The City of Gaza in the Roman and Byzantine Periods 9780860544180, 9781407345963

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Table of Contents
ABBREVIATIONS
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1: THE TOPOGRAPHY OF GAZA
CHAPTER 2: THE HISTORY OF GAZA IN THE ROMAN AND BYZANTINE PERIODS
CHAPTER 3: THE POLITICAL STATUS AND CIVIC ADMINISTRATION OF ROMAN AND BYZANTINE GAZA
CHAPTER 4: TRADE, INDUSTRY AND POPULATION
CONCLUSION
APPENDIX: THE INSCRIPTIONS OF GAZA
BIBLIOGRAPHY

Citation preview

The City of Gaza in the Roman and Byzantine Periods

Carol A. M. Glucker

BAR International Series 325 1987

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. --8325, 1987: 'The City of Gaza in the Roman and Byzantine Periods'

© Carol A. M. Glucker, 1987 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860544180 paperback ISBN 9781407345963 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544180 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS T his b ook i s a r evised v ersion o f a n M .A . t hesis o riginally s ubmitted t o t he A ranne S chool o f H istory i n T el A viv U niversity . T he r esearch w as c arried

o ut u nder

t he

s upervision

o f

P rof .

B enjamin

I saac ,

w ho

r ead

a nd

c ommented o n t he w ork a t e very s tage a nd w as u nstintingly g enerous w ith h is t ime a nd h is h elpful a nd c onstructive c riticism . H e t aught m e av ery g reat d eal, b oth o n p oints o f d etail a nd i n g eneral a pproach t o h istorical r esearch . P rof . S himon A pplebaum r ead t he f inal v ersion o f t he t hesis a nd m ade a n umber o f v aluable s uggestions, many o f which h ave n ow b een i ncorporated i n t he p resent w ork . P rof . I srael R oll , P rof . A sher O vadiah a nd D r . A rieh K indler a ll g ave g enerously o f t heir t ime t o a nswer my q uestions o n s pecific t opics . M y h usband , P rof . J ohn G lucker , a part f rom p roviding s upport a nd e ncouragement t hroughout t he l ong p rocess o f w riting , w as o f v ery g reat a ssistance i n c hecking t he T almudic p assages d iscussed i n C hapter 4 a nd e xplaining t heir m eaning a nd w hat i nferences c ould b e d rawn f rom t hem . a ssistance , n aturally , o pinion a s

I a m v ery g rateful t o a ll t hese s cholars f or t heir v aluable w ithout w hich t his w ork c ould n ot h ave b een c ompleted , b ut , I t ake f ull r esponsibility f or s uch e rrors o f s ubstance o r o f r emain . Ia m a lso v ery g rateful f or t he s upport a nd r esearch

f acilities p rovided b y t he D epartment o f C lassics o f T el A viv U niversity , i n p articular b y i ts h ead , P rof . S halom P erlman a nd t he d epartmental s ecretary , M rs . S hulamit A rieli . t he p lans.

Is hould a lso l ike t o t hank M r . D avidPhilbey w ho d rew

C arol G lucker L ondon 1 986

i ii

C ONTENTS P age A BBREVIATIONS

v i

I NTRODUCTION

1

A :

G aza t hrough t he A ges

1

B :

P revious R esearch i nto G aza

5

N otes t o I ntroduction

8

C HAPTER 1 : T HE T OPOGRAPHY O F G AZA

1 2

A :

T he S ituation o f t he C ity a nd i ts P ort

1 2

B :

O ld a nd N ew G aza

1 3

C :

G aza o n t he M adeba M ap

1 8

D :

T he T erritory o f G aza

2 5

E :

T he R oad S ystem

2 6

N otes t o C hapter 1

3 1

C HAPTER 2 : T HE H ISTORY O F G AZA I N T HE R OMAN A ND B YZANTINE P ERIODS

3 8

A :

3 8

F rom P ompey t o H erod

B :

.T he F irst t o T hird C enturies

4 0

C :

C hristianity C omes t o G aza

4 3

D :

T he T riumph o f t he C hurch

4 6

E :

T he R hetorical S chool o f G aza a nd t he W ritings o f C horicius

5 1

T he A rab C onquest

5 7

F :

6 0

N otes t o C hapter 2

C HAPTER 3 : T HE P OLITICAL S TATUS A ND C IVIC A DMINISTRATION O F R OMAN G AZA

7 5

A :

7 5

T he P olitical S tatus o f G aza

i v

P age B :

T he C ivic A dministration

7 7

N otes t o C hapter 3

8 2

C HAPTER 4 : T BADE, I NDUSTRY A ND P OPULATION

8 6

A :

T he S pice T rade

8 6

B :

T he W ine T rade

9 3

C :

T rade i n O ther A gricultural P roduce

9 4

D :

O ther I ndustries a t G aza

9 6

E :

P opulation

9 8

+ . ,••••40. A . M. . .••••••

N otes t o C hapter 4

1 03

C ONCLUSION

13

A PPENDIX : T HE I NSCRIPTIONS O F G AZA

15

P ersonal N ames i n t he G aza I nscriptions

1 57

N otes t o A ppendix

1 62

B IBLIOGRAPHY

1 64

M APS A ND P LANS G aza o n t he M adeba M ap

2 0

F ig. 2 .

P lan o f G aza

2 1

F ig; 3 .

G aza i n t he R oman R oad S ystem

2 7

F ig.

1 .

A BBREVIATIONS A E

A nn & E pigraphique

A NET

P ritchard, J .B .,

A ncient N ear E astern T exts

( third e dition , P rinceton 1 960) A NRW

T emporini, H . &H aase, W . e dd., A ufstieg u nd N iedergang d er R ömischen W elt

A RP

C lermont-Ganneau , C .,

A rchaeological R esearches

i n P alestine 1 873-1874

( London 1 896)

B ASOR

B ulletin o f t he A merican S chools o f O riental R esearch

B MCPal

H ill, G .F .,

A C atalogue o f t he G reek C oins o f

P alestine i n t he B ritish M useum ( London 1 914, r ep. B ologna 1 965) C AR

T he C ambridge A ncient H istory

C CSL

C orpus C hristianorum S eries L atina

C II

F rey , P .J.B ., ( Rome, 1 952)

C IL

C orpus I nscriptionum L atinarum

E AEHL

A vi-Yonah , M . e d., E ncyclopedia o f A rchaeological

C orpus I nscriptionum I udaicarum

E xcavations i n t he H oly L and V ols. I -IV ( Jerusalem 1 976) H SCP

H arvard S tudies i n C lassical P hilology

I EJ

I srael E xploration J ournal

I G

I nscriptiones G raecae

I GLS

I nscriptions G recques e t L atines d e l a S yrie

I GRR

C agnet, R ., I nscriptiones G raecae a d R es R omanas P ertinentes ( Paris 1 927, r ep . R ome 1 964)

J POS

J ournal o f t he P alestine O riental S ociety

j RS

J ournal o f R oman S tudies

M AMA

M onumenta A siae M inor's A ntigua

O GIS

D ittenberger, W .,

O rientis G raecae I nscriptiones

S electae ( Leipzig 1 905, r ep . H ildesheim 1 960) P EFQSt.

P alestine E xploration F und Q uarterly S tatement v i

P EQ

P alestine E xploration Q uarterly

P G

M igne, J .P. e d., S eries G raeca

P atrologiae C ursus C ompletus

P L

M igne, J .P . e d., S eries L atina

P atrologiae C ursus C ompletus

Q pAP

Q uarterly o f t he D epartment o f A ntiquities o f P alestine

R B

R evue B iblique

S chürer2

S chürer, E ., T he H istory o f t he J ewish P eople i n t he A ge o f J esus C hrist, r evised E nglish e dition ; V ol . I , e dd. G . V ermes & F .G .B. M illar ( Edinburgh 1 973) V ol. I I, e dd. G . V ermes, F .G .B. M illar & M . B lack ( Edinburgh 1 979)

S c'

S cripta C lassica I sraelica

S EG

S upplementum E pigraphicum G raecum

S EHHW

R ostovtzeff, M ., T he S ocial a nd E conomic H istory o f t he H ellenistic W orld ( London 1 941, r ep. 1 971)

S EHRE

R ostovtzeff, M ., T he S ocial a nd E conomic H istory o f t he R oman E mpire, s econd e dition , r ev . b y P .M . F raser ( London 1 957, r ep .

S WP

C onder , C .R . &K itchener, H .H ., T he S urvey o f W estern P alestine V ol. I II: J udaea ( London 1 883, r ep. J erusalem ,

T APA

1 971)

1 970).

T ransactions o f t he A merican P hilological A ssociation

Z DPV

Z eitschrift d es D eutschen P alaestina-Vereins

Z PE

Z eitschrift f ür P apyrologie u nd E pigraphik

v ii

I NTRODUCTION . D uring t he R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods G aza b ecame o ne o f t he l argest a nd m ost p rosperous c ities o f P alestine .

Y et i t p layed l ittle p art i n t he

d isturbances t hat t roubled t he p rovince a nd i ts h istory w as u neventful . I ts m agnificant b uildings h ave d isappeared a nd , b ecause i ts s ite h as b een o ccupied c ontinuously d own t o t he p resent d ay , v ery l ittle a rchaeological i nvestigation h as b een p ossible . S o G aza h as a ttracted r elatively l ittle i nterest a mong m odern s cholars . Y et t here d oes e xist e vidence f or t he d evelopment a nd h istory o f t he c ity . I n p articular , w e h ave d ocuments f rom t he B yzantine p eriod , w ritten i n G aza a nd p roviding v aluable e vidence f or t he l ife o f t he c ity a t t hat t ime . O ne, t he V ita P orphyrii o f M arcus D iaconus , g ives a n e ye-witness a ccount o f ac rucial t ransition i n t he c ity 's h istory , t he d estruction o f t he p agan t emples a nd t he o fficial i mposition o f C hristianity o n t he p eople o f G aza . T he o thers , t he s peeches o f C horicius o f G aza , d escribe v ividly t he b uildings a nd f estivals o f t he c ity a t t he t ime o f i ts g reatest p rosperity a nd e ulogize s ome o f i ts m ost f amous c itizens . T here i s , m oreover , s ome n ew a rchaeological e vidence , d iscovered i n t he l ast t wenty y ears , a nd a f ew n ew i nscriptions h ave c ome t o l ight . T he m aterials e xist , t hen , f or a f uller s tudy o f o f R oman a nd B yzantine G aza t han h as y et b een p rovided i n t he p resent c entury . T he p urpose o f t his work i s, t herefore, t o r e-examine t he l iterary s ources o f G aza , i n t he l ight o f m odern r esearch , t ogether w ith t he n ew i nformation p rovided b y a rchaeology a nd e pigraphy , a nd t o a ttempt t o g ive a s f ull a n a ccount a s p ossible o f t he h istory o f t he c ity , p aying a ttention t o s uch f actors a ffecting i ts d evelopment a s i ts g eographical p osition a nd t rade . I s hall a lso c ollect t he i nscriptions o f G aza , b ringing p revious c ollections u p-to-date b y t he a ddition o f i nscriptions p ublished i n t he t wentieth c entury .

AL :G AZA T HROUGH T HE A GES. T he h istory o f t he c ity o f G aza i s l ong a nd t urbulent . T hroughout t he c enturies a nd t he m illennia i t h as b een a ttacked a nd d estroyed , r estored a nd r epopulated b y o ne w ave o f i nvaders a fter a nother . T he f oundation o f t he c ity l ies i n t he d istant p ast a nd t he i dentity o f i ts f ounders i s u nknown . O ne t heory c onnects t he f oundation o f G aza w ith t he M inaeans o f S outh A rabia i n t he f irst h alf o f t he s econd m illennium B C , a rguing t hat t hey b uilt i t a s a t rading c olony a nd a n o utlet f or t heir t raffic i n s pices t o t he M editerranean .

S tephanus o f B yzantium m entions t hat G aza w as a lso k nown

a s M inoa, a n ame which h e c onnects w ith t he C retan M inos, 2 a nd i t i s s uggested t hat t his i s ac onfused r elic o f a n a ncient t radition l inking G aza w ith t he M inaeans .3 B ut i t i s d ifficult t o b elieve t hat t he n ame o f t hese l ong-forgotten f ounders c ould h ave b een p reserved i n t he c ity t hroughout t he c enturies , d espite s everal c hanges o f p opulation , f inally t o r each S tephanus i n t he s ixth c entury A D , a nd i t i s p robably u nsafe t o r ead t oo m uch i nto t he s cholastic s peculations o f t he l ater G reeks, w ho w ere a nxious t o l ink t heir c ities w ith t he myths a nd l egends o f t he C lassical p ast . Moreover, n one o f c onnection w ith G aza ,

t he e arly r ecords r efers t o t he s pice t rade i n a nd w hen t he c ity f irst a ppears i n h istory , i n

1

E gyptian r ecords o f t he L ate B ronze A ge , i ts i mportance r ests n ot o n i ts s upposed f unction a s a t rading-post o f a S outh A rabian k ingdom , b ut o n i t g eographical p osition a s t he s outhernmost t own o f C anaan , t he

l ong

m arch

t hrough

t he

d esert

t hat

s eparated

E gypt

t he f irst a fter f rom

t he

f ertile

l ands o f t he n orth .4 I t s tood o n t he m ain t runk r oad t hat r an f rom E gypt a long t he c oast o f P alestine a nd P hoenicia , w ith a n e astern b ranch l eading t o D amascus a nd o nwards t o M esopotamia . T his r oad , r eferred t o o nce i n t he B ible a s ' The Way o f t he S ea '. 3 a nd o nce a s ' The Way t o t he L and o f t he P hilistines ' 6, a nd l ater a s t he V ia M aris 7 , w as t he v ital l ink b etween E gypg a nd t he o ther e arly e mpires , b oth f or t rade a nd f or w arfare a nd c onquest .° G aza 's p ostion o n t he Way o f t he S ea a nd i ts a bundant water s upply a nd n atural f ertility m ade i t t he o bvious p lace w here e very t rading c aravan a nd e very a rmy would s top t o t ake o n f resh w ater , p rovisions a nd b aggage a nimals, e ither b efore t he s trenuous d esert m arch o r a fter i t . T he c onquest a nd c ontrol o f G aza h as, t herefore, a lways b een o f c rucial i mportance t o e very g eneral w ho h as e ver t ried t o i nvade E gypt n orth , o r P alestine f rom t he s outh , d own t o t he p resent d ay .9

f rom

t he

I n t he s econd h alf o f t he s ixteenth c entury B C , w hen t he P haraohs o f t he E gyptian N ew K ingdom r e-established t heir s overeignty o ver t he c ity-states o f C anaan , a fter t he e xpulsion o f t he H yksos , G aza w as c hosen a s t he m ain b ase o f t he E gyptian a dministration a nd a s t he r esidence o f i ts g overnor . 1° T he i nscriptions o f T hut-mose I II ( c . 1 468-1436) r efer t o G aza a s ' That w hich t he R uler S eized ' ,

a t itle i ndicating i t s tatus a s a n E gyptian b ase ."

T he c ity 's r ole i n t he E gyptian e mpire i s a lso a pparent i n t he T aanach t ablets ( dated e ither t o t he l ater p art o f t he r eign o f T hut-mose I II , o r t o t hat o f h is s uccessor, Am en -hotep I I), i n w hich t he r uler o f T aanach i s i nstructed t o s end m en a nd m aterials t o t he c ommander a t G aza l 2 T he E l A marna l etters ( dated t o b etween c . 1 402 a nd c . 1 347) r efer t o G aza a s t he h ead-quarters o f t he c ommissioner o f o ne o f t he t hree d istricts o f C anaan .1 3 D uring t he f ollowing t wo h undred y ears, E gyptian c ontrol g radually w eakened , u ntil , i n t he r eign o f R ameses I II 175-1144) , t he E gyptians f aced t he o verwhelming t hreat o f t he i nvasion o f t he ' P eoples o f t he S ea ' . T hey s ucceeded i n r epulsing t he i nvaders, b ut t heir s trength w as e xhausted a nd t heir d omination o ver C anaan f inally e nded . I n t he c onfused y ears t hat f ollowed t he c ollapse o f E gyptian r ule , o ne g roup o f t he S ea P eoples , t he P hilistines , s ucceeded i n i nstalling t hemselves a long t he c oast o f s outhern P alestine . G aza t hen b ecame o ne o f t he P hilistines ' f ive c hief c ities, r uled b y a s eren , o r t yrant ,1 4 a nd r emained l ittle a ffected b y t he w ars b etween t he P hilistines a nd t he I sraelites u nder S aul, D avid a nd t heir s uccessors. I n 7 34 B C G aza w as c onquered b y T iglath-pileser I II o f A ssyria , a long w ith t he r est o f S yria a nd P alestine . L ike s o m any o ther c onquerors , h e r ecognized t he s trategic i mportance o f G aza a nd i n h is f irst c ampaign h e c oncentrated o n s ecuring t he c oast a s f ar s outh a s G aza a nd t he B rook o f E gypt , i n o rder t o p revent E gyptian i ntervention , b efore t urnin& i nland , t o r educe t he K ingdom o f I srael a nd t he a rea a round D amascus .1 5 I n h is v ictory i nscriptions T iglath-pileser r ecords h ow H anno , t he r uler o f G aza , f led t o E gypt ,

l eaving h is c ity t o

t he A ssyrians ,

w ho i mposed

t ribute o n

i t .16 D uring t he r eign o f S argon I I ( 721-705) , H anno t ried , w ith E gyptian a ssistance t o r egain h is c ity , b ut w as d efeated b y t he A ssyrians a nd t aken p risoner . 1/ G aza e vidently r emained a v assal k ingdom u nder t he A ssyrians . S illibel, K ing o f G aza, r efused t o j oin t he r evolt o f H ezekiah o f J udah a gainst S ennacherib ( 705-681) a nd was r ewarded f or t his b y a g rant o f J udaean t erritory .1 8

K ings o f G aza n amed S il-bel , p resumably d escendants o f

2

t his S illibel , a re m entioned i n t he r ecords o f E sarhaddon ( 680-669) 1 9 A shurbanipal ( 668-633) . 20

a nd

A fter t he r eign o f A shurbanipal , t he A ssyrian E mpire f ell i nto t he h ands o f t he B abylonians . I n 6 05 N ebuchadnezzar o f B abylon m arched s outh a gainst P alestine . G aza p robably f ell t o h im i n 6 03 .2 1 W hethe o r n ot G aza r emained a v assal k ingdom u nder t he B abylonians i s u ncertain . ' I n 5 39 t he P ersian C yrus g ained c ontrol o f t he e ntire B abylonian E mpire . H is v ast r ealm w as d ivided i nto s atrapies ; P alestine , t ogether w ith S yria a nd P hoenicia , f ormed t he s atrapy o f ' B eyond t he R iver ' , b ut i t a ppears t he4 t he s maller a dministrative d ivision i nto p rovinces w as l eft u nchanged .` J T here i s, h owever , e vidence t o i ndicate t hat G aza w as l eft o utside t he b orders o f t he s atrapy . P seudo-Scylax r eports t hat A scalon w as t he s outhernmost c ity o f t he P ersian p rovince o f C oele-Syria . G aza , i t i s s uggested , w as e xcluded f rom t he p rovince a s b eing d ominated b y t he A rab k ing K edar , w ho c ontrolled t he r egion a long t he c oast t o t he s outh o f t he c ity .2 4 T here i s a mple e vidence f or G aza 's i mportance a s a t rading c entre a t t hat p eriod . H erodotus d escribes i t a s a c ity n ot m uch s maller t han S ardis . 25 T he n umerous c oins o f G aza m inted i n t he f ifth c entury a nd c losely r esembling A thenian c oins o f t he p eriod c learly i ndicate t he r ole p layed b y t he c ity i n i nternational t rade .2 6 F urther e vidence o f t rade b etween A thens a nd t he A rabian t ribes o f s outhern P alestine, p robably c onducted t hrough G aza , i s p rovided b y t he A ttic p ottery d iscovered a t E zion-geber .2 7 T he c lose a ssociation b etween G aza a nd t he A rabs o f t he a rea i s a lso s uggested b y t he r eport t hat a b ody o f A rab m ercenaries w as g arrisoned w ithin t he c ity , i n o rder t o d efend i t a gainst t he a ssault b y A lexander o f M acedon i n t he a utumn o f 3 32 .2 e 6 T he s iege o f G aza l asted f or t wo m onths , b ut e ventually t he M acedonians w ere v ictorious . T he m en d efending t he c ity w ere a ll k illed , t he w omen a nd c hildren w ere s old i nto s lavery , b ut t he t own i tself w as n ot d estroyed . A lexander m oved i n n ew i nhabitants f rom t he s urrounding v illages a nd r efortjAied i t , t o p rotect h im f rom t he r ear d uring h is m arch d own i nto E gypt. 4 7 D uring t he H ellenistic p eriod c ourse o f t he u nceasing s truggle c ontrol o ver C oele-Syria . I n 3 15 r etaken b y P tolemy I i n 3 1ZJ a fter

G aza c hanged h ands s everal t imes i n t he o f t he P tolemies a nd t he S eleucids f or i t w as c onquered b y A ntigonus ,3 ° b ut w as h is d efeat o f A ntigonus ' s on D emetrius o n

t he s ands s outh o f G aza .' T he n ext y ear , h owever, h e w as f orced t o w ithdraw i nto E gypt a nd r azed t he d efences o f G aza a nd o ther i mportant c ities o n t he w ay .) 2 I n 3 06 G aza w as u sed b y A ntigonus ag D emetrius a s a b ase f or a n a bortive a ttack o n E gypt b y b oth l and a nd s ea . A t t he b attle o f I psus i n 3 01 P tolemy r egained c ontrol o f t he w hole o f P alestine a nd i t w as h eld b y h is s uccessors f or t he n ext h undred y ears , d espite a ttempts b y t he S eleucids t o r etake i t. I n 2 17 A ntiochus I II i nvaded a nd h eld m ost o f P alestine . H e u sed G aza a s h is b ase f or a n a ttempted i nvasion o f E gypt, w hich e nded w ith h is d efeat a t R aphia .3 4 P alestine p assed f inally i nto S eleucid h ands a t t he b attle o f P anion i n 2 00 . G aza Id a pparently b een c aptured t he p revious y ear , a fter a d ifficult s iege. U nder t he S eleucids G aza 's p rosperity a nd i mportance a s at rading c entre a pparently d eclined .3 6 I t p layed l ittle p art i n t he w ars o f t he M accabees , b ut f rom 1 45 t o 1 43 i t w as b esieged b y J onathan M accabaeus, e ventually

3

s urrended a nd w as f orced t o h and o ver h ostages t o h im .3 7

H ellenistic G aza

c ame t o a n e nd a round 9 6 B C , w hen i t w as a ttacked b y A lexander J annaeus . T he b esieged c ity h eld o ut f or a y ear , b ut f inally , t hrough t reachery , i t w as f orced t o y ield t o J annaeus . T he p eople w ere m assacred a nd t he c ity i tself w as d estroyed .3 8 G aza d id n ot r evive u ntil a bout 5 8 B C , b y w hich t ime t he R omans u nder P ompey h ad g ained c ontrol o f t he a rea a nd t he p roconsul G abinius e ncouraged t he r ebuilding o f c ities d estroyed b y J annaeus .3 9 T he f irst y ears o f t he c ity w ere s till u nsettled , a s a r esult o f t he R oman c ivil w ars a nd t he P arthian i nvasion o f 4 1-40 . I n 3 4 G aza w as f or a t ime u nder t he c ontrol

.r ebuilt

o f C leopatra , 4° a nd i n 3 0 i t w as m ade p art o f t he k ingdom o f H erod ,4 1

b ut

a fter h is d eath i t w as r eturned t o d irect R oman r ule. 4 2 F or t he n ext s ix h undred y ears G aza e njoyed what was p robably t he l ongest p eriod o f p eace a nd u ninterrupted g overnment b y o ne p ower t hat i t e ver e xperienced t hroughout i ts h istory . D uring t hat t ime t he c ivil w ars , r ebellions a nd i nvasions t hat t roubled t he R oman E mpire i n g eneral a nd t he p rovinces o f J udaea ( later S yria P alaestina ) i n p articular p assed b y G aza , l eaving i t u ntouched . I ts c itizens m ust h ave b ecome a ccustomed t o t he s ight o f R oman l egions p assing t hrough t he t own , o ften w ith a n e mperor a t t heir h ead, o n t heir way t o f ight J ewish r ebels, P arthians, o r R oman p retenders t o t he i mperial t hrone , b ut t hey t hemselves w ere l eft i n p eace . T he d isturbances t hat d id o ccur w ere m inor o nes . G aza a ppears t o h ave b een a ttacked d uring t he J ewish R evolt o f A D 6 6 , b ut c annot h ave s uffered m ore t han m inor d amage . 43

T he b itter c onflict t hat d eveloped i n t he t own i n t he

f ourth c entury b etween p agans a nd C hristians o ccasionally r equired t he i ntervention o f i mperial t roops , b ut d oes n ot s eem t o h ave l ed t o w idespread d estruction o r l oss o f l ife . 44 A part f rom t hese f ew i ncidents , t he p eople o f G aza w ere l eft f ree t o c arry o n t heir t rade , a ccumulate t heir p rofits a nd e xpand a nd b eautify t heir c ity i n p eace a nd s ecurity . T owards t he e nd o f t his l ong p eriod o f s tability , i n t he s ixth c entury A D , G aza r eached t he h eight o f i ts p rosperity , a dorned w ith m agnificent c hurches , t heatres, b athh ouses a nd o ther p ublic b uildings . E laborate f estivals w ere h eld f or t he e ntertainment o f t he c itizens a nd t he m any p ilgrims w ho v isited t he c ity . M oreover , G aza b ecame a c entre o f h igher e ducation a nd l iterary c ulture t hat a ttracted s tudents f rom t he e ntire B yzantine w orld. T he p rosperity o f G aza d id n ot s urvive t he A rab c onquest o f 6 37 . T he c ity w as n ot d estroyed a nd f or a t ime s erved a s t he a dministrative c entre f or t he s urrounding a rea , 45 b ut t he h igh c ulture o f t he B yzantine p eriod d isappeared a nd w as n ot r eplaced . T he c ity c hanged h ands r epeatedly i n t he f requent

d ynastic

a nd

s ectarian

f ollowing c enturies . "

d isputes

b etween

t he

M oslems

d uring

t he

I n 1 100 G aza w as o ccupied a nd f ortified b y t he

C hristians o f t he F irst C rusade . T hey h eld i t , w ith s ome d ifficulty , u ntil 1 187, when t hey s urrendered i t t o S aladin . I n 1 191, d uring t he T hird C rusade , G aza w as b riefly h eld b y R ichard I o f E land , b ut u nder h is t reaty w ith S aladin i ts f ortifications w ere d ismantled ." F rom t he t hirteenth t o t he f ifteenth c entury G aza p layed i ts t raditional r ole a s as trategic s tronghold v ital t o t he s uccess o f a ny w ar b etween E gypt a nd i ts n eighbours t o t he n orth, a nd was t he s ite o f f requent b attles b etween M amelukes , S yrians , C hristians a nd M ongols . E ventually , i n 1 516 , t he c ity f ell t o t he O ttoman T urks a nd b ecame p art o f t heir e mpire . 48 w as

m ade

t he

c apital

o f

t he

p rovince o f

p rosperous .9

4

P alestine a nd

o nce

a gain

I t

b ecame

I n 1 799 G aza w as a gain o ccupied b y a n i nvader m arching n orth f rom E gypt , t his t ime N apoleon , w ho s aw t he c onquest o f G aza a s e ssential f or t he m aintenance

o f

h is

c ontrol

o ver E gypt .

B ut

l ater t he s ame y ear h e w as

f orced t o w ithdraw t hrough G aza a nd a bandon i t a fter h is d efeat a t A cre. 5 0 I n t he e arly p art o f t he n ineteenth c entury G aza a nd o ther p arts o f P alestine w ere i n t he h ands o f M ohammed A ll , w ho h ad r ebelled a gainst h is T urkish o verlord . I n 1 840 h e w as d efeated i n a b attle w ith t he T urks n ear G aza a nd h is a rmy w as c ompletely d estroyed. 5 1 G aza

t hen r emained u nder T urkish c ontrol u ntil

1 917,

when ,

a fter

p rolonged a nd h eavy f ighting, i t was c aptured b y A llenby , o nce a gain m arching n orth f rom E gypt t o t he c onquest o f P alestine .5 2 T hen i t w as u nder B ritish m andatory r ule u ntil 1 948 , w hen i t w as o ccupied b y t he E gyptians a nd h eld b y t hem, w ith t he e xception o f af ew m onths i n 1 956 , u ntil 1 967 . S ince t hen i t h as b een u nder I sraeli o ccupation . A fter n early f our t housand y ears o f h istory , G aza i s s till a f ocus f or c onflict b etween t he n ations o f t he r egion .

B : P REVIOUS R ESEARCH I NTO G AZA . I nvestigation i nto t he t opography a nd h istory o f G aza b egan i n t he n ineteenth c entury . T he t own w as v isited b y m any o f t he t ravellers a nd a ntiquarians, who were e agerly e xploring t he H oly L and a nd i ts a ncient s acred s ites . 53

Among t he f irst was t he American t heologian ,

E dward

R obinson , w ho v isited G aza i n 1 838 a nd r ecorded h is i mpressions o f t he t own , d escribing _it a s l arge a nd w ell-populated , s urrounded b y f ertile g ardens a nd o rchards .54 I n 1 863 G aza was v isited b y V ictor G ugrin , who was a lso i mpressed b y t he f ertility o f t he a rea , i ts o live g roves a nd o rchards . H e d escribed t he m osques a nd c hurches o f G aza , n oted t he a ncient c olumns a nd o ther a rchitectural f ragments i n s econdary u se i n i ts

b uildings,

a nd

s ummarized a nd c ommented u pon t he a ncient h istory o f t he t own . 55 A l ater v isitor w as t he a rchaeologist C harles C lermont-Ganneau , w ho s pent s ome t ime i n G aza i n 1 874 . H e c oncentrated o n i nvestigating t he a ntiquities o f t he t own , s urveyed t he G reat M osque a nd a s mall c hurch , a nd c ollected a l arge n umber o f i nscriptions , m ostly B yzantine e pitaphs, w hich p rovided t he b asis f or e stablishing t he e ra a nd c alendar o f G aza .5 ° I n 1 875 G aza w as s urveyed f or t he B ritish P alestine E xploration F und b y C aptians C onder a nd K itchener . T he s ection o f G aza i n t heir S urvey o f W estern P alestine i ncludes a d escription o f t he t opography o f t he t own , t ogether w ith a b r fs ummary o f i ts p rincipal b uildings a nd s ites o f a rchaeological i nterest. I n t he t wentieth c entury ,

h owever ,

G aza h as a ttracted l ittle a ttention

f rom s cholars a nd a lmost n o a rchaeological i nvestigations h ave b een c arried o ut t here . I t i s , o f c ourse , e xtremely d ifficult a nd e xpensive t o e xcavate o n a l arge s cale i n as ite o ccupied b y am odern t own , a nd t he p olitical t ensions o f t he a rea a re a nother f actor t hat h as d eterred a rchaeologists f rom e xploring t he t own a nd i ts s urroundings t horoughly . I n

1 922

t he

B ritish

e xploratory t renches

a rchaeologist

t hrough

W .H .

t he n orth s ide

P hythian-Adams o f

t he

t ell

a t

c ut

t wo

G aza

a nd

u ncovered a n umber o f w alls a nd s ome p ottery , w hich h e i dentified a s o f t he B ronze a nd I ron A ge a nd o f t he R oman p eriod . U nfortunately , h is e xcavations w ere o n t oo s mall a s cale a nd h is r eport o n t hem t oo b rief a nd l acking i n d etail t o p rovide u seful e vidence a s t o t he h istory o f t he t own , t hough h e h imself b elieved h is f ailure t o f ind H ellenistic p ottery t here t o

5

b e s ignificant. 5 8 I n 1 965 a l arge a nd w ell-preserved m osaic p avement w as f ound c lose t o t he s ea n ot f ar f rom G aza . T he E gyptian e xcavators t ook i t a s b eing f rom a B yzantine c hurch , b ut I sraeli a rchaeologists i mmediately i dentified i t f rom t he p ublished p hotographs a s t he p avement o f a s ynagogue . A fter I srael g ained c ontrol o f t he G aza S trip i n J une 1 967 , a n a rchaeological r escue e xpedition w as m ounted u nder t he d irection o f A . O vadiah a nd t he s ynagogue a nd s ome s urrounding i ndustrial b uildings w ere u ncovered a nd i nvestigated . •A l ater s eason o f e xcavations i n 1 976 r evealed m ore b uildings a nd i nstallations a nd s ome f ortifications . T hese f indings a re o f i mportance a s e vidence b oth f or t he s ite o f G aza 's p ort t own M aioumas , w hich h ad h itherto b een u ncertain , a nd f or t he p resence o f aJ ewish c ommunity i n t he t own i n t he B yzantine p eriod . O vadiah h as p ublished a n umber o f a rticles d ealing w ith t he d iscoveries .5 9 S ince t hen n o f urther a rchaeological w ork h as b een c arried o ut i n t he t own . N or h ave a ncient h istorians p aid m uch a ttention t o G aza _ O nly t hree c omplete b ooks h ave b een w ritten o n t he h istory o f t he c ity . T he f irst, G aza u nd d ie P hilistäische K üste b y K .B . S tark , w as p ublished i n 1 852 . I t i s am assive w ork o f 6 45 p ages , c overing t he p eriod f rom t he f oundation o f t he c ity u ntil t he A rab c onquest . S tark w as c learly a s erious s cholar , t horoughly f amiliar w ith t he l iterary s ources , G reek , L atin a nd H ebrew . H e h ad a s ound g rasp o f h istory , a nd w as a ble t o c onsider d evelopments i n G aza w ithin a b roader h istorical c ontext . H is b ook c ontains m uch t hat i s o f v alue a nd i nterest e ven t oday a nd i s b asic t o a ny s tudy o f t he h istory o f G aza . B ut i t i s o bviously o ut-of-date i n m any r espects . S tark w as n ot a ware o f t he a ncient E gyptian a nd A ssyrian d ocuments t hat h ave r evolutionized t he s tudy o f t he h istory o f t he a ncient N ear E ast . S ince w ork o n t he d ecipherment a nd t ranslation o f t hese r ecords w as i n i ts v ery e arly s tages i n t he e ighteen-fifties , h e c an h ardly b e b lamed f or t hat , b ut t he f irst h alf o f h is b ook i s , t herefore , c ompletely s uperseded . I n t he f ield o f C lassical s tudies t oo , t he d evelopment o f a rchaeology , e pigraphy a nd n umismatics h as b rought a bout g reat c hanges i n t he m ethods o f h istorical r esearch a nd h as p rofoundly i nfluenced o ur v iew o f t he a ncient w orld . S tark w rote a t at ime when t hese s ciences w ere s till i n t heir i nfancy , a lthough h e d rew o n t heir e vidence a s f ar a s i t w as a vailable t o h im . H is w ork n eeds , t herefore , t o b e b rought u p t o d ate , b y c onsideration b oth o f t he l ater d iscoveries s pecifically r elated t o G aza a nd o f m ore g eneral c hanges i n t he f ield o f a ncient h istory . T he s econd b ook d ealing w ith t he h istory o f G aza i s M .A . M eyer 's A H istory o f t he C ity o f G aza , p ublished i n 1 907 . I t a ttempts t o c over t he e ntire h istory o f G aza f rom i ts f oundation t o t he e nd o f t he n ineteenth c entury , a nd c ontains a n i mmense a mount o f i nformation a nd r eferences t o a w ide r ange o f s ources . B ut i t h as s erious l imitations . M eyer w as a s tudent m ore o f S emitic l anguages a nd l iterature t han o f t he C lassics a nd , a s h e h imself a dmits i n h is p reface , f or t he C lassical p eriod h e r elied v ery h eavily u pon S tark . 6° H e a ttempted t o a dd s uch n ew m aterial a s h ad b ecome a vailable s ince S tark 's t ime , i n p articular t he i nscriptions c ollected b y C lermont-Ganneau . B ut f requently h e m erely s ummarised S tark , n ot a lways c hecking w hether n ew i nformation w as t o b e f ound .6 1 M oreover , h e d isplays a l ack o f u nderstanding o f t he h istory a nd i nstitutions o f t he G raeco-Roman w orld .6 2 O ccasionally h e m akes a s tatement t hat i s n ot s upported b y 14 s ources .6 3 A t t imes t he l ogic o f h is a rgument i s u nclear o r c onfused ." H is r eferences a re s ometimes i naccurate o r i nadequate a nd h e g ives n o p roper b ibliography . A ll t hese f actors l imit t he u sefulness o f h is w ork , d espite

6

t he l arge a mount o f i nformation i t c ontains . T he t hird b ook o n a ncient G aza d eals o nly w ith o ne s pecific p eriod . T his i s G aza i n t he E arly S ixth C entury b y G . D owney , w hich g ives a v ivid a nd c onvincing d escription o f l ife i n t he c ity a t t he h eight o f i ts p rosperity a nd c ultural p re-eminence . I t i s b ased o n d eep k nowledge o f t he s ources o n G aza i tself a nd o f t he h istory a nd l iterature o f t he C lassical a nd B yzantine p eriods i n g eneral . B ut i t i s a p opular b ook , o ne o f t he C enters o f C ivilization s eries p ublished b y t he U niversity o f O klahoma , a nd i t d oes n ot g ive r eferences t o i ts s ources . a ssistance t o a cademic r esearch .

I t i s t herefore o f l ittle

S eparate a spects o f t he a ncient h istory o f G aza h ave b een d iscussed i n a n umber o f

i ndividual a rticles ,

i ncluding U . R appaport 's G aza a nd A scalon i n

t he P ersian a nd H ellenistic P eriods i n r elation t o t heir C oins, 63

A .

K asher 's G aza d uring t he G reco-Roman E ra , 66 w hich a lso d eals m ainly w ith t he H ellenistic p eriod, a nd A . G uillou 's L a P rise d e G aza p ar l es A rabes , 67 w hich e stablishes t he d ate o f t he A rab c onquest o f G aza a s A D 6 37 , n ot 6 34 , a s i s s ometimes s tated. G aza i s, o f c ourse , a lso d iscussed i n g eneral w orks o n t he g eography a pA a ncient h istory o f P alestine , s uch a s t hose o f G .A . S mith ,6 8 F . -M . A bel"' a nd M . A vi-Yonah . 7° T hese s cholars s ummarize t he h istory o f t he c ity , l isting a ncient s ources a nd d iscussing p roblems a rising f rom t hem , s uch a s t he c omplicated q uestion w hether G aza w as a t a ny t ime r ebuilt o n a s ite d ifferent f rom t hat o f t he a ncient b iblical c ity . O ne v ery i mportant r ecent w ork o f t his k ind, w hich i ncludes v aluable r eferences t o m odern r esearch , i s t he r evised E nglish e dition o f E . S chürer 's H istory o f t he J ewish P eople i n t he A ge o f J esus C hrist. 7 1 A nother

e xtremely u seful

r ecent

w ork ,

T he C ity i n E retz-Israel D uring

t he L ate R oman & B yzantine P eriods b y t he l ate Y aron D an , t he p roduct i mmense l earning a nd f amiliarity w ith B yzantine s ources i n a n umber l anguages, i s s o f ar a vailable o nly i n H ebrew . I t i s t o b e h oped t hat E nglish t ranslation w ill e ventually m ake D an 's v aluable c ontribution t o

o f o f a n t he

h istory o f B yzaninte P alestine a ccessible t o aw ider p ublic. R esearch i nto G aza h as a lso b een f acilitated i n t he t wentieth c entury b y t he p ublication o f s cholarly a nd w idely a vailable e ditions o f t wo o f t he m ost i mportant B yzantine s ources o n G aza . T he f irst i s H . G r6goire a nd M .A . K ugener 's e xtremely l earned e dition o f t he V ita P orphyrii o f M arcus D iaconus, c omplete w ith F rench t ranslation , l engthy i ntroduction a nd d etailed n otes . T he s econd i s t he T eubner e dition , b y R . F oerster a nd E . R ichsteig, o f t he w orks o f C horicius o f G aza.

7

N OTES T O I NTRODUCTION . 1 .

M .A . M eyer, H istory o f t he C ity o f G aza , 1 314, 1 9 .

2 .

S teph .Byz . S O4 G aza . O n H ellenistic l egends e xplaining t he n ames a nd g lorifying t he o rigins o f P alestinian c ities , s ee A bel , H istoire d e l a P alestine I , 2 70-273 .

3 .

M eyer, 1 4; K .B . S tark , G aza u nd d ie P hilistäische K üste, 5 80-583 .

4 .

I n f act R aphia , s everal m iles t o t he s outh o f G aza , i s a lso a n a ncient t own , m entioned i n e arly E gyptian s ources . B ut i t s eems n ever t o h ave a chieved t he s ize o r i mportance o f G aza . O n R aphia , s ee C h . I , p p . 1 213 .

5 . 6 . 7 .

o 'n 1 11

I saiah 9 , 1 .

D '1 1 0D V i N1 11 E xodus 1 3, 1 7. V ia M an s was t he p hrase u sed i n L atin v ersions o f t he B ible f or I saiah 's o 'n yn. I n t he M iddle A ges i t w as a lso u sed o f t he r oad f rom D amascus t o t he c oast. Y . A haroni, T he L and o f t he B ible , 4 6 .

8 .

A haroni, 4 5-46 .

9 .

M . G ichon , " The H istory o f t he G aza S trip: A G eo-political a nd G eostrategic P erspective ', T he J erusalem C athedra 2 , 2 82-317.,

1 0 .

A haroni, 1 50-151.

1.

A NET , 2 35; A haroni, 1 53 .

1 2.

A haroni, 1 69 .

1 3.

A haroni, 1 72.

1 4 .

A haroni, 2 67-270 .

1 5.

A haroni, 3 68-72.

1 6 .

A NET , 2 83 .

1 7.

A NET , 2 84 , 2 85.

1 8 .

2K ings,

1 9 .

A NET , 2 91.

2 0 .

A NET , 2 94 .

2 1.

A haroni, 4 05.

2 2.

A haroni, 4 08 .

2 3 .

A haroni, 4 11.

1 8,8 ; A NET , 2 88 ; A haroni, 3 87-389.

8

2 4 .

H erodotus I II, 5 :

A tyunzove

g oevu ö t z aev p c tat p avepat tOoKat L c

& nô y tp O oLvex TK g expt op

n 6Xtik t e aTt . E upCwv

w vT e iv Kaöe ctoG t r hv n aXa txrdvwv x aXcogivwv. c i nb

o e

6 t K aö e c un t oe mg n 6Xun, e & K t got 6 oxect, E apöCwv n o W i l W aao wn, e te T aeTTK e i gnopCa e i t e aXdaan g eXPL

' Invec rovo t Atöz t aIL z ot / ' ApaßCou ve te s 6 t

' Inveuou a t cLz E upCwv g exp l . E cpßwvC6oc X C l ivrK, n aP q ;v 6 h I c b K daLov t i p cK t ervet L ç e aXdaaav•

H erodotus c alls G aza K e Lötr t‘C b ecause h e w as f amiliar w ith t he E gyptian f orm o f t he n ame , t ransliterated q -d-t , o r g -d-t , A haroni , 14 . S ee a lso i bid 4 12 ; U . R appaport , ' G aza a nd A scalon i n t he P ersian a nd H ellenistic P eriods i n r elation t o t heir c oins ', I EJ 2 0 ( 1970) , 7 5; A . K asher , ' Gaza d uring t he G reco-Roman E ra ', T he J erusalem C athedra, 2 , 6 3-65 . 2 5.

l oc.cit. l ast n ote .

2 6 .

R appaport, 7 5-76 ; B MCPal l xxxiiilxxxix , 1 76-183 .

2 7.

A haroni, 4 14-415 .

2 8 .

A rrian , A nab . I I , 2 5 ,4.

2 9 .

A rrian , A nab . I I, 2 6-27 ; D iod. X VII, 4 8 ,7 ; J os. A nt. X I , 8 ,4 ( 325).

3 0 .

D iod . X IX 5 9 ,2.

3 1.

D iod. X IX 8 0-84.

3 2.

D iod. X IX 9 3,7.

3 3 .

D iod. X X 7 3-74 .

3 4 .

P olyb . V8 0-86 .

3 5 .

P olyb . X VI 1 8 ,2 ; X VI 2 2a ( 4); X XIX 1 2 ( 6a).

3 6 .

R appaport, 7 7-78 .

3 7 .

IM acc. 1, 6 1-62 ; J os. A nt. X III 5 ,5 ( 153).

3 8 .

J os. A nt. X III 1 3,3 ( 358-364); B .J. I 4 ,2 ( 87).

3 9 .

J os.

A nt. X IV 1,4 ( 76); 5 ,3 ( 87-88); B .J. I 7 ,7 ( 156-157).

4 0 .

J os.

A nt. X V 4 ,1 ( 95); B .J. I 1 8 ,5 ( 361).

4 1.

J os.

A nt. X V 7 ,3 ( 217); B .J . I2 0,3 ( 396).

4 2.

J os.

A nt. X VII 1,4 ( 320); B .J. I I 6 ,3 ( 97).

4 3 .

J os. B .J. I I 1 8,1 ( 460); S chürer 2 I I, 1 02.

9

4 4.

S ee a lso e .g. M arc .Diac. 2 2-25, 9 5, 9 9 ; S ee C h .2 , p p . 4 5-48 .

4 5.

K raemer, E xcavations a t N essana I II , 3 2; P Colt n os. 5 5, 5 9 , 6 0-67, 7 5 .

4 6.

M eyer , 7 6-79.

4 7.

M eyer , 8 0-83,

4 8 .

M eyer , 8 3-96 .

4 9 .

M eyer , 9 7-99 .

5 0 .

M eyer , 1 01102 ; G ichon , 3 04-307.

5 1.

M eyer , 1 02103 ; G ichon , 3 07-308 .

5 2.

G ichon , 3 08-312.

5 3 .

O n t hese n ineteenth c entury R ediscovery o f t he H oly L and .

5 4 .

B iblical R esearches i n P alestine , M ount S inai a nd A rabia I I, 3 67-383 .

5 5.

D escription d e l a P alestine I I , 1 78-211.

5 6.

A RP, 3 79-437.

5 7.

S WP I II , 2 34-235 ; 2 48-251.

5 8 .

P EFQSt. 1 923, 1-36.

5 9 .

Q admoniot I ( 1968) , 1 24-127 ( Hebrew) ; I EJ 1 9 ( 1969) , 1 93-198 ; R B 8 2 ( 1975) , 5 52-557 ; I EJ 2 7 ( 1977) , 1 76-178 . S ee a lso : M . B arasch , T he D avid M osaic o f G aza ( type-script i n T el-Aviv U niversity L ibrary ) . --

6 0 .

M eyer , v iii .

6 1.

S ee e .& . h is d iscussion o f t he m agistrates o f G aza ( pp . 5 5-57) . I t i s t rue t hat h e m akes u se o f m ore r ecently d iscovered i nscriptions r eferring t o G aza a s ac olonia a nd t o t he a goranomos o f t he c ity , b ut t he r est o f t he d iscussion i s a c onfused s ummary o f S tark , 5 26-553 . M oreover , h e f ollows S tark i n q uoting M arcus D iaconus i n L atin t ranslation , d espite t he f act t hat s ince S tark 's t ime t he G reek t ext h ad b een p ublished t wice , f irst b y H aupt i n 1 874 a nd t hen i n t he B onn e dition o f 1 895, a nd s hould h ave b een a vailable t o h im .

6 2 .

E .g . h is d efinition o f a R oman c olonia o n p . 5 5 : ' These m ilitary c olonies w ere d irectly u nder t he e mperor o f R ome , w ho a ppointed a l egate t o t ake c harge o f t he c ities i n h is n ame . T he S enate h ad n othing t o d o w ith s uch c olonies , a s t heir f orm o f g overnment w as b ut t he e xtension o f t he m ilitary i deal'.

6 3.

O n p . 6 0 h e s tates t hat, a fter t he d eath o f t he E mperor J ulian , Maioumas, t he p ort t own o f G aza, w as f or a s econd t ime m ade I ndependent . H e s upports t his w ith a r eference t o S ozomen , H .E .V ,9 , w hich c oncerns t he p ersecution o f C hristians i n G aza u nder J ulian a nd i s i rrelevant i n t his c ontext . O n t he n ext p age h e a ccurately r eports

t ravellers,

s ee :

Y .

B en-Arieh

T he

F or t he i nscriptions, s ee A ppendix , p p . 15156 b elow .

1 0

S ozomen 's

a ccount ,

t hat

r etaining a s eparate ( H .E.III, 8 ).

M aioumas b ishopric,

r emained

s ubject

a nd g ives

t he

t o

G aza ,

c orrect

a lthough r eference

6 4.

S ee e .g . p p . 9 -11, where h e f irst q uotes t wo a ncient s ources w hich s tate t hat a t s ome s tage a ' New G aza ' w as b uilt o n a s ite d ifferent f rom t hat o f ' O ld G aza ' , a nd t hen p roceeds t o a rgue f rom t hem t hat t he n ew c ity w as b uilt i mmediately o ver t he r uins o f t he o ld o ne .

6 5.

L oc .cit . n . 2 4 a bove . A nother u seful a rticle which d iscusses H ellenistic G aza i s M . S tern, ' Hareka h amedini l emilhamotav s hel A lexander Y annai', T arbiz 3 3 ( 1963), 3 25-336.

n ö.

L oc.cit. n .

6 7.

B ulletin d e C orrespondance H ellenique 8 1

6 8.

T he H istorical G eography o f t he H oly L and; o n G aza:

6 9.

G eographie d e l a P alestine I I; o n G aza: 3 27-328 .

7 0.

2 4 a bove . ( 1957), 3 96-404.

T he H oly L and f rom t he P ersian t o t he A rab C onquests ; o n G aza : AG azetteer o f R oman P alestine ; o n G aza: 5 9.

7 1.

1 33118.

O n G aza : 9 8-103.

1

1 50-151;

C HAPTER 1 : T HE T OPOGRAPHY O F G AZA

A : T HE S ITUATION O F T HE C ITY A ND I TS P ORT T he m odern t own o f G aza i s L ong .

( map r ef .

p lain ,

0 99101) 1.

s ituated a t

a bout t hree m iles f rom t he s ea ,

way t o s andy, b ut f ertile s oi1 .2 h ill ,

w hich r ises a bout

3 1

°

3 0 ' N .

L at .

a nd 3 4° 2 8 ' E .

I t l ies i n t he s outhern p art o f

t he c oastal

a t ap oint w here t he s and d unes g ive

T he t own i s b uilt o n a nd a round a l ow

1 00 f t . a bove t he s urounding l evel g round .3

A nother

h ill, k nown a s A li-Muntar, r ises t o t he s outh-east o f G aza .4 T he l and s urrounding t he t own i s e xtremely f ertile a nd well-watered, d espite r elatively l ow a nnual r ainfall ( 300-400 mm . p .a .) .5 A l arge n umber o f w ells p rovide water f or t he t own a nd t he s urrounding f ields .6 T his a bundant g round w ater s upply i s d ue t o t he f act t hat G aza l ies j ust o utside a c losed c atchment

a rea ,

w here

w ater h as n o o utlet

b eneath t he s urface o f t he g round . i ntermediate a rea , c hanne1 .7 t own

a t

T he

s o i s c ollected s ituated i n a n

d rained b y n umerous s mall s treams,

r eports

a t ime

t o t he s ea a nd

T he t own i tself i s

o f

n ineteenth

when c onditions

i n

c entury

t he

a rea

r ather t han o ne m ain

t ravellers , w ere

who

v isited

t he

l argely u nchanged s ince

a ncient t imes , d escribe G aza a s e xceptionally f ertile , a nd a s s urrounded b y o live g roves, I t

h as

o rchards a nd g ardens .8

n ever b een d oubted

t hat

m odern G aza

r ests o n t he s ite o f t he

R oman a nd B yzantine c ity , a nd t he e arly t ravellers i nvestigated a nd r ecorded t he a ncient a rchitectural f ragments t hey d iscovered i n t heir e xplorations o f t he t own .9 s tanding,

B y t he n ineteenth c entury t he walls o f G aza were n o l onger t hough

t hey

c ould

b e

t raced . 1°

C onder a nd K itchener d escribe

' green m ounds ' e xtending r ound t he c entral h ill a nd s uggest t he r emains o f t he C rusader f ortifications .1

t hat

t hese a re

G aza i s s heltered b y s and d unes f rom t he s ea , w hich i s n ot v isible f rom t he t own ,

1 2

b ut a r oad l eads d own t o t he s hore a nd a l anding-stage 1 3 . T his

i s u ndoubtedly t he s ite o f t he a ncient p ort t own o f G aza . w hich i n e arlier s ources i s r eferred t o s imply a s 0 Ta lv ra .40 .( twV Ä Lg i lv ,14 b u t i n t he B yzantine

p eriod

w as

k nown

a s

M aioumas .1 5

T races

o f

a ncient

w alls

a nd

q uantities o f p otsherds a re t o b e f ound a mong t he d unes f acing t he b each ,1 6 a nd t he d iscovery a nd e xcavation o f aB yzantine s ynagogue a nd i ndustrial a nd r esidential b uildings c lose t o t he b each j ust s outh o f t he p resent l andings tage ,

a nd m assive f ortifications

t hat a p rosperous

t o t he n orth o f

i t,

h ave

t own e xisted o n t he s ite a t t hat p eriod .1 7

m ade

i t c lear

I t m ay s eems

s urprising t hat t his h ad e ver b een d oubted , p articularly a s o n a n ineteenth c entury p lan o f G aza t he c ity g ate o n t he r oad l eading t o t he s ea i s m arked B ab M aim s ( Maioumas G ate) ,' öb ut o ne t heOry h ad a rgued t hat t he s hoals o ff t he c oast o f G aza m ade t he p resence o f a p ort t here i mpossible , a nd t hat M aioumas f i ust h ave b een s ituated f urther t o t he n orth , c lose t o t he s ite o f t he a ncient A nthedon .1 9 T he a bundant w ater-supply a nd f ertility o f G aza a nd t he p ossibility o f c onducting s ea-trade f rom i ts s hore,

e ven w ithout a r eal h arbour ,

a re

u ndoubtedly t he f actors t hat l ed t o G aza 's p rosperity a nd i mportance i n t he a ncient p eriod .

T his i s c learly d emonstrated b y a c omparison w ith R aphia ,

twenty-two miles t o t he s outh o f G aza .

1 2

T his t own ( present-day R afah),

a lthough e xisting f rom e arly t imes , n ever a chieved t he s ize o r i mportance o f G aza .

I t

i s b asically a d esert

o asis,

w ith a m ean a verage r ainfall

l ower

t han t hat o f G aza 2 ° a nd , a lthough A bel r emarks, ' Rafah d olt s on i mportance ä s es p uits ' a nd ' certains d e c es p uits s ont c ombils ' ,2 1 i t s eems t hat R aphia w as n ever a ble

t o s upply w ater a nd p rovisions

f or a t ransient a rmy o n t he

s ame l avish s cale a s G aza . Moreover, R aphia h ad n o h arbour, i ts c oasts f acing d angerous s hoals, a f act c ommented o n b y D iodorus:

2 1a

G aza , o n t he o ther h and , c ould p rovide f or e very a rmy a nd e very t rading

c aravan t ravelling o n t he c oastal h ighway ,2 2 a nd i ts p ort w as a lso o f v ital c ommercial i mportance , s erving a s a n o utlet f or t he p rofitable s pice t rade f rom S outh A rabia ,

a s w ell f or t he a gricultural p roduc p

t he B yzantine p eriod ,

t he w ine ,

o f t he s urrounding a rea .

p articularly ,

i n

J

B : O LD A ND N EW G AZA T his c ombination o f f avourable c onditions m akes t he s ituation o f G aza s eem i deal f or t he d evelopment o f a l arge a nd p rosperous

t own a t a ll

p eriods . I t i s, t herefore , s urprising t o d iscover t hat s ome o f t he a ncient s ources s uggest t hat a t s ome s tage t he o riginal s ite o f t he c ity w as a bandoned a nd a ' New G aza ' b uilt i n a d ifferent p osition . T he i nformation g iven b y t hese s ources h as

a risen among

i s

n ot

s cholars

e stablishing o f t he s ites o f

e ntirely c lear a nd

a s

t o

t heir

' Old ' a nd

c onsiderable

i nterpretation

New ' G aza .

e xtremely c omplex o ne , b efore d iscussing i t,

c ontroversy

a nd

a s

t o

t he

S ince t he p roblem i s a n

Is hall f irst l ist t he s ources:

Q uaeritur a utem q uomodo i n q uodam p rofeta d icatur G aza f utura i n

t umulum

s empiternum .

q uod

c ivitatis l ocum v ix f undamentorum a utem,

q uae

c orruit,

n unc

c ernitur,

s olvitur p raebere

i n a lio

l oco,

i ta:

a ntiquae

v estigia,

h anc

p ro

q uae

i lla,

a edificatam .

J erome, O nomasticon, e d. K lostermann , p . 6 3. sP Lvoxdpoupa

B.

de F ragment ( 1717) Co

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gm /0G r dt ,a,

i n H udson , .

