The Bronze Age - Iron Age Transition in Europe, Parts i and ii: Aspects of continuity and change in European societies c.1200 to 500 B.C. 9781407390192, 9781407390208, 9780860546207, 9781407347714

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface
Acknowledgement
List of contributors
List of ilustrations
VOLUME 1
VOLUME 2

Citation preview

The Bronze Age­ Iron Age Transition in Europe Aspects of continuity and change in European societies c. 1200 to 500 B.C.

edited by

Marie Louise Stig S0rensen and Roger Thomas Part i

BAR International Series 483(i) 1989

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR 8483 (I), 1989: 'The Bronze Age - Ir on Age Transition in Europe' Part I

© The Individual Authors, 1989 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407390192 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407390208 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860546207 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407347714 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860546207 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

C on ten t s

VOLU ME 1 : P r e f a ce A cknow ledgmen t L i s to fc on t r ibu to r s L i s to fi lu s t ra t ion s Map o fE u rope w i th i nd ica ted s ub jec ta r ea I n t roduc t ion Mar ie L ou i se S t ig S Or en s en a nd R oger T homa s

i i i

1 21

1 .T he c om ing o fi r on i nG r eece :E u rope se a r l ie s t B ronze / I ron T ran s i t ion A n thony M .S nodgra s s

2 2 -35

2 . T he E a s te rn Med i te r ranean a nd c en t r a lE u rope : T he b eg inn ing o ft h eI r on A ge J an B ou z ek

3 6 -42

3 . T he B eg inn ing o fI r on Me ta l lu rgy i nR oman ia ( 1200 -7 00 B .C . ) A d r iana S t o ia

4 3 -67

4 . I r on a nd I r on A ge i nt h eC a rpa tho -Ba lkan r eg ion : a s pec t so fs o c ia la nd t e chno log ica lc hange 1 700 -1400 B .C . T imo thy T ay lor

6 8 -92

5 . S oc ie ty a nd T echno logy i nt h eV i l lanovan l i on i n du s t ry N icho la s Har tmann

9 3 -99

6 . F rom t h ee nd o ft h eB ronze A ge t ot h ef i r s tA ge o fi r on . C onvu l s ion o ft h ei nd igenou sp opu la t ion a nd o ft h eS oc ia l a nd E conom ic S t ruc tu r e sa tt h e Med i t e r ranean C oa s t so ft h e I be r ian P en in su la J ord iR ov ira iP or t &J oan S an tacana iMe s t r e

1 00 -111

7 . T he b eg inn ing o ft h ef i r s tl i on A ge i n C a ta lon ia , S pa in E nr igueua P on s iB run

12 -136

8 . T he W ind o fC hange b l ow sf r om t h eE a s t . T he t r an s i t ion f r om L a te B ronze A ge t oI r on A ge i nS ou thwe s tI be r ia a nd t h eE a s t Med i te r ranean T er esa L id ice G am i to

1 37 -172

9 . I n tens if ica t ion ,E n t r ep reneu r sh ip ,a nd C ogn i t ive C hange i nt h eB ronze -I r on A ge t r an s i t ion P e t er S .W e l l s

1 73 -183

1 0 . T ransfo rma t ion o rc o l lap se . B ronze A ge t o I r on Age s e t t lemen ti n We s tC en t ra lE u rope H e inr ich Härke

1 84 -203

VOLU ME 2 :. 1 . T he T rans i t ion f r om B ronze A ge t oI r on A ge i n F rance : E conom ic ,C u l tu ra la nd S p i r i tua lC hange ( i n f r ench w i th e ng l i sh a b s t ra c t ) J ean P ier r eP au t r eau

2 04 -262

1 2 . T he B ronze I ron T ran s i t ion i nS ou the rn E ng land R oger T homa s

2 63 -286

1 3 . F rom B ronze t oI r on A ge i nI r e land T im C hamp ion

2 87 -303

1 4 . F ood ,G ende ra nd Me ta l : Q ue s t ions o fS oc ia lR ep roduc t ion J ohn C .B arr e t t

3 04 -320

1 5 . E a r ly I r on I nf luence si nt h e We se r -Ode rA r ea ( i n g e rm a nw i th e ng l ish a b s t rac t ) F r i t z Hor s t

3 21 -337

1 6 . T he " Gö r i tze rG ruppe " . C on t inu i ty f r om t h e l a te B ronze Age t ot h ee a r ly I r on A ge i n GDR /Po la nd T he a r ea o ft h el owe ra nd m idd le O de ra nd t h el owe r

3 38 -355

Wa r ta ( i ng e rman w i th e ng l ish a b s t rac t ) S igf r ied G r iesa 1 7 . T he t r ans i t ion f r om B ronze A ge t oI r on A ge among s tt h eT r ibe so ft h e We s ter nL u sa t ian C u l tu re ( i ng e rman w i th e ng l i sh a b s t rac t ) D ie tmar -W i lf r ied R .B uck

3 56 -388

1 8 . C hange si nt h ee conom ic a nd s oc ia ls t ruc tu re s i nn o r ther nP o land a tt h et r an s i t ion f r om t h e B ronze Age t ot h eI r on A ge J anu s zO s to ja -Zagör sk i

3 89 -407

1 9 . T he s oc ia ls t ruc tu re so ft h eL u sa t ion C u l tu r ea tt h et r an s i t ion f r om B ronze t oI r on A ge J an Dabrow sk i

4 08 -429

2 0 . R ema rk so ns t ud ie so ft h er e l ig ion o ft h ec ommun i t ie s o ft h eL u sa t ion C u l tu re B ogu s law G ed iga

4 30 -439

2 1 .T he I n t roduc t ion o fI r on i nD enma rk K ar in T wedd e l lL ev in sen

4 40 -456

2 2 .P e r iod V Ir e con s ide red : C on t inu i ty a nd c hange a tt h et r an s i t ion f r om B ronze t ol i on A ge i nS cand inav ia Mar ie L ou i se S t ig S Or en sen

4 57 -492

P re face

T he i d ea f o rt h is v o lume a ro se o u to f ao ne d ay s em ina ro nt h et r an s i t ion f r om B ronze A ge t oI r on Age i nn o r th -we s ter n E u rope , a r ranged b y t h ee d i to r s o ft h i s v o lume a nd h e ld a tD u rham ,E ng land ,i nN ovembe r1 983 .T he s cope o ft h i ss em ina rw a sl im i ted b o th i nt e rm so fn umbe r so fp ape r sa nd i nt e rm so fa r ea a nd i s sue sc ove red , b u te ven w i th in t h e se l im i ta t ion st h em ee t ing c ou ld b es e en a sa t temp t ing t os u rvey ap e r iod w h ich h a s b ecome ' f o rgo t ten ' i nr e cen t r e sea r ch - n o t b ecau se t h e p rob lem s h ad a l ready b een s o lved o re ven e n t i re ly u nde r s tood , b u tr a the rd ue t o at r ad i t iona l d iv i s ion o fr e sea r ch i n to p e r iod s wh ich l e ave st h et r an s i t ion a s an o -man 's l a nd . O ne o ft h e r e su l t s o ft h e m ee t ing w a s t h a t i ts pa rked o f f ar e al i sa t ion o fh ow much mo re r e sea r ch i n to t h i sp rob lem i sn eeded a nd i np a r t icu la rt h a t aw ide rt h an n a t iona l d i scu s s ion i sn ece ssa ry . I tw a s s t rong ly f e l tt h a t r e sea r ch a tp re sen t h a s b ecome c on s t ra ined b yt h ei d ea o fA ge s ,a nd t h a tt h ep rob lem o ft h et r an s i t ion i t se l fh a st h e re fo r et o al a rge e x ten tb een o ve r looked b ecau se r e sea rch a nd s cho la r s ' s pec ia l i s tf i e ld so fi n te r e s th ave b ecome s ha rp ly d iv ided i n to e i the rB ronze A ge o rI r on A ge . F ee l ing t h en eed f o rb roaden ing t h ed eba te ,a nd s uppo r ted b yt h ep ub l i she r so fB r i t i sh A r chaeo log ica lR e p o r t s , w e d ec ided t oa t temp t t oc omp i le ac omp rehen s ive v o lume o n t h i s t r an s i t iona l p e r iod , i n c lud ing p ape r s f r om a s many d i f f e ren tr eg ion so fE u rope , a nd e ncompa s s ing a sw ide ar ange o fr e cen tt h eo re t ica la pp roache st ot h ep rob lem , a sp o s s ib le . T h i sv o lume o n ' The T ran s i t ion f r om B ronze A ge t oI r on A ge i nE u rope 'i st h er e su l t o ft h i sa t temp t . I ti s ac omp r ehen s ive v o lume o nt h i sp rob lem , b u ti ts hows mo s tc l ea r l yo fa l lt h ed ep th o ft h ep rob lem w ea r ec on s ide r ing h e re a nd i tr ef l ec t so nt h ec ha rac t e r i s t ics o fa r chaeo logy a s ad i sc ip l ine ,o na r chaeo log i s t sa st h e ' i n te rp re te r s 'o fo u rp a s t a nd o nt h ep e r iod 1 200 t o5 00 B .C .a s ap a r to ft h a tp a s t . I nd o ing t h i sc e r ta in i s sue sa nd r e la t ion sh ips h ave b een c l a r if ied b u t a tt h e s ame t ime n ew p rob lem s h ave e me rged a s w e l l . T h i sv o lume d oe st h e refo re n o tp rov ide d ef in i t ive a n swe r st ot h eq ue s t ion so fw hy , h ow a nd w ha t c hange so ccu r r ed i nt h i sp e r iod ,a l though t h ep rob lem sa nd p rac t ice si n v o lved i nt h e se p roce sse so fc hange a r ec on s ide red ,a na ly sed a nd i n te rp re ted t ot h eb e s t o ft h ep re sen ta b i l i t ie s .T he re i sw ide d ive r s i ty o fa pp roach a mong t h ec on t r ibu to r s ,b u t t h ec umu la t ive e f f ec to ft h ep ape r s i st op rov ide ac ha l leng ing p i c tu r e o f ap a s tp o ten t i aly much mo re c omp l ica ted t h an t r ad i t iona lr e sea r ch h a sr e cogn i sed . Mar ie L ou i se S t ig S Or en sen ,C amb r idge a nd R oger T homa s ,L ondon

A cknow ledgemen t

A t t h ev a r ious p o in t s f r om t h e i n cep t ion o ft h e i d ea t h rough t h e d i f f e ren t s t age s o fi t s p l ann ing a nd i t sf i na lp roduc t ion w eh ave r e ce ived h e lp a nd a dv ice f r om m any i nd iv id u a l s . T he t ime a r e g one o ft h ee x i s tence o f as ma l lw o r ldw ide c ommun i ty o fa r chaeo l og is t s a l l f am i l ia r w i th e ach o t he r s w o rk . E ven w i th r ega rd t os o l ic i t ing p ape r s o n a l im i ted t o p ic l i ke t h e t r an s i t ion f r om B ronze A ge t oI r on A ge a dv ice a nd s ugge s t ion s f r om o the r sw e re e s sen t ia l . Many d i f f e r& i ti nd iv idua l sh ave i nf luenced ,h e lped ,c r i t i sed a nd a dv iced u si nt h et a k s o fc omp le t ing t h i s v o lume , a nd w e a cknow ledge t h em a l l . I np a r t icu la r , h oweve r , w e w ou ld l i ke t oe xp re ss o u rt h ank sf o rt h es ub s tan t ia ls uppor to ra dv ice r e ce ived f r om t h e f olow ing : J .A lexande r ,P .B ahn ,A .B e rgqu is t ,J .C o le s ,C .E vans ,A .H a rd ing ,H .H ä rke . K . K r is t ian sen ,M . R ow land s , C . S ca r re ,A .M . S nodg ra s s ,S .S todda r t ,a nd T .T ay lo r . T he v o lume w a sp roduced o nt h ec ompu te ra tt h eD epa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy i nC am b r idge , a nd i tw a s p r in ted o n t h e l a se r -p r in te ra tt h e Museum o fA r chaeo logy a nd A n t h ropo logy ,C amb r idge u n ive r s i ty , a nd w et h ank b o th i n s t i tu t ions f o ra cce s st ot h e se f a c i l i t ie s . I np a r t icu la r ,h oweve r ,w es hou ld l i ke t oe xp re s so u rg ra t i tude t owa rd sD r .C .A . S he l lf o rh i se nd le s s h e lp a nd a dv ice i nt h ep roduc t ion o ft h i sv o lume . Mo s to ft h ei l l u s t ra t ion sw e re p rov ided b yt h ei nd iv idua la u tho r sb u t af ew a dd i t iona lo ne sh ave b een d rawn b yJ u l ie B oa s ta nd C h r is P la ce . Mo s to fa l lw ew an tt ot h ank t h ei nd iv idua lc on t r ibu to r s . T hey h ave b een s uppor t ive , i n sp i r e r ing ,a nd v e ry p a t ience w i th t h e many d e lay s . W i thou tt h es ense o ft h e i rs uppo r t w ew ou ld h ave s uccumbed t oo ne o ft h e many p ra c t ica lp rob lem so fp u l l ing t h i sc o l lec t i on t oge the r . S ome o ft h e p ape r s h ave o n ly r e cen t ly b een f i n i shed w h i le o t he r s h ave b een w i th t h ee d i to r s s i nce 1 984 . We mu s tb eg o ft h er e ade r st oh ave t h i si nm ind a nd t ob l ame u s n o t t h e a u tho r s i fr e cen t a rgumen t s o ra r t ic le s a r e n o t c on s ide red i nt h e i r p ape r s . T he v i ews h e ld a r e t h o se o ft h ei nd iv idua l a u tho r s a nd w h i le o ne m ay n o tn e c e sce s sa r i ly a g ree w i th a l l t h ei d ea s h e ld t h ey c an n o te a s i ly b ei gno red a nd mus tb e a p a r to f af u tu re a t temp t sa tw r i t ing t h ep reh i s to ry o fE u rope .

1

L i s to fc on tr ibu tor s

B a r re t t ,J ohn C . D epa r tmen to fA r chaeo logy ,T he U n ive r s i ty ,G la sgow G 12 8 QQ , B ouzek ,J an I n s t i tu tD 'A rcheo log ie C la s s ique d el 'Un ive r s i te d eC la r ley , 1 ,C zecho s lovak ia .

G rea tB r i ta in .

10 C e le tna 2 0 ,P raha

B uck ,D ie tma r - Wi l f r ied R . Mu seum f ü r U r - u nd F rüge sch ich te P o t sdam , DDR - 1 502 P o t sdam B abe lsbe rg , S ch loß B abe lsbe rg ,G e rman D emoc ra t ic R epub l ic . C hamp ion ,T im D epa r tmen t o f A r chaeo logy , U n ive r s i ty o f S ou thamp ton , S ou thamp ton S O9 5 NH , G rea tB r i ta in . D ab row sk i ,J an U l . Ma r sy l ska 5m 1 8 ,0 2 -763 Wa r szawa ,P o land . G ed iga ,B ogu s law I n s t i tu tu H is to r l iK u l tury Ma te r ian j ,P o l sk ie j A kadem i iN auk , 5 0 - 18 Wroc law ,P o l a nd . G r ie sa , S igf r ied G e se l lscha f t sw i ssen scha f t l iche F aku l tä t ,D e rs ek t ion G e sch ich te , H umbo l tU n ive r s i t ä t ,F r ieden s t r . 3 ,B e r l in ,G e rman D emoc ra t ic R epub l ic . H ä rke ,H e in r ich D epa r tmen t o f A r chaeo logy , T he Q ueen s U n ive r s i ty o fB e l fa s t , B e l f a s t BT7 I NN , N o r the rn I r e land . H a r tmann ,N icho la s 4 048 S p ruce S t . ,P h i lade lp ia ,P A 1 9104 ,U .S .A . Ho r s t ,F r i tz Z en t ra l ins t i tu tf ü ra l te G e sch ich te u nd A r chäo log ie d e rA kadem ie d e rW i s sen scha f ten d e r DDR ,L e ipz ige rS t ra sse 3 / 4 , 1 08 B e r l in ,G e rman D emoc ra t ic R epub l ic . J üd ice G am i to ,T e re sa D epa r tmen to fA r chaeo logy ,U n ive r s i ty o fA lgarve , 8 000 F a ro ,

1 1

P o r tuga l .

L ev in sen ,K a r in T . NM-r eA l le 1 9 Ds t .2 05 ,D k -2200 K Obenhavn N ,D enma rk . O s to ja -Zagö r sk i ,J anu sz O s led le Zwyc le s twa 2m . 7 0 , 6 1 -643 P o snan , P o land . P au t reau ,J ean P ie r re C ha rge d eR eche r che a uC .N .R .S . ,I n s t i tu td uQ ua r te rna i re -C en t re E B o rde s ,U n ive r s i te d eB o rdeaux I .3 3405 T a lene C edex ( Le B ou rg , C ha teau L a r che r , 8 6370 V ivonne ) , F rance . P ons iB run ,E n r ique ta A rqueo log id e lC en t re d ' Inve s t igac ions A rqueo log igue sd eG i rona , C a se d eC u l tu ra , G e rona , S pa in . R ov i ra iP o r t ,J o rd i & S an tacana iMe s t re ,J oan I n s t i tu td eP reh i s to r ia iA rqueo log ia , Mu seu A rqueo log ic ,P a rc d e Mon t ju ic ,B a r ce lo n a4 ,S pa in . S nodg ra ss ,A n thony M . F acu l ty o fC la s s ics , S idgw ick S i te , S idw ick A venue , B r i ta in .

C amb r idge CB3 9 DA ,G rea t

S O r en sen , Ma r ie L ou i se S t ig D epa r tmen to fA r chaeo logy ,D own ing S t , C amb r idge CB2 3 DZ ,G rea tB r i ta in . S to ia , Ad r iana I n s t i tu td eA rheo log ie , St r .I . 0F r imu n r1 ,R o -71119 B ucu re s t i2 2 ,R oman ia . T ay lo r ,T imo thy K ing 's C olege , C amb r idge CB2 1 ST ,G rea tB r i ta in . T homa s ,R oge r E ngl i sh H e r i tage ,F o r t re ss H ou se , S av i le R ow ,L ondon W1X l AB ,

G rea tB r i ta in .

We l l s ,P e te rS . C en te rf o rA nc ien tS tud ie s ,2 06 F o lwe l lH a l l ,U n ive r s i ty o fM inne so ta ,M inneapo l i s , MN 5 5455 ,U .S .A .

i v

L i s to fi lu s tra t ion s ( numbe ri nb racke tr e f e r st ot h ep ape rn umbe r ) . ( 1 ) . F igu re 1 .P ropo r t iona li n c idence o fn i ne i r on t y pe s a tf i ve E a r ly h on A ge G reek c e m e te r ie s . ( 3 ) . F igu re 2 .T he c l a s s if i ca t ion o ft h eH a l l s ta t tp e r iod i nR oman ia . F igu re 3 .I r on o b jec t sf r om R oman ia f r om E a r ly H a l l s ta t t( Ha A ) . F igu re 4 .I r on o b jec t sf r om R oman ia f r om E a r ly H a l l s ta t t( Ha B ) . F igu re 5 .The n umbe ro fI r on o b jec t sf r om R oman ia d i s t r ibu ted o nd i f f e ren tf unc t iona l C a tego r ie s . F igu re 6 .h on o b jec t s f r om R oman ia f r om t h eM idd le H a l l s ta t tp e r iod ( Ha B 3 -Ha C ) . F igu re 7 . h on o b jec t sf r om R oman ia f r om t h e M idd le H a l l s ta t tp e r iod ( Ha B 3 -Ha C ) . ( 4 ) F igu re 8 .T he C a rpa tho -Ba lkan r eg ion s how ing t h ep r inc ipa le a r l ie rs i te s . F igu re 9 . T he d agge rh and le f r om G anovce , S lovak ia . F igu re 1 0 .The L owe rD anube B a s in s how ing t h ep r inc ipa ll a te rs i te s . ( 5 ) F igu re 1 . E xamp le s o fi r on a nd b ronze f i bu lae o ft h e V i l lanovan p e r iod o fC en t ra l I t a ly . ( 6 ) F igu re 1 2 . S chema t ic i lus t ra t ion so ft h ei n te rac t ion b e tween t h ed i f f e r en tf a c to r si n v o lved i nt h et r an sfo rma t ion o ft h es oc ia la nd e conom ic s t ruc tu re so ft h el a te B ronze A ge s oc ie t ie sa tt h e Med i te r ranean c oa s to fI b e r ia . ( 7) F igu re 1 3 . T he s pa t ia lc onf igu ra t ion o fr e la ted p opu la t ion g roups w i th in C a ta lon ia . F igu re 1 4 . T he L a te B ronze A ge c a se s e t t lemen t si nC a ta lon ia . F igu re 1 5 . T he L a te B ronze o pen -a i rs e t t lemen t si nC a ta lon ia . F igu re 1 6 . C u l tu ra l c on tac t si n l ' Empo rda a tt h eb eg innng o ft h eI r on A ge . F igu re 1 7 . S t ruc tu ra lv a r iab i l i ty o fg rave t y pe sf r om t h eL a te B ronze A ge c eme te r ie s i nl ' Empo rda . F igu re 1 8 . S ome o f t h e mo s t c ommon f o rm s o f p o t te ry i nl ' Empo rdä i n t h e L a te B ronze . F igu re 1 9 . U rnf ie ld sw i th t umu l ia tt h ec eme te ry a tP u ig A l t -R o se s ,C a ta lon ia .

