3,042 169 37MB
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Table of contents :
Title page
Imprint page
Brief contents
Contents
Guide to the text
Guide to the online resources
Preface
Acknowledgements
About the authors
Learning map
Part 1: Communication foundations in the digital era
Spotlight on: Communication
Chapter 1: Understand communication practices
1.1 Forms and functions of communication
1.2 The communication process
1.3 Ethics in communication
1.4 Factors impacting business communication
1.5 Intercultural communication
Learning activities
Case study: Feedback matters
Chapter 2: Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence
2.1 What is emotional intelligence?
2.2 What are the benefits of emotional intelligence?
2.3 What is emotional labour?
2.4 Nonverbal communication
2.5 The process of listening and providing feedback
2.6 Assertiveness
Learning activities
Case study: Is emotional intelligence important?
Chapter 3: Adapt to change in the digital era
3.1 What is adaptability?
3.2 Barriers to being adaptable
3.3 Why is digital literacy important?
3.4 Digital channels improve communication
Learning activities
Case study: Nina’s adaptation to a new role
Chapter 4: Develop communication skills for employment
4.1 Searching for a job
4.2 Types of resume
4.3 Optimise resumes for keyword searches
4.4 Job interviews
Learning activities
Case study: Amar and Rochelle – keywords
Part 2: Communication strategies in the workplace
Spotlight on: Workplace communication
Chapter 5: Organise workplace information
5.1 Apply relevant legislation
5.2 Collect information
5.3 Organise information
5.4 Use and share information
5.5 Review information needs
Learning activities
Case study: Information and privacy issues
Chapter 6: Manage work priorities and professional development
6.1 Workgroup goals and plans
6.2 Plan and complete own work schedule
6.3 Use a time-management plan
6.4 Assess skills against benchmarks
6.5 Coordinate professional development
Learning activities
Case study: Flower Home Improvements
Chapter 7: Deliver presentations and speeches
7.1 Types of public speaking
7.2 Plan the presentation or speech
7.3 Write the presentation or speech
7.4 Choose your aids, materials and presentation techniques
7.5 Deliver the presentation or speech
7.6 Handle difficult members of an audience
7.7 Review the presentation or speech
Learning activities
Case study: FASDEL Transport Company
Chapter 8: Develop negotiation and conflict management skills
8.1 What is negotiation?
8.2 Negotiating options
8.3 Interest-based negotiation
8.4 What is conflict?
8.5 Constructive behaviours
8.6 Map the conflict
Learning activities
Case study: Michael and Cathy’s response to conflict
Chapter 9: Implement and monitor a safe workplace
9.1 Communicate and facilitate workplace health and safety
9.2 Implement and monitor participative arrangements
9.3 Monitor procedures for providing WHS training
9.4 Implement and monitor procedures for identifying hazards and assessing risks
9.5 Implement and monitor procedures for controlling risks
9.6 Implement procedures for maintaining WHS records
Learning activities
Case study: Neil’s approach to safety performance
Part 3
: Communication with customers
Spotlight on: Communication with customers
Chapter 10: Deliver and monitor service to address customer needs
10.1 Customer responsive communication
10.2 Address customer needs
10.3 Deal with customer complaints
10.4 Communicate effectively on the telephone
10.5 Monitor and report on service delivery
Learning activities
Case study: Customer service blunder: Kitchen delivery
Chapter 11: Manage customer engagement
11.1 What is customer engagement?
11.2 Methods for engagement
11.3 Build and maintain networks
11.4 Social media
11.5 Corrective actions
Learning activities
Case study: TMP Airlines’ management of Facebook and Twitter
Part 4
: Communication through documents
Spotlight on: Communication through documents
Chapter 12: Analyse and present research information
12.1 Workplace research
12.2 Sources of information
12.3 Working with qualitative and quantitative data
12.4 Reference sources of information
Learning activities
Case study: Ergonomic tips to improve our workspaces
Chapter 13: Communicate using graphics and visual aids
13.1 What is visual communication?
13.2 Different types of graphics
13.3 Selecting and presenting graphics
13.4 Ensuring quality and ethics
Learning activities
Case study: North Hospital Pty Ltd
Chapter 14: Effective business writing
14.1 What is business writing?
14.2 The seven components of writing style
14.3 Ethical business writing
14.4 Writing email
14.5 Writing screen-based content
Learning activities
Case study: The virtual bookkeeping service
Chapter 15: Writing business letters
15.1 Applying the three-step writing process to business letters
15.2 Formatting a business letter
15.3 Writing good-news or neutral letters
15.4 Writing a bad-news letter
15.5 Writing persuasive letters
15.6 Writing and responding to written complaints
Learning activities
Case study: Anna’s recommendation: debtor collection/reminder letters
Chapter 16: Write short reports
16.1 Write short reports
16.2 Short report formats
16.3 Six types of short reports
Learning activities
Case study: How can a company benefit from dashboard reporting?
Chapter 17: Write long reports
17.1 Plan a long report
17.2 Writing a long report
17.3 Formatting a long report
17.4 Edit and review a long report
Learning activities
Case study: Hazell Engineering: northern expansion
Chapter 18: Write technical documents and proposals
18.1 The purpose of technical writing
18.2 Main features of technical writing
18.3 Common types of technical documents
18.4 Proposals and tenders
18.5 Review and edit
Learning activities
Case study: Jargon and technical definitions
Chapter 19: Record keeping
19.1 The importance, function and life cycle of records
19.2 Identifying and gathering records
19.3 Access rules and procedures
19.4 Providing records within reasonable timeframes
Learning activities
Case study: Capture of records
Part 5
: Communication across the organisation
Spotlight on: Communication across the organisation
Chapter 20: Develop effective workplace relationships
20.1 Collect and communicate information and ideas and engage in joint decision making
20.2 Give and receive instructions at work
20.3 Develop trust and confidence
20.4 Interpersonal communication styles
20.5 Manage poor work performance
20.6 Develop and maintain networks and relationships
Learning activities
Case study: Managing performance
Chapter 21: Manage team effectiveness
21.1 What is a team?
21.2 Team communication
21.3 Work-team enablers
21.4 Facilitate teamwork
21.5 Liaise with management and other stakeholders
Learning activities
Case study: Fairlight Media Company
Chapter 22: Lead and develop teams and individuals
22.1 What does a leader do?
22.2 Sources of influence and power
22.3 Team-based leadership
22.4 Working with diversity
22.5 Develop teams and individuals
Learning activities
Case study: Rumblings in the team ranks
Chapter 23: Organise and manage meetings
23.1 Determine the purpose
23.2 Meeting roles and responsibilities
23.3 Communicate to achieve results
23.4 Decision making and problem solving in a meeting
23.5 Follow up and keep records
Learning activities
Case study: HAHN Food Group meetings
Glossary
Index
Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK 1 1E
JUDITH DWYER Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
The Business Communication Handbook
© Judith Dwyer
11th Edition Judith Dwyer
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BRIEF CONTENTS PART ONE
COMMUNICATION FOUNDATIONS IN THE DIGITAL ERA
1
Chapter 1
Understand communication practices
3
Chapter 2
Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence
30
Chapter 3
Adapt to change in the digital era
63
Chapter 4
Develop communication skills for employment
85
COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES IN THE WORKPLACE
116
PART TWO Chapter 5
Organise workplace information
118
Chapter 6
Manage work priorities and professional development
137
Chapter 7
Deliver presentations and speeches
167
Chapter 8
Develop negotiation and conflict management skills
190
Chapter 9
Implement and monitor a safe workplace
210
PART THREE COMMUNICATION WITH CUSTOMERS
240
Chapter 10
Deliver and monitor service to address customer needs
242
Chapter 11
Manage customer engagement
267
COMMUNICATION THROUGH DOCUMENTS
294
Chapter 12
Analyse and present research information
296
Chapter 13
Communicate using graphics and visual aids
322
Chapter 14
Effective business writing
351
Chapter 15
Writing business letters
388
Chapter 16
Write short reports
420
Chapter 17
Write long reports
441
Chapter 18
Write technical documents and proposals
477
Chapter 19
Record keeping
498
COMMUNICATION ACROSS THE ORGANISATION
519
Chapter 20
Develop effective workplace relationships
521
Chapter 21
Manage team effectiveness
559
Chapter 22
Lead and develop teams and individuals
593
Chapter 23
Organise and manage meetings
625
PART FOUR
PART FIVE
MINDTAP ONLY CHAPTER
ONLINE
Implement and monitor environmentally sustainable work practices See Guide to the Digital Resources on pxii for more information on this premium purchasable eLearning tool.
iii Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
CONTENTS Guide to the text
viii
Guide to the online resources
x
CHAPTER 4 Develop communication skills for employment
85
xii
4.1 Searching for a job
86
Acknowledgements
xvi
4.2 Types of resume
91
About the authors
xvii
Learning map
xviii
Preface
4.3 Optimise resumes for keyword searches 4.4 Job interviews
99 103
Learning activities
112
Case study: Amar and Rochelle – keywords
114
PART ONE COMMUNICATION FOUNDATIONS IN THE DIGITAL ERA
1
SPOTLIGHT ON: COMMUNICATION
2
PART TWO COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES IN THE WORKPLACE
CHAPTER 1 Understand communication practices
3
SPOTLIGHT ON: WORKPLACE COMMUNICATION
117
1.1 Forms and functions of communication
4
1.2 The communication process
8
CHAPTER 5 Organise workplace information
118
5.1 Apply relevant legislation
119
5.2 Collect information
123
1.3 Ethics in communication
13
1.4 Factors impacting business communication
15
1.5 Intercultural communication
20
Learning activities
25
Case study: Feedback matters
28
CHAPTER 2 Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence
30
2.1 What is emotional intelligence?
31
116
5.3 Organise information
127
5.4 Use and share information
131
5.5 Review information needs
133
Learning activities
134
Case study: Information and privacy issues
135
CHAPTER 6 Manage work priorities and professional development
137 138
2.2 What are the benefits of emotional intelligence?
34
6.1 Workgroup goals and plans
2.3 What is emotional labour?
38
6.2 Plan and complete own work schedule
144
2.4 Nonverbal communication
40
6.3 Use a time-management plan
146
2.5 The process of listening and providing feedback
45
2.6 Assertiveness
53
Learning activities
163
Learning activities
58
Case study: Flower Home Improvements
165
Case study: Is emotional intelligence important?
60
6.4 Assess skills against benchmarks
153
6.5 Coordinate professional development
160
CHAPTER 7 Deliver presentations and speeches
167
63
7.1 Types of public speaking
168
3.1 What is adaptability?
64
7.2 Plan the presentation or speech
173
3.2 Barriers to being adaptable
69
7.3 Write the presentation or speech
175
3.3 Why is digital literacy important?
71
3.4 Digital channels improve communication
77
7.4 Choose your aids, materials and presentation techniques
179
Learning activities
81
7.5 Deliver the presentation or speech
181
Case study: Nina’s adaptation to a new role
83
7.6 Handle difficult members of an audience
183
CHAPTER 3 Adapt to change in the digital era
iv Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
CONTENTS
7.7 Review the presentation or speech
186
10.4 Communicate effectively on the telephone
255
Learning activities
187
10.5 Monitor and report on service delivery
259
Case study: FASDEL Transport Company
188
Learning activities
263
Case study: Customer service blunder: kitchen delivery
265
CHAPTER 8 Develop negotiation and conflict management skills
190
8.1 What is negotiation?
191
CHAPTER 11 Manage customer engagement
8.2 Negotiating options
195
11.1 What is customer engagement?
268
8.3 Interest-based negotiation
197
11.2 Methods for engagement
271
8.4 What is conflict?
199
11.3 Build and maintain networks
279
8.5 Constructive behaviours
202
11.4 Social media
282
8.6 Map the conflict
204
11.5 Corrective actions
285
Learning activities
207
Learning activities
289
Case study: Michael and Cathy’s response to conflict
209
Case study: TMP Airlines’ management of Facebook and Twitter
291
267
CHAPTER 9 Implement and monitor a safe workplace
210
9.1 Communicate and facilitate workplace health and safety
PART FOUR COMMUNICATION THROUGH DOCUMENTS
211
9.2 Implement and monitor participative arrangements
SPOTLIGHT ON: COMMUNICATION THROUGH DOCUMENTS 295
217
9.3 Monitor procedures for providing WHS training
219
9.4 Implement and monitor procedures for identifying hazards and assessing risks
223
9.5 Implement and monitor procedures for controlling risks
226
9.6 Implement procedures for maintaining WHS records
232
294
CHAPTER 12 Analyse and present research information
296
12.1 Workplace research
297
12.2 Sources of information
302
12.3 Working with qualitative and quantitative data 308
Learning activities
235
Case study: Neil’s approach to safety performance
237
PART THREE COMMUNICATION WITH CUSTOMERS
240
SPOTLIGHT ON: COMMUNICATION WITH CUSTOMERS
241
CHAPTER 10 Deliver and monitor service to address customer needs 242
12.4 Reference sources of information
312
Learning activities
318
Case study: Ergonomic tips to improve our workspaces
320
CHAPTER 13 Communicate using graphics and visual aids
322
13.1 What is visual communication?
323
13.2 Different types of graphics
327
13.3 Selecting and presenting graphics
344
13.4 Ensuring quality and ethics
346
Learning activities
347
Case study: North Hospital Pty Ltd
349
243
CHAPTER 14 Effective business writing
351
10.2 Address customer needs
247
14.1 What is business writing?
352
10.3 Deal with customer complaints
251
14.2 The seven components of writing style
354
10.1 Customer responsive communication
v Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
CONTENTS
14.3 Ethical business writing
366
18.5 Review and edit
493
14.4 Writing email
369
Learning activities
495
14.5 Writing screen-based content
379
Case study: Jargon and technical definitions
496
Learning activities
382
Case study: The virtual bookkeeping service
385
CHAPTER 19 Record keeping
388
19.1 The importance, function and life cycle of records
499
19.2 Identifying and gathering records
503
389
19.3 Access rules and procedures
510
15.2 Formatting a business letter
392
15.3 Writing good-news or neutral letters
398
19.4 Providing records within reasonable timeframes
513
15.4 Writing a bad-news letter
403
Learning activities
515
15.5 Writing persuasive letters
407
Case study: Capture of records
517
15.6 Writing and responding to written complaints
412
CHAPTER 15 Writing business letters 15.1 Applying the three-step writing process to business letters
498
Learning activities
416
Case study: Anna’s recommendation: debtor collection/reminder letters
PART FIVE COMMUNICATION ACROSS THE ORGANISATION
418
SPOTLIGHT ON: COMMUNICATION ACROSS THE ORGANISATION
520
CHAPTER 20 Develop effective workplace relationships
521
20.1 Collect and communicate information and ideas and engage in joint decision making
522
CHAPTER 16 Write short reports
420
16.1 Write short reports
421
16.2 Short report formats
423
16.3 Six types of short reports
425
Learning activities
437
Case study: How can a company benefit from dashboard reporting?
439
CHAPTER 17 Write long reports
441
17.1 Plan a long report
442
17.2 Writing a long report
447
17.3 Formatting a long report
452
17.4 Edit and review a long report
471
Learning activities Case study: Hazell Engineering: northern expansion
473 476
519
20.2 Give and receive instructions at work
529
20.3 Develop trust and confidence
533
20.4 Interpersonal communication styles
539
20.5 Manage poor work performance
543
20.6 Develop and maintain networks and relationships
552
Learning activities
554
Case study: Managing performance
556
CHAPTER 21 Manage team effectiveness
559
21.1 What is a team?
560
21.2 Team communication
565
21.3 Work-team enablers
574
477
21.4 Facilitate teamwork
576
478
21.5 Liaise with management and other stakeholders
585
CHAPTER 18 Write technical documents and proposals 18.1 The purpose of technical writing 18.2 Main features of technical writing
479
18.3 Common types of technical documents
483
18.4 Proposals and tenders
486
Learning activities
589
Case study: Fairlight Media Company
591
vi Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 22 Lead and develop teams and individuals
593
22.1 What does a leader do?
594
22.2 Sources of influence and power
599
22.3 Team-based leadership
604
22.4 Working with diversity
611
22.5 Develop teams and individuals
613
Learning activities
620
Case study: Rumblings in the team ranks
622
MINDTAP ONLY CHAPTER IMPLEMENT AND MONITOR ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE WORK PRACTICES MT.1 People, planet and profit: the triple bottom line MT.2 Investigate current practices MT.3 Set targets and develop improvement plans MT.4 Implement performance improvement strategies MT.5 Monitor and review resource use and improvements for environmental performance
CHAPTER 23 Organise and manage meetings
625
Learning activities
23.1 Determine the purpose
626
Case study: Preeminent Limited
23.2 Meeting roles and responsibilities
633
23.3 Communicate to achieve results
642
23.4 Decision making and problem solving in a meeting
646
23.5 Follow up and keep records
650
Glossary
655
Learning activities
651
Index
669
Case study: HAHN Food Group meetings
653
See Guide to the Digital Resources on pxii for more information on this premium purchasable eLearning tool.
vii Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
viii Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
GUIDE TO THE TEXT
ix Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
x Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
GUIDE TO THE ONLINE RESOURCES
xi Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
PREFACE The importance of using good communication practices in written communication, face-to-face interactions and through digital channels is a central theme of the 11th edition. Employers seek job candidates with employability skills and the abilities to communicate and work independently and within teams, think clearly, problem solve and make decisions without direction. Employability skills such as communication skills, self-management, flexibility and adaptability to respond well to change and emerging technologies are skills and attributes that can be transferred across occupations and workplaces in any industry. Employability skills are considered by many employers as important as technical skills.
The book’s approach The title of The Business Communication Handbook 11th edition explains its purpose – to build and enhance knowledge of the communication principles, skills and tools critical to success for both organisations and individuals in today’s dynamic workplace. The innovations incorporated into The Business Communication Handbook 11th edition apply communication theory and principles into real-world practice. The balanced approach to both communication knowledge and practice enables you to enhance the quality of your interpersonal and workplace communication. Among the book’s features are: • learning objectives at the beginning of each chapter • concept map at the beginning of each chapter to create a pathway for student learning through the chapter • numerous exhibits to illustrate concepts clearly and concisely • summary of the chapter aligned to the learning objectives to provide a concise overview of the main points in the chapter and a tool for study and revision • key terms listed after the summary of each chapter to provide a quick review of important terms • checkpoint questions to test knowledge • updated learning activities and group assignments to consolidate knowledge and build skills • 23 case studies including nine new case studies to promote critical thinking and an understanding of situations arising in the workplace • spotlight on communication located at the beginning of each Part to focus students’ thinking on the skills employers seek from job candidates • access to new online learning tasks for each chapter to help students consolidate learning and achievement. Communication knowledge and skills are essential to career success. Employers not only seek staff with the technical knowledge and skills specific to an occupation. They also search for staff with the ability to communicate through traditional and the new digital communication channels and the capacity to contribute to harmonious relations between colleagues, customers and other stakeholders.
New to this edition The 11th edition of The Business Communication Handbook is a comprehensive revision of the 10th edition. The chapters in the book have been reorganised into five parts: Part One Communication foundations in the digital era; Part Two Communication in the workplace; Part Three Communication with customers; Part Four Communication through documents; Part Five Communication across an organisation, to provide a clear overview of communication theory and principles. The spotlight feature at the beginning of each part of the book aims to get students thinking about the concepts within the chapters and how they can apply them in their everyday and workplace communication. The new concept map at the beginning of each chapter showcases the student journey of learning throughout each chapter. Chapter 2 Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence has a new section on emotional intelligence. Chapter 3 Adapt to change in the digital era is a new chapter to familiarise students with the skills of adaptability and the xii Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
PREFACE
business uses of digital communication channels. Chapter 14 Effective business writing merges two chapters into one. Chapter 16 Write short reports introduces new content about dashboard reports.
P1
PART ONE – COMMUNICATION FOUNDATIONS IN THE DIGITAL ERA • Chapter 1 Understand communication practices has a new case study and additional content on the forms and functions of business communication, adaptability, ethics, channel richness, communication in digital channels and cultural sensitivity in intercultural communication. • Chapter 2 Developing emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence has a new case study and merges two chapters into one, incorporating new information on emotional intelligence, to explain how personal competence and social competence enhance adaptability and the capacity to work with a diversity of colleagues, offering techniques to sustain emotional labour, and added coverage of nonverbal communication, the process of listening, questioning, feedback and assertiveness. • Chapter 3 Adapt to change in the digital era is a new chapter addressing the attributes of adaptability, barriers to being adaptable, the skills of digital literacy, their growing importance in the workplace and organisational needs fulfilled by digital channels of communication. • Chapter 4 Develop communication skills for employment has a new case study and discusses how to search for a position, construct a job application, job interview skills and highlights the increasing importance of online applications, digital resumes, networking and social media in the job-search process.
P2
PART TWO – COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE • Chapter 5 Organise workplace information covers the information life cycle, organising information, information retrieval, using and sharing information, confidentiality, privacy, security and information disposal. • Chapter 6 Manage work priorities and professional development covers workgroup goals and objectives, setting goals, prioritising, managing time, completing own work schedule, determining development needs and priorities and the importance of professional development. • Chapter 7 Deliver presentations and speeches offers strategies to plan and structure a speech or presentation with a connecting theme, to write a speech or presentation with supporting visual material, to deliver a speech or presentation confidently, to handle difficult audience members and highlights ethics and the reasons for a ‘Welcome to country’ featuring in public speaking and events. • Chapter 8 Develop negotiation and conflict management skills has a new case study and is now a stand-alone chapter with coverage of negotiation strategies, personal styles, negotiating options and their consequences, the ‘fair go’ approach of interest-based negotiation, conflict management strategies and how to chart common interests and concerns in a conflict map. • Chapter 9 Implement and monitor a safe workplace includes overview of the Australian WHS framework, duty of care, WHS management plans, WHS consultation procedures, hazard identification, risk assessment, reporting, corrective action, WHS training, hierarchy of control, risk ranking, office ergonomics, reporting incidents and accidents and compliance with the legislative framework.
P3
PART THREE – COMMUNICATION WITH CUSTOMERS • Chapter 10 Deliver and monitor service to address customer needs has a new case study, strategies to address customer needs, deal with complaints, problem solve, telephone skills, reporting threatening or suspicious calls, monitor and report on service delivery and customer satisfaction and dissatisfaction, recommend improvements and maintain records. • Chapter 11 Manage customer engagement is a new chapter that identifies the stages of customer engagement and strategies that build rapport and satisfaction as the customer journeys through the stages to engagement with
xiii Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
PREFACE
the organisation through social media, through self-service apps, browsing through online promotions and interactions, face-to-face and online networking strategies and the reasons for reviewing customer service, implementing corrective actions and reporting outcomes.
P4
PART FOUR – COMMUNICATION THROUGH DOCUMENTS • Chapter 12 Analyse and present research information identifies the steps in the research process, outlines reasons for researching, analysing and collecting information in the work environment from primary and secondary sources, presenting quantitative and qualitative data to support findings, conclusions and recommendations with evidence and the need to reference sources of information accurately. • Chapter 13 Communicating using graphics and visual aids includes a new section on infographics plus the basic principles of visual design, strategies to construct different types of graphics, select and use ethical presentation to produce a graphic appropriate to the message. • Chapter 14 Effective business writing merges two chapters into one, comprising business writing style, writing emails, writing screen-based content for social media, text messaging, Twitter blogs and how these communication channels function in the workplace plus a new section on ethical business writing. • Chapter 15 Writing business letters applies the three-step writing process to business letters, discusses formatting and function of the parts, differentiates the order of information for good-news or neutral letters, bad-news letters, persuasive letters and explains how to write and respond to a letter of complaint. • Chapter 16 Write short reports introduces new content and a case study about dashboard reports which provide a snapshot of key performance indicators, addresses typical formats for short reports, explains justification, progress, periodic, incident and form reports and analytical reports. • Chapter 17 Write long reports has a new case study and incorporates planning a long report, defining the reports’ purpose and issues, gathering, organising and ordering the information, writing a long report using formal report writing style and the features of technology to format the parts of a long report, using the six-step approach to edit, review and present a professional business report. • Chapter 18 Write technical documents and proposals addresses the purpose and main features of a technical writing style and format, explains how to write technical definitions, technical descriptions, technical instructions, proposals and tenders, work requests, responses to requests for tender (RFT) and examines common writing errors. • Chapter 19 Record keeping addresses the life cycle of records, the purpose of legislation, standards and accountability, how to identify user requirements, classify records, use finding aids to assist with locating and accessing records, apply version control, ensure duty of care and confidentiality, provide records to the user within reasonable timeframes and disposal of records.
P5
PART FIVE – COMMUNICATION ACROSS THE ORGANISATION • Chapter 20 Develop effective workplace relationships has a new case study and addresses the skills and knowledge to use leadership to promote team cohesion, the collection, analysis and communication of information and ideas; the development of trust and confidence, networks and relationships; and the constructive management of difficulties and poor performance. • Chapter 21 Manage team effectiveness addresses the skills and knowledge required to lead teams, promote ethics, values and norms, fair treatment and inclusion, engage with management, plan team performance, communication skills to facilitate team cohesion and team work, and facilitate liaison with stakeholders. • Chapter 22 Lead and develop teams and individuals outlines three theories of leadership (transformational leadership, transactional leadership and authentic leadership), sources of influence, challenges of team-based
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PREFACE
•
leadership, working with diversity, how to develop teams and individuals, determine development needs, support team and individual learning and development, and monitor and evaluate learning. Chapter 23 Organise and manage meetings discusses the purpose of different types, how to plan for face-to-face and virtual meetings, the duties of the chair, secretary and members, protocols and procedures, meeting etiquette and respectful interactions, task-related, maintenance-related, defensive and dysfunctional roles, communication barriers caused by hot-headed, dominating and distracting participants, decision making and problem solving techniques, following up and record keeping.
ONLINE CHAPTER • MindTap: Implement and monitor environmentally sustainable work practices is an additional chapter online that incorporates the triple bottom line, environmental performance, environmentally sustainable work practices, methods to investigate and audit current practices for compliance requirements, strategies to implement and monitor performance improvement, provide feedback and report outcomes.
Employability skills Employers today seek staff with the ability to communicate effectively, gather information, apply knowledge, create innovative ideas, develop rapport, think critically and build relationships with colleagues, customers and others. They look for the employability skills that enable employees to: • adapt to new situations, act independently and translate new options into action. • communicate, problem solve and make decisions • acquire new knowledge and skills through study, on-the-job learning and other ways • self-manage and apply learning to technical issues, operations and interpersonal relationships • contribute to ongoing improvement and expansion in employee and company operations and outcomes • use technology and digital channels of communication to carry out tasks proficiently and apply information technology as a management tool. Employability skills are the non-technical skills and attributes that are transferable across occupations and workplaces in any industry. Employability skills developed in one workplace can be transferred and further developed in different roles and across different workplaces. Employers also identify loyalty, commitment, sense of humour, common sense, ability to deal with pressure, motivation, adaptability, positive self-esteem, reliability and personal presentation as the personal attributes valued by employers.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I extend my thanks to contributing author Nicole Hopwood for the chapters and advice she has provided throughout the planning and writing of this 11th edition. Her work has been vital in bringing to life the many aspects of writing emails, memos and short reports, record keeping and communicating visually. Her contribution was invaluable in bringing the book to completion. I am especially grateful to Kyall Coulton for his invaluable contribution to the work involved in researching and writing a new edition, for three of the new case studies in the book and for the formatting and preparation of the new online Assessor Guide for the 11th edition. I also thank Gregory Punshon for his reading, support and suggestions regarding changes to business communication due to changing digital technology that have made this a better book. I wish to extend our appreciation to the people at Cengage for their continuing help and guidance. They include Senior Development Editor Jessica Brennan, Project Editors Natalie Orr and Lauren McGregor, Publisher Ng Chee, Greg Alford for his careful editing of the text, Jess and the Cengage sales representatives. Special thanks to the following reviewers whose detailed and perceptive comments resulted in extensive refinements to the book: • Melanie Dare Box Hill Institute • John Arthur TAFE NSW • Merran Renton Bedford College • Corina Murphy Canberra Institute of Technology • Sally Bradfield TAFE NSW – Ultimo • Anne Butler TMG College • Katherine Firth Melbourne Business School, University of Melbourne • Mingsheng Li Massey University • Odette Van Der Berg CQUniversity, Australia • Marissa Edwards The University of Queensland • Rebecca Redfern Monash Training and Professional Development • Louise Handley TAFE SA • Rosita Thomas Whitireia Polytechnic, Auckland • Rosemary Kerr Curtin University I am especially grateful to my husband John Burns for his invaluable input, ongoing support, interest and enthusiasm throughout the 11 editions of the book. Judith Dwyer October 2018
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS Judith Dwyer, M Mgt, B Ec, Dip Ed, IML member, has worked in education and training for many years. Judith’s specialisation is in cross-industry management and communication studies. In her early career she taught business students Communication Studies within Technical and Further Education for a period of 20 years. Through her TAFE experiences as a teacher and senior manager she has gained valuable experience in the needs of adult learners. Through her involvement with industry and as Managing Director of a nationally recognised Registered Training Organisation (RTO) she has observed the need for individuals, teams and organisations with the skills and knowledge to communicate effectively in order to achieve results. She promotes positive interactive communication as one of the essential components in any successful organisation. In recent years she has become a leading vocational education and training author of textbooks and learning materials. The practical approach taken in her writing and the application of proven educational and business principles provides value to students, teachers and lecturers. It also provides opportunities throughout the book for students to practise and further develop the employability skills of communication, teamwork, problem solving, initiative and enterprise, planning and organising, self-management, learning and use of technology and social media. People are able to put their learning into practice in their studies and workplace. Judith earned her degree in Economics from the University of New England, her Diploma of Education from the University of Newcastle and her Master of Management (Public) from the University of Technology Sydney. She is a member of the Institute of Managers and Leaders.
About the contributing author Nicole Hopwood holds a Graduate Diploma of Management, a Bachelor of Economics (Accounting Major) and is a Certified Practising Accountant (CPA). Her professional experience includes working in various industries including professional services, banking and telecommunications. She has specialised in business reconstruction and insolvency in the professional services industry. She has communicated the results of detailed analysis to decision makers in both investment and retail banking in the United Kingdom and Australia, respectively. Nicole has set up and maintained monitoring tools for use in analysing whether customers are credit worthy in the telecommunications industry. From Nicole’s extensive professional experience in Australia and the United Kingdom she has gained the realisation that each member within an organisation has a responsibility for continual improvement both within themself and the organisation. Her philosophy, reflected in this book, is that continual improvement and learning are integral to improvement in every aspect of an organisation’s activities. Linked to continual improvement is ongoing organisational change and that deep insights can be gained from systematic collection and analysis of data. She believes the best decisions are based on the correct analysis of quality data. Continual improvement and effective management of change leads to customer satisfaction, new customers, premium pricing, profitability, brand reputation, employee satisfaction and morale. The organised, systematic application of the knowledge, tools and resources of change management provides organisations with a key process to involve stakeholders and achieve change successfully. Nicole earned her Bachelor degree in Economics from the University of Sydney and her Graduate Diploma of Management from the Australian Graduate School of Management (AGSM). She is a member of CPA Australia.
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PART ONE
self-aware ne
ulation -reg elf
Your Learning Map
+ ss s
CH 3 ADAPT TO CHANGE IN THE DIGITAL ERA
CH 2 DEVELOP EMOTIONAL INTELLEGENCE + INTERPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE
CH 1 UNDERSTAND COMMUNICATION PRACTICES
Communication foundations in the digital era
WELL DONE! You’ve reached the end of this learning journey
CH 22 LEAD + DEVELOP TEAMS + INDIVIDUALS
CH 21 MANAGE TEAM EFFECTIVENESS
CH 20 DEVELOP EFFECTIVE WORKPLACE RELATIONSHIPS
PART FIVE CH 23 ORGANISE + MANAGE MEETINGS
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MINDTAP ONL Y CHAPTER IMPLEMENT + MONITOR ENVIRONMEN TALLY SUSTAINABL E WORK PRAC
TICES
CH 4 DEVELOP COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR EMPLOYMENT
PART TWO
CH 7
CH 8
DELIVER PRESENTATIONS + SPEECHES
DEVELOP NEGOTIATION + CONFLICT MANAGEMENT SKILLS
CH 6 MANAGE WORK PRIORITIES + PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
CH 5 ORGANISE WORKPLACE INFORMATION
Communication strategies in the workplace
CH 9 IMPLEMENT + MONITOR A SAFE WORKPLACE
THIS WAY FOR PART THREE
CH 10 DELIVER + MONITOR SERVICE TO ADDRESS CUSTOMER NEEDS
Communication with customers CH 11 MANAGE CUSTOMER ENGAGEMENT
PART FOUR
Where to now?
CH 12 ANALYSE + PRESENT RESEARCH INFORMATION
Communication through documents CH 19 RECORD KEEPING
CH 13
CH 16 WRITE SHORT REPORTS
CH 18 WRITE TECHNICAL DOCUMENTS + PROPOSALS
COMMUNICATE USING GRAPHICS + VISUAL AIDS
CH 17 WRITE LONG REPORTS
CH 15 WRITE BUSINESS LETTERS
CH 14 EFFECTIVE BUSINESS WRITING
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Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
PART
CHAPTER 1
UNDERSTAND COMMUNICATION PRACTICES
CHAPTER 2
DEVELOP EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND INTERPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE
CHAPTER 3
ADAPT TO CHANGE IN THE DIGITAL ERA
CHAPTER 4
DEVELOP COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR EMPLOYMENT
1
COMMUNICATION FOUNDATIONS IN THE DIGITAL ERA
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Spotlight on: Communication
Communication – the human connection – is the key to personal and career success. Paul J. Meyer
In the modern workplace, communication skills are highly regarded. The importance of understanding self and others and having the interpersonal skills to build positive relationships while working towards productive outcomes means employers are seeking candidates with the emotional intelligence and interpersonal skills to build positive relationships and accomplish work tasks and objectives. The rapid evolution of digital channels of communication requires employers and employees to adapt and respond flexibly. A willingness to learn and apply new skills to new technologies improves interactions, relationships and work performance. Some of the most important skills employers say they look for are communication, openness to experience, adaptability in response to change, flexibility, ability to learn, self-management, relationship management and ability to work independently as well as with others. These skills are transferable between occupations and enhance interpersonal interactions, relationship building and performance through any of the face-to-face, written, graphic and digital channels of communication.
What do you think? In the digital age, do you think employers care about communication? Do you use different styles of communication when you communicate and interact in the digital media; for example, Twitter, email, voicemail, Facebook, Instagram? Why are emotional intelligence and interpersonal skills relevant? •
Can you think of a time when you felt your emotions impacted the way that you communicated?
•
Why should employers care about employees’ adaptability?
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UNDERSTAND COMMUNICATION PRACTICES
CHAPTER
1
YOUR
FORMS
LEARNING
verbal nonverbal graphic
JOURNEY
C
1 er t p ha
+
FUNCTIONS informing persuading implementing
1.1
of Business Communication
1.4
Looks at FACTORS that IMPACT BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
EXPLORE the INTERACTIVE COMMUNICATION process of INFORMATION FLOW
globalisation workforce diversity technology organisation change knowledge
1.2
Where to now?
How can I be sensitive and inclusive? 1.5
Next DEVELOP EMOTIONAL INTELLEGENCE + INTERPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE
How can I communicate ethically? CH2
encoding clear messages choosing the right channel
1.3 decoding messages to share understanding overcoming barriers to communication communicating clearly in formal and informal settings
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK
LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 1.1 discuss the main forms and functions of business communication 1.2 outline each element of the communication process 1.3 identify the characteristics of an ethical business communicator 1.4 outline factors impacting communication in business 1.5 discuss the role of cultural sensitivity and inclusive communication techniques in overcoming cultural differences.
1.1 FORMS AND FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION Employers within any type of enterprise realise effective communication creates connections that build and foster relationships and enhance productivity. The term ‘communication’ implies verbal interaction, but it can mean other things as well. In any industry, profession or occupation, communication includes: • the written word as conveyed in letters, emails, online reports, internet transactions and social media • nonverbal signs such as body language and tone of voice, and recognising the appropriate way to interact in various situations • graphic communication such as in signs and video clips. We tend to take these non-spoken forms for granted because we rarely consider them. Since employers are looking for a broad range of communication skills as well as technical and related skills, it is worth learning and improving your communication capabilities.
FORMS: VERBAL, NONVERBAL AND GRAPHIC Differentiate three forms of workplace communication.
Choose the form of communication with the channel richness appropriate for your message.
There are three forms of communication: 1. verbal communication, either spoken or written 2. nonverbal communication 3. graphic communication. Skills in verbal communication (spoken and written), nonverbal and graphic communication are all essential in the workplace. At work, verbal communication takes place between a variety of individuals and groups, such as managers, team members, colleagues and customers. Examples of verbal communication include written reports, emails and blogs, announcements, providing advice, asking for clarification, assistance and feedback, acknowledging customer requests and complaints. Nonverbal communication is sent by any means other than words or graphics. Nonverbal components occur in oral, written and graphic communication. In oral communication, for example, facial expressions, body movement, posture, dress and other nonverbal cues affect the message. Format and layout are two of the nonverbal components of written and graphic communication. Graphic communication represents ideas, relationships or connections visually with shapes, diagrams and lines. It can have both verbal and nonverbal components – for example, signs such as ‘no smoking’, drawings, colour, illustrations, typography, graphic designs, and electronic and digital resources. Verbal (spoken and written), nonverbal and graphic communication have different strengths and weaknesses. Spoken communication is a useful way to convey feelings and receive feedback, while written
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CHAPTER 1 / Understand communication practices communication is a better way of conveying facts, particularly those that are complicated and need to be held as records. Graphic communication is able to complement spoken and written communication. Channel richness refers to the amount of information and understanding that can be transmitted by a particular communication channel. For example, face-to-face conversations, Skype or FaceTime calls and videoconferencing have high levels of information richness because as well as hearing the words the sender and receiver can see the other person’s facial expressions and body language and sense their tone of voice. Additional meaning flows from the other person’s body language, vocal intonation and feedback. Medium-rich channels include emails, written letters, memos, blogs and other documents conveyed by hand-held and desktop devices because they convey words and graphics such as pictures, graphs and photos, but lack the immediate feedback and body language cues of the rich channels. The rigid and standardised format of formal written reports, legal documents, spreadsheets and policies and procedures manuals are the least rich because they depend on the written words with the accompanying graphs and figures to convey meaning. The opportunity for immediate feedback is not available.
FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION The main functions of communication in any business enterprise are to inform and persuade internal and external stakeholders and to make and implement decisions. Refer to Exhibit 1.1.
Informing The primary purpose of informing within any organisation is to provide data and information so employees can carry out their jobs. Information allows employees to understand what needs to be done, increases productivity and minimises job uncertainty. Information about policies communicates standards: for example, ‘Smoking and drinking are strictly prohibited within the company offices and grounds’. Procedures support policies by describing who, what, how, when and why a process or task should be done. Refer to Chapters 5, 9 and 11 for discussion of the role of information for those external to the enterprise.
EXHIBIT 1.1 Main functions of business communication COMMUNICATE INTERNALLY WITH: • Managers • Supervisors • Team leaders • Coworkers
• • • •
COMMUNICATE EXTERNALLY WITH: Customers Suppliers Government agencies The public
FUNCTIONS: 1. Inform 2. Persuade 3. Make and implement decisions
Persuading The purpose of persuasion is to change the attitude or behaviour of employees, colleagues, customers, suppliers and others. The essential components of persuasion are the credibility of the source, emotional appeal (based on factual and emotional arguments) and a message conveyed along the right channel(s) to reach the intended receiver. Information and persuasion help to build and maintain effective workplace relationships. A positive communication climate builds a culture of trust and motivates individuals and work teams to work towards common goals. The result is individuals and teams that value performance, improve productivity and deliver high levels of customer service.
Use persuasion to motivate others to change attitudes or behaviour.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK
Implementing decisions Another essential function of communication is the making and implementation of decisions. Decisions are the courses of action deliberately chosen from a range of alternatives to achieve an organisation’s objectives. Decision making sustains the activities of all organisations and plays a crucial role in the ongoing success of any organisation. Communication is a necessary component for making decisions in any business interaction. It conveys information about the decision-making process: why, by whom, what it involves, and how and when the decision will be implemented.
SUCCESSFUL BUSINESS COMMUNICATION Successful business communicators are open, approachable and supportive of others. They are adaptable and focus on what needs to be done in any situation. Openness to new ideas and adaptation to changed situations, strategy, policies and procedures lead to enhanced productivity and growth of the organisation. Employees at every level in an organisation need the communication skills to understand and respond to the formal and informal communication from their leaders, managers and supervisors. An organisation’s culture and the way people behave at work are influenced by their formal and informal interactions. Effective communicators are able to interact well in both formal and informal organisational settings. Formal, informal or unofficial messages will be conveyed along different channels. The choice of channel will be influenced by the nature of the message, the channel’s richness or leanness and the sensitivity and emotional content of the subject. Different communication channels are dealt with in more detail later in this chapter in Section 1.2, The communication process.
Formal business communication Formal communication deals with the information that flows through different lines and channels, from management to employees, from employees to management and between peers. Formal small-group communication occurs in project team meetings, working parties, committee meetings and any other small group that meets and interacts in the workplace. Small groups meet faceto-face or remotely via digital technology such as text, screen or voice.
Informal business communication Informal communication flows in any direction and can occur across all levels and areas of an organisation. In their informal interactions, effective interpersonal communicators match their body language, facial expression, posture, movement and tone of voice to their words. For example, when a colleague says, ‘That’s a great idea’ with a big smile on his face and a rising tone, you know that he is happy with the idea. Without this interpersonal awareness of the person who is communicating, a great deal of what the person is trying to communicate is missed. In addition to listening to words, people watch and listen to all of the nonverbal communication (body language, tone of voice, facial expression) parts of the message.
The importance of communication method Successful communicators choose the appropriate method or channel to send a message. The wrong communication channel is being used, for example, when an employee opens an email and reads she is
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CHAPTER 1 / Understand communication practices being transferred to another state. A face-to-face meeting is a better channel because of the opportunity for questions and answers and reading of the other person’s body language, facial expressions and vocal characteristics. Successful communicators know oral communication is suited to two situations. The first is emotionally charged messages requiring a richer channel than written communication. The second is simple, routine messages that are concise and clear and require a quick response. Written communication such as emails, letters, reports and online messages conveys more complex information that may be forwarded to one or more receivers. The written communication can be read at any time and kept for future reference. Furthermore, email and online written messages are available through smartphones, tablets and laptops at the office, at home, while travelling or at remote work locations. Many more simple, routine messages can be sent using written communication rather than face-to-face communication.
Effective communication outcomes The outcome of effective formal and informal communication is more cohesive and effective relationships and teams. Open communication ensures understanding of the organisation’s direction and vision. Well-informed team members and other colleagues know how their achievements contribute to the growth and success of the organisation. They are motivated to work productively towards common goals. Effective informing and persuading results in job satisfaction, increased motivation and productivity, less absenteeism and fewer accidents. (McGregor 1960, Rajhans 2012) Successful business communication promotes positive attitudes and behaviours towards an organisation from its internal and external stakeholders. The benefits are customer loyalty and an increasing number of return customers. A successful business communicator has the ability to analyse the process of communication and understand how to use it effectively. They apply this understanding when they use each of the three forms of communication (verbal, nonverbal and graphic) and apply the functions identified in Exhibit 1.1. A successful business communicator provides information, offers constructive feedback and connects positively with others. Feedback is dealt with in detail later in this chapter. Successful business communication also requires managers, team members and colleagues to apply emotional intelligence and interpersonal skills, as detailed in Chapter 2.
ADAPTABILITY AND FLEXIBILITY Communication adaptability refers to a person’s readiness and ability to adjust their communication based on the specific needs of the situation or relationship. As our experience widens, new learning about ways to adapt in different situations and changing circumstances takes place. Adaptability enables individuals to adjust their behaviour to make others feel more at ease with the situation. Relationships are respectful, understanding, non-judgemental and cultivated in a way that allows everyone to win. Trust and credibility increase when a person has the flexibility to adapt their emotions, thoughts and behaviours to unfamiliar and varying circumstances or ideas. Adaptability in spoken and nonverbal responses to changing or tense situations means interactions are more likely to be productive, because the adjustments to communication are suited to the situation. For example, when a colleague tells you at 5.30 pm the night before tomorrow’s joint presentation that they haven’t finished their part of the presentation, the ability to adapt from a ‘knee-jerk’ reaction of irritation or anger to a calm response that focuses on positive ways to deal with the situation avoids misunderstanding and conflict. Adaptable communication connects with others in a way that meets the needs of both and the needs of the situation.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK In the case of changed circumstances, adaptability allows a person to deal with changing priorities and workloads, take on new challenges and improvise at short notice. Adaptability enhances persistence and calmness in response to unexpected demands or difficulties, promotes an open mind and considers the overall situation positively. The ability to communicate and adapt is acquired by learning skills from others, from training and professional development programs and from experience. The communication styles of individuals and organisations develop through using and adapting new techniques.
CHECKPOINT 1.1
1. Communication: a. Describe three forms of communication. b. List the main functions of business communication. c. What are the essential components of persuasion? d. What does channel richness mean? 2. Name three ways in which communication flows in an organisation. 3. Communication adaptability: a. Define the term ‘communication adaptability’. b. How would you describe a person who has the flexibility to adapt to changing circumstances?
1.2 THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
Interact in the communication process.
Communication is an intricate and interactive process. The interactions of several elements affect the people who are communicating. Someone sends, someone receives, and the outcome is a message. As information flows, people perceive meaning and structure in the messages received from others. However, perception – the way individuals understand or give meaning to the same message – varies according to how each individual is influenced by experience, attitudes and beliefs, and a range of acquired skills or expectations. One person may, for example, perceive the colour blue as cool, peaceful and comforting, while another person may see blue as old-fashioned or formal. The specific meaning is influenced by past experience. Even the context or setting of the communication can affect perception. The communication process takes place in various contexts and situations, for different reasons and with the potential for many interpretations. It has seven main elements: 1. sender 2. receiver 3. message 4. channel 5. feedback 6. context or setting 7. noise or interference. There are many models of the communication process. Exhibit 1.2 is a representation of how communication works. It cannot be used as a complete guide; it simply places the most significant elements of the process in a meaningful sequence.
A MODEL OF COMMUNICATION Transfer meaning through effective communication.
The main action, as communication occurs, is that the sender and receiver interact by sending (encoding) and receiving (decoding) messages. Exhibit 1.2 shows seven elements of the communication process, which begins with the sender.
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CHAPTER 1 / Understand communication practices
EXHIBIT 1.2 The communication process Receive
SENDER
Perception of sender Self-concept Family Culture Skills Feelings Attitudes Values Gender Expectations Physical and emotional state
5. Receiver provides Feedback
Send
RECEIVER
7. Noise or interference
1. Sender has a concept
4. Receiver decodes and responds to message
6. Context 2. Encodes (produces) concept into a Message
7. Noise or interference
Send
3. Communication channel
Perception of receiver Self-concept Family Culture Skills Feelings Attitudes Values Gender Expectations Physical and emotional state
Receive
Sender Senders are individuals who respond to situations from a unique vantage point, interpreting ideas and filtering experiences through their own perception. Unique to individual senders, and integral to all the communication they engage in, is a background of accumulated attitudes, experiences, skills, cultural conditioning and differences that influence how they communicate. The sender encodes a concept or a feeling in words or signs that the receiver will recognise and sends this message to the receiver. However, the way the message is intended by the sender may be quite different from the way the receiver perceives the message.
Encode messages clearly to enhance the receiver’s understanding.
Receiver The receiver decodes or interprets the message to achieve understanding. In doing this, the receiver is also acting as an individual with a unique vantage point, interpreting the idea according to a particular personal perception of the message. Perception can be described as a pair of spectacles through which the receiver processes all the signals received from others. The lenses place a particular focus on what is seen, heard and understood and they influence the way the receiver reacts to the message. Perception is the result of the receiver’s unique background of experiences, beliefs, concerns and many other factors. Communication is successful when the sender and receiver share understanding. The shared understanding motivates and influences behaviour. Communication is more than sending information. As the receiver interprets the message, it may not be received with the interpretation the sender had hoped for.
Message The message is the concept or feeling transmitted from the sender to the receiver to achieve understanding. It makes a connection between sender and receiver.
Consider how perception influences communication. Decode the message in preparation for feedback.
Connect the sender to the receiver with a clear message conveyed along the appropriate channel.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK The message is the verbal, nonverbal or graphic content sent from sender to receiver. For example, as you leave your doctor’s surgery you say, ‘Thank you’. The doctor receives the message and decodes it as a courteous farewell. Any message has content (verbal, nonverbal or graphic) that the sender transmits to the receiver. The receiver decodes the message and responds or gives feedback to the sender. A business message should be well structured and use a form of communication and channel appropriate to the needs of the sender and receiver. A message that is understood and prompts the receiver to take the intended action or to think in new ways is effective.
Communication channel
Choose a channel appropriate to your communication purpose and the needs of the receiver.
A communication channel is the means or technique used to signal or convey a message: for example, a conversation, letter, telephone call, internet, email, media release, social media or radio/television program. The Australian Tax Office, for example, is a proactive user of social media channels. As well as using face-to-face, phone, paper and online channels, it engages with its stakeholders through different social media including blogs, Facebook, Twitter, YouTube and LinkedIn. The rise of digital communication and social media has seen the focus of business shift from written to oral communication and from text to visual communication. The shift to richer channels allows greater amounts of information and understanding between senders and receivers. For example, the proliferation of mobile devices enables easy connectivity along a variety of channels with those inside and outside the physical workplace. Employees have easy access to workplace policies, procedures, processes and other information. Digital streaming of information stored in virtual clouds and on hard drives enables almost instant access. Software built into mobile phones, touch tablets, e-readers and laptops provides seamless channels to information and entertainments. Each channel is different, and understanding the way people interact in each channel enhances engagement and understanding. Choose a channel that suits your communication purpose, your needs as the sender of the message, the needs of the receiver and time constraints. Emotionally charged messages require a rich channel, while simple, routine messages simply require a short, clear-cut message. For example, while a quick email is sufficient to advise your team of tomorrow’s lunch in acknowledgement and appreciation of reaching this month’s goals, it is not suitable for telling someone their contract has been cancelled. The flow of communication moves through the organisation along different lines or channels. Horizontal channels operate between colleagues at the same level of the organisation’s structure, while vertical channels move communication up and down between different levels.
Feedback A constant feeding back of information occurs as people interact. As well as encouraging the speaker to continue, listeners respond in a way that shows their comprehension and acceptance or non-acceptance of the message. Without feedback, there is uncertainty as to whether or not the message has been understood. Asking a question, listening carefully and observing body language gives clues to the effectiveness of communication. The facial expressions, tone of voice and gestures of the other person help you to work out if they understand and are interested in the interaction. Feedback, particularly the nonverbal component, lets you know if the receivers are being defensive, confident, truthful or evasive. Feedback and interpreting the receiver’s body language allows the sender to ask questions, and to adjust and expand their message. Feedback also works to allow the receiver to check their understanding of the message. 10 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
CHAPTER 1 / Understand communication practices Feedback is a two-way process that is an essential part of successful communication. It is the receiver’s response to the sender’s message, and can be intentional or unintentional. Feedback: • gives the communication continuity • indicates understanding or misunderstanding of the message • stimulates further communication and discussion. Both sender and receiver need feedback. As you communicate, check with your receivers to establish that their understanding of the message is correct. Ask the receiver to rephrase what has been said and acknowledge your agreement or disagreement. Feedback is important to determine how the message is being received and helps receivers understand how their behaviour affects others. Feedback can help or hinder your communication and the climate you create. In the workplace, most people communicate face-to-face with their leaders, supervisors and colleagues, so providing appropriate feedback can assist the development of good working relationships and the productivity of the business or organisation.
Respond to messages through feedback.
Context Context consists of the situation, circumstances or setting within which communication takes place. Context plays an important part in how a message is encoded and decoded. The same message can carry a completely different meaning depending on the situation, since emotions and reactions to ideas and events vary in different situations – for example, communication at a conference, in the lunchroom or at a formal meeting is taking place in different settings. It may use different language, and operate on a different set of relationships and authority to achieve the communication purpose of each situation.
Acknowledge the impact of context on the message.
Noise or interference The message received is not necessarily the same as the message sent. Something other than the intended meaning may be received because of noise or interference, which interrupts and distorts the intended message. Noise or interference creates a barrier that interrupts smooth communication flow between sender and receiver and is likely to lead to misunderstanding, or to confused or ambiguous communication. Communication barriers or noise can be caused by the sender, the receiver, lack of feedback, a poor choice of channel, the wrong context or any other element in the communication model. Even when communication barriers occur, something is communicated to the receiver, but the noise or interference distorts the intended message. Some of the factors that cause communication barriers are inappropriate choice of words, inappropriate channel, inappropriate message and receiver inattention. Lack of courtesy by the sender or the receiver, nonverbal communication that does not support the words and different cultural backgrounds may distort the message. Poor layout and presentation, inappropriate timing and inadequate feedback may also cause problems. Recognising the causes of poor communication is an important step towards avoiding them. Consider the possibilities shown in Exhibit 1.3. To reduce the chance of communication barriers and associated problems, communicate with empathy – a feeling for and awareness of your receivers and their points of view. Also, be willing to provide appropriate and sufficient feedback to achieve understanding. At any stage of the communication process – sender, message, channel, receiver, feedback or context – there is the potential for misunderstanding and confusion. Effective communicators commit to overcoming obstacles that may arise in any stage of the communication process.
Avoid or minimise noise (barriers) that interrupt the communication.
Remove barriers to communication.
Use empathy to break down communication barriers.
Demonstrate awareness of the other person, their feelings and point of view.
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EXHIBIT 1.3 Communication barriers Cause of barrier
CHECKPOINT 1.2
FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE
Outcome
Strategies to avoid barrier
Differences in perception
People often see and interpret the same event or action in a different way
• Listen carefully • Speak clearly and directly to the other person • Ask questions • Give feedback
Different attitudes and values
People often form different interpretations
• Listen carefully • Speak clearly and directly to the other person • Ask questions • Give feedback
Inconsistency between spoken and nonverbal communication
Poor communication and confusion due to an ambiguous message
• Match the verbal and nonverbal parts of the total message
Withholding information
Others operate with only part of the message, so mistakes are more likely to occur
• Plan and structure the message to include all necessary information
Passing judgement by telling people their reaction is foolish
The receiver can become angry and retaliate
• Listen actively • Ask questions • Give feedback
Dismissing others’ concerns or points of view
The receiver may withdraw
• Listen carefully • Show you are aware of the other’s point of view • Ask questions
Misinterpreting complex language
The receiver may misunderstand
• Use visual images and graphics on equipment • Post signs in employees’ first language
1. List and briefly explain the seven elements in the communication model. 2. Recall a situation in which you believe communication was successful. Give three reasons why the communication worked well. 3. Identify six communication barriers that can arise in a workplace.
Introductions: How do you communicate who you are and what you do? In the business environment, introductions are how people communicate who they are and what they do. They can be a shorthand for your role and contribution as well as a great opportunity to set the foundations for future working relationships. So, if an introduction can be all these things, what can you do to ensure it is? According to Lisa B. Marshall, from The Public Speaker, there are three things to keep in mind when introducing yourself in the business environment.
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1. Communicate your contribution – that is, let people know not just what it is that you do but also where your strengths and skills lie. For example: My name’s Mimi Lee, I have extensive experience working in the digital communication and content development fields. I’ve worked in publishing, state government and education. What I do well is communication. My role in this team is to enable communication and understanding between stakeholders. If you need to communicate something to a stakeholder, I’m here to help you. I take information and make sure it’s communicated in an understandable and relatable way, in the appropriate channel, for each stakeholder. This introduction not only explains Mimi’s experience and role but also tells people what they can expect from her. 2. Be memorable – introductions can easily blur into each other for the listener, especially in a situation where many people are introducing themselves. Keep in mind that what people remember is often how what you do relates to them and their role. In Mimi’s example, what would be memorable is what she does for the team. If someone needs to communicate something to, or decode information from, a stakeholder, Mimi is the person to help them. 3. Be culturally aware – this covers local as well as international culture. Be aware of the culture of the workplace. Just as dress codes vary from place to place, so too do codes of conduct. Be aware of what is considered appropriate to the people you are addressing. Is it a more formal workplace? Would making a joke be appropriate? Is there a risk that making a joke could offend? Always know your audience. Source: https://www.quickanddirtytips.com/business-career/public-speaking/how-to-introduce-yourself-in-ameeting?page¼1, viewed 2 November 2018.
ASK YOURSELF: Think about when you last introduced yourself to a fellow student. Compare this to how you introduced yourself to a teacher or in a job interview. Did you use any of the three elements discussed? How might you have changed your introduction if you had?
1.3 ETHICS IN COMMUNICATION Business decisions are made and actions taken by individuals or groups who are influenced by their view of what is right and wrong and by the culture of their organisation. Ethical behaviour enables employees to act with equity, fairness, impartiality and respect for the rights of others. The culture within an ethical company expects individuals and groups to work in accordance with ethical principles such as respect, honesty, transparency, objectivity, integrity, openness and inclusiveness. Business communication is an integral part of any organisation’s activities. Ethical business communication is legal, consistent, responsible and transparent. Ethical business communicators make choices that enable them to: • follow the organisation’s policies, procedures, guidelines and code of ethics • communicate factual information objectively • avoid using distortions of fact and misleading information • respect the dignity of each person, irrespective of ethnic background, religion or gender.
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CODE OF ETHICS Most organisations have a code of ethics, which is a statement of their primary values and the ethical rules they expect their employees to follow. An ethical organisation requires its employees to fulfil their duties in accordance with its code of ethics, contracts, laws and regulations. The ethical rules become the norms of conduct that differentiate behaviour that is acceptable from behaviour that is not acceptable. A code of ethics benefits the company and the individual by: • reinforcing the organisation’s standard of conduct • reminding staff that management wants ethical issues considered in all decisions made • identifying practices that are and are not permissible • allowing leaders, managers and others to share experiences and ideas about what is and is not an ethical position • developing a shared culture based on ethics and accountability. In a company without a code of ethics, people may be uncertain about how to deal with an issue or problem. Organisations with high ethical standards treat customers, staff and other stakeholders honestly and fairly. Employees are expected to maintain confidentiality of information by using it carefully to ensure it is not used without authorisation. High-quality products and services are delivered to customers and any faults or poor service are corrected as soon as possible. Ethical behaviour builds a positive organisational image and reputation, as well as good relationships.
Conflict of interest Recognise a situation as a conflict of interest when you sense a clash between different interests, points of view or loyalties.
A conflict of interest occurs when a situation that benefits an employee disadvantages their organisation. Situations that could lead to a conflict of interest due to personal, financial or commercial benefit must be avoided. For example, a purchasing officer accepts trips and gifts from a supplier and then selects the supplier’s products for purchase, or a manager employs a relative or close friend and then supervises the relative’s job responsibilities, salary and promotions. Conflicts of interest weaken an organisation’s, group’s or individual’s reputation and call into question the manager and other employee’s integrity because other managers and colleagues will criticise and doubt that the actions are in the best interests of the organisation. Methods organisations use to deal with conflicts of interest are to: • create a code of ethics • establish clear company policies • explain the code of ethics and policies when hiring and inducting employees • communicate a code of ethics and policies in the employee handbook and collect signed and dated acknowledgement forms • have employees sign a noncompete and confidentiality agreement when they are employed • decide if action needs to be taken when a conflict arises: for example, give a warning to the employee, have a meeting with Human Resources or, in an extreme case, terminate an employee. Conduct business with honesty and impartiality and work in accordance with professional and organisational codes of conduct and ethics. Honest and impartial communicators avoid exaggeration, false information, lies and deception that may mislead their receivers. They realise the importance of knowing about and working in accordance with copyright, trademark, contract and liability laws relevant to their industry and field of work.
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1. 2. 3. 4.
How does ethical behaviour benefit an organisation? What is the purpose of a code of ethics? Provide two examples of a conflict of interest at work. How can organisations deal with conflicts of interest?
1.4 FACTORS IMPACTING BUSINESS COMMUNICATION Communication in any type of work environment, such as the finance, health, transport, services, hospitality, manufacturing or any other industry, is about connecting with others. While the situations in which people communicate in different industries can vary, some of the factors that impact communication are common to most work environments. These factors are shown in Exhibit 1.4. Many of the changes in the world of work make communication skills the key to your success. These changes include the opportunities and challenges arising from globalisation and workforce diversity, evolving social networks, the constant cycle of change and the growing importance of knowledge management and intellectual ‘know-how’.
GLOBALISATION
CHECKPOINT 1.3
EXHIBIT 1.4 Factors impacting business communication
Globalisation
Workforce diversity
Factors impacting on business communication
Organisational change and sustainability
Digital technology and social media
Knowledge management
Globalisation means that people around the world are more connected to each other than ever before. The abundance of information technology enables business transactions across borders. Goods, services and knowledge created in one economy are exchanged with other economies around the world. More and more outsourcing of some functions – for example, telemarketing and finance – requires employees to collaborate across national boundaries via online and digital technology. Continuing globalisation has led to larger markets, more technologies and a broader and deeper knowledge base. The resulting increase in international competition is forcing organisations to interact and collaborate with one another and across national boundaries. Successful global communicators realise that differences in values, attitudes and expectations mean collaborating across cultures is not always easy. However, they make the effort to learn about the different ways of greeting, farewelling and interacting in business meetings and other situations. Knowing about the culture and habits of other countries, and being willing to adapt and respond flexibly, means less emotionalism and reaction and more reliance on facts and responses appropriate to the issue or situation. Organisations are increasingly searching for emotionally competent leaders, managers and other employees with the emotional competence to connect within teams and with others across and between organisations and national borders. They realise that awareness and control of one’s own emotions, as well as the ability to sense the feelings and perspectives of those from other cultures, builds strong relationships. Cultural sensitivity and an active interest in the concerns of others creates a culture of cooperation, trust, team commitment and a sense of purpose.
Meet the challenges of globalisation.
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Use big data: that is, the dynamic, large and disparate volumes of data being created by people, tools and machines, as appropriate to the situation.
Build an inclusive culture by acknowledging and managing diversity in the workplace.
Emotionally competent leaders, senior managers and team members are able to adapt or even change to match changed circumstances. Adaptable and flexible responses to challenges and new opportunities empower and motivate employees to achieve mutually agreed outcomes. Successful global organisations apply a reality check using data and information to evaluate proposed solutions against workplace parameters such as legal and organisational requirements, budget restraints, resource capability and time constraints. Traditional organisational information combined with the volumes of big data collected on social media, data from internet-enabled devices (including smartphones and tablets), machine data, video and voice recordings afford opportunities to improve ‘customer and product profitability, customer acquisition and retention strategies, customer satisfaction strategies, marketing segmentation, operations and performance management, supply chain and delivery channel strategy’ (EY 2014, p. 4). A global organisation promotes good business interactions and relationships by sharing and modelling standards for business interactions, social etiquette, and customs and rituals between organisations and across cultures and national boundaries. Intercultural differences are respected and people work together to fulfil responsibilities and accountabilities. In 2017, Johnson & Johnson was recognised as one of the top five by DiversityInc Top 50 Companies for Diversity. Key factors cited in the improvement included the diversity of our board of directors, which is 38.4% more diverse than the average among top-50 companies, as well as our best-in-class mentoring programs, which features cross-gender, cross-functional, cross-segment, cross-generational and crossregional mentoring. Source: Johnson & Johnson, 2018.
WORKFORCE DIVERSITY The strategies organisations use to recruit, supervise, promote, reward and use the skills of all employees reflect a company’s approach to diversity and inclusiveness. Successful organisations are able to embrace the differences in gender, age, language, sexual orientation, religious belief, family responsibilities, ethnicity and cultural background within their workforce. An inclusive organisational culture is built on leadership that promotes diversity as well as conditions, systems and procedures that enable employees from different backgrounds to work together harmoniously. The organisation’s management recognises the value of individual differences, manages them constructively and removes barriers to opportunity. The reasons for companies to address workforce diversity are detailed in Exhibit 1.5. Dealing with differences is a key requirement for any sustainable organisation. Given that it is now common to find four or five generations, multiple languages, many ethnicities and races, and differences in gender, sexual orientation, religion, personalities and values in the workplace, it is imperative that organisations are geared to work with and benefit from diversity. Intentional and unintentional messages may lead to misunderstanding because of a message that is poorly constructed by the sender, or due to the receiver’s perception and cultural background. By bringing together many different perspectives, positive management of diversity provides an opportunity to build an organisational culture that allows people to interact and communicate effectively and learn from each other about how to better achieve their work tasks. Conversely, stereotyping and discrimination lead to inequalities in access to education, training and promotion. The need to offer any diverse population equality of access to opportunities in education, jobs and promotion makes communication strategies such as Plain English and inclusive communication an essential part of workplace communication. These two strategies are presented more fully in Chapter 14, Effective business writing. 16 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
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EXHIBIT 1.5 Reasons for working with diversity Outcomes
Purpose Business communication strategy
• Holds managers accountable for managing employees of the organisation ethically and fairly • Enables the organisation to demonstrate compliance with harassment, anti-discrimination and other legislative requirements • Communicates effectively with the diverse range of suppliers, customers and other stakeholders • Fosters an attitude of openness and encourages employees to express their ideas and opinions
Capacity-building strategy
• Enhances the organisation’s employee profile at all levels within the organisation • Allows employees seeking flexible working arrangements to contribute to an organisation • Builds an inclusive culture to capture and retain talented employees
Resource imperative
• Enables the company to select employees from a wider pool • Allows consistent selection, advancement and treatment of employees according to the principles of equal opportunity employment • Retains and maintains talent within an organisation (e.g. people returning from maternity and paternity leave)
Marketing strategy
• Increases market share because a diverse workforce has knowledge of the different rules and patterns of behaviour across cultures served by the organisation • Helps an organisation to match its customer base • Obtains a competitive advantage over organisations that have a homogeneous view of the world in which they operate
Social responsibility
• Provides the opportunity for people with appropriate qualifications to enter the workforce regardless of race, gender, religious background and other factors • Treats employees with respect and dignity • Avoids marginalising and excluding groups from opportunities
Legal requirement
• Avoids direct or indirect discrimination • Complies with legislation such as anti-discrimination and equal employment opportunity legislation
DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY Progressive organisations provide employees with a set of easy-to-use, productive and efficient digital platforms and channels on which to perform work tasks. Four of the business functions supported by digital and social media are: • internal communication • communication with customers and clients • training and development • internal process improvements. Communication, data and processes are shared between operations in different locations in virtual meeting spaces, on electronic whiteboards, through videoconference and telepresence, podcasts, 17 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK instant messaging and Facebook. Brainstorming sessions via digital channels allow a diverse range of staff to contribute and share understanding. Online meetings facilitate the review of projects, plans and business processes across all stakeholders in real time. Collaboration along these channels speeds up interactions within the organisation and enables departments such as customer support and research and development to benefit from a closer relationship. Communication with customers and clients along the richer social media channels makes possible more effective marketing campaigns, more interactive sales presentations to customers, extra online customer support and additional interactions with suppliers and business partners. Social media, for example, is now used extensively by the tourism industry to take bookings, answer queries and exchange information with customers. Facebook and Twitter enable customers to interact immediately and directly. Customers ask questions on Facebook and Twitter and expect a quick answer or fast resolution of a problem. Media-rich websites, online video sharing and live streaming of major organisation announcements provide customers with information and product support. Instead of simply trying to sell more and more products and services, successful organisations now focus on creating mutual value as often as possible. Training and development takes place through wikis, blogs, podcasts, Really Simple Syndication (RSS) feeds, discussion forums, video clips, videoconferences, virtual meeting spaces and webinars. Benefits from these channels include interacting with employees to manage knowledge, determining training gaps and establishing the best method of delivery. An additional benefit is the opportunity for senior, experienced managers to interact with junior team members at different locations. Digital channels provide instant access to updated news headlines, blog posts or selected website content to both in-house and remote workers. Process improvements flow, for example, from global positioning systems (GPS), and location and tracking technologies allow remote monitoring of trucking fleets. Supply management and warehousing software support the reporting of stock levels and movements and help to forecast peak periods. Administrative efficiencies include speech recognition technology for dictation and conversion into text that can then be converted into a document purely by speaking. Efficiencies flowing from digital communication improve operations and customer experiences. Digital and social media channels enable users to develop productive business relationships outside of their workgroup or team, encourage knowledge sharing across the organisation and allow employees to contribute to long-term strategies and perform day-to-day operations in shared digital workspaces. Digital technology and social media tools foster collaboration, alliances and partnerships within and outside the organisation.
ORGANISATIONAL CHANGE AND SUSTAINABILITY
Communicate at all levels within an organisation to allow stakeholder involvement, confidence in the process and commitment.
An organisation needs to be able to communicate at all levels to effectively manage and adapt to change. Change is a continuing process or cycle within any successful organisation. A sustainable organisation responds to change by planning for the long term, as well as managing day-to-day operations. For an organisation to achieve sustainability, its leaders and senior management must communicate a clear vision and purpose, enable strategies to meet objectives and be able to adapt flexibly to disruptions in the market such as the entry of new competitors or creation of new competing products due to innovation. Sustaining an organisation over the long term takes time and requires good management, good planning and good communication along a variety of communication channels. The pressures for organisational change may be internal or external. Internal sources of change lead to new or modified activities within the organisation. External sources outside the control of the organisation – for example, a change in environmental protection regulations – may disrupt normal operations and force change. Some of these changes are shown in Exhibit 1.6.
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EXHIBIT 1.6 Sources of change Internal source of change • new product lines • end-of-product lines replaced • changes in the organisation’s vision or strategy and management decisions • changes in senior staff and new appointments • introduction of new processes and procedures • mergers or takeovers that change the organisation’s structure and way it is run
External source of change • changes in customer demands • changes by an existing supplier or entry of a new competitor in the market • different customer demands or customer requirements • community demand for environmental care • technological advancements • new or changed legislation and regulations
Organisations must adapt to changing circumstances or face becoming irrelevant. Changing circumstances can include external changes, such as changes to the markets an organisation aims to reach, and also internal changes, such as a change in the range of products or services it offers or how the company distributes its products or services. For example, if McCleish Real Estate Agency decided to merge with Jamieson Agency, identical departments would be merged, employees from both companies shifted to new positions or let go, duplicate management positions would be eliminated, old policies and procedures replaced and job functions realigned to fit the new company structure. Communicating how the change will occur, how the implementation will happen and why the change is required would enable people within the real estate agencies to understand the implications for them, the organisation and other stakeholders. The current focus on an organisation’s long-term sustainability or viability requires organisations to adapt and change to keep pace with the evolving business environment. Verbal, nonverbal and graphic communication are used to explain the reasons for change. Effective communication and sharing of the reasons for change enable the organisation to improve productivity and demonstrate accountability to stakeholders such as government authorities, shareholders, customers and suppliers. As they plan and organise work tasks and activities, managers, supervisors, team leaders and members must comply with organisational policies and practices and relevant legislation and regulations.
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT The ‘knowledge age’ is the age of information and of the knowledge worker who specialises in acquiring and transforming data into intellectual capital. Intellectual capital includes the skills and knowledge that an organisation has developed about how to make its products or services. It also includes the individual knowledge of employees or groups of employees and the documents about policies, processes, the results of surveys and research, customers and other information of value. Intellectual capital is intangible, covering an organisation’s employees, its relationships and information used to improve its operations, create new products, and engage ongoing and new customers. Knowledge workers have a responsibility to communicate how, why, what and who will use the intellectual capital in their workplace tasks. Knowledge work is information-based rather than materials-based. The culture of a knowledge management organisation recognises the efforts of its knowledge workers, empowers employees to make decisions relating to work activities, and values and applies knowledge to all its activities. Knowledge communication is key to knowledge management in an organisation. ‘Knowledge communication is defined as the (deliberate) activity of interactively conveying and co-constructing insights, assessments, experiences, or skills through verbal and nonverbal means.’ (Eppler 2006, p. 2). Knowledge communication is successful when an insight, experience or skill is transferred effectively to
Access and apply intellectual capital – that is the collective knowledge (whether documented or not) of the individuals in an organisation or society.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK those who need to apply the knowledge in the performance of their job. Knowledge is transferred along a combination of channels, including face-to-face, written reports, meetings, video clips and virtual interactions. Organisations with a knowledge-management culture utilise knowledge to build long-term value into their operations. Knowledge is widely shared and applied across the organisation through strong networks of relationships and collaboration. Knowledge of the organisation’s vision, code of conduct and ethical standards enables good corporate governance. Effective management of long- and short-term business objectives, planning for contingencies and avoiding conflicts of interest flow from knowledge. Knowledge of procedures, checks and balances enhances the detection and prevention of fraud and corrupt practices. Knowledge about factors in the external environment such as stakeholders, competing businesses, social, regulatory, cultural, competitive, financial and political factors enables an organisation to manage external risks and opportunities. Senior, middle and first-line managers’ ability to ensure accountability, fairness and transparency in the organisation’s relationships with its stakeholders – shareholders, institutions, customers, management, employees, government and the community – is enhanced through the strategic transfer of knowledge across the organisation. Refer to Chapter 5, Organise workplace information, for a more detailed discussion of knowledge management.
CHECKPOINT 1.4
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Briefly describe the characteristics of a successful global communicator. What is an inclusive organisational culture built on? Provide three reasons for working with diversity. What are the benefits for an organisation of using digital and social media channels? Internal and external sources of change: a. List three internal sources of change. b. List three external sources of change. 6. Knowledge communication and management: a. Define the term ‘knowledge communication’. b. List six types of knowledge managed within an organisation.
1.5 INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION Acknowledge different cultural expectations and build shared understanding and respect.
Be willing to acknowledge and understand cultural difference and differences in perception.
Culture is learned and expressed in language and symbols, and over time develops distinctive national patterns of communication and social behaviour. These patterns are the customs and conventions regarded as the characteristics of a particular culture. Customs and habits affect the way people communicate and act as individuals or in groups. Cultures have different rules for who will communicate the message, and to whom it will be communicated, dependent on the hierarchy and status within a family, organisation or society. Both culture and individual experience shape each person’s perception, style of communication and interpretation of others’ intentional messages and unintentional messages. Some of the many aspects of nonverbal communication influenced by culture are tone of voice, inflection, rate of speech, facial expressions, touching and body movement. Intercultural communication is the interpersonal interactions between individuals from varying backgrounds, cultures and experience. It occurs as people communicate across cultures and time zones via face-to-face meetings (to cement relationships), podcasts (to convey information), web-based meetings (to interact with others in remote locations) and a variety of other communication channels.
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EXHIBIT 1.7 Levels of culture in a society Visible
Comprises the patterns and behaviour visible in the culture, including technology, buildings, artefacts and behaviour patterns
Less visible
Comprises cultural communication and describes how people communicate verbally and nonverbally as a society or group
Almost visible
Comprises the ideas, basic assumptions, values and beliefs that have evolved from the shared experiences of the members of a society
THREE LEVELS OF CULTURE Culture derives from the interconnected assumptions, beliefs, values, attitudes, norms and rules shared by a society or group. Culture is learnt social behaviours that develop over time. Within any society there are three levels of culture, as shown in Exhibit 1.7. Culture is transmitted and maintained through learning and group interaction. The interaction of a country’s social structure, religion, political system, economic philosophy, language and education system influence its norms and values. The way we speak and give nonverbal messages is learned from family, friends, education and work colleagues.
CULTURAL ORIENTATION Hofstede (1984, 1991, 2001) identified four main dimensions on which national cultures differ in terms of their values: 1. Power distance describes the extent to which less-powerful members of a society accept inequality in power and status as normal. High-power-distance cultures tolerate inequality to a much greater degree than low-power-distance cultures. 2. Individualism/collectivism describes cultures that are individualistic or collective in their approach. Individualistic societies focus on the ‘I’, while collectivist societies focus on the ‘we’. People from the ‘I’ societies look after their own interests and the immediate family, while the ‘we’ societies focus on the group or extended family, organisation and nation. 3. Masculinity/femininity refers to the extent to which a society adopts male- or female-oriented work values. High masculine values show a preference for assertiveness, achievement, ambition, material acquisition and competition. Feminine cultures are more flexible, with a preference for nurturing, caring for others, non-material values and quality of life. 4. Uncertainty avoidance defines the extent to which members of a culture feel threatened by ambiguous, unclear or unstructured situations. Countries with high levels of uncertainty avoidance are risk averse and have strict codes of behaviour and formal rules. Low-uncertainty cultures are willing to accept change and require fewer structures and rules. Hofstede’s four cultural dimensions provide insights into different cultural expectations. The increasing diversity in the workplace and ongoing globalisation of Australian business highlights the importance of recognising and understanding differing cultural expectations in our multicultural society. Acknowledging these differences enables us to move beyond our cultural conditioning to improve business communication and our understanding of others.
Consider the four cultural dimensions to gain insight into different cultural expectations.
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ETHNOCENTRISM Avoid ethnocentrism – the belief that one’s cultural norms are superior to those of other social groups – and promote intercultural communication. Recognise and apply the symbols of the other culture and be willing to adapt to a new environment.
Ethnocentrism is the use of one’s own culture to interpret all other cultures. Ethnocentric people tend to interpret the actions, customs, values, religion, codes and behaviours of other people using their own culture as a guide. They view their own culture as the ‘central’ culture and, in interacting and communicating with members of different cultures, use their own cultural norms as the central point of reference. An ethnocentric person tends to see their own group, country and culture as the best. Awareness and knowledge of the cultural norms of other racial, ethnic or social groups underpins effective intercultural communication. Without awareness, an ethnocentric person may travel the world making no effort to look beyond their own culture or try to understand other cultures. Ignorance prevents interaction with another culture. Rather than interpreting the customs and behaviour of other people by using our own culture as a benchmark, organisations and people have to recognise and apply the symbols of the other culture and be willing to adapt to a new environment. Ethnocentrism is a major barrier to intercultural communication and understanding.
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES Cultural rules determine what message is communicated, by which channels of communication and in which context. When and why the message is sent are also affected by cultural rules. Some messages are universal to all cultures. For example, an emergency warning about fire in the building will be immediately conveyed by all concerned in any culture. On the other hand, notification about the appointment of a new Chief Executive Officer will follow the specific culture’s rules for formal announcements. Exhibit 1.8 gives examples of some of the ways in which cultures differ from one another.
RULES AND PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOUR Develop awareness of the different customs, rules and social behaviour in different cultures to minimise the barriers caused by prejudice, stereotypes and discrimination.
The common rules and patterns of behaviour of one country may be very different from those of another. Cultural sensitivity leads to effective intercultural communication. As part of our socialisation, or enculturation, we internalise the rules of interaction within our culture. This is the third, almost invisible, level of culture. Our perception of what is being said in our conversations is affected by our background experience, values, attitudes, life concerns, cultural conditioning, skills and other factors. In Australia, people whose culture involves rigid rules on who speaks first or last in conversations, or the belief that to look down as someone speaks to you is courteous, would seem discourteous. This impression might lead to their exclusion from the conversation without their knowing why. What we assume and how we expect others to behave are affected by our cultural filter. Our cultural filter influences our perceptions, according to our cultural background. Some of these internalised rules relate to: • courtesies in speech, such as when to say ‘please’, ‘thank you’ or ‘excuse me’ • the meaning of ‘yes’ and ‘no’ • rules of politeness – who can speak to whom, and who can begin a conversation • humour and irony • dress • use of time • deference to others • drinking alcohol • appropriate use of space in terms of proximity.
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CHAPTER 1 / Understand communication practices
EXHIBIT 1.8 Key cultural differences Difference
Description
Example
Language
Differences in the: • nature of discourse, i.e. main point first, followed by justification or justification first, followed by main point • degree of ambiguity or precision conveyed by the words • use of first or surnames – Americans use first names during business hours, whereas some European countries use title and surname.
In Western culture, ‘yes’ means ‘agreement’. In other cultures, ‘yes’ can simply mean an acknowledgement that the message was heard.
Time
Differences in time taken to: • build friendships • build business relationships • make business decisions • complete business transactions.
In traditional cultures, trust and friendship are more important than time.
Space
Differences in space send messages about: • status, as shown in the size of an office or location of a company’s head office • type of relationship, shown in use of personal space, i.e. the use of intimate, personal and social space varies between cultures • insiders and outsiders, i.e. members of a profession, religion or education group.
In Western societies intimate space is 0 to 45 cm, personal is 45 cm to 1 m and social is 1 to 2 m.
Business customs
Differences in: • attitudes to gifts, i.e. what is the difference between gifts and bribery? • degree of formality or informality, i.e. use of first names, relaxed postures, use of personal space, opening offices with or without knocking • attitudes towards alcohol • appropriateness of gifts.
In a Hindu country, gifts such as wallets or belts made of cow hide would be inappropriate because the cow is a sacred animal.
Business clothing
Differences in perceptions of appropriateness: • formal or casual • modest and loose-fitting • stylish and high quality • custom tailoring or mass produced • men’s ties, bright or subdued colours • suits in black, grey or dark blue • women in business suits with skirts or slacks
In China red is a lucky colour and white is the colour of mourning – wear a red rather than white tie to make a positive first impression.
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Communicate with openness towards those from other cultural backgrounds.
Although people may live in the same country, their various cultural backgrounds and rules may mean that they see the same event differently and place different interpretations on it. We are limited by the ‘baggage’ of background experience that we carry. Our perception is determined by a background consisting of values, attitudes, life concerns, cultural conditioning, skills and other factors.
DISCRIMINATORY LANGUAGE Apply inclusive communication techniques and learn new ways to communicate across cultures.
The language people employ to communicate can be used as a vehicle of discrimination or a vehicle of inclusion. Effective communicators do more than acknowledge differences in perception. They also use communication strategies that avoid the communication barriers caused by the ineffective intercultural communication techniques shown in Exhibit 1.9.
EXHIBIT 1.9 Strategies for effective intercultural communication Discriminatory communication technique
Purpose
Inclusive communication technique
Derogatory labelling of another culture or group
To put down people from another culture or group
Refuse to use derogatory labels
Stereotyping people belonging to a particular group
To isolate or exaggerate certain factors and apply them to all people in that group
Recognise and avoid the use of language that stereotypes groups of people
Invisibility
To subsume one group into another by label, name or term
Use inclusive language and language preferred by the minority group
Imposed labelling
To reinforce the majority group’s view because the minority lacks the power to define themselves
Avoid the use of a single generic name for a number of different groups of people
Extra visibility
To emphasise a difference such as sex, race or ethnic background
Avoid emphasis on differences such as sex, race and ethnic background
If we are aware of our background and its impact on our perception, then we can choose more appropriate messages or responses. Consequently, we can perform better in the workplace and become more willing to adapt and learn new ways to communicate with people from different cultural backgrounds.
CHECKPOINT 1.5
1. Cultural differences: a. How does an understanding of Hofstede’s four cultural differences help to improve business communication? b. What is ethnocentrism? 2. Briefly describe and provide examples of five key cultural differences. 3. Spoken factors and internalised rules: a. Identify four factors that affect what is being said in our conversations. b. List four internalised rules that affect our cultural filter. 4. Identify five techniques you can use to avoid communication barriers caused by ineffective intercultural communication. 5. Quick quiz: Check your cross-cultural awareness by completing the True/False questions.
