have to Be the Best?
Lens Material
Can You Still Rely on Brand Names?
Used Lenses
Basic Properties When Buying Used Lenses
Further Restrictions When Using Older Lenses
Autofocus on Older Lenses
Older Zoom Lenses
Sliding Zoom Lenses
Modern Zoom Lenses
Prime Lenses
Old Wide Angle Lenses
Buying Used Lenses on eBay
Commercial Dealers on eBay
Commercial Traders Who Disguise Themselves as Private Individuals
Used Lenses from the Stationary Photo Trade
Lenses and the APS Sensor
Special Lenses
Shift Lenses
Tilt Lenses
Tilt/Shift Lenses
Macro Lenses
Extremely Strong Telephoto Lenses
Fisheye Lenses
CHAPTER 19
FILTER
Which Filters are Still Recommended Today?
White Balance Filter
Skylight Filter
UV Filter
Polarizing Filter
What Does a Polarization Filter Do?
What Do You Need the Polarizing Filter for?
The Two Types of Polarizing Filters
The Linear Polarization Filter
How Do You Use a Polarization Filter?
Use the Polarizing Filter Deliberately To Intensify Reflections
Autofocus and Polarization Filter
Can I Use a Linear Polarizing Filter on the Digital Camera?
Recognizing a Circular Polarizing Filter
Infrared Filter
Effect Filter
Graduated Filters
More Color Correction Filters
Gray Filter
Soft Focus
Alternative to the Soft Focus Filter
CHAPTER 20
THE HOME STUDIO
Minimum Requirements for a Home Studio
First the Simplest, the Background
Paper Background
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Paper Background
Endless Background Made of Stage Molton
The Lighting
What Do You Need At Least?
Color Temperature of the Light
Minimum Required Light Intensity
Comfortable Handling
Halogen Lights from the Hardware Store
Video Lights
Studio Lamps
Flash Systems
Robustness and Longevity
Maintenance of a Flash System
Procurement of Spare Parts
The Components of a Flash System
Different Reflectors and Soft Boxes
The Slit Closure and Flash Systems
Comparison of Lamps And Flash Systems
Daylight Lamps
Other Accessories for a Home Studio
The Cost of a Home Studio
CONCLUSION
APPENDIX
Frequently Asked Questions
INDEX

Citation preview

THE COMPREHENSIVE

DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY COURSE The Beginner’s Guide to Getting Creative with Photography and Taking Beautiful Pictures

ERIC ANDERSON

Copyright All rights reserved. No section of this book or any part therein may be distributed, reproduced or stored in a retrieval system in whatsoever manner or by any means, including photocopying, recording or any other forms of transmission without the express written consent of the publisher, except as permitted under section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act. Copyright © 2020 Eric Anderson

MY OTHER BOOKS 1. The Complete Digital Photography Book 2. Mastering Digital Photography 3. Nikon D90 4. Mastering Digital Cameras

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Copyright MY OTHER BOOKS PART 1: BASICS OF IMAGE DESIGN CHAPTER 1 THE LIGHT Why is Light so Important for Photography? The Effect of Light Direct Light and Reflected Light Photography is Painting with Light Light is not the Same as Flash Light Has a Color or the Function of White Balance Strong Reflections Affect the Color of the Light Light from Highly Concentrated To Diffuse Atmospheric Landscapes The Direction of Light Incident The Camera Flash and Flash Units Natural Light, Available Light Back Light Grazing Light Special Lighting Situations Outdoor Portrait and Object Photography

CHAPTER 2 THE COLOR Color is a Defining Design Element in Color Photos Less Is Often More Moods and the Automatic White Balance Exact Color Rendering Monochrome Color Photos Simplicity of Colors Vineyards in Autumn Foreground Colors and Background Colors

Yellow is Also one of the Foreground Colors

CHAPTER 3 IMAGE SECTION Enhance the Effect of an Image with the Image Detail The Effect of Diagonals The Middle is Not Always Correct The Golden Ratio and the Aspect Ratio 4/3 The 4: 3 Image Axes The Golden Cut Balance in Image Design Specify the Image Section Later Image Statement and Image Section Image Sections Never With the Original Choosing the Right Format Find the Image Section Image Section Using a Practical Example Find the Image Section Angle of View and Recording Location

CHAPTER 4 DEPTH OF FIELD The Depth of Field and the Level of Focus Depth of Field and Size of the Sensor Surface The Advantage of the Larger Format Controlling Depth of Field The aperture The Focus Level With The Choice of the Focus Level Influence the Focus The Focal Length Portrait Lenses

CHAPTER 5 FOCAL LENGTH Use the Focal Length of a Lens as a Design Tool What is the Focal Length? The Focal Length of the Lens has Several Properties The APS Sensor and the Angle of View Portraits and the APS Sensor

The Depth of Field and the APS Sensor Format Factor Exposure Time and Telephoto Lenses Use the Different Focal Lengths for the Image Design The properties of the Focal Lengths Depend on the Angle of View Use the Focal Length for the Design Portrait Lens Characteristics of the Different Focal Lengths Wide Angle Lenses Depth Graduation Depth of Field Angle of View Rejuvenation Falling Lines Barrel Distortion The Standard Focal Length Best Sharpness and Light Intensity Sharpness and Depth of Field Use the Advantages of the Standard Focal Length for Image Design Telephoto Lenses The Optical Properties of Telephoto Lenses Depth of Field Distortion Angle of View rejuvenation Light Intensity Exposure Time Distant Objects Portraits Shallow Depth of Field Means Being Careful Focal Length and Distance Setting

CHAPTER 6 EXPOSURE TIME Exposure Time as the Basic Camera Setting for Sharp Photos Keep the Camera Still Breathing Rhythm The Camera The Lens Used or the Zoom Level Set Photos from a Vehicle or Plane

Long Exposure from a Tripod with SLR Cameras Mirror Lock-Up Remote Release Image Stabilizer The Exposure Time as a Creative Design Element Freeze Movements Freeze Movements in the Studio Make Movements Visible Blurred Background Light Trails at Night

PART 2: AREAS OF PHOTOGRAPHY CHAPTER 7 PORTRAIT AND ACT The Lighting for Portrait and Nude Photography Eyes and Mouth in Portrait Photo General Rules for Portrait Photos Facial Expression and Posture The Photographer as a Director Motivate the Model Unsure In Front of the Camera Nude Photography with Amateur Photo Models The Difference, the Professional Photo Model The Face as a Determining Image Factor Mastery of Depth of Field Nude Photography Detached From the Portrait Atmospheric or with a Neutral Background? The Search for the Right Environment Railway Facilities and Old Factory Premises The Right Light for a Portrait Light That You Should Definitely Avoid Light Forms The Right Focal Length for Portrait and Nude Photography The Right Exposure Steady Light Flash System Background Cardboard Stage Molton

Width and Distance One Model, Many Faces

CHAPTER 8 LANDSCAPE PHOTOGRAPHY The Recording Location Often Decides Strong Contrasts in Landscape Photos The Image Division in the Landscape Photo There Are No Magic Recipes for Landscape Photos The Optimal Exposure

CHAPTER 9 WILDLIFE PHOTOGRAPHY Animals In Front Of the Camera Photographing Wildlife Photographing Wildlife in Parks Pets In Front Of the Camera

CHAPTER 10 ARCHITECTURE PHOTOGRAPHY Falling Lines Compensate Falling Lines Later Overall Sharpness Depth of Field Architectural Photography Indoors The Light in Architectural Photography Perfect Architectural Photos Architectural Photos and the Right

CHAPTER 11 OBJECT PHOTOGRAPHY Reflective Surfaces What Lighting Do You need for Object Photography? Sensitivity to Light, a Significant Advantage of Digital Photography The Minimum Requirements for Object Photography Buying a Flash System? Special Lighting Devices in Object Photography The Light Tent The Light Table The Makeshift Shooting Table

Watches and Jewelry Soft Backlit Photos

CHAPTER 12 PANORAMIC PHOTOGRAPHY Basics for the Preparation of Panoramic Pictures Exposure Specific Examples of Panoramic Images The Next Steps after Assembling the Panorama Picture What You Have to Pay Attention to When Using a Tripod People or Animals in the Panorama Photo Portrait or Landscape Format? Partial Panoramas 360 ° Panoramic Photos Embed the Panorama Picture in a Website

PART 3: PHOTOGRAPHY TECHNIQUES CHAPTER 13 UNDERSTAND THE CAMERA Similarities with the Human Eye The Regulation of the Amount of Light The Automatic Focus The Focal Length or the Angle of View The Main Differences Between the Human Eye and a Camera Regulation of the Amount of Light High-Contrast Situations or Image Motifs Distance Setting or Autofocus Automatic Functions and Motif Programs

CHAPTER 14 CAMERA SETTINGS The Main Camera Settings How to Get the Focus Where You Want It The Two Basic Settings of the Autofocus Continuous Autofocus Adjustment Autofocus Problem Measuring Methods and Measuring Fields The Integral Measurement The Measurement Emphasized In the Middle

The Spot Metering Alternative to Spot Metering ISO Sensitivity White Balance What Does White Balance Actually Mean? Storage Format for Photos JPEG Quality Levels Different Raw Data Formats Color Space

CHAPTER 15 THE RIGHT EXPOSURE Exposure Setting With the Automatic Functions of the Camera The Different Programs Fully automatic, Selector Wheel P Automatic Timer, Aperture Preselection, AV Dial The Automatic Shutter, Time Delay, TV Dial Make Movements Visible or Freeze ISO Preselection, Automatic Shutter and Aperture Why ISO Code? The Measuring Ranges Integral Measurement The Center-Weighted Measurement The Spot Measurement Automatic Functions Occasionally Also a Little Problem Set the Correct Exposure Manually The Sensor Sensitivity ISO Setting and Manual Exposure Small Test for ISO Automatic The ISO Values What is ISO Value? Priorities or Compromises Light Sensitivity Is the Basis for the Correct Exposure Setting The Regulation of the Amount of Light Full Aperture Steps Relationship between Aperture and Exposure Time Optimal Exposure How to Get the Optimal Exposure

A Simple Way to Find the Optimal Exposure A Major Advantage of Digital Photography

CHAPTER 16 THE WHITE BALANCE The Color of Light and Its Measurement The Function of White Balance Presets for White Balance The Manual White Balance Manual White Balance Not Possible Color Moods and White Balance Artificial Light and White Balance Absolutely Correct Images for Printing No Rule without Exception The White Balance and Indirect Flash The White Balance and the Raw Data Format The Different Raw Data Formats The Way Out Of the Jungle of Raw Data Formats Software for the Archiving and Processing Of Raw Data Formats

CHAPTER 17 THE CAMERA Minimum Requirements for a Digital Camera Cameras Suitable For Creative Photography Mirrorless System Cameras Aps Sensor, Full Frame or Even the Digital Medium Format? APS Sensor Disadvantages of the APS Sensor Advantages of the APS Sensor The Full Format Digital Medium Format Cameras APS Sensor or Full Frame Further Selection Criteria When Buying a Camera The Casing, the Body The Material of the Case The Quality of the Closure Casing Protection against Dust and Splash Water The Display The Mirror Mechanism

Mirror Lock-up Image Stabilizer The Sensor Sensitivity (ISO settings) The Pixel Madness The Autofocus and the Measuring Fields Exposure Programs Types of Cameras Cameras with a Built-In Lens Pocket Cameras Bridge Cameras Mirrorless System Cameras Digital SLR Cameras

CHAPTER 18 LENSES Kit Lens, Yes or No? The Focal Length Range Of Zoom Lenses Two Zoom Lenses for the Most Important Focal Length Range Three Zoom Lenses for a Larger Focal Length Range Important Selection Criteria for Lenses Light Intensity Sharpness Performance Does it Always Have to Be the Best? Lens Material Can You Still Rely on Brand Names? Used Lenses Basic Properties When Buying Used Lenses Further Restrictions When Using Older Lenses Autofocus on Older Lenses Older Zoom Lenses Sliding Zoom Lenses Modern Zoom Lenses Prime Lenses Old Wide Angle Lenses Buying Used Lenses on eBay Commercial Dealers on eBay Commercial Traders Who Disguise Themselves as Private Individuals Used Lenses from the Stationary Photo Trade

Lenses and the APS Sensor Special Lenses Shift Lenses Tilt Lenses Tilt/Shift Lenses Macro Lenses Extremely Strong Telephoto Lenses Fisheye Lenses

CHAPTER 19 FILTER Which Filters are Still Recommended Today? White Balance Filter Skylight Filter UV Filter Polarizing Filter What Does a Polarization Filter Do? What Do You Need the Polarizing Filter for? The Two Types of Polarizing Filters The Linear Polarization Filter How Do You Use a Polarization Filter? Use the Polarizing Filter Deliberately To Intensify Reflections Autofocus and Polarization Filter Can I Use a Linear Polarizing Filter on the Digital Camera? Recognizing a Circular Polarizing Filter Infrared Filter Effect Filter Graduated Filters More Color Correction Filters Gray Filter Soft Focus Alternative to the Soft Focus Filter

CHAPTER 20 THE HOME STUDIO Minimum Requirements for a Home Studio First the Simplest, the Background Paper Background Advantages and Disadvantages of the Paper Background

Endless Background Made of Stage Molton The Lighting What Do You Need At Least? Color Temperature of the Light Minimum Required Light Intensity Comfortable Handling Halogen Lights from the Hardware Store Video Lights Studio Lamps Flash Systems Robustness and Longevity Maintenance of a Flash System Procurement of Spare Parts The Components of a Flash System Different Reflectors and Soft Boxes The Slit Closure and Flash Systems Comparison of Lamps And Flash Systems Daylight Lamps Other Accessories for a Home Studio The Cost of a Home Studio

CONCLUSION APPENDIX Frequently Asked Questions

INDEX

PART 1: BASICS OF IMAGE DESIGN Photography is not simply an image of reality, it has never been, but like the painting in its statement, it depends on many influences, which you as a photographer usually have in your hand as well as the painter with the brush has in hand. The most important thing when taking pictures is light. Photography and painting have a lot in common. Photography is painting with light.

The light and the appropriate exposure are the most important design elements of photography. The two flowers above were both photographed against the light. In the upper photo, almost total backlight from the afternoon sun, the camera was almost in line with the sun, while in the lower photo, the camera focused on the flowers at approximately right angles to the sun. By the way, the background in the photo above is white! Outside wall of a house, which was already in the shade. In the upper area, a window formed the background of this photo. It appears black in relation to the white wall. The short exposure makes the flowers shine. In the lower photo of the flowers, the bed is the background. The selected image section is another important element of the image design, that's what the next chapter is about.

The Image Detail Determines the Effect of a Photo The image section is just as important, except perhaps in panorama photography, where the attractive location is more important. With the right image section, you can significantly increase the effect of a photo. Image Detail, Diagonals, Dynamics and the Golden Ratio The selected focal length not only determines the image section, i.e. from a lot of background with a wide-angle lens to very little background with a telephoto lens, but also has a significant design function due to its specific optical properties. This is the topic of the next chapter. The Focal Length of the Lens as a Design Tool Focal lengths have absolute properties, especially depth of field and properties that depend on the angle of view. The size of the angle of view of a focal length depends on the size of the sensor or the film format. Cameras with APS sensors use the actual properties of a certain focal length on the one hand, and on the other hand, because their sensors only have 2 thirds of the area of a full-frame camera, they have a smaller usable angle of view. Because apart from the few lenses that were specially developed for the APS format are used on cameras with APS sensor lenses for the full format, which corresponds to the analog model 35mm format. A separate chapter is therefore assigned to this problem. The smaller picture angle does not change the optical properties of the lenses used. Although zoom lenses are constructed differently from fixed focal lengths, most of the statements made in the focal lengths chapter apply to both zoom lenses and fixed focal lengths. However, good focal lengths are still superior to a zoom lens in terms of imaging performance and light intensity.

Wide angle lenses pull everything far apart, a narrow river suddenly appears like a huge body of water, tends to be barrel-shaped distortions and everything is oversized in the foreground. Short focal lengths have an enormous depth of field, which is why they are always in demand when it comes to the largest possible area the depth of field goes. Telephoto lenses have the opposite effect, shortening the angle of view considerably but not distorting it and pushing the background and foreground together. With increasing focal length, telephoto lenses have an increasingly shallow depth of field, which is why they are also the ideal lenses for portraits. In between, the standard lens with 50 mm focal length stands for the 35 mm format corresponding to the full digital format. With this focal length, maximum light intensities and the best sharpness are achieved. In terms of its optical properties (depth of field, distortion), the normal lens is closer to wide-angle lenses than to telephoto lenses. Apparently, this focal length also corresponds to our perception, but this only applies to the depth gradation (size of objects in the foreground in relation to objects in the background). Because we have a viewing angle of approximately 180 °, but we only see about 7% of it with full focus. So there is no agreement with our own perception with regard to the angle of view of a normal lens. The absolute optical properties of the focal lengths, like the properties that

depend on the angle of view, are essential design elements in photography. Understand the focal length and use it for image creation An essential property of the focal length is the depth of field, which is an independent element of photographic image design. Together with the focus level (which was focused on), it becomes an important element of image design. Use Depth of Field and Sharpness Level for the Image Design The depth of field and the selected level of sharpness should not be underestimated for the image effect.

What Does that Mean? Depending on the chosen aperture, each lens has an area in which everything is clearly shown. What is in front of and behind this area is becoming increasingly blurred. The smaller the aperture, the greater the depth of field and vice versa, the lowest depth of field has a lens with an open aperture. The depth of field is an absolute property of the actual focal length. The depth of field is therefore initially dependent on the selected actual focal length and within this focal length on the aperture. The depth of field is an important element of image design but can only be used with a sufficiently large sensor. Because of the short focal lengths for small sensors, the depth of field for cameras with small sensors as well as for

strong wide-angle lenses for the full format extends over the entire image area and can only be used for design purposes if exactly that is desired. By choosing the level of focus and the appropriate focal length and aperture, you can significantly influence the depth of field of an image. The depth of field is regulated via the set focal length and the aperture. The appropriate exposure time is required for the set aperture. The right exposure is about photographic technology, while the next chapter is about the representation of movements by choosing the appropriate exposure time. Exposure Time and Aperture The combination of time and aperture not only regulates the amount of light that hits the sensor or film, but also the overall focus and the depth of field are regulated by the choice of the aperture and by the choice of the exposure time, like a movement in the image is pictured. The aperture and depth of field are dealt with in the depth of field chapter. The exposure time is about movements. Movements can be frozen by a short exposure time or on the contrary, made visible by a slightly longer exposure time because the movement frozen by a photo is not always desirable. Colors naturally play a very important role in image design. It's not just about warm or cool color moods, colorful or on the contrary, monochrome photos, but also about foregoing colors in black and white photos.

Use Colors Deliberately If we arrange pictures ourselves, for example, in the studio, we can of course, deliberately plan colors before taking a picture. But we can also influence many things when shooting outdoors. We can also use colors as a design element in subsequent image processing. The Overall Sharpness Another important design element in photography is overall sharpness. Apart from a few special tasks, a photo always needs a sharp area that the eye can hold onto when looking at it. This should also be the most important part of the photo. But a lens does not draw equally sharp across all aperture levels. A 35 mm

lens achieves its highest focus performance at apertures between 8 and 11. If you close the aperture beyond this range, you increase the depth of field, i.e. the area of spatial depth over which the focus extends, but with a slight loss at the same time the overall sharpness. Physically, the lower sharpness for very small apertures is due to the light diffraction at the small aperture. A lens has its lowest sharpness when the aperture is opened. These are basic things that you can use for yourself in any camera where you have an influence on these important image design elements in addition to the automatic. There is no separate chapter on overall sharpness. Maximum sharpness in the sharpness level and the selected range of depth of field is required in product photography, architectural photography and some other areas of photography. For maximum sharpness, the quality and size of the sensor and the quality of the lens (properties that cannot be changed for a combination of camera and lens) as well as the selected focal length, aperture and sensor sensitivity play a major role. You can only influence these latter parameters if you cannot use a different camera or lens instead. The best focus is achieved by high-quality normal lenses (fixed focal lengths) with a medium aperture. This imaging performance has never been achieved by any zoom lens, however expensive. With the sensor, not only the image resolution, i.e. the number of pixels plays a significant role in the resolution (sharp representation) of even the finest structures, but also the sensor size and only for newer sensors with very high resolutions, the absence of a low-pass filter. With a comparable number of pixels, a larger sensor draws much sharper than a smaller sensor. A sensor can only develop its full focus with its native sensitivity. Deviating ISO settings lead to a more or less clear loss of sharpness. However, the overall sharpness is less important for the image design than for the technical quality of a photo. Therefore, no separate sections within the image design.

CHAPTER 1 THE LIGHT Why is Light so Important for Photography? Because it is light that falls through the lens onto the sensor or film.

The Effect of Light Light sets the scene and influences the mood. It is not without reason that many people feel tired and sad in winter. Then there is less daylight and the body releases more melatonin - a hormone that makes you sleepy. In spring, when the sun shines more often, melatonin production is inhibited and you feel fitter and happier. There are now daylight lamps whose light spectrum is very similar to that of sunlight. Their light should have the same effect as sunlight and is used, for example, in the workplace, but can also be helpful in photography. The lighting technician has an important job at concerts, theater performances and other comparable events. The event only becomes an experience through spotlights, lighting effects and optimal lighting. Light and sound have to interact and support the action on stage. Film production is like photography: the right light ensures beautiful shots. That is why shooting and photo shoots are held outdoors at certain times when the light is particularly beneficial, for example in the "blue hour" - a special coloring of the sky at dawn.

Direct Light and Reflected Light

Either direct light when we photograph a light source like the sun, a torch or fireworks or reflected light.

Photography is Painting with Light

Light is not the Same as Flash Depending on the light source, light has its own color. Light can be strongly directed or diffuse, as we know it from a heavily overcast sky, light can strike the object head-on, so the camera flash makes it more or less from the side or even as backlight behind the object.

We can consciously include light in the design, by no means only in studio photography, where the control of light is the be-all and end-all of the work. First of all about the color of light:

Light Has a Color or the Function of White Balance Pure white light is almost never seen as natural light. That is why digital cameras have a white balance that automatically detects the deviations of light from pure white, be it incandescent light with a high proportion of red, candlelight with a much higher proportion of red or vice versa and the light in a snow-covered landscape with a cloudy sky and an extremely high proportion of blue should compensate. Because it is not so easy with automatic detection, there are various pre-settings for white balance and for high-quality cameras, manual white balance. On the one hand, white balance is part of light because it is about the color of light, on the other hand it is so extensive of its own material that a separate chapter is dedicated to it in the digital photography book within photo technology: white balance

Strong Reflections Affect the Color of the Light

Not only the light source, but also the surfaces reflecting the light such as snow or a meadow have a strong influence from the colors in a photo. A portrait on a green meadow can shift the light overall to green. However, green is a very disadvantageous color for a portrait, green as a complementary color to red extremely emphasizes skin impurities. This cannot even be removed above the Kelvin value, either by placing a lightly tinted filter in the complementary color on the camera beforehand, which filters out the high proportion of green in the reflected light or by working in an image processing program to achieve the same. In general, the better the picture, the better the result in the image editing program. Even the best image editing program can no longer produce image information that is already missing during the recording. The only thing you can then do with a lot of fine work is to try to iron out at least the grossest mistakes. The same applies in the high mountains, where the UV component in the light is particularly high and snow in the shadow areas also reflects extremely strongly blue. However, you can easily get this out again using the controller for the color temperature of the light because the color temperature of the light is about red and blue components. Provided, of course, that it was saved in raw data format and not as JPEG.

The determination of the color temperature, which was also inevitable for the demanding amateur in the past because errors in the recording could not be corrected afterwards in the slide film, is almost a thing of the past with digital

photography, at least to emphasize it again when you look at it basically only saves in raw data format and only occasionally uses this function for cameras that save both in raw data format and simultaneously as JPEG. Saving it as a JPEG has at least the advantage that you can then view the images on your computer without a program that can read raw data. There is not much more than JPEG format as storage format. It is a disaster for post-processing. I use this function always, for example, when I'm visiting friends, my friends don't have Photoshop or Adobe Bridge. The images are also saved in raw data format for subsequent editing at home. The JPEGs are deleted at home. The simultaneous saving in both formats is also useful if you take photos of models and then want to give the models the photos that have not yet been edited. Pay attention not only to the light color itself, but also to reflection surfaces such as snow or a green meadow, which can change the colors in the picture considerably.

Light from Highly Concentrated To Diffuse

There is strongly concentrated light in the blazing midday sun or in the studio when using a spotlight. Highly focused light is rather undesirable for most shooting situations. In the studio, the spotlight is practically never used as the main light, but rather to set gloss effects on a model's hair. The more the light is focused, the more it hits an object, the harder the shadows. Especially since a digital camera does not reach the contrast range

of a fine-grain slide film and the lights appear even more worn out and the shadows even deeper. So, if possible, do not take pictures in the blazing midday sun. The light in the morning or afternoon is much softer. The opposite light is in light fog:

Contours can hardly be recognized, colors are strongly dampened:

However, a rather diffuse light is preferable for portraits. Of course, there are exceptions; the previous black and white portrait was taken in the late afternoon in the blazing sun. The shadow areas are still sufficiently drawn through so that they are not just black. And without any rework in Photoshop. The photo was taken many years ago with a 6x6 SLR camera. The optimal light for most shooting situations is slightly diffuse, at least a soft light.

Atmospheric Landscapes But the most atmospheric landscapes are often created in a slightly cloudy sky with moving clouds. Here, it is the contrast between the areas darkened by the shadow of the clouds and the glow of the areas directly illuminated by the sun that can turn a normal landscape photo into a special picture.

Instead of moving clouds, as in these photos, it can simply be forest and clearing that set the tone.

The Direction of Light

Incident The most disadvantageous is light that strikes the object head-on, for example from the flash unit on the camera. A face appears extremely flat because the contours of the face blur in the light.

The Camera Flash and Flash Units Both the camera's own flash and a plug-on flash unit deliver the unfavorable direct incident light. With a flash on the camera, you destroy every atmosphere. The camera flash or the more powerful flash unit can only be used in reportage photography and for souvenir photos. With a clip-on flash unit, you can at least add some drawing to a picture if as you may have seen in photo reporters, you do not put it on the accessory shoe of the camera, but instead with an accessory rail slightly offset to the side of the camera connect to the camera. That is still not the yellow of the egg, it remains a horrible light, but it is still better than the flash directly above the lens that illuminates a model's eyes.

Natural Light, Available Light

Natural light and therefore atmosphere Photos that should have an effect beyond the memory value- you don’t open it with a flash or right next to the camera but best with the naturally available light. Sometimes, however, this is not so easy. The photo, which was taken, was only possible with a very bright lens. And even then, many photos had to be sorted out because the shortest possible exposure time of 1/90 second was still too long for fast movements. But the photos that remain show something of the atmosphere that would have been destroyed if a flash had been used.

Natural light during the day is completely problem-free, although even in these situations some pocket cameras want to switch the flash. When I walk around most times, I keep seeing tourists taking pictures. For some, the camera actually fires a flash; these photos are probably massively underexposed. It is actually logical that the small camera flash cannot illuminate a huge lock several hundred meters away. Natural light with poor lighting conditions, at dusk or in an interior, naturally requires either relatively long exposure times or high ISO values. But a lighting situation like the photo above could only be created with relatively great effort using artificial lighting. However, it is precisely these lighting situations that lead to particularly attractive photos. Direct incident light from the direction of the camera, especially through the camera flash or a flash unit, should be avoided as far as possible. You shouldn't have the sun in your back either; it's almost as bad as a camera flash. The light should always be slightly offset to the side by the photographer. However, the more offset to the side, the more the areas of shadow need to be brightened. If necessary, even the camera flash is suitable as a fill-in lamp. However, it is better to use reflective tapes that can be used in a very targeted manner. Even in the studio, you rarely make do with the light of even an extremely

soft main light from the Hazylight or a large softbox, but use another, weaker flash unit to brighten the shadows or instead use reflective tape or polystyrene panels. How different the same motif comes with different light can be seen in these two photos of a fruit bowl.

Back Light Backlighting poses special challenges for the photographer as well as the technology. Backlight comes in principle from any angle behind the object. Backlighting emphasizes the outer contours. Automatic camera control is usually overwhelmed with backlighting. Either in the middle of the measurement, the exposure is adjusted to the object, but the sky outshines it, so that even the contours in the overexposed area dissolve or vice versa, the automatic exposure control captures the bright sky and the object disappears in the deep shadow, only its contours are clear. If you do not have a manual exposure meter available, then it is best to use spot metering and measure different parts of the image individually. Then choose an average value from the exposure values determined in this way and try it out.

You can as well take some test photos with different exposure settings as in the example above and feel your way towards the optimal result. Finally, the display allows immediate control and subsequent correction of the exposure. You can also take a series of exposures with at least three photos each, which deviate from the optimal value up and down in a full aperture setting. With the HDR function of Photoshop or a specialized computer program, you can then have these images offset against each other and thus often get an impressive result.

Grazing Light

Sidelight lets something light up properly. This does not only apply to the blossom in the picture above, it also applies in particular to architecture, where you can really bring out the beauty of a facade with grazing light.

Grazing light is light that comes from almost 90 degrees from the side. This situation occurs in nature in the early evening when the sun is already close above the horizon and the object is at an almost 90 degrees angle to the sun. Contours are highlighted with grazing light. It can be demonstrated particularly clearly with these photos.

The facade of the building gets all the evening grazing light particularly good. For comparison, a picture taken in the afternoon, then the light comes to a certain extent from the side, but the grazing light is only available shortly before sunset. Grazing light emphasizes contours particularly vividly. The afternoon photo below would look even more boring compared to the photo above if it hadn't been spiced up in Photoshop.

Grazing light is also important for documenting, for example, accident damage, damage to a building facade and many other documentation, because the grazing light only really shows the damage. The camera flash is often fatal, with such photos can one the real one damage at best foreshadows, really immediately understandable for every viewer without further explanation, photos of for example, body damage, dents in a body and the like are usually only possible through the targeted use of grazing light. I have a lot of experience with photographic documentation for experts and as evidence in court. The more impressively a damage is demonstrated in a photo, the greater the likelihood that the judges will follow their own reasoning and classify the damage as significant as you do.

Special Lighting Situations

The castle below, which is of course one of the favorite photo motifs, comes best in the evening light, which as a light grazing light with its high red component literally lights up the sandstone walls.

During the day, the castle looks rather boring from a distance, the local sandstone almost merges in color with the forested background and the castle can hardly be seen. A direct comparison: The photo above was not postprocessed in Photoshop, but in order to be able to see anything of the lock against the background with which it almost merges, the color dynamics of the raw data file in Adobe Bridge have already been increased by 20%. Next, you see this picture again with a post-processing in Photoshop, which highlights the castle a little, even if the effect of the evening light cannot be achieved with any sophisticated tricks in Photoshop.

During the post-processing, the dark parts in the image were selected via Selection> Color range> Depths, provided with a soft edge of 80 pixels, the selection was duplicated with "Layer as copy" on a new layer, with the original layer with "multiply negatively" and 50% opacity charged. This level was duplicated again and offset with "soft light" also with 50% opacity with the second level. As a result, the castle and the trees in the foreground come into their own with the bright foliage of spring. But you can fool around with this photo as much as you want, but it won't be a good photo. It is simply not the right light for the castle. The photo taken from the opposite side of the castle just before sunset is quite different. In the photos taken during the day, the contrast in Photoshop has been increased considerably to make the lock visible at all against the background.

Outdoor Portrait and Object Photography You will rarely find the optimal light, especially if appointments have been made with photo models or you have an appointment to photograph a car. In such a case, it is good if you have one or two assistants to help you out with the help of reflective walls. Reflection walls are readily available for purchase, when not needed they can be folded into a small package. There are attachments for lamp tripods with which you can fix a reflex wall to the lamp tripod. Works without assistants who hold the tripod, but only when there is almost no wind. You can also build reflection walls yourself. Take a 3-5 mm (depending on size) thick plywood sheet and a silver foil that is coated on the back with

adhesive. A tripod thread can also be attached to the plywood panel and connected to the ball head of the camera tripod. A styrofoam plate without silver foil is sufficient for particularly soft light (outdoor: watch out for wind). With reflection walls, you can not only lighten shadows, but also direct light where you need it. In professional photography, portable, battery-operated flash systems are also used outdoors, but this is an effort that overwhelms an amateur both financially and in terms of personnel.

CHAPTER 2 THE COLOR Color is a Defining Design Element in Color Photos Color photos that are simply colorful are rarely perceived as good because color is not just an ingredient for a photo, but an essential design element for a color photo. Autumn colors are of course colorful and can also be in a photo.

Less Is Often More This also applies to the colors in a photo. Few, dominating colors up to the monochrome image lead to homogeneous photos without confusion. For some photos, it is better to forego the color entirely and instead convert it to grayscale images, i.e. black and white photos.

In the photo above, there are too many colors for my taste. The blue at the bottom right is particularly annoying. The eyes, whose blue is intensified by the neighboring blue at the bottom right, are almost aggressive. In black and white, here with a sepia tint, the disturbing colors disappear. The aggressive effect of the colored original has disappeared; nothing distracts the

gaze from the face, which suddenly appears more melancholic.

Colors reflect moods. Cool colors appear distant, warm colors homely. With rare exceptions, photos become effective if only one color dominates the picture. It doesn't have to be completely monochrome.

Moods and the Automatic White Balance The automatic white balance of a digital camera is helpful for many photographic tasks because the deviations in the color of light from pure white are more or less recognized and corrected. However, when it comes to replaying moods, it is better to deactivate it and manually set an appropriate value. Landscape photos and many other motifs are also about the lighting moods. However, the automatic white balance eliminates the lighting moods that conjure up daylight through its natural deviations from pure white. It makes a difference whether a landscape is bathed in warm or cool light.

The photo above has an emphatically cool color mood. This topic also applies to anyone who generally saves in raw data format, because the separate storage of the color channels enables subsequent correction without any problems. Color moods are often an essential element of the image statement in landscape photographs.

Exact Color Rendering The opposite is the case for photographic tasks that involve exact color reproduction. These are tasks that a photo amateur rarely, if ever, has to deal with. This task exists in product photography and especially in the color of company logos. The automatic white balance does not help; in this case the camera must be adjusted to the light color with manual white balance and a standardized gray card. If printing is about extreme accuracy, a standardized color wedge is photographed at the edge of the photo, which the printer needs for precise adjustment. For publications on the web, it does not have to be so precise because every monitor displays colors, brightness levels and contrasts differently anyway. Even 2 just calibrated monitors next to each other display colors slightly differently.

Monochrome Color Photos Monochrome in the strictest sense means that there is only one color in the photo with different brightness levels. You don't usually see it that narrow in photography. But one color should at least dominate with tints to the

neighboring colors. An old master of monochrome color photos is the American photographer Pete Turner, who was one of the role models of many photographers 50 years ago and still takes excellent photos.

Deliberate color falsifications are also permitted for monochrome color photos, as in this photo that was taken on an autumnal afternoon on a beach. I found the original blue boring; with a hint of turquoise the photo looks much stronger.

In this photo, the colors are original, a dream in pink.

Simplicity of Colors Simplicity of color goes in a similar direction to monochrome pictures. It's not necessarily a single color with its gradations like in strictly monochrome photos, but it's also not colorful. Both monochrome photos and these photos need the color, they would lose their effectiveness in black and white. The main attraction of these photos is that a single color dominates the picture with its fine gradations.

This also applies to the following photo, which was taken with a slightly longer exposure time from a TEE that was traveling at approximately 160 km/h. The trees directly on the embankment provide the colored wiping effect; the trees on the horizon are completely sharp.

Vineyards in Autumn The fascinating autumn colors of the vineyards, which range from yellow to red depending on the grape variety, are not simply colorful. The structure of the lines creates an additional visual appeal.

Foreground Colors and Background Colors

The colors in the picture have an essential function for the picture statement. Strong red as in the photo above not only pushes itself strongly into the foreground, but also looks aggressive as a large area.

This photo of tulips that have almost faded is certainly not a work of art, but shows the depth gradation through the red foreground and the blue that runs in the depths of the photo.

By choosing the right colors, you can extremely stagger images in depth. Red is a typical foreground color, blue is a typical background color. This effect was often used for church windows in Gothic style, the red foreground stands out plastically from the background and the window no longer appears twodimensional, but three-dimensional, but this effect is already quite clear in the photo above, the peony stands out clearly from the background. Green is also a background color, red has a particularly plastic effect on dark blue-green, because here it is not only the foreground and background colors that lead to the plastic effect, but also the complementary colors that significantly enhance the effect.

Yellow is Also one of the Foreground Colors

The photo of the rose was taken immediately after a heavy downpour with a completely overcast sky. Even with this diffuse light, the correct exposure to the rose was enough to only hint at the leaves, especially since the background is a dark brown border around the balcony. When correctly exposed to an object as bright as this rose in the foreground, the dark brown background becomes deep black. Yellow can be both a warm color like the rose photo above and a cool color like the bearded iris photo below. Yellow is a not unproblematic color in the screen display because even slight deviations in the screen setting can misrepresent yellow, either with a green tint (cool) or a red tint (warm).

Use foreground colors and background colors specifically for the image design When designing baroque parks, the properties of color as foreground and background colors were also often used. In the main axis of the park, beds with red and yellow blooming perennials and annuals were planted in the foreground, trees with blue-green foliage, for example the blue spruce, were used in the background. This optically resulted in a much larger park and thus a much longer axis than it actually was. So you can add depth to your photos.

CHAPTER 3 IMAGE SECTION Enhance the Effect of an Image with the Image Detail With the selection of the image section, you push the image of important parts to their final correct position, omit unnecessary parts and at the same time reinforce essential elements of the image design. When it comes to cropping, photography and painting have a lot in common.

By choosing the right image section, we not only leave out superfluous parts of the image and limit ourselves to the essentials, but can also influence two other important influencing options for the effect of an image, namely the diagonals in the image as well as the dynamics. By making the image the most important, move part out of the middle.

The Effect of Diagonals Since we read from left to right in Western culture and also capture an image from left to right, a diagonal that rises from left to right is a diagonal that we

perceive to be ascending. Conversely, we see a diagonal that falls from left to right as a falling diagonal. This alone can significantly enhance image statements or even completely disrupt them with the wrong diagonals. In case of doubt, you have to flip an image horizontally in an image editing program to get the right diagonal. No ascending diagonal fits a melancholic facial expression and conversely, dynamics are underlined with an ascending diagonal.

Take the two photos of the Bugatti as an example. In the photo above, there is a clear ascending diagonal. The car seems to be driving towards us, even though it is stationary. In contrast, the same Bugatti photographed slightly from above and from the other side. This time, a falling diagonal and thus the rather static effect. A still beautiful object and car, but the tremendous dynamic of the shape is somewhat lost due to the falling diagonal.

There are two diagonals in the photo below. The falling diagonal from hand to face automatically leads the eye to the face. This, in turn, is on a rising diagonal with the rest of the body. The viewer's gaze always follows the direction of the eyes, i.e. the outstretched hand or something behind it, but always returns to the face.

The Middle is Not Always Correct Slightly offset from the center often increases the dynamic of an image. Ideally, we are approaching the golden ratio or the 4: 3 ratio that is also used in the artistic representation. The golden ratio is familiar to almost everyone. The 4: 3 ratio, which is used at least as often in painting, is hardly popular,

although it is also of great importance for image design. In principle, both design guidelines mean that the most important element should lie on one of the coordinates of either the golden ratio or the 4: 3 division ratio. The question arises when the picture is taken, which element in a motif is the most important element. In the subsequent photo, the detail of the picture was chosen so that the right and the top axis of the golden section run between the two flowers on which the focus is placed and both flowers have approximately the same weight. A slightly different image section leads to a clearer effect. In this detail, the two axes of the golden section intersect exactly in the front flower dominating the image.

In a portrait, there are often three elements that are almost equally important, namely both eyes and the mouth. In the case of a larger building, there is often no important element at all within the motif, since it is the entire building.

The Golden Ratio and the Aspect Ratio 4/3

The golden ratio and the aspect ratio 4/3 are the two most important division ratios examined using an existing photo. A photo taken in negative format 6x6 cm many years ago serves as a template, in which I searched for the most effective image detail. 6x6 is a square format and therefore only the rough template for the later picture. Anyone who photographs with this format is aware that a section must always be selected afterwards in order to get to landscape or portrait format. In this photo, the entire lower quarter is immediately distracting. Especially since the arms and the chrome strip of the body of the picture are divided in half, with the lower quarter only disturbing. The selected image section was quickly found. Since, besides the lower area in the original picture, the cut window on the left behind the model bothers me and I didn't want to cut off my hands, I only had to remove something from the top to determine the final image section.

Furthermore, in a way to further play with the photo, a black and white layer with 62% opacity was placed over the picture. (Actually, it’s just to know how the photo would look in black and white. Image editing is often just playful curiosity).

The 4: 3 Image Axes

The number 7 is the symbol of perfection in many cultures. Its division into 3 and 4 is also common in many cultures. In Christianity, this division has a very special meaning, the 3 stands for the Holy Trinity, the 4 for the four elements. This is why this image division is possibly much more widespread in Christian culture than the golden ratio.

The red crosshair is the middle, the yellow crosshair is the upper left 4: 3 axis. Of the 4 coordinates, only the two axes that are essential for the face were drawn in, so that there is only one intersection instead of the possible 4 intersections. In this intuitively chosen image section, the nose root lies almost exactly on the left 4: 3 axis. The nostril plays an important role when I look for an effective image detail in a portrait in which both eyes are approximately equally important elements. However, the 4: 3 coordinates play almost no role in the horizontal image division or maybe they do, because exactly at the intersection of the two coordinates is the border between face and hair. Another border between hair and shoulder is almost exactly in the middle. I was quite surprised by these proportions when I drew in the coordinates, since I hadn't planned it, I was simply looking for the most effective image

detail.

The Golden Cut The next surprise came when the coordinates for the golden ratio were plotted. Red center, orange golden section with the width and height of the photo.

These division ratios result from the mathematical definition of the golden ratio. 0.382 + 0.618 = 1, i.e. the entire width or height of a photo. With these division ratios, the coordinates for the golden ratio can be quickly determined without cumbersome calculations. The total width multiplied by 0.618 results in the vertical axis. (You can of course also take 0.382 times instead). The same calculation for the horizontal axis with the image height. Only the two coordinates of the golden section which are important for the face, were drawn. The right eye, which is more emphasized by the photo, lies exactly on the vertical coordinate of the golden section. The mouth, actually the most important single element in the photo, lies on the horizontal axis of the golden section. Perhaps this creates the strong connection between the right eye and the mouth in this detail of the picture, which is not present in the original, where the eyes and the mouth are isolated picture elements.

The consequence of the aesthetic principles for the composition of the picture First of all, we should be aware that while photography and painting have a lot in common, they also have striking differences. A painted picture can be planned from the start according to the aesthetic principles. In photography, at least in the most important areas of photography for amateurs, the total arrangement of a photo is rather the exception.