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1 6

G aza w as b uilt o n t he s ame s ite a s t he r uined c ity .3 2 P hythian-Adams w as s truck b y t he f act t hat i n h is e xcavations a t G aza h e f ound n o H ellenistic p ottery . T his l ed h im t o b elieve t hat t he s ite w as a t l east p artly d eserted d uring t hat p eriod a nd t hat a t s ome t ime a fter t he c onquest b y A lexander a n ew G aza m ust h ave g rown u p o n a d ifferent s ite . T his N ew G aza , h e a rgues , w as o n t he c oast , a nd h e i nterprets p assages f rom D iodorus a nd J osephus ( K LM ) i n s upport o f t his c laim . I n t he R oman p eriod , h e b elieves , ' A ncient G aza ' r egained i ts i mportance a s a s tation o n t he c aravan r oad t o E gypt a nd ' N ew G aza ' f ell i nto d ecline , G aza 's s ea t rade t hen s hifting t o t he p ort M aioumas , w hich , h e b elieves , l ay t o t he n orth o f G aza , c lose t o A nthedon . O ne p ossible s ite f or 1W 0 7 G aza ' , h e s uggests , w ithout p resenting a ny e vidence f or i t , i s T ell-el-Ajjul , c lose t o t he s ea o n t he W adi G aza , t o t he s outh o f t he t own .3 3 B ut , a s P hythian-Adams h imself a dmits , h is e xcavations a t G aza w ere o n t oo s mall a s cale t o p rovide e vidence f or t he c ity a s aw hole .3 4 M oreover , t here i s n o n eed t o i nterpret a ny o f t he p assages h e q uotes f rom D iodorus a nd J osephus a s r eferring t o a m aritime c ity . A ll a re p erfectly i ntelligible , a nd a re u sually u nderstood , a s r eferring t o t he a ncient c ity o n i ts t raditional s ite , w ith i ts n earby p ort . F or i nstance , h e c laims t hat D iodorus ' a ccount o f t he e xpedition a gainst E gypt o f 3 06BC , l ed b y A ntigonus b y l and a nd D emetrius b y s ea , ( M ) i mplies t hat G aza m ust h ave b een ac oastal c ity a t t hat t ime , s ince D iodorus n ames i t a s t he p oint w here b oth f orces g athered b efore t he i nvasion .3 5 B ut t his i nterpretation i s t otally u nnecessary . I t i s q uite c omprehensible o n t he a ssumption t hat A ntigonus ' a rmy c amped a t G aza , o n i ts t raditional s ite o n t he r oad t o E gypt , w hile D emetrius ' f leet m oored o ff t he s hore t hree m iles a way . T he f act t hat D iodorus s tates t hat t he f leet s ailed tx TIc r ol OK a nd n ot IX T OV Z MN ra atWN X,i voç does not have any particular s ignificance . I t i s s imply a l oose e xpression . T he s ame i s t rue f or t he r emarks o f J osephus w hich h e q uotes .36 W hile J osephus d oes s ometimes r efer t o G aza a s a maritime c ity, i n c ontradistinction t o s uch t owns a s A zotus a nd J amnia , w hich a re l ittle , i f a t a ll , f urther i nland t han G aza , 0 (4 i n o ne p lace ( L ) h e l ists t hese t wo a longside G aza a nd o ther t owns a s b eing o n t he c oast . H e i s s imply n ot v ery p recise i n h is u se o f t hese t erms. G .A . S mith a lso b elieved t hat ' M aw G aza ' w as b uilt , b y G abinius , o n t he c oast , p ossibly c lose t o t he e xisting h arbour . H e a lso c ites J osephus ( K ) i n s upport o f ' Maritime G aza ' , a nd s uggests t hat t he o riginal s ite m ay n ot h ave b een c ompletely a bandoned , o r a t l east n ot f or a ny c onsiderable l ength o f t ime, a nd t hat, a lthough i t c ontinued t o b e k nown a s ' Desert G aza ', p eople w ould g radually h ave m oved b ack t o i t , a ttracted b y i ts p osition o n t he m ain r oad a nd t he f ertility o f t he s ite . 37 O nce a gain , t here i s n o e vidence t o s upport t his t heory a nd i t i s n ot s afe t o i nterpret J osephus ' w ords t oo p recisely . Y et a nother t heory , t hat o f A bel , a lso i nvolves T ell-el-Ajjul , t his t ime a s 'A ncient G aza ' . T he t ell w as e xcavated b y S ir F linders P etrie , w ho a lso i dentified i t a s ' Ancient G aza ' a nd f ound r ich C anaanite a nd E gyptian r emains t here . 38 A bel s uggested t hat, a lthough i ts b uildings w ere d estroyed b y t he P hilistines a round 1 200 B C , s ufficient t races r emained v isible t o l ead t he G reeks t o t he c onclusion t hat t his w as t he o riginal s ite o f t he c ity a nd t o n ame t he t ell ' Palaigaza% 39 T his s uggestion n eatly d isposes o f t he n ecessity o f a ssuming t hat G aza c hanged i ts s ite i n

1 7

H ellenistic o r R oman t imes , a nd f its v ery w ell D iodorus ' a ccount ( C ) o f t he B attle o f G aza o f 3 12 B C : t he b attle t ook p lace c lose t o T ell-el-Ajjul

( e

)E aXata r e t4o v a nd , w hile f leeing n orthward , D emetrius ' d efeated t roops p assed t he c ity o f G aza a nd s ome o f t hem e ntered i t t o a cquire b aggage a nimals . B ut i t m ay b e d oubted w hether b uildings a bandoned i n t he s econd m illenium , i n a n a rea c onsisting l argely o f s and-dunes , w ould s till h ave b een v isible i n t he H ellenistic p eriod , l et a lone t he f ifth c entury A D , w hen J erome s peaks o f t he r uins o f ' A ncient G aza ' a s s till v isible ( A ) . B ut t he m ain d ifficulty i n a ccepting A bel 's s olution , a nd t hose o f t he s cholars w ho a rgue f or a ' N ew G aza ' o n t he c oast , i s t hat t hey i gnore t he e vidence o f t he a nonymous f ragment ( B ) , w hich s tates t hat 1 * . e .w G aza ' l ay t o t he s outh o f t he ' Old ' o r ' Desert G aza ' . I t i s p ossible t hat i ts a uthor w as m istaken a nd h as c onfused t he r elative p ositions o f O ld a nd N ew G a m W e h ave , a fter a ll, n o e vidence a s t o h is i dentity , d ate , s ources, o r g eneral r eliability . B ut h e o ffers a c lear s tatement, w hich i t s eems u nsafe t o i gnore , o r t o d ismiss , a s M eyer d oes , a s ' a l iterary c reation , r ather t han a h istorical f act% 4 1 T he e ditors o f t he r evised E nglish e dition o f S chürer t ake t he v iew t hat t his t estimony m ust b e a ccepted a nd t hat ' N ew G aza ' l ay t o t he s outh o f t he a ncient c ity .q 2 B ut t his s till l eaves u nanswered t he q uestions : w here w as N ew G aza a nd w hen w as i t a bandoned i n f avour o f a r eturn t o t he o riginal s ite . Y et a nother q uestion i s : w hy w as t he a ncient s ite a bandoned a t a ll? I t h ad s o m any a dvantages , i ts p roximity t o ap ort , w hile b eing s heltered f rom w inter s torms, t he f ertility o f t he s urrounding f ields, a nd , a bove a ll , i ts p lentiful w ater s upply , t hat i t s eems s urprising t hat t here c ould b e a ny r eason t o i nduce i ts i nhabitants t o a bandon t he s ite . P erhaps t he a nswer i s t hat t he c ity w as n ot m oved v ery f ar . M aybe a ll t hat t he s ources m ean i s t hat t he o riginal t ell w as a bandoned a nd G aza r ebuilt a t i ts f oot , a l ittle t o t he s outh , a s h appened a t o ther a ncient c ities , f or i nstance B eit-She 'an a nd J ericho .4 3 I t i s t rue t hat t he t ell a t G aza i s w ithin t he m odern t own , a nd p robably h as b een s ince R oman t imes ,4 4 b ut i t i s e asy t o i magine t hat , a s t he c ity g rew , i t c ould h ave e xpanded n orthward u ntil i t e ncompassed t he t ell a gain . T his s olution w ould e xplain w hy n o s atisfactory s ite f or ' N ew G aza ' h as b een f ound , a nd w hy t here i s n o r eference t o i ts a bandonment i n f avour o f t he o riginal s ite . I t w ould a lso a ccount f or t he n ame e pT )µ0C t hat c lung t o G aza . T he t ell w ith i ts r uins w ould h ave b een m ore c onspicuous , p articularly f or t hose a pproaching f rom t he n orth ( E ) , t han t he n ew c ity a t i ts f oot . N o d oubt t he r uined b uildings o n t he m ound w ould g radually h ave b een d ismantled a nd t heir s tones r eused , u ntil, a s J erome s aid ( A), o nly t he t races o f t he f oundations r emained v isible . B ut o nce a gain t here i s n o e vidence t o s upport t his h ypothesis, a nd t here s eems t o b e n o s imple a nd o bvious s olution t o t he p roblem o f O ld a nd N ew G aza . F or s uch a s olution f urther e vidence i s n eeded, a nd t his e vidence c ould b e p rovided o nly b y e xtensive a rchaeological s urveying a nd e xcavation i n a nd a round G aza, w hich , u nfortunately , i s u nlikely t o b e p ossible i n t he f oreseeable f uture .

C : G AZA O N T HE M ADERA M AP . O ne u seful p iece o f e vidence f or t he t opography o f G aza a nd t he s urrounding r egion i n t he B yzantine p eriod i s t he m osaic m ap f rom a c hurch

1 8

i n M adeba i n J ordan . 45

T he m ap c an b e d ated t o t he l atter p art o f t he

r eign o f J ustinian ," a nd a pparently r elied h eavily , t hough Nt e ntirely , o n t he O nomasticon o f E usebius f or t he p lace-names i t r ecords . '" I t w as b adly d amaged a t t he t ime o f i ts d iscovery , b ut t he s ection d epicting G aza a nd i ts s urroundings i s p artly p reserved. A bove t he v ignette o f G aza i n t he m ap ( to i ts e ast , a ccording t o t he o rientation o f t he map) r emain t he l etters AZA T he c ity i s r epresented a s o n o f t he l argest o n t he m ap , a part f rom J erusalem . 48 I t i s d epicted a s f rom a ' bird 's e ye v iew ', w ith b uildings, s toas a nd r oads c learly v isible . O nly t he s outhern , o r r ight-hand h alf o f t he c ity h as s urv ived . T his i s s ufficient, h owever , t o s how t hat G aza w as l aid o ut o n a R oman c ity p lan , w ith m ain s treets r unning n orth/south a nd e ast/west, c rossing i n t he c entre . T hese s treets a re l ined w ith s toas , r epresented b y w hite c olumns a nd r ed r oofs , a nd a pparently l ead t o g ates i n t he c ity w alls . I n t he c entre o f t he c ity , w here t he s treets m eet , i s a l arge r ectangular o pen s pace , a n b . yop c i ,o r f orum . T he m ost r ecent p hotogrpahs o f t he m ap, a fter i ts r estoration i n 1 965, s how s ome s ort o f s tructure s p ossibly w ith a d omed r oof , i n t he m iddle o f t he f orum . P erhaps t his w as t he e laborate c lock , w hich i s s aid t o h ave s tood i n t he c entre o f G aza, m arking t he h ours b oth b y ab ell a nd b y m oving b ronze f igures , r epresenting H elios a ppearing i n e ach o f t he t welve d oors i n t urn, a nd H eracles p erforming h is l abours .4 9 O ther , s maller f ora a re v isible i n t he s outhe ast q uarter o f t he c ity . T he s ixth c entury o rator , C horicius , m entions t he f ora o f G aza a nd t heir u s2 f or p ublic e ntertainments i n t he m any f estivals o rganised b y t he c ity .. ‚ I n t he t op s outh-east c orner o f t he c ity , a pparently o utside t he w all , i s al arge s emi-circular s tructure . T his m ay b e i ntended f or a t heatre 5 1 , b ut i t h as t he r ed b order t hat n ormally r epresents a t iled r oof , a nd t he b lack a nd w hite p attern i s t rue t hat c olumns a re s imilar s emi-circular Z achariah , v ery s imilar

i nside i t m ay b e i ntended f or c olumns , a lthough i t d epicted m ore a ccurately e lsewhere . T here a re t wo s tructures o n t he m ap, o ne a t t he C hurch o f S t . t o t he G aza o ne , e xcept t hat t he c olumns a re m ore

c learly r epresented 5 2 ,a nd o ne a t D iospolis , w hich i s l ess r egular , a nd d oes n ot h ave t he e mpty s emi-circular ' orchestra ' v isible i n t he o ther t wo c ases 53 . s urrounded

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o ccupied t he s ite o f t he e arlier t emple o f M a mas , t he p atron g od o f G aza , a nd r emarks t hat t he p ictured c hurch o ccupies a s pace c orresponding t o t hat o f t he a ncient t ell i n m odern G aza . I t i s a n i nteresting i dea t hat t he c hurch , a nd t he e arlier t emple , c ould h ave b een b uilt o n t he t ell . I f s o , w ould i t h ave b een a q uestion o f u tilising a n o pen s pace, a nd o ne t he e levation o f w hich w ould h ave m ade t he t emple m ore i mpressive , o r w as i t a r eturn t o a n a ncient s ite , t he s anctity o f w hich h ad n ever b een f orgotten? T he d escription i n M arcus D iaconus g ives , h owever , n o h int t hat t he t emple w as o n am ound o r e levated a bove t he r est o f t he c ity 5 9 . T here i s , m oreover , a n a lternative p ossible s ite f or t he M arneion a nd l ater E udoxiana . A c omparison b etween t he M adeba M ap a nd t he s treet p lan o f G aza d rawn u p b y G att i n 1 887 d isplays a .considerable d egree o f s imilarity , m ost s trikingly i n t he b asic s treet p lan 6° . T he m ain n orth/south a nd e ast/west r oads h ave c learly r emained u nchanged , b ut e ven t he l arge c entral f orum o f t he M adeba M ap i s s till v isible o n G att 's p lan . T hough p artly b uilt o ver , i t s till a ppears t o b e u sed a s t he c entral m arket o f t he t own , m ost o f i ts n arrow l anes b eing m arked a s s uk . T o t he n orthe ast o f t his f orum o n t he M adeba M ap i s d epicted a s maller r ectangular o pen s pace , w ith a r oofed p ortico a round t hree s ides . I n t he s ame p osition o n G att 's p lan i s a s imilar r ectangle w ith b uildings a round t hree s ides . W hat i s o f p articular i nterest i s t hat t he l argest b uilding o n t he w est o f t his o pen s pace i s t he J amia e l-Kabir , t he G reat M osque o f G aza 6 1 . T he m osque w as c onverted f rom t he t welfth c entury C rusader C hurch o f S t . J ohn t he B aptist , b ut c ontains o lder m aterials , n otably c olumns , w hich c ould h ave b een t aken f rom a n e arlier , B yzantine c hurch 6 2 . C onsidering t he p erseverance o f t he a ncient a rrangement o f b uildings a nd o pen s paces i n t his a rea , a nd t he n ormal t endency f or a s acred s ite t o r emain i n u se , d espite c hanges i n r eligion , i t s eems p ossible t hat t here i s h ere a n e xample o f t his c ontinuity a nd t hat t he p resent G reat M osque o f G aza s tands o n t he s ite o f t he o riginal t emple o f M arnas 6 3 . ( Perhaps i t i s a lso w orth n oting t hat M arcus D iaconus m entions t he I tÄaIEra ,laid o ut b efore t he n ew c hurch a nd p aved w ith m arble s labs f rom t he M arneion )6 4 . A s f or t he l arge c hurch i n t he s outh-west q uarter o f G aza o n t he M adeba M ap , i t s hould b e n oted t hat t here i s n o r eason t o a ssume t hat t he E udoxiana a nd t he c hurches o f S t . S ergius a nd S t . S tephen w ere t he o nly i mportant o nes i n G aza . C horicius m entions t he l ast t wo b ecause t hey w ere n ew , a nd o thers ( the O ld C hurch a nd t he C hurch o f t he A postles) b ecause t hey w ere i n n eed o f r epair . H e d oes n ot m ention t he E udoxiana a nd c ould w ell h ave p assed o ver o thers. A h int a t t he e xistence a nd s ite o f t he c hurch i n t he s outh-west q uarter m ay p erhaps b e f ound i n G uerin 's w ork 6 5 . H e d escribes t he t races o f ar uin k nown a s K hirbet B ab e d-Daroum , al ittle t o t he s outh o f t he s outhern g ate o f t he t own . T his w as t he r emains o f a l arge r ectangular b uilding , a lmost c ompletely d estroyed i n t he s earch f or b uilding m aterials , a lthough o ne g ranite c olumn w as s till v isible, l ying o n t he g round . T he l ocal i nhabitants , h e r eports , c laimed t hat t his b uilding h ad o riginally b een a c hurch , w as t hen c onverted i nto a m osque a nd w as f inally d emolished c ompletely . T his m ay p erhaps b e al ittle t oo f ar o utside t he c ity t o b e t he c hurch t hat a ppears o n t he M adeba M ap , b ut t he w alls a nd g ates v isible i n t h e n ineteenth c entury w ere t hose o f t he C rusader t own a nd t he B yzantine c ity m ay w ell h ave b een l arger . I mmediately b elow t he p icture o f G aza o n t he M adeba M ap i s ad amaged i nscription , t he r emains o f w hich r ead :

2 2

FAINEA AIE

T his i s n ormally t aken a s r eferrin2 t o t he port t own M aioumas a nd i s

e d xa t

c ompleted : Dia u oup .ac N €a[r6]XLç '6. B ut t his r eading s eems t o m e t o b e t ar f rom c ertain . A gainst i t m ay b e a rgued t he f act t hat n o o ther s ource g ives t he n ame N eapolis t o M aioumas . T he o nly a lternative n ame f or M aioumas i n t he l iterary s ources i s C onstantia , b estowed u pon t he t own b y C onstantine t he G reat , w hen h e e levated i t t o t he s tatus o f a p olis , 7, b ut S ozomen s pecifically s tates t hat , w hen C onstantine 's g rant w as r epealed b y J ulian , t he t own w as o nce a gain k nown b y i ts o riginal n ame o f M aioumas , a nd s o i t a ppears i n J erome , M arcus D iaconus , A ntoninus a nd o ther s ources 6 8 . I t c ould b e a rgued t hat t he n ame N eapolis h ad b een a dopted b y t he p eople o f M aioumas i n h onour o f t heir s hort-lived e levation t o c ity-status , b ut i t d oes n ot s eem v ery l ikely t hat t his b rief i nterlude o f f reedom s hould s till b e c elebrated b y t he t ime t he m ap w as m ade , a bout t wo h undred y ears l ater . I n a ny c ase , i t i s s urely t he n ame C onstantia , t he p ersonal g rant o f t he E mperor , t hat w ould h ave b een p reserved , r ather t han t he l ess i ndividual N eapolis. A part f rom t hese h istorical c onsiderations, i t i s b y n o m eans c lear f rom t he m ap i tself t hat t he i nscription r efers t o M aioumas . T he t own i tself i s a pparently d epicted o n t he m ap .. T he s mall s urviving f ragment o f a v ignette o f a t own i mmediately b elow G aza ( to t he w est o f i t) m ust b e i ntended f or M aioumas . T he f ragment s hows a n umber o f r ed-roofed b uildings a nd a w ide s treet j oining i t a t ar ight a ngle . T he t own d oes n ot a ppear t o b e w alled , b ut a g ate i s s hown a t t he e nd o f t he m ain s treet . T he f act t hat M aioumas i s g iven t his d etailed d epiction a nd n ot m erely r epresented a s a t wo o r t hree-towered g ateway , a s a re m ost o f t he s maller t owns a nd v illages o n t he m ap , i s g ood e vidence f or i ts s ize a nd i mportance i n t he B yzantine p eriod. T he i nscription i tself d oes n ot l ie n ext t o t he p icture o f t he t own , b ut i s f ar c loser t o t hat o f G aza . T here i s o nly o ne r ow o f p lain y ellow t esserae b etween t he w all o f G aza a nd t he t op o f t he l etters o f t he i nscription , w hile t here a re a bout f ive r ows o f t esserae ( not a ll o f t he r ows r un i n t he s ame d irection ) b etween t he b ottom o f t he l etters a nd t he t op o f t he b uildings o f M aioumas . T here i s n o o ther i nstance o n t he m ap o f a n i nscription w hich i s s o f ar d istant f rom t he t own t o w hich i t r efers . T he o nly p ossible o ther c ase i s t hat o f D iospolis , w here t he i nscription o verlaps t he v ignette o f t he t own a t e ach e nd a nd t hus l eaves a c onsiderable s pace b etween t he l etters a nd t he l ower b uildings a t t he e dges o f t he c ity .6 9 I t i s o f c ourse p ossible t hat , i n t he m issing p art o f t he v ignette o f M aioumas , t he b uildings r ose s harply t owards t he i nscription , b ut t hat s eems r ather u nlikely . T he c ities d epicted o n t he m ap n ormally a ppear a s m ore o r l ess r egularly o val i n s hape , e ven D iospolis , t he o utline o f w hich i s m ore i rregular t han m ost . T here a re , t herefore , g rounds f or d iscussing t he p ossibility t hat t his i nscription r efers n ot t o M aioumas , b ut t o G aza i tself . I t m ust b e s aid t hat i t i s u nusual o n t he m ap t o h ave a n i nscription p laced u nderneath t he p icture t o w hich i t r efers . B ut t here i s o ne e xample : o n t he s ame s ection o f t he m ap , s ome d istance a bove ( to t he e ast o f) G aza , l ies t he v illage o f G erara , r epresented b y a s mall t wo-towered g ate-way . A bove i t i s t he n ame rEPAPA a nd i mmediately b elow i t t he i nscription :

2 3

PAPABAE IAIKHHOTE1 10AI ETQN

e YAIETIAIQNKAIOPIONT S 2NXANA NA IQNTOI IPOENOTONENOATO rEPAPITIKON

7O .

T his l ong i nscription , l ike o thers i n t his s ection , may b e i ntended t o h elp f ill i n t he e mpty s paces o f t he N egev ,

b ut i t d oes s how t hat i t i s n ot

i mpossible f or a n e xploratory n ote, g iving f urther i nformation a bout a p lace, t o b e a dded b eneath i ts p icture. I f t he p ractice o f t he m osaicist m akes i t p ossible t hat t he i nscription c ould

r efer t o G aza ,

i t

i s

a lso n ecessary

t o

c onsider

i ts

c ompletion a nd

w hether a r easonable m eaning a pplying t o G aza c an b e d educed f rom i t . p artial c ompletion : t o

UOAIE s eems c ertain . I t i s e xtremely d ifficult a ny w ord o ther t han 7 1 6Ät .ç t hat w ould g ive a ny s ense a t a ll .

t hink o f

T hen i t

must

G aza a s a

v

T he

KAINEA

&

b e a sked I

w hether

To 5xi ,c

.

t here c ould b e a ny r eason f or r eferring

t o

T he a nswer c ould l ie i n t he t radition t hat G aza

w as o nce d eserted a nd r ebuilt o n a d ifferent s ite, w hich , a s I s uggested, w as p robably n ot v ery f ar f rom t he o riginal o ne , s o t hat e ventually t he o ld a nd n ew c ities c ould h ave c ombined . t he d esigner o f

t he m ap .

T his t radition m ust h ave b een k nown t o

H e w ould c ertainly h ave

b een

r eference i n t he A cts t o ' Desert G aza ' ( test. E , p . r emark o n t he r ebuilding o f G aza o n a n ew s ite ( test . b ears

w itness

t o t he g eneral a wareness

o f

t his

f amilar w ith

t he

a bove) .

J erome 's

a bove)

a lso

A ,

t radition i n t he B yzantine

p eriod . T he O nomasticon o f E usebius w as a b asic s ource f or t he p lace-names r ecorded o n t he m ap , b ut t here i s n o e vidence t hat J erome 's L atin v ersion w ith i ts a dditions a nd c orrections was a lso u sed .

N evertheless,

t he

O nomasticon w as n ot a n e xclusive s ource 7 1 , a nd t he i nformation c ould h ave r eached t he m ap d esigner e ither d irectly f rom J erome, o r f rom e lsewhere. I s uggest, t herefore , t hat t he i nscription u nderneath t he G aza o n t he M adeba M ap c ould h ave r ead: HEPHMOEKAINEA (U ) g prpoc] x at v ia [ nd]X t4) o r s ome s imilar f ormula . I t i s t rue i nscription c omprises

t hat

t wo o r m ore l ines o f

HOAIE i n most

t ext,

p icture

o f

w here

a n

m argin

i s

p laces

t he l eft

h and

u sually m ore o r l ess s traight a nd t he s econd l ine i s n ot i nset, b ut e xamples d o o ccur i n t he i nscriptions :

eEPMAKAAAI

POHE T his

a nd

P a\QNATAGH I

M I

1 3HeATAA

s uggestion c annot b e p roved a nd m ay b e m istaken ,

7 2.

b ut I t hink t he

p ossibility t hat t he i nscription r efers t o G aza i s a t l east s trong e nough t o t hrow s ome d oubt o n t he a ccepted r eading, r elating t he i nscription t o M aioumas. A t a ny r ate, t he a ssertion o f A vi-Yonah t hat Maioumas was r egularly a lso k nown a s N eapol

3 s

o r,

f or m ore t han a.b rief

p eriod,

a s

C onstantia, s eems h ighly d ubious. T he M adeba M ap i s a lso e vidence f or s ome o f t he o ther s mall t owns a nd v illages s urrounding G aza ,

a nd f or o ne i mportant c hurch ,

t hat o f S t . V ictor ,

s hown o n t he m ap a s a r ectangular b uilding w ith a p ortico i n f ront o f i t, s ituated b etween G aza a nd M aioumas, t ogether w ith a n i nscription r eading: OTOYAPIOY BIKTOPOE T he c hurch i s m entioned b y A ntoninus P lacentinus, w ho w rites:

2 4

e xinde v enimus i n c ivitatem M aioma G azis,

i n q ua r equiescit s anctus V ictor M artyr .7 4

T his r aises t he q uestion whether t he c hurch was a ctually s ituated o utside t he w alls b ut s till c onsidered t o b e p art o f t he t own , o r w hether i t w as i nside , b ut t he m ap-maker c hose t o r epresent i t a s o utside t he t own , s o t hat h e h ad s pace t o r ecord i ts n ame .

T his d oes n ot s eem t o b e h is u sual

p ractice . I n t he p icture o f J erusalem 7 5 t he C hurch o f t he H oly S epulchre a nd t he N ea a re b oth r epresented i n t heir c orrect p ositions, a s a re t he l arge c hurch i n t he s outh-west q uarter o f G aza a nd s everal o the rs . S o t he f irst a lternative s eems more p robable . S t . V ictor 's may p erhaps b e i dentified w ith t he m onastery d escribed i n t he b iography o f P etrus I berus , a f ifth c entury b ishop o f G aza, a s l ying b etween G aza a nd M aioumas. 7 6 S lightly t o t he s outh o f G aza i s d epicted a s mall , s quare t ower w ith t he i nscription CAYA8A • T his must b e i dentified w ith t he v illage o f T havatha , o r T abatha , m entioned b y J erome a s t he b irthplace o f t he m onk H ilarion : H ilarion

o rtus

v ico

T abatha ,

q ui

c irciter _ q uinque

G aza u rbe P alaestinae a d A ustrum s itus e st.

L ife

m illia

I t

h as u sually b een i dentified

w ith t he

l e in ' r un

o f

P etrus

r ecently

b een a rgued

I berus 7 8

b ut

i t

h as

a

/ 7

m entioned i n t he t hat

t he

l atter

p lace w as n ot a f ree v illage , b ut a p rivate e state , p resumably b ordering o n t he v illage o f T havatha , b ut n ot i dentical w ith i t .7 9 S ozomen d escribes T havatha a s t o t he s outh o f G aza a nd o n t he b ank o f a s tream t hat f lowed i nto t he s ea . 8° A bel 's i dentification o f i t w ith t he m odern K hirbet U mm e l-Tut , o n t he s outh b ank o f t he W adi G aza , h as b een g enerally a ccepted .8 1 O ther v illages r epresented o n t he m ap a s c lose t o G aza a re E drain , w hich A bel i dentifies w ith t he r uins k nown a s K hirbet e ltAdar , s even k ilometres s outh o f G aza , o n t he b ank o f t he W adi G aza ,8 2 a nd A salea , d epicted a s a t hree-towered g ateway . O nly t he l etters A /01A h ave s urvived f rom t he n ame , b ut t here s eems n o r eason t o d oubt t he c ompletion s S ozomen m entions A salea a s t he h ome o f t he h oly m an A laphion .8 2 A bel i dentifes i t w ith t he m odern N azle , af ew k ilometres t o t he n orth-east o f G aza , a nd t his h as b een g enerally a ccepted. 8 4

D : T HE T ERRITORY O F G AZA . L ike a ll p oleis, t he c ity o f G aza c ontrolled s urrounding c ountryside a nd t he v illages w ithin i t .

a s tretch o f t he B ut t here i s t oo

l ittle e vidence t o e stablish t he b orders o f t his t erritory w ith a ny c ertainty . 85 O ne v ery l ate s ource, a mediaeval manuscript o f e cclesiastical

n otitiae

k nown

a s

t he

T acticon ,

s tates

t hat

t he

n ortheEp

b order o f G aza w as t he W adi H usi ( Nahal S hiqma) b etween G aza a nd A scalon . uv T his s ounds p lausible , b ut i t s hould b e n oted t hat t he t own o f A nthedon c ould n ot , a s A vi-Yonah c laims ,8 7 h ave b een i ncluded i n t his t erritory , a s i t w as a n i ndependent p olls m inting i ts o wn c oins . 88 I t m ust h ave f ormed a n e nclave w ith a t erritory o f i ts o wn , p resumably a long t he c oast . T he r est o f t he i nformation i n t he T acticon i s l ess u seful a nd c learly d erives f rom a l ater p eriod , 89 b ut i t d oes i nclude t he i nformation t hat t he b ishopric o f A nthedon w as a lso k nown a s M aioumas .9 ° T his s uggests t hat t he s ees o f t hese t wo a djacent t owns w ere c ombined . I t i s p ossible t hat t his

2 5

t ook

p lace

d uring

t he

s ixth

c entury ,

w hen M aioumas

d isappeared

f rom t he

v arious e cclesiastical l ists . W hether t his a lso h ad i mplications f or t he c ivil s tatus o f t he t own , w hi e u ntil t he f ifth c entury a t l east , h ad b een d ependent o n G aza , i s u nclear . A part f rom Maioumas, T havatha was a lso d ependent o n G aza a nd i t i s l ikely t hat A salea w as w ithin i ts t erritory a s w ell s ince B ethelea , al ittle t o i ts n orth-east , a nd s o f urther f rom t he c ity , w as c ertainly i ncluded . S ozomen m entions : B OE XiCtV KC/1'0V oft 5 vo il a rdr ,T K a nd , a l ittle l a ter , X a c papxoßpav x4r t jv r a4aCwv . O f K farchobra n othing m ore i s k nown , b ut B ethelea i s m entioned a gain b y S ozomen , w hose a ncestral h ome i t w as .

H e r ecounts h ow h is g randfather , t ogether w ith a ll h is h ousehold , w as

c onverted t o C hristianity b y H ilarion tv B ner )Äta x 6 1 19 r 6 ,4 7N , which h e d escribes a s a w ell p opulated v illage, p ossessing s everal t emples, g reatly v enerated b y t he i nhabitants f or t heir a ntiquity a nd f urnishing . P rominent a mong t hem w as a P antheon , o n t he s ummit o f a n a rtificial m ound a nd d ominating t he w hole v illage . d erived f rom t he S emitic " IN r 1 72

T he n ame B ethelea , S ozomen s uggests , w as ,w ith r eference t o t his P antheon .9 2

T here h as b een c onsiderable c onfusion ,9 3 p artly b rought a bout b y t extual d ifficulties i n t he s ources , b etween B ethelea a nd B itylion o n t he c oast b etween R aphia a nd R hinocolura , w hich a ppears o n t he M adeba M ap , a nd i s m entioned b y S ozomen a nd J erome .9 4 T his c onfusion w as c larified b y A lt a nd A be1 ,9 5 b ut w as p erpetuated b y A vi-Yonah , w ho i gnores S ozomen 's r eferences a nd t he a rticles o f A lt a nd A bel, d espite c iting t hem .% B ethelea m = ty b e i dentified w ith B elt L ahia t o t he n orth-east o f G aza , d escribed b y G ugrin a s a s mall v illage i n av alley s urrounded b y s andd unes . 97 P alestine ,

T he i dentification w as f irst m ade i n t he S urvey o f W estern w here i t i s s uggested t hat t he s mall v illage m osque o ccupies t he

s ite o f t he a ncient P antheon .9 8 A bel , w ho a ccepts t his i dentification , r eports s eeing i n B elt L ahia r uins u sed b y t he i nhabitants f or b uil 4ng m aterials a nd t wo s mall t ells, s prinkled w ith B yzantine a nd A rab s herds.

E : T HE R OAD S YSTEM . A s a n i mportant

t rading c entre ,

G aza s tood a t

t he h ub o f a n e xtensive

r oad n etwork . S ome o f t hese r oads w ere e xtremely a ncient , h aving e xisted s ince b efore t he s tart o f r ecorded h istory ; o thers w ere m ore r ecent . T he R oman p rovincial g overnment p aid c onsiderable a ttention t o t he b uilding a nd maintenance o f a n e laborate r oad s ystem, b eing p rimarily motivated b y m ilitary c onsiderations: t he n ecessity o f b eing a ble t o m ove t roops q uickly i n o rder t o p ut d own i nsurrections a nd m aintain o rder . F or t his p urpose e xisting r oads t hroughout t he p rovince w ere g radually l evelled a nd p aved a nd n ew

o nes

b uilt .

W here

n ecessary ,

c onstructed a nd t he r oads e quipped g uard-posts. 1 00

b ridges

a nd

s upporting

w ith m ile-stones,

t erraces

w ere

r oad-stations a nd

T he m ost i mportant , a nd p robably t he o ldest , o f G aza 's r oads w as t he g reat h ighway t hat r an f rom n orth t o s outh a long t he c oast , l inking S yria w ith E gypt . I t i s n ot k nown w hen t his r oad w as f irst p aved b y t he R omans . Am ile-stone h as b een f ound w hich d ates t he p aving o f i ts n orthern s ection , f rom A ntioch t o P tolemais,

t o t he y ear A D 5 6 ,1 01

b ut t here i s n o r eason t o

a ssume t hat t he r est o f t he r oad w as c ompleted a t

t hat t ime .

A part f rom

o ne e xception , d ated t o t he y ear 6 9 a nd c learly a ssociated w ith t he F irst R evolt , t he e arliest m ile-stones f ound i n t he P rovince o f J udaea a re d ated

2 6

z ••,_

. 0

•4 1 ` ,

2 2 1 1 c - I A . 2 . ,I , 0 \, › ., , ,

2

a .

0

a

I t ., j :

‘ t -' / ,4

20 0 r ‘ %

a

7 3 w . •

,

I • • . ,1 l

1 / 0

O

n 0

/ 1 / I ' / t % I / • t 0 .

E

/

L r n i 1 0

N

2 /

C 0 C

a

s

t a 4 3

1

2 7

• • • •

t o t he

r eign o f H adrian .

I t a ppears t hat i t w as h e w ho f irst o rdered t he

c onstruction o f a R oman r oad n etwork i n t he p rovince .

A ll

t he H adrianic

m ile-stones f ound s o f ar m ark r oads o f c rucial m ilitary i mportance a t t he t ime

o f

t heir

i nstallation ) , a nd

p aved f or t he f irst t ime .1 ° '

i t

i s

l ikely

t hat

t hese

r oads

w ere

t hen

I t i s n ot k nown w hether e xisting r oads w ere

a lso i ncluded i n t his r eorganization a nd b rought u p t o R oman s tandards , t his i s p robable .1 °2a

b ut

T he o ther m ain r oad f rom G aza t o t he n orth a nd c entre o f t he p rovince w as t hat l eading t o E leutheropolis a nd o n t o J erusalem .

I t i s k nown t hat

t he s ection f rom J erusalem t o E leutheropolis w as b uilt i n t he y ear 1 30 , t he

a t

t ime w hen H adrian w as p lanning t he b uilding o f h is n ew c olony o n

r uins

o f

J erusalem,

b ut

1 °3

t here

c ontinuation t o G aza w as b uilt .

i s

n o

e vidence

t o

s how

H adrian v isited G aza i n 1 30 ,

t he

w hen

t he

b ut i t i s n ot

k nown w hich r oute h e u sed .1 °4 A r ecent s urvey h as s hown t hat t he r oad f rom E leutheropolis t o G aza d id n ot l ead d irectly f rom t he c ity , b ut b ranched o ff t he E leutheropolis-Hebron r oad a bout t wo m iles t o t he s outh , t urning t o t he w est .

R emains o f s mall R oman f orts, o r w atch-towers , h ave b een f ound a long

t his s ection o f t he r oad . I t i s a ssumed t hat t he r oad d id n ot r un d irectly t o G aza , b ut f ollowed t he c ourse o f t he N ahal S hiqma , j oining t he c oastal h ighway s ome m iles s outh o f A scalon .1 05 A part f rom

t hese t wo r oads,

t hree

o ther m ain r outes b ranched o ut f rom

G aza, a ll l eading s outh a nd e ast, a cross t he N egev d esert . T he most n ortherly o f t he t hree l ed t hrough B erosaba t o M ampsis, where i t b ranched, o ne r oute t hen l eading t o Z oara ,

a l ittle t o t he s outh o f t he D ead S ea ,

t hen t o C harakmoba t o i ts e ast ,

a nd t he o ther f urther s outh t o t he c opper

m ines o f P hainon a nd t hen o n t o l ink u p w ith t he V ia N ova T raiana ,

a nd

r unning

n orth f rom A ila t hrough t he P rovincia A rabia. T he t hese

s econd ,

r oads

p erhaps

l ed

t he

o ldest

f rom G aza

t o

a nd

E lusa,

c ertainly

t he

O boda a nd

o n

m ost t o

i mportant ,

P etra,

c onnected d irectly w ith t he r oute l eading d own t o t he s outh o f p eninsula .

T his w as

t he a nc egt

s pice

r oute ,

o f

w here

i t

t he A rabian

u sed b y t rading c aravans a t

l east f rom t he P ersian p eriod. T he t hird r oute , b ranching o ff t he c oastal h ighway a l ittle t o t he s outh o f G aza ,

l ed t hrough E lusa a nd N essana ,

h ighlands,

s outh t o A ila .

r ound t he w estern e dge o f t he N egev

T his w as a lso a n a ncient r oute .

A rchaeological

d iscoveries i n t he A ila a rea s uggest t rade w ith t he M editerranean , p resumably c onducted t hrough G aza, i n t he P ersian p eriod .1 °7 F indings a long t he r oad i tself d ate f rom t he E arly B ronze A ge o nwards . I t w as u sed b y t he N abataeans a nd f ortified d uring t he R oman-Byzantine p eriod. 1 °8 A ncient e vidence f or t he r oads o f t he N egev c an b e f ound i n t he M adeba M ap a nd t he T abula P eutingeriana . I t i s t rue t hat t he M adeba M ap d oes n ot m ark r oads a s

s uch ,

a ppear

m ap d o s o b ecause

o n

t he

b ut

i t

i s

c lear t hat m ost o f

t he s maller p laces

t hey a re s ituated a long r oads .

"

t hat I t

i s

n oticeable t hat a ll t he m ain s tations o n t he n orthern r oad f rom G aza t o C harakmoba , B erosaba , M ampsis, Z oara a nd C harakmoba i tself , a re m arked o n t he m ap , a s i s E lusa , t he f irst i mportant s tation o n t he s econd r oad , a nd i t i s r easonable t o a ssume t hat t he o riginal map i n i ts u ndamaged s tate i ncluded s uch t owns a s O boda, P etra a nd A ila, a nd s ome o f t he s tations b etween t hem. T he T abula P eutingeriana i s a m ediaeval c opy o f a n a ncient r oad m ap o f t he

R oman E mpire .l r°

I n

i ts

e arliest

2 8

f orm

i t

a ppears

t o

d ate

f rom

t he

e arly

t hird

c entury A D ,

b ut

i t

w as r evised a nd b rought u p t o d ate i n t he

r eign o f T heodosius I I i n t he f ifth c entury .1 11

I t was a pparently a n

o fficial d ocument i n o rigin , d rawn u p f or t he u se o f t he c ursus p ublicus a nd g ives i nformation o n t he d istances b etween t owns, f acilities. 12

o ne

mansiones a nd o ther

T he m ap r ecords t wo r oads t hrough t he N egev , b oth l eading f rom E lusa , t hrough O boda t o A ila , a nd t he o ther t o P etra , b oth w ith i ntermediate

s tations m arked a long t heir l engths .

T he i dentification o f t he s e 3r oads a nd 1

t heir s tations h as g iven r ise t o a c ertain a mount o f d iscussion .

T he p osition i s c omplicated b y t he f act t hat G aza a nd t he r oads l eading f rom i t d o n ot a ppear o n t he m ap a t a ll . s tation o n t he c oastal h ighway ,

G aza i s n ot

e ven r ecorded a s a

t hough i ts p osition a ppears t o b e m arked b y

ah ook i n t he l ine o f t he r oad, t he u sual i ndication o f a r oad s tation, b etween A scalon a nd R hinocolura , o mitted f or r easons o f s pace , n ame l ike G aza ,

P ossibly t he n ame w as

i n f act,

r oom

f or a s hort

a nd i t s hould b e n oted t hat t his s tretch o f r oad i s m arked

w ith t he n umeral x v , a nd G aza .

w hich a re m arked .

t hough t here i s ,

w hich i ndicates t he d istance i n m iles b etween A scalon

I t i s p ossible t hat t he o mission o f t he n ame i s s imply a n e rror ,

e ither b y t he o riginal map-maker ,

o r b y a l ater c opyist . 14

T he o mission

o n t he map o f t he G aza-Petra r oad h as l ed t o t he s uggestion t hat i t w as n ot r ecorded b ecause i t w as n ot i n u se a t t he t ime a t w hich t he m ap w as d rawn 15 u p . B ut t here i s n o n eed f or t his a ssumption . A part f rom t he c oastal h ighway a nd t he V ia N ova T raiana , t he m ajority o f t he r oads o n t he m ap a re t hose l eading t o J erusalem . V ery f ew e ast-west r oads c onnecting o ther t owns o f t he p rovince h ave b een r ecorded , a nd t he o mission o f t he P etra-Gaza r oad o nly f its t his g eneral p attern . O f

t he N egev r oads,

c ontroversial .

I t

t he P etra-Gaza r oad i s t he b est k nown a nd t he m ost

w as

f irst

d iscovered

a nd

e xplored

b y

F rank ,

A lt

a nd

G lueck i n t he 1 930s, 16 a nd m ore r ecently t he s ection b etween A vdarlf10 boda) l a nd S ha'ar R amon h as b een s urveyed i n d etail b y M eshel a nd T safrir. T he r oad w as u npaved , b ut c leared o f s tones a nd m arked w ith k erb-stones, i n s ome s ections . R etaining w alls w ere b uilt w here n eeded a nd t he r oad w as m arked a t i ntervals w ith u ninscribed m ile-stones . w as b uilt a long t he l ine o f t he r oad ,

h ostel f or _ t ravellers h as b een f ound a t o f O boda. 18 T he

c ontroversy

o ver

t he

A n umber o f s mall f orts

a s w ere w ater r eservoirs ,

P etra-Gaza

S ha ta r R amon ,

r oad

i s

a d ay 's

c oncerned

a nd a l arge j ourney e ast

w ith

i ts

d ate .

S ince 1 938 s cholars h ave f ollowed K irk 19 i n s tating t hat t he o nly p ottery f ound i n t he w aystations a long t he r oad i s N abataean , a nd c annot b e l ater 1 20 t han t he e arly p art o f t he s econd c entury A D . A s a c onsequence o f t his , i t w as a ssumed t hat t he r oad a nd i ts i nstallations w ere b uilt a nd m aintained b y t he N abataeans, a nd a bandoned a fter t he a nnexation o f t he N abataean k ingdom b y t he R omans i n t he y ear 1 06.

1 21

I t h as , h owever , b een p ointed o ut t hat t he r oad c onstruction a nd , i n p articular , t he i nstallation o f m ilestones a re t ypically R oman f eatures, a nd t hat i t i s i mplausible t o a ssume t hat t he N abataeans c ould h ave i mitated R oman r oad-building t echniques a t at ime w hen t here w as n o R oman r oad w ithin s everal

h undred

m iles

o f

N abataea .1 22

n umber o f w aystations i n t he s ection o f

M ore t he

r ecently ,

e xcavations

i n

a

r oad b etween t he R amon C rater

a nd t he A ravah h ave p roduced e vidence, b oth p ottery a nd c oins, f or t he

2 9

c ontinued u se o f t he r oad i nto t he t hird,

o r e ven f ourth c enturies. 1 23

T hese f indings h ave m ade i t c lear t hat t here i s n o d ifficulty i n a ttributing t he R oman f eatures o f t he r oad t o t he p eriod a fter 1 06 , a nd t he r edating h as i mportant i mplications f or t he c ontinuation o f t he s pice t rade t hrough G aza , a nd f or t he h istory o f t he N egev i n g eneral.

3 0

N OTES T O C HAPTER 1 . 1 .

A tlas o f I srael I /11.

2 .

A tlas o f I srael 1 1/3.

3 .

G uerin I I, 1 79 ; S WP I II , 2 34-235.

. 4 .

S WP I II , 2 38 ; A RP 4 34 .

5 .

A tlas o f I srael I V/2, m ean a verage r ainfall m ap .

6 .

S WP I II , 2 35, 1 5 w ells a re m entioned.

7 .

A tlas o f I srael V /1, c atchment a reas m ap .

8 .

R obinson , 3 72 , 3 75-376; G uerin I I, 1 78 ; S WP I II, 2 35.

9 .

R obinson , 3 76 ; G uerin I I , 1 78-179 ; A RP , 3 98-418 o n i nscriptions , 4 33 o n o ther a ntiquities; S WP I II , 2 48-251.

1 0 .

G ugrin I I, 1 78 ; S ee a lso t he p lan b y G . G att, Z DPV I I ( 1888), 1 48149.

1.

S WP I II, 2 48 .

1 2.

R obinson , 3 75 ; M eyer , 1 06.

1 3 .

T he l anding-stage w as e vidently b uilt a fter 1 906 , a s M eyer d oes n ot m ention i t . H e r eports t hat i n 1 905 l arge s hips a nchored o ffshore a t G aza a nd m erchandise w as c onveyed t o a nd f rom t hem i n s mall b oats . E ven u nder t hese c onditions a c onsiderable v olume o f t rade p assed t hrough G aza a t t hat t ime . M eyer m entions e xports, m ostly o f a gricultural p roduce , t o t he v alue o f U .S . $1 ,500,000 , a nd i mports w orth U .S . $ 750 ,000 .

1 4 .

P tolemy V , 1 5,2; S trabo , 1 6,2,30 .

1 5 .

S ee p . 2 3 a nd n . 6 8 b elow .

1 6 .

D . M ackenzie , P EFQ. S t . 1 918 , 7 3-74 . S WP I II , 2 51, r eports o f E l K ishany , b etween G aza a nd t he s hore : ' I t s eems p robable t hat r uins o f a w alled t own m ay h ere b e c overed b y t he s and . M arble s labs a nd o ther f ragments a re d ug u p b y t he p easantry '.

1 7.

A . O vadiah , Q admoniot I ( 1968) , 1 24127 ( Hebrew ) . N ote t he s ketch-map o n p . 1 24 , i ndicating t he p osition o f t he s ynagogue i n r elation t o t he l anding-stage a nd t he r oad t o G aza . S ee a lso i dem, I EJ 1 9 ( 1969) , 1 93-198 ; I EJ 2 7 ( 1977), 1 76178 .

1 8 .

G att, l oc.cit. n . 1 0 a bove .

1 9 .

P hythian-Adams , P EFQSt . 1 923 , 1 417 . A pparently , t he u se o f t he p ort h ad d eclined c onsiderably s ince M eyer 's v isit , n o d oubt a s a r esult o f t he d amage i nflicted o n G aza a nd t he s urrounding a rea d uring t he F irst W orld W ar .

3 1

4 30-

2 0.

A tlas o f I srael I V/2 , m ean a verage r ainfall m ap . 3 00 mm . p .a .

R afah r eceives 2 00-

2 1.

A bel, R B 4 8 ( 1939), 2 09 .

2 1a .

D iod . X X , 7 4,1.

2 2 .

S ee I ntroduction , p . 2a bove.

2 3 .

S ee C h . 4 , p p . 9 3-94.

2 4.

A ccording t o H udson 's p raefatio , t he f ragment i s p art o f a n u nknown g eographical w ork e xtant i n a M S i n P aris a nd b earing s ome u nclear r elationship t o t he O rbis D escriptio o f D ionysius P eriegetes .

2 5.

E .g . R obinson , B ib . R esearches, H oly L and , 1 08109 ; M eyer , 1 0 .

2 6 .

S tark , G aza u nd d ie P hilistäische K üste , 5 10-511; G .A . T he H istorical G eography o f t he H oly L and , 1 36137 a nd n .6 .

2 7.

S ee C h . 2 , p p . 3 8-39 , f or a d iscussion o f t he e ra o f G aza a nd t he p ossibility t hat r ebuilding m ay h ave s tarted e arlier .

2 8 .

A rrian d oes , h owever , e xaggerate t he h eight o f t he m ound o n w hich G aza s tood . S ee A .B . B osworth , A H istorical C ommentary o n A rrian 's H istory o f A lexander ( Oxford 1 980) a d l oc .

2 9.

P EFQSt. 1 923, 1 8-30 .

3 0 .

M arc . D iac . 1 8 .

3 1.

S tark , 5 09-513 .

3 2 .

M eyer , 9 11.

3 3.

P EFQSt. 1 923 , 3 0-36 .

3 4 .

P EFQSt. 1 923, 1 213.

3 5.

P EQFSt. 1 923, 3 4.

3 6 .

P EQFSt. 1 923, 3 4-35 .

3 7.

S mith , 3 6-37.

3 8 .

F linders P etrie , E AEHL I ,

3 80 ;

P hysical G eography o f t he

S mith ,

A ncient G aza I -IV ( London 1 9301934) ; O . T ufnell ,

5 2-61 .

3 9 .

A bel, R B 4 4 ( 1935), 5 67-575 ; G gog . d e l a P alestine I I, 4 03 .

4 1.

M eyer , 1 0.

4 2 .

S chürer 2 I I ,

4 3 .

J ericho : S chürer 2 I I , 1 94 n . 4 2 . B eit-She 'an/Scythopolis : i bid . 1 421 43 ; E AEHL I , 2 09 . A t B eit-She 'f f l l t he t ell w as n ot t otally d eserted .

1 01102, n . 7 7.

3 2

4 4.

P hythian-Adams f ound l arge q uantities o f R oman a nd B yzantine s herds i n h is e xcavation t here , P E Wt . 1 923 , 1 2 ; 2 3-24 .

4 5.

M . A vi-Yonah , T he M adeba M osaic M ap ( henceforward MM ) ; H . D onners & E L C üppers, D ie M osaikkarte v on M adeba ( henceforward M osaikkarte) .

4 6.

M M ,

4 7.

M M , 2 8-32.

4 8 .

G aza :

1 618 .

MM ,

7 4-75 ,

P l .

9 ;

M osaikkarte ,

1 58 ,

1 59 .

O ther l arge c ities

d epicted i n d etail o n t he map a re P elusium, K erakmoab ,

A scalon,

E leutheropolis , D iospolis , A zotus P aralius a nd J amnia . 4 9.

Mosaikkarte,

1 58 ,

1 59 .

T he c lock

i s

d escribed

i n a n e cphrasis

o riginally a scribed t o C horicius, b ut C . K irsten , Q uaestiones C horicianae 4 6-59 , e sp . 5 8-59 , s howed t hrough a n a nalysis o f c lausulae t hat i t w as m ore p robably c omposed b y P rocopius o f G aza . S ee S tark , 6 01-603 ; N .G . W ilson , S cholars o f B yzantium , 3 1 . 5 0 .

C horicius ,

L aud . M arc .

I ,

8 3-89 ;

L aud . M arc .

I I ,

6 0-69 .

S ee

C h .2 ,

p .

5 3. 5 1.

A vi-Yonah , M M 7 4, s uggests a t heatre o r an ymphaeum .

5 2.

M M , P l. 8 ; M osaikkarte,

1 52.

5 3 .

M M , P l.

1 48 ,

5 4.

M M , 6 8 .

5 5.

M M , 6 1-62.

5 6.

N eapolis o n t he M adeba M ap : MM , P l . 6 , P . 4 5 ; M osaikkarte , 1 45 . F or t he i dentification o f t he s emicircular s tructure w ith a f ountainh ouse , s ee : A bel . R B 3 2 ( 1923), 1 20-132, e sp . 1 25-126 . O n t he

7 ; M osaikkarte,

1 49.

r ecently d iscovered t heatre : S efer

Z e 'ev V ilnay ,

Y .

M agen ,

' Hateatron h aromi

b e-Shechem%

2 69-277 .

5 7.

M M , 7 4; M arc. D iac. 7 8-79, 9 2.

5 8 .

C horicius, L aud . M arc . I ,

1 7

( St . S ergius); L aud . M arc . I I, 2 8 ( St .

1 48-149 .

C f t he c ases o f J erusalem a nd N ablus ,

S tephen). 5 9 .

M arc. D iac. 7 5, 7 7.

6 0 .

G att ,

Z DPV I I ( 1888) ,

w here t he s treet-plans s hown o n t he M adeba M ap h ave s urvived u ntil t he p resent-day . 6 1.

C lermont-Ganneau ,

A RP 3 84 ,

a nd s urrounding s treet .

g ives a m ore d etailed p lan o f I t i s,

u nfortunately,

t he m osque

v ery d ifficult t o

c orrelate h is p lan w ith G att 's .

6 2.

G ugrin I I,

1 80-185;

S WP

I II,

2 49-250 ;

A RP,

3 83-398 .

O ne c olumn

b earing a c arving o f am enorah a nd a H ebrew i nscription ( Appendix ,

3 3

n o .

3 7,

p p .

1 44-146)

must

h ave

c ome

o riginally

f rom

a s ynagogue .

C lermont-Ganneau b elieved i t h ad b een b rought t o G aza f rom e lsewhere , p ossibly f rom C aesarea ( ARP, 3 89-396) , b ut t he d iscovery o f t he s ynagogue a t M aioumas h as m ade t his a ssumption u nnecessary . 6 3.

T his w as s uggested b y G ub.r in ( II , 3 98).

6 4 .

M arc . D iac., 7 5,6.

6 5.

G u rin I I,

6 6.

T his

1 82) a nd C lermont-Ganneau ( ARP , 3 96 ,

1 85.

r eading w as p roposed b y A .

M adeba ( Leipzig

1 905) ,

5 5-56 ,

J acoby ,

a nd

i s

D as G eo _graphische M osaik v on

f ollowed b y A vi-Yonah ( MM ,

7 4-

75 ), but was already queried by W . Kubitschek ( Zur G eschichte v on S tadten d es R ömischen K aiserreiches , 3 8) . H e h ad e arlier s uggested t his r eading h imself , b ut t hen c hanged h is m ind . H e o ffers , h owever , n o a lternative r eading . 6 7.

S ozomen ,

H .E . I I,

5 ; V ,

3 .

E usebius, V . C onst . I V ,

3 8 ( PG 2 0, c ol .

1 188), r eports C onstantine 's g rant t o ' Constantia w ithout m entioning t he p revious n ame o f t he t own . 6 8.

S ozomen , H .E . V , 3 ; S itu T err . S anct .,

i n P alestine ',

J erome , V .H . 3 ; P ereg , P aulae , 1 9 ; T heodosius , d e 3 , ( ed . G eyer, C CL 1 75, 14-125) ; A ntoninus

P lacentinus ( ed . G eyer, C CL 1 75, 1 28-174), 3 3; S ophronius, S .S .Cyri e t I oannts M iracula ( PG 8 7 I II , c ol . 3 432) , i v . 6 9.

MM ,

P l .

7 ; M osaikkarte ,

1 46 .

7 0 .

M M , P l. 9 ; M osaikkarte,

1 57.

7 1.

M M , 2 8-32.

7 2.

M M , P l. 2 , p p. 3 9-40; M osaikkarte,

7 3.

A vi-Yonah ,

H oly L and

1 50 .

T he

1 32,

1 36.

r eferences

t o

a ncient

s ources

g iven

h ere a re c onfused, a nd d o n ot s tate what h e c laims f or t hem . I dem . G azetteer , s .v . M aioumas , C onstantia , N eapolis . T here i s n o e vidence f or A vi-Yonah 's s tatement t hat l ater e mperors r eversed J ulian 's c ancellation o f t he g rant o f p olis-status t o M aioumas . 7 4.

A nton . P lacent., 3 3.

7 5.

M M , P l.

7 6.

u nd k am u nd w ohnte i n d er z wischen G aza u nd d er k leinen S tadt , N amens M ajuma , g elegenen C ongregation , d ie i n j ener Z eit v oll v on

7 , p p. 5 0-60; M osaikkarte,

h eiligen i hr K reuz

1 46.

t ragenden Mönchen w ar . . ." ( translation o f t he

o riginal S yriac b y R . R aabe ,

P etrus d er I berer ,

7 7.

J erome, V .Hil., 2 ,

( PL 2 3, c ol. 3 0).

7 8.

R aabe, P etrus d er I berer, 9 6f.

3 4

5 0) .

7 9 .

Y . D an , ' On t he O wnership o f t he L ands o f t he V illage o f T havatha i n t he B yzantine P eriod', S CI V ( 1979/80), 2 58-262 .

8 0 .

S ozomen , H .E . I II , 1 4 . P resumably t he w ord XeLgeß ( 501 . ) h as h ere i ts o riginal m eaning o f ' a s tream t hat f lows o nly i n t he w inter ' , i .e . a w adi.

8 1.

A bel , ' Le 4 ( 1924) , A vi-Yonah , ( 1979/80),

8 2.

A bel , J POS 4 ( 1924) , 1 16 ; S WP I II, 2 51, r eports ' ruined r ubble c isterns a nd t races o f at own . T here a re i mmense p iles o f b roken p ottery f orming m ounds a t t he s ite.'

8 3.

S ozomen , H .E. I II , 1 4 .

8 4 .

A bel, J POS 4 ( 1924), 15 ; A vi-Yonah , G azetteer , s .v . A salea ; G ugrin I I , 1 77 , r eports s eeing a ncient m arble a nd g ranite c olumns b y t he w ell a t N azle .

8 5 .

O n t he t erritorial d ivisions o f P alestine , s ee I saac, T alanta X II-XIII ( 1980-81), 3 4-35 n . 1 3 .

8 6 .

P almer , P al . I I ,

8 7.

H oly L and , 1 50 ;

8 8 .

A bel , G gog . d e l a P al" 2 44-245 ; S chürer 2 I I , 1 04 . J osephus s everal t imes r efers t o A nthedon i n t erms s uggesting t hat i t w as a n i ndependent p olis: A nt . X III , 3 , 4( 395) ; X IV , 5 , 3( 88) ; X V , 7 , 3 ( 217) ; B .J . I , 8 , 4 ( 166) ; I , 2 0, 3 ( 396) .

8 9.

I t s tates t hat O boda , E lusa a nd L ysa w ere i ncluded i n t he b ishopric o f G aza . T hese p laces c an o bviously n ot h ave b een p art o f t he o riginal c ity t erritory ( being t oo f ar a way a nd w ithin P alaestina T ertia , n ot P rima), a nd t his s tatement m ust r efer t o t he s ituation a fter t he M oslem c onquest, w hen t he i mpoverishment o f t he C hurch l ed t o a s implification i n e cclesiastical o rganisation ( Abel, 2 02).

9 0.

P almer , 5 52 ;

9 1.

O n t he q uestion o f t he b ishopric o f M aioumas, s ee C h . 2 , p p . 4 3 -4 4

9 2.

S ozomen , H .E . V , 1 5 ;

9 3 .

S ee e .g . P . T homsen , L oca S ancta , 3 0 , s .v .

9 4.

S ozomen , H .E . V II , 2 8 ;

9 5 .

A lt, ' Bitolion u nd B ethelea ', Z DPV 4 9 ( 1924), 2 36-242; A bel, ' De B itylion ä Pause ' , R B 4 9 ( 1940) , 2 24-226 ; G gog . d e l a P al . I I , 2 85 ,

S ud P alestinien d 'apräs l a C arte M osalque d e M adeba% P JOS 1 07119 , e sp . 16f . :i dem , G gog . d e l a P al . I I , 4 80-481; H oly L and , 1 51 ; G azetteer , SO4 M igdal T hauth ; D an , S CI V 2 58 .

T he D esert o f t he E xodus , 2 02-205 .

4 23 ,

5 50-554 ;

t he

r emarks

A bel ,

o f

B .H .

G eog . d e l a

G azetteer , s .v . A nthedon .

A bel, 2 03 .