Figure 20. Synopsis of the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age material from Cata­ lonia. Figure 21. Systematic review of the dates for the beginning of the First Iron Age on the basis of various authors. Figure 22. Iron implements from the beginning of the Iron Age in Catalonia. Figure 23. Systematic representation of socio-economic phenomena occuring in Cata­ lonia from the Bronze Age to the Roman Period. (8) Figure 24. Distribution of Bronze Age cist cemeteries and Bronze Age settlements sites in southwest Iberia. Figure 25. Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age settlement sites in southwest Iberia. Figure 26. Distribution map for some of the diagnostic Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age features in southwest Iberia. Figure 27. Examples of engraved slaps from Iberia. Figure 28. The bronze obeloi from Iberia. Figure 29. The area of Femao Vaz, Iberia. Figure 30. Examples of the southwest Iberian inscription. (9) Figure 31. Map showing principal commercial towns of Early Iron Age temperate Europe. Figure 32. Late Bronze Age sickle from "La Creuse" near Corbiere on Lake Neucha­ tel, Switzerland. Figure 33. Schematic drawing indicating relative sizes of burial mounds in part of the Early Iron Age cemetery complex at Gleinstatten in Steiermark, Austria. Figure 34. Sketch of part of an Early Iron Age belt plate from a grave at Singen, Baden-Wilrtemberg, FRG. (10) Figure 35. Chronology after Reinecke and Muller-Karpe. Figure 36. Map of West Central Europe. Figure 37. Occupation of defended settlement sites of the Umfield Culture in South­ ern Germany. Figure 38. Continuity and discontinuity from Hallstatt B to C of a sample of Um­ field Culture settlements. Figure 39. Development of the settlement pattern around the Heuneburg on the Upper Danube, circa 1000 to 400 B.C. Figure 40. Development of the pattern of hilltop settlements around the Wetterau loess basin, circa 1000 to 300 B.C. (11) Figure Figure Figure Figure

41. Sites d'habitat occupes lors de la transition 'Bronze-Fer'. 42. Formes ceramiques non toumees des necropoles de Mailhac (Aude). 43. Ceramiques du Centre-Ouest de la France du Fer'. 44. Ceramique des regions du Nord et de l'Est

vi

F igu r e 4 5 .R ep r e sen ta t ion sa n th ropomo rphe se tz oomo rphe ss u rc e ra rn ique d an sl ' a i re ma i lhac ienne e ts e s ma rge s . F igu r e 4 6 . R ep re sen ta t ion s a n th ropomo rphe s e tz oomo rhe s s u r b ronze e tc e r am ique d an sl ar eg ion d uB a s - D auph ine e tl a moyenne \ f a l l& d uR höne . F igu re 4 7 . R ep re sen ta t ion s a n th ropomo rphe se tz oomo rphe s s u rc e ram ique d an sl e C en t re -Oue s te tl az one a t lan t ique . F igu re 4 8 . Mode lage sa n th ropomo rphe se tz oomo rphe se na r g i le c u i te . F igu r e 4 9 . C a r te d e s f i gu ra t ion s a n th ropomo rphe s e tz oomo rphe s d e l ap e r iode d e t r an s i t ion ' Bronze -Pe r ' . F igu r e 5 0 . B roche s är ö t i r ,f i gu ra t ion sd ec ha re tp rem ie r so b jec t se nP e r . F igu r e 5 1 . C ar te d e sc ha r sd el ap er iode d et r an s i t ion ' Bronze -P e r ' . F igu re 5 2 . E pée se tb ou te ro l le s . F igu re 5 3 . S epu l tu re s ou st umu lu sd eC azev ie l le ( He rau l t ) . F igu re 5 4 . C a r te d e se pee se nb ronze äl a ngue t te p l a te t r ipa r t i te . F igu re 5 5 . C a r te d e se pee s äl a ngue t te p l a te t r ipa r t i te e nf e r . F igu re 5 6 . C a r te d e sa rma tu re s d ef l eche t r iangu la i re se nb ronze e te nf e r . F igu re 5 7 . I nf luence sd el ' a i re med i te r raneene . ( 12 ) F igu r e 5 8 . T he d i s tr ibu t ion o f Ewan P a rk p ha se m e ta lwo rk i nt h eB r i t i sh I s le s . F igu re 5 9 . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fs e lec ted t y pe so fL lyn F aw r p ha se m e ta lwo rk i ns ou th e rn E ng land . ( 14 ) F igu re

6 0 . P ar to ft h es e t t lemen ta r ch i tec tu re a tI t fo rd H i l l , S u s sex ,E ng land .

( 1 5 ) F igu re 6 1 .T he ma in c onnec t ing r ou te si nn o r the rn C en t ra lE u rope i nt h el a te B ronze A ge ( Pe r iode I Ib -V =H a A -B ) . F igu r e 6 2 . T he ma in c onnec t ing r ou te si nn o r the rn C en t ra lE u rope i nt h eE a r ly I r on A ge ( Pe r iode V I =H a C -D ) . F igu re 6 3 . Wende l r ing sf r om t h ed epo s i ta tZ oo tzen . F igu re 6 4 . ' Kahn -f ibu lae 'f r om Wa ren ,K r . Wa ren /DDR . F igu re 6 5 . F ragmen to fb ronze -shee tw hee l sp ike -moun t ing f r om ab a r row a tK em n i tz ,K e tnn i tz ,K r .P r i tzwa lk /DDR . F igu re 6 6 . C ha rac te r i s t ic l a te B ronze A ge ,P e r iode V I ,c e ram ic f o rm sf r om t h em idd le E lbe -H ave la r ea . F igu re 6 7 . C ha rac ter i s t ic l a te B ronze A ge ,Pe r iode V I ,c e ram ic f o rm s f r om t h em idd le E lbe -H ave la r ea . F igu re 6 8 . D i s t r ibu t ion o fi r on o b jec t sf r om t h el a te B ronze A ge a nd t h ee a r ly I r on A ge i nn o r the rn C en t ra lE u rope . F igu re 6 9 . P lan o ve r t h el a te B ronze A ge ,p e r iode V I ,g rave f ie ld a tG ö tz , F igu re 7 0 . P lan o ve r t h e l a te B ronze A ge , p e r iode V I , g ravef ie ld a tP r i tze rbe , K r . B randenbu rg /DDR .

v i i

( 16 ) F igu re F igu re F igu re F igu r e

7 1 . 7 2 . 7 3 . 7 4 .

D i s t r ibu t ion o ft h eG ö r i tze rG roup . Ma in c h arac te r i s t ics o f t h ep ha se so ft h eG ö r i tze rG roup . C e ram ic f o rm so ft h eG ö r i tze rG roup . G ravegood si ng rave so ft h eG ö r i tze rG roup .

( 1 7 ) F igu re 7 5 . C h rono logy o ft h eL u sa t ian G roup . F igu r e 7 6 . R eg iona ld iv i s ion o ft h eL u sa t ian G roup i nP ha se V . F igu r e 7 7 . D i s t r ibu t ion o ft h eL u sa t ian G roup a nd o t he ra r chaeo log ica lc u l tu re si n P ha se V Ia i nt h es ou the rn t e r r i to ry o ft h e DDR . F igu re 7 8 . R eg iona ld iv i s ion o ft h eL usa t ian G roup i np ha se I V . F igu re 7 9 . S e t t lemen t sa nd c eme te r ie so ft h eL u sa t ian G roup i np ha se I i nN iede r l a u s i tz . F igu r e 8 0 . S e t t lemen t sa nd c eme te r ie so ft h e L u sa t ian G roup i np ha se I Vi nN iede r l a u s i tz . F igu r e 8 1 . S e t t lemen t sa nd c eme te r ie so ft h eL u sa t ian G roup i np ha se V i nN iede r l a u s i tz . F igu re 8 2 . R econ s t ruc ted mode lo f t h e ' e conomy a r ea 'o nt h eb a s i so fe xcava t ion s a nd n a tu ra ls c ience r e sea r ch . F igu r e 8 3 .B a s ic p l an o ft h ed e f ended s e t t lemen ta tS enf ten -b e rg , DDR ,i np ha se V a . F igu r e 8 4 . R econ s t ruc t ion o ff o r t if i ca t ion s . F igu re 8 5 .T race so f b ronze p roduc t ion d u r ing t h eB i l lendo r f e rp ha se V -V Ii nt h ed i f f e ren tr eg iona lg roups . F igu re 8 6 . D eve lopmen t o f t h e p opu la t ion s i ze i n N iede r laus i tz t h roughou t t h e B ronze a nd e a r ly l i on A ge s o n t h e b ackg round o f e conom ic , s oc ia l a nd e co log ica l c hange s . F igu r e 8 7 .D i s t r ibu t ion o fs e lec ted d re s s -f i t t ing sand o rna -m en t sf r om t h eB i l lendo r f e rG roup . F igu r e 8 8 .D i s t r ibu t ion o fi r on c h i se l s ,s ocke ted a xe sa nd s i cke l si nt h es ou the rn z one o ft h eL u sa t ian C u l tu re . F igu re 8 9 .C on t r ibu t ion i n p e r cen tage t om ea tc on sump t ion b yt h ed ome s t ic a n ima l s f r om t h eL übbenau s e t t lemen t . F igu re 9 0 . E xamp le so fp lough s . F igu re 9 1 .R ep re sen ta t ion i n p e r cen tage o ft y pe so fp roduc t sm ade o fd i f f e r en tm e t a l sd u r ing t h eB i l lendo r f e rp ha se . F igu re 9 2 . T he g rave f r om K le in L ie skow ,L im C o t tbus . F igu re 9 3 .P lan o fc hambe ra nd s umma ry o fg ravegood sf o r g rave 3 0( 1 71 B )a tK le in L ie skow , LK . r . C o t tbu s . F igu re 9 4 .B u rn ing a nd d i s tu rbance sa ts e t t lemen t s f r om t h et r an s i t ion b e tween B i l l e ndo r fp ha se sV ca nd V Ia. ( 19 ) F igu r e 9 5 .G rave 39/19 37 w i th w ooden h ou se c on s t ruc t ion a t K ie t r z . V o ivode sh ip o fO po le ,P o land .

v i i i

F igu re 9 6 . O rnamen t s d i scove red o n t h e s ke le ton o f aw oman f r om t h ef o r t if ied s e t t lemen ta tW ic ina ,V o ivode sh ip o fZ ie lona G ö ra . F igu r e 9 7 . T he i nven to ry o fG rave 8 9 ,c on ta in ing r ema in so f a6 0y ea r so ld m a le ,a t t h eP rzeczyce c eme te ry ,V o ivode sh ip o fK a tow ice ( a f te rS zyd lowska 1 968 ) . ( 2 1 ) F igu re 9 8 . D i s t r ibu t ion o fi r on o b jec t si nD enma rk i np e r iod V I . F igu re 9 9 . E xamp le so ft h er ange o fo b jec t sp roduced i ni r on i nD enma rk d u r ing P re R oman I r on Age . F igu re 1 00 . E xamp les o ft h er a nge o fo b jec t sp roduced i ni r on i nD enma rk d u r ing e a r ly R oman l i on A ge . F igu re 1 01 . E xamp le so ft h er a nge o fo b jec t sp roduced i ni r on i nD enma rk d u r ing l a te R oman I r on A ge . F igu r e 1 02 . D i s t r ibu t ion o nf unc t iona lc a tego r ie so fi r on o b jec t sd u rng H aB 3 -p e r i o d Vi nv a r iou sa r ea so fE u rope . F igu r e 1 03 . D i s t r ibu t ion o nf unc t iona lc a tego r ie so fi r on o b jec t sd ur ng H a C -p e r i o dV Ii nn o r the rn E u rope . F igu re 1 04 . C o r re la t ion b e tween t ime a nd d i s tance i nt h e s p read ing p roce s so ft h e e a r l ie s to ccu rence o fi r on ,o fs l ag , o fe x t rac t ion o ven s ,a nd o f' l a rge -sca le 'p roduc t ion . F igu re 1 05 . T he a ppea rance o fP le ine r ' s( 1980 ) 4s t age so fi r on u se sw i th r e spec tt o t ime a nd p l ace . ( 22 ) F igu re 1 06 .S chema t ic i lu s t ra t ion o ft h er ange o fs t anda rd b ronze o b jec t sf r om p e r i o dI Vt o PR IA Ii nS cand inav ia . F igu re 1 07 . R econ s t ruc t ion so fS cand inav ian l a te B ronze A ge h ou se s . F igu re 1 08 . I lus t ra t ion o ft h ep o s s ib le d i f f e rence b e tween l a te B ronze A ge ur n sa nd PR IA u rns i nS cand inav ia .

i x

a I

Map o fE u rope . N umbe r si nd ica te t h e a r ea sc ove red b yt h e p ape r si nt h is v o lume .

x

I NTRODUCT ION Mar ie L ou i se S t ig S oren sen a nd R oger T homa s

T he p rob lem o ft h et r an s i t ion f r om B ronze A ge t oI r on A ge i nE u rope s e em st oh ave p e r s i s ten t ly e s caped a t ten t ion i n mo s tr e cen tr e sea r ch . U nc r i t ica l ly a ccep ted b u t g ro s s ly i n accu ra te v i ews o ft h en a tu re o ft h is c hange a r eb e ing p e rpe tua ted . T h i s mean st h a tt h i s p e r iod o fE u ropean p reh is to ry i sb e ing d ep ic ted a so ne o fd i s rup t ion , d evo lu t ion , c o l l a pse a nd e rup t ion w i thou ta ny p rope ru nde r s tand ing o fw ha tt h e se t e rm si mp ly a nd a t w h ich l e ve l so fs oc ia ll i f e s uch c hange sm ay h ave b een f e l t . F o rs ome t ime n ow t h e se v i ews h ave b een q ue s t ioned b y s t ud ie s o ft h e s equence s o fc hange , b u t t h e r e su l t s o f t h e se w o rk sh ave n o tb een p rope r ly c ommun ica ted b eyond t h es pec ia l is t si nvo lved ,a nd p opu la rm i sconcep t ion s o ft h ec au se s a nd d eg ree o fc hange h ave b een a l lowed t op e r s i s t( e .g . Mann 1 986 ; S hephe rd 1 970 ) . T he l a ck o fa t ten t ion p a id t o mo re r e cen ts t ud ie s i sp a r t ly t h er e su l to ft h ev i r tua l a b sence f r om c u r ren tt h eo re t ica ld eba te so fd i scus s ion o ft h et r ans i t ion f r om B ronze A ge t oI r on A ge ; o dd ly ,t h i s' c la s s ic 'a r chaeo log ica lp rob l em h a sb een a lmo s te n t i re ly i g no red i nb o th t h e ' p roce s sua l 'a nd t h e ' p o s t -p roce ssua l ' d eba te so fr e cen ty ea r s . A ga in s tt h eb ackg round o ft h ec l o se a t ten t ion p a id t ot h i st r an s i t ion b yp rev iou s g ene ra t ion s , b o th i nt h el a te 1 9 th c en tu ry , a si nt h e wo rk so f Mon te l i u s( 1 885 ; 1 913 )a nd U nd se t( 1 881 ) , a nd i ne a r ly 2 0 th c en tu ry r e sea r ch , s uch a st h a to f A abe rg ( 1930 ) a nd C h i 1de ( 1 925 ; 1 950 ) , t h e mo re r e cen tn eg lec to ft h i s s equence i so f h i s to r iog raph ic i n te re s ti ni t se lf , a nd f u r the rd emon s t ra te st h ei mpo r tance o ft h ed i scu s s i on sp re sen ted i nt h i sv o lume . T he p re sen tv o lume r ep re sen t sa na t temp tt or emedy t h i ss i tua t ion b yb r ing ing t oge the r ac o l lec t ion o fp ape r s , a l lo fw h ich h ave a st h e i rc en t ra lc once rn t h et r an sfo rma t ion so f E u ropean c ommun i t ie si nt h ep e r iod 1 200 t o5 00 B .C . O u ra im i nd o ing t h i si st oi n te g ra te a nd make a va i lab le d i scus s ions o ft h e t r an s i t ion f r om B ronze A ge t oI r on A ge i n E u rope w h ich a r e b a sed o n d i f f e r en t r ange s o fe v idence , h ave t h e i r s t a r t ing p o in t s i n l o ca l s equence so fe ven t s , a nd a r ep roduced b y a r chaeo log i s t s w o rk ing w i th in v a r iou s a r chaeo log ica lt r ad i t ions a nd l i v ing i nd ive r se s oc ia la nd c u l tu ra lc on tex t s . T h i sm eans t h a tt h er ange o fc u r ren tw o rk i sd emons t ra ted , a nd t h a ti tb ecome sp o s s ib le t oe xp lo re t h ev a r iou sa pp roache sa nd e xp lana t ion sc u r ren t ly b e ing u sed f o rt h i st r an s i t ion . I ts hou ld b e s t re s sed a to nce t h a t t h i sc o l lec t ion o fp ape r s d oe s n o tn ece s sa r i ly c on s t i tu te ac ohe ren ta ccoun to fa l lt h er e levan ti s sue s ,n o rd oe si tamoun tt o af i na l ,d ec i s ive e xp lana t ion o f t h e c hange s w h ich t ook p l ace i n t h i s p e r iod i n E u ropean p reh i s to ry . R a the r , i ti s ar e f lec t ion u pon t h ep rob lem . I tp re sen t s ap i c tu re o fb o th c on t inu i ty a nd c hange . I tr evea l st h ev a r ied a cadem ic r e a son ing sb eh ind t h e a r chaeo log ica lc on s truc t i on o f at r ans i t iona lp e r iod , a nd i tr ev iew s ar ange o f ma te r ia l a nd c u l tu ra l ' e v idence ' . T h rough t h is ,t h ea rgumen t sa nd c once rns r e levan tt o ac on s ide ra t ion o ft h i sp e r iod a r e