In professional photography, however, precise planning is the rule in many areas. This area of professional photography is generally called still life. This includes almost all product, food and advertising photos that are taken without models in the studio. Many photos with models, especially photos for which hand models are hired, are also planned meticulously and have already been outlined by the advertising agency. But outside the professional world of commercial photography, photography essentially consists of visually capturing a situation and translating it into a photo. And, of course, the selection of the image section when taking photos, as long as they are not panoramic photos. The most important thing when choosing the image section is, except in a few exceptional cases, not to place the most important motif in the middle. Without aids, however, at least one beginner will be able to take the aesthetic proportions into account at the very beginning, at most. But if you often look for the most effective image section in existing photos like the example

above, you quickly develop an eye for aesthetic proportions. At the beginning, you can perhaps use software that shows the coordinates or superimposed guidelines in the viewfinder of the camera to find the most effective image section and composition, but best do not make yourself dependent on such crutches and instead try to develop an eye for the most effective image detail. Then, in reverse, it can even happen that an intuitively chosen image section, as in the example above, corresponds to the aesthetic principles. But then you did not make yourself slavishly dependent on aesthetic principles, which often raise more questions than answer anyway (what is the most important element in a picture?). But develop your own style and a look that quickly becomes the most effective without tools Image section captured. Computer programs do not help us much anyway with the actual photography and thus with the choice of the subject and the image section. A recommended software for determining the golden ratio and other proportions is Golden Ratio. In contrast to many other programs for the golden section, the image section can be changed as desired, the coordinates always go with it. The golden ratio is now also integrated in Lightroom.

Balance in Image Design The most important part of the picture should dominate the picture. Apart from rare exceptional cases, an image should not be simply divided by the horizon or strong light and shadow effects in the middle.

The photo of a landscape, in which the horizon forms a clear dividing line between the landscape with houses and the sky, often appears extremely bland and boring, especially when the horizon is still pretty much in the center of the picture. On the other hand, if a church tower, trees, mountains or buildings soar into the sky and thus connect earth and sky beyond the horizon, the photo also has an effect.

This snapshot, taken during a traffic light stop, is alive due to its staggered highs. With many photos, I leave out the sky altogether if it does not itself have an essential image statement. But in the photo above, it would be indispensable because the gradation of the heights with the right amount of

sky above gives the photo a certain charm beyond the snapshot. It also means experimenting with different parts of the picture and especially the proportion of the sky in the picture until you have found the right solution.

Specify the Image Section Later Feel free to dare your photos afterwards with various image sections. The very bright front area of the stream has been left out of this section and the image statement changes significantly. In addition to the subsequent image detail, the original photo looks almost flat, too obvious, despite the magical backlighting it is almost factual compared to the subsequent image detail, which brings poetry and something mysterious into the photo.

Original

The two photos clearly show how a telephoto lens narrows the angle and reduces the spacing in the depth graduation. From the beginning of the picture below until the canal, garden loses itself in the darkness of the photo (it makes, no longer visible, a sharp curve to the right, the course of the stream can still be guessed if one observes the just indicated white bridge on the right in the background) it several hundred meters. This is not even foreseeable in the photos, one thinks that the bridge is at most 50-60m away. The narrowing of the stream in angle of view is also very moderate with the Tele. With a shorter focal length, the stream would taper to a narrow line in the background. Focal length 200 mm, because of the crop factor corresponds to the angle of view of an apparent focal length of 300 mm in full 35 mm format. If you are working with an image editing program that has a cropping tool similar to Photoshop, you can already see the greatly changed effect by darkening all parts of the image outside the section while you are looking for the right section.

A neutral, black background has an advantage for changing the image section afterwards, which no other background provides. If you have placed the photo model in the wrong corner or too far in the middle when taking pictures, it is very difficult to correct it later, except for a completely monochrome background, which is usually only achieved with deep black. But with a black background, I only have to roughly remove the model in the picture, create a new background layer in the same black and can move the model to any position in the picture on this black background. With fast sequences of pictures in action photography, it can happen that you don't get the right image section straight away.

Image Statement and Image Section Another example of different image statements by the choice of the image section.

The photo above was taken during winter: Two sections from the photo with different picture statements.

Here, the walker approaches something. This is clear from the goal as well as from its placement in the photo. The longer route is still ahead of him.

Instead, the stroller walks out of the picture with an undetermined destination. One could point more into the photo because the houses are already behind him. But that's not the point here. There are fundamentally different picture statements due to the choice of the bid section.

Image Sections Never With the Original

If you experiment with different image sections, you will never work with the original file, but a copy. Practically, every editing program allows you to save this file under a new file name immediately after calling up an image file, then continue working with the copy. So you will never regret working with image sections and tools on the image. Because of other tools, every image editing program that works with layers also allows setting layers that have the great advantage over direct manipulation that you can change the opacity afterwards or that the manipulation can be completely undone by deleting the setting layer. More on this in the chapter on image editing.

Choosing the Right Format We usually use portrait or landscape format to print a photo. It is almost impossible to make generally valid statements about choosing the right format. A portrait is usually better in portrait format, but there are also many exceptions. The square format, which ambitious photographers and professionals know from analog photography and other 6x6 cameras, is rarely a good format for a publication. With the 6x6, it is the raw format, in this case the appropriate image section for portrait or landscape format should only be selected later. Pay attention to the desired format when recording. Otherwise, of course, it depends on the layout in which format a photo is required. Occasionally, you need photos in the so-called towel format, i.e. as a horizontal stripe for example for the logo of a website or as a vertical stripe for example for an advertisement in a print media. If you intend to take photos for special purposes, then you should consider the later format selection when taking pictures, otherwise you would inevitably have to cut away important parts afterwards.

Find the Image Section Ultimately, it is always experimenting, even when taking pictures, especially in post-processing. General rules such as the golden ratio and diagonals in the image are very useful, especially as long as you have not yet developed an eye for the most effective image section, but in the end it is about developing a sure eye that you can use at the latest when post processing select the detail

of a photo that underlines the intended image statement. Apart from technical photos, for example in an instruction manual, photos should always be accessible to the viewer without any explanation. Because just like painting, a photo is also a means of communication that does not communicate verbally but visually with the viewer. So it has a statement that can be reinforced or weakened by the image section. For example, if you want to portray a person as unpleasant as possible, you tend to take pictures from below, that is, with a few exceptions, a perspective that does not necessarily make someone appear likeable. But these tricks of reportage photography, with which political opponents are often depicted, are of less interest here. The basic picture statement should be made when taking pictures, not only when the final picture section is selected. Nevertheless, I just experienced it again when I went through picture folders in order to examine previously neglected photos to see whether they could still be good with a much smaller image section. You often only discover afterwards which treasures in previously neglected photos are hidden. For example, whole-body shots that were just boring as they are, but with a facial expression and a light guide, which led to a fantastic portrait when you looked closer. In order to be able to judge a photo on whether a significantly smaller image section might still lead to the desired result, I simply use the Photoshop navigator, with which I can zoom in and roughly determine the image section using different zoom levels and shifting the section. By zooming in, I can not only judge the sharpness because when you take a closer look, some photos no longer look as sharp as would be necessary to compose the image, but I can also immediately see whether they are worth it.

Image Section Using a Practical Example

The Photoshop CS6 crop tool can show the golden ratio as a guide. As in the original, in which the golden section lay almost exactly on the right eye without any auxiliary lines, I also oriented myself towards the right eye of the model in the finally selected image section. Not much remains of the original, it was simply too much fur and too little face. The image section that has been determined is transferred to the photo by double-clicking. The photo has not yet been reworked, blemishes and the shiny nose are still a nuisance.

Find the Image Section The final image section, however, I use the cropping tool, unless the original aspect ratio must be maintained. Of course, I don't slavishly stick to the original aspect ratio of the original photo, but choose the most effective image detail. Sometimes the image section is found within a few seconds, sometimes there are so many options that you select four or five different image sections, each of which has a striking effect and you do not really know which one you choose now, as far as you must decide and sometimes you find that despite good sharpness and lighting, the photo simply has no

image and deletes the photo. Only by constantly examining existing photos for an effective image section will you gradually become independent of general rules such as the golden ratio and find the optimal image section. Photographing is not only true for the direction of light or recognizing special lighting situations, it is especially true for the image section; it is also a school of seeing.

Angle of View and Recording Location The subject of image detail does not begin with the zoom level or the choice of the focal length for a motif, but with the choice of location and angle of view beforehand. This photo was taken from an angle that could only be realized with technical aids, namely photographed practically directly above the floor.

CHAPTER 4 DEPTH OF FIELD The Depth of Field and the Level of Focus In this chapter, the two common names are used equally side by side. Depth of field is the correct name, but depth of field is the common name for the area that is still in focus in front of and behind the actual focus level, i.e. what the camera was focused on. The depth of field depends on both the aperture set and the focal length. In addition, therefore, the chapter focal length for image design as well as the technical considerations on aperture, depth of field and focal length in the FAQ. The larger the sensor or the film format of a camera, the more precisely you can use the depth of field as a design tool.

Depth of Field and Size of the Sensor Surface The depth of field depends on the size of the sensor and thus, the focal length of the lens for a certain angle of view. The smaller the sensor, the smaller the focal length for a certain angle of view. The smaller the focal length, the greater the depth of field. This is already known from analog photography, the depth of field is much larger with a small picture than with a medium format camera and again significantly larger than with a large format camera. Why do professionals prefer to use medium format and even prefer large format for very demanding tasks? The larger the format, the better the overall sharpness, the resolution of even the finest color gradients and of course, the control options for depth of field that this chapter deals with. In contrast, the small format has the advantage of greater manageability. The best way to control the depth of field is with a large-format camera built on the principle of an optical bench. With a large format camera, you can even use the golden ratio rule to run the focus plane diagonally through the image or restrict it to a single small area.

The Advantage of the Larger Format But now back to the digital camera. Commercially available pocket cameras have a very small sensor, which in the cheaper models is not even the size of the fingernail of a little finger. The common sensor sizes are shown in the purchase advice cameras. Digital full-frame cameras have the same sensor size as an analog 35mm camera. That is why they are also called full-frame cameras because the sensor has the same size as a 35 mm camera, namely 24 x 36 mm. The usual sensor format of digital SLR cameras in the consumer class is about two thirds the size of the full format and is sufficient to influence the depth of field.

In this graphic, you can perhaps understand the dependence of the focal length on the sensor size. The image angle in this example is 69 °, which corresponds to a light wide-angle lens and remains the same for all sensor sizes. The larger the sensor, the greater the focal length (the distance from the optical center to the sensor) for this angle of view. The lens is of course much too large in relation to the sensor formats and would be a very fast lens even for the large sensor. Since short focal lengths have a very large depth of field regardless of the angle of view, it may also be understandable why digital cameras with small sensors still have a very large depth of field even in the telephoto range and draw everything sharply from front to back.

In the case of very large recording formats in analog medium format and especially large format photography, focal lengths are already required for the exemplary angle of view of a wide-angle lens, which correspond to a telephoto lens on a digital full-format camera and the depth of field is correspondingly small. The tiny sensor format of the pocket cameras and cell phones requires short focal lengths, even in the telephoto range of the lens, and therefore an enormous depth of field that extends to infinite distances, even for portrait distances, i.e. a face and the background are equally sharp. In creative photography, however, it is extremely important to emphasize the most important part with its sharpness. You can only work effectively with depth of field and depth of focus on cameras that have a sufficiently large sensor and therefore, no longer draw from 1 m to infinitely sharp, as is the case with small sensors. The best way to control the depth of field is to use an SLR camera. Many SLR cameras offer a dimmer button, with which you can precisely control the depth of field for the set aperture (dimming in contrast to the open aperture with which you can look through the viewfinder) before taking the picture. The dimmer button is required to assess the depth of field for the aperture set. If you look through the viewfinder or at cameras where the subject is instead aimed at via the display, you will always see the image with the aperture open, i.e. with the least sharpness and depth of field that the lens offers. The aperture button closes the aperture to the preset value and you can see the subject with the actual focus and depth of field. This of course, also makes the viewfinder image much darker. For this reason, the aperture is normally open, because with aperture 22, for example, the viewfinder image would be so dark that almost nothing can be seen on it. You have to know that the depth of field of the photo will not correspond to what you see in the viewfinder, unless you are shooting with the aperture open, if you want to use the depth of field for design purposes. Otherwise, the photo would be a random result and not exactly wanted. However, the image design is about mastering the individual factors that lead to a good photo as much as possible and not leaving it to chance.

Controlling Depth of Field

The aperture The focal length and the aperture influence the depth of field. When the aperture is completely open, both the depth of field and the overall focus of the lens are the lowest. The further you close the aperture, the greater the depth of field. At the same time, the overall sharpness increases. The further you close the diaphragm, the smaller the opening through which the light has to pass. If the aperture is closed beyond the optimal value, which for most lenses lies between aperture 8 and aperture 11, the small aperture opening already shows signs of diffraction, which lead to a decrease in the overall sharpness. The influence of the aperture is very clear with the following photos, which were taken with the same exposure, the same focus level at 35 mm focal length, but different aperture values for this demonstration:

Aperture 4

Aperture 5.6

Aperture 8

Aperture 11 If you want to consistently use the depth of the archipelago by choosing the aperture, you have several options. You can use the aperture priority (automatic timer), in this case, the camera selects the associated exposure time and sensor sensitivity (ISO value) independently, you can also fix the ISO value beforehand, then the automatic timer only chooses the appropriate exposure time or you make all settings in manual mode itself. If you close the aperture by a full step as in the image examples above, you have to double the exposure time for each full aperture step so that the exposure remains the same. Since many digital cameras offer finer gradations than the full aperture, you should memorize the full aperture, otherwise, you just can't see through: 2.8

4

5.6

32

64

128

8th 11

16

22

Apertures smaller than aperture 22 generally do not exist in full-format cameras; the apertures from aperture 32 are used in medium format and large format photography.

The Focus Level The depth of field is not only influenced by the aperture, but also by the choice of the level of focus. So what the lens was focused on. The following photos clearly show this using the tape measure as an example:

Focus level far forward with the aperture open

The focus level in this photo is about 12 cm on the tape measure. It can be clearly seen that the depth of focus decreases much faster in the front than in the back.

In this photo, the focus is practically directly on the tape measure. The blur increases dramatically towards the front. In this portrait, the level of the sheep is wrong, namely on the costume jewelry on the wrist. If the photo was taken for a client who is concerned with fashion jewelry, the focus would be spot on. The depth of field is pretty shallow with an 80mm lens with an open aperture, so you have to be careful where the maximum focus should go.

The autofocus can easily lead to incorrect focusing because the autofocus is based on contrast edges in the middle of the image. The contrast edges in costume jewelry are much more pronounced than in the mouth, where the focus level should be, so the autofocus adjusts to the stronger contrast edges another example of not blindly relying on the automatic functions of the camera.

With The Choice of the Focus Level Influence the Focus As can be seen very clearly on these two photos of Chinese tea bowls, the choice of focus level has a considerable influence on the image statement.

In the first image, the automatic focus would also focus, the focus is on the front tea bowl.

In the second picture, it lies on the tea bowl on the right and it creates an entirely different picture impression.

The Focal Length The larger the focal length of a lens, the smaller its depth of field. This applies regardless of the angle of view of the lens. Conversely, which in this case is one hundred percent correct, the smaller the focal length of a lens, the greater the depth of field.

A bright older telephoto lens with 135 mm focal length; the distance is set to 3 m, which is the orange number on the red line with the dot. The white digits above are in feet. On the right and left of the red line, you can see three different aperture values. The lines on the distance setting show the area that is still sharply drawn with the respective aperture. To see clearly, with an open aperture, this area is only a few centimeters, with aperture 22, the smallest aperture of this lens; it is about 30 cm to the front and 40 cm to the rear. So you can control the depth of field very sensitively by choosing the aperture. You will only find this information on lenses with fixed focal lengths. What is also good to see, the shorter the distance, the smaller the depth of field. The distances between the distance information are getting bigger, while the distances between the aperture information do not change.

But only with a distance of almost 30 m is this lens and the smallest aperture a depth of field to infinity. With the aperture open, the depth of field is still very small, even at this distance. That is why I love these lenses in creative photography because I have very good control over what should be in focus on the photo in addition to the actual picture object. In digital photography, this means that pocket cameras and cell phones have an extremely high depth of field with which one can only work creatively in the area of macro photography. Because in the entire normal imaging range, this also applies to portraits in general, these lenses draw everything sharply from front to back. How big the influence of the focal length on the depth of field can be seen in the next photo. This time, an older bright lens with 50 mm focal length set to 3 m distance. As you can see, the area that is sharply drawn extends far beyond the telephoto lens. Incidentally, on one of the still common digital SLR cameras with a sensor surface reduced by a third compared to the full format, this lens already has an angle of view that corresponds to a light telephoto lens with a focal length of 75 mm. However, this does not change the optical properties of the lens, since only a section of the entire image angle is projected onto the sensor, which corresponds to the angle of view of a telephoto lens, does not in any way change the optical properties, it is and remains a normal focal length and does not suddenly become a telephoto lens due to the incompletely used angle of view. This is particularly noticeable in the depth of field.

From a distance of 3 m, the depth of field with aperture 22 extends to infinity

and at the front up to 1.6 m. With short focal lengths, i.e. wide-angle lenses, an extremely large depth of field can also be achieved with a digital SLR camera with a large sensor. However, this is usually only desirable for landscape shots. With long focal lengths, i.e. telephoto lenses, you can control the depth of field in a targeted manner and thus place the focus precisely in the area in which you want it. You don't necessarily have to work with the aperture open. The photos of the red-haired model) in the castle park, which are shown here by way of example, were all taken with an aperture of eight, but with a telephoto lens. As a result, a very high overall sharpness is achieved in the sharpness level, i.e. in the area of the face and hair, at the same time a small depth of field in order to be able to lift Denise off the background. The dependence of the depth of field on the distance to the object The closer you are to an object and the lens focuses on it, the lower the depth of field. In macro photography, the depth of field is only a few millimeters. Conversely, the further you are from an object, the greater the depth of field.

Portrait Lenses Especially for portraits, there is a light telephoto lens with an 80 mm focal length in the 35 mm area. This focal length has the advantage that everything that is close to the camera is no longer oversized, i.e. to emphasize a nose like a huge mountain over the rest of the face, as would be the case even with the normal focal length of 50 mm. Another advantage is that; the depth of field already decreases significantly compared to a lens with a shorter focal length.

The same naturally applies to zoom lenses, although these are technically completely different from lenses with fixed focal lengths. Compared to even stronger telephoto lenses, which register even less and whose depth of field is even less, typical portrait lenses have the advantage that they can also be used in the studio because you don't need a huge distance to the model to even put your face on it to get. There are also special versions of the portrait lens with a built-in, adjustable blur, which was particularly popular in the 1970s and 1980s when David Hamilton's photos were very fashionable. However, the photo below was not taken with such a lens, but with a normal zoom lens, which was initially fogged on the front lens due to the extreme cold and therefore, automatically softened. A similar effect can be achieved, albeit hardly controllable, by breathing on the front lens and releasing it at the moment when the right soft focus effect is achieved.

To summarize the depth of field, it can be influenced by the size of the sensor, so here the digital SLR camera has a clear advantage over a pocket camera, the focal length, the aperture and the focus level.

CHAPTER 5 FOCAL LENGTH Use the Focal Length of a Lens as a Design Tool The different focal lengths are not simply used to take pictures of a whole panorama with a wide-angle lens or something far away, for example, a single building, with a telephoto lens from a fixed location.

The focal length of a lens can be used as a direct design tool. The beginner usually doesn't understand anything more than that you can change the image section with a zoom lens. But apart from the fact that you can zoom into a subject (focal length is extended) or zoom out (focal length is shortened) to make it larger or smaller, the different focal lengths have certain optical properties that can be used for image composition. The selected focal length from wide-angle to telephoto has a significant impact on the depth of field, angle of view distortions and spatial depth grading. The focal length is one of the specific photo-technical means of image design. For image design in photography, there are both photo-technical aspects, such as the focal lengths discussed here, the aperture, which is important for

the design of the depth of field and the overall focus, and the exposure time, which is important for the representation of movements, as well as general design rules, such as colors, image detail with the special features of the diagonals and the golden ratio, which are not specific to photography. Light occupies a central position since it is both a basic photo-technical condition and an important means of design. The focal length is probably the most difficult area of photographic imaging for a beginner because the different focal lengths bring both absolute properties that are independent of the angle of view of the focal length and properties that relate to the angle of view of the lens. But now step by step.

What is the Focal Length? Here, it is only briefly explained, because it is explained in more detail in the FAQ. The focal length is the distance between the real (e.g. with a magnifying lens) or arithmetic optical center of a lens and the projection surface (in photography, therefore, the sensor or film), which is required to infinitely precisely adjust the focal point to the projection surface when setting the distance lay.

The focal length is given in millimeters. It therefore denotes this arithmetical distance, which, to make matters worse, does not even have to have anything to do with the length of the lens and the distance of the lens from the sensor plane. Because everyone who uses a zoom lens knows that the lens does not suddenly become shorter because you set a shorter focal length. Before zoom lenses and wide-angle lenses, the focal length of which is shorter than the distance between the lens and the sensor plane were developed, the entire optical structure, i.e. the distance between the aperture

within the lens and the film plane, actually corresponded to the focal length of the lens. But that was a long time ago, the length of a lens no longer has much to do with the angle of view determined by the focal length. The angle of view is variable with a zoom lens, without which the overall length of the lens would change significantly except in the strong telephoto range. In the case of a zoom lens, the lens groups are instead shifted towards one another within the lens, as a result of which the image angle and thus the computed focal length change.

The Focal Length of the Lens has Several Properties The best-known property is the angle of view of a lens, which is defined by the focal length for a specific sensor or film format. So whether it is a wideangle lens, a standard lens or a telephoto lens. The image angle specifies other important properties, namely possible distortions caused by the lens and the depth gradation in space, i.e. whether the background is shown larger or smaller in relation to the foreground. This is discussed in more detail below in the properties of the different focal lengths. In addition, the different focal lengths have an absolute property that is independent of the angle of view. This absolute property can be represented in a simple sentence: Short focal length - great depth of field. Long focal length - shallow depth of field. This is not easy to understand at first, because you finally learned that a short focal length stands for a wide-angle lens and a long focal length for a telephoto lens. So why are certain properties of the different focal lengths independent of the angle of view, i.e. regardless of whether it is a wide-angle lens or a telephoto lens? In the era of analog photography, it was still relatively easy, more precisely; it appeared relatively easy because in the amateur sector, there was actually only one image format, the 35 mm format based on the 35 mm cinema film. Photographers who worked with the more demanding medium formats (4.5 x 6; 6 x 6; 6 x 7; 6 x 9), which are based on the roll film or even worked in

large format with sheet film, knew that an essential property of the different focal lengths, namely the depth of field, regardless of the angle of view. After all, medium format cameras and even more so large format cameras need much longer focal lengths for a picture angle that corresponds to the 35 mm image. But the average amateur photographer who was traveling with a 35 mm camera practically set the angle of view and optical properties of a lens or for a zoom lens, the set focal length, which of course, was true in relation to the 35mm format. Since the development of digital photography with its sensor sizes that are independent of a given film format and therefore many different sensor sizes from the tiny sensor of a cell phone to the digital medium format, the optical properties of a focal length and their angle of view can no longer be equated. The optical properties are absolute and refer to the actual focal length of a lens. But the focal length for a certain angle of view depends on the size of the sensor. The larger the sensor, the greater the focal length for the same angle of view. For sensors that are significantly smaller than the APS format, which is used as APS-A, B or C in most digital SLR cameras below the full format, the focal length for a certain angle of view is much shorter than for cameras with APS or full format sensor, However, conscious work with the depth of field requires at least 50 mm actual focal length. With shorter real focal lengths, the depth of field is so great that it extends over a very wide range even with the aperture open. At focal lengths below 20 mm, the depth of field extends from front to back even with the aperture open. The two graphics below show the image angles for 2 sensor sizes for the same focal length.

― Focal length 18 mm ― Full frame sensor (24 x 36 mm) Image angle 1000

― Pocket sensor camera (7.2 x 5.3) Image angle 27

o

Two different sensor sizes with the same focal length 18 mm are shown here as examples. One is a sensor in full format with 24 x 36 mm and the typical sensor size of a somewhat better pocket or bridge camera with 7.2 x 5.3 mm. On the full-frame camera, 18 mm is already an extreme wide-angle lens, with the smaller sensor; the same focal length becomes a light telephoto lens.

― Focal length 35 mm ― Full frame sensor (24 x 36 mm) Image angle 630

― Pocket sensor camera (7.2 x 5.3)

Image angle 14

o

The second graphic shows the same thing with a 35 mm focal length. For the full format, this focal length would be a moderate wide angle. On the smaller sensor, it becomes a strong telephoto lens, the focal length of which is the equivalent of approximately 180 mm. With the smaller sensor, even in the strong telephoto range, you still have a wide-angle lens with regard to its depth of field. However, since the focal length and depth of field are inseparable, the properties of the different focal lengths are discussed in more detail.

The APS Sensor and the Angle of View This section is particularly important if you have a digital camera with an APS sensor. Since the APS sensor is smaller than the full frame, most lenses that are used in cameras with an APS sensor have been developed for the 35 mm format (corresponds to the full digital format), so an APS sensor only uses two thirds of the picture angle in the full frame used. Therefore, the focal length must be extended by 50% for a picture angle comparable to the full frame. So a 35 mm lens with an APS sensor becomes a stronger telephoto lens with an apparent focal length of 150 mm. The same

applies of course to all other focal lengths, a 200 mm lens becomes a 300 mm lens, so it becomes a much stronger telephoto, it also applies in the wideangle range, of course, a strong wide-angle lens with 18 mm focal length becomes a medium-sized wide-angle lens with the APS sensor with 27 mm focal length. However, this only relates to the angle of view that is not fully used in relation to the full format, not to the optical properties of a lens. The optical properties remain the same. This applies in particular to the depth of field, spatial depth gradation, angle taper and possible distortions, the latter, especially with strong wide-angle lenses. It follows that cameras with APS sensors in the wide-angle range have fundamental disadvantages compared to full format because you can't really use the wide-angle range of a lens. In the telephoto range, on the other hand, the APS sensor even has advantages over the full format, because you have a 50% longer apparent focal length without the disadvantages of an actually 50% longer focal length, namely lower light intensity, less depth of field and blurring in the edge area. Finally, the smaller sensor does not even detect the edge area.

Portraits and the APS Sensor A common misconception arises from the misunderstanding of focal length conversion. Finally, the focal length conversion only leads to a smaller angle of view but not to changed optical properties of the lens used. The optical properties, especially the depth of field, depend on the actual focal length. In terms of its optical properties, a bright 50 mm lens remains a 50 mm lens with all the advantages and disadvantages of this focal length, even with a camera with an APS sensor. Because 80 mm focal length is considered a typical portrait focal length, 50 mm fixed focal lengths are often used as a portrait lens on an APS sensor, because the conversion ultimately turns it into a 75 mm lens. But that is a mistake. There are good reasons why the standard focal length 50mm is not popular for portraits and instead a light telephoto with 80 mm focal length developed into a typical portrait lens. The smaller angle of view compared to the standard focal length is only one of these reasons and at the same time, the least important. A portrait lens is about depth of field and avoiding distortion. Because both in terms of depth of field and distortion, the standard focal

length 50 mm is much closer to a wide-angle lens than to a light telephoto. These good reasons speak very clearly against a 50 mm lens as a portrait lens on an APS sensor. The 75 mm apparent focal length by conversion only refers to the angle of view used to only 2/3. The typical portrait lens has several advantages over an even stronger telephoto lens: better light intensity, excellent overall sharpness, lighter and unproblematic with exposure times longer than 1/125 sec. Good portraits with a camera with APS sensor require real and not converted portrait focal lengths. Because of the smaller angle of view compared to the full frame for which these lenses were finally developed, the APS sensor has the disadvantage of a larger required distance from the model, which can be difficult in the small home studio because it was the required minimum distance to the model that made the 80 mm lens the standard portrait lens. I occasionally use a very fast lens with a 135 mm focal length for outdoor portraits. Since I also have a camera with APS sensor, it becomes a strong telephoto with an apparent focal length of 202.5 mm with regard to the angle of view. As long as portraits remain, this focal length is easy to use, but if you want to get the model completely on the picture, you need a good 10 m distance, which does not make communication easier. That is one of the reasons why 80 mm and not much stronger telephoto lenses with an even shallower depth of field have established themselves as portrait focal lengths.

The Depth of Field and the APS Sensor Information that is made both on Wikipedia and on the websites of camera manufacturers can cause misunderstandings. Because there it says that the depth of field of a lens would behave differently on an APS sensor than on a camera with a full-frame sensor. It also means that for comparable photos, the aperture would have to be closed one full step compared to the full-frame sensor. But this information only refers to the bokeh. Bokeh is the representation of blurring in a photo. In fact, the smaller viewing angle changes the bokeh and becomes a bit coarser than on a camera with a full-frame sensor. The actual range of depth of field, i.e. how far in front and behind the focus plane a lens still sharpens depending on the selected aperture, does not change.

Basic definitions for the following chapters: Focal lengths and image design All focal lengths refer to the 35 mm format or the same size digital full format. If you have a camera with a sensor that is smaller or larger than the full digital format, you have to convert the focal lengths in relation to the angle of view. A good conversion table can be found in the next page. Since the conversion only relates to the angle of view and not to the absolute optical properties of a certain focal length, statements about the depth of field only apply to the full format. However, all other information resulting from the angle of view applies analogously for each sensor size. With the exception of the APS sensor, because in addition to the few lenses that have now definitely been developed for the APS format, lenses with a APS sensor that have been developed for the 35 mm format are used so that the original optical properties remain the same and in it if the actual focal length is not decisive, but the actual focal length.

Format Factor

Exposure Time and Telephoto Lenses The converted focal length is important for setting the exposure times. There is a rule of thumb for this, which relates exclusively to the actually used angle of view and not to the actual focal length. The rule of thumb is that you should not use a longer exposure time than half the focal length. This rule of thumb refers to the focal lengths of 35 mm lenses. For cameras with a smaller or larger sensor, the focal length must be converted in order to use the rule of thumb because this rule of thumb is not about the absolute properties of a focal length, but about the angle of view. The smaller the angle of view, the more even the slightest vibrations of the camera becomes noticeable as blurring. This can be avoided with sufficiently short exposure times. Many bridge cameras and mirrorless system cameras have two different focal lengths on the lens, the actual focal length and the focal lengths converted to

the 35 mm format. The actual focal length is important for the optical properties of the lens, for example, the depth of field, the focal length converted for the 35 mm format denotes the angle of view of the lens in order to be able to use the rule of thumb. This means that with a focal length converted to 35 mm format, for example, 200 mm, the longest exposure time, which still leads to sharp photos with a free hand, is 1/100 seconds or for cameras with the previously used full gradations, 1/125 seconds. In the case of the widely used zoom lenses with a focal length of 80-200 mm, in the case of an APS sensor and a focal length of 200 mm, this means the shortest possible exposure time of 1/150 seconds or for cameras with full exposure time levels, the next shorter exposure time, i.e. 1/250 seconds because the conversion gives an apparent focal length of 300 mm. A tripod should be used for all longer focal lengths. By the way, the rule of thumb only applies to someone who has a steady hand and whose camera is well in hand. Otherwise, you should choose an even shorter exposure time for safety reasons. With an image stabilizer, significantly longer exposure times can be achieved without the photo becoming blurred due to motion blur (camera shake). But especially in the field of stronger telephoto lenses, even with an image stabilizer, you should heed the rule of thumb to avoid experiencing bitter disappointment. It's best to try it out yourself because the longest possible exposure time for a telephoto lens depends of course on the calm of your own hands. But now finally to the image design with the different focal lengths, again, all the information given here refers to the full digital format or the analog model, the 35 mm format. The peculiarities of other sensor formats, in particular, the problems with the APS sensor, are no longer discussed afterwards.

Use the Different Focal Lengths for the Image Design The two basic rules: Short focal lengths have a very large picture angle, while long focal lengths have a very small picture angle. (This rule depends on the sensor size of a camera. Comparability always only with apparent focal lengths converted to

the full format). Short focal lengths have a very large depth of field, while long focal lengths have a very small depth of field. The second rule applies regardless of the actual angle of view; it is the absolute property of a focal length.

The properties of the Focal Lengths Depend on the Angle of View

With binoculars, everyone can understand why you need shorter exposure times than with other lenses. The stronger the binoculars, the stronger and faster the picture trembles. This has something to do with the small angle of view, in which even the slightest vibrations are clearly noticeable. A very short exposure time is faster than the vibration; you get sharp photos. Of course, you also need a lot of light for this, so it is better to use a good tripod at long focal lengths (including converted long focal lengths). Of course, the transitions between wide angle lens and telephoto are fluid. Absolute statements could at most be made about the two extremes at the end of the scale. With its optical properties, the so-called normal focal length (50 mm standard lens) is closer to a wide-angle lens than to a light telephoto lens.

Use the Focal Length for the Design Foreground - background Do you want a lot of background and as sharp as possible? Then you take a short focal length and a small aperture. You would like to take a picture of an object, for example, a portrait, to fill the format. With wide angle, you get a lot of background on the photo, which is also as sharp as the object in the foreground. Would you like to take a portrait and the background should not interfere? Then you take a long focal length and a larger aperture. Due to the narrow angle of view of the telephoto lens, only a small part of the

background is shown in the foreground with the same size of the object, which becomes increasingly blurred with increasing distance from the most important object. Example Photos with 3 Different Focal Lengths The head of the demo model is approximately the same size in all 3 photos. A fashion doll is very well suited for such exercises because it patiently does everything. All 3 photos are with the same exposure setting (aperture 6.5 at 1/125 seconds) - brightening up the exercise model with the flash system.

Focal length 28 mm, picture angle corresponds to 42 mm in full format.

Focal length 80 mm, image angle corresponds to 120 mm in full format.

Focal length 180 mm, image angle corresponds to 270 mm in full format. Let's stick to the exemplary portrait. The large depth of field of the wideangle lens does not already lift the face in the foreground from the background due to the contrast between sharpness and blur, rather the face in the foreground becomes an equal part of the entire photo. The view is not so much drawn or distracted by the face that it is actually about, but by the white

house in the background on the right. Also desirable for reports, the events in the background, for example the destruction caused by war or natural forces, should be clearly on the picture. Rather the exception in portrait photography. Because it is often confusing for the viewer of a photo if the important object in the foreground is as sharp as the background. The eye wanders back and forth helplessly in the photo and finds no resting point. You shouldn't take portraits like this. Since a lot of the background comes into the photo with the wide-angle lens, the objects in the background become very small in relation to the foreground and appear to be very far away. It looks much better in this example with 80 mm focal length, but the background still distracts from the face. A beautiful portrait can only be created with such a troubled background with a much stronger telephoto lens, because nothing will distract the viewer's gaze from the face. Due to the narrow angle of view of the telephoto lens, objects in the background become very large and at the same time appear to be much closer to the foreground, the distances in the depth graduation are significantly shortened. With the 3 image examples above, you should not pay attention to the converted apparent focal length, but the actual focal length. This is especially true for the top photo with a 28 mm focal length. Because these examples are not about the angle of view through conversion (this only makes the image section smaller than with full format), but about depth of field and depth gradation. Neither has anything to do with the conversion, but with the actual focal length.

Portrait Lens A typical portrait lens with a focal length of approximately 80 mm is not often used for portraits because of the smaller angle of view compared to a normal lens, but because of the depth of field, which is already significantly lower than that of a normal lens. On the other hand, the focal length is not yet so large that you need a distance of several meters for a format-filling portrait and you would therefore need a rather large studio.

Characteristics of the Different Focal Lengths

Wide Angle Lenses Wide-angle lenses, as the name suggests, have an enlarged angle of view compared to the standard focal length of 50 mm. The smaller the focal length, the larger the angle of view up to 180 ° for a fisheye lens.

Depth Graduation The larger picture angle means that the distances in the depth graduation between the individual picture objects increase considerably. For example, the pretty narrow Neckar, when photographing an old town and castle from the opposite bank of the Neckar, can look like a broad river with a strong wide-angle lens. The castle seems far from the shore and the old town, but in fact it is located on a natural terrace with slopes that slope steeply to the old town, just above the old town. The larger angle of view and the staggering in depth also means that everything that is in the foreground is displayed oversized. So the rather narrow Neckar suddenly becomes an ocean. For this reason, unless you want exactly that as an effect, wide-angle lenses are generally forbidden in portrait and nude photography, because a nose would be enlarged very disadvantageously, for example. With wide-angle lenses, however, you can photograph a sports car particularly dynamically if you choose the angle of view so that the grille and bonnet appear particularly bulky (diagonally from the front and the camera lower than the bumper). So the optical properties of short focal lengths can be used very specifically for image formation.

Depth of Field Wide-angle lenses have a large depth of field. Extreme wide-angle lenses with angles of view above 100 ° therefore do not even have a distance setting anymore, they always draw everything sharply from back to front- the smaller the focal length, the greater the depth of focus.

Angle of View Rejuvenation The larger the angle of view, the greater the focal length taper. This is particularly noticeable in the case of roads, rivers and similar image

components that extend from front to back.

Angle of view taper with 18mm focal length The way back becomes much narrower. They are very wide in the foreground and become a narrow line in the background. This is due to the large picture angle. As the distance increases, more and more background is added to the photo and accordingly, with increasing distance, everything is displayed. This also creates the falling lines.

Falling Lines The larger the angle of view and thus the shorter the focal length, the more noticeable lines are noticeable because falling lines are actually only a special case of angle view rejuvenation. If the camera is oriented obliquely upwards, more and more background is added to the photo with increasing distance, the actual image motif has to make room for this background in the photo to a certain extent and therefore becomes narrower with increasing distance from the camera location. Falling lines can be largely avoided with a shift lens.

Barrel Distortion The stronger a wide-angle lens is, the more pronounced barrel distortions become. This is one of the reasons why you don't take wide-angle lenses for portrait and nude.

The Standard Focal Length The standard focal length of 50 mm is said to correspond to our perception, as the camera industry has suggested for decades. The fact that 50 mm focal length became the standard focal length has technical reasons, which are due in particular to the minimum required depth for a 35mm SLR camera. I don't want to go into these technical reasons any further, if you are interested, there is a lot in the FAQ and in the chapter: Focal Length. In fact, we have a completely different visual perception. We have a field of view of approximately 180 °, but only 7% of it is sharp.

Zoom lens with 53 mm focal length With regard to the optical properties, the standard focal length, but on the APS sensor with an angle of view that corresponds to a lens with a 79 mm focal length. The polarizing filter was used in this photo. We don't normally notice that much ourselves because our eyes are constantly in motion and even when we are concentrating on the screen, for example, our eyes keep scanning the surrounding area. A 50 mm lens therefore, certainly does not correspond to our own visual perception. Based on the 7% that we actually perceive concentrated from our entire very large field of view, the angle of view of a 50 mm lens is much too large, which corresponds more to a medium telephoto lens, based on our entire field of view the angle of view is clearly too small.

Nevertheless, focal lengths around 50 mm have something in common with our own visual perception, namely the size relationships in the depth grading. So if you value the fact that the proportions of the depth gradation are not distorted by a photo, you are well served with the standard focal length. Incidentally, the development of the 50 mm focal length as the standard focal length over half a century has also meant that the most powerful lenses have been developed for this focal length, in terms of both light intensity and sharpness.

Best Sharpness and Light Intensity A good, bright standard lens is still far superior to any zoom lens in this focal length range. The standard focal length as a fixed focal length is the optimal lens when it comes to maximum sharpness. However, this only applies to fixed focal lengths, not to zoom lenses, which have become the standard. Due to the completely different technical structure, statements for fixed focal lengths only apply to a very limited extent to the same focal length range of a zoom lens.

Sharpness and Depth of Field Focus and depth of field are often understood to be the same, although the depth of field is only the area that is still sharply drawn in front of and behind the actual plane of focus, i.e. what the lens was focused on. But how sharply something is drawn in the focus plane depends on the focus performance of the lens and not on its depth of field. The focus is one of the main differences between high-quality and cheap lenses, while the depth of field (i.e. how far the focus extends) depends almost exclusively on the focal length and the aperture set, regardless of whether it is a cheap or particularly high-quality lens. The depth of field can never be better than the best possible focus performance of a lens. The assessment of sharpness is about the sharpness in the plane of focus, i.e. what the lens was focused on. A 35 mm lens has the maximum sharpness at medium apertures (aperture values between 8 and 11). By further closing the aperture to aperture 16 or even 22, the depth of field is

expanded (i.e. the area in front of and behind the focus level), but the actual focus decreases at the same time because the small aperture opening causes diffraction effects of the light leading to a decrease in sharpness. This shows particularly clearly that overall sharpness and depth of field are not the same. With very small apertures, the sharpness does not increase compared to the optimal aperture, on the contrary, the sharpness is lower, but this lower sharpness is extended over a larger depth range.

Use the Advantages of the Standard Focal Length for Image Design The standard focal length, in particular as a fixed focal length, can bring out its special advantages, namely, focus performance and depth grading that corresponds to our own perception in all photographic areas that involve at least one of these two quality features. As a particularly bright standard fixed focal length in addition in all photographic situations in which we need a particularly bright lens and image angle and depth of field are of secondary importance. The standard focal length is ideal, for example, for subjects such as the photo of an old bridge with the castle in the background. With such a subject, the depth of field is more than sufficient, even with a medium aperture, to achieve a continuous sharpness over the entire depth range of the subject, the overall focus is excellent (the latter is, as already mentioned, primarily dependent on the quality of the lens) and both the proportions and the distances in the depth grading largely correspond to our perception.

A significantly longer focal length, i.e. a telephoto lens, would, even if one could realize a larger distance for the same image section, misrepresent the size relationships and the spacing of the depth gradation in relation to our own perception and would therefore be similarly unnatural for the viewer with such a motif act like a wide angle lens. In addition, a significantly longer focal length would not have the required depth of field, even with a strong aperture. In the studio, especially in a smaller studio, the standard focal length can also be used for photos, because the distance to the model will be large enough to depict objects in the foreground, for example, the nose, no more than what is too large would be the case with a portrait-filling portrait in spite of the depth graduation that actually corresponds largely to our perception. Because in the close-up range, including portraits, it turns out that the standard focal length, in terms of its optical properties, belongs more to the wide-angle lenses than to the telephoto lenses. It is not exactly in the middle, but, as the technical reasons for the development of the 50 mm focal length as the standard show, is more in the wide-angle range.

Telephoto Lenses One speaks of a telephoto lens with focal lengths from approximately 80 mm. Telephoto lenses have a much smaller angle of view than a standard lens. The picture angle of a standard lens with 50 mm focal length is 40 °, the picture

angle of a telephoto lens ranges from about 25 ° to the extreme telephoto range with less than 2 °. The gradation between a telephoto lens and a standard lens is of course, only when using fixed focal lengths with a zoom lens focal length and thus, the angle of view is continuously changed.

The Optical Properties of Telephoto Lenses The longer the focal length, the stronger the typical optical properties of long focal lengths, which we can consciously use for image design. One of the typical properties of telephoto lenses is the increasingly shallower the depth of field as the focal length increases.