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CHAPTER 1 / Understand communication practices
>
Cultural beliefs: Naming systems and general etiquette True
False
The naming system in China places the surname first. The Arabic naming system places the surname last. In China, descent is traced through the female line. In Vietnam, the naming system places the surname first. Direct eye contact is a sign of discourtesy in Australia. People in Asian cultures find it easy to say ‘No’. Muslim people do not use the left hand to pass things to each other. Sharing the cost of an outing is not accepted custom in Thailand. In Asia, avoiding eye contact is a sign of respect. To touch South-East Asians on the head is an act of extreme discourtesy.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 1.1 Discuss the different forms of communication. Communication is any behaviour, verbal or nonverbal, that is perceived by another. Nonverbal communication consists of the parts of a message that are not encoded in words – for example, tone of voice, facial expression or gestures and movement. Successful communication sends or transmits ideas, values and attitudes to others through three different forms of communication: verbal, nonverbal and graphic. Meaning is derived from the message as the receiver perceives, structures and interprets it. Effective communicators take responsibility for their actions, and are factually correct and accurate. They are sensitive to the receiver of the message and able to utilise traditional tools, such as written reports, as well as digital tools such as social media. In today’s workplace the communication channels have broadened due to the advancement of information technology. 1.2 Outline each element of the communication process. The seven elements of the communication process are the sender, message, channel, receiver, feedback, context and noise (or interference). Effective communication often passes unnoticed, while poor communication is obvious – the message and its meaning are distorted or interrupted. Barriers interfere with the message. Too
much information, withholding information or delivering the information through an inappropriate channel all result in barriers. 1.3 Apply ethics to your workplace communication. Ethical communicators give honest and accurate information. They let others know about matters or information that affect them and maintain the confidentiality of private information. They avoid spreading malicious gossip, putting others down or taking the credit for someone else’s work. They communicate openly to achieve mutual understanding. 1.4 Outline factors impacting communication in business. Factors currently impacting business communication are globalisation, workforce diversity, digital technology and social media tools, organisational change and sustainability work practices and the growing importance of knowledge management and intellectual ‘know-how’ to any organisation. Understanding the impact and implications of these factors on business communication enables effective sharing and connections across organisations and national boundaries. 1.5 Discuss the role of cultural sensitivity and inclusive communication techniques in overcoming cultural differences. Intercultural communication is impacted by 25
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different cultural expectations and perceptions. A willingness to acknowledge and understand cultural difference enhances the flow of communication across national boundaries and between culture groups. Aim to
achieve successful intercultural communication by avoiding an ethnocentric view and being willing to adapt your communication to accommodate different cultural rules and patterns of behaviour.
KEY TERMS big data channel richness communication barriers communication channel conflict of interest context cultural sensitivity discrimination empathy
enculturation ethics ethnocentrism feedback globalisation graphic communication horizontal channel inclusion intellectual capital
intentional message intercultural communication knowledge communication message multicultural society noise nonverbal communication organisational culture perception
persuasion receiver sender social media sustainability unintentional message verbal communication vertical channel
LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Introduce yourself to the group To help introduce group members to each other, take turns to tell the whole group the following information: a. your name b. your job and position, and/or the course you are enrolled in c. what springs to your mind when you think about communication. This can be a brief explanation of, for example, good experiences or bad experiences (written, verbal or other); what you have learned (the hard way) about communication; or who you admire (such as a politician, colleague, manager or media personality) for their communication skills, with an explanation of why. 2. Work in pairs for this exercise a. Stand face-to-face, a comfortable distance apart for conversation. b. Take turns to give a one-minute spiel about any topic to your partner. Your partner must stand in front of you and not react in any way to what you are saying. No facial expressions, no body movement, no speaking. c. When you have both had a turn, return to the whole group. d. Discuss how it felt to talk to someone and get no response at all. Which elements of the communication process were missing?
3. Verbal communication Work in small groups to discuss this statement. ‘Verbal communication is part of the job and cannot be separated from it.’ a. List as many verbal communication tasks performed at work as you can think of. b. Think about your job and decide approximately what proportion of work hours would be spent on verbal communication. c. Brainstorm a list of the communication channels members of your group have used in the past week. 4. Communication and adaptability Work in small groups Reflect on the statement: ‘Australian employers are looking for job candidates with the employability skills of communication – presentation skills, teamwork, building effective relationships – as well as adaptability to change, especially digital change.’ a. Brainstorm and list the characteristics of an adaptable person. b. Identify the reasons for employers to seek job candidates with the employability skill of adaptability. c. Discuss and list on a flip chart the benefits adaptable employees offer employers. d. Present your findings to the larger group.
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CHAPTER 1 / Understand communication practices
5. Miscommunication a. Identify the seven elements in the communication process. b. Consider your own experience as a message receiver in a situation where you misunderstood the message. What caused the misunderstanding? Was it related to your perception as the receiver, the communication channel, the context or interference? c. Suggest ways the communication process could have been improved to prevent the misunderstanding. 6. Ethical communication a. Create a profile of an ethical business communicator. b. How can you recognise a situation as a conflict of interest? 7. Functions supported by digital communication In a short information report: • identify four business functions supported by digital and social media channels of communication • discuss factors in the external environment an organisation needs knowledge of to facilitate management of risks and opportunities. 8. National cultures In a short written answer: a. Identify four dimensions on which national cultures differ in terms of their values.
b. Decide if Australia has high masculine or feminine values. Give reasons for your answer. c. Decide if Australia is an individualistic or collectivist society. Give reasons for your answer. d. List two factors that are essential for effective communication in a multicultural workplace. 9. Complete the communication quiz a. Scoring Visit the MindTools site https://www.mindtools.com/ pages/article/newCS_99.htm to score your ability as a communicator. The score shows your overall ability to communicate effectively. b. Reflection On completion of the quiz, reflect on your ability to: • plan and encode the messages you send • choose the appropriate channel • decode and interpret messages • receive, decode and give feedback. c. Planning Develop an action plan you can use over the next week to improve any identified area(s) of weakness to improve your overall ability to communicate effectively.
GROUP ACTIVITY Part A: Communication and workplace success As a trainee in a large national organisation, assume you are part of a communication training program. Work in your group to prepare a list of communication skills that you think are important to workplace success and should be part of the training program. What skills are important for teamwork? What skills are important for customer service? Is it essential to deliver some communication skills off the job? Give reasons for your response. Think about how these skills can be taught on the job. Summarise your group’s conclusions and appoint one representative to report to the whole class. Part B: Cultural diversity Explore the types of cultural diversity that exist in your community. Emphasise how culture can relate to the customs or conventions regarded as characteristic of any specific group
in society. For example, customs and conventions help to define various sporting cultures (e.g. cricket or lawn bowls), educational institutions, geographic locations (e.g. city or country), gender-based or generational cultures, and ethnicity. a. Imagine you are making a movie and want to represent five different cultures that exist in your community. How will movie-goers know which cultural groups are being portrayed? In other words, what characteristics will help them to identify each cultural group? b. For each of the five groups being featured in the movie, discuss the values that are perceived to be important to each group (e.g. success, companionship, making money, power or recognition). c. How might these values affect communication: i. within the group? ii. by the group with others? iii. by others with the group?
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CASE STUDY FEEDBACK MATTERS Melanie is the owner of All About Food, a speciality food store supplying retail customers with kitchenware, delicatessen items and speciality foods. All About Food also has a commercial section that supplies equipment and bulk food to restaurants, cafes and coffee houses. As well as retail and walk-in customers, the business has a constant number of regular commercial customers who require professional advice about specialty kitchen equipment. Melanie works in the business and manages its day-today running. All About Food employs 10 staff and, for the first time in the six years since Melanie established the business, she is struggling to sort out sales and staff issues. The current economic downturn is easy to blame for a decline in All About Food’s delicatessen and retail kitchenware sales; however, Melanie decides to work harder and longer hours and hopes staff will follow her example. The longer hours mean she is unable to hold staff meetings or discussions with staff, and when she does engage with them it is usually in a very direct and hurried way. Rather than consulting about her plans and talking about issues with her staff, Melanie decides that she will explain the changes to all when she has more time.
Business and sales continue to decline and Melanie notices that her regular commercial customers are becoming irregular. She decides to bring in a business consultant to assess the situation and make recommendations for possible changes. The consultant interviews Melanie’s staff and observes interaction between Melanie, the customer service team, administrative team and customers. The consultant concludes that the staff feel they are not being told anything except that there will be changes. Staff are unsure of the business approach as they have not been consulted about the changes and All About Food’s future plans. Consequently, insecurity is increasing, staff are underperforming and absenteeism is increasing.
Questions 1. What advice do you think the consultant should give to Melanie? 2. What forms of communication should the consultant recommend Melanie use to inform and persuade her staff to accept and adapt to changes? 3. Why is it important for Melanie to seek feedback as she works with All About Food’s staff?
BIBLIOGRAPHY Beebe, S.A., Beebe, S.J. & Redmond, M.V. 2016. Interpersonal Communication Relating to Others, 8th edn, Pearson, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2011. ‘The Health Communicator’s Social Media Toolkit’, http://www.cdc.gov/healthcommunication/toolstemplates/ socialmediatoolkit_bm.pdf, viewed 10 January 2015. DeVito, J.A. 2016. Essentials of Human Communication, 9th edn, Pearson, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Eppler, Martin. J. 2006. ‘The Concept of Knowledge Communication and Its Relevance to Management’, USI Research Note Version 2.2, http://www.knowledgecommunication.org/pdf/research-note-knowledgecommunication.pdf, viewed 27 January 2018.
EY. 2014. ‘Big data: Changing the way businesses compete and operate’, EYGM Limited, https://www.ey.com/ Publication/vwLUAssets/EY_-_Big_data:_changing_the_ way_businesses_operate/$FILE/EY-Insights-on-GRC-Bigdata.pdf, viewed 28 November 2018. Hofstede, G. 1984. Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values, Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CA. Hofstede, G. 1991. Cultures and Organisations: Software of the Mind, McGraw-Hill, London. Hofstede, G. 2001. Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviours, Institutions, and Organisations across Nations, Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CA.
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CHAPTER 1 / Understand communication practices
Hootsuite and We Are Social. ‘2018 Global Digital Report’, http://www.campaignbrief.com/2018/01/latest-globaldigital-in-2018.html, viewed 1 February 2018. International Association of Business Communicators. 2018. ‘IABC Code of Ethics for Professional Communicators’, https://www.iabc.com/about-us/governance/code-of-ethics/, viewed 27 January 2018. Johnson & Johnson. 2018. ‘What Makes Johnson & Johnson a Global Leader in Diversity & Inclusion?’, http://www.careers.jnj.com/careers/what-makes-johnsonjohnson-a-global-leader-in-diversity-inclusion, viewed 3 September 2018. Klososky, S. 2010. Manager’s Guide to Social Media, McGrawHill, Australia. McGregor, D. 1960. The human side of enterprise, McGraw Hill, Boston, MA.
MindTools. 2018. ‘How Good Are Your Communication Skills? Speaking, Listening, Writing, and Reading Effectively’, https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/ newCS_99.htm, viewed 5 February 2018. National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE). 2018. ‘Job Outlook 2018’, http://www.naceweb.org/ store/2017/job-outlook-2018/, viewed 14 February 2018. Rajhans, Kirti. 2012. ‘Effective Organizational Communication: a Key to Employee Motivation and Performance’, Interscience Management Review (IMR), Volume 2, Issue 2, 2012, pp. 81–85. Samovar, L.A., Porter, R.E. & McDaniel, E.R. 2012. Intercultural Communication: A Reader, 13th edn, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Boston, MA.
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DEVELOP EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND INTERPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE
CHAPTER
2
What is Emotional Intelligence
Your Learning Journey
self-aware ne
2.1
+ ss s
Cha pter 2 personal competence
How does it relate to
EMOTIONAL LABOUR + INTERPERSONAL SKILLS 2.3
2.4
nonverbal communication
2.5
listening and feedback
2.6
assertiveness
CH3
enhanced job satisfaction
adapting to diversity
The BENEFITS of EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE 2.2 handling stress
social awareness + relationship management
social competence
Next ADAPT TO CHANGE IN THE DIGITAL ERA
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ulation -reg elf
?
CHAPTER 2 / Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence
LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 2.1 discuss the four skills of emotional intelligence and provide examples of how each skill may be applied in the workplace 2.2 discuss the benefits of using emotional intelligence skills at work 2.3 outline the features and purpose of emotional labour 2.4 identify seven ways nonverbal communication can influence the total message 2.5 describe the active listening and feedback processes and explain how these processes help the listener and speaker to understand one another 2.6 explain why assertiveness is essential for positive, productive workplace relationships and outcomes.
2.1 WHAT IS EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE? Emotional intelligence is the ability to be aware of, recognise, use and manage your emotions in positive ways. Emotionally intelligent people are able to read emotional cues and signals such as body language, facial expressions, types of words and tone. Reading and paying attention to emotional cues provides valuable data about how the other person feels. Goleman (1998), an early proponent of emotional intelligence, argues that emotional intelligence is ‘a different way of being smart’, and involves: • knowing what your feelings are and using your feelings to make decisions • being able to manage distressing moods and control impulses • being motivated and remaining optimistic when you have setbacks • having empathy and knowing what the people around you are feeling • having social skills that allow you to get along well with other people, manage emotions in relationships and being able to persuade or lead others. Emotionally intelligent people modify their responses to meet the requirements of the situation. They respond with empathy and understand the concerns of others. Communication is open and feedback is constructive and empowering. For example, to meet a tender deadline Alyssa has to post the final document tomorrow morning by 11 am. However, the Accounts Department hasn’t delivered the final costings for the project. Rather than panicking and demanding others in the team stop what they are doing and help out, Alyssa phones Accounts, who reply, ‘It won’t be ready until 8 pm tonight.’ She replies, ‘Not satisfactory but I’ll manage’. Alyssa stays calm and then suggests to her supervisor that she will leave work at 3 pm today and come in at 7 am tomorrow morning to include the costings and finish compiling, binding and posting the tender. Her supervisor replies, ‘Good idea. Alyssa, thanks for solving the problem.’ Employers are looking for employees who are emotionally as well as technically competent. They need staff who are able to establish good relationships within teams and network with others throughout the organisation. ‘EI is now considered fundamental for getting along in the workplace and is a primary leadership and managerial competency.’ (Freshman & Rubino 2002, p. 1). Emotionally intelligent employees are also interpersonally intelligent because as well as being selfaware and socially aware they have developed the nonverbal communication, listening, feedback, questioning and assertiveness skills to read the mood, feelings and intentions of those around them. Interpersonally intelligent people communicate with warmth and complement their spoken words with open, nonverbal signals such as a nod, a smile or gesture to show others that they are attentive to their
Emotional intelligence is the combination of selfawareness, selfregulation, social awareness and relationship management skills that help you to identify and manage your own emotions as well as the emotions of others.
Interpersonal intelligence the ability to interact with understanding of the motives, emotions, perspectives and feelings of those around you.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK concerns. They give and receive feedback, interact and work with others on tasks and projects and manage relationships across all phases of a project. These skills will be discussed later in the chapter. Improving emotional intelligence requires a person to think about their reactions and to think about the reactions of others, weigh up the pros and cons of a situation and possible responses, and then to respond appropriately. Emotional intelligence enables informed decisions and helps to turn aims and plans into action. For example, a Hay Group study found that ‘technical programmers demonstrating the top 10 percent of emotional intelligence competency were developing software three times faster than those with lower competency’ (Poskey 2018). Emotionally intelligent people have good interpersonal intelligence and the interpersonal skills to recognise negative emotions in self and others and refocus on what is required to reach productive outcomes. They see difficult situations as a challenge and focus on the positives to reach productive outcomes.
EXHIBIT 2.1 Broad categories and skills of emotional intelligence Personal competence
Social competence
Self-awareness
Social awareness
Self-regulation
Relationship management
TWO BROAD CATEGORIES OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE Emotional intelligence can be broken down into two broad categories and the four skills shown in Exhibit 2.1. A workplace free of emotion is unlikely so learning to manage and handle emotions effectively is crucial for success at work. In stressful situations, emotionally intelligent people have the ability to identify a problem and work with others to find a solution. Accurate assessment of their personal and social competence lets them know their strengths and limits and builds self-confidence through the realisation of self-worth and capabilities. Emotionally intelligent people are able to accept constructive criticism and use it to improve their performance.
Personal competence Develop personal competence – the skills of selfawareness and selfmanagement.
Intrapersonal intelligence is about understanding who you are and how you feel, as well as knowing your own limits, strengths and abilities.
Personal competence allows leaders and team members to understand their own emotions and realise their impact on others (self-awareness), and then direct their behaviour to achieve positive outcomes (self-management). People with personal competence act on opportunities, innovate and engage with others, respond flexibly to obstacles and setbacks and commit to the goals of the team or organisation. Personally competent staff think before they act and regulate their own behaviour to work effectively towards shared goals. Self-awareness is more than knowing what is happening around you. It is knowing what you are experiencing as well as recognising and assessing your emotional responses and their effects. Selfawareness allows you to monitor and take in the meaning of what is happening rather than behaving on the basis of past thoughts, beliefs, biases and actions. Self-awareness underpins intrapersonal intelligence: that is, awareness of your emotions, motivations, fears, beliefs and aspirations. Intrapersonal intelligence assists personally competent people to take responsibility for their actions, follow through on commitments, be open to new ideas and information and adapt positively to change. Self-regulation is the ability to use awareness of your emotions to stay flexible and positively direct your behaviour. It is the capacity to control disruptive emotions and impulses and to think before responding. Self-regulation allows greater acknowledgement and regard for the views and opinions of others. The result is more cooperation and less tension in the workplace.
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CHAPTER 2 / Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence Self-regulators rely less on emotionalism and reaction and more on facts and responses appropriate to the issue or situation. They are able to calm themselves down when angry or upset and encourage positive thoughts when they feel down or disappointed. For example, Aldo is disappointed and angry because he has just been passed over for a promotion to team leader. He is so angry that rather than concentrating on his work he is thinking nasty thoughts about his supervisor. At lunch he goes for a walk and starts thinking positively about the situation: ‘Another promotion will come along’, ‘It’s nothing personal’. Positive thoughts help to calm him down, think clearly again and manage the situation. As well as the control of impulsive feelings, disruptive emotions and behaviours, self-regulation builds Aldo’s confidence.
Social competence People with social competence understand other people’s moods, behaviour and motives (social awareness) and use this understanding to improve the quality of relationships in workplace and social settings (relationship management). Socially competent employees hear, understand and connect with those around them, gain quality and timely information and offer support and encouragement. Social awareness is the ability to understand the emotions, needs and concerns of other people. Empathy enables socially aware people to pick up on the emotional cues and perspectives of others. They feel at ease socially and recognise the power relationships in a group or organisation. Relationship management is the ability to develop and maintain good relationships, communicate clearly, and inspire and influence others. Relationship management requires the ability to notice and manage the effect people have on you and gain an awareness of what they are feeling and what leads them to feeling that way. Thus, it is possible to decide the best course of action, how to interact with them and what you might expect in return when you say or do something. Good managers of relationships have an awareness of the likely outcome from the communication, which can be written, face-to-face, individual or group, as well as an understanding of their own specific needs or business needs at that time. Relationship management enhances collaboration and cooperation when working with others towards shared goals. Emotional intelligence skills are as valuable in the workplace as technical skills. In social interactions, customer service interactions and office politics, emotionally competent employers and employees realise how their emotions can affect others. They know what they are feeling and what their emotions mean. Consequently, they are able to manage their own emotions and deal with the emotions of others to build positive two-way relationships built on mutual respect. Promotions to leadership roles are offered to emotionally competent as well as technically competent leaders because they are able to influence and empower as they share decision making, acknowledge achievements and reward the performance of team members. Emotionally competent leaders enhance team performance. (Refer to Chapter 22 for more information on leadership.) 1. What are the four skills that together make up emotional intelligence? 2. Define the term ‘interpersonal intelligence’. 3. Consider your own actions in a social or workplace setting and answer the following questions: a. What personal competence skills are you displaying when you put in the effort to listen and pay attention to the nonverbal cues of others? b. List the social competence skills you use when you recognise another person’s moods, behaviour and motives and use this understanding to improve communication and the quality of your relationships.
Develop social competence – the skills of social awareness and relationship management.
CHECKPOINT 2.1
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2.2 WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE?
Apply emotional intelligence (EQ) skills to reduce stress, communicate effectively, empathise with others, overcome challenges and minimise conflict.
The pace of change in today’s workplaces due to job reorganisation, transfers, changing priorities and new technologies is challenging. Emotional intelligence is vital in this ever-changing workplace as it equips you with the skills to handle problems before they lead to physical and psychological stress and behavioural difficulties. Managers, supervisors and team leaders need to encourage and demonstrate emotional intelligence to limit the harmful effects of poor behaviour on their team and the business as a whole. Emotionally intelligent people have better mental health and social behaviour at work than those lacking emotional intelligence. They are able to: • express their own thoughts and feelings and make the effort to understand the meaning and motivations of colleagues • recognise when they are experiencing high stress or anger and process those feelings in healthy ways • assess the strengths and weaknesses of others and focus on the best solutions for issues or problems. Emotional intelligence enhances communication and workplace relationships. ‘When it comes to happiness and success in our relationships, career and personal goals, emotional intelligence (EQ) matters just as much as the more well known, intellectual ability (IQ).’ (Segal et al. 2018) For example, rather than becoming angry in stressful situations, emotionally intelligent people are able to manage their emotions. They are able to think about a problem and calmly make a decision to solve it. They accept feedback and even criticism well without becoming distressed or agitated and use it to improve their performance.
REDUCING STRESS Work and careers can be a source of positive emotions (enthusiasm, feelings of accomplishment and belonging) or a source of negative emotions (anger, fear, dislike and anxiety) and stress. Negative emotions can trigger stress and cause emotional pain. A positive culture enhances job satisfaction, commitment and job performance. A poor culture leads to poor communication, low performance, high turnover and stress. High targets, heavy workload, tight deadlines, long working hours and pressure to perform are typical sources of stress in the workplace. The stress may lead to fatigue, irritability, lower productivity, interpersonal conflicts and poor communication. Developing awareness of your feelings and the ability to discern the underlying messages in interpersonal interactions helps to reduce stress. Rather than responding impulsively and thoughtlessly, self-awareness and self-regulation combined with social awareness enable relationships to be managed harmoniously. Three types of response to stress and their symptoms are shown in Exhibit 2.2. Work-related stressors include the bullying behaviour of a supervisor, unsatisfactory relationships with managers or colleagues, unreasonable expectations, lack of support, harassment, discrimination, uncooperative colleagues and argumentative customers. The issues causing the disputes must be addressed to prevent negative behaviours such as gossip and rumour, non-cooperation, workplace bullying, harassment and absenteeism and the consequent stress. Managers, supervisors and team leaders need to encourage and demonstrate emotional intelligence to limit the harmful effects of poor behaviour on their team and the business as a whole.
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CHAPTER 2 / Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence The skills of emotional intelligence can assist you to manage emotional triggers in a positive rather than stressful way. An emotional trigger is a behaviour or situation that goes against one of your personal values. It can make you feel very strongly because it clashes with your values. For example, if one of your core values is honesty, then an emotional trigger for you might be a feeling of deep upset if you find out that others are taking credit for your work. The skill of self-awareness lets you understand what is happening. Rather than reacting impulsively and angrily you are able to handle your own emotions. Breathing deeply helps you to relax and release the tension in your body. Deliberately detaching from the emotion helps to clear the mind as you decide how you will handle the situation.
Know your emotional triggers.
EXHIBIT 2.2 Types of stress and typical symptoms Physical Fatigue, headaches and difficulty sleeping
Psychological Depression, anxiety, feelings of being overwhelmed and unable to cope
Behavioural Mood swings and irritation, disinterest, isolation Impatience, an increase in sick days, aggression, decline in work performance
Personal competence allows the situation to be dealt with assertively. Rather than walking away and saying nothing, you may decide to talk with those who are accepting credit for your work or discuss the matter with your supervisor.
ADAPTING TO CULTURAL AND SOCIAL DIVERSITY The diversity in today’s workforce means a wide range of people of different ages, genders, sexual orientations, religions, personalities and values are working together. In this modern workplace, having an understanding of your emotions and subsequent behaviours as well as the emotions and behaviours of others is a requirement for success. When you have personal and social competence skills you can mitigate emotional responses and clashes due to differences in values before they give rise to conflict. People with self-awareness are able to respond with flexibility and adaptability to work with a diversity of colleagues. They also sense the needs of others and help them to develop team and individual capabilities. A willingness to adapt and respond flexibly to change enhances connections within the team and with others across the organisation. The culture of cooperation, trust and team commitment empowers and motivates members to achieve mutually agreed team outcomes. Emotionally intelligent workers provide clear and convincing messages, listen and respond with empathy. They provide consistent and fair feedback that avoids attacks or threats to the other person. Positive outcomes are likely and negative emotions such as anger, frustration and hurt are minimised as people are treated the same regardless of background and other diverse factors.
RESISTING THE RIPPLE EFFECT The ripple effect occurs as group members catch the mood of others, usually through their nonverbal communication. Both positive and negative emotions may be imitated and ripple through a group. Emotionally intelligent workers are able to build and maintain positive relationships and manage
Avoid emotional contagion.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK negative emotions swiftly before they spread to the rest of the group. Body language such as lifting your shoulders back, breathing deeply and easily, and facial expressions such as a smile convey a positive mood and help to raise your mood and the mood of those around you. The skills of emotional intelligence heighten the ripple effect of positive emotions and minimise the ripple effect of negative emotions. Dealing with uncomfortable emotional situations swiftly through a combination of self-awareness, self-regulation, social awareness and relationship management enhances performance and relationships. Ignoring negative emotions may cause a ripple effect or emotional contagion. Emotional contagion is the transfer of moods through imitation.
Improving emotional intelligence People without emotional competence find it difficult to handle change, work in a team and disengage from others. In a difficult situation they may feel angry, helpless, fearful, envious or guilty and engage in explosive outbursts, threats or other irrational behaviours. They show lack of emotional control. The ability to recognise these emotions, understand them and apply strategies to manage them builds the skills of emotional intelligence. Emotionally competent people rely less on emotionalism and reaction and more on facts and responses appropriate to the issue or situation. Four strategies to reduce the ripple effect and improve emotional intelligence and the benefits of emotional intelligence in the workplace are identified in Exhibit 2.3.
EXHIBIT 2.3 Benefits of using emotional intelligence at work Strategy
Benefits
1. Identify the impact of own emotions on others in the workplace
• Greater understanding of your own emotions at work • Better management of self and relationships • Improved channelling of emotions to help interactions and task achievement • More constructive ways of handling anger and stress • Fewer automatic responses based on past habits • Less frustration, stress and worry • Greater sense of control and effectiveness at work • Better grasp of your feelings (are they correct or incorrect based on the event or action rather than on assumption?) • Greater insight into interactions or relationships • Less anxiety when dealing with uncomfortable workplace situations • Greater acknowledgement of and respect for the viewpoint of others • More self-confidence and ability to direct negative emotions into positive actions • Greater capacity to respond assertively to rudeness, making it clear that you refuse to be treated that way as you calmly leave the situation • Enhanced ability to make choices that are realistic rather than out of reach • Better cooperation and fewer complaints from others.
2. Defuse negative feelings to prevent escalation
3. Pay attention to your perceptions
4. Choose how you react to a situation
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CHAPTER 2 / Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence
MANAGING INAPPROPRIATE BEHAVIOUR Anger, anxiety and resentment may cause emotional outbursts and inappropriate behaviour. A six-step technique to use when the emotions of others are high and difficult to handle is shown in Exhibit 2.4.
EXHIBIT 2.4 Dealing with difficult emotions in others
Receive
• Listen to understand the feelings of the other person • Try not to become defensive
Notice
• Observe and acknowledge your own feelings and reactions
Centre
• Breathe deeply and tune into yourself • Avoid blocking your responsiveness to the other person
Refocus and respond
• Listen again using active listening skills • Acknowledge and reflect both feelings and facts
Clarify and connect
• • • •
Move forward
• Think about the next step • Develop options that are mutually agreeable (if possible)
Look at what is behind the other person’s words Shift the focus from inflamed feelings to the issue Deal with both feelings and facts Acknowledge your contribution (if any) to their problem
If managers, team leaders and team members handle issues such as friction, stress, bullying, harassment and the routine of daily work correctly, the mood of individuals and teams within the work environment is likely to be positive because of the minimisation of the risk of workplace stress and emotional pain. When employees are encouraged to suppress their emotions and allowed to treat their
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK coworkers badly, the work environment can become hostile. The likely result is emotional pain, excessive stress, poor job performance, low morale and a high turnover of employees. Emotional intelligence requires realisation of how our emotions affect self and others and a perception and understanding of the feelings of others. Emotional intelligence also requires the realisation of how the emotions of others affect us and others and the skills to handle difficult emotions in others. The outcome is better work and social relationships.
CHECKPOINT 2.2
Apply emotional labour to reflect workplace norms. Feeling rules provide the framework for the type of feelings a person employed in a particular occupation should display. Feeling rules stipulate the correct emotional responses when interacting with clients or customers. Surface acting involves employees showing emotions without necessarily feeling them, for example, outward emotional expressions such as smiles or frowns. Deep acting requires individuals to express the right emotions and feel emotions needed for the job.
1. Consider the quote here. ‘Emotions are important pieces of information that tell us about ourselves and others.’ a. Identify three positive workplace emotions. b. Identify three negative workplace emotions. 2. Emotional competence: a. What emotional competence skill helps you to manage stress when a workplace situation takes you out of your comfort zone? b. What are the benefits of applying this skill? c. What are the likely consequences if you are unable to apply this skill? 3. Identify three types of stress and provide an example of each. 4. Briefly explain the term ‘emotional contagion’.
2.3 WHAT IS EMOTIONAL LABOUR? Emotional labour is the practice of controlling your own behaviour to display the expected emotions (feeling rules) required to perform the interpersonal aspects of a job efficiently and effectively. Emotional labour occurs whenever a person alters their outward behaviour (emotions, words and nonverbal communication) to conform to a workplace norm. Emotional labour reflects the type of emotional response required of a role in order to meet the expectations of the organisation. Most management roles involve emotional labour: for example, not showing anger at a staff member when they have done something wrong. Healthcare, hospitality and customer service occupations require workers to perform emotional labour. Successful job performance depends on effective management and expression of emotions. The emotional labour requirements and feeling rules of many occupations are high. Feeling rules are typically written down as policies or guidelines and taught as part of the training for positions requiring emotional labour. They are scripts that enable employees to choose the appropriate emotional response to a situation. Psychologists, for example, are taught to act neutrally, restaurant workers are taught to act positively, solicitors are taught to act objectively and nurses are taught to act with empathy.
TYPES OF EMOTIONAL LABOUR Surface acting and deep acting are two types of emotional labour. A significant part of the role of employees in occupations requiring emotional labour is surface acting. When surface acting during service interactions, individuals put on an appearance to hide
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CHAPTER 2 / Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence genuine emotions. Surface acting is a skill or learnt response required of employees engaged in emotional labour. They have the ability to evoke ‘appropriate emotions’ by hiding their own emotions and projecting those emotions determined appropriate by the organisation’s culture, feeling rules, norms and the obligations of the job role. The service orientation and feeling rules of positions in patient care, legal assistance, teaching and lecturing, customer service and call-centre operations require the person in the position to appear friendly, caring and helpful. For example, when a resident in an aged care facility is unpleasant or rude the aged care assistant thinks, ‘I’ll be pleasant here but I’m really spitting chips’. This response is surface acting. The aged care assistant complies with the feeling rules of the position: that is, to display emotions such as warmth and empathy and to suppress inappropriate emotions such as anger or frustration when interacting with a resident. In surface acting the aged care assistant is simply applying the feeling rules related to the position. An example of deep acting is, ‘Yes, the resident is being rude, but I empathise with him and care about solving his problem’. In her deep acting the aged care assistant is still connected with her core values and beliefs. Deep acting, where the role is aligned with your values and display emotions are consistent with your own values, is more satisfying than surface acting. Finding meaning in the work allows a person to deep act and feel comfortable in a position. Employees who believe that surface acting is a genuine part of their job role are able to accept the difference between their outward emotional display and their underlying feelings. They realise their job role requires them to be objective, understand the emotions in the situation and apply the feeling rules to manage the emotions of self and the other person to reach a satisfactory outcome. However, employees who feel uncomfortable about the difference between their own emotions and the surface acting may suffer from emotional dissonance. The requirement to fake or suppress emotions in the surface acting aspect of emotional labour may cause a high level of unease between what people feel and what they show. People who are regularly exposed to the stress of surface acting may experience internal conflict, depression and anxiety, decreased job performance and burnout. Stress arises from the mismatch between an aged care assistant’s personality and what is expected from them in their role. Emotional labour is demanding and calls for the skills of emotional intelligence to not only comply with job and professional expectations but also to build confidence and positive relationships.
Emotional dissonance is the conflict between emotions experienced by the employee and those required by the organisation.
SUSTAINING EMOTIONAL LABOUR Organisations with occupations that require the use of emotional labour employ a range of strategies – buffering, coaching and training, professional development and integrating emotional labour into performance appraisals – to help their employees handle the demands of emotional labour. The intended outcome from these strategies is better service, higher productivity, improved employee morale and reduced turnover. Buffering is the use of front-line service-oriented staff to manage the challenges, demands and problem solving needed to satisfy the needs of customers. The front-line staff act as a buffer or shield for ‘behind the scenes’ employees. Buffering allows others within the organisation to concentrate on administration, production, finance, marketing, advertising and other functions. Coaching and training refreshes the feeling rules and behaviour employees are expected to display in the position. Learning from observation, instruction, feedback and scripts to use when dealing directly
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK with customers enables employees to comply with organisational culture, norms and standards and to display rules. The sharing of success stories of ways to handle the impact of internal conflict caused by surface and deep acting assists employees in dealing with the realities of emotional labour. Coaching and training build the capabilities needed to display emotions appropriate to the performance expectations of the job role. Professional development programs designed to manage the stress of emotional labour improve the emotional intelligence of employees by enhancing their understanding and regulation of their own emotions. Building empathy and engagement with customers and colleagues improves recognition of other people’s emotions and increases the ability to respond appropriately. The intended outcome is minimisation of emotional conflict and less emotional exhaustion. Integrating emotional labour into the performance appraisal process encourages employees to accept the importance of emotional labour. Evaluation of emotional effort factors such as attitude, tolerance, cooperation, commitment to customer service and display of accepted emotions appropriate to the job role emphasises the importance of emotional labour. The capacity to deal with angry or disgruntled customers and colleagues and the ability to provide positive feedback, acknowledgement and leadership become significant factors in the performance appraisal process.
CHECKPOINT 2.3
Actions speak louder than words. Consider the four types of nonverbal communication for better communication. Sharing of cultural nonverbal communication is common by those in a particular culture. Interpret nonverbal behaviour in its context.
1. Emotional labour: a. Define the term ‘emotional labour’ and provide an example of it. b. Briefly explain why employees in service-oriented occupations must be sensitive in their emotional displays to customers. 2. Surface and deep acting: a. What is surface acting? b. What is deep acting? 3. List four strategies organisations can use to help employees handle the demands of emotional labour.
2.4 NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION Nonverbal communication consists of that part of a message not encoded in words. It is part of emotional intelligence. Personal competence (self-awareness and self-regulation) enables the matching of our nonverbal communication to the words in our messages. Social competence (social awareness and relationship management) enables the reading and understanding of the nonverbal cues of others. As we communicate, 7% of the message is conveyed in the words, 38% of the message is from the tone of the voice and 55% is conveyed through body language (Mehrabian 1972). The nonverbal part of the message tends to be unconscious and often reveals the sender’s feelings and preferences more spontaneously and honestly than the verbal part. If the verbal message does not match the nonverbal communication, people tend to believe the nonverbal message. To improve your communication, particularly in interpreting the nonverbal part of the message, it is helpful to consider the four different types of nonverbal messages shown in Exhibit 2.5.
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CHAPTER 2 / Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence
EXHIBIT 2.5 Nonverbal messages Type
Description
Example
Personal nonverbal communication
Involves various kinds of nonverbal behaviour unique to one person. The meaning is also unique to the person sending the message
A person may laugh due to nervousness or fear, while another may cry. These responses nonverbally communicate discomfort.
Cultural nonverbal communication
Characteristic of, or common to, a group of people. It is learned unconsciously by observing others in the society or group
Generally, women tend to feel free to touch each other, whereas men are more self-conscious about this. In Aboriginal cultures, eye contact is less acceptable than it is in European culture.
Universal nonverbal communication
Behaviour that is common to humankind. It shows happiness, sadness or deep-seated feelings
A smile, frown or tears
Random nonverbal communication
Unrelated to the verbal message. While it can distract from the verbal message, it has little effect on the meaning
A sneeze
Theoretical writings and research further classify nonverbal communication into the seven main areas shown in Exhibit 2.6. However, it should be noted that to consider each of the seven aspects in isolation is artificial. In practice, what is sent as a complete message is a cluster of nonverbal cues in association with the spoken words.
EXHIBIT 2.6 Classifications of nonverbal communication Area
Description
Example
1. Body movement (kinesic behaviour)
Body posture – the way a person stands, leans forward or back, and moves the head all affect the message. Includes movements of the hands, head, feet and legs, posture, eye movements and facial expressions.
A person leaning forward, pointing and shaking a finger at someone is seen as trying to dominate the other person.
2. Physical characteristics
Physical characteristics, first impressions and images of others can be associated unconsciously with past experiences of people with similar physical characteristics. They are important parts of nonverbal communication.
People react to factors such as body shape, general attractiveness, body and breath odours, weight, hair and skin colour. These factors often determine our responses in interpersonal encounters.
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Area
Description
Example
3. Touching behaviour
Touching can console or support the other person and show feelings such as affection, sexual interest or dominance. Hand gestures demonstrate feelings and convey thoughts and words through movement. A handshake, for example, can express either dominance or equality.
Stroking, hitting, holding or guiding the movements of another person are touching behaviours that communicate nonverbally. Each adds a different meaning to a message – a pat on the arm can convey intimacy or control.
4. Vocal qualities (paralanguage)
Paralanguage is that part of language associated with, but not involving, the word system. It consists of the voice qualities and vocalisations that affect how something is said rather than what is said.
Vocal qualities include: • pitch range • pitch control • rhythm control • tempo • articulation control • resonance.
Vocalisations, the tone of voice, rate of speaking and voice inflection are an important part of the total message.
Vocalisations (such as sighing, groaning, volume, ‘um’ and ‘ah’) also give clues to the total message. A tired person, for example, will speak more slowly than usual; a disappointed person may speak with a flat tone, while the tone of voice of someone excited about a coming holiday reflects this excitement.
5. Space (proximity)
Proximity means nearness, in terms of physical space. Research has shown that Australians speaking to acquaintances or work colleagues leave about an arm’s length of space between themselves and the other person. People speaking to friends and family leave about half an arm’s length between themselves and others. People in intimate relationships allow direct and close contact when speaking to each other. The use of space reflects the way people feel about others.
Personal space varies according to gender, status, roles and culture. People can use their height and weight to convey a message. If you tower over other people in a way that intrudes on their personal space you may cause their discomfort and withdrawal. How people use their personal space and that of others communicates a message about how that person perceives and feels in that space.
6. Artefacts
Artefacts are objects used to convey nonverbal messages about self-concept, image, mood, feelings or style. Many artefacts are common to the group, but we also use artefacts, particularly clothing, as an individual form of communication. Appearance and clothing are important and highly visible parts of nonverbal communication. The choice of clothes reflects your mood and your attitude to the occasion. Other people notice and place their own interpretation on your dress.
Perfume, clothes, lipstick, glasses and hairpieces project the style or mood of the wearer. A police badge, a nurse’s uniform, a university lecturer’s gown and an Italian suit are all artefacts that can signal power or lack of power in a situation. If a plain-clothes police officer shows the police badge at an accident, others immediately perceive his or her authority.
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CHAPTER 2 / Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence
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Area 7. Environment
Description
Example
The environment can influence the outcomes of communication – for instance, organisations give careful consideration to office space, factory layout, the sales area and conference venues. The environment should put people at ease and match their expectations; an unsuitable environment can produce ‘noise’ that causes communication barriers and interferes with the communication process.
Natural and artificial light, colour, temperature, tables, chairs, desks, lounges, plants, sound, artwork, magazines, and floor and wall coverings all have an impact on people’s perception of an organisation.
Do you show or tell your likes and dislikes? Psychologist Albert Mehrabian is best known for his theories of nonverbal communication. In particular, it is his 7%/38%/55% equation that has received the most attention. This equation is often misinterpreted as breaking down verbal and nonverbal messages into a ‘rule’ that all communicated meaning is received as: 7% from the meaning of words, 38% from tone of voice and 55% from body language, a misinterpretation that communicated messages are mainly conveyed by nonverbal cues rather than words. In reality, Mehrabian’s research was about the relative importance of verbal and nonverbal messages; he arrived at this formula following experiments on the communication of attitudes and feelings. Therefore, unless someone is talking about their feelings or attitudes – for example, talking about if they like or dislike something – this 7%, 38%, 55% equation is not applicable. This research does suggest, however, that people can strongly interpret likes and dislikes from nonverbal cues.
FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE
Source: Dr Mehrabian’s website: www.kaaj.com/psych.
ASK YOURSELF: Can you think of a situation at work where someone has expressed a like or dislike to you verbally that you have not believed based on their nonverbal cues? Have you perhaps expressed a liking for something that wasn’t true? Thinking back, do you think your nonverbal cues would have conflicted with what you said?
MATCHING THE NONVERBAL AND VERBAL Often, we conform to the rules we learned as children about nonverbal messages. These rules create a level of cultural consensus and sense of belonging. However, intercultural variations in the rules are significant. While universal and random nonverbal communication are unlikely to cause communication barriers, personal and intercultural nonverbal communication may raise barriers to understanding between people. For this reason, we need to be aware of the different ways individuals communicate nonverbally and of variations caused by cultural differences. Think about the impact of nonverbal communication: touching adds meaning to the message; paralanguage (how something is said) has an impact; space can be used to indicate status; clothes are vehicles for conveying nonverbal messages; and environmental factors influence communication. Exhibit 2.7 outlines six different ways that nonverbal communication interacts with verbal communication.
Consider the words and the nonverbal behaviour – the total message.
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EXHIBIT 2.7 Nonverbal communication combined with spoken words
Repeating e.g. pointing when giving directions
Controlling e.g. changing position to show the speaker to give you a turn
Contracting e.g. watching the clock while talking
Impact of nonverbal communication
Accenting e.g. moving your head up and down to say yes
Substituting e.g. saying you are happy while frowning
Complementing e.g. using hand gestures to emphasise
Dealing with contradictions between the verbal and nonverbal Confirm the meaning of the nonverbal part of the message.
The accurate interpretation of nonverbal messages comes from knowing people and their pattern of interpersonal communication, both verbal and nonverbal. The nonverbal communication is seldom consciously observed unless it confuses the receiver. On some occasions, it is possible to ignore nonverbal communication that is confusing. At other times, it must be acknowledged or even confronted – for example, when the verbal message conveys agreement while several nonverbal signals (such as pitch of voice, facial expression or posture) indicate lack of agreement or even ridicule, then you are in doubt, are uncomfortable with the communication or have to make a decision on the basis of the total message. The total message is understood more easily when you follow the four-step process below: 1. Hear (and listen to) the words. 2. Observe the nonverbal behaviour. 3. Confirm the meaning with the sender when the verbal and nonverbal messages conflict or confuse you. 4. Consider the context or setting.
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CHAPTER 2 / Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence For example, suppose someone in a meeting sits back and folds their arms. If you say, ‘I see you’re in a closed posture’, you are making an assumption about the nonverbal part of the message. It is more useful to confirm the meaning by replacing your interpretation with a simple description: ‘You’ve just folded your arms’. This allows the person to reply: ‘Yes, my shoulders are aching’ or ‘Yes, I feel uncomfortable, even threatened, by the suggestion’ or ‘I’m cold’ or ‘I’m bored’. 1. Body movement and nonverbal communication: a. Identify five categories of body movement and give an example of each. b. List and briefly describe the classifications of nonverbal communication. 2. Identify six ways in which nonverbal communication adds meaning to, modifies or changes the spoken word. 3. List the four steps you can follow when you are in doubt about the meaning. 4. Body language: a. View one of the TEDx Talks from the ‘editor’s picks’ at https://www.youtube.com> tedx talks. As well as listening to the presenter’s content, focus on their body language. b. Identify how many meanings you can interpret from the presenter’s hand gestures. c. Reflect on how the presenter’s facial expressions, eye contact, tone of voice, body posture and motions energise their presentation. d. Develop a list of powerful body language tips you can use in your next formal or informal workplace verbal presentation.
CHECKPOINT 2.4
2.5 THE PROCESS OF LISTENING AND PROVIDING FEEDBACK Emotionally intelligent people realise there is a difference between hearing and listening. Hearing is a physical process. The ears receive sensations or stimuli and transmit them to the brain – for example, a loud, sudden or unfamiliar sound catches our attention. Listening refers to the interpretative process that takes place when we hear something. When we listen, we store, classify and label information, all of which involves attention, interpretation and understanding. Listening to another person takes time and effort. In the work environment, people listen in order to understand instructions, receive new information, understand changes in procedure and interact with other people. Whatever the purpose, concentration and a deliberate effort to be interested in the speaker’s message will increase listening effectiveness. If you listen well, you will understand the content, meaning and feelings of the message. If you are distracted, much of this will be lost.
Listen actively. Use the different types of listening effectively.
ATTENDING LISTENING: FOCUS ON THE SPEAKER In attending listening, you focus on the speaker by giving them your physical attention. You use your whole body, and the environment you create, to provide feedback that assures the speaker of your total attention. Some ways of offering this feedback are eye contact, posture and body movement. As well as showing interest in the speaker, the quality of your attending listening skills is improved by a quiet environment. The capacity to ignore distractions and understand how moving into or out of the personal space of others affects the interaction. Show interest in the speaker by using the behaviours listed in Exhibit 2.8.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK
EXHIBIT 2.8 Attending listening Behaviour
Factor Eye contact
• Use supportive eye contact • Focus your eyes on the speaker without being intimidating • Show sensitivity – avoid staring directly at the speaker for long periods, as the speaker may feel uncomfortable
Posture
• • • •
Body movement
• Avoid moving about a lot • Avoid fiddling with objects, crossing or uncrossing legs, signalling or speaking to passers-by
Personal space
• Position yourself at a distance that is comfortable for both you and the speaker • Comfort in the use of physical distance depends on culture and personal preference
Environment
• • • •
Avoid distractions
• Face the speaker and maintain eye contact with them • Ignore distractions, rather than turn away from the speaker • Stop what you are doing and focus your attention on the other person
Use your posture to show you are attending to the other person Lean slightly forward towards the speaker in a relaxed way Face the person squarely Maintain an open position with arms and legs uncrossed
Avoid moving into the speaker’s personal space Create an environment without distractions or interruptions Remove any physical barriers between you and the speaker Establish an environment where you can both feel relaxed
ENCOURAGING LISTENING: INVITE THE SPEAKER TO CONTINUE Offer feedback.
Encouraging listening indicates that the listener is willing to do more than listen. It provides feedback that invites speakers to say more and to disclose their thoughts and feelings. The strategies in Exhibit 2.9 will encourage the speaker to continue.
EXHIBIT 2.9 Encourage the speaker to continue Strategy Invitation to disclose
Description • Invite speakers to continue, but without pressuring them to disclose their feelings or thoughts. They may be feeling ambivalent about whether to discuss their feelings or keep them private. • Continue to give attention by using eye contact and an open posture, and let them choose whether or not to disclose.
Example If the speaker seems upset or annoyed, you might say something like, ‘You seem to be upset about the discussion with that last client. Would you care to talk about it?’
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CHAPTER 2 / Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence
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Strategy
Description
Example
Minimal and brief responses
• Minimal and brief spoken responses let speakers know you are listening and encourage them to continue. • Nonverbal cues such as nodding and facial expressions also convey your interest.
Some of these responses are ‘mmm’, ‘hmm’, ‘yes’ and ‘I see’, along with an attentive posture.
Pause
• A pause, or brief silence, allows the speaker time to consider, reflect and decide whether to continue the conversation. • As a listener, use this time to watch the speaker’s body movement. This can give you clues to the total message – its content and the speaker’s feelings.
Allow silences. Let the speaker have time to think.
Use encouraging questions
• Asking open questions will encourage the other person to share more personal feelings and thoughts. Open questions encourage the speaker to answer at greater length and in more detail, whereas closed questions usually lead to a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer. • Avoid ‘why’ questions because they can make the other person defensive. A ‘why’ question urges them to justify their actions and can also sound disapproving. • By asking open questions about what, when, where, how and who, you can help the speaker to be more specific and revealing.
An example of an open question is: ‘How did you go about collecting the files?’ An example of a closed question is: ‘Did you collect the files?’
Avoid ‘why’ questions because they can make the other person defensive. A ‘why’ question urges them to justify their actions and can also sound disapproving. The listening funnel in Exhibit 2.10 shows the progression from open questions to probing questions, to narrow the listener’s range of responses, to closed questions, inviting specific answers, to paraphrasing questions, to check your understanding that the message matches the sender’s meaning. Questioning skills are covered in more detail in the feedback section of this chapter.
REFLECTIVE LISTENING: MIRROR THE CONTENT AND FEELINGS IN THE MESSAGE
EXHIBIT 2.10 Listening funnel Open questions
Probing questions
Closed questions Paraphrasing questions
Reflective listening restates both the feeling and content of the speaker’s message, to show that you understand. There are several techniques you can use to provide this kind of feedback. Asking open questions about what, when, where, how and who helps the speaker to be more specific and revealing.
Show the other person you understand.
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Clarify to give feedback about your understanding of the other person’s message.
Understand the issue from the other person’s point of view.
Paraphrasing helps to achieve a full understanding of the content. It rephrases the essential part of the message concisely in your own words. Listen for the main ideas and direction of the message and rephrase it for the speaker without making judgements that may interrupt or distract. The speaker either agrees with your summary or disagrees and can then rephrase the message – for example, phrases such as, ‘You’re saying that …’ or ‘I see, you would say that …’ help you to paraphrase the message. Avoid repeating the other person’s statements word for word. Paraphrasing is useful at work to confirm instructions or information before you take action. Reflective listeners are able to use mirror statements that clarify and summarise the other person’s communication without interrupting the flow of words or thoughts of the essential feelings received from the message. For example, to reflect feelings from the message, ‘I thought I would have got that last promotion. Seems like I miss out every time’, the listener replies, ‘It’s really discouraging’ or ‘You seem discouraged’. This lets the speaker know that you understand their feelings. Clarifying the meaning establishes with the speaker that your understanding is correct. Make clarifying remarks in terms of describing your feelings, rather than as criticisms of the speaker – for example, if you feel confused by what the speaker has said, you might say something like, ‘Could you repeat that? I don’t think I understood’ or ‘Could you give me an example of …? I’m not sure I followed what you said’. If you have misunderstood, the speaker can then rephrase the message. Clarification of the message gives the speaker feedback and shows what the listener understands. It takes the guesswork out of communication. Summarising is used to gather up and condense the most important points made in a long conversation, to conclude it and give it shape or direction. As you summarise, use statements such as ‘So far we’ve covered …’ or ‘Your main concerns seem to be …’. Summarising lets the other person know you understand what is most relevant, and their thoughts and feelings. Such feedback results in clear communication. Both sender and receiver understand the message.
ACTIVE LISTENING: SHOW EMPATHY WITH THE SPEAKER
While reflective listening restates the feelings and content of the message, active listening goes one step further. It also communicates to other people that you understand the problem from their point of view. An active listener has empathy with the speaker. EXHIBIT 2.11 The active listening process Active listening is an interactive process of responding verbally and nonverbally to the other person’s message. By Pay close listening well you are better able to resolve conflict before it attention reaches a higher level. Applying the active listening process to a conflict is illustrated by Exhibit 2.11. Active listeners are able to: • Pay close attention to the other person: use eye contact, Encourage the LISTEN Reflect their face them, be aware of personal space, adopt an open other person ACTIVELY message to continue position, keep still, let them speak, be enthusiastic and/or encouraging and use an appropriate tone of voice. • Encourage the other person by using conversation openers, inviting them to speak, making brief minimal responses without asking too many questions, and pausing.
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CHAPTER 2 / Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence •
Reflect or mirror the message by paraphrasing, clarifying or exploring, reflecting feelings, reflecting meanings and summarising. • Listen actively to the whole message to allow them to relay the total message (content and feelings) back to the speaker: The speaker can then confirm or correct the listener’s feedback. The process of active listening involves actively participating in the conversation with the other person. It requires a conscious attempt to empathise with the speaker in terms of the content and feelings, and to enable them to express and recognise those feelings – for example, a response by the listener such as ‘You seem to be feeling down about this …’ lets the speaker either agree or disagree with that response. Listening responses that help you to participate actively are shown in Exhibit 2.12.
Give the other person all your attention.
EXHIBIT 2.12 Examples of listening responses Type of response
Examples
Attending
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Encouraging questions
Mirror statements
Clarifying questions
Active listening: empathy
I hear you … I see … Oh … Uh, hmm … I’d like to hear how you feel. Would you like to talk about it? You’d like to talk further? Perhaps you’d like to tell me? You really dislike some … Sounds as if you’re really … It’s really exciting … You feel it is a good idea … You seem to be feeling discouraged … I think you’re saying … Could you give an example …? I feel a bit confused. Could you repeat that? I understand how you feel. You seem to be feeling upset about this. I see. It really means that … On another occasion you’d like …
When you use active listening, you are giving the other person all your attention in order to understand their perspective, and to communicate your understanding. Active listening also lets speakers find their own understanding and insights. The process of active listening is shown in Exhibit 2.13. Sometimes you will use only part of the listening process: for example, attending listening when you are receiving instructions from your team leader about a new task. On another occasion you might use all in combination: that is, actively listen, for example, when making a conscious effort to not only hear the words that another person is saying about the new work schedule but also their feelings and concerns. Each part of the active listening process involves a set of behaviours that help you to focus on the speaker, invite the speaker to continue, give feedback without judging and show empathy with the speaker.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Attending, encouraging and reflecting listening are separate listening skills that we combine as we listen actively. As well as using these skills, an active listener understands the situation from the other person’s point of view. Speakers who are given the opportunity to talk with active listeners are more likely to find their own satisfactory resolution to the problem or issue of concern.
EXHIBIT 2.13 Active listening process
Attending listening To focus on the speaker
BARRIERS TO LISTENING Active listening To show empathy with the speaker
Encouraging listening To invite the speaker to continue
Listening is made easier when the speaker can send a clear, unambiguous message. It is also made easier when the listener avoids barriers. Barriers may be due to the listeners themselves when some aspect of their own background interferes with their perception of the speaker or of the spoken message; for Reflecting listening example, boredom or lack of interest and the listener’s dislike To mirror the feelings of the speaker’s personality or physical appearance. The and content intrusion of the listener’s own values or attitudes and the desire in the message to change rather than accept the speaker raise barriers. Barriers may also be due to any one of the elements in the communication process – sender, receiver, message, channel, environment or ineffective feedback. An unclear message caused by static or interference on the telephone is an obvious example of a communication barrier caused by the channel. Neither the listener nor the sender can prevent such a barrier. You will recognise some of these barriers, and perhaps be able to add to them from your own experience as a listener or as an observer of another listener. As a sender, no matter how skilled you are at speaking or communicating the message, communication will fail if the receiver does not listen. It is important to be aware that ineffective verbal responses by the listener can also contribute to communication barriers. Exhibit 2.14 provides examples. Active listening
EXHIBIT 2.14 The impact of a listener’s ineffective verbal response Listener’s ineffective response to the speaker
Example of barrier
Speaker’s response to the barrier
Ordering, directing or commanding
Stop it or else … You must do this.
Resentment
Warning and threatening
You’d better do this or else …
Anger
Lecturing or preaching
It’s in your own best interest to do this.
Resistance
Judging, criticising
I think you’ve gone too far this time.
Offence
Disagreeing
I think you’re totally wrong.
Put-down
Blaming
It’s all your fault.
Defensiveness
Name calling
You’re stupid.
Distress
Interrogating
Why did you …?
Defensiveness
Using ridicule or sarcasm
Someone like you is not expected to know …
Hurt
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CHAPTER 2 / Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence By listening well, you can avoid directing or leading, blaming, judging or evaluating the other person. Rather than feeling the need to be responsible for others or to confront them, a good listener accepts different views and is accepted by others. Skill in listening lets you enjoy the company of others as you listen for pleasure, to get information, to help others or to interact in a work team.
FEEDBACK Effective feedback creates trust and an open relationship between sender and receiver. It is the receiver’s response to a sender’s message and is one of the main ways to assess how accurately our message has been received, how we affect others and how others perceive us. Four different types of feedback used in organisations and businesses are shown in Exhibit 2.15. They include informative feedback, immediate and specific feedback, and negative and positive feedback from leaders or managers, coworkers, customers and others. People may evaluate their own work and their interactions with other people.
Use feedback as the connecting, continuing or completing link. Give and receive constructive feedback to improve understanding and performance. Share perceptions to increase understanding.
EXHIBIT 2.15 Types of feedback Type
Purpose
Techniques
Informative feedback
To show understanding and to reinforce positive behaviour or results
Immediate and specific feedback
To describe what has been done or needs to be done, rather than judging or threatening the other person
Negative constructive feedback
To correct and change unsatisfactory behaviour or results
Positive feedback
To acknowledge the role and contribution of the other person – positive feedback encourages the repetition of behaviour
• Provide factual information about the situation and use effective listening skills. • Focus on the content of the message; identify the other person’s purpose and main ideas by rephrasing or summarising. • Withhold judgement and empathise with any unexpressed feelings. • Share perceptions and feelings about the message. • Keep feedback clear, specific and tied to actual behaviour; e.g. ‘This file could do with a tidy-up’ instead of ‘Your files are always untidy’. • Avoid abstract, vague and sweeping statements. • Respect the other person’s right to respond. • Take the time to listen, and acknowledge their response. • Provide definitive, responsive feedback. • Orient the feedback on the task; don’t criticise the personal characteristics of the other person. • Give feedback at an appropriate time and place. • Only include behaviour that the receiver is able to change, and only what the receiver can handle at the time. • Provide timely feedback in an appropriate context. • Be specific about the behaviour and listen to the other person’s response. • Invite feedback from the other person: ‘What do you think about my suggestions?’ The feedback flow becomes an openended, two-way process.
Constructive feedback is timely. Negative feedback is not necessarily detrimental to the receiver; the result depends on how it is provided. Positive feedback from managers and peers encourages the repetition of that behaviour and acknowledges a person’s role in and contribution to the organisation.
Offer immediate and specific feedback to provide useful information.
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Questioning skills Asking the right question in the right situation helps you collect information, learn more, build sound relationships and manage people more effectively. For example, when you want clarification and understanding from a person who is trying to avoid telling you something, you can ask a probing question to draw out information. By consciously asking the right kind of question, you can gain the information, response or outcome you want and encourage the other person to share their expertise, feelings and thoughts. Examples of five different types of questions are shown in Exhibit 2.16. The types of questions to avoid are shown in Exhibit 2.17. Questions are an integral part of the feedback process.
EXHIBIT 2.16 Types of questions used to give feedback Type
Example
Open questions invite the other person to talk
What do you think about bringing the sales force in for a half-day training session?
Closed questions invite the other person to give a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ response
Do you have concerns about the time spent on training the sales force?
Probing questions are used to gain more details
Could you help by giving an example?
Mirror questions show interest in what the other person has said
I guess it sounds like you want to be involved?
Empowering questions are open-ended questions that invite new insights
What can we learn from this experience?
EXHIBIT 2.17 Types of questions to avoid as you give feedback Type
Example
Multiple questions that cover a number of issues
Do you think you can complete by the deadline and how will you ensure the consultants complete the specifications?
Leading questions to get the answer you want
We expect sales to increase by 10% over the next six months. By how much do you think they will increase?
Implied value questions that reflect your values
Do you agree that employing another consultant on the project will break the budget?
Ambiguous or vague questions that confuse
How can we improve our use of cloud computing tools and are they appropriate for our company?
Asking open, closed and probing questions lets you learn about the other person’s perceptions, ideas and commitment to what is happening. Positive open questions such as ‘Tell me what you like best about the project’ help you to build and maintain an open, ongoing conversation. By asking open questions about what, when, where, how and who, the listener is able to help the speaker to be more specific, precise and revealing. Probing questions are used to seek clarification and avoid misunderstandings. For example, the question ‘What exactly did you mean by …?’ lets you check the other person is giving an accurate and full account by probing for more detail.
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CHAPTER 2 / Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence Although encouraging questions let the other person know the listener is interested in talking with them, encouraging questions do not necessarily show the listener understands. To show understanding, change encouraging questions into mirror statements that will help clarify and summarise the other person’s words without interrupting the flow of words or thoughts. Empowering questions invite people to notice, consider, wonder about, discover and awaken to new ideas. They are open-ended questions that lead to discovery, insights or ‘ah-ha’ moments and opportunities. Empowering questions allow the other person to ponder a new perspective, help the other person see the issue in a different light and ask something new to draw out feedback and engagement. Empowering questions usually begin with ‘what’ or ‘how’. Avoid why questions because they can be interpreted as interrogative and personal. Instead of encouraging the speaker to explore their actions, a why question encourages them to justify their actions. The speaker may feel threatened because the why question sounds as if the listener disapproves of their actions. Workplace relationships built on good communication work well. Those built on poor communication do not work so well. Some of the particular communication strategies that manage the interaction and achieve a balance that satisfies both parties are assertiveness, ‘I’ statements and feedback. 1. Briefly describe the active listening process. 2. List two barriers to listening. 3. Empathy: a. Why is displaying empathy such an important listening skill? b. List five ways that you as the listener can demonstrate empathy with the speaker. 4. Feedback: a. Identify four types of feedback and the purpose of each. b. List five types of questions you can use to give feedback. c. List four types of questions you should avoid as you give feedback.
Interact courteously and confidently.
CHECKPOINT 2.5
2.6 ASSERTIVENESS Emotional intelligence (personal and social competence) makes possible the use of assertion to stand up for what you think is right and explain your wants, needs and feelings to others. Being assertive means balancing on the fine line between submission, assertiveness and aggression. An assertive person achieves this balance through self-awareness, as well as the acknowledgement of the rights of others. Assertive people are interpersonally intelligent and able to form positive workplace relationships. They feel less stressed at work because they have the personal power to get things done and stand up for themselves even in difficult situations. ‘Being assertive gives you the best chance of successfully delivering your message. If you communicate in a way that’s too passive or too aggressive, your message may get lost because people are too busy reacting to your delivery.’ (Mayo Clinic Staff 2017) Acknowledgement of their own interests and the interests of others means assertive people are able to treat both self and others with fairness and respect. Assertiveness enables you to value yourself and your rights, and to understand that your rights, thoughts, feelings, needs and desires are no more or less important than the rights of others.
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Display assertive behaviour to build mutual respect. Negotiate, collaborate and say ‘no’ when appropriate without feeling uncomfortable. Be willing to acknowledge your rights and the rights of others.
Assertive people know their limits and are able to say ‘no’ when appropriate. They may suggest a possible alternative for a win–win solution. Assertive behaviour shows in your way of speaking and questioning, and in your listening and other nonverbal behaviour. This kind of behaviour is constructive and helpful when conflict arises because the needs of all parties are acknowledged and dealt with. All parties are also more likely to understand one another and the situation. Two assertive people can accept that each has a different opinion or perspective. They can also accept that when they are assertive and ask for what they want, they don’t necessarily get it. Acting assertively in a conflict, for example, means standing up for your rights and expressing what you believe, feel and want in direct, honest and appropriate ways that respect others’ rights. In any situation, assertive behaviour increases our self-esteem, develops mutual respect and helps us achieve our goals. It allows us to express our feelings in a way that is unlikely to make others feel defensive or aggressive. Assertive people avoid the mistake of accepting responsibility for how others react to their assertive statements (anger or disappointment) because they control their own emotions and know that others are responsible for their own behaviour. They are able to accept compliments and constructive feedback positively, and to ask for help on those occasions when they make a mistake.
THE ‘I’ MESSAGE
Use assertive statements when you need to make people aware of your rights.
A useful technique to develop assertiveness and show openness with others is to use an ‘I’ message. This is a way of sharing emotions and letting others know both how you perceive their behaviour and how it affects you. One of the best ways to begin assertive statements is to say, ‘I feel … when …’; for example, ‘I feel annoyed when I have not been notified that you will be late’. We can all express our needs and wants with an ‘I’ message that shows our personal involvement and our willingness to share our feelings. ‘I’ messages are assertive statements used to make people aware of your rights while you respect theirs. If their behaviour is aggressive (i.e. not respecting your rights), or dangerous to themselves or others, send clear assertive messages and listen to the message from the other party. ‘I’ messages can express our feelings about behaviour that is acceptable and pleasing, or unacceptable. Messages dealing with behaviour that is unacceptable to you are more difficult to express, so this section focuses on their construction.
Constructing an ‘I’ message An ‘I’ message can have two, three or four parts. The formulae for two-, three- and four-part ‘I’ messages are shown in Exhibit 2.18. The formula in a two-part ‘I’ message is ‘feelings þ behaviour’. In a two-part ‘I’ message, you: 1. ‘own’ the feeling 2. describe in concrete terms the behaviour that is causing the feeling. Following this formula, a two-part assertive message becomes: ‘I feel angry when the dirty clothes are left in the bathroom’. In the second part, take care simply to describe the other person’s behaviour rather than interpret, judge or evaluate it.
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CHAPTER 2 / Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence
EXHIBIT 2.18 Formulae for ‘I’ statements Two-part ‘I’ message
Three-part ‘I’ message
Four-part ‘I’ message
Feelings
Feelings
Feelings
+
+
+
Behaviour
Behaviour
Behaviour
+
+
Effects
Effects + Acceptable alternative behaviour
The formula in a three-part ‘I’ message is ‘feelings þ behaviour þ effects’ (the statements may occur in a different order). In a three-part ‘I’ message, you: 1. ‘own’ the feeling 2. describe precisely the behaviour that is causing the feeling 3. state what effects the behaviour has on you. Following this formula, a three-part assertive statement becomes: ‘I feel … when … because …’; for example, the message may be, ‘I feel annoyed when I have not been notified that you will be late because I am unable to reschedule my time.’ The formula in a four-part ‘I’ message is ‘feelings þ behaviour þ effects þ acceptable alternative behaviour’. In a four-part ‘I’ message, you: 1. ‘own’ the feeling: for example, I know we’re really busy … 2. describe exactly what behaviour is causing the feeling: for example, ‘But I feel stressed when everything is given equal importance … 3. state the effect of the behaviour on you: for example, I would like some way of grading the work from most important to least important … 4. offer an alternative, acceptable behaviour: for example, Perhaps we could use a priority system. Your assertive message would then say ‘I feel … when … because … I would like …’; for example, ‘I feel annoyed when I have not been notified that you will be late because I am unable to reschedule my time. I would like to be contacted if there is a reason to reschedule.’ You can use the fourth part of the message to suggest the alternative acceptable behaviour. Successful ‘I’ statements communicate how you feel in a non-threatening way that is acceptable to the other person. They produce a positive outcome. Though assertive, they do not blame or even interpret the other person’s behaviour. On the other hand, aggressive statements often start with blame: ‘You make me …’ The likely impact of an assertive ‘I’ message response to an aggressive message is shown in Exhibit 2.19.
Suggest alternative acceptable behaviour in the fourth part of an ‘I’ message.
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EXHIBIT 2.19 Possible outcomes of an assertive ‘I’ message response to an aggressive message Outcomes
Type of verbal message
Constructive response
Impact on aggressor
Aggressive
Receiver sends an ‘I’ message stating the impact of the aggressive message
Aggressive sender receives impartial message about impact of aggressive message
Aggressor can decide to de-escalate the aggression and continue on the basis of the ‘I’ statement and understanding of its meaning Aggressor may continue to be aggressive (but, hopefully, finds it harder)
Aggressor can escalate aggression
Once you become skilled at ‘I’ messages, you will frame them in your own words and may omit the words ‘feel’, ‘when’ and ‘because’. Assertive behaviour acknowledges your rights as an individual and the rights of other people. This is the ideal attitude to have at work and in our everyday lives. Assertive people tend to demonstrate open, expressive and relaxed behaviour. They are able to build honest, fulfilling relationships with others.
AGGRESSIVENESS Avoid behaving aggressively and needing to win.
An aggressive person may have to win at all costs. They take what they want regardless and they usually don’t ask. This means dominating and, on occasion, humiliating others, even to the point of ignoring a suggestion that provides the best solution simply because it is someone else’s solution. The rights of others to participate, enjoy a sense of satisfaction and receive acknowledgement for their work are ignored. An aggressive person is often in conflict with others.
SUBMISSIVENESS Avoid behaving submissively and being unable to promote a point of view.
Submissive people are unable to assert or promote a point of view. They find it difficult to lead others because their style of relating means submitting to another’s point of view, even to the extent of ignoring their own rights. When problems or unpleasant situations arise, a submissive person tends to avoid them, leaving them to someone else. Non-assertive behaviour is another term for aggressive or submissive behaviour. By behaving in this way we fail to express honest feelings, thoughts and beliefs. Aggressive people usually try to win at all costs by dominating and humiliating others. Such behaviour shows little respect for others. Submissive people, by contrast, are unable to promote their point of view and even ignore their own needs.
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CHAPTER 2 / Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence
DRAMA AND SUCCESS TRIANGLES The drama and success triangle were created by Steiner (1974) to contrast the behaviour of people who relate in a way that leads to conflict and the behaviour of those who behave assertively and in positive ways. Non-assertive behaviour is best illustrated by the drama triangle (Exhibit 2.20). The drama triangle explains how people who play the role of victim behave in a helpless manner. They speak and act as if everyone is against them and as if they cannot do anything for themselves. In a conflict situation they are unable to act, and give up. They are not real victims, but behave like helpless victims just to have someone else rescue or persecute them. People who play the role of persecutor offer rewards or punishment to those who play the helpless victim role. Persecutors put the other person down and bully them. In contrast, people who play the role of rescuer offer help and support, sometimes denying their own needs. They may try to protect the victim from the persecutor. (See Exhibit 2.20.) In the success triangle (see Exhibit 2.21), openness, caring and assertive responses focus on the satisfaction of each party’s needs. Assertion lets each party express their needs and concerns in a conflict. When it is used with the win–win approach, and with others who also use the win–win approach, each party can consider the needs of the other and move towards a solution that satisfies as many needs as possible. Those who keep alert for the discomfort and incident levels of conflict are able to prevent the escalation of conflict to higher levels.
EXHIBIT 2.20 Drama triangle
Conflict Rescuer
Persecutor
Victim
EXHIBIT 2.21 Success triangle
Winning Caring
Open
Assertive
1. Assertiveness: a. Define the terms ‘assertiveness’, ‘aggressiveness’ and ‘submissiveness’. b. How do assertiveness skills benefit you in the work environment? 2. ‘I’ messages: a. ‘An ‘‘I’’ message is non-evaluative.’ Explain the meaning of this statement. b. Why are ‘I’ messages used? c. Read each of the following statements aloud with what you think is the appropriate tone and inflection. Distinguish between the ‘I’ messages and the non-’I’ messages. • ‘I feel angry when my conversation is cut off.’ • ‘I find it hard to work when you stand and look over my shoulder.’ • ‘I’m unable to work with you constantly leaning over my shoulder and upsetting me.’ • ‘I feel angry when you interrupt because you’re more interested in other things.’ • ‘You’re always late and that makes it so hard for us.’ • ‘I missed you when you were late this morning.’ • ‘You keep me waiting because you don’t care about me.’ d. Now reframe the non-’I’ messages as ‘I’ messages.
CHECKPOINT 2.6
Avoid non-assertive behaviour – another term for aggressive or submissive behaviour.
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LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 2.1 Discuss the four skills of emotional intelligence and provide examples of how each skill may be applied in the workplace. The four skills are self-awareness, selfregulation, social awareness and relationship management. In the workplace, emotionally intelligent people have the personal and social competence to accomplish organisational goals and behave effectively in business and social settings. As well as working independently they work well with others, listen to what is being said and have the ability to be in control and respond under stressful situations. 2.2 Discuss the benefits of using emotional intelligence at work. When interacting with others, self-awareness and the ability to self-regulate, combined with the skills of social awareness and relationship management, are the keys to feeling comfortable socially and maintaining good relationships. Personally and socially competent leaders, supervisors and team members recognise the power dynamics at work; communicate, inspire and influence others; manage conflict; and work well in a team. Problems, issues and inappropriate behaviour are handled before they become stressful and escalate into conflict. 2.3 Explain the purpose and features of emotional labour. Whether interacting with customers face-to-face, in voice-to-voice contacts or through social media, emotional labour requires the person to hide their true feelings and ‘put on a happy face’. The interpersonal interactions in service roles require an employee to display positive emotions and conceal any negative feelings. Surface acting and deep acting are displayed in occupations requiring emotional labour to regulate emotion, foster customer satisfaction, build goodwill and develop positive relationships with customers and clients. 2.4 Identify seven ways nonverbal communication can influence the total message. The seven aspects of nonverbal behaviour are body movement (kinesic
behaviour), physical characteristics, touching behaviour, vocal qualities (paralanguage), use of space or proximity, artefacts and the environment. The seven main aspects of nonverbal communication have been presented in isolation in this chapter. In practice, they occur in clusters and must be read and used together. 2.5 Describe the active listening and feedback processes and explain how the processes help the listener and speaker to understand one another. The four listening responses are attending listening (focusing on the speaker), encouraging listening (inviting the speaker to continue), reflective listening, (mirroring the content and feelings of the message) and active listening (showing empathy with the speaker). Good listeners provide feedback by paraphrasing, using mirror statements, clarifying and summarising, and using open questions. Open questions invite the other person to talk. Closed questions invite the other person to give a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ response. Probing questions are used to gain more details and mirror questions show interest in what the other person has said. ‘Why’ questions are avoided because they may make other people feel defensive and justify their position rather than seek new ideas or further understanding. 2.6 Explain why assertiveness is essential for positive, productive workplace relationships and outcomes. Assertive communication is respectful of others but clear and firm. It means standing up for yourself in a way that does not infringe on the rights of others and respects your own rights and feelings and the rights and feelings of others. ‘I’ messages are a useful way to let you ask assertively for what you want because they disclose how you feel about a situation and show openness with others. Good interpersonal intelligence and nonverbal, listening, feedback and questioning skills facilitate empathic and assertive interactions without alienating others.
KEY TERMS active listening artefacts assertive behaviour
assertive statement attending listening communication barriers
clarifying closed question cultural nonverbal communication
deep acting drama triangle emotional contagion
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CHAPTER 2 / Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence
emotional dissonance emotional intelligence emotional labour emotional trigger empowering questions encouraging listening feeling rules ‘I’ message
interpersonal communication interpersonal intelligence intrapersonal intelligence mirror statement non-assertive behaviour nonverbal communication open question paralanguage
paraphrasing persecutor personal competence personal nonverbal communication probing question reflective listening rescuer social competence
submissive behaviour success triangle summarising surface acting universal nonverbal communication victim
LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Emotional intelligence a. What is emotional intelligence? b. Explain a technique you can use when the emotions of others are high and difficult to handle. 2. Reflecting listening skills Part A: Work individually To each of the following statements, write a response that demonstrates reflecting listening skills. Be sure to mirror the content or the feeling in each statement. a. ‘I can do it by myself. I’ve done it before, you know.’ b. ‘There’s nothing like a run after work to wind down after a busy day.’ c. ‘I’m never sure whether you really want my input or not. You say you’d like to hear other people’s opinions about the project, but when I give you my opinion you ignore it and move on to the next thing.’ d. ‘Sure, I’ve got time to type it out for you. I’ll just be here till 10 o’clock tonight. Don’t worry about me.’ Part B: Now work in small groups. a. Discuss each of your responses to the statements in Part A of this question. b. As a group decide on one alternative, improved response for each statement.
c. Discuss and make a list of the most common excuses for not listening. d. Suggest possible problems that can be caused by not listening in the workplace. e. Why is displaying empathy such an important listening skill? f. Identify five ways that you as the listener can demonstrate empathy with the speaker. 3. Nonverbal communication a. Identify four different types of nonverbal communication and provide an example of each. b. List six functions of nonverbal communication and provide an example of each. 4. Characteristics of an assertive person In a short information report: a. Discuss the differences between assertiveness, aggression and submission. b. Identify the likely outcomes from assertive, aggressive and submissive responses at work. c. Outline the characteristics of an assertive person. d. Explain at least two benefits you gain from using assertion at work.
GROUP ACTIVITY The two parts of this activity require you in Part A to discuss emotional labour and create a poster. Part B asks you to practise reflective listening. Part A Emotional labour: a service-oriented employee a. Brainstorm and list the characteristics of either an agedcare assistant, a nurse, front desk receptionist, customer service representative or community relations coordinator.
b. Decide ways in which a service-oriented employee communicates and builds rapport and goodwill with residents, patients or customers. c. From your findings, create a ‘service-oriented employee wanted poster’ to emphasise the emotional labour performed by service-oriented employees. d. Review your poster with the others in the course. e. As a large group, combine your posters into an ‘ideal service-oriented employee’.
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Part B Practise reflective listening Break into groups of four for this activity (reflective listening). The roles are: • one speaker • one listener • two observers. STEP ONE: The speaker makes the following statements, one at a time: A. ‘He’s out to get me, I swear. He always gives me the worst jobs!’ B. ‘We have had a number of complaints from customers that the advice they are given on product use is incorrect. If you’re not sure about a product or the way to use it, please ask a senior staff member rather than risk misleading the customer.’ C. ‘I’m not doing it. It’s not my job.’ D. ‘We all feel that you expect too much from us. When we get more than 50 orders a day there is no way they can be filled before 5 pm, and we don’t get paid for overtime.’ STEP TWO: The listener responds to each statement by: A. paraphrasing B. clarifying C. reflecting feeling D. reflecting meaning. STEP THREE: The observer’s tasks are to: A. Note when each listening skill has been used and complete the effective listening self-checklist 2A.
Self-checklist 2A Effective listening Yes
No
Paraphrased
h
h
Clarified
h
h
Reflected feelings
h
h
Reflected meanings
h
h
Used attentive body language
h
h
Used facial expressions that encouraged the speaker
h
h
Maintained eye contact
h
h
B. Compare results with each other by providing the listener with feedback about how well they used their nonverbal behaviour (body language, facial expression and eye contact). C. Swap roles for each new statement. STEP FOUR: Self-evaluate your listening skills. a. Recall a particular instance when each factor you marked with ‘no’ on self-checklist 2A interfered with your ability to listen effectively. In hindsight, how could the barrier have been overcome? b. Create an action plan to improve those skills you marked with ‘no’.
CASE STUDY IS EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE IMPORTANT? Adam needed to call a meeting with Julie, his administration assistant, to discuss a number of performance issues that had been ongoing since Julie commenced in the role seven months ago. The issues had been previously raised as they occurred and also at Julie’s four-month performance review, yet her performance had not improved. Rather than taking a formal warning approach Adam decided to take an informal, softer approach to managing the situation. Adam invited Julie to his office and advised her that he had scheduled a meeting tomorrow to discuss the ongoing performance issues. In consultation with Julie during the meeting, Adam wanted to develop together a performance improvement plan. In preparation for the
meeting Adam gave Julie a copy of her position description as well as a capability framework document that related directly to her position. Adam asked Julie to review these prior to the meeting. Julie’s body language and tone of voice became very defensive, but she agreed to review the documents prior to the meeting. At the meeting the next day, Julie’s attitude was very different from the day before when Adam invited Julie to the meeting. Throughout the meeting Julie was quite cooperative and calm. Adam advised her that after the meeting he would draft a record of discussion letter outlining everything that was discussed and agreed to at this meeting. He also said that Julie would be given an opportunity to go through the letter and let him know if
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CHAPTER 2 / Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence
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she agreed with everything in the letter. Julie appeared to have no issues with this. Adam drafted the record of discussion letter and ran it past Human Resources for approval. Once the letter was approved Adam invited Julie to his office to go through the letter in detail after she had read it. Adam presented Julie with the letter, who was again displaying defensive body language and using an aggressive tone of voice. He asked Julie to read through the letter and advised her that he was going to step out of his office to allow her some time to read it. Julie snapped at Adam, saying, ‘I don’t have time right now. I will take it home and read it after work.’ Adam asked Julie to put her other work on hold for now and requested she read through the letter. Adam gave Julie adequate time to read through the letter, and on returning to his office noticed Julie was gone and was not at her own desk. He noted that there was an email from her in his inbox. The email stated that Julie would not be signing the letter as she did not agree with the contents, and she would be in touch next week to meet at a time suitable to her. Adam was shocked by Julie’s rudeness in refusing to discuss the letter and by
dictating to her manager when the meeting would take place. After searching the office Adam was unable to locate Julie. Julie was absent from the office for nearly an hour, and another staff member, Kiara, came to Adam and said, ‘I found Julie hiding in the training room and she was in tears and scared because she believed she was going to lose her job.’
Questions 1. When advised of the meeting with Adam, Julie just ‘lost it’. How can an understanding and application of emotional intelligence manage this situation? 2. What could Julie do to: • have a greater understanding of her emotions and reactions in an uncomfortable workplace situation? • improve her social skills and relations at work? 3. What would be the benefits for Julie and her manager if Julie had chosen to discuss the contents of the letter face-to-face rather than using email to say she would discuss the letter at a later date? Source: Kyall Coulton
BIBLIOGRAPHY Barsade, Sigal & O’Neill, Olivia. ‘Manage Your Emotional Culture’, Harvard Business Review, pp. 58–66 January– February 2016. Beebe, S.A., Beebe, S.J. & Redmond, M.V. 2016. Interpersonal Communication: Relating to Others, 8th edn, Pearson, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Bowden, M. 2010. Winning Body Language: Control the Conversation, Command Attention, and Convey the Right Message without Saying a Word, McGraw-Hill, New York. De Vito, J.A. 2016. The Interpersonal Communication Handbook, 14th edn, Pearson, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Ekman, P. 1985. Telling Lies: Clues to Deceit in the Marketplace, Politics and Marriage, Norton, New York. Ekman, P. & Friesen, W.V. 1969. ‘The Repertoire of Nonverbal Behaviour: Categories, Origins, Usage, and Coding’, Semiotica I, 1969, pp. 49–98.
Freshman, Brenda & Rubino, Louis. 2002. ‘Emotional Intelligence: A Core Competency for Health Care Administrators’, Health Care Manager, 2002, Vol. 20. Issue 4, pp. 1–9. Gardenswartz, Lee. Cherbosque, Jorge & Rowe, Anita. 2010. Emotional Intelligence for Managing Results in a Diverse World: The Hard Truth about Soft Skills in the Workplace Reprint Edition, Nicholas Brealey, CA. Gardner, Howard. 2011. Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences Kindle Edition, Basic Books, Philadephia. PA. Goleman, D. 1998. Working with emotional intelligence. Bantam Books, New York, NY. Hellreigel, D. Slocum, J.W. & Woodman, R.W. 1988. Organizational Behaviour, 4th edn, West Publishing Company, St Paul, MN.
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Knapp, M.L. 1978. Essentials of Non-verbal Communication, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York. Knapp, M.L. & Miller, G.B. 1985. Handbook of Interpersonal Communication, Sage Publications, Beverly Hills, CA. Knapp, M.L. & Vangelista, A.L. 1996. Interpersonal Communication and Human Relationships, Allyn & Bacon, Boston. MA. O’Neil, J. 1996. ‘On emotional intelligence: a conversation with Daniel Goleman’ from Educational Leadership, Vol. 54, issue 1. Published by Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, ª 1996. Mayo Clinic Staff. 2017. ‘Being assertive: Reduce stress, communicate better’, Healthy Lifestyle Stress Management, https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/stressmanagement/in-depth/assertive/art-20044644, viewed 4 September 2018. Mehrabian, Albert. 1972. Nonverbal communication, Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, NJ.