1

I n t roduc t ion

made a va i lab le a tt h e s ame t ime a sw o rk s o fs cho la r s n o to therw ise w o rk ing w i th in a s ha red t h eo re t ica l /me thododo log ica lf r amewo rk a r ep re sen ted t oge the r . T he u se o fd i f f e ren ta pp roache sa nd t h es t udy o fd i f f e ren tr eg ion sa nd d a ta m ean t h a tt h ev o lume b o th c l a r if ie sa nd f u r the re l abo ra te s q ue s t ion sc oncer n ing t h et r an s i t ion ,s i nce e ach a r ea n ow eme rge st h rough b o th i t ss im i la r i t ie st oa nd i t sd i f f e rence sf r om o the ra r ea s . We f e e lt h a t t h is r e su l ti ni t se lf i s ama jo rc on t r ibu t ion o ft h is v o lume . T he v o lume c an a l so b e u sed a s ag ene ra l t e x tbook s i nce i tp rov ide s a nu pda ted a c c oun to ft h ec ha rac te r i s t ic so ft h i sp e r iod . I tf i t si nb e tween s uch v o lume sa sC o le sa nd H a rd ing ( 1979 )o nt h eB ronze A ge a nd t h ev a r iou sw o rk so nt h ec om ing o ft h eI r on A ge s uch a s We r t ime a nd Muh ly ( 1980 )a nd H aefne r( 1 981) . F ur the rmo re ,w h i le p rov id ing i n fo rma t ion a bou ts equence sa nd m a t e r ia l s ,t h ev o lume a l so p rov ide si n s igh t si n to c u r r en tt h eo re t ica ld eba te s . T he se s how av a r ie ty o fc oncer n sr ang ing f r om i n te rp re ta t ive i s sue s ,s uch a st h er o le o ft r ade a nd e xchange o rt h ed ynam ics o fs oc ia lc hange ,t op rob l em so fc l a s s if i ca t ion a nd d ef in i t ion s . I ta l so i n c lude sc on t r ibu t ions t ot h ec a l lf o r ac r i t i c a l s e lf -awa rene ss i n a r chaeo logy ( f o r t h i s d eba te s e e f o r e xamp le B ar re t t 1 987 /88 ; C la rke 1 973 ; Hodde r 1 986 ; S hank sa nd T iley 1 987 ) . L abe l s g i ve r e a l i ty a nd p e rmanence t oc oncep t s . We d ot h e r efo re r e cogn i se t h a tt h e t i le o ft h is v o lume , " The B ronze A ge I ron A ge T ran s i t ion i nE u rope " ,c an b ec r i t ic i sed i nv i ew o ft h ee xp re ssed a im so fi nve s t iga t ing t h en a tu re o fc hange a nd c on t inu i ty d u r i ng t h ep e r iod 1 200 t o5 00 B .C . T he h i s to r ica lr e a l i ty a nd r e levance o ft h i s ' t ran s i t ion ' s hou ld i d ea l ly b ec ons ide red ,n o tj u s tt a ken f o rg ran ted . I tm ay t h e refo re a ppea rt h a tw e h ave a l ready d ec ided o n t h e se ma t te r s , a nd t h e c oncep t o f at r an s i t ion c e r ta in ly d oe s b ecome e ven mo re c onc re te w hen w ho le v o lume s a r e d ed ica ted t oi t . We a ccep tt h is p o ten t ia lc r i t ique . I ti st h ec a se ,h oweve r ,t h a tw ew o rk w i th in ac on s t ruc ted f r amewo rk r ef lec t ive o ft h ep a s tb u to fn ece s s i ty a lway sr emoved f r om t h ep a s ta nd a lway sa b s t rac t . I ti sw i th in t h i sf r amewo rk t h a tt h ec oncep to f at r ans i t ion h a si t sg ene s i s . We f e e lt h a t i ti si mpo r tan t t oa ccep t t h e e x i s tence o ft h i s f r amewo rk a nd t or e cogn i se t h e w ay i n w h ich i td i c ta te so u ru nde r s tand ing o ft h ep a s t . T h i sd oe sn o tn ece s sar i ly i mp ly t h a tt h i s ' t ran s i t ion ' wou ld h ave h ad n or e levance f o rt h el i ve sa nd a c t ion so ft h ec ommun i t ie si n E u rope i nt h ep e r iod 1 200 t o5 00 B .C . ,b u ti td oe s s ugge s tt h a tw ec anno te a s i ly s epa r a t ep a s tr ea l i t ie sf r om o u rp r e sen t -day a r chaeo log ica lc ons truc t s . We t h e r efo r e b el ieve t h a tt h e mo s te f f ec t ive c ha l lenge t ot h ep e r iod i sa t ion o fE u ropean p reh i s to ry h a st od e v e lop f r om ac r i t ica lr e -app ra i sa lo ft h ec en t ra lc oncep t sa nd a s sump t ions u sed i ni t sc r e a t ion ,r a the rt h an b yo f -handed ly r e jec t ing t h et r ad i t iona ld iv i s ions o fB ronze A ge a nd I r on A ge a nd r ep lac ing t h e se w i th o the re qua l ly c l um sy c oncep t sr e la t ing t ot h eq ue s t i on so ft ime ,c hange a nd c ommun i t ie s .

T he b ackground f o rt he v o lume T he t r an s i t ion f r om t h eB ronze A ge t ot h eh on A ge i s ac l a s s ic p rob lem i nE u ropean p re h i s to ry . T he c oncep t ,h av ing i t sr oo t si nt h eT h ree A ge s y s tem a nd s uppor ted b yC la s s i c a ll i t e ra ry r e f e rence s ,i sb a sed o nv i s ib le c hange si nt h eb ody o fa r chaeo log ica lm a te r i a l ,b u tt h er e la t ionsh ip o ft h e se c hange st od eve lopmen t sw i th in o the ra spec t so fs oc ie ty 2

i ss t i l lu nc lea r .T he B ronze A ge I ron A ge t r ans i t ion i st h e refo re s t i l lp r ima r i ly a na r chae o log ica lp rob lem - i ts e t si t so wn p rem ise sa nd i tc on ta in sa nd d ef ine si t se l f . T h is t r an s i t ion p ha se c an t h u s b e s e en a s ap r ime e xamp le o ft h e p rob lem o fs t udy ing c u l tu ra l c hange so nt h eb a s i so fa r chaeo log ica ld a ta . T he i mp l ica t ion so ft h ed i scus s ion sc once rn ing t h is b ody o f ma te r ia lr each b eyond t h e c l a r if ica t ion o ft h i sp a r t icu la rs equence i nE u ropean p reh i s to ry , t ot h ew ide rp rob lem o f h ow t oa ch ieve i n s igh ti n to a nd k now ledge o fp reh i s to r ic s oc ie t ie s d i s tan ti nt ime a nd a ppa ren t ly d i f f e ren tf r om k nown e t hnog raph ic c ommun i t ie s . T he s equence so fc hange i nE u rope d u r ing t h i s p e r iod d o n o t h ave e xac tp a ra l le l s a nywhe re e l se i nt h e w o r ld . S tud ie so ft h et r an sfo rma t ion o fE u ropean s oc ie t ie si nt h ep e r iod 1 200 t o5 00 B .C .t h e re f o re h ave ag ene ra l h i s to r ica li mpo r tance , s i nce t h ey s how t h er a nge o fc u l tu ra l t r a jec t o r ie sd eve lop ing f r om ac ommon c u l tu ra lb ackg round . F u r the rmo r e , o ve rt h el a s tf ew d ecade si th a sb ecome i n c rea s ing ly o bv iou s t h a tp re sen t -day p re -c ap i ta l is ts oc ie t ie si n v a r ious p a r t s o ft h ew o r ld a r en o tu na f f ec ted b y t h e i rc on tac tw i th t h e ' we s te rn 'w o r ld ( e .g . E kho lm 1 979 a nd Wo l f1 982 ) . T h is m ean st h a tt h e s t udy o fp reh i s to r ic s oc ie t ie s b ecome s e ven mo re i mpo r tan t f o rr e cogn i s ing a nd t os ome e x ten t e xpe r ienc ing s o c i e t ie s t h a t a r ed i f f e ren tf r om o u ro wn . I n c rea sed k now ledge a bou t t h et r an sforma t ion f r om B ronze A ge s oc ie t ie st oI r on A ge o ne sc an t h e refo re b e s e en a sa ni mpo r tan tw ay o fc r ea t ing a wa rene s so fc u l tu ra lv a r iab il i ty . I nc rea sed c r i t ica la wa rene s so ft h e b i a se s o fo u rc oncep tua lf r amewo rk sa nd e t hno cen t r ic c ha rac te r o fo u re xpec ta t ion sm ean st h a t t h i sp e r iod c an eme rge a s ap a r to fo u rh i s to ry w h ich i sd i f f e ren tf r om o u ro wn n o to n ly i nd eg ree b u t maybe a l so i nk ind .I ti st h e r efo re o n ly t h rough ac r i t ica la nd c on sc ien t iou s s t udy o fp ha se sl i ke t h eB ronze A ge I ron A ge t r an s i t ion t h a to u rn ot ion so fe vo lu t ion a nd p rog r e s s c an b e s ub s tan t ia l ly q ue s t ioned . I ti so n ly b yr ea l i s ing t h a t , f o re xamp le , t h e h uman s oc ie t ie s d u r ing t h i s p e r iod d id n o t a pp roach , t r ea t a nd t h ink a bou t i r on i nt h e s ame w ays a sw ed o ,t h a tw ec an r e cogn i se t h e i rd i f f e rence sa nd u nde r s tand t h a to u ro wn k now ledge a nd e xpe r ience sa r ec u l tu ra l ly r e la t ive . T hu st h ec o l lec t ive r e su l t so ft h i sv o l ume d og ob eyond d e scr ib ing a nd e xp la in ing t h et r an s i t ion f r om B ronze A ge t oI r on A ge i nE u rope ; i n a smuch a st h i s i s ad eep ly embedded a nd c l a s s ic p rob lem i na r chaeo logy t h i sv o lume a l so r ef lec t su pon i d ea so ft h ep a s t h e ld b ya r chaeo log i s t s . T he r e levance a nd c on t r ibu t ion o ft h i sv o lume t h e refo re r e la te st o many a spec t s o ft h ep rac t ice o fa r c haeo logy a nd a r chaeo log i s t s . T he a ppa ren tc omp lex i ty o ff a c to r si n vo lved i nt h is t r an s i t iona lp ha se i sf u r the rc om p l ica ted b yt h e d eve lopmen to ft h ed i sc ip l ine i t se lf a nd b y t h er ange o fd i f f e ren tt ype s o f' e v idence 'i nd i f f e r en tr e g ion s . I ti st h e r efo re i mpo s s ib le t oe s tab l ish a nd e va lua te a n a pp rop r ia te l o ca lp i c tu r eo ft h et r an s i t ion w i thou tr e f e rence t oa nd c ompa r i sons w i th t h e s equence i no t he ra r ea s . T he i n i t ia ld i scus s ion a tt h es em ina ri nD u rham w h ich s t a r ted t h ei d ea o ft h i sv o lume w a s f o cu s sed e n t i re ly u pon t h et r an s i t ion i nn o r th We s ter nE u r ope ,a nd i tc l ea r ly d emon s tra ted t h en eed t oi n co rpo ra te l a rge ra r ea so fE u rope . I ti sn o t e a sy h oweve rt of i nd a n a pp ropr ia te s ca le o ru n i tf o rs t ud ie so fs oc ia l a c t ion a nd i n te r a c t ion , a nd E u rope i sb yn o m ean s an a tu ra le n t i ty ( Row land s 1 984 ) . T he re a r e , h ow e ve r ,p rac t ica lr e a son sf o rc hoo s ing E u rope a sa na pp rop r ia te e n t i ty o fs t udy f o rt h i sv o l ume . ' Eu rope ' h a s b een at r ad i t iona l f o cu s o fo u rd i sc ip l ine a nd , b y s hap ing o u rd a ta ,

3

I n t roduc t ion

' Eu rope 'h a sb ecome a ne n t i ty - n o tn ece s sa r i ly o ne w h ich w a sr e levan ti nt h ep a s t ,b u t c e r ta in ly o ne w h ich i sr ef l ec ted i no u rk now ledge a bou tt h ep a s t . W i th r ega rd t ot h ep a r t icu la rc oncer n so ft h is v o lume t h e re m ay a l so b ev a l id h i s to r i c a lr ea son sf o ru s ing E u rope a st h es pa t ia lf r amewo rk ,i nt h a ti ti sp o s s ib le t oa r gue t h a t E u rope d u r ing t h ef i r s tm i l lenn ium B .C . w a sc ompo sed o f ag roup o fr e la ted c en t re so f c u l tu ra le vo lu t ion a nd d om inance w i th a s so c ia ted p e r iphe ra l a r ea s . F ur the rmo re t h e se r eg ion s s e em ,o nt h eb a s i so fp r e sen ta r chaeo log ica lk now ledge ,t oh ave as ha red c u l tu r a lb ackg round e i the ri nt h e Ur n f ie ld c omp lex o ri nt h e ' f r inge c u l tu re s 'a l ong i t sm a r g i n s ( Champ ion e ta l 1 984 : 2 70 ; C o le s a nd H a rd ing 1 979 : 3 35f f ; K o s sack 1 954 ; v on B runn 1 968 ) . Mo reove rE u rope ,i ns p i te o fi t si n t er na ld i f f e rence s ,d ive rged a s aw ho le d u r ing t h es e cond m ilenn ium B .C .f r om t h es oc io -po l i t ica ld eve lopmen t si nt h ee a s ter n Med i te r ranean a nd t h eN ea rE a s t , a nd t h i sa ga in m ean st h a ti tmay b et r ea ted a s av al id u n i tf o rs t udy . T he b o rde r l ine s b e tween t h ev a r ious c u l tu ra lc omp lexe sa r e ,o fc ou r se , n o ta b so lu te a nd may v e ry w e l lv a ry c on s ide rab ly ,o re ven b r eak d own c omp le te ly , a c c o rd ing t ot h ec r i te r ia u sed t od ef ine t h em .T h i sv o lume w i l l ,n one the le s s ,a ccep tE u rope a si t s s pa t ia lf r amewo rk , a nd w i l l a im t od i scu ss t h e s e r ie so fc hange sa nd c on t inu i t ie s w h ich t oge the rd ef ine t h e v a r iou s s equence s o fd eve lopmen t t h a tc on s t i tu te t h et r an s i t i on f r om B ronze A ge t oI r on A ge i nt h i sa r ea . T he s pec if ic a im o ft h i sv o lume i st or ev iew r e cen tt h eo re t ica la pp roache st ot h et r an s i t ion t h rough p re sen ta t ion o f d i f f e r en tt h eo re t ica la pp roache st ot h ee xp lana t ion o fi t , d raw ing o nd i f f e ren ty e tc ohe ren tb od ie so fa r chaeo log ia lm a te r ia l . T he m a in empha s i s i so n t h ep ro ce s se so fs o c ia lt r an s fo rma t ion i n vo lved i nt h eB ronze A ge I ron A ge t r an s i t ion . T h i s m ean s t h a tt h ep rob lem o ft h et r an s i t ion i ss e en p r ima r i ly i nt e rm s o ft h e e nd o ft h eB ronze A ge ,r a the rt h an t h eb eg inn ing o ft h eI r on A ge . A l though b road ly t h e s ame s e t o f ma te r ia le v idence i sr e levan tt ob o th t h e se p rob lem s , t h ep rec ise n a tu re o f t h eq ues t ion sb e ing a sked a nd t h e a pp rop r ia te f r amewo rk sf o ra n swe r ing t h em d epend o nw he the ro ne i sc on s ider ing t h eo r ig in sa nd r i se o fI r on A ge s oc ie t ie s ,o rt h et r an sfo r ma t ion sa nd e nd o ft h eB ronze A ge s oc ia ls y s tem s .

P re sen ta t ion o ft he v o lume T he i nd iv idua lp ape r si nt h ev o lume d ea l ma in ly w i th p ar t icu la rb od ie so fa r chaeo log i c a l ma te r ia lf r om d i f f e ren tr eg ion sw i th in E u rope ,b u t ac ommon g round f o ra l lt h ep ape r s i s ac once rn w i th t h en a tu re o ft h i st r an s i t ion . T he d i scu s s ion s a r e a l l a imed a tu nde r s t and ing a nd e xp la in ing c hange r a the rt h an as imp le d e scr ip t ion o ft h er e levan ta r chae o log ica le v idence . D e scr ip t ive a ccoun t so ft h ea r chaeo logy p er s ea r et h e re fo re n o tp ro v ided . C olec t ive ly t h e p ape r s d emons t ra te t h e r ange o fe v idence i nvo lved a nd t h ey s ugge s t as i gn if i can t d eg ree o f d i f f e rence b e tween t h e v a r ious g eog raph ica l r eg ion s . T hey a l so p rov ide a n i n s igh ti n to c u r ren tw o rk a nd t y p i fy t h er ange o fa pp roache s a nd e xp lana t ion su sed t oday w i th in t h i sa r ea o fa r chaeo log ica lr e sea rch . T he empha s i si so n t h ea r ea sp e r iphe ra lt oC en tra lE u rope d u r ing b o th t h el a te B ronze A ge la nd t h ee a r ly I r on A ge . T h i se mpha s i s make st h ei n c lus ion o fs e lec ted p ape r sd ea l 4

i ng w i th t h e Med i te r ranean w o r ld r e levan t ,a st h ey p l ace E u ropean d eve lopmen t si nt h e i r w ide rc on tex t . T he l o caly s pec if i ca spec t so ft h et r an s i t ion i nt h e Med i te r ranean a r en o t , h oweve r , p re sen ted , a nd w i th r ega rd t ot h e se i s sue sr e ade r s a r er e f e r red t o r e cen td e b a tes s pec i f icaly c once rned w i th t h i sa r ea s uch a s Ma lone a nd S todda r t( 1985 )o nI t a ly , P le ine r( 1968 ) a nd S nodg ra s s ( 1 980 ) o nG reece ,w h i le g ene ra ld i scus s ion so ft h ec on d i t ion s i nt h e Med i te r ranean w o r ld c an b e f ound i n , f o r e xamp le , B oa rdman ( 1980 ) , C hapman ( 1985 ) ,N iemeye r( 1 982 ) ,D .R idgway ( 1981 ) ,S anda r s( 1 978 ) ,a nd Wa ldbaum ( 1978 ) . T he c ho ice s made w i th r e spec tt ot h e mo re d e ta i led g eog raph ica lc ove rage w e re d i c t a ted b o th b yt h es ub jec t ma t te ra nd b yt h en a tu re o fc u r ren tt h eo re t ica ld eba te s . T he l a t t e re xagge ra ted t h e i n tended f o cu s u pon ' n ew ' a r ea s , s i nce t h e t r ad i t iona l a r ea s o fl a te B ronze A ge r e sea rch h ave n o tb een t h eb a s i sf o rc r i t ica lr e -a sse s smen ta nd d eve lopmen t o fn ew s t rand so fa r gumen tt ot h es ame e x ten ta st h e se ' n ew 'a r ea s . I nt ho se a r ea sw i th as t rong t r ad i t ion o fc oncer nw i th t h et r ans i t ion ,s uch a sC en t ra lE u rope ,t h e' e s tab l i shed k now ledge 'a ppea r st oh ave b o th ac on s t ruc t ive a nd ac on st ra in ing e f f ec to nt h er e sea r ch p re sen t ly c a r r ied o u t . I ts e em sf a i rt os ay t h a tt h ec l a s s ic w o rk i nt h e se a r ea s s t i l lo ve r s hadow sa nd d e te rm ine sc u r ren tw o rk b yp rov id ing n o to n ly t h ef r amewo rk f o rr e sea r ch b u ta l so a ccep ted ' k now ledge 'a bou tt h ep a s t . T h i si sn o tt od eny t h ei mpo r tance o ft h e se s t ud ie s ,b u tt h ev i ew se xp re s sed i nt h em a r ea l r eady w el p ub l i shed a nd i n teg ra ted i n to o u rt h ink ing a bou tt h i sp e r iod ( e .g . P au l i 1 980 ; P le ine r 1 980 ; v on Me rha r t 1 970 ; We l ls 1 980 ; D rack 1 971 ) . F u r the rp rog re s s w i th r ega rd t ot h et r an s i t ion p ha se w i l ln a tu ra l ly t a ke ad i f f e ren tc ou r se a nd f o l low i t s o wn p ace i nt h e se a r ea s , a nd i sl i ke ly t od epend s ub s tan t ia l ly o nt h ep ub l ica t ion o ft h er e cen ta nd c u r ren te xcava t ion so ft h eA lp ine l a ke s i te s . T h i s i si nc on t ra s t t ot ho se r eg ion sw he re t h ep rob lem so ft h e l a te rB ronze A ge t oa l a rge e x ten th ave o n ly b een f o cus sed o nr e cen t ly ,a nd w he r en ew e v idence a nd n ew i d ea s a r er ap id ly a ccumu la t ing . T h i s mean tt h a to u rs e a r ch f o r ' n ew 'a nd d i f f e ren ti d ea sh a s f o cus sed u pon p e r iphe ra lo r ma rg ina la r ea sw i th r e spec tt ot h eg eog raphy o fE u rope a nd t ot r ad i t iona lE u ropean l a te B ronze A ge r e sea r ch ,a nd t h a tt h ec ove rage o ft h ev o lume i s t h e refo re b i a sed t owa rd sp e r iphe ra la r ea sb o th i ng eog raph ica la nd i nt r ad i t iona la r chae o log ica lt e rm s . S ome g aps i nt h e g eog raph ica la nd t h ema t ic c ove rage h ave , h oweve r , b een u n in ten t iona la nd a r ed ue t ot h ep rac t ica lp rob lem so fu n i t ing t h ew o rk o fs o many d i f f e ren ts cho la r su nde ro ne c ove r . We r eg re ti np a r t icu la rt h a ti th a sn o tb een p o s s ib le t oi n c lude ap ape rb yB ronge r sa nd Wo l te r ing o nt h es equence i nH o l land ,o r ap ape rb y S tummann H ansen o nt h er i se o fp r iva te p rope r ty i nD enma rk . We a l so r eg re tt h a tt h e v o lume d oe sn o ti n c lude ap ape ro nt h ee a s te rn b o rde ro fE u rope a nd t h eU kra ine . I n i t ia l ly w eh ad h oped t h a t an umbe ro fg ene ra li s sue sw ou ld p rov ide u n ify ing t h eme s f o rt h ev o lume , a nd w e h ad i n tended t oo rgan i se i ta cco rd ing t os uch o ve ra l l t o p ics a s t e chno log ica li n nova t ion ,s oc ia lo rgan i sa t ion ,a nd e x ter na l in ter na ls t ruc tu ra t ion . H ow e ve rt h rough t h ee d i to r ia lw o rk i tb ecame i n c rea s ing ly o bv iou st h a tt h es im i la r i t ie sa nd d i f f e rence s b e tween t h e i nd iv idua lp ape r sw e re t oo c omp lex t os uppor t s uch t h ema t ic d i v i s ions . A l though a l lo ft h ep ape r st ouch u pon a tl e a s to ne o ft h e se t h eme s ,t h ey c ou ld n o tb ec ohe ren t ly d iv ided i n to s e c t ions o nt h eb a s i so fs uch c r i te r ia . T he t h eme s ,w h ich