Depth of Field Depth of field is a property that depends on the absolute focal length of a lens and not on the angle of view used. If you use lenses on a digital SLR camera with a sensor smaller than the full format, which were developed for the 35mm format or full size, the actual focal length is decisive for the optical properties of the lens and not the focal length converted with the crop factor. Another important property of telephoto lenses is the spatial depth grading. The stronger a telephoto lens, the more the foreground and the background are spatially pushed together and the objects in the background become larger in relation to the objects in the foreground. Since telephoto lenses correspond to binoculars, details become visible in the photos that we cannot see with the naked eye. This is important if there are disturbing objects in the background, which is naturally, sharply defined when the distance is set, such as a distant power line that we cannot see with the naked eye because of its great distance.

Distortion In contrast to a wide angle lens, telephoto lenses are practically non-existent. Therefore, they are not only used for portraits, but for all motifs where distortion is not desired and from which one can step back far enough to still be able to photograph them in full format despite the longer focal length, preferably if the shallow depth of field of the telephoto lens is still sufficient for the subject.

Angle of View rejuvenation The larger the angle of view, the stronger the angle of view taper and vice versa, this now applies to telephoto lenses, the smaller the angle of view, the less the perspective taper.

Light Intensity The longer the focal length becomes, the lower the light intensity of the lens. Light telephoto lenses up to about 100 mm focal length can almost match the standard lens in terms of light intensity, medium telephoto lenses up to about 150 mm focal length can still score with a high light intensity with highquality construction, but at the latest with focal lengths from 250 mm upwards, the light intensity decreases significantly , that also applies to zoom lenses. This becomes particularly clear in the extreme telephoto range. Telephoto lenses with a focal length of more than 500 mm rarely achieve a better light intensity than aperture eight. At the same time, this means that the sharpness can only be increased minimally by stopping down compared to the lowest sharpness when the aperture is open.

Exposure Time As already mentioned in the previous table, a rule of thumb applies to telephoto lenses, the longest possible exposure time should be at least half the focal length. So, converted focal length eg 200 mm, longest possible exposure time 1/125 seconds, focal length 500 mm longest possible exposure time 1/250 seconds. If the light is sufficient, better set shorter exposure times. In this case, the converted focal length applies, not the actual focal length of the lens because this rule of thumb is about the angle of view. Even this rule of thumb can still lead to blurred photos, i.e. shorter exposure times (focal length or even twice the focal length than the longest possible exposure time), or better use a stable tripod. Because even the smallest vibrations lead to clearly visible blurs with the small angle of view. Sufficient light is of course required for short exposure times. If the light is not sufficient, you have to set a higher ISO value and accept the resulting image noise. With extreme telephoto lenses and if the subject allows it, i.e.

not especially with shy wild animals, you should even work with the mirror lock-up to avoid any camera shake. By the way, this should only be mentioned in passing, you should switch off an image stabilizer when the camera is placed on a tripod. Image stabilizer and tripods do not get along very well and can lead to undesirable results.

Distant Objects Of course, telephoto lenses are also the best when it comes to being able to photograph distant objects to fill the format. That's what they were originally developed for. Whether it is a photo of castle, taken from an opposite mountain or shy animals in the wild, strong telephoto lenses are ideal. Even for such motifs, even the smaller sensor of a digital SLR camera in the consumer class can be of advantage over the full format because the focal length is extended by 50% without losing the light intensity. Of course, this only applies to the angle of view, but this is mainly when you want to take pictures of distant objects. Because you not only gain a 50% longer focal length, but you also eliminate another problem, namely the typical edge blurring, which is actually always more or less strong except for very high-quality lenses. Conversely, the full format is the format of choice if you want to take full advantage of the wide-angle range because in this case, the focal length extension by 50% is very disruptive.

Portraits Focal lengths in the range between 75 and 120 mm are predestined for portrait photography. This now refers specifically to the actual and not to the converted focal length. With these focal lengths, you still have a good light intensity, excellent sharpness with a medium aperture, at least if the lens is good, and a much smaller depth of field than with shorter focal lengths. So you can photograph a model in all its beauty and still stand out from the background due to the contrast between sharpness and blur. The further advantage of these typical portrait focal lengths is that they can also be used in smaller studios in contrast to even longer focal lengths, because you don't need a huge distance to the model to even get your face completely on it.

For portraits, I like to use an older fixed focal length with a focal length of 135 mm, but in my almost 80 m² studio, I also have enough space to get the necessary distance. The advantage of this lens is that it is very bright and has excellent sharpness, but also the typically shallow depth of field of this focal length, which leads to optimal portraits.

Shallow Depth of Field Means Being Careful However, the shallow depth of field is occasionally a disadvantage. Because, especially with the aperture open, when the depth of field reaches the minimum, a very careful focus on the most important part of the image is required, usually the face. In such situations, be careful with autofocus. As long as individual measuring fields were not activated, the autofocus would look for strong contrast edges in the center of the picture, so it would focus on the dress and not on the face.

Focal Length and Distance Setting Finally, one of the most difficult aspects of the focal length, a focal length is always specified infinitely with the distance setting. Of course, the image does not have to be infinitely far away, it just has to be out of focus on a closer object. Where the infinity setting of a lens begins depends on the angle of view. The smaller the angle of view and thus the longer the focal length, the further away an object must be in order to be sharply drawn with the infinity setting without taking the depth of field into account. With a 50 mm lens, everything that is more than 15 m away is already infinitely far away, with a lens with 135 mm focal length it is more than 30 m. The focal length is extended as soon as the focus is on a closer object manually or via autofocus. Otherwise, the focal point would be behind the sensor level and the photo would be out of focus. Extending the focal length by focusing on a closer subject does not change the angle of view or the light intensity of the lens, but does change the range of the depth of field. The closer the camera is to the focus of the subject that is in focus because the focal length becomes longer, the smaller the depth of field becomes. In the macro position, the focal length can be extended significantly so that

photos up to 1: 2 scales are possible at a distance of approximately 1 m. The 1: 2 scale refers to the negative format for which this lens was developed, i.e. 35 mm or digital full format with 24x36 mm.

Especially in the macro position, the autofocus has to struggle with the slightest movements because the depth of field is only a few millimeters. The bee is constantly moving, the flower does not keep still, except when there is no wind and the photographer is not frozen to the salt column. A tripod would still be counterproductive, because before this is even halfway set, the bee is already in another bloom. For this photos, only the middle measuring point for the autofocus was activated, the exposure was set manually. Lenses not only have an infinity setting but also a close-up limit that must not be undercut for sharp photos. Only with macro lenses can this limit be exceeded without further aids. With intermediate rings or a bellows device, the focal length of each lens can be significantly extended for close-ups, but with simultaneous loss of light. The exposure must be adjusted accordingly. Even with close-up lenses that are screwed onto the lens like a filter, the focal length for the close-up range is apparently extended; the latter without loss of light but with a loss in the quality of the optical system.

CHAPTER 6 EXPOSURE TIME The exposure time is an essential design element when it comes to the representation of movements. Movements can be frozen with a short exposure time or made visible with a slightly longer exposure time. The exposure time is one of the 3 settings on your camera that are required for the desired exposure or determined by the automatic. Like the focal length used and the aperture setting, it is both an essential element of photographic technology and image design. All digital SLR cameras and the slightly better digital cameras allow either the complete manual setting of the exposure (dial M) and thus also the exposure time or the semi-automatic with preselection of the exposure time (dial Tv). With the preselection of the exposure time, also referred to as automatic aperture, the automatic exposure control of the camera determines the associated aperture setting and unless you have set a fixed value in the menu, the light sensitivity of the sensor (the ISO value) for the camera correct exposure determined and set. Since the exposure time is an essential element of the exposure control, it cannot be set arbitrarily, but only in the context of the other two settings, aperture and ISO, which are important for the exposure, depending on the available light. If the light is not sufficient for short exposure times, even with an open aperture and a high ISO value, you have to choose an exposure time that is still possible with the available light, unless you use a flash instead. You are only really free to choose the exposure time when there is enough light. There is a separate chapter in the digital photo course on the interaction and the interdependency of the 3 exposure elements time, aperture and ISO setting: the correct exposure.

Exposure Time as the Basic Camera Setting for Sharp Photos If you choose an exposure time that is longer than you can hold the camera

still without a stable tripod under the camera, the photos will be blurred. The minimum exposure time in order not to blur photos depends on the rest of your hands, the camera and the lens used or the zoom level set.

Keep the Camera Still The most important thing to keep a camera steady is that the photographer is stable. It is best to take photos with your legs strapped to support yourself as well as possible. It is even better if you can lean somewhere. Instead, you can also support the camera somewhere. If you want to take pictures from a lower position than the stand, you should not kneel with both legs or crouch, but only bring one leg to the knee or crouch position and support it with the other leg. Otherwise, it will be difficult to keep the upper body still. The upper body should not rock back and forth because even focusing with autofocus becomes problematic. If you can't support yourself or the camera anywhere, you shouldn't use the display to take pictures, but the viewfinder because this supports the camera on the face and makes it easier to keep calm. The weight of the camera also plays an important role in keeping a camera steady. Light pocket, bridge and mirrorless system cameras are more difficult to hold still, even when looking through the optical or digital viewfinder and thus the camera supported on the face than a solid SLR camera, which, due to its weight, does not cause the hands to tremble so easily.

Breathing Rhythm Breathing is very important, especially with slightly longer exposure times that can just be managed without a tripod. If you are still wheezing because of a previous effort, you should first wait until you get a calm breathing rhythm. The same goes for any stress you just had. Adrenaline is the opposite of calm. Only when you breathe calmly again, put the camera to your eye and press the trigger when you have just exhaled. Monopods that are also a walking stick have proven themselves on strenuous hikes or mountain tours.

The Camera Of course, the camera itself also plays an important role for non-blurred

photos. A heavy but not too heavy camera is easier to hold still than a lightweight. If you aim at the subject with the viewfinder, you can control longer exposure times without a tripod than when using the display. Most importantly, your camera is in your hand. You can only try this out before making a purchase decision, ideally, if you have several cameras for comparison. Our hands are not standard size. A camera for delicate women's hands will not do well in large men's hands and vice versa. The camera should be comfortable and safe to hold in both portrait and landscape format.

The Lens Used or the Zoom Level Set Finally, the most important thing about sharp photos without blurring: the focal length or the angle of view of the lens. Lenses or focal length ranges from wide angles to normal lenses are unproblematic. Without an image stabilizer, these focal lengths (zoom areas) allow exposure times of up to 1/30 seconds with a single-lens reflex and 1/60 seconds with all cameras where the camera is aiming at the display with a reasonably steady hand. But as soon as the telephoto area is used, the exposure times have to be significantly shorter if you want sharp photos. Because, the smaller the angle of view, the more even the slightest vibrations of the camera become noticeable as blurring. Therefore, there is an important rule of thumb: The exposure time should not be longer than half the focal length in fractions of a second. This rule refers to the focal lengths of 35 mm cameras or their digital successor, full format of the same size. For smaller or larger sensors, the focal length must be converted using the crop factor (format factor) so that the rule can be applied. Example: focal length 200 mm on a full frame camera. The exposure time should not be longer than 1/100 seconds. The same lens on a camera with APS sensor, then the longest possible exposure time is 1/150 seconds because the focal length must be multiplied by the crop factor (1.5 for the APS sensor), which leads to a converted focal length of 300 mm. With the format factor in the previous chapter, you can look up the conversion factor for all common sensor sizes.

Photos from a Vehicle or Plane

Virtually every vehicle has more or less strong vibrations that are transmitted to the camera. These vibrations are extreme in a helicopter, but the vibrations are also clearly perceptible in an ICE traveling at top speed. In such a case, if you want still reasonably sharp photos, you need extremely short exposure times. 1/1000 seconds or shorter, provided the light is sufficient for such short exposure times. In a reasonably quiet plane, the exposure time should be 1/250 seconds or better even shorter. With a car, it depends. A Rolls Royce drives with less vibration than an old small car. The road, the road surface and the profile of the tires naturally also play a role in the shocks and vibrations that are transmitted to the camera. Therefore, you cannot make any generally valid statements. It is best to keep the exposure time as short as possible due to the lighting conditions.

Long Exposure from a Tripod with SLR Cameras Even if the camera is on a first-class tripod with a tripod head that is just as good when there is no wind, the issue is vibrations. Because the mirror only folds up when the shutter button is pressed, thereby shaking the camera. Already, with exposure times of 1/8 seconds and even more, so with even longer exposure times, one notices with cheaper SLR cameras for the photo amateurs (consumer class) the shock caused by slight blurring, which is particularly noticeable with street lamps and similar lights because they are no longer sharp delimited but slightly blurred. With high-quality cameras with first-class precision mechanics, the mirror is braked so softly that the slight vibrations, which of course also exist for cameras in this price range, only become noticeable with exposure times of half a second or longer.

Mirror Lock-Up If you want to safely avoid vibrations caused by the flip-up mirror, the mirror must have been flipped up before the shutter was released. This process is referred to photographically as mirror activation. Perhaps you are looking in vain for the mirror trigger in your operating instructions. This does not necessarily mean that your camera has no such function. It is then only labeled differently. With Pentax, it is a special setting of the self-timer that

folds up the mirror when the shutter is pressed but does not open the shutter until 2 seconds later. In some other cameras, it is called a mirror lock or lock. It is only important that the mirror is not folded up for long exposures until the shutter releases.

Remote Release For long exposures, keep your hands away from the camera while the shutter is open. There are remote triggers for this, because the pressure on the trigger would shake the camera even slightly if it were concreted. Even the best tripod cannot prevent the shock from being pressed by the trigger. For the slightly better cameras, there is the dial setting "B". The B comes from Ball, the previously used mechanical remote release. With the "B" setting, the shutter is opened the first time the remote control is pressed and remains open until the remote control is pressed a second time. When using a remote release, the camera usually has to be prepared for this. Either you will find the Remote Shutter setting under the settings for the shutter, with which you can also make the various settings for the self-timer or a little more complicated in the menu. For photos outside the usual areas of application, you should always prepare yourself with the camera operating instructions at home, otherwise, you will sometimes even look in vain for the menu items for camera settings on site. Operating manuals are not necessarily written in an understandable way. It is often easier to briefly research the internet by specifying the camera model and the problem solution you are looking for.

Image Stabilizer With some cameras, an image stabilizer is already built into the camera, with other manufacturers, there are lenses with built-in image stabilizers instead. The image stabilizer enables up to three times longer exposure times by hand. Example: Without an image stabilizer, the 1/30 seconds would be the longest possible exposure time that can still be achieved without blurring. In principle, 1/4 seconds is possible with the image stabilizer (1/15 seconds first stage, 1/8 seconds second stage, 1/4 seconds third stage). In principle, because you don't need very steady hands for such a long exposure time without a tripod, but either yourself or that support the camera somewhere.

The image stabilizer must be switched off when the camera is placed on a tripod. Tripods and image stabilizers are not compatible. This completes the photo-technical requirements for longer exposure times.

The Exposure Time as a Creative Design Element By choosing the appropriate exposure time, movements can be frozen or made visible.

Freeze Movements Movements can be frozen with the appropriate exposure time. The exposure time must be short enough according to the speed and direction of the movement to be able to freeze it statically. Movements that take place across the image (camera location) require significantly shorter exposure times than movements that approach the camera or move away from it. For a leisurely stroller who approaches the camera, a 1/30 seconds exposure time is usually sufficient, for a jet fighter photographed with a strong telephoto format, even a thousandth of a second is still too long, because in the thousandth of a second, he puts on Mach1 still 27 cm back. For butterflies in flight, especially for a hummingbird, you also need extremely short exposure times if the wings are not just supposed to be a wiping effect. For short exposure times, you need a lot of light even with the aperture open, unless you accept image noise and set high ISO values.

Freeze Movements in the Studio If you work with a studio flash system, the flash duration and not the set exposure time plays the decisive role. At the speeds that a person can reach in front of the camera, even with violent arm or leg movements, the flash duration of a studio flash system is short enough. If you photograph with studio lamps instead, you will hardly be able to achieve exposure times shorter than 1/125 seconds. Even with several professional film lights, which can already be far too long for fast movements across the image. The advantage of studio lamps, especially in action photography, is the constantly available light, you do not have to wait for the flash system to recharge.

Make Movements Visible It is not always desirable for a movement to be frozen by a photo. Flowing water looks more natural when it is photographed with exposure times of 1/30 seconds or even longer. Of course, there are also exceptions to this rule if water drops are to shine like glittering pearls in the backlight. A dancer in a spinning motion with a flying dress can also look better if the movement is visible through the dress. There are no rigid rules for image composition, which also applies to exposure times. It always depends on the intended image message. Only if you left all the settings to the fully automatic mode of the camera, at least with regard to the important photo-technical design elements, exposure time and aperture could no longer be said of a desired image statement, because then it would be more of a coincidence what comes out. The same applies to the exposure times required to make movements visible as to freezing movements. It depends on the direction and speed of the movement, how long the exposure time must be at least in order to make the movement visible through the wiping effect. Especially when it comes to deliberate motion blurring, you have to experiment a little, because only with running water can you give the tip, expose 1/30 seconds or even a little longer if you have the camera on a tripod or with an image stabilizer for longer exposure times than the 1/30, still get out of hand without blurring. In contrast to the past, when experimenting was much more difficult because you first had to wait for the developed film and make notes of each photo in order to be able to later understand what you had set, experimenting with a digital camera has now become child's play, because you can immediately see on the display how a setting works. You don't have to make a note of anything anymore, because all camera settings are saved in the Exif data of a photo. That's why you have the courage to experiment!

Blurred Background If you want to photograph a car, motorcycle or other object moving across the picture with a blurred, blurred background, then you need to pull the camera with you before releasing the shutter. This often works much better

than a static, frozen movement on which the background is completely sharp and gives the impression of high speed due to the blurred background. How long the exposure time must be for a blurred background depends on the speed. On a country road with speeds around 100 km/h exposure times exist between 1/30 and 1/100 seconds, depending on how badly the background should be blurred. Exposure times are much shorter on the straight of a formula 1 racetrack. Medium telephoto lenses with focal lengths between 100 mm and 150 mm are well suited. This way, you stay far enough from the road and still get the vehicle full format. This technique has to be practiced with different exposure times, it is important that the camera follows the movement of the vehicle before the shutter release button is pressed fully and the camera is pulled along evenly during the exposure. For the first exercises, you look for a dirt road, a driveway or a similar camera location with an unobstructed view of the street. When you see a car coming, you take a look at it with the camera, follow the movement and finally press the trigger. Particularly great shots of motorcycles take in a curve if you can stand a little lower than the road.

Light Trails at Night Long exposure times are also required for this, at least 2-3 seconds, it may also be longer. The photo below was taken with an aperture of 16 at ISO 100 and an exposure time of 5 seconds. Incidentally, there are just 2 cars with their light trails. As always with long exposures, mirror pre-release and remote release.

Since the camera has to stand on a tripod for such photos anyway, first take a test photo with the exposure values determined by the camera and correct the exposure settings for the next photo according to your taste. After all, that's one of the key benefits of digital photography, instant control on the display and no expensive film wasted.

PART 2: AREAS OF PHOTOGRAPHY

CHAPTER 7 PORTRAIT AND ACT Portrait and nude photography are among the most attractive tasks in photography. The challenge is not only the beauty of a face and the human body, but also the diverse expressions of both facial expressions and body language. The photographic challenge encompasses all areas of image design. Most importantly, of course, the lighting also for portrait and nude photography- there are practically no limits to your imagination. Image detail, exposure and depth of field, diagonals and dynamics are equally important. Just like the colors, of course or black and white instead. The design tools of photography play an even greater role in portrait and nude photography than in technically very demanding object photography because with the design means, the mood of a picture is clearly emphasized. The design tools, which are often only carried out retrospectively in a good image editing program, include contrast, color saturation, possibly soft drawing and of course, the final image section.

The Lighting for Portrait and Nude Photography The lighting is intended to underline the mood of the picture. All variants are possible, from low-key photography emphasizing the contours to highresolution photography that almost resolves the contours. In the studio in particular, of course, we have complete control over the lighting. Outside where we rely on natural light, you can also help out with the light, either with enormous effort using a mobile flash system or with reflective foils or reflective boards. The lighting is not only subject to fashion influences, but is also determined by practical handling. In a professional studio, where for example, mainly fashion photography is made for department store catalogs, the lighting must be sufficiently flexible, but on the other hand, it must allow for quick shoots without major changes. The more or less 08/15 photos that result from this

should not be a role model for a discerning amateur who wants to take outstanding portrait and nude photos. In contrast to the professional photographer, who has to photograph an entire catalog within a very tight time, on the one hand, amateurs have much more time for photos and on the other hand, only rarely the financial resources for the hobby photography that a professional naturally invests. If so, then photos from demanding publications should serve as a model. To guide the light in the studio, you need at least a sufficiently strong light source, either a studio spotlight with at least 1000 W or a flash system. Three differently strong light sources are optimal. The third is often unnecessary; it is mainly used for lighting effects on the background. One light source is defined as the main light, the other light sources should either lighten shadows, of course, you have to be significantly weaker than the main light or the second light source should set highlights in the hair of a model, for example, then it must either be more or more directed than the main light. The exposure is adjusted to the main light, the other light sources have to be subordinate. They must not be too strong or too weak in proportion. A too strong light source for highlights would not only set highlights but would also result in overexposed, worn-out lights in which there is no more drawing. Apart from special lighting effects that are used, especially in artistic nude photography, the lighting in the studio should actually simulate the natural light outside, actually make it more perfect than would be possible outside. Outside, we only have one strong light source during the day, the sun. The optimal light outside for portraits is the sun in the afternoon when a light cloud curtain provides softer light. If the sky is completely overcast, the light may be too soft, the opposite situation occurs at midday in the blazing sun, which would result in very hard drop shadows, as well as a light coming vertically from above, which is not exactly advantageous for photos. This also results in the optimal lighting in the studio. The main light is either a Hazylight, a softbox or a light source with a screen, depending on the desired light characteristics either a reflex screen or a transmitted light screen.

Eyes and Mouth in Portrait Photo

Our moods and feelings are more or less clearly reflected in our face. Our moods and feelings are most clearly expressed through the eyes and mouth. The interaction of the statement of the eyes and mouth only brings photos to life. What is a matter of course for comic artists, applies even more to good photos.

General Rules for Portrait Photos The following rules also have numerous exceptions. At best, they can be a guideline that can be used to avoid bad portraits.

Facial Expression and Posture In the portrait, the face dominates and in the further also the entire body, as far as can be seen in the picture, including the posture. Overall, it has to be coherent. A good seller pays attention to the body signals, which often show him much more clearly than verbal statements, what his potential customer responds to, what he is actually interested in and what leaves him rather cold. The photographer should already pay attention to body language three times. In addition to the eyes and mouth, it makes a decisive decision as to whether a picture is perceived as real or as real and alive. An artificial laughter with blunt eyes and a cramped posture simply doesn't go together. The eyes shine in a real laugh and the body is completely relaxed. Especially when we laugh, we no longer have our bodies under control. Poses are often required in professional photography, but a model has to master this perfectly because otherwise, you can see at first glance that the photo is posed. Just as a good actor feels into a role in order to be able to portray it convincingly, a model who wants to portray poses in a real way must also feel himself in the pose. A good photographer can help the model. But a fundamental problem of a pose remains, even with a very good professional photo model. If a pose has to be held because the photographer wants to experiment with different lighting settings, then even with the best model, it will become stiff and thus clearly set. It is better as far as the photographic task allows, if a model goes into a pose and the trigger is activated at exactly the right moment. Then it stays alive. And instead of staying in it, the model poses again when multiple shots with

different settings are needed. Almost all people tend to put on a camera face in front of a camera. Be it that they smile or grin as soon as they look at a camera, be it that they stare at the camera or make any faces. There are only a few people who remain natural in the face of a camera and do not take any pose. This is the real art of people photography with amateur models, the initial difficulties of a model, which I call the confirmation hour, because most models also have their hands folded in their laps, to bring a model to life in front of the camera, real feelings need to be shown and ideally the camera becomes a friend that you can trust unconditionally. On the other hand, this is the talent that a successful photo model needs. You can only learn and train this to a very limited extent. Without talent, you can limit yourself to any technique, as is often the case with professional photographers who take technically perfect, but also lifeless photos. Only with mastery of technology and talent can something arise that goes beyond everyday life and the moment.

The Photographer as a Director If you want your model to laugh, then you really have to make her laugh and not just a fake keep smiling smile. The same applies to any other facial expression desired. You will rarely have a real actress in front of the camera, who can feel yourself into almost any role you want and thus also present convincingly. Your work in motivating the model is an essential aspect of good portraits and nude photos. How you do it is ultimately up to you; after all, how is it an essential part and expression of your own personality, which is reflected in your photos. But never try to rape a model to a specific expression. The result would be a disaster in many ways, not only in relation to the pictures but also in relation to your relationship with the photo model and whether you would feel good about it remains to be seen. Music can also play an important role in creating a suitable atmosphere. Depending on how that or the models are at the moment and what is desired on your part, music can make a big difference. If someone is completely over the top, then calm music can bring the desired calm. Conversely, you can get a model that is completely closed and absorbed in itself with lively music

from its snail shell.

Motivate the Model Give your model real feedback. You are not just the man or woman behind the camera, you are the designer. But in contrast to a static object, you have to deal with real people in portrait and nude photography who do not just want to be left to their own devices but also have confirmation of what is right and what is wrong. I turned the reels a few times for fun and let models take pictures of me. But if nothing comes from the model that has suddenly slipped into the role of photographer, then you quickly become helpless and don't really know what to do in front of the camera. Therefore, give your model confirmation again and again, force an expression and an attitude that you like about the model and lead it gently or strictly, depending on your own personality, out of an unhappy expression. Be aware that your photo model or models are not just will less objects. With praise for God's sake, do not be frugal and reluctant to criticize. Digital photography has made something possible that was previously completely unthinkable. Namely, to go through the photos with the model and to practice maneuver criticism during a shooting break. This way, the model can see for herself how she is doing particularly well and what is not so good for her. In analog photography, it was only the photographer who had to recognize what was good and what was not when he was taking the picture. Because even if the photographer developed the pictures himself, it was simply impossible, except with Polaroid photos, to have the first picture results during a shooting break. This is an invaluable advantage of digital photography and often contributes significantly to the motivation of the model when he or she is pleasantly surprised at the particularly successful photos. When a situation is completely stuck, it is best to put the camera down for a few minutes and take a coffee break (it can of course, also be sparkling wine or another drink). You can then easily clarify with one another why it is so difficult.

Unsure In Front of the Camera The uncertainty in front of the camera can be recognized by the fact that the person in front of the camera does not really know what to do with their hands as well as the fact that the model looks rigidly into the camera and waits tensely for a bird to fly out of it. Then your direction is particularly in demand. Help your model relax. You can also have a photo model dance in front of the camera and it relaxes automatically. It is important that your model notices that she is being photographed; the click of the trigger is confirmation for a model that she likes the photographer.

Nude Photography with Amateur Photo Models If a woman is naked or only partially clothed in front of the camera for the first time, she is particularly unsafe, unsure whether the photographer likes her body at all and of course, also unsure about the man behind the camera. There is hardly a woman who thinks she is absolutely beautiful. Younger women, in particular, compare themselves again and again with beauty ideals and find themselves more or less unattractive even in view of the ideal. Show your model its uniqueness and special beauty. Confirm them again and again, especially with the photos that highlight this beauty.

The Difference, the Professional Photo Model Even if a professional model should also compare herself to some ideal, at least you won't feel it. Real photo models know their particular strengths and reveal them. A professional photo model is not afraid of the camera, no matter who is behind it, but blooms in the atmosphere of the studio as well as outside when the camera of a good photographer is pointed at her. A professional photo model also knows about her best sides and which side of the face best suits the desired expression. With an amateur photo model, you first have to find out.

The Face as a Determining Image Factor Only very few portraits in which the entire background is completely sharp are convincing. The portrait is ultimately intended to lift the individual out of

the crowd. This applies to photography as well as painting.

Mastery of Depth of Field In portrait photography, mastery of depth of field is a crucial factor for good results. Pocket cameras and cell phones which due to their small sensor and the resulting small focal length from 1 m to infinity, draw everything uniformly sharply, are unsuitable for portrait photography unless you are photographing your model against a neutral background. With a lot of skill and effort, just like in a film studio, you can create a suitable atmosphere as a background for a portrait. But even in film, playing with depth of field and the level of focus is an essential factor for the image statement despite or perhaps because of the enormous effort to create an atmospheric background.

Nude Photography Detached From the Portrait There are countless examples in art and photography on which the face of a nude model is not shown or can no longer be recognized. Sometimes the body becomes a sculpture, sometimes it is an erotic attraction. Allusions are often much more erotic than direct pointing.

Atmospheric or with a Neutral Background? The neutral background is much easier to create than an atmospherically dense environment for your photos. In the simplest cases, a plain color wall is sufficient for the neutral background, for example, the wall of your living room. With a little more effort, you can either buy stage molton or colored background cardboard, both of which can simply be repacked when not required. The solid color background also eliminates some depth of field problems, especially if you use black stage Molton which almost completely absorbs the light.

The Search for the Right Environment For the atmospheric background, you either need the right furniture in your apartment or your studio and enough space to get the necessary distance to take pictures or you search for suitable locations, including the necessary permits.

Railway Facilities and Old Factory Premises Old railway systems and factory premises are popular backgrounds for extravagant portraits and nudes. In both cases, however, the systems are privately owned, in one case owned by the Federal Railways and in the other case, there is certainly any owner whose approval you need to be able to take photos. If it is still acceptable for a coincidence that you do not get the necessary permits, you will take revenge at the latest if you want to publish the photos without these permits. If you do not get the permits even then, you risk expensive warnings and processes.

The Right Light for a Portrait In principle, you can create any lighting situation in the studio, regardless of our viewing habits and the natural light outside. But especially for portraits with a lively appearance, a light that corresponds to the optimal situation outside is actually desirable. Do not confuse this with the enormous effort in lighting technology for table top photography. In order to put products in the most advantageous light possible, completely different lighting techniques are required than when photographing models. You will also find it difficult to place a model on a light table or in a light tent. The optimal situation outside is the afternoon sun, in front of which there is a thin cloud curtain. This results in a soft light on the one hand, but on the other hand, it still has enough direction to form with a slight shade. With uniform illumination, shapes can only be recognized by different colors or brightness values, while shaded areas make shapes visible even with the same colors and brightness values. On the other hand, shadows should not become too deep either. Direct, hard light from above or from the side needs a second light source or reflective surfaces to brighten the shadows. The afternoon sun, of course, has a lot of power and would create extreme contrasts in an image without any additional aids, either something is exposed or it is in the deep shadow. In the studio, highly directed light is actually only used to set highlights or for lighting effects on the background. In the ideal case, the studio lighting approaches the afternoon sun with a lightly overcast sky. That means a

strong, softly radiating main light source and reflective walls or a weaker lamp to lighten shadows. Just as the sun does not shine from the side but diagonally from above, the main light in the studio should also come from diagonally from above. And just as there are increasingly more and less strongly illuminated areas except for fog, the liveliness in an image should also result from the light distribution, among other things. Totally deep shadows are usually undesirable and a completely shadow-free illumination as in the fog is usually also undesirable. The world-famous photographer David Hamilton did not aim dozens of soft boxes at his models from all sides, but either worked with natural light or created a light situation in the studio that corresponds to natural light. It is precisely this soft naturalness that makes his photos the best of erotic photography so far after more than 30 years. This lighting situation is cheap with the usual ones, flash systems and large soft boxes cannot be produced. A softbox with a diameter of significantly more than 1 m can only be placed diagonally from the front above the model with great effort or to simulate light backlighting also diagonally from above, slightly behind the model. Because you need either a professional solution, that would be a column tripod with a cantilever arm or a boom stand instead, but this is quite expensive if it should be useful. The very large soft boxes can only be placed on the side of the model. For an elevated position, they cannot be tilted enough with a column tripod. They are only suitable as brighteners. How do you do that with the light in a professional photo studio? Of course, a whole range of different reflectors are available for the flash system in a professional photo studio, from the huge softbox, focus light shapers to spotlights. And of course, not all are used at the same time but depending on the task. The flexibility of the light guide depends on the tasks that the photographer mainly has to solve. Despite sufficient flexibility in the lighting, this studio is practically fixed to the standard situations. The flexibility results from the fact that only a selection of the permanently installed soft boxes is put into operation at the same time. Incidentally, these high-performance, permanently installed softboxes as was previously the case with the Hazylight, come at an angle from above.

The more different the tasks that a photographer has to solve for his clients, the more flexible is the lighting in the studio. Nevertheless, many tasks are solved with a single soft main light and polystyrene reflective panels. The fashion has changed somewhat over the years, if you used to prefer the Hazylight or surface lights from other manufacturers with its flat, completely uniform soft lighting and great flexibility thanks to the inclination in all directions, it is now the Beautylight or the Softbox that deliver the main light. In contrast to the Hazylight, the softbox is more emphasized in the lighting. However, if it is not already permanently installed in a scaffold, it is more cumbersome to use than the Hazylight. In a studio, a compromise comes into play, namely a Hazylight, which is not equipped with the original flash head, but with a normal flash head, which like the softbox, provides central lighting. This solution would also not be feasible for families with their own space for the studio. In a 80m² studio/seminar room/living room, I can slide the column stand with the Hazy into a corner where it doesn't bother me. That would not be possible in a small city apartment. By the way, professionals laugh at the ideas that some amateur have about the planned studio. A soft, sufficiently strong main light and polystyrene panels as reflex walls are sufficient for portraits. Instead of polystyrene panels, you can also use foldable reflex walls with a suitable tripod, which costs a little more, but is also more flexible and requires almost no space when not required.

Light That You Should Definitely Avoid Light that you should avoid is mixed light from light sources of different color temperatures, e.g. daylight and artificial light. You should also avoid very hard light.

Light Forms Differences in brightness let us recognize shapes first; otherwise, we would only perceive colored areas. The art of guiding light in the studio as well as outdoors with reflective foils is among other things, shaping the light and letting it light up a little without making the differences in brightness too great. If highlights are overexposed because they are too strong in relation to

the main light, then instead of attractive light guidance, you only have white, overexposed areas without tracing in the image. Either you lower the power of the second light responsible for the highlights or you take a half to one aperture more, then the highlights are no longer worn out, but the overall impression becomes darker. The latter can be corrected much more easily in retrospect than blown out lights because you won't be able to add a drawing to a part of the picture that has been eaten out. A thin layer of sweat on the skin makes it even more difficult to handle highlights because then the skin in these areas shines particularly strongly. Either change the lighting or take a break from shooting so that the model can freshen up in the bathroom. The elegant case of fabrics in sophisticated dresses needs some shade, otherwise, we won't notice it. Avoid overly directed light, drop shadows and confused shadows in both portrait and nude photography.

The Right Focal Length for Portrait and Nude Photography Wide-angle lenses are unsuitable for portrait and nude photography. A wideangle lens not only records very strongly but also displays everything that is in the foreground in an oversized size. This may occasionally apply to desired effects. But the model is definitely not happy about a huge nose. Optimal is a light telephoto lens with 80-105 mm focal length, again like all other focal lengths in relation to the 35 mm format. Not only do you avoid the distortion of shorter focal lengths, but at the same time, you have the reduced depth of field of the longer focal length, which the photo model advantageously focuses on the blurred background. Background Cardboard or Stage Molton as an endless Background

The Right Exposure In the case of monochrome backgrounds, the automatic exposure control usually causes problems. If there are strong contrast differences between the foreground (the model) and the background, the automatic exposure control will still provide reasonably reliable results for the center-weighted measurement or spot measurement. This only applies to continuous light, because you need a flash exposure meter anyway for a flash system.

Steady Light The greater the proportion of background in the image, the greater the problem for exposure metering, but not the background should be correctly exposed, but your model. This is especially true with a black background, which should ultimately only be a black area in the background. The automatic exposure control would try to expose the black background with integral exposure metering correctly, then the model in the foreground would be completely overexposed. Conversely, this also applies to a light background. What is important is the model and not the background. The lighting situations in the studio do not change all the time. You place the lamps or flash heads in one position for a series of photos and your model has a certain area in which she can move. The smaller the studio, the stronger the light, the smaller this area, of course. Find the right exposure with a few sample photos and apply this value manually. You can take photos by occasionally checking the exposure on the display until you change the lighting situation. The new exposure value must then be determined again. Of course, in this case, you also have to manually adjust the sensitivity of the sensor. If you need very short exposure times, then use an ISO setting in which no sensitive image noise occurs. If you do not want to do without the automatic in any case, then at least choose the measurement emphasized in the middle, then your model must of course also be in the middle, which is mostly not desired for reasons of optimal dynamics in a picture.

Flash System With a flash system, you either need a manual flash exposure meter or you feel for the correct aperture value in all standard situations as well as for the correct setting of the flash system (full output or reduced output, depending on your flash unit). You should approach it as a dry exercise and not only when a model is in front of the camera. With a flash system, you can only influence the exposure on the camera via the aperture and the ISO value, but not through the exposure time. Because even if your camera offers several exposure times for flash synchronization, the flash has a much shorter duration than the shortest exposure time that is

possible for flash synchronization. The flash duration of a flash system is between 1/100 and 1/2500 seconds depending on the manufacturer, model and setting. The camera shutter must already be fully open when the flashes fire. With very powerful flash systems, you have to reduce the output enormously in the small studio because otherwise, even with the smallest aperture, everything would be completely overexposed. As an example: 1500 watt seconds of power, normal reflector, exposure at a distance of 2 m and ISO 100 with aperture 64. Only that we have no aperture 64 with a digital SLR camera. With most lenses for the 35 mm format and thus also digital SLR cameras, aperture 22 is the end, the shutter cannot be closed any further. In order to be able to work with aperture 22, the flash head must be reduced by 2 aperture steps in this case. For the optimal sharpness of the lens at aperture 11, the power must be reduced by 4 aperture steps. The situation is different when the flash head sits in a hazard light or softbox with 1500 watt seconds. They swallow some light. The larger the softbox, the stronger the flash head must be. With small, low-power flash systems, you quickly reach the limits of what is possible. The reasonable lowest limit is 300 watt seconds per flash head. Everything that delivers even less power is actually intended for the passport photo studio.

Background Cardboard Background cardboard comes in three different widths, 1.35 m, 2.72 m and 3.55 m. The narrowest width is just enough for portraits, but the camera has to stand on a tripod, which does not exactly ensure vivid portraits. This is the typical equipment for a passport photo studio. At 2.72 m, you are on the safe side for most shooting situations. The largest selection of colors is available for the two standard widths of 1.35 m and 2.72. Background cardboard does not cost the world, a roll with a width of 2.72 m and a length of 11 m costs between $70 and $90 plus transport costs, depending on the provider. For a background box, you need a sensible suspension. Background cardboard is relatively sensitive to dirt and tearing from the side. The latter can be prevented with a little effort by hemming it on all edges with parcel tape.

Background cardboard and sharp-edged heels of women's shoes are not compatible at all. You immediately have holes in the background cardboard. Therefore, if the model is not being photographed from head to toe anyway, take off your shoes before stepping on the background cardboard. With holes through shoes in the front area of the background carton, you will consume a penalty roll very quickly. And after the first photos, you have to touch up in Photoshop because then the first holes are already in the background cardboard.

Stage Molton Stage molton in the heavy quality that you need when it comes to an endless background on which the photo model is standing, has a width of 3 m and is available in different colors. The prices are around $15 for the running meter, you need at least 5 m. What is too much in width can be gathered on one side. As a black background, there is nothing better than stage molton, because stage molton absorbs the light almost completely in contrast to a matt background cardboard. Stage molton is not the first choice for light colors, because stage molton can almost never be suspended completely smooth and the folds in the fabric cast shadows that can be clearly seen in the photo. Stage molton can easily be temporarily or permanently installed on an existing curtain rod. It can be easily kept clean with a vacuum cleaner.

Width and Distance Your model needs to be at a distance from the background, otherwise, it practically merges with the background. Another disadvantage of short distances can be seen in the adjacent picture, namely shadows on the wall. So your model needs distance, ideally from 1.50 to 2 m from the background. This means that in small rooms, at least whole-body photographs and nude photography are hardly possible. Because for a portrait, you need a focal length of at least 80 mm, you should never go underneath for portraits, 1 m from the model. Then there is the distance of at least 1.50 m from the wall. The more of the body you want on it, the greater the distance to the model, of course. Nude and whole-body photographs, therefore, require a room depth of at least 5 m. Otherwise, you would have to make lazy compromises, either by reaching for the wide-angle

lens or by placing the model far too close against the background.

One Model, Many Faces Everyone has at least two completely different faces. Perhaps you have already noticed that no one has a symmetrical face. Our two parts are reflected in the face because each of us has a female and a male part, the majority of which is of course, gender-specific. And just as we combine the two in different weightings, we also have two different sides. The diversity of us humans is reflected in our faces, which always arise from the interaction of the apparent opposites. Depending on which side you photograph or emphasize with the light, your model appears very different.

CHAPTER 8 LANDSCAPE PHOTOGRAPHY Landscape photography lives to a large extent from light. Of course, you cannot influence this light and so it is important to have the right moment when the natural light emphasizes the magic of the landscape.

Especially with landscape photos, it is important to experiment with the different focal length levels with a zoom lens until you have found the right image section or to use the right lens for fixed focal lengths.

The photo above would be rather boring without the wispy clouds and the almost dramatic sky. I would not have done it without this special light, because I have this landscape in front of me all day. Subsequent image processing: increase of contrast, selection of the sky over selection/color range/lights with a soft edge of 30 pixels, copy of the selection as a new layer, which was multiplied by 60% opacity with the original layer. This increases the effect of the clouds.

The Recording Location Often Decides

Landscape photography lives next to the light and the right section of the location.

It is often only a few steps that enable the correct image section. The photo above is rather factual. The photo below is completely different from the same field. I just had to walk a few steps to take the photo below.

Landscape photos require high overall sharpness. Ideally, you take landscape photos with aperture 8 or 11. With these apertures, the overall sharpness is strongest with most lenses. Landscape photos usually have no problems with depth of field, almost regardless of the lens used because mostly the distance for landscape photos is set to infinite anyway.

Strong Contrasts in Landscape Photos Landscape photos that are not taken when the sky is overcast almost always

have large areas with strong lights and areas with deep shadows.

In a good image editing program, you can still bring life to these areas by selecting/lights or using selection/depths by darkening the lights and brightening the depths, but if you should have a tripod with you, then make an exposure series with at least one aperture difference each, whereby you should not change the aperture value, but instead the exposure time. Otherwise, you would have photos with different overall sharpness and depth of field, which are then difficult to compare with each other. Landscape photos do not necessarily need the sky, sometimes it is beneficial to have the sky completely out of the picture. This can also be done afterwards by selecting the image section. But try to find the right image section as soon as possible, because with every enlargement you will later lose pixels.