Mindtools. 2018. What Are Your Values? Deciding What’s Most Important in Life. https://www.mindtools.com/pages/ article/newTED_85.htm, viewed 19 February 2018. Poskey, Mike. 2018. ‘Emotional Intelligence in the Workplace: Why It Matters More Than Personality’, International Risk Management Institute, www.irmi.com/articles/expertcommentary/emotional-intelligence-in-the-workplace, viewed 28 November 2018. Segal, Jeanne. Smith, Melinda & Shubin, Jennifer. 2018. Improving Emotional Intelligence (EQ), www.helpguide.org/articles/mental-health/emotionalintelligence-eq.htm, viewed 28 November 2018. Steiner. C.M. Scripts People Live, Grove Press, 1974. TED Talks. Ideas worth spreading. 2018. 2600þ talks to stir your curiosity, https://www.ted.com/talks, viewed 19 February 2018. Wood, Julia T. 2012, Interpersonal Communication Everyday Encounters, 7th edn, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Boston, MA.
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ADAPT TO CHANGE IN THE DIGITAL ERA
Your Learning Journey
What does it mean to be...
3
Open to new ideas + changes Can handle unexpected demands Is flexible/adjustable
3.1
or in a team
Can work independently
Adaptable
Ch ap ter 3
CHAPTER
+ Flexible?
Interacting + collaborating to complete tasks
IT’S NEEDED TO extract + contribute info 3.4
build + maintain business + personal relationships
print literacy multimedia literacy
texting literacy
Identify barriers to being adaptable
Why is it important to adapt?
traditional (one-way)
mobile literacy
code literacy
Digital literacy 3.3
digital (two-way) hypertext literacy
CH4
3.2
Next DEVELOP COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR EMPLOYMENT collaborative more can be shared and knowledge reused anywhere/any time
gaming literacy features of a digital workplace
How important is digital literacy?
Mental scripts which ignore signals of change + handle situations using past habits
Inability to manage self and relationships
Staying within comfort zone + only using old ways of doing things
Lack of accountability (due to unclear priorities/disengagement; causes low morale + unwillingness to be flexible)
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 3.1 discuss what it means to be adaptable and flexible 3.2 identify barriers to being adaptable 3.3 explain the skills of digital literacy and their growing importance in the workplace 3.4 identify organisational needs fulfilled by digital channels of communication and discuss the importance of being able to adapt from traditional channels to digital channels of communication and workplace interaction.
3.1 WHAT IS ADAPTABILITY? Demonstrate adaptability in response to changes such as changing work roles, technologies and situations.
Employers are looking for employees who have adaptability and flexibility to build rapport when working with new colleagues, teams and technology. Advancing technology is shifting banking, retail, welfare, education and other services online and through mobile devices. Consequently, employers in those and many other industries require employees who can communicate, connect, transmit knowledge and ideas, and provide services through digital channels. Employees are expected to integrate face-to-face interactions with new ways of connecting through networked digital technologies. The skill of adaptability enables a person to change in response to a change in their job description, changes in customer needs, changing workplace technology and changing circumstances in the workplace environment. An adaptable person is: • open to new ideas or changes in the workplace • able to adjust to change and new situations • able to handle unexpected demands • able to work independently or in teams • able to interact and collaborate with others to carry out tasks. In many workplaces it is common to juggle competing interests and respond to unexpected events. An adaptable person has the attributes shown in Exhibit 3.1. Adaptability means openness to change and new opportunities and a willingness to develop new and existing skills. Adaptability comes naturally to people who cope with change and the unexpected. Rather than identifying why change will not work, an adaptable person looks for positive ways to make it happen. They alter their routines willingly and shift priorities in response to the demands of a situation. When setbacks occur or problems arise, adaptability allows maintenance of a positive attitude and improvement suggestions. Others who prefer to work to a schedule or ‘to do’ list may be less flexible at first and find it hard to adapt. People with planning and organising skills are likely to become adaptable and flexible as they learn through experience. Learning to be more adaptable to unexpected events or change provides opportunities for growth and development. Adaptability helps people to respond positively and appropriately to changing circumstances rather than viewing changes as upheavals. Employers need staff with the skills to take on value-added tasks such as decision making, problem solving, developing others, initiating or managing change and improving service orientation. Adaptability and flexibility allow them to transcend the changes digital and other technology are making to the way Australians work and the way businesses offer their services.
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CHAPTER 3 / Adapt to change in the digital era
EXHIBIT 3.1 Attributes of adaptability
Intellectual flexibility • An open mind • Able to integrate new information and draw conclusions • Able to switch from the detail to the big picture
Changes behaviour • Able to adjust style of working to meet the needs of a situation • Able to adjust methods in response to an emergency • Able to stay calm and ready to make a quick decision when faced with unexpected challenge
Attributes of adaptability
Receptive to change • Able to respond with a positive attitude • Willing to learn new ways to achieve targets and objectives • Able to take on new roles and responsibilities calmly and without stressing
Creativity • Willing to seek new ways of doing things • Able to improvise or experiment confidently • Able to present alternative options for discussion
As more and more routine or predetermined sets of tasks are done through automation and communication through digital channels, employees must be willing to adapt. Staying with traditional roles, skills and attitudes will lead to employees being bypassed for those with the new skills. A person willing to adapt is able to move along and across career paths.
Skills for learning and adapting Whereas in our grandparents’ generation jobs and careers were considered somewhat predictable, with expected progression and known required skill sets, in the current and future work environments work is more fluid and dynamic. New technologies, job requirements and changing populations mean workers need to be adaptable and able to not just build on existing skills but to upskill and acquire new skills.
FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE
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As workplaces change and become more flexible, the responsibility of acquiring new skills has moved from the employer to the employee. So, what are the skills required to thrive in the modern workforce? The Future skills and training report, by the Australian Industry and Skills Committee in 2017, identifies nine essentials for learning and adapting:
Skills essentials 2—Learning and adapting ü Perseverance
ü Experimentation
ü Resilience
ü Adaptability
ü Sociability
ü Self-confidence
ü Curiosity
ü Initiative
ü Responsiveness Australian Industry and Skills Committee. https://www.aisc.net.au/sites/aisc/files/documents/ Future%20Priority%20Skills%20Resource.pdf CC Attribution 4.0 International License https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/legalcode.
ASK YOURSELF: Reflect on your skills, particularly the skill of adaptability. How will you strengthen this skill to better enable you to respond to new technologies and job requirements?
FLEXIBILITY Flexibility at work is the ability to evaluate what is happening and adjust to the role and responsibilities: for example, a new job, changes in the current job, a transfer or promotion to a new position. Flexibility in the workplace flows from an attitude that is willing to accept changing workplace trends and is ready to implement the necessary changes. Rather than trying to rigidly adhere to past views and practices, flexibility enables adjustment to the new situation. Flexible people have a self-awareness and the self-motivation and self-regulation to: • communicate to share data, information and knowledge • listen to and acknowledge the viewpoint of others • collaborate and negotiate without creating conflict • work well under pressure and perform additional roles as required • embrace change and learn new skills to enable them to engage in new opportunities and adopt new trends • work productively with ongoing changes in technology and digital communication • accommodate and value the diversified culture of the modern workplace • innovate and be comfortable with and open to novel ideas and new information. Flexibility and optimism underpin their approach to tasks and the building and maintaining of workplace relationships. The positive outlook and willingness to respond flexibly brings forward opportunities for job rotation and job enrichment. Acting in a team leadership or supervisory role enhances skills and demonstrates capability to advance to more senior roles. Job rotation from one job to another periodically widens an employee’s skill base.
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CHAPTER 3 / Adapt to change in the digital era Flexibility enhances engagement in effective decision making and problem solving and improves workplace performance and relationship building. Employees with the attribute of flexibility are able to: • anticipate changes, respond to change and make necessary adjustments as part of their work role. • accept responsibility to make decisions, problem solve and work towards more senior positions • deal with unpredictable work situations and make and implement decisions during crises or emergencies. Adaptability and flexibility enable the management of several priorities and the capacity to respond to changes in the internal and external workplace environment.
BENEFITS OF ADAPTABILITY It is crucial for any employer and employee to be flexible in the workplace. This creates a more efficient, well-run organisation and workforce that is able to adapt to rapid changes in technology and markets. Adaptability allows innovative approaches to task accomplishment and confident adjustment to changes in the surrounding environment. During stressful situations an adaptable employee is able to stay composed and focused on tasks. The benefits of adaptability for the employee and the organisation are shown in Exhibit 3.2.
EXHIBIT 3.2 Benefits of adaptability For the individual employee
For the organisation
• Confidence to undertake new roles and tasks • Steady progress along a career path • Adjustment to changing circumstances
• Different approaches to problem solving • Increased productivity and innovation • Diminished conflict and grievance issues
• Willingness to engage with a variety of people to get the job done
• Improved reputation of the organisation in the local community
• Able to work under pressure – set priorities, and carry out unexpected tasks calmly and without stress
• Greater breadth of employee skill, knowledge, experience and creativity • Better levels of service to internal and external clients
• Know how to change a mindset and look flexibly at a problem to find a solution
Cultural fit When hiring, employers look not only for candidates’ skills and experience but also for whether or not they will blend with the culture of the company. The advantages of employing adaptable people who fit the culture of the organisation and have the technical skills identified in the job description mean that new employees are able to carry out their work productively. Values, behavioural styles, priorities and opinions impact an employee’s or job candidate’s attitudes with regard to working in a particular occupation on different tasks in different situations. Motivation for status, progression, money or need for a challenge and some control over their career path influence an individual’s job satisfaction, commitment and performance in a particular occupation. Cultural fit enables the sharing of the organisation’s existing structure, work ethic and norms such as collaborative or hierarchical goal-setting and decision making. The facilities (open plan office space,
Check your cultural fit with an organisation’s beliefs, values and behaviour to decide if you share and are able to align with the workplace norms, core values and culture.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK remote locations or a traditional factory or office) and the manner in which accountabilities and responsibilities are distributed affect job satisfaction and engagement. Knowing about the norms, for example, working late on Tuesdays, leaving by 4 on Fridays and how information is shared in staff meetings (daily, weekly or quarterly), permits a potential or new employee as well as existing employees to recognise if the job is satisfying and how they can fit with the organisation’s culture. In the selection process current employers evaluate in psychometric tests candidates’ personality, aptitude, reasoning skills, motivation and integrity to decide if their current work beliefs, values and practices match up with those of the organisation for which they are applying to work.
Resilience Develop resilience through learning, experience and flexible and adaptable responses to changing circumstances and unexpected events.
Your personal journey through your relationships with others, including sports, leisure activities and work experiences, has already presented many opportunities to develop your resilience, determination and ability to adapt to different situations and challenges. Resilience is the ability to recover from or adjust easily to change, stress or misfortune and view problems as opportunities to learn. Being resilient requires a willingness to learn and work out how to improve ways of doing things, and dealing with changing situations and circumstances. A flexible approach to thinking finds ways to turn adversity and uncertainty into opportunities for learning and positive self-development. In the workplace, resilience is acquired from involvement and acceptance of responsibility. Opportunities to take on and learn from projects, face challenges without giving up, support others and ask for and reflect on feedback builds and improves resilience. In your career it is about staying the course and overcoming challenges. Resilient people learn from past situations to develop a solution-oriented approach to new challenges. They accept reality, are willing to accept a challenge, have the problem-solving abilities to handle a challenge and find innovative solutions. Resilience allows them to adapt when asked to work on an unusual project or task and persist without getting frustrated. The result is a readiness to learn and develop new skills to improve task accomplishment, range of capabilities and capacity to work with a different team or respond positively to changing circumstances in the workplace.
Initiative Adaptability, resilience and self-confidence contribute to initiative. Initiative is exhibited in a workplace when a team or individual member sees an opportunity to accomplish a process or task and suggests how to do it more efficiently. Taking the initiative to learn how to use new technology improves productivity. Volunteering to learn new tasks shows initiative and facilitates adaptability to assist in emergencies or at peak periods. The foundation of initiative is self-confidence and capability. Self-confidence allows new opportunities to be explored and new skills and strengths to be built. Capability to suggest improvements and more efficient ways to complete processes and tasks and reduce costs demonstrates initiative. Thinking ahead and planning for meetings, volunteering for difficult projects and taking personal responsibility for growth and professional development are behaviours that demonstrate initiative. As well as looking for adaptability, flexibility, cultural fit, resilience and initiative employers seek employees whose workplace performance in previous positions or experiences reflects respectful and empathic interaction with others. The ability to work collaboratively to make informed decisions and engage in the work environment is increasingly sought by employers.
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CHAPTER 3 / Adapt to change in the digital era
1. Adaptability: a. Identify the attributes of an adaptable person. b. Why do employers look for adaptability when hiring? 2. In a short written answer (100 words), describe the characteristics of a person who displays flexibility. 3. Benefits of adaptability: a. Why is it essential to be flexible and adaptable in the work environment? b. Discuss the benefits of adaptability for the individual employee. c. Discuss the benefits of adaptability for an organisation. 4. Cultural fit, resilience and initiative: a. What are the benefits of a cultural fit? b. Why do recruiters and employers conduct psychometric testing? c. How is resilience developed? d. Provide an example of initiative.
CHECKPOINT 3.1
3.2 BARRIERS TO BEING ADAPTABLE Prior mental scripts, unwillingness to move out of our comfort zone or fear of being rejected may stand in the way of openness to new opportunities and experiences. Poorly chosen words or angry and dismissive tones of communication are often the source of resistance and negativity in an organisation. A respectful tone in communication via emails, SMS messages, in-person communication, interactions in meetings and phone conversations enhances engagement, adaptability and productive outcomes. When directing, helping and working collaboratively with others, think through a message and the likely response of the receiver. The objective of your communication is to encourage rather than discourage adaptable and flexible responses that get the job done.
MENTAL SCRIPTS Mental scripts created during previous experiences may dictate behaviour in new experiences. Mental scripts about, for example, using a print diary efficiently in the past to record meetings and manage activities may prevent a person from switching to the new, more efficient experience of using a digital diary on their smartphone. Rather than being open to new experiences a mental script may cause resistance to change. Mental scripts influence workplace actions that have been done so often they are completed without thinking. Mental scripts are a disadvantage when the script ignores the reality of a situation and dismisses any signals or new information because a team feels it already knows what to do. Rigidity and inflexibility are the result when the mental script results in a team leader or team member ‘doing what we have always done’ instead of adapting to the realities of a new situation. Rather than being open to new experiences and responding in new ways appropriate to the new situation, old habits apply and new learning and opportunities are missed. Being adaptable to new and changing situations involves challenging habits and preconceived ideas about how things should be done. Thinking about and understanding things from the perspectives of others as well as our own gives a broader appreciation of experiences. Rather than remaining focused on our own perspective we can learn from others and adapt to changing circumstances.
Be open and willing to change your thinking and mental script based on past experiences and behaviours for a given situation when circumstances require different responses.
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INABILITY TO MANAGE SELF AND RELATIONSHIPS Adaptability depends on the emotional intelligence competencies of self-management and relationship management. Goleman (1998) presents the skills of self-management as self-confidence, self-regulation and self-motivation, and the skills of relationship management as social awareness and social skills. Adaptability and flexibility in handling change are core skills of self-regulation, social awareness and social skill. Emotional intelligence facilitates the control and constructive filtering of emotions in response to changing circumstances. The social awareness skills of empathy, service orientation and developing others, as well as the social skills of communication, conflict management, collaboration and cooperation, working in teams and managing change, support flexible and resilient responses and interactions. An inability to manage self and relationships can lead to loss of confidence, insecurity and retreating to previous habits when faced with change. There are always opportunities for us to test our adaptability skills; however, having had few opportunities while growing up to try new things and respond to challenges may lead to resistance to change later in life. Some of us may not actively seek these opportunities through lack of confidence and inaccurate self-assessment of strengths, limitations, self-worth and capabilities. The inability to manage relationships effectively will also limit the ability to adapt. Fear of failure or rejection may cause stress and lead to rigid responses based on past circumstances rather than flexible responses based on the reality of what is happening now. Additionally, organisations, leaders or teams that insist on ‘getting it right the first time’ can stifle initiative and suggestions for improvement. Team members may become unwilling to suggest improvements to processes and ways of doing things through fear of the consequences of failure.
COMFORT ZONE Seek new opportunities to grow your comfort zone.
Adaptability is about developing and responding to change. Change challenges our comfort zone and invites us to move out of our comfort zone. Engagement in activities, tasks and experiences expands our comfort zones. The comfort zone is where everything is easy and nothing risky ever happens. Equally, nothing great or exciting happens there either. The broader our comfort zone, the more easily we adapt to changing circumstances. The size of comfort zones varies between people and over time. When we move outside our comfort zone to the ‘stretch zone’, learning and growth happen. New experiences in the stretch zone may feel uncomfortable because of the new and different ways in which things happen. Being willing to move into the stretch zone to find new ways of responding to new experiences is an effective way to improve adaptability skills.
LACK OF ACCOUNTABILITY Demonstrate accountability and accept responsibility for your own actions.
Accountability means to make choices, and to accept responsibility for and abide by those choices. It recognises the need to work in an organised and flexible manner to meet priorities and deadlines. Accountability requires a team and its individual members to know what is expected of them and what they are working towards. Avoiding a lack of accountability requires an organisation and its leaders, managers, supervisors and team members to set clear performance expectations and indicators of effective performance. Lack of accountability is caused by: • unclear priorities with too much changing of priorities without consultation • low morale, usually caused by inadequate and ineffective communication • low levels of trust, and defensive and unproductive attitudes among employees
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CHAPTER 3 / Adapt to change in the digital era •
declining engagement, disinterest in work, disconnection from teams and colleagues and no sense of purpose • high turnover due to unclear expectations, misunderstandings and tension in the workplace. Behaviours that demonstrate accountability are commitment to own role and team roles, and effective follow through on all projects, goals and objectives. When timelines are not being met an accountable employee requests support in terms of additional time or resources to maintain a high standard of work, as well as to minimise hazards to self, others and the environment due to stress and poor work caused by unachievable targets. Being punctual in arriving at work and completing all commitments made to supervisor, team and colleagues with minimal supervision demonstrate interest and engagement in work. Accountability and flexibility allow negotiation of alternatives and reaching agreement to set realistic timeframes, objectives and performance indicators. Working in accordance with standards, going beyond expectations and being adaptable to achieve quality, accuracy and completeness of work activities and tasks demonstrate accountability, flexibility and resilience. The information and digital age and its parallel need for management of knowledge means workers who can create and manipulate information, knowledge and ideas are increasingly in demand. Adapting to new technologies in the digital age has become a survival strategy for business. Employees are expected to know how to handle communication and information along digital channels. They must know how or be willing to learn how to use a variety of digital channels. 1. How can a mental script hinder an individual or team’s performance? 2. Adaptability and flexibility: a. What are the emotional intelligence skills that facilitate adaptability and flexibility? b. What factors may prevent an employee from seeking new opportunities? 3. Comfort zone and accountability: a. How can you expand your comfort zone? b. Briefly explain the factors that can lead to a lack of accountability.
CHECKPOINT 3.2
3.3 WHY IS DIGITAL LITERACY IMPORTANT? Desktop, mobile devices and other digital technologies enable organisations, groups and individuals to collaborate and share information along a variety of digital and social media communication channels. In 2018, more than 4 billion people used laptops and desktops, mobile phones, tablet and other devices to access the internet. ‘Nearly 90 percent of the Australian population are online… Australians spend 80 percent more time on the Internet than watching television … Two-thirds of Australians are using social media each month, spending almost 100 minutes on social platforms each day.’ (Kemp 2018) With the advent of the internet and the growth of Web 2.0 (the second generation of the internet) technology organisations have accepted the offer of a universally accessible network of low-cost, speedy communication tools, publication tools and resources to connect with individuals, organisations and communities across time zones and geographical boundaries. The progression from one-way communication to a much more collaborative, information-sharing mode enables users to create and distribute content, and provides the freedom to upload, download, share and reuse knowledge anywhere, at any time. Employers are seeking employees with the digital literacy as well as
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK specific technical abilities in their occupation who are able to use digital channels of communication and adapt to changing work roles. The rapid growth in technological capabilities is changing the way organisations and their staff work. The advantages and disadvantages for individual employees of communicating and working on digital channels are shown in Exhibit 3.3.
EXHIBIT 3.3 Advantages and disadvantages of digital channels Advantages
• Share ideas, information, feedback and requests faster than by traditional methods • Fast connection, quick and easy communication and opportunity to ask questions and answer when on the move • Access to external data about the culture and processes of other organisations in social, recruiting and talent networks • Creation of new jobs for those with data science and analytics skills
Disadvantages
• Different time zones and work schedules mean colleagues may forward emails or texts at any time of the day or night • Digital workers may receive notifications from smart machines and technologies at any time of the night or day • Difficult to achieve work–life balance when work is only a mobile phone call or text away, even when on vacation • Messages that ‘ping’ and disturb while in the middle of work or a meeting
Typical barriers to the introduction of digital tools are budget restrictions, management’s fear of loss of control and insufficient numbers of employees with the knowledge to use digital channels effectively.
FEATURES OF A DIGITAL WORKPLACE Align people, technology and business processes in a digital workplace to increase efficiency.
Information technology (IT) and digital skills have a significant impact on the way professions and workplaces operate. An analysis of detailed occupation codes in Australia by the Foundation for Young Australians ‘… indicated that more than 90% of Australia’s current workforce will need to be at least a digital citizen to function in a digitally-enabled workforce over the next 2–5 years’ (2016, p.16). More and more organisations are evolving into digital workplaces. The digital workplace concept describes how technology is increasingly creating a virtual equivalent of the physical workplace. In a digital workplace technology, people and business processes are aligned to improve operational efficiency and meet business goals. The key features of a digital workplace are the: • IT devices and systems – ranging from mobile phones to productivity tools and business systems • employees with the ability to access information on mobile devices, conduct searches, manage content and collaborate with others on various platforms • activities and daily interactions from quick clicks to full business processes • insights, information and knowledge contributed and gathered from the digital workplace • digital workflows, work process efficiencies and collaboration through digital channels of communication. In order to keep up to date and remain competitive, organisations must address and manage the significant change in the range of communication channels. Flexible and adaptable organisations are benefiting from the trend towards digital workplaces through increased productivity, cost savings and a more mobile and agile workforce. The ability to connect from almost anywhere has allowed organisations to collaborate more globally and with more diverse and global employees and
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CHAPTER 3 / Adapt to change in the digital era stakeholders. Employees can share and report on work from any mobile device, and access tasks, calendars and files through digital channels. Collaboration and immediate access to information enhance the speed and quality of decision making. Employees are expected to have or to develop the skills to analyse, evaluate and apply information to complete a range of workplace tasks and activities, transmit knowledge and ideas and share skills with others. For example, companies offer employees self-service access via a Web browser or app on a laptop, tablet, smartphone or other mobile device. The typical range of digital activities an employee can then do are to create their profile, access a booking hub to view the shifts for which they are rostered on, make requests for extra shifts or to swap shifts and request leave dates. Employees’ rosters are entered on the digital calendars and shared with authorised people. In the case of those who travel as part of their job, they are able to record trip information such as costs of fuel, accommodation, meals and other expenses. The company communicates to all staff via the Web browser or app compliance documents, other company information and any alerts about performance, training or special events. A new employee, for example, can undertake induction training on their mobile, tablet or other digital device, anywhere, anytime, even on the bus, train or tram to and from work. Employers have the responsibility to ensure the devices and systems support enhance daily activities and provide staff with access and training in how to use the digital information and collaboration tools. Employees require the digital skills and knowledge to access, retrieve and report information through the company portal.
DIGITAL LITERACIES The first generation of the Web was about providing information without interaction from the user. The second-generation Web – ‘Web 2.0’ – is focused on the user and the enabling of two-way interaction. Web 2.0 allows users to make changes to webpages, links people to other users on social networking sites, lets users upload and share content, offers Really Simple Syndication (RSS) feeds to receive notifications of a webpage’s updates and expands access to the internet beyond the computer through mobile devices such as smart phones, tablets, video game consoles, television sets and other devices. Additionally, the rapid innovation and variety of new applications on the Internet of Things (IoT) will contribute to efficiency and technology. The Internet Society (2018) defines an IoT device as a physical object that connects to the internet. For example, it can be a fitness tracker, a thermostat, a lock or appliance. Organisations can use the Internet of Things to connect with and create a company presence for employees anywhere in the world. Objects designed for collaboration and transformed into smart services increase collaboration within an organisation. Ongoing rapid changes in technology require the skills of adaptability and flexibility to access the new opportunities available through the Internet of Things. Digital literacies are the individual and social skills needed to interpret, manage, share and create meaning in the growing range of digital communication channels. Digital literacies range in complexity from print literacy, texting literacy, hypertext literacy, multimedia literacy, gaming literacy, mobile literacy through to code literacy (Dudeney et al. 2014, pp. 5–6). Digitally competent employees use the new technologies to interact and participate with others to extract information, contribute information, and build and maintain business and personal relationships through digital channels.
Combine your digital and information literacies to work effectively with emerging technologies.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK
EXHIBIT 3.4 The seven digital literacies Print literacy Code literacy
Mobile literacy
Gaming literacy
Texting literacy
Digital literacies
Hypertext literacy
Multimedia literacy
A competent user of digital channels combines the digital literacies with the information literacies of tagging, search, information and filtering. (see Exhibit 3.4). People competent in the major digital literacies and the information literacies are able to: • extract information, evaluate its usefulness and apply it in workplace processes and activities • contribute information and report on digital platforms and portals • build and maintain business and personal relationships through digital channels. The highest level of digital literacy is the capacity to remix digital content. Print literacy, such as annotating e-books and online articles, sharing and discussing annotations, and texting literacy, such as netspeak or textspeak language used to abbreviate and speed-up messages in online chatrooms and mobile text messaging, are invaluable assets for any student in their studies and workplace. The ability to find information from a variety of sources such as the internet, the cloud and other organisational digital sources and evaluate its usefulness, accuracy, reliability and application in the workplace is a significant skill sought by employers.
Types of occupations and their digital skill requirements The UK Digital Skills Taskforce (2014, pp. 5–6) has defined the following four types of occupations based on their requirements for digital skills and the percentage of new jobs required in each type of occupation. 1. Digital Muggle: no digital skills required 2. Digital Citizen: ability to use digital technology purposefully and confidently to communicate, find information and purchase goods/services 3. Digital Worker: ability to evaluate, configure/program, and use complex digital systems 4. Digital Maker: skills to actually build digital technology (typically software development, but including creating complex Excel macros or 3D printing data files). In 2016, the Foundation for Young Australians (2016, p. 16) explored the digital literacy needs of Australian organisations in the next 2–5 years, shown in Exhibit 3.5.
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CHAPTER 3 / Adapt to change in the digital era
Number of employed persons, Australia
EXHIBIT 3.5 Australia’s digital literacy workforce needs in the next 2–5 years
6,000,000
More than 90% of Australia’s workforce will need to operate at digital citizen level or above
5,000,000
4,456,560
4,000,000
37.7%
5,398,710 45.6%
3,000,000 2,000,000 1,000,000
973,360
999,370
8.2%
8.4%
0 Digital Muggle = No skill required
Digital Citizen = Use tech to communicate and find info
Digital Worker = Configure & use systems
Digital Maker = Build digital tech
Source: Foundation for Young Australians (FYA). 2016. The New Basics: Big data reveals the skills young people need for the New Work Order, http://www.fya.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/The-New-Basics_Web_Final.pdf, viewed 2 October 2018, p. 16.
DIGITAL COMPETENCE Digital literacy enables users to apply the features of online platforms to collaborate, participate in discussions, access existing data, information and knowledge, and create new information and knowledge fit for purpose. Participation in online conferences or discussions, contributions through social media or organised industry Tweetups and interactions in professional industry or open forums enhances: • communication, relationship building, decision making and problem solving • quick access to useful and relevant information and knowledge resources • participation in formal and informal networking to increase the flow and quality of information • collaboration, sharing and reflection on the practices in other organisations • current and future needs and handling of data and information overload in the changing environment. Effective information discovery from the range and increasing complexity of digital information improves the transfer, analysis, review and communication of knowledge. The result is enhanced workplace productivity and innovation.
Manage and participate in operations Job candidates with practical experience of software systems such as spreadsheet and database software, accounting software, cloud applications and document software commonly used in business and company-specific portals have an edge in the job market because they can input and retrieve data and information from digital sources.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Accessing digital information requires more than the search and navigation skills to find the relevant information on different digital platforms. Successful searching and application of digital information also requires the thinking and reasoning skills to: • synthesise, critically analyse and evaluate data, information and knowledge • collect and use information to accomplish a specific purpose • create, and communicate meaningful new information and knowledge. • acknowledge the work of others and comply with ethical and legal requirements such as privacy, confidentiality, copyright and licensing. Decision making in the workplace uses data and turns it into useful information and knowledge. Information becomes knowledge when it is used by a person. Drucker (2003, p. 287) says, ‘Knowledge is embodied in a person; applied by a person, taught and passed on by a person; used or misused by a person … knowledge does not reside in a book, a database, or a software program – these contain only information.’ Digitally literate employees are able to use software, databases and other digital sources of information to identify critical business-related issues and logically draw conclusions. Conceptual reasoning and adaptable and lateral thinking skills, such as the ability to learn new information, identify patterns in data and integrate complex information, are combined with digital skills as work problems are solved. More people are working remotely and more services are able to be delivered remotely. Digital channels make it possible for remote workers to gather new work-related information from written workplace material such as company policies, manuals, instructions and reports, which inform decisions. Remote workers and those working locally are able to access these materials to compare patterns in data or work and assess problems and situations against organisational rules.
Collaboration and participation in the digital world Knowledge is shared in digital conversations and meetings, learning relationships, mentoring, collaboration and other activities. Effective sharing prevents people from ‘reinventing the wheel’ or repeating the same mistake. Waste and duplication are minimised. Shared problem solving and knowledge sharing along digital channels increases the speed and quality of decision making. In the digital age there is a need to focus on learning and the creation of intellectual capital to build the knowledge base of individuals, teams and the organisation. Employers expect job candidates and staff to have the skills to know what to share, who to share with, and how to keep information safe as it is generated, transformed into knowledge, transferred and shared between areas of operations. Employees are required to deliver customer satisfaction, maintain privacy and build both workplace and other relationships along digital as well as other channels. The outcome from effective management of communication and knowledge along digital and other channels of communication is increased innovation, effectiveness and performance. When seeking employees, employers are looking for applicants who can respond and adapt to a changing world and new technologies. Successful applicants demonstrate their ability to embrace and work with text, digital and visual communication.
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CHAPTER 3 / Adapt to change in the digital era
1. Digital workplaces: a. Briefly explain the reasons for the growing importance of digital literacy. b. Describe the features of a digital workplace. c. Give examples of how rapid growth in digital technologies has changed the way organisations and individuals work. d. Identify barriers to the introduction of digital tools. 2. Digital literacy: a. Identify the seven digital literacies and four information literacies that are increasingly applied in Australian workplaces. b. Provide examples of workplace activities a digital citizen is expected to undertake. c. How many digital citizens did Australian employers require in 2016? d. Search the Web to find out how many digital citizens were employed last year. 3. Digital competence: a. What more than search and navigation skills does accessing digital information require? b. Which of the digital literacies do you possess?
CHECKPOINT 3.3
3.4 DIGITAL CHANNELS IMPROVE COMMUNICATION The purpose of communication in an organisation is to drive the organisation and facilitate the contribution of its employees in long-term strategies and in day-to-day operations. Successful organisations not only have long-term strategic plans and objectives. They also capitalise on new opportunities to remain competitive and continuously undertake initiatives to address internal and external communication problems. The implementation of digital channels of communication should facilitate long-term strategies and objectives and improve communication to foster alliances and partnerships within and outside the organisation. The types of organisational needs fulfilled by a variety of digital tools are collaboration, communication with customers, suppliers and other stakeholders, training and development and work process efficiencies. Adaptable and digitally competent employees are able to access files, messages, discussions and interactions with colleagues who work locally and remotely to get projects done by communicating through a variety of channels. Interactions and workflow occur on platforms such as Workplace by Facebook to create workgroups and discussions in team chats, apps for messaging, organisational portals or other niche platforms.
Use digital tools to communicate, collaborate and connect with colleagues, customers, suppliers and other stakeholders.
COLLABORATION Collaboration occurs in face-to-face meetings as well as in digital interactions through social media, company intranets and ‘the cloud’. The expectation is that candidates who become employees will have digital and verbal reasoning skills and the ability to read and interpret numerical and graphical data accurately. The range of digital communication tools that enhance collaboration include shared electronic whiteboards, emails, videoconference, virtual meeting spaces, instant messaging, podcasts and wikis. For example, Slack, a messaging and collaboration app that is an alternative to team communication by
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK email, is a digital workspace delivering messages, service alerts, voice or video conversations and access to an organisation and team’s collective knowledge through the app. Online meetings allow review of projects, plans and business processes and resolution of issues for all stakeholders in real time, as well as reduced approval times for management. Emails, microblogging on Twitter, instant messaging, Facebook and organisational portals enable a more diverse range of staff to interact with suppliers and business partners. When team members cannot meet in person, shared whiteboards and microblogging assist planning and interaction. Collaboration and sharing on digital channels builds a knowledge base and updates information. The benefits of collaborating along digital channels include interaction and closer relationships between departments such as customer support, research and development and marketing to improve marketing campaigns and better meet customer needs. The digital tools create richer, more interactive sales presentations to customers.
COMMUNICATION WITH CUSTOMERS AND SUPPLIERS Provide courteous integrated service to enhance customer satisfaction and consistent, positive customer experiences as they switch between omni-channels.
Minimise external threats to the organisation and improve opportunities within the organisation by managing knowledge well. Share knowledge through digital channels, and in learning relationships, mentoring, collaboration and other activities to support knowledge transfer and continual improvement.
Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, podcasts and media-rich websites exchange tailored information and allow customers to engage with the organisation. Online video sharing, live streaming of major organisational announcements, in-store kiosks and location-based advertising enrich interactions. Sales and marketing material can be delivered to a specific demographic more quickly, new products are marketed and feedback gathered through digital channels. Digital communication tools deliver the organisation’s message at one time to larger groups than print-based materials. Online customer support through omni-channels integrates the service across the different platforms so that customers can complete every step of selecting, buying and purchasing a product and switch between and communicate on their preferred channel(s). More and more customers like to have constant access to information while carrying on dialogues via voice, text, social and instant-messaging channels. Banks, for example, allow customers to use their smartphones to check their account balance, pay bills, send invoices and transfer funds via text message in a similar manner to how they perform the same tasks via the Web or an interactive voice response (IVR) service. Self-service via omni-channels enables a retail customer to start a conversation seeking help on Twitter and then shift effortlessly to text message or a phone call and pay online because all of the relevant information is held and switched between the omni-channels. The Global Digital report 2018 reported 1.77 billion people worldwide purchased consumer goods via e-commerce. (Kemp 2018) Customer-centred organisations control and join the various channels together to offer the customer a smooth, unified experience.
TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT Instead of staff travelling over long distances for training, digital tools deliver training to remote locations. Just-in-time access to short videos, podcasts or mini-modules of information on smartphones, iPads or any other device while on the move enhances learning and professional development. Virtual meeting spaces provide an informal place to answer questions. RSS feeds provide updated news headlines, blog posts or selected website content. Digital channels assist senior experienced staff to come into contact with junior members of the organisation to determine training gaps and the best way of delivering the required training.
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CHAPTER 3 / Adapt to change in the digital era
Knowledge sharing and learning Wikis, blogs, discussion forums, videoconferences, podcasts and webinars are available for training, professional development and knowledge management. Knowledge sharing and learning are enhanced when people are able to link individual and team learning to their team’s accountabilities and the organisation’s strategic objectives. Collaboration and openness enhance teamwork, performance and results. Professional development and management of knowledge help senior managers, supervisors and team members share information and best practices to improve performance, and enhance service delivery, profits, innovation and decision making. Management and sharing of knowledge make best use of individual and team talents, and at the same time improve performance and employee satisfaction.
WORK PROCESS EFFICIENCIES The digital age requires employees to access knowledge in databases and repositories to complete accounting, customer service, marketing, human resource, production and other tasks. Workplace performance requires the skills to access information and draw logical conclusions from reports, performance figures, performance indicators and financial results. The sharing of knowledge about products, services and customers facilitates improvements, smarter solutions and customisation to the needs of clients and other stakeholders. Global positioning systems (GPS), supply-management software, and location and tracking technologies and warehousing software enhance logistics management. Stock levels and movements are reported and available across the organisation leading to improved response times to customer queries. Forecasting and reporting peak periods where more stock and resources are required enhance productivity. Remote monitoring of trucking fleets permits a range of functions, including vehicle and mileage tracking, fuel management and financing of maintenance. Records of driver location and speed inform health and safety management issues. Customer service and process improvements add value, open new markets and increase revenue. Digital tools are different from traditional channels of communication, but they do have features in common. Benefits flowing from the implementation of digital channels include timely exchange of ideas and information targeted to specific audiences to reach new customers and expand market segments. Employee engagement, collaboration, networking and knowledge management add value by connecting people to people.
PRINCIPLES OF BUSINESS ETIQUETTE STILL APPLY The principles of business etiquette used in face-to-face interactions must still be applied in digital interactions to maintain courtesy and authenticity. Problems in a digital workplace may arise from the tendency or expectation for ‘always being on’. Constant interruptions, demands and requests for information or action may cause stress and burnout, with the consequent employee disengagement and negative effects on productivity and the workplace culture. A culture of respectful communication along digital and other channels of communication allows easy, satisfying experiences that contribute to performance, and build courtesy and authentic interactions and relationships. Courteous and authentic interactions are fostered by: • knowing your platform (e.g. LinkedIn – a business site, Twitter – a more social site with a mixture of professional and personal content, company portals – for business applications and reporting) • identifying and enhancing your organisation’s reputation
Consider your communication purpose, the characteristics of your audience and the likely outcome of your message.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK •
customising and adapting content and activities to meet the needs of your receiver and show you value your connection with them • maintaining an accurate database with contact details, including the contact’s professional interests • being specific to make it easy for colleagues and contacts to navigate and respond to any request on digital channels • saying ‘thank you’ and following up promptly to show appreciation when someone responds and offers feedback • behaving ethically and respectfully to maintain privacy and confidentiality of information, and asking before you pass on a contact • avoiding distortions, misleading information, ethnic slurs, personal insults, obscenity or any conduct that would be unacceptable in your workplace. Good practice when communicating via any communication channel is underpinned by conventions, standards and policies.
IMPORTANCE OF POLICIES AND PROCEDURES
Use good practice – transparency, honesty and authenticity – as you use digital channels.
It is imperative for any organisation to establish structures, policies, and leadership to more effectively manage digital platforms, communication and interactions. Digital communication is part of the organisation’s larger communication effort. When developing policies for communication and activities on digital channels, policies should be integrated with communication objectives across the organisation. A policy provides essential guidelines for any small, medium or large organisation. Advancements in digital technologies allow organisations to capture and analyse large sets of data on customers, employees and suppliers. Technologies like artificial intelligence (AI), big data, cloud computing, social media and the IoT are part of the data-driven economy. Organisations, businesses and governments convert the raw data, information and knowledge to improve products and services. Organisations establish policies for digital communication because they realise that, as well as fostering two-way conversations, interactions, relationships, communication and the activities of employees, digital communication has the potential to cause: • liability for defamation, misleading or other unethical conduct • embarrassment to the company with accompanying reputational damage. Challenges arise in the areas of security and the development of a new kind of digital etiquette. Privacy concerns are raised because of the increasing amount of personal data collected. Consent to use the personal data is an issue. Breaches of privacy have serious consequences for individuals and organisations. Organisations that safeguard against ethical breaches create and communicate to all employees and contractors a privacy policy, particularly in relation to what personal data is collected, why and for how long, which ensures compliance with legal and regulatory requirements. Security policies for cloud services, internal company services and devices for work purposes are essential, as is a policy for internet browsing and use of social media at work. Policies that support ethical practice guide and protect an organisation and its employees from potential litigation and industry fines. Ethical practice on traditional and digital channels of communication improves relationships and satisfaction.
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CHAPTER 3 / Adapt to change in the digital era
1. What is the purpose of communication along any type of channel in an organisation? 2. Digital channels: a. Identify and discuss organisational needs fulfilled by digital channels of communication. b. What are the benefits of collaboration on digital channels? c. How does the sharing of knowledge benefit an organisation? d. Which digital channels do you prefer to use in your interactions with others? Why? 3. Digital channels – training and development: a. Discuss the possible advantages and disadvantages for an individual employee from the introduction of digital channels. b. Explain why organisations provide training and development on digital channels. 4. What type of policies safeguard an organisation and its staff against ethical breaches?
CHECKPOINT 3.4
LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 3.1 Discuss what it means to be adaptable and flexible. Adaptability means openness to new ideas or changes in the workplace, and the ability to adjust to change and new situations and handle unexpected demands. Flexibility is the ability to evaluate what is happening and adjusting to factors such as a new role and responsibilities in a new job, changes in the current job, a transfer or promotion. Adaptable and flexible people are able to work independently or in teams and interact and collaborate with others to carry out tasks and activities. 3.2 Identify barriers to being adaptable. Barriers to being adaptable include mental scripts, inability to manage self and relationships, comfort zones and lack of accountability. Rigidity and inflexibility set in when mental scripts ignore the reality of a situation, dismiss any signals of change and handle the situation using past techniques or habits. Rather than stretching the comfort zone, old ways of doing things are used. Lack of accountability due to unclear priorities and disengagement causes low morale and an unwillingness to adapt flexibly to change. 3.3 Explain the skills of digital literacy and their growing importance in the workplace. Digital literacy skills
include print literacy, texting literacy, hypertext literacy, multimedia literacy, gaming literacy, mobile literacy and code literacy. Australian workplaces are increasingly requiring employees to have the skills to discover, transfer, analyse and review information, as well as the communication skills to interact and participate with others. Digital literacy is needed to extract information, contribute information, and build and maintain business and personal relationships through digital channels. 3.4 Identify organisational needs fulfilled by digital channels of communication and discuss the importance of being able to adapt from traditional channels to digital channels of communication and workplace interaction. Organisations are now using digital channels of communication to collaborate with staff, communicate with customers and suppliers, provide training and development and improve the efficiency of work processes. The progression from one-way communication to the more collaborative, informationsharing digital two-way communication enables employees to upload, download, share and reuse knowledge anywhere, at any time to collaborate, communicate with customers, undertake training and development, adapt and improve work processes.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK
KEY TERMS accountability adaptability
comfort zone cultural fit
digital literacies digital workplace
mental scripts resilience
LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Adaptability and resilience a. List the people you know who you would consider to be adaptable and resilient. b. What are the characteristics that cause them to be both adaptable and resilient? c. Do you need the qualities of adaptability and resilience to build a successful career? Justify your response in a short written answer and explain how you can develop adaptability and resilience. 2. Scenario After Hamid was injured while playing hockey, he demonstrated his determination and motivation by bouncing back quickly from the injury. He followed his doctor’s and coach’s advice and worked with a physiotherapist to learn how to improve his movement and strength despite the injury setback. His friends describe him as solution-oriented in most situations. He has a reputation for reflecting on what went well and not so well and for planning a new approach to achieve goals and overcome failures or any potential difficulties ahead. a. How would you describe Hamid’s approach? b. What are the abilities that allow him to ‘bounce back’? c. Explain how those abilities help him in his career. 3. Work in small groups a. Brainstorm and list the factors that act as barriers and hinder an individual’s adaptability. b. Identify ways in which those barriers may be lowered or overcome.
c. Explain how accountability contributes to adaptability, flexibility and initiative. d. Present your findings in a group PowerPoint or Prezi presentation. 4. Reflect on the types of digital literacy a. List the four types of organisations identified by the UK Digital Skills Taskforce. b. Search one or more of the large recruitment services’ online sites to locate at least two job advertisements for positions in each of the four types of organisations identified by the UK Digital Skills Taskforce. c. In which of the digital skills type of organisation identified by the UK Digital Skills Taskforce report are you qualified to operate? d. What sort of training or education would you require to improve your digital literacy to the level required to work in your industry of choice in the future? 5. Digital business etiquette Provide a short report in which you: • explain how courteous and authentic interactions are fostered on digital channels such as company blogs and portals, Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn and others. • identify the benefits of collaboration through digital channels • identify the potential dangers associated with breaches of security • explain the benefits of applying the principles of business etiquette in digital interactions.
GROUP ASSIGNMENT Assume your group is a team from a recruiting agency seeking candidates for a position that requires adaptability, flexibility and initiative. a. Brainstorm and list the attributes the recruiter would be looking for when assessing a candidate’s adaptability, flexibility and initiative. b. What are the typical characteristics recruiters are looking for when they ask job candidates to complete a psychometric questionnaire or test?
c. Brainstorm and list the skills employers are looking for when they seek employees who are digitally literate. d. Develop a set of questions the recruiter could ask in an interview. e. Develop model answers for each of the questions. f. Submit as a joint presentation your group’s brainstorming lists, set of questions and model answers.
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CHAPTER 3 / Adapt to change in the digital era
CASE STUDY NINA’S ADAPTATION TO A NEW ROLE Nina has worked for the Ambulance Service for 15 years. During her time in service she has experienced and accepted changes in the use of more advanced equipment and in the increased use of digital communication on mobile devices. Over the years Nina’s supervisors have spoken well of her ability to adapt to changes in Ambulance Service protocols, changes from manual to digital reporting and record keeping and other ongoing demands. Nina enjoys and has always taken pride in her work. Nina is offered a change of position from her core paramedic role to a more educational and community engagement position. While she understands the need for educational and community engagement, Nina knows she is feeling nervous and uncomfortable about her ability to make presentations and work together with stakeholders and the community to raise awareness of safety programs. She knows the new position will increase safety awareness that results in less harm to people in the community and fewer emergency calls for help to the Ambulance Service. However, delivering presentations in schools and organisations is not one of her areas of expertise. Nina finds worrying about making the presentations and going out into the community disheartening. However, Nina appreciates that she has a choice even though she is lacking confidence and unsure. She can think about and discover opportunities that a change to the educational and community engagement role offers, or she can find and apply for another role outside of the
Ambulance Service. Nina has always felt committed to the Ambulance Service. Rather than think negatively about the role, she decides to shift her thinking to ways in which she can take the position and stay with the Ambulance Service. Nina chooses to speak about the role with her supervisor. They come up with a plan of action that requires Nina to commit to the new role for six months and complete a Presentation Skills training program as soon as possible. Over the six months Nina will engage for two hours per fortnight with a mentor within the Ambulance Service who has experienced and responded successfully to a similar change. They also agree that Nina will meet with her supervisor fortnightly to receive constructive feedback and, where possible, make changes to her approach. Nina and her supervisor hope to explore the ways in which Nina can gradually take on more of the new responsibilities and become more open to the new ways of doing things. The objective of the plan is to encourage Nina to adapt to the changed position, gain new skills, adopt new behaviour and take a positive attitude to opportunities and changing circumstances.
Questions a. Describe how Nina found ways to overcome the obstacles caused by her insecurities. b. Did Nina take a flexible approach to her thinking? Justify your answer. c. Outline the benefits for Nina and the Ambulance Service of her ability to adapt to the new role.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Australian Industry and Skills Committee. 2017. Future Skills and Training, Commonwealth of Australia, https://www.aisc.net.au/sites/aisc/files/documents/ Future%20Priority%20Skills%20Resource.pdf, viewed 1 October 2018. Buchanan, Jennifer. Kelley, Beth & Hatch, Alicia. 2016. Digital workplace and culture: How digital technologies are changing the workforce and how enterprises can adapt and
evolve, Deloitte Development, https://www2.deloitte.com/ content/dam/Deloitte/us/Documents/human-capital/uscons-digital-workplace-and-culture.pdf, viewed 20 September 2018. Drucker, P.F. 2003. The Essential Drucker, Harper Business, New York, NY. Dudeney, Gavin. Hockly, Nicky & Pegrum, Mark. 2014. Digital Literacies, Routledge, New York, NY.
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Foundation for Young Australians (FYA). 2016. The New Basics: Big data reveals the skills young people need for the New Work Order, http://www.fya.org.au/wp-content/ uploads/2016/04/The-New-Basics_Web_Final.pdf, viewed 2 October 2018. Goleman, Daniel. 1998. Working with emotional intelligence, Bantam Books, New York, NY. Hanson, Rick. 2018. Resilient: 12 Tools for transforming everyday experiences into lasting happiness. Kindle Edition, Ebury Digital, USA. Internet Society. 2018. What is an IoT device?, https://www. internetsociety.org/iot/?gclid¼EAIaIQobChMIh8yY6 Mzm3QIVqZPtCh1mGAkhEAAYAiAAEgIj9fD_BwE, viewed 3 October 2018. Kemp, Simon. 2018. Global Digital in 2018: We Are Social, Hootsuite, Digital-in-2018-001-Global-Overview-Reportv1.02-1PDF, viewed 1 December 2018.
McKeown, Max. 2012. Adaptability: The Art of Winning in an Age of Uncertainty, Kogan Page, London, UK. Owen, Sue. Hagel, Pauline. Lingham, Bernie & Tyson, Daisy. ‘Digital Literacy’, Deakin University, http://www.deakin. edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/1237742/digitalliteracy.pdf, viewed 12 September 2018. PageUp. 2018. PageUp Unified Workforce Suite, https://www. pageuppeople.com/pageup-unified-workforce-suite-withento/, viewed 13 November 2018. UK Digital Skills Taskforce. 2014. Digital Skills for Tomorrow’s World, http://www.ukdigitalskills.com/, viewed 1 October 2018. Van Belleghem, Steven. 2015. Digital Becomes Human: The Transformation of Customer Relationships, Kogan Page Limited, London, UK.
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DEVELOP COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR EMPLOYMENT
CHAPTER
4
COLLECTING INFORMATION ON EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES
Your Learning Journey
4.1
resume qualifications skills
Chapter 4
experience
4.2
social temping/ networking newspapers freelancing sites
direct mail professional campaigns publications
ctions + ke se
ATS Applicant Tracking System
rds wo
resum e
personal networks
y
CH5
Next ORGANISE WORKPLACE INFORMATION
4.4
Job interview stages + strategies to appy POST-INTERVIEW
CLOSING
OPENING
PREPARE
Evaluate
Thank interviewer
First impressions
Practice Q + A
Follow up
Asking: “When will the decision be made?”
Confidence
Dress appropriately
Eye contact
Have resume copies
Handshake
Memory jogger notes
Letter of acceptance
Sitting / no fidgeting
4.3
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 4.1 search for a job using a variety of job search strategies and methods 4.2 write the type of resume and cover letter that best show how your qualifications, skills and experiences match the requirements of the recruiter and the position 4.3 use standard resume sections and keywords to optimise a resume for selection by an online applicant tracking system (ATS) 4.4 identify the stages in a job interview as well as strategies to use in the different stages.
4.1 SEARCHING FOR A JOB
Try several different ways to find a job.
Today, job searching is more than applying for a position and hoping to be called for an interview. A combination of strategies such as establishing an online social presence, targeting companies and creating a resume and cover letter that showcases your qualifications, skills, experiences and strengths improves the chance of success. A successful job search depends on your ability to market yourself using networks, contacts, your own initiative and seeking advice and guidance through established employment and recruitment agencies. Whether you are looking for a first job, a change in career or a promotion, you are making a job search. Most job search websites provide a wide variety of career resources: for instance, information on job seeking, sample resumes, career networking, training and skills, company research and employment news.
EMPLOYMENT AGENCIES Apply through employment agencies as you search for a position.
Instead of advertising, many employers use the services of an employment agency that matches the skills and qualifications of people on its register with the requirements of the position. If your qualifications are suitable, the agency will arrange an interview. In this way, countless jobs are filled without being advertised in newspapers or online job search engines. Employment agencies help job seekers to find a job, and assist employers to match job seekers to the requirements of a job. When a job seeker gets work, they are usually paid by the employment agency and the agency receives a percentage of the annual salary for permanent staff or a percentage of the hourly rate paid by the employer. jobactive is the Australian Government employment services system that supports job seekers and employers. jobactive can be accessed through https://jobsearch.gov.au/, which lists a variety of services as well as all the job vacancies offered by jobactive. You can search the vacancies according to the region of Australia that you live or seek work in. Job Seeker is another large online job board that lists jobs available in the community, health, notfor-profit, welfare and government sectors across Australia. Job Seeker helps organisations find the right staff and job seekers find the right role, and also offers job seekers resources to help them write a job application and prepare for an interview. As well as matching people to jobs, Job Seeker assists young people facing barriers to get a job, disadvantaged community members to access the internet and keep in touch with others, and homeless people to find things like housing, a hot meal and health and wellbeing services.
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CHAPTER 4 / Develop communication skills for employment
RECRUITMENT AGENCIES Recruitment agencies are contacted by organisations that wish to find suitable candidates for a vacant position. Recruiters gather the employment brief, job description and specifications from the employer and then search the employment market to find a pool of candidates who ‘fit’ the position. The internet lets anyone with a desktop, tablet or mobile phone search for vacant positions listed on recruitment agency websites such as those listed below. Entering the words ‘recruitment agencies’ into a search engine will give you links to other agency websites. Among the most popular recruitment agencies are: • http://www.seek.com.au • http://www.careerone.com.au • http://www.positionsvacant.com.au • http://www.adzuna.com.au Search for vacancies by filters such as location (including international, national, state, region or capital city), occupation, industry or salary band. The jobs published in many newspapers are also available through job search websites. The use of automatic matching and scraping systems, which extract data from targeted websites and are prevalent in large agencies, results in broad but less specific candidate pools. Matching and scraping gathers and downloads online resumes, typically into the recruiter’s central database, for later retrieval and analysis. Employers looking for specialist and non-generic candidates, or employers looking to recruit locally often look to boutique (small, specialist) agencies to find suitable candidates. Boutique recruitment agencies exist by fulfilling needs not met by an organisation’s internal recruitment function or by larger external agencies. These needs include locating candidates with specialised training and experience, including those not actively looking to change employers. Often, you can register and store your profile and resume with an agency. The agency not only lists positions vacant but may also email you suitable job vacancies on a daily basis, provide potential employers with your details, and make your resume available on their website for recruiters and employers to access. However, it is the applicant’s responsibility to ensure that their resume is adapted to the different positions sought by the employer and the recruiter.
Search for positions through online job search sites to widen the range of opportunities.
SOCIAL NETWORKING SITES Joining a business-oriented social networking site such as LinkedIn or GooglePlus enables job seekers to increase their online presence. Members are able to establish their professional profile online, locate experts and ideas, stay in touch with colleagues and explore new career opportunities. In 2018, LinkedIn had over 500 million users. Recruiters and employers seek and evaluate job applicants on merits and contributions as identified in their resumes and cover letters. They may also search LinkedIn profiles, Twitter, GooglePlus and Facebook to identify potential candidates from users who have updated their bios lately or often. For a comprehensive list of social networking websites, refer to https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ List_of_social_networking_websites. Jeanne Meister reports: Big data recruiting firms … find new talent before the prospective employees even know they are in the job market. Companies such as Entelo, Gild, TalentBin and the U.K.’s thesocial CV analyze not just a job candidate’s LinkedIn profile, Twitter feed and Facebook postings, but also 87 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK their activity on specialty sites specific to their professions, such as the open-source community forums StackOverflow and GitHub (for coders) Proformative (for accountants), and Dribbble (for designers.) This approach to recruitment is creating a new technical world order where job applicants are found and evaluated by their merits and contributions, rather than by how well they sell themselves in an interview. Source: From The Future Of Work: Why Social HR Matters by Jeanne Meister. Published by Forbes.com, ª 2014. Conduct a social media cleanse to present a positive persona for recruiters and employers, who select a resume and then search the potential candidate online.
Their goal is to find talent invisible on widely popular social platforms before their competitors. The extensive use of the internet and mobile technologies for recruitment purposes means employers now expect you to have an online presence and message. Online candidates are more accessible than ever, and things have evolved to the point at which recruiters and employers expect you to have an online profile that is up to date. Profiles with suitable and relevant keywords are easily found by online recruiters’ applicant tracking systems (ATS). Conduct a social media cleanse to ensure your online image is positive. Google yourself, and use other search engines as well to find out what an employer will uncover from a simple search of your Twitter, Facebook, and other social media. Clean up as many inappropriate photos and status updates as possible and change the privacy settings on your sites to help your private life stay private.
TEMPING AND FREELANCING Seek freelancing positions to work from your home office.
Temping is a growing part of the job market, and you can register your availability as a temp worker by contacting recruitment agencies directly or via their websites. Temporary work can range from jobs lasting a few hours up to several months, and can even lead to being offered extended contracts or full-time positions. Freelance telecommuting from home is another growing sector of the job market. People working from home save the employer floor space, equipment and overhead costs. Most of their communication is done by telephone, email, SMS, social media channels and other tools on the Web. Professional freelancing, sometimes referred to as the digital nomad lifestyle, requires a portfolio of past work, professional contacts and application through job sites such as Freelance Australia, SEEK (Freelance Jobs in All Australia), LinkedIn and Upwork Australia. If you want to freelance, as well as searching on the internet you can apply directly to an organisation either by email or by letter, offering your services and requesting an interview.
NETWORKING Let people in your network know that you are in the market for a job or change of employment.
Many vacant positions are never advertised. Employers fill the position through their own networks of professional and business contacts, or social and family contacts. Thus, it is important to create your own network of friends, neighbours, sporting and social clubs, and contacts at work. Networking assists in gaining a position. One way to do this is to ask someone to be your personal or professional referee. If they agree, tell them about the kind of work and position you are looking for. This way, people in your network can pass on this information to coworkers and associates. They may even recommend you for a position. Attend job fairs to network with employers who are hiring. As well as meeting with potential employers you are able to meet other job seekers and learn about other employment opportunities.
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CHAPTER 4 / Develop communication skills for employment Bring your resume and arrive professionally dressed and prepared to research the organisations suited to your qualifications, skills and experience. While at the fair, take the time to look up on your smartphone what organisations have recently posted on social media to give you something to discuss with the representative of an organisation. As you speak with the representatives of the organisations involved in the job fair, ask questions about possible positions and the names and contact details of the organisation’s human resources and recruiting manager.
DIRECT MAIL CAMPAIGN (COLD CANVASSING) When looking for a job, you may decide to go one step further and seek opportunities by writing directly to companies. This is known as cold canvassing, or a direct mail campaign. Applying for unadvertised positions widens your opportunities. The first step of your campaign is to determine the skills you have and the type of position suited to them. Then decide which companies might offer employment that matches your qualifications and aspirations. Start by searching for your targets online and in the index of directories such as Yellow Pages online to choose the areas of work that may interest you, and note what employment agencies are listed there. If your resume is ready, the next step is to prepare an unsolicited letter of application. Resumes and letters of application are discussed later in this chapter.
Widen your job search by using a direct mail campaign.
NEWSPAPERS One of the less common ways of finding a position now is to check the ‘Positions Vacant’ section in newspapers. The national papers advertise professional positions throughout their pages as well as in their ‘Positions Vacant’ section. Government organisations advertise as early as August or September for the general intake of employees for the next year. Some private employers advertise in newspapers and online around October or November. School leavers and TAFE and university graduates apply for many of these positions.
PUBLICATIONS Most professional associations publish journals, usually online, and many of these carry advertisements for positions. Use the computer facilities at the library to find online journals published by companies and potential employers. The library also files online government gazettes. Information about organisations – all of which are potential contacts for employment – can be found in: • the business news section of local and national newspapers • the Yellow Pages telephone directory • industry publications, which also report on current developments and trends in industry • company brochures and annual reports, which outline the company’s history, size and activities • employer directories such as The Business Who’s Who and Kompass.
SELF-INVENTORY Self-assess before your job search to create an inventory of your strengths (qualifications, skills and experiences) as well as your interests, values and attitudes towards different sorts of work.
Access advertisements for positions in journals of professional associations.
Determine your skills, interests, values and attitudes.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK A self-inventory reveals your major strengths and weaknesses and any talents or skills you may have overlooked or considered unimportant. People who feel they have little or no work experience relevant to an advertised position, or who have been out of the workforce for some time, may underrate their skills and abilities – for example, those returning to employment after a few years out of the workforce for parenting duties have developed skills in stock control, budget management, organisation, planning and getting along with others. Many school leavers have developed their planning skills by organising school functions or by leadership and teamwork in sporting activities. School leavers also know how to manage time, set goals and work under pressure. In voluntary social and welfare work, even though the work is unpaid, people gain valuable contacts, experience and skills that can be useful in other positions. Research yourself and create an inventory of your strengths and weaknesses, experiences and interests. Reflect on your personality traits in general, such as positive, assertive, flexible, adaptable and motivated. Also consider work-related personality traits such as being goal- and team-oriented, a good communicator, approachable, working well with others, organised and responsible. Think about the types of job you want and what an employer might be looking for in a candidate. Analyse the essential and desirable skills and qualities the job requires. Consider these as you prepare your resume and the covering letter. Summarise all relevant work experiences along with any other skills, qualities, responsibilities, initiatives and achievements. Reflect on your competence across a range of areas – for example, the personal skills necessary to work as part of a team, your skill at dealing with information, or even handling activities such as driving a car or being a first-aid officer. Consider how you can demonstrate these skills to the interviewer or the interview panel and let the interviewer know how your strengths will suit a position and benefit a potential employer.
CHECKPOINT 4.1
FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE
1. Identify six different ways you can find out about vacant positions. 2. Networks and employers: a. Identify and list your own professional, business, and social or sporting networks. b. What can you find out about prospective employers when you attend a job fair? 3. Online profile: a. Identify the benefits for a job seeker of having an online profile. b. Why should you conduct a social media cleanse? 4. Self-inventory: a. Briefly discuss three strategies you can use to create a self-inventory. b. What are the advantages gained from undertaking a self-inventory?
Is your social media content stopping you from getting a job? A survey undertaken in 2018, by Harris poll for CareerBuilder in the USA, found that 70% of employers check job candidates’ social media profiles, 48% check the social media accounts of current employees and 34% have fired or disciplined a worker because of social media content. 57% of employers found content that resulted in them not hiring someone.
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The news isn’t all bad though. 58% of employers reported looking on social media for information that supported a candidate’s job application, 50% checked to see if the candidate had a professional online presence and only 22% were looking for a reason not to hire the candidate. Source: https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/more-than-half-of-employers-have-found-content-on-socialmedia-that-caused-them-not-to-hire-a-candidate-according-to-recent-careerbuilder-survey-300694437.html, viewed 2 November 2018.
ASK YOURSELF: What can be seen on your Facebook page that might hinder and/or help you when it comes to getting hired?
4.2 TYPES OF RESUME The written application is often the only source of information a potential employer can assess when it comes to deciding whether you should be invited to an interview. Therefore, it is important to make it as interesting, informative and persuasive as possible. A job application has two parts: 1. the resume 2. the covering letter. The covering letter introduces your qualifications for the job and sets out to persuade the employer to invite you to an interview. A resume is the summary of your personal data: education, skills, qualifications, work experience, references, hobbies and interests. It may also be referred to as a curriculum vitae or CV. The resume is the document that contains all your relevant qualifications, experience and achievements. A well-designed resume presents the information in sections with headings. Choose a structure that suits your particular qualifications and experience and makes the resume informative and interesting. The two most common types of structure for a resume are: • basic (general) • functional. Exhibit 4.1 describes these two types of resume. Remember to use white space to make your resume easier for the potential employer to read and keywords to match the requirements of the position and the recruiter. The function and layout of each part of a basic resume is shown in Exhibit 4.2. The layout of a functional resume is shown in Exhibit 4.3.
EXHIBIT 4.1 Types of resume Type
Description
Basic resume
Includes all the usual parts of a resume with appropriate headings, but is simpler and shorter than the functional resume. The basic resume suits those who have just left school, TAFE or university or have little work experience. The headings shown in Exhibit 4.2 will help you to organise it.
Functional resume
Uses a different order of presentation from the basic resume to make the most of a wide range of skills and work experience (see Exhibit 4.3). As most employers are interested in seeing how your most recent experience matches their needs, present your work experience first, starting with the most recent, and put the rest in reverse chronological order. Develop subheadings that highlight the job functions in which you have demonstrated expertise – for example, supervisory, marketing or training skills – and responsibility. Use the advertisement as a guide for highlighting specific functions and choosing keywords for use in headings and resume content.
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EXHIBIT 4.2 Layout and function of each part of a basic resume Christopher Brown 212 Seymour Street MILLSVILLE VIC XXXX (0X) XXXX XXXX [email protected] LinkedIn address (optional) Career objective Open with two to four lines that show you have something to offer the potential employer. Write with a clear and confident style. Educational qualifications
List all your certificates, the subjects they cover, the year each was completed, and the name of the institution that awarded each one. Attach copies of subject transcripts to support your application, with the most recent one on top and the rest in reverse chronological order.
Work experience
Mention all work experience, including voluntary, part-time and student vacation work. Highlight your particular strengths.
Achievements, awards or commendations
Identify any special achievements from school or other organisations – for example, school captain, prefect or local club leader. Highlight any awards and special communication skills (such as public speaking or debating), as these are essential to most positions.
Activities and interests
Present your most recent activities first, with the rest following in reverse order. The employer likes to know about your interests and special skills.
Referees
Nominate people who have agreed to recommend your skills and recent work.
EXHIBIT 4.3 Layout of a functional resume Christopher Brown 212 Seymour Street MILLSVILLE VIC XXXX (0X) XXXX XXXX [email protected] LinkedIn address (optional) Career objective Write a compelling short (two to four lines) paragraph that shows why the recruiter or employer should employ you for the position. Employment experience
Present your employment history, starting with the most recent position, proceeding in reverse order to your first position. Your most recent job functions and achievements are of the greatest interest to the employer. Give the title of each position, then briefly describe each job function, particularly those relevant to the position you are applying for. Indicate any specific achievements or initiatives you accomplished in your previous positions.
Educational qualifications
Fully identify your qualifications, the institutions where they were gained, and the details of course subjects. Again, present these in reverse chronological order, starting with the most recent. Emphasise any that are particularly important to your potential employer.
Awards or commendations
If you have three or more awards or commendations, include a separate heading; otherwise, include these with activities and interests
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Activities and interests
Offer potential employers evidence of your ability to mix with others and mention any special skills that may be relevant – for example, community involvement or sporting interests.
Professional memberships
List any memberships of professional associations as these indicate that you are keeping up with the latest developments in your industry or occupation.
Referees
Present at least one who is professional and work-related, and one who will provide a character reference. An academic reference could also be useful.
Career objective The purpose of the career objective is to catch the attention of the recruiter or employer. Rather than saying what you want from the company the career objective should tell the recruiter or employer what skills, knowledge and abilities you have that will help the company achieve its goals. An effective career objective is short (two to four lines). It should be engaging and complement your experience and skills and offer the prospective employer an indication of your work-related ambitions. The example in Exhibit 4.4 is short and to the point. A useful career objective is not vague and lacking in detail. In a resume it will be positioned after the applicant’s name and personal details.
EXHIBIT 4.4 Career objective example for an event planner I have experience interacting in high-pressure situations with vendors who supply catering, entertainment or decorations. Last year, my skills in problem solving earned me Employee of the Year for ensuring events ran to plan. When communicating with clients and colleagues my aim is to provide exceptional service.
By contrast, an employment objective is a short statement telling the recruiter or employer what you want from the company and how it will help your own career. An employment objective, for example, To obtain a position as a legal secretary within a law firm, is bland and typically focuses on what the candidate wants instead of engaging with what the employer wants. While a career objective requires more thought than an employment objective, it has the advantage of making an impact and helping your resume stand out from others in the candidate pool.
Headings The resume is organised into sections, each with a heading. The main sections could be headed as follows: • personal details – place your name at the top so it is easy to find • career objectives • education • work experience • achievements, awards or commendations • interests • referees.
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Order the headings You may want to vary the order of these headings, or change them to suit a specific application or to highlight your particular strengths. For an online application through an online resume site, use keywords in the headings and body of your resume to match the requirements of the job description and the recruiters’ ATS. In Australia, it is illegal for an employer to discriminate on the basis of marital status. Remember to include the names of referees or people prepared to recommend your professional competence and experience. Save your resume as a Word document file because there are some applicant tracking systems that discard resumes in formats they still cannot convert such as PDF, HTML, Open Office or Apple Pages. In practice, the advent of mobile computing has caused a change in the online tool design used by employers and agencies, with much less impact on end users; however, the remaining hurdles are online sites that require documents (sometimes including supporting documents) to be uploaded in Word or PDF format. Some of these sites have a ‘dropbox’ feature to make this easier for mobile device users.
RESEARCH THE POSITION
Show how your qualifications match the job requirements.
When a job advertisement provides a contact telephone number, use it to find out more about the position before you prepare your resume. Even if a contact number is not provided, you could telephone the organisation and ask for more details, or research online or in business magazines in the library. Make it easy for the selection panel or person to identify your strengths. Interviewers eliminate those people considered unsuitable on the basis of their job application. In your resume, use keywords to concentrate on the attributes that are essential and desirable for the job. It is also worth considering the length of your resume. If it is too long, it may not be read carefully. If it is too short, check to see whether you have left out any important information. Bullet points and short phrases may suit some parts of the resume better than sentences. After preparing a suitable resume, you should then write a covering letter that will persuade the reader to take particular note of your application.
COVER LETTER The letter of application is the covering letter for your job application. The letter is not the place to list your work experience. Its role is to draw attention to the qualifications and experiences listed in the resume that equip you for the job. The writing style (your ‘tone of voice’) should be courteous and confident, but not over-confident. Sound as though you are keen, have the right attributes, are willing to learn, are able to adapt to changing circumstances and are open to direction.
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CHAPTER 4 / Develop communication skills for employment The letter should be written in Plain English because clear language helps the reader to understand your letter easily and quickly. Avoid using lengthy words, praising yourself too much or being too effusive. Positive words and phrases create a positive first impression. Refer to Exhibit 4.18 for examples of useful action words. The covering letter should be brief (about one page). Exhibit 4.5 is an example of a letter of application for the Administrative Assistant position advertised in Exhibit 4.6.
Plan your covering letter carefully.
EXHIBIT 4.5 Example of a letter of application or cover letter Kim Flanagan 3 Burnside Court STOCKBRIDGE VIC XXXX 3 October 2020 Mr Cale Kapalos Kapalos MacroTech 76 Parker Street MILLSVILLE VIC XXXX [email protected] Dear Mr Kapalos, Position: Administrative Assistant I am applying for the position of Administrative Assistant advertised in the Millsville Examiner on 2 October 2020. I have a Certificate IV in Business and I am currently studying for my Certificate III in Information Technology. I am experienced in working with both Mac and PC systems, and my present position as Administrative Assistant in a software company requires excellent organisational skills, and a high level of written and verbal communication skills. The key responsibilities of my current role are answering customer inquiries, performing basic accounting functions, working closely with other staff, and providing administrative support. Over the past five years I have also developed my administrative and communication skills through two other similar positions as an office assistant. This experience is supported by the enclosed references. I am very keen to secure the advertised position with your company. The rest of my qualifications and experience are outlined in the accompanying resume. I look forward to discussing my application at an interview. I can be contacted at the above address, by email or by telephone on (0X) XXXX XXXX. Yours sincerely
Kim Flanagan Kim Flanagan
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EXHIBIT 4.6 ‘Positions Vacant’ advertisement ADMINISTRATIVE ASSISTANT FULL TIME MacroTech is a small but rapidly growing information technology company. We are seeking an enthusiastic, professional and self-motivated person to join our head office at Millsville. You will be required to perform basic accounts payable and accounts receivable functions, assist our busy sales team with administrative duties, and be the first point of contact for incoming telephone calls. Ideally, you will have experience with both Mac and PC systems, and knowledge of the IT industry. Excellent written and verbal communication skills, and good organisational skills are essential for this role. Please email your resume to Cale Kapalos at
MacroTech, 76 Parker Steet, Millsville VIC XXXX
Write your letter using the AIDA formula.
The covering letter, or letter of application, has three main parts: 1. The introduction expresses your interest in the job. 2. The body points out specific qualities, qualifications and experience mentioned in your resume, and states your interest in the organisation. 3. The conclusion indicates where and how you can be reached for interview. The AIDA formula is a helpful strategy to use for writing the application (see Exhibit 4.7). A wellplanned letter is more likely to arouse a potential employer’s interest in your application – enough to call you for an interview.
EXHIBIT 4.7 Applying the AIDA formula to a covering letter AIDA formula
Purpose
Attention (Introductory paragraph)
Introduce yourself (your name) Say why you are writing (the position). Aim to catch the reader’s attention
Interest (Paragraphs in the body)
Say, in the body of the letter, where you heard about the position (advertised or word of mouth) State why you are a good match for the company and the role (draw on relevant experience as proof)
Desire (Paragraphs in the body)
Point the reader towards your formal work or education experience document (your resume) Refer them to the specific parts of your resume that support your claim of suitability to this position and refer to any awards to back up your claims. Aim to have the reader to recognise your value, and to want to call you for an interview
Action (Concluding paragraph)
Invite the reader to take action Close by stating again that you are interested in the position and prompt the reader to contact you for an interview
The advertisement in Exhibit 4.6 is for the position of an Administrative Assistant to join the head office of an information technology company. The likely keywords in the advertisement in Exhibit 4.6 are
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CHAPTER 4 / Develop communication skills for employment in bold typeface. If you applied for this job, you could include some of the keywords in the advertisement in your covering letter, then refer the reader to your resume for more information. (Exhibit 4.5 is an example of the application letter for this position.) In a covering letter, take care to present information that is relevant to the position you want. Exhibit 4.8 lists the characteristics of a poor covering letter.
EXHIBIT 4.8 Characteristics of a poor covering letter
Incorrect spelling
Superior, discourteous or pushy tone
Incorrect punctuation
Ambiguous words or ‘buzzwords’
Unclear, rambling sentences Messy appearance
Characteristics of a poor covering letter
Poor layout Photocopy rather than a signed original letter
Exaggeration of the applicant’s abilities
Not enough details
Apologetic tone
More than one page in length
About two weeks after you have sent a job application, it is appropriate to make an inquiry about it, by letter or telephone. State again, courteously and clearly, your interest in the organisation and the fact that you are available and would like an interview.
Unsolicited letter of application When using a cold canvassing approach to search for a job, an unsolicited letter of application is the most important part of your direct mail campaign. The unsolicited letter of application is your initial contact with a potential employer. Its purpose is to find a position that has not been advertised. The covering letter for an unsolicited job application has four main parts: 1. a paragraph introducing yourself 2. an explanation of the type of position you are looking for and are qualified for – clearly state what you have to offer the employer 3. a paragraph saying why you are attracted to working for this particular organisation 4. a statement of where and how you can be contacted. In this covering letter, you should emphasise your main strengths and write no more than one page.
Inquire about an unadvertised position with an unsolicited letter of application.
Portfolio website Complementary attachments such as a portfolio website, LinkedIn profile, a specific Facebook page, blog or creative portfolio site that demonstrate accomplishments, skill sets, academic achievements, experience or talents can bring a resume to life. Attachments dedicated to promoting the skill and
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK expertise of a candidate are suitable for specialty or niche candidates. They can be an excellent addition to present at job interview. The website can be built on a platform or service that best presents the candidate’s skills. Samples of previous work in video, audio, imagery or presentations can be made available to bolster the job application and interview.
References File work-related references written by your immediate supervisor, manager or employer for future use.
Work-related references are documents that highlight and recommend your skills and experience. A potential employer will check these references to establish your stability, loyalty, capabilities, personality and ability to accept and carry out instructions. Before you offer someone’s name as referee, or present a written reference, it is business courtesy to warn them in advance. This can also produce a more positive report from them when they receive a telephone call about you. Prospective employers rarely accept a written reference. They prefer to check by telephone with the named referees to establish the character and work history of a potential employee. You should list each reference in your resume as employers are often annoyed when a resume states ‘available on request’. Each reference should come from a credible source. Before you leave a position, think about whom you will ask to be a referee. They should be willing to recommend you and able to assess your abilities competently.
APPLICATION FORMS Complete forms carefully and accurately.
CHECKPOINT 4.2
Some employers prefer applicants to fill out a job application form, for the following reasons: 1. The form uses standard questions, which makes it easier to compare the applicants. 2. The potential employer can see whether an applicant can interpret and answer written questions. 3. The company orders the questions in a format that makes the answers easy to evaluate and collate into records. If you are asked to fill out an application form, read the whole form carefully, take time to think about your answers and answer every question. Mention your resume on the form, referring the reader to particular parts of it that support your answers. Then read back through the application form and check for any spelling mistakes or incomplete answers. Ensure you check back through the job advertisement to make sure you have addressed all requests listed in the advertisement: for example, correct job title and correct company name. If the advertisement asks for a cover letter, copies of any qualifications and a list of referees make sure you attach them to your application. Once the application has been submitted, allow time for the employer to contact you for interview because too many calls will become irritating. 1. Job application and resume: a. What are the two parts of a job application? b. Consider your own situation in life and the work experience you have had. Which of the two common types of resume should you use, and why? c. What should you concentrate on when you prepare your resume? 2. Would you choose to use a career objective or an employment objective in your resume? Briefly explain the reasons for your choice.
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CHAPTER 4 / Develop communication skills for employment
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3. Cover letter: a. What is the role of the cover letter? b. List the three main parts of a cover letter. 4. Job application form: a. Briefly explain why some employers prefer applicants to fill out a job application form. b. What should you check for as you check your form before forwarding it? 5. Identify the sorts of attachments that can be presented at interview to support the resumes of candidates in niche markets or specialist jobs.
4.3 OPTIMISE RESUMES FOR KEYWORD SEARCHES Many employers and recruitment agencies prefer to collect, sort and file electronic resumes in preference to hard copies. Placing your resume online is a much faster process than posting traditional hard copies by mail because the internet lets you collect the job information, application form and company information and submit the application for the position almost immediately. The factors underpinning a successful electronic resume are careful preparation, good organisation, an effective business writing style, professional layout and standard resume sections and keywords to optimise a resume for selection by an ATS. In an online resume: • content is the primary feature • uniform presentation is essential • keywords from job descriptions on employer’s websites and industry-related job portals are essential. Employers and recruiters increasingly rely on electronic resumes, online resume sites and job banks to find job candidates. When you submit your resume online to sites such as http://www.seek.com.au or http://www.careerbuilder.com, for example, your resume is electronically inputted from their portal into their databases. Recruiters then access the resume through an ATS that matches the resume to the keyword list of requirements an employer or recruiter has selected to describe the position they are seeking to fill. Companies using online recruitment agencies to advertise often set parameters around the selection criteria they ask applicants to address. If applicants do not address all of the selection criteria the ATS automatically culls the application and moves it into the unsuccessful folder in the system. An effective electronic resume has: • standard resume sections • content that is impressive and distinguishable from the other competitors for the position • keywords from job overviews and candidate specifications to secure a large number of hits and a corresponding high ranking during the ATS search • bullet points rather than paragraphs, where possible, and avoidance of tables, images and graphs • a format with simple, conservative fonts that software can recognise as it attempts to match characters from your resume with standard letter shapes. An ATS is likely to be programmed to search for information on work experience, qualifications and education, skills, contact information and social media profiles. Ensure the sections and headings in your resume are standard and keyword-rich.
Create electronic resumes suitable for placement on a database and searching by keywords.
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KEYWORDS An employer’s or recruiter’s database searches for keywords relating to: • job titles, responsibilities and descriptions • technical and computer knowledge • general and specific abilities and personality traits • educational requirements including certificates, diplomas and degrees. The software scans through thousands of resumes and identifies those that most closely match the inputted keywords. It is therefore important for applicants to ensure they address all of the criteria when applying online to prevent their application being culled. If you fail to include the right keywords or misspell them, your resume is unlikely to be selected in a search. Electronic resumes with the most hits by the software (keywords) are likely to be read by the employer or recruiter. Concrete words related to relevant, objective and measurable results get noticed. The features of an effective keyword resume are shown in Exhibit 4.9. In a keyword resume the basic features of good resume writing still apply. By including a keyword section towards the front of your resume, as well as using keywords throughout, it you are able to optimise your resume’s ranking with search engines and computer tracking systems. The keywords should be in headings, phrases or sentences that make sense rather than simply dropping them randomly into your resume. It is also worth checking that your resume and LinkedIn profile use similar keywords. As well as signalling consistency and attention to detail for recruiters, keyword consistency will help maximise the effectiveness of your job search. Help the recruiter or employer find your resume and include it among the highest ranked documents by making your resume keyword-rich. Use keywords that: • are industry or job specific • include job titles, relevant skills, industry jargon • include necessary educational and academic achievements • relate to what a recruiter or potential employer would be looking for in a suitable job applicant. Some examples of good use of keywords are: • ‘self-directed Project Officer–Urban Planner with high level project management skills and a strong work ethic’ • ‘talented Customer Service Consultant with strong coordination and communication skills applied to professional development of service teams and consultants in service delivery and quality control’ • ‘accomplished in Financial Management and compliance activities’ • ‘nominated by the National Group for the Annual Customer Service Award’. Keywords can be generated from the following resources: • job descriptions • job postings – either printed or online – for example: http://www.nnsw.com.au/regional/ jobsearch.html • industry association websites – either printed or online • Yellow Pages – either printed or online • job-related publications (which can include the Australian Positions Vacant Notices) http://www.careersonline.com.au • corporate websites (including the ones of interest to you) • other resumes posted online.
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CHAPTER 4 / Develop communication skills for employment
EXHIBIT 4.9 Features of keyword resumes
Keywords of the noun or noun phrase type (‘Program Coordinator’, ‘Office Procedures and Systems’, ‘Travel Management’) as opposed to power action verbs often found in traditional resumes (‘Managed’, ‘Negotiated’, ‘Designed’, ‘Organised’). The emphasis is on stand-alone nouns.
Keyword resumes are a little longer than traditional resumes because they usually need to include more detail and a keyword section. Rule: The more skills and facts you provide, the more opportunities or hits you will match or generate on the computer search program. The keywords are the most important element of the resume. Always check the spelling of your keywords.
Keyword resumes
An effective resume is well written. As well as needing nouns for your resume to be located by the computer search facility, the person who reads the resume needs to be impressed by your use of language, organisation and flow of ideas.
Phrases are used to describe personality traits, such as ‘good communication skills’, ‘time management’, ‘work under pressure’ and ‘attention to detail’ to describe professional experience, education and other skills. For example, an applicant asked to demonstrate a customer service perspective and focus skills could include phrases such as the following: ‘excellent interpersonal communication and negotiation skills evidenced by a 20% increase in winning contracts over a 12-month period’.
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THE SUMMARY AREA OF THE RESUME Edit your online application for detail and accuracy.
In the summary area of your electronic resume: • highlight your most important qualities, achievements and abilities with several short statements, each of which contains a keyword • tailor every word in the summary to your targeted goal • make this area of your resume keyword-rich.
ONLINE RESUME SITES Online resume sites provide online forms for you to use to input your resume into their databank. Many of these resume builders are laid out in a chronological format. When your current position title does not match the requirements of the advertised position, try using a skill heading with a keyword from the advertisement first and then your position title in parentheses – for example, Urban Planner (Project Officer). One of the disadvantages of online applications is the temptation to fill them out quickly and send them off without reading and editing for detail and accuracy. Electronic applications are usually placed straight into a database and searched for keywords to highlight those candidates who are suitable applicants. The search for keywords in the database saves time for the recruiters. Rather than sorting through a large number of applications the system picks up the keywords in a search. This highlights the importance of keywords.