V I, 3 2. BvX t dov

J erome, V .H ., 3 0 .

s .v . B etylion .

3 5

9 6.

A vi-Yonah , H oly L and , 1 51 ; G azetteer , i n t he G azetteer a re b adly c onfused .

9 7.

G ugrin I I, 1 76 .

9 8.

S UP I I, 1 76.

9 9.

A bel, R B 4 9 ( 1940), 2 24-226 .

1 00 .

I . R oll , Mae R oman R oad S ystem i n J udaea ' , 3 , 1 36161, e sp . 1 36-137.

1 01.

P . T homsen , ' D ie R ömischen M eilensteine d er P rovinzen S yria , A rabia u nd P alaestina ', Z DPV 4 0 ( 1917), 1 103 , n o . 9 a2 .

1 02 .

Be

10

SO4

B itolium .

T he r eferences

T he J erusalem C athedra

I saac , ' Mile-stones i n J udaea f rom V espasian t o C onstantine ' , ( 1978 ) , 4 7-60 , e sp . 4 9 .

P EQ

1 02a. P rof . S . A pplebaum i nforms m e i n ap rivate c ommunication t hat " there i s g ood e vidence b oth i n w estern S amaria a nd i n ' Emeq H epher t hat s ome a ncient r oads w ere i ncorporated i nto R oman h ighways ." H e r efers t o w ork i n p rogress b y D r . S himon D ar . 1 03 .

T homsen , n o . 2 82 ; ( 1980/81), 4 6 .

1 04 .

S ee C h . 2 , p . 4 1.

1 05 .

I . R oll & Y . D agan , ' Ma 'arekhet h akvishin h a r oma 'im s eviv B elt G ovrin% S hefelat- Y ehuda L eket M a 'amarim ( ed . Y . D agan , H amador L e 'yediat , H a 'aretz B itenuat H akibbutzim , ( 1983) , 6 6 .

1 06 .

S ee C h . 4 , p p. 9 1-93 .

1 07.

S ee I ntroduction , p . 3 .

• 1 08 .

1 09 .

A vi-Yonah , H oly L and , 1 84 ;

I saac , T alanta X II-XIII

Z . M eshel , ' Toldot " Darb-el-Aza" - h aderekh h akedumah l e-Eilat u drom S inai ' , E retz I srael 1 5 ( 1981) , 3 58-371 . A vi-Yonah ,

el ,

2 8-30 ;

A bel , J POS 4 ( 1924) ,

1 07117 ,

p articularly t he

m ap o n p . 10 . 10 .

F or t he T abula P eutingeriana i n g eneral , s ee : T abula P eutingeriana , C odex V indobonensis 3 24, V ollständige F aksimile- A usgabe i n O riginalf ormat, w ith K ommentar b y E . W eber ( Graz 1 976) ; A . & M . L evi, I tineraria P ieta ( Rome 1 967) . O n t he s ection i ncluding P alestine, s ee : I . R oll, o p . c it . n . 1 00 a bove , 1 44 ; Z . M eshel, ' Darkei h aN egev l efi P tolemaeus u -Mappat P eutinger% H afirot U mehkarim , M ugash l e P rof . S hmu 'el Y eivin ( ed . Y . A haroni), 2 05-209 ; I . F inkelstein , ' The H oly L and i n t he T abula P eutingeriana : ah istorical-geographical a pproach ' , P EQ 11 ( 1979) , 2 7-34 . F or t he A rabian s ection , s ee G .W . B owerstock , R oman A rabia , A ppendix 4 , 1 64186 . B owersock a rgues t hat t he m ap d erives o riginally f rom a s ource i n t he e arly y ears o f t he p rincipate .

3 6

11.

W eber , K ommentar , 2 0-23 ;

A . &M . L evi, 1 73174.

12.

W eber , l oc. c it . l ast n ote ;

13 .

S ee M eshel, F inkelstein , o pp. c itt. n . 10.

14.

F inkelstein , 3 2-33 , d iscusses a n umber o f s imilar o missions . n ot, h owever , m ention G aza .

15.

M eshel, 2 09 .

16 .

S ee t he d iscussion o f t heir f indings i n A . N egev , ' The D ate o f t he P etra-Gaza R oad ' , P EQ 9 8 ( 1966) , 8 9-98 , e sp . 8 9-94 a nd t he r eferences g iven t here.

17.

Z . M eshel & Y . T safrir , ' The N abataean R oad f rom ' Avdat t o S ha 'ar R amon , P art I : T he S urvey o f t he R oad ', P EQ 1 06 ( 1974) , 1 03-118 ; ' Part I I : T he F eatures o f t he R oad', P EQ 1 07 ( 1975), 3 -21.

18 .

M eshel & T safrir, e sp . P art I , 1 05106 ;

19.

G .E . K irk , ' Explorations i n t he S outhern D esert ', 2 11-235, e sp . 2 31-235 .

1 20 .

N egev , O p . c it . n . 1 16 a bove , 9 6 . M eshel & T safrir d o n ot d iscuss t he p ottery , b ut a ssume t his d ating t hroughout .

1 21.

M eshel & T safrir , P art I I ,

1 22.

B . I saac, ' Trade-Routes t o A rabia a nd F rontier S tudies 1 979, 8 89-892.

1 23 .

R . C ohen , ' N egev E mergency P roject ' , I EJ 3 2 ( 1982) , 2 63-265 ; i dem , ' New L ight o n t he P etra-Gaza R oad ' , B iblical A rcheologist 4 5 ( 1982) ,

A . &M . L evi, 1 71.

H e d oes

P art I I, 3 -6 . P EQ 7 0 ( 1938) ,

1 415 .

2 40-247.

3 7

t he

R oman A rmy ' ,

R oman

C HAPTER 2 :

T HE H ISTORY O F G AZA I N T HE R OMAN A ND B YZANTINE P ERIODS

A : F ROM P OMPEY T O H EROD . G aza c ame u nder R oman r ule a s a r esult o f P ompey 's c ampaigns a gainst t he d isintegrating S eleucid Empire . I n t he a utumn o f t he y ear 6 3 B C h e c ompleted h is c onquest o f J udaea b y h is c apture o f J erusalem , a nd s et a bout r eorganising t he n ew t erritories t hat h ad f allen u nder h is c ontrol . A s p art o f h is n ew a rrangements, h e l iberated f rom J ewish r ule t he G reek c ities o f

P alestine

t hat

h ad

b een c onquered

t hem t o t heir o wn c itizens,

b y

A lexander

J annaeus,

a nd

r estored

w hile p utting t hem u nder t he s upervision o f t he

g overnor o f t he n ew P rovincia S yria : ,1

Among t hese c ities

w as G aza ,

w hich

h ad g radually b ecome H ellenized s ince i ts c onquest b y A lexander o f M acedon , t hough i t i s n ot k nown a t w hat d ate i t a chieved t he s tatus o f ap olis .2 I t i s a n o pen q uestion t o w hat e xtent t he c ity w as i n e xistence a t t he t ime o f i ts l iberation .

W e a re t old b y J osephus i n o ne p assage t hat G aza h ad b een

t otally d estroyed b y J annaeus a fter a y ear-long s iege i n a round 9 6 B C .3 Y et i n o ther p laces h e s peaks m erely o f G aza a nd o ther c ities b eing p ossessed b y t he J ews .4 M oreover , i t h as b een a rgued t hat J osephus , o r h is s ource , i s v ery h ostile t o J annaeus , h is a ccount o f t he s iege o f G aza b eing a s triking e xample o f t his p rejudice .5 r eported d estruction a nd l oss o f l ife

I t i s p ossible , t herefore , t hat t he w ere e xaggerated . C learly , a t t he

t ime o f P ompey t here w ere c itizens o f G aza i n t he a rea , c ould b e r estu red ,

a nd t here

i s n o c lear s tatement

t he r estoration t hat t he c ity w as i n r uins . a mong t he c ities r ebuilt b y G abinius, 5 7 t o 5 5 B C .6 t ime .7

T hese c ities,

T here i s,

d eserted a nd

r ebuilt

w ho s erved a s p roconsul o f S yria f rom

t he a ncient

o n a d ifferent

o f

Y et G aza i s r eported a s b eing

J osephus s tates ,

moreover,

t o w hom t he c ity

i n J osephus ' a ccount

s ite ,

h ad b een d eserted f or a l ong

t radition t hat a nd t his

s eems

G aza w as

o nce

t he m ost l ikely

t ime a t w hich t his c ould h ave h appened .8 P erhaps b y t he t ime t hat P ompey a rrived i n t he a rea , t he s urvivors o f J annaeus ' m assacre h ad r eturned a nd w ere l iving i n p atched-up h ouses a mong t he r uins . h ad

n ot

y et

b een a ble

t o

b egin r estoring

B ut i t a ppears t hat t hey

G aza a s a p olls,

r ebuilding t he

p ublic b uildings , t he t emples a nd t he c ity w all . T his, p erhaps , i s w hat w as d one a t t he c ommand o f G abinius . A s Is uggested a bove , i t i s p ossible t hat a t t his t ime t he a ncient t ell o f G aza w as a bandoned a nd t he n ew c ity b uilt a t i ts f oot , T here

i s

o ne

a l ittle t o t he s outh .9 p iece

o f

e vidence,

h owever,

t hat

s uggests

t hat

t he

r estoration o f G aza may h ave p receded G abinius. T he e ra o f t he G aza c alendar , i n u se u ntil t he e nd o f t he B yzantine p eriod , w as 2 8 O ctober 6 1 B C.

T he C hronicon P aschale r ecords u nder O lympiad 1 79/4 ( 61 B C):

a dtot T o i4 Lun n x pe 5vou \ i c c .Zecv r

a pLegoVaLv 1 0

me p recise d ate w as e stablished b y C lermont-Ganneau , w ith t he a id o f a s eries o f B yzantine e pitaphs f rom G aza , b y

w as

d evelopment

B ut

t hat i t

i s

o f

s ome

t oo l ate

s ignificant

t he

d ated

y ear b y t he G aza c alendar a nd

t o

t he d ay o f t he m onth a nd

i ndiction ."

t o r efer t o a ny a ct

o f

i n t he

P resumably , r estoration

P ompey 's,

s ince h e

o f

t his

d ate

t he

c ity .

r eturned

t o

R ome i n 6 2 , a nd t oo e arly f or G abinius, w ho w as a ppointed p roconsul o nly i n 5 7 . T he g overnor o f S yria i n t he y ears 6 1-60 was M arcius P hilippius . P erhaps h e a lso u rged t he c itizens o f

t he

O r p erhaps t he i nhabitants t hemselves,

e ncouraged b y P ompey 's r estoration o f

t heir f reedom ,

r uined c ities t o r ebuild t hem .1 2

s et a bout t he r econstruction o n t heir o wn i nitiative .

3 8

G aza ,

t hen ,

w as r ebuilt a t a round t his t ime ,

n ot f ar f rom t he o ld c ity ,

t he r uins o f which n o d oubt p rovided a r eady s upply o f b uilding m aterials . H ow

l ong

i t

t ook f or t he c ity t o b e r econstructed a nd

f or a f ull a nd

p rosperous c ivic l ife t o b e r evived , i t i s i mpossible t o s ay . t he t urbulent y ears t hat f ollowed c annot h ave b een f avourable r estored c ity, p rosperity .

s truggling t o r e-establish

J osephus s ays, h owever

i tself

a nd

C ertainly , t o a n ewly

r ecover i ts

o ld

t hat f rom t he t ime o f G abinius o nwards

t he c ities w ere s ecurely i nhabited,' w hich s uggests t hat t hey h ad s ucceeded i n r ecovering , a t l east t o t he e xtent t hat t heir f uture e xistence w as n o l onger i n d oubt,

b efore b eing o verwhelmed b y t he l ong p eriod o f i nstability

a nd o ppression b rought a bout b y t he R oman c ivil w ars,

l argely f ought i n t he

e astern p rovinces a nd p aid f or b y t he p rovincials ' t axes, " I nvasion o f S yria i n 4 0 B C, a nd t he c ontinual f ighting

t he P arthian o f t he l ast

H asmonaeans, b oth b etween t hemselves a nd a gainst A ntipater a nd h is s ons . 4 0

B C H erod was a ppointed K ing o f J udaea b y t he R oman S enate,

i nstigation o f A ntony

a nd

o ver h is k ingdom u ntil 3 7 ,

O ctavian ,1 5 w hen ,

b ut

d id

n ot

g ain

e ffective

a t

I n t he

c ontrol

w ith t he h elp o f t he R oman g eneral S osius,

h e c aptured J erusalem f rom A ntigonus. O ne p assage i n J osephus c ontrol d uring

s uggests

t he e arly p art o f

t hat G aza m ay h ave c ome u nder H erod 's

h is

r eign .

J osephus

r eports

t hat

H erod

a ppointed C ostobarus a s g overnor (apxw V) o f I dumaea a nd G aza , a nd m arried h im

t o h is s ister S alome .

C ostobarus ' a mbition l ed h im t o o ffer t o h and

o ver h is t erritory t o C leopatra . 16 C ostobarus i ncurred H erod 's

T his p lan f ailed a nd a s a r esult t hough h e s pared h is l ife f or h is

s ister 's s ake , u ntil S alome d ivorced h im , p robably i n 2 7 B C , w hen h e h ad h im ,' 7 p ut t o d eath . T here i s, h owever , n o e vidence a s t o t he c ircumstances u nder which H erod c ame i nto p ossession o f G aza ,

t hough A .H .M . J ones s uggests

t hat i t a nd o ther c ities m ay h ave b een a warded t o h im b y A ntony .1 8 o ther

h and ,

M omigliano

s tates .

'

G aza

c ould

n ot

h ave

a fter 3 0 . T he p hrase apxüyv .I 6ougaCa x at t hough r eferring t o 3 7 B C , r eflects t he p osition a fter

O n t he

b een H erod 's

t ill

r d4nc 3 0% 1 9

M oreover ,

J osephus ' l anguage i n t he p assage w here h e r ecords t he g rant o f t erritories t o H erod b y O ctavian 2 1 613 1 s uggests t hat G aza h ad n ot f ormerly b een p art o f t he k ingdom o f H erod . A t a ny r ate ,

e ven i f G aza h ad b een g ranted t o H erod b y A ntony , h e c annot

h ave h eld i t l ong , p ossibly f or o nly a f ew months , f or G aza w as , p resumably , a mong t he c ities o f t he c oastal p lain f rom E gypt t o t he r iver E leutherus i n t he n orth o f P hoenicia, e xcept f or T S 7re a nd S idon, awarded b y A ntony t o C leopatra P arthians. 2 1

3 7/6,

b efore

h e

s et

o ut

o n

h is

c ampaign

a gainst

t he

A fter t he B attle o f A ctium i n 3 1, H erod h astened t o m eet a nd i ngratia h h imself w ith O ctavian o n R hodes, H e

s ubsequently

a ccompanied

S yria t o E gypt a nd , t here . w ere

a nd

e ntertained

O ctavian

o n h is

j ourney

a fter t he d eaths o f A ntony a nd C leopatra ,

O n t his o ccasion h e w as b estowed

a nd w as c onfirmed b y h im i n h is k ingdom .

o n h im .

T he

f rom

v isited h im

r eceived w ith h igh f avour a nd m any g ifts

p arts

o f

h is

k ingdom

t hat

h ad

b een g iven b y

A ntony t o C leopatra w ere r eturned t o h im, a nd h e was awarded i n a ddition t he c ities o f G adara, H ippos, S amaria, G aza, A nthedon, J oppa a nd S trato 's T ower. 2 3 G aza ,

t hen , f inally b ecame p art o f H erod 's k ingdom i n 3 0 B C , w hether o r

n ot h e h ad b riefly h eld

i t e arlier .

A t whatever d ate i t

t ook p lace ,

h is

a ppointment o f C ostobarus a s a rchon o f b oth I dumaea a nd G aza w ould m ake s ense . G aza w as t he m ost i mportant c ity i n t he I dumaean r egion a nd i ts

3 9

o nly p ort .

I t a lso s hows t hat,

d espite G aza 's s tatus a s a p olis , H erod d id

n ot i ntend t o a llow i t much a utonomy a nd w as r esolved t o k eep i t f irmly u nder h is c ontrol . H e d oes n ot s eem t o h ave s hown G aza a ny s pecial f avour a nd t here i s n o r ecord t hat i t w as e ver i ncluded i n h is a mbitious b uilding p rogramme t hat b enefited s o m any c ities, b oth w ithin h is k ingdom a nd o utside h is b orders . 24 T here w as, o f c ourse , n o r eason f or h im t o d evelop G aza . H e w as b uilding h is

own p ort a t C aesarea i n t he h eart o f h is k ingdom, M oreover ,

l inks w ith H erod 's b itter r ivals,

a nd f or t hat r eason must

h ave b een s uspect t o h im .

t he N abataeans,

c lose

I t i s, p erhaps, n ot s urprising t hat h e w ished t o

k eep i t u nder t he s upervision o f a r eliable o fficer , f amily t ies .

G aza h ad

a nd

w ould n ot w ish t o e ncourage c ompetition t o i t .

I n t he e vent,

C ostobarus

w ith whom h e h ad c lose

p roved d isloyal ,

a nd J osephus

d oes

n ot s ay w hether h e w as r eplaced . B ut i t i s r easonable t o a ssume t hat H erod c ontinued t o f eel t he n eed o f s omeone h e c ould t rust i n c harge o f G aza .

B : T HE F IRST T O T HIRD C ENTURIES. W hen H erod d ied i n 4 B C ,

A ugustus d ivided h is k ingdom b etween h is s ons .

A s p art o f t he n ew a rrangement , h e r emoved G aza , a long w ith t wo o ther G reek c ities,Gadaraand H ippos,and,in J osephusiwords: E t )pCa not ,E nai , . 2 5

p rovince a s a k ind o f a nnexe . J udaea ,

T tpOC Ieip enV

T his a pparently m eans t hat t he c ities w ere a ttached t o t he T he s ame p hrase i s u sed o f t he p rovince o f

c reated a fter t he d eposition o f A rchelaus

t he s upervision o f

t he g overnor o f S yria . 26

i n A D6

T here

i s

a nd

p laced

e vidence

u nder

t hat l ater

i n t he f irst c entury t he g roup o f c ities i n T ransjordan k nown a s t he D ecapolis f ormed a s imilar s ubordinate a dministrative u nit . 27 S ince G adara a nd H ippos w ere c ities o f t he D ecapolis, i t i s p ossible t hat t he o thers w ere a lso o rganized i nto t his ' annexe ' a t t he s ame t ime , f or t his . 28

G aza ,

h owever ,

b ut t here i s n o e vidence

w as n ot p art o f t he D ecapolis,

b ut l ay f ar t o

i ts s outh a nd w est, a nd t he r easons f or i ts a nnexation a re n ot c leafl J osephus s ays s imply t hat i t, a nd G adara a nd H ippos, w ere G reek c ities, b ut t here w ere s everal o thers t hat r emained u nder J ewish c ontrol .

P ossibly

t he p eople o f G aza h ad f ound t he s upervision o f H erod 's a rchon o ppressive , a nd h ad a ppealed t o t he R oman a uthorities t o b e r eleased f rom i t. O r p erhaps t he i nitiative c ame f rom t he R oman s ide , p rompted b y t he d esire t o e xercise m ore d irect c ontrol o ver t he s pice t rade c onducted t hrough G aza a nd t he c ustoms d uties l evied t here . 3°

I t w ould b e i nteresting t o k now w hether

aR oman o fficial w as a ppointed t o s upervise t he a ffairs o f G aza , a nd h ow t he a uthority o f t he g overnor o f S yria w as e xercised t here , w e h ave n o i nformation a t a ll .

b ut o n t hese p oints

O ne h int a t t he c ity 's a ltered s tatus c an b e

s een i n t he f act t hat a t t his t ime i t r ecommenced m inting i ts o wn b ronze c oinage , f or t he f irst t ime s ince i ts d estruction b y J annaeus .3 1

i n

W hile t here i s n o e vidence , i t s eems l ikely t hat G aza w as n ot i ncluded t he s ub-province o f J udaea e stablished i n A D 6 , t he k ingdom o f H erod

A grippa

i n 4 1,

o r

t he

p rovince

r e-established a fter h is

d eath

i n 4 4,

b ut

r emained a ttached t o t he P rovince o f S yria t hroughout t his p eriod . I t J ewish

i s h ard R evolt

t o s ay h ow b adly G aza w as a ffected b y i n

A D

6 6 .

J osephus

s ays

t hat

G aza

t he a nd

o utbreak o f A nthedon

t he

were

c ompletely d estroyed b y t he J ews, t hat m any o f t heir s urrounding v illages were a lso r avaged, a nd t hat many p eople w ere k illed . 32 B ut t he c ity c oinage o f G aza c ontinued u ninterrupted r evolt. 33

I t

s eems

l ikely,

t hroughout

t herefore,

t hat

t he

p eriod o f

J osephus'

a ccount

t he i s

e xaggerated, a nd t hat, t hough G aza a nd i ts n eighbouring v illages m ay w ell h ave b een a ttacked , t he d amage d one t o t he c ity must h ave f allen w ell s hort

4 0

o f

t otal d estruction .

T he f act t hat

t he r ebels a re r eported t o h ave

a ttacked G aza m ay i ndicate t hat a t t hat t ime t here w ere n o J ews l iving i n t he a rea, s omething which i s a lso s uggested b y t he e arlier d ecision t o e xclude G aza f rom t he J ewish k ingdom a fter t he d eath o f H erod . T he

c ity a ppears

t he r evolt,

n ot

t o h ave b een i nvolved i n f urther f ighting d uring

b ut n o d oubt s uffered e conomically f rom t he d isturbed s tate o f

t he c ountry . I t i s p ossible t hat V espasian p assed t hrough G aza o n h is w ay t o A lexandria , w here h e w as p roclaimed E mperor i n 6 9 , a nd J osephus r eports t hat T itus c a l ved t here o n h is way b ack t o t he s iege o f J erusalem t he f ollowing y ear. 3 4 O nce V espasian h ad a nd

e stablished

h imself

t he J ewish R evolt h ad b een c rushed ,

p rovince,

g overned

c ommand .3 5

b y

a p raetorian l egate,

I ts b orders w ere a djusted ,3 6

n ew p rovince ,

f irmly o n t he i mperial

J udaea w as

t hrone ,

r e—organised a s a f ull

w ith o ne l egion u nder h is

a nd G aza w as n ot

i ncluded i n t he

a s i s m ade c lear b y a bundant a ncient e vidence :

P tolemy , w ho

l ists i t a s o ne o f t he c ities o f na .Äat .0-g CVn ' Iou6aCa EL K ) Ca 37 ; E usebius 38 ; t he M adeba M ap 39 ; a nd a m ilestone f rom t he R aphia a rea , 4°

a ll o f w hich p lace t he s outhern b order o f S yria P alaestina ,

a s t he

P rovincia I udaea w as k nown f rom t he t ime o f H adrian o nwards, t o t he w est o f R aphia , n ear t he v illages o f B itolion o r B ethaffu ; a nd M arcus D iaconus, w ho r efers

t o

t he

efervention

o f

t he

p rovincial

g overnor a t

C aesarea

i n t he

a ffairs o f G aza . T he n ext e vent i n t he c ity 's h istory t hat c an b e t raced i s t he v isit o f H adrian i n 1 30.

H e w as r eceived w ith g reat h onour a nd a f amous I taVlyt )P

‘ 4 1 ,6pLa ,V1 was f ounded a nd c ontinued t o b e c elebrated f or s everal c enturies . T he C hronicon P aschale, w hich r ecords t his e vent u nder t he y ear

19 ,

s tates t hat

t he p anegyris w as

e stablished a s a s lave m arket f or

t he s ale o f J ewish p risoners t aken d uring t he S econd R evolt , i s o bviously c onfused a nd , i n G aza , I n

t he p anegyris c annot h ave b een f ounded f or t hat p urpose . 42

c ommemoration o f H adrian 's v isit ,

t he p eople o f G aza b egan t o d ate

t heir c oins f rom t he y ear o f t he E mperor 's b y

t heir

b ut t he d ating

t hough J ewish p risoners m ay w ell h ave b een s old

t raditional

H adrian c onferred

' Pompeian '

f avours

e ra .4 3

tnue mp .C oa T hroughout

o n a l arge n umber o f

t heir g ratitude i n m any d ifferent w ays, 44

b ut

,a longside t he d ate

h is

c ities,

t our a nd

t his a ppears

o f

t he

E ast,

t hey r ecorded t o b e t he o n«

e xample i n J udaea o f t he a doption o f t he d ate o f t he e pidemia a s a n e ra . I t d id, h owever , o ccur i n A thens, a fter H adrian 's f irst v isit t here, p robably i n 1 24/5 , a nd i s w ell a ttested i n i nscriptions , b ut w as n ot u sed o n t he

b ronze

c oinage

i ntroduced

u nder H adrian ."

T he

u se o n G aza 's c oins u ntil t he E mperor 's d eath i n 1 38 , t o

H adrianic a nd w as

e ra

w as i n

t hen a llowed

l apse . T he f act t hat G aza c ontinued m inting w ithout i nterruption t hroughout t he

p eriod o f t he B ar K okhba W ar o f 1 32-135 p roves c onclusively t hat t he c ity w as n ot s eized b y t he J ewish f orces . I ts c oins, h owever , l ike t hose o f A scalon ,

w ere

f requently

o verstruck b y

t he

r ebels .4 6a

T he

p rovince

a s

a

whole s uffered c onsiderable e conomic d amage a s a r esult o f t he r evolt, p articularly f rom t he w idespread l oss o f l ife a nd t he d estruction i n a gricultural a reas .4 7

I t a ppears t hat H adrian m ay h ave r aised t he t ributum

c apitis i n p unishment f or t he r evolt. 48 I f t his a pplied t o a ll t he i nhabitants o f t he p rovince, p agans a s w ell a s J ews, i t must h ave b een r esented b y t he c itizens o f G aza . t he r eigns o f A ntoninus P ius a nd

B ut t he c ity 's a bundant c oinage d uring M arcus A urelius m akes i t c lear t hat i t

4 1

r emained p rosperous t hroughout t his p eriod .4 9 T here i s n o d irect

e vidence f or G aza 's h istory

t he s econd a nd t he t hird c entury ,

t hroughout

b ut t he p rovince a s a w hole ,

t he

r est o f

k nown s ince

1 35 a s S yria P alaestina , 5° w as t he s cene o f m any s tirring e vents , w hich t he p eople o f G aza m ust h ave w itnessed , i f t hey d id n ot t ake p art i n t hem . I n 1 75 A vidius C assius, t he L egate o f S yria , r evolted a gainst M arcus A urelius a nd p roclaimed h imself E mperor , w ith t he s upport o f t he l egions o f S yria , P alestine ,

A rabia a nd E gypt,

a nd p ossibly s ome l ocal t roops a s w el1 .5 1

H e

m ust h ave p assed t hrough G aza o n h is m arch s outh f rom S yria t o A lexandria a t t he h ead o f h is a rmy . L ater t he s ame y ear, a fter t he a ssassination o f A vidius , M arcus A urelius m ust a lso h ave p assed t hrough G aza , p ossibly t wice , w hile v isiting t he s cene o f t he r ebellion , i n o rder t o r e-establish t he l oyalty o f t he p rovinces a nd t heir l egions. 5 2 A s econd d isturbance c ame a bout t wenty y ears l ater ,

w hen a nother L egate

o f S yria , P escennius N iger , a lso d eclared h imself E mperor . 53 ( The s tory t hat h e h ad e arlier s erved i n s ome c apacity i n P alestine , t he i nhabitants o f which p rotested a gainst h is e xcessive t axation, i s n ot t o b e t aken t oo \ s eriously .5 4 ) I t a ppears t hat t he c ities o f P alestine w ere d ivided i n t heir l oyalties , s ome s upporting N iger a nd o thers S eptimius S everus .5 5 I t i s n ot k nown , h owever , w hich s ide G aza t ook i n t his c onflict . T here i s n o e vidence f or i ts b eing e ither p unished b y S everus,

a s w as N eapolis ,

w hich

f or a t ime w as d eprived o f i ts c ity-status, 56 o r r ewarded b y h im, l ike S ebaste , w hich w as e levated t o t he s tatus o f ac olony .5 7 I t i s l ikely t hat S everus a nd h is s ons t ravelled t hro eh G aza w hen t hey v isited P alestine i n 1 98-99 , b efore g oing o n t o E gypt .5 ö C aracalla m ust h ave p assed t hrough G aza a gain o n t he o ccasion o f h is b loodthirsty v isit t o A lexandria i n 2 15 , a nd h is r eturn t o t he P arthian W ar . 59 A nother e mperor w ho m ay h ave v isited G aza i n t he c ourse o f aw ar a gainst P arthia i s G ordian I II i n 2 43 . A n i nscription f ound i n t he P ortus A ugusti a t O stia r ecords a d edication b y t he p eople o f G aza t o t his e mperor , n aming h im a s t he c ity 's b enefactor. T he d edication w as m ade: “ tvxEX CUEUK , t o n cr upCou a nd t hrough t he a gency o f t he t ntp .E .XT )If ic , o f t he

e c ot

t emple . bu T his s trongly s uggests t hat G ordian p aid s ome s pecial h onour , n o d oubt a s ubstantial o ffering , t o t he t emple o f M am as , t he c hief 1d eity o f G aza , I t

w hich w as d estroyed b y t he C hristians a bout 1 60 y ears l ater . i s

w ith

t he

r eign o f

G ordian t hat

G aza 's

c oinage

c omes

t o a n e nd ,

a pparently a v ictim , t ogether w ith t he o ther c ity c oinages o f t he a rea , o f t he r apid i nflation o f ee m id-third c entury , w hich m ade s uch i ndependent i ssues n o l onger v iable. I n t he c haotic c onditions o f t he t hird c entury ,

t he h istory o f t he

e astern p rovinces i s h opelessly o bscure , a nd w e k now n othing o f G aza f or t he r est o f t he c entury . I t i s d ifficult e ven t o s peculate o n t he e ffect o n i t o f t he r ise t o p ower o f P almyra . t he c ompetition o f

D id i t s uffer e conomically a s ar esult o f

i ts p owerful c ommercial r ival ,

a nd p olitical s trength e ncourage a nd s timulate

o r d id P alymra 's w ealth

t rade t hroughout t he e ntire

r egion . 63 ? I n 2 72 P alestine s ent t roops , a pparently l ocal l evies r ather t han p rofessional s oldiers , t o s upport A urelian a t E mesa i n t he f inal b attle a gainst Z enobia .6 4

M en f rom G aza m ay h ave b een a mong t hem ,

b ut w e d o n ot

k now . O rder f inally r eturned t o P alestine , a nd t he r est o f t he R oman w orld , u nder D iocletian , w hen f ar-reaching a dministrative a nd m ilitary r eforms w ere

4 2

m ade

i n

t he p rovinces .

G aza w as n ot

d irectly a ffected b y t hese r eforms,

t hough n o d oubt more s ettled c onditions were g ood f or i ts t rade . T he t ransfer o f L egio X F retensis f rom J erusalem t o A ila i s e vidence f or t he i mportance o f t his p ort a t t hat t ime , a nd i t i s p robable t hat a t l east s ome o f

t he

a lso

m erchandise

u nder

I llyr

i ani ,

l anded t here w as

D iocletian w as

t hat

s tationed

c onveyed t o G aza . 65

a t roop

a t

o f

M enois,

c avalry,

a l ittle

t o

I t w as p robably

t he t he

E quites P romoti s outh a nd

e ast

o f

G aza.

C : C HRISTIANITY C OMES T O G AZA . T owards t he e nd o f t he t hird c entury s ome h istorical i nformation o n G aza a gain b ecomes a vailable , L ittle i s k nown o f

m ainly t hrough

t he

w riting o f

C hristian a uthors .

t he f oundation o f t he C hristian c ommunity i n G aza .

h as b een s uggested t hat t he c ity 's

f irst b ishop w as P hilemon ,

t o w hom

I t S t .

P aul a ddressed a l etter .6 7 I t i s , h owever , a pparent f rom l ater s ources t hat t he c ommunity r emained s mall a nd w eak u ntil t he f ifth c entury . An umber o f C hristians f rom G aza s uffered martyrdom d uring t he p ersecutions u nder D iocletian . M ost p rominent a mong t hem w as S ilvanus, ( 9 . ) Into mo mpc Tav

a pqn t e iv r d4av t xxx r p at t 3v ,

w ho w as f irst s entenced t o h ard l abour i n t he m ines o f P hainon , a nd l ater b eheaded . 68 O ther m artyrs m entioned b y E usebius i nclude T imotheus, w ho w as b urnt a live A gapius a nd T hecla , w ho w ere

t hrown t o

w ild b easts,

a nd

s everal

h onoured b y t he e rection o f a m artyr

,

o thers . 69

T imotheus

w as

l ater

i n w hich w ere a lso p reserved t he

r emains o f t he martyrs M ajor a nd T hea . T hese m artyrdoms d id n ot , f rom

t he a rea ,

N icaea .7 1

h owever ,

s ucceed i n e radicating C hristianity

a nd i n 3 25 a b ishop o f G aza w as

A t a pproximately t he s ame t ime,

c onverted t o C hristianity e n masse . i mpressed b y t heir e nthusiasm t hat h e

p resent

a t t he c ouncil

o f

t he c itizens o f Maioumas

T he Emperor C onstantine w as g ranted t he t own t he s tatus o f

s o a n

i ndependent p olis a nd r enamed i t C onstantia , e ither a fter h is s on C onstans, a s S ozomen s tates ,7 2 o r , a ccording t o E usebius, 7 3 a fter h is s ister .7 4 T he p eople o f G aza were s till, f or t he most p art, s taunchly p agan a nd w ere a pparently e xtremely i ndignant a t t he l oss o f c ontrol o ver t heir p ort. W hether o r n ot t hey p rotested a t t he t ime i s n ot k nown , b ut a s s oon a s t hey s aw t he c hance o f a s ympathetic h earing , t hey s eized t he o pportunity a nd a ppealed

t o t he p agan E mperor J ulian ,

d ecision .

w ho

p romptly r eversed

b e n o l onger a n i ndependent p olis , b ut m erely

Tt z

C onstantine 's

M aioumas l ost i ts r ights a nd i t n ew n ame , a nd h enceforth w as t o ut ,

nap aea ktr ut .ov

i a tpo

r a4c crwv n Xcwç sharing

t he s ame magistrates and p ublic a dministration . O nly i n C hurch m atters w as M aioumas a llowed t o k eep i ts i ndependence , m aintaining i ts o wn b ishop , c lergy a nd f estivals . S ozomen w rites

t hat

i n h is o wn

t ime ( the f irst h alf o f

t he

f ifth

c entury)

i t

w as

t hreatened b y t he b ishop o f G aza, who, o n t he d eath o f t he i ncumbent o f M aioumas, w ished t o a malgamate t he t wo s ees , o n t he g rounds t hat i t w as n ot p roper f or o ne c ity t o h ave t wo b ishops .

T he p eople o f M aioumas a ppealed

a nd t he n ational s ynod e lected a n ew b ishop , a rguing t hat t he d ecisions o f a p agan e mperor s hould h ave n o s tanding i n C hurch a ffairs . 75 B ut i t a ppears t hat e ventually t he s eparate b ishopric o f M aioumas l apsed a nd a pparently w as m erged

w ith

t hat

o f

t he n eighb

eing

t own ,

A nthedon ,

t hough

t he

d ate a t

w hich t his h appened i s u ncertain . T he b ishop o f M aioumas i s n ot m entioned b y M arcus D iaconus, a lthough t he C hristian p opulation o f t he p ort i s d escribed a s e nthusiastically s upporting t he e fforts o f B ishop P orphyry t o s uppress p agan w orship i n G aza .7 / Y et,

4 3

a ccording t o S ozomen , t here w as s till a b ishop a t t his t ime ( around t he y ear 4 00) . t ow ns ,

T his

o mission h as

b een a ttributed

t o t he

r ivalry b etween t he t wo

b ut i t s eems p ossible t hat i t m ay b e d ue t o t he l ater e ditor o f t he

w ork o f M arcus D iaconus , who d ecided t o r emove r eferences t o af igure w hose o ffice n o l onger e xisted i n h is o wn t ime. 7 8 P etrus I berus w as a ppointed B ishop o f M aioumas s oon a fter t he C ouncil o f C halcedon o f 4 51 .7 9 M aioumas a ppears , h owever , n either i n t he l ist o f b ishoprics o f G eorgius C yrius , n or i n t hat o f t he H ieroclis S yndemus A b oth , i n t heir f inal f orm , p robably t o b e d ated t o t he t ime o f J ustin ian .8 u T he e vidence i s u nclear , b ut i t s eems t hat t he s eparate b ishopric o f M aioumas p robably d isappeared a t s ome t ime d uring t he s ixth c entury . T he w hole e pisode i s i nteresting f or t he w ay i t i llustrates t he t ensions t hat e xisted b etween G aza a nd M aioumas , t ensions w hich c annot s imply b e e xplained a s a c onflict b etween a r esolutely p agan c ommunity a nd a n ewly e nthusiastic C hristian o ne . G azaeans , b oth p agan a nd C hristian , f irmly i nsisted o n t heir r ight t o d omination a nd c ontrol o ver t he p ort , w hile t he p eople o f M aioumas c lung w ith e qual o bstinacy t o t heir d esire f or i ndependence . T he m ost o bvious c ause f or t his t ension b etween t he t owns i s e conomic . G aza w ould n aturally b e a nxious t o r etain c ontrol o ver t he p ort , o n t he t rade o f w hich i ts p rosperity a t l east p artly r elied , w hereas t he m erchants o f M aioumas m ay h ave b een e qually c oncerned t o m ake u se o f t heir p rofits f or t he d evelopment o f t heir o wn t own , r ather t han h aving t hem d rawn o ff f or t he g reater g lor i f ication o f G aza . D uring t he f irst h alf o f t he f ourth c entury , G aza w itnessed o ther e vents o f g reater s ignificance f or t he h istory o f C hristianity . A t o ne s tage t he c ity b ecame e mbroiled i n t he c ontroversy b etween t he A rians a nd A thanasians . A t t hat h e w as

t ime A sclepas w as B ishop o f G aza . t he f ounder o f t he ' Old C hurch '

M arcus D iaconus t ells u s t hat t o t he w est o f t he c ity , a nd

d escribes h im a s : c bv i t oÄXoi ) ö t .wygoZ ) b no l actv c cvta t rap V Ic i tiCr teW The n ature o f t hese p ersecutions i s m ade c lear b y t he e cclesiastical h istorians S ocrates a nd S ozomen . I n 3 41 h e w as a ccused b y t he A rians o f A thanasianism a nd , a long w ith o ther b ishops a gainst w hom s imilar c harges h ad b een made, w as d ismissed f or h is p ost . A c ertain Q uintianus w as a ppointed i n h is p lace . B ut t he d emoted b ishops a ppealed t o

8 peo664o t )

P ope J ulius

a t

R ome .

H e

e xamined

t hem,

c oncluded

t hat

t hey a ccepted

t he

N icene C reed , a nd o rdered t heir r einstatement . T heir l ocal c ommunities w ere s till r eluctant t o a ccept t hem , a nd i t f inally t ook t he i ntervention o f t he E mperor C onstantius t o e nforce t he P ope 's d ecision . T hen A sclepas w as g ladly w elcomed b ack t o G aza a nd , a s M arcus m akes p lain , h is m emory w as s ubsequently h eld i n h onour f or h is b rave s truggle t o u phold h is b elief s .8 ' T he f ourth c entury w as a lso t he p eriod o f t he c areer o f H ilarion ,

w ho

i ntroduced m onasticism i nto P alestine , a nd w hose s tory h as b een v ividly t old b y J erome .8 2 H e w as b orn i n t he v illage o f T abatha , o r T havatha , a bout f ive m iles s outh o f G aza ,8 3 t he s on o f w ealthy l andowners, w ho s ent h im a s a y oung b oy t o A lexandria , t o s tudy u nder a g rammaticus 8 4 . T here H ilarion , w ho w as a lready a C hristian , a lthough h is p arents w ere n ot, c ame u nder t he i nfluence o f A ntonius, t he o riginator o f t he m onastic w ay o f l ife , w ho l ived a s ah ermit i n t he E gyptian d esert . A t t he a ge o f f ifteen , a fter h is p arents ' d eath , h e r eturned t o T havatha , d ivided h is i nheritance b etween h is b rothers a nd t he p oor , a nd i solated a rea ,

a nd s et

o ut f or t he d esert .

H e s ettled i n ah arsh

a bout s even m iles s outh o f M aioumas a nd n ear t he c oast ,

4 4

b uilt h imself a r ough h ut a nd e mbarked o n a l ife o f e xtreme p rivation a nd d anger . 85 H e s uccumbed , h owever , n either t o s tarvation , t he n umerous b andits w ho i nfested t he a rea .8 6

n or e xposure ,

n or

I n t he c ourse o f t ime h e d eveloped a r eputation a s a h oly m an a nd w as v isited i n h is s olitude b y b oth C hristians a nd p agans, r equesting h is a ssistance i n e ntreating d ivine i ntervention t o s olve t heir p roblems . J erome r ecounts a n umber o f m iraculous c ures a nd e xpulsions o f d emons s upposed t o h ave b een p erformed b y H ilarion .8 7 W hile t hese s tories c annot b e a ccepted l iterally , s ome o f t hem a re o f i nterest f or t he i ncidental i nformation t hey m ay p rovide . O ne e xample i s t he s tory o f t he F rankish c andidatus C onstantii , f rom w hom H ilarion c ast o ut a d emon a nd w ho w as m iraculously e nabled t o a nswer i n A ramaic w hen a ddressed i n t hat l anguage , a d etail t hat s uggests t hat H ilarion h ad a dopted t he l an erge o f t he c ountry p eople a mong w hom h e l ived, d espite h is G reek e ducation . A nother i nteresting s tory i s t hat o f I talicus, a C hristian f rom M aioumas , w ho w as p roviding a c hariot t eam t o r ace i n t he c ircus g ames a gainst a t eam o f ad uumvir o f G aza a nd , f earing t hat h is o pponent w as u sing b lack m agic t o e nsure h is v ictory , a sked H ilarion t o a ssist h im .8 9 T he w ord d uumvir i s u seful s upporting e vidence t hat b y t his t ime G aza h ad a chieved t he s tatus o f a R oman c olony .9 ° I talicus ' r eply w hen H ilarion a sked h im w hy h e d id n ot s ell h is c hariot a nd h orses a nd g ive t he m oney t o t he p oor , f unctionem e sse p ublicam, e t h oc s e n on t am v elle, q uam c ogi, i s a lso i nteresting a s e vidence t hat a t G aza, a s i n o ther c ities, t he m aintenance o f a c hariot t eam w as a n o ffical l iturgy i mposed o n w ealthier c itizens f or t he p urpose o f p roviding p ublic e ntertainment .9 1 B ut t he a cccount o f t he l arge n umber o f c onversions t hat f ollowed t he v ictory o f I talicus ' c hariot a mid g reat p ublic e xcitement m ust b e e xaggerated , a s i t i s c lear t hat t he C hristian c ommunity i n G aza r emained s mall a nd w eak f or a l ong t ime a fterwards . H ilarion 's a ctivities w ere n ot c onfined t o G aza a nd i ts i mmediate v icinity . S ozomen r ecounts a v isit h e m ade t o t he l arge a nd d evoutly p agan v illage o f B ethelea ,

t o t he n orth-east o f G aza, 92

t he o riginal h ome o f

S ozomen 's f amily . F ollowing h is s uccess i n c asting o ut a d emon f rom o ne A laphion , w hose r elationship w ith S ozomen i s n ot made c lear , S ozomen 's g reat-grandfather a nd t he e ntire f amily w ere c onverted t o C hristianity .9 3 H ilarion i s a lso r eported t o h ave v isited E lusa ,

a t

t he t ime o f a S aracen

( Bedouin ) f estival , t o h ave c onverted i ts p articipants , a nd t o h ave l aid t he f oundations f or t he c hurch t here. 9 4 I n g eneral, h owever, t he a ccounts o f H ilarions ' s uccess i n making c onverts m ust b e t aken a s e xaggerated . A s w e h ear f rom M arcus D iaconus , b oth G aza a nd i ts s urrounding v illages r emained v iolently o pposed t o C hristianity f orty o r s o y ears a fter h is d eath . 95 I ndividuals a nd f amilies, l ike t hat o f S ozomen , m ay w ell h ave b een c onvinced b y h im, a ttracted b y h is p ersonality , a nd p erhaps b y h is s uccess a s a f aith h ealer , b ut t here i s c ertainly n o e vidence o f m ass c onversions t aking p lace . I t i s p ossible t hat h e w as m ore s uccessful a mong t he n omad S aracens t han a mong t he s ettled

p opulation a nd

t hat

t he

s tory a bout

E lusa d oes

r eflect

a g enuine

t radition o f t he c onversion o f o ne o f t he t ribes , a lthough h is f oundation o f t he c hurch t here r emains m ore d oubtful .9 6 B ut H ilarion 's m ain a chievement l ay n ot i n t he s uccess o r o therwise o f h is m issionary a ctivity ( and i n f act J erome 's a ccount d oes n ot s uggest t hat

4 5

h e s aw m ass c onversion a s h is m ain p urpose .

H e i s d epicted a s a r ecluse ,

whose g rowing r eputation g radually d rew h im , s omewhat r eluctantly , i nto c loser c ontact w ith t he p ublic) , b ut i n h is i ntroduction o f m onasticism i nto P alestine . c ell ,

Among t he s uppliants, H ilarion h ad o ther v isitors t o h is d esert

t hose a ttracted t o h is a scetic w ay o f l ife a nd w ishing t o s hare h is

s olitude . 97

T hey b uilt t heir h uts n earby,

d eveloped

a n o rganised

a nd

m onastic

w ay o f

a nd g radually a c ommunity

l ife

e volved .

c ommunities s prang u p i n i solated p arts o f t he c ountry , t o H ilarion f or i nspiration ,

O ther

m onastic

a pparently l ooking

i f n ot u nder h is d irect c ontrol .

J erome

d escribes h im a s m aking a t our o f t hese m onasteries a nd g ently r eproving t hose m onks whose b ehaviour f ell s hort o f h is i deals .9 8 I nevitably , H ilarion a nd h is monks a roused t he h ostility o f t he p agan majority a nd, i n t his c ase t oo, t hey s eized t he o pportunity o f J ulian 's a ccession t o t he t hrone t o t ake t heir r evenge .

A w arrant w as a cquired f or

t he a rrest a nd e xecution o f H ilarion a nd h is c hief d isciple, H esychias , a nd a mob o f G azaeans, l ed b y t he l ictores p raefecti, m arched o n t he m onastery . H ilarion a nd H esychias w ere , f ortunately , a bsent , o n av isit t o t he t omb o f A ntonius i n E gypt, b ut t he monastery w as s acked a nd d estroyed .9 9 H ilarion w as w arned n ot t o r eturn a nd f led , f irst t o S icily a nd t hen t o C yprus , w here h e d ied . M°

W hen i t w as s afe t o d o s o ,

H esychias b rought h is b ody b ack t o

P alestine a nd b uried i t i n t he r uins o f t he m onastery , w hich w as r estored . F rom t hen o n, a n impressive a nnual f estival w as h eld i n H ilarion 's h onour. 1 01 J ulian 's

r eign w as

a lso

t he

o ccasion f or a n o utbreak o f m ob v iolence

a gainst C hristians i n G aza i tself . murder o f t hree y oung m en ,

S ozomen d ecribes

i n d etail t he s avage

a nd h ow t heir b ones w ere s ubsequently p reserved

a nd h onoured a t M aioumas .

T he p rovincial g overnor s uppressed t he d isorder

a nd i mprisoned t he r ingleaders, i ntending t o p rosecute t hem f or m urder .

F or

t his h e i ncurred J ulian 's s evere d ispleasure . H e w as d ismissed f rom h is p ost a nd p ut o n t rial . J ulian w as c onsidered m erciful f or n ot d emanding t he d eath p enalty . p ut

o n t rial

" Why" ,

h e i s s upposed t o h ave s aid,

f or g etting

t heir

" should

t he G azaeans b e

o wn b ack o n a f ew l i estians

f or a ll t he

i nsults t hey a nd t heir g ods h ave s uffered f rom t hem?" . G aza

e xperienced

a n atural

d isaster a t

t his

t ime,

i n t he s evere

e arthquake t hat s truck l arge a reas o f P alestine o n M ay 1 9 , 3 63 . r ecorded a t

G aza,

s everity

d amage

o f

a s

i n a n umber o f o ther c ities,

i s

n ot

k nown,

a nd

t here

h as

b ut n ot

D amage w as

t he e xtent a nd b een

s ufficient

e xcavation c arried o ut i n G aza t o p rovide a rchaeological e vidence.

1 °3

D : T HE T RIUMPH O F T HE C HURCH T he f inal c onversion o f G aza t o C hristianity c ame o nly a t t he e nd o f t he f ourth c entury , w ith t he a ppointment a s B ishop o f G aza o f P orphyry , w ho a pparently c ombined p ersonal s aintliness a nd e xtreme m ildness i n h is a ppproach t o i ndividuals w ith a f anatical d etermination t o e radicate p agan worship f rom h is c ity . A g raphic a ccount o f h is s truggles a nd h is f inal s uccess i n d estroying t he p agan c ults o f t he c ity h as b een p rovided b y h is f aithful

D iaconus,

a n a ccount which i n

e ssentials c arries c onviction a s t o i ts a uthenticity ,

c ompanion a nd

d eacon ,

Marcus

a lthough a f ew m ildly

m iraculous e pisodes m ay b e t reated w ith a c ertain d egree o f s cepticism - a nd c an b e s hown t o h ave l iterary p arallels - a nd a n umber o f d etails h ave o bviously b een a llSved a nd f alsified b y a l ater e ditor, d octrinal

g rounds .l u

4 6

p resumably o n

W hen P orphyry a rrived i n G aza i n M arch 3 94 , a ccompanied b y M arcus , h e f ound a s mall c ommunity o f 2 80 C hristians .1 °5 H e l aboured f or s ome y ears t o i ncrease t he s ize o f h is c ongregation w ith l ittle s uccess, c ontinually h arrassed a nd o ccasionally t hreatened b y t he h ostility o f t he p agan m ajority .1 06 T hen i n 3 98 h e s ent M arcus t o C onstantinople , w ith a p etition t o t he E mperor A rcadius . T he r esponse w as f avourable ; a n i mperial d ecree o rdering t he c losure o f t he t emples w as i ssued a nd H ilarius , a s ubadiuva m a üstri o fficorum , w as d espatched t o s ee t hat t he d ecree w as o beyed . H e a rrived i n G aza, a ccompanied b y o fficials f rom C aesarea a nd a b ody o f t roops , a nd o rdered t he d estruction o f a ll i mages a nd t he c losure o f t he t emples , e xcept t he M arne r eturn f or a l arge b ribe .

e , w hich h e a llowed t o r emain o pen , s upposedly i n

T he p agans s oon r eturned p rivately t o t heir t raditional p ractices , b ut f rom t hen o n i t m ust h ave b een a pparent t hat i t w as o nly a m atter o f t ime b efore t he M arneion a nd t he o ther t emples w ere d estroyed . J erome, a t l east , a nticipated t his w hen , i n 4 00/401 , h e w rote t o L aeta : T am e t A egyptius S erapis f actus e st C hristianus . M am as M ae l uget i nclusus e t e versionem t empli i ugiter p ertremescit . v ° T he p agans c ontinued t heir h arrassment o f t he C hristians a nd t heir b ishop , a nd i n S eptember 4 00 P orphyry c onsulted t he A rchbishop o f C aesarea . T hey t ravelled t ogether t o C onstantinople t o a ppeal t o t he E mperor a nd g ained t he s upport o f t he E mpress E udoxia , w ho c onveyed t heir r equest t o h er h usband . " A rcadius , h owever , t urned d own t heir a ppeal , o n t he g rounds t hat , t hough G aza m ight b e p agan , i t p aid i ts t axes l oyally a nd b rought m uch i ncome t o t he t reasury . 10 E udoxia c ontinued t o s upport t he b ishops a nd e ventually , t hrough h er m anoeuvres , ap etition w as p resented t o h er i nfant s on , t he f uture E mperor T heodosius I I, w hich A rcadius f elt o bliged t o a ccept . A n i mperial e dict w as i ssued, o rdering t he d estruction o f t he t emples , a nd a h igh o fficial , C ynegius , w as a ppointed t o s ee t hat i t w as c arried o ut . T he E mpress p ersonally p resented t he b ishops w ith a l arge s um o f m oney f or t he b uilding o f ac hurch i n G aza, a nd o f ap ilgrim h os q, w here v isiting m onks c ould b e e ntertained f or t hree d ays f ree o f c harge ." P orphyry a rrived a t M aioumas , t o a n e nthusiastic r eception , o n M ay 1 4 02 , a nd C ynegius a rrived t wo w eeks l ater , a ccompanied b y t he c onsularis a nd d ux f rom C aesarea a nd a l arge b ody o f t roops . M any o f t he p agans , i ncluding m ost o f t he r ichest c itizens o f G aza , f led t o t he v illages, o r t o o ther c ities , a nd C ynegius p romptly r equisitioned t heir h ouses t o q uarter h is t roops . T he e dict w as p roclaimed, a nd t he C hristians e nthusiastically j oined t he s oldiers i n t earing d own a nd f iring t he t emples . T he p riests o f M am as b arricaded t hemselves i n t heir t emple a nd p ut u p a s tubborn r esistance , b ut e ventually t he M arneion a lso w as r ansacked a nd d estroyed . T he p rivate h ouses w ere s earched a nd i mages a nd s acred b ooks w ere s eized a nd b urnt. 12 L ater i n t he s ummer P orphyry e mbarked o n t he b uilding o f an ew c hurch o n t he s ite o f t he M arneion . T here w as s ome c ontroversy a mong t he C hristians a s t o w hether t he c ircular p lan o f t he t emple s hould b e r etained , o r w hether i ts m emory s hould b e c ompletely o bliterated . T he a rgument w as s ettled b y t he a rrival o f al etter f rom t he E mpress , c ontaining t he p lan o f ac ruciform

4 7

c hurch , w hich s he r equested t hat t hey s hould f ollow . P orphyry e ngaged 1 . s ervices o f R ufinus , a n a rchitect f rom A ntioch , a nd t he w ork w as b egun . 13 E udoxia m aintained h er i nterest i n t he p roject . T he f ollowing y ear s he d espatched t hirty-two c olumns o f b rilliant g reen C arystus m arble f or t he n ew c hurch . 14 A fter f ive y ears t he c hurch w as c ompleted . I t w as n amed t he E udoxiana, a nd i ts d edication t ook p lace a t E aster 4 07 . A f estival w as h eld , l asting a w eek , a nd m any m onks f rom t he s urrounding c ountryside , a s well a s o ther v isitors, t ook p art . I n f act, t he f estival, n o d oubt t he f irst o ccasion o n which a l arge g athering o f C hristians w as h eld i n G aza , s ounds v ery m uch l ike t hose h eld f or t he d edication o f n ew c hurches a nd d escribed b y C horicus a bout 1 30 y ears l ater . 15

l east

E ven a fter t his s uccess, P orphyry 's t roubles w ere n ot o ver , a nd o n a t o ne o ccasion d isputes b etween C hristians a nd p agans l ed t o a r iot

r equiring t he i ntervention o f t roops f rom C aesarea . 16

W e a re t old n othing

o f P orphyry 's l ater y ears . M arcus e nds h is a ccount w ith t he b ishop ' s1 /d eath , 1 w hich h e c arefully d ates b y t he c alendar o f G aza t o F ebruary 2 6 4 20. T he L ife o f P orphyry o f Marcus D iaconus, a s well a s b eing a v ivid a ccount o f t he s truggle b etween H ellenic p aganism a nd C hristianity , a lso g ives u s a n umber o f d etails a bout t he c ity o f G aza i tself , i ts b uildings, r eligious c ults, i ts m agistrates a nd o fficials , 18 o f p agans a nd C hristians i n t he c ity. M arcus d escribes G aza i n t he f ollowing w ords:

. o u

a nd t he

rdca ,

r elative s tatus

T u5X1 ,

t C 5ItV

f l aXataztv 1K I v g ceopCy z ec A tyen%ou b lu ipxote.a , o bx i a cr opo ö t T uyxdvouaa, & XXà ' , eat n oXeavöp(K x at T C 5v

tw pav t 5v r aUcc ov o taa. I n

s everal

p laces h e r efers

1 19. t o t he v illages s urrounding G aza,

b ut n one i s

n amed , e xcept M aioumas .1 20 T he c ity g ate i s m entioned ,1 21 a nd t he h ouses a re d escribed a s b eing made, f or t he most p art, o f s un-baked b rick .1 22 A pparently, t hey a djoined o ne a nother, o r h ad o nly n arrow p assages i n b etween , a s P orphyry a nd M arcus w ere a ble t o e scape f rom a r iot b y f leeing a cross

t he

r oof-tops ,

g iven s helter

w hich

i n a h ut

w ere

b uilt

p resumably

f lat .

o n t op o f a r oof .

E ventually ,

t hey

T his h ut a ppears

w ere

t o h ave

b een o f l ight c onstruction - M arcus r emarks t hat t hey w ere a ble t o s tay i n i t

o nly

b ecause

i t

w as

r ather t han h abitation .

s ummer - a nd

w as

p resumably

i ntended

T he g irl w ho s heltered t hem t here h ad

f or

s torage

t o b ring u p

b eddin2 a nd t o e nter t he h ouse b elow b y means o f s ome a pparatus w ith a p ulley:12 3 N one o f t he p ublic b uildings o f G aza i s mentioned, t emples

a nd

c rossroads,

c hurches,

b ut

M arcus

d oes

d escribe

w here f our c olonnaded s treets m et ,

a ' t

a re

l isted ,

T yche o f G aza ,

t hose

M am as,

o f

a nd o ne

H elios, t he

A phrodite ,

A pollo ,

E ight p ublic

K ore,

H ecate ,

t he

i dentity o f w hich i s m ade u ncertain b y

t extual d ifficulties, p ossibly a H eroeon, a H eraeon, o r a n I oon. •

, o r

i n w hich s tood a n ude r elief

o f A phrodite, worshipped mainly b y t he women o f G aza .1 24 t emples

a part f rom t he

pe ip .90 6OV

1 25

T he o nly t emple o f w hich a ny d escr etion i s g iven i s t he M arneion .

w as s ituated i n t he c entre o f t he c ity ,1 L6

I t

a nd w as c ircular i n f orm, c rowned

b y a h igh d ome a nd s urrounded b y a d ouble p eristyle .1 2/

A s eries o f c oins

f rom G aza d epicts t he f acade o f t he M arneion ( identified b y t he i nscription MAPNAE) a s two c olumns s upporting a n a rchitrave, with a p ediment a bove .