The Image Division in the Landscape Photo In landscape photos with the sky on them, the image distribution in the horizontal image axis plays a very important role. Most photos in which the horizon is pretty much in the middle and also completely flat, look dead boring. Especially when taking pictures of the landscape with a large proportion of the sky, you should either aim for the golden ratio in the vertical division or a more or less 4: 3 division in the landscape and sky.

The photo above doesn't look boring, though the horizon is pretty much in the middle. It is simply because there is not only a gradation of heights in the picture through the river bank, the trees in the foreground and the mountains in the background, but that the valley opens almost exactly in the gap between the trees. This creates the connection between heaven and earth, which is often so important in landscape photography.

There Are No Magic Recipes for Landscape Photos

Otherwise, there are no magic recipes for good landscape photos. The image section naturally plays a major role. When we are outside, we finally have a

360 ° landscape around us. The art of landscape photography is among other things, to choose the most effective image section from it. This also includes the optimal dynamics in a photo. If the chapel were in the middle, the photo would be pretty boring. The same applies to landscape photography as to all other areas of photography, it is not simply a matter of souvenir photos, but of a beautiful landscape bathed in a spectacularly beautiful light. That also means being patient until the right light is there. In contrast to studio photography, we cannot influence the light of a landscape shot. Just like any other form of photography, landscape photography thrives on the division of the image, on the dynamics enhanced by the golden ratio or another aspect ratio, on diagonals in the image and an exposure that conveys exactly the impression that you want to convey with the photo. If you want something to light up, then it is important that there are darker areas of the image that enhance the glow. In addition, it is first of all necessary to compensate for the weaknesses of a digital camera in image processing. Not only the significantly lower contrast range compared to the human eye, but also the other weaknesses. Subsequent sharpening of the image is often in vogue. Nik Sharpener, a classic among Photoshop plugins, works better than with Photoshop plug-ins, with which one can not only fine-tune the resharpening in its newer versions but with the brushes can even limit the effect to individual parts of the picture. Some digital cameras exaggerate the colors and even pale colors become almost kitschy bright colors, other cameras turn the colors to be too pale, but this can be easily and sensitively corrected afterwards, even lighter than the opposite too bright colors. Especially in landscape photography, the polarization filter often plays a major role. When I am on the go, the polarizing filter is already screwed on to all lenses and is ready for immediate use. Then all you have to do is find the correct turning position. The latter is of course, pure experimentation. Especially in spring and autumn, when either the fresh leaves of the trees shine or the autumn leaves shimmer in all possible colors, a light that emphasizes this play of colors and lights also plays a very important role in outstanding photos. On the other hand, the peace of a landscape can be enormously emphasized by the even light of the overcast sky.

Ground fog that clears here and there can result in particularly attractive motifs for landscape photography. In landscape photography, it is even more important than with all other photographic subjects that you simply develop an eye with which you can recognize and implement the special in light and landscape.

In contrast to many other areas of photography which require a more or less high level of technical knowledge, you hardly need this in landscape photography as long as you note that the contrast range of the human eye is a multiple of the contrast range of the sensor. Wherever shadows are so deep in a photo that it is simply black all over, we can still see the details in the shadows when we look at a landscape. Just as conversely, we see the light clouds in the sky and perceive the sky itself as blue and not as white as is often the case in landscape and architecture photography when parts of the sky come into the picture.

The Optimal Exposure Therefore, try a good compromise in exposure, with the most important parts being correctly exposed or if possible, take a series of exposures from the tripod and then process the images in an image processing program. A series of exposures is particularly recommended if you take photos in the mountains and your photos show both the valleys and the sky. Otherwise, there can be bitter disappointments when the valleys are only deep black and the sky

which was so wonderfully marked on that day is instead only white and even outshines the contours of the mountains. Exposure series and the largely automated calculation in the image processing are one of the very great advantages of digital photography compared to its predecessor, analog photography, in which one could do that, but only with an enormous effort in the darkroom.

CHAPTER 9 WILDLIFE PHOTOGRAPHY Animals In Front Of the Camera There are two fundamentally different methods of photographing animals. The one method that I prefer is animals in their natural surroundings photographing the surroundings just as aesthetically as one photographs a landscape or a model.

The other method is the more zoological, to photograph animals as precisely as possible and to achieve the spectacular not so much by the image composition, but the photographing of behaviors of wild animals which are difficult to observe. Both methods require a telephoto lens.

Photographing Wildlife Wild animals, apart from a few insects, are usually very shy. To get them in front of the camera well, you need a strong telephoto lens. Also, you usually need a lot of patience to get a shy animal in front of your lens and three times if you want to take spectacularly beautiful photos. In addition to areas that are mostly free of large predators, you also need sufficient knowledge of the wildlife in the region in which you want to take photos and in countries where dangerous predators live in the forests, you should never travel without an expert guide.

The standard zoom lens, which is often bought in the kit with the camera, is only suitable for wild animals to a minimal extent or not at all due to its lack of telephoto properties. Even with a 200 mm telephoto lens that has an apparent focal length of 300 mm on a camera with an APS sensor because of the 2/3 used angle of view and the resulting focal length extension of almost 50%, you will rarely see a shy wild animal get close enough to be able to take a picture of it, even to some extent in a format. A compromise is the purchase of a zoom lens up to 200 mm and an additional teleconverter that doubles the focal length. Compromise because with a converter, neither the image quality nor the light intensity of a real 400 mm lens is achieved, but much cheaper. If wildlife photography becomes your hobby, you will hardly be able to avoid powerful telephoto lenses.

Photographing Wildlife in Parks In a park, the animals are on the one hand in their almost natural habitat and completely free, on the other hand, they are not nearly as shy as in the wild. In such a park, you can take incredibly beautiful photos of animals.

Pets In Front Of the Camera On the one hand, pets are much easier to photograph than animals in the wild, because you have them around you all the time and the animals more or less obey your instructions. On the other hand, you need the right light for exceptionally beautiful photos of animals just like in any other area of photography. Flash is unsuitable, especially since an animal is also frightened by it. In addition, a camera flash brings out enough brightness, but a beautiful light from a flash directly on the camera is definitely not. But in your apartment, you rarely have the background and the light that is necessary for extraordinarily beautiful photos. Mostly only photos that are very nice as souvenir photos succeed here, but nothing that would pull a stranger from the chair.

CHAPTER 10 ARCHITECTURE PHOTOGRAPHY Architectural photography, along with object photography is one of the most technically demanding areas of photography because architectural photography is about mastering the technology. Architectural photography can be documented, i.e. photograph a building solo or in its surroundings in such a way that for example, as a prospective buyer, you can get an impression of the object; instead, it can interpret architecture photographically. While documentary architectural photography is above all a technical challenge, the photographic interpretation of a building is both a technical and a design challenge. In both cases, it is a matter of avoiding falling lines or which is also possible in the photographic interpretation of high-rise buildings. On the contrary, to emphasize them, it is about the angle of view and when using wide-angle lenses, also about more or less pronounced barrel-shaped distortions. While falling lines, as long as they are not too massive, can be compensated for later as well as barrel-shaped distortions with a good image editing program, the wrongly chosen angle of view is final and can no longer be corrected even with the best image editing program. This means not only in documentary architectural photography but also in the photographic interpretation of architecture that ideally, before you even take the first photos, you walk around a building to look at it from different distances and angles. The latter of course, actually applies to all photographic tasks, even portraits.

Falling Lines First of all, avoid falling lines. Falling lines always occur when the camera is not aligned completely parallel to the object plane. In architecture photography, this is the rule when you stand in front of a building and have to point the camera upwards so that you cannot just take pictures of the ground floor.

How strong the falling lines are depending largely on the focal length used. The shorter the focal length, the stronger the wide angle, the greater the distortion, especially the falling lines.

From this simple illustration, you may be able to see how falling lines are created. The distance of the building from the camera increases continuously upwards. The farther away a vertical edge is from the camera, the more it is inclined inwards, especially with wide-angle lenses, because after all, with increasing distance, more and more sky or a neighboring building comes along with it. This effect occurs with all focal lengths, but it is particularly strong with wide-angle lenses. In other words, the further you can step back from the object, i.e. the building and the longer the focal length for a formatfilling photo can become, the less falling lines are noticeable in the image. The only way to avoid falling lines with a normal digital camera and a normal lens is to have your shooting location exactly half the height of the building. For example, you can take a picture from the window of an opposite building. You will normally see a building from the street, take pictures from exactly the same situation as described above, which necessarily leads to falling lines, which become stronger, the smaller the focal length and the larger the

angle of view. Panoramic freedom only applies if you take photos from the street. In a judgment, the Federal Court of Justice ruled that photography from an opposite building should be assessed as well as photography with any tools that can be used to detach yourself from the normal angle of view of the street. So at least in the commercial sector, not without the permission of the architect or in this case, the artist, insofar as there is still copyright. Avoiding falling lines when shooting is only possible with shift lenses, which are wide-angle lenses where the lens can be swiveled slightly out of the optical axis or with a large format camera.

Here's how to do it with a large format camera. When shooting, the film and lens levels are aligned parallel to the object, instead of swiveling the camera upwards, only the lens level is pushed up so that the building is finally completely captured. Here is an excerpt from this illustration, which may make the principle a little clearer. In order to compensate for lateral distortion, the lens plane and film plane can also be swiveled sideways.

Due to the parallel alignment of the film plane and the lens plane to the subject, the beam path inside the camera is reversed, the beam path outside the camera lengthened or shortened. The result is that all parts of the building for the film level are equidistant. A shift lens works on the same principle, which was shown here using a large format camera as an example. The camera with the shift lens is aligned absolutely parallel to the front of the building on the tripod, i.e. generally vertically. The upward angle is achieved by moving the shift lens out of its optical axis. Shift lenses are very expensive, for the occasional use in architectural photography, the purchase should hardly be worthwhile. However, there are also sensible alternatives to purchase, you can borrow shift/tilt lenses. However, this only makes sense together with a full-frame camera, because the smaller APS sensor has an apparent focal length that is 50% longer so that the wide-angle shift lens cannot really be used. The matching full-frame camera can of course, also be borrowed from these companies. Even well-

known professional photographers in my circle of acquaintances do not buy these lenses themselves but borrow them from one of these companies if necessary. Only photographers who specialize in architectural photography have the appropriate equipment. If you need the equipment practically every day, the purchase is of course cheaper than renting it. There is another alternative to purchasing a real shift/tilt lens, namely a tilt/shift adapter, which is available for digital SLR cameras from Canon, Nikon and Pentax. It makes sense not to use the wide-angle lenses developed for these cameras on this adapter, but rather the Pentax lenses developed for the small analog medium format 4.5 x 6 cm. Because the image circle of a normal 35 mm wide-angle lens is too small to be able to shift or tilt and there would be vignetting. With the significantly larger image circle of the medium format lenses, however, it is not a problem. Corresponding adapters are available. Since the topic has already been addressed with the tilt/shift lenses in this context, let's briefly explain the tilt function. With the tilt function, you can also apply the golden ratio rule to a digital SLR camera, which was previously only possible with large format cameras. In principle, this is also an area of application for architectural photography, for example, when it comes to sharply imaging an elongated wall or a high church tower at an angle to the camera from front to back. On the other hand, since wide-angle lenses have a very large depth of field, this area of application in architectural photography is more useful for large-format cameras since the depth of field is relatively small even in the wide-angle range.

Compensate Falling Lines Later Photoshop can be used to straighten photos with falling lines using the crop tool and the "distort view" option. However, this often leads to a compression of the photo, not to mention the loss of quality due to the recalculation. You can correct the compression afterwards by having the image calculated with new image sizes. To do this, before you enter the new image size, remove the checkmark next to "Preserve proportions" and give the image a new image height that compensates for the compression effect. This leads to a new image

calculation with a further loss of quality. So it's nothing more than a makeshift that is better than nothing. The care taken during the recording cannot simply be restored. Basically, regardless of whether you take your photos with a film in the camera or with a sensor, the better the original, the more carefully you have prepared your photo, the better the final result and the less work in an image editing program.

Overall Sharpness Especially in architectural photography, the highest possible overall sharpness is important. It is not so much the number of pixels that is responsible for the sharpness, but rather the size of the sensor and the quality of the lens. The larger the sensor and the better the lens, the better the overall sharpness in the image. Of course, there is a clear difference between a sensor as was common in the early days of digital SLR cameras with 6-8 megapixels and a sensor with 16, 20 or even 50 megapixels, which you can only see when the original image is displayed at least one hundred percent the significantly reduced representation for the web, it plays a negligible role. A 35 mm lens achieves its highest imaging performance at an aperture of eight to eleven, making them the ideal apertures for architectural photography. If the aperture is stopped down even more due to the depth of field, there is already a loss of overall sharpness at aperture 16 due to the diffraction of light at the then very small aperture. Especially in the area of architectural photography, you should generally not choose the fully automatic mode of the camera, but either expose it completely manually or at least work with the aperture preselection. The sensor achieves its maximum sharpness only with its native sensitivity. If you already have a tripod with you for architectural photos, you should specify the ISO value even in poor lighting conditions and not leave it to the automatic system because higher ISO values not only lead to more or less perceptible image noise, but also to a slight loss of sharpness. A clear increase in sharpness is achieved with current, high-quality digital SLR cameras by not using the low-pass filter. The waiver is only possible because resolutions of 16 megapixels and more have now been achieved. The low pass filter was indispensable at lower resolutions to avoid moire.

Since there is usually no movement in the picture with architectural photos, you should also use the mirror lock-up for exposure times longer than 1/30 second and use a remote shutter release to avoid any vibration of the camera during the recording.

Depth of Field You don't usually have to worry about depth of field in architectural photography because you are often so far away from the object anyway, for example, a complete building that you set the distance to infinite.

Architectural Photography Indoors This task is even more demanding than taking pictures of buildings from the outside. Because usually, you have even less space and very rarely get the ideal location to get everything you want on the picture, even with a strong wide-angle lens. If there are still windows in the picture, you have significant contrast differences between inside and outside, which you can only master with a series of exposures and HDR photography or alternatively with a flash system. It becomes even more difficult if you have to do a combination of partial panorama photos to get as much of the interior as possible and do the HDR photography. To do this, you should first combine all photos with the same exposure level to form a partial panorama, before you then create the HDR photo from the at least three panorama photos with different exposure levels.

The Light in Architectural Photography Of course, light not only plays a role in night shots but also during the day. If you have the opportunity to take photos with the optimal lighting conditions for the object because you are either longer on site or the object is nearby, you should first find out which lighting conditions are optimal for the object. Experienced architects even adapt architecture to the prevailing lighting conditions. In a region where there are mostly cloudy skies, a good architect will not design a building that only expresses its beauty when it is illuminated by the sun.

So it is best to look at a building that you want to photograph in different lighting conditions, you can do it after all, digital photos, unlike their analog predecessors, don't cost anything anymore, of course, you can also take photos right away. Especially when the sun is important for an architectural object, the time of day also plays a significant role. It makes a big difference whether a facade lies in the shade or is illuminated by the sun. Even a northfacing facade gets direct sunlight in the summer in the evening. The shadow of neighboring buildings also plays a significant role, so you should choose the time of day so that shadows from neighboring buildings or trees do not interfere. This does not necessarily have to be at noon, because light coming vertically from above is rarely the optimal light for photos. A structured facade requires grazing light, which only makes structures clear through its shadow cast. In architectural photography as well as landscape photography, you are dependent on the available light. If you have the time and the opportunity to wait for the right light to drive to the targeted architectural object, then you should use it. A completely different situation is naturally given when traveling if you are only there for a day or even a few hours. Then you can often no longer take pictures as souvenirs. Of course, light also plays a very important role in interior design. After all, a good architect will take the lighting conditions on site into account when planning, so that the lighting in the room is good throughout the day if possible. Nevertheless, the lighting conditions are of course, dependent on the time of day as well as cloudy or sunny weather and can make a room appear very different. This is especially true after dark for artificial light, which in addition to its mere function of being sufficiently bright, is itself an essential design element.

Perfect Architectural Photos Perfect architectural photos are still a domain of the large format camera based on the principle of the optical bench. The large format camera with the digital back or the classic sheet film for the most demanding tasks has not yet had its day. But wherever the highest quality is not important, you can certainly take the photos with a normal digital camera, from which an architectural photo then

appears, at least at first glance, to appear perfect in an image editing program. The more carefully you do this, the better your results will be.

Architectural Photos and the Right When it comes to architectural photos, be sure to observe the freedom of panorama. If you take architectural photos from a private property or even inside the building, then either obtain the necessary permits beforehand. For reasons of evidence, these should be in writing or find out about restrictions on photography from public buildings and parks. Photos of buildings are protected by two legal statutes, namely the copyright of the architect, if not already statute-barred and the right to privacy. The socalled panorama freedom only offsets both. If a property owner determines that photography on his property and in his building is strictly prohibited without permission, you must observe such a photography ban even if the photos should never be published.

CHAPTER 11 OBJECT PHOTOGRAPHY Object photography is the most technically demanding area of studio photography. Just like architectural photography, object photography can be documentary, that is, transfer a three-dimensional object as precisely as possible into the two dimensions of a photo or instead arrange objects and interpret them photographically using lighting and angle of view. In both cases, the focus is on the lighting, the exposure and the focus. For the seemingly simple photos of any objects for example, a camera in the brochures of manufacturers and dealers, it was often necessary to tinker for hours with experienced professional photographers. So much in advance to photograph objects perfectly, which is also known as table top photography for smaller objects because they are placed on a shooting table, is something different than taking a photo for an eBay auction. Because of this puzzling work, especially in the field of object photography, photographers are also in the craft guild and not freelance artists because it requires a lot of experience and despite the experience, trying for hours to take perfect photos of objects in every respect. Object photography is about the best possible illumination and of course, the right exposure. The objects must be staged in such a way that they appear interesting and appealing to the viewer. It can only be about the artistic aspect of creating a great photo. But object photography also has a very practical use in that, objects are photographed that are to be sold. These can be individual items but also mass products. In online shops, pictures have an important function. After all, nobody wants to buy something unseen. Accordingly, the products must be photographed professionally. For example, if a company sells high-quality promotional gifts, the value must also be recognizable in the pictures. Depending on the material, surface and similar factors, different objects pose challenges for the photographer, which he has to deal with individually, but more on that later.

Object photography is always demanding and requires a lot of know-how, although, lighting and camera location also play a very important role in the image result. After all, the whole thing should look appetizing and interesting at the same time. You need a lot of patience for object photography. It is the exact opposite of a snapshot. For example, to be able to take a picture of a cell phone in such a way that the screen content is correctly exposed and does not appear in Photoshop afterwards, you will have to try it for a long time. Because of course, the lighting must not be too strong. On the other hand, it must not be so weak that you would need longer exposure times because with this cell phone, the current screen content is a screen saver with moving fish. If the exposure time is too long, the fish become blurred because they continue to move during the exposure. For this reason, there are almost no photos of objects with self-illuminating elements, such as the screen of a cell phone, in which the screen content would not have been inserted with Photoshop. It is actually much faster than experimenting with lighting for hours. What applies to the screen content can also apply to illuminated displays, for example of a dashboard or for dimly lit signal lamps. It is of course, much easier to do a separate exposure for this and to insert it later with Photoshop. The matt glossy surface and the brand name under the screen will present additional challenges. Depending on the incidence of light, it comes very differently. Another problem is the sharpness curve, especially with such small objects because the closer you go, the smaller the depth of field. In the front area, the sharpness already will decrease massively. A client would certainly not have taken such photo because the company lettering is almost no longer recognizable. Since the blur in the front area hardly plays a role. With a tilt/shift lens, one could better control the course of sharpness by tilting such an object. However, this also shows the effort that professional photographers have to make in order to perfectly photograph such a simple, everyday object like a cell phone. Professional object photography has always been a domain of the large format camera because it can largely influence both the focus and possible angle distortions. With a professional flash system, this actually will make it

easier to set up the lighting, because from the soft light of a 1 mx 1 m large Hazylight to the extremely strongly directed light of a spotlight, all variants are available through different reflectors and additional screens. The limitation actually is because the more options you have, the greater the challenges because in principle, you would have the opportunity to take really perfect photos. But then you spend hours and hours exploring the interplay of the light shapers and shading to avoid unwanted reflections. I know why I prefer to take portraits, I rarely have the patience to work for hours. If a cell phone with a largely matt surface is already a challenge, especially reflective surfaces such as a high-gloss lacquer or a glass.

Reflective Surfaces Reflective surfaces such as glass, place the highest demands on lighting, after all, the whole studio or room should not be reflected in the glass. This photo of a glass reflects the whole room or home studio at the time. The Chinese blackboards on the left side of the studio are reflected twice in the glass.

Reflections on glossy surfaces always occur when the studio or the room in which the photos are taken has reflective surfaces nearby. Therefore, the large professional rental studios and film studios are often several 100 m² in size, so you can avoid that there is reflected scattered light in the picture. But what to do if you don't have such a large space for photos? Go outside? Outside, you already have the lighting under control three times and outside everything is uniformly bright, so the entire street will be reflected in the glass or the high-gloss varnish. But of course you could set up the whole thing somewhere outside at night, where you have a power connection and it is otherwise completely pitch dark, also nothing nearby that could reflect. In the studio, however, you have to find out where the reflection comes from and then try to eliminate the source. In the next photo, it worked much better.

A black background was set up against the main light, close to the small coffee table on which the glass for the photo was located and in which the base is reflected in the glass plate. If you look closely, you can see in the reflection both the round background and surprisingly narrow the black stage molten on the rear wall and otherwise the white walls of the room. The photo is therefore, still far from a perfect

photo from a glass. But compared to the first photo, it is an enormous improvement which was simply achieved by placing a black background close to the glass.

In that photo, many unwanted reflections are already dampened by the orange juice in the glass, although hardly any changes have been made to the lighting in relation to the photo above. Now you can see the dust on the glass. Glasses are mirrors all around. Especially with glasses, watches and jewelry, not only the light sources play a significant role but also the shading of unwanted reflections. To do this, you can place small matt black boards (e.g. black cardboard) around the glass or jewelry, so that you gradually eliminate all unwanted reflections. There are no panaceas for this, as in many areas of photography, patient experimentation is the order of the day.

If you have a little patience, digital photography invites you to experiment. Because you can see the result immediately on the display and especially in the studio, you can either connect the camera directly to a PC and even control it via the PC or at least look at the pictures on the PC immediately after a series of photos with slightly different settings. This makes it easy to find out which effect affects which setting. On the large screen, you can see the small details that you cannot see on the display. But especially in the field of object photography, it is often tiny little things such as a little dust on the glass or an undesirable reflex that impair the effect of a photo. At the latest on the screen, you will also notice fingerprints or light soiling, which is particularly unpleasant for reflecting or illuminated objects.

This photo was taken with the same lighting as the two photos of the glasses. So with just one lamp which shines as an almost backlight at an approximately 45 ° angle from behind on the object, the reflection was created by the glass plate of the coffee table on which this Chinese tea bowl made of wafer-thin porcelain stood. The better the preparation for object photography, the better the results.

What Lighting Do You need for Object Photography?

When photographing objects, you rarely need to pay attention to short exposure times, at least when using a tripod. The lighting therefore does not have to be as strong as it would be for the photography of people or animals that ultimately also move. Flexible lighting is important because sometimes you need rather hard, strongly directed light to set highlights, while other times you need a soft light. You can also use both in combination. But you don't have to buy an expensive, professional studio flash system just because you want to experiment with object photography. If you find that object photography is fun, you can gradually get the necessary equipment for better photos.

Sensitivity to Light, a Significant Advantage of Digital Photography Digital photography has a decisive advantage over analog photography which also plays a role in the minimum of lighting equipment for object photography. Even in the basic setting, the sensors of digital cameras are significantly more light-sensitive than film material with high resolution. Here's a quick comparison: Most digital SLR cameras have a sensor with its native sensitivity of ISO 100. Color films with ISO 100 already have a fairly coarse grain, which you would see with small-format photos at low magnifications. Standard color films have a sensitivity to light of ISO 50, especially finegrain color films which would have the same resolution as a full-frame sensor with approximately 12 megapixels, have an even lower sensitivity to light of only ISO 25. These are already two f-stops compared to the lowest sensitivity of the sensor. One stop corresponds to a doubling or halving of the amount of light. Because of the low sensitivity of fine-grained color films, studio flash systems had to be extremely powerful in the analog age. These powerful flash systems, except for very large objects such as a truck, have now practically become obsolete. You would have to work with gray filters in order to be able to take pictures with a powerful flash system and a digital camera because with large format cameras, there are also much smaller apertures. In the meantime, considerably less light can be used because of the

significantly increased sensitivity to light compared to a color film. But it is still not possible without light. It just doesn't have to be as strong as in analog times.

The Minimum Requirements for Object Photography The light should be strong enough to enable relatively short exposure times despite the tripod. The desk lamp is not exactly the optimal lighting. The light should have a balanced color composition. Either as pure white light with a color temperature of 5500 ° Kelvin as is the case with flash systems or as incandescent light with a color temperature of 2800 ° Kelvin for light bulbs and halogen lamps. The previously used photo lamps with 3200 ° Kelvin have long since had their day. For these two color temperatures, there are presets for the white balance of a digital camera, namely flash or incandescent light. Because of the balanced color composition of light, energy-saving lamps are completely unsuitable because there is no red in their color spectrum. Even if it is applied to the glass as a filter as is the case with so-called warm light tubes, there is still no natural color spectrum. As a result, all lighting devices designed for amateur photographers with socalled daylight lamps are ultimately a deception of the buyers because these lighting devices simply have nothing to do with the color composition of daylight. More or less severe color distortions are therefore unavoidable. Some of them can be corrected later with a good image editing program, but information that is already missing in the photo because certain colors are not properly exposed due to the color composition of the light can no longer be produced even with the best image editing. To what extent LED lights have a balanced color spectrum, I cannot say. It would have to be pretty strong LED lights anyway to be able to take pictures with it. But then they have the disadvantage of a highly directed light source, so they emit a fairly hard light. Most studio photos in the digital photo course were created with minimal equipment. Two studio spotlights, each with 1500 watts of halogen, which were just strong enough to be able to take portraits with them. I had used

these studio spotlights with fairly strong signs of wear, but working, bought from a studio for commercials. The older, analog studio photos had to make do with much less light because back then photo lamps with 500 or 1000 W were common, which do not come close to the light output of an equally strong halogen lamp. Both light sources used before purchasing the flash system have in common that they have a balanced color spectrum. In analog times, an artificial light film that was matched to the then usual photo lamps with 3200 ° Kelvin was used. In the digital age with the white balance settings of a camera, incandescent light was set. It follows that if you cannot or do not want to buy a flash system, at least halogen headlights should be purchased. As video lights, you can buy them cheaply on eBay, but they have a very hard light. Because of the high heat development, it is not possible as with a flash system to simply place a film or screen in front of it to create a softer light. You have to keep a fairly large distance so that the diffuser is not charred or even ignited. Also, these lamps should never be left on for more than 10 minutes at a time. Otherwise, the heat can be so strong that even the casing of the lamp deforms. If artificial light sources are used with the exception of the flash system, mixed light must be avoided. So take pictures either only after sunset or in a darkened room with the exception of the flash system, because the flash system is at least in one room significantly stronger than the light from outside and also has daylight character.

Buying a Flash System? A good flash system is of course the optimum for studio photography, whether it is object photography, portraits or interior design. However, the performance of the flash system must be matched to the intended task. Small, mobile flash systems with a generator integrated in the flash head are sufficient for object photography as long as you don't want to take a picture of a truck. They also provide enough light for portraits, but it can be too weak for nudes and whole body shots because soft light also swallows light. You need a lot more power for a softbox than for a normal reflector. If you are considering the purchase of a flash system, then you should not save at the wrong end.

So strong enough to be able to take portraits and especially from a brand manufacturer, a good flash system is very durable and can stay up to 30 years and older even with daily use in a professional photo studio. However, it can only do this if it can be serviced accordingly. A flash tube has no eternal life, neither do the Elcos. It must therefore be guaranteed that the consumables of a flash system can still be replaced after years and that the flash system does not have to be disposed of because an Elco has been used up. In this context, a warning that Walimex sells flash systems from China, but it is not a brand with a spare parts guarantee. Many other brands are less than two years old. Probably also to avoid warranty claims, many cheap brands come and go. If a used flash system is offered on eBay, through which you can no longer find the manufacturer's website on the web, keep your hands off. At the latest, when a small spare part even if it is just a ridiculous resistance breaks down, you no longer have a flash system, but electronic waste.

Special Lighting Devices in Object Photography The Light Tent For special purposes, for example, to avoid unwanted reflections in a glass or to get the softest possible light, a light tent can be advantageous. Light tents are readily available for purchase. But if you only rarely take photos for which a light tent might be the better solution, then the purchase will hardly be worth it. You can also build a makeshift light tent yourself. You only need tracing paper or a color-neutral white fabric that is not too thick and thus lets enough light through. Either you build a simple frame over which the fabric is hung, of course, the material of the frame should not shine or even reflect or you simply hang the light tent from the ceiling or a tripod with a cantilever arm.

The Light Table In professional photography, the shooting table, the surface of which consists of a color-neutral, translucent material, is the rule for table top photography. A shooting table can be used quite universally; you can also use it as a light table. The latter is particularly useful when you want to subsequently remove

an object from the background, because thanks to the lighting from below and from the back, there are no annoying shadows. A professional recording table will hardly be suitable for photo amateurs who do not set up their own studio space because a professional recording table is a good 1 m wide and at least one and a half meters long. In the case of a recording table, the support surface is pulled upwards in an arc. This means that the entire surface can be illuminated completely evenly from below and behind with two flash heads. In a professional studio for advertising photography, the shooting table, including the dedicated flash system has its permanent place.

The Makeshift Shooting Table You can buy folding tables together. However, since I have never worked with this typical amateur studio equipment, I cannot judge whether this is a recommendable solution. In addition, the purchase is only worthwhile if you will be working with it frequently. A makeshift photo table can easily be built yourself without much effort. You need a glass plate which can be a glass table, for example, a support for the plate, unless it is already a glass table and tracing paper that you can buy in 1 m wide rolls from specialist dealers. Better than a glass plate would be plexiglass which is even more color neutral than glass. Ideally, of course, plexiglass which is milky on one side. The transparent paper is pulled backwards in a slight curve and somehow attached so that it hangs smoothly. Now, only the lighting needs to be set up, a light source from below and a light source from behind. The object lying on it can of course also be illuminated. What I describe here as makeshift solutions is almost the rule in everyday professional life. Again and again, you need a solution that you don't have on hand and that cannot be rented easily. That is why many photographers are good craftsmen, especially in the field of object photography, to quickly create a makeshift solution for themselves.

Watches and Jewelry Watches and jewelry are one of the major challenges for lighting because the shine should be in the right places, but unwanted reflections should be avoided at the same time. Even the smallest nuances in changing the angle to

the light cause extreme differences.

Soft Backlit Photos You do not need a sinfully expensive system for this either, again transparent paper and even illumination from behind are sufficient. Transparent paper is available from the roll, with widths of about 1 m.

CHAPTER 12 PANORAMIC PHOTOGRAPHY

Panoramic photos in the narrower sense are 360 ° panoramic images. So you place the camera on a tripod in a suitable place and take enough partially overlapping photos to then assemble a panorama photo. Every image processing program with which the panorama photo is later to be combined needs something in each individual partial photo, which also occurs in the next partial photo in order to be able to recognize how the panoramic photo must be composed. But partial panorama images that do not offer a 360 ° panoramic view are also panoramic photos. You will probably use the latter much more frequently, namely whenever you want to add more to the picture than would be possible even with a strong wide-angle lens. In this way, you can also avoid the strong distortions caused by a strong wide-angle lens. Panoramic photography requires careful preparation. After all, the individual photos should later be put together seamlessly with a suitable program to form an overall picture, which one must not see because it consists of several individual pictures. So there must be no abrupt transitions, perceptible differences in exposure, different levels of sharpness or anything else disturbing in the panorama photo that will be put together later.

Basics for the Preparation of Panoramic Pictures The more carefully you take the photos for the later panorama picture, the easier it will be for you to edit the pictures afterwards. Five additional minutes that you put into careful preparation will save you several hours of post-processing.

Exposure With panoramic photos, you have to pay careful attention to the balanced exposure of each individual photo, from which the entire panorama will later be assembled. Very different exposures are almost poison for a panorama photo. Especially in extreme lighting situations, you should switch off the automatic completely and manually determine the exposure for each individual partial photo, whereby you should not move too far from the average value for the entire panorama. So first measure all around with the light meter to determine the contrast differences and calculate an average value. If you use the automatic camera, you should definitely switch to aperture priority and take all photos with the same aperture. Strong sunshine leads to massive contrasts in the panorama picture that will be put together later, especially with 360 ° panoramas, because apart from the sun shining vertically from above, a situation that only exists at midday at the equator, you always have areas in the image that lie in deep shadow and other areas that are illuminated by the sun. It is easier to do with a lightly cloudy sky because you have the same light everywhere, but then the highlights are missing in the picture. The more inclined the sun is especially in the early morning and towards evening, the more difficult the lighting situation in a 360 ° panorama photo.

Specific Examples of Panoramic Images Using the following example of a 180 ° partial panorama, I will show you how to do it. A sunny day shortly after Easter, an unusually clear view from a small castle - in itself, the exposure would not have been a problem if I had not placed great value on the neighboring Palatinate Forest also being included in the picture. I chose a correct exposure of the darkest part and thus a slight overexposure of the other parts of the picture because I had switched off the automatic and had chosen aperture eight at a sixtieth of a second. Here is the first picture for the later panorama photo:

The seventh image for the later panorama would definitely be overexposed as a single image and pretty much meaningless:

The slightly cloudy sky caused additional strong differences in brightness in the image. Since experience has shown that slightly overexposed parts of the image can later be more easily adjusted in an image editing program than underexposed parts of the image which are then often only pure black, so I decided on this compromise. Since I didn't have a tripod with me, the 22 individual pictures were taken in portrait format with a zoom lens with a focal length of 45 mm. Of course, I could have worked with the largest possible wide-angle focal length of this lens instead, 28 mm and would have used significantly fewer individual photos, but I found the immediate vicinity in front of the castle less attractive and therefore chose a slightly longer focal length.

When opening the raw data files, I set a uniform color temperature for all images because the automatic white balance determined slightly different color temperatures. Next, the 22 individual images were combined into a panorama in Photoshop. To do this, go to File, Automate and select Photomerge from the window that opens. A dialog box will open: check mark cylindrical. If all files are already open in Photoshop, then simply click on the Add open files button, otherwise click on Browse. If you use raw data files, you can use them directly for the panorama. If you have previously set the color temperature uniformly for all photos, there is no problem. Then confirm your selection with an OK and the calculation begins. Photomerge is extraordinarily hungry for resources, but with the usual configuration of a PC with 8 GB or more RAM, this is no longer a problem. A few years ago, when my PC at that time only had 3 GB of working memory, the working memory was sometimes not sufficient and after a few minutes, the program simply stopped.

The Next Steps after Assembling the Panorama Picture First of all, there are many parts of the image that protrude upwards and downwards which are cropped with the cropping tool. This is the disadvantage of freehand shots for a later partial panorama, 100 percent you will hardly be able to stay in a precise horizontal line. If you were to use a tripod that was aligned exactly vertically, you would of course, not have to cut anything above or below. Then, after saving the entire panorama with all layers, the image is reduced to the background layer.

As expected, the original panorama picture was quite pale and only correctly exposed on the right side with the forest, otherwise slightly overexposed. However, the color of the sky is uniform across the entire image.

In the next step, the entire bright area of the sky was selected via selection/color range/lights, provided with a soft edge of 80 pixels, a new layer was created with the selection from the context menu "Layer as copy" and with 100% opacity with the original multiplied level. The difference in the sky can be seen clearly, even the brightest parts of the landscape show significantly more drawing.

In this step, the contrast was increased by copying the background layer and calculating it against the original layer using soft light. But there is still far too little drawing in the bright areas on the left. This is fixed in the last step. In the original background layer, a new selection is created again via the color range, this time selection "Depths" and then the selection reversed. Again a soft edge with 80 pixels which is multiplied again by the background layer.

A partial panorama has emerged from meaningless individual photos, which gives the impression of the expanse on this beautiful spring day.

What You Have to Pay Attention to When Using a Tripod As far as you use the tripod, it is not enough for a 360 ° panorama photo to simply place the camera on the tripod, to align it absolutely vertically and then to take the partial photos, you actually need a special tripod head with which you can bring the front lens of the camera exactly into the axis of

rotation of the tripod. The stronger the wide-angle lens that you use for the basic photos, i.e. the more that comes from the surrounding floor onto the picture, the more important it is not just to put the camera on the tripod, but to pay attention to the optical axis. The tripod screw is not in the front under the front lens of the camera but in the casing of the camera. So the camera must be reset on the tripod opposite the front lens. There are also special tripod heads for panoramic photography, but they are quite expensive and their purchase is only worthwhile for a photographer who lives, among other things, from panoramic photos. You can also help yourself differently. As photo accessories, there are tripod rails, among other things, which are actually intended to attach a flash unit to the side of the camera. In principle, such a rail is also suitable for panorama photography. I will do it differently, I have a tripod with a pivotable cross arm, on which I put the camera and adjust the cross arm so that the optical axis of the front lens lies exactly above the tripod axis. Make sure that the camera is firmly seated on the tripod. Especially with lightweight tripods with a quick release plate developed for amateurs, the quick release plate must be absolutely firmly connected to the camera and the camera must not move a millimeter on it. With these tripods, this is often easier said than done.

People or Animals in the Panorama Photo Objects, i.e. people, animals or vehicles which move in the entire area of the later panorama photo, make it particularly difficult to assemble the partial photos into a uniform panorama. Because in one photo these picture objects are still in place A, in the next photo they have already moved a bit further, how is an image editing program supposed to put it together correctly? So make sure that moving objects are only on one part of the photo if possible and do not move through the image by being on two or three partial photos. In the meantime, a special camera for panoramic photos has been developed that takes all the photos at the same time, so moving objects in the image no longer play a role. But you are unlikely to buy this expensive special camera to take a panoramic photo.

Portrait or Landscape Format? Actually, there is no question, you should generally use the portrait format if you want to put as much as possible on the later panorama picture, as well as the shortest possible focal length, which does not yet lead to strong distortions in the picture.

Partial Panoramas You do not necessarily need a tripod for a partial panorama, although the tripod is always an advantage in the preparation of both panoramic photos and HDR photos. These examples were all taken without a tripod. When I took the photos, I was by no means sure that I would ever make a panorama photo out of them.

360 ° Panoramic Photos For a 360 ° panorama photo, you should always use a tripod, if possible with a tripod head as already described above, with which you can align the front lens of the camera exactly over the axis of rotation of the tripod. Switch the camera automatic off completely, also the automatic focusing. Determine the optimal exposure setting using either an exposure meter or a few sample photos and manually focus the lens on the important parts. Switch off the automatic exposure control and use either the manual exposure setting or the aperture priority. With this setting, you take all the photos for the panorama image that will later be assembled from them. However, this only applies to cloudy skies, sunlight and differently illuminated areas in the picture. Of course, you have to adjust the exposure to the actual lighting conditions for each sub-picture, but on the other hand do not deviate too much from the average value, because otherwise the sky would have very different colors and brightness values. You can still adjust strong contrast differences in the image in Photoshop or another good image editing program, whereby the adjustment may only be made after the panorama image has been composed.

Embed the Panorama Picture in a Website The still valid HTML does not allow the direct integration of multimedia files

into a website. This should change with HTML 5, but it will take a long time before at least 90% of the browsers used by your website visitors can interpret HTML 5 without errors. The ever-old problem of backward compatibility that massively hinders new developments. Nevertheless, multimedia content is integrated into websites. For this, you need either Javascript or Java. In principle, panorama photos can be inserted into a website in two different ways, either as a flash film or in Apple Quicktime format. Because of the much more widespread use of the Flash plugin, I decided to use Flash. The insertion of a panorama photo is largely automatic if the panorama photo has already been prepared with the appropriate software. There are now a whole series of more or less good solutions which usually also include publishing on a website and produce both the HTML code and all the necessary control files. Here I describe it with the PanoramaStudio Pro program. The actual panorama was already created in Photoshop, the software I only needed for publication on the website. After opening the program, you specify the location of the panorama photo and make the necessary settings. This includes in particular, the angle of view of the entire panorama photo. If it is not a 360 ° panorama, you can only estimate it roughly enough. For example, 180 °. The program then begins to work and then stores all the files in a folder you have specified. First of all, of course, the panorama photo itself which I prefer to use in the original editing by Photoshop and an HTML file that contains all the information for the integration of the panorama photo. Two other files are mandatory, which are also created by the program. Firstly, the flash film, which contains the basic control options for the panoramic photo and a second file with which all important parameters are communicated to the flash film. You can insert the HTML code in the appropriate place on the website if you store all other files in the main folder of the website. However, if you use your own picture folder to improve the clarity in the main folder of the website, extensive path adjustments must be made, both in the HTML code and in the XML file. Otherwise, the panorama photo will not work.

PanoramaStudio Pro is paid shareware, however, the control software panoStudioViewer.swf is expressly released for use on private noncommercial websites, likewise the corresponding XML file. Here is an example of the content of the XML file:

Graphics / panoramic photography / Rheinebene.jpg -19.39 19:39 0:00 180.00 90.00 0:00 58.18 false Loading Rheinebene 3

true true

en

Although the panorama image is in the same directory as the XML file and the panoStudioViewer.swf, the full path to the image must be specified. 180.00 The angle of view of the entire panorama photo is specified here. In this case, 180 °, whereby only the number and not the symbol for degrees is given. As a rule, you do not need to change anything in the other settings. Unless it is a spherical panorama photo, then between the two brackets false there must be a "true" instead of the "false". Here is the required HTML source code with the customized paths:







If your panorama photo is not large enough for high screen resolutions, then you should enter the value false instead of the value true for . You also have to change it here: allowFullScreen = "true" Large panorama photos with a sufficiently large resolution are quite large files. This panorama image has 1764 KB with a height of 1100 pixels and a width of 4908 pixels. Attention, if you choose Flash instead of Quicktime, in this Flash version, the edge length of a single image edge is limited to 8000 pixels. Even with one more pixel and it no longer works. If you want to insert several panorama photos on one website, you only need the panoStudioViewer.swf file once on your web server. However, a separate XML file must be created for each panorama photo.