5

I n t roduc t ion

r ef lec tb a s ic a r chaeo log ica lp ropo s i t ion sc once rn ing c au sa lf a c to r s , w e r ec l ea r ly n o to f s u f f ic ien ti mpo r tance i nt h e i nd iv idua lp ape r s t oo ve r r ide d i f f e r ence s d ue t oo t he rf a c t o r s . At h ema t ic d iv i s ion o ft h ev o lume w ou ld h ave c r ea ted a na r t if ic ia ls en se o fc ohe s i on b e tween t h ep ape r sw h ich w ou ld n o th e lp t o c l a r ify t h ep rob lem sc ons ide red . We t h e r efo re d ec ided t oo rgan ise t h ev o lume c h rono log icaly w i th r e spec tt ot h ea ccep ted d a te o ft h et r ans i t ion . T h i s d i v i s ion d oe s , a sm ay b ee xpec ted , c o r r e spond t o as pa t ia l d iv i s ion o fE u rope . T hu s ,w es t a r tw i th t h es equence i nS ou the rn E u rope ,i nG reece ,a nd w i th t h e p rob lem s o ft h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e e a s te rn Med i te r ranean a nd e a s te rn C en t ra l E u ropean s oc ie t ie s , a nd t h en move t os ou thea s ter n E u rope , R oman ia a nd t h e C a rpa tho -Ba lkan r eg ion . T he n ex ts t age l e ad su so n to s eve ra lp a th s ,o ne i n to I t a ly a nd t owa rd s t h e w e s te rn Med i te r ranean a r ea , a no the ru p i n to C en t ra l E u rope i t se lf , a nd a t h i rd i n to We s te rn E u rope . I nt h ef i na l s t age w er e ach t h eB r i t i sh I s le sa nd t h el ow land o fN or the rn E u rope a nd f i naly a l so S cand inav ia . T he e a r l ie s to ccu r r ence so fi r on i nE u rope a r ec ha rac te r i sed a nd d i scus sed i nt h ep ape r s b yS nodg ra s s( G reece ) ,S to ia ( Roman ia ) ,T ay lo r( Ca rpa tho -Ba lkan r eg ion ) ,a nd t os ome e x ten tB ouzek ( Cen t ra lE u rope ) . T he se p ape r sp rov ide a no verv iew o ft h e mo s tr e cen t e v idence f o re a r ly i r on a nd g i ve a n e x tens ive d i scu s s ion o ft h e c u l tu ra l c on tex t s a nd p o ten t ia l mechan ism so fi n nova t ion a nd a dop t ion o fb o th o b jec t sp er s ea nd t e chno log i c a l k now ledge . T h rough t h e se p ape r si ti sf i rm ly e s tabl i shed t h a ti r on o ccu r red i nt h e e a s te rn Med i te r ranean a nd i nt h ew e s ter nD anube -Ca rpa th ian a r ea a se a r ly a st h e 1 2 th c en tu ry B .C . ( Ha A ) . T he p a t te rn ,c onv inc ing ly a r gued i n1 980 b yP l e ine r ,o fa ni n i t ia l s pa r se o ccu r rence o fs i ng le i r on t oo l sa nd s male ro b jec t s a nd ar e la t ive ly r ap id e xpan s i on i n to b o th aw ide r g eog raph ica l a r ea a nd al a rge rr ange o ft y pe s c l ea r ly e me rge s f r om a l lt h e se p ape r s . T he p ha sed o rs t ep -w i se i n t roduc t ion a nd a dop t ion o fi r on d oe s ,h oweve r , b r ing i n to q ue s t ion w ha td ef ine st h eb eg inn ing o ft h eI r on A ge , a nd t h i si s sue i st a ken u pb yb o th B ouzek a nd S nodg ra s s . S nodg ra s s , i np a r t icu la r ,p rov ide s a ni mpo r tan tc r i t ique o ft h e c u r ren ti mp rec i se u se o ft h et e rm ,w h ich c er ta in ly h a sn o th e lped t oc l a r ify t h en a tu re o f t h et r an s i t ion . H e s ugge s t st h a t ' hon A ge 's hou ld b eu sed t oi nd ica te a ne conomy s ub s t an t ialy b a sed u pon i r on -wo rk ing ,s i nce t h ee conom ic c on sequence so ft h ea dop t ion o f i r on o n ly a ppea ra tt h a tp o in t . B ouzek g i ve s as im i la rd ef in i t ion ,s ugge s t ing t h a tt h ec om mon u se o fs ma l li r on i mp lemen t ss hou ld b eu sed a s an ew d ef in ing c ha rac te r i s t ic o ft h e h on Age ,w h ich g ene ra l ly w ou ld p l ace t h is A ge i nE u rope f r om 1 000 B .C .o nwa rd s . B ouzek a l so g i ve s a n o ve rv iew o fv a r iou s f a c to r s w h ich may h ave b een c ommon ly i nvo lved i nt h ea dop t ion o fi r on . H ea sk sh ow a ny g i ven s oc ia ls y s tem m ay h ave p ro mo ted o rr e ta rded t h ep ro ce s so fi n nova t ion , a nd t h i si nf a c ti so ne o ft h eu nde r ly ing i s s ue st h roughou tt h ev o lume . T h i sf o cus se sa t ten t ion o nf a c to r sw h ich c ou ld h ave c aused c hange s i nt h e s oc ia l c on tex t , a nd B ouzek b r ief ly r e f e r s t oc o l lapse o ft h e l a te B ronze Age p o l i t ica ls t ruc tu re ,e conom ic c hange ,c l ima t ic c hange a nd p opu la t ion c hange so ri n c u r s ions , t hu s i n t roduc ing t h er a nge o ff a c to r s t r ad i t iona l ly u sed t oe xp la in t h e t r an s i t i on . T he se f a c to r s a r e i n vo lved t ov a ry ing e x ten t s i nt h e c hange sd ur ing t h i sp e r iod , b u tt h e i rr e la t ive i mpo r tance ,t h e i ri n te rac t ion w i th e ach o the r ,a nd t h e i rr e f lec t ion i n ma t e r ia lc u l tu re r ema in t ob ec ons ide red . S nodg ra s sp rov ide ss ome o ft h ei n s igh ta nd q ue s 6

l i on sn eeded c oncer n ing t h e se i s sue s . B o th S nodg ra s sa nd B ouzek r e la te t h ep ropo sed c ausua lf a c to r st o an ece s sa ry q ue s t ion ing o ft h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h ef a c to r s ,a nd t o t h e a c tua l c ha rac te r i s t ics o ft h e s oc ia l g roups i n vo lved . B ouzek c onc lude s t h a t " t he wo r ld b ecame l e s s s e cu re " , a nd t h us h i n t s a tt h ek ind o fd e sc r ip t ion s w h ich w e u se t o c ap tu re t h en a tu re o ft h ec hange sd ur ing t h i sp e r iod . I nf a c t ,h es ugge s t st h a ta ne s sen t i a ld i f f e rence e x i s ted b e tween t h eB ronze A ge a nd t h eI r on A ge w i th r ega rd t ot h ep o s i t ion o fa nd a va i lab le m ean so f a c t ion f o rt h ei nd iv idua l . As im i la rd i s t inc t ion i se choed b y S O r en sen , w ho t a lk s a bou t ac hange i nt h ep e r sona l i ty o ft h e c u l tu ra l s y s tem o ft h e t wo A ge s , a nd i ti sa l so f ound i nv a r iou s d i s t inc t ion s w h ich a r e d rawn b e tween t h e B ronze Age a nd t h eI r on A ge t h roughou tt h ev o lume . T he d i s t inc t ion w h ich i sa t temp ted may r e ca l lt h et y pe o fd iv i s ion b e tween ' h o ta nd c o ld 's oc ie t ie sp ropo sed b yL ev i -S t rau s s ( 1979 ) , a nd s ugge s t s a' c hanged w o r ld 'n o to n ly i nt e rm so f ma te r ia lc u l tu re b u ta l so i n t e rm so fp eop le ' sd a i ly l i f e . Mo re d e ta i led e xp lana t ion s o ft h et r an s i t ion i ns ou thea s ter nE u rope a r ep rov ided b y S to ia a nd b yT ay lo r ,w ho se p ape r sg i ve a ne x tens ive a ccoun to ft h ec u l tu ra lp ha s ing a nd c on tex t s o ft h is p e r iod i nR oman ia a nd i nt h e C a rpa tho -Ba lkan r eg ion . S to ia d emon s t ra te s t h a tc e r ta in a spec t so ft h eE u ropean s equence o fi r on p roduc t ion a nd e x t rac t ion h ave t h e i rr oo t si nt h i sa r ea . S he a r gue st h a tt h ev e ry e a r ly d a te so fc e r ta in i r on o b jec t s , s uch a sÄ rmchenbe i le ,m ean st h a ts ome t ype sp robab ly o r ig ina ted i nt h ew e s te rn p a r to f R oman ia a nd s p read f r om t h e re b o th t ot h ee a s t( t he D n iep rB a s in )a nd t ot h e w e s t( t he H a l l s ta t t C u l tu re ) . S he f u r the r s ugge s t s t h a tt h ee a r ly d eve lopmen to fi r on w o rk ing i n t h i sa r ea t o al a rge e x ten te xp la in st h e s t reng th o ft h i sc r a f ta nd t h er ap id s p read o fi r on w h ich t ook p l ace d u r ing t h e n ex tp e r iod ( Ha B ) . T he s p r ead o fi r on s how s t h e re w a s r ap id a s s im i la t ion a nd i tm ay b ec o r re la ted w i th t h e s p read o fg rooved c e ram ics . S he s ugge s t st h a tt h el o ca ls equence i sd e te rm ined b yt h eg eog raph ica la nd g eo log ica lc on d i t ion si nw e s ter nR oman ia ,b yt h ep ro spe r i ty o ft h el o ca lc ommun i t ie s , a nd b yt h ee a r l i e rd eve lopmen to f ac en t re o fb ronze p roduc t ion . T ay lo rd i scu s se st h es pec if ic c ha rac te r i s t ics o ft h ea r ea w h ich may h ave b een d ec i s ive f o ri t se a r ly e xp lo i ta t ion o fi r on . H er e la te si na ni nnova t ive manne rt h ee x t rac t ion a nd p ro spec t ing o fn a tu ra lr e sou r ce s( s uch a ss a l ta nd i r on )t o ac hange i ne conom ic s ub s i s t e nce a c t iv i t ie s ,w h ich w ou ld h ave t r an sfo rmed n a tu re -c u l tu re i n te rac t ion ,t hus a f f ec t i ng t h ee nv i ronmen tb o th t h rough d efo re s ta t ion a nd t h rough i n c rea sed k now ledge a bou t p rev iou s ly u nu sed e co log ica lz one sa nd r e sou rce s . Ac hange o rr eve r s ion t ot r an shum a nce i nc e r ta in z one s i ss e en b y b o th S nodg ra s sa nd T ay lo ra sp o ten t ia l ly i mpo r tan tt o p ro spec t ing f o ra nd e xp lo i ta t ion o fi r on , a nd as im i la r s ugge s t ion i sp rov ided f o rw e s t C en t ra lE u rope b yH ä rke . Mov ing w e s twa rd s , t h e I t a l ian s i tua t ion i sd i scu s sed i nH a r tmann 's p ape ra bou t t h e t e chno log ica la nd s oc io techno log ica la spec t so fe a r ly i r on p roduc t ion . T he p rob lem o f t h et r an s i t ion f r om B ronze A ge t oI r on A ge i nI t a ly i se mbedded i nt h ed i scus s ion o ft h e E t ru scan sa nd o ft h eV i l lanov ian p e r iod . T he c u l tu ra lh i s to ry o fI t a ly d u r ing t h is p e r iod i sr e la t ive ly w e l lk nown b u ti th a s g ene ra l ly b een c ons ide red s epa ra te f r om t h er e s t o f E u rope i nt h e i s tm i l lenn ium B .C . T he c ompa t ib i l i ty b e tween I t a ly a nd t h er e s to fE u r ope w i th r ega rd t ob o th p rob lem si nu nde r s tand ing t h i ss equence a nd e v idence o fI r a -

7

I n t roduc t ion

j e c to r ie sa nd c ause so fc hange i st h e refo re v e ry i n te re s t ing . H a r tmann e mpha s i se st h a t t h e u sage o fe a r ly i r on p re sen t s ac l ea rp a ra l le lt ob ronze , a nd t h i s c o r re spond s t ot h e p a t ter ns e en i no the ra r ea s . H ea l so p o in t so u tt h a tt h e se e a r ly i r on o b jec t sa r el i ke ly t o b e l o ca lp roduc t s ,a nd t h a tt h ei n ter na ls oc io -c u l tu ra la nd t e chno log ica lc ha rac te r i s t ics o ft h ea r ea w e re p robab ly t h e mo s ti mpo r tan tf a c to r sb eh ind t h el o ca ls equence o fi n no v a t ion a nd a dop t ion o fi r on . I np a r t icu la rh es t re s se sp re -e x i s t ing b ronze m e ta l lu rgy a nd h ow t h i sp rov ided ar e cep t ive c on tex tf o re xpe r imen ta t ion a nd a dap ta t ion o f an ew r aw ma te r ia l . T he c ha rac te r i s t ics o ft h ee a r l ie s ti r on d o ,h oweve r ,m ean t h a tt h eq ue s t ion o fw hy i r on c ame t os upe r sede b ronze r ema in su nan swe red ,a nd H ar tmann f e e l s t h a tt h e re i sn o' r a t i ona l 'e xp lana t ion . H es ugge s t st h a tt h ei n c rea se i nt h eu se o fi r on r e la te st ot h ei n i t ia l my s t ique a nd t h u st h ep rec ious n a tu re o ft h en ew m a te r ia l ,a so ppo sed t oi r on h av ing s u p e r io rt e chn ica lq ua l i t ie sa sp ropo sed b yS nodg ra s s . H a r tmann s t re s se st h a tt h eI r on A ge i nt h et r ue s en se o ft h e wo rd s t a r t si nI t a ly w hen e conom ic a nd t e chno log ica lc hange s a f f ec ted t h es ca le a nd o rgan i sa t ion o fp roduc t ion . I nt h i s manne r H a r tmann ,l i ke B ou z ek a nd S nodg ra s s , p ropo se s ac hange i nt h e c u r r en t t e rm ino logy . F rom t h e v a r iou s p ape r si nt h is v o lume i tb ecome sc l ea r ,h oweve r ,t h a tt h ee x ten tt ow h ich o ne h a st o em p ha s ise t h ep re s t ig iou sa so ppo sed t ot h et e chn ica lq ua l i t ie so fi r on d epend so nw hen w e c ons ide ri r on t oh ave s upe r seded b ronze . B ronze d oe si nf a c tr ema in i su se f o rt h ep ro d uc t ion o f or namen t sa nd p re s t ig ious o b jec t si nl a te rp e r iod st h roughou tE u rope ,a nd ,a s S nodg ra ss m en t ion s , I r on A ge s oc ie t ie su sed b ronze e x tens ive ly . I nt h i sr ega rd i ti si n t e re s t ing t on o te L ev insen ' ss t a temen ta bou ti r on i nD enma rk r e p lac ing s t one r a the rt h an b ronze a st h em a te r ia lf o rf unc t iona lt oo l s . T he t r ad i t iona ln o t ion o fi r on r ep lac ing b ronze a st h e ma te r ia lu sed f o rt oo l sa nd w eapon sm ay t h e re fo re b eq ue s t ioned t os ome e x ten t , a nd t h ee xp lana t ion o fw hy a nd h ow i r on c ame t os upe r sede b ronze may n o th ave b een f ound y e tw i th r ega rd t ot h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween b ronze a nd i r on t h ep re sence o fd i f f e r e n tl o ca lp roce s se ss hou ld o fc ou r se a l so b er e cogn i sed . I be r ian B ronze A ge r e sea rch h a sb een i n f luenced b y r e sea r ch i nt h er e s to ft h e Me d i te r ranean . T h i s h a s l e di t si n te rp re ta t ion s t o f o cu s o n t h e mo re s pec tacu la ra nd h i s t o r ica l ly w e l l -known a spec t so fi t sp a s t . T he eme rgence o fr i ch c en t re si nt h el a te B ronze Age h a s a cco rd ing ly b een i n te rp re ted a s ar e su l t o f Med i te r ranean c o lon i sa t ion . T he p ape r sb yR ov i ra iP o r ta nd S an tacana iMe s t re o nt h e Med i te ranean c oa s to fI be r ia ,b y P on s iB run o nC a ta lon ia ,a nd b yJ ud ice G a rn i to o nt h es ou thwe s to fI b e r ia i mmed ia te l ys t r ike o ne b yt h e i rd epa r tu re f r om t h i st r ad i t ion . A l lt h ree p ape r sa pp rec ia te a nd e m p ha s i se , a l though d i f f e ren t ly ,t h ei nd igenous l a te B ronze A ge c on t r ibu t ion t ot h ec u l tu r a lh i s to ry o ft h er eg ion sb e ing s t ud ied . R ov i ra iP o r t a nd S an tacna aiMe s t re i nt h e i rp ape r s t a te t h e i r a im : t oi n te rp re t t h e s uppo sed a r chaeo log ica l ' r ea l i t ie s 'b yp l ac ing t h em i n ac on tex tua la nd s y s tem ic f r ame wo rk . T hey o u t l ine t h eh e te rogeneou sc u l tu ra l g roups i nI be r ia , a nd t h ey p re sen tt h em a st h e s ub s t ra tum o nw h ich t h eI be r ian c u l tu re w a sf o rmed i nt h e6 t hc en tu ry B .C . a f te r ap e r iod o ft u rmo i l . C o lon i sa t ion i ss e en a s ac a ta ly s ta cce le ra t ing t h e se c hange s ,b u ti t i sc l ea r ly s hown t h a ti ti sn o tt h e i rc au se . I nt h e i ra t temp t sa tt r ac ing t h eo r ig in o ft h es o c i a l o rgan isa t ion w h ich c ha rac te r i se s l a te B ronze A ge s oc ie t ie s i nI be r ia , t h e a lmo s t 8

proto-urban character of the societies is pointed out, and at same time the domestic mode of production of these groups is emphasised. The evidence for social stratification points to chiefdoms, but at a level of stratification where there were no radical differences be­ tween chief and populace, and we may be seeing an advanced stage of coercive power. At the end of the Bronze Age in the 8th - 7th centuries B.C. a consolidation of these chiefdoms seems to have taken place, interrelated with a rise in surplus production, and growth in the number and variability of settlement sites; it is suggested that we see here the disintegration of the domestic mode of production. The area of L'Emporda is presented by Pons i Brun, who sees the period from 1100 to 600 B.C. as the transition from Bronze Age to Iron Age in this area. She suggests that the changes in this particular stage of local history are probably due to changes in the or­ ganisation of the means of communication, commerce, and production. She also points out that the presence of iron plays a very secondary role, and that the transition to the Iron Age was caused by internal economic and social changes. Since L'Emporda is an area with an apparently 'retarded' culture until well into the Bronze Age it provides us with an opportunity to trace a sequence of rapid and drastic changes in the organisation of both economic and social life. As an example, new burial evidence is used to trace the different stages in the transition as it is expressed through funerary practices. Such sequences force us to speculate about the interrelatedness of various activities -- a point which is brought out throughout the volume. The southwest of Iberia, which is discussed by Judice Gamito, provides a different geographical and historical setting from the Mediterranean coast and from Catalonia. Compared with other parts of Europe these three Iberian regions have traits in common, but they also show how apparently minor or irrelevant aspects of a region's setting in­ fluence its cultural situation. The southwest of Iberia is a wealthy region in the 1st mil­ lennium B.C. The period until 1100 is one of social and economic stability of small­ scale societies, and only during the period 1100 to 800 B.C. do we see more profound changes reflected in the material culture and in settlement organisation. The region had extensive contacts with diverse cultural areas, such as the Atlantic Bronze Age complex and the Mediterranean, and one of the most interesting aspects of this area is the devel­ opment of a distinct tradition of both material culture and ritual life -- a tradition which incorporates and adapts foreign elements but which also has its own unique aspects, such as the Obeloi, the engraved stelae and the Iberian script. The origin and meaning of many of these unique objects are not as yet known, and Judice Gamito's overview is an important update of this material. Above all, the late Bronze Age of southwest Iberia re­ minds us strongly of how important it is to appreciate that different societies do things in their own way. Central Europe and the traditional areas of late Bronze Age research, such as the Al­ pine region and South Germany, are considered in the papers by Harke and by Wells. The mechanisms, rate and degree of change are the focus of both authors, but the spe­ cific areas studied, the material considered and the interpretations proposed differ. Wells, basing his arguments particularly on the sequence of change in west Central Europe, de­ scribes a situation parallel to the Iberian one. Though the material culture from the area