I f

t his

i s

n ot

m erely

c onventional,

4 8

t he M arneion must h ave h ad a

p orch ,

l ike t hat o f t he P antheon a t R ome .1 28

b y s tr n 1 1 g d oors o f b ronze ,1 29

T he i nner s anctuary w as c losed

a nd h ad a t l east o ne o ther ,

l ess c onspicuous

e xit .' T he t emple w as l avishly e quipped w ith i mages 1 31 a n § acred v essels, o f g old a nd s ilver , a s w ell a s o f n on-precious m etals .1 3 ' T he s anctuary w as l ined w ith m arble s labs, w hich , a fter t he d estruction o f t he t emple , w ere u sed t o p ave t he s quare i n f ront o f t he n ew c hurch . B ut t he p eople o f G aza , p articularly t he w omen , r efus?d t o w alk o n t hem , c linging t o t heir b elief i n t he s anctity o f t hese s tones .1 33 T he o ther b uildings o f G aza m entioned b y M arcus a re t hose o wned b y t he C hristian c ommunity . M ost i mportant o f t hese w as t he I rene c hurch , w ithin t he c ity , b ut a pparently a t s ome d istance f rom t he M arneion , s ince t he C hirstians m arched i n p rocession f rom t he I rene t o t he s ite o f t he r azed t emple ,

t o

b egin w orking

o n

t he n ew c hurch .1 34

T he

l ocal

p eople

c laimed

t hat t he p lace w here t he c hurch s tood w as k nown a s I rene , b ecause i t w as t here t hat t he f ighting s topped , w hen t he c ity s urrendered t o A lexander t he G reat . M arcus , h owever , p referred t o b elieve t hat t he c hurch e as k nown a fter i ts f ounder , B ishop I renion .1 35 W hile t he l egend r egarding t he o rigin o f t he n ame s ounds u nlikely , t here i s n o r eason t o d oubt t he t radition t hat t he p lace w as k nown a s I rene . T he a doption o f t he e xisting n ame w ould h elp t o make t he c hurch m ore a cceptable t o t he p agan p opulation, a s w ell a s f itting t he p ractice o f t he e arly C hurch , w hich o ften n amed c hurches a fter a bstract q ualities , s uch a s I rene o r S ophia . B eside t he c hurch t here w as a s mall h ouse, d esignated f or t he u se o f t he b ishop. 1 36 T o t he w est o f t he c ity , a t s ome d istance o utside i ts w alls ,

s tood t he

' Old C hurch ' , f ounded b y B ishop A sclepas . A nother h oly p lace o utside t he w alls w as t he m artyrium o f T imotheus , w hich a lso h eld t he b ones o f t he m artyrs M ajor a nd T hea .1 37 T he O ld C hurch a ppears t o b e t he s mall c hurch a t a d istance o f f ive s tades f rom t he c ity , d escribed b y C horicus a s h aving b een r estored i n t he s ixth c entury. 1 38 S ome h ints a re g iven b y M arcus a s t o t he r elative s ocial a nd e conomic s tatus o f p agans a nd C hristians i n G aza . I t a ppears t hat t he m ajority o f t he r icher , m ore H ellenized c itizens w ere p agans , w hile C hristianity d rew i ts s upport m ainly f rom t he p oorer s ections o f t he p opulation . B efore t he a rrival o f t he i mperial c ommission s ent t o d estroy t he t emples, m any o f t he p agans f led f rom t he c ity .

l j aav ö t o t he

M arcus s tates p lainly :

Ä E .Cou

T a 5v T z . XovaC c ov

I ç i t 5Xcu .K

1 39. •

T he i mpression t hat t he p agans w ere m ore H ellenized i s r einforced b y f ew p ersonal n ames o f G azaeans r ecorded b y M arcus . T wo o f t he

T CPUrtee 0 V TE E piphanius ,1 40

t he

c hief

m agistrates

o f

G aza ,

a re

a nd a w oman s pecifically d escribed a s

c alled

T imotheus

a nd

T r y v t µ c pavMv

i lk ' 16)0 E u : bears t he G raeco-Roman n ame o f A elias . I f t he s tory o f h er a cceptance o f C hristianity , w hile o n t he p oint o f d eath d uring a d ifficult l abour, h er s ubsequent s afe d elivery a nd t he c onversion o f h er e ntire f amily , c an b e t aken s eriously , t hey m ust h ave p roved a v aluable a ddition t o t he C hristian c ommunity .1 41 A t s ome t ime a fter t he c ompletion o f t he E udoxiana , a r iot b roke o ut , p rovoked b y s ome d ispute b etween t he c hurch oexovdp ,oc a nd o ne o f t he T tpU r CE .00VTE , w ho i s g iven t he n ame o f S ampsychos . T he e tymology o f t his n ame i s u ncertain , b ut i t i s n ot n ecessarily S emitic . A t a ny r ate , i t a ppears t hat S ampsychus w as a p agan , a nd s ince t he r est o f t he c ity c ouncil r ushed t o h elp h im a gainst t he C hristians , p resumably t hey w ere t oo .1 42

N ot

a ll

t he

t he

l eading

c itizens

h ad

f led

a t

4 9

t he

t ime o f

t he

d estruction o f

t emples ,

n or h ad t hey a ll c onverted .

D espite t he g rowing i nfluence o f t he

C hristians , t hey s till p layed t heir t raditional r ole i n t he a dministration o f t he c ity . O n t he o ther h and , t he C hristians s eems t o h ave b een l ess H ellenized . D uring a d iscussion o n w hat s hould b e d one w ith t he Marneion , ac hild, a pparently s eized b y d ivine i nspiration , c alled o ut t hat t he t emple s hould b e b urnt . T his o utburst i s s aid t o h ave b een i n A ramaic .1 43 L ater , w hile b eing q uestioned b y t he B ishop, h e r epeated h is i nstructions i n G reek , t hough

h is

m other

s tated

t hat

n either

s he,

n or

h er

s on,

k new

t hat

l anguage .1 44 W hatever t he t ruth o f t his a necdote , t he i mplication i s t hat A ramaic w as t he n ormal l anguage o f t he C hristian c ommunity . T his i s a lso s uggested b y t wo o f t he n ames r ecorded o f C hristians ( the t hird , t hat o f a d eacon , i s , a dmittedly , C ornelius 1 45 ) . O ne i s t hat o f t he y oung g irl w ho s heltered P orphyry a nd M arcus, w hen t hey f led a cross t he r oof-tops . S he w as n ot y et a C hristian , b ut a nxious t o b e b aptised . S he w as c learly p oor ; s he w orked t o s upport h erself a nd h er g randmother . H er n ame w as S alaptha , w hich M arcus e xplains a s I rene i n G reek . S alaptha w as , t hen , ac orrupt f orm o f a n A ramaic n ame , p robably s imilar t o t he H ebrew nml yw . 146 T he o ther A ramaic n ame r ecorded f or a m ember o f t he C hristian c ommunity i s t hat o f t he D eaconess M anaris, t ranslates a s (l 'u n E . v1 s o i t w as p robably r elated t o r pijn

w hich M arcus o r r i l ljn 1 47

N evertheless , i t i s c lear t hat n ot o nly t he v ery p oor w ere a ttracted t o C hristianity . T he C hurch o wned p roperty , a part f rom t he c hurches a nd t he b ishop 's h ouse . I t w as i n p ossession o f l and i n o ne o f t he v illages o utside G aza a nd w as e ntitled t o c ollect r evenues f rom i t , e ven t hough c ollection c ould s ometimes b e d ifficult, a s a r esult o f p agan h ostility .1 48 T he d ispute b etween S amsychus a nd t he c hurch oxovöioc was on a ccount o f s ome l ands .1 49 M oreover , o ne o f t he e xamples t hat M arcus g ives o f t he h arrassment o f t he C hristians b y t he p agans i s t hat t hey ' d id n ot a llow t hem t o h old p ublic o ffice ,

b ut

t reated

t hem a s b ad c itizens% 1 5 °

T his i ndicates t hat p ublic

o ffice w as s till a n h onour t o b e s ought a fter , a s o ne t hat b rought p ower a nd i nfluence , d espite t he f act t hat i t i nvolved a h eavy f inancial b urden , a nd t hat a t l east s ome o f t he C hristian c ommunity w ere e ligible f or i t . I f t hey h ad a ll b een d isqualified b y p overty o r l ow s ocial s tanding , t hey c ould n ot h ave c omplained o f d iscrimination o n r eligious g rounds . I t

d oes,

t hen ,

a ppear t hat,

t hough t he

l eading

c itizens o f

G aza

r emained f aithful t o t heir H ellenic p aganism a nd t he n ew f aith f ound c onverts m ost r eadily a mong t he p oor a nd A ramaic-speaking , a t l east s ome p ersons o f w ealth a nd s ocial s tanding w ere m embers o f t he C hristian c ommunity .

T he s trength a nd i nfluence o f t he C hurch i ncreased i n t he y ears

f ollowing t he d estruction o f t he t emples , b ut i t m ust h ave t aken m any y ears a fter t he d eath o f B ishop P orphyry b efore t he n ew r eligion w as a ccepted b y a m ajority o f t he p eople a nd G aza c ould b e c onsidered a t ruly C hrisitan c ity . A t a pproximately t he t ime o f t he e vents n arrated b y M arcus, t he p rovince o f P alaestina a nd i ts n eighbours u nderwent t he l ast major a dministrative r eorganisation o f t he B yzantine p eriod . I n a bout 2 95 D iocletian h ad g reatly i ncreased t he s ize o f P alestine , a t t he e xpense o f A rabia , b y a dding i t t o P etra , A ila a nd t he N egev . T his e xpanded p rovince p roved a dministratively c umbersome , a nd i n 3 58 i t w as d ivided i nto t wo , P alaestina a nd P alaestina S alutaris , w hich c omprised t he t erritory o f t he

5 0

N egev

a nd

P etra,

which

h ad

e arlier

b elonged

t o

A rabia .

T hen ,

i n

a pproximately 4 00 , P alaestina w as d ivided a gain , i nto P alaestina P rima, w hich c omprised J udaea , I dumaea , S amaria a nd P eraea , a nd P alaestina S ecunda , i ncluding

t he

G alilee ,

p art

o f

t he

D ecapolis

a nd

t he

G aulan .

P rima r etained t he o ld p rovincial c apital o f C aesarea .1 51 c ourse , s outh

i ncluded i n P alaestina P rima , o f

R aphia .1 52

M arcus

t he b orders

D iaconus

r efers

t o

P alaestina

G aza was, o f

o f w hich r eached

t o

t he

t he

o f

t he

i ntervention

c onsularis ( civil g overnor) f rom C aesarea i n t he a ffairs o f G aza , b ut i t i s i mpossible t o t ell w hether t he p rovince h ad b een d ivided b y t he t ime o f t he e vents h e d escribes , o r n ot .1 53 T he d ivision i s r ecorded i n t he N otitia D ignitatum , t he p art o f w hich r eferring t o t he E astern E mpire p r egbly t o b e d ated t o a round 4 08 ,1 54

a nd i n a d ecree o f T heodosius I I o f 4 09 .

T he f ifth c entury i s a nother o bscure p eriod i n t he h istory o f G aza .

A

l ittle i s k nown o f s ome o f t he l iterary f igures o f t he c ity a t t his t ime ( to b e d iscussed

i n

t he n ext

s ection),

a nd i t

was a lso t he p eriod o f

a ctivity o f t he c ontroversial M onophysite t heologian P etrus I berus ,

t he

w ho w as

a ppointed B ishop o f Maioumas s hortly a fter t he C ouncil o f C halcedon i n 4 51. 1 56

H e

was

l ater

e xiled

t o

A lexandria,

where h e

was

a ctive

i n

t heological d isputes . A t a l ater d ate h e r eturned t o Maioumas, s till e mbroiled i n c ontroversy , m ade a n umber o f j ourneys , n otably t o A rabia a nd P hoenicia ,

a nd

e ventually

d ied

a t

J amnia .

H is

b ody

w as

b rought

b ack

t o

M aioumas a nd b uried w ith e laborate c eremonial b efore t he a ltar o f h is c hurch t here. 1 57

E : T HE R HETORICAL S CHOOL O F G AZA A ND T HE W RITINGS O F C HORICIUS T owards t he e nd o f t he f ifth c entury G aza s uddenly f lowered a s ac entre f or l iterary a nd r hetorical s tudies,

p roducing m any w ell-known o rators e

p oets,

a ll

a nd a ttracting

s tudents

f rom

o ver

t he

G reek-speaking

g

w orld .

T he s chool o f G aza h ad c lose c onnections w ith t hat o f A lexandria .

M any o f

i ts l eading f igures h ad s tudied t here , a nd A lexandrian t hemes a nd s tyles i nfluenced t he l iterary w orks p roduced i n G aza . I t w as a p urely l iterary s chool ;

l aw ,

m edicine ,

o r

t echnical

s ubjects

w ere n ot

t aught

t here ,

n or ,

a pparently, was p hilosophy, a lthough a t l east o ne o f G aza 's r hetors h ad s tudied N eoplatonism i n A lexandria .

I t was a lso a d evoutly C hristian

s chool, s ome o f i ts l eading e xponents p roducing t heological a s well a s r hetorical w orks, a nd t his m ay w ell h ave b een a f actor i n i ts r eputation a nd p opularity .

T he r eason w hy

n aTtpc ov

m ap l ô

T C 5v

A em iaCwv o t n a ncc

t ap

t c T M v

t v Eepwve llztAC4ctv a ZLoVat g avedveLv,

a s A eneas o f G aza w rote t o h is f riend ,

T heodorus t he s ophist,

m ay h ave h ad

a s much t o d o w ith t he p urity o f t he s chool 's r eligious b eliefs a s w ith t hat o f

i ts G reek .1 59

T he d evelopment o f t he r hetorical s chool o f G aza i s n ot e asy t o t race . A n i nscription , f ound a t E leusis a nd d ated t o t he t hird c entury , h onours t he o rator P tolemaeus o f G aza , n o

i ndication

t hat

h e

t he s on o f S erenus t he P hoenicarch ,

e ither

s tudied

o r

p ractised

i n

h is

b ut t here

n ative

i s

c ity .' 60

T he i nscription s pecifically r efers t o h im a s

r a4aroy x at M XÄwv n e 5Äcwv n oXi ,Tny

w hich m ay s uggest t hat h e t ravelled w idely i n t he c ourse o f h is c areer.

1 60a

T he T otius O rbis D escriptio , w hich m ay b e d ated t o t he f ourth c entury , m entions t he p re-eminence o f G aza i n t hat

e mpod i lc u ta

. 161

T his m ay s uggest

r hetoric w as a lready b eing t aught a nd p ractised t o a h igh s tandard i n

5 1

t he c ity a t t hat t ime . s ent h im t o o pposite. 1 62

A lexandria

A t a ny r ate , Z osimus.

O n t he o ther h and , f or

h is

t he f act t hat H ilarion 's p arents

s econdary

e ducation

may

s uggest

t he

t he f irst w ell-known o rator f rom G aza o f w hom w e h ear i s

T here i s s ome u ncertainty i n t he s ources a s t o h is d ate, t he

r eign o f Z eno o r A nastasius , a nd a lso w hether h e , i n f act , c ame f rom G aza , o r f rom A scalon . P ossibly t wo s eparate i ndividuals h ave b een c onfused . H e i s s aid

t o h ave written c ommentaries o n D emosthenes a nd L ysias,

b iography o f D emosthenes, a nd a n a lphabetically a rranged b ut n one o f h is w orks h as b een p reserved. 1 63

a

Ä tE , K A r y topLx .1

A nother i mportant w riter o f t he r eign o f A nastasius w as A eneas o f G aza . I n h is y outh h e s tudied u nder t he N eoplationist H ierocles i n A lexandria , h e r etained a n i nterest h is C hristian b eliefs .

a nd

i n p hilosophy , w hich h e a ttempted t o c ombine w ith H e w rote a P latonic d ialogue , t he T heophrastus, a n

u nparalled u se o f t hat l iterary f orm a t t he t ime .

I n t he d ialogue ,

w hich

i s s till e xtant, h e a ttempted t o p rove t he i mmortality o f t he s oul a nd t he r esurrection o f t he b ody .1 °4

A c ollection o f t wenty-five o f h is l etters h as

a lso b een p reserved .1 65 A nother i mportant f igure i n t he l iterary l ife o f G aza d uring t he r eign o f A nastasius was T imotheus . H e d id h is c ity a n i mportant s ervice b y a ddressing t o t he E mperor a z payyöta ( apparently s imply a l ong p oem , r ather t han a d ramatic t ragedy) , w hich w as b oth a p anegyric a nd a n a ppeal f or t he a bolition o f t he 8 / 1 1 . 16C YLOV x pvc r e lpyvpi .ov ,a n o ppressive t ax o n p rofits, a t equest w hich A nastasius g ranted .r bb

H e w as a lso t he a uthor

o f a t reatise n ept 4 dk iv , i n f our b ooks o f h exametric v erse , a pparently c oncentrating o n t he e xotic a nimals a nd b irds o f I ndia , A rabia a nd A frica , o f w hich s ome f ragments h ave b een p reserved i n al ater p rose s ummary ,1 67 o f a b ook o n g rammar,

J ohannes

o f

a nd

x av6ve .ç x aeoX i .xot s t Ept a uvzdZewc.

G aza w as

a nother ,

r ather

l ater p oet

a nd

g rammarian ,

w ho

w orked m ainly i n t he r eign o f J ustinian . A f ew o f h is w orks h ave s urvived , f irstly a c ollection o f s ix A nacreontic p oems, w ritten t o c elebrate p ublic o ccasions i n G aza : f or a w edding , i n h onour o f t he d ux Z acharias, o r f or t he s pring f estival k nown a s t he Tay o f R oses% 1 68 T he p oems d eal m ainly w ith m ythological s ubjects a nd a re h eavily i nfluenced b y t he A lexandrian s chool a nd t he s tyle o f N onnus .

Y et a nother work o f J ohannes which h as b een

p reserved i s t he l ong rxppaC YLC Tot / X0C r ilt ,X0t ; TaVaX0 a h exametric p oem d escribing a w all-painting i n t he w inter b aths o f G aza , o pened i n a bout 5 36 . T he p ainting d epicted v arious n atural p henomena i n m ythological i magery , a nd t he p oem i s a n i mportant s ource o f B yzantine a rt o f t his k ind .1 69 a nd r hetoric. I nE6c

J ohannes a lso r an a s chool o f G aza , p resumably o f g rammar O ne o f h is A nacreontic p oems i s e ntitled

Ca ' ro t v

f i gtpe - av A 66wv L v

B ut t he c entral f igure i n t he w ho w as a ctive f rom

a t r vot 6 Lazp Oi l

1 70

r hetorical s chool o f G aza w as P rocopius ,

t he r eign o f A nastasius

k now s omething o f h is l ife ,

X öyoc Q V

b oth f rom h is

t o

t hat

o f J ustinian .1 71

l etters ,1 71 a o f

w hich o ver

W e 1 60

h ave b een p reserved , a nd f rom t he f uneral o ration i n h is h onour d elivered b y h is p upil C horicius . H is l iterary t alent w as a pparent w hile h e w as s till a b oy , a nd h e w as s ent t o s tudy r hetoric i n A lexandria , w here h e w on a p rize i n a c ontest a gainst a m ore e xperienced r hetor .1 72

5 2

H is

r eputation s pread ,

a nd h e w as i nvited t o j oin t he r hetorical s chools o f A ntioch , T yre , C aesarea a nd B erytus , b ut , a fter s pending s ome t ime i n C aesarea , h e p referred t o r eturn h ome t o G aza .1 73 T he f act t hat C horicius r emarks o n t his c hoice m ay s uggest t hat a t t he t ime a ll t hese r hetorical s chools w ere c onsidered s uperior t o t hat o f G aza , a nd i t m ay h ave b een , i n p art , d ue t o P rocopius h imself t hat G aza 's s chool a cquired i ts h igh r eputation . I n G aza P rocopius w as a ppointed t o a n o fficial c hair o f r hetoric a nd h e w as p aid a s alary f rom p ublic f unds .1 74 H is d uties i ncluded g iving s peeches o n p ublic o ccasions , s uch a s ap anegyric t o t he E mperor A nastasius , o n t he o ccasion o f t he e rection o f a s tatue t o h im i n G aza ,1 75 d irecting t he t eaching o f r hetoric i n t he c ity .

a s w ell a s

A part f rom h is r hetorical w ork , P rocopius w as a n e minent t heologian , a nd an umber o f h is b iblical c ommentaries a nd o ther t heological w orks a nd e xtant .1 76 W e a lso h ave a s mall n umber o f h is r hetorical s peeches, lx( ppä ,aCt4 , a nd ö taXi4etc , w hich w ere o riginally a scribed t o C horicius ,1 77 a s w ell a s t he c ollection o f l etters . P rocopius d ied i n 5 26 , o r s oon a fterwards , a nd C horicius d elivered h is f uneral o ration .1 78 I t i s p ossible t hat t he y ounger P rocopius, f or whom C horicius c omposed a n e pithalamium , w as h is g randson .1 79 C horicius w as t he m ost f amous o f P rocopius ' p upils , a nd s eems t o h ave s ucceeded h im a s h ead o f t he r hetorical s chool o f G aza , a nd a s t he c ity 's l eading o rator . T here i s n o d irect e vidence f or t his - w e k now n othing o f C horicius ' l ife - b ut h is e xtant w ritings 1 8° i nclude a n umber o f s peeches d elivered o n i mportant p ublic o ccasions , i ncluding t he d edication o f t wo n ew f unerals o f l eading c itizens, 182 w eddings, 1 83 a nd h onorific c hurches ,1 81 mportant p ersonalities , s uch a s t he c onsularis a nd d ux o f t he a ddresses p p i p rovince 1 84 a nd t he m agister m ilitum .1 85 H e a lso o ccasionally r efers t o h imself a s at eacher , o r t o h is p upils. 1 86 C horicius w as u nlike h is m aster P rocopius i n h aving , a pparently , n o i nterest i n t heology , a nd h is w ritings , m any o f w hich h ave b een p reserved , a re e ntirely l iterary a nd r hetorical i n c haracter . T he m ajority a re o n p urely l iterary t hemes , d rawn f rom c lassical m ythology a nd l iterature , a nd n eed n ot b e d iscussed h ere , b ut f rom o thers i t i s p ossible , w ith a c ertain d egree o f d ifficulty , c aused b y C horicius ' h ighly i nvolved a nd e laborate s tyle a nd h is a voidance o f p roper n ames o f p eople a nd p laces , i n a ccordance w ith t he r hetorical p ractice o f t he p eriod , t o o btain a c onsiderable a mount o f i nformation a bout G aza i n h is t ime , t he c ity i tself , s ome o f i ts p ublic f igures, i ts b uildings, i ts f estivals a nd w ays o f l ife . T he p icture C horicius p aints o f G aza i s o f a p leasant a nd p rosperous c ity , w ith a h igh s tandard o f l iving . H e d escribes i t a s b eing w ells ituated i n f lat a nd f ruitful c ountryside , c lose e nough t o t he s ea f or e ase i n t he p rovision o f s upplies , w hile s ufficiently f ar f rom i t t o b e p rotected f rom w inter s torms , a nd e njoying a p leasant c limate t hroughout t he y ear . I t h ad f ine b uildings, a nd i ts i nhabitants w ere o f a n a greeable d isposition .1 87 T he a miability o f t he c itizens a nd t heir h ospitality t o v isitors i s m entioned a gain i n a nother p assage :

n oXXot4 • o tba e vot4 I ya ) n a ,pa6pagetv P ouXcuc rap ,tvou I bv i v t dX t .v x at a vxvbv 6 t .w cpC ( kav ' ca f n . tcp6er r i , z ah e VOI.X0eVT WV 188. p

a nd i s c onfirmed b y o ne o f t hose v isitors, A ntoninus P lacentinus, d escribed t he p eople o f G aza a s:

5 3

who

h omines h on ubissimi, p eregrinorum .

o mni

l iberalitate

d ecori,

a matores

M any o f t hese v isitors w ere a ttracted t o G aza b y t he l uxurious p ublic f estivals h eld i n t he c ity . C horicius d escribes i n d etail f estivals o rganised t o c elebrate t he d edication o f t wo n ew c hurches, t o w hich v isitors p oured i n f rom t he c ountryside , f rom ' the n eighbouring c ity ' ( Maioumas , o r e ven A scalon?) , a nd f rom g reater d istances . L avish p ublic b anquests, w ith a n a bundance o f d elicacies a nd o f w ine ,

w ere l aid o ut i n t he c ity s quares ,

w hile t he l eading c itizens e ntertained d istinguished v isitors i n p rivate . T he s treets w ere l ined w ith b ooths , h ung w ith r ich t apestries a nd d ecorated w ith l aurel b oughs, w here a w ide v ariety o f w ares w ere o n s ale . P rices w ere k ept l ow a nd p rofits s hared a mong t he s tall-holders , t o p revent t he u nseemly p ushing a nd s houting o f t he m arket-place . A t n ight t he s treets w ere l it b y t orches , a nd e laborate ' f irework d isplays ' w ere h eld , i n w hich l etters o f f ire s pelled o ut b lessings o n t he b enefactors o f t he c ity , a s kill i n w hich C horicius s ays t he c raftsmen o f G aza s urpassed t hose o f A lexandria. 1 9 ° N o d oubt t hese c elebrations i n h onour o f t he n ew c hurches w ere p articularly s plendid, b ut f estivals w ere h eld r egularly a t G aza, a t f requent i ntervals t hroughout t he y ear . C horicius s ays: nav t ro c v c iv nÄi lpe .

( * A K

etnetv

r cavryy0pcwv

1 91

' Most

o f

t hese

f estivals

were

p robably r eligious i n c haracter , a ssociated w ith v arious c hurches , s aints a nd m artyrs, b ut s ome a ppear t o b e s urvivals f rom t he p agan t radition , t hough p resum= ibly c leansed o f t hose e lements o ffensive t o t he C hurch . C horicius c omposed a t l east o ne b rief 6 1, e 1XE ‘c f or t he ' Day o f R oses ' a lready m entioned i n c onnection w ith J ohannes o f G aza .1 92 T his f estival p resumably c orresponds w ith t he R osalia c elebrated b y t he R oman s oldiers o f S yria i n t he t hird c entury , a nd w as a s pringtime n ature f estival , a ssociated w ith A phrodite a nd A donis . S tark a lso c onnects i t w ith t he w idespread w ater f estival M aioumas, f or w hich t here i s n o e vidence a t G aza ( There d oes n ot a ppear t o b e a ny c onnection b etween t his f estival a nd t he n ame o f G aza 's p ort) . 193 Y et a nother f estival a t w hich C horicius d elivered a n o ration w as t he B rumalia o f t he E mperor J ustinian . T he B rumalia w as o riginally a f east i n h onour o f B acchus , e mperors .

h eld d uring D ecember , a nd w idely c elebrated b y t he l ater

C horicius c laims

t heatre a t t hat t ime.

t hat i t w as J ustinian 's

c ustom

t o a ttend

t he

1 94

O ther e ntertainments w ere a lso p rovided i n G aza . T here w ere m imes , p erformed i n t he t heatres a nd e xtremely p opular , a lthough a l ocal b y-law a pparently f orbade t eachers t o a ttend t hem , o n g rounds o f t heir i mmorality . C horicius d evotes a l ong s peech l aw , p ointing o ut t hat m at 1 9 u . r 5e ,

t o a rguing a gainst t he n ecessity o f t his e ducated p eople w ere h ardly l ikely t o b e

c orrupted b y t his s pectacle. O n t he o ther h and, h e i s f ar m ore c ritical o f o ther p opular e ntertainments, p articularly o f c hariot-racing , w hich h e c laims e xcited i ts s pectators t o t he p oint o f m adness a nd t hrew g reat c ities i nto d isorder .1 96 N or d id h e c are f or h unting, d ancing, m usical a nd c horal p erformances, wrestling

a nd a thletics,

a nd a ccepted t he b an o n a ttendance a t

t hese

s pectacles f ar m ore w illingly t han t hat o n m ime .1 97 D espite t his o fficial d isapproval , n o d oubt o riginating f rom t he C hurch , t hese p astimes r emained p opular . F urthermore , w e h ave a h int t hat a thletics m ay e ven s till h ave

5 4

p layed a p art i n t he e ducation o f t he s ons o f t he u pper c lasses o f G aza i n t he m etrical e pitaph o f ay oung b oy , m entioning h is v ictories i n t he ' p rizeb earing s tadium ', a nd d ated 5 69. 1 96 1 W hile t hese f estivals a nd o ther e ntertainments a re a n i ndication o f t he w ealth o f G aza i n t he s ixth c entury , t here i s f urther e vidence , w hich m ay e ven s uggest a s udden r ise i n p rosperity - t he l arge-scale c onstruction p rogramme r eported b y C horicius . M ost o f t he b uilding p rojects h e d escribes w ere c arried o ut a t t he i nstigation o f M arcianus , t he B ishop o f G aza , s ometimes w ith t he c ooperation o f S tephanus , t he c onsularis o f t he p rovince . O thers a ppear t o h ave b een i nitiated p rimarily b y S tephanus h imself. B ishop M arcianus w as b orn t o a r espected f amily i n G aza , o ne o f e ight c hildren .1 99 H e w as e ducated i n p oetry a nd r hetoric s tudying u nder P rocopius , a nd w as t hen t rained i n t heology b y h is u ncle . 2° ° E ventually , h e b ecame B ishop o f G aza a nd a s s uch p layed a l eading p art i n t he a ffairs o f t he c ity , b eing a pparently m ore i nfluential a nd a ctive t han t he e lected m agistrates . 2°1 W hen t he c itizens w ere a larmed, d uring t he S amaritan r evolt , b y t he n ews t hat i mperial t roops w ere t o p ass t hrough t he c ity , h aving a lready c aused s erious d isorder i n an eighbouring t own , i t w as M arcianus w ho o rganised t he p rovision o f s upplies t o t he s oldiers , t hus e nsuring t hat t he p eace w as k ept . 2°2 O n a nother o ccasion h e w as d ispatched o n a n u rgent m ission t o t he E mp q m , b ut w e a re n ot t old w hether t his w as o n c ivic o r e cclesiatical b usiness. ' B ut M arciauus ' c hief i nterest w as i n b uilding a nd i mproving t he p ublic f acilities o f G aza . H is g reatest a chievment w as t he c onstruction o f t wo m agnificent n ew c hurches , t hat o f S t . S ergius , c ompleted b efore 5 36 , a nd t he C hurch o f S t . S tephen t he M artyr , c ompleted b etween 5 36 a nd 5 48 .2 04 T he t wo s peeches C horicius d elivered a t t he f estivals c elebrating t he d edication o f t hese c hurches i nclude d etailed d escriptions o f t he b uildings , t heir p aintings a nd m osaics. 2°5 M arcianus a lso s aw t o t he r epair o f t he C hurch o f t he A postles , w hich w as i n ad angerous s tate a nd c lose t o c ollapse , as ituation w hich w as g iving r ise t o m uch p ublic c riticism o f t he c ity m agistrates , w ho h ad n eglected t o d eal w ith t he m atter . 206 H e a lso r estored a s mall c hurch i n t he c ountryside , a bout f ifty s taIR9 f rom t he c ity , p resumably t he O ld C hurch m entioned b y M arcus D iaconus. " B ut M arcianus w as n ot c oncerned o nly w ith c hurch b uildings . H e a dded t o t he s toas l ining t he m ain s treets a nd o pened a n ew b ath-house , s ince t he o ld o ne c ould n ot b e r eached s afely f rom a ll p arts o f t he c ity , t hough h e d oes n ot e xplain w hy t his w as s o .2 0d Y et a nother o f h is p rojects , a pparently t he f irst a fter h e t ook o ffice , w as t he r estoration o f t he c ity w all , w hich h ad f allen i nto d isrepair , i n s ome p laces c ompletely b roken d own a nd i n o thers s till s tanding , b ut e asy t o s cale . A ccording t o C horicius , t his s ituation c aused m uch i nsecurity i n t he c ity , a nd t here w ere c onstant r umours o f a n i mpending a ttack o n i t . M arcianus g ained t he a ctive s upport a nd c ooperation o f t he g overnor , S tephanus , a nd o f t he l eading c itizens o f t he t own , a nd t he w all w as r ebuilt a nd a n a dditional t rench d ug o utside i t. 2°9 S tephanus ,

w ho w as

t he

c onsularis ,

o r

c ivil

g overnor ,

o f

P alaestina

P rima , r esiding a t C aesarea , s eems t o h ave b een a n a ctive a nd e fficient o fficia1 ,2 1° a nd t o h ave s hown c onsiderable f avour t o G aza , o f w hich h e w as a n ative .2 11 H e c ontributed g enerously t o t he b uilding o f t he C hurch o f

5 5

S t. S ergius , 212 a nd w as i nvolved i n o ther b uilding p rojects i n G aza :

8 ,

V i C tal . xC . c IT LLZVU 110 ) (MPO (possibly a b asilica), s till u ncompleted a t t he t ime o t C horicius ' s peech , t he ' summer ' t heatre , a nd a n ew b ath-house , w hich w ould a lso p rovide a n a bundant s upply o f d rinking w ater .2 13 A t t he i nstigatiop i p f M arcianus , h e a lso a rranged f or t he r econstruction o f t he c ity w all .4 1 ` + T his r econstruction ,

o f w hich w e h ave e vidence i n a n i nscription p ut u p

b y t he b uilding c ontractors w ho c arried o ut t he w ork ,2 15 w as p art o f a g eneral t rend a t t he t ime . M any c ities h ad l et t heir d efences f all i nto d isrepair a nd w ere n ow, i n a n a ge o f i ncreasing i nsecurity , f orced t o r ebuild t hem .2 16 S tephanus m ay h ave b een a nxious t o d isplay h is c oncern f or t he s ecurity o f h is n ative c ity , a nd t o d emonstrate t he e nthusiasm w ith w hich h e c arried o ut h is d uties a s p rovincial g overnor. 2 17 B ut i t i s n ot c lear t hat G aza l ay u nder a ny s pecific t hreat o f t he a ttack , a t t hat t ime . C horicius, i n h is e ulogies o n t he i nitiators o f t he p roject, s peaks e loquently o f t he f eelings o f f ear a nd i nsecurity t hat p revailed i n G aza b efore t he r ebuilding o f t he w all: tveyxo s a c iav act t 1 z (;

[n6Xt .v]

T tpoaLpec ret .

öcbouXtS c reat ,

tXn aa

Tö

napexeLv 218.

8,4 v z t 5v T en )

I tcp 0 36Äwv

noXc lIC wv act

' Op

a c recvEC9

E .t c

nap ac rav

yap

T tpoc rxet ,µevr )v

x w o t ,v , t c rov v oµ C er a g

h ge p av

bouXerc K

.

H e i s, h owever, f orced t o a dmit t hat t he c ity l ay i n n o i mmediate d anger : tw uc ' i lecv txlpv v re a nd

t here

Z i lµr ) xazeytXa noXEµCwv i s

xat

T toXtp .ou

havxa46v z wv 219.

n o e vidence t hat

c onquest a nd s lavery .

c r t6XE .Ü4

t he c ity w as g enuinely u nder t hreat o f

T he m ost s erious d isturbance i n t he p rovince a t t hat

t ime , t he S amaritan R evolt , h ad t aken p lace f ar t o t he n orth o f G aza , i n t he S amaritan h eartland , a nd t he c ity 's m ain a nxiety a t t he t ime o f t he r evolt h ad b een t he p ossibility o f a v isit b y i mperial t roops . 22° G angs o f b andits m ade t he r oads u nsafe f or t ravellers, a nd i t was o ccasionally n ecessary t o t ake a ction a gainst t hem , a s S tephanus d id , e ven o n t he r oads i n t he C aesarea a rea .2 21 B ut b andits w ho a mbush t ravellers o n i solated s tretches o f t he r oads a re s carcely l ikely t o a ttack a l arge c ity , a nd t o n eed t o b e k ept o ut b y f ortifications . A p erhaps m ore s erious p roblem w as t hat o f r aids b y S aracens , n omad t ribes , t he B edouin o f t he N egev , o r f rom T ransjordan . C horicius m entions s everal r aids b y t hese n omads a nd t he e xpeditions l ed a gainst t hem b y t he v arious g enerals .2 22 B ut i t d oes n ot s eem t hat t he S aracens w ere c apable o f m ounting a f ull-scale a ssault o n a c ity , e specially o ne t he s ize o f G aza . I t h as b een p ointed o ut t hat m any o f t he t owns o f t he N egev , a nd e ven s mall , i solated s ettlements c ould n ot h ave w ithstood a s erious a ttack .2 23

M oreover , J ustinian d ismantled t he o ld

s ystem o f b order d efence , b y f ortifications a nd s ettlements o f l imitanei , r eplacing i t b y t he p hylarchate , t he s ystem o f p aying A rab c hieftains t o c ontrol t he a ctivities o f t he n omad t ribes . O nce a gain , t his s uggests t hat l ittle m ore t han p olice a ction w as n ecessary i n t he N egev .2 24 I t a ppears, t hen, t hat t he r estoration o f t he d efences o f G aza b y M arcianus a nd S tephanus w as p rompted n ot b y a ny i mmediate t hreat , b ut r ather b y t heir d esire t o d o e verything p ossible f or t he f urther g lorification o f t he

c ity ( and

p erhaps a lso o f

t heir o wn r eputations) .

C horicius ' r emarks

a bout t he c ontinual f ear o f c onquest w hich t he p eople e ndured m ust

5 6

b e

r egarded a s h eightened r hetoric , i ntended t o i ncrease h is a udience 's a wareness o f t he s ervice p erformed b y t heir b enefactors i n r epairing t he w all, a nd t o d eepen i ts s ense o f g ratitude t owards t hem . W hether t he p eople o f G aza h ad n eeded t o b e c onvinced o f t he n ecessity o f t his p roject , w hich m ust h ave r equired a c onsiderable o utlay i n r esources a nd e ffort , a nd t o w hat e xtent C horicius w as a ble t o p ersuade t hem t hat i t h ad i ndeed b een e ssential, i t i s i mpossible t o s ay .

F : T HE A RAB C ONQ UEST . A fter t he t ime o f C horicius, G aza a gain s lips i nto t he s hadows, a nd a lmost n othing i s k nown o f i ts h istory i n t he l ast y ears o f B yzantine r ule . I n 6 18/9 i t w as o verrun a nd o ccupied b y t he P ersians u nder C hosroes I I , a s t hey p ushed s outh t owards E gypt, a pparently w ithout p utting u p a ny r esistance . W e h ave n o e vidence f or G aza u nder P ersian r ule , b ut t he t en y ears o f o ccupation s eem t o h ave p assed p eacefully .2 25 I n 6 22 t he E mperor H eraclius l aunched h is c ounter-attack a gainst t he P ersians , t o r egain h is e astern p rovinces . C hosroes s urrendered a fter a d ecisive d efeat a t N ineveh i n 6 27 . B y 6 29 H eraclius h ad r egained c ontrol o f P alestine , a nd G aza , w ith t he r est o f t he p rovince, w as r eturned t o B yzantine r ule .Z Z6 B ut t he l ong s truggle w ith P ersia h ad d rained t he r esources o f t he E mpire a nd e xhausted i ts c apacity t o w age w ar . M oreover , t he P ersian c onquest o f t he e astern p rovinces , e specially t he l oss o f J erusalem , h ad i nflicted a s evere p sychological s hock o n t he B yzantines , a nd h ad i ncreased t he c onfidence o f t he S aracen t ribes o f s outhern P alestine a nd T ransjordan , w ho n ow s tepped u p t heir r aids i nto t he p rovince a nd m ade t he r oads i ncreasingly u nsaf e t hough t hey a pparently s till h esitated t o a ttack t he c ities t hemselves .2 L7 L ike h is p redecessors , H eraclius t ried t o d eal w ith t his p roblem b y p aying B edouin c hieftains t o k eep t he r oads o pen . I t i s a lso p ossible t hat t he c ities, t oo , p aid t ribute t o t he B edouin t o e nsure t heir s afet» 2 28 Y et a nother , a nd u ltimately m ore d angerous , t hreat c ame f rom t he A rabs o f t he A rabian p eninsula , n ow u nited u nder t he P rophet M ohammed, a nd . b eginning t o p ress n orth a nd w est a gainst t he b orders o f t he E mpire . T hese A rabs w ere w ell a cquainted w ith G aza ; i t w as t he f inal s tation o n t he c aravan r oute f rom M ecca , a nd w as f requently v isited b y A rab t raders . A rab t radition e ven s uggests t hat a m erchant c olony m ay h ave s ettled i n t he c ity s ome t ime b efore t he c onquest . O ne r eport s peaks o f a g roup . o f t raders f rom t he d istinguished M eccan t ribe o f t he K uraish , w ho q uarrelled w ith M ohammed . D espite a t ruce , t hey f eared f or t heir f uture s afety , a nd l eft A rabia f or G aza , a rriving t here a t t he t ime w hen H eraclius r egained c ontrol o f t he p rovince .2 29 T he f irst s tage o f t he A rab a ttack o n P alestine o ccurred i n 6 30 , w hen M ohammed c ame t o a n a greement w ith t he t own o f A ila o n t he G ulf o f A qaba , b y w hich h is t roops s hould h ave f ree a ccess t o t he t own , i ts w ater , a nd t he p asses s urrounding i t . B ut M ohammed 's d eath l ater t he s ame y ear w as f ollowed b y w ars o f s uccession , a nd i t w as o nly i n 6 33 t hat h is s uccessor , t he C aliph A bu-Bakr , g athered a n a rmy a t M edina , a nd d ispatched i t i n t hree d ivisions , u nder t hree c ommanders , t o r aid P alestine .2 3 ° I t i s e xtremely d ifficult t o r econstruct t he e vents l eading t o t he A rab c onquest o f P alestine . T he B yzantine s ources a re b rief a nd d o n ot g ive s ufficient d etail . T he A rab a ccounts w ere w ritten l ong a fter t he e vents

5 7

t hey d escribe , a re f requently e xaggerated a nd i naccurate , a nd t here a re w ide d iscrepancies b etween t hem . 231 M odern s cholars a lso d iffer i n t heir I nterpretation o f t hese s ources . I t i s , h owever , c lear t hat G aza w as t he m ain o bjective o f o ne o f t he A rab a rmies , t hat l ed b y A mr-Ibn-el-As , a nd t hat s ome o f t he f irst b attles b etween t he A rabs a nd t he B yzantines t ook p lace c lose t o t he c ity . T wo o f t he B yzantine s ources , T heophanes a nd N icephorus , r eport t hat H eraclius h ad s uspended p ayments t o t he l ocal B edouin , w ho i n r evenge t urned t o t he i nvading M oselms a nd g uided t hem t o G aza .2 32 I t i s u sually ff lumed t hat t he A rab a rmy t ook t he n ormal d irect r oute f rom A ila t o G aza , ' b ut M ayerson p oints o ut t hat t his r oute w as p erfectly f amiliar t o m any o f t he A rabs , a nd t hey w ould h ave h ad n o n eed o f l ocal g uides w hile f ollowing t he c aravan r oute . H e s uggests , t herefore , t hat t he A rabs f irst t urned s outh I nto S inai f rom A ila , a nd w ere t hen g uided t hrough t he d esert b y t he B edouin , t hus a pproaching G aza f rom a n u nexpected d irection .2 34 T he f irst b attle f or P alestine s eems t o h ave t aken p lace a t a n u nidentified p lace k nown a s D athin , o r T adun , a pparently a f ew m iles s outh o r s outh-east o f G aza , i n F ebruary 6 34 . T he p atricius S ergius h ad c ome o ut f rom C aesarea a nd f aced t he A rabs w ith a l arge f orce . T he B yzantines w ere t otally d efeated , a bout f our t housand w ere k illed , a nd S ergius w as c aptured b y t he S aracens , w ho w ere a ssisting t he M oslems , a nd w as t ortured t o d eath , o n t he g rounds t hat i t w as h e w ho h ad p ersuaded H eraclius t o s uspend t heir p ayments. 2 35 I t i s s ometimes a rgued t hat G aza w as t aken b y t he A rabs a fter t his b attle ,2 36 b ut m ost s cholars r eject t his v iew , a rguing t hat t hey s till d id n ot h ave t he c onfidence t o a ttack t he w alled c ities , d espite t heir c ontrol o f t hg a .ountryside .2 37 G uillou s tates e mphatically : ' G aza n 'a p as p ris e n 6 34 1." ° T he A rabs w ere n ow f orced t o r egroup , i n o rder t o f ace s erious r esistance b y t he B yzantines, w ho h ad g athered a l arge a rmy u nder t he c ommand o f T heodorus , t he b rother o f H eraclius . T his a rmy w as d efeated a t t he B attle o f A djnadayn i n J uly 6 34 . F rom t hen o n t he M oslems w ere i n ' complete c ontrol o f t he c ountryside , a nd c ould r aid a nd p illage a t w ill .2 39 B ut B yzantine r esistance w as n ot c ompletely c rushed u ntil t he B attle o f t he Y armuk i n 6 36 , i n w hich a s econd B yzantine a rmy was4U t otally d estroyed . Z T hen , a t l ast, t he c ities f inally y ielded t o t he A rabs. G aza w as f inally t aken i n J une o r J uly o f 6 37 , b y t he v ictorious a rmy o f A mr-Ibn-el-As , a s h e m arched s outh f rom D amascus .2 4I S ome d etails o f t he c onquest o f G aza a re p rovided b y t he P assio S anctorum S exaginta M artyrum , a p oor L atin t ranslation o f a G reek w ork , o f u ncertain d ate , b ut c ertainly e arlier t han t he e ] ,pventh c entury .2 42 T he c ity w as b esieged b y t he A rabs a nd f orced t o s urrender . T he c itizens w ere n ot h armed , b ut t he s mall g arrison w as d isarmed a nd i mprisoned . T his g arrison c onsisted o f s ixty s oldiers , o rganised i n t wo ( 3 6 .v8a ,t he S cythii a nd t he V oluntarii , u nder t he c ommand o f a n o ptio , K allinikos .2 43 T his i s t he o nly r eport w e h ave o f t roops b eing s tationed w ithin G aza i tself t hroughout t he e ntire R oman a nd B yzantine p eriod , a nd i t i s n ot k nown h ow l ong t hey h ad b een t here , p robably n ot v ery l ong . T hey w ere c learly o rganised a s a n o fficial m ilitary u nit , b ut t he P assio r eports t hat o n t heir i mprisonment t hey w ere s eparated f rom t heir w ives a nd c hildren , , w hich s uggests t hat t hey w ere p art o f a l ocal m ilitia .2 44 O n r efusing t o r enounce C hristianity i n f avour o f I slam , t hey w ere r emoved f rom G aza i n c hains a nd i mprisoned i n o ther c ities f or s everal m onths . K allinikos a nd n ine o ther s oldiers w ere e xecuted i n J erusalem o n

5 8

N ovember 1th 6 37 , a nd t he r est i n E leutheropolis o n D ecember 1 7th .2 45 B ut o therwise t he A rab o ccupation o f G aza w as p eaceful . T he c ity w as n ot d estroyed , n or w ere i ts p eople i njured . I t a ppears f rom t he N essana p apyri t hat G aza c ontinued a s t he a dministrative c entre o f t he r egion . F or s everal y ears a fterwards C hristian o fficials , u sing t he G reek l anguaf * p layed a p art i n t he a dministration o f t he a rea , u nder t he A rab g overnor . B ut t he A rab c onquest w as a d ecisive t urning-point i n t he h istory o f G aza , a nd i ts n early o ne t housand y ears a s p art o f t he G raeco-Roman w orld n ow c ame t o a n e nd .

5 9

N OTES T O C HAPTER 2 . 1 .

J os. A nt. X IV , 4 ,4 ( 74-76); B .J. I , 7 ,7 ( 155-157).

2 .

A . K asher, J erusalem C athedra 2 , 6 5, c laims t hat A lexander h imself r eorganised G aza a s ap olls . T here i s n o r eference t o t his i n a ny o f t he s ources . T he c ity r esumed m inting i ts o wn c oins i n t he r eign o f P tolomey I I ( 283-248 B C) ( B .V . H ead , H istoria N ummorum , 8 05 ; B MCPal . , l xvii).

I t m ust h ave h ad p olis-status b y t hat t ime.

3 .

J os. A nt. X III,

1 3,3 ( 358-364).

F or t he d ate, s ee S chürer 2 1 , 2 21.

4 .

J os. A nt . X III, 1 5,4 ( 395) ; B .J . I , 4 ,2 ( 87) . O n t he H asmonaean a ttitude t o t he G reek c ities a nd e vidence f or t heir d estruction o f s ome a nd c olonisation o f o thers, s ee S . A pplebaum i n B . L evick e d ., T he A ncient H istorian a nd h is M aterials, 6 2-64 ; S CI 5 (1979/80), 1 68-70. - -

5 .

Y . E fron , H ekrei H atekufah H aHashmonait , J erusalem C athedra 2 , 7 2.

6 .

S chürer 2 I , 2 45-246.

7 .

J os .

A nt .

X IV,

5 ,3

( 87-88) .

1 41148 ,

I n t he p arallel

e sp .

1 44 ;

p assage,

K asher ,

B .J . I ,

8 ,4

( 166) , t he l ist o f r ebuilt c ities i s s lightly d ifferent, a nd G aza i s n ot i ncluded . B ut J osephus r emarks t hat m any o ther c ities w ere a lso r ebuilt, a nd h e i s n ever c onsistent i n l ists o f t his k ind , s o t his i s n ot s ignificant. 8 .

S ee C h .

1 , p .

1 6 a bove.

9 .

S ee C h .

1 , p .

1 8 a bove.

1 0 .

C hronicon P aschale, O lympaid 1 79/4 ( ed. D indorf, 3 52).

1.

A RP , 4 19-429.

1 2.

A ppian ,

S yr .

S ee A ppendix , i nscr. n os. 4 -20. 5 1;

S chürer 2

1 ,

2 45;

A .H .M .

J ones,

C ities o f

t he

E astern R oman P rovinces, 2 58 a nd n . 4 2. 1 3.

J os. A nt. X IV , 5 ,3 ( 88).

1 4.

J osephus A nt. X IV ,

1 5.

s peaks

o f

t he

e xcessive

t axes

l evied

b y

C assius

i n J udaea ,

1,2 ( 272).

J os . A nt . X IV ,

1 4,4 ( 381-385) ; B .J . I , 1 4,4 ( 282-285) ; A ppian , B .C . V ,

7 5. 1 6.

J os. A nt. X V , 7 ,8-10 ( 252-260).

1 7.

S chürer 2 I , 2 89-290 a nd n . 9 ; 3 03-304.

1 8.

J ones, C ities, 2 69 a nd n . 5 7; 4 60-461.

1 9.

A . M omigliano, C AH X , 3 23, n . 2 .

2 0 .

J os. A nt. X V , 7 ,3 ( 217).

6 0

2 1.

J os . A nt . X V , 4 ,1 ( 95) ; B .J . I , X LIX 3 2 ( 4-5).

2 2 .

J os. A nt. X V , 6 -7 ( 187195);

2 3 .

J os. A nt. X V , 7 , 3 ( 217);

2 4.

J os. B .J.. I , 2 1, 1 -11 ( 401-425).

2 5.

J os. A nt. X VII , 1, 4 ( 320);

2 6 .

J os . A nt . X VII , 3 5, 3 6 .

2 7.

B . I saac , ' T he D ecapolis ( 1981), 6 7-74 .

2 8 .

I saac , 7 1-72 .

2 9 .

L oc . c it. n . 2 5 a bove .

r dimpa x at

1 8 ,5 ( 361) ; P lut . A nton . 3 6 ; C ass .Dio

B .J. I , 2 0, 1 -3 ( 386-393).

B .J . I , 2 0 , 3 ( 396).

c f. B .J . I I, 6 , 3 ( 97).

1 3, 5 ( 355) ;

X VIII,

i n S yria :

1 , 1( 2) ;

A N eglected I nscription ' ,

T he t ext p rinted b y N iese :

eI nnov,

' EÄÄnvC « 5c .

i s n ot a cceptable G reek .

S chürer 2 I , 3 60 , n n .

r e t4av

e tatv n 6X

ç,

y&p

Z PE 4 4

at

c i noppl4a .

N or d o Is ee a ny c onvincing r eason f or h is 4 a ) 4 1 1 )

r ejection o f t he t raditional r eading : rd

" Inn cK ' EXX 1 )vC6Ec e tatv

xd t r e 5apa

x a t

c d a topplZaz...

I t i s s upported b y t he M SS ( except f or t he t ; ,which a ppears o nly i n a n a ncient e pitome a nd t he L atin v ersion , w hich r eads c ivitates q uas ) , a nd i s a ccepted b y o ther e ditors , e .g . D indorf ( Paris 1 865) a nd M arcus ( Loeb C lassical L ibrary , C ambridge , M ass ./London , 1 963) . I t i s a ntithetical t o t he f irst p art o f t he s entence : xc a T)aav n e s xe ac t `

' Apx O t e i t e t noTeXouv D updTwvdc a tv

.I 6nnv

a t

IC

n epy cK x at E cßa cnb

' Icpo c ioXegoLc,

a nd m akes p erfectly g ood s ense . 3 0 .

S ee C h . 4 , p . 9 1 b elow .

3 1.

S chürer 2 I I , 1 01102.

3 2.

J os.

3 3 .

S chürer 2 I I, 1 02 .

3 4.

J os. B .J. I V , 1, 5 ( 662-663).

3 5 .

S chürer 2 I , 5 14 .

3 6 .

R . S yme, C AH X I , 1 38 .

3 7.

P tolemy , V , 1 5 , 1 , 2 .

3 8 .

E useb .

3 9 .

M M , P l. 9 , p . 7 5 ;

4 0 .

D . B arag, I EJ 2 3 ( 1973), 5 0-52;

B .J. I I , 1 8 , 1( 460).

O nomasticon e d . K lostermann , 5 0 . M osaikkarte , 1 58 . A E 1 973 ( 1976), 5 59 , 5 59 b is.

6 1

4 1.

M arc . D iac., 9 9 .

4 2.

C hron . P asch . e d . D indorf, 4 74 .

4 3 .

B MCPal ., l xxiii-lxxiv ; 1 50151;

4 4.

S chürer

4 5.

A .

4 6.

P . G raindor , A th& les s ous H adrien ( 1934 , r eprint N ew Y ork 1 973) , 3 , a nd t he e pigraphic e vidence c ited t here . O n t he c oinage , s ee G raindor , 11112 ; H ead , H ist . N u mw orum , 3 89-390 ; i dem , B MCAttica , l ix .

S chürer 2 I , 1 02 a nd n . 8 2.

I , 5 41-542 .

K indler , ' Ti 'ud n umismati l ebikkuro s hel H adrianus b e-Eretz S hnaton M useion H a 'aretz, T el A viv 1 974/5, 6 1-67 . K indler s tates t hat c oins o f A scalon h ave a lso b een f ound , d ated b y t he f ourth a nd f ifth y ears f rom H adrian 's .e pidemia .

4 6a . L . M ildenberg,

T he C oinage o f t he B ar K okhba W ar , 8 2, 8 8 , 1 01102 .

4 7.

M . S mallwood, T he J ews u nder R aman R ule , 4 76-477.

4 8 .

M . S mallwood, 4 76-478, 4 79-480 .

4 9.

S tark , 5 51.

5 0.

S mallwood, 4 63 .

5 1.

S mallwood, 4 82.

5 2.

C ass. D io L XXI, 2 7, 32 ; S HA M . A vit. 2 5 , 112 ;

5 3.

S HA S everus, 6 , 7 ;

5 4.

S HA P esc . N igr . 7 , 9 ;

5 5 .

S mallwood, 4 87-488 .

5 6.

S HA S everus, 9 , 5 -8 .

5 7.

S mallwood, 4 90 a nd e vidence c ited t here .

5 8 .

S HA S everus 1 7, 1 ;

5 9.

C ass. D io L XXVII 2 2, 1 - 2 3 , 4 .

6 0 .

S ee A ppendix , n o. 2 .

6 1.

S ee p . 4 7 b elow .

6 2.

B MCPal ., l xxiii, 1 68 .

6 3.

S mallwood, 5 32-533, s uggests t hat t he n on-Jewish p opulation o f P alestine m ay n ot h ave b een h ostile t o P almyra , b ut o ffers n o e vidence .

6 4 .

S mallwood, 5 33 .

S mallwood, 4 82-483.

C ass. D io L XXV , 6 . S mallwood, 4 84-485.

C ass. D io L XXV 1 3, 1 .

6 2

6 5.

E useb . 4,

O nom . 6 , 2 0 ;

N ot . D ig . O rient . 3 4, 3 0 .

S ee c h . 1 ,

2 8 ; C h .

P .

p p . 9 2.93

6 6 .

E useb . O n . 1 30, 7 ; N ot . D ig . O rient, 3 4, 1 9 ; 3 0 ; A bel , R B 4 9 ( 1940) , 7 0-72 .

6 7.

S tark , 6 13 .

6 8 .

E useb, H .E . 8 , 1 3 .

6 9.

E useb . M art. P al. 3 , 8 .

7 0 .

M arc . D iac . 2 0 .

C od . T heodos . V II, 4 ,

G r6goire-Kugener , n . a d l oc ., p . 9 7, a ttribute t he

m artyrdom o f M ajor a nd T hea t o t he s ame p ersecution , a nd i dentify T hea w ith t he u nnamed w oman f rom G aza w hose h eroic d eath i s d escribed b y E usebius, M art. P al. 8 . 7 1.

S tark , 6 14 .

7 2.

S oz.

7 3 .

E useb .

7 4.

F or s ee t he f or

7 5.

S oz.

7 6 .

P almer , D esert o f t he E xodus, 5 52 ; a lso c h . 1a bove , p p . 2 5-26 .

7 7.

Marc . D iac . 5 7 , 5 8 . W hen c iting M arcus ' t ext, I s hall u se c hapter n umbers , a s a bove . W hen r eferring t o G regoire-Kugener 's i ntroduction o r c ommentary , Is hall g ive p age n umbers .

7 8 .

M arc . D iac . p p . 1 23124 . O n t he q uestion o f t he a uthenticity o f t he V ita P orphyrii a nd i ts p ossible r evision b y al ater e ditor , s ee 1 . 1 04 b elow .

7 9 .

R aabe , P etrus d er I berer , 5 6-57 . E vagr . S chol" H .E . . ( PG 8 6 I I , c oll . 2 513 ; 2 668-2669) ; S tark , 6 24 . ---

8 0 .

T he S ynecdemus H ieroclis p robably d ates m ainly f rom t he m id-fifth

H .E. I I, 5 . V . C onst. I V , 3 8 ( PG 2 0 , c ol. 188).

as imilar g rant o f p olis-status t o a C hristian t own b y C onstantine F .G .B . M illar , T he E mperor i n t he R oman W orld , 4 10 . M illar q uotes l ong i nscription , r um V II 3 05 , w hich s tates C onstantine 's r easons t he g rant, a mong t hem t he C hristianity o f t he t own 's c itizens. H .E . V , 3 . A bel, G gog . P al . I I, 2 03 ;

I I ,

5 ;

s ee

I II ,

3 3

c entury , b ut w as r evised d uring t he r eign o f J ustinian . G eorgius C yprius i s p robably o f t he t ime o f J ustinian . S ee J ones, C ities, A ppendix I II , 5 02-509 . S ee a lso T able X XXIX , p . 5 34 . H ere a b ishop o f M aioumas i s r ecorded a s h aving a ttended t he C ouncil o f J erusalem o f 5 18 . M aioumas a lso a ppears i n t he N otitiae A ntiochiae e t I erosolymae P atriarchatum ( Tobler , I tinera H ierosolymitana , 3 42) , w hich T obler , p p . x lvij-il, d ates t o t he s econd h alf o f t he f ifth c entury , o r t he f irst h alf o f t he s ixth . 8 1.