PART 3: PHOTOGRAPHY TECHNIQUES Understand the Three Basic Settings of a Camera Distance setting (autofocus or manual), exposure time and aperture are the 3 basic camera settings, which are either automatically determined and set by the camera or manually by the photographer. One should understand these attitudes at least in the basics. Compared to the human eye, it becomes easy to understand the relationships. The Main Camera Settings Even if you basically only take pictures with the automatic mode and possibly motif programs (e.g. the flower symbol for close-ups), some camera settings have to be adapted to the respective shooting situation. The more setting options your camera offers, the more important it is to at least know and be able to use the basic setting options. One of the most important setting options is the autofocus, for which there are 2 fundamentally different setting options and for many cameras, various mixed forms of the two basic settings. The light sensitivity of the sensor (ISO setting) and the white balance cannot always be left to the automatic and occasionally, you have to intervene yourself. The exposure metering method must also be adapted to the shooting situation. The default setting is the integral measuring method which fails with high-contrast subjects. Knowing which camera setting you need for which motif is the first step to taking good photos. The chapter on camera settings is very extensive. For a quick overview, everything essential is highlighted in bold letters. The Right Exposure This chapter is about a very important subject in photography, namely exposure. Everything is clearly explained, from the automatic program in which the camera makes all the settings itself, through the automatic shutter and aperture to manual exposure. Likewise, the three different measurement methods for exposure metering are presented and also explained to a beginner in a way that is easy to

understand. The chapter on manual exposure clearly shows the relationships between sensor sensitivity and the amount of light that is regulated by exposure time and the set aperture. The White Balance The white balance, with which the deviation of the light from the pure white is compensated either fully automatically based on presets that the camera offers or completely manually, is also part of the photo technique. The white balance prevents color casts that could otherwise result. Lenses Ever since the SLR camera came into being in the 1950s, the Leica rangefinder camera, just like before, was the first camera in the world to use the 35 mm film developed for cinema, better known as 35 mm format. For photography, SLR cameras and rangefinder cameras use a variety of different lenses. Which lens for what, is the kit lens enough that you often have a digital SLR camera with you for your photographic needs or do you need additional lenses and if so, which ones? What should you pay special attention to when buying a used lens? Filter Even with the best image editing program, you can only work with image information that is already included in the photo. You can influence image details not only via ISO setting, time and aperture, the selection of the focal plane and depth of field and the correct focal length, but also via filters that are screwed onto the lens before the picture is taken. Which filters are still needed in the age of digital image processing and what are these filters used for? These questions are answered in the Filters section. Cameras The choice of the right camera for your needs is crucial for the later photos. This chapter deals with the basic differences between pocket cameras and SLR cameras as well as the important size of the sensor, the ISO sensitivity of your camera and other criteria that are essential for the daily use of the camera and are important for your purchase decision.

CHAPTER 13 UNDERSTAND THE CAMERA An analog camera without automatic functions only has three setting options: exposure time, aperture and distance setting. Exposure time and aperture must be set to match the film material used, which corresponds to a manually selected ISO sensitivity of the camera. Incidentally, if lenses from a time before the development of the automatic functions are used on a digital SLR camera, we have the same situation. All three parameters that are important for the image result must be determined manually and set manually. The comparison with the human eyes is perhaps the clearest illustration of what is important when taking pictures. Because a camera has many similarities to the human eye, the human eye and the camera differ in some essential points.

Similarities with the Human Eye The Regulation of the Amount of Light Just as the human eye has a pupil to regulate the amount of light entering it, a camera or more precisely the lens has the aperture. Because both the camera and the human eye have to regulate the amount of light in order to see or take pictures properly. With the human eye, this usually happens so quickly that we don't even notice it. For example, we are walking in the evening and the pupils are wide open. A car comes towards us and we are blinded. The eye only needs a fraction of a second to adjust to the changed situation and to make the pupil smaller. The aperture of a camera has the same function as a pupil. The incident light quantity is regulated by opening or closing the cover. The amount of light is also regulated by the exposure time. At first, there seems to be no correspondence with the human eye. But this superficial impression is somewhat misleading. The human eye or more precisely the brain which processes the information transmitted by the optic nerves, cannot process

more than about 20 impressions per second. This corresponds to an exposure time, only that it is fixed in contrast to the adjustable exposure time of a camera because there is another commonality between a camera and the human eye when it comes to regulating the amount of light. Both have a defined sensitivity to which the amount of light must be adjusted. This sensitivity can be trained in the human eye so that we can see better on a glacier, for example, in the dark or vice versa and in the camera, the signal from the sensor can be electronically amplified, thus achieving a higher sensitivity. The amount of light in the human eye is essentially regulated by the size of the pupil, in the case of a camera both by the size of the aperture corresponding to a pupil and by the exposure time. There is a well known example of the mandatory regulation of the amount of light in the human eye. A world famous pop musician at the time went blind because he was watching the sunrise on an LSD trip. Nothing would have happened without LSD but with LSD, the pupils open to the maximum and do not close again even when there is too much light. The result, the retina burned. Incidentally, this can also happen if you want to observe the sun or the moon with a telescope. Without a gray filter in front of the eyepiece, we would go blind; the pupil cannot shrink so much in order to reduce this enormous amount of light to a level that is healthy for the eyes. These situations also exist with the camera if, for example, you use a strong studio flash system and even the smallest aperture (in the case of 35 mm lenses usually aperture 22) still lets too much light through. There are color-neutral gray filters for this. In the case of cameras, the sensitivity can also be regulated, either for a digital camera using the ISO values or for an analog camera using the film material, which can be purchased in different sensitivities.

The Automatic Focus Here too, there is a correspondence between the autofocus of a camera and the human eye. Every optical system works with focal lengths and a focal point in which the maximum sharpness is achieved. This also applies to the human eye. In the human eye, it is the curvature of the lens that can be changed at lightning speed and thus provides a sharp image on the back of

the eye. With the camera, it is the distance setting that projects the focal point for what is really to be focused precisely onto the film or sensor level. In the human eye, unless we see very consciously, we perceive this lightning-fast adjustment hardly. For example, we first look at the screen, the writing is razor-sharp. Then we look out the window and everything we see outside is razor sharp. In between, we fix something in the room that is in front of the window and see it razor-sharp. Then maybe we light a cigarette and see this close-up process in razor-sharp detail. We do not even notice that the background outside is not as sharp anymore. After all, our focus at the moment is on the object we are fixing. The curvature of the lens of the human eye achieves the same as with the distance setting of the camera, regardless of whether it is done manually or by autofocus. Of course, what is said here only applies if there is no ametropia, i.e. myopia or farsightedness. Ametropia can be corrected with glasses or contact lenses or minimized with special eye training. However, this is not the subject of this digital photography book.

The Focal Length or the Angle of View Although the human eye does not have different focal lengths, our two eyes together have an angle of view of approximately 180 °, which corresponds to a fisheye lens, but our perception does correspond to different focal lengths for a camera. Only a more or less small area is selected from the total amount of optical information that reaches the human eye with this huge angle of view because only about 7% of the entire human field of vision is perceived in full sharpness. Most of the time, we do not even notice this consciously because even when looking at a landscape, our attention never focuses on the whole landscape, instead, our gaze constantly wanders around the landscape in order to finally take a closer look at a single object. This would correspond to a light telephoto lens with a focal length of about 100 mm, with which the landscape is scanned. The only difference is that the human eye still maintains the full nearly 180 ° field of view, while the telephoto lens limits the angle of view to the narrower area in which the eye can see and everything around it no longer exists. So far there is no technical

equivalent for our actual visual perception. The human eye sees the size ratios in the depth grading, i.e. how big we perceive an object in the foreground compared to more distant objects, for example, according to the so-called normal focal length, in the 35mm format these are lenses with a focal length of 45-50 mm. Shorter focal lengths make the foreground much larger in relation to the background. Conversely, longer focal lengths make the background much larger in relation to the foreground.

The Main Differences Between the Human Eye and a Camera The human eyes and the brain are in constant, reciprocal communication. This is the main difference to the camera, from which everything else follows. Because through this communication, our eyes know what is important to us right now, what we want to focus on and what is of secondary importance to us at the moment, so what can be largely excluded from perception. First of all, we have to teach a camera specifically for each motif, what is really important to us with a picture motif. Even an automatic function can relieve us of this to a very limited extent. The camera cannot know what we want. We have to teach the camera this through the various setting options for each image motif.

Regulation of the Amount of Light Strictly speaking, the human eye has only one corrective for the amount of light, namely the size of the pupil. Even if the brain can usually not process more than 20 image impressions per second, which is why we perceive the individual images of a film as motion, the eye still perceives everything continuously, so it knows no exposure time. In this respect, the human eye is more like the display of a pocket, bridge or mirrorless system camera and not the photo taken with one of these cameras, because with the photo, a temporal section of the incoming information is cut out over the exposure time. This is important not only to freeze motion but also to regulate the amount of light that is actually needed for a photo. For a photo, the amount of light is regulated both via the aperture and the exposure time. Both together, dose the amount of light that strikes the film or the sensor. If the exposure time is shortened, the aperture must be opened for the same

amount of light and conversely, the exposure time is extended, the aperture must be reduced accordingly. The human eye does it all automatically. The automatic exposure of a camera also does it automatically if you either set a different exposure time or a different aperture with the time or aperture preselection. With the exposure time, you determine whether and how movements in the image are recognizable or frozen, with the aperture you regulate both the overall sharpness in the image and the depth of field, i.e. how far in front and behind the actual plane of focus something is still sharply drawn.

High-Contrast Situations or Image Motifs The human eye has a much larger contrast range than the best sensor or film. For example, if we stay in a shady interior and perceive the sunlit landscape outside through the windows, we can see everything correctly, both inside and outside. If we were to take a picture in the same situation, then either everything inside the room would be so underexposed that it is practically only black, but the landscape outside would be correctly exposed or vice versa, everything inside the room would be correctly exposed, then everything would be done the windows are so massively overexposed that it essentially only appears as a white area in the photo. But not only that, through constant communication with the brain, the human eye also knows what is important to us and automatically regulates the amount of light for the most important thing via the size of the pupil, even in an extremely high-contrast situation, even the enormous range of contrast of the human Eye would be overused.

Distance Setting or Autofocus Because the human brain constantly communicates with the eyes, the eyes naturally know what to focus on. This is, of course, a very significant difference to the camera, which only knows when the individual measuring points have been activated that the maximum sharpness should be there. Otherwise, the autofocus will consider what is in the center of the picture to be essential. In addition, all people and animals that have two eyes have a built-in rangefinder due to the lateral displacement of the eyes. This is important for

people and animals, for example, to be able to assess dangers with regard to their distance, their direction and speed of movement. Direction of movement, the danger moves away or it approaches us and speed, every driver knows this both with regard to their own car and oncoming vehicles. The last paragraph has nothing to do with digital SLR cameras but explains why we humans, like all other mammals, can estimate distances at lightning speed and thus adjust the focus. The principle of distance measurement using two optics (parallax) offset to one side is not only used in many measuring instruments but also in a famous camera, the Leica. The Leica is a rangefinder camera just like the human eye. The exact distance is determined by the intersection of the two images. But by the way, the autofocus of a digital camera works on a different principle.

Automatic Functions and Motif Programs Various automatic functions and even more motif programs try to more or less guess what the photographer thinks is important within a picture motif. With pocket cameras, for example, the floral motif is known as a setting option. This tells the camera that you want to take a close-up. Since many pocket cameras do not have a manual distance setting, you need these motif programs to be able to tell the camera at least halfway what you actually want. Computer technology in cameras makes it increasingly possible to tell the camera what you want to do for a photo by choosing a program item. It is clear that this cannot be done with the same precision and speed as the cooperation between the brain and the eyes. This could only change if at some point it was possible to control a camera directly including the camera feedback as well as our eyes through the brain. In this respect, all automatic functions and especially the motif programs are nothing more than an attempt to approximate our own perception through computer technology. For example, there are now cameras with facial recognition, which may even make sense for photos of people if the person's face is recognized, regardless of where it is within the image and both the distance and the exposure are adjusted accordingly. Of course, this fails at the same time that there is more than one face in the picture. Our brains and therefore our eyes know exactly which face is important, but how should the

camera know? This is how it works with most automatic functions and motif programs. What we want and what the computer understands in the camera can be in between. That is why it is so important to know and understand at least the three basic technical possibilities for influencing an intended image result. These basic possibilities to influence a planned photo technically with cheap pocket cameras should be understood, they are just as important for good photos as the basics of image design and thus the choice of camera location and viewing angle and the image section.

CHAPTER 14 CAMERA SETTINGS The Main Camera Settings The more setting options your camera offers, the more carefully you have to check before taking a photo whether the settings from the last shoot still fit. This is particularly true, of course, if you activated individual measuring fields for previous photos and did not immediately undo them afterwards. It is almost reminiscent of the control of a pilot who has to carefully check all the functions of the aircraft before starting the engines. In the case of an airplane, its life and the lives of its passengers depend on it. While it is by no means so dramatic with a camera, checking the camera settings in advance decides about good or corrupt photos. Since I did not know the many setting options from my previous analog camera, it often happened to me at the beginning that the settings from the previous shoot were still active, especially if I had previously photographed with artificial light in the studio. Since the white balance was still set on the studio lamps and the photos had a massive blue cast (no leg break when saved in raw data format) or even the highest ISO value from previous night shots (these photos were unusable due to the image noise and had to be deleted) and the like. Therefore, after every manual intervention, return to the factory settings or your personal standard settings. But now to the most important camera settings: Autofocus Camera Settings That Have To Be Adjusted Again And Again Metering ISO sensitivity White balance Camera Settings, Which Are Usually Only Made Once Storage format for photos

Color space A setting is particularly important even if you always take pictures in the automatic mode of the camera, namely, the autofocus.

How to Get the Focus Where You Want It Autofocus with continuous focus for moving objects or with fixed focus by pressing the shutter release button halfway for static objects. There are two fundamentally different settings for the autofocus, plus various mixed forms, depending on the manufacturer and camera model. It would surely go too far if all camera-specific setting options were dealt with, each manufacturer has a wealth of its own settings, depending on the model. That's why I only go into the two basic settings, not the mixed forms.

The Two Basic Settings of the Autofocus The autofocus can either be set so that the measured value is maintained when the shutter button is pressed halfway or instead, it continuously follows the subject, meaning that measured values are not stored temporarily. Intermediate storage of the focus with the shutter button pressed halfway The setting with the intermediate storage should be the norm for most cameras, i.e. the factory setting. This setting is useful for all motifs that are static, i.e. do not move. Together with either a measurement emphasized in the middle or your own selection of measuring points, this setting allows you to aim at the image of the most important subject, to save the setting by gently pressing the shutter button and then to choose the final image section at your leisure. Since the focus remains unchanged, it does not matter where the most important subject which has been focused is pushed towards the final selected image section. However, this setting would be fundamentally wrong for subjects that move and would cause many disappointments due to blurred images.

Continuous Autofocus Adjustment The continuous setting of the autofocus must be selected for all subjects that move. With this setting, nothing is cached; the sharpness is constantly

updated instead. This is the right attitude for all motifs that move. However, this setting is not suitable for a subject that is initially aimed at with the preset measuring fields, i.e. in the middle of the image, so that the camera can be swiveled a little vertically or to the side to select the final image section. With this setting, you also have to be aware that as long as you do not select the measuring fields manually, the focus is always on what is in the center of the picture. If you don't just snap photos but design them, you will rarely put the most important motif in the center of the picture. This means that you either have to select the measuring fields individually before the photo, you practically have the photo in your head before you even capture the subject with the camera and have enough time to select the measuring fields before the photo or else choose a larger section than the final one, so that you can later slide the most important motif out of the middle when editing the picture. I cannot go into the peculiarities of different camera models here, that would go far beyond the scope of this book. For Canon's top model alone, more than half a dozen different autofocus settings are available. A beginner is certainly overwhelmed by this, even someone who has mastered digital photography from FF has to carefully familiarize himself with the special features of the settings so that they can be used without much thought when it matters.

Autofocus Problem The autofocus works on a similar principle as the slice range finder for highquality cameras. Both cannot focus on a surface but require edges in the image motif to focus. So much for the commonality. Now the unpleasant differences between a sectional image rangefinder and the autofocus: With the sectional image rangefinder, the photographer looks for an edge in the subject (which can even be individual hair) that is as far away as the main subject to which the focus should be set. With a manually set lens, this setting is retained even if the camera is panned for the final image section. The autofocus searches for the edge of the image itself with one of its many

measuring fields. This often means that the focus level does not get where it should go. If a lens with a shallow depth of field (long focal length or open aperture) is used, the disappointment when later viewing the photos on the computer is great if the actual subject is out of focus. The only way to avoid disappointment is to use the autofocus in its noncontinuous setting like a sectional image rangefinder and to focus an edge of the subject first in the center of the picture, then press the shutter release button halfway and only then calmly final image section searches. The problem with digital SLR cameras is firstly the small viewfinder image, which does not allow an accurate assessment of the sharpness and secondly, the lack of a sectional image rangefinder or at least a micro prism ring, which would enable a targeted adjustment even with the small viewfinder image. Only top-class digital SLR cameras offer the exchange of the viewfinder lenses and thus also the cross-section rangefinder or micro prism ring. Then the focus is of course, done manually. Even a display only helps if you zoom in a lot on the photo, ideally for a 100% display. Otherwise, blurring cannot be seen on the display. As helpful as the display is for the immediate control of the exposure setting, it is of little use except for the strong zooming in to control the sharpness. Slight motion blurring due to a too long exposure time for a telephoto lens without a tripod cannot be recognized on the display without entering. You only experience this disappointment at home. Without immediate control by strongly zooming in on the photo just taken, the display is actually more of a delusion in terms of sharpness because on the small display, you think the photo would have been successful.

Measuring Methods and Measuring Fields The integral measurement captures the entire image, the center-weighted measurement places the focus in the middle and the spot measurement activates only one of the many measuring fields for the exposure measurement. Integral measurement for low-contrast motifs, Centerweighted, if the subject in the center of the picture is to be properly exposed with not too strong differences in brightness from the background, Spot measurement with large contrasts in the image and only the original motif should be correctly exposed.

The Integral Measurement The factory setting of a digital camera is usually the integral measurement. The measuring fields are evenly distributed over the entire sensor surface, an average value is calculated for the exposure measurement. This setting is suitable for all subjects that do not have large contrast differences, for example, for a landscape with an overcast sky. The setting is unsuitable for very high-contrast subjects, especially if the subject itself has a strong light/dark contrast to the background, because with these subjects, it is not a question of the correct exposure of the background but of the correct exposure of the actual subject. Therefore, a different measuring method is used for high-contrast subjects:

The Measurement Emphasized In the Middle All measurement fields are active in the center-weighted measurement as well as in the integral measurement, but the correct exposure is calculated with the focus of the measurement fields in the middle. This method is suitable in principle for all motifs that have relatively strong contrast differences, in which you still want to achieve a balanced exposure that still includes the surroundings of the most important motif. However, this method is not suitable for relatively small objects in the foreground that need to be properly exposed, but for which a strongly contrasting background predominates. There is spot metering for this.

The Spot Metering With spot metering, the exposure setting is carried out with a single measuring field, which can be selected individually in the menu of the camera. This is the best method of exposure metering for very high-contrast subjects. I still don't use it. Before I take a photo, I find it much too cumbersome to first dig through the menu to activate measuring points (afterwards you shouldn't forget to undo the setting), there is a much faster method.

Alternative to Spot Metering With time preselection or aperture preselection, whichever is more important

to me, I first take a test photo with the automatic and then adjust the exposure manually for the desired result. Finally, as long as you hold it in your own body shadow, you can judge quite well on the display whether the actual motif is too bright or too dark. With a little experience that you can get pretty quickly with this method, you know at the latest after the third test photo with manually adjusted settings how the exposure is optimally adjusted. This is actually much faster than activating measuring fields. It also has the advantage that I am not slavishly bound to the set measuring field for image composition. After all, the manually set exposure is also correct if I ultimately choose a completely different image section. The immediate control on the display and thus the possibility to adjust the exposure as desired is ultimately one of the greatest advantages of digital photography compared to its analog predecessor. This creates freedom that was previously unthinkable because in the past, you only saw the result of incorrect exposure when the photos were developed. Then almost nothing could be corrected. Of course, this is only possible with the test photos and the approach to the correct exposure for subjects that are not over in the next moment. But that should only be the case with the fewest motifs for which one would otherwise have to activate spot metering (which ultimately also takes time). Often, you can even simply memorize the most important exposure settings and adapt them to the changed situation at lightning speed. In the 1970s, people often stood on stage with well-known artists or took photos at happenings. Of course, that was only possible because they basically do not use flash. Otherwise, they would never have been let on stage. You don't have time to ask the light meter for advice every time. Instead, I first measured the most important lighting situations with the light meter and remembered the settings.

ISO Sensitivity You need the manual ISO setting when it comes to the highest quality, poor lighting conditions require a higher value than that specified by the automatic system or the exposure setting is carried out manually. With the ISO setting, you determine the light sensitivity of the sensor.

Anyone who has photographed in analog times knows that a film always has a very specific sensitivity to light, this also applies to the sensor of a digital camera. All ISO settings that are above or below the real light sensitivity of the sensor are achieved electronically and lead to more or less noticeable quality losses. The image noise at very high ISO values is already known to many. If you use your camera with the preset factory settings, the ISO setting is made automatically. For this, the manufacturer chooses an area that still works without massive image noise. The size of this area depends on your camera. In this case, the camera selects the ISO value itself, depending on the available light. The less light, the higher the ISO value. You have to switch this automatic off if you either need a higher ISO value in very poor lighting conditions, for example at night or inside a building and accept the image noise that increases with higher ISO values or if you set the exposure manually. With some camera models, the automatic adjustment of the light sensitivity of the sensor is automatically switched off as soon as you turn the dial to the M position, with all other cameras; you have to remember this yourself. You can easily find out yourself how your camera behaves. Set your camera to fully automatic (dial P). Set the ISO setting to AUTO in the menu. Now turn the dial to M. Then go back to setting the ISO value. Is AUTO still there? Then you definitely have to set the ISO value yourself or is there now an ISO value specified? Then adapt it to your needs or leave it in the basic setting (usually ISO 100) if the light is sufficient. My camera is always manually set to ISO 100, the actual light sensitivity of this sensor. This is how I achieve the maximum quality. The setting is only changed temporarily if the available light is insufficient.

White Balance The manual white balance must always be done when the automatic white balance leads to wrong colors, either with one of the presets of your camera or completely manually. The white balance is usually done automatically, which usually works well. Manual intervention is rarely required. Now and then, you have to adjust the white balance manually. Most cameras offer

various presets for this, which more or less fit. For example, incandescent light, daylight, cloudy sky and a few more. You can also manually adjust the white balance on all slightly better cameras. For many camera models, the white balance is just as easy to reach as the ISO settings and is not hidden somewhere in the menu because these are basic and important recording settings. Especially if the photos are not saved as a raw data file (in this case the white balance can also be carried out retrospectively) but as a JPEG, the white balance for light sources whose light color differs greatly from pure white must either be done with one of the presets or manually, if the automatic fails. The automatic function fails, especially when there is a larger, apparently white surface in the subject, which the camera interprets as pure white, even though it is a tinted white.

What Does White Balance Actually Mean? Actually, there is no really pure white light as natural light, every natural light has more or less its own color, i.e. a deviation from pure white. Reflected or direct light reaches the sensor or film through the lens. Both the sensor and a daylight film are matched to light in pure white (5500 ° Kelvin, red, blue and green each have a third share). Of course, any deviation in the light color also ensures a more or less strong color cast in the image. Outside, when the sun is shining, the deviations are largely tolerable, daylight with an overcast sky fluctuates between about 4000 ° and 6500 ° Kelvin. This means either a deviation in the red-yellow area of the color spectrum (color temperature less than 5500 ° Kelvin) or the blue area of the color spectrum (color temperature higher than 5500 ° Kelvin). The deviations known to any (amateur) photographer who is still used to slide film from analog times are tolerable insofar as they can reflect the mood with a slight red or blue tinge. If as in product photography, the highest color accuracy is important, the slightest deviation cannot be tolerated and previously had to be corrected with appropriate compensation filters and with digital cameras with a careful white balance. Daylight can have very large fluctuations in the color of the light. If the sky is cloudy or in shadow areas, the light is tinted very blue, which is why the white balance cloudy sky is preset at around 8,000 ° Kelvin. Exactly which values are taken from your camera with this default setting depends on the

manufacturer and model of the camera. The deviations in artificial light are even more extreme. The default setting for light bulbs in most digital cameras is 2800 ° Kelvin. But very few light bulbs have exactly this color temperature. The lower the color temperature, the more even small deviations of 100-200 ° Kelvin become noticeable. Skin tones in particular, for example, a portrait, are massively falsified. Even a relatively small deviation into the blue area makes a face look pale, the reverse deviation into the red area creates a drunk nose. Newer light sources such as energy saving lamps or LEDs cause even bigger problems. In fluorescent tubes and energy-saving lamps, the red component is completely absent in the light. Some lamp manufacturers try to compensate for this with so-called warm light tubes by evaporating the missing red as a filter on the glass of the tubes. With energy-saving lamps, true-color photos are almost impossible. White balance is not very useful either. Only in a good image editing program can you try to compensate for the worst mistakes. When taking pictures of illuminated buildings at night, there may also be significant deviations from the automatic white balance of the camera. The different light sources that are used for larger buildings have significant deviations depending on whether, for example, a mercury vapor lamp (deviation in blue), a sodium vapor lamp (massive deviation in yellow) or another illuminant is used as the default light bulb. We humans usually do not notice these deviations at all because when the brain processes the information it receives from the eye, it remembers what it should look like automatically. One tries to incorporate this memory possibility of the brain as well as possible into the software for the white balance. This is why the white balance of a digital camera usually works even if there is not a single white or neutral gray area for comparison in the entire image. But of course, the color cast immediately catches our eye in a photo with color casts. That is why white balance is so important. Since the white balance can rarely be satisfactorily achieved with the onboard means of the camera in extreme lighting situations, in particular, artificial light, it is very important to generally save photos in raw data format. In contrast to JPEG, the 4 color channels red, green, green and blue are not already added together in the raw data format but saved separately for each color channel. This makes it easy to compensate for white balance

errors. However, if your camera does not provide for saving in the raw data format but only allows it to be saved as a JPEG, you can hardly change anything afterwards and have to do a white balance as good as possible already when recording, which brings us to the next important camera shot:

Storage Format for Photos If your camera offers the raw data format for storing photos, you should generally make use of it. Virtually, every digital camera offers storage as a JPEG. This compression format originally developed for the web is no more than a makeshift for storing photos. After all, JPEG was not developed as a format for further processing or printing, but vice versa as the last editing step for publication on the web. Nevertheless, the first digital cameras could usually only be saved in JPEG format. The raw data formats of the camera manufacturers were developed later and are unfortunately still not available with cheap pocket cameras. The JPEG was developed specifically for the screen display on websites. It was able to prevail over other formats with the same task because even at relatively high compression levels, quality losses can only be noticed by a trained eye and small file sizes can be achieved without clearly visible quality losses, which was particularly important in the early days of the internet with slow analog modems. The JPEG was never intended for further processing or permanent storage of photos. Simply because even if an image is saved as a JPEG without a compression factor, compression is already taking place, so with every further processing step and saving again, a photo is further compressed. After multiple processing and then saving, even the untrained eye will notice the quality losses. In the early days of digital photography, the JPEG was still justified; the memory cards at that time were outrageously expensive and had very little storage capacity. If you had already offered storage in raw data format at that time, you would not have been able to save more than 5-6 photos on one of the then usual memory cards. But these arguments for saving as JPEG have long been outdated. So there is actually no reason at all to save photos as JPEG. This applies at least if your camera offers storage in a raw data format.

The raw data format is the best way to save photos. The 4 color channels are saved separately in raw data format and only later added together with an image processing program to form the final photo. That is why you can then develop photos in raw data format. In addition, photos in raw data format are not compressed, so all image information is still contained in the image file. Whether or not it is compressed in the raw data format depends on the camera manufacturer and the raw data format it has developed. With suitable software such as the free Gimp, Adobe Photoshop or Adobe Lightroom, you therefore have a variety of options for influencing the raw data file, which also have the advantage of being reversible at any time. Therefore, if your camera offers storage as a raw data file, you should always make use of it. Some cameras also offer simultaneous storage in both formats, i.e. raw data format and JPEG. This is useful from time to time. For example, if you want to give a model the photos that have not yet been edited on a storage medium (CD, USB stick) after a shoot. However, this also requires a little more storage space and time to save the photos.

JPEG Quality Levels Digital cameras actually offer completely different levels of quality for the storage of JPEGs. This option also dates back to the early days of digital photography, when memory cards were extremely expensive and only had a small storage capacity. Choosing poorer quality allowed more photos to be placed on a memory card. At best, this was acceptable for souvenir photos from a vacation.

Different Raw Data Formats Each camera manufacturer has developed its own raw data format. In addition to their own raw data format, some camera manufacturers offer saving in the DNG format developed by Adobe. Like almost all formats developed by Adobe for the graphics industry, including photography, DNG has long established itself as the industry standard and is as future-proof as PDF, for example. If your camera such as Pentax offers the option to save as a DNG, you should make use of it. If your camera does not offer this option, you can

subsequently convert your photos into the internationally used DNG format using software that is available free of charge.

Color Space Some camera models offer multiple settings for the color space. The two most important settings are Adobe RBG and sRBG. Adobe RBG is the industry standard that can be processed by any newer image editing program, even if it is not from Adobe. This color space can also be easily converted for the usual CMYK model in printing. sRBG is the standard used for the web. If your camera offers Adobe RBG, you should make use of it, even if you later want to publish the photos on a website that is preset to sRBG, because any slightly better image editing program can also save edited photos in the sRBG color space. There are differences between the two models, particularly in terms of contrast.

CHAPTER 15 THE RIGHT EXPOSURE Exposure Setting With the Automatic Functions of the Camera Automatic exposure part 1

The Different Programs Apart from motif programs, a digital SLR camera and most other digital cameras offer three or four different settings for automatic exposure control, depending on the model.

Fully automatic, Selector Wheel P All three parameters for the correct exposure are set automatically. The fully automatic system tries to compromise between the different requirements for a successful photo. The exposure time should be short enough to be able to photograph the photo by hand without blurring, the aperture should be closed far enough to achieve the greatest possible sharpness and depth of field and the ISO value should enable the highest possible quality, so not be set significantly above the actual sensitivity of the sensor. As is the case with automatic compromises, it is more a matter of chance whether the result is what the photo was supposed to be. That is why digital SLR cameras and many other digital cameras offer two and in some models, three additional automatic functions for exposure control.

Automatic Timer, Aperture Preselection, AV Dial With the automatic timer, the appropriate exposure time and the appropriate ISO value are automatically determined and set for a manually set aperture. This function is always required when the priority of the aperture setting applies. So, when it comes to either the overall sharpness or the depth of field or both in a photo, the common lenses for the full format and the APS sensor achieve maximum sharpness at aperture values between 8 and 11. If the

aperture is opened further, both the sharpness itself, i.e. the overall sharpness, and the depth of field decrease. If the aperture is closed beyond aperture 11 instead, the area over which the depth of field extends is widened while the actual sharpness decreases again. The latter is due to the light diffraction at the small aperture. More about the image design with the aperture in the chapter: depth of field.

The Automatic Shutter, Time Delay, TV Dial With this automatic setting, the exposure time is specified manually, the appropriate ISO value and the associated aperture setting are set automatically by the camera. This setting is always important when the priority of a certain exposure time applies. A certain exposure time may be required in many photographic situations. You don't have a tripod with you and the light is no longer that special or you take photos inside a building, then the exposure time must be short enough not to blur the image. Without an image stabilizer and with focal lengths between the wide angle and a maximum of 60 mm, the 1/30 second is the longest possible exposure time for good results, provided you have a steady hand. For longer focal lengths, the rule of thumb applies that the exposure time should not be longer than half the focal length converted to the 35 mm format, because this is about the angle of view. The smaller the angle of view, the more the slightest vibrations of the camera become noticeable during the recording and the photos become blurred. Therefore, with longer focal lengths, either a stable tripod or shorter exposure times is applied.

Make Movements Visible or Freeze If you want to make a movement visible as such, then the exposure time must be long enough according to the movement and the direction of movement (across the image or instead towards the camera or away from the camera) so that it does not freeze. This applies, for example, to running water. More on this in the section image composition with the exposure time. If you want to freeze a movement instead, the exposure time must be short enough to be able to freeze the movement. How short, of course, depends on

the speed and direction of the movement. If you are in a vehicle or aircraft, the exposure time must also be short enough to be able to eliminate vibrations that are transmitted to the camera. For an aircraft, the lowest limit is 1/250 for focal lengths up to about 80 mm. For stronger telephoto lenses, the exposure time must be significantly shorter. So, there are a number of good reasons to work with the time delay. The third automatic function is only available on some cameras, namely the ISO preselection.

ISO Preselection, Automatic Shutter and Aperture Some cameras now have the ISO preselection for the automatic functions; in this case, the time and aperture are left to the automatic. The extent to which this makes sense as a separate automatic function, remains to be seen, because even without its own automatic function, the ISO value can be set manually on many cameras. With a fixed ISO value, one of the 3 automatic exposure methods or manual exposure can be used. With rare exceptions, the ISO value on my cameras is generally fixed to the actual light sensitivity of the sensor.

Why ISO Code? Prioritizing the sensitivity of the sensor can be useful if the maximum sharpness performance of the sensor is required. This is only the case with the actual sensor sensitivity, all ISO values above and below are achieved electronically and lead to a deterioration in quality, in particular to image noise, which is clearly perceptible at higher ISO values. ISO pre-selection even if the priority of the shortest possible exposure time applies, especially for night shots. In addition to the automatically selectable ISO values, many digital SLR cameras offer an extended sensitivity range of the sensor, which can only be adjusted manually due to the strong image noise. You should only use this if you would otherwise not be able to take photos due to insufficient light Automatic exposure part 2

The Measuring Ranges

There are basically three different options for exposure metering that can be set with a digital camera, whereby spot metering is usually only available with high-quality cameras.

Integral Measurement The integral measurement is factory-set for most cameras. With these cameras, it is the standard measurement of the exposure situation. For the integral measurement, all measuring points distributed over the sensor are treated equally and an average value is calculated from the different exposure values. This measurement method is really only suitable for low-contrast subjects. Landscape photos, for example, are relatively poor in contrast when the sky is overcast and are therefore suitable for integral measurement. However, when the sun is shining and there are also distinct image areas in the deep shadow, the integral measurement is not the yellow of the egg, because taking the shadow areas into account would lead to overexposure of the sunlit areas. The larger the areas in the deep shadow, the more the bright areas of the image are overexposed with this measurement method. This measurement method is also completely unsuitable if the actual image motif, for example, a portrait or a flower is in front of a relatively darker or lighter background, because in this case too, the integral measurement would determine an average value, which extremely leads to nothing is properly exposed at all. The flower would be much too light on a dark background and the background itself would still be too dark. Conversely, on a light background, the flower would be far too dark. After all, the camera cannot know what is really important to us with this subject and simply makes an average calculation. However, since the background of these motifs usually takes up a much larger area, it is much more important for the automatic average calculation than the actual image motif. Because this is the case, there are other measurement methods.

The Center-Weighted Measurement In contrast to the integral measurement, the measurement fields in the middle are taken into account more than the measurement fields in the outer area of the sensor. The extent to which the center-weighted measurement distributes the weighting of the measuring points unfortunately depends on the camera

model, which is why no generally valid statements can be made. In general, however, center-weighted measurement is the better measurement method, except for very low-contrast subjects. Even with low-contrast motifs, you can actually work well with them, because these motifs are also not significantly darker or lighter outdoors than in the middle of the image. Some camera manufacturers are now taking this into account and have preset the center-weighted measurement at the factory and no longer the integral measurement method as before. With a few exceptions, you can therefore set the center-weighted measurement as the standard for your own camera. However, the actual image motif must also be pretty much in the middle. Nevertheless, this is seldom desirable for reasons of dynamic image design, because if you want to achieve optimal effect through image design, you place the most important motif either on one of the axes of the golden ratio or on one of the axes in a 4/3 ratio. But most cameras offer help here by first aiming at the actual subject with the camera in the center, so that the exposure setting and autofocus for the image motif are adopted, then pressing the shutter button halfway, the slight pressure point can be felt well and only then the actual picture motif is correctly placed in the photo. Because with the shutter button pressed halfway, the exposure setting is saved, but the autofocus setting only if the autofocus has been set accordingly. But this is about the exposure setting. With the measurement method emphasized in the middle, you are almost always on the safe side.

The Spot Measurement Only one measuring field is activated for spot measurement. With highquality cameras, this measuring field can be selected in the menu. With lowquality cameras, the measuring field in the middle is automatically activated as soon as you select the spot measurement. With spot metering, you can select specific image areas. This is important when it comes to exposing just a small detail within a motif correctly. Otherwise, you can proceed with spot measurement for non-moving objects as well as with the center-weighted measurement, aim at the motif in the center or with the selected measuring point, in order to then select the final

image section with the shutter button pressed halfway. This brings us to the actual problem of spot metering. Before you can take a photo, you first have to rummage through the camera menu to make the appropriate settings, so not the best method for quick snapshots. The next problem is, unless you have the image composition in your head beforehand and can choose a measuring field other than the one in the middle, the image motif must be static if the exposure values are to be saved for another image section with the shutter button pressed halfway. If only the center measuring point can be selected for spot measurement and you want to photograph a motif in motion, you have to capture a significantly larger image section than actually intended in order to determine the final image section later in digital image processing because the actual picture motif exactly in the middle is not very dynamic.

Automatic Functions Occasionally Also a Little Problem A general problem of the many automatic functions with which some amateur cameras are now overloaded, it takes a lot of time to select the correct automatic settings before you can press the shutter button. You need this time beforehand with these overloaded cameras to work through a manual, often comprising several 100 pages so that when it comes to photography, you can later find the corresponding functions without having to search too long. That's why I only use automatic functions if they are at least equivalent to the manual setting or for situations in which you don't have the time to make any settings manually because the event would be over in the next moment. For all photos where I have a little more time, I prefer total control of the exposure setting to get exactly the desired result.

Set the Correct Exposure Manually You have three options for regulating the correct exposure: Exposure time Aperture Sensor sensitivity (ISO values) All 3 settings are interdependent. Exposure time and aperture regulate the

amount of light, the ISO value the light sensitivity of the sensor. In combination, they result in the right exposure. If one of the 3 values is changed manually, this affects the exposure if one of the other two settings is not adjusted at the same time.

The Sensor Sensitivity The light sensitivity of the sensor is the basis for regulating the amount of light with time and aperture. Sensor sensitivity corresponds to film sensitivity in analog photography. But while a film has a defined sensitivity to light and you have to change the film if you need a different sensitivity to light, the sensor sensitivity can be adjusted. In fact, sensor sensitivity cannot be changed any more than a film's sensitivity to light. Each sensor has a native light sensitivity, which is specified in ISO. Any deviating light sensitivity, i.e. every higher or lower ISO value that can be set on a camera, does not change the light sensitivity of the sensor but is achieved by electronic amplification or attenuation of the sensor signal. Any other than the sensor's native sensitivity to light leads to a deterioration in quality. This is important if you want to use the maximum performance of the sensor, especially with regard to sharpness and image noise. In a certain tolerance range, at least the image noise can be reduced by the camera to such an extent that it does not attract attention. Unfortunately, this does not apply to the imaging performance of the sensor with regard to its sharpness. A higher or lower sensitivity to light not only leads to an image noise that is barely perceptible at first, but also always to a loss of sharpness. How large the tolerance range depends on the respective camera model. With most digital single-lens reflex cameras, whose sensor has a native light sensitivity of ISO 100, the tolerance range is not larger than 2-3 aperture steps, i.e. up to ISO 400 or ISO 800. A few cameras go much further and have a tolerance range of ISO 3200 or even about it. How large the tolerance range of your camera is can usually be answered easily without looking at the operating instructions or the technical data, because in the camera menu, there are two different selections for the ISO value. On the one hand, the values that are set when the light sensitivity is set automatically are used by the camera and on the other hand the additional values that can only be set manually.

The ISO settings that can be selected by the automatic exposure control are within the tolerance range, the additional settings should only be used if the priority is a short exposure time and the light is insufficient for lower ISO settings. This brings us to the next important topic.

ISO Setting and Manual Exposure I occasionally get desperate emails because the exposure doesn't change even after switching to manual exposure. When I received such an email for the first time, I was puzzled. Only a clarifying telephone call with the sender brought the solution. There are obviously camera models in which the dial setting "M" does not lead to real manual exposure, but to an ISO automatic. The photographer sets the time and aperture manually; the ISO value appropriate for this is selected automatically. Of course, you cannot take pictures with exposure values other than those specified by the camera. So deliberately something lighter or darker is not possible. The solution was quickly found, however, with these camera models, before switching to manual exposure with the dial, you have to switch off the automatic ISO function in the camera menu and select an ISO value yourself.

Small Test for ISO Automatic You can easily find out for yourself how your own camera behaves with a small test. Set the camera to any automatic function and activate the ISO automatic in the camera menu, if not already set up anyway. Then set the dial to M and then look in the camera menu to see whether the ISO automatic is still active. If so, you have to switch off the automatic ISO for manual exposure and manually select an ISO value.

The ISO Values The ISO values are an internationally standardized specification for the light sensitivity of film material or sensors. Based on a widespread actual light sensitivity of the sensor of ISO 100, the further ISO values result from doubling: ISO 100, ISO 200, ISO 400, ISO 800, ISO 1600, ISO 3200 etc. Every doubling of the ISO value corresponds to a doubling of the light sensitivity or to put it photographically, an aperture stop. The row can of course be expanded as desired by further doubling or down by halving the

previous value. Some camera models have now reached ISO 51,200 and offer a tolerance range without excessive image noise up to ISO 3200 or even more. All light sensitivities that go beyond the tolerance range and are achieved by electronically amplifying the image signal expand the possibilities of photography, for example, in the observation of animals at dusk, but are not debatable in creative photography due to the high image noise and the lack of sharpness. In most digital cameras, the tolerance range ends at ISO 400 or ISO 800. Within this range, photos with these cameras do not yet have any image noise that is too disturbing.

What is ISO Value? When it comes to maximum quality, as far as the light is sufficient, the sensor's actual light sensitivity is the ISO value; which actually answers the question, ISO values that deviate from the actual light sensitivity upwards or downwards only if other settings, especially a short exposure time have top priority.

Priorities or Compromises Photography is always about priorities. I purposely say priorities and not compromises because when considering which settings to make on the camera, it is always a question of which of these settings have priority and which properties have to take priority over this priority because every change of a setting affects all other properties of the photo.

Light Sensitivity Is the Basis for the Correct Exposure Setting The photosensitivity of the sensor is the basis for the correct exposure setting, just as in analog photography; the photosensitivity of the film used is the basis for the exposure settings because the amount of light that is regulated with exposure time and aperture is adjusted to the light sensitivity of the sensor.

The Regulation of the Amount of Light

The amount of light is regulated via exposure time and aperture. The aperture regulates how much light the lens lets through and the exposure time and how long this light hits the sensor. If you have determined a correct exposure manually or the automatic exposure control and then change one of the two values, then the other value must also be changed so that the exposure remains the same. If the shutter is closed by one full step, the exposure time must be doubled. Conversely, if the shutter is opened by a full step, the exposure time must be halved so that the amount of light remains the same in both cases. This is actually quite easy to understand, but it becomes difficult with the full aperture steps on a modern digital camera because smaller aperture steps can now be set in thirds or tenths of a step.