QUESTIONS TO ASK Before you post a resume on an internet site, read the information and then ask the recruiter these questions: • Is a keyword resume required? • How is the resume to be used? • Who has access to it? • Is it to apply for a specific vacant position, to answer a recruiting drive, or for submission to a database in the hope of being headhunted at some later date? • How long will it be held on the database? • Can I remove it from the database? • Will it go to a local, national or global database? • If applying in a country other than Australia, are there any work restrictions?
CHECKPOINT 4.3
1. Electronic resumes: a. Outline the features of an effective electronic resume. b. What is the purpose of the introductory and concluding sections of online resumes? c. What is the advantage of including a keyword section towards the front or end of your electronic resume? d. Identify five resources you can access to generate keywords. 2. Keywords: a. Create a set of keywords for a position you would like to apply for. b. Why should your keywords match the exact term in the job description? c. What are the reasons for checking the keywords in your LinkedIn profile and other social media sites complement the keywords in your resume? 3. What are the features of a resume that is ATS-friendly?
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CHAPTER 4 / Develop communication skills for employment
4.4 JOB INTERVIEWS An interview is a planned exchange of information between two or more people of different status. It may be formal or informal, but in either case it will have a predetermined purpose – to select the most suitable candidate for the position. When you are called for an interview, try to find out as much as possible about the position and the company before the interview. Do this by telephoning the contact person identified in the advertisement for the position, ask for a copy of the job description and examine the main tasks and other duties it sets out. Think about the requirements, what the job will require you to do and the types of questions you may be asked in the interview. General information about the company – such as how many people it employs, how many divisions it has, what the main products are and what the company’s target market is – can be obtained by telephoning its department of human resources, public relations or customer services. It may even be possible to visit the company to find out more, or visit its website. The three main types of job interview are the single, the series and the panel interview. A description of each type is provided in Exhibit 4.10.
Gather and exchange information in a job interview.
EXHIBIT 4.10 Types of job interviews Type of interview
Description
The single interview
Conducted by a single interviewer who is usually responsible for interviewing all applicants and selecting the new staff member.
The series interview
Conducted by several interviewers in turn, in separate interviews. Each one evaluates each applicant on a specific area of expertise. After the series of interviews, the interviewers consult each other to make a group selection.
The panel interview
Conducted by a group of interviewers all together. Each member of the panel asks specific questions relevant to their special experience and expertise. The panel works together to assess the applicant. The panel should include at least one woman and one man, to support the principles of Equal Employment Opportunity.
GOALS OF A JOB INTERVIEW When conducting a job interview, the interviewer wants to select the most suitable candidate for the position. The interviewer’s goals are to gather information from candidates to evaluate their likely future performance, inform applicants about the job and the organisation and determine applicants’ ability to work with others and fit into the organisation’s culture.
INTERVIEW STAGES AND TYPES The interview structure generally includes five stages – pre-interview stage, opening, body, closing and post-interview stage – as shown in Exhibit 4.11.
Select the candidate with the best credentials for the position.
Undertake the five stages in the interview effectively.
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EXHIBIT 4.11 Summary of tasks completed by the interviewer at each stage Stages of the interview
Tasks
Specific examples
Pre-interview stage
• Identifies essentials and desirables • Prepares questions: open, closed, probing • Shortlists candidates
Opening
• • • • •
• Uses position description • Asks manager for any particular skills and attributes • Finds application, checks qualifications • Greets the interviewee • States the interview’s purpose • Builds the interviewee’s confidence • Listens carefully and with empathy • Uses positive nonverbal behaviour • Paraphrases • Asks interviewees if they would like to ask any questions • Encourages further questions • Thanks interviewee for attending • Uses rating scales • Discusses candidates resume and cover letter • Completes notes • Telephones the referees • Maintains confidentiality • Records result
Opens the interview Puts the interviewee at ease Answers questions Obtains specific information Asks open, closed and problem-solving questions • Summarises what has taken place • Indicates clearly that the interview is over • Closes the interview
Body
Closing
Post-interview stage
• • • • •
Evaluates each interviewee objectively Makes selection Completes records Informs successful candidates Informs unsuccessful candidates
EMPLOYING STAFF FAIRLY Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) and special measures, policies and programs aim for the fairer representation in employment of all groups in the community. The objectives of the Equal Opportunity Act 2010 (Vic) (EO Act 2010) are to encourage the identification and elimination of discrimination, sexual harassment and victimisation and their causes, and to promote and facilitate the progressive realisation of equality. The Act sets out personal characteristics that make discrimination in employment against the law. Exhibit 4.12 identifies these characteristics. A diverse workplace benefits from the wide range of backgrounds of different experiences and talents of its employees. Equal opportunity occurs when people’s chances of employment, promotion, training or obtaining any other employment benefit or opportunity are neither reduced nor increased on the basis of the characteristics in Exhibit 4.12. Discrimination occurs when someone is treated unfavourably because of a personal characteristic that is protected by law. Discrimination in the workplace means denying people equal treatment for reasons other than those relating directly to the job. One of the purposes of EEO legislation is to ensure that the person with the skills, experience and qualifications best suited to the job gets the job. The benefits of EEO include improved recruitment allowing employers to tap into the diverse talent pool in the community. Staff retention and respect between employers and employees improves. EEO and the resultant diversity in the workforce helps organisations attract and better serve an increasingly diverse customer base.
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CHAPTER 4 / Develop communication skills for employment
EXHIBIT 4.12 Personal characteristics
Parental status Lawful sexual activity
Employment activity Physical features
Disability
Gender identity Political belief or activity
Personal association with someone who has, or is assumed to have, any of these personal characteristics
Age
Marital status
Personal characteristics
Industrial activity
Pregnancy
Breastfeeding
Race (including colour, nationality, ethnicity and ethnic origin)
Religious belief or activity Sexual orientation
Sex
Carer status
SHORTLISTING CANDIDATES Sometimes more applications for a position are received than the number of applicants the interviewer is willing to interview. In this case, a shortlist of those who best suit the position is prepared. When companies advertise they set parameters around the selection criteria they ask applicants to address. When applicants apply, the first step is to compare the information in all applications against what the job requires to determine which applicants are suitable. If an applicant has not addressed all of the selection criteria in a recruiter’s ATS, the application is likely to be culled and moved to the unsuccessful group. Then the interview shortlist of successful applicants is compiled. Next, the interviewer should, as a courtesy, inform all applicants whether or not their application is successful. Those who are successful are invited to an interview, and those who are not should be thanked for their interest in the position.
Shortlist candidates according to the essential and desirable requirements of the job.
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QUESTION PREPARATION A set of questions about the candidate’s qualifications, previous job experience, career ambitions, goals and attitudes towards the organisation’s products or policies is prepared. The interviewer’s aim is to create clear, specific questions that will adequately establish the applicant’s capacity to meet the demands of the job. Questions should also be relevant, unambiguous and free from bias, so that no group or person is favoured or disadvantaged. The interviewer should take into consideration federal and state anti-discrimination legislation. The four types of questions in Exhibit 4.13 are particularly important. They should all be asked in a well-structured interview.
Prepare clear, specific questions.
EXHIBIT 4.13 Types of interview questions Type of question
Purpose
Example
Open
These encourage interviewees to speak freely and talk about themselves. The interviewer should listen, observe and make notes. Open questions can help overcome the interviewee’s feelings of apprehension. Use them carefully as they can elicit time-consuming answers and irrelevant information.
• ‘Could you tell me more about your career path in your last organisation?’ • ‘What did you do then?’ • ‘How did that affect the way you did your job?’
Closed
These are designed to limit responses and establish facts. They can clarify answers to open questions, but usually provide very little information and discourage further explanation by the interviewee.
• ‘Have you used this software program before?’ • ‘Are you a member of the professional association?’
Mirror
These restate the interviewee’s previous answer, inviting them to add more information. They give the interviewee accurate feedback and allow the interviewer to check their understanding of the responses offered.
Interviewee: ‘I really enjoyed the mix of independent and team-based work the project required.’
These follow on from the last response by the interviewee. They are spontaneous questions rather than being planned. The aim is to ask why and gather more information.
Interviewee: ‘My last position required plenty of task juggling and prioritising.’
Probing
Identify and prepare your strengths. Research the company and its values. Manage your time well during your job search.
Interviewer: ‘You enjoyed the mix?’ Interviewee: ‘Yes, it provided variety and added to the success of the project.’
Interviewer: ‘And how did you do that successfully?’
The interview process should be fair and open to scrutiny. Below each question, in the interviewer’s notes, the type of response expected should be identified to enable the interviewer to check each applicant’s answers to the questions. Questions may cover topics such as communication skills, energy and motivation levels, creativity, ability to handle stress, career ambitions, persuasiveness, initiative, planning, controlling and analytical skills. Employers seek staff with employability skills that are transferable from one occupation to another.
USE A JOB SEARCH CONTROL SHEET When the letter inviting you to an interview arrives, immediately write the place, date and time of the interview in your diary. Then start preparing yourself for it. As the applicant, you have several different tasks ahead of you. The job search control sheet is a systematic way to organise a job search. Record your details on a sheet similar to that shown in Exhibit 4.14. The job search control sheet helps you document your ideas and impressions in one place and can also be a useful time-management tool.
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CHAPTER 4 / Develop communication skills for employment
EXHIBIT 4.14 Job search control sheet Job search control sheet Name of position: How I made contact, and date: How I found out about the position: Date job application forwarded: Date and time of interview: Place of interview: Name of potential employer: Address: Telephone and email numbers: Research on the position: Comments on the interview: My particular strengths in the interview: What would I do differently next time? Material left with the employer: Follow-up action: Dates: To whom:
PRACTISE YOUR PRESENTATION In the interview, you are judged on how you act and what you say. Take time beforehand to think about the questions you may be asked and what you will say in answer to each. Even consider the sort of question that may be awkward to answer. It is easier to appear relaxed and confident during the interview when you have practised your presentation. The way you dress makes an impression at the interview. Choose clothes appropriate to the occupation and take care with your personal grooming. Take copies of your resume on good-quality paper. Also include copies of your references and any other documentation the interviewer may need. Include any relevant samples of work, and originals of qualifications such as degrees, diplomas, certificates and work qualifications. Remember to pack your pen, paper and interview memory jogger (see Exhibit 4.15). Place only the most important points that warrant special mention on the interview memory jogger. This aid is most useful if it is placed on your lap or on the table in front of you. At the end of the interview, when the interviewer asks if you have anything to ask or add, quickly scan it to check you have covered the main points.
Practice helps you to be relaxed and confident.
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EXHIBIT 4.15 Interview memory jogger Interview memory jogger Summarise your strengths:
1 2 3 4
Determine the personal and physical factors required for the job:
1 2 3
Date and time of interview:
1
Things to take to the interview:
2 3
Accomplishments relevant to this position:
1 2 3
Key points to bring out in the interview:
1 2 3 4 5
Emphasise why I am interested in this position:
1 2
A job interview is your opportunity to convince a potential employer that you are the best person for the job. Be ready to speak clearly and to ask appropriate questions. Exhibit 4.16 provides some hints to help you perform well at an interview.
AT THE BEGINNING OF THE INTERVIEW Begin the interview confidently and courteously.
Create a good first impression by entering the interview room confidently, with body upright and shoulders relaxed. Make direct eye contact, and greet the interviewer or panel with a firm handshake. Take time to organise your thoughts and your papers and seat yourself comfortably, making sure that you avoid fidgeting but are still able to use your hands for emphasis. As the interviewee, you are also assessing the company or organisation, so behave politely but assertively. Firm eye contact shows confidence. Keep your head upright and encourage the interviewers by smiling and nodding when appropriate. Voice volume and clarity, and knowing what you want to say, are important for creating a good impression. Vocal inflection adds variety and interest to your
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CHAPTER 4 / Develop communication skills for employment
EXHIBIT 4.16 Hints for an impressive performance Interviewers are influenced by personalities. Be pleasant, listen carefully and respond to questions with interest. Make a good first impression by greeting the interviewer in a friendly manner. Be positive and confident when you communicate. Practise suitable responses to questions. Prepare questions to ask about career paths, professional development and future changes to the company, to indicate that you have thought about your goals.
Reply to questions with full sentences, rather than ‘yes’ or ‘no’, to show the interviewer you have prepared for the interview and are interested.
Hints for an impressive performance Role-play a job interview and video the role-play to check your nonverbal communication – movements of your head, arms, feet, legs, shoulders and your facial expression.
Show interest in specific aspects of the position. Describe what you have learned from previous positions, and how these will help you in future positions.
Focus on your most relevant skills. Give examples of how you have solved problems in previous positions.
presentation. Nonverbal communication is discussed more fully in Chapter 2, Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence.
DURING THE BODY OF THE INTERVIEW This is the working stage of the interview where you must present yourself persuasively. Listen carefully to questions and try to answer them thoughtfully and confidently. Maintain eye contact with the person who is questioning you, but avoid making them uncomfortable. Keep your posture upright, but be relaxed and natural. A variety of questions are asked at interviews, and an expert interviewer should make you feel comfortable and encourage you to tell them about yourself. Also, be prepared to ask questions when the opportunity arises. These should indicate your genuine interest in the possibility of a career with the organisation. The examples of questions in Exhibit 4.17 will allow you to prepare and rehearse possible answers. Exhibit 4.18 provides a list of action words you can use in your responses.
Listen carefully and be confident and persuasive.
Prepare your own questions.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK If the interviewer does not ask certain questions that let you identify all your relevant skills or qualities, take the initiative to mention them towards the close of the interview. This is when your interview memory jogger is so important.
EXHIBIT 4.17 Commonly asked questions By the interviewer
By the interviewee
• • • •
• • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
How do you organise your day? What have you done to make your job more satisfying? What are your hobbies and interests? Have you conducted a meeting or done any group speaking? What kind of feedback did you receive? What reports or proposals do you write? Tell me about one of your documents and how it was received. Tell me about the positions you have held. In your last job, what accomplishments gave you the most satisfaction? Why did you leave your last job? Do you feel pressure in your job? How do you deal with it? What do you see as your strengths and weaknesses? Are you able to travel? What are your career goals for the next five years? Tell me about a problem you’ve solved in the last six months. Can you give an example of a good decision you made in the last six months? What were the alternatives to that decision? What do you understand about Equal Employment Opportunity? What do you consider your best abilities? Why did you apply for this position? What can you bring to this position that others can’t?
• • • • • • • • • •
How many people are employed in the organisation? Where would I be working? What projects would I be working on? Does the company intend to expand into other areas? How many others have applied for this position? When will I hear the results of my interview? When would you like the successful applicant to start work? What are the major responsibilities in the position? What additional training does the organisation provide? What qualities do you want in the person who fills this position? Does the organisation plan to deliver new products or services? What will be the main focus of this role? How does the organisation measure success in individual performance? What would be my career prospects? Who would I be working with? Can you describe a typical day in this job? Could you explain the organisational structure to me? What is the top priority of the person who accepts this position? How much travel is expected? Are there any other questions I can answer for you?
EXHIBIT 4.18 Action words for interview responses Communicating
Managing
Creating
Administration
persuade
solve
plan
arrange
mediate
produce
shape
achieve
write
adapt
design
organise
develop
analyse
prepare
prioritise
cooperate
initiate
invent
accomplish
AT THE CLOSE OF AND AFTER THE INTERVIEW Thank the interviewer. Learn from your performance at the interview.
The interviewer will indicate that the interview is over. Be ready for this, and express thanks for their time and consideration. If you are still interested in the position, let them know at this point and ask when they will make their decision. Try to leave the interview with a sense of control as well as a sense of relief!
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CHAPTER 4 / Develop communication skills for employment
AFTER THE INTERVIEW Very soon after the interview, it is worth reviewing your performance. Identify everything you did well and not so well. Learn from this self-review, and decide how to improve any parts of your performance that were weak. Complete your job search control sheet (Exhibit 4.14).
Evaluate your performance If you were unhappy about any part of your interview performance, decide how you can do better on another occasion. What experiences were pleasant, unpleasant, challenging, awkward or uncomfortable? Evaluate the way you: • answered questions • presented yourself. Reflect on aspects of the interview that you handled well and those that you might have handled better.
Reflect on the positive and any negative aspects of your performance.
Follow-up Once you have attended an interview, it is appropriate to follow up with a letter of inquiry, telephone call or email, if you have not heard from the company within two weeks, or a letter of acceptance if you are offered the position. A follow-up letter should be courteous and concise – no more than a page long. It confirms again your interest in the job. The follow-up letter format follows the seven basic parts of a business letter, as presented in Chapter 15, Writing business letters, plus a subject line. A follow-up telephone call also confirms your interest in the position. If you have not heard from the organisation within seven days, call the interviewer, express your interest again and ask when you are likely to hear. The interviewer will explain the delay or let you know if you were successful or unsuccessful. Sometimes the job is offered by telephone, other times it is offered in writing. An offer in writing is preferable, and it should set out the conditions of employment, such as hours of work and salary. Once you decide to accept the job, telephone the contact person and let them know. Then write a courteous letter of acceptance, expressing how much you are looking forward to working with the company.
1. Job interview: a. Identify the five stages of a job interview. b. List three goals of an interviewer. c. List four types of questions asked in an interview and provide an example of each type of question d. EEO is a policy that promotes selection by merit. Complete this sentence: ‘An Equal Opportunity employer does not discriminate against employees or qualified job applicants on the basis of …’ 2. Plan to succeed: a. Describe the advantages of using a job search control sheet (Exhibit 4.14) and an interview memory jogger (Exhibit 4.15). b. Explain why you should practise your interview presentation and describe what you should prepare before attending an interview. c. Why is making a good first impression so important? Give examples of how can you do this. 3. Create a list of hints that will help you perform well in a job interview.
Follow up with an inquiry or a letter of acceptance.
Allow the employer time after the interview to score the applicants, complete reference and police checks. Avoid contacting the employer so often that it irritates them.
CHECKPOINT 4.4
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK
LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 4.1 Search for a job using a variety of job search strategies and methods. Collect information on employment opportunities from a variety of sources such as employment agencies, recruitment agencies, social networking sites, newspapers, temping and freelancing, personal networks, direct mail campaigns and professional publications. Evaluate your preferences, skills, aptitude, qualifications and experience. This helps you to identify the type of work and career objectives that suit your abilities. 4.2 Write the type of resume and cover letter that best show how your qualifications, skills and experiences match the recruiter’s requirements and the position. A successful job application has two major components – the resume and the covering letter. Prepare either a basic or functional resume to show how your qualifications match the job requirements. Research the position you wish to apply for. Present your educational qualifications, your range of experience, achievements, attributes and any special interests suited to the position. Write a covering letter for the job application. This is a persuasive letter that aims to attract a potential employer’s attention and create enough interest that they call you for an
interview. It should be no more than one page in length. Include keywords in your resume and cover letter. 4.3 Use standard resume sections and keywords to optimise a resume for selection by an applicant tracking system (ATS). Write a resume with standard sections and headings matched to the words in the job description. The career objective and content of the body of the resume should include keywords. More and more employers and recruitment agencies use applicant tracking systems to search resumes and match against keywords based on the job description and other parameters determined by the employer. The search results create a pool of suitable candidates for interview. 4.4 Identify the stages in a job interview and strategies to use in the different stages. An interviewer should ask open, closed, mirror and probing questions that are relevant to the job requirements. Before an interview, candidates should find out more about the position and prepare. A job search control sheet will help a candidate to plan and present confidently. Make a positive first impression by dressing appropriately for the position and using your speaking, listening and nonverbal skills courteously when responding to and asking questions.
KEY TERMS applicant tracking system (ATS) application form basic resume cold canvassing covering letter
direct mail campaign electronic resume employment agency Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) functional resume
interview memory jogger job search control sheet letter of acceptance networks panel interview post-interview stage
pre-interview stage reference resume social media cleanse unsolicited letter of application
LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Direct mail Work in small groups to plan a direct mail campaign to obtain a position at the end of the course. a. Determine the type of position you would like to apply for.
b. Research and create a list of firms that are likely to employ new graduates from this course in the type of position you are after. c. Determine the best time to approach each firm. d. Determine the best method of approaching each firm.
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CHAPTER 4 / Develop communication skills for employment
2. Create a resume a. Select a vacant position that interests you and that you are qualified for from a newspaper, publication or online. b. What are the attributes that the employer considers essential and desirable in the successful candidate? c. Prepare a resume that will help you secure an interview for this position. Be sure to use keywords and some of the action words listed in the table to describe your past or present responsibilities.
Useful action words • analyse
• evaluate
• liaise
• print
• communicate
• expand
• maintain
• program
• create
• interpret
• negotiate
• report
• delegate
• initiate
• obtain
• solve
• design
• install
• operate
• supervise
d. Use the AIDA formula to write the covering letter. 3. An interview about interviews Interview the human resources or employee relations officer for an organisation. The purpose of the interview is to find out: • what they view as essential components of a written job application and resume • their criteria for the culling procedure • how they check qualifications and create a shortlist • the type of interview panel they would use • how and when applicants are informed of an interview • how they ensure EEO legislation and the merit principle are incorporated into the interview procedure • what is required of the applicant in the interview. 4. Work in groups of three for this exercise a. Consider the interviewer’s verbal messages in the following table. In the second column, identify the type of nonverbal behaviour that is appropriate for each verbal message appearing in the first column. Remember, the interviewer is trying to create an open, supportive environment to encourage interviewees to talk about their skills and abilities. b. When you have completed the table, role-play the situation. One person is the interviewer and one person is the interviewee, while the third person watches and
records the interviewer’s nonverbal communication. Then compare the nonverbal messages used in the roleplay with your notes in the table below. (If you have trouble listing suitable nonverbal messages, try the roleplay first and then list the appropriate behaviours.)
Consistent verbal/nonverbal communication Verbal message
Appropriate nonverbal behaviour
Good morning! Pleased to meet you.
E.g. smiles, stands, leans forward, shakes hands
Did you find the building easily? Tell me, why are you interested in the position of Distribution Officer? You mentioned in your application that you have good organisational skills. Can you explain how you used your organisational skills in your last position? What attracts you to our company? Give me an example of a time when you successfully handled a customer complaint. How else might you have dealt with the situation? Do you have any further questions about the position? Thank you for your application and for coming to the interview.
5. Writing the job specification Place yourself in the role of an interviewer to develop an appreciation of the interview process. a. Find an advertised position vacant that appeals to you. b. Create a job specification for this position. c. Write the essential and desirable criteria for the position.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK
GROUP ACTIVITY Work in small groups.
•
deciding how to sign up for an email alert to keep track of new positions listed on the site that match your criteria.
Part A a. Each member of the group identifies their favourite source for finding a job. b. Explain to the other members of the group the features that make it your favourite source and how it benefits your job search.
Part C Visit the ‘Job Outlook – Explore Your Career Outlook’ site at http://joboutlook.gov.au/ to learn more about what people in the type of position you have chosen do regarding their training and development, salaries and opportunities for career progression.
Part B In your group, choose one of the online resume sites discussed in your group and search for a position by: • identifying criteria or phrases to filter your search for that position
Part D Submit a short group report outlining your findings from Part C.
CASE STUDY AMAR AND ROCHELLE – KEYWORDS Over morning tea, Amar, an assistant human resources officer, discusses with his colleague Rochelle his plans to apply for a more senior role with another company. In their discussion, Rochelle suggests, ‘Most companies are now recruiting from large recruitment companies. When companies advertise through a recruitment company’s online portal they usually set parameters around the selection criteria they want the applicants to address.’ Amar replies, ‘Yes, I realise that I will increase my chances in today’s job market by including similar keywords in my resume to those that appear in targeted job descriptions. If I do not use keywords to address all of the selection criteria the online ATS will automatically cull my application and a potential employer will not even see it.’ Rochelle says, ‘Yes, definitely. When the recruitment companies search resumes submitted to their online resume sites through desktops, tablets and mobile phones the resumes are processed by the recruiting ATS to save time and help employers find a suitable pool of candidates for their job openings.’
Amar replies, ‘I need keywords to match specific skill sets, soft skills, technology and HR competencies as well as previous employers and my relevant credentials. Perhaps over lunch we could brainstorm those keywords that match specific job requirements’. Rochelle replies, ‘Sure, let’s get together over lunch tomorrow.’
Questions 1. What kind of information could Amar find on the recruitment agencies’ websites to help him create a powerful resume? 2. Where, in addition to the big recruitment agencies, could Amar look for job advertisements and career information? 3. Which of the two types of resume (basic or functional) should Amar use? Provide reasons for your choice. 4. Outline the benefits for Amar and the potential employer of including keywords and key phrases in his resume.
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CHAPTER 4 / Develop communication skills for employment
BIBLIOGRAPHY Adzuna. Search Jobs, http://www.adzuna.com.au/, viewed 1 June 2018. Boldt, A.G. 2008. No-Nonsense Job Interviews: How to Impress Prospective Employers and Ace Any Interview, Career Press, Pompton Plains, NJ. Bolles, Richard N. 2018. What Color Is Your Parachute Job Hunter’s Guide, Ten Speed Press, Berkeley, CA. Burke, Lindsey. ‘Is Facebook Preventing You From Getting Hired?’, Select Perspectives Blog, http://www. selectinternational.com/blog/is-facebook-preventing-youfrom-getting-hired, viewed 23 May 2018. Careerbuilder.com. CareerBuilder: Find the right job. Right now, http://www.careerbuilder.com, viewed 2 June 2018. Careerone.com. Find a job you love, http://www.careerone. com.au, viewed 1 June 2018. Careers Online, Welcome to Australia’s Careers OnLine (COL), http://www.careersonline.com.au/, viewed 1 June 2018. Department of Jobs and Small Business. jobactive, www.jobs.gov.au/jobactive, viewed 18 May 2018. Department of Jobs and Small Business. Joboutlook – Explore Your Career Outlook, http://joboutlook.gov.au/, viewed 20 May 2018. Enelow, W.S. & Kursmark, M. 2010. Cover Letter Magic, 4th edn, JIST Works, Indianapolis, IN. Hudson Australia. Common interview questions and how to answer them, http://au.hudson.com/job-seekers/careeradvice/job-interview-questions, viewed 28 May 2018. Job Search Australia. Positions Vacant, http://www. positionsvacant.com.au/, viewed 2 June 2018.
Kelley, Thea. 2017. Get that Job, Guide to a Winning Interview!, Plovercrest Press, Albany, CA. LinkedIn. Join LinkedIn, http://www.linkedin.com/start/join, viewed 24 May 2018. Live Career. Resume Builder, www.livecareer.com, viewed 22 May 2018. JobSeeker. 2018. Get a job with the help of these useful job tips, https://www.jobseeker.org.au/resources-job-seekers, viewed 2 June 2018. Meister, Jeanne. 2014. The Future of Work: Why Social HR Matters, https://www.forbes.com/sites/jeannemeister/2014/ 01/06/the-future-of-work-why-social-hr-matters/ #3f3034c5d06a, viewed 23 May 2018. Mostyn, Steven. 2018. Job Search: Fundamentals of Effective Job Hunting, Resumes, and Interviews Kindle Edition, Mostyn Books, New Jersey, NJ. Northern NSW Australia. Job Seeking Sites, http://www.nnsw. com.au/regional/jobsearch.html, viewed 22 May 2018. Robbins, A.J. 2015. Resume Writing 2016: The Ultimate, Most Up-to-date Guide to Writing a Resume that Lands YOU the Job!, Leopard Publishing, Milan, MI. Seek. Job Search, https://www.seek.com.au/, viewed 22 May 2018. Victorian Government. The Equal Opportunity Act 2010 (Vic) (EO Act 2010), https://www.humanrightscommission. vic.gov.au/the-law/equal-opportunity-act, viewed 24 May 2018.
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PART
2
COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES IN THE WORKPLACE
CHAPTER 5
ORGANISE WORKPLACE INFORMATION
CHAPTER 6
MANAGE WORK PRIORITIES AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 7
DELIVER PRESENTATIONS AND SPEECHES
CHAPTER 8
DEVELOP NEGOTIATION AND CONFLICT MANAGEMENT SKILLS
CHAPTER 9
IMPLEMENT AND MONITOR A SAFE WORKPLACE IMPLEMENT AND MONITOR ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE WORK PRACTICES
MINDTAP
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Spotlight on: Workplace communication Compare where you are now with where you would like to end up in your career to help you identify your career goals and allow you to explore professional development and learning that will help you fill any skills gaps. As well as industry-specific skills, transferable skills such as becoming more organised, managing priorities, communicating and achieving productive workplace performance and positive workplace relationships are valued across organisations and professions. Communicating effectively up and down the organisation through face-to-face communication, voicemails, emails, text messages, in meetings, presentations and shared online and digital workspaces increases job satisfaction and productivity. Strengthening negotiation and conflict management skills helps you to build common ground as you problem solve, find successful alternatives, and build and maintain relationships. Some of the most important transferable skills recruiters and employers look for when hiring are adaptability, flexibility, dependability, ability to work well under pressure, positive attitude, confidence and the ability to work well in a team. Being able to implement and monitor a safe workplace is essential in any workplace. Communication skills and the skills to organise and prioritise work are highly regarded. Professional development activities such as face-to-face or online training courses, observation, mentoring and shadowing in the workplace, Webinars, podcasts, blogs, conferences and workshops, and networking within an online community help to strengthen your skills, talents and experiences and help you to keep up to date with changes in your industry. Turn your career goals into reality.
To succeed, you will soon learn, as I did, the importance of a solid foundation in the basics of education – literacy, both verbal and numerical, and communication skills. Alan Greenspan
What do you think? How do you prioritise competing demands to achieve personal, team and organisational goals and objectives? Can you think of a situation where you used feedback from clients and colleagues to identify and develop ways to maintain and build on your current competence? How do you feel about the use of persuasive communication techniques to secure audience interest during a presentation? Are negotiation and conflict management skills well regarded in today’s workplace? Which of the professional development activities do you prefer? 117 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
ORGANISE WORKPLACE INFORMATION
CHAPTER
5
Next MANAGE WORK PRIORITIES + PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
5.5
REVIEWING INFORMATION for accuracy and relevance
Your Learning Journey
What is the relevant legislation? (e.g. Privacy Act) 5.1
audits external implementing improvements
Chapter 5
CH6
How to apply it to ORGANISING WORKPLACE INFORMATION
Using reliable data collection methods
5.3 ORGANISING + STORING (and deleting) INFORMATION
listening interpreting understanding responding giving/receiving feedback
5.4 What INTERPERSONAL SKILLS are required to ACCESS and SHARE INFORMATION in the workplace?
!
Different formats for different purposes and storage areas
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5.2
CHAPTER 5 / Organise workplace information
LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 5.1 identify and apply relevant legislation when organising workplace information 5.2 use reliable methods to collect data and create information relevant to purpose and user needs 5.3 discuss the importance of correct organisation, storage and disposal of information 5.4 use interpersonal skills to access and share information with colleagues and others 5.5 explain how review of information assists an organisation.
5.1 APPLY RELEVANT LEGISLATION The collection and use of good-quality information is more than just finding information. It is a fourstage process: 1. collecting, creating and receiving 2. organising and storing 3. using and sharing 4. reviewing and disposing of information. Throughout this process it is essential to maintain the privacy and security of information. Information is a key business asset that informs an organisation’s code of conduct, organisational policies, guidelines and requirements. Management uses information to meet legal and accountability requirements: for example, workplace health and safety (WHS) regulation, policies, procedures and programs. Good-quality information creates the knowledge from which ideas, patterns and relationships emerge. Its use lies in its ability to inform decisions, to facilitate sound planning and to achieve successful actions in a variety of occupations.
CONFIDENTIALITY AND PRIVACY Laws and regulations created by government bodies mandate how organisations will protect the confidentiality of information. Consequently, organisations must ensure their employees work in accordance with legislation to maintain the confidentiality of a variety of information, including their customers’ personal details.
Personal information The Office of the Australian Information Commissioner (2015) identifies 10 steps to protect other people’s personal information: 1. familiarise yourself with internal privacy policies, processes and procedures 2. know who is responsible for privacy 3. consider privacy during project planning 4. only collect the personal information you need 5. use and disclosure – think about it! 6. overseas disclosure – prepare for it! 7. take care when handling sensitive information 8. access personal information on a need-to-know basis 9. keep personal information secure. 10. familiarise yourself with your data breach response plan. Refer to privacy Fact Sheet 17: Australian Privacy Principles (Office of the Australian Information Commissioner 2014) for information about how to handle personal information collected, stored and
Maintain confidentiality to prevent the disclosure of information to unauthorised individuals or systems.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK used by most Australian and Norfolk Island Government agencies and some private sector organisations. Regulations supported by organisational guidelines about how to collect, use, store and disclose personal information minimise the risk of breaching privacy legislation. Consider whether each piece of personal information collected is necessary for any of the activities of the organisation. Perhaps it is possible to allow individuals to interact anonymously with the organisation. When personal information is collected from individuals there are three things relating to that information that you are obliged to inform those individuals about: 1. why is it collected 2. how it will be used 3. if and to whom it will be disclosed.
Security
Comply with organisational procedures relating to distribution of workplace information, security and confidentiality.
An organisation’s information and records management systems must be kept secure to protect information from unauthorised access, disclosure and modifications. The Privacy Act 1988 (Privacy Act) contains 13 Australian Privacy Principles (APPs) that Australian and Norfolk Island Government agencies, and most private sector organisations (collectively called ‘APP entities’) must follow when they handle personal information. The Privacy Act defines personal information as, ‘… information or an opinion that identifies, or could identify, an individual. Some examples are name, address, telephone number, date of birth, medical records, bank account details, and opinions.’ The risk of identity theft is high when dealing with personal information, especially personal information such as bank account details, passport, tax file numbers, Medicare, licence or other identification details. Organisations must protect the personal details of employees, customers, suppliers and other stakeholders. Organisations must ensure their websites and online services have effective security to ensure the personal information they hold on customers, suppliers and staff is not at risk from hackers. For example, the ride-sharing company Uber informed the Privacy Commissioner in 2017 that Australian customers’ personal information had been stolen in a hack that, ‘ … exposed its customers’ names, email addresses, and mobile phone numbers, as well as the names and licence numbers of thousands of drivers that were stored with a third-party cloud service. More than 2.69 million Australians use the ride-sharing service. ‘ (News.com.au 2017) As well as protecting personal information, organisations must protect their own sensitive business data such as financial and taxation information or information about the release of new services or products. A breach of security could lead to legal issues and a loss of business to competitors. The misuse of information and the loss of records have a significant impact on an organisation’s everyday activities and longer-term sustainability. A breach of security causes the loss of information such as customer profiles or company financial data and the costs of recovering lost or deleted data. Damage to an organisation’s reputation with its customers and within industry can negatively impact on a business and its revenue. Additionally, an organisation may face a long, expensive and public classaction lawsuit by those whose personal and private information was compromised. Essential security requirements for any organisation are: • adequate IT security such as firewalls, cookie removers and anti-virus scanners • storage of hard-copy files in properly secured cabinets • regular monitoring of information-handling practices to assure security. The level of security depends on the sensitivity of the information. Employees should only be able to access personal information on a ‘need to know’ basis. Any personal information no longer needed for operational purposes or kept to meet legislative requirements or regulations should be destroyed. Regulations specify what information must be retained, whether it can be changed and for how long it must be retained. For example, it is a legal requirement for sole traders in Australia to keep records for
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CHAPTER 5 / Organise workplace information at least five years for tax purposes. Regulations often demand that electronic data is secure from unauthorised access and changes. An audit trail must show all changes to data and who made them to verify no unauthorised person has changed data. All personal information should be removed from electronic devices before your organisation sells or destroys them. Protecting confidentiality and security of information is an ethical, business and legal requirement; therefore, organisations have administrative controls – approved written policies, procedures, standards and guidelines – for the collecting, organising and review of information. A breach of these policies and administrative controls could lead to non-compliance with legal regulations and result in the organisation having to pay a heavy fine. Work in accordance with legal and organisational requirements.
POLICY, CODE OF CONDUCT AND ETHICS Information sharing between government agencies must follow the requirements of a formal policy framework. The policy should reflect the values and standards of professional conduct of the organisation. The overall aims of a formal policy are: • structured sharing of collected information • security of sensitive and confidential information • better coordination services • improved community outcomes and benefits to clients. Four broad principles commonly drive the information sharing policies of any government agency: 1. an agency must act within the limits of relevant legislation and policy 2. open and accountable processes and procedures 3. consistency with appropriate minimum privacy standards such as the National Privacy Principles 4. procedures must ensure security of confidential information. An effective code of conduct: • provides a framework to promote ethical day-to-day decisions and conduct • defines the desired behaviour against which individual and organisational performance can be measured • cannot cover every situation in a workplace and so employees are expected to use common sense in those situations. The NSW Health Code of Conduct, for example, defines ‘standards of ethical and professional conduct that are required of everyone working in NSW Health in any capacity, the outcomes we are committed to, and the behaviours which are unacceptable and will not be tolerated … All employees, contractors, volunteers, students, researchers and persons undertaking or delivering training or education in NSW Health must abide by the Code of Conduct and the core values and principles that it promotes’ (Reproduced by permission, NSW Health ª 2019). The NSW Health Code requires staff to maintain the security and confidentiality of information by adhering to the standards shown in Exhibit 5.1. Regardless of whether you work for a government agency or private sector organisation, before you begin collecting, assessing and organising information, identify any rules and regulations you must observe as you gather and share information. Consider how you will: • observe code of conduct, code of ethics and information protocols • comply with legal, ethical, confidentiality and privacy requirements. As well as organisational administrative controls, some industry sectors have standard policies, procedures, standards and guidelines: for example, the need for merchants and service providers to comply with the requirements of the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standards (PCIDSS). The Standards identify the requirements for ensuring payment account data security for any organisation that stores, processes or transmits cardholder data.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK
EXHIBIT 5.1 NSW Health Personal Information and Records Maintain the security of confidential and/or sensitive official information. Staff must:
4.5
4.5.1
Keep confidential all personal information and records, including not discussing or providing information on social media that could identify patients or divulge patient information
4.5.2
Not use or release official information or comment without proper authority
4.5.3
Maintain the security of confidential and/or sensitive information, including that stored on communication devices
4.5.4
Not disclose, use or take advantage of information obtained in the course of official duties, including when they cease to work in NSW Health. Reproduced by permission, NSW Health ª 2019.
CHECKPOINT 5.1
FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE
1. Personal information: a. Briefly explain what an organisation can do to protect other people’s personal information. b. List six examples of personal information that must be kept secure to prevent identity theft. 2. Why do organisations have a code of conduct? 3. What types of rules and regulations must government and private sector organisations consider before they gather and share information?
Privacy goes global: What do European privacy laws have to do with me and my workplace? In 2018, the European Union (EU) introduced the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). This law enshrines data protection and privacy as a legal right for all individuals within the EU and the European Economic Area (EEA). This law restricts how personal data is collected, handled, stored and destroyed. There are also strict conditions about sensitive data relating to religion, sexual orientation, political beliefs and race. Companies must be transparent about how and why all personal data is collected and consent must be explicitly obtained before personal data can be collected. Consent can be revoked at any time and the law contains the right to be ‘forgotten’, which means a company must delete, on request, all information they hold on an individual. These changes move the balance of power over personal data from businesses to consumers. So, what does this have to do with Australia and New Zealand? Key to Australian and New Zealand businesses is that the GDPR protects anyone in Europe and all EU citizens, living in or out of Europe. Therefore, any Australian business, of any size, must comply with the regulation if they offer goods or services to, collect data on, or mention on a website any individuals who live in the EU or are EU citizens, at any time.
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>
CHAPTER 5 / Organise workplace information
>
According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, Australia has more than 1.5 million citizens born in Europe. That is over 1.5 million potential dual European citizens living in Australia who are covered by the GDPR. Source: http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/lookup/3412.0Media%20Release12015-16.
ASK YOURSELF: How might this legislation affect your workplace? Consider basic information collected when you start a job as well as information collected about customers or clients. Do you know if this information is handled in compliance with the GDPR?
5.2 COLLECT INFORMATION Progressive organisations manage information to improve business relationships and operational performance. The result is consistent, quality outcomes, better customer experiences and competitive advantage in the market. The four stages through which a piece of information progresses from the time it is collected until it is no longer needed to support legal, business or operational requirements collectively is known as the information life cycle and is shown in Exhibit 5.2.
EXHIBIT 5.2 Information life cycle
Collect, create and receive
• • • •
define the required data and identify its source determine how the data will be collected receive and interpret the data, transforming it into information follow good practice when collecting personal or confidential information
Organise and store
• determine the format data will be represented in the information system • categorise information so that it is easy and quick for users to locate • store in paper records, email accounts, intranets, shared drives, flash drives, mobile devices, shared filing areas • store information in accordance with organisational access and security guidelines
Use and share
• send and receive information through channels and formats appropriate to the message, its purpose and user need • comply with legal and organisational requirements as you use, maintain and share • protect and restrict access to personal, confidential and classified information
Dispose
• dispose of information no longer required for legal, business or operational purposes • destroy confidential information in office shredders or in secure shredding bins • archive legal and historical information
Gather quality, useable information suitable for analysis, decision making and the development of plans, strategies and options. Use relevant information to achieve organisational goals, improve business relationships and performance. Maintain and protect information across the stages of the information lifecycle – collect and create; organise and store; use and share; and review and dispose.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK
Differentiate between information you need to take action on and unsolicited information on which no action is required – deal with each type of information appropriately.
When collecting workplace information or receiving it from others, decisions must be made about the format in which to represent the information and the type of action to take in response to the message. Decide whether to format, organise and hold the collected information: • as paper records at workstations • in shared filing areas (file room, registry, departmental network or shared drive) • online as email, personal network drives, intranets, portable storage devices or mobile devices. Information must be organised and presented in a format appropriate to its audience and purpose, and in accordance with legal and organisational requirements to ensure access, retrieval, protection and disposal of information. Refer to Chapter 19, Record keeping, for information about creating, organising and storing information in records. Organisations and workplaces collect information (numbers, words or images to represent facts, concepts or instructions) suitable for purpose, interpretation and use by teams and other stakeholders. Relevant and well-organised information provides a number of efficiencies and other benefits, including: • quick access to the right information • less staff time spent looking for information • reduced costs due to faster access to and retrieval of information • more information sharing across an organisation • better-informed decision making and better customer service. The purpose of collecting and organising information is to gain knowledge for use in all workplace decisions, ranging from management decisions about strategy, policy and procedures to operational decisions such as how tasks are completed. Information can be collected from external or internal sources, as shown in Exhibit 5.3.
EXHIBIT 5.3 Sources of information
Consider the impact of the environment on your research.
Internal sources
External sources
• Observation, listening and consulting • Interviews with colleagues and customers • Checking written material, including referrals and client files • Accessing previous file records
• Online and print publications from legislative and regulatory bodies • Government agencies • Industry and trade organisations and professional associations • Proprietary database companies
A methodical approach to the collection, organising and sharing of information supports effective problem solving, decision making and risk mitigation through enhanced ability to provide accurate and timely responses to legislative, regulatory and business requirements.
ACCESS INFORMATION In the work setting you gather, organise and apply information in the context of your organisation’s code of conduct, policies and processes. Access product, service and other information such as production plans, marketing plans, business, strategic and team plans, or workplace health and safety (WHS) statistics, incidents and safety management plans in accordance with legal and organisational requirements.
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CHAPTER 5 / Organise workplace information Begin your search for information by asking and answering five questions: 1. When is the information needed? 2. What sort of information is needed, and how much? 3. Can I access resources that allow me to network, develop surveys or questionnaires, convene focus groups and consult? 4. Does the technology allow access to databases, the company intranet, internet and cloud information sources? 5. What is the most useful way to collate and format the information (written list, spreadsheet, database, Word document)?
User needs Collection of useful information requires identifying user needs, gathering information to meet those needs and presenting it in an appropriate format. Consider how the format will facilitate the user to: • skim quickly for particular details • find the facts of who, what, when, where, why and how • read critically to analyse, evaluate and draw conclusions • make decisions and take action based on the information. Effective collection and organisation of information enables others to translate information into knowledge. The knowledge facilitates team and individual actions, experience and learning while working on projects and everyday tasks.
COLLECTION METHODS Workplace information is gathered from primary and secondary sources. Primary sources of information are people or organisations that present original thinking, share new information and report on discoveries. Secondary sources of information are people, groups or organisations that describe, interpret, analyse and evaluate the events, activities and evidence supplied by primary sources. Information collected from either primary or secondary sources is used in decision making. Refer to Chapter 12, Analyse and present research information, for further discussion of primary and secondary sources of information. Choose the method most appropriate to your purpose and the needs of the users. The variety of methods you can use to collect information are shown in Exhibit 5.4. Group discussions and brainstorming in focus groups, quality circles, communities of practice and stakeholder meetings are effective ways to gather and share information as well as generate new ideas. Group discussion lets you consider the reasons, attitudes and behaviours of the group. In focus groups or brainstorming sessions, tools such as a cause and effect diagram (refer to Chapter 13, Communicate using graphics and visual aids) can assist in recording what information will be gathered, how and when. Conferences are a useful way to present and collect information from interest groups. Selfcompletion questionnaires distributed to delegates can be used to gather feedback; however, the response rate may be low. Public meetings are an indicator of local feelings about issues and provide information and local knowledge. The information gathered in group discussions, conferences and public meetings is qualitative rather than quantitative. Qualitative data is information that describes things in terms of categorisations or qualities. Qualitative data seeks a wide understanding of an entire situation. However, because it is influenced by people’s perceptions, qualitative data can be subjective.
Encourage group discussion to enable people to express their view, consider the viewpoint of others and generate new ideas.
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EXHIBIT 5.4 Methods to collect information Gather original information
Access written material
• Client files, referrals and recruitment applications • Written reports, files and correspondence
Collect from external sources
• Competitors • Technical advisory services • Professional associations
Access others’ research
• Client databases • Subscription databases • Catalogues on the Web and in libraries
Access internal information
Research social media
Avoid leaving personal or confidential information on a printer, unattended in a workstation, in a room after a meeting or discarding it into an unlocked recycling bin.
• Face-to-face interviews • Indirectly through surveys and questionnaires
• Cloud computing services • Planning, scheduling and project management software • Intranet and shared work spaces
• Blogs, Facebook, Twitter • Infographics online
Quantitative data is information that can be counted or expressed numerically. Quantitative information gathered from surveys and questionnaires has the advantage of being statistically sound, representative of the population as a whole and comparable with other surveys and previous findings. Written and online surveys and questionnaires enable large amounts of information to be collected from a large number of people in a short period of time. The standardised questions enhance consistency and can be quantified quickly and easily through the use of software packages. They allow immediate feedback, for example, at the end of a training session and are relatively cost effective. Disadvantages include no opportunity to explain questions to respondents who may have difficulty understanding the question, and results that may lack validity because there is no way to tell the truthfulness of the responses. Questionnaires are inappropriate for respondents with reading difficulties. Another disadvantage is that there is no opportunity for the respondent to contribute information outside of the scope of the questions.
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1. Information collection and confidentiality: a. Identify the reasons for only collecting relevant client information. b. What administrative controls must an organisation have in place to protect confidentiality and security of information throughout its collection, use, sharing, storage and disposal? 2. What is privacy? a. View the Fair Work page at What is Workplace Privacy, https://www.fairwork.gov.au/how-wewill-help/templates-and-guides/best-practice-guides/workplace-privacy#legal b. Reflect on how well your organisation protects personal information by completing the Checklist for best practice on workplace privacy at the end of the What is Workplace Privacy page. 3. Reflect on what is included in a best practice internet and email usage policy by referring to the Fair Work website. 4. Identify three ways in which information may be formatted and stored. 5. List six methods for collecting information and provide an example of each. 6. Surveys and questionnaires: a. What are the advantages of using surveys and questionnaires to collect information? b. What are the disadvantages of using surveys and questionnaires?
CHECKPOINT 5.2
5.3 ORGANISE INFORMATION When you have collected the information, your next challenge is to organise it in a format suitable for analysis, interpretation and dissemination to the intended audience. As you collate the information consider the factors in Exhibit 5.5.
EXHIBIT 5.5 Factors to consider Who will use the information?
What is their purpose in using it?
How will it be circulated?
CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION Will the information be communicated in meetings, in an electronic presentation on laptops or personal digital assistants, on a wiki, in a database or spreadsheet, through social media or through a records management system that users can access on demand? Different channels will convey information for different purposes. Information collected, organised and distributed to managers, supervisors, WHS committees, teams and colleagues is analysed as they make decisions and plan strategies and tasks. Clients and suppliers access information about location, contact details, services and products and prices. Professional associations, external agencies and statutory bodies such as the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC) access information and make decisions about an organisation’s reputation, type of activities and workplace practices. Ensure you use the appropriate channel and maintain, update and store information using the appropriate technology and systems to meet your organisation’s requirements and legal requirements.
Communicate the information to the user through the appropriate channel. Consider the management and accountability channels through which you will forward the information.
REASONS FOR ORGANISING INFORMATION Each organisation has a framework for the collection, creation, maintenance and storage of information. An effective framework enables information to be used for the reasons shown in Exhibit 5.6.
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Organise information appropriate to purpose and needs of the user.
Focus on information to do your job, to take action on, to guide decisions or to retain and reuse to ensure efficient use of time and resources.
EXHIBIT 5.6 Information use Analysis
Decision making
Strategies and plans
One of the major problems in information collection is the assumption that the same set of information can be used for a wide variety of purposes. To be useful, information collected must be up to date, relevant to the individual workplace and able to be manipulated into a format suitable to the user’s needs. Common ways to organise and categorise information include by: • Function or Business Activity, for example, Supplier Management, WHS Policies and Procedures • Subject or Type, for example, Project New Recruits, Customer Complaints • Date, for example, Quarter, Fiscal or Calendar Year • Workgroup or Organisational Unit, for example, Human Resources or Payroll.
Information system An information system has many purposes. Typical purposes of a government department’s information system are shown in Exhibit 5.7.
EXHIBIT 5.7 Purpose of organised information in a government department Type
Purpose
Developmental information
• policy and planning • continuity in service delivery • avoidance of ad hoc decisions and a piecemeal approach.
Accountability requirements
• evidence of meeting accountability requirements • provision of information on program processes, impacts and outcomes to all of the relevant stakeholders • substantiation of activities, funding claims or submissions.
Historical information
• prevention of loss of knowledge of past developments • records of past entitlements, e.g. employee leave.
Corporate governance information
• policy and program management • forward planning • compliance with legislation.
Customer information
• identification of expected service levels • evaluation of capacity to meet customer service commitments • consultation and input from customers, other departments, community representatives and other stakeholders.
Community information
• community planning • community consultation • advice and expertise.
Access control organisational standards establish guidelines to facilitate consistent titles for files or folders across all formats (paper files, electronic, digital or multimedia). Consistency enables colleagues to access information in multiple storage areas and easily transfer information from personal to shared storage areas. Think about access control and how to restrict access to a specific user or group of users. For example, invoices are received electronically as email and consistently uploaded into the accounting 128 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
CHAPTER 5 / Organise workplace information system by clicking on the relevant icon. Those that still come by post are scanned and then uploaded into the system. Access to the invoices may be restricted to specific users such as Accounts Clerical, who are responsible for receipts and expenses. Others who may require costs and expenditure information for quotes may be given limited access. Common types of permissions for restricted files are: • read permissions • modify permissions • change owner • delete permissions. Only authorised people are able to access information in controlled folders. Follow established procedures for shared filing areas such as file cabinets in common areas, file room or registry. These include sign in/sign out of files, locking file cabinets in common areas and returning keys to the person responsible for their management.
Organise information in your paper files, email account, personal network drive and shared network drive in accordance with rules established by your organisation, department or division.
INFORMATION RETRIEVAL Skilful use of digital and other technologies enhances the efficiency and effectiveness of an organisation’s information management and record management systems. Information conveyed via email, social media, databases, websites, mobile devices, business systems or other digital channels must be managed and maintained to ensure the information remains accessible and useable over time and through periods of organisational and technological change. Effective record keeping and filing systems, security procedures and safe recording practices maintain information in accordance with the organisation’s requirements and enhance efficient retrieval of information. Refer to Chapter 19, Record keeping, for ways of retrieving information from records. Information retrieval needs to be easy and quick. Users may require the information to be summarised and presented in a particular format for a particular reason. Consider the example of a user requiring the top five customers by dollar value for a marketing exercise. The user is drawing information from a database that contains many categories including customer address, customer phone number, contact name, sale information by invoice number, total monthly sales by customer and delivery address details. The database has 26 000 customers and the user is required to drill down using the category of total monthly sales from largest to smallest. This information is then provided to the marketing department. Rather than having to refer to multiple information categories, a ¤pivot table enables the user to retrieve this data quickly and easily. A pivot table is a tool that enables a large amount of data to be summarised by category in accordance with user requirements. Effective information collection and retrieval fits within the organisation’s time frames. For example, when planning a public relations event or gathering information for a tender, being able to retrieve the information before the date of the event or the tender submission is of major importance. When organising and storing information, the following questions need to be answered: Who needs what and when? Does the information need to be detailed and complete, or can the data be provided progressively? Is the information held in a live document that is updated and reissued as required? When accessing email or online sources, reliable, trustworthy sources of information are important to avoid phishing. Phishing is the fraudulent practice of sending emails claiming to be from reputable companies to persuade individuals to reveal personal information, such as passwords, credit card numbers and other financial details online.
Use appropriate technology and systems to facilitate the collection, storage and retrieval of information. Work in accordance with the organisation’s policies and procedures relating to distribution of workplace information, and legal and ethical obligations. Use a pivot table to select information by category from a large amount of information.
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ASSESS INFORMATION AGAINST STANDARDS Remove superfluous information that is of little or no relevance and limited value.
Whenever you assess information, check its relevance and value to your particular area(s) of expertise or responsibility. Finding a pathway through the sheer volume of information available in the workplace – for example, policies, operating procedures, manufacturers’ instructions, WHS warnings, graphics, figures, computer software and paper-based information – can be overwhelming. It is essential to select useful information. Assess the quality of the information you are collecting against the standards in Exhibit 5.8.
EXHIBIT 5.8 Assess information against standards Standard
Description
Accuracy – factual and reliable
The information: • is gathered from reliable primary and secondary sources • is specific to the purpose for which it is needed • has the degree of accuracy required for its intended purposes • conforms to specifications and requirements • presents as much information as necessary for users’ purpose • is stored in a system with appropriate data protection and testing to ensure users can rely on the outputs of the system.
Timely – up-to-date and relates to current activities
The information: • adds value to current decisions, operations and tasks • is free of out-of-date information and old files • is available for users to make decisions and take action to meet deadlines (information past a decision-date is useless).
Relevant and concise – meets the needs of the users
The information: • is of value to, and used for, decision making • reduces uncertainties when planning procedures and tasks • meets users’ need for current information • is brief to avoid information overload • is supported with notes, graphics and source references.
Understandable – able to be comprehended by the user
The information: • is in a format the user can access and understand • is meaningful to an array of users • is informative and unambiguous • defines acronyms, technical jargon and words unfamiliar to the user.
Completeness – answers the questions who, what, where, when, why and how
The information: • gives a better representation of reality than incomplete information • has greater value because it has fewer unknowns • includes the categories in its scope of coverage • is sufficiently comprehensive to meet users’ needs • contains facts for sound plans and successful decisions.
Ethical – objective, without bias
The information: • can be trusted as objective and unbiased • has no ‘hidden agenda’ or attempt to influence a decision one way or another • avoids jumping to conclusions and proposing solutions before gathering and analysing sufficient objective evidence.
Comparable and consistent – has similar quantities or qualities
The information: • has a consistent format to facilitate analysis and evaluation • should allow comparison to similar records • enables the user to compare and contrast information, patterns and trends • can be validated and cross-checked for consistency.
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INFORMATION DISPOSAL The effective disposal of out-of-date information is essential for the efficient operation of any organisation. Redundant information is unneeded information. Holding onto it results in unnecessary and costly use of space, equipment and staff. Personal and sensitive information should be: • shredded, pulped or destroyed • disposed of in security bins • deleted permanently from computers and electronic devices. Information that must be held by law or other requirements is transferred to archives. Archives allow an organisation to conserve information and make it available to relevant stakeholders as appropriate. 1. 2. 3. 4.
Explain why organisations must have an effective framework for handling information. For what reasons do government departments collect and organise community information. Identify three standards commonly used to assess the quality of information. Identify problems caused by redundant information.
CHECKPOINT 5.3
5.4 USE AND SHARE INFORMATION The purpose of using and sharing information such as customer satisfaction levels, the organisation’s financial performance or the workgroup’s operational performance is to inform decision making, recognise stakeholders’ efforts and facilitate cost, time and quality improvement. Product research and development information builds expertise and knowledge about what is happening in the market. Information sharing enables managers and their teams to fulfil their responsibilities more efficiently.
INTERPERSONAL SKILLS Sharing information involves receiving, storing, retrieving, giving, and interpreting information. The exchange of information involves speaking, listening, questioning, writing and using graphic or visual methods. Open communication, asking for feedback and summarising facilitate interaction and the exchange of information. Refer to Chapter 8, Develop negotiation and conflict management skills, for a range of skills that promote open communication. Accessing and sharing information require collaboration, receiving, responding to and making requests, and this requires good interpersonal skills such as using emotional intelligence for effective listening, collaboration, conflict management and negotiation. Refer to Chapter 8, Develop negotiation and conflict management skills, for a range of skills that promote open communication.
RESPOND TO REQUESTS FOR INFORMATION Decide how and with whom to share the information. Information can be shared in a variety of ways, including: • meetings, team briefings and face-to-face interactions • email, reports, forms and paper-based files • electronic presentations on a laptop or personal digital assistant • virtual and Web-based meetings • wikis to promote feedback and collaboration • blogs and podcasts to enable information to be accessed at any geographic location
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departmental shared network drives for storing, sharing and maintaining files that need to be accessed by multiple users record management systems that categorise and index the information for easy access by the user.
Good practice Good practice when responding to requests for information means: • recording who requested the information, what information was requested, the date and time of the request, when and how the information was delivered and when it is to be returned • understanding fully the type of information that is required and knowing where to access up-to-date and relevant information • recognising the urgency of the request and responding within a suitable timeframe • prioritising requests with the most urgent request being answered first • knowing levels of security and who is able to gain access to the requested information • ensuring access is restricted to the people who have the authority to access confidential information. Requested information may be delivered personally, electronically or posted; however, keep track of the information. For example, when paper files are removed from a centralised area keep a record of when the file was removed, who borrowed it and when it is to be returned.
COLLABORATE AND CONSULT Collaborate, cooperate and involve people to produce a mutually satisfactory solution. Consult, seek and provide advice, information and opinion ‘in good faith’ – that is, with a view to reaching agreement.
Collaboration is an effective method of transferring information and ‘know-how’ among individuals, and is therefore critical to collecting and sharing information. People listen and respond to one another’s ideas, and respect and use each other’s competencies and expertise. Actions that promote collaboration include clear definition of the purpose and intended use of the collected information and recognition of the value of each person’s expertise, know-how and contribution. Consultation is a process that shares ideas and provides feedback, develops shared understanding and builds a culture of confidence and trust. Some useful consultative mechanisms are: • workshops, forums, public meetings • regular meetings of representative committees or teams • suggestion boxes, surveys and questionnaires • team briefings, toolbox meetings and brainstorming sessions. Consultation with work teams and other stakeholders should take into account their perception of the information they need to assist them to complete tasks and responsibilities. The benefit is collecting and having the right knowledge in the right place at the right time. Quality, accessible information and knowledge about customers shared, for example, with the sales team can save time that can be put to better use. Enabling the sales team to access customer information from enquiries, order forms, warranty cards, customer rewards programs, customer satisfaction surveys, complaints, feedback cards, website and interactions via social media saves time. Rather than individually chasing and filing information about customer preferences, the sales team can develop a sales proposal based on analysis and evaluation of the stored customer information. Alternatively, the sales team may decide to build stronger relationships with customers, suppliers or other stakeholders through the use of forums, trade shows and other face-to-face activities.
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1. Sharing information: a. What are the benefits for any organisation of sharing information? b. Discuss three good-practice strategies to use when responding to requests for information. 2. List four consultative mechanisms an organisation may use to share information. 3. Identify three interpersonal skills you can use as you collect and share information.
CHECKPOINT 5.4
5.5 REVIEW INFORMATION NEEDS During the review, ask questions and seek feedback on: • clarity, accuracy and sufficiency of information • relevance of information, its format and ease of access • contribution and usefulness of information for decision making • need for changes to collection, storage, back-up and sharing processes • future information needs, including incorporating modifications to collection processes • storage needs (off-site as well as on-site) for risk management purposes.
Review information to ensure it is provided in a timely manner and in an appropriate format to share, maintain and store securely.
SEEK FEEDBACK Seeking feedback about the usefulness of the collected information is about improving the collection process. There is no point in collecting, creating, organising and storing information unless the information is useful to its purpose and audience. Responses to the questions asked in a review may lead to findings and recommendations about how to better maintain information, the need to collect more of the same type, the need to modify the type of information or how to dispose of out-of-date information.
Seek timely, appropriate and constructive feedback to improve collection, organisation and dissemination of information.
External audits Reports from external auditors will provide useful recommendations about the presentation and analysis of information and compliance with the requirements of statutory bodies. An external audit identifies any weaknesses and provides credibility because of the unbiased, expert recommendations. The review process enables modifications to activities such as coordination of information, distribution of collated information and maintenance of records. Recommendations about short-term actions and opportunities for improvements to how information is collected, filed and archived prevents non-conformance in the future. Effective management of information across the four stages of the information life cycle (Exhibit 5.2) facilitates efficient performance and operations and enables an organisation to plan for future needs. The organisation is able to have the right people, resources and processes in place at the right time. Review of information needs assists an organisation to take corrective actions to eliminate or minimise procedural errors and any non-compliance with legal requirements. Controls are applied to minimise risk caused by ineffective collection, organisation, storage, sharing and disposal of information. 1. Why do organisations review their information needs? 2. What sort of recommendations should external auditors provide about information collection, organisation, sharing and disposal? 3. What are the benefits for an organisation of effective management of information across the four stages of the information life cycle?
CHECKPOINT 5.5
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LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 5.1 Identify and apply relevant legislation when organising workplace information. Information is a valuable business asset. The confidentiality, privacy and security of information must be protected as it is collected, organised and stored, shared, used and disposed of when no longer needed. In Australia, the Privacy Act 1988 (Privacy Act) regulates how personal information is handled. 5.2 Use reliable methods to collect data and create information relevant to purpose and user needs. Collect information from internal and external sources: original research, written materials, client files and databases, interviews, technical services, professional associations and others. Collect reliable, clear, accurate, current and relevant information suited to the needs of the user and the purpose for which the information will be used. 5.3 Discuss the importance of correct organisation, storage and deletion/disposal of information. Organise information to suit the needs of the user, their purpose in using it and how it will be circulated and shared. Different formats are appropriate for different purposes and storage areas: for example, paper records used at work stations, records in shared filing rooms, shared
drives, departmental networks or on company intranets or digital workplaces. Choose a format appropriate to the needs of the user. Permanently delete information from computers and electronic devices and shred, pulp and dispose paper-based information into security bins. 5.4 Use interpersonal skills to access and share information with colleagues and others. Workplace information is used and shared in conversations, meetings, traditional paper correspondence, email, departmental shared network drives, though podcasts and mobile devices. Up-to-date, accurate and complete workplace information is a key business asset. As you collect and share information, use listening skills to gather accurate information. Give and receive feedback to help understanding and encourage the other person to continue. 5.5 Explain how review of information assists an organisation. Review information for accuracy and relevance. External audits will verify compliance with regulations. Recommendations about improvements to the way in which information is channelled across the four stages of the information life cycle should be implemented to improve compliance, productivity and customer service.
KEY TERMS audit brainstorming collaboration
confidentiality consultation hack
information life cycle ¤ pivot table qualitative
quantitative
LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Information needs Reflect on the information you collect in your job or as a student by answering these questions. • What type of information is it? • Who uses it and for what purpose? • How often is it required? (daily, weekly, monthly) • How do you collect it? • What standards do you use to assess its usefulness? • How do you share the information? (the medium or channel) • How is the information stored?
2. Collect useful information Choose the industry you work in or one that you would like to work in. a. Browse the Web to view workplace health and safety (WHS) information about that industry and choose six types of information relevant to your industry of choice. b. Prepare a four-column table. In column one identify each type of information, in column two identify who needs this information, in column three identify what they need to know and in column four explain how you would communicate the information and in what format.
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3. Information sources a. What five questions should you ask and answer before beginning a search for information? b. Where would you look to find information about the company’s project schedules and timelines? c. Where would you look to find information about the company’s payroll details? d. When would you use a focus group to gather information?
e. When would you use written online surveys and questions to collect information? 4. Advantages of using technology Write a note to members of your work team detailing the advantages of using technology to collect, create, organise and store information. The note will be posted on your work team’s online shared workgroup space.
GROUP ACTIVITY Scenario: Ahmed’s project Ahmed works in the office of an insurance company. He has been asked to help the Client Services Manager collect customer feedback and information about competitors’ products and services over the next month. In small groups, complete the following tasks: 1. Discuss the sorts of internal information Ahmed might access to collect information about the company’s customers. 2. Brainstorm the type of information Ahmed might collect about competitors’ products and services from external sources such as social media, the internet, promotional material, industry journals and magazines.
3. Prepare in a three-column table a brief plan of how Ahmed could access the information. In column one identify the type of information, in column two list the actions to collect that information and in column three indicate by when the action should be completed. 4. Explain the type of communication skills Ahmed will need to use as he collects and creates the information. 5. Write a short information report detailing your findings. The report may be presented in the form of a written report or a ‘tag team’ co-presentation (refer to Chapter 7 for co-presentations).
CASE STUDY INFORMATION AND PRIVACY ISSUES Michael, a newly appointed Administrative Officer in the local Area Health Service, had a briefing with his team leader, Janne. The briefing is about the assurance of privacy when handling personal information. Janne commenced the meeting by stating that the foundation of handling personal information ethically is the Privacy Act No. 119 of 1988, updated March 2014. She highlighted that the Privacy Act requires the Area Health Service to protect people’s personal information. Janne defined personal information as any information that identifies a person, such as name or address, medical records, bank account details, photos, videos, and even information about what a person likes, their opinions and where they work. Janne said that privacy must be protected as Area Health Service staff create, access, store and dispose of information of a personal nature. These principles apply to
all personal information held by the Area Health Service, including files and records, emails, blogs, shared work spaces on the intranet and any other documentation. Janne continued by indicating that ethical practice when handling information requires Area Health Service staff to: • validate accuracy of information and disseminate information through appropriate channels • maintain confidentiality and security of information • comply with laws, regulations, policies and ethical standards governing collection, organisation and storage of information. Michael realised that what Janne was saying was true, but that he and many of his work colleagues looked at collecting and organising information as a routine task that required little thought. Janne pointed out that managing information ethically means building expertise
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>
in people and processes. It also means making sure that all employees have the opportunity to access useful and relevant information quickly. Having said all this, Janne told Michael she wanted him to produce a briefing note to staff about the characteristics of information that adds value to the Area Health Service and the reasons for ensuring the privacy of personal information.
Question Assume you are Michael and, drawing upon the information and ideas presented in this chapter, prepare the briefing note. Visit the site http://www.privacy.gov.au/ topics/health to gather additional information for Michael’s briefing paper.
BIBLIOGRAPHY ASIC 2018. For Business, http://www.asic.gov.au/for-business/, viewed 20 February 2018. Australian Government Office of the Australian Information Commissioner. 2018. Privacy business resource 9: Ten tips to protect your customers’ personal information, https:// www.oaic.gov.au/agencies-and-organisations/businessresources/privacy-business-resource-9, viewed 1 September 2018. Australian Government Privacy Act 1988, Federal Register of Legislation, https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/ C2018C00034, viewed 4 September 2018. Commonwealth Government of Australia. Privacy Act 1988, https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2014C00076, viewed 21 February 2018. Fair Work Ombudsman, 2018. Checklist for best practice on workplace privacy, https://www.fairwork.gov.au/how-wewill-help/templates-and-guides/best-practice-guides/ workplace-privacy#legal, viewed 22 February 2018. Fair Work Ombudsman. 2018. What is Workplace Privacy, https://www.fairwork.gov.au/how-we-will-help/templatesand-guides/best-practice-guides/workplace-privacy#legal, viewed 3 September 2018. News.com.au. 2017. ‘Uber hack: More than 1 in 10 Australians may be victims of Uber’s ‘‘astonishing’’ data
breach’, online hacking, https://www.news.com.au/ technology/online/hacking/uber-hack-more-than-1-in-10australians-may-be-victims-of-ubers-astonishing-databreach/news-story/d7f11d4a676801f528ce4ec42d86f73e, viewed 3 September 2018. NSW Health. 2018. ‘Code of Conduct’, Policy Directive. http://sydney.edu.au/medicine/drh/docs/ code_of_conduct.pdf, viewed 20 February 2018. Office of the Australian Information Commissioner. 2014. Privacy Fact Sheet 17: Australian Privacy Principles, http://www.oaic.gov.au/privacy/privacy-resources/privacyfact-sheets/other/privacy-fact-sheet-17-australian-privacyprinciples, viewed 20 February 2018. Office of the Australian Information Commissioner. 2015. Privacy Fact Sheet 7: Ten Steps to Protect Other People’s Personal Information, http://www.oaic.gov.au/privacy/ privacy-resources/privacy-fact-sheets/other/privacy-factsheet-7-ten-steps-to-protect-other-people-s-personalinformation, viewed 20 February 2018. Standard Business Reporting. About SBR, http://www. sbr.gov.au/about-sbr, viewed 11 February 2018. training.gov.au, BSBINM301: Organise Workplace Information, https://training.gov.au/Training/Details/ BSBINM301, viewed 28 February 2018.
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MANAGE WORK PRIORITIES AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER
6
YOUR LEARNING JOURNEY
Chapter 6
DEVELOP workgroup goals + objectives + plans
SET GOALS
with measurable outcomes
Importance of PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
To D
A
Achievable
R
Relevant
T
Time-referenced
PRIORITISE ACTIVITIES
ce
Urgent
Primary
improve access to promotion 6.3 for opportunities in future
Establish Priorities Schedule Tasks
Next DELIVER PRESENTATIONS + SPEECHES
Eliminate Anchors
6.2
an
6.4
+ IM PR O
e rf o r m Ep
ANALYSE your competence against STANDARDS + BENCHMARKS
V
Importance of MAINTAINING RECORDS
Measurable
EV OP
continuous learning
M
EL
career enhancement
Specific
6.1
opportunities for improvement 6.5
S
Secondary
+ COMPLETE WORK SCHEDULE
MANAGE TIME to achieve
WORK + PERSONAL OBJECTIVES
CH7
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 6.1 develop workgroup goals, objectives and plans with measurable outcomes 6.2 prioritise activities, set goals and complete your own work schedule 6.3 describe the role of time management in the achievement of work objectives 6.4 analyse your competence against standards and benchmarks to determine development needs and priorities and decide how to adjust your own work performance in response to feedback 6.5 explain why it is important to undertake professional development and maintain records and documents relating to achievements.
6.1 WORKGROUP GOALS AND PLANS Manage time effectively to demonstrate your ability to selfmanage responsibilities.
Workgroup plans are developed for routine daily, weekly or monthly activities. They are developed by managers, supervisors, team leaders and project managers to outline the specific actions required for task achievement by a group of workers over a specified time period. A workgroup plan identifies timeframes and targets as well as human, physical and financial resources. Effective workgroup plans enable managers, supervisors, team leaders, project managers and workgroup members to monitor and track performance. Before you set workgroup goals, understand your organisation’s planning levels and the requirements of operational units or teams. Organisational planning happens at three different levels, shown in Exhibit 6.1. A realisation that organisational planning occurs at three levels enables a workgroup to set goals and objectives that contribute to the organisation’s overall long-term planning and to the business unit’s medium-term planning.
EXHIBIT 6.1 Levels of organisational planning Level
Purpose
Corporate or strategic planning
For the whole organisation – values, mission and vision – for the longer term
Business unit or department planning
For achieving the organisation’s strategies at the department or section level for the medium term Goals are aligned to the goals of the overall strategic plan Operational plans specify clearly the financial, human and physical resources that are required to meet departmental targets
Workgroup planning
For the different work groups, teams or areas of operations for the short-term Plans contain specific objectives, acknowledge realistic workloads, prioritise activities to ensure completion within identified timeframes, allow time for contingencies
Effective workgroup operational plans and goals reflect the objectives stated in the organisation’s strategic and business plans. When an organisation communicates these clearly, its people understand what they need to do to achieve the objectives. They can take action to achieve the goals and at the same time follow their organisation’s procedures, processes and requirements.
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CHAPTER 6 / Manage work priorities and professional development
ORGANISATION AND WORKGROUP GOALS Goals are statements of what an organisation wants to achieve. Examples of organisation-wide goals are to: • improve service levels • improve profitability • increase efficiency • improve the induction process • capture a larger market share • become an eco-friendly organisation. The organisation-wide nature of these goals means they are not specific enough for a workgroup to include in a workgroup plan. The goals need to be broken down into clear and measurable objectives called targets. These are the measurable outcomes that a goal sets out to achieve. For example, a pharmaceutical company might set one of the goals above: ‘To improve the induction process’. The objectives or targets of this goal might include: • to review current induction policy and procedures • to issue an induction handbook to each new employee • to standardise induction processes and checklists • to conduct a new starter survey to gather immediate feedback • to develop an induction training plan for the new starter to improve their understanding and the understanding of others involved in the training.
ORGANISATIONAL REQUIREMENTS Every organisation has plans and requirements that determine its current and future direction. Senior management, middle management and frontline managers of an organisation, in consultation with staff, determine its requirements. Industry standards and legislative requirements are externally imposed and must be complied with. Managers, supervisors, team leaders and project managers, in setting goals and determining objectives for their workgroups, must work in accordance with organisational and legal requirements. These requirements must be understood and communicated to workgroup members in plans, meetings and oneon-one discussions. Organisational and legal requirements are accessed from the following documents: • goals, objectives and plans • legal and organisational policies, guidelines and requirements • business and performance plans • defined resource parameters and procedures manuals • continuous improvement and sustainability processes and standards • quality assurance systems and processes • confidentiality and security requirements • access and equity principles and ethical standards • workplace health and safety legislation, policies, procedures and programs.
Work in accordance with organisational, industry and legislative requirements.
PREPARE AND COMMUNICATE WORKGROUP PLANS Workgroup plans which identify clearly the activities that will address the workgroup’s key performance areas are likely to achieve intended outcomes. Work schedules, sales plans, reporting plans, production plans and budgetary plans are examples of different types of workgroup plans. These plans contain workgroup objectives and organisational requirements that relate to sales targets, reporting deadlines,
Identify clearly the key performance areas – spheres of workgroup activity – that produce results.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK production targets, team and individual learning goals, budgetary targets, team participation and communication. Effective workgroup plans outline ‘how, when, where, why, what and who’.
CONSIDER RESOURCES, CLIENT NEEDS AND WORKGROUP TARGETS Prepare clear workgroup plans to achieve objectives and manage contingencies.
Consider client needs.
Identify targets clearly.
Any project has a beginning and an end. The workgroup plan enables you to identify what will happen before the project or task commences, identify resources, assign responsibilities, and schedule actions and intended outcomes. When planning for a workgroup, always keep in mind the availability of resources, how to monitor progress and how to identify the target(s) or outcome(s) clearly. Examples of typical resources used by a workgroup are: • labour – skilled production, service, administrative employees and contractors • overheads – electricity, rates, rent, other • materials – office supplies, raw materials, consumables, other • equipment and technology – tools, machinery, software, vehicles, other. The workgroup client may be internal or external to the organisation. Internal clients include other workgroups, teams, managers and departments. For example, the Finance department is dependent on other departments forwarding monthly reports by the due date so that Finance can prepare and submit the end-of-month financial reports on time. External clients are usually the end user of the product or service; for example, retail clients of a large department store. As you develop the workgroup plan, think about client needs and their satisfaction with the workgroup’s service by answering the following questions: • How accessible is our product or service? • How reliable is our product or service? • How timely is our product or service delivery? • How well do we communicate the product or service value? • What features of our product or service provide customer satisfaction? By creating workgroup plans with goals that identify the desired outcomes, the team’s activities are directed towards reaching these goals within the given timeframe. Targets are identified clearly and results achieved. Workgroup members understand what needs to be done, how it is to be done, what standard to achieve and by when. Once the targets are established the workgroup manager can develop the rest of the workgroup plan by: • defining the actions that are required to achieve each objective • allocating available human, physical and financial resources • developing a schedule • setting key performance indicators (KPIs) to monitor the project’s progress and success.
DEVELOP SMART WORKGROUP GOALS A realistic perception of the requirements, capabilities and time needed to complete a task can be gained when plans are developed by setting goals. Once the activities are agreed, plans are made in accordance with the organisation’s requirements. Further commitment to personal or workgroup goals is encouraged by successful results and a feeling that progress is being made. Goals give a focus, purpose and direction to activities at work. In setting goals, whether personal or for the workgroup, it is useful to keep in mind the SMART approach. SMART states that effective goals have the five characteristics shown in Exhibit 6.2, column one. An example is given in column three. 140 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
CHAPTER 6 / Manage work priorities and professional development
EXHIBIT 6.2 SMART workgroup goals
1. Specific
Specific personal goals, set by one person, or specific team goals, set by coworkers or by management and staff, are more likely to succeed if they are created in specific, concrete terms because it is possible to see: • what is to be done • when it is to be done • how and where it is to be done.
2. Measurable
Measurable goals identify performance standards to check, measure and acknowledge: • individual achievements • the progression of a team towards achievement of its goals.
3. Achievable
Achievable goals can be accomplished effectively within the time you give to the project because they are: • neither too hard nor too easy • challenging and reasonable • able to be implemented and completed to the desired standard.
4. Relevant
5. Timereferenced
Examples
Relevant goals – whether personal, team or management and staff goals – support planned long-term results that are: • purposeful • necessary to successful task completion.
Time-referencing the goals enables you to: • check progress against timeframes and deadlines • review and plan again when the steps to complete the task fall behind schedule. • To finalise road works within 10 working days in accordance with safety standards, the working schedule and Traffic Authority standards. • To grow market share by 12% for product line HYJ in the state of Victoria by the end of November.
Goal-setting based on the SMART formula helps to reduce or eliminate the digressions and diversions that can creep into a project. When you identify each goal, the objectives, the resources needed, the standard to be met and the time in which it should be accomplished, you can reward yourself and members of the workgroup progressively as each goal is effectively reached. To achieve your individual or workgroup goals, follow the five steps in Exhibit 6.3. Objectives are the subgoals or steps that are developed. They are the activities that need to be accomplished in order to achieve the goal. A significant part of a workgroup’s role is tied up in achieving the goals set by the workgroup itself or by others. Goals and objectives set jointly by managers, supervisors, team leaders and project managers and their team are more likely to be accepted and implemented than those imposed on the workgroup from the top down. When members of the workgroup are involved in the planning process, they can see the reason for the plan, its goals and objectives, and recognise their contribution to it. It should be acknowledged, however, that many of the plans with which individuals, team leaders and supervisors work are created by senior management and given to them to follow. In these situations, the workgroup is told the objectives.
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EXHIBIT 6.3 Five-step path to goal achievement Step 1
Have a clear goal, communicate and share it with others
Step 2
Write it down as a goal statement
Step 3
Break the task into steps or objectives
Step 4
Identify the resources needed
Step 5
Implement the actions necessary to achieve the outcomes
Advantages of goal-setting Goal-setting has the following advantages: • The individual or workgroup is focused on the end result. • The team members are focused on the end result. • Confusion is avoided and activity is productive. • All those involved have the chance to see how their individual activities contribute to results. • The workgroup manager and team are working in a systematic way that maximises productivity. Remember, when setting goals and objectives you will need to take into account other factors that may affect their achievement, such as: competing work demands; the availability of resources and materials; technology or equipment breakdown; unforeseen incidents; personnel; environmental factors such as time or weather; and budget constraints.
CREATE WORKGROUP PLANS Translate ideas into action.
After you have developed the SMART goal you can create a workgroup plan. A workgroup plan helps managers and their teams anticipate actions and what will work and what may go wrong. They can then plan how to maximise outcomes and prevent or minimise errors. Workgroup plans also help them to determine who in the workgroup will be responsible for implementing which tasks and to delegate accordingly. For effective results from goal-setting, it is essential to prepare a workgroup plan as a working document for a specific task, activity or project. The elements in a workgroup plan are: 1. overall goal 2. objectives – what is to be achieved 3. the actions (steps) and resources to achieve the plan 4. the expected results, performance criteria and standards 5. the KPIs and reporting mechanism to monitor, evaluate and report back on the plan. The workgroup plan may be limited to a specific task, such as organising a trade show display (shown in Exhibit 6.4), or prepared for a wider area of operations. A more extensive workgroup plan could be a three-month working plan for a workgroup, large division or department within an organisation. It should nominate the priorities (i.e. the most important things). Check your goals to ensure the most important tasks are prioritised.
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CHAPTER 6 / Manage work priorities and professional development
Identify the steps clearly The effort put into preparing a workgroup plan is more than rewarded by the opportunity to complete clearly identified steps that contribute to the achievement of the goals and objectives; time is used well. The third column in the workgroup plan in Exhibit 6.4 could also be used as the basis of a progress or completion report for the activity. Each of the key results or indicators of performance is identified clearly and they become the headings in the report. In addition, the workgroup plan is available for reflection, comment and variation, when necessary.
Communicate with team members to improve understanding and commitment.
EXHIBIT 6.4 Workgroup plan (created 17 May) organising a trade show display GOAL: TO ORGANISE OUR COMPANY DISPLAY AT THE INDUSTRY TRADE SHOW ON 15 AND 16 JULY Objectives and anticipated time of completion 1.
Activity/step
To gather together all necessary product and equipment for the trade show display before 10 July
Establish with Public Relations and Sales departments what the focus of the display should be. Contact managers who will need to supply product, equipment and staff.
Key result: Gain commitment for involvement in writing by 25 May. • Decide on signage and handouts to be produced. • Get quotes for production of signage and handout material. • Select most suitable quote and place an order with that supplier. Key result: Place order by 1 June. • Draft a shift timetable for employees involved in staffing the display. Key result: Circulate by 1 July. 2.
To transport all product and equipment to the trade hall and set up the display on 14 July
Arrange pick-up, transportation and unloading of all items at the trade hall for 14 July.
Key result: Organise transport by 1 July. • Gather all product, equipment, signage and handout material and store in loading dock overnight. Key result: Gather all items and store in loading dock overnight on 13 July. • Set up display as required. Key result: All items arrive undamaged at trade hall on 14 July. 3.
To have staff available to operate the display on 15 and 16 July
Confirm shift arrangements with employees staffing the display the day before it starts. Double-check with employees staffing the display that everything is in order on both days.
Key result: Staffing of display on 15 and 16 July runs smoothly. 4.
To transport all product and equipment from the trade hall back to the office on 17 July
Arrange pick-up and transportation of all items from the trade hall back to the office.
Key result: All items are returned undamaged to office on 17 July.