M arc . D iac . 2 0 ; S ocrates, H .E . I I, 1 5 ; 2 57); S oz., H .E . I II, 8 .

6 3

2 3 ( PG 6 7, c oll . 2 12;

2 56-

8 2.

J erome, V ita H ilarionis ( PL 2 3 , c ol . 2 9ff.);

S oz. H .E. I II, 1 4 .

8 3.

S ee C h . 1 , p . 2 5 .

8 4 .

V .H .. 2 ( col. 2 9).

8 5.

V .H . 3 ( col. 3 0).

8 6.

V .H . 4 ( col . 3 0); 1 2 ( col. 3 3).

8 7.

V .H . 1 3-23 ( coll. 3 3-40).

8 8 .

V .H . 2 2 ( coll. 3 9-40).

8 9.

V .H . 2 0 ( coll. 3 6-37).

9 0 .

S ee C h . 3 , p . 7 4 b elow .

9 1.

Y . D an , ' Cl ./TMS F actions ( Blues a nd G reens) i n B yzantine P alestine ' , T he J erusalem C athedra I , 1 05119 , e sp . 1 08 .

9 2.

S ee C h . 1 , p . 2 6 a bove.

9 3.

S oz., H .E . V , 1 5 .

9 4.

J erome,

9 5 .

S ee p p . 4 7-48 b elow .

9 6 .

Z . R ubin , ' Christianity i n B yzantine P alestine ' , C athedra 3 , 9 7113 , e sp . 1 03105 .

9 7 .

V .H . 1 4 ( colt . 3 4-35).

9 8 .

V .H . 2 4-29 ( coll . 4 0-43).

9 9 .

V .H . 3 3 ( col . 4 6).

1 00.

V .H . 3 5 ; 4 1 ( coll . 4 7-48 ;

5 0).

1 01.

V .H . 4 4-47 ( coll. 5 2-53);

S oz., H .E. I II, 1 4.

1 02.

S oz., H .E . V , 9 .

1 03 .

1 ( .W . 6 4 .

1 04 .

S ee G r6goire-Kugener 's i ntroduction , p p . v ii-lxxxix , f or t heir d iscussion o f t he a uthenticity o f M arcus ' a ccount , a nd t heir t heory o f i ts l ater r evision , p robably i n t he l ate f ifth , o r e arly s ixth

V .H . 2 5 ( col. 4 1).

R ussel ,

' Th e e arthquake o f M ay 1 9 A D 3 63 '

c entury . 1 05 .

M arc . D iac . 1 9.

1 06.

M arc. D iac . 1 7;

1 07.

M arc . D iac .

1 9-25.

2 6-27.

6 4

T he J erusalem

B ASOR 2 38 ( 1980 ) , 4 7-

1 08.

J erome, E pistola C VII ( PL 2 2, c ol . 8 70) . i nterest i n t he s truggle o ver t hese t emples . c ommentary o n I saiah 1 7, 3 , h e w rote:

J erome m aintained h is S ome t ime l ater , i n h is

h oc e t n ostris t emporibus v idemus e sse c ompletum . S erapium A lexandriae e t M arnae t emplum G azae i n e cclesias D omini s urrexerunt . 1 09 .

M arc . D iac . 3 2-34 . S eptember 4 00 i s t he most l ikely d ate , b ut u ncertain . T he whole c hronology o f P orphyry 's v isit t o C onstantinople i s c onfused . G r6goire-Kugenees s olution , p p . x xixx xxiii , a ttempting t o r econcile M arcus ' a ccount w ith k nown h istorical d ates , s uch a s t hat o f t he b irth o f T heodosius I I, r ests o n t he a ssumption t hat t he l ater e ditor t ried t o t elescope e vents a nd t o g ive t he i mpression t hat a v isit w hich , i n r eality , l asted 1 8 m onths , w as m uch s horter .

10 .

M arc . D iac . 3 7-41.

A rcadius' r emark ( 41):

016a %IC

n e»04

t xtevn x azet6wX ek t a cLv, & XX'Ebyvw i lovet n ept e ta c pöpav ev ö rpoolwv n oXX& a uvteX ac ra, w hich m ight b e c onsidered u seful e vidence f or t he e conomic s tatus o f G aza a t t hat t ime , i s u nfortunately s uspect . N ot o nly i s i t p art o f ac onversation a t w hich M arcus w as c ertainly n ot p resent, b ut i t a ppears i n t he p art o f t he w ork m ost t horoughly r evised b y t he l ater e ditor , a nd G r6goire-Kugener s uggest t hat i t m ay b e i nfluenced b y N ovella C III o f J ustinian , w hich , w ith r eference t o C aesarea , u ses t he

c p 6pwv t e g eye& c i . x at

p hrase :

e tyvwµoc rew rK i n tep f 3oX5 . 11.

M arc . D iac . 9 6-98 b elow .

12 .

M arc . D iac . 5 7-71.

13 .

M arc . D iac . 7 5-79 .

14 .

M arc . D iac. 8 4 : p . 1 35 .

15 .

M arc .

D iac .

4 2-54 .

9 2 .

p p . x liii-x liv .

O n p ilgrim

t raffic

t o G aza ,

s ee

F or t he f estivals d escribed b y C horicius ,

C h .

4 ,

p p .

s ee p . 5 4

b elow . T he E udoxiana i s n ot a mong t he c hurches d escribed b y C horicius . I t i s p ossible t hat i t w as r enamed , b ecause o f o fficial d isfavour t owards t he m emory o f E udoxia . O n t he o ther h and, C horicius ' s ilence m ay s imple m ean t hat t he c hurch w as w ell m aintained a nd i n n o n eed o f r epair i n h is t ime . 16 .

M arc . D iac . 9 5-99 . I t i s w orth n oting t hat t he t roops w ere s ummoned a ll t he w ay f rom C aesarea . T here w ere a pparently n one s tationed n earer t o G aza w ithin t he b orders o f P alaestina P ri m . M enois , w ith i ts c avalry g arrison w as W ithin P alaestina S alutaris . C ooperation a cross p rovincial b oundaries w as u nusual .

17.

M arc. D iac .

18 .

S ee C h . 3 , p p . 7 9-80 b elow .

19 .

M arc . D iac. 4 .

1 03 .

6 5

1 20.

M arc. D iac.

1 7, 2 2, 6 3, 6 4.

1 21.

M arc. D iac.

2 0.

1 22.

M arc. D iac.

2 1.

1 23.

M arc. D iac. 9 6-98.

1 24.

Marc . D iac . 5 9 a nd n ote a d l oc . p . 4 8; c omplementary n ote, p . 1 26 . T he w ord TET AI906o v i s n ot r ecorded e lsewhere, b ut i ts s ense i s c lear :

T E .TpdnyKov

i t i s a pparently a s ynonym f or t he m ore u sual

o r

T cTpanX6TcLa . G rggoire-Kugener s uggest t hat t he r eference c ould b e t o t he l arge c entral f orum o f G aza , w here t he m ain s treets, t he

c ardo

a nd

t he

d ecumanus,

m et .

I t

i s

i nteresting

t hat

t he

b est

p hotographs o f t he M adeba M ap ( Mosaikkarte , 1 58 , 1 59) s how a s tructure i n t he c entre o f t he f orum . T he r elief o f A phrodite h ad o f c ourse b een d estroyed

l ong

b efore

t he

m ap w as

m ade ,

a nd

I s uggested a bove

( Ch . 1 , p . 1 9) t hat w hat i s s hown i s t he e laborate c ity c lock , b ut i t i s p ossible t hat t he c lock w as e rected o n t he s pot where t he A phrodite h ad

o nce

s tood .

P rof .

S .

A pplebaum

h as

s uggested

t o

m e

p rivately

t hat t he w ord t etramphodon c ould s uggest t hat t he c ity w as d ivided i nto f our a mphoda ( city q uarters) , m eeting i n t he m iddle . H e p oints o ut

t hat

a n umber

o f

o ther c ities i n t he a rea ,

e .g .

S cythopolis a nd

s ome t owns i n E gypt w ere d ivided i nto a mphoda. 1 25.

Marc . D iac . 6 4 a nd n otes p p . t heir t ext

' Hpwcrov

1 46-147 .

G rggoire-Kugener p riCt i n

t he f orm s uggested b y m ost o f t he M SS ,

i n d oubt a s t o which h ero c ould b e i ntended .

b ut a re

T hey make t he v ery

a ttractive s uggestion t hat t he o riginal r eading c ould h ave b een I rpOV e asily c orrupted b ecause o f c onnected w ith G aza.

x at [ af r cl ]

r arity o f t he f orm .

r dza ,

S teph. B yz. s .v .

& nb T lz act.

H e a lso w rites s .v .

t he

eI o 'k

l o , c oins

tx xfgen

öt

[ xat] T b 3 . 7 1b r dr ,TN

y ew x at

r d4a g xaKci :To A nb

ß oi 3v g xou c la nknatov g v t a ppears o n G aza 's

s tates:

n poanÄcvadarK x at g cLvdan

' I6vi ,ov n eXa .yo :

p lxptc A tyenTov•

l o w as c losely

( BMCPal .

c txdvt ..

o r h er l xxv ,

s ymbol,

1 47;

t he h eifer ,

S tark,

o ften

5 85-587) .

I t

s eems u nlikely t hat a g oddess h eld i n s uch h igh r egard b y t he p eople o f G aza w ould n ot h ave b een h onoured b y a p ublic t emple i n t he c ity . S tark,

h owever,

s uggest

( p .

5 87)

t hat

t he K ore

whose

t emple

i s

a ttested b y Marcus s hould b e i dentified w ith I o ( and H ecate with A rtemis, who a lso d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave a t emple o f h er own , a lthough S tark,

s he who

t oo k new

i s

r epresented

Marcus '

t ranslation , which s uggested H patov

o n G aza 's

n arrative

o nly

c oins i n

( see

n .

1 31

b elow)) .

a R enaissance

L atin

a pparently r ead: H ierion s eu s acerdotium, ,a f orm t hat i n t he B yzantine p eriod was

e asil c orrupted t o t cpci .ov • ' A lso ' , h e s ays, ' erhalten w ir i n G aza e in H eraheiligtum n eben d em d es g riechischen Z eus ' ( p . 5 88) . B ut t here i s n o e vidence o f a ny k ind f or a c ult o f H era a t G aza , n or f or t hat o f t he O lympian Z eus, whose p lace was t aken b y t he l ocal M am as, w ho w as, h owever , i dentified w ith t he C retan Z eus ( Marc . D iac . 6 4;

S tark, 5 76-580; B MCPal,

l xxv-lxxvii).

I t i s w orth n oting t hat t he t emple o f A pollo i s r ecorded a s h aving

6 6

a lready e xisted i n t he H ellenistic G aza d estroyed b y A lexander J annaeus . T he m embers o f t he c ity c ouncil t ook r efuge t here d uring t he f ighting , b ut w ere e ventually k illed ( Jos . A nt . X III 1 3 ,3 ( 364) . T his i ndicates a c ertain c ontinuity i n t he r eligious c ults o f t he c ity . 1 26 .

M arc . D iac. 2 , r eferring t o t he c hurch b uilt o n i ts s ite.

1 27.

M arc . D iac . 7 5 .

1 28 .

BMCPal . l xxv-lxxvi, 1 46-147, P l . X V 1 0, 1; X VI 6 ; X LI 9 ; G .F . H ill, i n t he i ntroduction t o h is t ranslation o f M arcus D iaconus , L ife o f P orphyry x vii , s uggests t hat t he t emple o f M am as w as f ounded i n t he r eign o f H adrian , p ossibly f ollowing h is v isit o f 1 30 , w hen t he s eries o f c oins r epresenting t he M arneion b egins.

1 29 .

M arc . D iac. 6 5, 6 6 , 6 9 .

1 30 .

M arc . D iac . 6 5.

1 31.

T he c oins m entioned a bove ( n . 1 28) s how t wo c ult i mages w ithin t he t emple: M am as, r epresented a s a y oung, s tanding, n ude f igure , p ossibly c arrying a b ow , a nd A rtemis , d ressed a s ah untress i n as hort t unic a nd a lso c arrying a b ow ( BMCPal . l xxvi-lxxvii) . I n 1 880 a n e normous s tatue w as d iscovered o n T ell e l-Ajjul t o t he s outh o f G aza a nd s ubsequently r emoved t o t he M useum o f C onstantinople . I t r epresents a s eated , p artially d raped , b earded f igure , u ndoubtedly t hat o f Z eus . C .R . C onder ( PEFQSt . 1 882, 1 47-148 ; S WP I I , 2 54) i dentifies i t w ith M am as , a nd s uggests t hat t he p riests s muggled i t o ut o f t he t emple a nd b uried i t t o p rotect i t f rom t he C hristians a t t he t ime o f t he d estruction o f t he t emples . B ut i t i s d ifficult t o i magine h ow a s tatue o f t his s ize c ould h ave b een r emoved a nd c onveyed s ecretly t hrough t he c ity s treets w ithout a lerting t he C hristians . M oreover , t his s eated, b earded Z eus i s v ery d ifferent f rom t he y outhful , s tanding M a mas o f t he c oins . H ill ( BMCPal . l xxi , n . 2 ) s uggests t hat a n e arlier p eriod M a mas m ay h ave b een r epresented a s t he o rdinary H ellenistic Z eus , b ut o ffers n o s uggestions a s t o t he c ircumstances u nder w hich t he s tatue c ould h ave b een b uried .

1 32 .

M arc . D iac . 6 6 , 6 9.

1 33.

M arc . D iac. 7 6.

1 34 .

M arc . D iac . 7 7.

1 35.

M arc . D iac . 1 8 . I renion m ay b e i dentical w ith t he I renaeus , b ishop o f G aza , w ho a ttended t he C ouncil o f A ntioch i n 3 63 ( Soz ., H .E . V I 4 ) . S ee a lso A ppendix n o . 4 , t he e pitaph o f a p resbyter I renaeus , d ated 4 50 . T he n ame e vidently w as p opular a mong t he C hristians o f G aza a nd t he t owns o f t he N egev . I t i s f ound a lso a t O boda a nd M ämpsis.

1 36.

M arc. D iac . 1 8 ; n n . p p . 2 0 , 9 4-95 .

1 37 .

M arc . D iac. 2 0 .

1 38 .

G regoire-Kugener , l viii-lvix ; C horic . L aud . M arc . I I , 1 9 . S tark , 6 25 , t hinks t hat C horicius i s r eferring t o t he m artyrium o f T imotheus , b ut t he ' Old C hurch ' f its C horicius ' d escription .

6 7

T he c hurch o f S t .

V ictor a lso s tood t o t he w est o f G aza , b etween t he c ity a nd M aioumas ( see C h . 1 , p p . 2 4-25 a bove) , b ut i t w as w ell-known a nd i mportant , a nd w ould s urely h ave b een m entioned b y n ame b y M arcus a nd ( even i f i ndirectly ) C horicius .

•

1 39 .

M arc . D iac . 6 3.

1 40 .

M arc . D iac. 2 5 .

1 41.

M arc . D iac . 2 8-31 . O n t he n ame A tÄt e tc s ee G rggoire-Kugener , p . 1 09 . T hey s uggest t hat t he n ame m ay b e d erived f rom t hat o f H adrian .

1 42 .

M arc. D iac . 9 5 .

1 43 .

M arc. D iac. 6 6.

1 44 .

M arc . D iac . 6 8 .

1 45 .

M arc . D iac . 2 2 , 2 3 , 2 4 .

1 46 .

M arc. D iac . 9 8, 1 00, 1 02, n .p. 1 41.

1 47.

M arc. D iac .

1 48 .

M arc . D iac. 2 2.

1 49 .

M arc . D iac. 9 5.

1 50 .

M arc. D iac . 3 2.

1 51.

A bel , G i 'og . d e l a P al . I I , 1 70-171 ; A vi-Yonah , H oly L and , 1 21, Y . D an , ' Palaestina S alutaris ( Tertia) a nd i ts c apital ' , I EJ 3 2 ( 1982 ) , 1 341 37 .

1 52 .

S ee p . 4 1 a bove a nd w orks c ited n . 4 0 .

1 53.

M arc . D iac. 9 9 .

1 54 .

A .H .M . J ones, T he L ater R oman E mpire ( LRE) I II, A pp . I I, 3 47ff .

1 55.

C od . T heod . V II, i v , 3 0 .

1 56 .

E vag.Schol. l oc. c it. n . 7 8 a bove .

1 57.

A n a nonymous b iography o f h im w as p reserved i n aS yriac v ersion , w hich h as b een e dited , t ogether w ith a G erman t ranslation , b y R . R aabe: P etrus d er I berer .

1 58 .

O n t he r hetorical s chool o f G aza i n g eneral , s ee S tark , 6 31-645 ; C . S eitz, D ie S chule v on G aza ; N .G . W ilson , S cholars o f B yzantium , 3 0-33.

1 59 .

A eneas o f G aza, e pist. 1 8 ( ed. P ositano).

1 60.

A ppendix , n o . 4 6.

1 60a . C itizenship p henomenon .

S ee C h . 4 , p . 9 9 b elow .

1 02 a nd n . a d l oc .

o f m ore t han o ne p olis i s n ot a w idely a ttested B ut f or o ne e xample, s ee C IL I I , 5 941 = I LS , 6 954 .

6 8

1 61.

T ot .Orb .Descr . ( Müller , G eog .Graec .Min . I I, 5 19B) . T he L atin t ext r eads b onos a uditores . M üller s uggests t hat t his a rises f rom a n o riginal e mpodgata.

1 62.

J erome, V .H . 2 .

S ee p . 4 4 a bove .

1 63 .

S tark , 6 36-637 ; H . G artner , R E s .v . Z osimus 4 .

1 64 .

S tark , 6 41-642 ; F reudenthal, R E s .v . A ineias 4 .

1 65 .

E nea d i G aza , E pistole , e d . L .M . P ositano .

1 66.

T he S uda ( Suidae L exicon , e d . A . A dler I V , S tuttgart, 1 935) s .v . T imotheos; S tark , 6 44 ; S eier , R E s .v . T imotheos 1 8 . S ee a lso t he p anegyric t o A nastasius b y P rocopius o f G aza ( PG 8 7 I II , c oll . 2 8122 813).

1 67.

M . H aupt , ' Excerpta e x T imotheo G azaeo ' , H ermes 3 ( 1869) , B odenheimer & A . R abinowitz, T imotheus o f G aza o n A nimals.

1 68 .

S tark , 6 43-645 ; T heile , R E S W. I oannes 1 7 , G azes . a re i ncluded i n P . M atranga , A necdota G raeca ( Rome 6 41.

1 69 .

P . F riedländer, J ohannes v on G aza u nd P aulus K unstbescreibungen J ustinianischer Z eit.

1 70 .

M atranga , A nec . G raec ., 6 36.

1 71.

S tark , 6 37-639 ; W . A ly , R E s .v . P rokopios 2 0, c oll . 2 60-261.

1 5ff ;

F .S .

T he A nacreontics 1 850) , 5 75 , 6 33-

S ilentarius:

1 71a . P rocopii G azaei E pistolae e t D eclamationes e dd . A . G arzya & N .J . L oenertz . T his e dition a lso i ncludes a f ew s hort s peeches o n m ythological s ubjects. 1 72 .

C horic . O r .Fun . I n P roc . 1 5 .

1 73 .

C horic . i bid . 1 213 .

1 74.

P roc . G az. e pist. 8 4 ( ed . G arzya & L oenertz); J ones, L RE

1 75.

T he p anegyric o n A nastasius, P G 8 7 I II, c oll. 2 794-2825 .

1 76 .

F or h is t heological w ritings, s ee P G 8 7 I -II .

1 77.

W . A ly , R E s .v . P rokopios 2 0, c oll . 2 63-265 .

I II, 9 98 .

T wo s hort p ieces,

a

d escription o f S ancta S ophia i n C onstantinople a nd a l ament f or t he d amage c aused t o t hat c hurch i n a n e arthquake , a re i ncluded i n P G 8 7 I II , c oll . 2 827-2842. 1 78 .

C horic . O r .Funeb . i n P roc ; A ly , R E s .v . P rokopios 2 0, c oll . 2 60-262 .

1 79 .

C horic. O r .Nupt. I n P roc ; A ly , R E s .v . P rokopios 2 0a ,

1 80 .

C horicius G azaeus , O rationes , e d . R . F oerster & E . R ichsteig . Iq uote C horicius b y t he s hort t itle o f t he s peech a nd c hapter n o . , w ith t he p age a nd l ine n o . o f t his e dition i n b rackets.

6 9

c oll. 2 72-273.

1 81.

L aud.Marc. I , I I.

1 82.

O r .Funeb . i n M ariam ; O r .Funeb . i n P roc .

1 83 .

O r .Nupt. i n Z ach .; O r .Nupt. i n P roc .

1 84.

L aud . A rat . e t S teph .

O n t he

c onsularis

S tephanus

s ee n .

2 10 b elow .

T he d ux A ratius i s t o b e i dentified w ith t he man o f t hat n ame m entioned b y P rocopius o f C aesarea ( Bell .Pexs . I , 1 2 , 2 0-22 ; 1 5 , 3 13 3) , o ne o f t hree b rothers o f t he w ell-known A rmenian f amily , t he K amsarakan , a ll o f w hom h ad m ilitary c areers u nder J ustinian ( E . S tein , H istoire d u B as E mpire I I ( Paris/Bruges 1 949 , r eprint A msterdam 1 968) , 3 00 n . 1 ) . C horicius d escribes h ow A ratius r ecaptured t he i sland o f J otabe i n t he g ulf o f A ila , a n i mportant t rading-post, w hich h ad b een o verrun a nd o ccupied b y J ewish b andits f rom t he n eighbouring c oast ( La tm l .Arat . e t S teph . 6 7-76 ( 65 , 1 9-67 , 1 9) . S ee a lso A bel, R B 4 7 ( 1938), 5 12ff . 1 85 .

L aud .Summ . C horicius d escribes t he m agister m ilitum S ummus a s a n ative o f P alestine , w ho w as a ppointed t o h is p ost a s a r esult o f h is i nvolvment i n r elief e fforts a fter t he d isastrous e arthquake i n A ntioch i n 5 26 ( Laud .Summ . 5 11 ( 70 , 1 3-72 , 1 7) ) . W hile i n o ffice , h e w as a ctive i n c ontrolling r aids b y n omads ( ibid 2 0-22 ( 75 , 1 23) ) a nd i n t ax c ollection ( ibid 2 4-26 ( 76, 1 2-77, 7 )) . H e i s m entioned b y P rocopius ( 1 8e 1 1 .Pers . I I , 1 , 7 12) a s l eading d iplomatic n egotiations o ver a d ispute b etween S aracen t ribes l oyal t o t he E mpire a nd o thers w hich s upported P ersia . T hese n egotiations w ere u nsuccessful a nd w ere a pparently a mong t he f actors l eading t o t he o utbreak o f w ar w ith P ersia i n 5 40 ( ibid 3 , 4 7; 4 , 2 1; 1 0, 1 6 ; A necd . 1 1, 1 2) . T he b rother o f S ummus m entioned b y C horicius ( Laud .Summ . 3 3 ( 7 9 , 6 17 ) ) i s n amed b y P rocopius a s J ulianus . H e t ook p art i n u nsuccessful n egotiations w ith t he E thiopians a nd H imyarites ( Bell .Pers . I , 2 0 , 9 ; I I, 1 , 7 ) .

1 86 .

A pol .M1m . 1 04 ( 368 , 9 10); L aud .Summ . 2 5 ( 76, 1 6).

1 87.

L aud .Marc. I I , 5 -7 ( 29 ,

1 88 .

L aud .Marc. I , 8 9 ( 25, 2 -4).

1 89.

A nton .Placent. 3 3 ( ed . G eyer , C CSL 1 75 , 1 45).

1 90 .

L aud .Marc . I ,

6 17).

8 3-89 ( 23 , 1 2-25 , 4 ) ; L aud .Marc . I I, 6 0-69 ( 43 , 1 -45,

5 ). 1 91.

L aud.Marc. I I , 7 6 ( 46,

1 92 .

AL dX g 14 X VI ( 196197) . O n J ohannes o f G aza a nd h is p oems f or t he ' Day o f R oses ', s ee p . 5 1 a bove .

1 93 .

S tark , 5 96 . H ölscher , R E s .v . M aiumas 1 , c oll . 6 10-613 , a rgues t hat t he n ame o f t he f estival w as d erived f rom M aia , w hile t hat o f G aza 's p ort ( and o ther h arbour t owns) w as c onnected w ith s ome f orm o f an o r

1 94 .

0 7

1 -2); L aud.Marc . I , 1 3 ( 6, 8 -9).

•

O r . i n I ust.Brumal .

( 175179).

7 0

1 95.

A pol .Mim . ( 344-380) ; S ee a lso : A . R abinowitz , ' D ivrei A zati a l E retz I srael', S efer Y ohanan L oevy , 1 82 .

1 96 .

A pol .Mim . 1 05107.

1 97.

A pol .Mim . 1 07 ( 369, 3 -8) ; 1 16-18 ( 371, 3 -18) ; 1 50-154 ( 378 , 2 4-379, 2 4).

1 98 .

A ppendix , n o . 1 4 b elow . O n t he o ther h and , J ones , G reek C ity 2 53 , s tates t hat g ymnastic e ducation d eclined a s a r esult o f o pposition b y

1 14 ( 370 ,

1 8-20) .

C horicius

H a-

S ee a lso Y . D an , o p .cit . n . 9 1 a bove ,

t he C hurch a nd h ad d ied o ut b y t he f ourth c entury . I t i s p ossible t hat t he c lassical e nthusiasms o f t he m embers o f t he r hetorical s chool h ad l ed t o t he l ocal r evival o f g ymnastics i n s ixth c entury G aza? 1 99.

O r .Funeb . i n M ariam 5 ( 101 , 112) . H is b rothers a lso h ad s uccessful c areers . O ne , A nastasius , b ecame b ishop o f E leutheropolis . S ee t he r ubric t o t his s peech , p . 9 9 .

2 00 .

L aud .Marc . I I , 7 -8 ( 29, 1 7-30 , 1 0).

2 01.

I t a ppears t hat i n o ther P alestinian t owns a lso t he b ishops t ook o ver t he f unctions o f t he c ivic m agistrates . S ee Y . D an , T he C ity i n E retz-Israel D uring t he L ate R oman & B yzantine P eriods ( Hebrew . H enceforward D an , T he C ity), 9 0102.

2 02.

L aud .Mare. I, 2 4 ( 34, 1 0-20).

2 03 .

O r .Funeb . i n M ariam 2 1 ( 105, 2 1-22).

2 04.

F or t he d ating o f C horicius ' s peeches, s ee C . K irsten , Q uaestiones C horicianae 7 -24 .

2 05 .

L aud .Marc . I , I I ; S tark , 6 26-630 ; G . D owney , G aza i n t he E arly S ixth C entury , 1 26-139 ; A bel , R B 4 0 ( 1931) , 5 -31 , e sp . 1 2-27 . O n t he m osaics, s ee C h . 4 , p . 9 6 b elow .

2 06.

L aud.Marc. I I , 1 718 ( 32, 1 4-33 , 4 ).

2 07.

L aud .Marc. I I, 1 9-20 ( 33 , 5 18); S tark , 6 25.

2 08.

O r .Funeb . i n P roc . 5 2 ( 127 4 2 3128 , 5 ).

2 09 .

L aud .Marc .

I ,

7 ( 4,

8 -18) ;

L aud .Marc

I I ,

S ee p . 4 9 a bove .

1 6

( 32,

5 -13) ;

L aud .

A ret. e t S teph . 5 4 ( 63 , 4 -9). 2 10 .

S tephanus i s a lso m entioned i n N ovella 1 03 , 2 . Am ong h is a chievements r ecorded b y C horicius a re a n e xpedition a gainst n omads f rom E gypt , w ho w ere h arrassing t he b order t owns , t he s uppression o f b andits o n t he r oads a round C aesarea , t he c ontrol o f an ight-time r iot i n t hat c ity , i mprovements i n i ts f ood-supply a nd t he r estoration o f i ts a queduct ( Laud .Arat . e t S teph . 3 3-49 ( 57 , 1 9-62 , 5 ) ) . H e w as c learly p opular a nd a dmired . A d elegation o f p riests was d ispatched t o C onstantinople , t o r eport t o t he E mperor o n h is a chievements ( ibid 5 7 ( 63, 2 2-64, 1 )).

2 11.

I bid. 5 4 ( 63, 2 -4).

7 1

2 12. 2 13.

i bid 5 4 ( 63, 4 -9); L aud.Marc . I , 3 0 ( 10 , 118). L aud .Arat . e t S teph .

5 5

( 63,

1 0-16) .

R abinowitz,

o p .cit .

n .

1 95

a bove, 1 80 , n . 6 2 . I t s eems t o h ave b een n ecessary c onstantly t o i mprove t he s upply o f w ater t o G aza i n t his p eriod . C horicius a lso r eports t hat t he f ather o f o ne o f h is p upils p rovided t he t own w ith a n a bundant s upply , w hile s erving a s a stynomos ( Or .Nupt . i n P roc . 3 4 ( 94 , 2 5-95 , 2 ) ) . T he r eason f or t his l ack o f w ater i s n ot c lear . G aza h ad p lenty o f s prings ( See C h . I , p . 1 2 a bove) . P erhaps e arlier i nstallations h ad f allen i nto d isrepair ( like t he a queduct a t C aesarea). 2 14 .

L aud.Arat. e t S teph . 5 4 ( 63, 4 -9); L aud .Marc . I , 7( 4, 1 619).

2 15.

A ppendix , n o . 3 3 .

2 16 .

J ones, G reek C ity , 4 56.

2 17.

J ones, l oc .cit. l ast n ote.

2 18 .

L aud.Marc. I , 7 ( 4, 114).

2 19.

L aud.Marc. I I , 1 6 ( 32, 7 -9).

2 20 .

L aud.Marc . I I, 2 3-24 ( 34 , 4 -20). A nother p ossible s ource o f i nsecurity i s s uggested i n ap rivate c ommunication b y P rof . S . A pplebaum . H e w rites : " Some t ime i n t he l ater E mpire a c oastal v illage j ust n orth o f S havei T ziyyon ( Nea K o i ne?) w as f ortified w ith w alls a nd b astions . T his s uggests a t hreat f rom t he s ea - p erhpas p iracy . I d iscovered t hese f ortifications d uring W orld W ar I I ; t he b astions h ave s ince d isappeared" . I n t his c ontext i t i s p erhaps w orth n oting t hat M aioumas w as a lso s trongly f ortified, a p art o f a s ubstantial w all, o r p ossibly a t ower , a pparently d ating f rom t he 4 th . o r 5 th . c . , b eing u ncovered t here c lose t o t he s ea i n t he e xcavations o f 1 976 ( Ovadiah , I EJ 2 7 ( 1977) , 1 78 .

2 21.

L aud .Arat . e t S teph . 3 5-36 ( 58 , 8 -59 , 5 ) . S ee a lso A eneas o f G aza , e pist . X XIV , w hich d escribes h ow a p oor m an g oing o n a j ourney t o b uy d ates w as a ttacked a nd r obbed . T he s trategos M arcianus c aptured a nd p unished s ome o f t he b andits a nd c ompensated t he v ictim f or t he m oney h e h ad l ost . P resumably , t his i ncident t ook p lace s omewhere i n t he N egev . S ee C h . 4 , p p . 9 4-96 f or t rade i n d ates b etween G aza a nd N essana . T he p recise s tatus o f t his s trategos i s n ot c lear .

2 22.

S tephanus r epels S aracens f rom E gypt , w ho w ere a ttacking b order t owns ( Laud .Arat . e t S teph . 3 3-34 ( 57, 1 9-58 , 7 )) ; A ratius, w ith a s mall b and o f t roops , f rightens o ff a g roup o f n omads w ho w ere h arrassing t ravellers i n r ough c ountry ( ibid 2 8 ( 56 , 1 5-21) ) ; S ummus a ssists a nother g eneral i n c rushing a g roup o f n omads w ho h ad b een r aiding t he c ountry f reely ( Laud .Summ . 2 0 ( 75 , 1 10) ) ; S ummus l eads a n e xpedition t o E gypt t o c ome t o t he a ssistance o f n omad t ribes t here , w ho w ere u nder a ttack b y o thers ( ibid 2 2 ( 75 , 1 7-22) ) .

2 23.

P . M ayerson , ' The F irst M uslim A ttacks o n S outhern P alestine ' , T APA 9 5 ( 1964) , 1 55-199 , e sp . 1 83-88 ; B . I saac, ' Bandits i n J udaea a nd A rabia', H SCP 8 8 ( 1984), 1 71-203, e sp . 1 98-201.

7 2

2 24.

M ayerson , 1 88190 ; I saac, l oc .cit. l ast n ote.

2 25.

M ayerson , 1 92 .

2 26 .

A .A . V asiliev , H istory o f t he B yzantine E mpire ‚ 1 94198 .

2 27.

V asiliev , 1 95 , 1 99-200 ; M ayerson , 1 90192.

2 28 .

T heophanes, C hronographia ( ed. d e B oor), 3 35-336.

2 29 .

M eyer , 7 4-75 ; M ayerson , 1 60161.

2 30 .

M ayerson , 1 69177 ; 2 8-30 , 4 4-48 .

2 31.

S tratos, 4 6 .

2 32 .

T heophanes , l oc .cit . C . d e B oor ) 2 3-24 .

2 33 .

S ee e .g . A . G uillou , ' La P rise d e G aza p ar l es A rabes ', B ulletin d e C orrespondance H ellenique 8 1 ( 1957), 3 96-404, e sp . 4 02; S tratos, 4 8 .

2 34 .

M ayerson , 1 60162, 1 96-197.

2 35 .

T heophanes , N icephorus , l occ .citt . n n . 2 28 , 2 32 a bove . M ayerson , 1 661 67 , a rg ies t hat T heophanes ' a ccount , d escribing S ergius ' m eeting t he A rabs w ith o nly a s mall f orce , r efers t o a s eparate i ncident . T he a ccounts o f t he b atle o f D athin a ppear t o b e h opelessly c onfused . S ee a lso S tratos , 4 9-50 . M eyer , 7 3-75 , g ives a t otally d ifferent v ersion o f t he b attle , r elying , a pparently , o n A rabic s ources o ther t han t hose p referred b y m ost s cholars . F or t he c asualties, s ee C hronica M inora , C SCO ( SS), 3 , 4 , p . 1 47ff.

2 36 .

e .g . b y M eyer , 7 6 . A bel, H istoire d e l a P alestine I I, s uggests a f irst c onquest i n 6 34 a nd a s econd o ne i n 6 37.

2 37 .

C .H . B ecker , ' The E xpansion o f t he S aracens - t he E ast ', C ambridge M ediaeval H istory I I ( Cambridge 1 913 , r epr . 1 957) , 3 40-341 ; S tratos ,

A .N .

S tratos ,

B yzantium i n t he S eventh C entury I I ,

n . 2 28 a bove :

N icephorus ,

O puscula H istorica ( ed .

3 93-405,

5 0 . 2 38 .

G uillou , o p .cit. n . 2 33 a bove , 4 03.

2 39 .

S tratos, 5 4-57 .

2 40 .

S tratos, 7 4-81.

2 41.

G uillou , 3 96-401; S tratos, 7 8-79.

2 42.

T his w ork w as e dited b y H . D elahaye i n 1 904 . I t d ates t he e vents i t r ecords b y r egnal y ears o f H eraclius a nd b y i ndictions . S ome p roblems i n t he d ating, e xacerbated b y t extual c orruptions, w ere c larified b y D elahaye , w hose c orrections w ere a ccepted b y G uillou , w ho u ses t he w ork a s t he b asis f or h is r econstruction o f t he c hronology o f t he c onquest .

2 43 .

G uillou , 3 98-400 , 4 03 .

7 3

2 44.

G uillou , 3 99.

2 45.

G uillou , 3 99-400 .

2 46.

E xcavations a t N essana I II , P Colt 5 5 ( pp . 1 53-155) a r eceipt f or t axes p aid , d ated 6 82 . T he d ay a nd m onth a re r ecorded b y t he t raditional c alendar o f G aza . P Colt 6 0-67 ( pp . 1 75-197) b ilingual A rabic/Greek e ntagia , d emands f or t axes t o b e p aid i n k ind , d ated b etween 6 74 a nd 6 77 .

7 4

C HAPTER 3 : T HE P OLITICAL S TATUS A ND C IVIC A DMINISTRATION O F R OMAN A ND B YZANTINE G AZA

A :

T HE P OLITICAL S TATUS O F G AZA T here c an b e n o d oubt t hat i n t he H ellenistic p eriod G aza h ad t he

s tatus

o f a p olls,

t hough i t i s n ot k nown a t w hat s tage t his s tatus w as J osephus e xplicitly c alls i t a 7 0Xtc IE ÄÄnvCc 1 a nd , i n h is a ccount o f t he s ack o f t he c ity b y A lexander J annaeus , r efers t o t he a chieved .

f ive h undred m embers o f t he ßc ouX1 coins o f the s econd c entury r C t4aCWV

, t he c ity c ounci1 .2 M oreover , t he BC bearing t he inscription

61µou a nd s imilar p hrases a lso i ndicate a p olls c onstitution .3

W hen P ompey g ained c ontrol o f t he a rea , G aza , t ogether w ith t he o ther G reek c ities l iberated f rom t he J ews, w as r eturned t o i ts o riginal c itizens, b ut a ttached

t o t he p rovince o f

g overnor .4

S yria a nd p laced u nder t he

s upervision o f

i ts

F rom t hat t ime o nward , w ith t he e xception o f t he r eign o f H erod ,

G aza w as i ncorporated i nto t he R oman p rovincial s ystem .

I t

i s ,

t herefore ,

w orth e xamining t he s tatus o f t he c ity u nder t hat s ystem . C ities i n t he R oman p rovinces f ell i nto t wo m ain c ategories , c ities,

c ivitates

l iberae ,

T he f irst g roup w as

a nd t he s ubject c ities,

s ub-divided i nto c ivitates

c ivitates

f oederatae ,

t he f ree

s tipendiariae . t he

f reedom

o f

w hich h ad o riginally b een s ecured b y a f ormal t reaty b etween t hem a nd t he R omans a t t he t ime w hen t he l atter g ained c ontrol o f t he a rea ( though b y t he s econd

a nd

f irst

c enturies

B C

r eplaced b y t he f oedus i naequum , a s

a p rivilege) ,

a nd

t he

t he f oedus

a equum w as i ncreasingly b eing

g ranted b y t he R omans t o a s ubject p eople

c ivitates s ine f oedere i mmunes e t l iberae ,

which

r eceived t heir f reedom n ot a s a n a cknowledged f act, b ut a s a p rivilege g ranted b y a s enatus c onsultum , o r a s pecial l ex c ivitatis, a nd l iable t o c ancellation a t a ny t ime t he R omans w ished . B oth t ypes w ere c onsidered , s trictly s peaking, a s e xcluded f rom t he p rovince i n which t hey were s ituated . T hey w ere i ndependent a dministratively, j udicially a nd f inancially , a nd w ere e xempt f rom R oman t axation , t hough o bliged t o p rovide c ertain h and ,

s ervices

w ere

t axation ,

o n

t otally

a nd

t he

r equest .

T he

c ivitates

s tipendiariae ,

s ubject

t o

t he R oman g overnment .

g overnor

o f

t he

p rovince h ad

t he

o n

t he

o ther

T hey w ere l iable t o r ight

t o

i ntervene

i n

t heir i nternal a dministration a s h e w ished, t hough i n p ractice t he s ubject c ities w ere enerally p ermitted t o r un t heir o wn a ffairs w ithout t oo m uch i nterference.J T here i s e xtant a n i nscription f ound a t O stia a nd d edicated t o G ordian I II, w hich d escribes G aza a s:

K alA cK

a t a t y cdvogo ,

hn e 5Ät .c h T m v

r a4aCwv

1 Ra -r e ) ( xat)eeacßeK,

t cp&

a t

Ä agn a t x at

g el edin 6 . A t f irst g lance , t he t itle c ivitas l ibera , s tatus, t hat a lso

b eing

c Li tóvOLOç which i s t he n ormal G reek t erm f or a

w hether f oederata o r n ot, 7 m ight s uggest t hat G aza h ad t his t otally i ndependent

a nd

f ree f rom

t axation .

B ut

i t a ppears

t his i s n ot n ecessarily t he c ase . S ome c ivitates s tipendiariae w ere g ranted t he t itle l ibera a nd c ertain p rivileges o f s elf-government,

j urisdiction a nd c oinage .

B ut

t hey r emained s ubject

t o t axation a nd

a utonomy w as n ot g uaranteed b y a f oedus o r l ex c ivitatis,

a nd c ould b e c ancelled, a t t he d iscretion o f t he p rovincial g overnor.

7 5

t heir

b ut w as a garded ,

T he t itle Cd

MvO il 0 C

s everal o ther c ities A bila , m any

C apitolias, c ities

M oreover ,

a lso a ppears o n t he c oins a nd

i n t he a rea ,

D iocaesarea

i n s uch a s mall

n amely A scalon ,

a nd

a rea

G erasa .9 s hould

I t

h ave

D ora , s eems

b een

i nscriptions

o f

P tolemais , G adara , i mprobable

e xempt

f rom

t hat

s o

t axation .

P liny s pecifically d escribes A scalon a s a n o ppidum l iberum , a s i f

i ts s tatus w as u nusual .1 0 A scalon h ad l ong b een r ecognised a s a f ree c ity , e ven b y s uch a r uthless e nemy o f t he G reek p oleis a s A lexander J annaeus, l ua a nd t he R omans e vidently r atified i ts i ndependent s tatus, p resumably a s a c ivitas

s ine

f oedere

l ibera

e t i mmunis .

I t

w as

n ot

a mong

t he

c ities

a ttached t o t he p rovince o f S yria b y P ompeyj a nd w as t he o ne c ity o f J udaea t hat w as n ot a warded t o H erod b y O ctavian ." S o ,

i f A scalon w as

t he o nly t ruly f ree c ity i n t he a rea ,

i t f ollows

t hat G aza, l ike t he o ther c ities, was g ranted o nly t he t itle l ibera a nd m inor p rivileges, t o t axation .

w hile r emaining l egally a c ivitas s tipendiaria a nd l iable

I t i s n ot k nown a t w hat d ate t his g rant o f t itular f reedom w as

m ade . O ne p ossible d ate m ight b e 4 B C , w hen , o n t he d eath o f H erod , G aza w as e xcluded f rom t he k ingdom o f J udaea a nd r eturned t o t he s upervision o f t he g overnor o f S yria .1 2 I t w as a t a round t hat t ime t hat G aza w as e vidently g ranted t he r ight t o r esume m inting i ts o wn c oins, f or t he f irst t ime s ince t he d estruction o f t he c ity b y A lexander J annaeus .1 3 T he r ight o f c oinage w as o ne o f t he p rivileges a ssociated w ith t he g rant o f t itular f reedom ,I 4 a nd i t s eems r easonable t o a ssume t hat G aza a chieved t hem b oth a t t he s ame t ime. T he p hrase u sed i n t he i nscription t oG ordian

L E A

) cat

t i c ruXo

at abz6vogoc ; , was n ot merely a n e xpression o f t he c ity 's s tatus u nder t he R oman Empire, b ut a l ong—established f ormula, d ating b ack t o H ellenistic t imes ,

w hen i t w as w idely u sed t hroughout t he

O ther P alestinian c ities P tolemais, H ippos, G adara ,

S eleucid E mpire .

t hat u sed t hese t itles a re A scalon , D or m A bila , S cythopolis , D ioscaesaria a nd G erasa . -

T he f ormula d emonstrates t he s teps b y w hich c ities s ucceed i n e stablishing t heir

i ndependence

R ostovtzeff .1 6 t epd,

H e

f rom

a rgues

S eleucid

t hat

t he

r ule,

f irst

i n

a p rocess

s tage w as

a nalysed

t he g rant

w hich m ay h ave i nvolved s ome e xemption f rom r oyal

o f

b y

t he t itle

t axation .

T he

s econd s tage w as t he a ddition o f M k : MX( 4 . A sylia i mplied t he r ight o f a c ity t o o ffer s anctuary t o a f ugitive f rom r oyal a uthority . T his r ight i nvolved s ome d egree o f i ndependence f rom t he j urisdiction o f t he k ings, a nd c ould b e o f c onsiderable f inancial b enefit t o t he c ities, a s a r esult o f a p ossible i ncrease i n p opulation , a nd o f t he g ratitude o f w ealthy a il i nfluential s uppliants t owards t he c ity which g ave t hem s helter . R ostovtzeff

s uggests

t hat

t he v aluable

r ight

o f

a sylia

m a

a t

t imes h ave

b een b ought b y c ities i n r eturn f or a l arge c ash p ayment .' T he g rant o f c omplete a utonomy wmpleted t he p rocess, a nd a t t imes w as a lso a warded i n r eturn f or p ayment .1 7 I t i s h ard t o s ay t o w hat e xtend t he r ight o f a sylum w as a r eality i n t he R oman p eriod . i ndependent

T he g rant o f e ven t itular f reedom i nvolved s ome d egree o f

j urisdiction ,

b ut

i t

i s

a uthorities a cquiescing i n t he f light o f s anctuary

w ithin a ' free ' c ity .

s ignificance o r n ot,

h ard

t o

i magine

t he

p rovincial

a f ugitive f rom R oman j ustice

B ut w hether t hese

t o

t itles h ad a ny c oncrete

t hey w ere s till e agerly s ought a fter a nd p roudly b orne

b y t he c ities, which c ompeted w ith e ach o ther i n p restige, a nd i n t he a ccumulation o f h igh—sounding h onorific t itles . I n t he i nscription q uoted

a bove, G aza i s a lso c alled n s .c rtf i g at d ecf3T/K, Xal . inpe c xat µcydÄr ) , t itles w hich i mply n o s pecific s tatus, b ut w hich a re p urely h onorific . 'U

7 6

A t s ome l ater s tage G aza a ppears t o h ave b een e levated t o t he s tatus o f a R oman c olony . O riginally , a c olonia c iyium R omanorum h ad b een a s ettlement o f r etired v eterans f rom a l egion , w ho w ere g ranted l and , e ither i n I taly o r i n a p rovince , i n w hich t o b uild t heir o wn c ommunity , t he s ite o f t he c olony u sually h aying b een c hosen f or m ilitary r easons . T he c olony c ould b e f ounded o n u noccupied l and, b ut w as f requently i mposed o n a n e xisting t own , e ven a p olis .2 1 F rom t he f irst c entury A D o nwards , an ew t ype o f c olony d eveloped , i n w hich a n e xisting c ity w as g ranetd t he h onorary t itle c olonia w ithout t he a ddition o f a ny v eteran s ettlers . T he f irst c olony o f t his t ype i n t he E ast w as C aesarea , w hich w as r aised t o t he s tatus o f a c olony b y V espasian . 22 T he g rant o f t he t itle o f c olonia w as a c onsiderable h onour , i nvolving R oman c itizenship f or a ll c itizens o f t he c ity , a nd w as t he o nly t itle t hat c ould c onfer h igher s tatus t han t hat o f a p olls .2 3 T he g rant o f t he t itle o f c olonia d id n ot , a pparently , a lways i mply t he g rant o f a ll t he p rivileges a ssociated w ith i t , i n p articular t he i us I talicum , w hich c onferred e xemption f rom p oll a nd l and t axes .2 4 T he s pecific b enefits b estowed b y t he t itle o f c olonia m ust h ave b een d iminished a s a r esult o f t he C onstitutio A ntoniniana o f 2 12 , w hich c onferred R oman c itizenship o n a lmost a ll f ree i nhabitants o f t he E mpire a nd p laced t hem o n a n e qual f ooting a s r egards t axation ,2 5 b ut t he p restige t hat t he t itle b rought w as a pparently s till s ought a fter , le g rants o f c olonial s tatus w ere s till m ade u ntil t he t ime o f C onstantine . T he e vidence f or G aza 's h aying b ecome a c olony c onsists i n a l ead w eight f ound i n S vria .2 7 I t b ears t he i nscription : K oM i lvt ez z r e t ox n t eg peAc ou t i to ( pdvzou , a nd i s a lso m arked w ith t he P hoenician m em , t he m onogram t . ) f t he g od M am as f requently f ound o n G aza 's c oins , a nd w ith t wo i ndistinct l etters , p robbaly r eading 1 E . H erodes s on o f D iophantes i s t he n ame o f t he m agistrate u nder w hom t he w eight w as i ssued .2 8 T he m eaning o f t he l etters I E i s o bscure . C lermont-Ganneau s uggests t hat t hey r epresent e ither a d ate b y t he ' H adrianic ' e ra , i ntroduced t o c ommemorate t he E mperor 's v isit i n 1 30 , w hich i s c ompletely u ntenable ,2 9 o r t hat t hey i ndicate a m easure o f w eight . T hey m ight a lso b e ad ate w ith t he h undreds f igure o mitted . T his i s t he o nly d irect e vidence w e h ave f or G aza 's h aying b ecome a ' colony , b ut i t c annot b e i gnored . I t i s s upported b y J erome 's r eference t o a G azensis d uumyir , 3° s ince t he e xistence o f t his m s trate i ndicates a R oman m unicipal c onstitution a nd h ence c olonial s tatus . T he d ate a t w hich G aza b ecame a c olony c annot b e e stablished p recisely . B ut i t m ust h ave b een a fter t he r eign o f G ordian I II , o r t he t itle w ould h ave a ppeared o n t he i nscription d edicated t o h im 3 2 a nd o n G aza 's c oins . I ndependent m inting a t G aza c omes t o a n e nd u nder G ordian , s o n umismatics c annot h elp t o e stablish a l ater d ate .3 3 T he g ranting o f c olonial s tatus t o c ities l apses a fter t he t ime o f C onstantine . T herefore , G aza m ust h ave b een a warded t his h onour a t s ome t ime b etween 2 44 a nd 3 37.

B : T HE C ITY A DMINSTRATION W e h ave f ew r eferences t o t he c ivic a dministration a nd m agistrates o f G aza , a nd t he i nformation w hich w e d o p ossess i s w idely s cattered i n t ime . O f t he H ellenistic p olls w e k now o nly t hat i ts c ouncil c onsisted o f f ive h undred m embers , a nd t hat . i ts c oins r eferred t o t he d g ib lo . 3 4 I n t he H ellenistic p eriod c ity c onstitutions t ended t o b e d emocratic . T he p opular a ssembly w as s upreme , t hough t he c ouncil c arefully c ontrolled t he m easures

7 7

p ut

t o t he v ote b efore i t .

A c ouncil o f f ive h undred m embers ,

a s a t G aza ,

was t ypical . N ormally, a ll c itizens h ad e qual r ights, a lthough t he c itizenship c ould b e l imited , a nd a ll w ere e ligible f or o ffice a nd c ouncil m embership .

T he c itizen b ody w as d ivided i nto t ribes, a nd c ouncillors w ere

s elected f rom i t b y l ot . M agistracies t ended t o b e f illed b y t he r icher c itizens, b ecause o ffice o ften e ntailed c onsiderable e xpenditure .3 5 When t he R omans g ained c ontrol o f a p olis, r etention o f much o f r estrictions s ervice

a s

o n

c ouncil

m embership ,

a m agistrate

a s

b ut i ntroduced

f or e xample a m inimum

a q ualification .

h eld t heir s eats f or l ife . t he g overning b ody o f

t hey n ormally p ermitted t he

t he o riginal f orm o f g overnment,

a ge l imit

O nce a ppointed ,

a nd

c ouncillors

T hese c hanges g radually t urned t he c ouncil i nto

t he c ity,

a nd

t he p opular a ssembly d eclined

i mportance a nd e ventually c eased t o m eet .

i n

T he e lection o f m agistrates w as

t hen t ransferred t o t he c ouncil . A s t ime w ent o n , t he h olding o f o ffice b ecame a n i ncreasingly o nerous f inancial b urden , a nd i t b ecame d ifficult t o f ind

c andidates

willing

t o

u ndertake

i t .

E ventually,

e ven

c ouncil

membership, f rom b eing a v alued h onour, b ecame a n o ppressive d uty, a nd d rastic m easures h ad t o b e t aken t o e nsure t hat t he s eats t hat t he c ity a dministration c ould c ontinue t o f unction .36 I t i s n ot c lear t o w hat e xtent t he i nto t he R oman o r B yzantine p eriod,

w ere f illed a nd

p opular a ssembly o f G aza s urvived b ut i t h as b een s uggested t hat

C horicius ' r emark t hat t he a stynomos w as e lected b y ac ommon d ecision o f t he p eople i ndicates t hat t he a ssembly , w hether i n m ore o r l ess r estricted f orm , p ersisted e ven i nto t he s ixth c entury ,

a t l east f or t he p urpose o f e lecting

m agistrates . 37 T h is d oes s eem , h owever , t o b e r ather a l arge a ssumption t o d raw f rom o ne g eneral r emark . N or d o w e h ear m uch a bout t he c ouncil o f G aza , t hough M arcus D iaconus r efers t o t he f 3 ouXetr clp 1 . 0v a nd ß ovXcu -r aC ,a nd J erome m entions a d ecurio o f G aza . 38 C horicius m akes n o r eference t o t he c ouncil , a lthough h e d oes m ention t he m agistrates. L ittle i s k nown a bout

t he c ity 's magistrates,

a t

l east b efore

t he

B yzantine p eriod ,

when m any a lterations h ad b een m ade i n t he s ystem o f c ity

a dministration .

I n f act ,

w e h ave e vidence f or o nly t wo magistracies w hich

m ay b e a ssumed t o h ave e xisted i n G aza i n t he e arlier R oman p eriod. T he e vidence f or t he f irst c onsists i n a l arge n umber o f l ead w eights o riginating f rom G aza , s ome o f w hich b ear t he n ame o f t he i ssuing m agistrate a nd

h is

e u yopdvop .o

t itle

. 3 9

T he

a goranomos

w as

t he

o fficial

i n

c harge o f t he m arkets o f a c ity . H is d uties i ncluded m aintenance o f t he f abric o f t he a gorae, c ollection o f r ents f rom s tallholders, f ixing o f o pening-hours,

i nspection

o f

t he

q uality

o f

t he

g oods

o ffered

f or

s ale ,

c ontrol o f p rices a nd t he r ate o f e xchange, a nd t he k eeping o f s tand w eights

a nd

t he

i ssue

o f

a uthorised

s tamped

I n G aza t he o rganisation o f t he p ublic f airs , a nd t he l ater C hurch f estivals, f or

t he

a goranomos ,

u nless,

h eld

o ffice

f or

t he

f or

u se

navnyept ,

b y

e

t raders .

' A6p t„ avi i

m ust h ave b een a h eavy e xtra r esponsibility

o f

c ourse ,

t ake o ver t hese a rrangements .4 ' a goranomos

c opies

a nother

o fficial

w as

a ppointed

t o

S ome o f t he w eights m ake i t c lear t hat t he

o nly

s ix months

r ather

t han a y ear ,

n o

d oubt

b ecause t he p ost w as a d emanding o ne a nd p ossibly a lso i nvolved c onsiderable f inancial

o utlay . 42

T he o ther m agistrate f or w hom w e h ave d irect e vidence i s t hee tcr tt ,v6µ 0 C . C horicius

m entions

t hat

t he

f ather o f

7 8

a p upil

o f

h is

i mproved

t he

w ater s upply o f G aza while s erving i n t his p osition . 43

C horicius i s,

a dmittedly , av ery l ate s ource , b ut t he p ost o f a stynomos i s r ecorded a s e arly a s t he H ellenistic p eriod , a nd t here i s n o r eason t o d oubt t hat i t e xisted a t G aza t hroughout t he R oman p eriod . I n f act , a stynomoi a re n ot o ften m entioned i n t he s ources , a nd p robably e xisted o nly i n t he l arger c ities , t heir d uties d evolving o n t he a goranomos i n s maller o nes . T he c hief r esponsibility o f t he a stynomos w as t he m aintenance o f r oads a nd b ridges , b oth i n t he c ity i tself a nd i n i ts s urrounding t erritory . H e w as a lso i n c harge o f s treet c learance , p aving a nd r ubbish d isposal , a s w ell a s t he s upervision o f t he w ater s upply , i ncluding p rivate c isterns , a queducts a nd b ath- uses . I n m any w ays t he p ost w as c omparable t o t hat o f t he a edile a t R ome. W ith t he a cquisition o f c olonial s tatus i n t he l ate t hird o r e arly f ourth c entury , G aza p resumably a dopted a R oman m unicipal c onstitution , a s i s i ndicated b y J erome 's r eference t o a d uumvir . 10 S ozomen , w hile d iscussing G aza 's a ppea l a gainst t he i ndependence o f M aioumas , s ays o f t he

t w o t owns: X0 t vot 6 t a( 1 0 ' c at

H ere

1 %n oXt .t o cot a pxovtec ) ( at a zpaInyot

& 6 rpdata n pe Lygata 46 c r cpat t )yot

p robably t ranslates d uoviri , a s i t f requently d oes .4 7

M arcus D iaconus r efers t o an umber o f c ity o fficials, m ainly t hose i ntroduced f rom t he f ourth c entury o nwards, a s ar esponse t o c hanging c onditions i n t he c ities o f t he E mpire . T he t itles g iven b y M arcus t o t hese o fficials a re i nteresting i n t hat t hey d iffer f rom t hose u sually f ound i n o ther s ource . I n c h . 2 5 M arcus l ists:

86 rvexö i .xMv g ez& I GI v e tp l ivap Av x at

z e 3v 6 e0 n pu r reudv wv

.

T he t itle önµtX(51.X ,G SV d oes n ot a ppear e lsewhere , t hough t he f orm ö rptx ,6i ,x0 h as b een f ound i n a p apyrus f ragment . T he s ense , h owever , i s c lear . I t m ust b e e quivalent t o t he gxö o ioz , o r d efensor c ivitatis . T his o fficial i s f irst r ecorded i n E gypt a nd A rabia i n t he e arly f ourth c entury a nd w as a pparently i ntroduced t o t he r est o f t he E mpire b y a n a ct o f V alentinian I i n 3 64/5 , a s a n i mperial a gent , w hose f unction w as t o p rotect t he p oorer c itizens o f t he c ities f rom e xploitation b y t he m ore i nfluential . H is p owers p roved t o b e i nadequate f or t his t ask , a nd i n 3 87 , u nder V alentinian I I , t he d efensor w as d emoted t o t he s tatus o f am unicipal m agistrate . T his i s c learly t he s tatus o f t he m entioned b y M arcus , w ho l eads o ther o fficials a nd o rdinary c itizens i n h arrassing t he C hristians . I n 5 05 a n a ct o f A nastasius d eclared t hat t he d efensores s hould b e e lected n ot b y t he c ity c ouncils , b ut b y p rominent l and-owners , m embers o f t he s enatorial o rder a nd b y t he b ishops a nd c lergy , t hus r aising t he s tatus a nd i nfluence o f t he d efensores a nd48g iving t he C hurch s ome a uthority i n t he c ivil a dministration o f t he c ities. T he E tprvdpxa t , w ere t he c ommanders o f t he c ity p olice . T he t itle i s f ound t hroughout t he E ast f rom t he b eginning o f t he s econd c entury . T he p ost w as p robably c reated o n o rders f rom t he i mperial g overnment . T he e irenarchai w ere n ot e lected , b ut a ppointed b y t he p rovincial g overnor , w ho s elected t hem f rom a l ist s ubmitted b y t he c ity . T hey c ommanded a t roop o f m ounted p olice , a nd t heir c hief d uty w as t o c ontrol b andits i n t he c ity t erritory . P robably , t hey s low4r d eclined i n i mportance a nd b ecame m erely t he c aptains o f t he c ity p olice .