Full Aperture Steps Therefore, you have to memorize the full aperture steps for better or worse. Otherwise, you would be puzzled, for example, what the next full step is from f / 6.5. Aperture 6.5 is a third aperture. The series usually starts at f / 2.8 and ends on a digital single lens reflex camera with 35 mm lenses with f / 22. Aperture 2.8 is not possible with many zoom lenses because they are not sufficiently bright. While particularly bright 50 mm standard lenses, which are also colloquially known as light giants, offer significantly larger apertures, for example, aperture levels 2, 1.7, 1.5, 1.2. The above aperture values denote the maximum aperture of a lens; in this case one also speaks of an open aperture. The aperture is gradually closed by one full step with the following aperture values: Aperture 2.8 Aperture 4 Aperture 5.6 Aperture 8 Aperture 11 Aperture 16 Aperture 22

The smallest aperture is usually aperture 22 for 35 mm lenses. Since lens 16 for lenses for the 35 mm format already shows diffraction phenomena that significantly impair the sharpness of the lens, even smaller apertures make no sense for lenses for the 35 mm format. In medium format and large format photography, there are even smaller apertures (aperture 32, 64, 128) due to the larger focal lengths for a comparable image angle because the number with which an aperture is set is the divisor in a fractional calculation. The actual focal length is the denominator, the aperture of the divider. The set aperture thus denotes the opening of the aperture in relation to the focal length used (not the converted one).

Relationship between Aperture and Exposure Time A full aperture step corresponds to doubling or halving the exposure time, depending on whether you close or open the aperture. Because that is the case, you will have to memorize them, unless you are using an older lens, because older lenses can only be set with full aperture settings. Once you understand the relationship between full aperture settings and exposure time, it is easy to use the manual exposure setting. Although, digital SLR cameras now also offer thirds or even tenths of the aperture setting, the doubling or halving of the exposure times is logical, while a full aperture level is not easily deduced from the logic. The latter must therefore be memorized.

Optimal Exposure The optimal exposure is not necessarily the right exposure. As already explained with the automatic functions, it depends on the measuring method, what is understood as the correct exposure. Mostly it is about the optimal exposure. However, the optimal exposure depends largely on the subject, the background and our personal ideas. If you want to make something shine, exposure is often a little bit scarcer because a motif in bright colors, for example, a flower, shines particularly well against a darker background when the picture is tinted a bit darker overall. In artistic nude photography too, exposure is often deliberately short (lowkey). Conversely, in highkey photography, an image is intentionally

made a little lighter than it would correspond to the correct exposure. Photography is not an exact science in the creative field but depends on the ideas and preferences of the photographer. This is another reason why there is no correct exposure for the image design, but instead an optimal exposure. Of course, this depends optimally on both the motif and the intended image statement. Photography is not an image of reality, but the representation of reality from the photographer's perspective and what is important to him. Whenever the automatic functions either do not lead to the desired result or finer automatic functions such as spot metering are relatively difficult to use, the exposure is instead set manually.

How to Get the Optimal Exposure There are different ways of optimal exposure. You can as is still essential in professional photography with large format cameras, measure the motif with a good hand-held exposure meter, i.e. make both the brightest and the darkest areas of the image and in addition, the middle image areas and an average calculation with a weighting on the actual subject, thanks to digital technology, it can also be much easier.

A Simple Way to Find the Optimal Exposure The method with which I can get the optimal exposure for the desired image statement as quickly as possible leaves some professionals who are used to the exact procedure described above standing on end. First, the subject is photographed with a time delay or aperture, whichever is more important to me. The result is examined on the display and the exposure is switched to manual. Since I generally work with fixed ISO settings, I no longer need to take the ISO values into account for the following steps. The selected aperture or exposure time, depending on whether I took the first test photo with aperture or time delay, is retained. Only the other value is changed, i.e. the exposure time for a given aperture or the aperture for a given exposure time. If the subject was too dark, the exposure is gradually increased until I am satisfied with the result. Conversely, if it was too bright, which is usually the case, the

exposure is adjusted more narrowly. If you have some experience with this procedure, the test photo is enough to be able to optimally adjust the exposure afterwards. Otherwise, you need 3-4 test photos until the correct setting for the optimal exposure has been found. It only becomes difficult if you want to change both the exposure time and the aperture compared to the test photo. Because then you have to change two interdependent values and calculate accordingly. A beginner is usually overwhelmed with this, but if you go step by step, it's not a big problem. First, the value is determined and set that leads to the optimal exposure. So you have a suitable time/aperture pairing. Now, you can either change the exposure time or the aperture and adjust the other value accordingly. If you proceed step by step in full aperture steps, it is not as easy to calculate as with massive changes. If the shutter is closed by a full step, the exposure time must be doubled. If the shutter is opened by a full step instead, the exposure time is halved. The opposite is the case if you want to set a different exposure time. If the aperture is already fully open due to the lighting conditions and you still want a shorter exposure time, the aperture can of course no longer be adjusted. In this case, the ISO value is doubled per halving the exposure time.

A Major Advantage of Digital Photography One of the priceless advantages of digital photography is that you can immediately check a photo on the display. In the past not only did you need a lot of technical knowledge to be able to take really good photos, you also needed a lot of experience with your own equipment, including the current batch of film material used, in order not to experience unpleasant surprises after the film was developed. In order to achieve good results with manual settings, thanks to the display, you no longer need the technical knowledge and experience that was inevitable in analog times. It has become much easier to take photos that look exactly as you had imagined. Because the result can be checked immediately on the display and the exposure adjusted manually until the photo is finally exposed exactly as you wanted it. However, it is still not possible to understand the relationship between the three exposure control options, namely exposure time, aperture and sensor sensitivity.

From my analog times, I still have a high-quality exposure meter, which is now only used to demonstrate the dependence of the three parameters exposure time, aperture and light sensitivity. However, this is not entirely true because at the same time, it is a high-quality flash exposure meter and therefore a good help when working with the flash system in the studio or on location, although, you can occasionally adjust the exposure to your taste after the first test photo even in the studio.

CHAPTER 16 THE WHITE BALANCE Especially beginners in digital photography have heard of white balance at best, but do not know what it is there for. The white balance compensates for deviations in light from pure white, either automatically or manually, because there is practically no light in pure white outside in nature. However, daylight, when the sky is not overcast is quite close to pure white. The light that comes from the sun during the day is actually almost pure white. But before we perceive it, it first has to pass through the atmosphere of our earth, where its color can be changed by dust and other particles in the air. There are strong deviations due to the atmosphere, especially when the sun is low, which can be perceived particularly as dawn and dusk. There is light in pure white if the three primary colors, according to the RBG color model, red, green and blue, each have exactly the same proportion in the color spectrum of light, i.e. one third each.

The Color of Light and Its Measurement The natural color of the light is measured in degrees Kelvin. Originally, the Kelvin definition was based on the color of glowing iron. Because the more you heat iron, the more its color changes from a dark red glow to white. The original definition of the color temperature, according to Kelvin Graden, makes it clear to an absolute layperson what the real issue is rather than the physical definition that is now used because everyone has seen pictures of red-hot iron. When iron is heated enough to start glowing, it emits light itself. The principle of the light bulb is based on this effect, even if it is not iron in the light bulb, but another metal that is heated by electricity in this case and therefore emits light. If iron is heated to 5500 ° C, it emits light in pure white. Since the original definition of the color temperature in degrees Kelvin is based on glowing iron, the measurement of the color temperature in degrees Kelvin is also somewhat understandable. There are two words in the term, color and

temperature. According to the original definition, the Kelvin value corresponded to the light color of the glowing iron at a temperature in degrees Celsius. Thus, the temperature of the glowing iron measured in degrees Celsius and the color temperature of the light, measured in degrees Kelvin, were identical. It is also understandable why light with a high proportion of red, for example from a light bulb, has a lower Kelvin value than for example, daylight and light that has a higher proportion of blue such as daylight with an overcast sky, also has a higher Kelvin value than 5500 ° Kelvin, the color of pure white light. Once these basics are understood, you can also understand the white balance of the camera and if necessary, manipulate it manually.

The Function of White Balance Both sensors in a digital camera and normal color films for an analog camera are calibrated for light in pure white, i.e. for a color temperature of 5500 ° Kelvin. Deviations in light from pure white had to be compensated for in analog photography with correction filters, in digital photography this was compensated for by white balance. In white-collar photography, white balance has been around for a long time, namely, if you have ordered prints of your film from the photo trade. These prints were already made in the 1960s with machines that like a digital camera, automatically adjusted the white balance. Only with the slide film was a color cast final and therefore had to be corrected with correction filters when the picture was taken. The white balance is usually done automatically. Of course, this can only be completely correct if somewhere in the image, there is either a sufficiently large area in pure white or neutral gray with 25% gray content for a measurement. Only then can the camera use this area to make an exact correction of the color temperature on its own. In fact, there are only a few photos that contain enough large areas in either pure white or neutral gray for an exact comparison, which is why an exact white balance due to the automatic is almost impossible. It is particularly difficult for the automatic system if there are white areas in the photo, but not in a more or less pure white, but in a tinted white. Because then the camera interprets the tinted white as pure white and thus falsifies the colors. That is why automatic white balance has its natural limits. Nevertheless, the

automatic white balance works quite well, because due to the programming of the camera's own software for white balance, white or gray areas are not absolutely necessary in order to be able to carry out a reasonably accurate white balance.

Presets for White Balance Of course, the camera manufacturers themselves know about the limits of white balance and offer various presets for white balance. The default settings can only be reached via a menu item, either in the actual camera menu or for cameras that offer easily accessible manual settings with a special button. Of course, the scope of the presets also depends on the camera model. What is usually at least there is daylight (5500 ° Kelvin), flash (also 5500 ° Kelvin), incandescent light (usually 2800 ° Kelvin) and cloudy sky (depending on the camera model, a setting between 11000 ° and 16000 ° Kelvin). Some camera models offer even finer presets. You should already deal with these default settings if you don't want to leave everything to the automatic and can experience bitter disappointments as a result because color casts are almost final in a JPEG as they used to be with slide films. Only if a photo has not been saved as a JPEG, but in the raw data format can color casts be easily removed afterwards. However, when it comes to maximum accuracy, the presets are only of limited use. The latter is not only about the color of a company logo (for example, the savings banks have even protected the red of their lettering with a design) that is on a photo, but also, for example, with skin tones. For this, higher quality cameras not only offer presets, but also a manual white balance.

The Manual White Balance If a camera enables manual white balance beyond the default settings, there is a separate menu item for this. You can then either photograph a surface that is illuminated by the light source in question, filling the format on the basis of which the white balance is carried out and stored until you either make another white balance or reset to automatic or you can alternatively separate one another put the folded tempo handkerchief in front of the front lens of the camera (for example with a rubber ring or one hand) and point the camera at

the light source. However, even a tempo handkerchief is not pure white, it is only approximately white. It is more precise with a standardized gray card. These cards can be bought in the accessories trade for little money. On the one hand, they are gray with a gray content of 25%. On the other hand, they are pure white. If you don't have a standardized gray card at hand, you can also use a sheet of white paper with the same problems as with the tempo handkerchief. Paper is almost never really pure white, but mostly slightly tinted. Newer digital cameras in the semi-professional and professional range offer a very precise white balance by numerically entering the previously measured color temperature of the light. Of course, this requires a measuring device with which the color temperature of the light can be determined exactly. However, the color temperature of the light source can only be determined precisely if the light source can be targeted directly or if the color temperature of the type of light used for monuments or buildings illuminated at night is known because each light source has its own color temperature, whereby the sodium vapor lamps still frequently used for illuminating public buildings not only have a fairly high proportion of red in the light, but also a large proportion of yellow. The latter cannot be filtered out using the color temperature control. This can only be done retrospectively with a suitable image processing program if the photo has been saved in raw data format. Because only in the raw data format are the three primary colors stored separately and their proportions can be easily adjusted later.

Manual White Balance Not Possible For an accurate manual white balance, you must either be able to aim the light source directly with the camera or the measuring device or alternatively, let the light source shines directly on a standardized gray card. Often enough, especially when buildings or monuments are illuminated at night, you can neither point the light source directly nor have a gray card illuminated. That would not be a problem if there were only one type of lamp for illuminating large buildings. But from the sodium vapor lamp with a very high proportion of yellow in the light to the mercury vapor lamp whose color spectrum almost corresponds to daylight, there is a whole wealth of lamp types with a very different color characteristic.

In such a case, the only help is to generally save the photos in raw data format and then to find the correct color temperature when editing the image. For example, with the help of Wikipedia where you can find precise information on the color temperature and the color spectrum of the light source for every common type of lamp used to illuminate buildings.

Color Moods and White Balance Occasionally, especially for photos outside with a special light, a white balance is not desirable because the atmospheric mood created by daylight deviating from pure white is often what you want to maintain, especially when taking pictures of the landscape. It makes a difference whether a landscape looks cool due to the cold light of an overcast sky or conversely, is bathed in a warm light by a low-lying sun. If you want to maintain this atmospheric mood in the photo, you should set the white balance of the camera to daylight and not leave it to the automatic. Because the automatic would try a white balance which would not even have a clue of the often magical lighting mood in the photo.

Artificial Light and White Balance It depends on the light source, whether a white balance, even a manual one, works at all. Because white balance is mainly about red or blue components in the light, but not about the components of the third basic color, green. For example, yellow is created from red and green. Incandescent lamps have a high proportion of red in the light, but since the tungsten filaments which usually produce the light in a light bulb are very similar in their light characteristics to the glowing iron, a color-correct photo can be created with a Kelvin value matched to the incandescent lamp. However, the situation is quite different for artificial light sources such as fluorescent tubes and energy-saving lamps whose red component in the light is negligible. The light color of a fluorescent tube is also determined by the fill gas used. Fluorescent tubes, in which a red filter is not vapor-deposited as is the case with so-called warm fluorescent tubes, therefore also have an extremely cold light characteristic that some people cannot tolerate well. Although the light from a fluorescent tube or an energy-saving lamp is supposed to have daylight character, it does not have this daylight character

because of the lack of red in the light. In daylight, the three primary colors are present in almost equal amounts in the light. I don't know if and to what extent LEDs have a natural light composition. The problem with artificial light sources that unlike a normal light bulb, do not produce their light in a similar way to glowing iron is that colors are either completely absent or are present, the latter for example with sodium vapor lamps which are used to illuminate many public buildings. Sodium vapor lamps have a very high yellow content. Anything that differs significantly from the characteristics of glowing iron as a light color, either because colors are missing or as is the case with sodium vapor lamps, naturally also changes the colors of the objects that are illuminated with them. It leads to more or less massive color casts in the image which can only be removed with great precision even from a raw data file. Therefore, when using artificial light, you should only use illuminants whose color composition is natural as far as possible (for a building illuminated at night, of course, you don't have this option). So either light bulbs, halogen bulbs or the flash. When it comes to absolutely color-correct shots, even the color temperature of a studio flash system has to be checked from time to time, since the flash pistons yellow with age.

Absolutely Correct Images for Printing When it comes to prepress, extreme precision is particularly important when it comes to the color of packaging, company logos, etc. It is not even enough to manually adjust the white balance with a color temperature measuring device or to compensate for it in analog photography with a correction filter, but a standardized card with a color wedge and a gray wedge should also be photographed at the edge of the image, where it can later be cut away, which can later be used to precisely adjust the printing press. However, this is only necessary in prepress. This effort can be saved with photos that are taken from the start only for the screen display because even three just calibrated screens next to each other show slightly different colors. Massive deviations arise especially in green tones for which our eyes are particularly sensitive. Certainly monitors that you have absolutely no influence on, i.e. the monitors and smartphones et cetera that are used to view

a website. Nevertheless, the white balance should of course be carried out as precisely as possible because deviations can increase with the deviations due to incorrect screen settings.

No Rule without Exception I know advertising agencies and photographers who know their client's screen settings exactly and who set up their presentations for these often incorrect screen settings so that they look good on this screen. While a colorcorrect picture on this screen would look cruel because of its incorrect setting. Of course, one can be of a divided opinion about such a procedure because it is actually the lack of courage of the photographer or the advertising agency to make the customer aware of the wrong screen settings. I definitely don't do it that way.

The White Balance and Indirect Flash With indirect flashing, i.e. when you point the flash unit against a wall or the ceiling, the default flash for white balance which is automatically set with a fully automatic rod flash unit that matches the camera of course, no longer works properly. Because which wall or ceiling is really pure white? Even if, according to the paint manufacturer, a purely white paint was originally used and applied thick enough so that the surface no longer shines through, a white ceiling or wall visibly yellows, especially in a room where people smoke. But every reflective surface changes the color of light. Of course, what still can be accepted as souvenir photos of family celebrations etc. cannot be accepted if the color reproduction is as accurate as possible.

The White Balance and the Raw Data Format Only with a very precise preparation of a photo can you actually take photos in which a subsequent correction of the color temperature is no longer necessary. In other words, a procedure that was indispensable in professional analog photography. But most photos are taken without precise preparation. Who has a color temperature measuring device or at least a standardized gray card with them?

In all of these cases, it is of course useful if the color temperature can be quickly and easily adjusted during image processing. However, this is only possible if the photo has been saved in raw data format. If it was saved as a JPEG instead, a subsequent correction of the color temperature is almost impossible. In the raw data format, the 4 color channels (red, blue, and two green) are stored separately and their proportions can therefore be easily corrected in their respective proportions using a suitable image processing program often referred to as a RAW converter. By the way, twice green because of the special sensitivity of the human eye to green tones. If the file is saved as a JPEG instead, the three primary colors (four color channels) are added together for the final image and can no longer be corrected in their respective proportions. For this reason, photos should only be saved in the raw data format.

The Different Raw Data Formats Each camera manufacturer has developed its own raw data format and is constantly developing it further. That is why there are dozens of different raw data formats from the same camera manufacturer that are not compatible with each other. Images saved in these formats can therefore only be opened and edited as long as this raw data format is still supported by image processing software. The camera's own raw data formats are therefore not considered future-proof. At the latest, a few years after the camera manufacturer has given up this raw data format or even discontinued camera production, there will no longer be any image processing software that supports this raw data format. There are raw data formats that save a photo uncompressed, there are also raw data formats that perform a compression before saving, similar to a JPEG. Of course, there is always a slight loss of quality associated with compression. In view of the current storage capacities of common memory cards, compression is actually completely unnecessary just like saving as JPEG only to save memory card space.

The Way Out Of the Jungle of Raw Data Formats The way out is a raw data format that is considered future-proof. At the

moment, this only applies to a raw data format, namely the DNG format developed by Adobe, which just like formats previously developed by Adobe such as PDF has long since become the industry standard. There are camera manufacturers, for example, Leica, Casio, Ricoh, Samsung and Pentax, who offer saving in either the manufacturer-specific raw data format or the DNG format. All other raw data files can be easily converted to DNG format using a free DNG converter.

Software for the Archiving and Processing Of Raw Data Formats It's no wonder that Adobe's leading program which is also used by many professional photographers was developed by Adobe: Adobe Lightroom. As this program was developed and is being developed together with leading photographers, it is adapted to the actual needs of photographers who often have to view, sort and edit hundreds of pictures after a shoot. However, there is also a good open source alternative to Adobe Lightroom, namely the free Lightzone which was originally developed commercially as a competitor to Lightroom and has been available and has been developed with an open source license for several years. Before you spend $ 12.89 a month on the license for Adobe Lightroom, you should at least take a look at Lightzone. RAW converters are of course also available from other software companies, but due to lack of personal experience, I cannot make any recommendations. A very good RAW converter has been part of the first CS generation of Adobe Photoshop with Adobe Bridge. But for most hobby photographers and even many professionals, Photoshop is simply too complicated and of course not exactly cheap. An open source alternative to Photoshop is GIMP, which however, never tempted me to switch even though it's free. Unfortunately, you can still tell GIMP that it was developed by programmers without the direct collaboration with photographers and that you have to follow its philosophy in order to be able to cope with it.

CHAPTER 17 THE CAMERA Minimum Requirements for a Digital Camera Digital cameras that can do more than just take souvenir photos should meet certain minimum requirements. For this reason, this chapter does not deal with devices that can also be used for photography such as a cell phone or an iPhone. Pocket, Bridge and all other cameras with small sensors are also unsuitable for creative photography because the small sensors cannot be used creatively for an essential element of image design, namely the depth of field.

Cameras Suitable For Creative Photography Creative photography starts with an APS sensor. The full format and of course, the digital medium format which is unaffordable for most amateurs, offer even more options than cameras with APS sensors but are also correspondingly more expensive. First of all, the common sensor sizes. Sensors that are significantly smaller than the APS sensor still have focal lengths even in the area of strong telephoto lenses which correspond to a

wide-angle lens in full format or the analog model 35mm format. The short focal lengths even in the area of strong telephoto lenses mean that the depth of field for cameras with a small sensor cannot be regulated practically through the entire focal length range, because it already extends from front to infinity with the aperture open. The depth of field is not dependent on the angle of view but on the actual focal length of a lens. More on this in the chapter: Focal length. Therefore, if you want more than just taking a picture, you should pay attention to a sufficiently large sensor when buying a camera. This is the only way to actually have the full range of photographic image design available. The pocket camera has the advantage that you can have it with you at all times, but it is not suitable for much more than souvenir photos. For a singlelens reflex camera with 2-3 interchangeable lenses to cover the most important focal length ranges, you need a good photo bag or a photo backpack which of course, you don't always have with you.

Mirrorless System Cameras Of course, the space requirement also applies to mirrorless system cameras if you actually use them as a system camera with multiple lenses. Mirrorless system cameras are only possible with digital technology. The advantages for the industry are obvious because the mirror mechanism is the most mechanically complex part of an SLR camera. If you save them, you can of course offer a camera much cheaper. A disadvantage of many mirrorless system cameras is that the sensor is much too small. Since no one has yet succeeded in overthrowing the physical laws of optics, the sensor size or for analog cameras, the film format is still the measure of all things for creative photography. This applies to both the regulation of the depth of field and the absolute sharpness of the sensor. Therefore, mirrorless system cameras are only a serious alternative to a digital SLR camera if the sensor is large enough, i.e. corresponds to at least one APS sensor. Smaller sensors can then be replaced like a real SLR camera, but the creative possibilities that are only available with a sufficiently large sensor remain closed. By the way, what many owners of a mirrorless system camera are not clear about is that the viewfinder is not an optical viewfinder analogous to a single-

lens reflex camera, but is only a way of seeing the display without disturbing extraneous light. So it is a camera with lifeview both on the outer display and through the viewfinder.

Aps Sensor, Full Frame or Even the Digital Medium Format? Of course, this question does not only depend on the planned budget for the purchase of a camera but also of the respective advantages and disadvantages of the sensor formats.

APS Sensor The APS sensor is the rule in the class of SLR cameras for amateurs. The APS sensor is still used in many semi-professional cameras. The APS sensor has some disadvantages compared to the full format but also advantages.

Disadvantages of the APS Sensor The main disadvantage of the APS sensor results from the conversion of the focal lengths. Because, apart from a few lenses that have been specially developed for the APS sensor, SLR cameras with APS sensor lenses are used for the 35mm format or the exactly the same size digital full format. Due to the smaller area of the APS sensor, only two thirds of the angle of view of the 35mm lenses are used. Therefore, you have to extend the focal length by 50% compared to the focal length specified on a lens in order to get the same angle of view that this lens would have on the full frame. However, the conversion only relates to the angle of view, not to the optical properties of a lens. The latter are independent of whether the angle of view is fully used by the sensor or only two thirds. Therefore, the focal length converted to the full format is also called the apparent focal length. This is often misunderstood because the conversion of the focal length only relates to the angle of view actually used. The angle of view is not used 100% as in full format but only two thirds. This corresponds practically to an enlarged section. However, the physical properties of the lens remain the same even if only a small section of it can actually be used. However, the conversion of the focal length is not necessary for lenses that were specially developed for the APS sensor. This is especially true for some newer kit lenses.

The most serious disadvantage of the APS sensor is noticeable because of the conversion of the angle of view for wide-angle lenses that were not specially developed for the APS sensor. Wide-angle lenses developed for the APS sensor have a larger image angle than 35mm lenses with the same focal length. This is not easy to understand for a beginner. Not three times that lenses developed for the APS sensor have a different angle of view than lenses for the full format, although both lenses can be used on cameras with an APS sensor. For someone who is only now getting into digital design photography, it is certainly not easy to understand that there are two fundamentally different types of lenses for the APS sensor, namely the lenses that were developed for the full format or the analog predecessor 35 mm format and whose focal length must be extended by 50% for a comparable angle of view and on the other hand, lenses that have been specially developed for the APS sensor whose focal length does not have to be converted for a frame angle comparable to the full frame.

Advantages of the APS Sensor First of all, that should be the most important advantage for most amateur photographers, cameras with APS sensors cost significantly less to buy than a full-frame camera with the same features. For photographers who like to work in the extreme telephoto range, the APS sensor offers a clear advantage over the full frame. Because, the angle used by two thirds extends the telephoto range by 50% without the disadvantages that would otherwise have to be accepted with telephoto lenses that are 50% stronger, namely lower light intensity, very shallow depth of field and high acquisition costs. Another advantage of the APS sensor also results from the fact that only two thirds of the image angle is used, namely the avoidance of edge blurring which is more or less pronounced in almost all lenses. Because the edge area of the lenses developed for the 35 mm format is not even detected by the smaller APS sensor.

The Full Format

The full format has many advantages over an APS sensor and only a few disadvantages. The first advantage already results from the sensor size which is 50% larger than an APS sensor and thus also enables significantly better quality. The next advantage is that all lenses developed for the 35 mm format can be used on a full-frame camera without conversion with the same optical properties. This applies in particular to wide-angle lenses that can be used with their actual angle of view on a full-frame camera and thus also open up the extreme wide-angle range up to the fisheye lens. Conversely, the smaller APS sensor has the edge in strong telephoto lenses, because here the smaller angle of view used has a positive effect. The only real disadvantage of the full format is the price which is significantly higher than the price of the cameras with the APS sensor.

Digital Medium Format Cameras From my own experience, I cannot say anything about it because I have never photographed with such a camera. The body is already far beyond my financial means and all lenses would have to be procured which of course are also significantly more expensive than lenses for the 35 mm format. With some digital medium format cameras such as the PENTAX 645, the lenses that were developed for the analog predecessor of the same name can still be used. The question I can't answer is whether these lenses are good enough for a 51.4 megapixel sensor. Since the sensor is significantly smaller than 4.5 x 6 cm as with its analog predecessor, the apparent focal length would be significantly longer and the image angle would therefore be significantly smaller. In relation to the analog medium format, the difference between the 35 mm format and the digital medium format is not nearly as big. Depending on the manufacturer, the digital medium format is between 1.4 and 1.8 times larger than the digital full format. The analog predecessor, for example, the digital Pentax 645 was not seen as a true medium format but was considered the small medium format that was designed for amateurs. Nevertheless, the negative format of the analog predecessor and thus the viewfinder image was more than three times the size of the 35 mm format. A large viewfinder image has many advantages, both for assessing sharpness and for composing images. On a sufficiently large

viewfinder image, it is not easy to overlook distracting details, for example, a disturbing socket in the background when taking a full-length picture. In this regard, the digital medium format is still far from the analog predecessor. On the other hand, with 50 megapixels, a sufficiently large sensor achieves a resolution that was only possible with large format cameras. This makes it ideal for prepress when it comes to enlargements that in analog times only brought the desired quality with a large format camera. As an alternative, there are also digital backs for the professional, analog medium format cameras which of course are not exactly cheap, current digital backs in the format 6 × 6 or 6 × 7 cm cost around $10,000. This means that you can continue to use your professional medium format equipment as in the past in analog times. Apart from the comfortable, large viewfinder, the analog medium format was indispensable when it came to much better quality than possible with 35 mm cameras. Because even the best color film is nowhere near the resolution of a current camera with APS sensor. Certainly not the resolutions that are possible with full-size digital full-format cameras or digital medium format. Color films with the highest possible resolution, which was possible with film material, were also not particularly sensitive to light in relation to a sensor. A standard color film had ISO 50, the maximum that there was a special development without the grain coarse was ISO 200. Films with more than ISO 100 could also be bought for 35 mm cameras, but it was not recommended, the coarse grain was already whole normal prints cannot be overlooked. At that time, that was also a domain of analog medium format cameras, which were more tolerant with a more than four times larger negative format for highly sensitive films. But all of these arguments for medium format no longer apply in the digital age. What remains as an argument for the digital medium format is an outstanding quality, which is rarely needed even in the professional field. I know well-known professionals who borrow high-resolution cameras when needed and otherwise work in full digital format as well as photographers in the province who already want to use their equipment to prove to the customer that they are professionals and although the digital full-format camera already does the quality required by the customer far exceeds but still go to the customer with a digital medium format camera because it may also

be expected from the clients. Ultimately, this means that even demanding amateurs cannot even get close to the quality of a full-frame camera of the upper class, let alone the quality of a digital medium-format camera. Ultimately, the only selling point if you can easily afford it is that the viewfinder image is 1.4-1.8 times larger than the full digital format, which is certainly more comfortable to use than a smaller viewfinder image.

APS Sensor or Full Frame What already applies to analog photography also applies physically to digital photography: the larger the sensor or film format, the less quality loss there is in enlargements. The usual application areas of an amateur photographer are however, usually exceeded with an APS sensor, because with the now standard resolutions of 16 megapixels and more, even enlargements beyond A3 are no longer a problem. 6 megapixels were more than sufficient for the screen display. For most amateur photographers, the resolution is no longer an argument for the full frame. The full format has its undisputed advantages as a true successor to the 35 mm format when using all lenses that were developed for the 35 mm format. In this respect, especially for photographers who prefer the wide-angle range, even the higher purchase price of a full-format camera can be worthwhile, because it means that all lenses for the 35 mm format can be used without restrictions, i.e. lenses can also be purchased used. In principle, this also applies to the APS sensor, but there with the restriction that the wide-angle range can only be fully exploited with lenses specially developed for the APS sensor. The APS sensor has an advantage in the field of strong telephoto lenses. The question does not even arise on a small budget, because full-frame cameras are significantly more expensive than digital cameras with the APS sensor. By the way, if you don't exactly need the latest model, then it's worth buying the previous model. The out-of-date camera models are offered with full guarantee for a fraction of the original price, for example at eBay retailers. This often has even another advantage because there is now enough experience on the internet about the previous model to not make a bad

purchase. This means that for most amateurs, APS sensor or full frame are already better than the quality actually required. If you prefer the wide-angle area and do not just want to take pictures with the lenses specially developed for the APS sensor, you are better served with the full-frame camera, if you prefer the telephoto area, you have the advantage with the APS sensor. Even if the qualitative expectations of even demanding amateurs, unless you are a technology freak, are already exceeded by current models with APS sensors, you still need at least the sensor format of the APS sensor if you want to use the depth of field creatively.

Further Selection Criteria When Buying a Camera After the decision in principle for APS sensor or full format and single-lens reflex or mirrorless system camera has been made, there are further important selection criteria for the purchase of a camera.

The Casing, the Body The most important requirement for a body is that it fits comfortably in the hand in both portrait and landscape format. You have to try this in the shop yourself, not everyone is suitable for every hand size. If you don't have a good grip on the camera, it will be difficult to keep the camera still for the photo.

The Material of the Case Cameras made entirely of plastic are cheap, disposable items. At least the heavily used parts of a camera should be made of solid metal, i.e. at least the lens mount and tripod thread. It is of course better if the entire casing is made of a magnesium alloy.

The Quality of the Closure Cameras made for amateurs are not nearly as robust as cameras for the professional sector. An essential criterion is the guaranteed release of the lock. Cameras for the amateur and semi-professional sector only guarantee 50,000 releases. That sounds like a lot at first, but it is only a lot for someone

who deals with their camera as much as in the analog times when every single photo still costs money. If a professional works with models, then because the photos themselves don't cost anything anymore, 1,000 photos for an afternoon are nothing special. I don't take that many photos when I work with a model, but between 300 and 500 photos in one afternoon are also with me. If I did this every day with a camera that only guarantees 50,000 releases, the camera would be ready for the scrap in just under four months. In everyday professional life, such a camera would not survive for two months. Cameras for the professional sector guarantee at least 2 million releases, of course, they also cost more. For someone who is likely to take a lot of photos, the additional edition is definitely worth it. Especially since the guarantee of 50,000 releases does not mean that the shutter still works to the end with the same accuracy with which it worked at the beginning. Because, of course, the slot closure is also subject to wear, which leads to inaccuracies long before the end of its service life. However, inaccurate shutter speeds mean that the exposure becomes a random result. If you save at the wrong end, you end up paying massively. What applies to the quality of the shutter also applies to all other mechanical loads on a camera. This does not mean that I would generally advise against a camera that only guarantees a resolution of 50,000. My Pentax guarantees only 50,000 trips. However, photography is more of a hobby for me and shoots with models are quite rare, especially since I am quite demanding when it comes to models in front of the camera. I rarely hold the camera more than two to three times a month. The guaranteed 50,000 trips are always sufficient for a long service life. It is therefore only a quality criterion for someone who wants to work with a camera more or less daily and does not want to impose any restrictions on the number of photos. For me, as with all other criteria, it was essentially a question of having a camera in mind when purchasing it. If you really want to take a lot of pictures and don't want to buy a new camera every few months, you should pay attention to the number of guaranteed releases.

Casing Protection against Dust and Splash Water This is also an important criterion if you don't just want to work with the

camera in the studio. The everyday photo, especially outdoors, is often quite rough. A well-sealed housing also protects the camera from salty air on the coast.

The Display With a camera with an optical viewfinder, the display is not as important as with a mirrorless system camera. However, it is still important to check the exposure immediately after taking the picture. The focus can only be checked if you look into it Picture zooms in. Therefore, it applies to the display that it should be large enough and should not reflect if possible. It should also be easy to use by easily zooming in on a photo and moving the crop. A fold-out display like some newer models like the video cameras is helpful if the camera also offers Lifeview and you can take photos for which you would otherwise need an angle finder. For example, photos from floor level or over the heads of others. Sighting on the display also has serious disadvantages in bright ambient light. If the sun hits the display directly, you won't see anything at all on the display. Practically, all cameras now meet the minimum criteria for a display. However, there are still big differences in the operation, because you can tell whether a camera was developed together with practitioners or only by engineers.

The Mirror Mechanism Especially when it comes to mirror mechanics, high-quality cameras differ from amateur models. The mirror mechanism has always been a decisive factor in the price of a camera. The mirror is only folded up immediately before the picture is taken, after the trigger has been actuated, in order to clear the light path for the sensor. In order for this movement to take place both quickly and smoothly so as not to shake the camera unnecessarily, very complex precision engineering has to be constructed. Good precision engineering has always had its price. In relation to electronic components which used to be very expensive, good precision engineering has now become even more expensive.

Mirror Lock-up

A single-lens reflex camera, with which you also want to take pictures at dusk and at night, must be equipped with a mirror lock-up because even with long exposures, the smallest vibrations of the camera are noticeable as blurring. That is why good SLR cameras offer mirror lock-up. With the mirror trigger, the mirror is folded up a few seconds before the picture is taken or manually, so that the camera no longer shakes at the moment of the picture. Some cameras have a mirror lock-up which is named differently. If the mirror can be fixed or locked beforehand or if the self-timer can be set up before the picture is taken, the mirror is also triggered.

Image Stabilizer An image stabilizer has undisputed advantages in all situations in which a short exposure time or a tripod would actually be required. With the image stabilizer, the exposure time can be extended by up to 3 aperture stops without the photos being blurred. Thanks to the image stabilizer, exposure times up to a quarter of a second are possible for me. I rarely carry a tripod with me. Anyone who likes to take photos in the telephoto area will also be grateful for an image stabilizer because the small angle of view requires short exposure times in order not to blur the photos. A three times longer exposure time, thanks to a good image stabilizer significantly extends the use of even strong telephoto lenses even in poor lighting conditions. If the image stabilizer is already built into the camera, you don't have to buy expensive lenses with a built-in image stabilizer. In addition, you can also use older lenses from the analog times with a camera with built-in image stabilizer and still have the image stabilizer available. The image stabilizer should be easy to switch off because it is not compatible with the camera on the tripod.

The Sensor Sensitivity (ISO settings) There are only two manufacturers of sensors on the world market that all camera manufacturers use. Analogous to the computer industry, where there are only two manufacturers for important components of a PC, whose CPU or graphics chip (GPU) are installed in all computers or graphics cards, either from one or the other manufacturer.

That is why cameras, regardless of the camera manufacturer, have similar properties with regard to the sensor used. With regard to the sensor used, the camera manufacturers essentially differ in the software with which the signal from the sensor is processed and stored by the camera. A sensor has a very specific sensitivity to light, how high it is depends on which sensor is installed in a camera. All ISO settings that can be selected above or below the native sensor sensitivity are achieved by electronic amplification or attenuation of the image signal from the sensor. Every electronic intervention in the image signal leads to more or less severe quality losses. Of course, camera manufacturers have been researching this topic since the beginning of digital photography and have always found better solutions to at least get a grip on image noise and expand the tolerance range without excessive image noise. Especially if you often want to take pictures even in poor light or with strong telephoto lenses, the latter because of their low light intensity and the required short exposure times, the size of the tolerance range for still sharp images without too disturbing image noise plays a significant role. So it's not about the maximum sensor sensitivity which is now above ISO 50,000 in some camera models, but the area that still allows acceptable photos with good sharpness and without annoying image noise. It is best to search through various photo forums in which there is plenty of experience with digital cameras.

The Pixel Madness How many pixels do you need? 6 megapixels were sufficient for photos in screen resolution. With the current resolutions, printouts in larger formats than A3 can be mastered with a full-frame camera. With the Pentax with APS sensor, the resolution is sufficient even for poster designs. What goes beyond that doesn't really matter for an amateur photographer. So it is pretty irrelevant whether a current camera model has 16, 20 or even 50 megapixels. Most amateurs will probably never notice this difference in practical use. Extremely high resolutions are not even required for most tasks in professional photography.

If you want to use extreme resolutions of up to 50 megapixels, you also need lenses that can at least keep up. Then you can quickly get a price for minimal equipment of $10,000 and more. By the way, with sensors that are significantly smaller than an APS sensor, you hardly notice any additional pixels in terms of quality. The size of the sensor is much more important for resolution and sharpness than the number of pixels distributed on the sensor.

The Autofocus and the Measuring Fields Autofocus has always been a problem. In analog times, autofocus was made possible with relatively complex optical and precision engineering methods and if it was to work reasonably reliably, was also quite expensive. Of course, digital photography offered to solve the problem of autofocus digitally because it was possible to save time-consuming optical-precision mechanical solutions from earlier times. To date, however, this has not really succeeded. The digital autofocus is based on contrast edges in a motif. Even if the autofocus works correctly, this does not necessarily mean that the focus is on the most important subject but instead on any contrast edge that happens to be in the area of one of the measuring fields. The autofocus must be fast and if possible, should be limited to individual, selectable measuring fields that are clearly displayed in the viewfinder. Otherwise, it is practically a coincidence, especially with moving objects that the lens is focused on. The normal autofocus which takes all measuring fields into account, has particular problems with motifs in which strong contrast edges, for example, branches are already present in the foreground. Because it is pure coincidence which of these contrast edges is currently in the area of one of the measuring fields. But this is exactly what is in focus. Without specifically selectable measuring fields, it is also almost impossible to focus on an object that is moving towards or away from the camera, for example, a model who is supposed to move towards the camera against a troubled background. The two basic types of autofocus, namely either continuously following the image motif or saved as a fixed value with the shutter button pressed halfway, are practically mastered by every digital camera. In addition, some cameras have a whole range of setting options that represent a mixture of the

two basic types. Obviously, there are always camera models that have massive problems with the autofocus. Therefore, before deciding on a camera, you should use the keyword autofocus and the model name of the camera to search for experiences with this camera model and autofocus on the internet. Even camera models from the renowned camera manufacturer Canon can have such problems. At Pentax, it was recognized a few years ago that autofocus does not always deliver the desired results and has drawn consequences from this. Lenses that have been developed since this discovery have a reasonably sized ring for manual distance setting as was the case more than 20 years ago. However, the user alone does not take any sharp photos because the viewfinder image of digital SLR cameras is far too small for manual focusing. In order to be able to judge exactly what was in focus, the viewfinder image would have to be considerably larger. The cameras with interchangeable viewfinder lenses can be retrofitted with the necessary technical help for manual focusing. As usual from the past, viewfinder panes can be installed with a sectional image rangefinder and a surrounding micro prism ring. In addition, there are viewfinder magnifiers that can be placed on the viewfinder and that significantly enlarge the viewfinder image. The layover rangefinder is very helpful if there are any edges in the motif, for example, the eyes of a model, the micro prism ring allows precise focusing if there are no edges in the actual motif that you can aim for with the layover rangefinder. Because even for a properly functioning autofocus, the same applies in principle as for all other automatic functions of a camera, at the latest when you reach the limits of the automatic functions, you have to switch off the automatic as before and set it manually. This should then be supported as well as possible. But especially when focusing, this is almost impossible without appropriate technical aids such as a sectional image rangefinder due to the small viewfinder image. For me, therefore, my first digital SLR camera was a huge change, since I was a 6 x 6 cm viewfinder image with a micro prism ring from my analog medium format camera which was almost as large as the entire viewfinder

image of my digital SLR camera and also a fold-out finder magnifier used, with which an exact and fast distance adjustment was child's play.

Exposure Programs For an amateur, motivational programs may help. It remains to be seen whether they really help because like any software, even a motif program requires a certain amount of familiarization in order to be able to use it successfully. Regardless of the motif programs, all cameras above cheap pocket cameras offer at least two different measuring methods and in addition to the fully automatic exposure control and the automatic shutter. It seems to me much more important whether all automatic functions can be deactivated without long searches in the camera menu in order to be able to control the settings manually. Because sooner or later, you will want to manually intervene in the exposure for better image results or night shots. Then that should also be possible without any problems. In this area, many bridge cameras and some mirrorless system cameras are almost a disaster because if manual adjustments are possible at all, they are only discovered after a long search in the camera menu.

Types of Cameras There are cameras with a built-in lens and system cameras. The sensor size is essential for creative photography because only with a sufficiently large sensor can the important design element be influenced (depth of field).

Cameras with a Built-In Lens This category includes pocket cameras, bridge cameras and if not a camera, cell phones and other devices with which you can take pictures, among other things.

Pocket Cameras These cameras are good if you always want to have a camera with you and you want more options than a cell phone can offer. A pocket camera is completely sufficient for simple documentation and souvenir photos for

motifs with balanced contrast ratios or with the aid of the built-in flash. However, you shouldn't expect more than that because firstly, the sensor is too small for creative photography which is why the important image design element cannot be used for depth of field and secondly, the manual intervention in exposure and focusing are usually not possible sufficient to be able to work creatively.

Bridge Cameras A bridge camera offers a lot more options than a pocket camera but still has certain limitations compared to a system camera. Bridge cameras are available with sensors of different sizes. A bridge camera with a very small sensor usually has a much better lens than a pocket camera and extends in the telephoto range for some models to the extreme telephoto range which would correspond to a very strong telephoto lens with a focal length of more than 500 mm for a 35 mm lens. Nevertheless, the sensor size of the bridge camera also plays a decisive role in the image design with the depth of field. In addition, the sensor size also plays an important role for the image resolution and the maximum sensor sensitivity without disturbing image noise. Bridge cameras with sensors that are hardly larger than the sensor of a pocket camera are closer in terms of image design and take pictures in poor light without flash than a pocket camera and a system camera. However, there are also bridge cameras with APS sensors or at least sensors that are only slightly smaller than an APS sensor. With these bridge cameras, you can already work creatively with certain restrictions, while a bridge camera with a very small sensor is actually just a slightly better pocket camera. System Cameras, Cameras with Interchangeable Lenses The sensor size also plays a decisive role in the design options and image quality of the system camera.