9

Introduction

is specific and certain emphases particular to the region, Wells manages to draw out some general tendencies from this material. The focus in his paper is the changing relation­ ship between Central and Southern Europe and the effects this had on the local culture; he introduces the entrepreneur as the mediator of change, thus recalling earlier discus­ sions by Childe ( 1925). Wells emphasises, as do Rovira i Port and Santacana i Mestre, that the Early and Middle Bronze Age societies were small rural communities, without substantial surplus production (domestic mode of production), engaged in relatively little trade, with limited social differentiation and without developed commercial cen­ tres. The importance of the changes through the Late Bronze Age is that they led in the early Iron Age to substantially larger communities, based on commerce and on surplus production, with important commercial centres, which represent the beginning of urban­ ism in temperate Europe. On the basis of these long-term changes Wells characterises the changes during the Late Bronze Age further, suggesting that they were primarily based on the following three factors and their interrelationships: increase in economic intensification, increase in amount and variability of bronze production, and intensifica­ tion of trade. These changes generated new wealth and new possibilities for entrepre­ neurial activities. Wells's suggestions, and in particular the emphasis on the innovative effect of enter­ prising individuals, raise many interesting questions when larger areas are compared. For example, why was the build-up towards commercial centres apparently disrupted in the north European lowland? Was this due to a lack of enterprising individuals? Or do the cultural contexts of both communal and.individual activities impose constraints on action? The difference in the views of the individual held by Wells and Barrett demon­ strates in part the scope of current debates with regard to fundamental opinions about society. Certainly, we can now see that the Late Bronze Age was a period of change throughout Europe, but alsO' that the results of these changes, as they emerge in the sec­ ond half of the first millennium B.C., are diverse, and this observation questions any simple assumptions of universality of action. Harke, on the other hand, studies the particular local sequences of change in west Cen­ tral Europe, and he tries to extract a local cultural history based on socio-economic changes. Harke's paper provides a thorough assessment of the degrees of continuity and discontinuity in the area. He draws inspiration from 'crisis' models, and argues, as Snod­ grass does, that the end of the Bronze Age can be seen as a collapse or a 'Dark Age'. Ha C is the focal point of the crisis, and it shows up as a major disruption and re-con­ figuration of settlement organisation. The details of this pattern are discussed, and through this it is possible to trace distinct phases of short- term changes from Ha B through to Ha D. The French evidence for this period is dealt with by Pautreau. The picture, which he provides, is one of many different local sequences. From this it becomes clear that the communities in question are subjected to various external influences during the 1 st mil­ lennium B.C. as well as building on quite dispersed and varied internal Bronze Age tradi­ tions. It is therefore not surprising that the French sequences can not be considered with­ in one explanatory model. Within France in this period we may in fact see characteris-

10

t i c s o fs eve ra l o ft h e d i f f e r en t c u l tu ra l t r ad i t ion s w h i ch e me rge i nt h e e a r ly I r on A ge . S ome a r ea s w e r ei n co rpo ra ted i n to o ra f f ec ted b yt h e Med i te r ranean e xpan s ion d u r ing t h i sp e r iod ,o t he r sh ad b een w i th in t h eA t lan t ic B ronze A ge p rov ince ,a nd y e to the r sh ad b een a tt h er e ce iv ing e nd o ft h e w e s te rn U rn f ie ld e xpan s ion . I ns p i te o ft h i s d i ve r s i ty P au t r eau d r aw s t o ge the r ac ohe r en ta ccoun to ft h e s equence s a nd i np a r t i cu la rc ha rac t er i se st h ec hange sw h ich o ccu ra nd t h ei n nova t ive e l em en t sw h ich a r ee i the r a dop ted o re m e rge f r om w i th in . Among s u ch i t em st h ea ppea rance o f as c r ip t ,a si nI b e r ia , mu s t b ee mpha s i sed . T he o ne g ene ra lc ha ra c te r i s t ic ,h oweve r ,i st h ed eg ree o fc hange i ns e t t l em en to rgan i sa t ion d u r ing t h e8 t hc en tu ry B .C . ,w h ich r e ca l l st h ec hange si nt h en e igh b ou r ing a r ea s s ou th a nd e a s to fF rance . P au t r eau s ugge s t s t h a tt h i s c hange , a tl e a s ti n F rance , mu s th ave ac ommon c au se . C l ima t ic c hange h a sb een o ne o ft h et r ad i t iona le xp lana t ion so ft h ec hange si ns e t t le m en t o rgan i sa t ion d u r ing t h i s p e r iod . I ti st h e re fo re i mpo r tan t t oa pp r ec ia te c u r r en t v i ew s ,w h ich a r gue t h a ts u ch e x ter na lf a c to r sd on o tp er s ee xp la in t h ed r a s t ic c hange s i ns o c ia lo rgan i sa t ion ,a nd t h a tw e mu s ta t temp tt oa s se s st h e i rs pec if i cl o ca lc on sequen c e s ,a sO s to ja -Zagö r s ld d o e s ,a nd h ow t h i sa f f ec t sc u l tu ra ll i f e . I ti st h e r e fo re mo re l i ke l yt h a te xp lana t ion so ft h ec hange si ns e t t lemen to rgan i sa t ion mu s tb ef ound w i th in t h e se c hange st h em se lve s . I ti si mpo r tan ti nt h i sc on tex tt oe mpha s i se t h en ew f e a tu r e sw h ich e me rge d u r ing t h el a te B ronze A ge ,s uch a sn ew t y pe so fd e f ended s i te s ,t e r r i to r ia l /m i l i t a ry u n i t s , mod i f i ca t ion o fr u ra ls o c ia ls t ruc tu r e st h rough ' u rban i sa t ion ' ,a nd p o s s ib ly a n a r i s to c ra cy b a sed o nn ew p owe rs t ruc tu re s . F u r the rw e s t , w ec ome t ot h eB r i t i sh a nd I r i sh s equence s ,w h ich a r ec on s ide red h e r e b yT homa s , C hamp ion , a nd B a r re t t . T he t h r ee p ape r s ,w h ich d ea lw i th v a r iou sa s pec t s o ft h ee v idence ,a r eq u i te d i f f e r en ti na pp roa ch . T homa s ' sw o rk i sf o cu sed o ns ou ther n B r i t i sh m e ta lwo rk ,a nd h ep rov ide s an ew a nd c r i t ica la s se s smen to ft h ee x ten tt ow h ich c on t inu i ty a nd c hange a r er ef l ec ted i nt h i sb ody o f ma te r ia la nd t ow h ich f u r the rs o c io e conom ic o r e ven i d eo log ica l c onc lu s ion s c an b e d r awn f r om t h e p a t te rn s o b se rved . W i th in av o lum ea sd i ve r se a st h i so ne i ti sa l so i mpo r tan tt oh ave ap ape rw h i ch s t r e s se s c ommona l i t ie s , a nd C hamp ion ' sp ape rd oe st h i sv e ry w e l l . H i sp ape ri sn o tc once rned w i th i n te rp r e ta t ion o fp a r t icu la rd a ta ,b u ta im sa t ac ohe r en ta nd e x ten s ive r ev iew o ft h i s p e r iod i nI r e land . C hamp ion i sa b le b o th t op l a ce I r e land i n aw ide rc on tex ta nd t oe x p r e s s an umbe ro fv a luab le o p in ion sc once rn ing t h ep rob lem a ss u ch . H e s t re s se s t h a t c on ta c ti sp a r to f ab roade rp a t ter no fs o c ia lr e la t ion s , a nd i nt h i sl i gh th i se mpha s i so n I r e land a sf uly i n teg ra t ed i n to t h e t r ad i t ion s a nd p ra c t ice s o ft h e l a te rB ronze A ge o f We s te rn E u rope a nd a tt h es ame t ime c ha ra c te r i sed b y ad i s t inc t ly l o ca lc u l tu re i sa ni m p o r tan ti n s igh ti n to t h ec omp lex i ty o fc u l tu r a ld eve lopmen t . T h i sc once rn w i th t h er e l a t ion sh ip b e tween t h el o ca l ly d i s t inc ta nd t h el a rge rc u l tu ra ls y s tem e me rge sa sa ni m p o r tan t t h eme t h roughou t E u rope ; i tm ay b e p a r t icu la r ly i mpo r tan t i ns t ud ie s o f g eo g r aph ica l ly ' p e r iphe ra l 'a r ea s ,s u ch a sS cand inav ia ,I b e r ia ,o rI r e land ,s i nce w en ow k now t h a tt h e se a r ea sp rov ided t h e i ro wn u n ique c on t r ibu t ion t ot h el a te rB ronze A ge c u l tu re s o fE u rope . B a r r e t t ' sp ape ri sv e ry d i f f e r en t , a nd i tc on ta in sb o th a na r gumen ta bou th ow t oc on s i de rt h ec hange sd u r ing t h i sp e r iod a nd a na r gum en ta ga in s tt h ec once rn w i th t h et r an -

1

I n t roduc t ion

s i t ion . U s ing c r i t ica ls oc ia lt h eo ry ( Ba r re t t1 987 / 88 ) ,h ep ropo se st h a to u rc once rn s hou ld n o tb ew i th a r t if ic ia l ly c r ea ted n o t ion so fA ge sa nd t h et r an s i t ion b e tween t h em ,b u tr a the r w i th u nde r s tand ing t h ea r chaeo logy o fd a i ly l i f e ,a nd t h e manne ri nw h ich s oc ia lg roup s r ep roduce t h em se lve s a nd t h e i rc u l tu ra l e nv i ronmen t . T h rough t h a tu nde r s tand ing w e w i l lb ea b le t ow r i te t h eh i s to ry o ft h ep e r iod . T he s equence so fc hange i nt h el ow land o fN o r the rn E u rope a r ec on s ide red i np ape r s b y Ho r s t ,B uck ,G r ie sa ,a nd O s to ja -Zagö r sk i . T he se p ape r sa r ea bou tt h en o r the rn t r ibe s a nd t h ep rob lem o ft h eL u sa t ian c u l tu r e a nd i t sr e p lacemen tb yv a r iou sc u l tu r a lg roup s d u r ing t h e s e cond h a lf o ft h ef i r s tm ilenn ium B .C . H o r s t ' sp ape rg i ve sa ni n s igh ti n to t h ec omp l ica ted a nd c hang ing r ou te si nt h e We se r -Ode ra r ea o fc on tac tb e tween C en t ra l E u rope a nd t h en o r th , a nd s ugge s t ions a bou tt h ee x ten tt ow h ich t h i s a f f ec ted t h el i ve s o fp eop le i nt h er eg ion si nb e tween . T he c hange si nw ea l th a nd t y pe so fm a te r ia lo b jec t s s e em t ob er e la ted t or e -o r ien ta t ion so ft r ade c onnec t ion s . I nt h i sc on tex ti ti sv e ry i n t e re s t ing t on o te t h a tt h ed i s t r ibu t ion ,a moun t ,a nd t y pe so fe a r ly i r on o b jec t si nt h ea r ea s e em c l ea r ly r e la ted t os uch c hange s ,a nd i r on mu s tt h e refo re h ave b een i mpor ted r a the r t h an l o ca l ly p roduced . T h i s may h in ta td i f f e ren tp roce sse sb eh ind t h ea dop t ion o fi r on a nd i r on t e chno logy i nN o r the rn E u rope a so ppo sed t oo the rp a r t so fE u rope . Af u r the rs t ep t owa rd s ac omp rehen s ive k now ledge o ft h en o r th E u ropean l ow land i s p rov ided b yG r ie sa 's p ape ro nt h eG ö r i tze rG roup o nt h em idd le O de ra nd l owe r Wa r ta , i nt h eb o rde r land b e tween E a s tG e rmany a nd P o land . T h i s ' c u l tu re g roup ' , w h ich w a s e x ten s ive ly p ub l ic i sed a tt h ee nd o ft h el a s tc en tu ry ,h a sb een i n c luded i nc u r r en tu nde r s t and ing o ft h i sa r ea l a rge ly d ue t oG r ie sa 's r e sea r ch . A l though w r i t ten i nG e rman t h e i n c lu s ion o fh i s p ape r i nt h i s v o lume w i l l make t h i s i mpo r tan t w o rk mo re w ide ly a c c e s s ib le . G r ie sa t r ace st h ed eve lopmen to ft h eG ö r i tze rG roup w i th r ega rd t oe v idence o fc on t inu i ty a nd d i scon t inu i ty w i th in t h e c on tex to fl o ca l d eve lopmen ti nf luenced b y s ome e x te rna li nf luence s . T he p ha se so ft h e Gö r i tze rG roup s how c l ea rd i f f e rence sb e t ween t h ee a r ly a nd t h el a te p ha se ,i np a r t icu la rw i th r ega rd t ot h ec e ram ic s . T he b reak i nt h es equence i sc on tempo ra ry w i th ac hange i ne x te rna lc on tac t s ,a nd t h ep a t te rns p ro d uced r a i se b o th t h ep rob lem o ft h er e la t ion sh ip b e tween e x te rna l a nd i n ter na l f a c to r s a nd t h ei mpo r tan tq ue s t ion o fh ow t oe va lua te a nd c ompa re c hange sr e f lec ted b yv a r i o us t ype so fm a te r ia l s a nd a c t iv i t ie s . G r ie sa s ugge s t s t h a tt h et r ans i t ion i sn o t ah i a tu s i nl o ca ld eve lopmen tb u t ap a r to f ac on t inuou sd eve lopmen ti n c lud ing b o th i n ter na la nd e x te rna lf a c to r s . T he r eal i sa t ion o ft h i sc omp lex i ty f o r ce su st oc onc lude t h a tw i th in t h i s a r ea t h en o t ion o f at r ans i t ion b ecome sd i f fu sed w h i le a tt h es ame t ime ac l ea rb reak i n c u l tu ra lt r ad i t ion i sf ound l a te ri nt h ee a r ly L aT e 'ne . B uck 's p ape rg i ve s ac ohe ren ta ccoun to ft h ep a t ter no fc hange sa nd c on t inu i t ie sw i th i na no the ra r ea o ft h ew e s tL usa t ian c omp lex . Ac l ea rp i c tu r eo fe xpan s ion a nd c on so l i d a t ion i se s tab l i shed f o rH aB ,w h ich t h en d u r ing t h ee nd o ft h eB ronze A ge a nd t h et r an s i t ion t ot h eI r on A ge ( Ha C -D ) i sr ep laced i ns ome a r ea sb yp opu la t ion d ec rea se , ar e d uc t ion i nn umbe ro fb ronze o b jec t sa nd ag ene ra ls e n se o fg rea te rp over ty ,w h i le o the r a r ea s s ee i n c rea sed p opu la t ion d en s i ty a nd c hange s i n s e t t lemen t p a t ter n s a nd s oc ia l s t ruc tu re s . G ene ra l ly ,h oweve r ,w ha tm ay b ec a l led t h et r ans i t ion p ha se h appened r ap id l y ,a nd an ew l e ve lo fs t ab i l i ty w a sr e ached . T he s e t t lemen te v idence i sr ema rkab ly r i ch 1 2

f r om t h i s a r ea a nd p rov ide s au n ique p o s s ib i l i ty o ft r a c ing s ho r t te rm c hange s i nb o th i n te r - a nd i n t ra s i te o rgan i sa t ion . B uck ' s i n te rp r e ta t ive a ccoun to ft h ep a t t e rn s o fc hange i se xp r e s sed w i th in t h e E a s t E u ropean t r ad i t ion o fl a nd scape a r chaeo logy a nd c once rn w i th t r ibe sa nd t h eo rgan i sa t i on o fp roduc t ion . H es ugge s t st h a tt h ed i f f e rence b e tween a r ea si nt h ec ou r se a nd p a ce o fd eve lopmen tm ay h ave c au sed d i f f e ren tt y pe so fs ub s i s tence o rgan i sa t ion t oh ave d e v e loped ,r e su l t ing i nc on fl i c tb e tween t h et r ibe s . T h i se mpha s i so nc onf l ic ta nd t h ep o ten t i a lo fw a r f a re r e ca l l sR ov i ra iP o r t ' sa nd S an ta cana iMe s t r e ' sd i scu s s ion o ft h ec hange s i n C a ta lon ia d u r ing t h e s ame p e r iod a nd B ouzek ' s c l a im a bou t i n c rea sed i n secu r i ty . A dded t ot h el o ca ld i f f e ren t ia t ion c ome sv a r iab i l i ty w i th r e ga rd t oa cce s st of o re ign t r ade a nd c on ta c t , w h ich a tt h i s t ime w ou ld h ave i n c luded t h e i n t roduc t ion o fi r on a nd i r on t e chno logy . T he i n t roduc t ion o fi r on w a sn o t , a si sa l so d emon s t ra ted i nt h eo t he rp a r t s o fE u rope , ac au sa lf a c to rb eh ind t h ec hange si np roduc t ion a nd s o c ia ls t ruc tu re s . I nf a c t , B uck s ugge s t st h a ti tw a sr a the r ar e su l to ft h e se c hange s . T h i sd i s t inc t ion b e tween i r on a st h er e a son f o ra nd a st h er e su l to f as e to fc hange si s g ene ra l ly r e levan tf o r No r the rn E u rope a nd p l ay sa ni mpo r tan tp a r ti nt h ed i scu s s ion so f H o r s t a nd L ev in sen . T he i mpo r tance o fe x ter na l c on ta c t s c an t h e re fo re b e s a id t ob e f ound p r ima r i ly i nt h e i ri n te rac t ion w i th t h e s upe r s t ruc tu r e ( a s d i scu s sed i nR ow land s 1 980 ) . I nt h i sr e spec tt h ew e s ter nL u sa t ian a r ea h a st r a i t si nc ommon w i th amuch l a rge r a r ea o fC en t ra lE u rope i nw h ich e xchange a nd c on tac ta r et h ough tt oh ave b een i n vo lved i nt h e ma in tenance o fs o c ia lh i e ra r ch ie s . B uck f u r the rs how s h ow t h ec hange s i ns ub s i s tence a c t iv i t ie s a nd i ns o c ia l s t ruc tu r e sd u r ing t h el a t eB ronze A ge c au sed t h ee x i s t i n g s oph i s t ica t ed a nd h i e ra r ch ica l s e t t lemen ts y s tem ,w h ich w a sa lmo s tp ro to -u rban ,t o b ea bandoned w i th i ni t sp l ace ar e tur n( d u r ing H aD ) t o ad ecen t ra l i sed f a rm ing c om mun i ty ,w he re t h ew ay o fl i f ei sd e sc r ibed b yB uck a s" ar e ta rded H a l l s ta t tt r ad i t ion " . T h i sp i c tu re o ft h ec o l lap se o f ah i e ra r ch ica ls e t t lemen ts y s tem a nd t h ee me rgence o f ad ecen t ra l i sed s o c ia ll a nd scape c an ,o fc ou r se ,b es e en mo re g ene ra l ly i nt h ef r agmen t a t ion o f E u rope d u r ing t h e e a r ly I r on A ge - af r agmen ta t ion w h ich h a s o f ten b een p r e sen ted s o le ly i nt e rm so f ad i v i s ion i n to aG e rman ic a nd aC e l t ic w o r ld . T h i s mo r e d e ta i led i n s igh ti n to t h ev a r iou s ' g roup s 'd eve lop ing i nN o r the rn E u rope d u r ing t h e i s t m ilenn ium B .C .i st h e re fo re i mpo r tan tf o rd eve lop ing af u l le rp i c tu re o ft h ec u l tu ra lr e c o nf igu ra t ion . T he s equence i nn o r ther nP o land i sd e sc r ibed b y O s to ja -Zagö r sk i , w ho , l i ke B uck , s e e st h et r an s i t ion a s ar e la t ive ly s ho r tb u tt u rbu len tp e r iod i nE u ropean p r eh i s to ry . T he L u sa t ian c u l tu re i nn o r the rn P o land s how sd u r ing H a Bc on s ide rab le i nf luence f r om t h e e a s tH a l l s ta t ta r ea ,w h ich c au sed r ap id d eve lopmen to fr eg iona lv a r ia t ion a nd h i gh ly d e v e loped f o rm so fd e f ended s e t t lemen t s , a nd w h ich b rough tt h ef i r s ti r on o b jec t st oP o l a nd . D u r ing H aC , w h ich c on s t i tu t e s t h e t r an s i t ion , ar ema rkab le e conom ic d eve lop m en ti so b se rved , w i th g row th i nt h e e conom ic b a se a nd ar i ch m a te r ia l a nd s ymbo l ic c u l tu re . T h i se conom ic p ro spe r i ty i sr e p la ced b y s ymp tom s o fe conom ic c r i s i s d u r ing t h ee a r ly I r on A ge ,a nd O s to ja -Zagö r sk ia r gue st h a tt h i s mu s th ave b een c au sed b yo ve r a l la n th ro -geog raph ica la nd s oc io -econom ic c hange s . C l ima t ic d e te r io ra t ion p l ayed a n