7 9

I n c h . 2 5 M arcus m entions t wo 7 1pUrte e0VTE , ,b ut i n c h . 2 7 t here a re t hree .5 0 T he c ontext i s t he f irst a ttempt t o e nforce t he c losure o f t he p agan t emples o f G aza . T he i mperial o fficial , H ilarius , a rrives w ith a l arge b ody o f t roops , a rrests t he t hree p roteuontes , a ccepts s ureties f rom t hem , a nd t hen s hows t hem t he o fficial d ecree o rdering t he c losure o f t he t emples . T his i ncident s uggests t hat t he p roteuontes w ere r egarded a s t he c hief o fficials o f t he c ity a t t hat t ime , a nd m akes i t p robable t hat t hey t otalled t hree i n n umber . H ilarius w ould h ardly h ave a rrested s ome o f t he b oard o f c hief m agistrates a nd n ot a ll o f t hem . T hese p roteuontes a re p robably t o b e i dentified w ith t he p rincipales o ften m entioned i n B yzantine s ources .5 1 T his i nstitution i s s omewhat o bscure , b ut a ppears t o h ave b een a n o fficially c onstituted i nner g roup w ithin t he c ouncil , w hich c ontrolled t he a dministration . Ap rincipalis h ad t o h ave s erved i n a ll t he c ity 's m agistracies p rior t o h is a ppointment , w hich w as , p resumably , n ormally b y c o-option , a lthough o ccasional a ttempts w ere m ade t o o rder e lection b y t he whole c ouncil . O n r etirement a p rincipalis w as o ften awarded s ome i mperial h onour . T here w ere t en p rincipales i n c ities i n A frica a nd S icily , i n s ome p laces a pparently i dentical w ith t he d ecemprimi , b ut a t A lexandria t here w ere f ive , k nown a s t he p rimates o rdinis .5 2 I f t here w ere f ive a t A lexandria , at otal o f t hree a t G aza s ounds r easonable , a nd i t i s c ertainly e asier t o i dentify t hese p roteuontes w ith t he p rincipales t han t o f ollow G rggoire K ugener i n i dentifying t hem w ith t he d ecemprimi , o r4 5eXdr tpU r r0 w hose r esponsiblity i t w as t o c ollect t axes a nd m ake u p a ny s hortfall f rom t heir own r esources . 53 T he d evelopment o f t his i nstitution i s o bscure . T he e arliest r ecord o f t he t itle i s i n a n i nscription f rom G erasa o f A D 6 6 , b ut t here i t a ppears t o b e p urely h onorific .3 4 B y t he s econd c entury i t a ppears a s as mall-scale l iturgy , a pparently c onnected w ith t he p rovision o f i mperial s ervices w ithin a c ity . L ater i t s eems t o h ave b ecome more i mportant a nd m ore o nerous . D uring t he t hird c entury d ecaprotoi a ppear o n m any i nscriptions a s t he h ighest o fficials o f t he c ities . I n s ome p laces d ecaprotoi w ere r eplaced b y e icosaprotoi .5 5 B ut i t s eems u nlikely t hat t he h eavy r esponsibility o f t ax g athering s hould b e l aid u pon t hree m en a lone , p articularly i n al arge a nd p rosperous c ity l ike G aza , a nd i t i s s impler t o c onsider t he p roteuontes a s p rincipales , t he l eading m embers o f t he c ity c ouncil, t han t o a ssume t hat t hey b ore a ny r esponsibilities f or t ax c ollection . I n t wo p laces, c h . 2 5 a nd c h . 9 9, M arcus m entions t he ö Tn iOakteOVICC w ho a ppear t o h ave s ome r esponsibility f or t he m aintenance o f o rder . I n c h . 2 5 t he C hristians a ppeal t o t hem a gainst t he c ivic a uthorities , a nd i n c h . 9 9 t hey d enounce t o t he p rovincial o fficial s ent f rom C aesarea t he p agans r esponsible f or r ioting a nd a ttacking t he C hristians . S o i t a ppears t hat t hey a re n ot o rdinary c ivic o fficials . G rggoire-Kugener a ssociated t he w ord 67 1400 ' L . E . Ü0V 't CC w ith t he 6 11 6 c / tot , w ho a ppear i n o ther B yzantine s ources a s a p olice f orce , a nd s uggest t hat t he e xpression i s s imply a n u nofficial t erm f or t he ( 3 01. e0 C , o r t roops s tationed i n G aza b y t he p rovincial g overnor, i n o rder t o k eep t he p eace a nd t o p rotect t he C hristians , a lthough i t a ppears t hat t heir n umbers w ere t oo s mall fu t hem t o b e a ble t o f ulfil t his t ask w ithout r einforcements f rom e lsewhere . F inally , i n t he w ritings o f C horicius i t i s p ossible t o s ee t he i ncreasing i nfluence o f t he C hurch i n c ivic a ffairs . B ishop M arcianus , w ho i s e ulogised b y C horicius , a ppears t o h ave w ielded a uthority a nd i nfluence a t l east e qual t o t hose o f t he c ivil m agistrates . H e h ad n ot , h owever , s uperseded t hem c ompletely . S ome , a t l east , o f t he t raditional o fficials

8 0

w ere s till a ppointed .

T he a stynomos s till p erformed h is d uty o f c aring f or

t he c ity 's w ater s upply .5 7 T he c ivic a uthorities w ere s till h eld t o b e r esponsible f or t he r epair o f ad angerously d ilapidated c hurch , a nd w ere t he s ubject o f much p ublic c riticism when t hey n eglected t o d eal w ith t he m atter . U ltimately , t he b ishop s aw t o i t t hat t he w ork w as c arried o ut , t hough t here i s n o s uggestion t hat h e h ad a ny o fficial r esponsibility t o d o s o . 58 B ut i t w as t he b ishop w ho w as a ctive i n p romoting a n a mbitious b uilding p rogramme f or t he i mprovement o f t he a menities o f G aza , a nd i t w as a lso h e w ho o rganised t he s upply o f p rovisions t o t he i mperial t roops w ho v isited t he c ity d uring t he S amaritan r evolt .5 9 I t a ppers t hat , t hough i t w as s till p ossible t o f ind c andidates t o f ill t he m agistracies , t he o ld e nthusiasm f or c ivic a ffairs h ad v anished , a nd t he e nergy a nd i nitiative f or p ublic s ervice w ere n ow p rovided b y t he C hurch .6 °

8 1

N OTES T O C HAPTER 3 : 1 .

J os. A nt. X VII, 1,4 ( 320).

2 .

J os. A nt. X III, 1 3,3 ( 364).

3 .

B MCPal. l xix , 1 43144.

4 .

J os. A nt. X IV , 4 ,4 ( 76): B .J. I , 7 ,7 ( 156-157).

5 .

S chürer' I I , 9 3-94 ; J . M arquardt , R ömische S taatverwaltung I , 7 1-86 ; A .N . S herwin-White , T he R oman C itizenship , 1 74189 .

6 .

A ppendix , n o . 2 .

7 .

M arquardt, 7 8 .

8 .

I bid, 8 0-85.

9 .

S chürer' I I , 9 4 .

F or G erasa , s ee C .H . K raeling ( ed .), G erasa , C ity

o f t he D ecapolis, 3 90 , a sylo(s) e t a utonomos

i nscr .

3 0

( AD

1 30)*

G erasa h iera

e t

1 0 .

P liny , N .H .V ., 1 3/68 .

1 0a .

M . S tern , T arbiz 3 3 ( 1963) , 3 25-336 , e sp . 3 28-330 , a rgues t hat A scalon o wed i ts i mmunity t o a ttack b y J annaeus t o i ts c lose a lliance w ith t he P tolemies r uling i n A lexandria .

1.

A scalon p resumably g ained i ts i ndependence i n 1 02/3 B C , w hen i t i ntroduced i ts o wn e ra , w hich c ontinued i n u se t hroughout t he R oman p eriod ( Schürer' I I , 1 06-107) .

1 2.

J os. A nt. X VII , 1,4 ( 320); B .J. I I, 6 ,3 ( 97).

1 3 .

T he H ellenistic c oins o f G aza d ate f rom t he s econd c entury B C , a nd i ts e arliest i mperial c oins f rom t he r eign o f A ugustus . T he e arliest l isted b y H ill , B MCPal . , 1 45 , i s d ated 6 6 b y t he e ra o f G aza , i . e . A D 5 /6 . D e S aulcy , N umismatique d e l a T erre S ainte , ( Paris , 1 874) , 2 13 l ists o ne o f G aza e ra 6 3, i .e . A D 2 /3 .

1 4.

M arquardt, 7 9-80 .

1 5.

S chürer' I I , 9 4 . S chürer' I I , 1 76 .

1 6.

S EHHW , 8 43-847.

1 7 .

S ee S trabo X VI , 2 , 1 4 ( 754) o n t he g rant o f a sylia t o A radu s a nd t he p rosperity t his b rought t he c ity .

1 8 .

S EHHW , 8 46 .

1 9.

T yre i s k nown t o h ave p aid c ash f or i ts f reedom . I ts a utonomy w as e ndorsed b y t he R omans , a s w ell a s b y t he S eleucid k ing ( Stn abo X VI , 2 ,23 ( 757) ; S EHHW , 8 46-847) . I ts f reedom w as m aintained a fter t he e stablishment o f t he p rovince o f S yria , b ut w as c ancelled , a t l east

F or G erasa ,

s ee n . 9 a bove ;

8 2

f or D ioscaesarea ,

s ee

f or a t ime , b y A ugustus ( Jones , C ities , 2 59 a nd n . 4 5) .

x aXXC i toX t .

2 0 .

A nother , l ater , h onorific t itle o f G aza i s t he i n t he N essana p apyri ( Nessana I , P Colt 2 6).

2 1.

B . L evick , R oman C olonies i n S outhern A sia M inor , 1 -6, 6 8-72 .

2 2.

B . I saac, ' Roman C olonies i n J udaea : t he F oundation C apitolina ', T alanta X II/XIII ( 1980/1981), 3 8-43 .

2 3 .

F . M illar, T he E mperor i n t he R oman W orld , 4 07-409 ; I saac, 4 7-48 .

2 4.

P tolemais w as a c olony i n n ame o nly , w ithout t he a ssociated p rivileges. C aesarea w as m ade a c olony b y V espasian , b ut g ranted e xemption f rom t axation , t hough w ithout t he f ormal i us I talicum , o nly b y T itus ( Isaac , 3 8, n . 2 9 , 4 1-42).

2 5 .

A bbot & J ohnson , M unicipal A dm inistration i n t he R oman E mpire, 5 3-54.

2 6 .

M arquardt, 1 26 .

2 7 .

A ppendix , n o . 4 2/1 . F or a f ull d iscussion o f t he w hole q uestion o f G aza 's b ecoming a c olony , s ee : W . K ubitschek , ' D ie K olonie G aza ' , Z ur G eschichte v on S tädten d es R ömischen K aisarreiches , 3 1-40 .

2 8.

c f . t he n umerous s imilar w eights 4 3/1-3 . S ee a lso p . 7 8 b elow .

2 9 .

T he u se o f t he H adrianic e ra l apsed w ith H adrian 's d eath i n 1 38 a nd , i n a ny c ase, G aza c annot h ave b ecome a c olony a s e arly a t t his.

3 0 .

J erome , V .H . 2 0 .

3 1.

M arquardt, 4 29 , f ollowed b y M eyer , 5 5, a nd S chürer' I I, 1 03 n . 8 4.

3 2.

S ee p . 7 5 a bove .

3 3 .

B MCPal., I xxiii , 1 68 .

3 4 .

S ee p . 7 5 a bove .

3 5.

J ones, G reek C ity , C h . X , 1 57-69.

3 6.

O n t he a dministration o f t he G reek c ity u nder t he R oman E mpire , s ee : J ones, L RE I I, C h . X IX , 7 12-766 ; G reek C ity , C hs. X I, X II , 1 70-210 .

3 7.

C horic . O r .Nupt. i n P roc. 3 4(94, 2 5-95, 2 ); D an , T he C ity , 11.

3 8 .

M arc .

D iac .

9 5 ;

J erome ,

V .H . 2 2 .

f rom G aza ,

A ppendix ,

S ee a lso D an , T he C ity ,

t he c ouncil a nd m agistrates o f G aza . 3 9 .

A ppendix n os. 4 2/1-26 , 4 3/1-3.

4 0 .

J ones, G reek C ity , 2 15-217.

4 1.

O n t he

n av t lyupt4

A 6p L avl , s ee C h . 2 , p . 4 1.

8 3

n os .

f ound

o f

A elia

4 2/1-46 ,

8 0-82 ,

o n

4 2.

A ppendix , n os. 4 2/3 , 1 0 , 2 4 .

4 3. • C horic, l oc .cit. n . 3 7, a bove. 4 4.

J ones, G reek C ity , 2 13-215.

4 5.

S ee p . 4 5 a bove .

4 6.

S oz. H .E. V , 3 .

4 7.

F or c y gpa v oy ek a s d uovir , s ee e . g . A cts 1 6 , 2 0 ( Philippi ) ; I GRR I , 6 56 ( Calliati) ; I GRR I II , 1 040 , 1 045 , 1 047 ( all o f P almyra ) . S ee a lso G . A lon , ' The S trategoi i n t he P alestinian C ities ' , J ews J udaism a nd t he C lassical W orld , 4 58-475 . A lon a nalyses b oth T almudic a nd G reek l iterary a nd e pigraphic s ources a nd r eaches t he c onclusion t hat t he s trategoi w ere l eading m embers o f c ity c ouncils . H e d oes n ot , h owever , n otice t he f act t hat a ll t he c ities h e c ites a s p ossessing s trategoi w ere a t t he t ime c oloniae , a nd s o h e d oes n ot a ssociate s trategoi w ith d uoviri , a lthough h e c omes c lose t o t his i n t he r emark : ' A t a ll e vents , w e h ave a lready e ncountered t wo s trategoi i n E dessa ( and , a s h as b een n oted , t he c ity w as a c olonia t hen , w ith t wo h eads , a fter t he m anner o f t he d uaviri o f R oman c ities ' ) ( p . 4 67 , n . 1 6) .

4 8 .

G rggoire-Kugener , p p . 1 03-104 ; J ones, L RE I , 1 44-145, 4 79-480; I I , 7 26-727; G reek C ity , 2 08-209 . G rggoire-Kugener s tate t hat t he e lection o f t he d efensor w as t ransferred t o l and-owners a nd C hurch o fficials b y a n a ct o f H onorius o f 4 09 , b ut J ones ( Greek C ity , 3 48 , n . 1 04 ; s ee a lso L RE I I , 7 58) a rgues t hat t his l aw w as n ever e nforced i n t he E ast .

4 9 .

G r6goire-Kugener , l oc .cit . n . 4 8 a bove ; J ones , G reek C ity , 2 12-213 ; L RE I I , 7 25-726 . J erome , V .H . 3 3 , m entions t he l ictores p raefecti a t G aza . P resumably , t his r efers t o t hese e irenarchai a nd t heir t roops.

5 0 .

A nother r eference t o o ne o f t he p roteuontes o ccurs i n c h . 9 5 .

5 1.

D an , T he C ity , 7 4-79 , a lso d iscusses t he t erm p roteuon , i n c onnection w ith A scalon , w here t here a ppears t o h ave b een o nly o ne , o r a t l east o ne l eading p roteuon . H e i dentifies t his t erm w ith p rincipalis ( p . 7 6, n . 4 3) a nd c onsiders i t t o b e t he e quivalent o f ' head o f t he c ouncil'. F or t he p roteuontes a t G aza, s ee D an , 8 0-82.

5 2.

J ones, L RE I I, 7 31 a nd n n . 4 1, 4 2.

5 3.

G regoire-Kugener , l oc.cit. n . 4 8 a bove ; J ones, G reek C ity ,

5 4.

K raeling, G erasa , i nscr . 4 5 .

5 5.

M arquardt, 2 13-214 ; S EHRE, 3 90-391.

5 6 .

G r6goire-Kugener , 1 04105.

5 7.

S ee p p . 7 8-79 a bove .

5 8.

C horic.

L aud.Marc. I I, 1 718 ( 32, 1 4-33 , 4 ).

8 4

1 39140.

5 9.

C horic, L aud .Marc . I I , 2 4(34, 1 4-33, 4 ).

6 0.

S ee C h . 2 , p p . 5 5-56 o n M arcianus a nd h is b uilding p rojects . O n t he g eneral d ecline i n e nthusiasm f or p ublic o ffice i n t he c ities , s ee J ones , G reek C ity , 1 81-182 ; 1 92-210 ; L RE I I , 7 37-757 . S ee a lso D an , T he C ity, 9 0-102, o n t he p art p layed b y b ishops i n c ity a dministration .

8 5

C HAPTER 4 : T RADE, I NDUSTRY A ND P OPULATION. A : T HE S PICE T RADE. T hroughout m ost o f t he a ncient p eriod t he p rosperity o f G aza w as d erived l argely f rom t he f act t hat i t s erved a s a n o utlet t o t he M editerranean f or t he c aravan t raffic i n s pices a nd o ther v aluable m erchandise f rom S outh A rabia a nd f urther e ast.

T he

o rigins

o f

t his

t rade

a re

o bscure,

b ut

a rchaeological a nd n umismatic e vidence s hows t hat G aza w as a lready a ctive i n t rade b etween G reece a nd

t he A rab t ribes

t o i ts

e ast a nd s outh d uring

P ersian p eriod .'

T he c lose a ssociation b etween G aza a nd

s uggested

r eports

p art

i n

b y

t he

t he d efence

o f

t hat

t he

a s trong

g arrison o f A rab

c ity a gainst A lexander

s tory t hat b y h is c apture o f G aza A lexander c ame q uantities o f i ncense. 3 I t c hief

i s

i n

t he

t rading

h istory .

e arly P tolemaic

p artners

p eriod

t hroughout

t he

t hat

t he

m ercenaries

t ook

G reat, 2 a nd b y t he

i nto p ossession o f

l arge

N abataean A rabs,

G aza 's

t he

c lassical

t he

t he A rabs i s a lso

p eriod,

f irst

a ppear

i n

D iodorus S iculus r ecounts i n d etail a n e xpedition a gainst t hem i n

3 12 B C, l ed b y A thenaeus, a g eneral o f A ntigonus, 4 i ncluding a d etailed d escription o f

t he N abataeans ' way o f

l ife a t t hat t ime,

r eports o f a c ontemporary e ye-witness, a ppointed b y A c iLigonus

b ased o n t he

H ieronymus o f C ardia,

t o s upervise t he a sphalt

i ndustry o f

T his d escription e mphasises t he p art p layed b y t he N abataeans

E tChaat

t rade:

who w as

t he D ead

S ea .5

i n t he s pice

y ew a üzMv ox 6 Ätyot x allycLv t nt e dXacc rav

Ädavu tdv t c x at a l lüpvav ) ( at z & n oXuTcXtazaTa T i lh o

a pwa tuo p , 8 t ,a6exdgevot n ap& ' My x op ,(6y u dv I x T Ic E e6argovoc H ere

i tt

l ikely

t hat

x aXouptyrK

' Apa ga 6..

ed ,Xaac rav m ust mean ' to

b y

t he

e arly

t hird

t he M editerranean ', a nd s o i t s eems

c entury

B C ,

a nd

p robably

b efore

t hat,

t he

N abataeans w ere a lready pringing s pices t o G aza f or d istribution t hroughout t he M editerranean w orld. T he

p rosperity

o f

G aza

a nd

i ts

i mportance

a s

a t rading

c entre i n t he

P tolemaic p eriod a re a ttested b y p apyrological a nd n umismatic e vidence . p articular

i mportance

' supervisor

o f

t he

i s

o ne

p erfumes '

a t

o f

t he

G aza ,

g overnmental c ontrol o ver t he t rade .8 t he

P ersian a nd

I 'Vlemaic

Z enon p apyri, a p hrase

w hich

which p oints

r efers t o

O f t o a

P tolemaic

T he a bundant c oins m inted a t G aza i n

p eriods a re

e vidence

f or

t he

p rosperity o f

t he

c ity a t t hat t ime. B ut t here i s a m arked d ecline i n c oins f rom G aza a fter t he S elecuid c onquest o f P alestine b y A ntiochus I II i n 2 00 B C , w hich c an b e e xplained b y a r apid d eterioration o f t he c ity 's e conomic p osition .

I t a ppears t hat t he

P tolemies w ere a nxious t o k eep c ontrol o ver t he s pice t rade f irmly i n t heir own h ands ,

a nd t o e nsure t hat i t w ent t o A lexandria ,

a ny o ther p ort u nder S eleucid r ule .

r ather t han t o G aza o r

I t i s a lso p ossible t hat i t w as a t t his

t ime t hat t hey l earned t o e xploit t he monsoon w inds f or d irect t rade b etween I ndia a nd t he R ed S ea p orts o f E gypt, t hus b ypassing N abataea a ltogether . T his

m ay

b e

w hat

l ies

b ehind

t he r eports o f D iodorus a nd S trabo t hat

8 6

t he

N abataeans u ntil

t urned

a P tolemaic

t o

p iracy ,

a ttacking

f leet w as

d ispatched

E gyptian

s hipping

t o p ut a n e nd

t o

o n

t he R ed S e

i l

t heir i nroads .

T he S eleucids , t oo , w ere c oncerned t o p romote t rade w ith t heir c ities i n n orthern S yria , a nd S trabo r eports t hat a t l east p art o f t he N abataean c aravan t rade w as c onducted t hrough D amascus . Wa o bscurity .

G aza ,

t herefore ,

s ank i nto

I ts f ortunes s eem t o h ave r evived , h owever , i n t he s econd h alf o f t he s econd c entury B C w hen , f or t he f irst t ime , i t i ssued i ts o wn a utonomous S eleucid c oinage » A pparently , a t t hat t ime t he N abataeans h ad g ained s ufficient s trength t o d efy b oth t he d isintegrating S eleucid e mpire t o t he n orth a nd t he P tolemies t o t he s outh , a nd t o c onduct t heir t rade i ndependently o f e ither .1 2 q uickly b rought

B ut t his r evival o f G aza 's p rosperity w as

t o a n e nd b y t he d estruction o f t he c ity a t

t he h ands o f

A lexander J annaeus i n a round 9 6 B C .1 3 I t i s w orth n oting t hat a t t he t ime o f t he s iege t he G azaeans w ere r elying o n t he N abataean k ing , A retas I I , t o c ome t o t heir a id . T he c ity f ell t hrough t reachery , h owever , b efore h e a rrived. 1 4 D uring

t he y ears

t hat G aza l ay i n r uins,

u ntil

i ts

r ebuilding b y

G abinius, t he N abataeans h ad t o f ind a lternative o utlets f or t heir t rade . T here a re s ources f rom t he e arly R oman p eriod w hich s uggest p ossibilities f or t hese a lternatives . T he f irst i s S trabo , w ho , a s p art o f h is a ccount o f t he e xpedition o f A elius G allus i n 2 6/5 B C ,1 5

s tates :

IX LV o tv

A eux, Ic x C ognc c tc n eTpav, t vTeteev ö 'etc sP LvoxdXoupa n pbc AtyenTw O oLvCxnc T & p opTta x o taCetat, x e ivIeVeev e tc Ta4 1 0 4hoe v .v vvt ö t T b n Ätov e tc T bv * Ja g olvöpeLav

T O

N eCX4 ). x aTdyezaL Vtx T Ic ' Apa f itac x at . 0 1 1c * Iv6o 0c e tc M ubc t pµove e i Vüntpecauc e tc K dnTov T Ic O nßatöoc oLc Iv 6 L 4u p N etKou x eL iav i lv. 1 6 x agl X , Ta T he

c hoice

o f R hinocolura a s

a s ubstitute

p ort

f or G aza s eems

h ighly

p lausible . I t w as e qually e asy o f a ccess t o t he N abataeans b y t he r oads a cross t he N egev ,1 7 a nd a pparently h ad s ome s ort o f a p ort . A bel s tates : ' b ienque s itu & ä d eux k ilometres d e l a m er , c ette v ille ( Rhinocolure) 6 tait s usceptible d ' a voir u n c ertain c ommerce m aritime% 1 8 J osephus r ecords t hat i t w as c onquered b y J annaeus , b ut n ot t hat h e d estroyed i t, 1 9 a nd i t m ay b e i magined t hat J ewish c ontrol o ver t his b order t own b ecame i ncreasingly t enuous , p articularly u nder J annaeus ' s uccessors . T he p olitical s tatus o f R hinocolura u nder t he R omans i s u nclear . W as i t i mmediately i ncorporated i n t he n ew p rovince o f E gypt i n 3 1 B C , o r l eft i n t he N abataean k ingdom o f A rabia , w hich e xtended o ver t he N egev a nd n orth S inai? 2° I n a ny c ase , t he R omans e xercised s ome c ontrol o ver t rade i n t he c lient k ingdom o f A rabia a nd w ou ld p resumably h ave i mposed t heir c ustoms d uties a t R hinocolura , j ust a s t hey d id a t t he R ed S ea N abataean p ort o f L euke K ome .2 1 G aza w as r ebuilt u nder G abinius a bout 5 6 B C , b ut i t i s p ossible t hat t he N abataeans w ould n ot h ave b een i n a h urry t o r eturn t o t heir t raditional p ort, c onsidering t he t urmoil i n J udaea d uring t he w ars o f t he H asmonaeans . T hen t he g rant o f G aza t o H erod b y O ctavian i n 3 0 B C m ay h ave m ade t hem h esitate t o r isk a llowing t heir t rade t o f all i nto t he h ands o f t hat b itter e nemy a nd a mbitious r ival o f t he N abataean k ingdom . 22

H erod, w as, o f

c ourse , c ommitted t o d evelopin, t rade t hrough h is o wn n ew p ort o f C aesarea w ith i ts

m agnificent

h arbour ,Li

b ut

8 7

i t

s eems u nlikely

t hat h e w ould h ave

i gnored t he o pportunity o f e xploiting t he p rofits o f t he s pice t rade , i f i t h ad b een o pen t o h im . T here i s, h owever , n o e vidence t hat h e e ver e xpressed a ny i nterest i n G aza w hatsoever .2 4 A fter d escribing h ow t he s pices a re t ransferred ( X0 gC4Etat, ) f rom P etra t o R hinocolura , S trabo c ontinues t hat n ow ( t hey a re m ostly s hipped d irectly t o E gypt , b eing l anded ( x . cy ce tyv tat ) a t M yos H ormus .

v u v t o f )

I n b oth c ases t he v erb i s i n t he p resent t ense , b ut i t i s c lear t hat t hey d o n ot r efer t o t he s ame t ime , a nd t hat , b y i nserting t he r emark o n t he s ea r oute t o E gypt , S trabo i s b ringing u p t o d ate t he i nformation h e f ound i n h is s ource . T hat s ource a ppears t o b e a n a ccount o f t he e xpedition o f A elius G allus . Al ittle e arlier S trabo h ad w ritten :

n ox x t t

O t > t at f i z t 1 4v

v ew cr zt y eve acZac c .

sPwa rwv

. ( f )ii n . IG Sv,

t at z otz " Apa r 3a

c u rpaleta

L v fri g cµt uv T ) v A rX t .oc r dXXoc,

öLö Z taxek . ¶ C 5v t ec x epc i4 e öt .wµdzwv 2 5. S o i t a ppears t hat t he i nformation c oncerning R hinocolura d ates f rom a round 2 6/5 B C , u nless, o f c ourse, S trabo o r G allus w as r elying o n a n e arlier s ource . T he l ater i nformation a bout t he s ea r oute m ust r efer t o t he t ime a t w hich S trabo w as w riting . T he d ate o f t he c omposition o f h is G eography h as b een d isputed , b ut i t a ppears t hat t he b ulk o f t he w ork w as p robably c ompleted b y a bout 3 /2 B C , a lthough a f ew p assages w ere i nserted l ater . 2k ° I n t hat c ase , w e h ave e vidence t hat i n t he l ast q uarter o f t he f irst c entury B C a ttempts w ere m ade t o d ivert t he s pice t rade f rom t he o verland r oute , b y t ransporting t hv m erchandise b y s ea d irectly t o t he R ed S ea c oast o f E gypt . T his i mplies i ncreasing u se o f t he m onsoon w inds , e nabling d irect s ea t raffic b etween E gypt a nd t he R ed S ea, a nd w as n o d oubt t he r esult o f A ugustus ' e xpansionist f oreign p olicy i n t he f irst p art o f h is r eign ,2 7 a nd h is a ttempts t o s trengthen R oman c ontrol o ver t he l ucrative s pice t rade . T he e xpedition o f A elius G allus w as, a ccording t o S trabo , m otivated b y A ugustus ' d esire t o s ubjugate t he w ealthy s pice-trading k ingdom o f t he S abaeans i n t he s outh-west o f t he A rabian p eninsula ,2 8 a nd t he e qually u nsuccessful c ampaigns o f C . P etronius i n E thiopia m ay h ave b een p rompted b y s imilar c onsiderations .2 9 I t i s t rue t hat S trabo d escribes t he E thiopians a s r elatively p rimitive p eople , l iving i n h arsh c onditions ,3 ° b ut t o t heir s outh t here l ay t he t erritory o f t he T rogodytes , w ho w ere a ctively i nvolved i n t he s pice t rade ,3 1 a nd t he R omans m ay w ell h ave b een h oping t o p enetrate f urther s outh a nd t o s eize c ontrol o ver t his t rade , s ince t heir a ttempt t o d o s o o n t he o ther s ide o f t he R ed S ea h ad b een r ebuffed . T here i s a lso e vidence f rom E gypt f or A ugustus ' a ttempts t o i mprove f acilities , t o t igh Un s upervision o ver p orts a nd r oads, a nd t o l evy c ustoms a nd t ransit d uties. ' A ll t his s uggests t hat i t w as R oman p olicy t o t ake t he s pice t rade , a s f ar a s p ossible , i nto t heir o wn h ands a nd t o r educe t heir d ependence o n t he N abataeans . T he r easons f or t his a re n ot e ntirely c lear . N abataea h ad b een a c lient s tate o f R ome s ince A retas I s ubmitted t o A emilius S caurus i n 5 9 B C ,3 3 a nd t he P eriplus M an s E rythraei s peaks o f R oman c ustoms d uties b eing l evied a t t he N abataean p ort o f L euke K ome a nd o f ag arrison u nder t he c ommand o f a c enturion s tationed i n t he t own f or s ecurity r easons .3 4 T he N abataean t raders w ere , t hen , u nder R oman c ontrol . P ossibly t he s ea r oute w as q uicker , t hough t he R ed S ea , p articularly i n i ts n orthern r eaches , i s t reacherous f or s hipping , a nd i ts w inds a re u nreliable .3 5 P erhaps a lso , i f t he N abataeans w ere s till u sing R hinocolura a s t heir m ain o utlet t o t he M editerranean , t hat s mall p ort m ay h ave p roved i ncapable o f h andling l arge

8 8

q uantities o f m erchandise ,

r esulting i n d ifficulties a nd d elays i n l oading

s hips t here. B ut ,

w hatever t he r easons t hat e ncouraged t he R omans t o e xpand t he s ea

t rade w ith I ndia, i t c learly d id n ot s upersede t he t raditional c aravan t raffic a ltogether , a nd t here i s d irect e vidence f rom t he v ery e nd o f t he f irst c entury B C t hat b y t hat t ime G aza w as ' o nce a gain c onsidered t he f inal s tation o n a t l east o ne o f t he main s pice r outes f rom A rabia . T his e vidence i s c ontained i n a p assage o f P liny t he E lder c oncerning t he s pice t rade , w hich w ill b e q uoted i n f ull a nd d iscussed i n d etail l ater .3 6 H ere t he i mportant s entence i s:

r l i a i i i s •

c aput e orum T homna a best a G aza n ostri l itoris i n I udaea o ppido , X XXVII D p "

q uod d ividitur i n m ansionibus c amelorum

L XV .

B y e stablishing

t he d istance ,

b oth i n m iles 3 7

a nd

t he n umber o f d ays '

j ourney f or a c amel t rain , f rom t he S outh A rabian t rading c entre h e c alls T homna t o G aza , P liny m akes i t c lear t hat h e c onsiders t his t he m ain r oute o ver which t he s pices w ere c onveyed . N ow P liny 's s ource f or t his i nformation , a s h e h imself t ells u s o nly a f ew s entences e arlier , i s J uba o f M auretania : J uba r ex us v oluminibus , q uae s cripsit a d C C aesarem , A ugusti 3 ö f ilium , a rdentem f ama A rabiae, t radit J uba 's

e ssay u l A rabia ,

a s

P liny s tates ,

w as

c omposed o n b ehalf o f G aius

C aesar , t he g randson o f A ugustus , w ho c onducted a c ampaign a gainst A rabia , w hich a pparently r eached n o f urther t han N abataea , i n t he y ear A D 1 .39 I f t his t reatise w as i ntended t o p rovide G aius w ith u seful i nformation b efore embarking o n h is e xpedition , i t must h ave b een written a y ear o r t wo e arlier. I t a ppears , t hen , t hat b y t his d ate n ot o nly w as a t l east p art o f t he s pice t rade s till c onducted o verland b y t he N abataeans i n t he t raditional w ay , b ut t hey h ad b y t hen r eturned t o u sing G aza a s t he p ort t o w hich t hey b rought t heir m erchandise . I t i s n ot p ossible t o e stablish t he d ate a t which t his c hange w as made . S trabo 's r eference t o N abataean t rade a t R hinocolura c annot b e d ated w ith c ertainty t o t he t ime o f A elius G allus, a nd w hile i t i s t empting t o a ssociate t he r eturn t o G aza w ith t he d eath o f H erod i n 4 B C a nd t o c onclude t hat i mmediately o n t he r emoval o f t heir b itter e nemy t he N abataeans t ook a dvantage o f t he o pportunity t o r eturn t o t heir t raditional p ort, i t h as t o b e a dmitted t hat t he t ime—scale i s v ery s hort . P articularly w hen o ne c onsiders t he d isturbances t hat t ook p lace i n J udaea o n t he d eath o f H erod a nd t he l ength o f t ime b efore A ugustus d ivided t he k ingdom b etween H erod 's s ons a nd a nnexed G aza, a nd o ther c ities, t o t he p rovince

o f

S yria, 40

i t

i s

h ard

t o

s ee

t hat

t here

w as

t ime

f or

t he

N abataeans t o d ecide o n t he r eturn t o G aza a nd t o p ut i t i nto e ffect b efore J uba b egan t o c ompose h is t reatise . P erhaps , t hen , i t i s s afer t o c onclude t hat , d espite t he h ostility b etween H erod a nd t he N abataeans , a t l east s ome o f

t he

s pice

t rade

p assed

t hrough G aza e ven

R oman c ontrol o ver t he t rade a nd ,

p erhaps ,

b efore

h is

d eath .

P ossibly

e ven t he p resence o f R oman t ax

c ollectors i n t he p ort,41 w as s ufficient t o d eter H erod f rom i nterfering . Y et

a nother R oman w riter

f rom

t he

f irst h alf o f

g ives a d ifferent v ersion o f t he s pice t rade.

8 9

t he f irst c entury A D

P omponius M ela w rites:

A rabia h inc a d R ubrum

m are p ertinet,

d itior t ure a tque o doribus

a bundat,

s ed h ic

i llic m agis n isi

q ua

l aeta e t

C assio m onte

a dtollitur p lane e t s terilis p ortum a dmittit A zotum s uarum m ercium e mporium, q ua i n a ltum a bit a deo e dita u t e x s ummo v ertice a q uarta v igilia o rtum s olis o stendat. 4 2 T he p assage i s c lumsily e xpressed , b ut t he s ense i s c lear e nough . i s

c laiming

t rade .

t hat

A zotus

w as

t he

M editerranean p ort

f or

M ela

t he A rabian s pice

T his t estimony i s, h owever, n ot t o b e t aken s eriously .

c learly c onfused i n p lacing A zotus

i n ' Arabia ' ,

c lose t o M r .

I t i s

C assius o n t he

S inai c oast n ear P elusium . M oreover , t here i s n othing t o s uggest t hat M ela w as d escribing t he c onditions p revalent i n h is own p eriod . H e w as d ependent o n e arlier G reek s ources, i n

t he

t ime

o f

t he

a nd t his r emark c ould h ave b een w ritten

P ersian E mpire »

W hether o r n ot

i t

w as a ccurate a t

w hatever t ime i t d ates f rom i s i rrelevant t o t he p resent d iscussion . I s hall

n ow

r eturn t o

P liny ,

w ho g ives m uch u seful

A rabia i n g eneral a nd t he s pice t rade i n p articular . h e

f requently

s tates,

J uba o f M auretania . 45

a re

A elius

G allus 4 4

a nd,

a s

i nformation a bout

H is m ain s ources , a s h as

a lready b een s een ,

I n an umber o f p assages P liny r efers t o t he t rade i n

f rankincense . T he f irst o f t hese e stablishes t he a ncient a nd p rosperous k ingdom o f S aba i n t he s outh-west o f t he A rabian p eninsula a s t he m ain i ncense-producing a rea: C etera

e xplorata

[elius

d itissimos s ilvarum o difera,

G allu a uri

r etulit

m etallis,

S abaeos

a grorum

r iguis,

m ellis r : eraeque p roventu . 46 T he s econd p assage i dentifies t he ' Sabaean d istrict ' o f t he A tramitae a s t he c entre o f i ncense p roduction, a nd m entions i ts c apital, t ura p r a eter A rabiam

S abota:

n ulla a c n e A rabiae q uidem u niversae .

m edio e ius f ere s unt A tramitae , p agus S abaeorum , S abota i n m onte e xcels° , a q uo o cto m ansionibus

c apite d istat

i n

r egni r e eo

e orum t urifera S ariba a ppellata, h oc G raeci m ysterium d icunt. T he A tramitae a re r eferred t o i n o ther s ources a s t he C hatramotitae , a nd a re t o b e i dentified w ith t he t ribe o f H adramut o f s outh-east A rabia .4 8 t own S abota i s c alled a nd

E c oßaed

E t ißata

b y S trabo ,4 9

Edßßaea . b y P tolemy ,5 0

i n t he P eriplus M an s E rythraei ,

a t rading c entre .5 1

T he a nd

w hich s tresses i ts r ole a s

I ts o riginal n a e, a s p roved b y i nscriptions, w as

S habwat, a nd i t i s n ow k nown a s S habwa. T he t hird p assage , ab rief p ortion o f w hich w as q uoted a bove , d eals w ith t he t ransport o f t he i ncense f rom S abota t o G aza: t us

c ollectum

S abotam

c amelis

c onvehitur,

p orta a d

i d u na

p atente . d egredi v ia c apital r eges f ecere . i bi d ecumanas d eo , q uem v ocant S abin , m ensura , n on p ondere , s acerdotes c apiunt , n ec a nte m ercari l icet: i nde i mpensae p ublicae t olerantur ; n am e t b enigne c erto d ierum n umero d eus h ospites p ascit . e vehi n on p otest n isi p er G ebbanitas, i taque e t h orum r egi p enditur v ectigal . c aput e olup T homna a best a G aza , n ostri l itoris I udaea o ppido, U 'illft rd iXXXVII I D p . , q uod d ividitur m ansionibus

c amelorum

L XV .

S unt

p ortiones s cribisque r egum c ertae .

e t

q uae

s acerdotibus

S ed p raeter h os e t

s atellitesque e t o starii e t m inistri p opulantur .

9 0

i n i n

d antur

c ustodes

i am q uacumque

i ter e st a liubi p ro a qua ,

a liubi p ro p abulo a ut p ro m ansionibus

v ariisque p ortoriis p endunt , u t s umptus i n s ingulos c amelos * D CLXXXVIII a d n ostrum l itus c olligat , i terumque i mperii n ostri p ublicanis p enditur . I taque o ptimi h abet , s ecundiX V , t ertiiX III .5 3

t un s

l ibraX X VI

p retium

P liny c learly c onsiders t he t rue s tarting—point o f t he c aravan r oute t o G aza t o b e T homna, ' the c apital o f t he G ebbanitae% I t i s g enerally a ccepted t hat T homna m ust b e i dentified w ith t he m odern T imna , t he c apital o f t he a ncient k ingdom o f Q ataban , r eferred t o b y S trabo a s T ol i . i .Va , a nd b y P tolemy a s eo egv a 54 , b ut t he i dentity o f t he G ebbanitae a nd t heir r elationship w ith t he Q atabanians i s l ess c ertain . 55 Moreover, t his i nformation , d erived f rom J uba, 56 a s a lready b ecoming o ut—of—date i n P liny 's t ime , a s a rchaeological e xcavations h ave s hown t hat t he c ity w as d estroyed , o r a t l east si 9 pped t rading w ith t he R oman w orld , b y t he m iddle o f t he f irst c entury A D . -" B ut , w hatever t he d etails o f t he r oute a nd f rom w hichever c ity t he c aravans s et o ut , P liny 's g eneral d escription n o d oubt r emained v alid : t he v arious t axes a nd t ithes p aid t o k ings a nd p riests t hrough w hose t erritory t hey p assed, a nd t he h eavy e xpenses i ncurred b y t he m erchants o n t he j ourney . A s urvey o f o ne s tretch o f t he r oad f rom P etra t o G aza h as s hown t hat i t w as w ell e quipped w ith f acilities f or t ravellers : c aravanserais , w ater c isterns a nd g uardposts . 58 P liny 's w ords s uggest t hat s imilar p rovision m ust h ave b een m ade a long t he e ntire r oute . H e a lso s tates t hat R oman c ustoms d uty w as l evied o n t he i ncense f or t he f irst t ime w hen i t r eached t he M e i liLerranean c oast , w hich m eans a t G aza . T he l evel o f t his t ax i s n ot m entioned , b ut i t i s r easonable t o a ssume t hat i t w as t he s ame a s t he 2 5% l evied a t L euke K ome ,5 9 w hich a ppears t o h ave b een i mposed o n a ll m erchandise e ntering t he R oman E mpire a long t he e ntire e astern f rontier .6 ° T hese p assages d escribe t he t raffic i n f rankincense , b ut t hat w as n ot t he o nly s pice e xported f rom s outhern A rabia . O ne o f t he m ost i mportant o f t he o thers w as m yrrh , w hich w as p roduced i n t he s ame a reas a s f rankincense a nd w as a lso i mported b y t he S abaeans f rom E ast A frica .6 1 O ther s pices c onsidered b y s ome s ources t o be n ative t o A rabia a nd b y o thers t o b e i mported f rom A frica a nd r e—exported a long t he c aravan r oute w ere c assia a nd c innamon .6 2 P liny a lso m entions a s i mports f rom A rabia c ardamon ° a nd l adanum ,6 4 a nd S trabo a dds n ard , w hich P liny a ttributes m ainly t o I ndia .6 5 ( Gaza may a lso h ave b een o ne o f t he p orts t hrough w hich w as e xported a l ocally g rown s pice , t he m uch—prized b alsam f rom t he g roves o f J ericho .6 6 ) I t i s n owhere s pecifically s tated t hat t he c aravan r oute f rom A rabia t o G aza p assed t hrough P etra, b ut t his may b e a ssumed ., P liny c arefully r ecords t he d istance f rom P etra t o G aza : a best

a G aza

o ppido

l itoris

n ostri

T r ,

h uc c onvenit u trumque b ivium , e orum q ui p etiere e t e orum q ui a G aza v enerunt. 6 7

a s inu P ersico e x S yriam

S trabo r eports t hat s pices w ere b rought t o P etra ,

C XXV .

P almyram

t hough h e d escribes

t hem a s b eing t ransported t o L euke K ome b y s ea a nd t hence o verland .6 8 P eriplus M an s E rythraei a lso m entions

t he

T he

r oad b etween L euke K ome a nd

P etra . 69 M oreover , P etra s tood a t t he c entre o f a c omplex w eb o f t rade r outes. F rom t here i t w as p ossible t o t ravel n ot o nly t o G aza o r R hinocolura , b ut a lso t o D amascus, P almyra a nd t he P ersian G ulf , a s P liny s tates i n t he p assage q uoted a bove . 70

9 1

T he p eople o f P etra t raded w ith t he

t own o f

C harax

S pasinou a t

t he h ead

o f

t he P ersian G ulf ,7 1

a n i mportant

c entre f or t rade w ith P ersia , I ndia a nd t he F ar E ast . 72 Y et a nother c aravan r oute l inked P etra w ith G errha , aw ealthy c ity o n t he P ersian G ulf c oast o f A rabia .7 3 A long t hese r outes t here c ame t o P etra s pices f rom A rabia , E ast A frica a nd I ndia, p earls a nd o ther p recious s tones, I ndian c otton , C hinese s ilk , a nd o ther v aluable a nd e xotic g oods . F rom P etra t he m erchandise w as d ispatched i n d ifferent d irections, s ome n orth t o P hiladelphia , D amascus a nd t he n orth S yrian p orts , s ome w est a cross t he N egev t o G aza , w here i t w as l oaded o nto s hips f or d ispersal t hroughout t he M editerranean . B ut n ot a ll t he m erchandise s hipped f rom G aza h ad a rrived t here f rom P etra . T here w as a lso t rade b etween G aza a nd A ila o n t he G ulf o f A qaba . F rom e arly t imes a r oad r an a cross t he N egev f rom Ai la ; m eeting t he c oastal h ighway b etween G aza a nd R hinocolura ,7 4 a nd b oth S trabo/ 5 a nd P liny 7 6 r ecord t he d istance b etween t he t wo t owns . T he a pproach t o A ila b y s ea w as d ifficult a nd d angerous ,7 7 b ut t he N abataean c aravan r oute f rom L euke K ome t o P etra p assed t hrough i t .7 8 A ila a lso l ay a t t he s outhern e nd o f t he a ncient K ing 's H ighway , r unning n orth t o P hiladelphia a nd B ostra a nd u ltimately , t o D amascus , w hich l ater b ecame t he V ia N ova T raiana .79 T he f act t hat A ila c ontinued t o b e o f i mportance i nto t he l ater R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods i s s een i n t he f act t hat i t b ecame a l egionary b ase , w hen t he L egio X F retensis m oved t here f rom J erusalem, p ossibly u nder D iocletian . 8° T here i s a lso t he q uestion o f t he d ecline o f t he N abataean s pice t rade , a nd t he d ate 2 L w hich t heir c aravans s topped c rossing t he d esert t o G aza . T his i s s ometimes p ut v ery e arly . I t u sed t o b e b elieved t hat t he P etraG aza r oad f ell i nto d isuse b y t he e nd o f t he f irst c entury A D ,8 1 a nd i t i s a rgued t hat t he i ncreasing s edentarisation o f t he N abataeans a nd t heir d evelopment o f a griculture w as t he r esult o f t he d ecline o f t he c aravan t rade , w hich f orced t hem t o f ind a n a lternative s ource o f l ivelihood a nd t o a dopt a m ore s ettled w ay o f l ife . 82 B ut r ecent a rchaeological i nvestigations h ave s hown t hat t he P etra-Gaza r oad w as s till f ortified a nd i n u se i n t he t hird c entury a nd p ossibly i nto t he f ourth . I n f act , a t o ne w ay-station i nvestigated, a watch-tower h ad b een b uilt b y t he R omans, r eplacing a n e arlier N abataean b uilding .8 3 I t i s , t herefore , u nnecessary t o a rgue t hat t he s pice t rade c ame t o a n e nd i mmediately a fter t he R oman a nnexation o f N abataea i n 1 06 . T here i s , h owever , n o r eference t o t hat t rade i n t he c opious B yzantine s ources o n G aza , a nd i t i s a pparent t hat b y t hat t ime i t n o l onger p layed a n i mportant p art i n t he e conomy o f t he c ity . I t i s a lso c lear t hat P etra d eclined i n i mportance i n t he c enturies f ollowing t he a nnexation . I t w as a pparently s till a p rosperous a nd c ultured c ity i n t he t hird c entury , b ut h ad a lready l ost i ts p olitical s tatus a s t he c apital o f N abataea t o B ostra , t he c apital o f P rovincia A ralia . . 84 P etra s eems t o h ave b een s everely d amaged i n a n e arthquake i n t he m id-fourth c entury ,8 5 a nd a pparently n ever r ecovered , b ut s ank i nto o bscurity a nd w as e ventually a bandoned .8 6 S uch f actors a s t he s acking o r d estruction o f m any g reat c ommercial c ities , t he r ise o f t he S assanid d ynasty i n P ersia , a nd t he w ithdrawal n orthward o f t he R oman f rontier i n E gypt h ave b een c ited a s i ndications , o r c ontributory c auses o f t hat d ecline .8 7 N evertheless , i t a ppears t hat t rade b etween A rabia a nd G aza d id n ot c ease a ltogether . T imotheus o f G aza r eports i n t he l ate f ifth c entury t hat a t rader i n I ndian g oods , a n ative o f A ila , p assed t hrough G aza , b ringing

9 2

t wo g iraffes a nd a n e lephant

t o b e p resented t o t he E mperor A nastasius .8 8

T here i s a lso a r eport t hat A rab m erchants f rom M ecca v isited a nd e ven s ettled i n G aza b efore t he M oslem w quest o f t he e arly s eventh c entury , p resumably t ravelling b y w ay o f A ila .° 7

B : T HE W INE T RADE. I n t he B yzantine p eriod , t he p lace o f t he A rabian s pice t rade i n t he e conomy o f G aza w as t aken b y t rade i n w ine . G aza n o l onger s erved a s a n i ntermediary s tation , t o w hich m erchandise w as b rought f rom g reat d istances , t o b e p ut o n b oard s hip f or r e-export, b ut a s ac entre f rom w hich l ocal p roduce w as e xported t o t he r est o f t he M editerranean w orld , a nd b eyond . A t t his t ime s outhern P alestine w as a t t he h eight o f i ts p rosperity , a nd a griculture was f lourishing . A s a r esult o f t he s ophisticated w ater c onservation a nd i rrigation t echniques d eveloped b y t he N abataeans , p arts o f t he N egev d esert w ere n ow b rought u nder c ultivation f or t he f irst t ime . 9° P rominent a mong t he c rops g rown i n t he N egev w ere g rapes f or w ine-making . T he e xcavations o f t hree N abataean t owns i n t he N egev , E boda , E lusa a nd S ubeita , h as r evealed a n umber o f e laborate w ine p resses , p ointing t o w ine p roduction o n a n i ndustrial s cale .9 1 T his w ine w as c onveyed t o G aza f or e xport , a nd g radually a cquired a n i nternational r eputation f or i ts h igh q uality . I t i s n ot p ossible t o s ay p recisely w hen t he e xport o f w ine f rom G aza b egan , t hough s ignificantly i t i s n ot m entioned b y P liny , i n h is l ong d iscussion o f -i arious t ypes o f w ine . B y t he m iddle o f t he f ourth c entury , h owever , t he T otius O rbis D escriptio s tates: S imiliter a liae c ivitates A scalon e t G aza i n n egotiis e minentes e t a bundantes o mnibus b onis m ittunt o mni r egioni S yriae e t A egypti v inum b onum .9 2 A t a bout t he s ame t ime, a ccordig H ilarion w ere o cc t ipied i n c ultivating d esert m onasteries ,9 3 a nd a t t he e nd o f r efers t o t he c olony o f E gyptian w ine

t o J erome , t he m onks v isited b y v ines i n t he f ields a round t heir t he f ourth c entury M arcus D iaconus m erchants r esiding i n G aza 's p ort

t own , M aioumas . 94 P ossibly t he f act t hat b oth M arcus a nd t he T otius O rbis D escriptio m ention E gypt s uggests t hat a t t his s tage G aza 's w ine t rade w as r estricted t o i ts n eighbouring p rovinces i n t he e astern M editerranean . B ut i n t he f ollowing c enturies t he f ame o f t he c ity 's w ine s pread, a nd r eferences t o i t a re f ound i n an umber o f w riters o f t he L atin W est. I n t he f ifth c entury S idonius A pollinaris w rites: v ina m ihi n on s unt G azetica , C hia , q uaeque S arepteno m issa b ibas .9 . 5

F alerna ,

A t t he b eginning o f t he s ixth c entury , C assiodorus , t he v irtures o f v inum P almatianum ., r emarks: i d e nim

r eperitur e

G azeto p ar ,

e t

S abino s imile ,

o doribus s ingulare. 7 u A lso i n t he s ixth c entury C orippus r efers t o : d ulcia B acchi m unera q uae S arepta f erax , q uae G aza c rearet ,9 7

9 3

w hile e xtolling

e t

m agnis

a nd G regory o f T ours r efers t o t he s trength o f G aza w ine: u - m isitque p ueros, u num p ost a lium , a d r equirenda p otentiora v ina , L aticina v idelicet , a tque G azitina . 98 I n t he s econd h alf o f t he s ixth c entury V enantius F ortunatus a lso l ists G aza me a mong o thers o f h igh q uality : Falerna, G azaque, C reta, S amus, C ypros, C olofona, S eraptis, l ucida p erspicuis c ertantia v ina l apil Ues v ix d iscernendis c rystallina p ocula p otis . 'a F inally , i n t he e arly s eventh c entury , b efore G aza f ell t o t he M oslems , w hen t he w ine i ndustry p resumably d eclined, I sodore o f S eville w rites: G azeum v inu a v ero r egio , P alestinae.

u nde d efertur .

G aza e nim o ppidum e st

j 7

I n a r ecent a rticle P . Mayerson h as s uggested t hat G aza w ine was p opularised i n t he W est b y t he p ilgrims f rom F rance , I taly a nd S pain , w ho v isited t he H oly L and i n e ver-increasing n umbers i n t he B yzantine p eriod . H aving e njoyed t he w ine d uring t heir s tay i n t he c ountry , t hey c reated a d emand f or i t a fter t heir r eturn h ome . M ayerson f urther s uggests t hat t he w ine c ould h ave b een t ransported i n t he s ame s hips i n w hich t he p ilgrims t ravelled. 9 9a T here i s a lso a rchaeological e vidence f or t he e xtent o f G aza 's w ine t rade w ith t he W est . J .A . R iley h as i dentified a c ertain t ype o f a mphora f ound i n e xcavations i n t he h ippodrome o f C aesarea w ith t hat u sed t o t ransport G aza w ine . M° T his i dentification r ests l argely u pon p etrological

a nalysis

o f

t his

p ottery a nd

c omparison w ith m odern p ottery

f rom G aza , m ade f rom l ocal c lay b y t raditional m ethods, w hich s howed a c lose s imilarity b etween t he t wo w ares . R iley n otes t he w ide d istribution o f p ottery o f t he t ype f ound a t C aesarea: i n P alestine i tself i t i s f ound mainly i n t he s outh o f t he c ountry , a t A shdod a nd a t G aza i tself; s mall q uantities h ave b een f ound a t I stanbul , a nd s ome i n E gypt ; s everal e xamples h ave b een f ound i n S pain , d ated t o t he f ourth t o s ixth c enturies , a nd o thers h ave b een r ecorded i n E ngland , m ainly i n L ondon ; f urther f inds h ave b een r eported f rom T rier, R umania a nd C rimea .