Effective workgroup plans are realistic, tangible and identify the deadlines. They enable you and the workgroup to focus on the actions to be taken and to identify what is to happen, why and how.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Specific workgroup plans provide a model for action or change, as well as motivation to achieve the change – that is, to bridge the gap between what is and what could be. Plans offer a structure within which the management of time can change. As a result, poor habits are broken and success in implementing the key performance areas takes place.
CHECKPOINT 6.1
1. Briefly explain the three levels of organisational planning. 2. Workgroup plans: a. What does an effective workgroup plan do? b. What do you need to keep in mind when planning for a workgroup? 3. What are the characteristics of SMART goals?
6.2 PLAN AND COMPLETE OWN WORK SCHEDULE Planning is something you do every day. It is so important that if you fail to plan – you are planning to fail. Planning is an ongoing part of your life. Effective planning, prioritising and scheduling are about getting the most important things done. By giving you time to think and put things into perspective, setting priorities enables you to concentrate on important activities and to keep trivial matters in perspective.
PRIORITISE ACTIVITIES Decide what must be done by setting work priorities.
Prioritising helps you distinguish between primary, secondary and urgent activities (see Exhibit 6.5) and to make choices that balance short-term and long-term goals. You are thus able to allocate time to activities in proportion to their real importance.
EXHIBIT 6.5 Types of activities Type
Description
Primary activities
Primary activities are those that produce the most in terms of results. They should be done. They have high priority and should have a considerable amount of effort given to them. Primary activities are the most important elements in your timemanagement and personal planning.
Secondary activities
Secondary activities are the less important or secondary items that could be done. They receive lower priority than those that should be done (the primary activities). Some secondary activities may even be put aside until later.
Urgent activities
Remember: Urgent matters are not part of your time-management plan. They are the interruptions that must be done. They cannot be avoided. When you bunch urgent tasks together and do them in one time slot, you save time.
Primary activities are the important activities in your work schedule. They have a high priority. They should be done but are not urgent, unless you plan badly or delay them until the last minute. Think about your primary, secondary and urgent activities and distinguish clearly in your own mind those that should be done, could be done or must be done. Make the decision to do the primary activities according to the priorities on your work schedule.
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CHAPTER 6 / Manage work priorities and professional development While setting priorities is important, it is not the key to achieving work goals and objectives. The key is a time-management plan, which allows you to schedule and complete tasks according to the priorities you set. Time-management plans are presented later in the chapter. Effective time management is about focusing on the right priority task at the right time. It’s important to know what the priorities are in your job. Once they have been established, you can set goals to help achieve these priorities. In order to prioritise tasks for work, you need to be clear about the purpose of your job. If you’re going to be busy, you may as well be busy with what’s important.
EXHIBIT 6.6 Prioritising key performance areas (KPAs) 1. Write the AIM of your job
2. Decide the KPAs of your job
3. Identify activities carried out in each KPA
IDENTIFY KEY PERFORMANCE AREAS Key performance areas (KPAs) are the primary sectors of your job in which you need to deliver results. To better understand your responsibilities, follow the procedure outlined in Exhibit 6.6 to analyse your job. Being able to complete each step in Exhibit 6.6 may require going back to your job description or even writing one, if you haven’t already got one. You should constantly update your job description in the light of changing responsibilities. The six-step process here and the worksheet shown in Exhibit 6.7 will help you to analyse your job.
4. Set priority of values
5. Develop SMART goals
6. Take action
Prioritise the KPAs of your job.
EXHIBIT 6.7 Key performance area worksheet Key performance area worksheet The aim of my job is: In order to: So that: KPA
Importance
Current time %
Ideal time %
MONITOR OWN WORK PERFORMANCE To get the most important things done, you need to be able to manage time, to identify and organise different types of time, and to prioritise and set goals. However, take care to build flexibility into the program so that opportunities can be used, rather than ignored because you are over-organised. About 5–10 minutes a day is enough to give to time-management planning. In addition, you need to use the four Ds that take you from the planning stage of time management to the implementation stage: 1. Discipline to stay with the daily plan 2. Dedication and commitment to the plan 145 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
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Evaluate your own performance and identify areas for improvement.
CHECKPOINT 6.2
3. Desire to work through the time-management plan to accomplish the goals 4. Delegation to achieve more through trusting and training, and by communicating goals and task completion to others. Once you have decided that it is worth changing the way you work and pinpointed what you would like to change to get the best use of your time, you are ready to create a time-management plan. 1. Differentiate primary, secondary and urgent activities. 2. KPAs: a. Briefly explain the acronym KPAs. b. What are the steps to follow as you identify the KPAs of your job? 3. How do the four Ds help you move from the planning to implementation stage of time management?
6.3 USE A TIME-MANAGEMENT PLAN You can change your management of time by preparing and staying within the guidelines of a timemanagement plan. Create the time-management plan as a personal management system aimed at using your time more effectively and saving time, perhaps up to two to three hours per day. Base the plan on facts and information that show how you use your time. However, as you prepare the plan, take care to avoid following Parkinson’s Law, which says that ‘Work expands to fill the time available’. If too much time is allocated to a task, people pace themselves to finish the task in that time.
PURPOSE OF A TIME-MANAGEMENT PLAN Use a timemanagement plan as your personal tool.
A successful time-management plan identifies how time is used and managed. It also identifies what you can control or influence. Create your plan by completing the nine steps in Exhibit 6.8.
EXHIBIT 6.8 Nine-point plan for effective time management Action
Purpose
List
your goals for the day first thing in the morning or on the afternoon of the previous day, and the activities you will need to complete to achieve each of these goals
Classify
the list of activities into primary activities, secondary activities, those that can be delegated and things to do later. Focus on the primary (i.e. most important) activities
Rank
the primary activities from high to low priority; list the tasks necessary to achieve these; rank the list of tasks by order of importance and allocate time to each
Create
a set of priorities for the less important tasks (i.e. your secondary set of priorities) and list the activities necessary to achieve these tasks in order of importance
Analyse
the importance and urgency of the second set of priorities to identify what you must do, should do and will do later
Allocate
time on the basis of this analysis and delegate to others tasks that do not need your attention. Check priorities and time allocations against your deadlines
Place
your time-management plan on a desk or on your computer desktop or mobile phone and display in a prominent position. This is your time log
Mark off
on your time log each completed step to acknowledge your success in achieving your timemanagement goals
Present
your completed project on or before time
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CHAPTER 6 / Manage work priorities and professional development
IMPLEMENT THE PLAN Review your progress, check that you are keeping to your plan and give yourself the pleasure of acknowledging your success. An effective time-management plan lets you consider and choose between alternatives rather than rigidly defining your activities and type of experiences. Thinking about the alternatives enables you to create composite goals that best suit your needs and meet the requirements of your organisation. Build definite and realistic goals into the time-management plan. An achievable plan is one that is within your mental and physical abilities, and acknowledges the opportunities and constraints placed on you or your team by the organisation. Effective time management allows you to work both efficiently and effectively. The subsequent successful achievement of goals is highly rewarding, motivating and satisfying.
Manage time to complete tasks independently and efficiently.
IDENTIFY AND HANDLE TIME WASTERS Many time wasters are common to most people but the causes and solutions lie with each individual. The most effective way to remove the causes of time wasting is to create solutions that suit you. Identifying the cause and finding a solution is easier when you are able to recognise the three main categories of time wasters: 1. human nature 2. environmental factors 3. poor management skills. Time wasters caused by human nature are of a personal nature. Some examples are disorganisation, an inability to say ‘no’ to requests, a tendency to procrastinate and an inclination to socialise at the expense of work. Time is also wasted by environmental factors such as telephone and email interruptions, instant messaging (IM), drop-in visitors, unnecessary mail and paperwork, inefficient meetings and poor workplace procedures. Another time waster is poor management skills. An inability to establish priorities, set goals or delegate, a tendency to leave work unfinished and a failure to communicate all waste time. As a consequence of these time wasters, too little time is left to complete tasks, and whatever time is available is filled by excessive amounts of work. Exhibit 6.9 gives examples of time savers and time wasters. Time wasters prevent workgroups and individuals from achieving their specific goals. By removing time wasters, more time is available to complete priorities.
Avoid time-wasting distractions.
STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE USE OF TIME Time management helps you to use the right strategies and develop the habits that improve the way you use your time. If your present ways of organising and planning are frustrating your short- or longterm goals, then make the effort to identify how you use your time and experiment with ways to improve on it. A number of strategies can be used to monitor your use of time. Examples of practical strategies include: • sorting tasks into categories and ordering by degree of importance • preparing diaries and making lists • using response time well and using discretionary time to think and plan • goal-setting, action planning, scheduling and managing conflicting priorities • questioning the reasons for doing things and critically evaluating ways of doing things. 147 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK
EXHIBIT 6.9 Examples of time savers and time wasters Time savers
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Plan task organisation to meet time lines.
Time wasters
Time-saving technologies Time-saving products Having a clear desk Keeping a time log Being able to reschedule Setting priorities Creating objectives Saying ‘no’ Completing everything on the list Being prepared to cancel and reschedule if necessary Combining tasks Having regular breaks Doing it now Doing the little tasks Using action plans Communicating clearly Delegating
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Tyranny of the urgent Telephones and email overload Poorly designed work space Demands and interruptions Going slow and worrying Too much pressure Lack of objectives Conflicting demands Junk mail Handling paper and emails more than once Doing instead of delegating Doing something else Poor filing procedures Duplicated effort Confused lines of authority Indecision and procrastination Inability to use technology well
Choose from among the above strategies to help you get more done and to complete important activities before you deal with less important tasks. The benefit to you is increased satisfaction and achievement. Competent workers monitor and adjust their work performance to ensure the quality of their work. They take pride in the quality of their work and in the service they provide to others. They realise time is finite and irreplaceable and use it well to meet their personal and organisational requirements. Four ways to save time are shown in Exhibit 6.10.
EXHIBIT 6.10 Four ways to save time Method
Strategy
Work from a clear desk – a desk is your work space, not a storage area
• Only those items that you use every day should be on your desk. Continually clearing a space on the desk where you can work is timeconsuming and distracts you from your primary activities. • Sort paper on your desk into two piles: to keep and to throw out. File the ‘to keep’ pile and throw out the other pile. • Label each file and each drawer of the filing cabinet or each directory and file on your computer and keep them up-to-date. ‘Working files’ are those you use frequently and should be the most accessible. Files used less often are placed in less accessible places, archived or moved to ‘trash’. • Make it a rule to handle each piece of paper, email or message only once, by completing the action (e.g. responding to an email, filing or deleting it).
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>
CHAPTER 6 / Manage work priorities and professional development
>
Method
Strategy
Control the telephone, email and instant messaging – the decision by another person to contact you is outside your control.
• Have calls screened or diverted for a set period of time or have an answering machine installed. • Be ready to take down the details of the call. • Shorten any lengthy calls to the amount of time that suits you. Reflective answers such as ‘So, you want to meet next week?’ move the caller on to the main point. Avoid socialising on the telephone in work time. • Adopt a positive attitude as you respond to a call or an email and be willing to answer questions, include ‘thank you’, be courteous and helpful, follow through. • Prepare an agenda before you make a telephone call or write an email: decide what you want to say and the action you would like completed. • Determine your purpose before you speak or ask a question, instead of wasting time with irrelevant questions and diversions. • If you have an executive role, ensure you are prepared and are able to conduct an effective meeting. • Most importantly, if there is no need for the meeting, cancel it, rather than waste time on poorly run meetings with no business to complete. (Chapter 23, Organise and manage meetings, discusses meetings more fully.) • Break the important tasks into smaller, easier tasks. • Create a deadline for the important activities. • Give yourself a reward when you finish the activity. • With unimportant tasks, do only those that must be done.
Prepare for meetings – read the agenda and minutes before you attend a meeting
Avoid procrastination
As you use these strategies, monitor your performance and gather feedback from your team leader, mentor, coach or peers. Ask them open questions. The answers provide you with their perception of your work performance. Positive feedback encourages you to repeat effective work practices. Informative feedback about ineffective work practices gives you the opportunity to make changes and improve your work performance.
Manage time and priorities. Be open to feedback, new ideas and change.
DELEGATE EFFECTIVELY Work that can be done by others should be delegated; otherwise, you will be overtaken by the routine details of administration. When you delegate, it is essential to do it in a way that effectively communicates your intention and plan to others. You must also check progress so that the work is done on or before the deadline you set in your delegation. When both of these are achieved, there is an increased likelihood of a successful result. Steps to effective delegation are shown in Exhibit 6.11. Some of the reasons for not delegating are: • feeling inadequate because you cannot do everything yourself (when you believe you should) • not knowing how to delegate • being afraid the job will take longer if someone else does it. Eliminate unnecessary tasks and delegate to others the work that others can complete, while you get on with your primary tasks. Avoid saying ‘yes’ to requests or extra tasks when these will only add to an already overloaded work schedule.
Improve efficiency and effectiveness by avoiding time wasters.
Allocate people and other resources to tasks when appropriate.
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EXHIBIT 6.11 Steps to effective delegation Step 1
Determine your purpose.
Step 2
Identify the most suitable person.
Step 3
Prepare a clear and coherent message.
Step 4
Choose the most appropriate channel and select a suitable time and context.
Step 5
Send the message clearly, confidently and courteously.
Step 6
Allow the other person to give feedback and clarify your instructions as you delegate the task.
Step 7
Provide the necessary resources and training.
Step 8
Establish at the beginning of the project suitable ways to report on progress and a realistic time for completion.
Step 9
Give feedback and trust the delegate.
Step 10
Follow up, follow through and acknowledge completion of the task.
DIFFERENTIATE TYPES OF ORGANISATIONAL TIME In your workplace, organisational time is that time taken up with doing what the organisation expects you to do. It is the time spent meeting organisational requirements. An analysis of your job description shows where your organisation expects you to invest your time. When you allocate time to the tasks and responsibilities in your job description, you are on the way to meeting the organisation’s expectations of you. The same analysis enables you to allocate quality or discretionary time to tasks that allow you to maximise your talents and achievements. Once you identify the nature of tasks, aim to complete them in a way that matches the organisation’s needs and objectives, and your needs and objectives. These tasks are completed within the organisation’s time. There are three kinds of organisational time within any organisation: 1. boss-imposed time 2. system-imposed time 3. self-imposed time. As you learn to recognise the three types of time, as shown in Exhibit 6.12, you are better able to think about your tasks and plan how you will use time to achieve them.
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EXHIBIT 6.12 Types of organisational time Type
Description
Boss-imposed time
Boss-imposed time is hard to minimise or disregard. The boss (supervisor) makes the rules and accepts responsibility for the actions of others in the team, so they need to know what is happening. You must spend time with your boss and time completing the tasks your boss asks you to do. If you dislike what your boss wants, you may have to persuade your boss to accept an alternative.
System-imposed time
System-imposed time is time spent on tasks such as administrative paperwork, meetings and requests from others in the organisation. It involves working and interacting with others who are not your boss – for example, your peers or staff from other units. In some organisations, system-imposed time takes over. A poorly organised system, for example, may not offer you sufficient staff to delegate, so your time is wasted on administrative tasks better completed by a clerical assistant. Alternatively, an inadequate management information system (MIS) can create too much paperwork with too little clear information, and your time is wasted by searching through and filing far too much paper. As both of these time wasters are caused by the system, it is difficult for you alone to solve the problem.
Self-imposed time
Self-imposed time is that part of time over which you have control. People who are unable to delegate because they do not know how, or because they are afraid coworkers will be unable to do the task, will use this time to carry out tasks that others might do. Unfortunately, they will find that the response time caused by self, the boss and the system will become too great, moving them from the stress stage to distress and sapping efficiency and effectiveness.
MONITOR USE OF DISCRETIONARY AND RESPONSE TIME Discretionary time is used to do those things that are an integral and rewarding part of your work. Using discretionary time leads to most of the effective results, but, as it is only available for about 25% of the time, you must use it to complete your key tasks. As you organise and monitor your work performance, ensure you are using your discretionary time to do the important things. Discretionary time is under your control. Exhibit 6.13 gives strategies to use discretionary time well.
Use discretionary time to think, plan and create ideas.
EXHIBIT 6.13 Create blocks of discretionary time Strategy
Outcome
Monitor the way you use discretionary time
Gives you factual information about how you use it. You are then able to plan to minimise the interruptions that occur and disrupt work.
Create a block of discretionary time at that time of the day when you perform at your greatest efficiency
Aim to set aside that discretionary time period as private time in which you cannot be interrupted. It follows that you will achieve the highpriority, primary tasks in this block.
Let your coworkers know about your planned unavailability and when this will be
The only exception is an emergency. Arrange for telephone calls to be diverted to another line, turn email sounds off and make appointments for times outside this block of discretionary time.
The level at which you operate in the organisation impacts your ability to create your block of discretionary time. A new junior employee is unable to allocate time in this way. The more senior a person, the more power they have, including the opportunity to create a free block of time. This time can also be used to try out new methods and learn new skills. In some respects, response time is that part of your time driven by others. A significant part of your personal and work time is response time – when interruptions such as emails occur, when coworkers call 151 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
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Use response time to respond to the demands of others.
Solve the cause of the problem. Make good use of time and resources.
CHECKPOINT 6.3
FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE
in for a chat or an unexpected crisis demands attention. Response time, then, is time spent responding to the demands of others. If most of your day and most days of your week are spent responding to these demands, you will have no time for the important activities and will start to feel the effects of stress. Your ability to reduce the number of disruptions or protect yourself from them is limited by your organisational skills and your boss’ attitude to the need for discretionary time. Another limitation is your coworkers’ acceptance of and respect for your use of time. They must be willing to accept your wishes. Aim to develop that respect. In addition, plan procedures for dealing with emergencies such as equipment breakdown. Look at problems that occur, and identify and treat the cause, rather than simply dealing with the symptoms. In this way, you save time in the future. By monitoring your own work performance well, you are able to maximise your discretionary time. Programming adequate discretionary time will allow you to achieve your primary activities (those of highest priority) first, and deal with the secondary activities later. This rationalisation of your time will reduce stress and enable you to respond to others in a way that is acceptable to you and to them. Personal work performance will reach a high standard, and this will be reflected in quality customer service, greater job satisfaction and improved morale.
1. Describe the features of an effective time-management plan. 2. Organisational time: a. Identify three types of organisational time and name two ways in which employees can improve their use of each type of time. b. Which of the three types of organisational time is the most difficult to control? Provide reasons for your answer. c. What is the purpose of creating discretionary blocks of time? 3. Delegation: a. Think of an instance when a task was delegated to you. What worked well in the way the task was delegated and what worked poorly? b. Consider the steps to effective delegation and identify those that would have helped you complete the delegated task. c. Why is it important to delegate effectively?
Balance your priorities Achieving work–life balance has become the sometimes elusive goal for modern workers. It is well recognised that being able to strike a balance between the demands of work, family and personal commitments is important for overall wellbeing. But how do we strike this balance between work priorities, professional development and family and leisure time? Open Universities Australia suggests one strategy to employ is to create a comprehensive ‘to do’ list. Record everything you would like to have accomplished by the end of the year. Include a few goals that will extend you, but make sure all are realistic in some way. Sort each into one of the following categories: • Do now • Delegate • Do later • Drop.
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Next, break down each project into a weekly or daily task list and assign (achievable) completion dates and hold yourself to them. Cross them off as you go, creating a visible record of your achievements. Source: http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/topics/work-life-balance/, viewed 2 November 2018; https:// www.open.edu.au/student-blog/4-tips-allocating-time-important/, viewed 2 November 2018.
ASK YOURSELF: What is your work–life balance? Create a pie chart that depicts how much time you spend on areas such as: work, family, career progression, financial health, physical health, leisure, personal growth and fun. Reflect on your wheel of life pie chart result to decide if your priorities are balanced. Which piece(s) of the pie, if any, would you like to change? How would you make the change(s)?
6.4 ASSESS SKILLS AGAINST BENCHMARKS Part of your work role may be to determine the professional development needs of individuals or teams and facilitate their professional development. Competency standards identify the level of performance required in the workplace, so they are a useful starting point for determining the specific knowledge and skills that are needed. Individual and team development are aligned to workplace needs when learningprogram goals and outcomes match: • the knowledge and skills to perform the functions in the job description • the performance criteria in a competency standard • an organisational standard or an industry benchmark.
CONDUCT A JOB ANALYSIS AND EVALUATE A person who understands the structure and functions of their job knows what they need to do to perform well in it. A job analysis is done when there is no duty statement or position description. It identifies all the knowledge and skills necessary to perform the job competently. A job analysis also shows where time should be spent in a job and helps in decision making about salary structures and work schedules. Exhibit 6.14 shows an example of a job analysis. The job is broken into functional areas. The functional areas are the primary responsibilities of a job. A function is split further into specific tasks. From this information, the skills and knowledge necessary to perform each task are identified.
Identify the functions or primary responsibilities of your job.
ANALYSE COMPETENCE AGAINST YOUR JOB DESCRIPTION In most organisations, it is not necessary for you to carry out a job analysis. The information is usually available through duty statements or position descriptions. This means you can identify what is expected of you by referring to your job description. The job description specifies the duties, tasks and activities to be performed (what is to be done and usually the standard to which it is to be done). A job description generally lists the internal and external relationships, responsibilities, accountabilities, outcomes needed from a position and reporting relationships. Good job descriptions stretch the employees’ experience, grow their skills and develop their ability to contribute within their organisation. A typical job description is shown in Exhibit 6.15. It identifies the position by name and to whom the person in the position reports. It also documents the purpose of the job, the duties and responsibilities, what the person is authorised to do, their accountabilities and the criteria for the position.
Work in accordance with your job description.
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EXHIBIT 6.14 Example of a job analysis JOB
Product Manager
FUNCTION
Sales and distribution support
Pricing strategy
Selling
Implement and maintain company policy and guidelines
TASK Develop offers for specialist products
Sell products to pricing strategy
Plan a sales presentation
Target new offers at right segments
Manage product staff
Liaise with staff, customers and suppliers
Build consumer awareness and loyalty to core products
Update product pricing
Monitor sales targets
EXHIBIT 6.15 Example of a job description EXAMPLE OF A JOB DESCRIPTION Job function:
Product Manager
Reports to:
Marketing Manager
Liaises with:
Manager of Operations, store managers, administrative staff, customers and potential customers
Purpose:
To manage the company’s brands and build volume segments for all products within the two major brands to grow each product’s market share
Duties:
• • • • • •
develop respective offers develop pricing strategy monitor sales targets drive effective sales and distribution support identify and communicate business opportunities develop third-party alliances
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EXAMPLE OF A JOB DESCRIPTION Job function:
Product Manager
Responsibilities:
• • • • •
Authorised to:
• liaise with and represent company with clients, trade and industry bodies
Accountable for:
• maintaining product, system and service development • managing brands and range • liaising with clients and other stakeholders to grow business potential
Job criteria:
• • • • •
manage product range and service development liaise with marketing manager to build consumer awareness and preference manage product budget evaluate sales and distribution outcomes with relevant stakeholders liaise with trade and industry bodies to secure business opportunities
demonstrated marketing experience including successful product management good project management skills strong team player with a record of delivering on commitments and to deadlines capacity to champion new and continuous improvement initiatives marketing qualification
The key duties, tasks and activities to be performed in your job are the primary activities. They are the KPAs that produce results. They must be done. You need technical competencies to do the KPAs well. Technical competencies are the knowledge, skills and attitudes required to perform the duties, tasks and activities in your job. Identifying these clearly will enable you to focus on them and develop and maintain your level of competence to perform them well.
Apply your technical competencies as you perform the duties, tasks and activities in your job.
ASSESS SKILLS AGAINST COMPETENCY STANDARDS To determine your development needs and the priorities of those needs, you can assess your skills against competency standards. Competency standards set out what skills are required to perform a job or task, and range from national industry standards to simple checklists developed within a department or section. An awareness of the competency standards that exist for a position helps you gain the necessary knowledge and skills for that position. Exhibit 6.16 shows two elements of competence and performance criteria for a task undertaken by an account manager. The task is to represent the company at a trade or industry function. The performance criteria identify the standard of performance expected of a competent account manager as they represent the company. Column three enables the manager to sign off on the account manager’s performance as competent.
EXHIBIT 6.16 Elements and performance criteria for the task – represent the company POSITION: ACCOUNT MANAGER TASK: REPRESENT COMPANY AT TRADE OR INDUSTRY FUNCTION Element of competency
Performance criteria
1. Build relationships with prospective clients
1.1 Develop appropriate point-of-sale material for the trade function
Manager’s signature and date
1.2 Discuss company profile and scope 1.3 Highlight product and service features 1.4 Find out latest market activity and intelligences
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POSITION: ACCOUNT MANAGER TASK: REPRESENT COMPANY AT TRADE OR INDUSTRY FUNCTION Element of competency
Performance criteria
2. Network with existing clients and industry bodies
2.1 Establish ongoing contacts and opportunities
Manager’s signature and date
2.2 Socialise as appropriate and in accordance with company guidelines 2.3 Behave professionally and in accordance with industry standards 2.4 Work in accordance with relevant legislation
Competency is the consistent application of knowledge and skill to the standard of performance required in the workplace. Competence is an observable behaviour performed to a specified level, and therefore provides a basis for the assessment of performance. A competent person has the knowledge, skills and attitude that enable them to perform their work to the standard required of those employed within an occupation or industry level.
Employability skills
Apply communication and people-related skills to enhance successful performance in the workplace. Draw on previous experiences in past positions and relate them to the current situation.
Employability skills are the skills required to gain employment and progress within an organisation so as to achieve one’s potential and contribute successfully to operations. Employability skills are the transferable skills you may learn in one workplace and take with you to another. Employability skills can be developed through study, at work and through participation in family, social and community life. The Employability Skills for the Future Report 2002 identified the following eight employability skills: communication, teamwork, problem solving, initiative and enterprise, planning and organising, selfmanagement, learning and technology. Employability skills support your ability to perform effectively and are transferable between workplaces. They are essential skills for employment and for personal development, fulfilment, community life and active citizenship. In today’s economy, knowledge, information, customer service, innovation and high performance are at a premium and generic skills are essential to gain employment and to progress in employment throughout one’s lifetime. Employability skills describe capabilities that are commonly used as key selection criteria by employers. These are the abilities that enable you to adapt to changes in technology, functional changes in your job, organisational changes within your workplace and opportunities to transfer your skills to another position or workplace. Employability skills also include the ability to communicate with and relate to people, problem solve, plan, organise, learn and respond with initiative. As you progress from being a new staff member to an experienced staff member and then on to promotion, the standard at which you are expected to perform will increase. Therefore, you need to access learning opportunities to extend not only your technical competencies but also your employability skills, adaptability and flexibility in response to change.
Carry out a skills audit An effective way to identify your development needs is to conduct an audit of your knowledge and skills. A skills audit identifies what you can do. The audit should focus on measuring your skills against what you are required to do in your position. It shows you where you are in your current position, and also lets you think about where you might like to be in the future.
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CHAPTER 6 / Manage work priorities and professional development A skills audit must occur regularly across all areas of EXHIBIT 6.17 Steps in a skills audit workplace performance, identifying any developmental needs and priorities, and finding strategies to address these needs. Step Identify the skills that you need 1 To conduct a skills audit, analyse your key work tasks and review your competency for each of these areas of responsibility. Identify the standard of performance Step Use the five-step audit process shown in Exhibit 6.17. (performance criteria) required in the position 2 Remember, any role will require you to demonstrate a mix of specific skills: such as working in accordance with the workplace Step Measure your current level of skill and performance health and safety management system; knowledge of sales and 3 against the standard of performance required distribution systems, such as understanding the order processing Measure your current skills against future Step system; and personal attributes, such as establishing positive requirements 4 relationships with colleagues and clients. Your job description will help you determine your key work functions and tasks. Step Prioritise and take action as needed The five-step audit process will help you to identify your 5 KPAs and develop strategies to lift standards and improve key processes. Consult with your clients to seek feedback on performance and suggestions for improvement. Workshop these suggestions with your colleagues and Conduct a skills develop a system to implement change if it is needed. audit to identify what you can do. A skills audit takes a systematic approach to identifying your skills, competencies and employability skills. The audit gives you an idea of how you might plan your professional development. The results of Acquire new the audit should be recorded and used to create a professional development plan. (A simple format for knowledge and skills a professional development plan is shown in Exhibit 6.19 later in the chapter.) to improve performance A critical part of any role at work is communicating with colleagues, customers and suppliers in a way standards. that will win their trust and confidence. Demonstrate your competence by: • communicating effectively Communicate with • working collaboratively in changing environments team members, colleagues and • establishing rapport and gaining support and commitment business contacts to • motivating and influencing others promote positive • dissolving or overcoming resistance interaction. • creating the positive partnerships that are critical for success.
GATHER FEEDBACK ON YOUR WORK PERFORMANCE Feedback may be gathered about your performance at work. It may be about your capacity to achieve goals and objectives in work plans. It may be about your capacity to comply with workplace health and safety policies, procedures and programs, or to implement access and equity principles in your work practices. At work, we all use work space, the telephone and technology or equipment. We also prepare for meetings and deal with disruptions, interruptions and crises. Gathering feedback on how you do these activities enables you to improve your performance and gain greater satisfaction from your work. Some examples of ways you can actively seek feedback from others are: • formal or informal performance appraisals • obtaining comments from supervisors and colleagues • obtaining comments from clients • personal reflection and self-evaluation • routine organisational methods for monitoring service delivery.
Give and receive feedback on performance.
Monitor and control performance to ensure goals are achieved and objectives are met.
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Critique or selfassess your own performance.
It is vital that consistent personal performance is maintained in varying work conditions. Appraisal methods for monitoring work performance are shown in Exhibit 6.18. These include self-assessment, peer or team assessment, appraisal according to set criteria and statistical analysis.
EXHIBIT 6.18 Methods of performance appraisal and feedback Method
Description
Example
Statistical analysis
Objective information: • is obtained from statistical data • can be used to monitor task achievement. Managers, workgroups or individuals can assess themselves based on descriptions of their work activities using: • diaries • personal records • action plans. As you provide performance feedback and assessment, build trust and confidence by: • talking constructively • identifying what is done well • following with what could be improved • giving positive reinforcement. The set criteria: • should be public knowledge so everyone knows what behaviours or tasks are expected of them • are used to conduct the appraisal according to set evaluation criteria.
• Production figures • Sales improvements
Self-assessment
Peer or workgroup assessment
Appraisal according to set criteria
• Reviewing performance over a period of time • Identifying strengths and weaknesses • Analysing the success or otherwise at achieving goals or objectives
• Formal group meeting with a clear agenda, set by a facilitator who ensures participation • A tool-box meeting to compare goals or objectives with performance of tasks and outcomes • Informal meeting to give feedback about achievement of standards and performance targets • Performance review against the competency standards • Performance appraisal against business objectives • Performance against industry standards
Through regular appraisals, any variations in the quality of performance, service or products should be identified and reported in accordance with the requirements of the organisation. These requirements may be included in defined resource guidelines and other organisational documents, such as quality assurance or quality procedures manuals, and workplace health and safety policies, procedures and programs.
Seek and give feedback on performance Receiving constructive feedback offers workgroups and individuals the chance to reflect on their actions. However, for workgroup members to be willing to give honest feedback to others they must know it is safe to do so. Feedback lets the workgroup and its members know: • more about themselves • the effect their words and behaviour can have on other people or the situation. Avoid a defensive response to feedback you have asked for by being attentive, concentrating and focusing on what the person wants you to know rather than on what you would like to hear. Listen, and consider the implications of what has been said before you respond. Awareness of your own reactions, both intellectual and emotional, helps you to either accept or ask for reframing of the feedback instead of rejecting or ignoring parts of the feedback you dislike or disagree with. Notice the reactions of the person giving the feedback and wait until after you understand the feedback. Trying to explain your position is a distraction from the message. If you feel the need to give an explanation, do so after you have attended to all that is said during the feedback session. If you ask for feedback, accept it with an open mind. 158 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
CHAPTER 6 / Manage work priorities and professional development When you receive feedback, thank the person giving it and take any useful actions identified by the feedback. Constructive feedback acknowledges success as well as areas for improvement. As you receive informal or formal feedback about your own performance or the performance of your workgroup, clarify the feedback by paraphrasing and repeating it without being defensive. When you give feedback to an individual or your workgroup: • be tactful and identify specific issues or actions rather than criticising the person receiving the feedback • provide the feedback in private and maintain confidentiality • build rather than damage the other person’s self-esteem • make it short, helpful and to the point. Recognition and reward are powerful motivators at work. When individuals or your workgroup have achieved well, recognise their achievements. Successful achievements may be acknowledged in written evaluations of performance, promotion, financial reward, certificates of achievement and other types of formal recognition. Managers, supervisors and colleagues provide feedback in individual and group discussions, written evaluations, results of tests and articles on the intranet or in-house journals. Effective feedback focuses on what the individual or team did well, offers suggestions for improvement, critiques the work, not the person and sandwiches any negative feedback between positive points. Self-assessment is also a powerful motivator. In the workplace, individuals, teams or groups are able to seek feedback about aspects of their performance from colleagues, discuss workplace progress with a supervisor or keep a diary or notes about what worked well and what needs further improvement. When asking for comments on actions and suggestions for improvement choose an appropriate time and place, ask questions if you do not understand the feedback and maintain confidentiality. Communication at work is both directive and non-directive. In a conversation, for example, you will use a mix of interpersonal and emotional intelligence skills. The skills of self-awareness and selfregulation empower you to ask others for constructive feedback that lets you reflect on your work performance. Feedback also gives you information you can use to improve your performance through professional development. The skills of social awareness and relationship management enable you to communicate well, read the responses of others, influence and collaborate when making decisions. High levels of interpersonal and emotional intelligence skills allow you to contribute to problem-solving, to persuade others to take action, and to introduce initiatives and continuous improvement practices, monitor attitudes and document outcomes appropriately. Relationships are positive, and career planning and development reflects what is happening now and in the future. Goals and choices are informed and relevant. 1. List at least six components of a typical job description. 2. Employability skills: a. Briefly explain why employers are looking for candidates with employability skills. b. Provide three examples of employability skills. 3. Skills audit and feedback: a. What benchmarks can you use to measure your skills in a skills audit? b. How can you seek feedback on your performance? 4. Briefly discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each of the following appraisal methods: • statistical analysis • self-assessment • peer or workgroup assessment • appraisal according to set criteria.
Evaluate your performance in terms of your individual and your workgroup’s requirements.
CHECKPOINT 6.4
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6.5 COORDINATE PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Undertake professional development to improve your personal and technical knowledge.
Constant changes in knowledge and technology mean that the skills, knowledge and capabilities individuals need to perform competently in their workplace are also changing. As well as organising our own work schedule, and monitoring and obtaining feedback on performance, we must find the time to undertake career planning and coordinate our professional development. Professional development enables you to acquire the personal and technical knowledge, skills and attitudes required to effectively and efficiently undertake the day-to-day tasks and duties that are KPAs in your position. The initial purpose of professional development may be to bring your expertise to a satisfactory level for effective job performance. As you continue in the job, additional training in the workplace provides opportunities to acquire more skills and knowledge and places you in a better position to qualify for advancement. You need to take responsibility for your own professional development. This means: • identifying gaps in your skills and knowledge and taking action to fill them • using feedback from others • researching and completing training and professional development activities. You can identify what you need to know by finding out exactly what is expected of you in your job. You can also ask others in a similar role, members of your workgroup, supervisor or manager. Create a professional learning and development plan to identify your training and development needs.
CREATE A PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN
Choose learning methods appropriate to the professional development need.
Professional development plans identify what an individual or team needs to learn, the intended outcomes, and the methods by which the learning will take place. Learning methods should be appropriate to the: • learning goals • learning style of participants • availability of equipment and resources. Learning methods include off-the-job training, on-the-job training, online learning, action learning, coaching, mentoring, problem solving and attendance at seminars and conferences. Some learners prefer distance learning and self-directed study. Others prefer performance appraisals of their work to help in career development and planning. A professional development plan should be prepared in consultation between individuals and their supervisor, or the team and team leader involved in the professional development. The plan will identify the learning goal, skills and knowledge that need development, how the learning will happen (learning methods), timeframes, how the learning will be measured or assessed, and how feedback will be given. Its processes and activities should be non-discriminatory. Activities should be fair and ethical and provide opportunities for success and encouragement. Consultation ensures that the ideas of the individual and the team are included and respected. Individuals should be acknowledged for their achievements. An example of a template for a professional development plan is shown in Exhibit 6.19. View examples of templates for professional development plans at http://aese.psu.edu/teachag/ workshops/diy-professional-development/diy/professional-development-plan-examples.
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EXHIBIT 6.19 Professional development plan Goal statement Skills that need further development
How will I improve the skill?
By when?
How will I measure performance against the standard required?
Any further feedback: Your signature:
Mentor’s, coach’s or supervisor’s signature:
Date:
Date:
IDENTIFY AND ACCESS TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT OPPORTUNITIES Learning occurs most effectively when learners can take responsibility for their learning. Not all learners are self-directed learners. Some will value assistance from managers and colleagues in the form of guidance, support, encouragement, direction and feedback. Your colleagues and work team can be a source of information regarding opportunities for learning and development. Technology is a fast and accessible tool for the workgroup. Internet and intranet sites in particular are a valuable resource for identifying what is available to members. Development opportunities may include those shown in Exhibit 6.20.
Contribute to the learning community at your workplace.
EXHIBIT 6.20 Professional development activities Self-paced multimedia learning Formal internal and external courses
Coaching, mentoring or supervision
Personal study
On-the-job training Professional development activities Assisted formal study
Performance appraisals
Induction and orientation Work experiences and assignments, placement at higher levels and higher duties
Conference and seminar attendance
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RECORD AND COMMUNICATE YOUR ACHIEVEMENTS AND QUALIFICATIONS
Maintain and store records relating to achievements and assessment.
Seek out and learn new skills and techniques.
CHECKPOINT 6.6
Organisations record work performance and learning achievements for a number of reasons. Some of these are to meet legal and accountability responsibilities, provide evidence for remuneration and reward, maintain historical records of the organisation’s learning activities, and maintain personnel records. Record-keeping procedures should help people to: • keep current active records separate from old records • store old records properly and decide when and how to dispose of them • maintain privacy of personal information held in records • keep confidential records safe, with controlled access • keep records safe from theft, damage and computer hacking. Records relating to achievements and assessments will have relationships. For example, the human resources records for staff will often be viewed in conjunction with their learning activities, work performance records and salary progression. Files detailing professional development, learning and assessment activities should be kept for at least five years. They are then archived. Ensure that the location of each item is properly recorded, and that the items are stored and returned to their correct place after use. Successful professional development is a two-way process. Your qualifications, knowledge, skills and experience are worthless if you cannot demonstrate and explain them in the appropriate context to the relevant people. When you engage in professional development, let your team leader, supervisor or manager know you have gained improved skills and qualifications. The diplomas, certificates, statements of attainment, assessment records and reports should be placed in your personnel file and recorded in your resume. Keep the records and resume up-to-date to communicate your achievements and qualifications. Chapter 4, Develop communication skills for employment, discusses resumes and qualifications more fully. 1. Professional development: a. Create a list of the qualities required of employees in any workplace. b. How can you take responsibility for your own professional development? 2. Job analysis, professional development and learning methods: a. Brainstorm the advantages of doing a job analysis before undertaking career or professional development. b. Discuss and list the factors to consider when choosing the most appropriate professional development activity. c. List six types of learning methods. 3. How do effective record-keeping procedures help people? 4. Develop a professional development plan for yourself. Use the format in Exhibit 6.19 or a format of your choice.
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CHAPTER 6 / Manage work priorities and professional development
LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 6.1 Develop workgroup goals, objectives and plans with measurable outcomes. Create a workgroup plan to identify goals, objectives, specific actions, key results, performance indicators and reporting mechanisms for monitoring, evaluating and reporting back for any task or activity undertaken by the workgroup. An effective workgroup plan is specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and time-referenced. It describes what has to happen in concrete terms. 6.2 Prioritise activities, set goals and complete your own work schedule. Distinguish between primary, secondary and urgent activities as you prioritise your work. Primary activities have high priority. Secondary activities are less important and urgent activities are the interruptions that must be done. Assess and prioritise activities and set goals to achieve objectives. Set SMART goals that are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and timereferenced. Goals provide focus and direction. They may be short-term, medium-term or long-term. 6.3 Describe the role of time-management in the achievement of work and personal objectives. An effective time-management plan identifies what you can control and influence. As you prepare the plan, differentiate between three causes of time wasters – human nature, environmental factors and poor management skills. Take the time to identify and avoid time wasters in order to accomplish the primary activities in your position. Choose to manage time by establishing priorities, scheduling tasks and eliminating habits that slow down performance. Monitor your use of discretionary and response time to identify time wasters and adjust performance. Avoid time wasters such as the ‘tyranny of the urgent’, lack of objectives and conflicting demands. A time-management plan helps you break old habits and control your use of time to get more done. 6.4 Analyse your competence against standards and benchmarks to determine development needs and priorities and decide how to adjust your own work performance in response to feedback. Analyse your position description and assess your competence against the key performance areas (KPAs). A skills audit is a useful strategy to identify your development needs. Then fill any
gaps you identify in your technical and employability skills by undertaking professional development. If you are working in a job without a position description, conduct a job analysis to identify the functions undertaken in a job. Once the functions are identified, they are broken into the activities needed to complete each function. Carry out a skills audit to identify what you can do. Monitor the effectiveness and efficiency of your work performance. Seek feedback from managers, colleagues, clients and others to identify and develop ways to improve your competence. Improve your performance by taking action on the basis of the feedback. Your job description specifies the duties, tasks and activities to be performed. Focus on these to ensure you are able to do them well. Feedback may be formal, such as performance appraisals, and informal, such as comments from clients or colleagues 6.5 Explain why it is important to undertake professional development and maintain records and documents relating to achievements. Changing knowledge and technology requires professional development that enables people to stay up-to-date or ahead of these changes. Coordinate professional development and access opportunities for improvement, enhancement of your career and facilitation of continuous learning. Achievements and qualifications should be recorded in your personnel files in your workplace, communicated in your resume and to relevant people at work. By aligning your own development to your job description, national or organisation-specific competency standards and other industry benchmarks, you are able to perform competently. By engaging in professional development, you are maintaining the currency of your skills and qualifications. In addition, you are developing and improving your performance and ability to access promotion and other opportunities in the future. Continual changes in modern workplaces require competent workers who are able to adapt to new ways of doing things, be multiskilled and work effectively with others. Ensure you are one of these people by accessing formal and informal learning and development opportunities.
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KEY TERMS competence competency standards delegate discretionary time goals
instant messaging (IM) job analysis job description key performance area (KPA) organisational time
professional development response time skills audit SMART approach technical competencies
time-management plan time wasters urgent activities workgroup plan
LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Receiving feedback a. Think of an instance when you received some positive feedback about your performance. How was it given? How did you feel about the person giving it? What was your response? b. Think of an instance when you received some negative performance feedback. How was it given? How did you feel about the person giving it? What was your response? c. Explain how to avoid a defensive response as you receive feedback you have asked for.
2. Reflect on your productivity Complete the quiz ‘How Productive Are You?’ at http:// www.mindtools.com/pages/article/productivity-quiz.htm to evaluate your productivity at work. Reflect on the results to determine what they tell you about your organising skills, your attitude, your delegation skills and your ability to identify and use information quickly. 3. Effective delegation a. Consider the steps to effective delegation and identify those that have helped you complete a delegated task. b. Explain why it is important to delegate effectively.
GROUP ACTIVITY Work in pairs to determine one another’s development needs.
Use the notes you made during each interview to discuss and summarise one another’s development needs.
Step one Take turns to interview one another to determine your individual development needs. a. The interviewer is to ask the interviewee the following questions: • What is your role in your workplace? • What are your key performance areas? • What sort of training and professional development has helped you in your position? • Are there any key performance areas in which you would like further training and development? • Where do you see your career moving from here? b. During the interview, the interviewer is to make notes about the interviewee’s current skills and possible development needs. Step two Identify and discuss one another’s development needs.
Step three Work together to research possible training courses and other development activities that will fill each person’s development needs. Consider: • how you will access the program – work release, payment by your company, attendance in your own time, selfdirected learning or other • what time commitment is required and your willingness to commit. Identify one or more courses, programs or activities appropriate to each person’s development needs. Step four Work together to write a short information report on your findings. Submit the report to your teacher or lecturer.
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CHAPTER 6 / Manage work priorities and professional development
CASE STUDY FLOWER HOME IMPROVEMENTS Hannah established Flower Home Improvements five years ago. Her previous role was 10 years at a large national home improvement store where she learned all there was to know about the home improvement business. Product knowledge and customer service were two skills she was proud of. Flower Home Improvements steadily grew, and three years ago Hannah employed Cameron as a full-time staff member and two casual staff for the busy periods. Cameron’s skills include marketing, stock control and product knowledge. Hannah did not realise running a business could be so difficult. Her background was oriented towards customers and customer service. She simply does not have sufficient time to build customer relationships and she hasn’t marketed her business. She has much to do and so little time to do it. This includes having no time for staff meetings and to find out how the staff are going. She is simply ‘on the go’ all the time. Cameron is aware that issues relating to suppliers, especially payment of invoices within 30 days, are not being dealt with and he has to placate them. Cameron is aware that Hannah spends much of her time communicating with her accountant and worries about cash flow and salaries. One of Cameron’s primary responsibilities is ordering and maintaining stock at the required levels. Customers are complaining because Flower Home Improvement is late filling orders because stocks are running low. Cameron feels he is doing so much of Hannah’s work that he can’t manage his own work schedule.
Cameron meets regularly for a social drink with Patrick, whom he met at TAFE when both studied marketing. Cameron discusses some of the workplace issues with Patrick. Patrick says, ‘Well, I don’t know how to solve the issues you have, but I know our boss sends some of our people to training and development courses all the time and the boss himself holds a management degree. He tells us, ‘‘To grow my business I need staff with the expertise and knowledge to perform well in their jobs.’’ He also says he has identified the KPAs for each employee so that we can benchmark our performance.’ Patrick also suggested to Cameron that it is crucial that staff and the boss meet regularly so staff understand what is expected of them. Cameron thanked Patrick for his ideas.
Questions 1. Briefly explain the value of the ‘ideas’ that Cameron thanked Patrick for. 2. Are there any particular issues Hannah should address first in order to get her business back on track? 3. Patrick’s boss stressed the need for professional development. a. What are the benefits to businesses of professional development? b. Identify Hannah’s skill gaps. Create a list of titles of training courses or professional development activities that would fill Hannah’s skill gaps. c. What professional development programs would suit Flower Home Improvement’s staff?
BIBLIOGRAPHY Blanchard, K., Oncken, W. & Burrows, H. 1990. The Oneminute Manager Meets the Monkey, Collins, London, 1990. Hargreaves, A. 2011. Recharge: Lessons to Revitalise Yourself, Your Team Or Your Business in 60 Minutes Or Less, Wiley, Australia. Innovation and Business Skills Australia. 2014. ‘Employability Skills’, BSB07: Business Services Training Package, Release
8.1, https://training.gov.au/TrainingComponentFiles/ BSB07/BSB07_R8.1.pdf, viewed 3 April 2018. Mind Tools. 2018. How Productive Are You?, http:// www.mindtools.com/pages/article/productivity-quiz.htm, viewed 1 December 2018. Morgenstern, Julie. 2009. SHED Your Stuff, Change Your Life: A Four-Step Guide to Getting Unstuck, Fireside, New York.
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Newton, Richard. 2011. Management Book: How to Manage Your Team to Deliver Outstanding Results, Prentice Hall Financial Times, Harlow, England. Open Colleges. 2018. What is professional development?, https://www.opencolleges.edu.au/careers/professionaldevelopment, viewed 2 April 2018. Open Universities Australia. 2017. ‘4 tips for allocating time for the important tasks’, Student Blog, https:// www.open.edu.au/student-blog/4-tips-allocating-timeimportant/, viewed 3 September 2018. Owen, Jo. 2013. How to Manage, 3rd edn, Pearson Education Limited, United Kingdom.
Penn State. 2018. Professional Development Plan Examples, Department Agricultural Economics, Sociology and Education, http://aese.psu.edu/teachag/workshops/diyprofessional-development/diy/professional-developmentplan-examples, viewed 2 April 2018. Scott, S.J. 2017. Habit Stacking, 127 Small Changes to Improve Your Health, Wealth, and Happiness, 2nd edn, Oldtown Publishing LLC. training.gov.au, BSBWOR404: Develop work priorities, https://training.gov.au/Training/Details/BSBWOR404, viewed 1 December 2018.
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DELIVER PRESENTATIONS AND SPEECHES
Your Learning Journey
CHAPTER
7
Different types of PUBLIC SPEAKING + PRESENTATIONS
research main points
7.1 7.2
introduction
develop body conclusion
PLANNING + PREPARING a speech/presentation with a connecting theme
appropriateness
7.5 7.4
DELIVER IT
REVIEW your PERFORMANCE - identify strengths/ weaknesses - your preparation - evaluate voice - nonverbal communication - resources - timing + rapport
7.6
Next DEVELOP NEGOTIATION + CONFLICT MANAGEMENT SKILLS
7.7
4 STEPS
confidently engaging
STRATEGIES for handling DIFFICULT AUDIENCE MEMBERS - find a point of agreement - assertive strategies - open, closed, reflective questions
4
Organise visual aids/ support materials
3
Practise + revise
7.3
Writing a speech or presentation
2
Rewrite it for the ear
1
Structure + write it
CH8
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 7.1 discuss the purpose of different types of public speaking and presentations 7.2 plan and structure a speech or presentation with a connecting theme 7.3 describe four steps to follow as you write a speech or presentation 7.4 use electronic presentations, aids, materials and examples to enhance audience understanding of key concepts and central ideas 7.5 deliver a speech or presentation confidently 7.6 outline strategies for handling difficult audience members 7.7 review your performance to identify strengths and address weaknesses (if any).
7.1 TYPES OF PUBLIC SPEAKING The entire communication process (sender, receiver, message, channel, feedback, context and potential for barriers, shown in Exhibit 1.2 in Chapter 1) exists in any of the types of presentation or speech. Pay close attention to each of the factors in the communication process as you plan, deliver and review your presentation or speech. Regardless of whether you are making a few brief remarks at a social function, speaking formally at a sales conference or summarising the results of a project to the senior management team, you will need to determine from among the methods in Exhibit 7.1 the best method to communicate with your audience.
CHOOSE THE RIGHT TYPE OF PRESENTATION Several different approaches to presenting or speaking in public are possible. The appropriate approach depends on the purpose, objectives, audience and the occasion. Strategies to use in speeches designed to either inform or persuade or entertain are show in Exhibit 7.2. Adapt the content and presentation style to the audience and the specific situation. In any type of presentation or speech, ensure you define your main idea(s), limit your scope and prepare an outline with an attention-getting introduction, main body and conclusion. The three objectives in Exhibit 7.2 (or a combination of them) are common to all speeches and presentations. Presentation strategies may involve case studies, demonstration, discussion, group work, oral presentations, questioning and briefings delivered by the whole team.
Delivering with co-presenters – a ‘tag team’ approach
Take care to speak to your audience rather than talking in asides to copresenters during the presentation.
When two or more presenters co-present a speech or briefing, they work as a relay or ‘tag team’; that is, they take turns to present. The aim of the co-presentation is to deliver a unified and coherent message rather than a series of individual presentations. Together, all of the co-presenters coordinate their performance by: • considering the purpose of their presentation and the nature of the audience • designing the structure of the presentation, organising it into sections and allocating a section or sections to each speaker • preparing and practising the joint presentation so that every co-presenter understands all of the material and can also present in the absence of a co-presenter • reviewing the structure and multimedia aids together, making changes and revisions to facilitate joint ownership of the material.
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CHAPTER 7 / Deliver presentations and speeches
EXHIBIT 7.1 Types of public speaking and presentations Type
Actions
The prepared speech is planned and organised before presentation.
• Prepare an outline and notes to prompt you and your delivery will appear spontaneous and relaxed • Put important ideas, phrases, quotations and statistics in note form and try to add some extra comments when you present your speech • Avoid reading the speech word for word so you can: – maintain eye contact with your audience to hold their interest – note the audience’s response to your presentation
The impromptu speech is an unexpected special occasion or a courtesy speech such as a welcome, introduction or acknowledgement delivered without preparation.
• Think quickly and clearly to organise your information • Analyse the situation and speak briefly and to the point • Follow this order of presentation: – indicate clearly the reason for the speech – explain its relevance to the organisation or audience – conclude with some of the characteristics of the individual or organisation receiving the recognition
The manuscript speech is suited to longer, more technical and difficult situations such as business presentations at meetings or conferences, legal presentations, parliamentary addresses, press releases or speeches that will be reported or quoted.
• Research, structure and write the content • Prepare the support materials • Read the manuscript but maintain eye contact with the audience as often as possible • Use devices like wide margins, large type and double spacing of the manuscript to help you read it • Avoid reading the entire speech word for word • Speak to the audience rather than at them; this means using facial expressions and gestures
A podcast is an audio recording that can be accessed on demand through most Web browsers.
• Use podcasts to replace or supplement conference calls, training courses, briefings and other group communication activities • Organise and structure the content to make it easy for the audience to understand • Identify your purpose clearly in the introduction • Provide supporting details in the main body • Conclude by reinforcing and summarising the main idea(s) • Plan visual representations of data (graphs, illustrations and virtual objects) to support main points, and make these available to your audience • Prepare any show notes
A briefing session is a short oral summary or report of a plan, event or operation.
• Aim to inform, propose or justify solutions, or persuade your audience • Prepare the briefing, concentrating on its main purpose: – present background information – discuss alternatives – analyse advantages and disadvantages and outline their impact • Encourage audience participation, questions, suggestions and show interest in audience response • Receive feedback and analyse presentation • Manage challenging audience members
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EXHIBIT 7.2 The objectives of presentations and speeches Objective To inform
Strategies An informative speech delivers factual information, clear examples and supporting material. It may also aim to develop ideas, or show how something works or can be done. Balance the content and discussion to achieve an objective presentation.
To persuade
A persuasive speech aims to influence the audience, change their attitude, convince them about a particular point or motivate them to accept your offer. Frame the message to show the audience how you can create value for them. Tell a story to stimulate the audience’s interest. At the end of your presentation, invite and prompt them to take action.
To entertain
An entertaining speech is interesting. A variety of techniques such as humour, anecdotes, examples, jokes and quotations, sometimes with a particular theme, are used to ensure the audience enjoys it. A combination of informative or persuasive elements may be used with entertainment; however, keep the language and message clear and easy to follow.
A unified and coherent message requires the co-presenters to: decide who will present the introduction develop the main body of the presentation and provide the supporting details reinforce the ideas outlined in the main body and present the conclusion. As you progress through your section of a co-presentation, define the main terms and restate the main ideas. Repetition emphasises the main points, helps understanding and reinforces the message. Transitions from one presenter to another facilitate a smooth changeover. For example, rather than saying, ‘Jack is going to talk next’ or ‘Jack, your turn next, right?’, guide the audience to the next speaker with a review and/or preview type of transition in which the first speaker summarises their part and then previews the main ideas the next speaker will present. Transfer control to the next speaker by saying, ‘Now we have Jack talking about …’ or ‘Jack is going to guide us through a demonstration of this …’. Then Jack enhances the smooth changeover by briefly recognising the previous speaker and then quickly moving onto their topic. ‘So, we learned X from Ellie, but now we are going to …’. The second and third speakers may refer to and link their content to the ideas presented by previous presenters by saying ‘Let’s revisit …’ or ‘Let’s go back to …’ to reinforce and tie ideas together across the total presentation. Co-presentations are often used for staff meetings, customer contacts, and reports to supervisors and managers on progress, results or problems. Whatever the purpose of a co-presentation it is often appropriate to give your audience a short memo or written summary. People are more likely to remember communication that combines both spoken, graphic and written forms of communication. • • •
Use transitions to bridge from one presenter’s section to the start of the next presenter’s section.
PREP formula A successful formula used by many speakers for an impromptu speech is the PREP formula, as illustrated in Exhibit 7.3.
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CHAPTER 7 / Deliver presentations and speeches
EXHIBIT 7.3 PREP formula
P
R
Stands for the main point
Stands for the reason for the speech
E Stands for the example to illustrate the main point
P Stands for repeating the main point
To follow this formula, you would start with explaining the main point – for example, your commitment to an environmental issue. Follow with an example to illustrate the main point, involve the audience and add interest. Draw examples from your own experience, a friend’s experience or an experience the audience has shared. Alternatively, you may use statistics or a relevant quotation. Conclude by restating the main point in different words. This reinforces the main point and gives your speech strength and continuity. As you follow this formula, both speaker and audience reach the main point quickly.
Face-to-face and virtual presentations Online technology allows distant groups to interact over the web in meetings, make presentations, work on shared topics and build a sense of belonging. The virtual presentation allows the speaker and audience to interact, ask questions, clarify and make social connections without the associated time and travel costs of face-to-face presentations. Online technologies such as Skype are convenient ways to deliver a presentation. They are easy to administer, and the presenter and participants are able to see one another’s facial expressions and other nonverbal communication. Effective planning of an online presentation requires: • planning and preparation of the content and the venue • a reminder to be sent out and each participant’s attendance confirmed at least a day before so that all participants are added to the contact list • a welcome message to be forwarded as well as the presentation’s title and purpose • all materials to be used in the presentation to be loaded and the Skype status to show ‘Do Not Disturb’ to prevent notifications and distractions from appearing during the presentation. Guidelines for the conduct of a successful Skype presentation include: • a note into the group chat to announce the start of the presentation • checking that participants can hear and see you • guiding participants through visuals such as websites or PowerPoint or Prezi presentations • observing and responding to body language and asking for input • asking for feedback and addressing any concerns or issues • letting participants know where to get more information • concluding and following up with a ‘thank you’ message. A presentation delivered in a virtual meeting, by podcast or Skype is different from its face-to-face counterpart. The shared experience happens in a virtual world that allows the audience to listen and view the contents when and where they want rather than in a shared physical space. However, there are some similarities. In face-to-face presentations and in the virtual world, the receiver responds to elements such as language, ideas, structure and the presenter’s nonverbal communication, voice pitch, pace, pausing and inflection. Both virtual and face-to-face presentations should have a simple structure
Use familiar, unambiguous language that moves straight to the point to make the main ideas easy to understand and retain.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK to provide a clear pathway for the receivers. Three clear points are more effective than 10. Any online presentation should have a strong opening to gain attention and a strong closing the receivers will remember easily. Long phrases, redundancies and fillers such as ‘half a dozen of one and six of another’, ‘um, uh, ah, mm’ and ‘what I’m trying to say is’ are used to ‘fill in time’. They show the speaker has not taken the time to think through their ideas, nor to plan and structure the virtual or face-to-face presentation. Ideas structured around a central point or main theme show the audience the progression of ideas and the relationship between them. Personal experiences, examples, illustrations, facts and statistics add interest and catch the audience’s attention. Speak well in a virtual presentation by emphasising common ground in terms of experiences, interests, values and goals between yourself and the audience.
WELCOME TO AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENT OF COUNTRY A Welcome to Country and Acknowledgement of Country are both protocols that precede a meeting, speech or formal occasion. They show respect for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and recognise the unique position of Aboriginal and Torres Strait people in Australian culture and history. An invitation to Indigenous Australians to perform a ‘Welcome to Country’ helps non-Indigenous people recognise Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander culture and history. The ‘Acknowledgement of Country’ can be performed by either an Indigenous or non-Indigenous person. The purpose is to pay respect and acknowledge Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples as the original custodians of the land. Two examples of Acknowledgments of Country (Creative Spirits 2017) are: 1. General: ‘I’d like to begin by acknowledging the Traditional Owners of the land on which we meet today. I would also like to pay my respects to Elders past and present.’ 2. Specific: ‘I’d like to begin by acknowledging the Traditional Owners of the land on which we meet today, the [people] of the [nation] and pay my respects to Elders past and present.’ Consult with Aboriginal peoples of the community where an event takes place to make sure that the ceremony pays the appropriate level of recognition and involves the right people. ‘Welcome to Country should always occur in the opening of the event in question, preferable as the first item.’ (Creative Spirits 2017) The ceremonies promote an ongoing connection to place of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians and shows respect for Traditional Owners.
ETHICS IN PUBLIC SPEAKING ‘Ethical communication enhances human worth and dignity by fostering truthfulness, fairness, responsibility, personal integrity, and respect for self and others.’ (The National Communication Association 2017) Ethical speakers present truthful, honest and accurate information to avoid misleading their audience. They also show respect for their audience and for their audience’s time by planning well. Ethical public speakers’ speech delivery is accurate and honest and avoids unethical practices such as abusive language, divisive, degrading or derogatory speech and stereotypes. They tell their listeners when they are using someone else’s information and acknowledge sources of information to avoid plagiarism. Rather than speaking down to an audience, they speak courteously and confidently and promote positive values. A speaker who promotes hate, fraud or crime or misrepresents facts or discriminates against others in society is unethical. Lies, exaggeration or distortion of information are dishonest and spread misinformation that may cause others to make decisions that are harmful to self and others. An audience that recognises the inaccuracies and distortions will challenge the speaker’s credibility. An audience listening to a speaker using reasoning and logical arguments supported by facts should find the speaker to be persuasive.
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CHAPTER 7 / Deliver presentations and speeches
1. For each of the following occasions, which type of speech would you choose to present – prepared, impromptu, manuscript or a co-presentation? a. Explaining to your team members how the new booking system works b. A speech to your professional association c. A thank you at your surprise birthday party d. Introducing the next speaker at a business function e. Presenting your case at the tenancy tribunal. 2. Identify at least three characteristics of: a. an informative speech b. a persuasive speech c. an entertaining speech. 3. What are the behaviours of a credible speaker? 4. A Welcome to Country ceremony pays respect to the Traditional Custodians of land. a. Why should the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples of the community be consulted? b. When should the Welcome to Country occur? c. Provide an example of an Acknowledgement to Country.
CHECKPOINT 7.1
7.2 PLAN THE PRESENTATION OR SPEECH At the planning stage, you need to establish the context in which the speech or presentation will be given. Then you are able to design a presentation that is relevant to the specific task and audience. No matter which style of speech or presentation you choose – informative, persuasive or entertaining – you must still prepare it so that it is relevant to your audience. In this planning stage, follow these six steps: 1. Determine the purpose. 2. Analyse the audience. 3. Consider the context and setting. 4. Identify your main ideas. 5. Research supporting material. 6. Plan and structure the material around a connecting theme. Each step will help you achieve your goal – a confident, well-paced delivery that engages and holds the audience’s interest.
Design the speech or presentation to inform, entertain or persuade.
DETERMINE THE PURPOSE Achieving your purpose means first setting the objectives for your speech or presentation. Identifying your audience’s expectations and needs lets you set clear objectives. Then develop the presentation or speech to achieve your objectives and help the listener understand your message. Communicate directly to the audience to catch their attention and to help you achieve your purpose.
Consider your audience.
ANALYSE THE AUDIENCE Analyse the audience in terms of their experience, age, interests and reason for attending the presentation. It is important to know these details so that you can pitch your delivery to suit your audience’s needs, interests and level of knowledge. If you do not prepare these details, you may make the
Know your audience and target materials and methods to them.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK mistake of presenting material that is too difficult or too basic, or that entirely misses their needs. It is, of course, easier to talk to a group of people with similar skills or backgrounds than to a diverse group.
CONSIDER THE CONTEXT AND SETTING Take the context into account.
Acknowledge the context or situation by preparing and delivering your presentation in a manner appropriate to that situation. The context may be an informal gathering of colleagues or a very formal public presentation. It is important to take this into account.
IDENTIFY YOUR MAIN IDEAS As you plan and organise your material, focus on the main purpose of your speech. As your audience has only one chance to hear you, put your ideas into logical order in a way that is easy to understand. Check that they link together and that they cover everything your audience needs to know. Organise your speech into an outline that both highlights the main ideas and presents them clearly and logically for your audience. The success of your speech or presentation depends on two parties, the presenter and the receiver, mutually acknowledging its purpose and responding appropriately. Therefore, allow enough time to: • show why your presentation and ideas matter • expand each main point with examples, stories and images.
Develop a connecting theme The connecting theme that ties together each element in your presentation is the thoughtline. It lets the audience know where your presentation is going and makes it easy for them to follow you to your conclusion. The thoughtline becomes the connecting theme or string to which each part of your presentation is attached. Plan to make the thoughtline visible to your audience from the introduction through to the conclusion. For example, ‘On my recent vacation I learned something more about eco-tourism: when you can experience nature without destroying the environment and when you cannot. Let me share with you two very different experiences I had …’. The thoughtline sets the direction of the presentation in very few words.
FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE
Why are TED talks so engaging? Most people are familiar with the TED talk phenomenon. But what makes those talks so engaging? Chris Anderson, the curator of TED, flags one of the key elements as story framing. He suggests framing the talk as a journey. This means ensuring you know where to start and where to end. Like a journey, it’s best to make sure you know where you are going. Like any good tour guide, you should know your audience and speak to their level of expertise, avoid jargon and technical speak and use specific examples to illustrate your points. Use narrative to explain your points, take the audience on a tour of discovery: present the problem and then walk them through the search for the solution and allow them to share the ‘Aha’ moment of understanding or breakthrough. This narrative journey becomes your connecting theme or thoughtline. Anyone can present a dry list of ideas or achievements, but if you present those ideas or achievements wrapped in a narrative journey of how they solved a particular problem, then you have created something compelling. Source: https://hbr.org/2013/06/how-to-give-a-killer-presentation, viewed 2 November 2018.
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CHAPTER 7 / Deliver presentations and speeches
>
ASK YOURSELF: Think of a problem you have solved in you work or private life. How could you frame this in terms of a journey? What was the problem that needed to be solved? Why was it a problem? What were the steps that led to the solution? Reflect on two of the popular presentations on TED. a. Identify and write what you think is the thoughtline of each. b. How does the thoughtline help the speaker present idea(s) thoroughly and completely in the short time period?
RESEARCH SUPPORTING MATERIAL Research is necessary to find facts and supporting evidence for the main ideas of your presentation. Make sure your presentation presents an objective balance as you develop the ideas in the outline. Chapter 12, Analyse and present research information, discusses this research stage more fully, identifying both primary and secondary sources available to you. Approaches to organising and arranging facts and ideas are discussed more fully in Chapter 5, Organise workplace information.
1. After you determine the purpose of your presentation, what else should you think about in the planning stage? 2. Thoughtlines: a. Define the term thoughtline. b. How does a thoughtline enhance your presentation? c. What do you use a thoughtline for as you deliver a presentation?
Research from a variety of sources and organise main ideas into a clear and logical outline.
CHECKPOINT 7.2
7.3 WRITE THE PRESENTATION OR SPEECH After considering your audience and the context, clearly identifying your main purpose and topics, researching your material and organising it, you must write the speech. As you write your presentation or speech, there are four steps to complete: 1. Structure and write it. 2. Rewrite it for the ear. 3. Practise and revise it. 4. Organise the visual aids and other support materials. Your aim at this stage is to organise your presentation in a logical sequence and in clear, concise language. While it is important to suit the needs of your audience, you must also prepare the material in a way that suits your own particular needs as a speaker.
Follow four steps.
STRUCTURE AND WRITE Once you have made an outline of your main points, write the presentation. Each part of it should progress to and clearly connect with the next part. An oral presentation has three main parts: 1. The introduction states the topic and catches the audience’s attention. It gives the audience a preview of the presentation or speech, so it is important to stimulate their interest at this stage.
Identify the key messages.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK 2. The body develops the theme and supports this with information. The body is the central part in which you inform, persuade or entertain the audience. 3. The conclusion reinforces and summarises the main points. It is a brief overview that gives listeners a second chance to hear them.
Introduction Stimulate interest in the introduction and present no more than three or four main points in the body.
The introduction should be brief, as it simply prepares the audience for what you are going to say. It leads them into the body of the talk by identifying your aim or main theme. Strategies to use in your introduction are to: • pose a question • relate a short anecdote • present an interesting fact • use humour appropriate to the audience and topic.
Body Develop the theme in the body.
Acknowledge a typical listener’s span of attention by presenting no more than three or four main points. Organise these under headings and subheadings. Emphasise the main points and expand them with supporting material such as: • personal experiences • examples and illustrations • facts and statistics. Make the presentation lively and interesting by including your own or other people’s experiences. A relevant personal story or example can make all the difference between a dry presentation and a memorable one. Compile or collect examples from friends, business associates, newspapers, television and radio. Exhibit 7.4 gives examples of techniques you can use to enliven your speech or presentation. It indicates the purpose of each technique and the audience’s likely response to it.
EXHIBIT 7.4 Techniques a speaker can use to enliven a presentation Technique
Purpose
Audience response
Defining a term
To sharpen understanding
Gaining clearer understanding
Relating an experience
To arouse interest
Demonstrating interest
Asking a question
To allow audience to reconsider the speaker’s point
Thinking through the answer
Making an announcement
To catch audience’s attention
Attending
Offering an explanation
To clarify a point for the audience
Gaining clearer understanding
Presenting different views on the subject
To raise curiosity
Considering alternatives
Making a request
To receive cooperation or funding
Considering own response
Summarising
To reinforce points
Expecting end of talk
Using a visual aid
To illustrate, enhance or support
Better understanding, greater interest
Including imagery
To create an impact, enliven and strengthen
Enhance comprehension and rapport with the speaker
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CHAPTER 7 / Deliver presentations and speeches Imagery such as personal anecdotes, stories, analogies and metaphors help the audience to see what you are saying. Imagery compares what you are talking about with a real thing to help the audience comprehend and remember your message. Metaphors – for example, ‘Love is a journey’ or ‘She was drowning in paperwork’ – help the speaker explain an idea or action by describing an object or action in a way that is not factually true. An analogy compares two things by comparing similar attributes to explain and make connections; for example, ‘Drawing a comparison between living life and running a race’. Successful speakers use metaphors and analogies to craft abstractions and generalities into more concrete, understandable concepts. Personal anecdotes about past successes or frustrations connect with the listeners. For example, in a presentation about the company’s social media campaign a speaker could reveal their own lack of understanding in the initial stages of the campaign of the importance of hashtags in promoting the company’s products. Members of the audience with memories of similar frustrations will connect with the speaker. A story within a speech is a useful way to convey information because they catch the audience’s attention and help them remember what has been said. Stories about a lucky break, an obstacle overcome, a story from your youth or a customer service experience catch the audience’s attention and make a speech more memorable. The advantages of storytelling and humour are also addressed later in this chapter. Dry facts are enhanced and made more memorable when the audience can associate what is being said with the image brought to mind by the metaphor, analogy, anecdote or story. Regardless of the type of imagery chosen, be sure to choose appropriate language. When in doubt about the exact meanings of words, use a dictionary. A thesaurus can provide the best word and alternatives. Other reference books, such as an encyclopedia, will give factual information, a dictionary of quotations is useful for making introductions and conclusions more interesting, and google and other online dictionaries are useful for definitions, synonyms and antonyms.
Use imagery to build rapport and create an emotional connection between you and the audience.
Conclusion To let the audience know you are about to end the talk, use signal phrases such as: • ‘in conclusion’ • ‘to summarise’ • ‘in closing’. For a long presentation, it may be easier to review or summarise each section separately. The conclusion rounds up the arguments or information you have presented in the main body of the speech. As a rule it contains no new material. It is sometimes the most memorable part of the presentation, and should always make an impact. Use: • a relevant anecdote • a quotation • an example • a recommendation. You may also conclude by inviting your audience to take some action, or by challenging them, or by asking for their cooperation or support. Thank them for their interest.
Reinforce the main points in the conclusion.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Once you have written the first draft of the speech or presentation, practise it in front of a friend or family member. You could record it on a smartphone and then replay it and decide whether it needs rewriting for the ear.
REWRITE FOR THE EAR Refine the speech to meet the needs of a live audience.
Writing for the ear prepares the speech or presentation as a spoken rather than a written channel of communication. Read it aloud and listen for: • a concise, simple structure that is easy to follow • verbs in the active voice, with simple tenses • words that are easy to hear and understand • words that sound right together • breathing spaces that give the message impact • words that help the listener to connect the introduction, body and conclusion. This technique enables you to refine the speech to suit the live audience who are listening to, not reading, your message. Stories and personal anecdotes connect with the audience; a highly effective way to achieve this is the public speaking mantra, ‘Make a point. Tell a story. Tell a story. Make a point.’ Evidence shows that even if we grasp the facts, we are more likely to remember the story that illustrates it when we go back to our desks.
PRACTISE AND REVISE
Practise and revise your speech by reading it several times to become familiar with your main points.
Practise and revise your speech and rewrite anything that sounds awkward. Allow for some audience participation, especially when preparing training sessions, seminars or instructions to staff. Be willing to answer questions from the audience – this creates an active exchange between audience and speaker. Before you begin to speak, indicate whether you will invite questions: • throughout the talk • at certain breaks • at the end of the presentation. An active audience responding to questions or becoming involved in discussions and small group exercises is more likely to remember your talk. This audience will also give you valuable feedback. By practising the presentation in front of a mirror with someone listening, or with a video camera or smartphone, you can hear what your voice sounds like and observe your nonverbal communication. As you practise, you can decide how loudly or softly you want to speak, which parts of your speech to emphasise and where to pause. You can check how long the presentation will take. You can also pick up all the ‘you knows’, the ‘ums’ and ‘ers’, and another listener may help you pick up any errors in pronunciation. You will lose credibility if you use ‘gonna’ for ‘going to’ or ‘youse’ for ‘you’. Practise with your visual material, too, and decide where it is most appropriate in the presentation or speech. Anticipate questions, prepare the answers and keep within the time limit. At your practice stage, organise aids to catch the interest of the audience and reinforce your points. Two of the most useful aids for people making a prepared speech for the first time in public are notes and PowerPoint or Prezi slide shows. Notes keep the outline and main points clearly in view and help you stay on the topic. Text slides highlight key points while graphic visuals gain attention and increase interest. Visual aids are discussed more fully in the next section.
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CHAPTER 7 / Deliver presentations and speeches
1. Writing: a. List four strategies you can use to catch the audience’s attention in your introduction. b. How can organising your ideas under headings and subheadings help your delivery? c. How can you let your audience know you are about to end the talk? 2. Briefly describe the purpose of the three main parts of an oral presentation. 3. How can you emphasise and expand the main points? 4. Technique: a. Choose three techniques you can use to enliven a presentation. b. What is the likely audience response to each? 5. Rewrite and revise: a. Why should you rewrite for the ear? b. What should be your focus as you practise and revise?
CHECKPOINT 7.3
7.4 CHOOSE YOUR AIDS, MATERIALS AND PRESENTATION TECHNIQUES Effective visual aids and materials reinforce your major points, stimulate your audience and work well in the physical setting of your presentation. Ineffective visual aids and materials will bore the audience or detract from what you are saying. Select aids and materials that provide the audience with powerful images that arouse their interest in what you are saying. Presentation aids and materials may include: • computer simulations, electronic presentations and PowerPoint or Prezi presentations • diagrams, charts and posters • paper-based materials and models • whiteboard and projector, video and audio recordings.
Prepare PowerPoint or Prezi presentations to support your prepared speech.
HIGHLIGHT CONCEPTS Visual representation of illustrations, graphs and other data must emphasise and enhance your audience’s understanding of the most important concepts in your presentation. The purpose of visual aids is to simplify complexity, build your credibility, reinforce, and help the audience remember your message. Each audiovisual item should be simple and present only one point, as too much detail can be distracting. Visual aids keep the listener and speaker active, and enhance the learning and understanding process with variety. A good visual aid: • gains attention and increases interest • supports your point and emphasises connections • clarifies and aids the listener’s memory • keeps the focus on the topic, not the speaker • helps the presenter to arrange the content in a logical order. As you choose your presentation technique(s) consider carefully the budget available, the cost of equipment, the time you have to prepare and present, your preference for and ability to use different types of equipment and the location or venue. All will affect your decision. Presentation techniques include storytelling and use of humour, animation, transitions, hyperlinks and multimedia such as live action, music sound effects and incorporation of organisational signature elements such as slogans, logotypes and packaging.
Ensure any type of aid or material is brief and contains only one message to avoid confusing the audience.
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Storytelling and use of humour Use storytelling to provide context and leave an impression in your audience’s mind.
Accomplished presenters illustrate their points with the use of stories to explain complicated ideas. Sharing a story connects the audience with the presenter; however, ensure your story underscores the point. As stories are easy for the audience to remember, add a good, short, interesting story or example to make your presentation memorable.
CREATE EFFECTIVE ELECTRONIC PRESENTATIONS Presentation software such as PowerPoint, Prezi and OpenOffice make it easy to improve the visual effect by applying movement or animations to individual items (graphics, titles or bullet points). Animations are the movements of the objects.
Animation, transitions and builds Avoid excessive use of slide transitions, animation, hyperlinks and multimedia.
A slide show can be enhanced using transitions and animations. Presentation software allows music, sounds or narration to be added to a slide show. Refer to http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl for a quick guide to designing effective PowerPoint presentations. Functional animation refers to motion that is directly related to your message; for example, a highlight arrow that moves around the screen to emphasise the major points in a technical chart. Keep the animations consistent throughout your presentation by using animation schemes and applying the same transition throughout the presentation. Transitions and builds are different from animation. Transitions control how one slide replaces another on the screen by adding motion between slides. Builds control the release of text, graphics and other elements on individual slides.
Hyperlinks Hyperlinks instruct your computer to jump from one slide to another slide in your presentation, to another program or to a website. Action buttons are pre-programmed hyperlink icons in the presentation software that enable you to link to another slide, another presentation file, any file on your computer or network or a website, or add a screen tip to the hyperlink. The screen tip indicates additional information that the viewer may need to know about the hyperlink.
Signature elements
Use thumbnails to check the overall design of your presentations.
Logos, slogans and packaging are the visual signature of an organisation. Think about the retailers in Australia and one or more images immediately come to mind. The logos, slogans, packaging, and presentation of displays and merchandise create the retailer’s brand image. Whenever you plan an electronic presentation or slide show for your organisation, include the company logo and reflect any other of the company’s signature elements (refer to Chapter 14) that are relevant to your presentation’s purpose. Consistent use builds familiarity, visibility and connections as your audience recognises the image and brand projected by the logo. The use of signature elements provides useful visual cues in a presentation. Well before your presentation, examine thumbnails of all your slides on one screen to check the overall design of your slide show for logic and consistent use of signature elements. Visual aids and materials are important signals designed to improve any presentation or speech. Since people receive messages in different ways, a delivery with a variety of presentation techniques makes a stronger impact than a delivery depending only on voice and gestures.
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CHAPTER 7 / Deliver presentations and speeches
Multimedia Multimedia includes elements such as audio files, video files, animations and video streaming. Multimedia software enables you to create business presentations, design interactive product demonstrations, tutorials, brochures, movies, cartoons, walk-through demonstrations, advertisements and other business applications. As you prepare your presentation you are able use separate software applications to design your multimedia support and then embed it into a slide presentation.
Incorporate multimedia to help the audience organise and integrate information.
Intellectual property The proliferation of digital means of presentation has seen an increase in the number of intellectual property lawyers. While this chapter does not seek to cover the legal aspects of business presentations, we do recommend you become familiar with the copyright legislation and avoid breach of copyright, slander, vilification, blasphemy, discrimination and other illegal activities. If you are using music or graphics created by someone else in a podcast, you may be responsible for paying royalties for the right to webcast that music. Podcasts consist primarily of voice. There are no copyright problems or licensing fees for your voice or someone else’s voice and delivering the original content on the podcast. If a guest agrees to speak on your podcast, they have granted you a licence to use their voice and distribute the content they speak within your podcast. For an original podcast that you create, signify that the material is copyrighted by stating at the end ‘Copyright 2019 by [Your Name or Company]’. The law entitles you to a personal copyright and it serves as a warning to someone who might be tempted to lift or steal your creation. 1. List four types of aids and materials that provide the audience with powerful images. 2. Describe the characteristics of a good visual aid. 3. Why should you become familiar with copyright legislation if you are using images owned by another person or entity?
CHECKPOINT 7.4
7.5 DELIVER THE PRESENTATION OR SPEECH When making a public presentation, there is little opportunity for the two-way give and take of conversation and group discussions, so it is harder for you to establish and maintain a relationship with the audience, and to engage their attention. Therefore, an oral presentation must combine all explanations, information, visual aids, choice of words, vocal qualities, body movement and nonverbal communication in a way that catches the audience’s attention and builds rapport. It must also, of course, be relevant and structured into the three parts shown in Exhibit 7.5.
EXHIBIT 7.5 ABC packaging technique
A
B
C
Attention-grabbing introduction
Backed-up by supportive body
Conclusion providing strong reinforcement
Establish and maintain a relationship with the audience. Vary voice pitch and character to complement and emphasise points, speaking slowly and clearly.
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AUDIENCE CENTREDNESS
Incorporate visual aids to keep the listener alert.
Presentations and speeches are designed to inform, entertain or persuade. Keep your audience focused and interested and let them see you know your material. View one of the TedX Talks at https://www.youtube.com > tedx talks for examples of techniques the speaker uses to connect with and hold the interest of their audience. The ABC packaging concept shown in Exhibit 7.5 illustrates how the three major parts of any successful presentation or speech gain interest and focus the audience. During your business presentation, focus the audience on key phrases about your topic and include only essential information. Check that your thoughtline attaches the top three or four points about the topic to your theme and make them consistently throughout the delivery. Engage your audience and maintain their attention with a few anecdotes and practical examples to illustrate a point. This will make it easier for them to understand complex issues, remember what it is that you have said and follow up your ideas to the conclusion. If you choose to use PowerPoint or Prezi slides, use only three or four bullet points per slide, and limit punctuation. Ensure the slide is easy to read by avoiding excessive use of capital letters, fancy fonts, animations and transitions. Text and background with contrasting colours with a clean, straightforward layout and consistent colour scheme are appropriate for business presentations. Keep the number of slides to a minimum to ensure that the presentation does not become too long and boring. Add variety by combining photos and graphs, and even embedding digitised videos with text to maintain audience interest. Remember, a slide show and any other materials are meant to be visual aids, not the focus of the presentation.
NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION The content of your talk and your physical and vocal behaviour all communicate something. Aim to establish and maintain a confident, wellpaced delivery that sounds natural and looks comfortable. A confident speaker appears natural and comfortable.
Engage your audience.
Speaking well requires more than careful planning and preparing. It also involves choosing a verbal and nonverbal communication style that feels natural and appropriate to the presentation. Be yourself and use nonverbal behaviour that matches your words. The first few times you give a business presentation or speech you may feel nervous or suffer stage fright. Experience and good preparation are the best strategies for overcoming this, and further advice is offered in the next section. A range of nonverbal behaviours can modify or change your spoken presentation by repeating, contradicting, substituting, complementing or accenting certain words. Some examples are: • posture • facial expressions • appearance and dress • hand, arm, shoulder and head gestures • voice quality, volume and articulation, and variation in the rate of speech. When you make a presentation, your audience has only one opportunity to take in your message. You must therefore speak clearly and at a suitable pace, and use nonverbal behaviour in a way that helps to convey your message to the audience. View one of the presentations from the TED ‘Before public speaking’ playlist at https://www.ted.com/playlists/226/before_public_speaking. Reflect on how the speaker structures the content, incorporates imagery and uses nonverbal communication to reinforce their verbal message and signals the end of the presentation.
ANXIETY OR STAGE FRIGHT Anxiety is a normal response to public speaking. It is usually worst right before and at the beginning of a speech. However, even nervousness can be useful. Replace any negative thoughts with positive ones 182 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
CHAPTER 7 / Deliver presentations and speeches and think about success. Consider stage fright as positive nervousness that provides the extra emotional or physical energy necessary to deliver the speech or presentation successfully. Know the topic and be aware of your audience and the situation. Avoid any surprises by checking all equipment to make sure it is available and in working order. This may include a Web conferencing system, a projection system, your laptop, electrical outlets, seating, pens, paper and anything else you might need.