1 3

I n t roduc t ion

i mpor tan tr o le i nt h e se c hange s( a s s hown b yt h ei n unda t ion o fl a nd a nd s e t t lemen t s )a s d id h uman i n te r f e rence w i th t h ee nv i ronmen t . Wh i le p rov id ing ad e ta i led a ccoun to ft h e e v idence o ft h e se c hange si nn o r the rn P o land O s to ja -Zagö r sk is t r e sse st h a tt h e i ri mpo r t a nce i sr e la ted t ot h e e x ten t t ow h ich t h ey a f f ec ted o rgan isa t iona l s t ruc tu re s . T h is i s s hown i n as e r ie so fc hange si nt h es e t t lemen tp a t ter n ,w h ich a r eo f as im i la rk ind t ot ho se d emon s t ra ted b y B uck , a nd w h ich b a s ica l ly s how t h e a bandonmen to ft h ec en t ra l i sed d ef ended s e t t lemen t sa nd ar e tu rn t o ad i spe r sed s e t t lemen tp a t te rn . T he s oc ia li mp l ica t i on so fs uch c hange s a r eo bv iou s , a nd i ti si nt h i sl i gh tt h a tD ab row s ld 's a nd G ed iga ' s c oncer nw i th t h en on - ma te r ia l a spec t so ft h e se g roups s hou ld b e a pp r ec ia ted . O s to ja Z agö r sk if i na l ly s ugge s t st h a tt h ec r i s i si nL u sa t ian c u l tu re may b ed ue t oc ont r ad ic t ion s b e tween t h ed eve lopmen to ft h e s e t t lemen ts t ruc tu re a nd t h es t agna t ion o ft h er e la t ion s o fp roduc t ion . T h i st y pe o fe xp lana t ion may i nf a c ta l so b ea b le t oa ccoun tf o rt h ed i f f e ren ts pec i f ic t r a jec to r ie so fc hange o b se rved i nl ow land N o r ther nE u rope a nd i nS can d inav ia . F o re xamp le , t h e s e t t lemen tp a t ter ni nS cand inav ia r ema ined r e la t ive ly d i s p e r sed t h roughou tt h e B ronze A ge , s o as im i la rc ou r se o fe ven t sc ou ld n o th ave t a ken p l ace t h e r e ,a l though o the ra spec t so ft h el a te B ronze A ge s oc ie t ie s ,s uch a st h er i ch a nd d eve loped r i tua lp rac t ice s ,m ay s how s im i la r i t ie sb e tween t h et wo a r ea s . T he L u sa t ian ' c u l tu re 'i so fc ou r se o ne o ft h e ma in b u t mo re o b scu r e s ou r ce s o ft h e t r an sfo rmed w o r ld o ft h e s e cond h a lf o ft h ef i r s tm ilenn ium B .C . F u r the rd i scu s s ion s o ft h is c omp lex a r ep rov ided b y D ab row sk i a nd G ed iga . T he e x i s tence o f aL u sa t ian c u l tu re ,i t sp rec i se d ef in i t ion a nd i t s t r ans fo rma t ion a r eq ue s t ions o fc on t inu ing r e lev a nce t oa nu nde r s tand ing o ft h ep r eh i s to ry o fC en t ra la nd N o r the rn E u rope . T he s t udy o ft h i sc u l tu r ei sa l so i n t r ica te ly l i nked t os uch t h eo re t ica lc oncer n s a st h ee x ten tt ow h ich ac u l tu re c o r re spond sw i th ap eop le o re t hn ic g roup . T h i sa nd s im i la rc once rn sa r er e f l ec ted i nD ab row sk i ' sp ape r ,i nw h ich h ed i scu s se st h ep rob lem so fs t udy ing t h es oc ia l s t ruc tu re so f ap reh i s to r ic s o c ie ty w i th s pec ia lr e f e r ence t ot h eL u sa t ian c u l tu r e . H ea r g ue st h a tt h i si s sue h a sn o tb een t h o rough ly c on s ide red i nB ronze A ge r e sea r ch . I np a r t i cu la rh ep o in t s o u tt h a ti no rde rt or e cons tr uc t s oc ia ls t ruc tu re st h ew ho le c u l tu ra la s s emb lage f r om ag iven p e r iod i na n a r ea s hou ld b e s t ud ied s i nce s oc ia l s t ruc tu re s w il n o tb er evea led b yo n ly o ne t y pe o fe v idence . D ab row sk i emp loy s av ocabu la ry w h ich i sf o re ign t o many w e s ter n a r chaeo log is t s a nd h i s wo rk i s ar e f lec t ion o f as pec if i ct h eo re t ica lf r amewo rk . T he se d i f f e rence sa r e , h oweve r , ma in ly s uper f ic ia l ,a nd h i sa nd ,f o re xamp le ,B a r re t t 's a rgumen th ave c e r ta in c ommon c once rn s ,s uch a st h ea pp r ec ia t ion o ft h es t ruc tu ra t ion o fd ay to -day e x i s tence a nd t h es oc ia li n te rac t ion sw h ich r e p roduce s oc ia li n s t i tu t ion s . O ne o ft h e mo re o bv iou s p o in t s eme rg ing f r om t h e se a r gumen t si st h a t d i scu s s ion o fs o c ia ls t ruc tu re a nd a nu n d e r s tand ing o fs oc ia ll i f ec an n o tb eb a sed s o le ly o nt h e s t udy o f monumen ta lr ema in s , a nd t h a t a n a pp r ec ia t ion o f s oc ia l r e a l i ty mus t b e d eve loped . D ab row sk i e mpha s i se s h ow d i f f icu l ti ti st oa cqu i re t h i si n s igh t , a nd i nt h i sr ega rd h e e xp re s se s mo re c au t ion a nd ag r ea te rp e s s im i sm t h an B a r r e t ta nd t h an R ov i ra iP or ta nd S an tacana iMe s t re . H is s ugge s t ive r ema rk s a bou t t h e s oc ia l s t ruc tu r e s o ft h e L usa t ian c u l tu re a r e a tt h e s ame t ime ,h oweve r ,t h eo n ly s t a temen ti nw h ich t h e' f ace to -f ace 'g roup i sa c tua l ly p re sen ted , a nd i n wh ich c h i ld ren a nd f o re igne r s eme rge a sd i s t inc t ' s oc ia lp e r sonae ' . 1 4

T he s t udy o f s oc ia ls t ruc tu re so ft h eL u sa t ian c u l tu r ec omp lex n a tu ra l ly a l so i n c lude s s ome c on s ide ra t ion o fr e l ig ion ,b e l ief s , a nd c u l t . T he se i s sue sa r e c on s ide red b yG ed i g a . H i sp ape ri sd i f f e r en ti ni t st h eo re t ica lc oncer n sf r om much c u r ren tw e s tE u ropean ( i n p a r t icu la r B r i t i sh ) B ronze A ge r e sea rch a nd t h e refo re p rov ide s as t imu la t ing c ha l l e nge . T he d i scu ss ion o fr el ig ion a sa na c to fs oc ia lc on sc iou sne ss i ss t r ik ing i nv i ew o f t h er e jec t ion o ft h i sc oncep tf r om much c u r ren tt h eo re t ica ld eba te i nB r i ta in ,a nd h ow i t h a sg ene ra l ly b een r ep laced w i thou tq ue s t ion b yt h e much p a le rc oncep to fr i tua l . G ed i g a a r gue s t h e c a se f o r i n c lud ing r e l ig ion a s a n i mpo r tan t a spec t o f s oc ia l p rac t ice i n s t ud ie s o ft h e t r an s i t ion . T he L u sa t ian c u l tu re i st r ea ted a s ac a se s t udy , a nd G ed iga , wh i le r e -empha s i s ing t h ep rob lem so fi d en t ify ing a nd a na lys ing t h ep rac t ice o fr e l ig ion , s ugge s t st h a tc e r ta in t r ansfo rma t ions o fr e l ig ious p rac t ice sa nd b e l ief st ook p l ace a tt h e t r an s i t ion f r om t h e B ronze A ge t ot h e I r on A ge . T he p ape r , t hough me re ly t e n ta t ive , p o in t st owa rd sa ni mpor tan tf i e ld o fs oc ia lp rac t ice sa nd o fs oc ia lr ef l ex ivene s s ,w h ich may c on ta in many o ft h ee xp l ic i ts oc ia lc ommun ica t ion sr ega rd ing s t ab i l i ty a nd c hange . T he c once rn s e xp re s sed i nG ed iga 's p ape r make u s a sk w he the rw e c an a nswe rb a s ic q ue s t ion s , s uch a sw he the rt h et r an s i t ion r ep re sen t s a ni nnova t ive p ha se o r ac on se rva t i ve p henomenon , b efo re w e h ave c ome t ot e rm s w i th r e l ig iou s a nd i d eo log ica l a c t i v i t ie s ,t h e i rr o le si nt h ec u l tu ra lt r ansfo rma t ion d u r ing t h e i s tm i l lenn ium B .C . ,a nd t h e i r a b i l i t ie st oe xp r e s s ,c onve r t ,a nd man ipu la te s oc ia lc once rn s . T he s t ud ie s o ft h en o r th E u ropean l ow land p r e sen ta n e x t reme ly c omp lex b u ta l so a v e ry r i ch a r chaeo logy . T he i n s igh t s a r r ived a tf r om t h e v a r ious p ape r s a r e i mpo r tan t c on t r ibu t ion s t o af u l le rp i c tu r e o ft h i s p e r iod , a nd t h ey c l a r i fy t h e r ange o fi s sue s i n v o lved a sw e l la sp rov id ing ag l impse o ft h ea bundan ta r chaeo log ica le v idence f r om t h is a r ea . I nc on t ra s tt oe a r l ie rv i ew st h ey a l so c l ea r ly s how t h a ti r on , wh ich i sk nown f r om H aB , i so fm in ima li mpo r tance i nt h ev a r iou sl o ca lp roce s se so fc hange , a nd may n o t b e e a s i ly s epa ra ted i ni t s e a r l ie s t s t age s f r om t h e i mpo r tance o fe x te rna l i nf luence s a s s uch ( s ee a l so S O r ensen 1 989 ) . T h i sp o in t mus t b ea pp rec ia ted i fw ew an tt ou nde r s tand t h ed i f f e ren tc oncer n s o ft h ea r chaeo logy o fN or ther na nd S ou the rn E u rope . I ti s o b v ious ,f o re xamp le ,t h a tt h en eed t or e -def ine t h ec oncep to fa nI r on A ge a nd i t sb a s i si n d i f f e ren tc ha rac te r i s t ics o f i r on u se i s ma in ly f e l tt ob er e levan tf o rt h ea r chaeo logy o f S ou ther na nd s ou thea s te rn E u rope ,w h i le o nt h eo the rh and t h ep rob lem o fd ef in ing t h e c u l tu re o rt h ec u l tu ra lc omp lex c on t inue st ob ea ni s sue i nN or ther nE u rope . S im i la rd a te sa nd c ompa rab le ma te r ia la s semb lage st ot h a to ft h eL usa t ian c u l tu re a r e a s soc ia ted w i th t h et r an s i t ion i nS cand inav ia ,a l though w i thou t as im i la rc once rn f o rd e f i n ing t h e c u l tu re . T h i s a r ea i sd i scu s sed b y L ev in sen a nd b y S O ren sen . L ev in sen ' s p ape ri sc once rned w i th t h ep roce s se sb eh ind t h ei n t roduc t ion o fi r on i nD enma rk . S he u se st h ec oncep t so ft h ef o rce s ,m eans ,a nd r e la t ion so fp roduc t ion ,a nd s he l ook sa tt h e c a tego r i sa t ion o ft h ev a r iou se a r ly i r on o b jec t sf ound i nt h ec oun t ry . S he d emon s t ra te s t h ed i f f e rence si nt h er o le a nd i mpo r tance o fi r on t h roughou tt h ed i f f e ren tp ha se so fi t s i n t roduc t ion i n to D enma rk ,a nd e s tab l i she s ap ha sed i n t roduc t ion p roce s sw i th r ega rd t o b o th t h eq uan t i ty o fi r on a nd t h er ange o fv a r iab i l i ty o ft y pe s . S he s hows t h a ta l though d i f f e ren t ly p aced t h ep roce s s o f i n t roduc t ion o fi r on i n to D enma rk t a ke s b a s ica l ly t h e s ame f o rm s a si no t he rp a r t s o fE u rope . T h is , a si n many o ft h ep ape r s , l e ad s i n to t h e p rob lem o fa dop t ion a nd t h er e la t ionsh ip b e tween e x te rna la nd i n ter na lf a c to r sa nd b e -

1 5

I n t roduc t ion

t ween t h e e s tab l i shed a nd t h e n ew ( SO ren sen 1 989 ) . I ta l so p rovoke s u s t oq ue s t ion whe the rt h e se s im i la r i t ie s may b ef o rmu la ted i nt e rm so fg ene ra le xp lana t ion s . L ev insen a rgue st h a tt h ep roce s so fa dop t ion h a st ob es e en i nt e rm so ft h ec ha rac te r i s t ics o ft h er e ce iv ing s o c ie ty ,o fi t so rgan i sa t ion a nd s u rp lu se s . T he l a t te re mpha s i sr e c a l ls b o th R ov i ra iP o r t ' sa nd S an tacana iMe s t re ' s a nd We l ls ' sp ape r s , a nd i ti si n te r e s t i ng t on o t ice h ow d i f f e ren t ly t h ev a r ious a u tho r su se t h en o t ion o fs u rp lus p roduc t ion . I ti sl i ke ly ,h oweve r ,t h a tt h roughou tE u rope d u r ing t h e8 t ht o5 t hc en tu r ie sB .C .w es e e ag ene ra lc hange i ns t o rage c apac i t ie s ,i nt h ei n ten s i ty a nd d i rec t ion o ft r ade a nd c om me r ce , a nd a n i n ten s i f ica t ion a nd d eve lopmen t o f s pec ia l i sed c r af t s ( e .g . w eav ing ) . T he se c hange s c an b e i n te rp re ted a sr ef lec t ing c hange s i no rgan i sa t ion o fp roduc t ion a nd ad ra s t ic i n c rea se i ns u rp lu sp roduc t ion . L ev in sen , h oweve r , a l so e mpha s i se s t h a t a l ls oc ie t ie sa r ed i f f e ren ta nd t h a tt h ey m ay r e ac td i f f e ren t ly t ot h es ame i mpu l se s . T he e x te rna lf a c to r sc an t h e refo re n eve ri nt h em se lve sb eu sed a st h ee xp lana t ion f o r ap he n omenon ,a l though t h ey m ay b ei mpo r tan tf o ru nde r s tand ing t h ed eve lopmen to f as pe c i f ic h i s to r ic s i tua t ion . T h i sp o in ti sg ene ra l ly a g reed u pon , a nd t h e v a r iou s c on s ide r a t ion si nt h ev o lume o f ,f o re xamp le , t h er ep lacemen to fb ronze b yi r on s t re ss t h a tt h i s p roce s si sa sy e tn o tu nde r s tood . T he p ape r sw il ing ly a ccep to u rc o l lec t ive i gno rance w i th r ega rd t ot h eq ue s t ion sw hy a nd h ow ,a nd t h ey c omm i tt h em se lve so n ly t op rov id i ng mo re s oph i s t ica ted a nd d e ta i led a ccoun t s o ft h ep roce s se s , a rgu ing t h a to u ru nde r s t and ing o ft h ec hange s mu s tb eb a sed o ns uch d i scu s s ion s . S o r en sen ' sp ape ri sc once rned w i th t h ew ho le o fS cand inav ia ,a nd i tt a ke si t ss t a r t ing p o in ti nt h ec l a s s ic a nd b yn ow w el -e s tab l ished c ha ra c te r i s t ics o ft h et r an s i t ion . O nt h i s b a s is t h er ef lec t ion so fv ar ious s oc ia la c t iv i t ie sa r ec on s ide red a nd t h ed eg r ee a nd n a tu re o fc hange a nd c on t inu i ty a r et r aced . I ti sa r gued t h a tt h e re w a sc on s ide rab le c on t inu i ty i nt e rm so fs oc io -e conom ic s t ruc tu re s ,w h i le o nt h eo the rh and ar ap id a nd d i scon t inu o us c hange i nr i tua l s t ruc tu re s a nd p rac t ices t ook p l ace . S he f u r the r a sk s w he the rt h e s ub s tance o ft h et r an s i t ion i sn o te n t i re ly d ependen to nt h ea spec to fs o c ia la c t ion w ea r e l ook ing a t ,t hus s ugge s t ing t h a to u rv i ew so nt h ed eg ree so fc on t inu i ty a nd c hange d u r i ng t h ep e r iod 1 200 t o5 00 B .C .v e ry much d epend o nt h eq ue s t ion :c on t inu i ty a nd c hange i n wha t?