1 01

T hese a mphorae n o d oubt f ormed t he b ulk o f t he p ottery r eferred t o b y S tephanus o f B yzantium a s xepap .o L ra4 n 01 , 102 O ne o f t he N essana p apyri a lso r efers t o a r g( C TL OV) 9 a s a n a ll-purpose j ar f or t he s torage a nd t ransport o f s uch f ood-stuffs a s s alted f ish , h oney-cakes a nd w heat m ea1 .1 03 T he a mphora d escribed b y R iley , w ith i ts l ow a nd r elatively w ide n eck , w ould b e e qually s uitable f or d ry f oods a nd l iquids .1 04

C : T RADE I N O THER A GRICULTURAL P RODUCE . T he p apyrus c ited a bove m akes i t c lear t hat w ine w as n ot t he o nly a gricultural p roduct t ransported a nd t raded t hrough G aza . T he N essana p apyri g ive i nformation o n t he v ariety o f c rops g rown t here, i ncluding w heat, b arley , g rapes , o lives ,

f igs a nd d ates .1 °6

c rops w ere i ntended f or l ocal c onsumption , s ale

o f

c ereals,

o lives,

o r

g rapes,

9 4

N o d oubt t he b ulk o f t he

a nd w e h ave n o e vidence f or t he

t hough

t he

s eries

o f

e ntagia,

r equisitions o f w heat a nd o il b y t he A rab g overnor i n t he l ate s eventh c entury , s hows t hat a s urplus o f t hese c rops o ver t he n eeds o f t he l ocal p opulation w as p roduced .1 0 b B ut t hey m ay w ell h ave b een s ubject t o l evies b y t he B yzantine g overnment a s w ell , s o o ne c annot b e c ertain t hat t hey w ere a vailable f or s ale . O n t he o ther h and, t rade i n d ates i s w ell d ocumented b y t wo p apyri r ecording d aily s ales , l isting t he q uantities i nvolved a nd t he n ames o f t he p urchasers . 1°7 T hese r ecords s how t hat t he d ates w ere s old e ither " clean" o r ud irty l i x which K raemer i nterprets a s e ither " pitted" o r " with t he s tones u ,1" a nd p acked i n b askets, f our b askets m aking o ne d onkey l oad . W hile s ome o f t he t raders c learly o wned l arge c aravans o f d onkeys , o ther h ad t he u se o f o nly o ne o r t wo . O n o ccasions a p urchaser w ho n ormally b ought o nly s mall q uantities o f d ates h ad e vidently h ired a dditional a nimals , t o e nable h im t o t ransport a l arge l oad . T he f act t hat f requently t he a mounts p urchased d o n ot m ake u p c omplete d onkey l oads i ndicates t hat t he t raders m ay a lso h ave a cquired o ther m erchandise a long t heir r oute .1 09 T he n ames o f t raders a re t ypically E gyptian , a s i s t he c alendar b y w hich t he r ecords a re d ated , s uggesting t hat E gyptians h eld a m onopoly o f t he t rade i n t he a rea . B ut s ome o f t he i ntervals a t w hich t he s ame n ames a ppear a s p urchasers a re t oo s hort f or t hem t o h ave b een a ble t o m ake t he l ong j ourney i nto E gypt a nd t o r eturn t o N essana . S o i t a ppears t hat m ost o f t hese p eople w ere e ngaged i n s hort-haul t rading , b etween N essana a nd t he o ther N egev t owns , o r i nto G aza , w hence t he d ates c ould b e d ispatched t o E gypt o r e lsewhere b y s ea .1 ° A lthough T v u h ave n o d irect e vidence f or o ther c ommodities, i t i s r easonable t o a ssume t hat t hey w ere t raded i n t he s ame w ay , a nd t hat t he s urplus a gricultural p roduce o f N essana w as c onveyed i nto G aza , o n d onkeyb ack , o r b y c amel t rain . " T he t rade w ould n ot h ave b een i n o ne d irection o nly , a nd m any o f t he p roducts u sed b y t he p eople o f N essana m ust h ave b een b rought i n f rom G aza . O ne p apyrus f ragment c ontains a l ist o f f oodstuffs , h oney , g arum ( fish s auce ) , a lmonds a nd o ther n uts , w hich K raemer s uggests w ere i mported f rom G aza . 12 T he e xcavations a t N essana r evealed l arge q uantities o f e dible s hellfish a nd f ishbones , t he m ajority o f w hich w ere o f s pecies n ative t o t he R ed S ea , w hich m ust h ave b een t ransported f rom A ila . O ther s pecies , h owever , c ame f rom t he M editerranean , a nd t wo f resh-water m olluscs f rom t he N ile . T hey p resumably r eached G aza b y s ea a nd w ere t hen c onveyed t o N essana b y d onkey t rain , p erhaps p acked i n b askets t ogether w ith w et s eaweed . T he d ifficulty o f p reserving t he s hellfish i n a n e dible c ondition o n al engthy j ourney , o f a t l east t wo d ays f rom G aza a nd e ven m ore f rom A ila , s uggests t hat t his t rade m ay h ave b een r estricted t o t he c ooler w inter m onths. 13 F rom t he N essana p apyri , t herefore , i t i s p ossible t o o btain a p icture o f t he t rade b etween G aza a nd o ne s mall t own i n i ts h interland . T he p icture i s , o f c ourse , p artial , a nd t he t rade o bviously i ncluded f ar m ore p roducts o f v arious t ypes t han c an b e d emonstrated f rom t he a vailable e vidence . B ut i t d oes g ive a g eneral i mpression o f t hat t rade a nd o f h ow i t w as c onducted . A nd N essana w as o nly o ne o f t he s ettlements t hat m ust h ave h ad c ommerical r elations w ith G aza . I t i s r easonable t o a ssume t hat t he o ther N egev t owns, E boda, M ampsis, E lusa a nd S ubeita , t raded t heir p roduce i n t he s ame w ay , t hough t here i s n o d irect e vidence f or t his t rade , a part f rom t he w ine p resses m entioned a bove . 14 T he v illages s urrounding G aza o n t he c oastal p lain m ust a lso h ave s eat t heir p roduce t o t he c ity , b oth f or e xport a nd t o s upply t he d aily n eeds c f i ts l arge u rban p opulation , a nd t hey t oo w ould h ave b een s upplied f rom t he c ity w ith t hose g oods w hich

9 5

c ould n ot b e p roduced l ocally .114a

D : O THER I NDUSTRIES A T G AZA . We k now l ittle o f t he i ndustries o f G aza . T he f ull r ange o f o ccupations n ecessary f or t he m aintenance o f ap rosperous c ity a nd i ts i nhabitants m ust h ave b een p ractised t here , b ut w e h ave l ittle e vidence f or t hem . F rom w hat h as b een s aid a bove , i t i s a pparent t hat a l arge s ection o f t he p opulation m ust h ave b een e ngaged i n t rade i n o ne f orm o r a nother . P ottery must a lso h ave b een a n i mportant i ndustry , p roducing l arge q uantities o f a mphorae f or t he t ransport o f G aza 's w ine a nd o ther e xports, a nd n o d oubt d omestic w ares f or t he l ocal m arket a s w ell . T he e xcavations o n t he c oast a t G aza h ave r evealed f urther a spects o f t he i ndustrial ' l ife o f t he c ity a nd i ts p ort . A part f rom t he s ynagogue d iscovered t here , aw ell— p reserved d ye—works w as f ound , d ating f rom t he e arly t o m iddle f ifth c entury A D . N umerous s herds f ound o n i ts f loors w ere s tained r eddish—brown o r v iolet d yes , w hich c hemical a nalysis s howed t o b e i norganic . S ome d erived f rom t he N egev a nd S inai, b ut o thers h ad b een i mported f rom I taly a nd G reece . 15 N o d oubt t extiles w ere p roduced a s w ell a s d yed a t G aza , b ut w hether f or e xport, o r p urely f or t he l ocal m arket i t i s i mpossible t o s ay . T he s ynagogue i tself a lso o ccupations p ractised a t G aza .

p rovides a l ittle i nformation a bout o ther T he m osaic p avement i n t he s outhern a isle

o f t he b uilding c ontains a n i nscription c ommemorating t he d onors , M enachem a nd J eshua , a nd d escribing t hem a s w ood m erchants . 16 T he m en w ho c ould a fford t o d onate t hese s plendid m osaics w ere c learly p rosperous . T imber w as , o f c ourse , i n s hort s upply i n t he a rid s outhern r e eons , a nd m ust h ave b een i mported i n l arge q uantities f or u se i n b uilding . 1/ T he mosaic i tself, w ith a d esign o f b irds a nd a nimals e nclosed i n m edallions f ormed f rom v ine s tems , b ears a r emarkable r esemblance t o a n umber o f o ther m osaic p avements f rom s ynagogues a nd c hurches t hroughout t he s outh o f P alestine , a nd e ven a s f ar a s J erusalem , a ll o f s imilar d ates i n t he s ixth c entury . T his h as l ed t o t he c onclusion t hat t here w as i n G aza a t t hat t ime a w orkshop f or m osaic d esign a nd c onstruction w hich g ained a h igh r eputation f or t he b eauty o f i ts w ork a nd r eceived n umerous c ommissions f or t he d ecoration o f s acred b uildings f ar f rom G aza i tself . 18 N o d oubt t his w orkshop w as a lso r esponsible o f S t . S ergius i n G aza , d escribed n ot s urvived . I t i s n oteworthy i nclude v ines w ith c lusters o f w ater. ' 19

f or t he m agnificent m osaics o f t he C hurch b y C horicius , w hich , u nfortunately , h ave t hat t he d esigns m entioned b y C horicius g rapes, v arious b irds, a nd a v ase o f

Y et a nother f actor c ontributing t o t he p rosperity o f G aza i n t he B yzantine p eriod was t he p ilgrim t raffic . A s C hristianity s pread t hroughout t he R oman w orld , i nterest i n t he ' H oly L and ' g rew , a nd i ncreasing n umbers o f t ravellers c ame t o v isit i ts s acred p laces . a nd l avishly e ndowed c hurches a nd m onasteries.

M any w ere w ealthy , O thers w ere l ess

p rosperous, b ut e ven t hey s pent m oney o n f ood a nd l odgings , b ought r elics a nd p aid g uides t o c onduct t hem r ound t he s acred s ites .1 2 ° A ll t his b rought i ncreased r evenues t o t he t owns o f P alestine , a nd G aza w as a mong t hose t hat p rofited. I t w as n ot , o f c ourse , u ntil p aganism h ad b een s uppressed i n G aza a nd t he C hristian C hurch w as f irmly i n c ontrol , t hat p ilgrims w ould b e w elcomed i n t he c ity , o r w ould t hemselves b e a nxious t o v isit i t .1 21 I t i s

9 6

s ignificant t hat i n t wo o f t he e arliest a ccounts w e h ave o f p ilgrim j ourneys t o P alestine, t hose o f P aula a nd E geria ( or A etheria), b oth o f t he l ate f ourth c entury ,1 22 G aza i s s carcely m entioned . P aula i s r eported a s h aving t ravelled d own t he a ncient r oad f rom J erusalem t o G aza . B ut s he s oon t urned o ff i t

i n t he d irection o f B eth Z ur ,

a nd w ent o n t o H ebron .1 23

O n

a nother o ccasion , s he r eturned b y s ea f rom a v isit t o E gypt a nd d isembarked a t M aioumas . B ut t here i s n o r eference t o h er t aking t he o pportunity t o v isit G aza a nd i ts s hrines b efore r eturning t o B ethleham , w here s he d ecided t o s ettle. 1 24 E geria d oes n ot mention G aza a t a ll, a lthough s he must h ave p assed t hrough t he c ity . U nfortunately , t he f irst p ages o f h er n arrative a re m issing , a nd t he e xtant p art b egins w ith h er v isit t o M t . S inai . B ut i t a ppears f rom s everal o f h er r emarks c oncerning h er r eturn j ourney t hat s he t ravelled f rom J erusalem d own t he c oast r oad t o P elusium , a nd t hen t hrough C lysma a nd P haran t o t he m onastery , a nd r eturned t he s ame w ay .1 25 S he m ust , t herefore , h ave p assed t hrough G aza o n b oth j ourneys . W e c annot t ell w hat c omments s he m ay h ave m ade o n t he c ity i n t he l ost p art o f h er b ook , b ut c ertainly , i n t he b rief a ccount o f h er j ourney f rom t he E gyptian b order , s he d oes n ot e xpress a ny d esire t o l inger i n t he a rea : E t

i nde

i n

n omine

C hristi

a liquod p er P alestina I erusolimam .1 26

D ei

n ostri

r egressa

s um

f aciens d enuo m ansiones i n

H elia ,

i d

e st

i n

B ut o nce C hristianity w as o fficially e stablished i n G aza a nd t he p agan t emples w ere d estroyed , a n i mmediate c oncern o f t he C hristian c ommunity w as t o e ncourage p ilgrims , a nd a h ostel f or t ravellers w as i ncluded i n t he p lans f or t he m agnificent n ew c hurch b uilt o n t he o rders o f , a nd w ith t he f unds p rovided b y , t he E mpress E udoxia . I t i s n ot s pecifically s tated t hat t he h ostel w as i n f act b uilt, b ut w hen t he c hurch w as f inished, t he b ishop o rdered t hat e ach v isitor s hould b e p aid a d ay 's e xpenses, p resumably f rom C hurch f unds , a s h is o wn p ersonal c harities a re l isted s eparately .1 27 T he c elebrations t hat a ccompanied t he c onsecration o f t he c hurch a ttracted a l arge n umber o f p ilgrims t o G aza , n o d oubt t he f irst t ime s o m any C hristians h ad g athered t here , a nd f rom t hen o n t he c ity b ecame i ncreasingly p opular w ith t hem .1 28 G aza h ad n o b iblical h oly p laces t o a ttract p ilgrims . I t w as, o f c ourse , t he s cene o f t he d eath o f S amson , b ut t hat s tory s eems t o h ave h ad l ittle a ppeal t o t he e arly C hristians, w ho w ere m ore i nterested i n P hilip 's b aptism o f t he E thiopian e unuch o n t he r oad t o G aza .1 29 T he c ity w as h owever , t he s ite o f an umber o f m artyria , s hrines t o C hristian m artyrs w ho s uffered i n t he p ersecutions . T hese i ncluded t he s hrines o f T imotheus , M ajor a nd T hecla i n G aza i tself ,1 3 ° a nd t hat o f S t . V ictor , b etween G aza a nd M aioumas . N othing i s k nown o f h is s tory , b ut t he c hurch w as c learly a n i mportant o ne , m arked o n t he M adeba M ap ,1 31 a nd m entioned b y A ntoninus P lacentinus ,1 32 w ho a lso c omments o n t he f act t hat t he t omb o f H ilarion , i n t he r uins o f h is m onastery , l ay a t a d istance o f t wo m iles f rom G aza .1 33 T hese s hrines s erved , t herefore , t o a ttract v isitors t o t he c ity , a s w ell a s t hose w ho m erely p assed t hrough o n t heir w ay t o o r f rom E gypt . T he c ity a lso s erved o ccasionally a s a s tarting-point f or j ourneys t hrough t he N egev a nd d own t o M t . S inai . A ntoninus r elates h ow h e t ravelled f rom G aza t o E lusa a nd t hen t hrough t he d esert t o a f ort t wenty m iles a way , w here t here w as a p ilgrim h ostel , p robably N essana . F rom t here h e t ravelled o n c amel-back i nto t he ' inner d esert ' a nd o n i nto

9 7

S inai .1 34 B ut t here i s n o e vidence t o s uggest t hat t his e ver b ecame a p opular r oute , w ell f requented b y p ilgrims o r t raders . A ntoninus t ells u s t hat i t w as s afe f or h is p arty t o t ravel t his w ay o nly b ecause t he d esert n omads w ere c elebrating a f estival , d uring w hich i t w as f orbidden t o a ttack t ravellers . A fter h is v isit t o M t . S ir , t he f estival w as o ver a nd h e h ad t o r eturn t o J erusalem b y w ay o f E gypt ." W hether t he p ilgrims c ame t o G aza t o v isit i ts c hurches a nd m artyria a nd t o a ttend i ts s plendid f estivals ,1 36

o r m erely p assed t hrough o n t he c oastal

h ighway , t hey e vidently a ppreciated t he f acilities o ffered b y t he c ity a nd t he w armth w ith w hich t hey w ere w elcomed b y i ts i nhabitants . A ntoninus w rites e nthusiastically : G aza a utem c ivitas s plendida , d eliciosa , h omines h onestissimi , o mni l iberalitate d ecori, a matores p eregrinorum .L 37 C horicius a lso w rites o f t he v isitors t o G aza a nd o f h ow , a ttracted b y t he p leasantness o f t he c ity , t hey w ould o ften s tay f or l onger t han t hey h ad i ntended . 138 P ilgrims w ere n ot, h owever, t he o nly v isitors . T he r hetorical s chool a ttracted a l arge n umber o f s tudents f rom a ll o ver t he B yzantine w orld , a nd , l ike a ll u niversity t owns, G aza must h ave p rofited f rom p roviding s ervices f or t hese y oung m en , many o f t hem, n o d oubt, s upplied w ith g enerous a llowances b y t heir w ealthy p arents .

E : P OPULATION . T he p opulation o f G aza w as a m ixed o ne , r eflecting t he v arious w aves o f c onquest t hat h ad w ashed o ver t he c ity . B y t he H ellenistic p eriod t he P hilistines o f b iblical t imes h ad l ong a go l ost t heir s eparate i dentity a nd m erged i nto t he l ocal C anaanite p opulation . A lexander 's c onquest o f G aza d id n ot l ead t o t he i ntroduction o f M acedonian o r G reek s ettlers . W hen h e h ad t aken t he c ity a nd massacred i t i nhabitants, h e o rdered i t t o b e r epopulated b y p eople f rom t he s urrounding v illages , n o d oubt o f b asically m ixed C anaanite-Philistine d escent .1 39 ( The P hoenicians, who c olonised much o f t he c oast o f P alestine, d id n ot r each a s f ar s outh a s G aza 1 4° ) . T here w as a lso s trong A rab i nfluence i n G aza a t t he t ime o f A lexander 's a ttack o n t he t own . I t w as g arrisoned b y A rab t roops u nder a P ersian c ommander ,1 44 a nd i t i s p ossible t hat t here w ere A rab e lements a mong t he i nhabitants o f t he c ity . T he p recise i dentity o f t he A rab t ribes a ssociated w ith G aza a t t his t ime h as b een d isputed , b ut i t i s n ow g enerally b elieved

t hat

t hose

w ith

t he

c losest

c onnections

w ith

t he

c ity w ere

t he

K edarites , w ho c ontrolled t he c oastal a rea t o t he s outh .1 42 I t w as o nly i n t he y ears t hat f ollowed t hat t he N abataeans r eplaced t hem a s t he m ost p owerful a nd i nfluential A rabs i n t he a rea a nd d eveloped t heir c lose l inks w ith G aza. D uring

t he y ears o f P tolemaic a nd S eleucid r ule ,

G aza g radually b ecame

H eL len ized , ap rocess t hat m ust h ave i nvolved t he s ettlement o f s ome G reeks , o r a t l east G reek-speakers , i n t he c ity , a nd t he d evelopment o f a n e lite , e ducated i n t he G reek c ultural t radition a nd s peaking t he l anguage . B ut t here e xist t wo p ieces o f e vidence t hat A ramaic w as a nd r emained t he e veryday l anguage o f t he m ajority o f t he p eople o f G aza a nd t he s urrounding a rea . B oth c ome f rom B yzantine s ources a nd, u nfortunately , b oth h ave m iraculous e lements a nd c annot b e a ccepted i n a ll t heir d etails . B ut t he s ituation i mplied a s t he b ackground t o t hese s tories s eems p robable.

9 8

T he f irst s ource i s J erome 's L ife o f H ilarion .

H e n arrates a n i ncident

i n w hich H ilarion a ddresses i n A ramaic a F rankish i mperial o fficer , w ho i s m iraculously e nabled t o a nswer i n t hat l anguage , d espite k nowing o nly L atin a nd

F rankish .1 43

H ilarion ,

o f

c ourse ,

c ould

s peak G reek

p erfectly

w ell ;

i n t he s ame s tory h e i s r eported a s h aving r epeated h is q uestions i n G reek f or t he b enefit o f t he o fficer 's c ompanions, a nd h e h ad s tudied u nder a g rammaticus i n A lexandria .1 44 I t m ay b e a sked w hy h e s hould c hoose t o a ddress a n o bvious f oreigner ( Jerome c omments o n h is f air s kin a nd r ed h air ) i n A ramaic . P erhaps h e h ad d ecided t o a dopt i t a s h is e veryday s peech a s p art o f h is r ejection o f h is w ealthy p agan b ackground , a nd t o b ring h im c loser t o t he s imple c ountry p eople , a mong w hom h e a pparently h ad m ore s uccess i n a ttracting c onverts t han a mong c ities. 1 45

t he

s ophisticated

p eople o f

t he

T he s econd s ource i s Marcus D iaconus . H e r eports t hat, d uring a d iscussion a mong t he C hristians a s t o w hat s hould b e d one w ith t he M arneion , ac hild , a pparently s eized b y d ivine i nspiration , c alled o ut t hat t he t emple s hould b e b urnt . T his o utburst i s s aid t o h ave b een i n A ramaic . L ater , w hile b eing q uestioned b y t he b ishop , h e r epeated h is i nstructions i n G reek , a lthough h is mother i nsisted t hat n either s he n or h er s on k new t hat l angauge .1 46 W hatever t he t ruth o f t his a necdote , i t c l A ramaic w as t he n ormal l anguage o f t he C hristians o f G aza.

ey i mplies t hat 1

T he f act t hat b oth t hese s ources a re f rom t he B yzantine p eriod , G reek

c ulture

i n G aza

was

c lose

t o

i ts

h eight,

a lthough

t he

w hen

c ity 's

r hetorical s chool h ad n ot y et a cheived t he r eputation i t w as t o a cquire a h undred y ears o r s o l ater , i ndicates t hat t his s ituation w as n ot n ew a nd t hat, t hroughout G aza 's h istory a s p art o f t he H ellenistic-Roman w orld , A ramaic h ad a lways b een t he l anguage o f t he c ommon p eople , a nd t hat t he G reek l anguage a nd i ts c ulture h ad a ffected o nly t he a ristocracy o f t hat c ity ,

t hose w ith t he m oney t o s end t heir s ons

t o t he g ymnasium t o a cquire

t hat m uch-valued e ducation . G aza h ad n ever b een a J ewish t own , a nd w e h ave n o e vidence f or J ews ' h aving l ived t here i n t he H ellenistic o r e arly R oman p eriod . B ut a f ew h istorical a nd T almudic s ources h int a t, a nd a rchaeological f indings c onfirm, t he l ater e xistence o f aJ ewish c ommunity , w hich b y t he s ixth c entury h ad b ecome w ell-established a nd p rosperous . T he e arliest r eference t o t he p resence o f J ews i n G aza i s t he r ather g arbled i nformation i n t he C hronicon P aschale t hat a fter t he B ar K okhba r evolt J ewish p risoners w ere s old n ot ,

i n t he s lave m arket a ssociated w ith t he f air a t G aza .1 48 T his d oes h owever , i mply t hat t hese J ews w ere n ecessarily n atives o f t he a rea

b efore t he r evolt. T here a re o ccasional T almudic r efereces t o G aza , s ome o f w hich p rovide a l ittle i nformation . Al ate M ishanic s ource 1 49 r eports a s tory o f R . E leazar , t he s on o f R . S imeon b en Y ochai , a P alestinian r abbi o f t he l ate s econd c entury A D , s aying " A p lace w as o n t he b order o f G aza a nd t hey c alled i t a Q uarantined R uin" .1 5 ° T he c ontext i s t hat o f h ouses p olluted a ccording t o L evit . 1 4 . 3 3f . T his s ort o f p ollution a pplies o nly w ithin t he L and o f I srae1 ,1 51 a nd t he o ther e xample g iven i n t he s ame s ection o f t he T osefta b y a c ontemporary a nd f ellow-student o f R . E leazar i s i n G alilee . T he i mplication i s t hat a t t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury A D G aza w as c onsidered t o b e w ithin t he L and o f S irael , a nd t here w ere J ews t here w ho w ould c are a bout s uch p ollution . T he

n avlyypt4 o f G aza i s m entioned i n a t radition g oing b ack t o R .

9 9

H anina b en H ama ( died c . 2 80 A D ) . I t i s i nteresting t hat t he s ame a nswer b y R . H anina i s g iven i n t he J erusalem T almud w ith t he H ebrew t ranslation 7 717,

w hile

t he

, I teXot Saa

f air.).

p arallel

i n

.P resumably ,

t he

B abylonian

T almud

h as

t o-Ovy

1 52

n o t axes w ere l evied o n s ales m ade a t t his

1 53

S chwartz 1 54 i nterprets a p assage i n t he J erusalem T almud 1 55 t o m ean t hat R . A ha ( fourth c entury A D P alestinian r abbi) p ermitted J ews t o r eside i n G aza . B ut t he c ontext m akes i t c lear t hat a ll t hat h e p ermitted w as t o e at t he f ruits o f G aza , a lthough i t i s p art o f t he l and o f t he G entiles , w hich i s n ot i ncluded i n t he L and o f I srael (unyn y ix n Nniu) . B ut t his i s o nly t he f inal c ontext i n t he J erusalem T almud i tself . S ince w e h ave s een t hat i n t he s econd c entury t here w as a t radition w hich r egarded G aza a s p art o f t he L and o f I srael , f rom t he p oint o f v iew o f h ouse p ollution , i t i s c onceivable t hat R . A ha 's r eason f or a llowing J ews t o e at f rom t he f ruits o f G aza w as

t hat h e

c onsidered

i t

p art

o f

t he L and o f

I srael a lso f rom

t he

p oint o f v iew o f t he p ollution o f t he L and o f t he G entiles , a nd e xempted i ts f ruits f rom t his p ollution . T his s hould b e c onfirmed b y a nother f ourth c entury t radition 1 56

t hat R .

Y itzak b ar N ahman l ived i n G aza, b ut w as a ppointed e lder ( judge i n a r abbinical c ourt) o n c ondition t hat h e r eturned t o t he L and o f I srael . T he i mplication i s t hat G aza w as c onsidered o utside t he c ountry (y1 0 y in

) ,

a s t he T almudic c ontext s hows , f rom t he p oint o f v iew o f r abbinical c ourts, b ut t hat i t was n ot c onsidered e ntirely o utside t he L and o f I srael, e specially f rom t he p oint o f v iew o f p urity a nd i mpurity .1 57 W hat i t a lso s hows i s t hat t here m ust h ave b een a J ewish c ommunity i n G aza a t t he t ime , s ince i t i s i heonceivable t hat a T almudic r abbi , w ho w as a ppointed a n e lder , w ould b e l iving a lone i n ag entile t own . T aken t ogether ,

t herefore ,

b een a J ewish c ommunity ,

t hese p assages s uggest

t hat

t hough p robably o nly a s mall o ne ,

t here m ay h ave i n G aza p ossibly

f rom t he s econd c entury, a nd p robably b y t he f ourth. T here a re a lso a f ew C hristian r eferences t o J ews a t G aza .

T he w ords

o f A mbrose o f M ilan : a t c erte s i l ure g entium a gerem , d icerem q uantas e cclesias b asilicas I udaei t empore I uliana i ncenderint . D uas D amasci— . i ncensae s unt b asilicae G azis, A scalone, B eryto... e t v indictam n emo q uaesivit. 1 5 t d h ave b een t aken a s e vidence f or t he p resence o f J ews i n G aza a nd t heir l inks w ith t he J ewish c ommunity i n A scalon .1 59 B ut A mbrose 's r emarks m ay b e t endentious . C ertainly , t he p agans o f G aza n eeded n o l essons f rom t he J ews i n h ostility t o C hristians , a nd S ozomen d oes n ot m ention J ewish i nvolvement i n t he a ttacks o n C hristians i n t he c ity u nder J ulian .1 6 ° Af inal r efernce t o J ews i n G aza i n t he B yzantine p eriod c omes f rom t he V ita S . l ohannis E leemosynarii

o f

t he

s eventh c entury .

A n u nnamed m onk

d escribes h ow h e w as m et a t t he g ate o f G aza b y aJ ewish g irl , w ho t old h im t hat s he w ished t o b ecome a C hristian , a nd i mplored h im t o t ake h er w ith h im,

w hich h e

e ventually

c greed

t n

d n .

i ntending

c onvent .1 61 I t i s n ot s pecifically s tated t hat t his f amily i n t he c ity, b ut t his i s an atural a ssumption .

t o g irl

p lace h er l ived

w i

i n a h cr

A part f rom t hese f ew h ints, t he m ain e vidence f or a J ewish c ommuni ty i n

1 00

G aza c omes f rom a rchaeological f indings .

C lermont-Ganneau c ommented o n t he

c olumn e ngraved w ith a m enorah a nd a H ebrew i nscription i n t he G reat M osque o f G aza, a nd a rgued t hat i t must h ave c ome f rom a s ynagogue, t hough h e b elieved t hat t here w as i nsufficient e vidence f or t he p resence o f J ews i n t he c ity a nd s uggested t hat t he c olumn h ad b een b rought t here p ossibly f rom A lexandria, o r C aesarea .1 62 A s mall f ragment o f a s ynagogue c hancel s creen , w ith a f ew G reek l etters o n o ne a ide a nd a m enorah , s hofar a nd l ulav as a lso f ound n ear G aza .1 63 o n t he o ther, w B ut i t w as o nly t he d iscovery o f t he m osaic p avement o n t he s eashore c lose t o G aza t hat e stablished b eyond a ny d oubt t he e xistence o f as ynagogue a t G aza a nd p rovided e vidence f or t he s ize a nd p rosperity o f t he c ommunity i t s erved .1 64 I t m easured a pproximately 2 6 x 3 0 m . , t hus b eing a lmost s quare , a nd i n t his u nusual a mong P alestinian s ynagogues o f t he p eriod . I t w as d ivided i nto f ive h alls , aw ide c entral n ave w ith t wo n arrower a isles o n e ach s ide, b y f our r ows o f c olumns. O n t he e ast s ide w as a n a pse 3 m . d eep , u sed f or t he A rk o f t he L aw . O n t he w est s ide t here w ere p robably t hree e ntrances , l eading t o t he n ave a nd t wo i nner a isles . T here w as a n a dditional e ntrance i n t he s outh w all . T he n ave a nd a isles w ere o riginally p aved w ith m osaics , w hich w ere l ater c overed b y l arge m arble s labs , f ew o f w hich s urvive . T he m osaic d escribed a bove 1 65 i s i n t he s outhernmost a isle . A nother p reserved s ection i s i n t he c entral p anel, o n i ts w estern s ide . T his d epicts K ing D avid a s O rpheus p laying h is l yre t o a n umber o f a nimals . T he H ebrew i nscription I 'll m akes t his i dentification c ertain .1 66 O ther f inds i n t he s ynagogue i nclude f ragments o f f our m arble c hancel s creens , t wo o f which a re s imilar i n d esign t o t he f ine m edallions i n t he m osaic p avement , a nd t wo l arge m arble b asins, o ne b earing a d edicatory i nscription i n G reek .1 67 T he c ompletion o f t he b uilding o f t he s ynagogue i s d ated b y t he m osaic i nscription t o 5 08/9 A D .1 68 I t s hould b e n oted t hat t he s ynagogue w as b uilt o ver t he r uins o f p rivate h ouses , o r i ndustrial b uildings . I t d id n ot r eplace a n e arlier s ynagogue . T his may i ndicate t hat t he J ewish c ommunity o f Maioumas was b ecoming m ore p rosperous a nd p ossibly a lso i ncreasing i n s ize i n t he l ate f ifth c entury . C ertainly , t he s cale o f t he b uilding a nd i ts e laborate d ecoration i ndicate a c ommunity o f s ome w ealth . P ottery l amps f ound i n t he s ynagogue a re o f t ypes d ated t o t he l ate s ixth a nd e arly s eventh c enturies, c ontinuing i nto t he e arly A rab p eriod . I t a ppears ,

t herefore ,

t hat t he s ynagogue w as p robably d estroyed s hortly a fter

t he M oslem c onquest. T his

s ynagogue

e stablishes

t he p resence

o f a J ewish c ommunity i n t he

p ort t own M aioumas, t he m embers o f w hich p resumably w ere e ngaged i n t rade , l ike t he w ood m erchants, M enachem a nd Y eshua , w ho d onated t he m osaics t o t he s ynagogue . B ut t here i s s till n o e vidence t hat J ews a ctually s ettled i n t he c ity o f G aza i tself. T here w as a lso a S amaritan c ommunity i n G aza . I t i s s uggested t hat t he S amaritans b egan t o s ettle i n t he l arge p aean c ities i n t he p eriod f ollowing t he c rushing o f t he B ar K okhbah r evolt,

I 69

a nd i t i s p ossible t hat t hey

r eached G aza a t t his t ime , b ut t he f irst e vidence f or t heir p resence t here c omes f rom t he f ourth c entury A D . F rom t hen o n G aza i s o ccasionally m entioned

b y

S amaritan

c hroniclers .1 7°

T he

h istorian A bu 'l

F ath

r eports

t hat i n 6 34 t he S amaritans o f M aioumas, l ike t hose o f t he o ther c oastal t owns , f led t o t he e ast , p erhaps t o D amascus , t o e scape t he i nvading A rabs, h aving d eposited t heir p roperty w ith t he H igh P riest , a nd n ever r eturned . ( In f act, h owever , t he S amaritan c ommunity o f G aza c ontinued t o t hrive u nder

1 01

M oslem r ule).

1 71

F urther e vidence f or S amaritan , a nd J ewish , c ommunities i n v illages a round G aza i s t o b e f ound i n a S yriac c hronicle f or t he y ear 6 34 , w hich r eports a b attle b etween t he B yzantines a nd M oslems , i n w hich f our t housand p oor v illagers, C hristians, J ews a nd S amaritans, w ere k illed .1 72 T he p hraseology s uggests t hat t hese w ere l ocal p eople , a ttempting t o d efend t heir o wn l ands a nd p roperty , r ather t han p rofessional s oldiers. Y et o ther e lements i n t he m ixed p opulation o f G aza w ere t he c ommunities o f f oreign m erchants r esident i n M aioumas . M arcus D iaconus s peaks o f E gyptian w ine m erchants t here ,1 73 a nd a l arge g roup o f A ra49 f rom M ecca s ettled i n G aza s everal y ears b efore t he M oslem c onquest . 1 "4 N o d oubt t here w ere o ther s imilar g roups o f w hich w e h ave n o t race .

1 02

N OTES T O C HAPTER 4 : 1 .

F or e vidence f or t he a ntiquity o f t he s pice t rade , s ee M . R aschke , New S tudies i n R oman C ommerce w ith t he E ast ' , A NRW I X , 6 55 a nd UM6 1 113 , 1 114 . S ee a lso I ntroduction , p . 3a bove , n n . 2 6, 2 7 a nd t he w orks c ited t here .

2 .

A rrian , A nab .Alex . I I, 2 5,2 ; C urtius, H ist.Alex .Magn . I V , 6 ,7f.

3 .

P lut ., V it .Alex . 2 5 , 4 . P liny 's v ersion o f t he s tory 1 4(32) 6 2) d oes n ot m ention G aza, s aying m erely :

( N .H . X II ,

a t i lle A rabiam p otitus t ure o nustam n avem m isit.... 4 .

D iod . X IX , 9 4 , 1- 1 00, 4 .

5 .

D iod . X IX , 1 00 , 1 -2 . 1 0. c f. I I , 4 8 , 1 -9 .

6 .

D iod . X IX , 9 4 , 5 .

7 .

A gatharchides, d e M ari E rythraeo ( Müller , G eog.Graec.Min . I , 1 76179):

T he d escription o f t he N abataeans : X IX ,

9 4 ,

2 -

T b S t x poaxeC i levov e mpoTlptov T i% v laou x erTat x aT& maougevny n t wav T i% f l aX

itV t )V Ct c

' Apag I UK

a t T bv

y i kp T aeTny T oy T C X t f i lavov x at

T 'a Ua y opTCa t & r t pt s ebührav e t v / IxovTa x ale iyouaLv, 4 4 X dy cK,

b x T i% a vw Xcyogiv r K ' Apa gcK o t

IC

r epparok x at M tvyarot.

M üller d ates A gatharchides t o c . 17-108 B C . F or t he e arly h istory o f t he N abataeans a nd t heir r elations w ith G aza , s ee a lso : J . S tarcky , ' P etra e t l a N abatene% D ict . d e l a B ible , S uppl . V II , c oll . 9 00-906 ; U . R appaport , I EJ 2 0 ( 1970) , 7 6 ; S chürer' I , 5 76-577 ; P GN egev , ' The N abataeans a nd t he P rovincia A rabia ' , A NRW X III , 5 20-531 ; R aschke , 6 60 , n . 1 254 ; G .W . B owersock , J RS 6 1 ( 1971) , 3 21-232 ; i dem , R oman A rabia, 1 2-75 . 8 .

P .Col .Zen .,

2 ;

R appaport,

7 6-77;

S chürer'

I I,

1 00 ; K asher , J erus .

C ath . 2 , 6 9-70 . 9 . 1 0.

B MCPal., l xxxiiilxxxiv , 1 76181; R appaport, 7 6-77. D iod . I II , 4 3, 5 ; S trabo , X VI, 4 .18 ( 777) ; B owersock , R oman A rabia , 2 0-21.

1 0a .

S trabo, X VI, 4 , 2 2 ( 780);

1.

B MCPal ., l xixlxx , 1 43144.

1 2.

R appaport,

7 8-79 .

S ee

R appaport, 7 7-78.

B owersock ,

R oman A rabia ,

i mportance o f N abataea i n t he l ate s econd c entury .

1 03

2 2,

o n

t he

1 3.

J os. A nt. X III ,

1 4 .

J os . A nt . X III , 1 3 , 3 ( 360) . S tarcky , c oll . 9 05-906 , r eports b ronze c oins f ound a t G aza a nd a ttributed t o A retas I I . S ee a lso B owersock , R oman A rabia , 2 2-23 . F or t his d ate a nd o n t he e xpedition i n g eneral, s ee S . J ameson ,

1 5.

1 3,3 ( 358); B .J. I , 4 , 2( 87).

' Chronology o f t he C ampaigns o f A elius G allus a nd C . 5 8 ( 1968), 7 1-84 .

P etronius ' ,

J RS

1 6.

S trabo , X VI, 4 ,24 ( 781).

1 7.

O n t he N egev r oads , t here .

1 8 .

A bel, R B 4 9 ,

1 9 .

J os. A nt. X III, 1 5 ,4 ( 395).

2 0 .

T he s ources o n R hinocolura a re c ontradictory . S trabo p laces i t i n P hoenicia, w hich h e e xtends a s f ar a s P elusium ( XVI, 2 ,21 ( 756)) ; l oc .cit . n . 1 6 a bove . P omponius M ela p laces o ne b order o f A rabia a t P elusium ( I , 6 0) . H e d oes n ot i dentify t he o ther , b ut r efers t o G aza a s i n P alestine ( I , 6 4) . S o i t s eems t hat h e w ould h ave c onsidered R hinocolura , w hich h e d oes n ot m ention , t o b e A rabia . P liny , h owever , i ncludes i t i n I dumaea a nd J udaea , s tating t hat t he b orders o f A rabia w ere a t P elusium ( N .H . V , 1 ( 12)65) a nd O stracine ( ibid . 1 2 ( 13 )68) . O n t he o ther h and, P tolemy p laces i t i n E gypt, r ather t han i n t he P rovincia A rabia ( IV , 5 ,7) , w hich d oes a t l east s how t hat i t h ad b een p art o f E gypt b efore t he a nnexation o f N abataean A rabia i n 1 06 . N egev b elieves t hat R hinocolura w as u nder N abataean c ontrol i n b oth t he H ellenistic a nd h is M iddle a nd L ater N abataean p eriods , i .e . u ntil t he R oman a nnexation ( ANRW V III , 5 68 ; 5 34 , F ig . 1 ; 5 58 , F ig . 3 ( maps s howing t he e xtent o f t he N abataean k ingdom) . ) T here i s , h owever , n o e vidence t hat t he N abataeans e ver c ontrolled t he t own .

2 1.

P eriplus M an s E rythraei 1 9 ( Müller , 8 8 b elow .

2 2.

H ostile r elations b etween H erod a nd t he N abataeans : 4 0 B C M alichus I r efuses H erod s anctuary ( Jos . A nt . X IV , 1 4 , 1 -2 ( 370-375) ; B .J . I , 1 4 , 1 -2 , ( 274-278) ) ; 3 2-31 B C , w ar b etween H erod a nd t he N abataeans ( Jos . A nt . X V , 5 , 1 -5 ( 108-160) ; B .J . I , 1 9 , 1 -6 ( 167-175) ; c . 1 0-9 B C , s econd w ar b etween H erod a nd t he N abataeans ( Jos . A nt . X VI, 9 , 1 -4 ( 271-299)).

2 3 .

O n C aesarea s ee: J os . A nt . X V , 9 , 6( 331-341) ; B .J . I , 2 1, 5 -8 ( 4084 15).

2 4.

A . S challt, H ordus H amelekh-Ha 'ish u fo 'olo , 1 73 . S challt s uggests , w ithout o ffering a ny e vidence , t hat H erod r ebuilt t he p ort o f G aza , K asher , J erusalem C athedra 2 , 7 3 , s uggests t hat H erod r ebuilt A nthedon ( Jos . A nt . X III, 1 3,3 ( 357) ; B .J . I , 4 ,2 ( 87) ; I , 2 1,8 ( 416)) a s a

s ee C h .

1 , p p .

2 6-30 a bove ,

a nd t he w orks c ited

( 1940), 2 28 .

G eog .Graec .Min .

I ,

2 72) .

S ee p .

c ounterbalance t o G aza , a gain w ithout o ffering e vidence . 2 5 .

S trabo X VI , 4 ,22 ( 780) . F or t he c lose r elationship b etween A elius G allus a nd S trabo , s ee G .W . B owersock , A ugustus a nd t he G reek W orld ( Oxford 1 965), 1 28129 .

1 04

2 6.

E . H onigmann , R E s .v . S trabon , c oll . 8 3-85.

2 7.

P .E .

B runt,

J RS

5 3

( 1963),

1 70-176,

r eviewing

H .D .

M eyer ,

D ie

A ussenpolitik d es A ugustus u nd d ie A ugusteische D ichtung ( Cologne 1 961). 2 8 .

S trabo X VI , 4 ,22 ( 780) . B owersock , J RS 6 1 ( 1971) , 2 27 ; R oman A rabia , 4 6-47 . J ameson , J RS 5 8 ( 1968) , 7 9-82 , a nd R aschke , 6 47 , nn. 9 02 , 9 03 , m inimize c ommercial f actors a s am otive f or t he e xpedition , b ut S trabo 's t estimony i s q uite c lear . S ee a lso e .g . E .H . W armington , T he C ommerce b etween t he R oman E mpire a nd I ndia , 1 417 ; J .I . M iller , T he S pice T rade o f t he R oman E mpire , 1 315 , 1 43 , 1 94 , 2 16-218 , 2 242 25.

2 9.

S trabo X VII, 1 , 5 4 ( 820); J ameson , 7 4-76, 8 0-81.

3 0.

S trabo X VII, 2 , 1 -3 ( 821-823).

3 1.

S trabo X VII, 1 ,13 ( 798).

3 2.

T his e vidence i s c ollected b y W armington , 1 4, n n . 2 4-28 .

3 3.

J os . A nt . X IV , 5 ,1 ( 80-81) ; S tarcky , o p .cit . ,n . 7a bove, c oll . 9 099 11 ; S chürer' I , 5 79 .

3 4 .

P erip .Mar .Eryth .

1 9 .

T his

w ork

i s

g enerally d ated

t o A D 4 0-70

( the

r eign o f t he N abataean k ing M alichus I I) . S ee S .J . d e L aet, P ortorium , 3 66-370 ; R aschke , 6 63-664 , r m . 1 3421354 . O n t he o ther h and , B owersock , R oman A rabia 7 0-71, a rgues t hat t he c enturion a t L euke K ome w as a N abataean , n ot a R oman o fficer , c iting t he a ppearance o f t he t erm q ptryn ' i n N abataean i nscriptions. 3 5.

. 36 .

L . C asson , ' R ome 's T rade w ith t he E ast : t he S ea V oyages t o A frica a nd T APA 10 ( 1980) , 2 1-36 , e sp . 2 4, 2 8 , 3 0 ; R aschke, n n . 9 66 , 9 74 , 9 75. P liny , N H X II , 1 4 ( 32), 6 3-65.

S ee p p. 9 0-91 b elow .

3 7.

T hese n umbers a re v ery c orrupt r eliable .

3 8.

N H X II, 1 4(31), 5 6 .

3 9.

S ee B owersock , J RS 6 1 ( 1971), 2 27; R oman A rabia, 5 7-58 .

4 0.

J os. A nt. X VII , 9 , 1 -11, 5 ( 206-323); S chürer' I I , 3 30-335 .

4 1.

S ee p . 9 1 b elow .

4 2.

M ela I , 6 1.

i n t he M SS a nd c annot b e c onsidered

M ela 's w ork .i s d ated t o A D 4 0/41 b y C . F rick i n t he

p raefatio t o h is e dition o f t he d e C horographia. 4 3 .

F . G isinger , R E S uppl . I V , c ol . 6 74 ; M . S tern , A uthors o n J ews a nd J udaism I ( Jerusalem 1 974), 3 70 .

4 4.

P liny N H V I, 2 8(32), -1 60161.

1 05

G reek a nd L atin

4 5.

e .g. V I, 2 7(31), 1 41; X II 1 4(31), 5 6; X XXII,

1 (4), 1 0.

4 6.

V I, 2 8(32) , 1 61. O n S aba , s ee a lso S trabo X VI , 4 ,2 ( 768) , w hich n ames t he S abaean c apital a s M ariaba ( the m odern M arib ) ; X VI , 4 ,19 ( 778) . F or a d etailed e xamination o f a ll t he s ources , s ee T kad , R E s .v . S aba , c oll . 1 298-1515 . S ee a lso , J . P irenne, L e R oyaume S udA rabe d e a taban e t s a D atation , 1 06-117; H . v on W issmann , ' Die G eschichte d es S abäerreichs', A NRW I X , 3 96-398 .

.

4 7.

N H X II , 1 4(36), 5 2.

4 8 .

S trabo X VI, 4 ,2 ( 768) . P liny a lso r efers t o t he C hatramotitae, a pparently n ot r ealising t hat t hey a nd t he A tramitae w ere t he s ame p eople . N H V I, 2 8(32), 1 54 ; 1 61; T kad, R E s .v . S aba , c oll . 1 448_ 1 451.

4 9 .

L oc.cit. l ast n ote.

5 0.

P tol . V I , 7 ,38 .

5 1.

P erip .Mar .Eryth . 2 7 ( Müller, G eog.Graec .Min . I , 2 77).

5 2.

T kae, R E s .v . S aba, c oll. 1 330-1331; R aschke, n . 1 240 .

5 3.

N H X II, 1 4(32), 6 3-65.

5 4 .

S trabo X VI, 4 ,2 ( 768) ; P tol . V , 7 ,37 . 1 327-1338 .

5 5.

T kad ,

s .v . S aba ,

c oll .

1 456-1459 ;

S ee T kag , R E s .v . S aba , c oll .

i dem ,

R E S O4 G ebbanitae ,

c ol .

8 93 .

H ere T kad i dentifies t hem w ith t he I WOZOL o f S trabo X VI , 4 ,2 ( 768) , a rguing a gainst t he a lternative M S r eading rCppar0i . , a nd w ith t he G aba 'an o f A rabian i nscriptions . S ee a lso T kag , R E s .v . G abaioi, c oll. 4 11-414. 5 6.

L oc .cit. n . 3 6 a bove .

5 7.

R aschke, n . 1 224.

5 8 .

M eshel a bove .

5 9 .

P erip .Mar .Eryth . 1 9 .

6 0 .

D e L aet, 3 06-311, 3 31-339 .

6 1.

P liny , N H X II, 1 516 ( 33-35), 6 6-71; S trabo X VI, 4 ,9 ( 778).

6 2.

P liny ,

& T safrir ,

N H X II ,

P EQ

1 9 (42) ,

1 07

8 5-88 .

( 1975) ,

8 -14 .

S trabo X VI ,

S ee a lso C h .

4 ,25

( 782) ;

R aschke ,

6 55, a nd n otes, e sp . n n . 116, 128 . 6 3.

N H X II, 1 3(29), 5 0 .

6 4.

N H X II,

6 5.

S trabo, l oc.cit. n . 6 2 a bove ; P liny , N H X II ,

1 7(37), 7 3-75.

1 06

1 , p . 2 9

1 0(26) 4 2-46.

6 52-

6 6.

O n b alsam , s ee e .g . D iod . X II , 2 5(54) , 11124 .

I I ,

4 8 ,9 ;

S trabo X VI ,

2 ,41

( 763) ;

P liny ,

N H

6 7.

N H V I, 2 8(32), 1 44 .

6 8 .

S trabo X VI, 4 ,21 ( 779).

6 9.

L oc.cit. n . 5 9 a bove.

7 0 .

P liny 's s tatement t hat t he r oad f rom S yria t o P almyra p assed t hrough P etra i s s trange . A lthough h e d efines a s S yria t he e ntire a rea b etween S inai a nd t he E uphrates ( NH V I , 1 2(13) , 6 6-67) , i t i s h ard t o i magine f rom w hat p art o f t his r egion i t w ould b e n ecessary o r c onvenient t o t ravel t o P almyra b y w ay o f P etra . P ossibly t he t ext i s c orrupt . I t a ppears t hat s ome o f t he M SS a nd e arly e ditors r ead : e orum q ui S yriae P almyram p etere . P etere c annot b e r ight a nd, a lthough S yriae P almyram m akes s ome s ort o f s ense ( "Palmyra o f S yria" ) , i t i s a wkward L atin a nd s ounds l ike a n a ttempt a t e mendation . O ne a lternative e mendation , s uggested b y P rof . J . G lucker , i s : e orum q ui e x S yria P almyraque P etram p etiere , w hich i s g ood s ense a nd g ood L atin , a nd h as t he a dvantage o f s uggesting a r eason f or t he c orruption i n t he h omoeoarcton b etween P etram a nd p etiere . P rof . B . I saac t entatively s uggests f urther : e x S yra P almyraque ,r eferring t o t he c ity o n t he E uphrates w hich i s k nown t o h ave h ad t rading l inks w ith P almyra . ( The r oad b etween t he t wo c ities w as p aved u nder V espasian a nd a m ilestone d ated A D 7 5 i s e xtant . S ee H . S eyrig, S yria 1 3(1932) , 2 66ff ; A E 1 933, n o . 2 05; B owersock , J RS 6 3 ( 1973), 1 33 , 1 35) . B ut s ince t he n ame P etra a ppears o n b oth t he p receding a nd t he f ollowing s entences , i t w ould b e r ather a wkward s tylistically f or i t t o b e r epeated h ere a s w ell .

7 1.

N H V I, 2 8(32), 1 45-146 .

7 2.

W armington , 3 0-31; R aschke, 6 43-655, n . 7 81.

7 3.

A gatharchides 8 7 ( Müller, G eoz .Graec .Min . I , 1 76-177) . S trabo X VI 3 ,3(766); S ee a lso T kae, R E s .v . G errha, c oll. 1 2701272 a nd r efs.

7 4.

S ee C h .

7 5.

S trabo X VI, 2 ,30 ( 759); 4 ,4 ( 768).

7 6.

P liny , N H V ,

7 7.

S ee p . 8 5 a nd n . 3 5 a bove.

7 8.

S trabo X VI, 4 ,23 ( 781).

7 9.

A haroni , L and o f t he B ible , 5 4-57 ; B owersock , J RS 6 1 ( 1971) , 2 32 , 2 38-

1 , p . 2 8 a bove.

1(12), 6 5 .

2 39 ; R aman A rabia, 8 3 a nd t he m ap p . 9 3 . 8 0 .

E useb . O nomasticon e d . K lostermann , 8 ,1; N otit.Dign . e d. S eeck , 7 3,30.

8 1. .

S ee C h .

8 2.

B owersock , J RS 6 1 ( 1971), 2 28 ; R oman A rabia, 6 4-65.

1 , p p . 2 9-30 a bove.

1 07

8 3.

R . C ohen , ' New L ight o n t he P etra-Gaza R oad ' , B iblical A rcheologist 4 5 ( 1982), 2 40-247, e sp . 2 44.

8 4.

B owersock , J RS 6 1 n evertheless

( 1971) ,

g ranted

2 34 ; R oman A rabia , 8 4 , 9 1 .

t he h onorific

t itle m etropolis

N ote t hat T rajan t o P etra

( Roman

A rabia, 8 4-86). 8 5.

P .C .

H ammond,

T he E xcavations o f t he M ain T heatre a t P etra 1 9611962

( London 1 965) , 1 3-15 ; i dem , ' New E vidence f or t he F ourth C entury A D D estruction o f P etra ', B ASOR 2 38 ( 1980) , 6 5-67; K .W . R ussell, i bid . 4 7-64. 8 6.

I . B rowning, P etra ( New J ersey 1 973), 5 9.

8 7.

R aschke, 6 78, n n .

8 8.

M . H aupt, ' Excerpta e x T imotheo G azaeo ' , H ermes 3 ( 1869), 1 5 .

1 726-1736a. S ee

a lso F .S . B odenheimer & A . R abinowitz , T imotheus o f G aza o n A nimals , 3 1 . T he c hronicler M arcellinus r ecorded t he a rrival o f t hese a nimals i n C onstantinople i n 4 96 ( Haupt, 2 ). 8 9.

M eyer, 7 4; P . M ayerson , T APA 9 5 ( 1964), 1 69-171.

9 0.

P . Mayerson , ' The A ncient A gricultural R egime o f N essana i n t he C entral N egeb ', E xcavations a t N essana I , 2 11-269, e sp . 2 31-249 o n w ater c onservation a nd i rrigation .

9 1.

G . Mazor, ' Gatot b a-Negev ', Q admoniot 5 3/54 ( 1981), 5 1-60 . F or f urther l iterary a nd a rchaeological e vidence f or G aza 's w ine t rade , s ee P . Mayerson ,

' The W ine a nd V ineyards o f G aza i n t he B yzantine

p eriod', B ASOR 2 57 ( 1985), 7 5-80. 9 2.

T ot .Orb .Descr . t his w ork ,

2 9A ( Müller ,

G eog .Graec .Min . I I ,

s ee M üller 's p rolegomena ,

5 18 .

F or

t he d ate o f

I , p .L .

9 3.

J erome, V H 2 5, 2 6, 2 7.

9 4.

M arc. D iac. 5 8.

9 5.

S id.Apoll., C armina 1 7,

9 6.

M ag.Aur.Cass., V ariorum X II, e pist. 1 2 ( PL 6 9).

9 7.

F l .Caesc .Coripp .,

1 5-16.

I n L audem I ustini I II ,

8 7-88 ( Corp .Script .Hist .Byz .

X VIII). 9 8. 9 8a.

G reg. T urens., H ist.Francorum V II, 2 9 ( PL 7 1). V enant.Fortun .,

V ita S .Martini

G ermaniae H istorica 9 9. 9 9a. 1 00.

I I,

8 0-83,

e d .

F .

L eo

( Monumenta

4 a ) .

I sidorus, E tymologiarum X X , 3 ,7. M ayerson, o p.cit. n . 9 1 a bove, 7 9-80. J .A . R iley , ' T h e Pottery from t he F irst S eason o f E xcavations C aesarea H ippodrome ' , B ASOR 2 18 ( 1975) , 2 5-63 , e sp . 2 7-31 .

1 08

i n t he

1 01.

F or r eferences, s ee R iley , 9.cit. l ast n ote.

1 02.

S teph .Byz., E thnika e d. M eineke , 1 93194.

1 03.

P Colt 8 5, 3 , 4 , 7 ; E xcavations a t N essana I II, 2 46-247.

1 04.

R iley , c atalog n os . 1 2, 1 3, 1 4 . S ee a lso D an , T he C ity , 1 84-185 . D an m entions E gyptian p apyri r eferring t o i mports o f w ine , p ickled f ish a nd p ottery j ars f rom G aza a nd A scalon .

1 05 .

M ayerson ,

N essana

I ,

2 27-231 .

F or w heat,

a pparently t he m ost

i mportant c rop , s ee P Colt 4 0 , 6 0-67 , 6 9 , 8 0-83 ; b arley : P Colt 8 1 , 8 2 ; v ineyards : P Colt 1 6 , 3 1, 3 4 , 9 7 ; o lives : P Colt 6 0-67 ; f igs : P Colt 3 2 ; d ates : P Colt 9 0 , 9 1 . M ayerson , N essana I , 2 49-257 , a rgues t hat t he a rchaeological e vidence a lso p oints t o t he e xistence o f e xtensive v ineyards a round N essana . 1 06 .

P Colt 6 0-67 . S ee t he i ntroduction t o t hese 1 75179), a nd M ayerson ( Nessana I , 2 27-229).

e ntagia

( Nessana

I II ,

1 07.

P Colt 9 0-91; N essana I II, 2 61-271.

1 08 .

N essana I II , 2 63 .

1 09 .

N essana I II , 2 68-270 .

10 .

N essana 7 11, 2 62 ; M ayerson , N essana I , 2 57, n .* .

11.

P Colt 8 9 ( Nessana I II , 2 51-260) r ecords t he e mployment o f c amels b y a d ifferent t rading c ompany o perating f rom N essana . I t g ives a n a ccount o f aj ourney t o M t . S inai , w here t he u se o f c amels w as c learly n ecessary , b ut t here i s n o r eason w hy t hey s hould n ot a lso h ave b een u sed o n t he s horter t rip t o G aza . M ayerson ( Nessana I , 2 25 ) a rgues t hat t he s tationing o f a c amel c orps a t N essana ( PColt 3 5 , 3 7) s uggests t hat c amels w ere b red i n t he d istrict a nd w ould a lso h ave b een u sed i n a gricultural o perations.

12 .

P Colt 8 7.

13.

N essana I , 6 6-69 .

14.

S ee p . 9 3 a bove . I t i s b een r eported a t N essana .

p erhaps c urious t hat n o w ine-presses h ave I s t his b ecause t hey d id n ot h appen t o b e

d iscovered d uring t he e xcavations , o r w as w ine-making n ot, i n f act , s o i mportant t o t he t own a s M ayerson t hought? 14a. G aza w as a n i mportant c entre o f a gricultural a ctivity . I n ap rivate c ommunication P rof . S . A pplebaum w rites : " I r ecently b egan t o s tudy v illa d istribution , a nd h ave l ooked u p t he G aza c ity-territory . T here a re 3 4 s ites s uspected o f b eing v illas ( i .e . c entres o f a gricultural e states) w ithin t he t erritory ; t hree o f t hese , d efinitely v illas, h ave b een d iscovered f airly r ecently" . 15 .

A . O vadiah , ' Excavations i n t he A rea o f t he A ncient S ynagogue a t G aza ' , I EJ 1 9 ( 1969) ,- 1 93-198 , e sp . 1 97198 .

1 09

16.

A ppendix n o. 3 9.

17.

M . B arasch , T he D avid Mosaic o f G aza , 7 2 . D an , T he C ity , 1 90-191, s uggests t hat t he t imber m ay h ave b een i mported f rom t he L ebanon o r C yprus.

18 .

O vadiah ,

o p .cit . 1 6 15 a bove ,

1 95 ;

i dem ,

' Les m osaistes d e G aza d ans

l 'Antiquitg C r6tienne% R B 8 2 ( 1975) , 5 52-557; M . A vi-Yonah , E cole d e M osaique ä G aza a u s ix iA l le s iècle ' , A rt i n A ncient P alestine , 3 77-383. 1 19.

C horic .

L aud .Marc .

c ompared

w ith

d epicted a s

t hat

I ,

3 2-33 ( 10 ,

a t

2 4-11,

M aioumas

g rowing o ut

1 3) .

t he v ine

I n m any o f t he m osaics

f orming

o f a n a mphora a t

t he

t he b ottom

m edallions

i s

o f t he d esign .

T his p art o f t he M aioumas m osaic i s m issing . S ee O vadiah, R B 8 2 ( 1975) , p lates X XXIX , X Lb ; A vi-Yonah , A rt i n A ncient P alestine , p lates 5 7 , 5 , 6 ; 5 8 . F or t he b est p hotographs o f t he M aioumas m osaic , s ee E AEHL I I, 1 43-145. 1 20.

M . A vi-Yonah , ' The E conomics o f B yzantine P alestine ' , I EJ 8 ( 1958) , 3 9-51; E .D . H unt, H oly L and P ilgrimage i n t he L ate R oman E mpire , 1 28 , 1 54.

1 21.

S ee M arc . D iac . 1 7 , 5 -13 o n t he h ostile r eception g iven b y t he p agan p opulation o f G aza a nd t he s urrounding v illages t o t he n ew b ishop .

1 22.

P aula

s et

o ut

o n h er

j ourney i n A D 3 85

t ook p lace b etween t he y ears E geria's T ravels, 2 37-239. 1 23.

J erome, E pist. C VIII,

1 24.

I bid. 1 4.

1 25.

I ter E geriae , 2 9 , 9 9.

1 26.

I ter E geriae I X , 6 .

1 27.

M arc. D iac. 5 3, 6 -8 ; 9 3,

1 28.

M arc. D iac. 9 2,

1 29.

T he d eath o f S amson : J udges 1 6 ,

3 81

( Hunt ,

a nd

7 6) .

3 84 .

E geria 's v isit

S ee

J .

W ilkinson ,

1.

e d . O . P rinz ,

V ,

1;

V I ,

1 , 3 ,

4 ;

I X ,

7 ; W ilkinson ,

2 8-

1 17.

1 -18. 2 1-31; P hilip a nd t he E thiopian : A cts

8 , 2 6-40; P aula m editates o n t his s tory : J erome, E pist . C VIII, 1 1. S ee a lso A nton .Placent . 3 2 ( ed . G eyer , C CSL 1 75, 1 45) ; T heodosius, d e S itu T errae S anctae 5 ( ibid . , 17) ; H odoeporicon S . W illibaldi X XIV ( Itinera H ierosolymitana e d. T obler, 2 67); A vi-Yonah, M M 6 7, P l. 8 . 1 30.

M arc. D iac. 2 0,

1 31.

M M , 7 4, P l. 9 .

1 32.

A ntoninus

o f

1 4-17.

P lacentia

was

t raditonally a ttributed t o h im ,

n ot

t he

b ut

i t i s

a uthor

o f

c onvenient

t he t o

n arrative r etain t his

n ame . S ee P . M ayerson , ' The D esert o f S outhern P alestine a ccording t o t he B yzantine S ources ' , P roceedings o f t he American P hilosphical

10

S ociety 1 07

( 1963) ,

1 60-172 ,

e sp .

1 60 ,

r 6 1 .

1 33 .

A nt.Plac . 3 3 ; J erome, V I 4 6 ; S ozomen , H E I II , 1 4 .

1 34 .

A nt.Plac. 3 4-36 ; M äyerson , i bid ., 1 69-172.

1 35.

A nt.Plac . 3 6, 3 9 ; M äyerson , i bid ., 1 64166.

1 36 .

S ee C h . 2 , p . 5 4 a bove .