Learn how to relax to remove unwanted body tension.
Breathing exercises As an exercise to improve breath control, breathe deeply, concentrating on the diaphragm rather than the lungs. Erect posture allows deep breathing (and creates a good impression, too). Movement before and during your presentation can ease muscle tension and assist breathing. Learning how to relax many parts of the body removes unwanted tension and ensures a smooth and measured delivery. As you wait to speak, squeeze your hands together and then release them or tighten and relax your leg muscles. Centred breathing, mental rehearsal and positive thinking in the planning stage are essential to a successful delivery. Relaxation can help anxiety, and it is worth finding a method you feel comfortable with. For example, some people focus on their positive and competent aspects. Others choose to breathe deeply. Nervousness is almost invisible if you act positively. Smile at your audience and someone is likely to smile back. This increases confidence and creates empathy between you and the audience. As you speak, act confident and you are likely to earn the audience’s respect.
Prepare well and practise your delivery to reduce anxiety.
Thorough preparation Thorough preparation and research reduce anxiety and stage fright, so make sure that you know the subject well. This will help you feel confident. Thorough preparation also helps you respond to any questions and challenges from the audience. Remind yourself that you have been asked to speak on the topic because of your knowledge and experience. Most people are more critical of their performance than the audience is. An audience appreciates your preparation, knowledge and willingness to address them. The key to overcoming stage fright is to know your subject well, and to practise delivering it. The more opportunities you have to practise – to speak at meetings, conduct a co-presentation or address a group of clients – the more your confidence and skill will increase. Consider joining a public speaking group, a drama society or a professional association to gain experience, confidence and skills for public speaking. 1. How can you overcome the lack of the two-way give and take of conversations and group discussions when you deliver a presentation? 2. How can you handle anxiety or stage fright? 3. Provide examples of nonverbal behaviour that can modify the meaning of the speaker’s words.
Present positively and dynamically.
CHECKPOINT 7.5
7.6 HANDLE DIFFICULT MEMBERS OF AN AUDIENCE Whenever you stand in front of an audience as a manager, trainer, specialist or guest speaker, members of that audience may ask questions to seek more information, clarify ideas or state their own views. Some of the questions may be difficult or intimidating. The person who asks the question may be one of the types shown in Exhibit 7.6. 183 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
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EXHIBIT 7.6 Types of people who question Questioners
Proposed solution
The hostile questioner
Rephrase the question minus the hot words and hostile tone.
Those who digress from the issue or topic
Remind them politely that you are discussing a different issue or topic.
Those who like to dominate the discussion
Draw others in the audience into the discussion by asking, ‘What do the rest of you think?’
Those with a hidden agenda
Remind them politely to stay with the context of the presentation and discussion.
Those who instead of asking a question make an extended comment
Observe the person’s speaking rate and when they take a moment for a breath interrupt with ‘Thanks for your comment … Next question?’
Those who ask a loaded question
Rephrase to defuse before answering by saying, ‘I understand your frustration with the recent changes. I believe what you are asking is …’ and then answer.
Intimidating questions Answer difficult or intimidating questions courteously and confidently.
Identify the type of questioner and respond appropriately.
Avoid panic and defensive responses.
Difficult or intimidating questions place you in a difficult situation. Irrespective of the purpose or intent of an intimidating question, you must still answer it. Diplomacy and politeness are the key words in this situation. Avoid being drawn into an irrelevant argument, discussion or side issue. Stay with the relevant issues and address the question in a constructive manner. An intimidating question might: • be critical of your research • be asked in a challenging or discourteous manner. Whenever an intimidating question is asked, take a moment to reflect on the question while considering the following: • Is the question relevant to what is being presented? • Is the question out of context? • Is the question simply a comment on what is being said? • Is the question too controversial? • Is the question simply promoting that person to the group? Think carefully about the question and the questioner. Both may provide sufficient insight to enable you to deal with the question. Some useful phrases to use as you handle difficult or intimidating questions are: • ‘Let’s deal with that question later.’ • ‘We will be dealing with that issue later, so can we keep that question until then?’ • ‘I simply do not know the answer. I will research it and get back to you.’ • ‘This question does not seem to really apply to the topic, so shall we move on?’ • ‘It sounds as though you have been through some difficulties.’ • ‘Can anybody else comment on this question?’ (This response involves the audience and provides you with a moment to ponder the question.) If you are asked a challenging question, avoid panic or defensive argument. The situation can be handled by not taking on your challenger. In a situation where you may know you are right, informing your challenger that they are wrong, or belittling them, is likely to inflame the situation.
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CHAPTER 7 / Deliver presentations and speeches It is preferable to use the strategies in Exhibit 7.6 to agree with your challenger and encourage further discussion with other audience members. You are then in the position of moderator for this particular issue, rather than being in conversation with the individual. This strategy means you are seen as being involved with the group and sharing information. Some tips for handling challenging questions are: 1. Avoid panic; take a moment to reflect on the question. 2. If you don’t know the answer, say that you will research the question and get back to the questioner. 3. When challenging questions are asked, involve the audience with a prompt along the lines of: ‘This is an excellent question. What do you think?’ 4. When a criticising question is asked, agree with the questioner on some level, no matter how small, as it helps establish rapport and shows you are open-minded. 5. Try to anticipate tricky or criticising questions – this strategy will help you come up with appropriate responses that reflect well on you as the speaker. Irrespective of how a question is asked, always be assertive, clear and polite with your answer. You may feel you are under attack. If so, remain calm and courteous at all times, as this will help to defuse what could become a volatile situation and prevent matters from deteriorating. The assertion skills described in Chapter 2, Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence, provide a number of strategies you can use. Questioning and feedback skills are particularly useful.
Remain courteous and calm at all times.
Noisy audiences Anxiety about public speaking or presentations affects everyone at some time. In fact, a number of people are quite paranoid about speaking in public or making presentations. This is quite normal. No matter how well prepared you are, there may be occasions when you will encounter a noisy audience. The noisy audience can be very disruptive and difficult. The action plan in Exhibit 7.7 provides some useful hints in coping with this situation.
Self-evaluate or appraise before and after your presentation.
EXHIBIT 7.7 Action plan: Noisy audiences Action by the deliverer
Result
Stop talking until silence resumes
Focuses on the noisy ones and makes them aware of how noisy and disruptive they are
Move closer to those making the noise
Makes the noisy members of the audience aware of your presence
Ask the remainder of the audience to ask for silence
Encourages the audience to collaborate with you by requesting noisy members to be quiet and allow them to listen
Ask questions of the noisy ones
Brings them back to the discussion
Use the names of the noisy ones
Involves them by making a personal connection and links them to you
Use positive nonverbal communication, including smiles
Reassures your audience you are in control
1. Difficult questioners: a. Identify four types of people who ask difficult questions. b. Propose a solution for each type. 2. Create a tip list for handling challenging questions. 3. List three actions you can take when an audience is noisy.
CHECKPOINT 7.6
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7.7 REVIEW THE PRESENTATION OR SPEECH Self-evaluation or review of your presentation provides you with invaluable feedback. You can evaluate before and after your speech or presentation. Self-appraisal lets you: • learn about your current level of competence • acknowledge what you did well • identify any areas for improvement. Effective speakers set standards for their performance. They try to present to the best of their ability. Appraising your own performance enables you to build and strengthen your current level of skill in speaking or making a presentation in public. Check that your speech achieves its objective – to inform, persuade or entertain or a combination of these. Does the content suit the audience? Consider how the: • introduction establishes the reasons for listening to the speaker • body stays focused and enthusiastic • conclusion remains concise, memorable or a call to action. By seriously self-appraising your planning and performance, you are coming to understand your strengths and weaknesses. This understanding enables you to build on your strengths and improve any areas of weakness that may have been identified in the checklists.
CONSTRUCTIVE FEEDBACK
Seek constructive feedback to enable you to improve your delivery performance.
CHECKPOINT 7.7
Constructive feedback informs and encourages the presenter and allows them to make changes that build on strengths and improve any areas of weakness. Before your speech, have a practice delivery with a friend or colleague and ask them for feedback. Constructive feedback before the presentation lets you make changes. After your speech or presentation, you can evaluate your planning and the way you presented, and identify any other changes you would like to make to your delivery style. From the point of view of the presenter, an evaluation sheet filled in by the audience provides instant feedback. The presenter can then appraise their performance. Without feedback, you will have to self-evaluate. Informal feedback, such as comments from the audience, also helps you evaluate your performance. Becoming an effective public speaker requires work. Speaking skills must be refined through practice. 1. What is the purpose of constructive feedback? 2. List two reasons for seeking feedback from others about your presentation or speech. 3. What should reviewers consider as they evaluate a presentation?
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CHAPTER 7 / Deliver presentations and speeches
LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 7.1 Discuss the purpose of different types of public speaking and presentations. In the workplace, you may sometimes have to speak on a work-related issue to a large group of people. The oral presentations you may be asked to make include introductions, instructions, team briefings, speeches of welcome or congratulation, brief oral reports and formal presentations. Usually, such presentations aim to inform, persuade or entertain the audience. To achieve these aims, you need to plan well and present your material confidently. 7.2 Plan the speech or presentation with a connecting theme. Careful planning allows you to present your main points clearly. Research your topic and arrange your main points in a logical structure. Prepare an interesting introduction, a body that develops the main points and a stimulating conclusion. Consider your audience, their age, interests and reason for being at the presentation. Select relevant information appropriate to the purpose, audience and context of your presentation or speech. Connect your main ideas with a thoughtline. The language you use should be straightforward and neither too difficult nor too easy. Ensure that your information is ethical (truthful, honest and accurate) and avoids misrepresenting and stereotyping any groups in society. 7.3 Describe four steps to follow as you write a speech or presentation. The first step is to structure and write the presentation. Then rewrite it for the ear, practise and revise it, and organise the visual aids and support materials. 7.4 Use electronic presentations, aids, materials and examples to enhance audience understanding of key concepts and central ideas. Effective electronic presentations or slide shows fully engage your audience and emphasise important concepts through visual representation of data, illustrations, narratives, videos
and virtual objects. Animation, transitions, hyperlinks and multimedia can heighten your audience’s interest in the presentation; however, too many may distract them from your message. The aim of any aid is to reinforce your main points, so choose and illustrate them effectively. 7.5 Deliver a speech or presentation confidently. As you deliver the speech or presentation, express yourself clearly and audibly. A friendly voice and a smile also help to engage your audience. Enthusiasm, humour, gestures and facial expressions attract the audience’s attention. Vary your tone and speed to avoid a monotonous delivery. Eye contact, an essential element of a good presentation or speech, engages the audience’s attention at the start of the speech and secures their interest and respect throughout. Dress appropriately, as physical appearance shapes first impressions. 7.6 Outline strategies for handling difficult audience members. There are occasions when audience members ask difficult or intimidating questions. Find an opportunity to agree with the questioner at some level or to find some point of agreement. This can be an invaluable tool as it can help to defuse a contentious situation. Assertive strategies and open, closed and reflective questions help you handle the difficult or intimidating question or a noisy audience. 7.7 Review your performance to identify strengths and address weaknesses (if any). Evaluate your own performance and how the audience viewed your presentation. Before the presentation you can evaluate the quality of your preparation. After the presentation, evaluate your voice, nonverbal communication, resources, timing and rapport with the audience. The results of the evaluation should be used to improve any weaknesses and build on your strengths.
KEY TERMS body briefing conclusion
constructive feedback impromptu speech introduction
manuscript speech nonverbal behaviours podcast
prepared speech stage fright thoughtline
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LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Work in groups for this exercise a. Each person in the group writes down two topics for a speech on a card or small piece of paper. Choose any appropriate subject, such as your favourite sport or pastime, a pet hate or the power of the media. b. Shuffle the cards and place them face down. Each member of the group selects a card and gives an impromptu two-minute speech on either of the two topics listed on it. As you speak, follow the PREP formula. 2. Assume you work as the manager of a medium-sized travel agency. Your agency has booked more Virgin Airlines flights over the past 12 months than any other travel agency in the world. As part of your reward for this
achievement, Richard Branson himself is coming to visit your travel agency in three weeks’ time. When you hear the news, you immediately start preparing a speech to deliver to your staff. You must inform them of when Richard Branson will arrive, what will happen during his visit, who will be responsible for the range of tasks to be completed on the day, and what pre-visit arrangements need to be made. Prepare and deliver a speech for this information session. Invent the necessary details. 3. Online presentations a. Why are podcasts and video clips replacing other types of presentations? b. How can you show the audience the progression of ideas in a podcast?
GROUP ACTIVITY Work in groups of three. Your task is to prepare and deliver a persuasive co-presentation to the larger group. Assume you are a team of inventors who have just finished work on the prototype for a new washing machine that uses half the water and half the power of the average household washing machine. In addition, it doesn’t need any laundry powders or liquids because it removes dirt by – a world first – penetrating laser beams (which do not damage the items being washed). You are pitching your invention to senior management at Whirlaway. In your briefing you will need to emphasise: 1. the product’s features 2. the advantages this washing machine has over other machines
3. the benefits Whirlaway gains by purchasing your idea 4. the benefits Whirlaway gains by being the sole global manufacturer and retailer of the washing machine. During the co-presentation your team should instruct the audience in how the machine works, provide a visual image and explain how easy it will be to sell to the public. Task Part A – Work together to plan the presentation. Part B – Before your presentation, write a short memo or written summary to leave with your audience at the end of the presentation. Part C – Deliver the co-presentation.
CASE STUDY FASDEL TRANSPORT COMPANY Ari is one of the supervisors for the Supply Chain Solutions Group of the FASDEL Transport Company. Recently, Ari gave a speech at a gathering of supervisors from all the interstate branches of FASDEL. Ari’s team was recently involved in a pilot program designed to improve customer service standards. The initiative for the program came from Ari and he was satisfied with the outcome. His
speech explained the idea behind the program, how it was being carried out and the positive results they had achieved. Ari thoroughly prepared and practised his presentation and felt satisfied with it. However, he was very disappointed with his colleagues’ reactions to his speech. He felt confronted and attacked when some
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CHAPTER 7 / Deliver presentations and speeches
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members of the audience started to ask challenging questions. You are Ari’s line manager. You decide to hold a short one-on-one training session with Ari to help him better adapt to handling challenging questions. You think Ari may also appreciate some hints and tips on appraising his own performance after a presentation.
Questions 1. What hints and cues would you give Ari to appraise his own performance? Create a checklist of appropriate hints and tips. 2. Prepare a set of guidelines to help you train Ari, which he can keep for future reference.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Anderson, Chris, 2017. TED TALKS The Official TED Guide to Public Speaking, Nicholas, Brealey Publishing, London, UK. Beebe, Steven A. & Beebe, Susan J. 2017. A Concise Public Speaking Handbook, 5th edn, Pearson, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Creative Spirits. 2017. Aboriginal culture – Spirituality – Welcome to Country & Acknowledgement of Country, https://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/ spirituality/welcome-to-country-acknowledgement-ofcountry, viewed 19 November 2017. Fensholt, M.F. 2006. The Francis Effect: The Real Reason You Hate Public Speaking and How To Get Over It, Oakmont Press, Ontario, CA. Gallo, Carmine. 2014. Talk Like TED: The 9 Public-Speaking Secrets of the World’s Top Minds, St Martin’s Press, New York, NY. Hobson, Neville. 2009. How to Create Effective Podcasts to Engage Your Audience, http://www.slideshare.net/neville/ effective-podcasting, viewed 26 February 2018. Lucas, S. 2014. The Art of Public Speaking, 12th edn, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. Maxey, C. & O’Connor, K.E. 2006. Present Like a Pro: The Field Guide to Mastering the Art of Business, Professional, and Public Speaking, St Martin’s Griffin, New York, NY.
National Communication Association. 2017. Ethics in Public Speaking, https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_stand-upspeak-out-the-practice-and-ethics-of-public-speaking/s0502-ethics-in-public-speaking.html, viewed 27 November 2017. OWL Purdue Online Writing Lab. Designing an Effective PowerPoint Presentation: Quick Guide, https://owl.english. purdue.edu/owl/resource/686/01/, viewed 4 March 2018. Reconciliation Australia. 2017. Welcome to and Acknowledgement of Country, https:// www.reconciliation.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/ Welcome-to-and-Acknowledgement-of-Country.pdf, viewed 23 November 2017. Speech Tips Page. How to Write a Speech, http:// www.speechtips.com/how-to-write-a-speech.html, viewed 7 February 2018. TED. 2017. Ideas Worth Spreading playlist, https:// www.ted.com/playlists/226/before_public_speaking, viewed 26 February 2018. TedX Talks. Ideas from Communities Around the World, https://www.youtube.com/user/TEDxTalks, viewed 12 February 2018. training.gov.au, BSBCMM401: Make a Presentation, https:// training.gov.au/Training/Details/BSBCMM401, viewed 3 September 2018.
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DEVELOP NEGOTIATION AND CONFLICT MANAGEMENT SKILLS
CHAPTER
8
Your Learning Journey
t Wha
on? otiati g e n is
STYLES
8.2 STRATEGIES
INFLUENCES
Chapter 8
8.1
NEGOTIATION options + consequences
win-win / win-lose lose-lose / lose-win
power / emotional intelligence
conflict avoidance / capitulation no compromise / compromise
Different options - different outcomes Compromise (win-win or win-lose)
8.4 MANAGING
8.5 8.6 Here is a CONFLICT MAP it really provides a clear picture of the issues/conflict
CONSTRUCTIVE BEHAVIOURS ...personal qualities can affect negotiation + strategy
Collaboration (win-win)
CONFLICT
Competition (win-lose)
...understand the cause + the levels before ‘crisis’ hits Responses can be affected by ingrained behaviours
success = emotional intelligence Listen, focus on the problem + work together
8.3
3 Stages Pre / Formal / Post negotiation Focus on mutual interests + value
Accommodation (win-lose) Withdrawal (lose-lose)
Options are influenced by? EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
THE CONTEXT
INTEREST-BASED negotiation
CH 9
Next IMPLEMENT + MONITOR A SAFE WORKPLACE
COMMUNICATION / NEGOTIATION SKILLS
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CHAPTER 8 / Develop negotiation and conflict management skills
LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 8.1 explain what negotiation is and the likely effect of different negotiation strategies and personal styles 8.2 discuss five basic negotiating options and their consequences 8.3 explain the ‘fair go’ approach of interest-based negotiation 8.4 explain how to manage conflict without damaging relationships 8.5 identify personal qualities and conflict management strategies that facilitate constructive response to conflict 8.6 chart common interests and concerns in a conflict map.
8.1 WHAT IS NEGOTIATION? Negotiation is a process in which two or more parties try to resolve differences, solve problems and reach agreement. Good negotiation meets as many interests as possible with an agreement that is durable. It deals with any conflict before it escalates and aims to avoid damage to relationships. As the negotiators exchange information, discuss alternatives, and make offers and counter offers, communication should be a two-way street. The outcome from an effective negotiation is a mutually acceptable agreement that achieves the best possible outcome for both parties.
NEGOTIATION STRATEGIES Although negotiation has a specific purpose – to reach agreement – it does not always achieve this aim. Before attempting to negotiate, consider the differences between the following four strategies in Exhibit 8.1.
Focus on interests rather than positions to negotiate agreements beneficial to both parties.
Engage in win–win strategies to meet the needs of both parties.
EXHIBIT 8.1 Negotiation strategies Strategy
Outcome
1. Win–win strategies aim to meet the needs of both parties, not to win positions or gain victories at one party’s expense.
Satisfies the needs and gains commitment of both parties to the settlement negotiated. Assertive communication, ‘I’ messages, good verbal and nonverbal communication and careful listening all help to achieve it.
2. Win–lose strategies result in the party who initiates the conflict being satisfied and the other dissatisfied.
Focuses on the initiator’s problem to the exclusion of the other’s. The initiator wins. Many people who adopt this strategy use a confusing presentation or a dominating style of speech and body language.
3. Lose–win strategies give a situation in which the initiator is dissatisfied and the other is satisfied.
Means the losing party usually makes too many concessions. In an extreme case, the win–lose and the lose–win styles of negotiation can lead to a deadlock followed by the lose–lose result.
4. Lose–lose strategies lead to situations where agreement cannot be reached – both parties walk away from the negotiation dissatisfied.
Occurs when the objectives of both parties are too rigid, or when both parties are unable to collaborate. A third party may mediate to help them reach a solution, or arbitrate and make the decision on behalf of both parties. Both sides may lose.
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Move towards positive outcomes through an understanding of the different negotiation strategies, your personal style in negotiations and the other party’s personal negotiation style. Respond clearly to the real message in a negotiation.
FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE
Each negotiation strategy is named after the outcome it is likely to produce: win–win, win–lose, lose–win or lose–lose. Each strategy has a different result. The first strategy lets both parties win; the second and third make one party win and one lose; the fourth strategy has both parties lose. In any negotiation, be aware of your own and the other person’s objectives and expectations. Keep your objectives reasonable and try to avoid the lose–lose outcome.
PERSONAL STYLES IN NEGOTIATION Whenever people come together to negotiate, they bring their own personal styles, and these affect the way they communicate and handle the conflict. The following classification (Hellreigel et al. 1988) shows how personal style can help or hinder a negotiation and how it can cause, prevent or resolve conflict: • Self-denying people may be difficult to negotiate with because they are introverted, hide their feelings and ideas and are reticent with information, especially feedback. • Self-protecting people use diversionary tactics, such as discussing other people or side-tracking to other issues, to hide their true feelings and their ideas. • Self-exposing people wish to be the centre of attention and may demand this attention by speaking loudly, speaking over others, using attention-seeking body language, or ignoring feedback and others’ views. • Self-bargaining people will show you their feelings and ideas if you show yours first and wait until you lead them into negotiation before they open up; they only negotiate when others initiate the process. • Self-actualising people are the ideal negotiators, as they want information and feedback from others and present information and feedback constructively to aid the negotiation process and to achieve goals and results without any conflict. If you can recognise what style someone is using in the negotiation and conflict management processes, you will become more capable of distinguishing the real message from how it is delivered. This skill will also help you to respond clearly.
Styles of conflict A conflict style is a consistent pattern that you tend to use when you negotiate a disagreement with others. It can be very helpful, when negotiating conflict, to understand the different conflict styles. According the University of Notre Dame, there are five styles of conflict resolution. 1. Conflict avoidance – This style involves the negotiator avoiding or removing themselves from the conflict. This is a ‘stick your head in the sand’ strategy, where someone pretends the conflict hasn’t happened and there’s nothing wrong, or they refuse to talk about the situation/ problem or negotiate. No consideration is given to other people involved. This strategy involves no cooperation or courage. 2. Capitulation – This strategy is about giving in to the other party. It requires a high level of cooperation but little courage. This style can end a conflict in the short term; but, as it doesn’t address the concerns of the person giving in, it can lead to resentment in the long term. 3. No compromise – This strategy is all about ‘standing your ground’. It’s a ‘win at all costs’ strategy that requires courage but shows little consideration or respect for the other people involved. While this strategy might win a conflict, it can damage relationships and create longterm issues of resentment and further conflict. 4. Compromise – This strategy is about finding common ground. It requires courage and consideration of other points of view. Bigger issues are negated but smaller issues are
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CHAPTER 8 / Develop negotiation and conflict management skills
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compromised on or let go. This involves both parties compromising on some things to find a middle-ground solution. 5. Collaboration – This style produces resolutions that give each side what they want. It requires creative thinking, attentive listening, a high level of consideration for all parties and a large amount of courage. The collaborative negotiator teases out the areas of agreement and finds common goals to help them work towards a solution that meets the needs of all parties. Source: https://www.notredameonline.com/resources/negotiations/the-five-styles-of-conflict-resolution/#. W-tmaeJoRaR, viewed 14 November 2018.
ASK YOURSELF: What type of strategy do you tend to use? Consider a conflict you have been involved with recently. Which style of negotiation did you use? How about the person you were in conflict with? Might the issues have been resolved differently if you had used a different strategy?
POWER IN NEGOTIATION When an organisation delegates work to its people to get the job done, it gives them power to act. Power may be used to influence and, in some cases, to control people. It can also be used to bring about change. Power can be exerted over one person or a group by another person or group. Used well, power achieves good communication and results. Power can be used to manipulate others. The likely result is tension and conflict. Six types of workplace power are shown in Exhibit 8.2. They operate in any workplace, either singly or in combination. Perception of what power is and how it should be used varies between people and organisations. Acknowledgement of, and deference to, power depends on peoples’ perception of power and its use.
Use power effectively to make decisions and take action.
EXHIBIT 8.2 Power at work Type
Base of power
Example
Legitimate power
Legitimate power is based on a person’s position or role in an organisation. Their authority and control over resources give them power that is acknowledged by others.
Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of a large organisation
Expertise power
People who have more skills and strengths than others have expertise power; their colleagues defer to them.
Graphic designer or computer expert
Reward power
Reward power is exerted by someone who has control over resources desired by others. Such a person can influence and manipulate others.
Employer who distributes a bonus annually
Coercive power
Coercive power is exerted by those who use their authority or any force (emotional or physical) against the interests of the other party.
Team leader who allocates duties, hours of work, overtime and holidays in ways that enforce compliance
Referent power
Referent power is held by someone who is respected, admired, liked or personally identified with by others.
Cathy Freeman, who is admired and respected for her achievements
A person who has power, particularly over the allocation and use of resources, must be willing and able to use that power to make decisions and take action. If they refuse, or are unable to do this, conflict will arise because processes that are essential to the running of the workplace do not take place. 193 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
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EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE IN NEGOTIATION Use emotional intelligence to communicate, listen, understand and respond effectively.
A person who is emotionally intelligent is able to acknowledge the underlying emotional factors at play, as well as the issue and people in the negotiation. The capacity to be self-aware, to control and express your own emotions and at the same time have the social awareness to acknowledge how others interact and handle the interpersonal relationships is invaluable in a negotiation. ‘Two of the most important skills that negotiators require for effective social awareness are active listening and reading nonverbal _ 2016, p. 58) cues. These skills foster empathy.’ (Kelly & Kaminskieneb The verbal and nonverbal communication of emotionally intelligent negotiators is open, confident and oriented to the needs and concerns of both parties. They are able to manage and negotiate conflict by handling difficult people and awkward situations, bringing disagreements into the open and encouraging win–win solutions. Throughout a negotiation they use: • open and non-threatening body language and vocal qualities • attending listening to focusing on the speaker(s) • encouraging listening to invite the speaker(s) to continue • reflective listening, paraphrasing and summarising to clarify and understand • active listening to show empathy with the speaker • positive informative and immediate feedback that focuses on behaviour to describe what has been done, or needs to be done. Goleman (2005) identifies the competencies associated with relationship management as ‘influence, inspirational leadership, and ability to be a change-catalyst, ability to create and maintain networks, and where appropriate the ability to build effective constituencies’. Emotionally intelligent negotiators promote a friendly and cooperative atmosphere, collaborate, share information and maintain a balance between the task and relationships. Positive feedback in a negotiation acknowledges the role and contribution of the other person and encourages the repetition of desired behaviour. Feedback that judges or threatens the other person damages the relationship. For example, when Jack, an account executive with over 10 years’ experience returned from his lunch break 15 minutes late, he was shocked to find himself being rebuked, asked why he was late and told by his manager he was not a team player in front of his colleagues. The manager’s lack of social awareness and the social skills underpinning relationship management humiliated Jack and damaged the relationship between Jack and his manager. As discussed in Chapter 2, open questions invite the other person to talk, while closed questions invite the other person to give a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ response. Probing questions are used to gain more details and mirror questions show interest in what the other person has said. ‘Why’ questions are avoided because they may make other people in the negotiation feel defensive and justify their position rather than seek new ideas or further understanding.
Barriers to negotiation When you are in a negotiation or conflict situation, psychological barriers may arise. Psychological barriers to negotiation may include fear of being taken for a ride, wanting to be liked, wanting to be ‘nice’, lack of self-confidence and fear of conflict or confrontation. Other psychological barriers include guilt about wanting to be assertive, feeling intimidated by so-called powerful people and fear of losing face with the boss or colleagues. Viewing a negotiation as a battle and trying to win at all costs rather seeing the negotiation as an opportunity to build a relationship and find and claim value from a situation is a common barrier. Another is asking too few questions or not asking the right questions to explore the thoughts and ideas of the other party. The result is misunderstanding what the party values and wants. For example, a 194 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
CHAPTER 8 / Develop negotiation and conflict management skills customer may value quality, service, delivery, response time and payment terms more than they value price. By focusing only on price in a negotiation without asking about other value considerations, a sales professional may lose a sale. Playing the ‘blame game’ is another barrier that makes the negotiation situation difficult. If one party blames the other it is likely to create defiance or withdrawal. The likely outcome is competition or withdrawal rather than cooperation, value creation and agreement. Barriers block empathy, lead to defensiveness and lower people’s self-esteem. When either party uses them, conflict is increased rather than resolved. In contrast, the opportunity to resolve conflict and find new opportunities for cooperation is enhanced when strategies such as active listening, ‘I’ messages (as discussed in Chapter 2) and assertive behaviour are used to increase understanding and show empathy. An emotionally intelligent negotiator has the ability to identify their emotions and apply them to thinking and problem solving as they negotiate. They avoid barriers to negotiation because they are able to manage and regulate their own emotions and have the social skills to build consensus and support as the negotiation focus on the interests of both parties. 1. Negotiation: a. What are the outcomes of a good negotiation? b. List five negotiation strategies. 2. Negotiation styles: a. Briefly discuss five personal styles that might be used in a negotiation. b. Which negotiation style is likely to be used in a win–win negotiation? 3. Power, negotiation skills and barriers to negotiation: a. List five types of workplace power. b. How would you describe the verbal and nonverbal communication skills of good negotiators? c. Identify three barriers to negotiation.
8.2 NEGOTIATING OPTIONS In the negotiating process, the parties involved may choose one of five different negotiation options. Each has a different possible outcome. A skilful negotiator is able to identify them and recognise which one is being used by the other person (see Exhibit 8.3). 1. Compromise means to settle differences through concessions made by one or both parties. A compromise usually produces a win–win or win–lose result. When the settlement meets the needs and goals of both parties (win–win), both are satisfied with the outcome. When the solution meets the needs and goals of only one party (win–lose), the other party is dissatisfied with the outcome. 2. Collaboration involves people cooperating to produce a solution satisfactory to both parties (win–win). It improves personal relationships and allows the exploration of new ideas. Permanent solutions and commitment to them can be achieved this way. On the other hand, it is time-consuming and demands good negotiating skills on each side. 3. Competition often leads to one party gaining advantage over the other, if it can negotiate at the expense of the other’s needs. Since the competitive approach usually produces a win–lose result, it is bad for personal relationships. The solution is likely to be temporary, as there is no commitment from the losing party, so the problem will occur again. It also leaves the losing side in a difficult situation. 4. Accommodation means that only one party is willing to oblige or adapt to meet the needs of the other. It produces a win–lose outcome. However, this method is useful for negotiating on minor matters.
CHECKPOINT 8.1
Recognise five different negotiating options; communicate positively and work towards agreement.
Improve relationships through collaboration.
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EXHIBIT 8.3 The probable impact of negotiation options and conflict resolution strategies on relationships and goal achievement High importance ACCOMMODATE lose–win
COLLABORATE win–win
COMPROMISE
WITHDRAW lose–lose
Low importance
COMPETE win–lose
High importance
The result can go one way or the other. It is suitable if the accommodating party does not really care about the loss. However, the negotiating parties may not bother to look for creative solutions. With this negotiation method, points of view are easily swayed. 5. Withdrawal (avoidance) is a negotiation method that makes both parties lose, because one party retracts their point of view or backs away from the situation. This means that negotiation is broken off before either party can find an acceptable solution. Such dissatisfaction may lead to conflict in the future.
THE NEGOTIATION CONTEXT Consider the context.
The choice of negotiating option will be influenced by the context in which you negotiate, your emotional intelligence and by your range of personal communication and negotiation skills. The skills of self-awareness, self-regulation, social awareness and relationship management facilitate collaboration and movement towards an ‘I win–you win’ agreement. As alternatives are suggested, effective use of speaking, nonverbal communication, listening and questioning skills help both parties to explore and make satisfying and productive offers. Rather than talking too much, not listening or failing to pay close attention to the other party’s body language, skilled negotiators pay close attention to what is said (and not said), are sensitive to nonverbal cues and have the self-control and emotional intelligence to avoid taking things personally. Refer to Exhibit 8.4 for an example of a negotiation in the win–win context and examples in other different contexts. Column two shows (in bold) the effect of a chosen negotiation option on the negotiating parties. Negotiators who choose the negotiation option of collaboration focus on a win–win solution. They aim for mutual adjustments and work towards creating value to satisfy the interests of both sides at the lowest cost to one another.
EXHIBIT 8.4 The consequence of a chosen negotiation option Option
Context
Collaboration Consequence: I win, you win
Two training companies are involved in information technology training. Both are competing for limited Commonwealth Government funding of programs. The training companies arrange a meeting and, after much deliberation and negotiation, decide to join forces and collaborate in tendering and allocating resources to meet the demand.
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CHAPTER 8 / Develop negotiation and conflict management skills
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Option
Context
Compromise Consequence: I win and lose, you win and lose
The manager of a small organisation requests ideas for a sales promotion. Two employees each make presentations to the manager. He suggests they negotiate and make a decision on which is the better proposal. During negotiations, the two employees compromise and agree to present a proposal that includes ideas from both submissions.
Competition Consequence: I win, you lose
Two divisional managers, Emily and Sam, have arranged staff meetings on the same day. Secretarial assistance is required to prepare agendas and record minutes of the meetings. It will not be possible for the secretarial staff to accommodate both. One of the meetings will have to be moved to another day. The two divisional managers confer and the competition over available resources results in Sam having to postpone his staff meeting to later in the week. Sam resolves that, should this situation happen again, he will make certain he is not the one to postpone his meeting.
Accommodation Consequence: I lose, you win
Two teachers have been given programs that result in one teacher having all senior classes and the other only junior classes. The teacher who has been given the junior classes feels there should be a more equitable distribution of classes as the senior students are more interesting to teach. After discussion, and in consultation with the head teacher, the teacher who has been given the senior classes agrees to change her program and both teachers are given a mixture of senior and junior classes.
Withdrawal or avoidance Consequence: I lose, you lose
Two business partners have agreed they need more space and more exposure to passing customers. One partner wants to rent a large office in an upmarket area at a rent considerably more than they are paying at present. The other wants to rent larger premises in the area they are presently in, stating they are known there and the small increase would be affordable. After three meetings to negotiate the move into larger premises, one partner decides it is not worth the effort and refuses to discuss the matter. Withdrawal from the negotiations means negotiations break down and they remain in the smaller premises. Neither is satisfied.
1. Negotiating options: a. Identify five negotiating options. b. What are the likely outcomes from each? 2. What is the focus for negotiators who use the collaboration negotiation option? 3. Describe the characteristics of an emotionally intelligent negotiator.
CHECKPOINT 8.2
8.3 INTEREST-BASED NEGOTIATION Interest-based negotiation allows people to listen and focus on the problem, work together to generate options and choose the solution that best meets the interests of those involved in the negotiation. An acknowledgement to work together for mutual outcomes is the essence of the interest-based approach: it acknowledges the Australian ethic of a ‘fair go’. Everyone is treated equitably.
FOCUS ON MUTUAL INTERESTS AND VALUE The interest-based approach to negotiation explains interests clearly rather than concealing them behind hidden agendas. The parties to the negotiation are willing to identify the reasoning behind the other party’s suggestions, be open minded, be reasonable and willing to reconsider a position. They focus on the solutions and not on past events. A three-stage approach – pre-negotiation, formal negotiation, post-negotiation – to interest-based negotiation is outlined in Exhibit 8.5. Nine steps are followed across the three stages. The parties to the negotiation must define specific, observable criteria on which to evaluate alternatives and select the best alternative from the alternatives generated in the negotiation. 197 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK
EXHIBIT 8.5 Interest-based negotiation process Step 1
Identify negotiation key stakeholders. Key stakeholders have direct influence on agreement outcomes.
Step 2
Lay out negotiation parameters. Circumstantial limitations, key stakeholder expectations and psychological barriers form parameters for negotiation outcomes.
Step 3
Choose an approach. Emphasise and focus on interests rather than positions. Everyone expects a fair go when negotiating.
Step 4
Set negotiation SMART goals (specific, measureable, achievable, realistic and time-referenced). Goals are realised in action.
Step 5
Gauge trust and confidence. Address the issues, separate the people from the problem and maintain a positive relationship. Trust and confidence ease negotiation.
Step 6
Identify negotiation strategies of parties. Apply interpersonal communication and relationship management skills to work towards win–win. Behaviour in negotiation influences outcomes.
Step 7
Evaluate negotiation interaction skills. Aim to satisfy both parties’ needs, expect each party to consider the view of the other and be open to joint explorations and interests. A skilful negotiator relates with empathy, clarity and assertiveness.
Step 8
Use objective criterion. Invent options for mutual gain and create alternatives based on win–win. Satisfy as many mutual interests as possible.
Step 9
Follow through on agreement. Trust and confidence are cultivated when parties to negotiation follow through on agreement.
PRENEGOTIATION STAGE
FORMAL NEGOTIATION STAGE
POSTNEGOTIATION STAGE
The criteria differentiate the costs, benefits and impact of the possible alternatives. They are sorted into must have criteria and like to have criteria. Together, the negotiators choose the solution by evaluating the most promising alternatives from those generated against the criteria. The chosen alternative should meet criteria or standards such as cost, ease or difficulty of implementation, availability of resources and facilities, level of risk to health 198 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
CHAPTER 8 / Develop negotiation and conflict management skills and safety, time, money, efficiency and capability. The chosen alternative may need to be improved and refined to ensure the agreement is sustainable. The foundation of the interest-based negotiation method is the parties’ genuine desire to collaborate to deal with the issue or problem through cooperation rather than competition and the winning of a position. 1. Why should you negotiate on interests? 2. What is the essence of the interest-based approach? 3. What interaction skills are held by a skilful negotiator?
CHECKPOINT 8.3
8.4 WHAT IS CONFLICT? Conflicts at work can arise due to many factors, including but not limited to: task allocation, personality clashes, disagreements regarding problem solving and lack of cooperation in meeting deadlines. Constructive management of conflict addresses the issue and builds a positive climate between team members. Destructive conflict often ignores the real issues between the conflicting parties and the parties may resort to personal attacks, threats and a general tone of hostility. Conflict is a part of life. At work it may arise when a team is setting rules, analysing tasks and defining problems. Constructive workplace conflict opens communication and forces important issues into the open; generates shared, productive and mutually beneficial decisions; and builds better relationships between those involved in the conflict. Destructive conflict most often produces negative results due to narrowly defined or inflexible positions or a power struggle when one party remains determined to have their way on an issue – their rigid position causes the other party to lose. Poor conflict management skills may mean conflict is unresolved. The result of ongoing, unresolved conflict is low morale, poor performance, absenteeism, high staff turnover, damage to property and company reputation, early retirement, grievances and legal expenses. Poor conflict management skills flow from feelings of inadequacy, fear of change, lack of empathy and inability to understand the views of others. You will be better prepared to negotiate workplace conflict if you are able to implement the three-stage interest-based negotiation process described earlier in Exhibit 8.5. Answer the following questions before dealing with any conflict to make sure you understand what is happening. 1. What do I know about the situation and the other parties? 2. What is causing the conflict? 3. Is the problem a difference in facts, goals, methods or values? By understanding the real cause of the conflict, you will be better equipped to choose from the range of constructive responses suited to conflict management.
Stay alert for signs of discomfort and incidents.
LEVELS OF CONFLICT Conflict moves through several levels before it reaches the crisis level. At the first level, people experience discomfort, a feeling that things are not quite right. At the next level, an incident occurs. Emotions are not running high yet, but something has come between the people concerned. People who are aware of discomfort or an incident can use their communication skills to clarify the problem at this point, before the situation escalates to the next level – misunderstanding. A misunderstanding between individuals or groups can interfere with their relationship. It can arise over facts, or it may be about the goals or intentions of the parties involved. 199 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Once tension arises over the misunderstanding, the situation is very close to a crisis. When people feel anxious about talking, working or coming into contact with each other, emotions run high. Negative attitudes and any negative response (an outburst of anger, or avoidance of the other party) will lead to a crisis – the fifth level of conflict. By staying alert for signs of discomfort and incidents (the first and second levels of conflict), you will be able to use the most appropriate resolution strategy before the conflict moves to higher levels. The five levels of conflict – discomfort, incident, misunderstanding, tension and crisis – are illustrated in Exhibit 8.6.
TYPES OF RESPONSE
Display assertive behaviour to build mutual respect.
Responses to conflict are learned early in our childhood. These responses become habits and reactions that we tend to use without thought in our adult life. By recognising early behaviour patterns and by learning new ways to handle conflict, we can sometimes avoid repeating the conflicts of the past and respond more appropriately. Three types of response to conflict are shown in Exhibit 8.7. However, no matter the source of conflict or what level of conflict is involved, the key to conflict resolution is the capacity to communicate well. Effective communication allows the negative emotions, pressures and frustrations to be released. Differences can be appreciated and new information, ideas and change accepted. The outcome from a conflict situation, as with all interpersonal interaction (discussed in Chapter 2), is affected by the negotiators’ emotional intelligence and the way they use words, nonverbal communication, listening and questioning skills as well as their choice of communication channel. Aggressiveness leads to loss, submissiveness leads to loss and assertiveness leads to win–win outcomes.
Assertive behaviour
Use assertive statements when you need to make people aware of your rights.
As discussed in Chapter 2, assertive behaviour is constructive and helpful when conflict arises because the needs of both parties are acknowledged and dealt with. The flow response allows people to say what they mean and acknowledge other people’s rights to express opinions and feelings. The communication is assertive. Acting assertively in a conflict means standing up for your rights and expressing what you believe, feel and want in direct, honest and appropriate ways that respect others’ rights. Both parties are also more likely to understand one another and the situation. Assertive negotiators are both confident and considerate. The flow response helps them to keep the discussion going and facilitates mutually beneficial outcomes. They share their views by starting sentences with ‘I’ rather than ‘you’. Communication is factual rather than emotional. In conflict, ‘I’ messages (previously discussed in Chapter 2) are assertive statements that help to send a clear message about what you want or how you feel. They increase other people’s understanding of your situation and your point of view. Successful ‘I’ statements communicate in a non-threatening way. In Chapter 2, you also saw that an ‘I’ message could have two, three or four parts. In a conflict situation, the ‘I’ message has three parts. It states the other person’s action or behaviour, your response to the action and your preferred outcome. action + your response + your preferred outcome The ‘I’ message clearly states how the negotiation and the suggested result affect you. The other person receives an impartial message about this effect. The ‘I’ statement does not judge or put the other person down. Communication is continued on the basis of this statement and understanding. As you identify your needs and deal with the issues, discuss one specific issue at a time. The likely impact of an assertive ‘I’ message response to an aggressive message is shown in Exhibit 2.19 in Chapter 2.
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CHAPTER 8 / Develop negotiation and conflict management skills
EXHIBIT 8.6 Levels of conflict
CRISIS
TENSION
MISUNDERSTANDING
INCIDENT
DISCOMFORT
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK
EXHIBIT 8.7 Responses to conflict Type
Purpose
Behaviour
Intended outcome
Fight
To be in control and defend a position
Aggressive
I win–you lose
Flight
To escape the situation and its outcome
Submissive
I lose–you win
Flow
To acknowledge the situation and respond appropriately
Assertive
I win–you win
Non-assertive behaviour Avoid non-assertive behaviour – another term for aggressive or submissive behaviour.
CHECKPOINT 8.4
Non-assertive behaviour is another term for aggressive or submissive behaviour. By behaving in this way we fail to express honest feelings, thoughts and beliefs. Aggressive people usually try to win at all costs by dominating and humiliating others. Such behaviour shows little respect for others. Submissive people, by contrast, are unable to promote their point of view and even ignore their own needs. Assertion, ‘I’ messages and non-assertive behaviour are discussed more fully in Chapter 2. 1. Conflict: a. What is the next level of conflict after a misunderstanding? b. Why should a workplace conflict be handled rather than ignored? 2. Responses to conflict: a. Identify three typical responses to conflict. b. What is the likely outcome from each type of response? 3. ‘I’ statements and assertiveness: a. What is the purpose of an assertive ‘I’ statement? b. Briefly explain the difference between assertiveness and non-assertiveness.
8.5 CONSTRUCTIVE BEHAVIOURS Identify and develop the personal qualities of a person who is able to engage effectively in negotiation and conflict situations.
Successful negotiators are emotionally intelligent. They have the self-awareness, self-regulation, social awareness and relationship management skills to negotiate with confidence. They are empathic because they can see the situation from other points of view. Positive communication allows them to collaborate with another party (or parties) to reach a mutually beneficial agreement.
PERSONAL QUALITIES Each negotiation strategy and the personal qualities of those engaged in a negotiation or conflict affect the relationships between the people involved and their chances of achieving their goals.
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CHAPTER 8 / Develop negotiation and conflict management skills Good negotiators have good communication skills, create a positive communication climate and have some of the personal qualities listed in Exhibit 8.8. Their personal qualities affect their behaviour and the way they state their case, organise information, make proposals, discuss the issues and acknowledge the interests of the other party.
EXHIBIT 8.8 Personal qualities of a good negotiator of conflict Quality
Strategy
Ability to plan
Plan before negotiating; identify your own position and that of the other party
Capacity to think clearly under stress
Be aware of your stress level and know how to deal with it
Ability to be practical
Be flexible and solution-oriented; focus on the ‘big picture’ and all interests
Capacity to communicate well
Listen, question, read nonverbal messages, give feedback and speak clearly in the negotiating process
Ability to act assertively and with integrity
Approach the issue assertively and apply the skills of positive nonverbal communication, active listening, ‘I’ messages, feedback and empathy
Ability to identify the interests of each party
Separate the people from the problem; focus on the interests of both parties to work things out
Capacity to identify standards
Ensure that the result is based on objective standards
Willingness to follow up
Check agreement and take follow-up actions
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES Personal qualities also affect the choice of negotiation and conflict management strategy. The win–win strategies in Exhibit 8.9 inform and lead to open communication and acknowledgement of both parties’ interests. The win–lose strategies inflame the situation and lead to one or both parties to focus only on their own position. The interests of only one or neither party are satisfied.
EXHIBIT 8.9 Conflict management strategies Win–lose strategies
Win–win strategies
Avoidance involves flight: • refusing to talk and walking away • silencers such as crying, yelling or screaming, headaches, shortness of breath • non-negotiation by refusing to discuss or listen to the other side’s argument • giving up and responding passively as a victim
Assertion means: • stating your case clearly • assessing others’ needs properly • focusing on interests rather than positions • using ‘I’ statements to take responsibility for your own feelings and ideas • using open and mirror questions
Force and power play may involve: • emotional or physical to force a position on the other person • complaining, pointing the finger at someone else, and refusing to accept accountability and reach a resolution • controlling, bullying and manipulating
Straight talk means using: • empathy and being open to the other party’s interests and needs • active listening • positive nonverbal communication • ‘I’ statements to state thoughts and feelings objectively
Face-detracting involves: • treating the other party as untrustworthy or incompetent • embarrassing or damaging a party’s reputation • blaming and rejecting the other party’s views
Face-enhancing means: • protecting the other parties’ credibility • listening without interrupting and paraphrasing • affirming nonverbal communication – smiling, sincere voice, nodding and eye contact
>
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203
THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK
>
CHECKPOINT 8.5
Win–lose strategies
Win–win strategies
Verbal aggressiveness involves: • adversarial words and body language • verbally attacking and discrediting the other party • bullying, ridiculing, threatening and humiliating the other party • verbal manipulation, cynicism and arrogance
Active engagement means: • viewing disagreements as opportunities to reach agreement • presenting your point of view and showing interest in the other party’s position and point of view • preserving a positive communication climate while raising the issues
1. How would you describe the personal qualities of a person who is able to negotiate effectively in a conflict situation? 2. Win–win strategies: a. List four win–lose strategies. b. List four win–win strategies. c. What type of questioning skills would you use as you engage in a win–win conflict? 3. What characteristics of emotionally intelligent people enable them to negotiate successfully?
8.6 MAP THE CONFLICT Chart common needs and concerns in a conflict map.
A conflict map is a practical and useful way of finding the cause of the conflict. The cause may be a difference in facts, goals or values, or in methods of taking action. A map allows you to see the whole picture – your perception of the conflict, the other person’s perception and the issues involved. An example of a conflict map is shown in Exhibit 8.10; Exhibit 8.11 shows some of the points identified on a conflict map.
Steps to follow
Identify common threads and points of concern.
The first step is to prepare and read a conflict map. The purpose of the map is to: • Define the issue – to gain a clear idea of the issue/s to be mapped • Identify who is involved – to identify and group together people with shared needs and concerns • List each party’s main needs and concerns – to work out the win–win approach and generate appropriate solutions. As you read the map, draw together common threads and highlight points of special concern or importance. By preparing and reading the map together, each party in the conflict can see common threads and points of concern. Then the parties design the options and select the most appropriate one.
Design the options Various strategies can be used to design the options before taking action: • Brainstorm the options available. • Use Dewey’s reflective thinking process (refer to Chapter 23). • Use the decision-making agenda (refer to Chapter 23). • Divide, or ‘chunk’ the problem into small parts. • Use a trial-and-error approach.
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CHAPTER 8 / Develop negotiation and conflict management skills
EXHIBIT 8.10 Mapping a conflict
RESOLUTION When everyone is going in the same direction
THE ISSUE
ho
W
Wh
o Needs
Needs
rns
Conce
rns
Conce
o
Wh
Wh
o
Needs
Conce
rns
Conce
rns
Needs
For more information on brainstorming and the reflective thinking process, refer to Chapter 23, Organise and manage meetings.
Select the most appropriate option Before you can select the most appropriate option, it is important to link any similar or complementary options developed in the brainstorming session. The simplest way to do this on the map is to join similar options with a line. Then remove any options that are inappropriate. Analyse those that are left in terms of how well they will meet the main need or concern. Then list the options in the order in which they will be acted on.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK
EXHIBIT 8.11 Points to look for on a conflict map
Area where more information is needed
Leads worth following through
Special concerns, areas of difficulty
Common ground, similar needs and concerns
MAP SHOWS
New perspectives and insights
Hidden agendas, (hidden fears/payoffs)
Act on the chosen options Plan to take action.
CHECKPOINT 8.6
After the issue is defined, options generated and the most appropriate option chosen, take action. Set out: • what will be done • how it will be done • who will do it • when it will be completed • the expected results in an action plan. This is the working document for carrying out the chosen options. Keep the plan realistic and identify the time by which the options must be carried out. Unless you act on the options, the conflict will continue.
1. What is the purpose of mapping a conflict? 2. Identify three strategies you can use as you design the options. 3. Option actions: a. What should you look for as you choose the most appropriate option? b. Why is it important to decide what will be done, how it will be done, by whom and when together?
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CHAPTER 8 / Develop negotiation and conflict management skills
LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 8.1 Explain what negotiation is and the likely effect of different negotiation strategies and personal styles. Negotiation is a process through which two or more parties exchange ideas, thoughts and opinions as they try to resolve differences, solve problems and reach agreement. Win–win strategies negotiate the situation in the interests of both parties and base all bargaining on these interests; however, it succeeds only if both parties concentrate on problem-solving strategies and on communicating well. Win–lose strategies mean the initiator wins. Lose–win strategies leave the person who initiated the negotiation dissatisfied. Lose–lose strategies leave both parties dissatisfied and deadlocks may occur. Personal styles can help or hinder a negotiation. Selfdenying, self-protecting and self-exposing styles make it difficult for one party to evaluate the other party’s interests and issues. On the other hand, people who use selfbargaining and self-actualising styles communicate well with the other party. Once both parties understand one another, it is easier to negotiate their mutual interests. 8.2 Discuss the five basic negotiation options and their consequences. Five options for negotiating are compromise, collaboration, competition, accommodation and withdrawal. Those who withdraw have little chance of achieving their goals or of building relationships. Those who compete may achieve their goals at the expense of the relationship with the other party. Those who compromise are less likely to achieve their goals but more likely to maintain a good relationship with the other party. Those who accommodate adapt their needs to meet the needs of the other party. Those who collaborate are most likely to achieve mutually acceptable goals and maintain a good relationship with the other negotiator(s). 8.3 Explain the ‘fair go’ approach of interest-based negotiation. In interest-based negotiation, the parties identify their individual or shared interests, rather than focusing on their positions. The intention is to find the
best value based on each party’s without disadvantaging the other. Negotiation parameters (what is acceptable or unacceptable, possible or not possible) are set out together and interpersonal and relationship management skills are used to satisfy both parties’ needs. Objective criteria are agreed and used to evaluate and choose the option(s) that satisfy as many mutual interests as possible. 8.4 Explain how to manage conflict without damaging relationships. The five levels of conflict are discomfort, incident, misunderstanding, tension and crisis. A crisis is averted when people are willing to use the flow response. They acknowledge the situation and respond assertively to address the conflict before the discomfort, incident and misunderstanding levels cause tension and then a crisis. 8.5 Identify personal qualities and conflict management strategies that facilitate constructive response to conflict. Behaviour when negotiating a conflict is underpinned by the personal qualities of those in the conflict. Personal qualities such as the ability to plan, to think clearly under stress and communicate assertively help the parties to state their case, propose alternatives and acknowledge the interests of the other party. Four conflict management strategies are win–win, lose– win, win–lose and lose–lose. Practical win–win activities such as straight talk, face-enhancing and raising issues in a positive way help the parties to create value and reach mutually agreed outcomes. 8.6 Chart common interests and concerns in a conflict map. A map is useful when you need to determine the cause of a conflict. It highlights who is involved, their needs and concerns, and the issues. Using the map, the parties in the conflict can work together to design appropriate options and act on them to solve the conflict before the conflict escalates from the discomfort level through the incidents, misunderstandings and tension level to crisis.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK
KEY TERMS compromise conflict map confrontation
accommodation collaboration competition
flow response negotiation options
power tension withdrawal
LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Work in small groups Negotiate on interests. Part A a. Create a list of recent negotiations in which you have been involved. b. For each situation, discuss your reasons for negotiating. c. Were the interests and concerns of each party taken into account? Part B a. Choose one of the negotiations from your list and decide which strategies were used for it. b. Which personal negotiation style did you use? 2. Power Write a one-page information report. In your report:
a. List five types of power and give examples of how each could be used in the workplace. b. Discuss the similarities between coercive and reward power, and list two differences between them. c. Discuss the similarities between legitimate power and expertise power and list two differences between them. 3. Typical responses to conflict Work in small groups. a. Discuss the three types of response to conflict – fight, flight and flow. b. List some examples of fight, flight and flow behaviour. c. What is the likely outcome from each of the three types of response to conflict? d. Describe the win–win approach to conflict resolution. In your opinion, what are its main benefits?
GROUP ASSIGNMENT Part A: Reflect on a conflict situation
Part B: Map the conflict
1. Think of a conflict that has been handled in a destructive way. Discuss in your group the outcome(s) from the way the conflict was handled. 2. Think of a conflict that has been handled in a constructive way. Discuss the outcome from such an approach. 3. Complete the table to compare the outcomes of handling conflict constructively with the outcomes from handling conflict destructively.
Map as a group either the constructive conflict or the destructive conflict you chose in Part A. In your map identify: • the main issue • what made it difficult to resolve • who were people in the conflict • key needs and concerns – including interests, values and hopes. You may choose to use the layout for a map in Exhibit 8.10 or a layout of your choice.
Comparison of outcomes Handling conflict in a constructive way
Handling conflict in a destructive way
1. 2. 3. 4.
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CHAPTER 8 / Develop negotiation and conflict management skills
CASE STUDY MICHAEL AND CATHY’S RESPONSE TO CONFLICT Michael’s monthly team meeting was due to commence, but before the meeting he met with Cathy to discuss an issue from the last meeting. At each meeting, a different client is invited for a Q&A session. During the previous meeting Cathy had asked the client a question, ‘When you die, are you going to leave your original artwork to the College?’ The question was poorly worded and insensitive. Before the next meeting Michael asked Cathy to think about the wording of any questions she may have for the visiting client and reminded her that the question she asked at the previous meeting had caused offence to the client. Cathy became defensive and snapped, ‘Well, I just won’t ask any questions at all, then.’ Michael said, ‘Cathy, that is not what I am asking, I am only suggesting that you be mindful of how your questions may be received by the client.’ Cathy again stated she would not be asking questions in future. Michael told Cathy that was fine and it
was completely her choice. Cathy argued that this was not her choice, but Michael’s decision. Cathy clearly wanted to argue the point, but Michael ended the conversation and Cathy stormed off. After the meeting, Cathy approached Michael and apologised for her behaviour. Michael accepted Cathy’s apology, but reminded her that he is her manager and needs to be spoken to in a respectful manner.
Questions 1. How would you describe Cathy’s response to conflict? 2. How could Cathy have responded to the feedback regarding her question during the previous meeting in a more professional manner? 3. What could Michael have done to address this issue from the previous meeting in a more timely manner? 4. What could Michael have done to de-escalate the conflict?
BIBLIOGRAPHY Albrecht, K. & Albrecht, S. 1993. Added Value Negotiation, Illinois Business, Irwin, Homewood, IIl. De Vito, J.A. 2015. The Interpersonal Communication Handbook, 14th edn, Pearson, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Fisher, R. & Brown, S. 1988. Getting Together, Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, MA. Fisher, R. & Ury, W. 1991. Getting to Yes, Business Books, London. Fisher, R. & Ury, W. 1999. Getting to Yes: Negotiating an Agreement without Giving In, Random House Business Books, London. Fulmer, Ingrid Smithey & Barry, Bruce. 2004. ‘The smart negotiator: Cognitive ability and emotional intelligence in negotiation’, International Journal of Conflict Management, Vol. 15, Issue: 3, pp. 245–72. Goleman, Daniel. 2005. Emotional intelligence, Bantam, New York, NY. Hellriegel, D. Slocum, J.W. & Woodman, R.W. 1988. Organisational Behaviour, 4th edn, West Publishing Company, St Paul, MN.
Kelly, Edward J. & Kaminskien_eb, Natalija. 2016. ‘Importance of emotional intelligence in negotiation and mediation’, International Comparative Jurisprudence, Volume 2, Issue 1, September 2016, pp. 55–60. Lewicki, R, Barry, B. & Saunders, D. 2015. Negotiation, 7th edn, McGraw-Hill/Irwin, New York, NY. MindTools, Win-Win Negotiation Finding Solutions That Work for Everyone, https://www.mindtools.com/CommSkll/ NegotiationSkills.htm, viewed 22 February 2018. Patton, Bruce. Stone, Douglas & Heen, Sheila. 2011. Difficult Conversations: How to Discuss What Matters Most, Viking, London, UK. Steiner, C.M. 1974. Scripts People Live, Grove Press, New York. Ury, W. 1991. Getting Past No, Business Books, London. Wood, Julia. T. 2016. Interpersonal Communication Everyday Encounters, 8th edn, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, Boston, MA.
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IMPLEMENT AND MONITOR A SAFE WORKPLACE
CHAPTER
9
IMPLEMENT + MONITOR procedures for controlling risks
Substitution Isolation of the risk Engineering controls to design safer work equipment Administrative controls
MOST PREFERED - LEAST
Elimination of the risk at its source
Your Learning Journey
PROVIDE + COMMUNICATE INFORMATION
Chapter 9 TO PREVENT + MINIMISE RISK
Workplace Health + Safety legislation
Use of personal protective equipment
9.1
regulations codes of practice
9.5
policies + procedures
IMPLEMENT
PROCEDURES FOR MAINTAINING WHS RECORDS Records must be accurate - can be evidence of compliance/non-compliance with organisation’s procedures/relevant legislation
IMPLEMENT + MONITOR procedures for identifying hazards and assessing risks
+ MONITOR
participative arrangements for the management of WHS 9.2
9.4
consult with HSRs WHS committees
9.6 PRIMARY PURPOSE to provide information that will improve health and safety
CH 10
Next DELIVER + MONITOR SERVICE TO ADDRESS CUSTOMER NEEDS
Identify skills gaps and training needs
unions + associations
9.3
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CHAPTER 9 / Implement and monitor a safe workplace
LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 9.1 provide and communicate information to the workgroup about workplace health and safety (WHS) legislation, regulations and codes of practice and organisational WHS policies and procedures 9.2 implement and monitor participative arrangements for the management of WHS 9.3 describe and monitor procedures for providing WHS training 9.4 implement and monitor procedures for identifying hazards and assessing risk 9.5 implement and monitor procedures for controlling risks 9.6 outline procedures for maintaining WHS records.
9.1 COMMUNICATE AND FACILITATE WORKPLACE HEALTH AND SAFETY Safety in the workplace is critical to the success of any organisation. Knowing and understanding workplace health and safety (WHS) legislation, regulations, codes of practice and your organisation’s WHS policies and procedures are critical workplace responsibilities. The purpose of WHS legislation, codes of practice, policies and procedures is to ensure the health, safety and welfare of employees and the health and safety of others in the workplace. Everyone in the workplace must exercise duty of care – the legal obligation to have thought or regard for those whose health and welfare may be affected by one’s acts or omissions. The WHS Act and WHS Regulations provide a framework to secure the health and safety of workers and workplaces by protecting workers and other persons against harm to their health, safety and welfare through the elimination of risks arising from work, in accordance with the principle that workers and other persons should be given the highest level of protection against harm to their health, safety and welfare from hazards and risks arising from work as is reasonably practicable. The WHS Act and WHS Regulations promote continuous improvement and progressively higher standards of work health and safety. ª Commonwealth of Australia 2018, Comcare CC BY 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
Duty holders must take reasonable care for their own health and safety in the workplace and take reasonable care that their acts or omissions do not adversely affect the health and safety of other persons. Take reasonable care of yourself and others and work in accordance with your duty of care. Employers promote health, safety and welfare by providing safe systems of work, sharing WHS information and providing employees with the opportunity to express their views about workplace safety, health and welfare. Employees have a responsibility to exercise due diligence to ensure they do not breach their duty of care in the workplace. Every officer of a business or organisation must take reasonable care for the health, safety and welfare of others in the workplace. • In July 2008, the Council of Australian Governments (COAG) made a formal commitment to harmonise work health and safety laws in Australia through the achievement of consistent approaches to compliance and enforcement for all jurisdictions by the end of 2011. ‘This was the first time all jurisdictions had made a formal commitment to harmonise work health and safety laws in Australia within a set timeframe. This commitment included the development and implementation of a complete and fully integrated package consisting of a model Act, supported by model
Comply with duty of care responsibilities identified in WHS legislation, regulations and codes of practice. Work in accordance with your organisation’s WHS policies and procedures to promote health, safety and welfare in the workplace.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Regulations, model Codes of Practice and a National Compliance and Enforcement Policy’ (Safe Work Australia 2014). The aim of harmonisation was to provide a nationally consistent framework to ensure the health, safety and welfare of workers and workplaces.
FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE
WHS harmonisation In 2012, the Commonwealth and all states (except Victoria and Western Australia) introduced harmonised WHS laws. This created nationally consistent WHS laws that cover health and safety at work (Victoria already has WHS laws consistent with the WHS Regulations, and Western Australia is expected to adopted a modified version of the legislation). The main goals for the WHS harmonisation included: • minimising or eliminating risk to protect workers from harm to their health, safety and welfare • ensuring effective consultation, cooperation, issue resolution and workplace representation when it comes to WHS in workplaces • promoting WHS education, training and information • ensuring effective compliance and enforcement of the legislation • creating a framework to facilitate continuous improvement and high standards for worker health and safety. Key elements of the new WHS Act included: • changes in terminology such as: – from ‘occupational health and safety’ to ‘work health and safety’ – broadening the category of ‘employer to ‘persons conducting a business or undertaking’ (PCBUs) – broadening the definition of who is a worker to included employees and contractors. • multiple duty holders sharing the primary duty of care • duty holders must consult, coordinate and cooperate with other duty holders • workers have the right to cease unsafe work • workers are not to be prevented from being involved in WHS • a requirement that workplaces have emergency plans in place • a significant increase in penalties for breaches of the Act. Source: http://workplaceohs.com.au/legislation/model-act-regulation/whs-harmonisation-main-changes; http:// www.australianbusiness.com.au/getattachment/WHS/Resources/Introduction-to-the-Work-Health—Safety-Act/Fact-sheetWHS-Harmonisation.pdf.aspx, both viewed 14 November 2018.
ASK YOURSELF: How do harmonised work, health and safety laws protect you better as a worker? How might this also advantage businesses and organisations?
AUSTRALIAN WORK HEALTH AND SAFETY FRAMEWORK All organisations must, so far as is reasonably practical, provide and maintain a work environment that is without risks to health or safety. The legislative framework within Australia identifies clearly the legal obligations of those in the workplace and provides a coherent approach across Commonwealth, state and territory jurisdictions. The relationships within the Australian Work Health and Safety Framework are shown in Exhibit 9.1. The Work Health and Safety Act 2011 No. 137 (July 2016) determines the broad principles and legal rules to be followed by the parties to which the law applies. The WHS Regulations are subordinate legislation made by the executive branch of government (Cabinet ministers and their government agencies) and authorised by Parliament. Penalties apply for any breach of the Act or Regulations. Industry WHS codes of practice provide practical guidance on how to reach the standard required to 212 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
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EXHIBIT 9.1 Work Health and Safety (WHS) Framework WHS Framework: WHS Act and WHS Regulations supported by WHS Codes of Practice
Parallelled by:
State-based WHS Acts, WHS Regulations, WHS Codes of Practice
Territory-based WHS Acts, WHS Regulations, WHS Codes of Practice
Commonwealth WHS Act, WHS Regulations, WHS Codes of Practice
comply with WHS law. Codes of practice are usually established in consultation with industry, employers and worker representatives and approved by the Minister. Refer to the Comcare site at http://www.comcare.gov.au > codes of practice, for examples of codes of practice in effect in the Commonwealth jurisdiction. The regulations accompanying the Acts deal with specific issues in greater detail than the WHS legislation. Other laws or regulations may also impact on your work practices depending on the nature of your industry. It is the responsibility of everyone in the workplace to be aware of such laws and the practices that support them (although this is not to say every single employee must themselves source the relevant legislation applicable to their workplace). Refer to the OHS Reps@Work site at http://www.ohsrep.org.au/ > Model OHS Law for information about the operation of WHS and OHS laws in the various Australian jurisdictions (Commonwealth, state and territory).
Fulfil your duty-ofcare obligation.
Duty of care A person conducting a business undertaking (PCBU) has the primary duty of care to ensure the health and safety of workers while they are at work. As far as is reasonably practicable a PCBU with management or control of a workplace has a legal duty to ensure that the workplace does not pose a risk to the health and safety of any person. Rather than placing the focus on workers to work safely in unsafe conditions the PCBU must provide a safe and healthy working environment. Workers have a duty to take reasonable care for their own safety and the safety of others. Workers must comply with reasonable instructions from the PCBU to facilitate them in compliance with the WHS Act and to cooperate with the business undertakings’ WHS policies and procedures. The WHS Act 2011 identifies three categories of offences against the health and safety duties. • Category 1 Reckless conduct: The duty holder’s conduct, without reasonable excuse, exposes a person to whom they owe a duty to a risk of death, serious injury or illness and are reckless as to the risk. The penalties for: – an individual are $300 000 or 5 years imprisonment or both – an individual as a PCBU are $600 000 or 5 years imprisonment or both – a body corporate are $3 000 000.
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Communicate and explain information about WHS regularly, as every officer of a business or organisation has a positive duty to exercise due diligence. Fulfil your duty of care. Promote safe working procedures and standards.
Category 2 Failure to comply with health and safety duty: Failure to comply that leads to exposing a person to a risk of death or serious injury or illness. The penalties for: – an individual are $150 000 – an individual as a PCBU are $300 000 – a body corporate are $1 500 000. • Category 3 Failure to comply with health and safety duty: Failure of a person to comply with their health and safety duty. The penalties for: – an individual are $50 000 – an individual as a PCBU are $100 000 – a body corporate are $500 000. All organisations require their staff, contractors, employers of labour hire companies, students on work experience, apprentices, trainees, volunteers and visitors to take reasonable care for the health and safety of others and to cooperate with any directions and procedures. Managers, team leaders, supervisors and staff have a legal duty to work within: • the legislation, regulations and approved codes of practice • their organisation’s policies and procedures • their organisation’s workplace health and safety management plan and standards. Every PCBU anywhere in Australia has a primary duty of care. Duty-of-care responsibility requires any organisation to provide a safe work environment, safe systems of work and safe plant and equipment. An organisation must weigh up the level of risk, and then control and manage the risk. Communication about safety requirements, information about hazards and risk controls are essential. Employees, contractors, employers of labour hire companies, students on work experience, apprentices, trainees and volunteers must have adequate information, supervision, instruction and training to protect them from risks to health and safety arising from work. Implementing the duty-of-care principle means planning and taking measures that prevent or mitigate the risk of workplace accidents, injuries and illness. Safe work systems are an indication of the commitment of management to workplace health and safety and to work in accordance with approved WHS codes of practice. Management should commence by identifying the need and purpose of systems and examining or investigating the environment in which workers exist. The investigation should include not only the type and methods of work but the way different processes interact. The safety management plan and supporting systems should then be developed based on this assessment and through consultation with those who will be affected by this system.
WHS MANAGEMENT PLAN In response to the requirement for safe work systems, organisations now work in accordance with an organisational-wide WHS management plan. A WHS management plan is prepared for the safe management of the workplace. An effective WHS management plan incorporates relevant codes of practice, developed by Safe Work Australia in consultation with industry and approved by the Minister for Workplace Relations. An approved code of practice applies to anyone who has a duty of care in the circumstances described in the code. An organisation’s WHS management plan documents codes of practice relevant to the organisation, the organisation’s WHS policies, responsibilities, systems and procedures. The plan provides direction and guidance about how to ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, a safe and healthy workplace. The purpose of the WHS management plan is to assist employers, employees and others in the workplace to work safely and meet their duty of care. The WHS management plan also assists an
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CHAPTER 9 / Implement and monitor a safe workplace organisation to demonstrate compliance with work health and safety legislation, regulations and approved codes of practice. An effective WHS management plan is a document setting out the specific policies, responsibilities, procedures, resources and practices for implementing the safety system at a specific workplace or project. Preparing a WHS plan is management’s responsibility, in consultation with safety personnel and others in the workplace. The plan should: • be in a standard format • be clear and concise • avoid legalese and jargon • give direction and provide guidance. The information in the WHS management plan must include policy statements and assignment of responsibilities, detailed organisational structure and key staff members with responsibility for the management of safety, consultative arrangements and procedures, safety meetings and the means of resolving safety issues and the types of records that will be kept and who is to keep them. Typical headings in a WHS management plan are: 1. Project information 2. Roles and responsibilities 3. General WHS information 4. Risk management 5. High-risk construction work 6. Emergency and incident response 7. Induction and training 8. Consultation and communication 9. Site safety procedures 10. Safe work method statements. For instructions on developing a WHS management plan, refer to Access Canberra’s site at https:// www.accesscanberra.act.gov.au/app/answers/detail/a_id/3784//work-health-and-safety-management-plans. An effective WHS management plan enables the organisation to identify hazards and manage their risk so that all activities are conducted safely. The WHS management plan provides a framework for communicating and promoting a positive safety culture, minimising the likelihood of incidents or accidents, managing risk and protecting physical and mental health and welfare. Managers, supervisors, team leaders and WHS specialists must provide information about identified hazards and the outcomes of risk assessment to the workgroup and other stakeholders regularly. People need to know how to control common hazards such as plant and hazardous substances in the work environment. In construction work and mining, for example, people must have up-to-date information, be aware of any safety alerts emphasising dangers in relation to a specific risk for a particular job and be consulted about the control of specific activities and hazardous processes. Information about the certification of plant operators, the administration of licensing, permits and notification, and the obligations for all workplaces is essential. Managers and team leaders must communicate responsibilities and ensure that their workgroups understand their duty of care and relevant provisions of the legislation and codes of practice. Primary and secondary sources of information about WHS include those shown in Exhibit 9.2. Collection and sharing of information about consultative arrangements, hazard identification, WHS arrangements for on-site contractors, visitors and members of the public enables the continual improvement of safety in the workplace.
Communicate workplace safety, health and welfare effectively.
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EXHIBIT 9.2 Workplace and external sources of information Workplace sources • • • • • • •
Ensure information about WHS is communicated effectively.
External sources
Material safety data sheets (MSDSs) Workplace inspections Minutes of meetings Hazard, incident and investigation reports Audit reports Material and chemical registers Legislation, standards, manufacturers’ manuals available at the workplace
• • • • • • •
Australian standards Industry bodies Employer groups and unions WHS specialists and professional bodies Websites, journals and newsletters Manuals and specifications Regulatory authorities and relevant Acts, regulations and codes of practice
The primary duty-of-care principle means employers, employees and others in the workplace must have information, understand, discuss and communicate about work safety and health. WHS codes of practice, policies, procedures and programs must be readily accessible to allow participation in risk identification, analysis, evaluation and control.
INFORMATION SHOULD PREVENT OR MINIMISE HAZARDS Provide information about hazards and the associated risk of exposure to danger.
A hazard, in a WHS context, is anything that may injure or harm the health of a person. Hazards exist when there is a risk of exposure to danger. To manage workforce hazards effectively, employers need to identify all hazards in the workplace, assess their potential harm, find ways of controlling them and evaluate and treat the risks. Employees need to work safely, take personal responsibility for their own actions and follow WHS procedures. Permanent disabilities, serious injuries and deaths are rare, but they do happen. Everyone in a workplace should do everything possible to prevent injuries and accidents to themselves and others. Know and communicate information about the sorts of hazards that might cause serious injury, and eliminate or minimise the risks. Six major classifications of workplace hazards are shown in Exhibit 9.3.
EXHIBIT 9.3 Classifications of hazards Hazard
Example
Gravitational hazards that have a direct physical effect on the body
• • • • •
Body-stressing hazards that arise from movement Psychosocial hazards that affect people in different ways and result in stress Mechanical hazards caused by equipment and vehicles Chemical and biological hazards that can result in chronic or acute effects on the body
Wet floors and slippery surfaces Stairs, steps, ladders, work platforms Falling objects and objects protruding in walkways or doorways Lifting heavy objects and twisting the body Bending, pushing, pulling and other activities that can result in strain and sprains • Boring, repetitive tasks, excessive noise and lack of attention • Discrimination, harassment, bullying, trauma and personality clashes • • • • • • •
Electricity associated with plant, machinery and equipment Forklifts, cranes, hoists and vibration Pressure vessels and dangerous goods Chemical substances such as poisons, acids, alkalis, solvents Dusts and fumes from processes such as welding Chemicals that lead to fire, explosion and radiation Infection from mould, mildew, insects, vermin, bacteria and viruses
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Hazard
Example
Sources of energy hazards
• • • •
Electricity, heat, cold Electric welding flashes Sunburn from not wearing protective clothing Radioactive sources and high-powered light
Managers, team leaders, team members and contractors in the workplace must be diligent about workplace safety. They must understand information about hazards, explain this information and take action on the basis of the information. They must also ensure hazards are reported to the designated people in their workplace according to workplace procedures. 1. WHS management plan: a. Define the term ‘WHS management plan’. b. What does an effective WHS management plan provide a framework for? c. What features must be included in a WHS management plan to ensure workers are able to take and demonstrate in the performance of their duties reasonable care of their own health and safety; and to take and demonstrate reasonable care that their acts or omissions do not adversely affect the health and safety of other persons? 2. Workplace hazards: a. What are some common workplace hazards? b. How are hazards identified in your workplace or a workplace of your choice? c. What is it about these hazards that make them harmful? d. How are these hazards communicated to management? 3. Write a brief note for posting on your company’s intranet listing the steps in managing risk and explaining the importance of communicating and fulfilling our duty-of-care responsibilities. 4. Conduct a search on the web for the Work Health and Safety Act 2011 to find the answers to the following questions. a. What is the primary duty of care of a PCBU? b. What are the categories of offence that relate to the recklessness and seriousness of a risk or hazard in the workplace? c. What are the penalties for breaches of the primary duty of care?
CHECKPOINT 9.1
9.2 IMPLEMENT AND MONITOR PARTICIPATIVE ARRANGEMENTS A feature of a safe workplace is established consultative mechanisms. Employers, employees and workgroups are provided with the opportunity to participate and contribute to better management of WHS. Consultation acknowledges that everybody in the workplace has a duty of care and some responsibility for a safe and healthy work environment. An effective workplace health and safety management system (WHSMS) outlines when consultation is required. For example, when: • risks to health and safety that arise from work are assessed or the assessment of those risks is reviewed • decisions are made about the measures to be taken to eliminate or control those risks
Consult as required.
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procedures for monitoring those risks are introduced or altered decisions are made about the adequacy of facilities for the welfare of employees changes are proposed to the work premises, where those changes may affect health, safety or welfare changes are proposed to the systems or methods of work or to the plant or substances used for work. Forums for the dissemination of information may include inductions, team briefings, tool-box talks, consultations and formal meetings. Safety responsibilities may also be identified in role descriptions and standard operating procedures. The risk management process shown in Exhibit 9.4 highlights the importance of communication and consultation at all stages of the process.
EXHIBIT 9.4 Risk management process Communicate and consult
Establish the context
Identify the risks
Analyse the risks
Evaluate the risks
Treat the risks
Monitor and review
MECHANISMS FOR WHS CONSULTATION Identify opportunities to consult and provide WHS information.
Risks and other issues are raised more readily when team members are able to consult and contribute to the management of WHS rather than when their manager or team leader works in isolation. Effective consultation and representation occur when the specific health and safety concerns of workers are recognised, dealt with promptly and the outcome reported back to workers. Mechanisms that assist an organisation meet its consultation and communication requirements are: • the election of health and safety representatives (HSR) for defined workgroups • the establishment of health and safety committees that include management representatives and elected employee representatives • regular communication with unions and associations representing employees • consultation on the job through daily communication between managers and employees • discussion, resolution and reporting back to workers of WHS issues raised through consultation • provision of WHS information through the intranet, circulars and safety alerts • liaison with contractors and subcontractors to ensure coordination of consultation and communication of WHS information on any shared sites. Managers, supervisors and team leaders should encourage and assist their team to: • participate in workplace inspections in their area of responsibility • consult with work team members • participate in general housekeeping activities in the work area and check equipment before and during work. Communication of WHS information is required during and outside of formal WHS consultation arrangements. The outcomes of WHS issues should be recorded and communicated promptly. This helps managers ensure that their workgroup and other stakeholders are provided with, and have ongoing access to, information about the:
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hazards associated with their work risks they may be exposed to measures to eliminate or minimise that exposure procedure for reporting hazards to management workplace arrangements for the management of WHS. Every employer has a duty of care to their employees and others in the workplace and must provide as far as is possible a practical, safe and healthy workplace. Every employee and workgroup has a duty of care to themselves, other employees and the organisation to work safely. Everybody in the workplace should be able to participate in and contribute to the management of health and safety in their own work area.
Support employees, contractors and other stakeholders to contribute to workplace safety and welfare. Use effective consultative mechanisms to manage health and safety risks.
MONITOR CONSULTATIVE PROCEDURES TO FACILITATE PARTICIPATION Contribute to safe work practices and procedures and report any hazard, accident, potential accident or incident immediately. Managers, supervisors and team leaders must communicate effectively to ensure their workgroup and other stakeholders participate in the management of work area hazards and safety in the workplace by: • being aware of emergency procedures • being aware of the location of first-aid stations • knowing the location of obvious danger and workplace hazards • observing health and safety workplace responsibilities • wearing protective clothing or equipment as directed by management • participating in and contributing to WHS management • reporting incidents or accidents as deemed necessary by management • making recommendations in a report that comply with the organisation’s worksafe goals and are written within the scope of organisational procedures. Communication is the key to implementing the actions that identify work area hazards, then evaluating and treating the risks. Employees and workgroups participate in the creation and maintenance of a safe work environment through involvement in meetings that address health and safety issues, membership of health and safety consultation groups and acting as HSRs. 1. WHS consultation: a. What is the purpose of WHS consultation? b. Provide three examples of when WHS consultation is required. 2. Identify three mechanisms that assist an organisation to meet its WHS and communication requirements. 3. Who does every employee have a duty of care to?
CHECKPOINT 9.2
9.3 MONITOR PROCEDURES FOR PROVIDING WHS TRAINING The legislation and relevant regulations require that employees have enough information and training to enable them to understand the health and safety risks associated with their work and the measures necessary to control them. 219 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Employers must provide adequate safety training and instruction to ensure that employees understand and follow safe and correct procedures at all times. Team leaders, supervisors, frontline managers, middle managers, workplace safety representatives and WHS committee members are the employer’s representative in WHS matters.
COMMUNICATE TO IDENTIFY AND FILL TRAINING NEEDS
Ensure training needs of individuals and the workgroup are met.
Provide worker induction training and site induction training according to organisational and legal requirements.
Part of the role of team leaders, managers and supervisors is to provide advice on and organise WHS training for their workgroup. Effective WHS training is ongoing and consistent. Managers have a responsibility to ensure that training: • complies with the relevant Acts and regulations • meets the needs of their employees and others in the workplace. In fulfilling these responsibilities, managers should consult with those who may be affected by WHS issues in their workplace – for example, employer, human resources staff, unions, workers, contractors, visitors, health and safety committee members, HSRs and regulatory bodies. In an office environment, the range of factors with health and safety implications for workers include: • ergonomic issues such as workstation layout and working in a fixed posture for long periods of time • risks associated with computer use include eye strain, poor posture and repetitive strain injury • psychological hazards such as the lack of job satisfaction due to repetitive work, pressure of excessive workloads or inadequate recognition of work performed • mechanical hazards such as filing cabinets that tend to tip when heavily laden top drawers are open • physical hazards such as glare or reflections from screens and hot components of photocopiers, untidy offices with poor lighting that can cause slips, trips and falls, as well as temperature, air-quality, electrical and fire hazards. Managers, supervisors and team leaders have a duty of care to ensure team members know about and how to control the risks associated with any hazards. No manager, supervisor or team leader can assume that people know what to do. Due diligence requires them not only to take all reasonable measures, but to provide evidence that such measures have been taken in the event of an accident or unfortunate incident. Training is one of those measures.
Worker induction and site induction training Managers, supervisors, team leaders and contractors must ensure all workers are trained and competent for the work to be carried out. They must ensure workers have had relevant training required by legislation such as white card training (outlined in the following paragraph) or other appropriate training from another jurisdiction. Workers must be able to deal with any risks associated with the work and understand the control measures in place. Anyone starting work on a construction site, for example, must undergo two types of WHS induction training – construction worker induction training and site induction – and be able to provide evidence of that training. An employer in the construction industry must accept evidence that a person has done construction induction training; for example, a construction induction card issued by a TAFE College or Registered Training Organisation (RTO), a white card or a statement or card issued under similar requirements in another Australian state or territory. Before starting work on a construction or mining site, all workers must be provided with a specific site induction. The principal contractor has a responsibility to work with other contractors to ensure the site-specific induction happens. Site-specific inductions outline the expectations identified in the WHS management plan, including all policies and procedures, emergency meeting point and site rules and the facilities. Any site-specific hazards and high-risk construction work activities must be highlighted. 220 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
CHAPTER 9 / Implement and monitor a safe workplace Managers in any industry are responsible for ensuring on-site training and supervision is provided for those workers who are not trained or competent to perform their duties. Training may be organised externally where required. Licences for high-risk work must be maintained and recorded in a register of licences. Worker WHS training is required for the situations listed in Exhibit 9.5.