Mirrorless System Cameras Thanks to the lack of mechanically very complex mirror mechanics, mirrorless system cameras with an otherwise comparable quality can be significantly cheaper than an SLR camera. The extent to which a mirrorless

system camera can keep up with an SLR camera depends firstly on the size of the sensor and secondly on the manual setting options in particular, in addition, of course, the scope of the available system. A major disadvantage of a mirrorless system camera is that it does not have an optical viewfinder. This means that all system options for different viewfinders are missing, which is a matter of course for high-quality SLR cameras. Because no matter whether you look through the viewfinder or at the rear display of a mirrorless system camera, you only ever see the display image that has already been processed electronically. Whether a mirrorless system camera otherwise deserves the name system camera depends largely on the actually available system. This in turn depends on the size of the sensor. A comprehensive system is available for cameras with an APS or full-frame sensor and a lens bayonet that is compatible with the common lenses from Canon, Nikon or Pentax. Mirrorless system cameras with a smaller than the APS sensor can only use the existing systems to a very limited extent even with a corresponding lens bayonet. The limitation arises particularly in the wide-angle range. The smaller a sensor is, the smaller the actual image section that can be used with a lens developed for the 35 mm format (full digital format). This means that the apparent focal length of small sensors is considerably larger than that stated on the lens. This in turn means that even a strong wide-angle lens on a mirrorless system camera with a significantly smaller than the APS sensor is no longer a strong wide-angle lens, but depending on the sensor size, has an apparent focal length that corresponds more to a normal lens or even a telephoto lens for very small sensors. That is why the following applies to mirrorless system cameras in general, unless the camera manufacturer has developed a comprehensive system for this model that can only be spoken of as a system camera if it is a sensor in APS or full format and one of them major brand manufacturers of digital SLR cameras compatible lens mount.

Digital SLR Cameras A single lens reflex camera with an APS sensor or even better a full-frame sensor offers the most extensive options in terms of design. This is especially true if it comes from a camera manufacturer who has already developed a

comprehensive system for professional photographers in analog times. Nevertheless, there are of course, massive differences in quality with SLR cameras. These can be seen not only in the easily comparable technical values such as the number of pixels but also in the service life of the slot lock and mirror mechanism, the quality of the casing and a well-thought-out operation. Professional digital SLR cameras have to be robust, easy (manual) to operate and mature, especially when it comes to autofocus and exposure settings. Professional digital SLR cameras are generally full-frame cameras. Semi-professional SLR cameras differ from SLR cameras designed for professional use in particular in the life and quality of the mechanical parts and increasingly also in the number of pixels. Semi-professional SLR cameras are available both with APS sensor and with a sensor in full format. Digital SLR cameras for the so-called consumer market generally have the smaller APS sensor compared to the full format, which corresponds to two thirds of the sensor area of the full format. They differ from professional cameras with a full-frame sensor and semi-professional cameras with an APS sensor in a number of ways: Only 50,000 trips guaranteed. Viewfinder lenses are not interchangeable. Casing often made of plastic. Motif programs (Motif programs are intended for beginners and can therefore only be found in cameras that are produced for amateurs). Manual setting options are often not very well thought out. Fewer measuring fields than in the professional area. Autofocus is often unsatisfactory. Hard mirror mechanism which can lead to blurring due to blurring even with exposure times that can still be handled by hand. With regard to the scope of the available system, with the exception of the viewfinder panes, there is no difference between digital SLR cameras from brand manufacturers. All lenses from a brand manufacturer can be used on all cameras with the same lens mount, regardless of whether they are professional, semi-professional or amateur cameras. In summary, before you buy a camera, you should first be clear about

whether you want to do more with the camera as souvenir photos of holidays and family celebrations. In principle, a pocket camera is sufficient for this. If you want more than that especially if you want to gradually grow into creative photography, the sensor size is the most important quality criterion, i.e. at least one APS sensor. If you want to work mainly in the wide-angle area, the full-frame camera is the optimum, especially since there is a huge selection of high-quality lenses. Otherwise, the possible financial framework plays a very important role. However, even with a very limited budget, one should pay more attention to the quality of the body. If the current model of the desired camera is still too expensive, the previous model may be an alternative to a current camera one class lower. You don't necessarily have to buy new lenses if the budget is limited, you should rather look for a good camera with APS sensor or in full format because for both formats, there is an abundance of good used lenses as well as lenses from third-party manufacturers which are often clear and cheaper than the lenses of the camera manufacturer. After corresponding experiences with participants of my practice photo courses, I can only urgently recommend APS sensor or full format; all smaller sensors quickly reach their limits. To have a camera with you on the go, a pocket camera is enough which would not be a problem if it is damaged or stolen. Good photos require a minimum of equipment which of course, you don't have to carry around with you. That, among other things, differentiates between taking pictures and taking pictures quickly.

CHAPTER 18 LENSES There is a huge range of lenses for digital SLR cameras. The beginner is usually overwhelmed and often enough buys a zoom lens with a large focal length range that extends from the strong, wide angle to the strong telephoto range. However, this is not the best choice, so this is about lenses. Before you buy a lens, you should look for test reports and user experiences on the internet. There are a number of internet forums that deal with digital cameras and lenses. When purchasing the camera, the question arises whether you should buy the camera with the kit lens or better without the kit lens.

Kit Lens, Yes or No? Kit lenses rightly have a reputation for not being particularly useful. However, there are now exceptions to this. Some camera manufacturers offer two different kit lenses, a cheap and a high quality. You can safely do without the cheap kit lens, even if you should have your first photographic experience with it, it will soon lie around unused in the closet or only bring a fraction of the purchase costs back in via eBay, if there is still a buyer for it. If there are two different kit lenses to choose from, a cheap and a high-quality one, then you should buy the high-quality version, provided you will use this focal length range. The additional edition is definitely worth it, because the

high-quality version is a good and light all-round lens in the wide-angle range up to the standard focal length. Even someone who plans to photograph animals in the wild and will therefore need a strong telephoto lens will occasionally also take photos in the focal length range of a kit lens. The advantage of a good kit lens is the purchase price together with the camera. Good kit lenses can also be bought separately. However, they are then significantly more expensive than when buying the camera plus kit lens kit. The focal length range of a kit lens is reasonable because physically, even the standard focal length is still the wide-angle range. Thus, the kit lens covers the entire focal length range from the strong wide angle to the moderate wide angle of a normal lens. Because only one focal length range is covered, good kit lenses can deliver good quality despite a low price.

The Focal Length Range Of Zoom Lenses Compared to a fixed focal length, a zoom lens is always a compromise. The fixed focal length is calculated exactly for this focal length and can therefore achieve the maximum image quality. But zoom lenses have been consistently developed in recent decades. The best zoom lenses can almost keep up with a high quality prime lens. However, this only if the focal length range is kept relatively narrow, i.e. does not extend from the strong wide-angle range to the stronger telephoto range. The wide-angle range places completely different demands on the construction of a lens than the telephoto range, which based on the focal lengths of 35 mm lenses, begins at a focal length of about 80 mm. If you combine both in one lens, you have to make physical compromises that come at the expense of imaging quality. That's why 2-3 zoom lenses for a good image quality are significantly better than a single so-called travel zoom, which has the only advantage when traveling that you don't have to take any other lenses with you. With the image quality of a travel zoom, you can clearly see that compromises had to be made for this large focal length range.

Two Zoom Lenses for the Most Important Focal Length Range

With two zoom lenses, one can cover the entire focal length range from the moderate wide angle to the medium-strong telephoto range without having to compromise on image quality. That would be for example, a focal length range from 28 mm to about 80-110 mm for the moderate wide-angle and telephoto range as well as another zoom lens for the pronounced telephoto range which starts at around 80 mm and ranges up to 200 or 300 mm focal length depending on the lens.

Three Zoom Lenses for a Larger Focal Length Range If you want to expand the wide-angle range, you should purchase your own zoom lens, vice versa, if you want to develop an even stronger telephoto range. If you want to cover the entire focal length range from strong wideangle to strong telephoto with zoom lenses, the best way to do this is with 4 different zoom lenses that only overlap slightly in their focal length range. There are almost no zoom lenses for both the extreme wide-angle range and the extreme telephoto range which are still the areas that are reserved for prime lenses. Zoom lenses are still a compromise compared to a fixed focal length but one that is now pretty well mastered in moderate areas.

Important Selection Criteria for Lenses Light Intensity What does light intensity mean? This is already well explained in the FAQ. Therefore only briefly here, it is the specification of the maximum aperture for a certain focal length. The better the light intensity of a zoom lens over the entire focal length range, the better the focus performance of the lens, probably because ultimately, the overall quality of the lens is decisive and not just the light intensity. Every lens should have a good focus even with the aperture open. The aperture can be significantly increased by stopping down on f / 8 to 11. Stopping down even more at aperture 16 or 22 does not result in a gain in sharpness but on the contrary, in a loss of sharpness. Only the range of the depth of field is expanded by stopping down to aperture 16 or 22. The loss of sharpness is caused by the diffraction of light at the small aperture. The difference between the open aperture and the average aperture values is

largely responsible for the maximum sharpness at medium aperture values. The more aperture steps between the open aperture and aperture 8, the more the sharpness of the lens can be increased by stopping down. If for example, a zoom lens has a light intensity between 3.5 and 5.6 depending on the focal length set, the difference to aperture 8 in the focal length ranges at which the lower light intensity of 5.6 is just reached is only one aperture level. With such a lens, the focus performance can only be improved insignificantly by stopping down compared to the open aperture. A zoom lens that instead has a light intensity of 2.8 - 4 over its entire focal length range and draws very sharply even with the aperture open is much sharper with a medium aperture than a lens with the properties described above. A zoom lens that offers a high light intensity of 2.8 for example, from the medium wide angle to the telephoto range is of course even better but also significantly more expensive. Apart from the sharpness, the light intensity is of course, also important if you still need short exposure times in poor light conditions because in poor light conditions, it depends on how far you can open the aperture. Fixed focal lengths often have significantly higher light intensities than zoom lenses. This also shows that a zoom lens compared to a fixed focal length is still a compromise that cannot really achieve the properties of a fixed focal length.

Sharpness Performance There are good and there are bad lenses. Accordingly, there are also lenses with excellent sharpness and lenses that only achieve moderate sharpness at medium aperture levels. The sharpness of a lens is becoming increasingly important in digital photography. In analog times and the early days of digital photography, film was the weakest link in the 35 mm format and sensor in the digital camera. Every reasonably good lens had a much better imaging performance than it could be processed by the 35 mm film or sensor. With the high resolutions of current sensors with 50 megapixels already achieved with a full-frame camera, the relationship is reversed. Suddenly, the lens becomes the weakest link in the chain. There are only a few, really high-

quality lenses that can keep up with the high resolution and show no weaknesses even on such a camera. Therefore, especially if you want to buy a full-frame camera with more than 20 megapixels, you have to include the range of available, high-quality lenses for the preferred focal length range in the purchase decision; otherwise, the whole thing will be disappointing. But also with digital SLR cameras with lower resolution, for example, 16 megapixels with a camera with APS sensor, the focus performance plays a significant role. Basically, it applies to all lenses that they should have a very good focus even with the aperture open which can be increased significantly with regard to the overall focus as well as the depth of field by stopping down.

Does it Always Have to Be the Best? Definitely no! The resolutions of current camera models even with the smaller APS sensor are already better than the resolution of films in analog medium format. But even in analog times, the 35mm format was rightly the standard format for amateurs, journalists and sports photographers. The quality of the analog 35 mm cameras which does not match the quality of a current digital SLR camera was usually better than required. An even higher quality that can be achieved with the analog medium format is only possible in the analog range with large format cameras. However, due to the high costs alone, this format was only used exceptionally if for example, the quality of an analog medium format camera was not sufficient even for huge posters. Some current digital full-format cameras are already entering analog largeformat photography with their resolution. In other words, in quality areas that are rarely needed even in the professional field. This raises the question of whether you can ever approach this high quality and with it, the further question of whether you are willing to spend a multiple of a quality that you probably can never exaggerate, which would more than fully meet your quality requirements. Of course, you can splurge with expensive camera equipment. After all, a Porsche makes more than a mid-size car. But apart from splurge, the question remains. In my circle of friends, there are both world-famous photographers and

typical advertising photos of provincial photographers. The world-famous photographers in my circle of friends take pictures with the digital full format and do not even have a digital medium format camera. If such a camera is required for an exception, you can also borrow it. Conversely, in addition to the digital full-format camera that is mainly used, the provincial photographers mostly have a digital medium-format camera with which one goes to the customer or is used when the customer is taking pictures. The digital medium format camera is therefore only needed to prove that you are a professional. World-famous photographers do not need this proof. The technical values alone do not take photos; the photos are still taken by the photographer. There are many areas for example, also in hi-fi systems, where quality differences can be measured with fine measuring devices which we would not notice at all without these measuring devices. So it doesn't have to be the best, but something that at least meets your requirements.

Lens Material You can no longer expect a good lens to be made entirely of solid metal. Plastic has long established itself in the middle price segment, at least for the outer area that you can touch. Of course, with a good lens, the lenses are still made of high-quality optical glasses, at least the bayonet made of metal. So far, there are no plastics that can compete with high-quality optical glass with their optical properties.

Can You Still Rely on Brand Names? Unfortunately, no longer! Until digital photography became a mass phenomenon, brand names actually stood for a certain quality. This still applies in their respective original segment. However, companies that have not built cameras for good reason in analog times have now jumped on the bandwagon of digital photography. These companies simply lack the know-how built up over decades by companies that have built up a good name in the camera sector or with lenses due to their quality. These companies make up for this by working with world-class companies such as Leitz (Leica) or Zeiss on the lens assembly.

Only that these lenses produced for the mass market still have the brand name, but not the quality of what the brand name actually stands for. And a camera manufacturer who actually has no idea about cameras cannot make up for the lack of know-how through this collaboration. The brand name, even from well-known camera manufacturers with decades of know-how, does not generally stand for high quality. A pocket camera is simply not a sophisticated full-frame digital camera, no matter who makes it. A digital SLR camera for the amateur market doesn't get any better because the same manufacturer also makes outstanding top models for professionals. Just as a VW Polo would not really benefit from the top brands of the VW group Bentley, Lamborghini or Bugatti. These are two worlds, the same applies to cameras. However, one can assume that know-how can only be incorporated into the development of a digital camera if this know-how is available in the company at all. On the other hand, you have to be aware that especially in the mass market for amateurs, it is not the developers and engineers who are in charge but business economists which is why you cannot conclude from top models of the consistent quality of the big brands.

Used Lenses Interchangeable lenses for cameras have been around for more than 50 years. The range of used lenses is correspondingly huge. Of course, the question arises whether you can also buy used lenses? Of course you can, but with certain restrictions. Canon and Nikon have developed new types of connectors for digital SLR cameras that do not allow the direct use of older lenses developed for analog 35 mm cameras. If at all, then only with a special adapter. This also applies to Olympus to a limited extent. Older lenses can only be used without restriction with Pentax cameras, provided they have the K-mount that has been used since 1975. Pentax is the only camera manufacturer that has received full backward compatibility.

Basic Properties When Buying Used Lenses A good lens can get very old but because lenses were not completely sealed

in the past, mold (fungus) and dust deposits can form in one lens. A specialist can repair both, the only question then is whether cleaning is still worthwhile. If you buy a used lens on eBay, have the seller assure you in writing before purchasing, unless the item description already states that the lens is free of fungus and dust deposits.

Further Restrictions When Using Older Lenses Various automatic functions have only been developed over the past few decades. Very old lenses are completely mechanical and apart from the mechanical spring aperture, have no communication facilities with the camera. The first automatic function that was developed for 35 mm lenses was the setting of the aperture no longer on the lens but by the camera. That was essential for the development of cameras with integrated automatic exposure control. It was only many years later that lenses were also equipped with autofocus which is controlled electrically or mechanically by the camera. Older lenses that do not have the necessary contacts cannot be retrofitted with them. So they are either completely manual to operate or at least do not have an autofocus. Depending on the camera manufacturer, lenses with autofocus have only been available since the 1980s.

Autofocus on Older Lenses The development of autofocus is far from over on the camera side as well as on the lenses. For this reason, you have to accept at least the speed with which a lens is focused by the camera in older lenses that are already equipped with autofocus.

Older Zoom Lenses In the early days of developing zoom lenses, many technical and physical problems were not really under control. This is especially true for zoom lenses in the wide-angle range with focal lengths shorter than 50 mm. That is why zoom lenses were considered a lazy compromise at the time. The development of zoom lenses is far from complete which also means that older zoom lenses do not necessarily achieve the imaging performance of current models over the entire focal length range.

On the other hand, the essential developments of zoom lenses were made over 20 years ago, so that at least zoom lenses of the past 20 years are almost equivalent in their imaging performance to a current, good lens.

Sliding Zoom Lenses Such a lens is usually only suitable for a collector's display case. Because the sliding mechanism wears out fairly quickly, but then you can no longer really work with the lens as soon as it is tilted up or down from the horizontal position. These early zoom lenses usually don't have good imaging performance either.

Modern Zoom Lenses Even with a modern zoom lens, the focal length adjustment can wear out. A focal length adjustment that is still working properly should be carefully tested before buying a used lens. If you cannot test it prematurely like at an eBay auction, you should have the seller assures you of this in writing.

Prime Lenses The development of prime lenses has actually been completed for decades. Even lenses that are more than 30 years old are apart from the lack of automatic functions, practically equivalent to modern lenses with a fixed focal length. Sometimes even higher quality, because in recent decades, lenses with high light intensity have rarely been developed. Already in the 1970s, there were legendary lenses with the almost unimaginable light intensity of 1: 1.2. Since these lenses were not exactly mass-produced at that time, you will hardly be able to purchase them used.

Old Wide Angle Lenses For the development of wide-angle lenses, similar technical and physical problems as in the development of zoom lenses had to be overcome. This has not yet been achieved with the earliest specimens. Older wide-angle lenses often have an outrageous sharpness when the aperture is open. Before you decide to buy an older wide-angle lens, it is definitely worthwhile to google it, because a light intensity of 2.8 is of no use if you have to fade down to 8 or even more for sharp photos. There are reviews of almost every

lens on the internet.

Buying Used Lenses on eBay Buying used lenses from private individuals on eBay is in principle quite risky. Because whether the description is really correct can only be found out after a purchase contract has already been concluded and the lens can be tested for the first time after receipt. First of all, the description has to be read really carefully, occasionally there is a serious shortcoming in a half sentence that is easily overlooked. If the description indicates that it is a flawless item, you are still not on the safe side when buying from a private person. The transport risk is transferred to the buyer when buying from a private person as soon as a package has been delivered by the seller. In principle, this is not really important when insured shipping is selected, but it is not you as the buyer who is the contractual partner when shipping the parcel but the seller. The only option that you as a buyer have when you receive a package is to check the package for external damage in the presence of the parcel carrier and to refuse receipt if the packaging already shows signs of damage. Even in this case, the transport company is not liable, it is only liable if the goods were packed in accordance with the transport conditions. So it's best not to take any risk and refuse to accept it. The problem with buying from a private person is that you have to prove that any possible damage did not only occur during the transport or with you but had already existed beforehand. This proof should only be possible without problems if the fungus is clearly recognizable because that cannot have arisen within a few days. Of this problem, eBay grants a fairly comprehensive buyer protection when paying via PayPal. With PayPal payment, you do not have to provide any proof at all, it is enough to open a case on eBay. You even get a return slip from eBay with PayPal payment and get the money credited as soon as the package has returned to the seller. You should therefore insist on Paypal payment for technical devices and all items that can be damaged during transport due to defective packaging. If the purchase price plus shipping cost is paid via another payment method instead, e.g. bank transfer, you are dependent on the seller's goodwill, both in

terms of acceptance of the damage and repayment, if you are not a lawyer and an expert to prove the damage want to turn on.

Commercial Dealers on eBay Most commercial traders offer PayPal and thus buyer protection on their own. In addition, unlike a private individual, they cannot exclude the legal guarantee for used items. But that's exactly why you have to read the description very carefully. If a defect is mentioned in the description, however hidden, the defect is considered accepted and does not trigger any warranty claims. However, you still have the 14-day right of withdrawal.

Commercial Traders Who Disguise Themselves as Private Individuals These are the worst dealers. Because by disguising yourself as a private person, you want to avoid both the right of withdrawal and the guarantee and usually only offer bank transfer as a payment method. Such retailers are not at all difficult to recognize because most of the time they already have hundreds, sometimes even several thousand reviews for the same product category. However, if there is no amicable settlement, you would first have to conduct a process before the actual process, in which you can prove that it is a commercial dealer.

Used Lenses from the Stationary Photo Trade This is the path with the least risk for the buyer. Even the photo trade cannot exclude the guarantee and already checks a lens or camera for perfect function when purchasing. However, it is usually the most expensive way to buy a used item.

Lenses and the APS Sensor The APS sensor is something very special because cameras with APS sensor can use lenses for the 35 mm or full-size digital format but with a third smaller angle of view with unchanged optical properties of the lens with its original focal length. At the same time, there are lenses that have been specially developed for the

APS sensor. These lenses have a wider field of view than lenses of the same focal length for full digital format. This is particularly noticeable in the wideangle range. On the other hand, these lenses can no longer be used if you should switch to full digital format at some point.

Special Lenses In principle, all lenses that have only been developed for very special tasks are called special lenses.

Shift Lenses These lenses were primarily developed for architectural photography. They are also occasionally used in product photography. With these lenses, you can slide the lens out of the optical axis and thereby avoid falling lines in architectural photography or even intensify it for special effects. This opens up areas of photography for 35 mm cameras and digital SLR cameras that were previously reserved for large format cameras. This also applies to the next lens type, the tilt lenses.

Tilt Lenses A tilt lens can be tilted in relation to the optical axis. This means, for example, that golden ratio rule can also be used with a digital SLR camera.

Tilt/Shift Lenses Tilt/Shift lenses are a combination of a shift lens and a tilt lens. The optical axis can be moved as well as tilted. All three lens types are very expensive and are practically never used outside of architecture and product photography. If you have the right camera, you can borrow these lenses from specialist retailers. Depending on the Foto-Rent provider, these lenses are either only for Canon or only for Nikon. There are companies that have developed tilt/shift adapters instead. It is advisable not to connect 35 mm lenses to this adapter, instead they are available for lenses of analog medium format cameras because this is the only way to ensure with an adapter that the image circle is large enough to prevent vignetting in the photo even with heavy tilting or shifting.

Macro Lenses You need macro lenses if you want to take close-up pictures of a flower, for example. With a macro lens, you can of course not only take close-up pictures, they are also high-quality, normal zoom lenses or prime lenses. Macro lenses are available both as wide-angle lenses and as telephoto lenses. Both types have their advantages and disadvantages. The advantage of a telephoto lens as a macro lens is that you do not have to move a small object on the skin but can keep a larger distance. This is an undeniable advantage in studio photography too because you can illuminate the object as usual. For a wide-angle macro lens, you need a ring flash instead.

Extremely Strong Telephoto Lenses The very strong telephoto lenses which were developed for photographing shy wild animals are available in two different versions. As a normal, very long built telephoto lens with relatively low light intensity or with even larger focal lengths as a mirror telescope. In both cases, a stable tripod is essential. Not only because of the weight of these lenses but also because even the slightest camera shake with the small viewing angle would lead to strong blurring. The tripod thread is directly on the lens in order to be able to balance camera with lens well. In the extreme telephoto range, there are only prime lenses. Mirror telescopes have a higher light intensity than a telephoto lens of the same strength but the exposure can only be regulated via the exposure time. Mirror telescopes have no aperture setting.

Fisheye Lenses Fisheye lenses are the exact opposite of extremely powerful telephoto lenses. A fisheye lens has an angle of view of 180 ° or even a little more. Fisheye lenses have an extreme barrel distortion; all straight lines in the photo become an arc. A fisheye lens only makes sense on a full-frame camera because the 50% longer apparent focal length on a camera with APS sensor would only have a very strong wide-angle lens with extreme distortion but no 180 ° angle of view. By the way, if you want to try it out, you can also borrow fisheye

lenses from specialist retailers.

CHAPTER 19 FILTER Countless filters have been developed for analog photography, especially black and white photos. With an orange filter for example, you can significantly increase the contrast between clouds and the sky. Of course, only to be used in black and white photography, otherwise, the entire image would get an orange color cast.

Which Filters are Still Recommended Today? Most of the filters from black and white photography were no longer up-todate for color photos because these filters were used, among other things, to compensate for weaknesses in the imaging of the two common types of black and white film or to affect contrasts. In color photography, the same filters would have given massive color casts. Filters that were still used in color photography are the Skylight filter, the UV filter and the polarization filter, mostly called polarizing filters. In addition, filters to compensate for the color temperature of the light which are available in different strengths as a red filter from R1 to R12 and as a blue filter from B1 to B12. Of all these filters, only the polarization filter is actually of interest today.

White Balance Filter Filters for white balance are no longer required in digital photography if you either do the white balance of the camera before taking the picture which is rarely successful enough or generally only save it in raw data format and then adjust the color temperature with a suitable image processing program. Because when saving in raw data format, the 4 color channels red, 2x green and blue are saved separately. Thanks to the separate storage, the proportion of color channels in the photo can be subsequently adjusted. Practically, every camera that allows saving in raw data comes with a simple image processing software when purchasing, with which raw data files can be subsequently adjusted. The optimum for developing raw data files is the Adobe Bridge which is part of Photoshop. However, if you can only save in JPEG format, you still have to handle the white balance very carefully because removing a color cast from a JPEG can become a Sisyphean task. But even the simplest digital cameras usually already offer some presets such as daylight (5500 ° Kelvin), cloudy sky or shadow (depending on the camera 7,000-15,000 ° Kelvin), incandescent light (2800 ° Kelvin) and some more. In artificial light, a deviation of 100 ° Kelvin from the correct value already plays a very important role. With 200 ° Kelvin too little, a face already turns pale and vice versa, with 200 ° Kelvin too much, it becomes a drunk nose. In object photography and prepress, correct color settings are also important. But today, you no longer need filters for this; you do this with the white balance of the camera and the final fine adjustment in the raw data file. Anyone who used to take photographs with negative film did not have to be so careful with white balance because color casts in printshops were fully automatically compensated for in prints at the end of the 1960s. Only those who used a slide film had to very carefully determine the color temperature of the light and correct a deviation from the sensitization of the film with blue or red filters. Daylight film is sensitized to 5500 ° Kelvin, artificial light film to 3200 ° Kelvin. Because on the slide film, a color cast was final. What applies to the slide film still applies today to a somewhat lesser extent for saving in JPEG format because in this format, the color cast is almost

final. Only experts in image processing can subsequently completely correct a color cast from a JPEG. Nevertheless, you no longer need filters today, just a digital camera that offers reliable white balance.

Skylight Filter Skylight filters have had their day since the invention of digital photography. The light pink filter was used to compensate for a bluish cast in cloudy skies, many amateur photographers kept it on the lens as lens protection. However, this has never been recommended because even high-quality filters do not have the optical qualities of a good lens and therefore reduce the image quality. Today, this is done using white balance. There is no longer a need for the skylight filter in digital photography.

UV Filter UV filters have also had their day for several years. This in turn has nothing to do with digital photography but rather with the development of remuneration for lenses that filter out the high UV content of light, especially in the high mountains from the start.

Polarizing Filter Polarization filters are the only filters that also play an important role in digital photography. You can't even polarize the light afterwards in Photoshop.

What Does a Polarization Filter Do? Light vibrates in all levels. A polarization filter only allows a single vibration level of light to pass through. Of course, this also leads to a more or less strong darkening, depending on how much light vibrates in the other planes that are absorbed with a polarizing filter, up to two thirds of the light can be blocked out. But don't worry, these are no more than two stops.

What Do You Need the Polarizing Filter for? Unwanted reflections on non-metallic (more precisely, electrically nonconductive surfaces) can be largely or completely absorbed depending on the angle of incidence of the light on the reflecting surface.

With polarization filters, you can largely dissolve haze in the distance. Of course, you can't use it to conjure up any fog but you can largely get through the typical haze which is almost always distant in summer, especially in warm regions. Colors can be intensified with polarization filters, especially the blue tones of the sky, since the light coming from the sky also contains reflections from dust particles, some of which are linearly polarized. Since this in turn also depends on the angular relationships of the light path and the properties of the atmosphere, it can happen that parts of the sky are seen more intensely and darker blue than others.

The Two Types of Polarizing Filters The Linear Polarization Filter Originally, only linear polarization filters were used but with the increasing use of exposure and distance measurement by the lens, the linear polarizing filters could no longer be used in some camera models. The light is polarized in a single vibration plane, so unwanted reflections on non-metallic surfaces can be eliminated. The Circular Polarizing Filter With the increasing advent of exposure metering and autofocus through the lens, linear polarization filters could no longer be used with most common cameras. The circular polarization filter was developed so that polarization filters can still be used despite the automatic exposure control and autofocus. A second filter behind the actual, still linear polarizing filter brings the light into a circular motion. The autofocus works properly again and the exposure measurement through the lens only perceives the darkening through the polarizing filter, without being disturbed in its function. For many modern cameras with internal measurement and autofocus, you can only use circular polarizing filters, unless you set both the exposure time with the required extension factor and the distance manually. If polarization filters are firmly attached in front of the sensors as is common

in many camera models for a more precise measurement, each except the neutral 180 ° and 360 ° rotary position of a linear polarizing filter would block out more or less light up to total darkening, depending on the rotary position of the polarizer lens attached in relation to the polarizing filters in front of the sensors because the polarizing filters in front of the sensors only allow one vibration level of light to pass through. However, if this level of vibration is more or less blocked out by a linear pole filter in front of the front lens, depending on the rotary position of the polarizing filter in relation to the polarizing filter in front of the sensors in extreme cases, the sensors will no longer receive any light with a 90 ° rotary position. But even the slightest darkening due to the mutually influencing polarizing filters leads to incorrect measured values. However, since the light inside the camera is rotated again by the second filter behind the still circular polarizing filter, the two polarizing filters no longer block the light from one another, since the lens oscillates within the optical system with the polarization filter and camera in front again in all levels. The actual purpose of a polarizing filter was nevertheless achieved because it is ultimately a question of allowing only one vibration level of the incoming light to pass through.

How Do You Use a Polarization Filter? The polarizing filter is placed in front of the lens and while looking through the viewfinder, turn the filter until the desired effect is achieved. The extension factor of the exposure should actually be correctly captured by the exposure measurement through the lens. If this is not the case, you can finally check the result on the display immediately after taking the picture, you have to correct the exposure manually. Sometimes a photo becomes a little too dark due to the polarizing filter. In this case, make a note of the time/aperture combination and switch the camera to manual exposure. Then open the aperture by one step or increase the exposure time to twice. Then it should actually work.

Use the Polarizing Filter Deliberately To Intensify Reflections With the polarizing filter, reflections in particular on glass cannot only be more or less eliminated with a curved glass surface, of course only ever in a

certain area of the glass surface. With the polarizing filter, reflections can also be precisely measured to the extent where you want it.

Autofocus and Polarization Filter Most lenses focus by rotating the front lens. Any refocusing of the camera would also rotate the polarization filter. Therefore, when using a polarization filter, switch the camera's autofocus off and set the distance manually or switch to autofocus mode, in which the distance setting is saved when the shutter button is pressed halfway, only then is the polarizing filter turned into the correct position. This is not necessary for landscape photos with the distance setting infinite because in this case, the camera will not be refocused if you pan the camera slightly.

Can I Use a Linear Polarizing Filter on the Digital Camera? In principle, yes, but then neither the automatic exposure metering nor the autofocus will work reliably. However, this depends on the measuring technology used. With Pentax cameras, both exposure measurement and distance setting work smoothly with linear polarizing filters. Some other camera manufacturers use a different measurement technique that does not work with a linear polarizing filter. Even if you don't have a handheld exposure meter, you can still determine the correct exposure. First, measure the exposure as usual without polarizing filters with the camera, remember this value and switch to manual exposure. Then place the polarizing filter in front of the lens and extend the exposure time by 150% because this is the normal loss of light through a polarizing filter or to put it in photographically correct terms, the average lengthening factor for a polarizing filter is 1.5. They measure an exposure time of 1/250 second at f / 5.6 without a polarizing filter. After switching the camera to manual exposure, take an exposure time of 1/90 second with the aperture unchanged. Normally the exposure time should be correct but the photo is still underexposed or overexposed, correct the exposure time until it is correct. Because the 1.5-fold extension does not necessarily apply, the extension factor depends firstly on the polarization filter and secondly on the rotational position of the filter. The extension factor may well be three times.

Recognizing a Circular Polarizing Filter With a very simple test, you can determine whether you have a linear or a circular polarizing filter as long as it is not already on the filter. If there is nothing there, it is almost always a linear polarizing filter. Circular polarizing filters usually also have a circular outside on the metal frame. Hold the polarizing filter with the back against a TFT monitor. Turn the polarizing filter. If it is a circular polarizing filter, the colors on the monitor will change slightly but the brightness values remain the same. If it is instead a linear polarizing filter and you turn the filter, no more light is transmitted in two positions of the filter, each time it is in a 90 ° position to the polarized light of the monitor, the polarizing filter is black. The same happens if you hold a circular polarizing filter the wrong way round to the monitor, namely with the front to the monitor. With a linear polarizing filter, it does not matter whether you hold it with the front or the back to the monitor, there is always no light through in two positions of the filter. The light from a TFT monitor is also polarized.

Infrared Filter In digital photography too, photography with invisible infrared light has lost none of its charms. An infrared filter largely blocks out the visible light. Most infrared filters generally block out visible light with less than 720 nm. Only the much longer-wave infrared radiation is not absorbed by these filters. Instead of visible light, use an infrared filter in front of the camera to photograph the infrared wave spectrum of light that we cannot perceive with our eyes. This type of photography is also known as false color photography. Before buying an infrared filter, however, pay attention to the technical data of your camera because some digital cameras have an inverted infrared filter installed in front of the sensor which generally filters out the infrared part of the wave spectrum. You cannot take infrared photos with such a camera. However, there are many instructions on the web for removing the reversed infrared filter from the camera. I don't know if you can guess because there is a reason why the engineers put an inverted infrared filter in front of the sensor. When using infrared filters, make sure that the autofocus of the camera is no

longer working reliably because the distance setting must be slightly corrected for infrared filters. Most older lenses have a second focus point for infrared photography.

Effect Filter In analog amateur photography, effect filters still played a certain role because only with extreme darkroom work could you conjure up all the effects that are already possible today with a simple image editing program such as the free Irfan View. I personally have never been a big fan of showmanship, although it would be a lot easier in Photoshop today. Photoshop has thousands of effect filters, many of which are free and most of them completely superfluous, unless you enjoy turning bad photos into temporary eye-catchers through some strange effects. Effect filters are completely unnecessary, thanks to countless plugins which were originally all developed for Photoshop but which also work with many other image editing programs.

Graduated Filters Some digital photography websites still recommend using gradient filters, for example, to enhance the blue of the sky. When working with filters, be aware that the image information that has been corrupted by a filter is finally in the file and therefore in your photo. If you subsequently find that you have exaggerated, the photo can no longer be saved. Instead of gradient filters, it is better to use a settings layer in Photoshop. With a setting level, you can later overlay any course over an image and adjust its opacity as desired. In this way, you do not permanently spoil your image but can delete the settings levels later or adjust their opacity as you wish, just as you can change the course itself. When it comes to the intense blue of the sky, the polarizing filter is the better solution anyway. Of course, you shouldn't overdo it.

More Color Correction Filters The many correction filters that were developed for analog photography have not yet had their day. Because how do you get a green stitch from a face afterwards because the model was sitting on a green meadow? Especially

since green also extremely emphasizes skin impurities. With a light filter in the complementary color, you can avoid color casts in the image from the outset.

Gray Filter You will rarely need a gray filter once. These filters in neutral gray reduce the incident light without changing colors or contrasts. Gray filters come in different densities. This allows the amount of light to be reduced by one or more aperture steps. In natural light situations, you will rarely need a gray filter, even if you want to take pictures with the aperture open in bright sunshine to have the shallow depth of field, you can shorten the exposure time accordingly. You can only achieve this with a gray filter if you want to have a relatively long exposure time in very bright light to make movement visible and at the same time, reduce the depth of field by opening the aperture. I occasionally use the gray filter in cooperation with the flash system when I want to open the aperture further because of the depth of field than would be possible even with the flash system's output reduced to a minimum. Gray filters are also available as variable gray filters. In principle, however, these are not gray filters but 2 polar filters placed one behind the other. The front, rotatable polarizing filter only allows one vibration level of light to pass through which with the polarizing filter placed behind it, depending on the rotational position of the front polarizing filter, allows less and less light to pass through. Since high-quality polarizing filters are very expensive, a high-quality variable gray filter is also very expensive. After all, 2 highquality polarizing filters are required. We cannot recommend this type of gray filter with a clear conscience because after all it is only a matter of reducing the amount of light without any color and contrast influences and not polarizing the light. This solution can be made significantly cheaper by placing two polarizing filters, one behind the other on the lens and varying the rotational position of the two filters relative to one another. With 2-3 gray filters of different densities, you are better served. This is still cheaper than a good variable gray filter. Even traders are of the opinion, although they would earn more with the variable filters.

Soft Focus Do you still need them? After all, you can also use Photoshop or similarly good image editing programs such as the free Gimp to blur an image afterwards with all the finesse that a sophisticated image editing program and various plugins offer. For example, you can deliberately blur only individual areas of a photo. But the soft focus in front of the lens also affects the lights. If you want to do that occasionally, you can experiment with the blur. However, one should be clear that the deliberate blurring caused by a superior blur can no longer be corrected. So only use it if you really want it. How strong the blurring effect is, depends on the aperture used. The wider the aperture is opened, the more the filter softens. With very small apertures (aperture 11 or even more closed), the soft focus is hardly noticeable. Instead, you can also buy a lens with a built-in, variable soft focus. With these lenses too, soft focus is only possible with apertures between the open aperture and aperture 5.6. If the aperture is closed further, the blur is canceled again.

Alternative to the Soft Focus Filter In the 1970s, when David Hamilton's photos were in vogue, there was a lot of experimentation with blurring. At that time, the above-mentioned lenses with built-in variable soft focus were also developed. An alternative which is always possible is to simply breathe on the front lens and press the trigger when exactly the right amount of softness has been achieved by the evaporation of the breath. In dry heat, you have to be quick with this method. The breath evaporates very quickly and unevenly. I used this method to take portrait and nude photos in analog times. Another alternative is to put a women's stocking in front of the front lens. Of course, this also leads to color distortions, depending on the color of the stocking material. I suspect that David Hamilton has worked with this method several times because many of his photos tend to be a bit brownish. There are filter film holders for this method which can be screwed in front of the lens just like a filter. Instead of the filter foil, a piece of fabric is clamped into the holder. If you take a white nylon stocking, the overall photo is drawn

into white and the lights are more resolved than with darker fabrics which can look very good, if you take a blue stocking, you get a very cool color. With neutral gray or even black nylon stockings, the colors remain unadulterated but this also swallows some light. You can of course also experiment with other translucent materials such as packaging films. Warning, you can always see with the aperture open through the viewfinder, regardless of which aperture was finally set for the photo manually or determined by the automatic system. However, any smaller than the open aperture eliminates part of this soft focus. If automatic exposure adjustment, then always aperture selection and either open aperture or for less blur than you see through the viewfinder, aperture 4 or 5.6.

CHAPTER 20 THE HOME STUDIO Some don't just want to take pictures outdoors but want to be independent of the weather, light outside and set up their own small studio.

Minimum Requirements for a Home Studio It depends on what you want to take pictures of and how often you will take pictures in the studio. If you only want to occasionally photograph smaller objects for eBay auctions, minimal equipment is sufficient. To take pictures of people, it has to be a bit more extensive and if you want to take pictures of people in motion, the effort has to be even greater. In any case, you need neutral backgrounds and at least adequate lighting adapted to the respective purpose.

First the Simplest, the Background The most flexible solution is provided by foldable reflex walls which have a black background on the inside and a white background on the other side. Actually, the interior of the reflex walls is not intended as a background but serves as a white surface for subtle lightening and as a black surface for shading. If necessary, however, it can be used as a neutral background for smaller objects and exceptionally for a portrait. Better is an endless background which is of course, not endless but when skillfully used, appears like an endless area of color in the image. There are endless backgrounds made of paper or stage molton.

Paper Background The standard width for a continuous paper background is 2.72 m. 11 m are on the roll. In the standard width, there is the largest selection of background colors. Moreover, these backgrounds are relatively inexpensive. For larger studios, there are paper backgrounds with a width of 3.55 m.

Advantages and Disadvantages of the Paper Background As long as there are no wrinkles in the paper, it is the ideal background for all

colors except black. As a black background, it is only suitable if you also want lighting effects on the background, i.e. from deep black to a dark gray. In contrast to stage molton, the light is not almost completely absorbed by a paper background. However, a black paper background still reflects enough light to only appear really black where almost no light falls on it. For a continuous background made of paper, you need a roll-off device and a suitable suspension. The roll-off device should definitely also have a roll-off brake; otherwise, the paper will continue to roll itself off which can also be prevented with a strong clamp. A paper background does not have a long lifespan. At the latest when a model with shoes on the background is for the first time, holes form very quickly in the background. Hence, the great length of 11 m because you have to cut something off every now and then. In addition, a paper background tears easily on the sides. However, you can prevent that by wrapping the background with a packet of adhesive tape on both sides. The background must hang absolutely, otherwise, you cannot roll it up properly afterwards. You also have to be aware that the endless background of paper with its width of 2.72 m must be kept somewhere if the space that has been temporarily converted into a studio is to be used as normal again. But this applies in general to the entire studio equipment of a hobby photographer, it must also be easy to stow away when not in use.