1 37.

A nt.Plac . 3 3 .

1 38 .

C horic . L aud.Marc . I , 8 9 ( 25, 2 -4).

1 39 .

A rrian , A nab .Alex . I I, 2 7, 7 .

1 40 .

P seudo-Scylax 1 04 (W iller, G eog.Graec.Min . I , 7 9); K asher, J erusalem C athedra 2 , 6 4 ; A haroni , L and o f t he B ible , 4 15-416 .

1 41.

A rrian , A nab .Alex . I I, 2 5, 4 .

1 42.

K asher, l oc.cit. n o .

1 43.

J erome, V H , 2 2 .

1 44.

I bid., 2 .

1 45.

O n H ilarion 's r elative l ack o f s uccess i n w ining c onverts, s ee Z . R ubin , ' Christianity i n B yzantine P alestine - M issionary A ctivity a nd R eligious C oercion ', J erusalem C athedra 3 , 9 7-113, e sp . 1 03105.

1 46.

1 40 a bove ; A haroni, o p. c it., 4 14-415.

M arc . D iac. 6 6-68 .

1 47.

S ee C h . 2 , p p . 4 9-50 a bove, f or my a rgument t hat M arcus ' n arrative s uggests t hat t he A ramaic-speaking p eople o f G aza w ere m ore a ttracted t o C hristianity t han t he H ellenized u pper c lass .

1 48.

C hronicon P aschale ( ed. D indorf) I , 4 74 .

1 49 .

T osefta N egaim , c h .6 b eginning ( ed . Z uckermandel ,

1 50.

T he T osefta , t ranslated b y J . N eusner, T ohorot ( New Y ork 1 977), 1 56 .

1 51.

S ee L evit.

1 52.

j . A bodah Z arah 1 , 4 ; b . A bodah Z arah 1, b ; 1 2, a .

1 53.

P rof . S . A pplebaum i nforms m e p rivately : " We k now t hat c ustoms w ere u sually r emitted o n f air d ays ( cf . C IL V III, 4 508, f or

6 25 ,

l ines 4 -6) .

1 4, 3 4 .

N umidia/Afrcia)" . T his e xemption , h owever, l ivestock : p ecora i n n undinium i mmunia ( line 1).

a pplied

o nly

t o

1 54.

Y . S chwartz, i n E retz I srael M ehorban B ait S heni v 'ad H akibbush H amuslemi ( edd. B aras, S afrai & T safrir), 1 91192.

1 55 .

j . S heviit 6 ,1.

11

1 56.

j . B ikkurim , 3 3.

1 57.

A n ineteenth c entury c ommentator o n t he T osefta , h is c ommentary t he p assage o f i s n ot s ubject L and o f I srael o f J oshua '.

R . D avid P ardo ,

i n

niln moln ( Jerusalem 1 971) , I I , 5 5 , c omments o n T osefta N egaim ( n . 1 50 a bove) t hat ' a lthough yve 7 y in t o h ouse p ollution , n evertheless G aza w as p art o f t he i n t he f irst c onquest , a s t he B ible s hows i n t he B ook

1 58 .

A mbrosius, E pistle X L ( 66) ( PL 1 6, c ol. 154).

1 59.

A vi-Yonah, H oly L and , 2 16 ; S chwarz, l oc.cit. n . 1 54 a bove .

1 60 .

S ozomen , H E V , 9 .

1 61.

L eontius N eapolitanus, V it .S .Iohann .Eleemosyn . ( AA .SS . 2 3 I an . I II, 1 21).

1 62 .

A RP 3 89-396 .

1 63 .

E . S ukenik , T he A ncient S ynagogue o f E l-Hammeh , 6 2 ; O vadiah , E AEHL I I , 4 11 ( photograph); 4 16-417.

1 64.

T he d escription o f t he s ynagogue i s t aken f rom O vadiah , E AEHL I I , 4 12 ; I EJ 1 9 ( 1969), 1 95196.

1 65.

p . 9 6 a bove.

1 66.

S ee M . B arasch , T he D avid M osaic o f G aza f or a d etailed a nalysis o f t his m osaic f rom t he s tylistic p oint o f v iew .

1 67.

A ppendix , n o. 4 0 .

1 68.

A ppendix , n o. 3 9 .

1 69.

Z . S afrai, E retz I srael M ehorban B ait s heni V 'ad H akibbush h amuslemi ( edd . Z . B aras, S . S afrai & Y . T safrir), 2 57-258 .

1 70.

Y . B en-Zvi, S efer H a-Shomronim , 1 20121.

1 71.

B en-Zvi l oc .cit . l ast n ote : J .A . M ontgomery , T he S amaritans ,

1 72.

C hronicum M iscelleneum a d a nn .p . C hr .724 p ertinens ( ed . E . B rooks , C hronica M inora, C SCO ( SS) 3 , 4 ), 1 47ff; B en-Zvi, l oc .cit . n . 1 70 a bove ; S . K lein , S efer H a-Yishuv , 14.

1 73.

M arc . D iac. 5 8 .

1 74 .

S ee p . 5 7 a bove .

12

1 27 .

C ONCLUSION . T he p icture o f G aza t hat e merges i s o f a c ity t hat o wed i ts w ealth a nd i mportance p rimarily t o i ts g eographical p osition . T he f ertility a nd p lentiful w ater o f i ts s ite a nd i ts p osition a s t he g ateway t o t he d esert g ave i t a c rucial s trategic r ole . I n u nsettled t imes G aza w as, t herefore , c ontinually

l iable

t o

c onquest ,

a nd

c hanged

h ands

m any

t imes

b efore

t he

R omans g ave i t s even h undred y ears o f s tability . A t t he s ame t ime, c onsidered a s a c ity o f P alestine , G aza w as o n t he p eriphery , f ar r emoved f rom t he c entral r egions w here t rouble u sually s tarted . I t w as t hus l ittle a ffected b y t he J ewish a nd S amaritan r evolts a nd t he o ther d isturbances t hat t roubled t he p rovince f rom t ime t o t ime . Y et a nother a dvantage p ossessed b y G aza w as i ts o pen a nd s hoal-free c oast , p ermitting t he s afe m ooring o f s hips a nd e nabling t he d evelopment o f s ea t rade . I t w as b ecause t he c ity h ad a p ort a nd w as t he c losest a nd m ost e asily a ccessible o ne f rom P etra a nd A ila t hat t he N abataeans b rought t heir c aravans t here a nd i t b ecame r ich .

B ut G aza w as c learly n ot d ependent o nly

o n t he s pice t rade: w hen i t d eclined i n t he s econd a nd t hird c enturies, P etra d eclined w ith i t a nd w as u ltimately d eserted ; G aza , o n t he o ther h and, c ontinued t o f lourish a nd t o a chieve e ven g reater p rosperity . N o d oubt i t w as f ortunate t hat a t t his t ime s outhern P alestine a s a whole was e xperiencing a p eriod o f u nparalled p rosperity , a nd t hat i mproved i rrigation t echniques w ere l eading t o t he e xpansion o f a griculture i n a reas w here i t h ad h itherto b een i mpossible . G aza d eveloped a s ubstitute f or t he s pice t rade i n t he e xport o f h igh q uality w ine , w hich b ecame p articularly p opular i n t he W est . B ut t his c annot , o n i ts o wn , h ave b een e nough t o a ccount f or t he c ity 's e nduring p rosperity , a nd n o d oubt t rade i n o ther c ommodities c ontinued t o p lay a n i mportant p art i n i ts e conomy . T he

e vent

t hat

m ost

b itterly d isturbed

t he

p eace

o f

G aza

d uring

t he

R oman a nd B yzantine p eriods w as t he d estruction o f t he p agan t emples a nd t he f orcible i mposition o f C hristianity o n i ts r esidents . T his m ay h ave b een a n a rbitrary a nd u njust a ct, t he i mposition o f t he w ill o f a f anatical m inority u pon t he p eople a s a whole, e nforced b y o fficial s anction a nd t roops f rom e lsewhere , b ut i n t he p revailing p olitical a nd r eligious c limate o f t he t ime , i t w as c learly i nevitable s ooner o r l ater a nd, o nce t he i nitial r esentment h ad s ubsided , t he a doption o f C hristianity w as o f b enefit t o t he c ity . T he d esire t o b uild a nd d ecorate c hurches o ffered a n ew s timulus t o t he c rafts o f b uilding , s tone-carving a nd m osaic d esign a nd h elped f urther t o b eautify t he c ity . T he o pening o f G aza t o C hristian p ilgrims b rought n ew v isitors a nd n ew r evenues t o t he t own . E ven t he r hetorical s chool o wed i ts s uccess a t l east i n p art t o t he f act t hat i ts t eachers a nd t he c ity i n w hich i t w as s ituated w ere C hristian : s tudents c ame t o G aza r ather t han t o A thens n ot b ecause t he G reek t aught t here w as p urer , b ut b ecause i t w as t aught b y m en w hose f aith w as n ot i n d oubt , w ho c ould b e t rusted n ot t o i nfect t heir p upils w ith e nthusiasm f or p agan b eliefs a long w ith p agan l iterature . W ithout C hristianity , B yzantine G aza d ifferent c ity , a nd a f ar l ess s uccessful o ne. G aza u nder t he R oman E mpire w as , w ith i ts

w ould

h ave

b een a v ery

t hen , ap rosperous a nd i mportant c ity ,

o wn i ndividual f eatures a nd d evelopment .

13

Y et i t w as i n n o w ay

u nusual

a mong

t he

c ities

o f

t he

e astern

p rovinces .

O ther

c ities

w ere

e qually l arge a nd w ealthy , o r e ven m ore s o ; o thers e ngaged i n t rade a nd g rew r ich f rom i t ; o thers d eveloped a s c entres o f h igher e ducation , w hether i n r hetoric , l aw , p hilosophy , o r m edicine ; m any p layed a m ore c entral p art i n t he h istory o f t he p eriod . T he s ignificance o f G aza l ies a s m uch i n w hat i n i t w as t ypical o f t he l ong-established G reek p oleis o f w hat w as i ndividual .

t he E ast ,

a s i n

I n G aza we c an s ee h ow a p olls o f t his t ype c ould g row a nd d evelop t hroughout a p eriod o f n early o ne t housand y ears, a dapting t o a c hanging p olitical e nvironment a nd e ven t o a r adical c hange i n i ts r eligious b eliefs a nd p ractices . T he G reek c ulture o f G aza m ay h ave b een a t hin v eneer , a ffecting

o nly a m inority o f i ts i nhabitants a nd a pparently d isappearing ,

o nce t he c ity w as o ccupied b y t he M oslems ,

w ith t heir d ifferent l anguage ,

r eligion a nd c ulture; b ut i t h ad t he v itality t o e ndure f or n early a m illenium , f or m ost o f i t i n t he p eace a nd s ecurity p rovided b y t he R oman g overnment , a nd t owards t he e nd o f t hat p eriod G aza a ttained a p rosperity a nd a c ultivated way o f l ife t hat i t n ever a gain a chieved, o nce G reek c ivilization a nd R oman s tability h ad f inally d isappeared .

14

A PPENDIX : T HE I NSCR IPTIONS O F G AZA T he c ity o f G aza h as n ot y ie lded a r ich h arvest o f i nscr ipt ions, c omparab le t o t hose o f s ome o ther c it ies o f t he e astern p rov inces; b ut a c ertain n umber h ave b een d iscovered, a nd s ome o f t hese a re o f i nterest f or t he l ight t hey c ast o n v ar ious a spects o f t he h istory o f t he c ity . A p rev ious c o llect ion o f t he i nscr ipt ions o f G aza w as m ade b y M .A .Meyer , i n h is H istory o f t he C ity o f G aza 1 . ,b ut s everal n ew f inds h ave b een m ade s ince h is t ime .

Is ha ll, t herefore, a ttempt t o b r ing h is c o llect ion u p t o

d ate b y t he a ddit ion o f a ll n ew m ater ial p ub lished

s ince 1 907 . Is ha ll

a lso f o llow M eyer i n i nc luding, f or t he s ake o f c omp leteness, a f ew i nscr ipt ions n ot f ound i n, o r d er iv ing f rom , G aza, i n w hich t he c ity i s m ent ioned 2 ' . 2 a.

T he i nscr ipt ions o f G aza a re a lmost e nt ire ly i n G reek . O ne ( No .35)

i s

b i lingual(Greek/Lat in) a nd t wo J ew ish i nscr ipt ions ( Nos.37,38) i nc lude a f ew w ords i n H ebrew . T he m ajor ity a re C hr ist ian e p itaphs o f t he p er iod f rom t he f ifth t o t he s eventh c entury . M ost o f t hese w ere o r ig ina lly p ub lished b y J .Germer-Durand a nd C .C lermont-Ganneau, w ho f ound t hem i n p r ivate h ouses i n G aza, o r i n c o llect ions m ade b y l oca l a nt iquar ies

3' .

T hey w ere i nformed

b y t he i nhabitants o f G aza t hat t he s tones h ad b een f ound c lose t o t he s hore, a nd i t a ppears t hat t hey m ust h ave c ome f rom a c emetery a t M aioumas, w hich p resumab ly w as p reserved b y b e ing h idden b eneath s and d unes f or s evera l c entur ies, b efore b e ing r ediscovered a nd e xp loited f or b uilding m ater ia ls. M any o f t he e pitaphs a re c arefu lly d ated t o t he d ay o f t he m onth a nd t he y ear a ccording t o t he e ra o f

G aza,and t he i nd ict ion .

I t w as i n f act t his 4 .

i nformation, t ogether w ith t hat s upp lied b y M arcus D iaconus, t hat e nab led

1 15

C ler mnt-Ganneau t o e stab lish w ith c ertainty t he e ra o f G aza t o 2 8 O ctober 6 1 B C

5 .

.

A part f rom t hese e p itaphs, t here a re a lso o ne H e llenist ic e p itaph, s ome n on-funerary C hr ist ian i nscr ipt ions, a f ew n on-Chr ist ian o nes, b oth p ub lic a nd p r ivate i n c haracter, s ome J ew ish i nscr ipt ions, m a in ly f rom t he s ynagogue a t M aioumas, a nd t he s er ies o f l ead w eights i ssued b y t he a goranomoi o f G aza, s ome o f w hich a re m arked w ith t he d ate, a s w e ll a s t he n ame o f t he i ssu ing

m agistrate .

T he i nscr ipt ions a re a rranged u nder t he f o llow ing h ead ings: A :He llenist ic e p itaph

N o .1

B : O ff icia l d ed icat ion t o.an E mperor

N o .2

C : P r ivate, n on-Chr ist ian d ed icat ion

N o .3

D : D ated C hr ist ian e p itaphs E : U ndated e pitaphs

N os.4 - 2 0

N os.21 - 2 3

F : F ragmentary e p itaphs

N os.24 - 3 2

G : N on-funerary C hr ist ian i nscr ipt ions H : J ew ish i nscr ipt ions

N os.33 36

N os.37 - 4 1

I : N on-lapidary i nscr ipt ions

N os.42 - 4 5

J . I nscr ipt ions f rom e lsewhere m ent ioning G aza

N os. 4 6, 4 7

A : H e llenist ic E p itaph 1 . G aza, i n u se a s am odern t ombstone . N ow i n J erusa lem . J .H.Iliffe, Q DAP I ( 1932) 1 55-156 ( photograph); P .Rousse l, A egyptus X III •( 1933) 1 45-151; M .N .Tod, i b id 1 52-158 ; M .Schwabe, J POS X III ( 1933) 8 4-89; S EG V III, n o .269 ( w ith f u ll b ib liography ).

1 16

s Er ,

c eöatµoaevrN n th ) I t ypt .ov e Xueev 1 5 µgwv , X upµd6a ,

E aynKev ö 'tXn na I t4 v tgeaL4.

' QXtIo µ tv x o t Ipo

[ auv]oµ c f mµo

ö uagb4 " Apc coepo[u x eL ,µe]pCa U u to ö n i .c t L .ç e uya . cpb ' Apxay e9cK,

t at6C )v,

e uydTnp n edöota

y ovewv S 'txXa c iev

o txTpov ö t A tz t JA

c txoct µ oüva

e bTexven v

x oepnv x a fxuae M e ixato ,

& XX& n Xgov e v i l rot% oUtv d öupoµtvot . µ tv 4 9oTtpoec y e n aXaCnXotr rot ( I c tatXne 1 0

A tyenToy x puatat

e yXßfaav x dpnatve

l c ö tne tpav ö µneeTaav ' Av e loXtv t y ö opb

t v apMv

A pewaa , K p e nv µ apzuptovaav t xe t .4. M egq )aa . but ö t e cotc d p o ict µ dvov N vöpa y e e v mdv, / n ar T aaxo l levou , 1 5

e v -u na c t,

y lpao

( 1 4 x aÄenoV

( 1 ) uxI t . ö t T e c g upCa n e ivza n ov e la

t xco I tv x oLvbv & Tpanbv ek

1 .3.

[n c tip]

1 .11.avw

-

I liffe,

16XLvIliffe.

R oussel,Tod;

' A new .

[OUv ]

-

S EG.

1 .14.5 21 1AITAEKOMENOYEiliffe.

T his i nscr ipt ion p redates a ny o ther f ound i n G aza b y s evera l h undred y ears.

I t i s a n e pitaph i n e legaic c oup lets, r ecord ing a n e ventfu l

p ersona l

s tory f rom a n o bscure p er iod o f h istory . B r ief ly , t he s tory r econstructed f rom t hese l ines b y R ousse l a nd T od i ndependent ly i s a s f o llows: C harmadas t he s on o f T askomenes, f rom A nopo lis i n w estern C rete, w as i nvo lved i n r estor ing t he f reedom o f h is n ative c ity w hen i t h ad b een c aptured b y e nem ies. H e l ater e ntered t he s erv ice o f o ne o f t he P to lem ies a s am ercenary .

1 17

H e a nd h is c omrade i n a rms, t he A eto lian M achaeus, w ho l ater m arr ied h is d aughter A rchagatha, w ere d ecorated b y t he k ing w ith i nsignia o f n ob le r ank ( Rousse l, 1 48-149). C harmadas a pparent ly s ett led i n G aza o n h is r et irement f rom t he a rmy, b ut h is l ater y ears w ere e mb ittered b y t he t ragic d eaths o f h is s on, a nother C harmadas, a nd h is g randdaughter C leodoxa, t he d aughter o f M achaeus a nd A rchagatha . I t i s, u nfortunate ly, n ot p ossib le t o d ate t hese e vents p rec ise ly , o r t o s tate w ith c ertainty u nder w hich P to lemy C harmadas a nd M achaeus s erved . R ousse l a nd T od a gree t hat t he c ursive s cr ipt o f t he i nscr iption, w hich m is led t he f irst e ditor i nto d at ing i t t o t he t hird c entury A D , i s i n f act H e llenist ic, a nd i nf luenced b y t he s cr ipt o f t he p ainted e pitaphs o f A lexandr ia, hy, - R ousse l d ates i t t o t he l ate t hird o r e ar ly s econd c entury B C ( pp .146-147), w hile T od p refers t he s econd t o f irst c entury B C ( pp .155-156). G reek m ercenar ies w ere e mp loyed b y a ll

t he P to lem ies. A t housand C retans a re

s tated • t o h ave b een p resent i n A lexandr ia i n 2 20 B C ( Po lyb .V,36,4 ), a nd P to lemy V I P hilometor ( 180-150 B C) a lso u sed C retan t roops ( O GIS 1 08; T od, p p .156-157). T here a ppears t o h ave b een c onsiderab le d isorder i n C rete f or s ome y ears a fter 21, w hen m any c ities r ebe lled a gainst t he d om inat ion o f K nossos a nd G ortyn, b ut t he d etails a re o bscure ( Rousse l, p p .150-151). T od a rgues t hat t he i nscr iption i s m ost l ike ly t o d ate f rom t he r eign o f P to lemy V I P hilometor , b asing t his c onc lusion p art ly o n e p igraphic g rounds ( p .156). B ut R ousse l a rgues t hat t his i nscr ipt ion w ith i ts c lear e xpression o f g ratitude a nd l oya lty t o a n E gypt ian k ing i s u nlike ly t o h ave b een e rected i n G aza o nce t hat c ity h ad b een l ost t o t he P to lem ies, a fter i ts c apture b y A ntiochus II i n 2 01 B C ( Rousse l,pp .

1 18

1 47; 1 49-150 ). W hen t he d isturbances i n

C rete i n t he l ate t hird c entury a re t aken i nto c onsiderat ion, t his g ives ap lausib le t erm inus a d q uem

B : O ff icia l

f or t his e p itaph.

D edicat ion t o a n E mperor

2 . P ortus A ugust i, O st ia, I G X IV 9 26; I GRR II

I ta ly . 3 87; M eyer , n o .XXXVI, p .146.

. ä t tya es r i l ex9. A er roxpaTopa K ataapa M (dpxov)

'AV T IZV LOV

r opbt ,ave sv E eaErg , 5

D er ruxi l E cßaazbv g bv e Eop t ,Xtatazov x oc fp .oxpdtopa,

T c 6X L4

z G lv r a4at c ov t ea t x at

c i uXoç x at 1 0

n to re ) < xat>

c eaEße `K,

x at g er l)c ), T o ' i 3 i t aTpCou T e 5v

t a . trak

Ä a i l i tpe t ,

t vxX c o ca( L yylv q) za » roU

1 .3.

OTOY.

2 3 . G aza . G ermer-Durand, R B 3( 1894), 2 49-250; A lt , Z DVP 4 7 ( 1924), 9 7-98; S EG V III, 2 71.

1 36

2 3 .

' Evelöc x ct[vTaL] u tot .

T A

[ - -]

O ecpacvoy9Cou E zepavo

4 ty x (at)

5 E zEpav[-], v (L)

e t vandevTE4

µ n(vt)

E au

rapyLoc ö t

x y" toU a eToU µ0 (v5 0, t vö(Lx rtMvo 0 1 0

5.,

bac oç naK n oöa z ot i b utpou. 1 1.2-3. [ p Lamapt : ou OuEpoevouq )t ou A lt.

Epoevo w t :ou G en t ier Durand; [gaxap ( Coy)] 1 .5. ETE( päv [ G ermer-Durand.

I t i s c ur ious t hat t he y ear h as b een o m itted, w hile t he d ays o f t he m onth a nd t he i ndict ion a re r ecorded . P erhaps t his w as s imp ly a m istake o n t he p art o f t he s tone-cutter . T he n ame W ersenouphios i s E gypt ian a nd t he m onth

P ayni b e longs t o t he E gypt ian c a lendar 1 2 ' .

C lear ly t he e p itaph i s t hat o f a n E gypt ian f am ily w hich h ad s ett led i n G aza .

Ih ave h esitated t o r ead Egaxap(( .ou)1

i n 1.2-3, a s d o

G ermer-Durand a nd A lt, s ince t hat w ou ld i mp ly t hat t he f ather o f t he t hree y oung c hildren ( t heir s ize i s s uggested b y t he f act t hat t hey w ere b ur ied i n t he s ame g rave,

'e ach a t t he f oot o f t he o ther ')

w as a lready d ead, w hich s eems u n like ly . B ut, o n t he o ther h and, i t i s d iff icu lt t o t h ink o f a n a lternat ive w hich w ou ld f it t he s pace . P erhaps t he f ather h ad a lready s uccumbed t o t he s ame o utbreak o f d isease t hat l ater c arr ied o ff t he c hildren. G ermer-Durand c omp letes t he n ame o f t he s econd c hild a s 1 37

2 : TE (P dv[ 11

,p resumab ly o n t he

a ssumpt ion t hat t here w ou ld n ot b e t wo b oys c a lled S tephanos i n t he s ame f am ily . T he f orm b ut a

E TE ( Dav i . a

E-c Eq )C ivn

i s u nknown e lsewhere i n P a lestine,

i s f ound a t N essana i n t he s ixth t o s eventh

c entury ( Nessana I , n o .30j). P erhaps t his f orm w ou ld b e p referab le h ere . A ccording t o G ermer-Durand, t he f orm o f t he l etters s uggests av ery l ate d ate f or t he i nscr ipt ion.

F : F ragmentary E p itaphs

2 4 .

Ah ouse i n G aza . A RP, n o .20, p .414; M eyer , n o .XXIX, p .146.

' Av u tLdni ( 1 . )p . axdp( t , c ) ) ' Iw c ivvu k]

< b>v — 5

n 1 .4

2 5 .

AMEN

Ah ouse i n G aza. A RP . n o .21, p .414-415; M eyer , n o .XXX, p .146. ' Avendz i i> i > µ ax(dP L o OL --A NERAE Q .

1 38

2 6.

Ah ouse i n G aza . A RP n o .22, p .415; M eyer , n o.XXXI, p .146; C II, 9 68 . " Ic iaxo

IMO /

4 1 M

MIN

T he n ame s uggests t hat t his f ragment m ay b e f rom a J ew ish i nscr ipt ion . 2 7 .

G aza . A RP n o .23, p .145; M eyer , n o .XXXII, p .146 .

4

•

t . av ck 2 8 .

T he G reat M osque, G aza. A RP, p .398; M eyer , n o . X V

p .142 .

,

ENE.YE 0 .EYE..0 1 1 1 • •

[ p .]r )(vt)

E aveLxo[V]

s i ven[ 41 7 13

2 9 .

E I CHM

t v6(Lx cL ,Mvo )

T he c ourtyard o f t he G reat M osque, G aza . A RP, p .401; M eyer, X VII,p .142 . [ 'E]ved6c x [ci " -r at .

ff l 1 1 1 1

—

1

•

3 0 .

Ah ouse i n G aza . A RP, p .401; M eyer , n o . X VIII, p .143 . 4 t i -cK M t v µ 7 )(vt)

VON

— O E 1 .2.

AMEN.

1 39

4 1 1 14 1 1

M IH M.

« M g

MI»

M i r

C lermont-Ganneau s uggests r estor ing t he n ame a s P Aßpadp ,t ,04, a s i n n o.10. T he P • I P n umera l

3 1.

i n 1 .2 c ou ld b e ad ate ( 540 G .E .). A nother

i ndicat ing u nits m ay h ave b een l ost .

Ah ouse i n G aza . A RP p .404; M eyer, n o .XX, p .144 . tw g • • • • TOD

• •

• C p s trOU

3 2 .

Ah ouse i n G aza. A RP, n o .11, p .409; M eyer , n o .XXII, p .144 . Nab

a »

to

«la

ax' ••

tV 45(1 . .xTL Mv0 0

[ e]

• • 0

6 01 G .E . e qua ls A D 5 40/1.

G : N on-Funerary C hr ist ian I nscr ipt ions

3.

I n aw a ll

i n G aza.

A be l, R B 4 0 ( 1931), p p .94-95 ( photograph); S EG V III, 2 68 . ' Aveve< Pen a tv 0 (e)t p T b 1 re

w pyCou ( sat)

1 .1.

ANENEO8H.

e wµa 1 pyo Ußwv.

1 .2.

THX0E;

EHH.

1 40

T he c ity w a ll o f G aza w as r ebuilt i n t he r e ign o f J ust inian, a t t he i nst igat ion o f t he b ishop, M arc ianus, a nd t he p rov inc ia l

g overnor,

S tephanus 1 3 ' . A be l a rgues t hat t h is i nscr ipt ion c annot r efer t o t hat r estorat ion, a nd m ust b e l ater , b ecause ' L 'orthographie d u d ocument s emb le e xc lure l a p e ,r io de c u lt ivee d e M arcien '. B ut t his d oes n ot a ppear t o b e a n o ff icia l

i nscr iption, e rected b y t he c iv ic a uthor it ies t o

c ommemorate t he r ebu ilding o f t he w a ll, b ut a p r ivate o ne, p ut u p b y t he c ontractors, G eorg ius a nd T homas, r ecording t he ir p art i n t he p roject 1 4 ' T here i s n o r easons t o a ssume t hat t hese m en, m asters o f ar e lat ive ly h umb le t rade, w ou ld h ave r ece ived t he h igher e ducat ion p rov ided b y G aza 's l iterary s choo l. M oreover , s evera l d ated i nscr ipt ions o f t he s ame p er iod a lso d isp lay s pe lling m istakes o f t he s ame t ype 1 5 ' . T he e xpression A y 8 4 , w hich, A be l c laims,

'i nd iquerait u n t emps o ü l eschretiens c omptaient

p lus s ur l e s ecours d 'en h aut q ue s ur l a p rotect ion d u b asileus ', i s s ure ly n o m ore t han a s imp le c onvent iona l

p iet ism , a nd t here i s n o n eed t o

a ttr ibute t o i t a ny w ider p o lit ica l s ign if icance. r eason t o f o llow A be l i n

Is ee, t herefore, n o

i nferr ing f rom t his i nscr ipt ion a s econd

r econstruct ion o f t he c ity w a ll a t al ater p eriod - h e s uggests b efore t he P ersian o r t he M oslem i nvasion - r ather t han a ssociat ing i t w ith t he s ixth c entury r estorat ion, t he o ccurrence o f w hich i s s o a dequate ly a ttested b y C hor icius .

1 41

3 4.

Ac orner p illar o f t he M eiden e z-Zeid r ace c ourse, S .E . o f G aza, n ow i n t he L ouvre . K itchener , P EFQSt .

1 878, p p .199-200; G ermer-Durand, R B 2( 1893),

p p .205-206; A RP n o .7A , p p .404-407; M eyer , n o.XXI, p .144 . T o

K (upto)v

y ? ) x at

z b

T t Älpwp .a ' AXE . V iv s5pou ö tax6vou t i tÄa 5 xZ r

& Q LE

t uou

X

1 (1 1vt)

t v[6(t .w zi .Mvo )— •

f i cp y rCoLui: — ] .

•

1 .5 1 .7

L5 E ,G ermer-Durand;

z t c • ••1

P er it ios 6 00

( 01 . )›öcC lermont-Ganneau.

u w(?) C lermont-Ganneau .

G .E . e qua ls A D 5 40 . T he f irst t wo l ines a re a q uotat ion

f rom t he b eginning o f P sa lm 2 4 i n t he S eptuag int v ersion . T he w ord Q '6 E

i s d iff icu lt t o i nterpret .

D urand s uggests, i n w hich c aseTa

I t m ay b e/6c

LS E

( here), a s G ermer-

m ust m ean

't he p art h ere ',

o r ' the a rea h ere '. A lternat ive ly, a s C lermont G anneau s uggests, i t c ou ld b e am is-spe lling o f o nca

,t he p lural o f

o tbac,

( ground, p avement ). B ut t his w ord i s p oet ic, a nd h e b r ings n o e xamp les o f i ts u se i n e veryday s peech. A t a ny r ate, t he s ense i s c lear . S ome p art o f ab uilding, m ost p robab ly a c hurch, w as p aved, o r i n laid w ith s tone s labs, u nder t he d irect ion o f t he d eacon,

1 42

A lexander . C lermont-Ganneau i s o bv ious ly r ight i n r ead ing t he d ate a s 6 00 G .E ., r ather t han t he 6 40 p referred b y G ermer-Durand . W e k now t hat a t a round t hat t ime t he C hurch a uthor it ies i n G aza w ere o ccup ied w ith t he b uild ing o f t he m agnif icent c hurch o f S t .Stephen, d escr ibed b y C hor icius 1 6

. ,b ut t here i s n o r eason t o s uppose t hat

b uild ing o r i mprovement w orks w ere n ot c arr ied o ut i n o ther c hurches a t t he s ame t ime .

3 5 .

Ah ouse i n G aza . F ound o n t he s hore . A RP n o .25, p p .416-418 . , M eyer, n o .XXXIV, p .147 .

-

i te s ic I uvena li -d e o mnes u no

-

n a t r in ita . i n ed ignetur

A o l lE .I[tjav ek

5

_

I t i s a pparent t hat h a lf o f t his c ur ious b i lingua l

i nscr ipt ion i s

m issing, a nd w hat r emains i s v ery d iff icu lt t o i nterpret . T he n ames J uvena lis a nd D omet ianos a re k nown . J uvena lis w as a w e ll-known b ishop o f J erusa lem i n t he f ifth c entury ,and D omet ianos a d isc ip le o f S t .Euthym ius, w ho w as o rdained b y b ishop J uvena lis. C lermont-Ganneau b e lieves t hat t h is i nscr ipt ion m ust r efer t o t hese p eop le, a lthough i t i s n ot k nown w hether t hey h ad a ny c onnect ion w ith G aza. T he f orm

1 43

o f t he l etters s uggests a v ery l ate d ate f or t he i nscr ipt ion, p erhaps a bout t he t enth c entury .

3 6.

Ah ouse i n G aza, p robab ly f rom A sca lon. A RP n o .24, p p .415-416; M eyer , n o .XXXIII, p .146 . Am arb le s lab, w ith a c ross c arved o n i t . O n t he f our a rms a nd i n t he c entre o f t he c ross a re t he f o llow ing l etters:

Z Q H

T his f orms t he w ords: U i r r )

a nd c p Ck

,b oth a ttr ibutes o f C hr ist .

C lermont-Ganneau g ives o ther e xamp les o f t his f ormu la.

H : J ew ish I nscr ipt ions

3 7 .

O n ac o lumn i n t he G reat M osque, G aza; n ow d estroyed . A RP p p .389-396 ( draw ing ); M eyer , n o .X, p p .139-141; S EG V III, 2 76; C II, 9 67 ( draw ing ); B .Lif sh itz, D onateurs e t F ondateurs d ans l es S ynagogues J uives ( Par is 1 967), n o.73, p .57 . 2 py ,

11

ru m

ANANIA YIQ

IAKQ

1 1.2-3. Avav

Avc t\n c t UL W uL ()

IC LX G . )

IaT ic o

ARP.

L ac)

1 44

L ifshitz.

C lermont-Ganneau r ead t he G reek v ersion o f t he n ame a s b e ing i n t he d at ive c ase, a nd u nderstood t he i nscr ipt ion a s ad ed icat ion t o H ananiah, s im ilar t o t hat i n n o .3 a bove . L ifshitz a rgues, h owever , t hat t he A rama ic d oes n ot s upport t he r ead ing o f t he G reek a s d at ive, a nd t hat d edicat ions t o p eop le w ere u nusua l

i n s ynagogues. H e b e lieves,

t herefore, t hat i t i s m ore l ike ly t hat t his i s ab u ild ing d ed icat ion, s im ilar t o n o.39 b e low , a nd t hat t he n ame s hou ld b e u nderstood a s b eing i n t he n om inat ive c ase . Y is 2

f or u t c%is a l itt le o dd, b ut

L ifshitz g ives o ne e xamp le o f YIQE ( o p .cit . n o .14, p .22).

3 8 .

O n am osaic p avement r epresent ing D av id p lay ing a h arp, i n t he n ave o f t he : , ynagogue n ear t he s hore a t G aza . O vadiah, I EJ 1 9 ( 1969), 1 95, P late 1 5A; i dem , E AEHL I , 4 11 ( photograph).

3 9 .

O n am osaic p avement i n t he s outhern a is le o f t he s ynagogue

n ear

t he s hore a t G aza . A v i-Yonah, Y edioth 3 0 ( 1966), 21-222 ( Hebrew ); L ifshitz, D onateurs n o .73a, p p . 5 7-59; O vadiah, I EJ 1 9 ( 1969), 1 95, P late 1 5B ; E AEHL I , 4 13 ( photograph).

1 45

i dem ,

M avdago x at

wi c souoc

u tot T a g axap(twIdTou)

5 chapLazotyze [-r ]Q e l c yLwT(dTw )

T 67 4 x at

[ z]bv O lywaLv T aev ov n poo.‘ ' evZt>yxaµcv [ Iv] m i lvt / 14 ) r ot 1 0 8 E0'. 1 .8.

IPOEENHI TAMEN.

L oös 5 69 3 .E .

4 0 .

1 .9.

[ Ev

J Avi-Yonah.

e qua ls J u ly/August A D 5 09 .Another d ed icatory i nscr ipt ion .

O n al arge m arb le b asin f ound i n t he e astern p art o f t he s ynagogue n ear t he s hore a t G aza. O vad iah, I L ) 1 9 ( 1969), 1 96.

Utp a (ur c)f lp(Ca 0 x (at)

' Icei(Toc)

4P ou

gXou

x at B evLagtv.

Y et a nother d edicat ion . A ll t he n ames r ecorded i n t hese s ynagogue i nscr ipt ions

a re c ommon a nd t ypica lly J ew ish .Perhaps t he J esse

m entioned h ere i s t he s ame a s t he f ather o f t imber-merchants o f n o .39 .

1 46

4 1.

C II, n o .969; S .K lein, S epher H aY ishuv, p . 14 ( Hebrew )

L -

4 1 1,1 1 •

le e

-

n peaß( e uz? )0 x (at)

A

zx (at) 1 .1.I IPEEBYKA: 1 .2. EKI IPEE-

F rey i nterprets

i p

cut1ç

a s 12Y 1 1 7 'm a nd t rans lates:

'm inistre ( de l a c ommunaut6 ). B ut t here i s n o r eason w hy IPEEBY c ou ld n ot a lso b e a n a bbrev iat ion f or C hr ist ian s ense o f ' pr iest '

i n t he

o r ' e lder ', a s i n n o .4 a bove, a nd

f requent ly a t N essana ( Nessana I , n os. e lsewhere .

py3( cpoç

1 2, 3 5, 7 3, 9 8, 1 29) a nd

Is ee, t herefore, n o r eason f or t he a ssumpt ion t hat t he

i nscr ipt ion i s n ecessar ily J ew ish. W hether i t i s a n e p itaph, a d edicat ion o r a ny o ther t ype o f i nscr ipt ion c annot b e a scertained f rom t his f ragment .

I : N on-Lap idary I nscr ipt ions

4 2 .

B .Lifshitz, 1 68-187 .

' B le igew ichte a us P a läst ina u nd S yr ien ', Z DPV 9 2 ( 1976),

I n t his a rt ic le L ifshitz p ub lished 2 9 l ead w e ights w hich

o r iginated f rom G aza, i nc luding f our t hat h ad b een p ub lished p rev iously . O f t hese w e ights, s ome b ear i nscr ipt ions a nd s ome d o n ot .

Is ha ll

h ere o n ly t hose w ith i nscr ipt ions. F or c onvenience, I s ha ll

r etain

l ist

L ifshitz ' o rder a nd n umber ing .

42/1 . ARP, 3 98-399;

I GRR II, n o.1212; M eyer , p .155 .

( For f u ll

b ib liography ,

s ee L ifshitz a d .loc .)

K oÄwvC a c r ar ./k t ut

` HpC )

6 ov A to e lvzou.

T his w eight i s o f i mportance a s t he o n ly e v idence f or G aza 's h av ing b een g ranted t he s tatus o f aR oman c o lony . N o s at isfactory e xp lanat ion h as b een f ound f or t he l etters

L e

.P erhaps t hey a re a d ate , o m itt ing

t he h undreds f igure .

2 .

A RP, p .399; M eyer , p .155 .

( "E couc)

gp'd c

y opavo g ot iv roc do 4aCov.

1 64 G .E . e qua ls A D 1 03/4 . T he

e L yopdvogoc

w as t he o ff icia l

c harge o f t he c ity 's m arkets, w ho i ssued t he w e ights.

1 48

i n

4 2/3 . C lermont-Ganneau, R ecue il d 'Archeo log ie O r ienta le II(Par is 1 900), 8 2-86.

( For f ull b ib liography, s ee L ifshitz a d .loc).

F ront : "ET OU

S i t'

( 8cultpa ) t nt

e . 4aglvou

' AX E . I . ,dv6pou

' AX ( prou

5

B ack:

t ir apa ,v6µou , . .

t axaLo cr ovr ).

8 6 G .E . e qua ls A D 2 5/26. T he s ty le o f t he l etter ing a nd o f t he f igure r epresented o n t he b ack o f t he w e ight a pparent ly s u it t his e ar ly d ate . T his i nscr iption, t ogether w ith n os. 42/10 a nd 4 2/24, p roves t he a goranomos o f G aza h e ld h is p ost f or o n ly s ix m onths, n ot a f u ll y ear .

4 .

I nscr ipt ions R eveal: D ocuments f rom t he T ime o f t he B ib le, t he M ishna a nd t he T a lmud

( Israe l M useum C atalogue N o .100, J erusa lem , 1 973), n o .225 .

' Apxfk ' Aup( 9 .Coe) o

B eÄXo t

T nÄc p .

d xou c i yo 5

p av6µou

n o

2 87 G .E . e qua ls A D 2 26/7 . T he p raenomen A ure lius i nd icates t hat t his R oman c it izenship w as o ne g ranted u nder t he C onst itut io A ntoniniana o f

2 12. T his m an m ust h ave b e longed t o t he s ame f am ily a s A rr ianus, s on o f B e llicus, o f n o .43/1 b e low . T he u se o f t he t r ia n om ina i s e xtreme ly u nusua l ‚ except i n t he c ase o f s o ld iers a nd t he ir f am ilies.

' APX ,%

4 2/5 .

' Ano Uw v Cou Lo q u ivTou 5

4opa Apou y na'. 2 83 G .E . e quals A D 22/3 . T he p atronym ic A Loy c ivzou

a lso a ppears i n

42/1 . T he t wo m en p robab ly b e longed t o t he s ame f am ily . D esp ite t he c lose p rox im ity i n d ate w ith n o .42/4

a nd t he f act t hat A po llonius,

u n like t he o ff icia l n amed t here, d oes n ot u se t he t r ia n om ina, I s ee n o r eason f or L ifshitz ' s uggest ion t hat t his i nscr ipt ion m ay , t herefore, b e d ated a ccording t o ad ifferent e ra. A ure lius B e llicus T e lemachus w as t he e xcept ion a t G aza, n ot t he r u le .

4 2/6.

' Apx i l

A Lo < 56 -t o u E taCw (v) oc

5

a yo

p av6 g ou.

1 50

4 2/7 .

' Ayopa a t .

4 2/9 .

4 2/10 .

( p .v3).

F ront:

( i yopa[ — -

B ack:

e •••

o r d•

A IA.

( n p (u r )) La i dvou t ut E u y n E t a? p : 1 91 G .E . e qua ls A D 1 30/1.

4 2/11 .("E rouc)

a 9p

c i yo( p av e lp .ov) ' A r toÄXwvrou. L ifshitz a rgues t hat t his w eight c annot b e d ated t o t he s ame y ear a s n o .42/10, a nd t hat s ome o ther e ra m ust b e u sed . H e s uggests t he S e leuc id e ra, w hich w ou ld g ive a d ate o f 1 21/20 B C . H e c laims t hat t his w ou ld s uit t he s ty le o f t he l etter ing . B ut o n t he o ther h and, s ince t here w ere t wo a goranomoi i n e ach y ear , t here i s n o r eason w hy t his w e ight s hou ld n ot a lso b e d ated t o A D 1 30/1. M oreover , t he f ormu la u sed i n t his i nscr ipt ion i s i dent ica l

t o t hat o f n o.42/2, o f

A D 1 03/4, w hereas t he t wo c lear ly d ated e ar ly w e ights, n os.42/3, 4 2/12, h ave c omp lete ly d ifferent f ormu lae .

42/12 . " Etou

Y 7 1'

L XC

1 51

8 3 G .E . e qua ls A D 2/23 . T he s ty le i s s im ilar t o t hat o f n o .42/3, a nd s uits t his e ar ly d ate .

4 2/13 . F ront : ON ) ( Ca t .. B ack :

lea

a a p ec.

4 2/14 .

h i t x a.

4 2/17 .

T pLV•

A tovu

4 2/18 .

a tou U.

4 2/24 .

We i(ovc)

a c'

( invzipac)

e .V4 11

v ov e u yo p avog

5

L oi n co

w (vo 0. 2 01 G .E . e qua ls A D 1 40/41 .

1 52

4 2/25.

A CT p av ( gva ).

4 2/26.

4 3 .

T iTapTov

T hree l ead w e ights f rom G aza . F .Mann

S BF 3 1 ( 1981), p p . 245-248,(w ith p hotograph); S EG 3 1 ( 1981),

n os.1456-1458 .

4 3/1. L ead w e ight i n s ty lized a nthropoid f orm . Mann,

no.1;

S EG 3 1,

no.1456.

& PXf% ' AppLavoi i B EÄÄt .xot i a yopav 5 d p ,ou.

1 .2 .A .PANOY Mann ; App t ,avou SEG.

A rr ianus, s on o f B e llicus, c lear ly b e longs t o t he s ame f am ily a s t he a goranomos o f n o .42/4 a bove .

1 53

4 3/2

R ectangu lar l ead w eight . M ann, n o .2, p .246; S EG 3 1, n o.1457 . (t rov 0

ö t -c s'Int

‘ Hp ( 1 )6ou d c yopav(6p .ou) L µ . 5". A IEequa ls 2 14, n ot a s s tated i n S EG . I n 1 .4

L i s a n a bbrev iat ion f or l itra

2 14 G .E . e quals A D 1 53/4. a nd a n i ndicat ion o f t he

w eight . T he n ame H erodes a lso a ppears a s t hat o f t he a goranomos o f 42/1 .

4 3/3

T hree i dent ica l

l ead w e ights.

M ann, n o .3, p .247; S EG 3 1, n o .1458 .

F ront :

( g -r ou 0 g nt

B ack:

ôt cr

Il i p( A )bou.

L x r.

T hese w ere o bv iously i ssued b y t he s ame a goranomus a s 4 2/2 a bove .

4 4 .

Ac lay s tamp , d ep icting t he V irgin a nd C hild .

F ound a t K hirbet D eir

D usaw i, 9 k m . Eo f G aza . L .Y .Rahmani, E ? )ÄoyCa

I EJ 2 0 ( 1970 ), 1 05-8; P late 2 8, A -C . 6 EaT toev[TK e wl 3v 8 ccy rd]xou M apta .

T he e xtensive s ite w here t he s tamp w as f ound i s d ated b y n umerous f inds t o t he s ixth c entury A D .

1 54

R ahmani a rgues t hat t his s tamp f or t he

p roduct ion o f e u log ia m edallions, e ither f rom t he e arth o f h o ly p laces, o r f rom b read, w as a ssociated w ith t he c hurch o f S t .Sergius i n G aza, w here M ary w as v enerated a s t he M other o f G od . H e s uggests t hat t he i mage o n t he s tamp m ay h ave b een c op ied f rom t he m osaic i n t he . . c entra l a pse o f t he c hurch, d escr ibed b y C hor ic lus 1 7 .

4 5 .

Af ragment o f ac opper r ing, f ound i n G aza . M .Schwabe, J POS X III ( 1933), 8 9, n .2; S EG

V III, n o.273 .

ü yCa ' Agot V I , V•

ü yra

i s aw ish f or t he g ood h ea lth o f t he r ing 's w earer .

i s a n E gypt ian n ame ( Pre isigke, N amenbuch, 2 7).

J .

4 6.

I nscr ipt ions f rom e lsewhere m ent ioning G aza

T he t emp le o f

D emeter a nd P ersephone a t E leusis.

O GIS, n o .596; M eyer , n o .XXXV .

1 55

' Agotvt .c

4 6 .

l i ToÄcgaZov E c p lvou Z oLvtxdpxou u tbv r aCcnov x at ( YX X wv n 6Xcwv n oXtz l iv, 5 e ty oCac i vcxcv T Ic E tc iv n 6XLv x at c i peT9% x at T i l [ c]pt x ôyouc &

c

n

c 1 4cL

f 3 6µevol , e t vea v iaav o t a cµv6 T azot

' Apconay nat n ap& -c atc

8 catc. T his i nscr ipt ion i s d ated t o t he t hird c entury A D .

I t i s i nterest ing

i n t hat i t r ecords t he s uccessfu l c areer o f ar hetor f rom G aza o uts ide h is o wn c ity . N ote t hat h is f ather s erved a s P hoenicarch, a t it le t he m eaning o f w hich i s n ot e nt ire ly c lear , t hough i t i s m ost l ike ly t hat t hese o ff icia ls w ere p residents o f p rov incia ls d iets i nvo lved i n o rganizing f est iva ls i n h onour o f t he e mperors 1 8 . .

4 7 .

C astra L ambaesitana, N orth A fr ica. C IL.VIII, n o .18084 . Al ist o f s o ld iers s erv ing i n L eg io II A ugusta . L ine 2 2 r eads: --- -S everus

G azza

T he i nscr ipt ion i s d ated t o t he s econd c entury A D1 9 . .S everus m ust h ave b een a R oman c it izen t o h ave b een s erv ing i n al egion . M any o f t he o ther s o ldiers o n t he l ist a lso c ame f rom c it ies i n S yr ia a nd P alestine .

1 56

P ERSONAL N AMES I N T HE G AZA I NSCR IPTIONS A : G reek ' AXg .tc tvöpo

6 t .dxovo

3 4

el t A€

s . o f A lphios, a goranomos

4 2/3

f . o f A lexander

4 2/3

s . o f D omest icus

3

avôpoc

wA X . c fLo

A cZ toç ' Avaeac rC a

1 2

' Avaa -c aaCa

1 7

PA vaataa

C a

d . o f E p imachos

2 1

' Avaataata

d . o f J ohannes

2 0

' A i toXXZv o

a goranomos

4 2/11

' Ar to Mu r ivt ,oc

s . o f D iophantes, a goranomos

4 2/5

' AppLav k

s . o f B e llicus, a goranomos

4 3/1

' APXaYdec t

d . o f C harmadas

1

r epdvz r py oç

6 s . o f W ersenouphios

2 3

r E (Zpy i . .o

IP Y0Xd f 3 TK

3 3

A C aLoc

a goranomos

4 2/2

ä t .66oToc

s . o f is io n ,a goranomos

4 2/6

A t .ovt laL ,

( agoranomos)

4 2/18

A t ,O ( páv1T )c

f . o f A po llonios

4 2/5

1 57

A Lop e ivItN

f . o f H erodes

E tpr )vc Ltoc

42/1 4

E tatwv

f . o f D iodotos

4 2/6

' E iC axoc

f . o f A nastasia

2 1

Z lvwv

s . o f B a lys a nd M ega le

5

.1 Äta

( husb . o f T heodora )

1 6

' Hpiór )c

s . o f D iophantes, a goranomos

4 2/1

' Hpe i löic

( agoranomos)

4 3/2;3

O co6 6 zi

d . o f M ega le ( and B a lys)

7

e coöCva

( w . o f E lias)

1 6

e wp ,ac

1 pyoXd f 3TK

3

I CX£66o V i c

d . o f M achaios a nd A rchagatha

1

KoaµLavl

s is. o f M enas

2

A cdvz i . o

f . o f D igountha

9

M a .xat s :K

A t ' zwÄd

I l eydXr )

m . o f Z enon a nd T heodote

5 , 7

M c ncr ucpta

d .of T imotheos

1 8

I s i l iva

b ro . o f K osm iane

2

M

,h usb . o f A rchagatha

pac

1

1

( A c iC a

d . o f T imotheos

1 3

1 roXegato

s . o f S erenus

4 6

1 58

E Te c pdv[—]

d .? o f W ersenouph ios

2 3

Z c p c LvOc

s . o f W ersenouph ios

2 3

E • ri c pa .vo

8

E r o ta4

( agoranomos)

4 2/10

Ex 4 3 c T ac sx o p .

1 5 v r )c

f . o f C harmadas

1

T t . i ldeco

f . o f M eg ister ia

1 8

T i ,µ 6 .9eo

f . o f O usia

1 3

Xapi c 1öc Lc

s . o f T askomenes

1

X c i .pµd6aG

s . o f C harmadas

1

B : L at in

B E .XXo t s 5

f . o f A rr ianos

ä op .ecr cL . x e%

f . o f A mmonios

d e tOilE CT

S .of

4 3/1 3

A mmonios

3

ä o l au cL t . javd I l anc .CpLoc,

3 5 T t .f 3(epu ro ) KX(ae6t .o ) l i t t .p .cXr y zeK z oU

r l atptxt .oc

t epot i

f . o f A braam ios c p cnv o cdPX / 1 ,f . o f P t o lemaios

1 59

2 1 0 4 6

T iXtgaxo ,

A l 5p(1 1X 1 ,o )

B eXX I -xo

a goranomos

4 2/4

I uvenal i s S everus

3 5 m iles L eg .III A ugustae

4 7

C ; H ebrew

' Aßpa c ip .i .cK

e ndx0vcK, s . o f P atr icius

1 0

' AvavCac

S . o f J acob

3 7

1 3 Ev L aµCv 'I c t 6ç

4 0 f . o f H ananiah

3 7

l a c : Mc

* Ic rol%

2 6

zu x e 4nop

"

ps .

o f J esse

f . o f M enachem a nd Y eshua •I c sa

' IW c l\ )VT )ç

3 9 4 0

s .of M areabdenes

' Iwö .vvr ) M avac tµcK

3 9

2 0 2 4

E , uXfi iopoc, s . o f J esse

3 9

' Po 3T )Xoc

4 0

1 711

3 8

nnan

s . o f J acob

3 7

2 PY 7

f . o f H ananiah

3 7

1 60

D : O ther N ames

( Egypt ian) B a ,Äe

f . o f Z enon ( unknown)

A Lyouvea

d . o f L eontios ( Germanic)

Mapecg 36/vrK

f . o f J ohannes ( Sem it ic)

O UpaEvoe ( pLoc

f . o f S tephanus, S tephant -] a nd G eorgios ( Egypt ian)

1 61

4 5 5 9 2 0

2 3

N OTES T O A PPENDIX : T HE I NSCRIPTIONS O F G AZA 1 .

M eyer,

1 39-151.

2 .

I s hall n ot , h owever , i nclude t wo i nscriptions a ttributed t o G aza b y J .B . F rey ( CII, 9 66, 9 70), b ecause i n o nce c ase t his a ttribution i s i ncorrect a nd i n t he o ther p robably s o, o r i s a t l east i nsufficiently p roven . N o . 9 66 , a f ragment o f a c hancel s creen , p resumably o f a s ynagogue , w as o riginally p ublished b y J . G ermerD urand ( RB I ( 1892), 2 48-249 . H e r emarks o f i t: ' provenance i ncertain , r egion e ntre J affa e t G aza ' . F rey a cknowledges t his, b ut a ssumes t hat t he i nscription c ame f rom G aza . I t h owever , t hat i t g ives a d ate i n t he m onth M artius .

s hould b e n oted , T he u se o f t he

L atin c alendar i s n ot r ecorded a t G aza a nd , w hile t his c annot b e c onsidered p roof , i t s uggests t hat t he i nscription d id n ot o riginate t here . I t c ertainly c annot b e a ssumed w ithout q uestion t hat i t d id . N o . 9 70 , a n e pitaph o n t wo J ewish c hildren , i s r ecorded i n i ts o riginal p ublication ( PEFQSt . 1 920, 4 7) a s h aving b een f ound n ear ' Maioumas i n t he d istrict o f C aesarea ', n ot t he p ort o f G aza . O n t his

M aioumas ,

s ee

G . S chumacher ,

P EFQSt . 1 887 ,

8 3

( Mfyamas) ;

S WP

I I, 6 6-67 ( Mi n s); A vi-Yonah, G azetteer, s .v . M aiumas I ; K efar S huni. 2 a.

I h ave n ot

a ttempted

t o d eal

f rom G aza . O n t he f ormer, ( 1894), 8 4-87.

w ith S amaritan o r A rabic

i nscriptions

s ee C lermont-Ganneau a nd A bel,

R B 3

3 .

A RP , 4 00-4 ( J1 . T he G reek v icar o f G aza s eems t o h ave b een a ctive i n g athering. a c ollection o f i nscriptions f rom G aza a nd i ts e nvirons . T he R ussian A rchimandrite o f J erusalem a lso c ollected a n umber o f i nscriptions l ater p ublished b y G ermer-Durand ( RB 2 ( 1893) , 2 03-206) a nd C lermont-Ganneau ( ARP , 4 03-405) .

4 .

M arc. D iac.

5 .

A RP, 4 19-429.

6 .

s ee C h . 2 , p . 4 2; C h . 3 , p p . 7 5-76 o n t he p robable c ircumstances o f

1 9 , 6 -7; 2 1,

1 3-21; 3 4, 9 -11; 5 4,

t his d edication a nd t he s ignificance o f G aza 's

1 5-16 ;

1 03, 7 -8.

t itles .

7 .

C allimachus, D ian . 2 28 ; N onnus V III,

1 66; C oluthus,

1 53.

8 .

I G X IV , 1 389 I , 3 5.

9 .

S ee e .g . A eschines 3 , 7 6; A ristoph ., E quites 5 75, 7 02; P lato, L eges 8 88b , 9 46e ; I GRR I II, 6 40 , 6 95, 7 33, 7 39, 7 46 ( all f rom L ycia) ; I V, 2 92, 1 1. 3 2-33 ( Pergamon) ; 1 302, 1 1. 3 0-31 ( Cyme) ; 1 558, 1 1. 2 9-30 ( Teos).

1 0 .

S tark , 6 42-645; C h . 2 , p . 5 2 a bove.

1.

S chürer' I I,

1 2.

F or t he n ame, s ee P reisigke, N amenbuch, s .v . 015E .pO tV0 e pl .O . F or t he m onth , s ee E .J . B ickermann , C hronology o f t he A ncient W orld

1 06, n .

1 02.

( London 1 968), 4 0.

1 62

1 3 .

C horic . , L aud .Marc . I , 7 (4, 8 -19) ; L aud .Marc . L aud.Arat. e t S teph . 5 4-56 ( 63, 2 -22).

I I,

1 6

1 4 .

F or f ormal b uilding i nscriptions, s ee e .g . H .-G . P flaum, S yria 2 9 ( 1952), 3 07-330, o n t he t hird c entury i nscriptions f rom A draha i n A rabia ; N L S artre , I GLS X III ,i , n os . 9 130 , 9 135 , 9 136 , o f t he t ime o f J ustinian . T he f act t hat P rocopius d oes n ot mention t he r efortification o f G aza a s o ne o f J ustinian 's b uilding p rojects s upports C horicius ' c laim t hat i t w as d one o n l ocal i nitiative , r ather t han i mperial o rders.

1 5 .

N os. 5 , 7 , 8 , 1 0 , 1, 1 2, a ll o f t he f irst h alf o f t he s ixth c entury .

1 6 .

C horicius 's s peech d elivered a t t he d edication ( Laud.Marc. I I) i s d ated b etween 5 35/6 a nd 5 48 .

1 7.

L aud .Marc . I , 2 9 ( 10 , 8 -11) . F or a s imilar f ormula , s ee R . R osenthal & R . S ivan , A ncient L amps i n t he S choessinger C ollection ( Jerusalem 1 978), 1 42, n o . 5 80. T his i s ap ottery l amp w ith t he i nscription :

o f

( 32,

t his

EYAOrIA THE e lECYPO I KS MHON E I IIrPAMA ( their r eading , c orrected b y c omparison w ith t he p hotograph ) . i nterpret t his a s a n a bbreviated f orm o f aw ide-spread f ormula :

t bÄoyCa • g ?k e coz6x ,ou t . t e eh d 3v t nCypap .p .a

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A ppian 's R oman H istory e d . H . White L ibrary , C ambridge , M ass ./London 1 958) .

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C odex T heodosianus

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F lavius C aesconius

C orippus I n L audem I ustini H istoricorum B yzantinorum 1 8) .

Q uintus

H istory o f A lexander

C urtius

L ibrary ,

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M ommsen ( 2nd . e dition

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S criptorum

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P G

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F ortunatus

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M arcus D iaconus

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N icephorus

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