Consult as you make arrangements to meet WHS training needs of the workgroup.
EXHIBIT 9.5 WHS training needs Type of training
Situation
General WHS training
• • • • •
Refresher training for high-risk jobs
• • • •
WHS training integrated with other forms of training
• Induction training • First-aid training • Emergency procedure training – accident, fire and other on-the-job training in WHS work procedures • Team leader, supervisor and management training • Hazard and risk-management training • Skill development to increase competence in the safe performance of work tasks
When new starters begin work in your workgroup or transfer to another area When new plant, work processes or systems of work are introduced When new regulatory requirements are introduced When an incident investigation identifies a need for retraining When there is new knowledge about the risks or management of particular hazards • When there is a need to meet competency requirements for operators of plant and machinery • When an HSR is elected, or a management or employee Health and Safety committee member is appointed Work in confined spaces Plant operation Use of hazardous substances Manual handling
The employer’s duty of care requires the provision of training and development activities to ensure work practices are safe. Training may be provided on-the-job, online, one-to-one instruction, off-the-job or through computer-aided instruction. Training should cover the activities listed in Exhibit 9.6.
EXHIBIT 9.6 WHS training and development in safe work practice The employer needs to provide:
Knowledge, skills and attitudes
Instruction
Needed in how to: • use machinery safely • use personal protective equipment safely • follow workplace procedures • undertake work activities and tasks safely and competently • avoid deliberate and unintentional breaches of WHS legislation • comply with WHS legislation and cooperate with others in its implementation • identify, minimise, avoid and report hazards.
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The employer needs to provide:
Knowledge, skills and attitudes
Information
Sources of information are: • warning signs • material safety data sheets • internal policies, procedures and practices • external information from: – unions – employer associations – WHS services – appropriate government authorities.
Supervision
Required to: • fulfil responsibilities as a manager or team leader • reinforce correct and safe procedures • ensure procedures are carried out safely • improve workplace health and safety • identify, assess and control hazards. Required to: • explain and clarify WHS roles and performance expectations • align goals with team and organisational goals and gain commitment • provide feedback and encouragement, empower and counsel • problem solve and help the other person to evaluate the safety consequences of decisions and actions • enhance the other persons’ awareness of WHS and guide them to choose responsibility for the actions they will take to fulfil their duty of care. Required to: • pair a skilled and experienced WHS person with a less-skilled and lessexperienced colleague • build a long-term relationship and pass along WHS knowledge and experience to another person • guide, encourage, listen and advise a less experienced employee on workplace WHS issues, training needs and ways of working.
Coaching
Mentoring
CHECKPOINT 9.3
1. WHS lists: a. Compile a list of those who are the employer’s representatives in WHS matters. b. List the sources of WHS information typically found in any organisation. 2. Write a technical definition of the terms: • WHS induction training (about 100 words) • WHS site induction training (about 100 words). (Refer to Chapter 18, Write technical documents and proposals, for information about technical definitions.) 3. Hazards: a. List two physical hazards in an office environment and identify the risk associated with the hazards. b. List three psychological hazards in an office environment and identify the risk associated with the hazards.
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9.4 IMPLEMENT AND MONITOR PROCEDURES FOR IDENTIFYING HAZARDS AND ASSESSING RISKS WHS issues in the workplace are the responsibility of everyone who works in the organisation. Employers, contractors or visitors may raise WHS issues with team leaders, managers, HSRs, health and safety committees or other designated personnel. An organisation’s WHS policy will have at least four components: 1. what it wants to achieve – the objectives 2. why it wants to achieve it – its commitment 3. how it will achieve it – the resources needed 4. who it will affect – the responsibilities. In order to achieve its objectives, a WHS policy must be supported by general procedures and specific programs. Four steps in identifying hazards, assessing and managing WHS risk in the workplace are shown in Exhibit 9.7.
Identify and report on hazards in work area in accordance with WHS policies and procedures.
EXHIBIT 9.7 Steps in managing WHS Step 1 Identify hazards and risks
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Analyse the risks
Evaluate the risks
Treat the risks
CARRY OUT SAFETY INSPECTIONS One of the procedures for monitoring hazards and assessing and treating risks is a safety inspection. Plant or work area safety inspections are carried out in order to identify unsafe conditions on an ongoing basis. Corrective action is then taken to reduce the risk of work-related illness or injury. A safety inspection is a procedure carried out in all organisations. The purpose of a safety inspection is to: • determine the hazards in the workplace • identify any unsafe acts • determine the risks associated with the hazards • put in place control mechanisms to eliminate the risk (or at least reduce or minimise it). The inspection may take place because there has been an accident, an issue has been raised or a potential risk may have been identified. The findings of a safety inspection should be documented. This provides evidence that action has been taken to resolve an issue, and that duty of care has been fulfilled. Exhibit 9.8 can be used to document and assess the likelihood of injury or illness associated with each hazard identified in a safety inspection. (More specific information about determining the level of risk each hazard presents is given later in this chapter.)
Take corrective actions to reduce the risk of workrelated illness or injury.
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EXHIBIT 9.8 Workplace inspection checklist WHS workplace inspection checklist (Version 1, 1 November 2019) Inspection site: Inspection date: Workplace inspection team Name:
Name:
Name:
Name: Likelihood of injury or illness
Hazards 1 • • •
Yes
No
Very likely
Likely
Unlikely
Very unlikely
Walkways Identified clearly Free from stored material Free from trip hazards
2 Stairways • Good condition • Treads clean • Non-slip • Free of obstacles • Adequate lighting 3 • • • •
Waste and scrap Hazardous waste Combustible material Sufficient bins Disposal of waste
4 Equipment and furniture – condition and layout • Guards • Strike hazards • Wear and tear 5 • • •
Lighting Adequate Fittings Switches
6 Other
Summary of checklist items requiring action:
Action required:
Inspection team leader:
Signature: Printed name: Date:
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REPORT AND DOCUMENT HAZARDS One of the primary responsibilities of managers, supervisors and team leaders is to ensure the workplace is safe and free from risk. They should document hazards and mandatory protective measures in order to: • communicate requirements to all parties • provide evidence of fulfilling duty of care. Identifying hazards and documenting them is the first step in managing safety for a task or on a worksite. Organisations have formal processes for recording hazards through safety inspections, audits, job safety analyses and standard operating procedures. Irrespective of formal processes, the manager or team leader should work with a wide range of communication methods to identify hazards. For example, some of these methods are: • talking and consulting with contractors and equipment owners • running a hazard-identification meeting to talk and consult with peers and other workers • visiting and inspecting to look at the job site and how the job is being done • using past data such as existing job safety analysis, prior hazard identification forms and accident/incident records. If a WHS committee is established in your workplace, this provides the ideal situation for you to raise WHS issues in accordance with workplace programs and the relevant WHS legislation. Where there are fewer than 20 employees, bring WHS issues to the attention of your HSR or your supervisor. The role of HSR includes some of the tasks shown in Exhibit 9.9.
Document hazards and mandatory protective measures.
EXHIBIT 9.9 Tasks and roles performed by WHS workplace representatives Task or role
Reason
Inspect the workplace
• • • •
There has been an accident Employer has been given notice to do something about an incident Some risk is evident Employee requests a workplace inspection relative to some risk or potential risk
Request a workplace inspection
• • • •
Known high-risk areas Audit WHS management Interview witnesses to accident or incident Examine plant or equipment for any reported or known problems
Represent employees on WHS issues
• Consider employees and health and safety issues in the context of workplace performance • Investigate and familiarise themselves with employees’ WHS concerns • Represent employees on health and safety committees or meetings with management
Deal with management
• • • •
Report unsafe work practices Report workplace hazards Take employee concerns on health and safety to meetings Consult with management on any planned changes to the workplace relevant to a safe work environment
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Task or role
Reason
Meet regularly as designated
• Inspect workplace sites for any potential accident, incident or hazard • Record all minutes for protection • Make recommendations to management on health and safety issues or concerns • Keep committee informed and up-to-date on WHS issues and legislation • Consider issues referred by employees • Provide relevant information on health and safety issues to employees
Review accidents
• • • •
Recommend WHS training
• Recommend accredited WHS training for employees where necessary
Visit worksite where accident occurred Formalise a report on accident or incident Provide detailed report to management Provide detailed report of accidents or incidents to employees
TAKE CORRECTIVE ACTION
Implement corrective action promptly.
CHECKPOINT 9.4
Discuss and document hazards to prepare for risk assessment and classification.
By finding the true causes of accidents, steps can be taken to prevent them. The same type of accident will recur if corrective action is not taken. When the actual situation does not meet the desired situation, take corrective action and ensure implementation of risk controls. In some organisations the corrective action investigation is an activity carried out after the details of an incident have been recorded. The HSR, manager or team leader will lead a team to investigate, establish root causes of incidents and make recommendations to management for corrective action. 1. Identify the four components in an organisation’s WHS policy. 2. Safety inspections and WHS roles: a. Briefly discuss the purpose of a safety inspection. b. Identify four tasks or roles carried out by WHS workplace representatives. 3. Briefly discuss communication methods managers or team leaders use to identify hazards. 4. Make a list of sources of WHS information under the following headings: • legislation • codes of practice • an organisation’s WHS policies and procedures • an organisation’s WHS programs.
9.5 IMPLEMENT AND MONITOR PROCEDURES FOR CONTROLLING RISKS The first step in the elimination of hazards is to identify the hazard. The second is to rank the risk associated with the hazard. The third is to use control strategies to remove hazards.
HIERARCHY OF CONTROL MEASURES Use the hazard control hierarchy.
The hierarchy of control is a sequence of options that offer you a number of ways to approach the control of hazards. Controls following this sequence reduce the likelihood and severity of injury.
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CHAPTER 9 / Implement and monitor a safe workplace Exhibit 9.10 lists the controls (with typical examples) from most preferred (eliminate the hazard) to least preferred (use of personal protective equipment, or PPE).
EXHIBIT 9.10 Hierarchy of control Eliminate the hazard Substitute with a lesser risk
Isolate the hazard Use engineering controls Use administrative controls Use personal protective equipment
• • • • • • • • • • • •
Remove hazardous electrical plant from the workplace Cease in-house operations of hazardous work Replace leaded glazes, paints and pigments with unleaded versions Reduce the risks from body stressing by substituting 20-kg bags of cement for previously delivered 40-kg bags Locate the photocopier in a separate well-ventilated room Place hazardous electrical plant in enclosures with restricted access Place guards on moving machinery parts Use safety switches to protect socket outlets which supply electrical plant Maintain equipment regularly Implement safe work practices, instruction and training Provide hearing and eye protection Use rubber mats, insulated gloves, boots and head gear
In situations where it is impossible to completely eliminate a hazard, an organisation and its staff may have to accept that there are safe levels of exposure to a hazard. The behaviour and response of people to the risk is the difficulty in this approach. When there is a safe level of exposure to risk, staff must have knowledge of the risk and how to deal with it – for example, workers in a chemical factory must know they have to wear personal protective equipment (PPE) in conjunction with engineering and administrative controls to avoid exposure to dangerous substances. Engineering controls involve the use of equipment and tools to control a hazard: for example, fume hoods, machine guarding and trolleys and hoists to move heavy loads. Engineering controls are mechanical controls or devices that modify equipment and the environment in which a process is undertaken. When new materials, equipment or work practices are introduced engineering controls should be used wherever possible. Safer work procedures and processes such as safer tools, ergonomic keyboards, equipment and work practices improve safety and welfare. Isolation through guard rails or remote handling techniques improves work practices and safety. Examples of administrative controls are procedures such as job rotation, routine maintenance and training on hazards and work procedures. PPE is provided; however, its effectiveness is dependent on people using it correctly. In any form of hazard control, priority is placed on controlling the hazard at its source.
RANK THE RISK ASSOCIATED WITH A HAZARD A hazard may cause (or has the potential to cause) an accident that is harmful to individuals or property. Risk is the likelihood of an accident happening. The purpose of a risk assessment of a workplace hazard is to determine the priorities for the control of hazards. Hazards that kill or disable have a higher priority than those that only require first aid. Deal with the worst hazard (the hazard with the greatest danger) first. Organisations should have formal processes for evaluating the risk of a hazard and how to lessen the level of that risk. This enables managers to make informed decisions on when and where to allocate resources. Exhibit 9.11 is an example of a system that can be used to rank the risk associated with a hazard. The frequency (probability) and severity (seriousness) ratings are combined into a matrix.
Identify a hazard, rank the risk and control to mitigate or remove it.
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EXHIBIT 9.11 Rank the risk associated with a hazard Likelihood of hurting someone
Severity or consequence of a hazard
Risk class
Kill or disable
Several days off work
First aid
Very likely
1
2
3
Likely
2
3
4
Unlikely
3
4
5 acceptable
Very unlikely
4
5 acceptable
6 acceptable
The matrix gives an evaluation score, which is then marked on the priority evaluation scale shown in Exhibit 9.12.
EXHIBIT 9.12 Priority evaluation scale Mark the risk rating on the evaluation scale High-priority hazard 1
Low-priority hazard
A high-priority hazard is evaluated as a 1. A low-priority hazard is evaluated as a 6.
6
An evaluation score of 1 identifies a high-priority risk. The risk needs to be eliminated or lessened immediately because it is very likely to happen and could kill or disable a person. An evaluation score of 6 identifies a low-priority risk. It is very unlikely to happen and will require first aid, rather than days off work, disability or death.
IMPLEMENT APPROPRIATE RISK-CONTROL MEASURES
Prepare a SWMS to minimise the severity and frequency of risk.
A manager or team leader planning for a job to be carried out may identify hazards by developing a job safety analysis (JSA). The JSA in Exhibit 9.13 is a detailed plan of how a job is to be done so that the safety of those doing the work and others is assured. It is a complete record of every step in the job task, the potential hazards for each and how the hazards are addressed. A manager, supervisor, team leader or project coordinator should monitor performance against the requirements in the job safety analysis form. Any inadequacies that will affect health and safety must be treated immediately using the appropriate control from the hierarchy of controls. Risk classification and risk-control measures are the next step in the process after hazard identification. Putting them all together in one format creates a safe work method statement (SWMS). Managers, team leaders and supervisors should prepare SWMSs in consultation with others. SWMSs are crucial. They provide evidence about you and your workgroup’s forethought and planning before beginning an activity or task. As mentioned, risk is measured by two primary forces set against each other: 1. severity 2. frequency. We need to consider both the likelihood of the risk happening, and the consequences if it did happen. Refer back to Exhibit 9.13. The level of risk determines the control measures we put in place to counter the risk.
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CHAPTER 9 / Implement and monitor a safe workplace
EXHIBIT 9.13 Example of a job safety analysis (JSA) Example of a job safety analysis (JSA) Company name:
Date:
JSA No.:
Site name:
Permit to work required:
Inspection date:
Contractor:
Approved by:
Name:
Name:
Name:
Name:
Task or activity: Regenerate bush vegetation alongside R5 rail line Job step
Hazards
Action
1 Prepare area and assemble equipment
• Manual handling rail traffic
• Ensure correct lifting technique • Use minimum of two people to lift power equipment • Assemble barriers • Set warning charges • Select a sentry
2 Prune trees and shrubs, and mulch
• Moving parts of power equipment: noise
• Ensure all workers are behind operator of power equipment • Ensure guards are fitted • Use hearing protection (be aware of reduced ability to hear warnings)
3 Brush-cut on embankments
• Noise • Eye injury • Uneven terrain
• Use hearing protection • Wear safety goggles • Be sure of footing before commencing each task
4 Trim flat and verge areas
• Eye injury • Scratches and cuts • Snakes
• Wear safety goggles • Wear overalls and gloves • Avoid contact – move to other areas
5 Spray weeds with herbicide
• Inhalation of fumes • Skin contact
• Use ventilator • Use full protective overalls, PVC/rubber gloves • Read MSDS CHEM134
6 Return equipment to vehicles
• Manual handling
• Ensure correct lifting technique • Use minimum of two people to lift power equipment
Responsibility
Paper cuts may be highly frequent, but not so severe in terms of injury. The cave-in of the ceiling of an underground mineshaft is an infrequent but severe occurrence that can cause serious injury and death. Remember, there is not just the action to consider, but the environment in which it takes place, and the surrounding external influences on that environment. Safe working practices are exemplified by what is done before the task, during the task and after the task. Therefore, there are three stages of developing safe work methods.
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EXHIBIT 9.14 Features of a safe work method statement (SWMS) • • • • • • • • • •
Describe how work is to be carried out in sequenced steps Document the hazards identified within each task step Note the assessed risk level for each identified hazard Describe the measures to be implemented to control the risk Provide a list of the personnel doing the tasks Include a list of all equipment at the plant that will be used to perform the tasks List all legislation, codes of practice or standards to be complied with that are relevant to the work Provide a record of the qualifications of the personnel doing the work List all certification and competencies mandatory for carrying out the tasks List all safety checks mandatory for each task
OFFICE ERGONOMICS
Adjust work space, furniture and other equipment to meet the ergonomic requirements of the user.
Ergonomics is the study of humans and their working environment. The goal of ergonomics is to make the job fit the characteristics of the person. This means that work space, furniture and other equipment need to be adjusted in order to meet the requirements of the user. Poor office ergonomics is a workplace hazard that is unlikely to kill but can cause serious long-term injury that will impact the overall health and productivity of the affected employees. Team leaders, managers or supervisors have a responsibility to: • communicate to staff how their workstation should be set up • make sure all new workstations are set up according to the established guidelines • check periodically that workstations meet the relevant Australian standards. The typical workstation equipment and resources that should be adjusted to meet individual requirements include: • desks, chairs and footrests • computer monitors • keyboard and mouse • document holders • telephone and location of printers and photocopiers. Some of the basic office health and safety guidelines that should be communicated to all affected employees are outlined in Exhibit 9.15.
MONITOR AND EVALUATE SAFETY PROCEDURES Quality systems require that your own compliance is checked against your own system. This is sometimes known as an internal or informal audit. • A SWMS determines how a task should be done. • A quality system determines how the record keeping should be done. • An audit determines how well the record keeping was done.
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CHAPTER 9 / Implement and monitor a safe workplace If an informal audit or review is conducted, get involved. The audit is a monitoring and evaluation tool. It is crucial that such processes receive support. If no such structure exists in your workplace, conduct a self-audit, which can also serve as a checklist or a reminder of your own responsibilities or those of your workgroup.
Participate in informal review and evaluation processes.
EXHIBIT 9.15 Health and safety in an office environment • • • • • •
Office temperature should ideally be between 20 and 26C. Ventilation must be adequate and air not contaminated. Photocopiers should not be placed near individual workstations due to possible heat, light and noise discomfort. Lighting must be adequate. Equipment should be adjusted to suit the individual. The AS 3590.2–1990 series of Australian standards for screen-based workstations recommend the following:
Height of work surface (floor to top of work surface) If fixed
680 to 720 mm
Area of work surface
If adjustable
580 to 730 mm
Viewing distance to work (screen)
Width
1500 mm minimum
Minimum
350 mm
Depth
900 mm minimum
Maximum
750 mm
Bench thickness over leg
25 mm maximum span
Height of display
30 to 40 degrees below eye level
Volume of leg space
Seat pan height
Width
800 mm minimum
Surface of seat to floor
330 to 430 mm
Depth
550 mm minimum
Seat pan depth
380 to 510 mm
Height
580 mm minimum
Footrest area
300 to 375 mm
1. Severity and likelihood of hazards: a. Why is it important to think about: • the severity or consequence of a hazard on people? • the likelihood of a hazard hurting someone? b. Why must the severity and likelihood of a hazard be communicated? 2. For each of the following situations, explain how you could apply the hierarchy of control to minimise the risk of illness or injury. Develop a series of simple tables to help in your analysis. Suggested column headings for the table are Situation, Control and Communication. a. heavy lifting of residents in an aged-care facility by members of staff b. sharp edges on a workbench in a children’s long day care centre c. drums of used cooking oil stored outside the back door of a takeaway shop, beside a drain d. use of hairdryers by guests in a motel. 3. Ergonomics: a. Consider an office work situation you are familiar with. Are the workstation space, furniture and other equipment ergonomically sound? b. What improvements (if any) do you need to make?
CHECKPOINT 9.5
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9.6 IMPLEMENT PROCEDURES FOR MAINTAINING WHS RECORDS Records provide evidence required by WHS legislation. They can also provide valuable data that may be used to review historical: • statistics and the patterns they can reveal • numbers that may indicate seasonal causes • cycles that may be recurring • probabilities that can be used as lessons to educate and affect the behavioural aspect of safety. Organisations must have a WHS reporting system in place to allow anyone who is aware of a potentially unsafe activity or piece of equipment to notify their manager, supervisor or HSR. Records of unsafe acts, incidents and accidents enable anyone in the workplace to be involved in the management of their safety and the safety of others. Records contain data about: • number and type of accidents and incidents • absenteeism and the reasons why • lost time through work-related injury • equipment failure • adherence to safety procedures • employee concern for own safety • intended versus actual levels of supervision • attendees at induction and refresher training. The data is used to identify and control any weaknesses in the workplace such as the potential for harm to people, plant and equipment. Good information supports effective planning, organising, directing and controlling of work health and safety.
USE RECORDS AND INFORMATION TO IMPROVE SAFETY Keep accurate preincident, at-incident and post-incident reports.
Organisations must ensure that their record-keeping system complies with legislation and provides useful data about WHS by determining: • what records they are required to keep • what information must be passed on • whether it is stored electronically or in hard copy. Remember that records kept for safety may well be needed in the near or distant future, so accuracy is important. Record keeping usually follows the three-phase process shown in Exhibit 9.16.
EXHIBIT 9.16 Three-phase process Phase
Type of record
Where stored
1. Pre-incident
Induction
Hard copy
2. At-incident
Incident report
Electronic or hard copy
3. Post-incident
Rehabilitation
With rehabilitation representative
The legislative requirements and an organisation’s requirements mean that all managers must maintain WHS records about their participation in WHS, consultation and any corrective actions taken. The information must be accurate and accessible.
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CHAPTER 9 / Implement and monitor a safe workplace Records and information management are an essential part of any job function. They are also an essential part of an organisation’s WHSMS. Examples of records that must be maintained as part of an organisation’s WHSMS are: • permits to work • MSDSs • risk assessments where a SWMS is required • WHS training activity • inspections and monitoring data • calibration and maintenance activity • details of incidents, complaints and follow-up action • supplier and contractor information • WHS audits and reviews • hazard registers that include a list and location of hazards, their priority, the outcomes from risk analysis and evaluation and the controls used to treat risk. Refer to Chapter 19, Record keeping, for more information about the creation, use, storage and disposal of records.
Ensure records are kept to comply with at least the minimum standards of the legislative framework.
REPORT INCIDENTS AND ACCIDENTS Report and investigate any accident as soon as possible. The incident should be reconstructed using facts, an analysis of the findings from the investigation and recommendations about ways to eliminate (or at least reduce) the cause of the accident. The safety incident reporting system is called the incident/accident reporting system. An incident/accident reporting system contains: • guidelines of what must be investigated and reported • records of facts and details about the incident and who was involved • cause-and-effect analysis to determine the root cause of the incident • recommended corrective action that should be taken to address the incident • information about how management is to acknowledge and approve corrective action • details about how feedback is to be given to the person who raised the incident to accident report. Incident/accident reporting involves the filling out of a form. Serious incidents are automatically brought to the attention of high levels of management. Certain safety incidents are classified as reportable incidents and must be reported to the relevant authority. The aim of the incident/accident form is to record all facts and details about an incident. This helps later when corrective action is taken. An example of an incident/accident reporting form is shown in Exhibit 9.17.
Maintain records of incidents within your organisation’s safety management system.
REVIEW AND IMPLEMENT CHANGES TO RISK-CONTROL MEASURES Meeting statutory requirements is not a static issue. Legislation changes, work practices evolve, technology merges, and people’s roles develop to encompass greater levels of responsibility. This means that we must constantly review safety procedures and the results obtained. Continuous improvement is as relevant (if not more) to safety as it is to any other aspect of business. Efficiency can sometimes be the mortal enemy of safety. Instead, be effective by achieving the job outcomes safely.
Review safety procedures and implement any required improvements.
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EXHIBIT 9.17 Incident/Accident form Incident/Accident form 1. Basic information:
Date:
Department:
Reported by: 2. Type of incident:
3. Incident details:
Accident/Illness
Plant/Property damage
Quality
Near miss
Security/Loss
Audit
Environment
Customer complaint
Other
When did it happen? Time Where did it happen?
What happened? (details of incident)
What led up to the incident? (cause)
Who witnessed it?
4. Immediate action and comments:
5. Injured person details:
Name: Position: What was the injury/illness?:
Hospital
First aid
No treatment
Reviews of safe work systems can take the form of: audits safety committee reviews changes to safe work method statements investigations unconscious revisions (for example, the improvements we make to task approaches at work or home without even thinking about it). In many ways, review is built into our minds. It is about making a point of noticing, and acting upon what we notice. • • • • •
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CHAPTER 9 / Implement and monitor a safe workplace
ENSURE COMPLIANCE WITH THE LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK AS A MINIMUM STANDARD Earlier, we looked at internal and informal audits and reviews as a means of self-checking. To comply with legislation, external audits are also mandatory to check actions, events and records. Your quality systems will demand this as well. An external audit is instigated so that at least the minimum requirements are met; however, it is important not to aim to meet the minimum, but to surpass it and meet your own objectives. If an audit is to take place in your work area, be sure to support it as a means of improvement, rather than see it as a disciplinary or punitive tool. An audit is a review of processes against standards. The audit reviews the organisation’s performance against: • legislative and regulatory requirements and codes of practice • organisational policies procedures • WHS programs and program objectives. If records are found to be insufficient and action required, then such action must be taken. A due diligence check that found audit results were ignored would not be viewed lightly by a court. 1. Why does an organisation have a WHS reporting system? 2. List six types of WHS records that must be held in an organisation’s WHSMS. 3. Safety auditing: a. Identify five methods for reviewing work systems for safety. b. What are external WHS auditors likely to review an organisation’s performance against?
Participate in external audits and implement findings or results.
CHECKPOINT 9.6
LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 9.1 Provide and communicate information to the workgroup about workplace health and safety (WHS) legislation, regulations and codes of practice and organisational WHS policies and procedures. Employees and others within an organisation need to be informed and aware of the relevant WHS legislation, regulations and codes of practice. WHS policies and programs must be readily accessible and known in order to prevent or minimise risk from mechanical, source of energy, psychosocial, body stressing, chemical, biological and gravitational hazards. Any outcomes from risk assessment must be communicated in writing and verbal presentations. 9.2 Implement and monitor participative arrangements for the management of WHS. The purpose of consultation and participation is to manage any risks to
health and safety. Consultation may take place with HSRs, health and safety committees, unions and associations through a variety of channels such as faceto-face, on the intranet, through circulars, safety alerts and team meetings. Facilitate the participation of team members, colleagues and others in the management of work area hazards. Any WHS issues raised through consultation should be dealt with promptly in accordance with your organisation’s consultation procedures. 9.3 Describe and monitor procedures for providing WHS training. Monitor the WHS training required by your workgroup and others. Communicate to identify skills gaps and training needs. On occasion, on-the-job coaching and mentoring assistance will be used instead of training. The training may be general WHS training, refresher training or learning integrated with other types of training.
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9.4 Implement and monitor procedures for identifying hazards and assessing risks. Hazards in the workplace are identified formally through safety inspections or informally by individuals who observe the hazard. Any identified hazard is analysed, evaluated and treated to eliminate or mitigate the risk to work health and safety. Corrective actions are reported and communicated in accordance with their organisation’s procedures. Everyone in the workplace has a duty-of-care responsibility to report, minimise or remove the risk from a hazard promptly. 9.5 Implement and monitor procedures for controlling risks. The hierarchy of control categorises the controls into elimination of the risk at its source, substitution, isolation of the risk, engineering controls, to design safer work equipment, administrative controls and the use of personal protective equipment. In controlling hazards, the most preferred approach is elimination. The least preferred is the use of PPE because of the risk of human
error. Assess and control risks according to the hierarchy of control and as specified in Commonwealth and state or territory WHS Acts, regulations and codes of practice. 9.6 Outline procedures for maintaining WHS records. WHS records of incidents of workplace injury and disease in the workplace are completed accurately and maintained in accordance with the organisation’s and legislative requirements. Written records must be accurate because they can be used as evidence of compliance or non-compliance with your organisation’s procedures and the relevant legislation. However, their primary purpose is to provide information that will improve health and safety. Disclaimer: This chapter is not a substitute for advice from qualified specialists. It is intended to provide information only and a general overview of WHS issues. Before taking any action related to WHS, please seek advice from qualified WHS specialists.
KEY TERMS consultative mechanisms due diligence
duty holders duty of care ergonomics
hazard hierarchy of control job safety analysis (JSA)
risk safe work method statement (SWMS) workplace health and safety (WHS)
LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Research task: Liability of duty of care Consider this statement: ‘The basic liability of duty of care in the law means that if it is reasonably foreseeable that what has been done or not done causes harm to anyone you will be liable.’ Conduct a search on the web for the Work Health and Safety Act 2011 to find the answers to the following questions: a. What is the primary duty of care of a person conducting a business or undertaking? b. What are the categories of offence that relate to the recklessness and seriousness of a risk or hazard in the workplace? c. What are the penalties for breaches of the primary duty of care? 2. Scenario: A near miss Finn was using a forklift to unload a full pallet from a large delivery truck parked in the loading dock. As Finn was reversing out of the loading dock to turn the forklift around
and move into the warehouse, the back of the forklift knocked John to the ground. At the time, John was bending down to access the lowest level of the shelves lining the walls of the warehouse. Luckily, John was knocked away from the forklift, not into its path. Both Finn and John were shaken but unhurt. a. Outline the reasons for reporting and investigating this incident. b. Identify the information that should be included in the incident report. c. What should Finn and John’s supervisor communicate about the follow-up actions from the incident with Finn and John, and the rest of the workgroup? 3. WHS information checklist a. Brainstorm all the information that you and your group feel should be provided to the workgroup about WHS policies, procedures and programs. (This list may be developed into a valuable checklist tool for use in the workplace.) b. How would you communicate the information?
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CHAPTER 9 / Implement and monitor a safe workplace
c. Develop the checklist into a PowerPoint presentation or Prezi slideshow. 4. WHS memo Assume you are going on leave and one of your workgroup will act in your role. Write a memo to that person outlining how to:
• •
•
provide information on the organisation’s WHS policies, procedures and programs to the workgroup provide information about identified hazards and the outcomes from analysis, evaluation and treatment of the associated risks communicate the information.
GROUP ASSIGNMENT The group assignment has two parts. Part A is a research activity. Part B examines the hierarchy of control.
how your opinion about emergency preparedness has changed (if at all). e. Reflections: I used to think … but now I think …
Part A: Research activity – finding out Work in small groups. a. Choose one of the disasters from the Plan Ahead for Disasters site at https://www.ready.gov/ b. Once you choose the disaster, find more information about the communication issues involved in emergency preparedness from the web, blogs, emergency centers and other sources. In your research, focus on the communication activities used to identify risks and communicate how to deal with those risks safely. c. Share your findings with your teacher, instructor or trainer using chosen communication methods; for example, PPT, Prezi, short presentation, short written report. d. Individually reflect on your findings and write two or three paragraphs identifying what you have learned and
Part B: Hierarchy of control Work in small groups. a. Discuss the role of the hierarchy of control in treating and controlling hazards at the source. b. Each person is to identify an engineering control in their workplace. c. Each person is to identify an administrative control in their workplace. d. Create a list of the identified engineering controls and a list of the administrative controls. e. Compare the outcomes from the engineering controls and the administrative controls. Write a shared short information paper explaining each level of the hierarchy of control. In your paper, explain why engineering controls are higher on the hierarchy than personal protective equipment.
CASE STUDY NEIL’S APPROACH TO SAFETY PERFORMANCE Neil’s work team has a reputation for excellent safety performance. Neil was asked at the team meeting how his work team achieved such an excellent result. Neil said that he involved all his team in decisions about health, safety and welfare and used the following consultation process: • Consult with his team to find out what problems and hazards they experience and how they think these can be rectified. • Deal with issues raised promptly. • Encourage and assist individuals to contribute to the WHS management system.
• • • •
•
Obtain regular feedback to identify and improve the management of WHS. Give equal access to the same information to all members of his work team. Give sufficient time and opportunity to consider the information. Explain clearly any relevant WHS information and check to see if team members have understood through discussion. Discuss information on safety performance regularly.
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>
•
Encourage everyone to contribute to suggestions for improvement. Neil was asked if there were certain occasions when he consulted. He outlined the following occasions: • when assessing health and safety issues that arise • when making decisions about eliminating or controlling risks • when introducing new work processes or when planning to change existing work processes • when making decisions about the adequacy of facilities for the welfare of the workgroup • when identifying hazards and assessing their risk
•
when deciding how to best control risks and implement risk-control measures.
Questions 1. Discuss the strategies Neil uses to enable his workgroup to participate in the management of WHS. 2. What communication and management behaviours does Neil demonstrate? Provide examples of behaviour that facilitates consultation. 3. Outline the likely benefits to Neil and his team of his approach to monitoring participative arrangements for the management of health and safety.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Access Canberra. 2018. Work health and safety management plans, https://www.accesscanberra.act.gov.au/app/answers/ detail/a_id/3784//work-health-and-safety-managementplans, viewed 2 April 2018. AS 3590.2—1990 Australian Standard. Screen-based Workstations Part 2: Workstation Furniture, Standards Australia, Australia. Australian Government. 2016. ‘Duty Holders’, Comcare, https://www.comcare.gov.au/promoting/duty_holders, viewed 4 September 2018. Australian Government. 2016. ‘Work Health and Safety Act 2011’, Federal Register of Legislation, https:// www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2016C00887, viewed 5 September 2018. Comcare. 2012. The Management of Work Health and Safety in the Commonwealth Jurisdiction: Establishing a Work Health and Safety Management System, Australian Government, Canberra. Comcare. 2017. The WHS Act, Australian Government, https://www.comcare.gov.au/the_scheme/the_whs_act, viewed 1 December 2018. Foster, N. 2012. Workplace Health and Safety Law in Australia, LexisNexis, Chatswood, NSW. Friend, M.A. & Kohn, J.P. 2014. Fundamentals of Occupational Safety and Health, 6th edn, Berman Press, Lanham, MD.
Hopwood, D. & Thompson, S. 2006. Workplace Safety: A Guide for Small and Midsized Companies, John Wiley, Hoboken, NJ. Queensland Government. 2014. Codes of Practice, WorkCover Queensland, https://www.worksafe.qld.gov.au/laws-andcompliance/workplace-health-and-safety-laws/codes-ofpractice, viewed 2 April 2018. Quinlan, M., Bohle, P. & Lamm, F. 2010. Managing Occupational Health and Safety, 3rd edn, Palgrave Macmillan, Melbourne, Victoria. Safety at Work. Blog, https://safetyatworkblog.com/, viewed 3 April 2018. Safe Work Australia. 2014. https:// www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/law-and-regulation/ development-model-whs-laws, viewed 10 December 2018. SafeWork NSW 2018. Consultation Arrangements, http://www.safework.nsw.gov.au/health-and-safety/ consultation-@-work/consultation-arrangements, viewed 4 April 2018. training.gov.au. BSBWHS401: Implement and Monitor WHS Policies, Procedures and Programs to Meet Legislative Requirements, https://training.gov.au/Training/Details/ BSBWHS401, viewed 2 April 2018. WorkSafe Victoria. 2018. Home Page, https:// www.worksafe.vic.gov.au/, viewed 5 April 2018.
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CHAPTER 9 / Implement and monitor a safe workplace
WorkCover Queensland. Home Page, https:// www.worksafe.qld.gov.au/, viewed 6 April 2018. WorkCover Queensland. Consultation, https://www.worksafe. qld.gov.au/laws-and-compliance/workplace-health-andsafety-laws/consultation, viewed 7 April 2018.
Workplace OHS News and information for OHS Professionals. 2018. WHS Harmonisation Main Changes, http://workplaceohs.com.au/legislation/modelact-regulation/whs-harmonisation-main-changes, viewed 5 September 2018.
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PART
3
COMMUNICATION WITH CUSTOMERS
CHAPTER 10 DELIVER AND MONITOR SERVICE TO ADDRESS CUSTOMER NEEDS CHAPTER 11
MANAGE CUSTOMER ENGAGEMENT
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Spotlight on: Communication with customers Successful customer service – face-to-face, written, online or through social media channels – identifies and addresses the customer’s needs; is attentive, focused and interested; shows care and understands the customer’s need, issue or concern; and is willing to help. Communication is the key. Greeting the customer, showing empathy, listening and providing feedback, using respectful verbal and nonverbal behaviour, problem solving, handling complaints and consulting with the customer enhance customer satisfaction and engagement. Asking the right questions, listening and adapting product and service creates satisfaction and customer engagement. Negative experiences and indifference to customer needs can lead to dissatisfaction, complaints, disputes and legal action. Regular contact and communication via social media channels build rapport with followers and enable customers to respond and engage with the organisation as well as share and recommend its services to their friends and family. Customers are able to post useful, timely feedback and engage with the organisation.
You’ve got to start with the customer experience and work back toward the technology, not the other way around. Steve Jobs
What do you think? • • • • • •
What are the keys to customer engagement? How do you help customers to articulate their needs? In what ways do you share information and support regular communication with customers? Do you think the person providing service should predict problems and take responsibility for fixing them? Can you think of a situation when the customer didn’t come first? What are aspects of successful customer service common to both face-to-face service and service on digital channels?
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DELIVER AND MONITOR SERVICE TO ADDRESS CUSTOMER NEEDS
CHAPTER
10
10.1 YOUR LEARNING
IDENTIFY + ADDRESS CUSTOMER NEEDS
JOURNEY
Chapter 10
Next MANAGE CUSTOMER ENGAGEMENT
acknowledgement
10.5
listen with empathy
REPORT OUTCOMES + RECOMMEND IMPROVEMENTS
give feedback
Be confident + professional
high customer expectations short + reliable delivery times quick responses to their needs Be AWARE of and RESPOND TO age, disability, cultural or language differences
SEEK ADVICE from colleagues or superiors when you don’t have all the information
EM SOLV BL
G IN
listen carefully find the required information take action promptly and courteously 10.4
use appropriate verbal + nonverbal communication
high-quality service
establish rapport
CLEAR + EFFECTIVE TELEPHONE COMMUNICATION
SEEK FEEDBACK
Use INTERPERSONAL SKILLS with customers
PR O
CH 11
10.2
handling customer complaints
sensitively
courteously
10.3
promptly
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CHAPTER 10 / Deliver and monitor service to address customer needs
LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 10.1 apply interpersonal skills to establish rapport with the customer, clarify needs and expectations, and overcome barriers to communication 10.2 identify customers’ requirements, address needs and seek feedback to improve service delivery and maintain goodwill 10.3 use problem-solving strategies to handle customer complaints sensitively and courteously 10.4 communicate clearly and effectively on the telephone with both internal and external customers 10.5 report customer satisfaction or dissatisfaction and recommend improvements if needed.
10.1 CUSTOMER RESPONSIVE COMMUNICATION
Establish a positive communication climate to give customers a positive impression and create goodwill between them and the organisation.
A customer is any person who purchases or seeks products or services from another person or organisation. Today’s customers interact with organisations using the communication channel and device of their choosing such as a mobile phone or tablet, landline, email, chat, text, social media or Provide prompt and face-to-face. Positive customer experiences on any of these channels come from listening to what courteous service to customers are saying and fulfilling their needs and expectations. meet the customer’s need. Customers can be either internal or external to your organisation. Internal customers are those working within your organisation. External customers may be individual customers who EXHIBIT 10.1 Customer service communication skills walk in off the street or corporate customers with large accounts. They may be government or non-government agencies. The Greet the customer and Listen and provide experiences customers have in their face-to-face or online show empathy feedback interactions with an organisation form an impression. Whether someone is enquiring, purchasing, complaining or complimenting, they want to be acknowledged and heard. The first impression that your customer receives is lasting; therefore, greet the customer by using a range of communication skills that shows your interest and your ability to provide the service. Your workplace challenge is to provide service of a consistently high quality in as short a time as possible. In doing this, it is important to use the communication skills in Exhibit 10.1 Problem solve and consult Use appropriate verbal appropriately. customers and nonverbal behaviour At the first contact, a customer gets an impression of the quality of your service. Communicate effectively to create a lasting first impression. A satisfying interaction between the customer and you as the service provider is the basis of quality customer service. The role of the organisation and your role as a staff member providing that service is to focus on customer needs and expectations.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK
GREET THE CUSTOMER As customers have expressed a need or interest simply by approaching your business, make them feel welcome. Greet them with a smile. Say ‘Good morning’ or ‘Good afternoon’ and address them by name if you can. Always acknowledge their presence. As you talk to customers, aim to create: • empathy to show that you not only understand what the customer is saying but also how they feel • a recognition of their needs and confirmation of how your products and services benefit them • a feeling of comfort and the impression that they are understood, appreciated and special. Communicate with positive statements that focus on the customers and their needs. Communicate in a way that shows you respect customers’ opinions, values and experience. If they have to wait, let them know how long it will be before you can attend to them. A customer’s seeking of information (usually by questioning) is defined as a customer enquiry. A positive and considerate attitude towards a customer as you respond to their enquiry goes a long way towards meeting a customer’s needs and expectations. Listen to your customer to discover their needs and confirm what you think your customer has said and meant.
IDENTIFY NEEDS
Customer needs and expectations may relate to advice or general information about purchasing your organisation’s products or services. They may need specific information about prices, delivery times or how to return a product or service. At all times they expect to be treated with courtesy and respect. Once you have established empathy with customers, use your listening and questioning skills to find out how your product or service can best meet their needs. Interact with the Repeat in your own words what you think the customer has said, beginning with something like customer. ‘What I hear you saying is …’. The customer then has the opportunity to agree or disagree and to give you further information if necessary. This is paraphrasing, as explained in earlier chapters. When you Listen and question understand each other, you can proceed with the conversation. Energise your response by looking at to meet customer the other person, leaning forward and showing interest in what they are saying. Active listening and how expectations. to use it in customer service is shown in Exhibit 10.2. However, use the technique prudently. If you keep saying: ‘What I hear you saying is …’, the customer is likely to become irritated. Ask EXHIBIT 10.2 Active listening for clarification: ‘Could you tell me a little more about what went wrong?’ Follow the customer’s response by asking a probing question – Attentive to the customer for example, when a customer says: ‘I really liked what you did last time’, you could respond with: ‘What exactly was it that you liked last time?’ Be open and honest in the interchange and be aware of the Concentrate on the issue, not the person customer’s feelings as well as the content of their spoken words. Effective listening and questioning on any customer service communication channel allow you to identify and take action to meet Target key points customer expectations, and to solve any existing problems or prevent problems happening. From a customer service perspective, listening in the automated social media space, for example, is equally as Investigate with questions important as listening in face-to-face service situations. A survey by Oracle (2012, p. 5) found that of the respondents who were asked Verify customer’s needs what was most important when visiting a company’s social media page, 43% responded that they were looking for a direct response to their question, 32% go to social media for coupons and promotions, Energise your response followed by 31% who expected direct access to customer service representatives.
A C T I
V E
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CHAPTER 10 / Deliver and monitor service to address customer needs Listening techniques that are useful in customer relations are discussed in Chapter 2, Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence.
USE APPROPRIATE VERBAL AND NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR When working with customers your nonverbal communication is just as important as what you say. Projecting the right nonverbal cues and interpreting your customers’ nonverbal signals and behaviours enable you to read their attitudes, better understand their needs and help them feel at ease. Examples of positive and negative nonverbal cues are shown in Exhibit 10.3.
Use a courteous tone of voice and eye contact to attend to and provide service to the customer.
EXHIBIT 10.3 Good and bad nonverbal cues Nonverbal cues
Good
Bad
Eye contact
Looking at your customer’s face and at your products
Avoiding your customer or looking past your customer
Facial expressions
Smiling or relaxed mouth, raised eyebrows, relaxed mouth
Hard or expressionless mouth, wrinkling the nose, furrowing the brow, closing or rolling the eyes
Gestures and hands
Open arms, nodding head, moving hands freely, relaxed and touching the product
Closed arms, dismissive hand gestures, folding hands to the chest or holding near the face
Posture and position
Standing upright, inclining the body forward, observing personal space to accommodate cultural differences
Slouching, shoulders turned away, moving too close and into customers’ personal space, facing away from the customer, ignoring cultural differences
Vocal qualities
Appropriate voice volume and clarity to suit your customers’ comfort and hearing needs, using a steady calm and confident tone
Shouting, speaking too slowly or too fast, speaking in a monotone, sounding unenthusiastic, disjointed rhythm and nervous tempo
Personal presentation
Choice of dress appropriate to your industry, well-groomed hair and nails
Inappropriate and untidy clothing, messy hair and dirty hands and nails
Demonstrate confidence and professionalism by showing respect for both the customer and yourself. Confidence in your own skills and abilities is demonstrated by assertive behaviour – the way you speak and your nonverbal behaviour.
OVERCOME BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
Strive to avoid barriers by concentrating on the customer’s needs and expectations.
Barriers to customer communication may exist in any of the stages of the communication process, shown in Chapter 1, Exhibit 1.2. In customer service situations, barriers may arise when the messages you deliver are too lengthy, disorganised or contain errors. Inappropriate use of verbal and body language may cause communication barriers. Offensive language such as sexist or racist language may insult a customer. Technical jargon and expressions or phrases that hold different meanings in other cultures
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK may confuse the customer. Misinterpretation and communication breakdown occur when information is left open for interpretation. Clear, respectful language that is familiar to customers is an essential aspect of good customer service.
Strategies to minimise barriers
Establish rapport by treating customers with courtesy and respect.
CHECKPOINT 10.1
Even with the best of intentions, communication barriers can occur. Aim to minimise or remove any communication barriers. The following techniques are useful: • employ sufficient staff to handle customers’ needs • train staff well and keep staff and customers informed • treat customers with respect and sincerity, avoid gossip and use appropriate levels of formality or informality • display interest and warmth through appropriate nonverbal behaviour and clear and concise words as you aim to solve the customer’s problems • use summary confirmation questions to check that you understand your customer’s needs • provide the service when the customer needs it, or as soon as possible and make sure messages are passed on from customers to staff • avoid bias and stereotyping; recognise and be sensitive to cultural differences • engage in consistent, meaningful relationships through a variety of communication channels such as in person, email, customer contact forms, tweets, Facebook likes and messages and live chat • enable customers to start a conversation seeking an answer to a question in one channel and then switching easily and smoothly to another to continue the interaction. Courtesy and respect build rapport. Understand the issue from the point of view of the customer. Avoid empathy blockers such as passing judgement, only half-listening or changing the topic. Delivering consistent, responsive interactions along the channels of communication that customers prefer shows respect for customers and encourages them to engage with the organisation. 1. Brainstorm and list ways in which language can create a good first impression when developing customer relationships. 2. Nonverbal impressions: a. Create a list of good nonverbal cues that show your customers you respect them and your organisation. b. Provide an example of posture that creates a bad first impression. 3. Communication barriers: a. Identify two communication barriers that may arise when providing customer service. b. Explain how to break down those barriers. 4. For each scenario in Exhibit 10.4, identify the communication barrier.
EXHIBIT 10.4 Communication barriers Scenario: A customer who lives a long distance from the store brings back a skirt that she bought on sale to obtain a refund and buy a shirt instead. The sales assistant informs the customer that no refund is allowed on sale items. Scenario: An elderly customer complains to the credit union branch manager that the tellers treat her as if she is deaf and stupid. Scenario: The IT helpdesk assistant uses the latest IT jargon and technical language that the caller does not understand. The caller hangs up feeling confused and without having resolved their query.
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CHAPTER 10 / Deliver and monitor service to address customer needs
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Scenario: Two young sales staff have just finished a very loud conversation about how they think religious fanatics are the cause of all the world’s problems, when one of them turns around to find a clergyman waiting to be served. Scenario: The manager explains to the customer making the complaint that he will do whatever he can to help. However, his arms are folded firmly across his chest, he is looking out the window and he is swinging on his chair.
10.2 ADDRESS CUSTOMER NEEDS Effective customer service officers know their organisation’s brand. An organisation’s brand is the promise that links the organisation with its customers and stakeholders. Brand names create loyalty and encourage buying or engagement decisions. Logos, visual imagery and key marketing messages convey the promise of a company and can become easily recognisable. Real value is delivered to your customers when you know your product or service and how to meet your customers’ expectations of the brand. Service delivery must follow through on the promise contained in its brand.
PROVIDE PRODUCT AND SERVICE INFORMATION Businesses, organisations, political parties, charities or environmental groups all have a brand which affects the way people engage with them. Their brand encompasses everything including how customers perceive their advertising and visual communication, and the experience the customer has of the quality of the products and services purchased. It also impacts on the customer’s expectations of what will happen if the customer has a problem or complaint or what will happen when the customer phones the company or logs onto its website. The brand is the promise that links the organisation with its customers and other stakeholders. At the point where a service or product is delivered, the customers’ needs are addressed by the organisation’s people, processes and physical means of delivery. Effective service matches the customers’ expectations about time, cost and quality. Effective service delivery depends on the three elements listed in Exhibit 10.5.
Provide customers with product and service information that matches and supports the brand. Meet customers’ expectations about time, quality and cost.
EXHIBIT 10.5 Elements in effective service delivery Key element
Description
People
The organisation’s personnel and other customers in the environment who play a part in service delivery.
Processes
The procedures, mechanisms and flow of activities involved in delivering the service. These are internal deliverables. All staff should know and work in accordance with the internal deliverables.
Physical evidence
The environment and tangibles that facilitate performance and communication of the service.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Customers also refer to the ‘moment of truth’ in service interactions. These reflect the moment of direct contact between the customer and representatives of the organisation. At this point, the impression of the service delivery is determined by: • the initial information and service received • how well interpersonal skills are used to respond to the customer • the attitude of the person providing the service delivery. Customers of every organisation experience many of these moments every day. Taylor Jones, Senior Manager at Arise, reported key findings from an Arise survey into the maximum hold time range for customers waiting on telephone responses: ‘Nearly two-thirds selected they are only willing to wait 2 minutes or less before hanging up. Over 13% selected that no hold time is acceptable.’ (Jones 2017). Receiving a quick response to a question or problem by telephone or any other channel enhances the customer experience and increases the likelihood of purchasing a product or service.
Seek and act on feedback By building relationships with customers you are able to gather feedback about all aspects of the product and service delivery. Close relationships between the people in your organisation and their customers provide information to maintain and improve the level of service. Collect customer feedback from communication channels such as Twitter, Facebook and other social media platforms, face-to-face or telephone interviews, focus groups, email on online surveys and questionnaires, networking and trade shows. Other methods to obtain invaluable feedback from the customer’s perspective are mail-outs, instore suggestion box and guest feedback forms, staff appraisals, staff surveys and meetings, warranty cards and feedback-for-reward (for instance, free product samples). Seek information about satisfactory service as well as unsatisfactory service. Customers are quick to let you know when the product was defective or the service was inadequate and even rude. Information from internal customers enables an organisation to measure its output against standards. Customer service checklists gather services information, and employees who act as listening posts hear the message behind the words spoken by the customer. Customers want high-quality service with short, reliable delivery times and innovative policies that respond quickly to their needs. Feedback can tell you if you are achieving this. Having good skills in reflective paraphrasing, encouraging listening, questioning and networking lets you gather valuable feedback from both internal and external customers. Features of successful face-to-face service include: • pleasant environment and willing, polite assistance • friendly, well-groomed, informed staff supported by helpful supervisors • quality products or services delivered on time • customers who feel comfortable and respected • service that anticipates and meets the customer’s need for information and action efficiently and courteously. Plans should be prepared and actions taken on the basis of constructive feedback. The outcome manifests as improvements in the level of service and customer satisfaction. Value is added to the products and services.
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CHAPTER 10 / Deliver and monitor service to address customer needs
DEAL WITH DIFFICULT CUSTOMERS Aim to give a high level of service to both pleasant and difficult customers. Irrespective of the quality of service, some customers can be very hard to please and difficult situations can arise. If customer etiquette is not provided as service is given, the result will not only be loss of business, but often an increase in the number of difficult and even abusive customers. Social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Yelp and other online forums enable customers to communicate their dissatisfaction very quickly. Dissatisfied and even abusive customers are difficult to cope with, but they are still customers. They have not yet been lost. Deal with them professionally to resolve rather than add to the conflict.
Identify difficult customers and respond appropriately.
Types of difficult customers It is sometimes useful to classify difficult customers into three categories: 1. Impatient, frustrated customers who demand immediate service. They may express frustration. While it may be difficult to respond to impatient customers with courtesy, you must be professional. 2. Rude customers who are never satisfied. When you are the first point of contact between the rude customer and the organisation, the responsibility to cope rests solely with you. Apologising is not sufficient – you must also take action to solve the problem. The rude, never-satisfied customer is more difficult to work with than other types. 3. Boring customers who may be over-fussy or talkative. Handling them may be a demanding task. There will always be customers who talk too much and are boring. The strategies to use with each customer type are shown in Exhibit 10.6.
EXHIBIT 10.6 Use customer etiquette for each customer type Impatient customers Treat them in the following way: • Be professional • Avoid getting personally involved • Calm them down as quickly as possible • Sort out any problems in private as a public airing may be embarrassing • Apologise for any problem • Solve the problem • Use assertive skills
Rude customers Treat them in the following way: • Always stay cool and ignore rudeness; it is not necessarily personal – these customers may be like this with everyone • Speak clearly • Solve any problem • Offer helpful suggestions and keep to the point so you are not sidetracked into an argument • Use assertive skills
Boring customers Treat them in the following way: • Try not to show your boredom • Use directive or closed questions to bring customers to the point • Wait patiently for them to come to the point • Keep them to the point so you are not sidetracked into an extended conversation • Use appropriate body language • Use assertive skills
Professionalism ensures that your behaviour demonstrates courtesy and customer etiquette appropriate for the issue. Distance your feelings and yourself to avoid personal involvement. No matter how good your service or products, sometimes you will have to deal with difficult customers. As you handle difficult customers, use your communication skills. Seek assistance when necessary from your team leader, supervisor, manager or technical expert.
Demonstrate professionalism by offering high-quality service to all customers.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK
CHECKPOINT 10.2
1. Identify three elements of service delivery that address customer needs effectively. 2. Customer service: a. Briefly discuss the communication skills needed to gather useful feedback from customers. b. Consider the negative customer service statements in Exhibit 10.7 and rewrite them in a more positive way.
EXHIBIT 10.7 Negative and positive statements Negative
Positive
No, not like that.
May I show you how it is normally done?
Sorry, I’m on lunch.
I’ll just get someone who can help you with that.
That’s wrong … Can’t you see I’m serving someone else? What? Come back tomorrow. You’ll have to queue at the next window for that. You’ll have to ring back.
3. Difficult customers: a. Identify three types of difficult customers. b. Briefly explain how to handle rude customers.
FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE
Sustaining a customer focus Seeking customer feedback is an essential part of sustaining a customer focus. The Australian Government Business website, http://business.gov.au, which provides information and support to Australian businesses, highlights three actions that are important when seeking out customer feedback: 1. Ensure it’s easy for customers to give you feedback and suggestions for improvement – for every customer who provides feedback, there are many others who don’t bother. Thus, it’s essential to make it as simple as possible for customers to talk about their experience, good or bad, to maximise the feedback you do receive. 2. Action the feedback – use the information to analyse, evaluate and measure your customer service. You can then use this information to improve your business. 3. Thank customers for their time and effort in providing the feedback – if you implement changes based on their suggestions, let them know. Ask for feedback on the changes you’ve made based on their suggestions. This will help you to measure if you’ve correctly addressed the issue. Source: https://www.business.gov.au/people/customers/seek-customer-feedback, viewed 14 November 2018.
ASK YOURSELF: Has there been a time when you have received particularly good or particularly bad customer service but did not complain or provide feedback? Why do you think this was? Can you identify something that stopped you from doing so? Can you think of one or two things the business could have done to make it easier for you to give feedback?
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CHAPTER 10 / Deliver and monitor service to address customer needs
10.3 DEAL WITH CUSTOMER COMPLAINTS Sometimes you have to deal with customer complaints. A customer complaint happens when a customer is dissatisfied with the product or service. Some complaints are justified, others unjustified. Each type of complaint must be addressed and resolved in a way that allows you to maintain the customer’s goodwill. Your intention is to turn customer complaints into goodwill and future business. Complaints made on any type of communication channel should be handled fairly, quickly and in accordance with organisational guidelines. The intended outcome is customer satisfaction and maintenance of goodwill and ongoing engagement with current and prospective customers. Social media comments in particular should be resolved quickly because they are public. An in-person complaint should be handled by one person with the authority to investigate, choose and implement the remedy. Social media feedback to complaints or bad reviews should also be assigned to one staff member who knows the correct responses and procedure to follow and which remedies to offer. Most organisations have procedures that allow all customer contact officers to handle minor complaints however more serious complaints are handled by a more senior team leader or supervisor as soon as possible. Tips for handling customer complaints are listed in Exhibit 10.8. In responses both in-person or on social media, politeness and professionalism are essential.
EXHIBIT 10.8 Tips for handling complaints In-person complaints
Social media complaints or bad reviews
Record the customer’s contact details.
Ask for contact details so you can look into the complaint. (Only delete complaints that are abusive or offensive.)
Record details of the complaint.
Read the complaint thoroughly.
Allocate authority to one person to investigate and decide what (if any) remedy is required.
Reply publicly with thanks, an apology and a promise to look into it promptly.
Know what steps to take.
Move onto a private channel such as email, telephone or Facebook Messenger to determine the cause of the problem.
Listen to the customer and attend to their complaint.
When time is needed to investigate, let the customer know and give them a timeframe for getting back to them.
Know when it is fair to give which remedies.
Decide which remedy (if any) is appropriate.
When a complaint is rejected, set out the reasons clearly.
When a complaint is rejected, set out the reasons clearly.
Use complaints data to identify wider issues that need correction and improvement.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK The information collected about a customer complaint is used to establish the nature of the complaint, demonstrate willingness to understand the customer’s need, and maintain the relationship with the customer by showing respect and emphasising the customer’s importance. Action should be taken to investigate the details of the complaint, process it in line with your organisation’s procedures, check that the resolution satisfies the EXHIBIT 10.9 The PAIR approval strategy customer and inform the customer of the outcome.
P
Justified customer complaints
Placate listen, empathise, respond with concern
A Attend to the complaint
I Investigate circumstances, details of the incident
R Resolve decide on action to take Acknowledge and resolve justified customer complaints promptly. Communicate with the customer about problem resolution.
Customer complaints about excessive queues, long turnaround times, service errors and insufficient staff to provide the expected service are justified. Other justified complaints include administrative errors, such as incorrect invoices or prices; delivery errors, such as damaged goods or products not delivered on time; and warehouse or storeroom errors, such as incorrect products delivered. Deal with a justified complaint by using negotiation and conflictresolution skills. Acknowledge that the complaint is justified, and do your best to solve the problem. Since the customer’s needs or expectations have not been met, there is no point in hedging or asking them to take further action on their own behalf. Your role is to solve the problem and avoid further ill-feeling. Two strategies available for resolving complaints and problems are shown in Exhibits 10.9 and 10.10.
EXHIBIT 10.10 A five-step method of resolving complaints 1. Listen
Be open-minded. Remember, this is not a personal complaint against you.
2. Respond
Show concern and empathy and apologise for any inconvenience – the customer may be embarrassed about complaining – put yourself in their position.
3. Decide on action
Which factors will influence you here – the justice of the complaint, company policy? When uncertain, seek advice from your supervisor.
4. Take action
Act promptly, courteously and confidently.
5. Follow up
Confirm that the problem has been solved and the customer is happy.
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CHAPTER 10 / Deliver and monitor service to address customer needs If the customer is already angry, use the conflict-management skills described in Chapter 2, Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence. Note both the content and emotions expressed by the customer, but avoid reacting emotionally to the complaint yourself. You want to resolve the complaint, not escalate the situation into an argument. Obtain the facts by using listening and questioning skills. Acknowledge the customer’s position and indicate that you understand how they feel. Always check that the course of action to solve the problem suits the customer. Clearly explain each step. As you do this, ask questions to encourage feedback and make sure that the customer understands what is happening, agrees to the solution and will be happy with the results. When you take the time to consult the customer in this way, you are able to take a course of action that meets their needs and expectations. A course of action that enables you or your staff to deal with the problem immediately gives the most positive results. If solving it is going to take a little longer, explain the steps clearly to the customer and make sure that they are completed. Follow up by making a courtesy telephone call, sending an SMS or posting a card to the customer. Dealing efficiently with the justified complaint gives you a chance of maintaining the customer’s goodwill.
Use active listening and courteous negotiation to handle unjustified customer complaints.
Unjustified customer complaints Complaints are not always justified. When dealing with an unjustified complaint, use a conflictresolution or negotiation strategy, and try active listening. Other chapters in this book discuss these techniques (see Chapters 2 and 8, specifically). Active listening allows customers to air their feelings and know that you have understood them. This helps to defuse the emotional content. Acknowledge the complaint, ask the customer to explain it, and ask how it can be solved. Quite often, this is enough to make them realise the complaint is unjustified. If they cannot think of an answer, then perhaps there are no grounds for complaint. As you ask the customer to explain the facts, they might come round to your point of view. If not, you may finally have to explain that the complaint is unjustified. Customer complaints via any communication channel must be dealt with as soon as possible.
Respond effectively to customers with special needs.
RESPOND TO CUSTOMERS Customers have a variety of needs. Some may be unable to access an organisation’s premises because of disability or age. Others may be unable to understand what services an organisation offers due to language or cultural difficulties. Literacy problems may lead to an inability to complete an organisation’s forms or understand instructions. Differing beliefs and values, religious observances or culture may exist that may preclude some customers from accessing the available services. Being aware of differences allows you to respond effectively.
Accommodate cultural differences to meet needs and improve customer service.
Cultural differences Accommodating cultural differences is of particular importance. Cultural misunderstanding often leads to customer dissatisfaction. Different cultural groups respond to situations in different ways. Their perceptions and interpretations may differ considerably from your own. Their social values, roles and status, concepts of time and personal space, body language and the way in which they make decisions may be markedly different. It is important to learn the value systems of different cultures to avoid costly misunderstandings. You should realise that what is considered right and valid in one culture might be frowned upon in another.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK The Australian Trade and Investment Commission (2018) clarifies, ‘Chinese business people prefer to establish a strong relationship before closing a deal, and never start a discussion or meeting by getting straight to the point about business – they will expect to develop a personal connection first.’ When negotiating, the expectation is that the negotiating teams will reach consensus. In all countries with which they do business, Chinese business managers expect to continue negotiations until consensus is reached. Latin American people also prefer to spend a considerable amount of time discussing a business transaction before coming to a decision. The differences in nonverbal communication between Chinese and Australian people are highlighted by Today Translations (2018): ‘Body posture should always be formal and attentive as it demonstrates self-control and respectfulness.’ Note, if you are beckoning to someone, never beckon palm up. Motion towards yourself, palm down and point downwards. It is standard courtesy to greet men and women, whatever their age or seniority, with a handshake, and the Chinese tradition of respect for their elders means extra courtesy in the presence of an older person is appreciated. Cultures differ in their use of personal space. In general, Latin, Arab and African peoples carrying out business transactions are comfortable with only half a metre of personal distance, whereas Asian, Nordic, Anglo-Saxon and Germanic peoples require just over a metre. Similarly, there is a difference in eye-contact preferences. Westerners prefer eye-to-eye communication, in contrast with Japanese people, who believe that continued use of eye contact is disrespectful. Nonverbal communication can also differ markedly. In Japanese culture, for example, people find it offensive if you use an index finger to summon someone. Cultures may differ in the way they signal ‘no’ – some cultures do so by nodding up and down, the opposite to Western cultures. These variations in body language can cause problems. Being culturally aware will help you to communicate and deal effectively with customers culturally different from you. It will also help you create service experiences that are ‘friendly’ to customers from another culture, establish rapport that leads to positive ‘word of mouth’ promotion of your services (this is covered in more depth in Chapter 11) and meet the needs of customers from a variety of cultures. By establishing customer-friendly systems and taking care of customers you are building your organisation’s customer base, volume of work and level of profits. At the same time you are delivering value to customers. Communication in a multicultural society is discussed more fully in Chapter 1, Understand communication practices.
CHECKPOINT 10.3
1. Discuss three responses that apply for complaints both in-person or via social media. 2. Complaint handling: Identify five things to remember when dealing with a customer who has: a. a justified complaint b. an unjustified complaint. 3. Reflect on the statements here and make a note of suggested courses of action for the following situations. a. You ask a customer to write his name and address on the voucher and he replies by asking if you could write it for him. b. A person in a wheelchair cannot reach the top of the counter to read the brochure you are holding and discussing. c. Your caller has a very strong foreign accent and does not seem to be taking in the information you are trying to provide.
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d. Normal procedure is for customers to lodge their forms in person, but one elderly lady tells you that she can only get a lift into town once a month. She asks if there is another way she can lodge her form. e. One of your new clients is from another country and you find that the nonverbal communication she uses (head movements, body language, eye contact) seems to contradict her words. How can you double-check that she understands you and you understand her?
10.4 COMMUNICATE EFFECTIVELY ON THE TELEPHONE People meet each other, talk and sometimes form long-lasting business contacts over the telephone. Customers make telephone calls to seek information about products and prices, enquire about functions, reserve rooms, tours and travel. They may call to check, modify or cancel arrangements and to offer compliments or lodge complaints. Good voice skills are essential for telephone duties as the voice alone has to make the impression. In business, telephone calls are made to clarify work instructions, communicate with colleagues and other departments, order stock from suppliers and contact emergency services when required. Staff also use the phone to offer feedback to management and colleagues, make cold calls, place service or maintenance calls and ask for advice from industry bodies and government authorities.
Overcome the visual handicap by developing a clear and pleasant vocal presence and courteous telephone techniques.
ANSWER THE TELEPHONE COURTEOUSLY Answer the phone promptly, preferably by the third ring. Failure to answer the telephone promptly and courteously can result in a loss of custom, poor impression of the organisation and customers who are more difficult to handle and make complaints. Greet the customer by saying ‘Good morning’, ‘Good afternoon’ or ‘Good evening’. Immediately after this greeting, give the name of the organisation and your name. This enables the person on the other end to speak to an identity rather than an anonymous voice. Treat the caller civilly using polite language and tone of voice at all times.
Create a positive first impression.
Listen carefully Listen carefully to the speaker. If you assume what is going to be said before it is said, you may miss something else. Wait until the person finishes speaking before you reply. Don’t interrupt. The skills of attending, reflecting and encouraging listening all help speakers to explain themselves fully. These skills are discussed in Chapter 2, Develop emotional intelligence and interpersonal intelligence. Rather than assuming you know what the caller wants, ask questions and listen carefully to establish how to help or where to send the call. When in doubt about the message, repeat back to the caller what they have said and what they have asked for to give them the opportunity to clarify and add more detail. Feedback from the caller helps you to receive and fully understand all the information, particularly when complex material is being communicated on the telephone. Provide accurate information promptly and give clear feedback with a well-modulated speaking voice, at a steady rate. Imagine yourself in the caller’s situation and use a direct question to ask the
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Return to a call on hold every 30 seconds.
caller what help they want and how you can assist them. Sound interested in the caller’s needs and request for service and make an offer to help. When placing a call on hold: • greet the caller and listen to their request • paraphrase their request courteously and tell them you will need to place them on hold • explain briefly the reason for putting them on hold: for example, ‘Madeleine, it seems that you are having trouble logging into your account. We can sort that out right now if you can hold while I pull up your information.’ • pause for their answer and act accordingly: ‘Thank you, I will be right back.’ • work quickly, get back to the call on hold and thank the caller for their patience.
Find the information Behave courteously and efficiently on the telephone to demonstrate your organisation’s professionalism.
If you do not have the necessary information ready, explain to the caller that you are moving away from the telephone to get it, that you have to make further enquiries and will contact them later, or that you have to transfer their call to another person. Never say, ‘Hang on a minute’ and then disappear. The other person can obtain information only from your voice, so let them know you are leaving the telephone rather than just leaving them to wait. State clearly that you have to find the information from another source or room. If you have to ask someone else for information the caller has requested, let the caller know this and suggest that it might take some time. Ask if they would prefer to wait or have you ring back. Some people dislike being kept waiting on a silent telephone. The question is a courtesy, as it lets customers make the choice in terms of their own needs. Once you make a commitment to return the call, always ring back promptly. Before you transfer a caller, give them the name of the person who should answer and the number of the direct line to that person. Then, if the call gets lost in the transfer, the caller can ring the appropriate person easily, without the frustration of delays. Throughout the call, show interest in the customer, use courtesy and satisfy their request. Check that the caller is satisfied with the service provided. It is worth checking your style of telephone communication occasionally to ensure that you offer assistance readily. Conclude pleasantly and with courtesy.
ANSWER CUSTOMER ENQUIRIES
Repeat information, particularly specific details, back to the caller to ensure accuracy.
The telephone is a direct communication link between your organisation and customers. Know your organisation’s telephone use or operation policy. Telephone calls come in – as a customer enquiry or a customer complaint – or they go out to others. The telephone links your organisation with your customers. For a customer enquiry always be honest and keep the caller informed. The following strategies enable the caller to know you are trying to be helpful. • open the call with a greeting, the organisation’s name and your name • listen to the enquiry • provide the relevant information • sound interested in the customer’s needs • explain how the organisation can help to satisfy them • use a simple statement such as ‘Where can I direct your call?’, ‘How can I help you?’, ‘I think you need to talk to Kate, she’s in charge of accounts.’ • suggest what actions customers can take to satisfy their needs, check they are satisfied with the call and conclude courteously.
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CHAPTER 10 / Deliver and monitor service to address customer needs It helps you to identify the main points if you make notes as you talk to the customer. Always record relevant details such as name, address and telephone number for future transactions. Whenever you take a message for someone else, record: • the caller’s name and phone number • the date and time • the name of the person to receive the message • the important elements of the message. Ensure that the message is passed on to that person. Conclude the call with courtesy.
Transferring calls Follow the organisation’s standard protocols for transferring calls. When a call has to be transferred, inform the caller and apologise for the need to transfer the call. Explain that you will need to transfer the call to the person best able to deal with the call and ask for permission to transfer the call; for example, ‘Mr Campbell, I’m sorry I’m unable to help you with your query, but I’d like to transfer you to our manager, Mr Dunn. I’m sure he can give you the prices you need. Would you like to be connected to him?’ Ensure the person making the enquiry has the contact details (name, title or position within the organisation) and direct number in case the line drops out during the transfer. Thank the caller for their patience, transfer and monitor the call to make sure it goes through. If it is not answered, go back to the caller, apologise and make arrangements for someone to phone the caller back.
HANDLE TELEPHONE COMPLAINTS If the complaint is justified, acknowledge this and try to solve the problem. This may mean replacing a faulty product or apologising for previous poor service even if you were not personally responsible. When the call is a complaint: • acknowledge it is a complaint • ask questions that encourage the customer to explain in detail • paraphrase the complaint back to the customer • deal with the complaint. If the complaint is unjustified, be politely assertive by following four steps: 1. Explain that the problem was not caused by your organisation. 2. Restate the customer’s answer to confirm your understanding of their problem. 3. Make any reasonable offer to the customer that is possible. 4. Let the customer know that the organisation is interested in their needs and expectations. When answering a call from a rude or aggressive caller, avoid: • unprofessional language and an annoyed or irritated tone of voice • rudeness and swearing back at a caller who swears at you • taking the call personally and responding angrily even when provoked. Demonstrate respect for the caller by using positive language and tone of voice. Each time you deal with a complaint, make sure that the problem is solved to the customer’s satisfaction and follow up with any necessary action.
Deal with a complaint promptly.
REPORT THREATENING OR SUSPICIOUS CALLS Always treat a bomb threat call as genuine. Most organisations have a way to signal to nearby colleagues that you are receiving a bomb threat by waving arms, writing a note or activating a silent
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK alarm. Bomb threat calls are usually recorded on a form that guides you through the following questions and enables the answers to be recorded. Typical questions to ask the caller are: • ‘Where did you find the bomb?’; ‘What does it look like?’; ‘When is it due to explode?’; ‘What type of bomb is it?’; ‘Why did you plant the bomb?’; ‘What kind of substance is in it?’; ‘What is your name?’; ‘Where are you?’ When a bomb threat call is received, stay calm and keep the caller on the line as long as possible to gather information and details possible about the bomb and its location. Report the threat immediately to your organisation’s emergency contact person. Unwanted calls and calls that threaten the safety of employees, customers or others in the organisation should not be ignored. Police should be contacted immediately when harassing calls or messages that are life threatening are received. Telstra Consumer Advice identifies unwelcome calls as: • silence, hoax, abusive or obscene calls in which the caller stays silent while holding the line open or speaks in an abusive or obscene way • malicious calls threatening the receiver or disturbing the receiver in other unwanted ways • hang-up calls in which the caller puts the receiver down or disconnects as soon as the receiver answers the call. When an unwelcome call is received, stay calm and consider the following ways to deal with these types of calls. Hanging up on the unwelcome call does not necessarily clear a fixed phone service line to ring out and report the unwanted call, unless the phone is not picked up for five minutes. After five minutes, it is possible to make calls to the telephone service provider and ask them to conduct a confidential investigation. Landline providers offer a call forward service for selected callers that forward calls from a selected number(s) before the call reaches the dialled number. Unwelcome calls to a landline can be given a special ringtone. Mobiles do not have the call forward service; however, some mobiles may allow a ringtone to an unwelcome number. On a landline, one of the unwelcome calls can be left unanswered and Call Return (*10#) used to recover the number of the last unanswered call. Call return is unavailable on mobiles; however, the calling number is displayed automatically unless blocked. Calls can also be screened with MessageBank. A telephone number can be changed and kept unlisted to prevent malicious and unwanted calls. Telephone service providers offer a Malicious Call Trace service that helps the receivers of malicious calls to respond with the help of the provider and the police to record details about the source of the threatening call and identify the offender. Malicious Call Trace may incur a fee; however, it does provide records or evidence of calls that can be presented in a court of law. Telemarketing calls from unsolicited companies or sources can be averted by adding a telephone number to the Australian Communications and Media Authority’s (ACMA) Do Not Call Register. Updating your number onto the Do Not Call Register may take up to 30 days for the changes to be registered. ‘Some categories of callers such as charities or religious organisations, registered political parties, educational institutions, market researchers and companies you have an active ongoing business relationship with will still be able to call you.’ (MNF Group 2018)
CHECKPOINT 10.4
1. What are the likely negative outcomes from failure to answer incoming telephone calls promptly? 2. Answering telephone calls: a. Briefly explain how to place a call on hold. b. What do you need to say to a caller before you transfer their call? c. What should you avoid when you handle a customer complaint call? d. Why should you keep a bomb threat caller on the line for as long as possible?
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3. Scenario: Planning the call You are ringing on behalf of your employer, Mr James Hensen of APC Technology, to confirm his travel arrangements for a forthcoming overseas trip and to obtain an indication of costs. Mr Hensen has also asked you to enquire about tourist attractions his family might visit in Hawaii, Los Angeles and New York. a. Prepare a mini agenda of the points you may wish to discuss. b. Write a dialogue you could use when the phone is answered. 4. Reflect on the calls you have received in the last month from people wanting to sell you something over the phone. a. How did you respond? Why? b. Identify at least one call that you could have handled more successfully. Prepare a set of guidelines to improve your performance. 5. Threatening telephone calls: a. Identify four types of unwanted calls. b. Explain how you would deal with a bomb hoax.
10.5 MONITOR AND REPORT ON SERVICE DELIVERY Everyone providing customer service has an interest in knowing the product or service’s success. The monitoring process indicates areas of satisfaction and areas that need improvement. The data gathered becomes evidence and is used to make adjustments to the product’s or service’s inputs, processes or outputs. Verifiable evidence includes returned goods, lapsed customers, service calls and complaints, customer satisfaction questionnaires, quality assurance data, audit documentation and reports. In the monitoring process, customer service officers and others delivering customer service to internal or external customers gather data, organise it into a logical order, analyse it, draw conclusions and make recommendations on what should happen. Monitoring in this context means to check, observe or record customer service operations. Regular review of customer satisfaction with service delivery means verifying the quality of service and products meets customer requirements. Exhibit 10.11 identifies dimensions that customers use when evaluating the quality of customer service. Monitor procedural aspects of service delivery and customer service skills of staff regularly against these dimensions.
Develop reports based on objective information.
EXHIBIT 10.11 Quality service dimensions and evaluation criteria Dimension
Evaluation criteria
Customer-friendly policies and processes
Accessible and convenient services; for example, resolve query or provide service or product at first point of contact
Reliability
Consistency and dependability in performing the service; for example, airline flight departing and arriving on time
Tangibles
Physical evidence of the service; for example, the equipment used in a dental examination
Empathy
Caring and individual attention provided by staff; for example, listening and providing personalised attention
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Dimension
Evaluation criteria
Assurance
Knowledge and competence of staff; for example, accurate, clear and complete product or service knowledge
Responsiveness
Willingness or readiness of staff to provide the service; for example, prompt service provision by knowledgeable and available staff
Good value
Price and service factors; for example, fair price complemented by quality of service, information and follow-up
REPORT CUSTOMER SATISFACTION AND DISSATISFACTION
Organise the information to suit the report’s purpose and the receiver’s needs.
As well as keeping records of the data gathered, all findings, analysis, conclusions and recommendations should be presented in the form of a report. The report presents the information gathered through monitoring customer satisfaction and dissatisfaction. As well as presenting the information in a written report, you should also communicate the report’s findings at meetings, briefings and other forums. Many organisations only collect information about customer dissatisfaction. The most useful customer service reports describe what the organisation is doing successfully as well as what it is doing unsuccessfully. Plans can then be made to maintain and build on the successes as well as improve any problem areas. Understanding the customer’s perception is more than just a useful activity to gather information about customer service problems. Their perception is the problem. Whether you are providing a new product or accepting the return of a faulty product, the differences in perception about the level of service are defined by the difference between your organisation’s thinking and the customer’s. If you are to understand your customer, your organisation must put itself in the customer’s shoes. The ability to perceive the service as the customer sees it provides critical information about what to do to provide quality customer service that meets their needs and expectations.
Plan and structure the report The structure of the customer service report will depend upon its purpose, who is going to read it, the type of information to be conveyed and what might be done with the information once it is read. Chapters 16, 17, 18 and 19 discuss reports more fully. Try to remember the intended audience when you are writing a report, and cater to their needs. Think about their requirements, how much time they have to read the report, what they need to understand and the actions they need to take on the basis of the conclusions and recommendations. An example of a suitable format for a major report into customer service is shown in Exhibit 10.12. Effectiveness measures can be set up against program goals or your organisation’s codes of practice. By creating measures that show your service is achieving program goals, you are able to verify that the outcomes from customer service are successful. Efficiency can be measured against budgets. Customer service is cost-effective when the actual figures equal the budget. This shows that performance has been efficient.
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EXHIBIT 10.12 Suitable format for a customer service report SECTION Title Page
Report title: ........................
• Establish clearly what the report is about • Use a clear, direct title • List the contents if the report is long
Report submitted by: ........................ To: ........................ Section 1 Introduction
Date: ........................
• Identify what was monitored • State monitoring purpose • Identify who the results are for • Identify data collection methods
• Provide in the form of a summary to give the reader a complete overview of the report • Define the purpose • Identify the problem (if any)
Section 2 Findings
• Present the information and evidence • Give an objective analysis
• Identify the type of customers, products and services monitored • Identify any efficiency and effectiveness measures • Organise the information under headings • Give a concise discussion
Section 3 Results
• Give results • Evaluate findings • Present conclusions
• Draw logical conclusions from evidence obtained and presented in the findings • Base conclusions on objective information • Make recommendations (if required)
RECOMMEND IMPROVEMENTS The final section of the body of the report usually contains the conclusions and recommendations. Set these out as separate subsections. The conclusions and recommendations may be placed at the beginning of the report before the introduction to catch your reader’s attention. The conclusion analyses and evaluates the report’s main facts. It is usually short, perhaps one or two paragraphs but no more than half a page. Avoid presenting any new material in the conclusion. In Chapter 17, Figure 17.10 provides an example of conclusions and recommendations prepared for the Fairways Golf Club. The findings in the report demonstrat that it would be cost-effective to install a new watering system at Fairways Golf Club. However, there would be considerable opposition from staff members, golfers and nearby residents. The local council also had objections. The report’s findings are based on objective information. The conclusion reflects these findings. Recommendations are the writer’s attempt to provide at least some answers to questions and issues raised by the report. Recommendations must be: • based on the report’s findings • reasoned and logical • related to the conclusions, your analysis and the discussion set out in the body of the report • presented as a separate point or paragraph for each recommendation • numbered and in descending order of importance • stated clearly, identifying the action required.
Base conclusions and recommendations on accurate and objective data. Identify the proposed action in the recommendation(s).
MAINTAIN RECORDS Client service records provide a history of the interactions between the organisation and its clients. They also verify the actual customer service outcomes against the intended targets. Gather data and record information about the characteristics of service that give satisfaction to the client and meet the
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Maintain accurate and timely records to evaluate customer service.
organisation’s or workgroup’s intended outcomes. Records provide the opportunity to compare changes in customer satisfaction. They also provide useful information for customer service plans. Three main types of customer service record systems are shown in Exhibit 10.13. Sales forecasts and workforce schedules are two examples of plans that can be improved by accurate, timely and reliable information presented in customer service records and reports. Any planned improvements based on objective reports and records are likely to succeed because the information is reliable. In a customer service report, you should present and discuss both efficiency and effectiveness measures.
EXHIBIT 10.13 Record systems Type
Description
Client or case records
• Client or case records document the service provided and the outcomes achieved • These records maintain a history of a customer’s dealings with the organisation • The currency, accuracy and integrity of these files must be maintained for reporting purposes • Program or service records document the performance of the service provider in delivering the prescribed level of service to clients • The records are maintained to enable outcomes to be compared against targets • The efficient and effective use of resources can also be measured System records may be in the form of policies and procedures. These records form the framework for customer service. Some examples include: • staff records (performance appraisals, employment details, training) • financial records (resource allocation, budgets, expenditures, requisitions) • quality records (conformance, reports, audits).
Program or service records
System records
CHECKPOINT 10.5
1. Barriers to good service There is a staff morning tea for someone in your office who is about to leave to take up a position in another branch of the organisation. The open-plan office is quite noisy and the speeches are about to start. Your phone rings. It is a customer who is notorious for frequent and long conversations, wanting details about a variety of products, prices and delivery times. a. What communication barriers could exist during this exchange? b. Where might these barriers originate – the customer or yourself? c. Suggest ways to avoid these barriers. 2. Deal with customer complaints Many of the customer service staff in the reception area of your organisation are young and inexperienced. Recently, a couple of face-to-face complaints have been made by particularly irate customers at times when no senior staff were available to help the customer service staff. The complaints obviously upset the younger employees. You have decided to hold a training session in how to deal with customer complaints. Describe the points you will cover in the course notes. 3. Customer service records a. List three types of customer service records and explain the purpose of each. b. Describe the advantages of recording information about customer satisfaction as well as customer dissatisfaction. c. Create a notice to be circulated to all staff. The notice is to be titled ‘Reasons for keeping customer service records’.