S ummary a nd r ef lec t ion s T h rough t h ei nd iv idua lp ape r si nt h i sv o lume d i f f e r ence si nt h ed eve lopmen to fv a r iou s a r ea sb ecome a ppa ren t ,b u ta tt h es ame t ime t h ep ape r sc o l lec t ive ly p rov ide ab a s i sf r om wh ich c onc lu s ions a bou tg ene ra la spec t so ft h is p e r iod o ft r an sfo rma t ion c an b er eached . I ti st h e refo re p o s s ib le t ot r ace w i th in e ach p ape ra spec t so ft h es pec if i c i ty a sw e l la st h e g ene ral i ty o ft h ed eve lopmen tf r om B ronze Age t oI r on A ge w i th in v a r ious l o ca l c on t e x t sa ga ins tt h eb ackg round o ft h ev o lume a s aw ho le . I nf a c tt h i sp o s s ib i l i ty o fr ead i ng t h eg ene ra lc ha rac te ro ft h et r ansfo rma t ion o fE u ropean c ommun i t ie sf r om i nd iv id u a l i n s tance s i sw ha tj u s t if ie s t h i sv o lume . T he p re sen ta t ion o fa l lt h ep ape r st oge the r f o r ce su st or e cogn ise t h a tt h ey a r e c oncer ned w i th s im i la ry e td i f f e ren tl o ca lh i s to r ie s . I ts how su sh ow t h eg ene ra ld e r ive sf r om t h es pec if ic a nd h ow t h es pec i f ic i so n ly p rope r 1 6

l ys e en a ga in s tt h eb a ckg round o ft h eg ene ra l . T h i si smo r eove r af o rce fu lr em inde rt h a t t h ef i r s ts t ep t owa rd su nde r s tand ing t h et r an s i t ion f r om t h eB ronze A ge t ot h eI r on A ge i st oa pp r ec ia te h ow t h e se c oncep t s t h em se lve s w e r e g ene ra ted a nd t h e i rr e levance t o a nd b a s i si ns pec i f ic l o ca lh i s to r ie s ,a nd t oa cknow ledge t h e mu tua li n te ra c t ion b e tween t h ec oncep t sw eh o ld a nd t h em a te r ia lw e s t udy . O ne o ft h e mo s t s t a r t l ing p o in t s w h i ch h a s e m e rged i st h a tc hange s a r e r ef lec ted i n e ve ry a r ea b u tt h a tt h e i rc ha ra c t e rd i f f e r s . A ni n t e re s t ing e xamp le o ft h i si st h en a tu re o f r i tua ld u r ing t h i sp e r iod . T he d i f f e r ence si nr i tua la c t iv i t ie s may ,o fc ou r se ,b er oo ted t o s ome e x ten ti nt h es p read a nd i n ten s i ty o ft h ep r eced ing ' Ur n f ie ld p henomenon ' , b u ti t i sc l ea rt h a tt h ey a l so r e su l tf r om v a r iab il i ty i nt h el o ca li d eo log ica lr e - a d ju s tmen t( o r l a ck o fs ame a si nS cand inav ia ) t oc hange s a to t he rl e ve l so fs o c ie ty . F rom t h e se d i f f e r ence sa ni mp r e s s ion eme rge so f ad i v i s ion b e tween ' f unc t iona l 's o c ie t ie s ,s u ch a st h o se i nt h e Med i te r ranean a nd We s t e rn E u rope ,a nd ' r i tua l 's o c ie t ie s ,i nN o r the rn E u rope a nd S cand inav ia ,i nw h ich w ea l th a nd a t ten t ion a r ea ppa r en t ly c hanne l led i n to r i tua la nd r e l i g iou s a c t iv i t ie s r a the r t h an d i r ec t ly i n ve s ted i nt h e i n f ra s t ruc tu r e a nd i np roduc t ion . W i th in t h i s c oa r se d i v i s ion t h ev a r iou s a r ea s a r e , o fc ou r se , d i s t inc t . T he q ue s t ion o f w he the r ,f o re xamp le , t h e' No rd i schen K r e i s 'o rt h eL u sa t ian c u l tu re ( bo th o fw h ich a r e l a rge ly d ef ined o n t h e b a s i s o fm e ta l o b jec t s a nd p o t te ry f r om g r ave s a nd h oa rd s ) d o c o r r e spond t oe t hn ic g roup s ,l a nguage g roup s ,o rt og roup so fp eop le u n i ted t h rough i d e o l ogy a nd s ha red r i tua lp ra c t i ce si sn o ta n swe r ed . We h ave a sy e to n ly r e ached t h ep o in t w he re w ec an o b se rve t h a tp eop le i nt h e se a r ea s m ade a nd u sed o b jec t si nc e r ta in a nd s p ec i f i cw ay s -w ed on o t p rope r ly u nde r s tand e i the rt h em echan i sm sb eh ind s u ch c ohe s i on o rt h er e a son sf o ri t . T he g ene ra lc ha rac te r i sa t ion o ft h ec hange si nE u rope d u r ing t h i sp e r iod c an s e en a s ar e -conf igu ra t ion t h rough e me rg ing d e -c en t ra l i sa t ion ,d i spe r sa la nd n ew f o rm so fs o c io p o l i t ica lo rgan i sa t ion . T h i sa l so l e ad st oa na ppa ren ti n c r ea se i nt h ed i f f e rence sb e tween v a r iou sp a r t so fE u rope . T rade a nd a l l iance sw e re r e -o r ien ted c au s ing n ew l i nk st ob e e s tab l i shed a nd c on ta c t sw i th n ew a r ea st ob eo pened ,b u ta l so s ome r eg ion st ob ei s o l a ted f r om t h el a rge re xchange s y s tem s . T he se t y pe so fc hange a r e mo s td r a s t ica l ly d em o n s t ra ted i nt h ec on s i s t en tc hange si n s e t t lem en tp a t te rn s . I nt h en o r th E u ropean l ow l a nd w es e ew ide sp read d ecen t ra l i sa t ion a nd d i spe r sa la nd i nG reece t h eP a lad ian s y s t em c olap se s . I nt h e w e s t Med i te r ranean v i l lage s o fp ro to -u rban c ha ra c te r a ppea red , a nd i n We s te rn E u rope h i l l fo r t sa nd o pp ida sd eve loped . T he se p a t te rn s a ppea rt os how v e ry d i f f e ren t a nd e ven o ppo s i te t y pe s o fr e pon se s . C o l lec t ive ly t h ep a t t e rn sd on o tt h e re fo re p rov ide u sw i th t h et y pe o fs e t t lem en tc hange w h ich t o ok p l a ce . R a the rw ec an c onc lude t h a tg ene ra l ly t h e r ea r ed eg r ee so fd i sc on t i nu i ty t h roughou tE u rope i nt e rm so fs e t t lem en tp a t ter na nd t h ep o l i t ica la nd e conom ic o rgan i sa t ion o fs o c ia l l i f e , b u t t h a t t h i s d i sc on t inu i ty mu s t b e u nde r s tood i nt e rm s o f c on t inu i ty o fp opu la t ion sa nd o fe t hn ic g roup ing sa nd c an n o tb ee xp la ined b ye x te rna l f a c to r s , h oweve r , i mpo r tan tt h ey m ay b ei nc e r ta in l o ca lc hange s . T he t r an s i t ion f r om B ronze A ge t oI r on A ge i nE u rope i sn o tc au sed b y as i ng le f a c to rs u ch a si r on ,c l ima te , o ri n va s ion ,n o rc an i tb ec oncep tua l i sed a sl o ca ted a t ap a r t icu la rp o in ti nt ime o rs pace . T he t r an s i t ion i sa ne xp re s s ion o fc hange ,b u tc hange h a st ob ea pp r ec ia ted a st h er e su l t

1 7

I n t roduc t ion

o ft h ew ay sp eop le l i ved a nd t h e i ri n t e rac t ion w i th e ach o the ra nd t h e i re nv i ronmen t ; i t i st h e refo re n eve r aq ue s t ion o fa b so lu te sb u tr a the ro ne o fd eg ree s . T he p ape r si nt h i sv o lume r ef lec tu pon t h ed eg r ee so fc hange a mong s ome o ft h ec om mun i t ie sw ho i n hab i ted E u rope i nt h ep e r iod l a be l led t h et r an s i t ion f r om B ronze A ge t o I r on Age . T hey c on t r ibu te t owa rd s c l a r ify ing o u r u nde r s tand ing o fs uch c oncep t s a s c hange , t r an s i t ion a nd t r an sfo rma t ion t h rough d i scus s ion so ft h ep hy s ica le xp re ss ion o f s oc ia l a c t ion . T he t r an s i t ion , a sc hange r e la ted t op eop le ' sl i ve s ,w i l ln a tu ra l ly r ef l ec t b o th c on t inu i ty a nd d i sc on t inu i ty ,b u te xp re s sed t h rough d i f f e ren ts e t so fa c t iv i t ie s . I n o rde rt oc omp rehend t h e t r an s i t ion w e mus t t h e refo re a ccep tt h a ta n a l l -encompa s s ing c hange o fs oc ie ty ,w h ich o u rc ho ice o fl a nguage h a si mp l ied ,i sn o tr e levan tt ot h es c a le o fa c t ion w e a r e s t udy ing . O u rc oncep to f at r an s i t ion t r an sfo rm si t se l fa sw el o ok a t d i f f e r en tt ype so fe v idence a nd a td i f f e r en ts ca le so fa na ly s i s . I tw ou ld b ew rong t or e j e c tt h en o t ion o f at r an s i t ion f r om B ronze A ge t oI r on A ge i nE u rope o nt h eb a s i so ft h e p ape r si nt h i sv o lume ,b u ta tt h es ame t ime t h ey s ugge s tt h a ti tm ay b ej u s ta sf a ta lt oa s s ume t h a to ne e xp lana t ion o ro ne mode lc ou ld a ccoun tf o rt h ec omp lex i t ie so fd i f f e r en t l o ca l s i tua t ions i nw h ich t h e se p eop le l i ved a nd a ga in s tt h e b ackg round o f wh ich t h ey made t h e i rl i f e . F inaly ,w ew an tt oa dd t h a ti th a sb een as pec ia le xpe r ience t op roduce a na ccoun to f ap a r to fo u rp reh i s to ry w h ich h a sb een w r i t ten b y s o many i nd iv idua l sf r om s o many c oun t r ie s . T h i si sc l ea r ly o ne o ft h es t reng ths o ft h ev o lume . F rom at e chn ica lp o in to f v i ew i th a s ,h oweve r ,b een o ne o ft h eg r ea te s tp rob lem si np roduc ing t h i sv o lume . T he p rob lem sa nd d e lay so fc ommun ica t ion b e tween E a s t e rn a nd We s te rn E u rope p a led i n to i n s ign if i cance i nc ompa r i son w i th t h ep rob lem o ft r an s la t ion . T ot r an s la te i st oc hange . I nt h ec a se o fa na r chaeo log ica lt e x tt h et r an s la t ion i sn o to n ly ac hange f r om o ne s e to f wo rd st oa no the rb u ta l so ac hange f r om o ne a cadem ic c on tex tt oa no the r , a nd i tt h e re f o re t e nd st o b ecome a nu n in tended c hange o f mean ing . T h is h a sb een av e ry r e a la s p ec to fo u r wo rk a se d i to r s . We f ound t h a tt h ea r chaeo log ica lv ocabu la ry i nt h ed i f f e r e n tl a nguage sw a so f ten u n t ran s la tab le ,a nd t h a tw o rd sa nd mean ing sh ad n oc o r re la te i nE ng l i sh a r chaeo log ica l l a nguage . T he se p rob lem s a r e i mpo r tan t . T hey h ave t ob e c on s ide red i nr e ad ing at r an s la ted t e x t , b u tb eyond t h a tt h ey i nd ica te a r ea s w he re n a t i ona l o r r eg iona l a r chaeo logy h a s d eve loped c oncep tua l t oo l s w h ich a r e n o t s ha red t h roughou tt h ef i e ld . D ue t ot h e se p rob lem s , w ed ec ided t og ive p r io r i ty t oa na ccu ra te c ommun ica t ion o fk now ledge a nd i d ea sw i th r ega rd t ot h ec on tex ti nw h ich t h ey w e r e e xp re s sed . T h i s m ean t a n e d i to r ia l p ol i cy w he re p a r t icu la rp o in t s h ave b een c l a r if ied a nd l a nguage c hanged i na g reemen tw i th t h ea u tho r s ,b u tw he re p re se rv ing t h ep e r sona l a nd o r ig ina l a spec t so ft h ei nd iv idua lw r i te r ' s t e x t sh a s b een g i ven ah igh p r io r i ty . N o s t ream l in ing o ft h et e x t sa nd t h es t y le so f l a nguage u sed h a st h e refo re b een a t temp ted . T he a u tho r s who w ro te t h ep ape r sa r eu n ique a nd d i f f e ren tp eop le ,a nd w ed i dn o tw i sh t oe r a se t ho se d i f f e rence s .

1 8

N o te s 1 ) T he t e rm L a t e B ronze A ge i su sed i nt h i s v o lume a si nc h rono log ica l s chem e s s im i la rt ot h eB r i t i sh B ronze A ge c h rono logy ,w h i le l a t ei su sed t or e f e rg ene ra l ly t ol a te r p a r t s o ft h e B ronze A ge . I nc on t ra s tt om any r e cen t a ng lo - a me r i can p ub l i ca t ion si n w h i ch c a l ib ra ted C 14 d a te sa r eu sed a nd w he r eb . c .i nd ica te sr ad io -ca rbon d a te sa nd B .C . c a lenda rd a te s ,t h i sv o lume r e f e r st ou n -ca l ib r a ted d a te su n le s so t he rw i se s t a ted a nd B .C . , i su sed i n ag ene ra l manne r .

B ib l iography A abe rg , N . , 1 930 . B r on z eze i t l iche u nd f rühe i sen z e i t l iche C hrono log ie . ( S tockho lm : K ung l .V i t te rhe t sH i s to r ie o ch A n t ikv i te t sA kadem ie ) . B a r r e t t ,J .C . , 1 987 /88 . ' F ie ld so fd i scou r se . 'C r i t ique o fA n thropo logy V I I , 3 ,5 16 . B oa rdman ,J . , 1 980 .T he G r eek so ver sea s . ( London :T hame sa nd H ud son ) . C hamp ion , T . , G amb le , C . , S hennan , S . , a nd Wh i t t le , A . , 1 984 .P r eh i s tor ic E urope . ( London :A cadem ic P re s s ) . C hapman ,R . , 1 985 . ' The l a t e rp r eh i s to ry o ft h e We s te rn Med i te r ranean . R e cen tA d v ance s . ' I n Wendo r f , F . , a nd C lo se , A . , ( e d s . )A d vance s i nW or ld A r chaeo logy 4 , 15 1 87 . ( New Y o rk : P l enum ) . C h i lde ,V .G . , 1 925 .T he Dawn o fE u ropean c i v i l i sa t ion . ( London : R ou t l edge & K ea g an P au l ) . C h i lde ,V .G . , 1 950 .P r eh i s tor ic M igra t ion si nE ur ope . ( O s lo :I n s t i tu tf o rS ammen l ig n ende K u l tu r fo r skn ing ) . C la rke ,D . , 1 973 . ' A r chaeo logy :t h el o s so fi n no cence . 'A n t iqu i ty 4 7 ,6 18 . C o le s ,J . ,a nd H a rd ing ,A . , 1 979 .T he B ron ze A ge i nE urope . ( London : Me thuen ) . D ra ck ,D .( e d . ) 1 971 . A r chäo log ie d er S chwe i z . B d .I ID ie B ronzeze i t . ( Ba se l :V e r l a gs chwe ize r i sche g e sel scha f tf ü rU ra nd F rühge sch i ch te ) . E kho lm ,K . , 1 979 . ' A rkeo log is om s amhä l l sve ten skap . 'K on tak t s t enc i l 1 6 , 8 -24 . H ae fne r , H . , ( e d . ) 1 981 . F rühe s E i s en i nE ur opa . F e s t sch r if t G uyan . ( S cha f fhau sen : V e r lag P e t e r Me i l i ) .

f ü r Wa l te r U l r ich

H odde r ,I . ,1 986 .R ead ing t h eP a s t . ( Camb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e s s ) .

1 9

I n t roduc t ion

K i rnm ig , W . , 1 964 . ' S eevö lke rbewegungen u nd Umenf e lde rku l tu r . E in a r chäo log i s ch -h i s to r i sche rV e r such . ' I nU s la r ,R .V . , a nd N a r r ,K .J . , ( e d s . )S tud ien a u sA l t europa , V o l . 1 .F e s t sch r if tf ü rK u r tT ackenbe rg ,2 20 -283 . ( Kö ln : B öh lau -V e r lag ) . Ko s sack ,G . , 1 954 . S tud ien z ur S ymbo lgu td er U rnef e ld er -u nd Ha l l s ta t t ze i t . m i sch -Ge rman i sche F o r schungen 2 4 . ( Be r l in : D eG ruy te r ) .

R ö -

L ev i -St rau s s ,C . , 1 966 . T he S avage M ind . ( London : We idenf e ld a nd N ico l son ) . Ma lone ,C . ,a nd S todda r t ,S . , 1 985 .P aper si nI t a l ian A rchaeo logy . BAR ,I n t erna t iona l S er ies 2 43 -246 . ( Oxf ord :B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica lR epor t s ) . Mann , M . , 1 986 . T he s our ce o fs oc ia lp ow er . ( Camb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re ss ) . Mon te l ius ,0 . , 1 885 . ' Om T id sbe s tämn ing i nom B ron sä ldem m ed s ä r sk i ld ta f seende p ä S kand inav ien . ' K ong l . V i t t erhe t sH i s tor ie o ch A n t iqv i te t sA k ed em i en s H and l ingar 3 0 ,n yf ö l jd , 1 0 . Mon te l ius ,0 . , 1 913 . ' Nä rb ö r jade man a l lmän ta nvända j ä rn? 'F ornvännen 1 ,6 1 -91 . N ie rmeye r ,H .G . , 1 982 .P hön i z ier i mW e s t . ( Ma inz :Z abem ) . P au l i ,L . , 1 980 . D ie A lpen i nF rü ze i tu nd M i t t e la l t er . ( München : B eck ) . P le ine r , R . , 1 968 .I r on w ork ing i nA nc i en tG r eece . ( P rague : N a t iona lT echn ica l Mu s eum ) . P le ine r ,R . , 1 980 . ' Ea r ly I r on m e ta l lu rgy i nE u rope . 'I n We r t ime ,T .A . , a nd Muh ly , J .D . , ( e d s . )T he C om ing o f t h eA ge o f Ir on ,6 9 -98 .( New H aven :Y a le U n ive r s i ty P re s s ) . R idgway ,D . , 1 981 . T he E t ru scan s . ( Ed inbu rgh : U n ive r s i ty o fE d inbu rgh P re s s ) . R ow land s , M . , 1 980 . ' K in sh ip , a l l iance a nd e xchange i nt h eE u ropean B ronze A ge . ' I nB a r re t t , J . ,a nd B rad ley ,R . , ( e d s . )S e t t lemen ta nd S oc ie ty i nt h eB r i t i sh L a t er B ronze A ge , 1 5 -55 . ( Oxfo rd : B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica lR epo r t s ) . R ow land s , M . , 1 984 . ' Concep tua l i s ing t h eE u ropean B ronze a nd E a r ly I r on A ge . 'I n B in t l i f f ,J . ,( e d . )E uropean S oc ia lE vo lu t ion . ( Brad fo rd : U n ive r s i ty o fB rad fo rd ) . S anda ls ,N .K . , 1 978 .T he S ea P eop l e . ( London :T hame sa nd H ud son ) . S hank s , M . , a nd T i l ley , C . , 1 987 .R e -con s t ruc t ing A rchaeo logy . T heory a nd P rac t i ce . ( Camb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s ) . 2 0

S hephe rd , R . , 1 970 . P r eh i s tor ic M in ing a nd A l l ied I ndu s t r ies . ( London : A cadem ic P re ss ) . S nodg ra ss ,A .M . , 1 971 .T he Dark A ge o fG r eece . ( Ed inbu rgh : E d inbu rgh U n ive r s i ty P re ss ) . S nodg ra ss ,A .M . , 1 980 . A r cha ic G r eece : t h eA ge o fE xper imen t . ( London :D en t ) . S O r en sen ,M .L .S . , 1 989 . ' I gno r ing i nnova t ion -d eny ing c hange .T he r o le o fi r on a nd t h ei mpac to fe x te rna li nf luence so n t h et r an sfo rma t ion o fS cand inav ian s oc ie t ie s 8 00 5 00 b . c . ' . I nv an d e rL eeuw ,S .E . , a nd T o r rence ,R . , ( e d s . ) Wha t ' sN ew? ,i np re s s( Lon d on : H yman a nd U nw in ) . Und se t ,I . ,1 882 . Das e r s t eA uf t r e t en d es E i sen si nN ord E uropa .

( Hambu rg ) .

v on B runn , W .A . , 1 968 . M i t t e ld eu t sche H or und e d er J ünger en B ronzeze i t . R ö m i sch -Ge rman i sche F o r schungen 2 9 . ( Be r l in :D eG ruy te r ) . v on Me rha rd t , G . , 1 970 . Ha l l s ta t tu nd I t a l ien . ( Ma inz : R öman i sche -Ge rman i sche s Z en t ra lmuseum ) . Wa ldbaum ,J .C . , 1 978 .F rom B ronze t oI r on .T he T ran s i t ion f rom t h eB ron ze A ge t o t h eI r on A ge i nt h eE as t ern Med i t erranean , S tud ie si n Med i te r ranean A rchaeo logy 5 4 . ( Gö t ebo rg : P au lÄ s t röm s ) . We l l s ,P . S . , 1 980 . C u l tur eC on tac ta nd C u l tur eC hange :E ar ly I r on A ge C en t ra lE u r ope a nd t h e Med i ter ranean W or ld . ( Camb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s ) . We r t ime , T .A . , a nd Muh ly ,J .D . , ( e d s . ) 1 980 .T he C om ing o ft h eA ge o fI r on . ( New H aven :Y a le Un ive r s i ty P re s s ) . Wo lf ,E . , 1 982 .E urope a nd t h eP eop le w i thou tH i s tory .( Be rke ley : Un ive r s i ty o fC a l i f o rn ia P re ss ) . Wo r saae ,J . J .A . 1 882 .T he I ndu s t r ia lA r t so fD enmark . ( London : C hapman a nd H a l l ) .