Endless Background Made of Stage Molton Stage molton has some advantages over the paper background but also some serious disadvantages. Stage molton can only be rolled out somewhat smoothly on a carpet. With an almost 80 m² living room which can also be a photo studio and seminar room for photography practice, with such light setting and an almost completely black background, very attractive photos can be taken. Stage molton is quite insensitive to sharp heels, can be easily kept clean with a vacuum cleaner and absorbs the light much more strongly than a paper background as a black background. In contrast to a paper background, it is almost impossible to hang stage molton completely wrinkle-free. Therefore, it can actually only be recommended for black backgrounds where the shadows are no longer

noticeable due to the drapery. Originally, the black stage molton which I use quite often was provided with a loop for the smoothest possible suspension, through which I could put a stable curtain rod. I had the loop sewn into the fabric in a sewing workshop. This combined with two inconspicuous hooks in the ceiling and a collapsible curtain rod ensured a largely wrinkle-free suspension and required little space in a cabinet when not needed. In the meantime, the stage molton has been glued to an aluminum tube such as is used for the reinforcement of paper background and can therefore be unrolled just like a paper background. However, this is not without its problems because it is almost impossible, unless you work together when rolling up in pairs to roll up the fabric smoothly. As a standard, stage molton has a width of 3 m in the heavy quality (300 g / m²) required for an endless background on which a model can walk. If you want to use it on the same roll-off device with a paper background at the same time, it must be shortened to the same width (2.72 m). To calculate the required length, take the room height, at least 1 m distance of the model from the background and at least 1 m in front of the model. With a normal room height, this leads to a required length of at least 5 m. Because of the wrinkling which can be seen in the photo even with relatively scarce exposure, all colors except black are unsuitable as an endless background. The folds that are still visible in the photo can be eliminated with a few mouse clicks. You select the depths, take a rather tight soft edge (in a 16 megapixel photo a soft edge between 2 and 10 pixels) and then make the depths darker. In Photoshop, by changing the selection to a new layer which is calculated in multiply mode with the original layer. Before doing this, all of the selected depths that do not affect the stage molton must be removed from the selection, in particular, for example, the black hair of a model.

The Lighting The question of the right lighting is almost more difficult to answer than the question of the right background.

What Do You Need At Least?

A main light and at least one other light or reflective panel (e.g. polystyrene) for brightening shadow areas. In addition, there may be other lamps or flashing lights that set lighting accents. Color temperature, light intensity, comfortable handling

Color Temperature of the Light In the age of digital photography and the ability to save photos in raw data format, the color temperature of light no longer has the great importance it had in analog times. With a few exceptions, light always has its own color. Balanced lighting contains the three basic colors but in different compositions. Purely white light such as that from a flash system has a color temperature of 5500 ° Kelvin and consists of one third each of the three basic colors red, green and blue. Artificial light has a significantly lower proportion of blue but a significantly higher proportion of red. As long as the proportion of the three primary colors of a light source is concerned, you can already carry out the white balance with a default setting for the white balance or subsequently using the color temperature controller in a good image editing program. The subsequent change is only possible if the photos are saved in raw data format. It becomes difficult with light sources such as energy-saving lamps, in whose color spectrum, the red is missing. This leads to color falsifications during the recording which can hardly be rectified afterwards. Mixed light should also be avoided, for example, daylight and artificial light at the same time. Halogen lamps such as those used in video lights or as modeling lights in a flash system, have a color temperature of approximately 2800 ° Kelvin; the incandescent light setting of a digital camera is suitable for this.

Minimum Required Light Intensity The minimum required light intensity depends on the size of the object as well as whether it is moving or static. Static objects do not need nearly as much light as a human or animal in front of the camera. If you like to work with action photography, you not only need a lot of light for short exposure times but also light that is quickly available again.

Comfortable Handling Comfortable handling plays a role at the latest when you have to change the lighting. But not only when working in the studio but also when transporting, assembling and dismantling the lighting system. Comfortable handling plays a significant role especially if you do not plan a room exclusively as a studio from the start but also have to stow all the equipment after a shoot. The more complex it is to assemble and store the system again, the less often you will use it. A compact flash system including the tripods can be easily stowed away. Soft boxes are problematic. In principle, these can also be dismantled again but whether it is a well-thought-out system that can be dismantled and reassembled quickly and easily or a system that once you have managed to build a softbox from the many bars because of this experience you never take apart again, makes the big difference, probably also in the price.

Halogen Lights from the Hardware Store Even halogen lamps from the hardware store are sufficient for the photography of objects. In principle, because the light from these lamps is very hard, a soft light can only be obtained by a white screen in front or indirect lighting, in which the spotlight is directed, for example, at the white wall or white ceiling. But a lot of light is lost.

Video Lights The next level is video lights. Video lights also have a very hard light but a significantly higher luminous efficacy than lamps from the hardware store. A video light has 500W, 1000 W, 1250 W or twice 500 - 1250 W. At least the older video lights which are available in abundance on eBay, have a normal photo tripod thread and no device for attaching reflex or transmitted light screens. You have to build any makeshift solutions yourself as shown in this image example.

Video lights develop extreme heat and should never be used for longer than about 10 minutes. Otherwise, there is a risk that the plastic casing of the lamps will deform. Therefore, make sure that there is sufficient distance from flammable materials.

Studio Lamps The pronounced studio lamps are actually not made for photos but for professional videos, film and television studios. Therefore, they are new and accordingly expensive. But occasionally, studio lamps are offered on eBay and with a little luck, you can make a bargain. The really powerful studio spotlights used in film and television can no longer be operated on a domestic electrical system. That is why television stations have their own generators on flatbed trucks so that they can generate the electricity they need on site.

Studio spotlights are a compromise in photography. Headlights that can still be operated on a domestic network have too little light output for faster model movements. Even with relatively high ISO values (ISO 400, ISO 800), exposure times shorter than 1/125 second can rarely be achieved. The advantage over a good studio flash system is the purchase price itself compared to flash systems also offered on eBay. The other advantage is the constantly available light with which you can even use the serial image function of your digital camera.

Flash Systems If you only take photos and not shoot videos at the same time, a flash system is of course best served, since you have neither problems with the domestic power grid nor problems with the color temperature of the light. Since a good flash system is also quite expensive when used, I have only gradually bought my flash system since 2011. Until then, I got along with the studio headlights but it was just the shoot with the young a model, which ultimately led me to purchase a flash system. Because many photos that were taken during this shoot had to be deleted due to motion blur. When buying a flash system, there are some criteria that basically apply to all flash systems, regardless of the intended use.

Robustness and Longevity Flash systems are simply too expensive to dispose of after just a few years. Flash systems from brand manufacturers for equipping professional studios still do their job even after 40 years. If you save at the wrong end here, you quickly pay more than a good flash system. In everyday studio life, especially when models are photographed, a flash system is not necessarily the same as a raw egg. So it also has to be robust like everything that is used in everyday studio life.

Maintenance of a Flash System A flash system needs a minimum of maintenance. Flash systems should be switched on and flashed at least once a month. Otherwise, the Elcos can dry out and must be replaced. All flash systems are sensitive to overheating. How sensitive, depends on the design of the flash system. Compact flash systems are significantly more sensitive than a flash system with a separate generator. Flash heads in which no electronics are installed, are completely insensitive to overheating, more modern flash heads with an electronic interior do not forgive overheating. Although separate generators do not have the thermal problems of a compact flash system with generators built into the flash head due to their construction, they can also overheat. Overheating protection is installed in a good, professional flash system which switches the flash system off if there is a risk of overheating. Overheating problems are particularly common with fast flash sequences in action photography. At the latest after 4-5 releases, you should take a short break with a compact flash system so that the flash system can cool down again. With a separate generator, you can also make 20 trips in quick succession before giving the generator a break. Flash systems designed for the amateur market, usually lack overheating protection, although this component costs less than $4. This is done on purpose; after all, you want to be able to sell replacements. With these systems, you have to make sure that the flash system does not overheat. Otherwise, the Elcos may explode. Then the entire flash head is usually over. If a good flash system is carefully maintained, it can become 40 years and

older even in everyday professional life with almost daily shootings in which more than 1000 photos are often taken.

Procurement of Spare Parts Spare parts should still be available after 10 years. However, this is only guaranteed with a few brand manufacturers. Brand manufacturers still provide spare parts and service even for 40-year-old flash systems and old and new devices are compatible with each other with minor restrictions. Flash tubes and capacitors are consumables with a limited lifespan. Both must be obtained from the manufacturer, they are not compatible with other manufacturers. If the manufacturer no longer exists, the system is ready for the scrap. Of course, the modeling lamps are also consumables but they are standardized and therefore, independent of the manufacturer. You can safely buy used flash systems from these companies which are still in order. Before you decide to buy a flash system, first research the name of the manufacturer on the internet. If it is a new, largely unknown brand, extreme caution is required. For amateur photographers, new companies keep popping up which often shut down for another 1-2 years. These companies shut down at the latest when warranty claims accumulate. If something breaks afterwards, you can throw away your flash system. As with watches, there are brands that are only sold on eBay. That is certainly cheaper Chinese scrap which will probably not even survive the guarantee period. Only that warranty claims cannot be made because the company no longer exists. Walimex, a company that sells mainly Chinese-made items, doesn't exactly have a good reputation for warranty claims. From this company, you can buy a tripod for lamps, for example, without hesitation, since it doesn't have to be an expensive branded item. Accessories, Especially Various Reflectors

and Soft Boxes Just as every camera manufacturer has developed its own bayonet for interchangeable lenses, the reflectors and soft boxes from the various manufacturers are not compatible with one another. Accessories companies offer adapters or their own accessories.

In order to get an overview, it is important to inform yourself about the equipment which existing cameras can be used with which lenses or which adapter is necessary. Depending on how extensive the purchase of good camera accessories is, including the battery, memory cards, filters, tripods and flashes, it is all the more important to think about their use and intended use.

The Components of a Flash System A flash system consists of at least two flash heads. Each strobe light consists of a strobe head, the strobe tube in the strobe head, a modeling lamp (halogen bulb), a tripod for each strobe head, reflectors or soft boxes and cables. Basically, smaller mobile systems and larger professional systems differ in whether the flash generator is installed in the flash head or is a separate, central control unit.

A mobile flash system with 300-500 watt seconds per flash head should be sufficient for most home studio applications. You don't always need that much power, but firstly it is good to have some reserve and secondly, the flash heads do not overheat so quickly if you can mainly work with reduced power. However, apart from a few professional solutions, compact flash systems are not intended for action photography because with short flash sequences, they can overheat very quickly so quickly that the capacitors explode and thereby destroy the entire flash head. Separate flash generators are better but they also cost significantly more. This is a flash generator. It is the Pulso 2 with 1600 watt seconds which can

be synchronously distributed to a maximum of four flash heads. The flash generator has its fixed place on the base of the column tripod for the Hazylight. However, it is light enough to be able to take it with you to a photo opportunity when needed.

You see the large column tripod with the Hazylight and the Pulso 2 against a background of black stage molton. The scene is not only illuminated by the Hazylight but also by a flash head with a BeautyLight reflector and another flash head which sits in a stepped lens headlight, usually referred to as a spotlight. The spotlight also illuminates the flash generator. Since I mainly do portrait photography, the flash generator is set to minimum output despite the fact that there are currently three connected flash heads to which the power is distributed. Otherwise, I would have to close the aperture too far. If I were to photograph a large organ in a church instead, of course, I shouldn't be reducing performance. In addition to the normal reflectors which are now rarely used, I also have the Hazylight, a beauty dish and the spotlight available. The flash is controlled by the camera via cable, radio remote control or (only conditionally recommended) an infrared flash that controls the photocells of the individual components. I can only recommend infrared flash conditionally for the following reason:

the photocell of the receiver (regardless of whether it is a central generator or compact flash units) must be in the radiation angle of the infrared flash unit. At best, bright backgrounds could still be sufficient to reach the photocell through their reflection. If your digital camera does not have an accessory shoe for attaching external flash units, you can only trigger a flash system via the camera flash. Please note that most digital cameras with built-in flash units emit a short pre-flash to measure and avoid red eyes. The pre-flash would trigger the flash system but then the shutter is still closed. When the shutter opens, the flash from the external flash system has already extinguished, the photo would be drastically underexposed. As far as your camera offers the possibility to switch off the pre-flash in the settings, you should definitely do this if you want to trigger the flash system via the camera flash.

Different Reflectors and Soft Boxes There are many different reflectors and light shapers for flash heads, from narrow spots to huge octagon soft boxes to light shapers. Provided that the flash output is sufficient for a large softbox, a softbox produces a very soft light as the main light source for portraits and many other applications. In addition to its special light characteristics, the arbitrary swiveling of a Hazylight is a significant advantage compared to a softbox. A softbox can be swiveled upwards in the vertical but only downwards as far as it does not hit the lamp stand. Practically, any lighting situation can be created with a Hazylight.

The second flash unit should also provide a soft light; it only serves to lighten shadows. Because almost never you will let the main light come from the same direction as the camera. Instead of a small softbox, you can also use a beauty dish which is easier to handle, offers a relatively soft light and is also easier to store. The softbox only offers real advantages if it is significantly larger than a large reflector and thus provides an even softer light. There are also various shades, both as golden, silver or white reflex shades or white translucent shades with which you can change the light characteristics. All other reflectors, honeycomb attachments, etc. are only needed for special lighting effects. If you work with a model and the model should not sit stiffly in a chair, your lighting system must be able to illuminate an area of at least 1 m², better 2-3 m² without changing the lighting. With the table top photography, you can safely neglect the flash aftermath, work with models, things look quite different. Flash sequences longer than 2 seconds are not acceptable in this area. Otherwise, you will often miss the best moments and facial expressions because the flash has not yet recharged.

In action photography, the flash follow-up time and the readiness of the camera to shoot should match as closely as possible, so if possible, a flash of follow-up time at full power of less than half a second. Shorter flash times are then available with reduced output.

The Slit Closure and Flash Systems If the flash heads of a flash system are not fired absolutely synchronously and at the same time a relatively short exposure time is set for the flash synchronization, there may be problems in connection with a slot shutter. Non-synchronous resolution can occur if in particular, in a compact flash system, only one flash head is triggered via cable or radio and the other flash heads are triggered via a photocell as a slave. This also applies if several separate generators are to be ignited at the same time. Typical analog cameras for studio photography have a slit lock that can be deactivated because a lens with a central shutter is in principle the better partner for a flash system.

Comparison of Lamps And Flash Systems

Overall, the advantages of a flash system, at least a good flash system compared to studio lamps, outweigh but the price difference is also very clear even when purchasing used equipment. If you rarely use your home studio, it is usually not worth buying a good flash system. You should stay away from cheap flash systems anyway. It is not for nothing that these devices are offered in heaps because the previous owners are not at all satisfied with them. However, you should also be aware that flash systems deliver a lot of light but movements are always frozen because a flash shines for significantly less than five hundredths of a second. This is usually desirable but not always. The flash duration can only be set with professional flash systems of the upper class. With such a system, full photos would also be possible because the setting range extends from 1/30 to 1/2000 seconds.

Daylight Lamps There are real daylight lamps that are increasingly used in television studios

and concert halls. These lamps actually have the same color spectrum as daylight and despite their very cool character compared to incandescent light, are perceived as pleasant. Our brains are calibrated for daylight. But the alleged daylight lamps offered by eBay and typical mail order dealers for the equipment of photo amateurs simply have nothing in common with daylight. These are large-area energy-saving lamps. Energy-saving lamps have a cool light character because the color spectrum completely lacks red. This light has a similarly cool character to daylight but the lack of red does not produce daylight, instead it creates color distortions. These alleged daylight flash light are misleading consumers; therefore, my very clear advice, stay away.

Other Accessories for a Home Studio In addition to the lighting device and backgrounds, it is above all tripods that you need for the lighting device and if it is so weak that it usually takes longer exposure times than 1/30 second, for the camera. Flash Light Meter In principle, a flash exposure meter is required for a flash system. You can also buy a used one but now these devices are more expensive than a midrange digital SLR camera. The earlier handheld exposure meters of the upper class, for example, the Lunasix and Profisix models, can be switched from permanent light measurement to flash light measurement and cost between $40 and $170 on eBay. The flash exposure meter is not absolutely necessary. Because in the age of digital photography, it is just as easy to find the right exposure with a few test photos. Of course, this is best done before a shoot with a model. Since there can be considerable deviations between the display on the camera and the monitor display on the computer, if you do not have a reliable flash exposure meter, the monitor should at least be calibrated to a certain extent so that it is neither too dark nor too bright and the display representation can be compared with the monitor. With slightly better digital SLR cameras, the brightness of the display can be adjusted. If you don't do this, there can be nasty surprises, for example, a whole shoot with underexposed photos. I speak from experience. Unfortunately, I have already experienced that. Only because of this experience did I adjust the display brightness to the monitor.

What Else Do You Need? In addition to this basic equipment, you don't really need anything for a photo studio. Actually, this means that you can of course put a lot of money into a photo studio, for example, with a ceiling rail system for the flash heads, for example, for an electrical background suspension, etc. If you need a column tripod for a Hazylight, for example, you will have a hard time with used equipment because typical photo studios have a height of at least 3.50 m and column tripods are correspondingly high. Accessories If portrait or nude photography should become the main hobby, you gradually acquire suitable accessories and possibly also a pool of out-of-theordinary clothes. Many women react extremely irritated when their clothes are used on a model for a shoot. You can save yourself this hassle by carefully keeping clothing and accessories separate for shootings. Recording Table and Light Tent This is dealt with in the chapter object photography. The purchase is certainly not worth it for occasional needs. There are good makeshift solutions.

The Cost of a Home Studio You can set up a small home studio with very little effort if you gradually acquire everything used except for the backgrounds. Backgrounds are not particularly expensive. Occasionally, backgrounds are also offered but because of the transport, this is only worthwhile if you don't have to drive too far. You get video lights so cheap on eBay that going to the hardware store is not worth it for significantly worse site lights. Tripods can also be used almost without hesitation. This basic equipment would only cost a few hundred dollars. The higher the demands, the more expensive it becomes. If you orient yourself at professional studios, you can quickly spend $20,000 and more and is far from over. There is almost no upper limit for the studio equipment. Studio equipment is much more about durability and quality than a digital SLR camera. The development of digital cameras is still progressing so

quickly that 3-4 year old cameras are technically completely out of date. It is different with the studio equipment, since the essential developments have long been completed and for this reason, longevity is an essential factor for planning your own home studio. So you'd better start with less, but good quality that you can buy second-hand than to make the apparent bargain which quickly turns out to be cheap junk. If you gradually expand the equipment as far as you discover studio photography as a hobby, you also know much more what you still need and what you have to pay attention to. Incidentally, brand manufacturers have long discovered the amateur market for themselves. This then leads to strange excesses such as the compact flash systems of a renowned manufacturer which were designed for professionals and once for amateurs. The series designed for amateurs, lacks an important component that does not even cost $4 and prevents overheating of a flash head. As a result, if you are not careful, the capacitors will explode and a new purchase is due. You are therefore on the safe side, even with renowned brand manufacturers, only with the devices designed for the professional market. No brand manufacturer in this market can afford poor quality or poor service.

CONCLUSION Digital technology has reached high levels of quality and the electronic storage of medical information is more common every day. The quick access and easy handling of this information make a digital archive of patient images necessary for the daily medical practice of the plastic surgeon. This technology has been used for many years. However, the high costs of photographic equipment until now limited the use of this type of photography. Today, ideal digital photographic equipment is cheaper and computers offer hard drives capable of storing and organizing hundreds of thousands of photos. In Plastic Surgery, the most used digital equipment continues to be compact digital cameras. With the decrease in costs in the last 10 years of advanced cameras, such as SLRs, it is very important that plastic surgeons take the big step and invest in equipment of higher quality and versatility for their consultations. We need a basic knowledge of photography to obtain optimal images and digitally standardize the evolution of the patient through the taking of photographs. By acquiring good photographic equipment and installing a suitable studio, we obtain not only a superior quality of the images we take, but also the patient will notice the seriousness, quality of care and service that the doctor will be providing.

APPENDIX Frequently Asked Questions What does light intensity mean? The light intensity of a lens indicates the maximum inner diameter of the lens in relation to its focal length. For example, if a fairly bright lens is offered with the following information: 50 mm 2.0, then this means that the inner lens aperture is half the focal length, i.e. a maximum of 25 mm in diameter with the aperture open. An extremely bright 50 mm lens with a maximum aperture of 1.2 has an inner diameter of almost 42 mm. Because fast lenses require extreme effort, especially if they should already have at least a satisfactory focus even with the aperture open, they are extremely expensive. It was and is usual for a focal length around 50 mm light intensity around 2.8. With zoom lenses, the light intensity is usually significantly lower, except for the very expensive representatives of their type and also not consistent for the entire focal length range. The larger the maximum diameter, the more light reaches the sensor or film when the aperture is open. So you can still take pictures with relatively little light and reasonably short exposure times. However, there are difficult physical limits to be overcome for the maximum diameter of a lens and thus for its light intensity. Because the larger the aperture, the less clear the picture becomes. Luminous lenses are ideal if they are absolutely sharp when the aperture is open but at the same time have a relatively shallow depth of field. Because then you can use the light intensity of the lens not only specifically in poor lighting situations but also for all photos where a shallow depth of field is expressly desired. The relationship between light intensity and sharpness can perhaps also be imagined with the following example: Take a completely light-tight box with a white inner wall on the back and make a small hole in the front. This is how the first cameras were made. The smaller the opening, the sharper the

projected image on the back wall of the box. At the same time, with an increasingly smaller opening, less and less light passes through the small hole. Despite the sophisticated lens technology, nothing has ever changed on this fundamental problem. If the hole becomes too large, you only get a completely blurred projection of lights and shadows on the white back wall. What does open aperture mean? When the aperture is fully open, i.e., the set aperture value is the smallest number that the lens offers, one speaks of an open aperture. For zoom lenses, this value can vary depending on the focal length set. The light intensity of a zoom lens is only the same across the entire focal length range with only a few lenses. If for example, the information about a zoom lens reads 80-200 mm/3.5-5.6, then the 80-200 mm stand for the focal length range of the lens, 3.5-5.6 describe the different light intensities and thus also the maximum aperture depending on the selected focal length. If there were just 2.8 instead, you would have a high-performance lens with a light intensity of 2.8 across the entire focal length range. Such lenses exist but they are very expensive. When the aperture is open, the sharpness of the lens is lowest both in relation to the overall sharpness and the depth of focus. You can take advantage of this in terms of design if you only want to sharply depict the actual image object, for example, in the case of a portrait or a single flower. In bad light, regardless of the design options, the open aperture is often the only way to achieve exposure times that you can control just as freely without a photo, so without a tripod. What does an aperture do? With the aperture, the light beam is influenced by the lens. The larger the aperture, the more light comes through the lens onto the sensor or film, the smaller the aperture gets, the less light gets through the lens. Together with the exposure time, the aperture controls the amount of light with which the film or sensor is exposed. But that's just one of the functions of an aperture. Both the overall focus of a lens and the depth of field are influenced via the aperture. If the aperture is fully open, i.e., corresponds to the light intensity of the lens,

the imaging performance of a lens is the lowest. Most lenses achieve the highest imaging performance with a medium aperture, that is, aperture values in the range of 8-11. If the aperture is closed even further, the overall sharpness decreases again but the depth of focus increases. The light diffraction causes the decrease in the overall sharpness at the increasingly smaller aperture. However, this information only applies to the 35 mm format, the larger the negative format or the sensor surface, the more you can reduce the aperture without causing light diffraction which reduces the overall sharpness again. With a medium format camera, you can also take pictures at aperture 16 without light diffraction. What do the numbers mean with which an aperture is denoted? The aperture value indicates the aperture of the aperture in relation to the focal length as a divisor in a fraction. The focal length is the denominator, the aperture of the dividers and the result of the diameter of the aperture. The easiest way to explain this is with lenses with fixed focal lengths. Let's take a lens with a 100 mm focal length as an example. If it were a fast and thus also expensive lens, then it would perhaps have a value of 2 as the light intensity and maximum aperture. This means that with the maximum aperture of the aperture, corresponds to the inside diameter of the lens through which the light falls, the simple calculation, 100 by 2, i.e. focal length of the lens divided by the value of the aperture. This results in an inside diameter of 50 mm. At aperture eight, the calculation looks like this: 100 divided by 8, this gives 12.5, so the diameter of the aperture is still 12.5 mm. The larger the number that is set as the aperture value, the larger the divisor in the fractional calculation and thus the smaller the diameter of the aperture through which the light must pass. For example, it may be understandable why more light passes through the lens, the smaller the number that is set as the aperture value. What is ISO? The ISO value indicates the light sensitivity of the sensor. The lowest sensitivity to light in common digital cameras is 50 ISO. The maximum that is currently reached is over 50,000 ISO. Every doubling of the ISO value

doubles the sensitivity to light. That is why the usual grades are ISO 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600, 3200. Only a few digital SLR cameras go further: ISO 6400, 12800, 25600, 51200. A doubling of the light sensitivity corresponds to a full aperture step or a halving of the exposure time. Only a few cameras with a very high-quality sensor enable ISO values of 800 or more without visible image noise. Therefore, when it comes to the highest quality of a photo, always set the lowest sensitivity for which the sensor is optimized. The technical data in the operating instructions shows which one is. It is not always the slightest sensitivity that is offered in the menu because in order to be able to take pictures even with extreme brightness for example, a strong flash system, some digital cameras offer lower ISO values than the actual light sensitivity of the sensor. However, every deviation of the ISO value from the sensor's native light sensitivity is achieved electronically and leads to measurable, clearly visible quality deviations in terms of sharpness and image noise in the case of larger deviations. Of course, this recommendation can only apply if the lighting conditions play a role, i.e., if the available light is sufficient for the low ISO value with a sufficiently short exposure time. For this very reason, there was and still is film material with different sensitivities, just as there are different setting options for ISO sensitivity for digital cameras. And just as in the analog world, a higher sensitivity was usually bought with a more or less visible loss of quality, so it is with digital cameras where high sensitivity also goes hand in hand with a loss of quality. Incidentally, ISO and ASA designate one and the same, both are an internationally used standard that has developed from the American ASA standard. The A at ASA stands for America, the I at ISO for international. What does depth of field mean? The depth of field describes the area in front of and behind the actual plane of focus which is still sharply drawn. A lens is set to a certain distance; this setting is the plane of focus. The area that is sharply drawn before and after it depends on the focal length used and the aperture set. The influence of the focal length on the depth of field

Basically, the shorter the focal length, the greater the depth of field. Since a small sensor such as the sensor of a pocket camera works with very short focal lengths, the depth of field of a pocket camera is also very large. The larger the recording format, the lower the depth of field because a much larger focal length is required for the same viewing angle. For this reason, the depth of field of a digital SLR camera in full format is already significantly less than that of cameras with a significantly smaller sensor. Short focal lengths, i.e., wide-angle lenses or the corresponding settings with a zoom lens have a very large depth of field, long focal lengths as with a strong telephoto lens have a very small depth of field which in extreme cases is only a few centimeters. The influence of the aperture on the depth of field The smaller the aperture, the smaller the opening through which the light has to pass, the greater the depth of field. The depth of field is the smallest when the aperture is open. This also applies in principle to all lenses and cameras. The aperture can be used to influence how far the depth of field should go for the selected focal length. If you want to take photos with a digital SLR camera as you might be used to from the previous pocket camera, i.e. everything is sharp from front to back, then you have to use a wide-angle lens and set a small aperture. By the way, this is also possible with the aperture selector (automatic timer). On the contrary, if you want to take a portrait with only the face in focus, use a telephoto lens with a large aperture. The range of depth of field The depth of field decreases towards the front much faster than towards the rear. You have to know this if you want a very specific area to be razor-sharp. Therefore, in case of doubt, set the distance a little shorter than absolutely necessary in order to really get the area in front of the object. How can you determine the depth of field beforehand? It's easy when you use a prime lens. For lenses with a fixed focal length, the range of depth of field is displayed for every set distance and aperture. If you use a zoom lens instead, nothing will be shown, so you have to experiment or gain some experience.

The view through the viewfinder is not really helpful either because as long as you don't press the shutter button, the aperture is always fully open. That makes sense, otherwise, the viewfinder image would be much too dark. The aperture is only closed at the preset value at the moment of recording. What is total sharpness? At first glance, depth of field and overall sharpness seem to mean the same thing, namely how sharp a photo is. But that's not true. Overall sharpness is the maximum sharpness that is in a photo. So how sharp are hair or other fine details drawn and how well are fine color gradients resolved? In contrast to the depth of field which can be extended to the maximum by continuously closing the aperture, the maximum focus performance of a lens is not achieved with a very small aperture but with a medium aperture. In the field of conventional digital SLR cameras, the maximum sharpness is achieved with aperture values between eight and eleven. If you open the diaphragm up to the open diaphragm, the sharpness will decrease as well as vice versa if you close the diaphragm beyond this optimal value. It is not easy to understand that the focus performance decreases with even smaller aperture values, although the depth of field increases at the same time. The reason is simply that when the aperture is smaller than the optimum, the light at the small aperture is diffracted and the sharpness therefore, decreases again. This results in maximum sharpness with a medium aperture, maximum depth of field with the smallest aperture. Focal length, what is it actually? The focal length is the distance from the arithmetic center of the lens to the focal point with the infinity distance setting. If the object is closer than with the infinity setting of a lens, the focal length must be extended to get the focal point on the projection surface. The easiest way to explain this is with a magnifying lens since it consists of only one lens. If you want to use a magnifying lens as a burning lens, you have to experiment with the distance to the paper until it is really just a sharply defined point, the focal point. This distance is the focal length of the magnifying lens. The focal length is given in mm. With older lenses, the measurement unit cm which was previously used equally is sometimes used instead. In order to

enable comparability with different sensor or film formats, the focal length of a lens is often given in relation to the small picture format with 24 x 36 mm which corresponds to the full digital format. Focal length and depth of field The focal length of a lens has an absolute property in terms of depth of field. Short focal lengths: great depth of field. Long focal lengths: shallow depth of field. This property has nothing to do with whether a lens is a telephoto or wideangle lens but is directly dependent on the actual focal length. The telephoto setting of a digital camera with a very small sensor corresponds in terms of the real focal length to a wide-angle lens on a full-frame camera. If you compare a full-format (small picture) camera with a large-format camera with a negative format of 18x24 cm, you get the same picture. The focal length of the strong telephoto lens of the full-format camera corresponds to a white-angle lens of the large-format camera. Since the depth of field is an absolute property of the focal length, the depth of field of a strong telephoto lens of a pocket camera or other digital cameras with a similarly small sensor corresponds to a strong wide-angle lens on a full-frame camera, i.e. it extends over a very large area. However, the wide-angle lens of a large-format camera corresponds to a strong telephoto lens of a full-frame camera with regard to its focal length and thus depth of field and is just as small. This knowledge is important for the purchase decision when buying a camera or if you have several cameras with sensors of different sizes, for example, a digital SLR with APS or fullformat sensor and a smartphone with a tiny sensor. Crop factor The focal length for different sensor or film formats is converted using the crop factor which refers to the 35 mm format that is widespread in analog times. A digital full-frame camera logically has a crop factor 1, since the sensor area is exactly the same size as a 35 mm negative. A digital SLR camera in the widely used APS format with a little more than 23 x 15 mm (the digits behind the decimal point differ slightly depending on the camera manufacturer) has a crop factor of 1.5 which means that the focal length of a

lens is multiplied by 1.5 in order to achieve a picture angle comparable to the full format. A 50 mm lens on a full-frame camera becomes a 75 mm lens (but only in relation to the angle of view) on a digital SLR camera in the consumer class with an APS sensor. In fact, the 50 mm lens, of course, remains a 50 mm lens which is particularly noticeable in terms of light intensity and depth of field. Focal length depending on the distance setting If you set a shorter distance than the infinity setting of a lens, the entire light gray area (the inner tube) including the lenses inside the lens (dark gray) is pushed forward because otherwise, the focal point with the result of blurred photos lies behind the sensor level. This means that any distance shorter than the infinity setting of a lens requires a longer focal length than the one specified on the lens. Since the depth of field becomes smaller with increasing focal length, it is also understandable why the depth of field in the close-up range is significantly smaller than for objects further away. However, changing the focal length with the distance setting does not change the angle of view of a lens. A different nominal focal length only changes the angle of view. Why do you need the different file formats for photos? Virtually, every digital camera offers JPEG as a storage format. Cameras in the upscale sector also offer saving as a raw format or more rarely as a TIF. Some cameras can also save photos in multiple formats at the same time. Advantages and disadvantages of the individual file formats JPEG JPEG is the common file format for on-screen display, especially for photos on the web. Its advantage, relatively small file sizes and the possibility of compression to reduce the file size even more. However, this is not possible without loss of quality. This brings us to the first decisive disadvantage, at least as the storage format of the camera. This is not about publishing on a website after all processing steps have already been done. Because JPEG was actually only developed for this. The first loss of quality occurs when you save it in the camera. If the photo is

opened in an image processing program and saved again after processing, the next compression with a further loss of quality will still occur even if no compression level is selected. The renewed loss of quality can only be avoided if the photo is no longer saved as a JPEG after editing but either as a TIF or Photoshop file (PSD). Compared to a raw data file, the JPEG format has other serious disadvantages. The image information is final, unlike in a raw data file. JPEG should therefore be avoided if your camera also offers other options for saving photos. There is only one exception, if the camera offers to save both in raw data format and as JPEG at the same time. I occasionally make use of this when I am either visiting friends who do not have an image processing program installed on their computer which can read raw data or to be able to give the unprocessed photos to a model after a shoot. Then the JPEGs are deleted, I no longer need them. Further processing takes place on the basis of the raw data file. Raw data file In contrast to JPEG, TIF, PSD and other file formats for photos, the 4 color channels red, 2xgreen and blue are stored separately in a raw data file and have not yet been mixed together. Of course, this increases the file size compared to the JPEG but it is the prerequisite for meaningful postprocessing. In addition, there is no compression, so there is no loss of quality due to the saving. This statement is not absolute but depends on the manufacturer's specific raw data format. Because of the 4 separate color channels, the color temperature (white balance) can be changed later without any problems. In a JPEG, this would only be possible with extreme effort. Many other parameters can also be changed directly in the raw data file without any loss of quality. Except for the fact that older versions of Windows cannot display raw data files and the raw data file takes up significantly more space, there are no disadvantages. In view of the fact that memory cards for cameras have become very inexpensive, the file size should no longer play a role. There is a disadvantage that can be avoided by some camera manufacturers. Each camera manufacturer has developed its own file format for raw data. As the manufacturer depends, these file formats are not necessarily future-proof. Adobe has also developed a file format for raw data, DNG, which is the

worldwide standard and therefore, like the PDF also developed by Adobe, has long been considered a future-proof standard. Pentax and some other camera manufacturers offer saving either in their own raw data format or as DNG. All other camera-specific raw data formats can be converted to DNG with converters without loss of quality. Saving it as a raw data file is the ultimate if your camera offers it. Only after all processing steps have been carried out in an image processing program, including the image size for the intended publication, can an image be saved as a JPEG for the web because only for this purpose was this format originally created. TIF TIF is also a storage format for photos and graphics. Some digital cameras should, I have heard at least once, offer to save the photos as a TIF. In contrast to JPEG, TIF is lossless and therefore, you should definitely have a camera that offers TIF but not raw data for storing photos over JPEG. This format actually plays a role in prepress or as a cross-platform softwareindependent file format for high-quality graphics and photos. Because it is the only cross-platform and software-independent file format that can also save several levels, in this respect, it is almost on a par with Photoshop's own PSD file format. But in the actual digital photography, it does not matter at first, unless as I said, you have a camera that allows you to save the photos as a TIF. Fundamentals for understanding the different display of screen and printout The pixels on a monitor are square. This means that everything that does not have a dividing line to the next object exactly vertically or horizontally must be represented in the form of a staircase. If you enlarge a photo extremely on the monitor, you can see both the individual pixels and the steps. That is one of the fundamental problems of computer graphics and digital photography. Because with a sufficiently large enlargement or strong compression, the steps become visible. In printing, just like in an analog film, there are no stairs but instead pixels. In film material, these pixels are called grain. As a result, there are no stairs if

something does not run exactly horizontally or vertically through a picture. Analog film material is actually the more suitable one for prepress because it works on the same principle as printing. However, thanks to the very high resolution of current digital cameras, this only plays a role at extreme magnifications. There is another difference between the two different color models Any color can be represented with the three primary colors. However, there are two fundamentally different color models, the additive color model RBG and the subtractive color model CMYK. RBG, the additive color model is used in monitor display by digital cameras and inkjet printers. This means that the three colors red, green and blue are superimposed in different brightness levels which results in the subjective color impression. The subtractive CMYK color model used in professional printing instead subtracts the colors from each other. This is why this color model also has three other primary colors, namely cyan, magenta and yellow. However, since black cannot be represented with these three colors, black is another color in this color model. A good image editing program can of course, convert any photo and graphic from one color model to another but that doesn't change the fact that no monitor can display CMYK absolutely correctly. After all, it is a completely different color model than the RBG of the monitor. This makes it very difficult to prepare a photo for printing if you can't do a test print. Especially when it comes to shades of green, there are drastic differences between the display of the monitor and the printout. In addition, depending on your personal monitor setting of course, an image in print will often appear significantly darker than on the monitor. This can only be avoided to some extent by calibrating the monitor which has to be repeated at least annually and is not exactly cheap. Not every monitor is suitable for calibration. A photo amateur who orders a poster online for example, should take this to heart, otherwise, the poster can be a bitter disappointment. One can judge to some extent how the photo will come from the print shop if one has the opportunity to print the image in advance on a laser color printer because

these printers also work with the CMYK color model.

INDEX

A analog photography 54, 59, 76, 117, 135, 157, 204, 207, 213, 218, 219, 228, 256, 264 angle of view 2, 3, 4, 51, 57, 59, 61, 68, 69, 74, 75, 76, 79, 80, 81, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 104, 138, 140, 142, 150, 173, 174, 181, 182, 199, 223, 224, 225, 226, 232, 253, 255, 294, 295 aperture 4, 5, 6, 20, 59, 61, 62, 64, 65, 66, 68, 69, 70, 72, 74, 75, 76, 81, 87, 88, 95, 96, 98, 99, 100, 102, 107, 108, 109, 123, 125, 131, 146, 164, 165, 172, 176, 177, 179, 180, 183, 189, 191, 198, 199, 200, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 210, 211, 223, 232, 244, 245, 246, 249, 251, 255, 260, 261, 264, 265, 266, 279, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293 APS format 2, 76, 81, 294 APS sensor 2, 78, 79, 80, 81, 85, 93, 104, 138, 144, 199, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 233, 234, 237, 238, 239, 240, 246, 253, 255, 294 APS sensors 2, 79, 223, 225, 229, 237 architectural photography 6, 140, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 150, 253 Architectural photography 140 artificial light 122, 148, 159, 186, 194, 195, 217, 257, 258, 271 autofocus 67, 100, 101, 103, 176, 181, 183, 184, 187, 188, 189, 202, 234, 235, 239, 249, 250, 259, 261, 263

B background 2, 3, 25, 26, 35, 36, 37, 51, 52, 61, 70, 75, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 95, 97, 99, 109, 114, 119, 120, 121, 123, 124, 126, 127, 132, 139, 154, 161, 168, 169, 181, 182, 190, 201, 209, 227, 234, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 279, 284 Backlighting 19 barrel distortions 93 binoculars 87, 97

C camera flash camera shutter color channels color temperature 271, 274, 296 complementary color contrast motifs cropping tool

10, 16, 18, 23, 139, 279 125 30, 195, 196, 219, 257, 296 11, 12, 158, 168, 193, 194, 212, 213, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 257, 258, 11, 264 190, 202 51, 56, 168

D depth gradation

3, 35, 75, 79, 90, 94, 96

depth of field 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 59, 60, 61, 62, 65, 66, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 74, 75, 76, 78, 79, 80, 81, 85, 86, 89, 90, 91, 94, 95, 96, 97, 99, 100, 101, 113, 119, 123, 131, 145, 146, 147, 151, 177, 183, 189, 198, 199, 222, 223, 225, 229, 236, 237, 245, 246, 264, 288, 289, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295 design elements 1, 4, 6, 108 diffuse light 14, 36 digital camera 13, 29, 60, 78, 108, 133, 142, 149, 157, 158, 180, 184, 190, 192, 195, 201, 207, 213, 235, 246, 248, 258, 271, 274, 279, 293, 295 digital SLR cameras 60, 69, 76, 102, 125, 145, 146, 157, 184, 189, 198, 200, 208, 235, 238, 239, 242, 246, 249, 253, 284, 290, 292

E exposure time 5, 17, 33, 64, 74, 84, 85, 87, 98, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 125, 131, 151, 176, 177, 179, 180, 182, 183, 189, 198, 199, 200, 205, 206, 207, 208, 210, 211, 232, 255, 260, 261, 264, 281, 289, 290

F falling diagonal 39, 40 falling lines 92, 140, 141, 142, 145, 253 flash synchronization 125, 281 flash unit 16, 18, 19, 125, 170, 218, 279, 280 focal length 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 51, 57, 59, 60, 62, 68, 69, 70, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 84, 85, 86, 87, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 104, 119, 123, 127, 129, 138, 141, 142, 144, 167, 171, 177, 182, 189, 199, 208, 223, 224, 225, 226, 237, 238, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 250, 251, 253, 255, 287, 288, 289, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295 foreground 3, 26, 34, 35, 36, 37, 75, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 96, 97, 123, 124, 132, 182, 190, 234

G golden ratio 41, 42, 44, 45, 46, 48, 54, 56, 57, 60, 74, 132, 133, 145, 202, 253 grazing light 21, 22, 23, 25, 148

H Hazylight

19, 115, 122, 152, 277, 279, 280, 284

I image editing program 11, 39, 51, 54, 113, 131, 140, 146, 149, 158, 167, 171, 172, 177, 194, 197, 263, 265, 271, 298 image section 2, 38, 39, 41, 43, 45, 47, 48, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 73, 90, 96, 113, 129, 130, 131, 133, 185, 188, 189, 191, 203, 238 image stabilizer 85, 99, 104, 106, 107, 108, 199, 232 incandescent light 11, 158, 159, 193, 214, 257, 271, 283 ISO sensitivity 178, 179, 187, 290 ISO value 64, 98, 102, 125, 146, 186, 192, 198, 199, 200, 204, 205, 206, 210, 290

L landscape photography 132, 133, 134, 135, 148 light spectrum 8 lighting effects 9, 114, 121, 269, 280

M manual white balance Maximum sharpness

11, 30, 193, 214, 215, 216 6

N natural light

11, 114, 120, 121, 128, 193, 217, 264

O Object photography overall sharpness

150, 151 6, 7, 59, 62, 70, 80, 95, 131, 146, 183, 199, 288, 289, 292

P photographic subjects 134 Photography and painting 1 Photoshop plugins 134 polarizing filter 93, 134, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264

R reportage photography

16, 55

S shift lens 92, 144, 152, 254 shutter release button 109, 187, 189 souvenir photos 16, 133, 139, 197, 219, 222, 223, 237, 240 spotlights 9, 121, 158, 273, 274

T Telephoto lenses 3, 96, 98 tripod 27, 85, 87, 98, 99, 101, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 110, 121, 122, 125, 131, 135, 144, 146, 156, 158, 160, 163, 167, 168, 170, 171, 189, 199, 229, 232, 254, 272, 276, 277, 279, 284, 288

W Wide angle lenses wide-angle lenses

3 3, 5, 70, 75, 79, 91, 93, 96, 140, 141, 142, 145, 225, 226, 251, 254, 291

Z zoom lens zoom lenses

3, 6, 71, 73, 75, 76, 94, 97, 129, 138, 167, 242, 243, 244, 245, 250, 288, 291, 292 2, 71, 75, 85, 94, 98, 208, 243, 244, 245, 250, 251, 254, 287, 288