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LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 10.1 Apply interpersonal skills to establish rapport, clarify customer needs and expectations, and overcome barriers to communication. Acknowledge the customer, listen with empathy, give feedback and use appropriate verbal and nonverbal communication so that you can offer the customer high-quality service. Barriers may be due to poor communication skills, lack of respect for (or courtesy to) the customer, inadequate customer service staff, or when staff do not know enough about the product and its features. Overcome barriers through active listening: be attentive, concentrate on the issue and not the person, target key points, investigate with questions and verify the customer’s needs by restating them. 10.2 Identify customer requirements, address customer needs and seek feedback to improve service delivery and maintain goodwill. Now more than ever, customers expect high-quality service, short and reliable delivery times and innovative policies that respond quickly to their needs and expectations. Some positive features that successful customer service offers are a pleasant environment, friendly and well-groomed staff, well-informed staff with helpful supervisors, willing assistance and courtesy. The person providing the service must know the product and explain it with courtesy. Listen carefully as you discuss the product so that you understand how much customers know about it and how much more they would like to know. Offer feedback that is appropriate to customer needs and expectations. Establish and maintain a good relationship with your customers, to persuade them to keep using your product or service. Satisfy their needs and expectations by taking responsibility, using flexibility and showing initiative as you provide a high-quality service. Age, disability or cultural and language differences may cause problems and preclude a customer from accessing available services. Use a courteous
approach and active listening to determine customers’ requirements. As you provide service you must work within your organisation’s policies, procedures and other requirements. These requirements include payment and delivery options, replacement and refund procedures, access and equity principles and practices, and WHS policies, procedures and programs. 10.3 Use problem-solving strategies to handle customer complaints sensitively and courteously. If customers express confusion or dissatisfaction, deal with the problem as promptly as possible. Two problem-solving strategies are the PAIR approval strategy and the five-step method. Use these to satisfy customer needs and expectations. On those occasions when you do not have all the information required, seek advice from your colleagues, supervisor or manager. Their assistance will help you provide service that meets the customers’ needs and expectations. 10.4 Communicate clearly and effectively on the telephone with both internal and external customers. When you use the telephone to answer enquiries and handle complaints, make sure you answer courteously and listen carefully. Once you understand what the customer wants, find the information or take action to satisfy them as quickly as you can. Courtesy and promptness are important. Project a confident and professional image. 10.5 Report customer satisfaction or dissatisfaction and recommend improvements if needed. Evidence of satisfaction and dissatisfaction is gathered from quality assurance data and audit reports and documentation. Customer satisfaction questionnaires give useful information about customers’ perception of service levels. Incorporate customer suggestions to modify and continually improve products or services, but ensure any change is in accordance with your organisation’s standards and requirements.
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KEY TERMS courtesy customer
customer enquiry expectations
goodwill justified complaint
respect unjustified complaint
LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Poor customer service a. Identify one personal experience where you have had poor face-to-face customer service. Explain the situation to a partner and provide details about how the poor service made you feel. b. On a flipchart, list the factors that made the customer service experience such a bad one. c. In point form, summarise the effect of the experience on you, the customer. 2. Responsibilities and good customer service Part A: Customer service responsibilities Individually, consider the general customer service responsibilities of the employees in your own (or any) workplace. Make a list of the responsibilities that are common to all staff who serve customers, whether personally, over the telephone, or via mail, email or social media. Part B: Good customer service Individually, identify an organisation that you regard as successful. a. List five factors you think contribute to its image of success. b. Compare your list with the list of the person sitting next to you. Identify the similarities in your lists. c. Which factors on your lists relate directly or indirectly to good customer service? 3. Read the following scenario and answer the questions at the end. Scenario: Music store Ethan walks into a large music store and asks a store assistant where he might find a particular songbook of pop classics. The assistant points to a display aisle and strolls off in another direction, chewing gum in time with the very loud music being played in the store. Ethan can’t help but wonder whether the assistant even heard him correctly. Ethan looks for the songbook again in the direction the assistant indicated, but still can’t find it. He decides to wait at the service counter to speak to someone else. The
assistant behind the counter is on the telephone, talking trivia to someone about her social life. To start with, Ethan is the only customer waiting at the counter. More customers arrive at the store intermittently and are now requiring customer service. When the counter assistant finally gets off the phone, she ignores Ethan and attends to another customer. By this stage, Ethan is angry and leaves the store. The next day, he phones the store, asks to speak to the manager and makes a complaint. Questions Put yourself in the situation faced by the manager and answer the following questions. a. Develop a four-point plan, following the PAIR approval strategy, for handling this complaint. b. What action will you take immediately to satisfy Ethan’s needs? c. Outline how staff should respond to customers in the future. 4. Customer service report a. Brainstorm the characteristics of a successful report on customer service. b. List the reasons for basing conclusions and recommendations on verifiable evidence. c. Do you prefer to place your conclusions and recommendations at the beginning or end of your reports? Why? 5. Social media research Customers are able to make their satisfaction or dissatisfaction with an organisation’s customer experience known quickly on social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter and Yelp. Conduct research on the Web to answer the following questions. a. How can social media enhance a customer’s experience? Provide examples. b. Discuss two strategies organisations use to provide good customer experiences online.
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CHAPTER 10 / Deliver and monitor service to address customer needs
c. Should an organisation ignore an online complaint from a customer? Provide reasons for your answer. d. How do organisations acknowledge online customer complaints? 6. Poor telephone customer service In small groups, discuss your own experiences of poor telephone customer service. a. Draft a table of what did happen and what should have happened and present this information to another small group. b. Ask the other group if they have any further suggestions about what should have happened.
7. Customer satisfaction Work in small groups to: a. Brainstorm to create a list of the needs of the customer of a large department store. b. Discuss the expectations of service each member of your group has about the service they will receive in any large department store of your choice. c. Prepare a plan of action the department store could use to gather feedback from its customers about their satisfaction with the service received. d. Share your plan of action with other groups.
GROUP ACTIVITY Part A Do this activity with your whole group. a. Brainstorm a list of communication barriers you have experienced as a customer. b. For each communication barrier identified, discuss and make a note of ways to overcome it in the context of the experience. Part B Break into small groups for this activity. a. Each group should choose a topic from the ones listed below. b. Each group must draft a procedure related to their topic, using the information presented in this chapter. Make the
procedure directly relevant to one of your workplaces, if possible. c. Be sure to include instructions as well as reasons for required actions. d. Each group should present their procedure to the whole group. The topics to choose from are: • receiving a telephone customer enquiry • avoiding communication barriers • dealing face-to-face with difficult customers • the importance of good customer service • handling a telephone customer complaint.
CASE STUDY CUSTOMER SERVICE BLUNDER: KITCHEN DELIVERY Mel ordered a Prefab kitchen from Great Hardware, a national chain of stores. The sales assistant told Mel it would take around two weeks to order the kitchen and asked if she needed the kitchen to be delivered. Mel said, ‘Yes we need delivery to the ground floor of an apartment block in the inner city’. The sales assistant replied ‘Not a problem’. Mel confirmed the order and paid the deposit, with the full amount to be paid before delivery. After two weeks Great Hardware contacted Mel by text message to confirm the kitchen was ready and to come in and confirm the delivery date and pay in full. Mel was not
told that the delivery would be done by a contractor rather than Great Hardware. On the morning of delivery, Transport Next rang advising that delivery would be after lunch. Mel asked, ‘What delivery?’ as she did not organise a delivery from Transport Next. They replied, ‘Great Hardware has contracted us to deliver your kitchen’. Mel organised her daily routine so she could be there after lunch. After many phone calls, Tom from Transport Next turned up at approximately 3.30 pm and began unloading the kitchen into the driveway in front of the neighbour’s garage. Mel asked for the kitchen to be
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK
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delivered to the apartment. Tom explained that his delivery requirement was to deliver to the driveway of the property. Mel explained this driveway was not her property and that the pallet of goods needed to be taken inside the apartment. Tom aggressively said, ‘It’s not my problem. I’m going away for the weekend with my girlfriend.’ Mel noticed his girlfriend was sitting in the front seat of the delivery truck. Mel said, ‘It is starting to rain and I need the kitchen inside’. Tom finished unloading the wrapped pallet and said to Mel, ‘Get the kitchen inside as quick as possible so it will not get wet and swell from the moisture’. Mel was left to carry by herself the cartons containing the kitchen into the apartment. The next day, Mel went to Great Hardware to complain about the rude and inadequate customer service that had left her with a kitchen in the driveway.
Great Hardware’s manager Linda told Mel she was unaware of the outsourced company’s customer delivery policy. Linda told Mel she would follow up and get back to her.
Questions a. Consider Tom’s approach to service delivery. In a short written answer, identify the unsatisfactory features of Tom’s delivery. b. Explain how Mel could provide feedback to Great Hardware. c. Discuss strategies Great Hardware could use to satisfy Mel. d. Explain how a customer service action plan could help Linda respond to Mel’s complaint and hopefully re-establish Mel’s goodwill towards Great Hardware.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Australian Trade and Investment Commission. 2018. China Doing Business, https://www.austrade.gov.au/Australian/ Export/Export-markets/Countries/China/Doing-business, viewed 1 December 2018. DeGroot, Robert. 2014. Telephone Etiquette for Business: Make good impressions from hello to goodbye, Kindle Edition, USA. De Silva Joyce, Helen, Zawadzki, Halina and Wilson, Liz. 2007. Getting It Right at Work: Customer Service, NSW AMES, Surry Hills, Australia. Jones, Taylor. 2017. Arise 2017 Customer Service Frustration Series: Phone Hold Times, https://www.arise.com/ resources/blog/arise-2017-customer-servicefrustration-series-phone-hold-times, viewed 27 July 2018. MNF Group. 2018. Consumer Information: Unwelcome Calls and Messages Policy, https://mnfgroup.limited/legal/ unwelcome-calls-policy, viewed 1 December 2018. Morgan, R. 2009. Calming Upset Customers: Stay in Control in Any Situation, 4th edn, AXZO Press, Fairport, NY. Oracle. 2012. Consumer Views of Live Help Online 2012: A Global Perspective, http://www.oracle.com/us/products/
applications/commerce/live-help-on-demand/oracle-livehelp-wp-aamf-1624138.pdf, viewed 5 May November 2018. Solomon, Robert. 2016. The Art of Client Service: The Classic Guide, 3rd edn, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ. Telstra Consumer Advice. 2018. Call Types, https:// www.telstra.com.au/consumer-advice/unwelcome-calls/ call-types, viewed 1 December 2018. Thompson, Harvey. 2015. Who Stole My Customer?? Winning Strategies for Creating and Sustaining Customer Loyalty, 2nd edn, Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Timm, Paul R. 2013. Customer Service: Career Success Through Customer Loyalty, 6th edn, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Today Translations. 2018. Doing business in China, https:// www.todaytranslations.com/doing-business-in-china, viewed 1 December 2018. training.gov.au. BSBCUS301: Deliver and Monitor a Service to Customers, https://training.gov.au/Training/Details/ BSBCUS301, viewed 5 May 2018.
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MANAGE CUSTOMER ENGAGEMENT
CHAPTER
11 11.1
Your Learning Journey
11.2
These stages build RAPPORT, SATISFACTION + ENGAGEMENT with customers
Chapter 11
Strategies that maintain and improve customer experiences:
The FIVE STAGES of CUSTOMER ENGAGEMENT
unawareness
CH 12
consideration
review of results
conversion
willingness to improve service
growth (through value creation)
REVIEW customer service, IMPLEMENT corrective actions and REPORT outcomes
informing customers + planning ahead to meet expectations creation of a set of customer service standards
discovery
Next ANALYSE + PRESENT RESEARCH INFORMATION
gathering feedback to find out what customers expect
11.3
Changes should comply with organisational policy + legislature/regulations
11.5
11.4 advertising + posts reaching customers
NETWORK-BUILDING STRATEGIES (building customer confidence + willingness to revisit the organisation)
The ROLE of SOCIAL MEDIA in CUSTOMER SATISFACTION + ENGAGEMENT: promotes provides technical organisation’s responses support + fan base + in real time relationship converts a building wider audience
Open, honest communication in one-on-one interactions, focus groups, social media, surveys and advertising
Regular contact + communication Appropriate use of technology to interact with, support + service customers
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 11.1 discuss the stages of customer engagement and strategies that build rapport, satisfaction and engagement 11.2 describe methods organisations use to facilitate customer engagement 11.3 identify and describe network building strategies 11.4 discuss the role of social media in enhancing customer satisfaction and engagement 11.5 review customer service, implement corrective actions and report outcomes.
11.1 WHAT IS CUSTOMER ENGAGEMENT? Facilitate positive relationships with regular and potential customers to promote loyalty and customer engagement.
Customer engagement with an organisation is driven by good communication though all channels, it is an ongoing process made up of all the interactions a customer has with the organisation. Successful customer communication – face-to-face, written, online or through social media channels – has a clear purpose, and a message with content, tone, frequency and timing that meet the needs of its audience. Knowledge of the rules about what works and what does not on the various communication channels is the key to maximising positive customer experiences and enhancing customer engagement. Ensure that the first impression regular and potential customers have of your organisation and the service you provide on all communication channels is positive, welcoming and engaging. The participation and involvement of existing customers and potential customers in positive relationships with an organisation fosters customer loyalty and enhances customer engagement. Customers’ expectations change as they experience improvements in technology. The shift towards online service caused by digital technology has meant personalised customer service, and the associated customer engagement is accessible to individual customers from anywhere. Rather than having to find and walk into a shop a customer can access fast, personalised service responsive to their needs and preferences at any time of the day. Putting customers’ needs and expectations first in both digital and human customer service interactions is the best way to establish a relationship with them and encourage them to engage with the organisation. However, a good relationship cannot be established in this way unless the organisation’s most senior management (and managers at other levels) support the rest of the staff in their efforts to provide high-quality service.
STAGES OF CUSTOMER ENGAGEMENT In order to promote customer engagement the organisation as a whole must have a clearly identified customer service vision or goal, and provide consistent customer experiences across all of its communication channels (voice, social, mobile, email, chat and face-to-face). The five stages through which a customer moves as they engage with an organisation are: 1. Unawareness: the customer does not yet know about your company 2. Discovery: the beginning stage where the customer finds out about your company 3. Consideration: the customer is still undecided about whether to choose your brand
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CHAPTER 11 / Manage customer engagement 4. Conversion: the customer makes a purchase decision and chooses your brand 5. Growth through value creation: the loyal customer revisits many times. Source: Gautam 2017.
Clear goals supported by well-defined objectives, practices and feedback from customers allow an organisation to deliver information, products and services during the unawareness and discovery stages that empower customers to understand the organisation’s offerings and make decisions that suit the customers’ lifestyle and preferences. Positive customer experiences during the discovery, consideration and conversion stages that meet expectations establish rapport and customer loyalty.
CUSTOMER JOURNEY A customer journey approach to customer service is being adopted by many organisations. This approach aims to develop customer engagement through positive customer experiences with each interaction, or touch point, with an organisation. Touch points are the many critical moments when customers interact with the organisation and its offerings on their journey from the unawareness stage through to purchase and after. Through all the five stages of engagement the customer expects each touch point or interaction to be easy, quick and satisfying. High-quality service delivery is essential to achieve customer engagement. This flows from an organisational culture, policies, practices and staff that are centred on customer engagement. A positive customer journey satisfies customers’ needs and expectations. To achieve this, an organisation must have full knowledge of its products or service and market demand, the funds and necessary resources to maintain the customer service culture, and practices that support staff in facilitating customers to engage and reach their goal quickly and easily. Hence, the organisation must: • understand and fulfil its customers’ needs and expectations • review and be willing to do things differently to improve and provide quality customer service consistently • inform customers about the improved customer service and products and the benefits to the customer. A major problem with internal customer service is lack of cooperation between people. Cooperative partnerships between internal customers create rapport and allow better-quality service at each stage of the product or service line. Customer service is well-managed when staff supply their internal customers with service that allows them to provide high-level service to external customers. Internal customers value service that gives them satisfaction and enables them to do their work well as they provide service to their own internal and external customers.
Ensure a customer journey approach by providing customers with a seamless journey across all touch points with the organisation from initial enquiry right through to post-sales support. Ensure customers receive the quality of experience they require at each of the customer touch points. Focus on the customer at every touch point on their journey.
ESTABLISH RAPPORT WITH CUSTOMERS
Effective planning, implementation, feedback and continuous improvement processes provide the customer with at least the expected level of service.
Customer rapport flows from communication and service that reveal an understanding of the customers’ point of view and connect with them. On any channel of communication, rapport is formed when the customer realises that the person providing the service is: • attentive, focused and interested in what they are saying or doing • positive and shows care and concern for their needs • able to understand their issue or concern and is willing to help.
Assist customers by making them feel comfortable and respected, and by anticipating and meeting their needs efficiently and courteously.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Rapport leads to common understanding demonstrated through verbal communication and nonverbal such as voice tone and similar body Find common ground language. Exhibit 11.1 identifies behaviours that and shared experiences build rapport and enable positive interpersonal communication with clients. Greet with courtesy and Listen actively with Check that your appearance helps you to confidence genuine interest connect with customers rather than creating a barrier. Dress in a style appropriate to the expectations of your career and organisation and communicate in a way that is appropriate to the culture of your organisation and its customers. The customer’s first impression is lasting. As you Mirror and match body Use open-ended acknowledge customers, smile, relax, remember language questions their names, listen carefully and use a positive, courteous posture and body language. Rapport establishes trust and lets customers know that you are listening to them and willing to meet their needs and expectations. Refer to Chapter 2 for a range of Develop rapport to listening, questioning and body language skills. build customer trust and confidence. Finding common ground with customers calls for respectful, sincere and open communication supported by a positive and friendly attitude. Reasonable, fair and straightforward interactions concentrate on the interests of both parties. Effective customer service officers focus on the customer to prevent preoccupation and distractions. They listen actively to the customer and give them full attention. The customer realises that their perspective is listened to and their input is considered as issues and problems are solved. Both parties are able to find common ground and work towards mutually agreeable win–win solutions. Small talk about the weather, sport, pets or current news item can create a connection or common ground with a customer; however, as you use small talk, be aware that differences exist between people and situations. Avoid making assumptions about customers that may cause you to use small talk that the customer views as a slur or affront to their beliefs.
EXHIBIT 11.1 Rapport-building behaviours
MAINTAINING ENGAGEMENT DESPITE CONFLICT OR COMPLAINTS When dealing with customer complaints or difficult customers, emotionally intelligent frontline customer service officers are aware of and able to control their own emotions as they work to placate, attend to, investigate and resolve customer complaints. Emotional intelligence enables a customer service officer to recognise their own emotions, and to have the self-control and confidence to self-regulate as they listen to and respond at each stage of the customer’s interaction. They realise their job requires social awareness, empathy and service orientation to anticipate, recognise and meet customer needs. Clear and convincing assertive messages focused on customer needs and issues facilitate a frontline customer service officer to collaborate, cooperate and build relationships with customers. In instances where assertive communication fails, or where one of the parties isn’t committed to resolving the issue, it may be necessary to ask a supervisor or team leader for help to negotiate and resolve the customer’s problem. The end goal should always be greater customer satisfaction with the relationship as this enhances customer engagement and loyalty over the short and longer term. Customer complaints policy is dealt with later in this chapter.
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CHAPTER 11 / Manage customer engagement
1. Customer engagement: a. Identify the five stages of customer engagement. b. Briefly discuss three strategies organisations can use to attract and connect with customers. 2. How can you establish rapport with a customer? 3. Strategies and emotional intelligence: a. Discuss strategies frontline customer service officers can use to find common ground with a customer. b. What role does emotional intelligence play in customer service? 4. Touch points: a. List the touch points you experience at your favourite coffee bar or restaurant. b. What are the experiences that have made you a loyal customer of that coffee bar or restaurant?
The rise of customer engagement Increasingly, the world we live in is one that never sleeps. With this comes the expectation that businesses respond to customer needs with immediacy. It’s no longer just about getting a response or satisfactory outcome, for customers it has also become about being heard and creating a connection with a business or brand. This shift has blurred the boundaries between customer service and marketing and given growing importance to the concept of customer engagement. So, what is customer engagement? According to the marketing site Outbrain, well-executed customer engagement: • encourages not just brand growth but also customer loyalty. • encourages customers to share their experiences and interact with a business or brand. • focuses on value creation – i.e. rather than being a sales pitch, it attempts to engage with customers to create something meaningful: great content, interactive or responsive customer support in real time and an end-to-end customer experience that builds customer loyalty and encourages further engagement.
CHECKPOINT 11.1
FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE
Source: https://www.outbrain.com/blog/3-golden-customer-engagementstrategies-that-marketers-cant-ignore/, accessed 14 November 2018.
ASK YOURSELF: What are three factors that cause you to engage as a customer? What three factors can you think of that cause you to disengage?
11.2 METHODS FOR ENGAGEMENT The broad goals of customer engagement are to: • provide information • consult • involve and collaborate These goals encourage customers to engage and become loyal to the organisation’s products and services. Strategies that facilitate achievement of these goals are shown in Exhibit 11.2.
Build trust and loyalty by providing what the customer values.
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EXHIBIT 11.2 Strategies to support customer engagement 1
Survey and gather feedback to find out what customers need and expect.
2
Inform customers about the organisation’s activities, products and services.
3
Develop a good customer service ‘climate’ (or culture) through communication, training and development.
4
Plan ahead to meet customers’ needs and expectations.
5
Create a set of customer service performance standards.
6
Review the customer service outcomes and be willing to improve the service.
Identify customer service standards.
A satisfied customer is one whose needs have been met to a standard predetermined by the customer. Customer satisfaction is interpreted by the customer rather than the person providing the service. One of the best ways to satisfy and connect with customers is to make sure the product or service delivers the results promised by the organisation and expected by the customer. The key to customer satisfaction and loyalty is provision of what the customer values.
GATHER FEEDBACK ON PREFERENCES AND EXPECTATION
By basing service on the customers’ needs and expectations, the organisation creates more opportunities to satisfy and engage customers. Strategies to gather feedback about communication, quality, time, service conditions and cost standards to internal and external customers include: • Asking customers what they value by using surveys, listening to their comments and asking questions. • Setting customer service goals and deciding strategies to achieve the goals. • Deciding what service is needed to engage customers and deciding how to adapt to improve service. • Setting key performance indicators against critical success factors. • Deciding which communication channels to use to inform customers about improvements to the touch points along the customer journey. Obtain feedback from customers in terms of their comfort, feelings and perception of expected outcomes. Keep customers informed to build good relationships. Before or as you provide service, explain the purpose and outcomes of the procedure, the principal steps and the order in which they will take place. Where appropriate, explain your booking or service conditions to avoid unrealistic customer expectations and potential awkwardness or communication barriers. Exhibit 11.3 gives examples of service conditions presented to customers before a transaction to avoid false expectations and consequent anxiety and stress. Clarifying service conditions leads to realistic customer expectations. Ongoing customer engagement requires organisations to check that the service outcomes meet customer expectations. Requesting and acting on regular feedback earns respect from customers and helps an organisation to capture the positive comments as well as to highlight the problems. Regularity of feedback enables trends to be identified, and problems solved by improvements to the service design. It also lets an organisation know that service standards are being maintained and that customer engagement is ongoing. Gathering customer feedback is about asking questions. If the right questions are posed, then the answers will provide useful data to enable the service to be measured for customer satisfaction and your organisation’s key priorities and requirements. As you respond to customer feedback, aim to: • develop customer trust and confidence in your ability to provide the service • engage with customers in ways that reduce customer complaints and increase satisfaction • improve the effectiveness of the service by finding out what the customer expects and desires and plan to deliver at these two levels • increase staff motivation and job satisfaction by achieving improvement goals.
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CHAPTER 11 / Manage customer engagement
EXHIBIT 11.3 Examples of service conditions Retail after pay service • Must be 18 years or over and must have a debit or credit card • Only available on orders of $100 and up to $1400 • Free delivery • Pay four fortnightly instalments • Returns and refunds will be processed on the company’s Returns Card
Restaurant • 10 days notice for refund due to cancellation of a pre-paid event • Dress rules apply • BYO wine only • Children to be under direct adult supervision • Gift vouchers valid for six months from date of purchase
Promotional prizes • Six product barcodes submitted with each entry • Prizes not redeemable for cash • Prizes not transferable • Company employees or their families may not enter • Personal details provided may be used for further promotional activities
Developing some simple rules for managing customer feedback will make the process both effective and efficient. These rules should: • concentrate on customer satisfaction • focus on a limited number of indicators • be ongoing and specific • be available to all staff on a timely basis • be documented clearly and be visually appealing. Monitoring customer service allows organisations to gather feedback and make improvements on the basis of what customers say they want rather than on what the organisation believes its customers want. Customers’ expectations are better met when an organisation uses a variety of feedback methods to capture accurate and meaningful customer data in relation to its overall service. Feedback information can then be used to inform and enhance an organisation’s decision making. The outcome for customers is satisfying products, services and communication and enhanced engagement.
INFORM CUSTOMERS Most organisations have moved from the ‘push’ model of one-way communication, designed to influence and persuade customers, to two-way interactions to designed to engage and ‘pull’ customers in. The ‘pull’ model addresses customer needs and interests by asking questions, telling stories and connecting through conversations. Customers expect to be directed in both face-to-face and online interactions towards product areas and to be able to easily locate company and product brochures and price lists. Offering positive customer experiences requires an organisation’s senior managers, supervisors, team leaders and team members to know its customer service guidelines and be able to align product and service information to customer preferences. Customers value information that is useful. Leaflets, brochures, fact sheets, letters, newsletters, emails, e-newsletters or SMS are suitable for sharing small amounts of simple information by direct mail. Websites are a cost-effective way to convey more complex information to a large number of people as well as allowing customers to contact the organisation and receive timely responses. View the Nikeþ website for an example of information about the NikeþFuelBand. The site uses words and images to explain clearly the setup process, how to plugin, update and charge the FuelBand, synchronise with your smartphone and set up your daily goal. Customers appreciate video snippets that show them how to do something rather than having to read text.
Communicate and celebrate the service culture with internal and external customers.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Websites clarify information via video, games and webinars, simplify complex information and clarify intricate instructions. Customers appreciate precise and accurate instructions and information. As well as receiving useful information, organisations can use games such as the ‘My Marriott Hotel’ to entertain and engage customers. Marriot International launched on Facebook the social-media game ‘My Marriot Hotel’; the intention was to raise players’ awareness of the Marriott brand. Understanding an organisation’s product and service features and presenting the benefits accurately facilitate customer discovery, consideration and choice of the organisation’s brand. For example, the Australian health insurance provider nib has introduced a new ‘Going to Hospital Tool’ self-service to allow its customers to review their options before going to hospital. The tool provides information about doctors, including which doctors use the Medigap system to cover payments, gaps in potential costs, ratings of services and other useful information. nib has also introduced artificial intelligence technology in the form of a chatbot known as ‘nibby’ to enhance customer engagement. Nibby provides customers with access to simple responses regarding their health insurance. ‘… nibby is integrated into nib’s web platform to allowing it to intelligently move customers to the right sales or claims consultant as a customer’s query becomes more complex, and to offer assistance during key customer service moments’. (nib 2017) Up-to-date product and service information can be provided to customers and staff via an online organisational knowledge library of frequently asked questions (FAQs). The FAQs should be in a format convenient for those using a tablet, smartphone or desktop computer. A library of FAQs allows staff to contribute and share knowledge, and provides customers with a quick and easy reference point to answer questions about a product or service. Organisations use social media interactive platforms such as Snapchat, Instagram, Twitter, Pinterest, Facebook and YouTube to create online communities to reach a large number of people. Online socialsharing communities allow customers to come together to share opinions and insights, ask questions and focus on current trends. With so many communication channels available for organisations to engage with, contact and provide information to customers and for customers to use as research, it is important for organisations to be visible and stand out from their competitors. As well as relying on word of mouth and advertising, organisations also depend on search engine optimisation (SEO) to enable customers to reach their websites. A social media presence is another valuable way to let customers ask questions and learn more about an organisation’s services, products and the experiences of its customers.
CUSTOMER SERVICE CULTURE OR CLIMATE For an organisation to develop a service culture that enhances customer engagement across each of the five stages, its culture must focus on customer experiences that build relations and provide satisfaction. A customer service culture evolves from a customer service vision, policies and objectives that are communicated consistently. The customer service policies and objectives are supported in formal written documents such as employee policy manuals, customer service manuals and websites. Customer service standards are included in job descriptions, employee evaluations, promotions and rewards. Training in customer-friendly policies orients and trains new employees to work in accordance with the standards and share understanding of customer experiences.
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CHAPTER 11 / Manage customer engagement A culture of open communication and information sharing allows an organisation to hear the good news and the bad news about customer experiences along the customer journey. Information is shared across the organisation to educate managers, team leaders and members about: • customer service objectives • customer feedback positives, compliments and complaints • current challenges and planned improvements to service at the various customer touch points • satisfaction measures such as reputation, customer engagement, loyalty and satisfaction • service measures such as market share, profitability, employee engagement and performance improvement. Matching and mirroring customers’ verbal and nonverbal communication helps to put people at ease, which can encourage rapport and collaboration, creating a friendly and cooperative climate. Responsive speaking, questioning and listening skills focus on the interests and concerns of customers. These skills are essential to the creation of positive relationships and the minimisation or removal of barriers as awkward situations or issues are negotiated.
CUSTOMER ENGAGEMENT/SERVICE ACTION PLANS The customer service culture, policies and procedures are supported by customer service action plans designed to establish, sustain and improve the relationship between an organisation and its customers. The overall objective identifies the target and the reason for doing it. It is supported by sub-objectives, and tasks including how, when and who will achieve the objectives and the measures of success or key performance indicators. Refer to Exhibit 11.4 to follow the steps to effective customer service action planning. Workplace procedures and processes that identify problems and improvement measures include a complaints log, customer feedback forms, team meetings or regular training to help resolution of problems causing barriers to customer engagement. Aim to resolve problems quickly and never make promises you cannot keep to either internal or external customers. If the organisation avoids the problem, it will develop further and the customer may leave with ill will. Customers who express their dissatisfaction to family and friends create poor publicity. Refer to Chapter 10, Deliver and monitor service to address customer needs, for problem-solving approaches to customer complaints. Refer to Chapter 6, Manage work priorities and professional development, for information about how to prepare workgroup plans, and see the example in Exhibit 6.4.
CUSTOMER SERVICE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS Customer service standards include timeliness, accuracy and appropriateness or relevance. The standards should be specific, concise, measurable and based on customer needs and requirements. They should also be written and communicated to all staff. The standard of timeliness for live chat and phone support, for example, requires immediate responses when possible, and always below two minutes. Customer expectations of instant service for live chat, messaging, and phone are often disappointed when they are placed on a queue. The standard for first-contact resolution of an enquiry, purchase or complaint is an expectation that may or may not be fulfilled. Insufficient staff, pointless routing and rerouting of enquiries and extended queuing waiting time lead to customer dissatisfaction. For social channels which cultivate speed, timeliness is accepted at about 60 minutes.
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EXHIBIT 11.4 Effective customer engagement/service action planning Establish objective or target
Identifies what is to be achieved with specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and time-referenced (SMART) goals. Refer to Exhibit 6.2 in Chapter 6 for examples of SMART goals
Tasks, by whom and by when
Lists, in order, activities needed to achieve the target, and identifies who has responsibility and by when
Communicate
Implement
Consults and shares information with stakeholders – knowledge of reasons for and how to implement gains cooperation
Supports the team, shares information, acknowledges suggestions for improvement and celebrates success
Monitor
Checks progress to ensure achievement of targets, timeframes and other measures of success
Corrective action
Takes corrective action (if required) to improve service level and customer satisfaction
Accurate product and service information is an underpinning standard for good customer service because customers make decisions and act upon the information they receive. Inaccurate information leads to mistakes and poor customer experiences. For example, the customer service standards for an accounting associate could include: summarise funding information accurately, verify accuracy of budgets and forms and secure appropriate internal signatures, submit to finance in an accurate and timely manner and process expenditures within five working days. Internal customers within the accounting firm depend on the accuracy of the associate’s work. Appropriate or relevant customer service standards for an aged care facility would include accurate and fair information about how to interact with other residents, staff and facilities; friendliness and a welcoming, belonging environment; empathy; and fair treatment relative to other residents when finding solutions to problems. As the residents are customers of the aged care facility their satisfaction depends on the standards of customer care.
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CHAPTER 11 / Manage customer engagement Continual research helps an organisation to stay in touch with its customers’ needs and expectations. Ask questions, send out surveys and listen to customers. Try to use the win–win approach, to determine standards from the point of view of the customer, as well as meeting organisational and legislative requirements. This will fuel customer engagement as customers will return to an organisation that provides them with high-quality product and service experiences at touch points along the customer journey that concentrate on their needs and expectations.
REVIEW OF CUSTOMER SERVICE Reviewing customer service outcomes lets an organisation know if it is meeting customer expectations and encouraging customers to engage with the organisation in the short and longer term. Techniques organisations use to review customer service outcomes from the point of view of the customer include feedback forms, suggestion or comment boxes, website forums and interactions with customers through social media platforms. Some organisations hire a mystery shopper to experience what a customer experiences and then report back. Effective reviews gather feedback about customer interactions and perceptions of the attributes defined in Exhibit 11.5. Customers tend to judge the quality of service delivery on these service attributes. Consider these attributes when assessing the quality of customer service offered by your organisation, your team members and yourself.
Maintain successful customer relations by building a reputation for reliability and responsiveness.
EXHIBIT 11.5 Customer service attributes Attribute
Definition
Reliability
The ability to provide the service that was promised and communicated dependably and accurately
Tangibles
The appearance of the physical attributes of facilities, equipment, personnel and communication materials
Responsiveness
The willingness of servers to help customers and provide a prompt service
Assurance
The knowledge and courtesy of servers and the ability to convey trust and confidence
Empathy
The provision to customers of caring, individualised attention
COACHING AND MENTORING Coaching and mentoring designed to enhance employees’ customer service knowledge, skill and attitudes improve customer focus across the organisation. Effective coaching and mentoring improve the service culture and empower employees to serve customers better. The resulting positive customer experiences lead to better customer engagement. Coaching or mentoring can also assist colleagues and team members who may have trouble meeting the specified customer service standards. One-to-one coaching and mentoring are ways of helping employees learn on the job and improve their performance to enhance customer engagement. Coaching is often a formalised training process that follows the five basic steps in Exhibit 11.6.
EXHIBIT 11.6 Steps in the coaching process Step 1
Determine the training need by identifying the problem, documenting it and stating the intended outcome.
Step 2
Explain the process in terms of what will happen, how it will happen and when.
Step 3
Demonstrate the desired behaviour or task.
Step 4
Practise by performing the task or behaviour with the colleague and then letting them do it independently.
Step 5
Provide feedback through monitoring, correcting, listening and acknowledging.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK Customer service coaching takes place on the job, with a good coach ensuring there are plenty of opportunities for skills guidance, practice and reflection. It is the role of the coach to not only guide but also tutor, train, empower, counsel, communicate and manage the performance of the person they are Provide opportunities for skills guidance, coaching. Coaching and mentoring are discussed more fully in Chapters 19 and 20. practice and Mentoring usually involves a long-term relationship lasting from three months up to, in some instances, reflection. five years. It is often an informal, voluntary process that requires a close relationship and guaranteed confidentiality. The purpose of mentoring is to assist someone new in a position or someone who has a Set clear goals and provide knowledge, new aspect to their existing work role. encouragement and The role of a mentor working to improve the performance of a person in a customer engagement support as you position is to model responsibilities, provide access to knowledge, situations or networks and to act as a mentor. sounding board. The objective of the mentoring process is to empower the person being mentored, enhance their skills and support them to manage their responsibilities and find EXHIBIT 11.7 Mentoring process ways to improve customer experiences and engagement. The Step focus of mentoring is on daily customer engagement Define the goals. 1 activities and the challenges in the environment, as well as the relationships with customers, management and Step colleagues. Create an action plan. 2 Mentoring is a continuous process rather than a specific training activity or event. Mentoring follows the four-step Step Determine the resources required. process in Exhibit 11.7. 3 The mentor should be encouraging and supportive. At all times, confidentiality must be maintained. Effective Step Measure the results and benefits. mentoring is based on clear and realistic goals. The mentor 4 acts as a role model for the person being mentored.
CHECKPOINT 11.2
1. Customer feedback: a. Briefly explain how an organisation can gather feedback about customer preferences. b. What should an organisation do as it responds to customer feedback? 2. Service culture: a. Identify strategies organisations use to build a customer service culture. b. Identify the types of information sharing organisations use to educate managers, team leaders and team members about the service culture. 3. Customer service: a. Outline the steps in customer service action planning. b. List three customer service standards. c. Discuss service attributes organisations review to determine customer perceptions of service. 4. Coaching and mentoring: a. What is the purpose of coaching? b. What is the purpose of mentoring?
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CHAPTER 11 / Manage customer engagement
11.3 BUILD AND MAINTAIN NETWORKS Networking creates connections with and mutually beneficial relationships between organisations and their customers. The key to networking with customers within and outside the organisation is regular communication and engagement. Effective networking listens to and focuses on what customers need and want. Information and ideas are exchanged within a range of networks such as other departments and teams within the organisation, suppliers, wholesalers, retailers and consumers of the organisation’s products and services. Promote connections between people in your organisation’s network. For example, when a customer posts a photo of your organisation’s product or service on Facebook and then another customer comments on it, this is the beginning of a connection between the organisation and those two people. Online networking connections may build stronger and wider customer engagement than traditional face-to-face customer interactions. Online forums and networks enable customers to engage directly with the organisation. Customers can ask questions and have them answered, engage in discussions and receive updated information relevant to their needs. Face-to-face networking with customers at functions and industry events also builds relationships, provides opportunities for discussion and enables referrals. Establishing an advisory board of key potential customers is another effective way to gather feedback and advice, and at the same time build and strengthen connections and engagement. Members of the advisory board also benefit from the opportunity to influence changes to the product or service and the opportunity to connect with others on the advisory board. Live chat is a strategy to network with customers. Live chat provides customers regardless of their location with an immediate channel of communication to speak directly with an organisation’s customer service officers. Harvey Norman Australia, for example, has a live chat site to enable customers to chat to a staff member online. This engagement allows customers to have their service enquiries answered immediately, learn more about specific products and find the products they are looking for. Harvey Norman also offers online ‘Click and Collect’, a free collection within two hours of a product being purchased online. Another alternative that enhances customer engagement with Harvey Norman outlets is the online shopping delivery service, which has three options: standard delivery, same-day delivery or scheduled delivery. The interactions and communication with customers about their needs and expectations enable Harvey Norman to provide information and match its offerings to its customers’ expectations. As well as improving service and customer engagement and enhancing the customer experience, the instant support on live chat creates customer loyalty. Customers can get help if and when they need it. The more personal and convenient interactions on live chat help customers to engage with the organisation and its products and services. The up-to-date information gathered from face-to-face, online and social media networks ensures procedures address customer needs, and products and services match and satisfy customer expectations.
Use networking as a tool for the exchanging of information and ideas, addressing customer needs and promoting customer engagement with the organisation.
Gather information from external customers about their perceptions, needs and expectations.
NETWORK BUILDING STRATEGIES The purpose of networking building strategies is to enhance customer loyalty, increase customer purchases of services or products and encourage customer promotion of the organisation to others. The outcome from effective network building strategies is customer engagement. Frontline customer service staff and sales professionals, in particular, are in a position to promote customer engagement. When their interactions with customers leave the customer feeling comfortable and willing to communicate on an ongoing basis, the customers are engaged with the organisation. 279 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-202
THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK However, frontline staff must be supported by management to ensure they have the appropriate resources, technology and support to meet customer expectations. Strategies to build networks are identified in Exhibit 11.8.
EXHIBIT 11.8 Network building strategies
Regular contact and communication
Use technology to service needs
Obtain and retain referrals
Market research
Regular contact and communication The range of strategies organisations use to maintain contact with customers include face-to-face, telephone, mail, call-centre and online methods. A simple strategy is to update any changes to personal details, such as contact numbers and address. Another is to share the latest relevant product or service information. Regular contact should be along the communication channels preferred by the customer. Some customers prefer traditional channels such as mail, telephone, email, printed material and advertising. Others prefer the speed of contacts through the Web and mobile technologies such as live chat, social media and online interactions. Regular communication such as links to specials or loyalty programs benefit the customer and create rapport and establish an organisational network built from trusting professional relationships. Regular honest and open customer communication: • develops and maintains a connection with customers • supports customer to engage in word of mouth advertising • strengthens the organisation’s brand identity • provides opportunities for upselling or cross-selling • creates loyalty and endorses the organisation as a supplier of choice. Aim to meet the customers’ needs and preferences because communication the customer views as irrelevant will be ignored.
Use technology to service needs Advances in technology enable organisations to collect, process, structure and present customer service information efficiently. The information helps an organisation to: • understand its customer service needs • identify trends in customer service needs • share and communicate the information across the organisation. Significant advances in telecommunications and information processing enhance connections and the way customers and businesses interact. Customer service has progressed from face-to-face, over-thecounter communication to telephone and call centre transactions, and then to online and digital interactions through websites, Web portals and social media. Desktop and mobile computer technology and the internet have changed the way businesses interact with their customers. Reliable, fast and prompt service can be delivered from multiple sites through digital technology to local and remote customers.
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CHAPTER 11 / Manage customer engagement Organisations with effective and informative websites and technology are able to interact with customers locally, nationally and internationally. Other advantages offered by technology include: • customers being able to carry out a complete transaction from their home or office, or from their smartphones • customers being able to identify the product or service they require, order, pay and register a warranty • organisations being able to access customer personal information to create and manage customer profiles • centralised product and customer databases and online customer management programs to track customer interaction and print reports on specific data • spreadsheet software to chart annual customer complaint statistics and the reasons behind the complaints • charting software to present and share visual information clearly in tables, charts or graphs.
Obtain and retain referrals Referrals may come from existing customers, friends in service or recreational clubs, professional or industry associations and manufacturers and distributors within your network. Word of mouth referrals from customers are the best form of advertising. Customer service supported by brochures, information on the Web, email and social media review sites supplies satisfied customers with information they can readily pass on to others. Referrals from a person or another company should be reciprocated, where possible, to strengthen the network and encourage future referrals. A discount, a commission, shared use of equipment or a preferred supplier status are strategies organisations use to say ‘Thank you’ for referrals. Fostering relationships and networking are essential components of good business practice.
Market research Market research enables an organisation to understand why its customers choose its products or services over the competition, how its customers use its products and who or what influences customers’ decisions to engage with the organisation. The reasons for researching and obtaining information from customers are to: • find out what customers like and dislike • adjust customer service and products to meet their needs • improve customer service strategies and processes • strengthen customer engagement with the organisation. An organisation gathers information about customer service from either primary or secondary sources. Data gathered by the organisation is primary information. Primary data is gathered through observation, focus groups, interviews and surveys of representative samples of the larger group whose opinions are required. The sorts of questions asked in primary research include ‘Who are our customers and how can the organisation reach them?’, ‘Which products and services do our customers need or want?’ and ‘What factors influence the decisions of our customers?’ Large organisations are likely to have the resources to conduct their own primary research. Smaller organisations may engage specialist companies to design and provide survey tools and techniques for the collection of primary information. Data gathered by a third party and sold to an organisation or data from government and other websites is secondary information. Secondary information is often available within and outside the organisation. Examples of internal and external data are shown in Exhibit 11.9.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK
EXHIBIT 11.9 Internal and external data Sources of internal data
Sources of external data
• Company annual reports
• Government data and reports
• Sales, customer and accounting records • Technical reports
• Industry or professional association data, industry and trade reports
• Records of previous company market research
• Magazine and newspaper articles
• Photographs, drawings and posters
• Books, trade journals and professional journals • Dictionaries and encyclopaedias
Researching customer satisfaction as well as customer problems and complaints through direct questioning, telephone calls, emails, social media and other channels enables customers to give direct and open feedback. Acknowledgement and taking action to incorporate their views into future product and service improvements enhances customer engagement.
CHECKPOINT 11.3
1. Networking, live chat and feedback: a. Provide three examples of customer service networking. b. Briefly explain how live chat benefits the customer. c. Identify and discuss the benefits an organisation gains from obtaining customer feedback. 2. Customer contact and engagement: a. Discuss strategies you would use to maintain customer contact. b. Discuss methods you would use to enhance customer engagement and loyalty. 3. How has technology improved the way customers purchase products and services? 4. Identify sources of referrals and explain how organisations can acknowledge the referrer.
11.4 SOCIAL MEDIA Advances in telecommunications and information processing have expanded the range of interactions between customers and organisations. Social media not only engages with customers, it also creates customer value in the form of real-time service response, technical support and two-way relationship building communication. Social media via Web-based and mobile technologies allows customers to engage in two-way communication with an organisation. Customers are able to research products and services, request information, purchase products and ask questions about how to assemble and use them. Satisfied customers can then share their satisfaction or dissatisfaction with a company’s service with social media ‘friends’. Similarly, organisations use social media to market their products and services, target advertising at specific demographic groups and reach their audience easily in any geographic location. They also encourage customers to post comments and questions through Twitter, Yelp, Facebook, Instagram and other social media platforms. In short, communication is turned into interactive dialogue between an organisation and its customers.
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CHAPTER 11 / Manage customer engagement
PURPOSE OF SOCIAL MEDIA STRATEGY Progressive organisations realise the value of developing a social media strategy to manage the digital tasks and flow of information to their audiences. Their aim is to: • manage the volume of advertising and posts reaching the target audiences • share reliable, useful and timely information that catches the interest of the organisation’s audiences • promote the organisation’s fanbase and convert a wider audience into customers. However, goals must be realistic and identify clear results that refer back to the strategy objectives. Examples of objectives for Facebook’s marketing and connection with customers are increasing the number of likes, reach, engagement, leads and sales of the organisation. Once the objectives are set, the organisation can take action to achieve results, such as special offers, news alerts, messages, notifications, product and service information, videos, and media releases on Facebook, Twitter and other social media channels. The connections and interactions with customers through social media channels: • enhance information sharing, collaboration and promotion of products and services • enable engagement activities and relationship building through celebrity endorsements, digital advertising, running trials and promotions in real time • increase organisational insights of customer perceptions from suggestions for improvements and innovation • facilitate sharing of content and experiences and relationship building through forums, message boards, photo sharing, podcasts, search engine marketing, video sharing, wikis, micro-blogging and social networking sites.
INFORMATION SHARING Social media and mobile computing on laptops, smartphones and tablets have revolutionised how customers interact with organisations. The online self-service trend means customers gather information, at any time of the day or night, about services, menus, booking options, inventory, the best person to connect with, operating hours and how to connect with the organisation. In any of these transactions, customers expect access 24 hours a day to up-to-date, useful information and easy ways to purchase services or products. This extract from Cameron Diehl (2018) explains how the five stages of customer engagement occur on social media. Stage 1: Scrolling past and seeing your posts leads to an increased awareness of your brand and business. Stage 2: Perceiving and stopping to read, taking in the information and heightening their perception of you and your brand. Stage 3: Clicking to directly interact with your brand – not only seeing, stopping and reading your post, but clicking through to explore further. Stage 4: Liking having interacted with your content and found it valuable enough to warrant an endorsement – deepen your relationship. Stage 5: Sharing is the strongest form of client–advisor social interaction – those who ‘share’ your content from their own pages become advocates for your post and by extension your business. Source: Diehl 2018.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK As well as responding to the organisation’s online communication, customers can post user-generated information, ideas, pictures and videos online. Sharing and two-way interactions between customers and an organisation allow quick responses to and resolution of problems or issues and facilitate customer engagement. Existing customers remain engaged and potential customers learn about what the organisation can do for them. Video snippets, statements or statistics about the organisation’s service and customer satisfaction let customers know how their needs and expectations will be met. Advertising or promotion of specials should target both long-established and potential customers. Customer loyalty and commitment should be acknowledged and, on occasion, rewarded.
CUSTOMER SATISFACTION Positive, clear communication on social media channels builds a lasting and satisfying impression of customer service. Organisations that send out more than promotional messages, such as interesting anecdotes, customer alerts or responses to customer messages, engage with customers on a deeper level than those that engage in direct promotion only. Exhibit 11.10 identifies factors that promote customer satisfaction.
EXHIBIT 11.10 Promote customer satisfaction Connect on a personal level
Offer special deals and promotions
Improve communication
• Build rapport with customers
• Make followers feel special
• Post interesting, current information
• Put names and faces to your services and products
• Offer a time-limited special rate for followers
• Use alerts for special promotions
• Reinforce company image
• Offer seasonal or periodic discounts such as out-of-season travel bookings
Show commitment to your customers.
CHECKPOINT 11.4
• Respond quickly and courteously with relevant information
The outcome from customer satisfaction is more favourable perceptions of the organisation, as well as greater loyalty, endorsements and referrals. Social media therefore provides organisations with many ways of identifying customer needs and expectations, and of supplying the service or product to fill these needs. Skills in communicating and a preparedness and capacity to deliver face-to-face or online the kind of service the customer expects are essential for successful customer relations and thus customer engagement. 1. Benefits of social media: a. What are the benefits of social media for an organisation? b. What are the benefits of social media for the customer? 2. Social media connects: a. What sort of information do organisations share with customers through social media? b. Discuss the outcomes for an organisation of effective social media connections and interactions with customers. 3. Online self-service and FAQs: a. Explain how the online self-service trend improves customer service. Provide specific examples. b. What is the purpose of a library of FAQs?
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CHAPTER 11 / Manage customer engagement
11.5 CORRECTIVE ACTIONS The purpose of corrective action is to achieve timely responses to product and service issues and processes. Corrective action plans are developed to address customer service dissatisfaction and issues. Customer complaints policies should be fair, acknowledge customers have the right to complain and support constructive, consistent handling of complaints. Communicate with customers and other stakeholders such as frontline customer service staff, account managers and sales staff as soon as the issue is resolved.
MAINTAIN CUSTOMER RECORDS Customer records contain information about service delivery answers from customers to staff questions through either face-to-face, telephone or written or digital channels of communication. Records typically hold the customer’s contact information and history of products purchased, location and frequency of purchase, method and reliability of payment and other relevant information. Collect relevant information and feedback by listening, asking questions and recording responses accurately. Let customers know why you keep their records and the benefits for them personally. Stress that records are confidential. Maintain the security of records. In service industries, such as dentistry or massage therapy, it is essential to keep an up-to-date record of relevant personal details and customer engagement activities. Accurate records are an important part of high-level service because they provide information about customers’ dissatisfaction or satisfaction with the manner in which their issue or problem was corrected.
Maintain the confidentiality of records. Provide evidence of service delivery successes and problems in records.
MONITOR AND ADJUST Customer service activities are monitored for customer satisfaction, efficiency and effectiveness. Efficiency measures include per unit cost to measure the amount of resources and their cost in producing a unit of service. Backlog measures determine the amount of work in queue and number of customers whose needs are not met within the expect timeframe. Examples of effectiveness measures are customer satisfaction at first contact, percentage of customers who hang up the phone or leave a queue before reaching a customer service agent, customer retention and engagement rates. Adjusting and monitoring customer service improvement actions taken in response to customer feedback should: • be in accordance with the organisation’s customer service policy and procedures • incorporate service standards and good practice techniques for dealing with customers, including customers with specific needs • identify and resolve customer dissatisfaction and complaints through problem identification and resolution • apply customer needs research, customer relationship building and ongoing product and service quality improvements to create positive customer engagement • record customer feedback, findings from monitoring processes and information gathered • refer to the records to facilitate management of customer service and for meeting the reporting requirements of outside regulatory bodies.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK The key to implementing corrective actions is careful planning based on factual and objective data. Any proposed changes to customer service delivery should be based on customer feedback, documented and communicated to relevant stakeholders.
CUSTOMER COMPLAINTS POLICY Respond to feedback from customers.
Organisations that actively seek out customers to find out what they need, want or do not want are able to develop a customer complaints policy that not only resolves customer complaints but also improves customer service and advances customer engagement. Nearly all customers will re-engage and recommend an organisation if their complaint is handled efficiently. Collecting data from satisfied and dissatisfied customers involves three key tasks: 1. Analysing raw data, such as customer complaints, in order to turn the data into useful information. 2. Identifying and clustering customer complaints into categories. 3. Identifying your organisation’s customer service policies, procedures and goals in order to produce outcomes that match the service goals and encourage customer engagement. An effective customer complaints policy includes the customer in the actions taken to resolve customer needs, problems or complaints and provides a variety of ways for the customer to interact with the organisation. Good and timely handling and follow-up of complaints enhances involvement in the process and increases customer engagement. Refer to Chapter 10, Deliver and monitor service to address customer needs, for a full discussion of customer complaint handling.
PURPOSE OF AN AUDIT
Find out what the customer likes and dislikes.
Once customers move from the unawareness and discovery stages of customer engagement into the consideration and conversion stages, they expect consistent, seamless communication across all the communication channels they use in their interactions with an organisation. In both digital and human customer service interaction, factors that deliver customer satisfaction are personal attention, no queues, convenience, accuracy and reliability. A customer experience audit provides an independent evaluation of customers’ satisfaction with their experiences at each stage of the customer’s journey from discovery to engagement and ongoing interactions. During an audit, data is gathered from interviewing users, surveying, looking at customer feedback or by experiencing what the customer experiences. Information and findings are evaluated against established key performance indicators and what customers expect and value. Four reasons to conduct a customer service audit are to: • understand touch points and their impact on customer experience, loyalty and engagement • identify high-priority areas and identify gaps for improvement • establish medium- to long-term strategies across departments and teams • conduct customer research to identify what is most important at each stage in the customer journey. Seeking feedback from customers as an organisation audits customer engagement allows the organisation to focus on the customers’ service priorities and match them with the organisation’s priorities. An organisation’s key priorities are usually audited against the following 4Es: • Effectiveness – is the service achieving the targeted outcomes? • Efficiency – how well is the service being provided? • Equity – does the service ensure equal access and provision to all targeted customers? • Engagement – how well do our products and services meet customer expectations?
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CHAPTER 11 / Manage customer engagement In addition to gathering customer information in detailed reports, conversation summaries and records of interactions, organisations should review the feedback. Ask the following questions to find and gain insights from patterns of satisfaction or dissatisfaction: ‘What are customers asking about the most?’, ‘What information do they have trouble finding?’, ‘What are customers most satisfied with?’, ‘What are their complaints?’ An example of a service improvement is the creation of a FAQ page with the answers to these questions, as well as the most commonly sought information, and posting the FAQ page on the organisation’s home page. The added benefit of using live chat feedback to create the FAQ page or to include information on the home page is that the organisation is answering questions before customers have to ask. The saving in time is a benefit for the customer as well as an efficiency improvement for the organisation. Check the information gathered in an audit to pinpoint problem areas and where those problems arise. Then create a recommendations report detailing improvements and their priority. The recommendations may include a variety of improvements such as quick fixes that can be implemented progressively in the short to medium term, and longer-term strategic changes to better align products and services, train staff or other major initiatives. The purpose of the audit is to align customer service and products to what the customer wants to augment customer engagement. An essential step to improvements is communication of intended results to all stakeholders. Recommended improvements and corrective actions taken to solve customer issues must be shared to enable all staff to commit to the changes and become accountable for their implementation. Once actions are implemented and an issue or concern has been resolved, let customers and other stakeholders know. Review the corrective actions to assure positive customer experiences have replaced the previous issues. If problems arise in the future, respond flexibly and adapt again to meet customer expectations.
PROPOSE CORRECTIVE ACTIONS On those occasions when corrections and modifications to customer service are major, you may have to submit a formal proposal that recommends and seeks approval for changes that encourage customer engagement. As a formal proposal is prepared for a decision maker to approve the recommendations, it should be a well-organised and persuasive document. Aim to make your customer service proposal effective to gain maximum benefit from the time, energy and costs involved in preparing it. To be successful your proposal should: • identify clearly the objectives that enhance customer engagement • identify the reasons for modifying the organisation’s customer service • present strategies for fostering customer loyalty and engagement • outline the direct benefits of these strategies and offer ways to evaluate the results. Refer to Chapter 18, Write technical documents and proposals, for more information on technical proposals.
Modify service as required.
Authorise, take action or refer Implementation of corrective policy to increase customer satisfaction and avoid customer complaints often involves all levels of the organisation. Customer service delivered by managers, supervisors, team leaders and staff must focus on the needs of the customer and take place within the guidelines in the
Action procedures to resolve customer difficulties and complaints.
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THE BUSINESS COMMUNICATION HANDBOOK
Implement a customer complaints procedure and follow guidelines consistently.
organisation’s customer engagement policies and procedures. An effective customer service organisation empowers its staff to take action or refer the complaint to the person with responsibility to authorise changes to procedures. Involve team members in the customer service improvement process and you are likely to gain their cooperation. One practical way to involve team members is to encourage them to bring any research and feedback data they have collected to meetings. Another way is to assign responsibility for customer service improvements to team members on the basis of their capabilities. Encourage staff to become familiar with the customer complaints procedure and ensure they know how to work within the procedural guidelines. Mentor or coach colleagues through the customer complaints procedure, which usually follows these four steps: 1. Identify the key features, tasks and processes of your customer service and prioritise them. 2. Make a list of all the processes customers go through each time they engage with your service. Remember to consider your internal customers as well as your external customers. Analyse each process according to: • factors that lead to customer frustration • barriers that prevent customers getting what they need. 3. Review each process to ensure it is efficient, effective and equitable. 4. Implement improvements, solve problems and reset goals.
VERIFY PROPOSED CHANGES COMPLY WITH LEGAL REQUIREMENTS
Work in accordance with legal and organisational requirements.
The purpose of consumer legislation is to protect the rights of consumers when they engage with an organisation. The rights legislation includes safety, quality, durability, performance, accuracy, honesty, cost and availability of any real or personal property or tangible or intangible goods, services, and credit. Effective legislation maintains consistency of treatment towards all customers who engage with an organisation, preserves consumer choice in a competitive market, minimises unfair or deceptive trade practices and promotes truthfulness and fairness in the advertising, promotion and sale of property, credit, products and services. The Competition and Consumer Act 2010 (CCA), for example, covers most areas of the market, including the relationships between suppliers, wholesalers, retailers and consumers. The Act covers product safety and labelling, unfair market practices, price monitoring, industry codes, industry regulation of airports, electricity, gas, telecommunications, mergers and acquisitions. The Act’s purpose is to enhance the welfare of Australians by promoting fair trading and competition, and through the provision of consumer protections of legal rights and remedies. Compliance of individuals and businesses with Australian competition, fair trading, and consumer protection laws benefits consumers, businesses, organisations and the community. An example of misleading behaviour that fell below community standards was reported by Michael Janda on ABC News: ‘More than 300 000 customers across the big four banks and AMP are being refunded a combined $216 million after being charged for financial advice they never received.’ Customers paid for financial services that were not provided and companies gave false or misleading information to the Australian Securities and Investment Commission. Other legislation that impacts on how an organisation coordinates and implements customer engagement strategies are anti-discrimination legislation, privacy laws, environmental regulations and workplace health and safety (WHS) regulations. Organisational requirements are specified in codes of practice, ethical principles, and organisational customer service procedures and standards.
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CHAPTER 11 / Manage customer engagement Employees have a responsibility to behave ethically. They are required to work in accordance with legal requirements and their organisation’s code of ethics and integrate equality, truth and authenticity into their customer service activities and relationships. Awareness and avoidance of unethical behaviours such as dishonesty, racism, misleading advertisements, lying and hoax promotions minimises the risk of any damage or detriment to their organisation, customers or others. Modifications to the delivery of customer engagement processes should improve service and resolve any recurring customer complaints. Any change in policy leads to changes in the workplace. Therefore, any action plans for implementation of the modifications should clearly identify steps, resources, dates and indicators of success. Modifications to the customer service process could take place for the following reasons: • to ensure equity of access and provision to existing and potential new customers • to reduce customer complaints, increase customer satisfaction and engagement • to improve staff motivation and job satisfaction • to improve efficiency in the use of resources • to support changes in the organisation’s objectives and achievement of outcomes • to comply with legal and regulatory requirements. At the beginning of the implementation process, double-check the plan to ensure the goal(s), steps and timelines are realistic and that sufficient and competent personnel and resources have been allocated to finalise the work. Also, check that responsibilities are clearly defined.
1. Customer experience audit: a. Identify four reasons for an organisation to conduct a customer service audit. b. Identify four factors an organisation should evaluate in a customer experience audit. c. Outline the features of an effective customer service proposal. 2. Discuss four strategies organisations use to identify problems and take improvement actions. 3. Consumer protection: a. Identify the rights of consumers that are protected by consumer legislation. b. How does the Competition and Consumer Act 2010 enhance the welfare of Australians? c. What are the likely consequences for organisations that breach consumer protection legislation?
Implement changes to service standards consistently and equitably. Involve team members and empower them to take responsibility for changes to customer service.
CHECKPOINT 11.5
LEARNING ACTIVITIES SUMMARY 11.1 Discuss the stages of customer engagement and strategies that build rapport, satisfaction and engagement. The five stages of customer engagement are unawareness, discovery, consideration, conversion and growth through value creation. Customers also have expectations about the style and type of service. An organisation with a customer service culture puts customers’ needs first, builds rapport, meets
customer expectations and enhances customer engagement. 11.2 Describe strategies that maintain and improve customer experiences. Gathering feedback to find out what customers expect, informing customers and planning ahead to meet expectations supports the customer service culture. Creation of a set of customer service standards, review of results and a willingness to
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improve service enhance customer experiences and facilitate customer engagement. 11.3 Identify and describe network building strategies. Effective networking creates mutually beneficial relationships and encourages customer engagement. Networking strategies include regular contact and communication, and appropriate use of technology to interact with, support and service customer needs. Open, honest communication and information in one-on-one interactions, focus groups, social media, surveys and advertising build confidence and a willingness to engage with and revisit the organisation. 11.4 Discuss the role of social media in enhancing customer satisfaction and engagement. Effective use of social media helps to manage the volume of advertising, and posts reaching customers provide useful, timely information to catch the target audience’s interest, promotes the organisation’s fan base and converts a wider
audience to engage with the organisation. Social media communication with customers provides responses in real time, technical support and two-way relationship building. 11.5 Review customer service, implement corrective actions and report outcomes. Monitor and check the results of service and communicate it to others. A written report provides evidence of what has happened, and when and how it happened. Conclusions and recommendations are made on the basis of the reported findings. Authorisation for any proposed changes to improve customer engagement should be given before the proposed changes are put into practice. Procedures to resolve customer complaints should be authorised, actioned or referred to appropriate personnel according to your organisation’s policies and procedures and verified to ensure proposed changes comply with legislative requirements and regulations.
KEY TERMS customer engagement
customer journey approach
service conditions
touch point
LEARNING ACTIVITIES 1. Customer engagement Work in small groups. a. Discuss what you value most when you are considering converting to a new brand in: i. a supermarket ii. a sports store iii. a car. b. List your answers on a flipchart or whiteboard, then compare lists with the other groups. c. Identify the similarities between lists from all groups and the elements that empower customers to engage with brands that suit their preferences and lifestyle. 2. Customer journey a. Choose a service that your organisation (or an organisation you are familiar with) provides, and create a list of the features that engage customers. b. Describe the typical journey customers follow as they engage with the organisation and its services. c. Explain what any organisation must do to support its staff to facilitate and engage with customers.
3. Social media presence Write a short information report. Your report should: a. Explain why more and more organisations are establishing a social media presence. b. Find an example of a non-profit organisation’s social media site and describe the characteristics that make it effective (or ineffective). c. Find an example of a commercial organisation’s social media site and describe the characteristics that make it effective (or ineffective). d. Conclude your report with recommendations about the type of characteristics that make a social media presence effective for any type of organisation. 4. Networking and success Create a notice to be circulated to all staff on the online shared Digital Workplace (business version of Facebook) of a large department store. This notice is to be titled ‘The Benefits of Networking with Customers’. a. Identify the benefits of keeping in regular contact with internal and external customer networks.
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CHAPTER 11 / Manage customer engagement
b. Identify how to keep track of interactions with customers from the internal and external networks. c. List reasons for following legal and organisational policies and procedures when interacting with customers. d. Explain the relevance of networks to assuring customer engagement. 5. Handle the problem Work in small groups on the following scenario.
One of your team members is having difficulties building rapport when speaking to internal and external customers on the telephone and when taking face-to-face enquiries at reception. She is lacking empathy, speaks in an abrupt manner, has little patience with customers with special needs or different backgrounds, and is slow to follow up on promised action. a. Discuss strategies you could use to handle the problem. b. Develop a coaching plan you could use to address the issues.
GROUP ASSIGNMENT Complete this exercise as a whole group or break into smaller groups. 1. Identify factors that impact on proposed change. a. Brainstorm the opposition you are likely to encounter when proposing changes to customer service delivery. Write all ideas on a flipchart or whiteboard. b. Brainstorm the support you are likely to receive when proposing changes to customer service delivery. Write all ideas on a flipchart or whiteboard. c. When proposing changes to customer service delivery, how can you minimise the likelihood of opposition to
the recommended changes, and maximise the likelihood of success? Discuss. 2. Working in small groups or pairs, draft a simple proposal that recommends a change in the way the organisation interacts with its regular customers in your own organisation or one you are familiar with. a. Choose any aspect of customer service to base your proposal on. b. Present your proposal to another team. c. The other team should then critique your proposal, commenting on its strengths and areas for improvement that could lead to increased customer engagement.
CASE STUDY TMP AIRLINES’ MANAGEMENT OF FACEBOOK AND TWITTER TMP Airlines has recently appointed Josh to the position of Social Media Manager. Josh realises that his first task is to develop a social media strategy. His overall aim is to market TMP’s flights and service schedules in a way that encourages customers to engage with TMP through special offers, news alerts, information about new routes, product and service information, videos and media releases, and general updates. As well as managing the digital tasks and flow of information to TMP’s audiences, the strategy will decide who is responsible for TMP’s posts, what type of information will be shared, what type of information will not be shared, how the accuracy and reliability of information sources will be confirmed, which social media channels will be used to convey the messages and who will be the target audiences.
In consultation with other managers, Josh identifies five broad objectives: 1. Manage the volume of advertising and posts reaching the target audiences. 2. Share reliable, useful and timely information that catches the interest of, and engages with, TMP’s audiences. 3. Reach out to TMP’s fanbase as well as to wider audiences and convert them into customers. 4. Monitor what is being said about the company. 5. Measure the results of social media activities. Josh’s primary focus is Facebook and Twitter because of their extensive reach and ability to connect with a variety of audiences. He decides the main messages conveyed by Twitter will be travel alerts, such as flight delays or cancellations due to storms or fog, reminders about baggage weight, news tweets, photos, videos,
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highlights of cities served by the airline and ‘retweets’ of followers. The main messages conveyed by Facebook will be flight updates, air travel tips and advice, travel trends, promotions, competitions, major events, special offers, interesting travel facts, and a slideshow to show off TMP’s new features. Additionally, a wall will be available for customer feedback, and polls and quizzes will be introduced to encourage customers to interact with the page. Josh decides that any customer query or complaint, day or night, will receive a responsive, helpful and timely tweet within 15 minutes. He also decides to request that staff collect feedback, increase ‘likes’ and foster engagement with any customer who asks a question by answering the question and submitting a question in return. The intention is to encourage comments and interaction.
Questions 1. Will Josh’s approach allow TMP to engage with its audience in an organised and controlled manner? Provide reasons for your answer.
2. Assume you are a customer flying with TMP. a. Create a dot-point list of the type of information you would like to receive via Facebook and Twitter. b. List three features of airline information that are useful to customers. 3. Consider the members on Josh’s team. a. How can Josh ensure TMP’s staff know how to listen, respond, ask questions and engage effectively with TMP’s customers? b. When a staff member answers a customer’s tweet and then follows the answer with a question back to the customer, what should be the focus of that question? c. Assume Josh decides to create a bank of questions staff members could ask after they have answered a customer’s question. Write three questions for TMP’s question bank. 4. In a short written answer, explain how social media and online interactions improve customer experiences and facilitate customer engagement with airlines.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Australian Government. Competition and Consumer Act 2010 Act No. 51 of 1974 as amended 1 July 2012, AttorneyGeneral’s Department, Canberra. Commonwealth of Australia. Compliance and Enforcement: How Regulators Enforce the Australian Consumer Law, 2010, Attorney-General’s Department, Canberra. Diehl, Cameron. 2018. ‘The five stages of client engagement’, Raymond James, https://www.raymondjames.com/ advisorchoice/practiceinsights/the_five_stages_of_ client_engagement, viewed 9 July 2018. Ference, Audrey. 2017. 7 Customer Engagement Strategies That Marketers Can’t Ignore, https://www.outbrain.com/ blog/3-golden-customer-engagement-strategies-thatmarketers-cant-ignore/, viewed 24 June 2018. Gautam, Nitish. 2017. Customer Engagement Model: What It Is, Why It Matters and How to Build One,
https://www.ameyo.com/blog/customer-engagementmodel, viewed 26 June 2018. Gingiss, Dan. 2017. Winning at Social Customer Care: How Top Brands Create Engaging Experiences on Social Media, Kindle Edition, CreateSpace Independent Publishing South Carolina, USA. Janda, Michael. 2018. ‘Banking royal commission: AMP says it misled ASIC over fee-for-no-service financial advice’, http://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-04-16/banking-royalcommission-financial-planners/9662166, viewed 1 December 2018. nib Media Centre. 2017. ‘nib launches Australia’s first health insurance chatbot’, https://www.nib.com.au/ nib-news/media/2017/12/nib-launches-australia-sfirst-health-insurance-chatbot, viewed 26 October 2018.
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CHAPTER 11 / Manage customer engagement
Tickle-Degnen, Linda & Rosenthal, Robert. 1990. ‘The Nature of Rapport and Its Nonverbal Correlates’, Psychological Inquiry, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 285–93. Timm, Paul R. 2013. Customer Service: Career Success Through Customer Loyalty, 6th edn, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. training.gov.au. BSBCUS402: Address customer needs, https://training.gov.au/TrainingComponentFiles/BSB/ BSBCUS402_R1.pdf, viewed 2 July 2018.
training.gov.au. BSBCUS501: Manage Quality Customer Service, https://training.gov.au/Training/Details/ BSBCUS501, viewed 2 July 2018. Van Belleghem, Steven. 2015. Digital Becomes Human: The Transformation of Customer Relationships, Kogan Page Limited, London, UK.
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PART
4
COMMUNICATION THROUGH DOCUMENTS
CHAPTER 12
ANALYSE AND PRESENT RESEARCH INFORMATION
CHAPTER 13
COMMUNICATE USING GRAPHICS AND VISUAL AIDS
CHAPTER 14
EFFECTIVE BUSINESS WRITING
CHAPTER 15
WRITING BUSINESS LETTERS
CHAPTER 16 WRITE SHORT REPORTS CHAPTER 17
WRITE LONG REPORTS
CHAPTER 18
WRITE TECHNICAL DOCUMENTS AND PROPOSALS
CHAPTER 19 RECORD KEEPING
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Spotlight on: Communication through documents Rather than leaving the reader guessing, good business writers identify the writing purpose upfront and then organise the information into paragraphs that explain the who, what, when, where, why and how. Each paragraph conveys one idea, usually identified in the first sentence, the topic sentence. A clear focus on one idea at a time enhances readability. Plain, concise words enhance understanding of the content. A business document has a purpose. A good writer ensures the document meets the needs of the reader and that the content is communicated clearly, coherently, concisely, correctly, courteously and confidently. However, good business writers do more than write. They obtain information or clarify requirements by asking questions and listening. They research and collect information and knowledge, order and structure ideas logically, and choose headings and subheadings that create a pathway through the document for the reader. They edit the first draft for accuracy, conciseness and clarity. The format of the final document conforms to the organisation’s and business writing standards. In the case of a long formal document the final version of the executive summary is written last when the writer’s thoughts are able to cover the whole of the document.
If you can’t explain something simply, you don’t understand it well enough. Albert Einstein
What do you think? • • • •
• •
•
What are the benefits of analysing information and questioning your sources? What is one thing you could do right now to further develop your business writing skills? Why should you adhere to organisational policies and procedures related to document production? Do you need to adapt the vocabulary, grammar and layout you use now to suit the purposes and different audiences for business documents? Would you feel as comfortable writing a formal long report as writing a business letter? Do colleagues, supervisors and managers care about how you question and listen when you seek advice about a document’s purpose, audience and presentation? What are the main features and functions of the digital tools you use to complete written work tasks?
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ANALYSE AND PRESENT RESEARCH INFORMATION
CHAPTER
12
Ch
ap
te r
12
Effective decision making Problem solving
CH 13
Innovation
Next COMMUNICATE USING GRAPHICS + VISUAL AIDS
Ongoing work task/processes
Information can be collected from:
12.4
ALL SOURCES OF INFORMATION MUST BE: Presented in line with organisational requirements
12.1
RESEARCHING and ANALYSING INFORMATION in the workplace is essential for:
Your Learning Journey
12.2
Primary Sources
Secondary Sources
Referenced accurately Supported by EVIDENCE
CONCLUSIONS + RECOMMONDATIONS
ANALYSE qualitative + quantitative data 12.3
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CHAPTER 12 / Analyse and present research information
LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, you should be able to: 12.1 outline the reasons for researching and analysing information in the work environment and identify the steps in the research process 12.2 collect information from primary and secondary sources 12.3 analyse quantitative and qualitative data and interpret findings, draw conclusions and make recommendations supported by evidence 12.4 reference sources of information accurately.
12.1 WORKPLACE RESEARCH Well-researched and presented data provides evidence for managers, supervisors, team leaders and others in the work environment to use in decision making. Organisations require valid conclusions and recommendations based on evidence to inform a range of organisational, business and team plans and objectives. Useful information is available in: • written material such as referrals, client files and other file records • recruitment applications and other forms • workplace health and safety (WHS) statistics, incidents and safety management plans • production plans, marketing plans, team, business and strategic plans • government websites such as the Australian Bureau of Statistics and Geoscience Australia. Research is used to identify the internal strengths and weaknesses of the organisation, and the external opportunities and threats facing the organisation serve as a similar source of information. Research also informs the organisation’s decision making and improves its resilience and sustainability. Exhibit 12.1 identifies a range of different reasons for gathering, analysing and presenting research in the work environment.
EXHIBIT 12.1 Purpose of research and analysis Type
Purpose
Comparative analysis is a comparison of performance
To compare two or more comparable alternatives, processes, products, sets of data or systems; for example, compare the mortality of women due to smoking between 2010 and 2025 and the mortality of men due to smoking between 2010 and 2025
Hypothesis testing uses sample data to evaluate the credibility of an inference about a population
To choose between two competing hypotheses about the value of a population parameter; for example, one hypothesis might claim that the general health of rural and urban Australians is equal, while the alternative might claim that the general health of rural Australians is lower than urban Australians
Identification of trends
To collect information and attempt to find a pattern or trend; for example, to detect emerging trends in a financial statement’s items over several months
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Type
Purpose
Industry pricing policies collect information about trends and actions by competitors
To gain insight into changes in the pricing policy and product or service of competitors and respond appropriately; for example, competitors may set a low price to increase market share or sell optional extras with a product to maximise turnover (e.g. the electronics industry)
Process mapping visually depicts the sequence of events in building a product or providing a service
To create a workflow diagram that streamlines work by providing a clear understanding of a process or series of parallel processes – additional information may include cycle time, inventory and other information
Situational diagnosis or SWOT analysis (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats)
To identify external opportunities and threats facing the organisation and the internal strengths and weaknesses of the organisation
STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS Follow the process illustrated in Exhibit 12.2 to gather, analyse and draw conclusions relevant to your research objective. Follow the four steps in the process to increase your chances of developing a reliable argument and making valid conclusions and recommendations based on evidence.
EXHIBIT 12.2 The research and analysis process Define
Collect
Analyse and evaluate
Present
Step one: Define your purpose, objectives and criteria
Start by clearly defining the purpose of your research, the primary objective and the criteria against which the information you collect will be evaluated. Decide the essential questions that must be answered to achieve your objective. If there are Information from primary and secondary sources too many questions to answer in the timeframe and the project budget, redefine your objective to narrow the focus. Research objectives may relate to: • financial performance, business planning and service provision Information against defined criteria • people management, organisational values and behaviours • marketing, customer service, flexibility and sustainability • interpersonal communication, team building and workplace Findings, conclusions and recommendations diversity • work procedures, quality assurance and safety management manuals. Before you begin collecting information, check that your objective and approach will meet your audience’s needs. Will they be required to make decisions on the basis of your findings, or are they just gathering information? Will your audience read every detail of the research, or will they only read a summary, conclusions or recommendations? Research purpose, objectives and criteria
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CHAPTER 12 / Analyse and present research information
Step two: Find sources of information As you research sources of information, distinguish between facts, opinions, beliefs and prejudice. Analyse the point of view presented in any secondary source to determine whether it is based on fact or opinion. A fact can be determined to be true, whereas an opinion is a judgement, viewpoint or belief. Collect information from a variety of primary and secondary sources. Primary and secondary sources of information are discussed in the next section of this chapter.
Step three: Analyse and evaluate information The purpose of your analysis and evaluation of the collected information is to present an argument based on your findings. An effective argument is underpinned by critical thinking. Critical thinking activities include: • identifying assumptions • making connections between ideas • asking questions and challenging ideas • forming opinions and arguments • drawing inferences and making generalisations • problem solving, evaluating and weighing up • analysing and classifying, comparing and contrasting • questioning and judging the validity of the source of information. Check for evidence that verifies assertions and that reasoning and conclusions are linked to the evidence. An argument is a claim or assertion that may be believed or disbelieved. The position taken in the argument is the starting point for presenting a convincing case. A convincing argument is sound, thoughtful and coherent and appeals to the reader’s open mind and judgement. An argument has intent; that is, to convince or persuade the reader to accept its claims. A convincing argument has three identifiable parts. 1. a clear assertion or claim 2. evidence on which the claim is made 3. reasoning and conclusion(s) linked to evidence. Create a convincing argument by: • analysing and evaluating the collected information (your evidence) • developing a position based on your analysis • double-checking the evidence to verify your position • choosing a starting point for your argument • substantiating your position by developing the argument and relating your conclusion(s) clearly to your research objective. Analysis and argument based on accurate, relevant evidence supported with statistics or other verifiable data are the most credible. Link the evidence with your conclusions and the actions you are suggesting in the recommendations. Build a reputation for reliability by keeping your argument and conclusions free of unsubstantiated opinions and bias.
Collect relevant information and be willing to discard irrelevancies.
Apply critical thinking to consider possible viewpoints and results in interpretation, analysis and evaluation of evidence.
Show the relationship between the evidence and conclusion(s) as you present an argument.
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Step four: Present findings, conclusions and recommendations Look for central themes and connecting ideas that relate to your argument, conclusions and recommendations. Define and explain your criteria for evaluation clearly and concisely so that your readers can weigh up the evidence for themselves. As you present a particular issue and reason it through, keep all your arguments about it in one place. If you find that you come back to it after two or three paragraphs’ discussion of another issue, reorganise your arguments so that they are all together and coherent. Present both the advantages and disadvantages to give balance to your work and include all relevant information, even if it is unpleasant or against your point of view. Selective information can be misleading as it presents only the information that suits your point of view. Investigate all the issues involved and highlight the relationships between ideas. List any alternative solutions and show clearly and concisely why you have chosen a particular solution. Make the propositions or recommendations that you hope will lead to action. A useful order of information to present your findings is suggested in Exhibit 12.3.
EXHIBIT 12.3 Outline following the indirect order of information Begin by: Presenting the opportunity, problem or issue your research will address
Example: XYZ organisation is dissatisfied with the service delivery of DEF, the company currently supplying XYZ with stationery
Defining your research objective
Example: To determine the benefits of XYZ changing from DEF to another stationery supplier
Identifing your evaluation criteria
Example: Cost, availability, delivery times, responsiveness to queries, billing and payment periods
Main body – to include: Describing of your research methods
Example: Collection of information from six different suppliers. Information to be gathered from online survey of the six different suppliers’ webpage advertising, interviews with different suppliers, sales representatives, analysis of six suppliers’ price lists, searching records of the delivery times achieved by the existing supplier over the last 12 months, trial of delivery times from each of the six suppliers over a two-week period
Describing of your analysis and evaluation methods
Example: Analysis of online survey results of suppliers’ claims on their webpages, analysis of the responses to the questions gathered in the interview with the sales representatives from each of the six suppliers and evaluation against the identified criteria, comparison of prices on the suppliers’ price lists, calculation of the average delivery times of existing supplier over a two-week period and comparison to the trial of delivery times for each of the six suppliers over a two-week period
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CHAPTER 12 / Analyse and present research information
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Presenting an argument based on your findings
Example: Compare the data and findings from each of the six potential suppliers with the service level from DEF, the existing stationery supplier, identify strengths and weaknesses of each supplier based on the evidence, propose a course of action and objectively describe the benefits, costs and risk (if any)
Finish by: Presenting your conclusion(s) based on the evidence
Example: Relate your course of action directly to the opportunity and the objective you defined in the beginning section, explain the conclusion and alternative courses of action such as changing suppliers to the most cost-effective. Another option would be to change suppliers to the one with the fastest delivery times
Finish by: Making recommendation(s) based on your conclusions
Example: Present a course of action in the recommendations such as: 1. that XYZ change suppliers from DEF company to NEW company over the next three months 2. that by the end of the first month all standard items of stationery will be ordered from NEW company 3. that by the end of the third month all stationery materials customised to XYZ’s standards will be ordered from NEW company 4. that after six months, the benefits and costs (if any) of changing to NEW company will be evaluated by XYZ’s purchasing officer.
Refer to Chapters 15–19 and 21 for strategies on presenting information in a format, style and structure appropriate to organisational requirements. Chapter 18 provides guidance on developing effective conclusions and recommendations.
COMMON MISTAKES IN RESEARCH Common mistakes in research include researching from too few resources or from resources that have no relevance to the research project’s objectives. Failure to clarify the primary objective can lead to a lack of focus and the consequent waste of time on irrelevancies. Another mistake is not checking evidence for relevance to your research objective, findings and conclusions. Focusing on the past instead of extending your research to what can be done in the present and future is another common mistake. Avoid exaggeration to support your view. Instead present a balanced, non-biased view. Jumping to conclusions and proposing solutions before gathering and analysing sufficient objective evidence to understand the problem clearly can lead to misleading results. While research from secondary sources (covered in the next section) is less expensive than original research, it is unlikely to match the researcher’s objectives exactly. Therefore, organisations are willing to invest time, effort and money into original research. The outcome from quality research and analysis is sustainable solutions, continuous improvement to processes and improved capability. 1. Explain the four steps in the research and analysis process. 2. Identify three parts of a convincing argument. 3. List common mistakes in research.
Avoid common mistakes in research.
CHECKPOINT 12.1
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FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE
Business information sources Business information is any information that helps a business develop a deeper understanding of its environment; as such, it is one of the most important resources a business has because it adds to knowledge and is vital for decision making. As noted by the online magazine Inc., because business information can be any information that helps build a picture of the internal and external factors that impact a business, it is defined more by context than content. Therefore, it’s important to understand that there are many varied sources of business information. These can range from information from customers, stakeholders, friends and vendors through to published sources such as newspapers, magazines, government statistics, survey results, technical or scientific studies, published research paper, database, directories and much more. Source: Inc. Business Information Sources, https://www.inc