2 1

1 . THE CO MING OF THE I RON AGE I N GREECE : EUROPE 'S EARL IEST BRONZE /IRON TRANS IT ION A .M .S nodgra s s

T he c oncep to fa n ' I ron A ge 'i so ne o ft h el e a s ta na ly sed i nE u ropean p r eh i s to ry ,t hough a sa n e xp re ss ion i ti sc on s tan t ly o nt h el i ps o fe ve ry p reh i s to r ian o fE u rope . T he r e a r e many r e a son sf o rt h i s . I nt h ef i r s tp l ace ,t h er ep lacemen to fb ronze b yi r on f o r as pec if i c r ange o fp rac t ica lp u rpo se s ,i mpo r tan tc hange t hough i tw a s ,w a sc l ea r ly al e s sf undamen t a ls t ep t h an t h eo r ig ina li n t roduc t ion o fm e ta l lu rgy ; s oi ti sh a rd ly s u rp r i s ing t h a to n ly a s ma l lp ropo r t ion o ft h ea moun to fr e sea rch d evo ted t ot h a te a r l ie rp roce s sh a sg one i n to t h e s t udy o ft h eb ronze / i ron t r an s i t ion . As e cond f a c to r , a si nf luen t ia l a si ti sb ana l , i s t h es imp le f a c tt h a ti r on s u rv ive ss o much l e s sw e l lt h an b ronze ,a nd s op re sen t s amuch l e s sa t t rac t ive f i e ld f o ri nve s t iga t ion t ot h ea r chaeo log i s t ,w he the rh eo rs he i si n te r e s ted i nt y po logy , f unc t ion , s u r face -wea r , c ompo s i t iona l a na ly s i s , o r s ome o the r a spec t . A t h i rd i nf luence h a s , It h ink , b een o pe ra t ive t o as pec ia l d eg ree d u r ing t h e p a s t f i f teen y ea r s o ft h e g r ea tt h eo re t ica lr evo lu t ion i na r chaeo logy . Many o ft h ed oc t r ine s o ft h e N ew A r chaeo logy h ave e vo lved i nt h eN ew Wo r ld ,a nd h ave b een t e s ted b ya pp l ica t ion t ot h e ma te r ia lr e co rd t h e re . N ow t h eN ew Wo r ld ,l i ke A f r ica , d oe s n o tb e long t ot h a t p o r t ion o ft h e g lobe w he re t h e s equence o fs t one t ob ronze t oi r on , w h ich E u ropean s h ave c ome t ot h ink o fa st h e' n a tu ra l 'o ne ,r an i t sc ou r se i nt h e' n a tu ra l 'w ay . T rue ,t h e r e w a s as oph i s t ica ted m e ta l lu rgy , b a sed o n b ronze a nd o t he rc oppe ra l loy s , i nt h er eg ion o ft h eC en t ra lA nde s ,w h ich l a s ted u n t i lt h eS pan i sh c onque s t( Lech tman 1 980 ) . B u ti n many o the ra r ea s ,t h eu se o fs t one t o o l sg ave w ay d i rec t ly ,a nd a t ar e la t ive ly r e cen td a te , t ot h eu se o fi r on . T he t r an s i t ion f r om b ronze t oi r on w a st hus n o t at op ic l i ke ly t o make a ne a r ly c l a im o nt h ea t ten t ion o ft h en ew s choo lo ft h ough t , a nd e ven t h eA ndean t r an s i t ion t ook p lace i nc i r cum s tance s -a ni nva s ion i na nh i s to r ica l ly d ocumen ted p e r iod -wh ich wou ld make i ta nu np rom i s ing f i e ld f o r many o ft h en ew a pp roache s . F o rE u ropean p reh is to r ian s ,h oweve r ,t h e re i sat e s tc a se a va i lab le w h ich i n vo lve sp a r t o ft h e i rc on t inen t . I ts e t st h et r an s i t ion t oi r on i n af a i r ly c l o se ly s t ud ied a nd a ccu ra te ly d a ted c on tex t ; i th a st empo ra lp r io r i ty o ve r mo s to the rl o ca l o ccu r rences o ft h i st r an s i t i on i nt h e wo r ld ,a nd i ti st h u s mo re l i ke ly t oe xemp l i fy t h ep roce s si ni t s' n a tu ra l 'f o rm ; a nd f i na l ly , i th ad d i rec to ri nd i rec tr e pe rcus s ions o nt h ep a ra l le lb u tl a te rt r an s i t ion si n many o the rp a r t s o fE u rope . T he t e s tc a se Im ean , o fc ou r se , i st h eb ronze / i ron t r an s i t i on i nG reece a nd t h eA egean a r ea . T he h i s to ry o fi t ss t udy r ep roduce s ,i nm ic roco sm , many o ft h ef e a tu re so ft h eh i s to ry o ft h i sd i scu s s ion i ng ene ra l . H e re ,t oo ,t h et r an s i t ion t oi r on h a sr e ce ived v e ry much l e s sa t ten t ion t h an t h ee a r l ie re p i sode o ft h ef i r s tA egean

2 2

1S nodg r ass

m e ta l lu rgy . I nt h i sc a se , t h e r ei s ,h oweve r , a l so as pec i f ic l o ca li nf luence a tw o rk : t h e p reced ing L a te B ronze A ge o ft h eA egean e n joy s ap r iv i leged s t a tu si ne ve ryone ' sm ind s , a sh av ing f o rmed t h eh i s to r ica lb a s i s( s uch a si ti s )f o rt h eb ody o fG r eek h e ro ic l e gend s , a sw e l la sf o rt h eb r i l l iance o fi t sm a te r ia lr e co rd . A sf o rt h ee n su ing C la s s ica lp e r iod o f G reek c i v i l i sa t ion ,i t sp l ace i sa ne ven mo r eo bv iou s ly p r iv i leged o ne ,a nd a nyone w ho r e f e r r ed t oi tb ys u ch ag ene ral i sed n ame a st h e ' M idd le I r on A ge 'w ou ld b ea s sumed t o b em ak ing ar a the ro b scu re j oke . A s ar e su l t , t h eE a r ly I r on A ge o fG reece i ss e ldom r e f e r r ed t ob y t h a tn ame , b e ing mo r e c ommon ly d e s igna ted b y s ome l a be l t h a ti nd ica te s a n u nf avou rab le c ompa r i son w i th i t s mo re f amou sa n teceden ta nd s eque l :i ti s' p o s t - Mycenaean ' , a' Da rk A ge ' ,' p ro to h i s to r ic ' , ' p r e -C la s s ica l ' , o ri ti st h e ' G reek M idd le A ge s 'f r om w h ich o n ly a' Rena i s s a nce 'c ou ld b r ing r e l ie f . Y e t , t h ec onve r s ion o ft h eG reek st ot h ep ra c t ica lu se o fi r on w a s o ne o ft h e mo s t s i gn if i can tm a te r ia l a dvance si ns e ve ra lt h ou sand y ea r so fh i s to ry i nt h eA egean - o na ccoun to fi t se xcep t iona l ly e a r ly d a te ,w e may e ven s a yi nE u rope . N o rs hou ld w el o se s i gh to ft h ea dvan tage s ,r e f e r r ed t oa bove ,w h ich t h i sa r ea o f f e r sa s af i e ld o fs t udy ,b yc ompa r i son w i th o t he rE u ropean i n s tance so ft h eb ronze / i ron t r an s i t i on . L e tm eb e mo r es pec if i ca bou tt h e se a dvan tage so ft h eA egean a s as t udy a r ea . F i r s t , t h er e la t ive ly p rec i se c h rono logy e nab le su st os a yt h a t , b e tween a bou t 1 050 a nd 1 000 B .C . ,s e ve ra lp a r t so ft h eA egean e n te red w ha ti si nt h ef ule s ts en se o ft h ew o rd sa nI r on A ge . T ha ti st os a y ,t h ey a dop t ed i r on a st h ep r edom inan tm e ta lf o rt o o l sa nd w eapon s o fp rac t i ca lu se . O fw ide ra pp l ica t ion ,h oweve r ,a r et h ei n f e rence st h a tw ec an d raw f o r t h ep e r iod s b e fo r e a nd a f te rt h i s . F i r s t , w ec an n ow s e e , i nt h e A egean a nd i nc e r ta in a r ea so ft h eN ea rE a s t , t h ee s sen t ia li r r e levance o ft h ee a r l ie r , s omewha td e su l to ry e x p e r imen t sw i th i r on i nt h ep r eced ing t h ou sand y ea r so r mo r e . T he se c l ea r ly d emon s t ra te t h a t ac u l tu r e m ay b e f am i l ia r w i th t h e r ud imen t s o fi r on -wo rk ing , a nd e ven p roduce f unc t iona la r tef a c t si ni r on ,f o rc en tu r ie sb e f o re e n te r ing at r ue I r on A ge .T h i sg ene ra l i s a t ion m ay b ei lu s t ra ted f r om f i nd si nt h eA egean a r ea ,b u t amuch c l ea r e re xamp le i s p rov ided b yE gyp t . H e re i r on o b jec t so ccu rf r om a bou t4 000 B .C .o nwa rd s ;h e re t o ot h e t omb o fT u tankhamun ( c . 1 340 B .C . )p roduced 1 9i r on o b jec t s . O ne o ft h e se w a s ac e re mon ia ld agge rw i th a ni r on b l ade ( s ign i f ican t ly ,i t sc ompan ion p i ece w a s ad agge rw i th ab l ade o fh a rdened g o ld ) .Y e ti tw a sa lmo s ts i xc en tu r ie sa f te rt h ed a te o ft h i sl a t t e rf i nd t h a tE gyp te n te red at r ue I r on A ge , i nt h e s en se t h a ti t se conomy b ecame s ub s tan t ia l ly b a sed u pon i r on -wo rk ing : a nd t h a t ,s u r e ly ,i st h es en se i nw h ich w es hou ld u se t h et e rm ' I ron A ge ' . I np ra c t ice , mo s tE u ropean a r chaeo log i s t sa pp ly t h en ame much mo r el o o se l yt oc u l tu re sw h ich m e re ly d i sp lay s ome f am i l ia r i ty w i th i r on ;j u s ta st h eE gyp to log i s t P e t r ie w a sl e d ,b yf i nd sl i ke t h o se o fT u tankhamun ' st omb ,t os p eak o f a' Spo rad ic I r on A ge 'i nt h e S econd M i l lenn ium B .C . i nE gyp t ( v an d e r Me rwe 1 980 : 4 66 ) . S uch c a re l e s st e rm ino logy m ay o no cca s ion t h row s ome l i gh to nt h eo r ig in so fa ni s o la ted i n no v a t ion ; b u ti to n ly s e rve st oo b scu re t h e f a r mo r e i mpo r tan tq ue s t ion so ft h ee conom ic c on sequence s o fa dop t ing i r on , w h ich d on o ta r i se u n t i l as oc ie ty h a sc omm i t ted i t se l f t op ra c t ica li r on -wo rk ing i np r e f e rence t ob ronze .

2 3

Ac a se l i ke t h a to ft h eA egean , w he re t h et e rm ' I ron A ge 'i su sed o n ly o ft h ep e r iod w hen i ta c tua l ly m eans w ha ti ts ay s , i s as a lu ta ry e xcep t ion i nt h i sr e spec t . I ti s much t oo l a te t oday t ob r ing a bou t ac hange i nt h el oo se ru sage w he reby ,f o re xamp le ,t h eV i l l a novan p e r iod i nn o r the rn I t a ly a nd t h eH a l l s ta t t Ao fC en t ra lE u rope a r ed e s igna ted a s I r on A ge p ha se s ; b u to ne mu s ta lway sb ea ri nm ind t h a tt h ep a t ter no fi r on u se t h a tt h ey d i sp lay i sa t mo s tc ompa rab le w i th t h a to ft h el a te rp ha se so ft h eA egean B ronze A ge ,o r o ft h e L a te C ypr io t I I p e r iod ( 12 th a nd e a r l ie r 1 th c en tu r ie s B .C . ) i nC yp ru s ( Snod g ra s s 1 980a : 3 4Of f . ) . L ikew i se , t h er e la t ive ly r i ch d ocumen ta t ion o ft h e l a te rI r on Age o ft h eA egean e n a b le su st os e ec l ea r ly t h ep a radox ica lf a c tt h a t ad eve loped I r on A ge c u l tu re m ay b ec ha r a c te r i sed b yt h er i chne ss o fi t sb ronze i n dus t ry .A nyone w ho h a sv i s i ted ar e p re sen ta t ive c o l lec t ion o fC la s s ica l G r eek a r tef ac t s w i l l a pp rec ia te t h a t , a f te r c l ay a nd m a rb le , t h e mo s t c op iou s a nd s i gn if i can t ma te r ia l p re sen t i sb ronze e spec ia l ly d eco r a t ive b ronze wo rk . B u t i fw e a r e t emp ted b y t h i s f a c t i n to t r ea t ing ac u l tu re l i ke t h a to fC la s s ica l G reece a si ns ome w ay ' t rans i t iona l 'b e tween B ronze a nd I r on Age ,t h en o nce a ga in w e a r em i s lead ing o u r se lve s a st ot h em ean ing o ft h et e rm ' I ron A ge ' . T he r ange o fa r te f a c t s wh ich a ni r on b a sed c u l tu re a c tua l ly make so u to fi r on i sq uan t i ta t ive ly q u i te an a r r ow o ne ,f o ra l li t sv i ta ls i gn if i cance .I tc on s i s t si nt h e ma in o ft h e' wo rk ing 'p a r t so fi m p l emen t sa nd w eapon s ; t h ep a r t s ,t h a ti s ,t h a tc ome i n to d i rec tc on tac tw i th t h em a te r ia l t h a ti st ob ec u t ,p i e rced , b roken u p , s p l i to rj o ined . T he f a c tt h a tc on ta ine r s , d ef en s ive a rmou ro ra r t -wo rk c on t inue t ob ee xecu ted i nb ronze i sa si r r e levan ta st h ef a c tt h a tw ood i su sed f o rt h es ha f t so fi r on s pea r sa nd a xe s . A sf o rt h ed eco ra t ion o fb ronze -w o rk ,o ne o ft h e mo s ts i gn if ican ts t eps w a st h ec r ea t ion o ft h ei r on t oo l sw h ich f a c i l i ta ted i t . T h i s e xp la ins w hy ,f o re xamp le , C la s s ica lG reece w a sr i che ri nr e spec to fb ronze -wo rk t h an Mycenaean G reece . T he r e la t ive p rec i s ion o ft h eA egean c h rono logy a l so e nab le so ne t ot e s tt h eo r ie sd e v i sed f o ro t he rp a r t s o fE u rope . T ake , f o re xamp le ,t h ev e ry i n te re s t ing s ugge s t ion r e c en t ly made t h a tt h ep henomenon o fb ronze h oa rd si nt h eE u ropean L a te B ronze A ge m igh tb e s e en a sa n a t temp tt o man ipu la te t h em e ta ls ma rke t , b y b oo s t ing t h ep r ice o f b ronze a ga in s tt h et h rea to ft h ee ve r -e x tend ing u se o fi r on ( Row land s 1 980 :4 6 ) . Wha t e ve rt h ea t t rac t ions o ft h i se xp lana t ion e l sewhe re ,c h rono logy a l one f o rb id si t sa dop t ion a sa n e xp lana t ion o ft h ep henomenon i nt h eA egean a r ea . B ronze h oa rd sa r ei ndeed a w e l l k nown f e a tu re o fA egean L a te B ronze A ge a r chaeo logy ; b u t t h e i rc h rono log ica l r ange i s an a r row o ne ,b e ing e s sen t ia l ly c onf ined t ot h et r an s i t ion b e tween t h eL a te H e l l a d ic I IB a nd I IC p e r iod s -t h a t i sc l o se t ot h e d a te 1 200 B .C . ( Spy ropou lo s 1 972 ) . T h i sd a te l i e sb e tween 5 0a nd 1 50 y ea r sb e fo re t h et ime w hen a ny s e r iou sp reoccupa t ion w i th p rac t ica li r on -wo rk ing man i f e s t si t se lf i nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd o ft h eA egean . I ti sd i ff i cu l t ,t h e refo re , t os e ea ny c au sa lc onnec t ion b e tween t h et wo e p i sode s ;a nd t h e t r ad i t iona l i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e A egean b ronze h oa rd s , a so ne f u r the rs i gn o ft h e a cu te i n secur i ty w h ich p reva i led i nt h ea r ea a tt h i st ime , mus tb ep ref e r red i nt h i sc a se . Y e t ,f o ra l l my i n s i s tence o nt h eu n ique v a lue o ft h eA egean e v idence a s at e s tc a se f o r t h eb ronze / i ron t r an s i t ion i nE u rope , Imu s ta tt h es ame t ime c oncede t h a ts eve ra lo fi t s f e a tu re sa r eu n l ike ly t ob er ep re sen ta t ive o ft h eE u ropean p a t te rn a s aw ho le ,a nd many

2 4

1S nodg rass

m ay e ven t u rn o u tt ob ep ecu l ia rt oG reece . T he i n s tance o ft h eb ronze h oa rd s ,j u s tc i ted , i lu s t ra te st h i s . I tm ay p rove h a rd t of i nd o t he rc a se si nE u ropean p reh i s to ry w he re t h e i n c idence o fb ronze h oa rd sc o inc ide ss oe xac t ly w i th a ni ndependen t ly a t te s ted h o r izon o fi n secu r i ty a nd d e s t ruc t ion . F u r the rmo re , t h e w ide sp r ead b r eakdown o ft h e A egean p a la t ia ls y s tem s ,w i th t h e i rr e -d i s t r ibu t ive f unc t ion sa nd t h e i ru se o fw r i t ing ,i s ap roce s s t h a ti sd i rec t ly l i nked w i th t h eq ue s t ion o ft h eb ronze s upp ly ,t h ough n o tw i th t h ea dven t o fi r on . T he Mycenaean p a la ce a tP y lo s , t oc i te t h eb e s tk nown c a se , w a si n vo lved i n t h ep rocu remen ta nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fb ronze o n ac o lo s sa ls c a le . T he ' J n 's e r ie so ft a b le t s f r om P y lo s , o ni t so wn ,r e co rd sa nd mon i to r st h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fo ve r8 00 k go fb ronze a mong 1 93 ' a c t ive 'a nd 8 1 ' i na c t ive 'b ronze -sm i th s . T h i st o ta lo f2 74 s m i th s( k ak ew e ) s e rved b y t h ep a la ce , e ven i fs p read o ve r af a i r ly w ide g eog raph ica l a r ea , i se x t rao rd i n a r i ly h i gh ( V en t r i s a nd C hadw ick 1 959 : 3 52 f f . ) . I ti mp l ie st h ee x t r eme c en t ra l i sa t ion o ft h eb ronze i ndu s t ry ,a nd i ta l so h i n t sa tt h ec omp lex o rgan i sa t ion n eeded f o rs upp l ie s o ft h er aw ma te r ia l s . Whe the rt h ec oppe rw a si mpo r ted f r om A egean s ou r ce s ,f r om C y p ru s ,o rf r om y e to t he rc oppe r -m in ing a r ea s ,i ts e em st o day a ni n e scapab le f a c tt h a tt h e n e ce s sa ry s ou r ce s o ft i n c anno t h ave l a in w i th in ac i r c le o f at h ou sand m i le r ad iu s o f P y lo s ( o ra ny o t he rm a in land Mycenaean c en t r e ) . T he p a la ce -cen t red i mpo r ta t ion a nd r ed i s t r ibu t ion o ft h em e ta l sw a sc e r ta in ly n o t an ece s sa ry m echan i sm f o rt h e ma in ten a nce o f ab ronze -ba sed e conomy ;b u ts i nce i th ad b ecome af a c to fA egean l i f e ,i t sr emo v a lw a sb ound t ol e ad t ou rgen ta d ju s tmen ta nd i mp rov i sa t ion . T hu st h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd s how st h a ts pec ia lc i r cum s tance so fi n secu r i ty a nd d e s t ruc t ion a t tended t h ec l o s ing p ha se so ft h eA egean B ronze A ge . F rom t h es eque l ,w ec an a tl e a s ti n f e rt h a ts ome o ft h e se a d ju s tmen t s mu s th ave b een f a i r ly e f f ec t ive . Mycenaean c u l tu re d id n o tv an i sh ,a nd i tr ema ined f o r much o fi t sf i na l p ha se ( La te H e l lad i cI IC ) ab ronze -ba sed e conomy . F o re ign c on tac t sw e r e ma in ta ined i nc e r ta in d i rec t ion s ,e spec ia l ly e a s twa rd st ot h eL evan ta nd w e s twa rd st os ou the rn I t a ly -p e rhap sp a r t ly w i th av i ew t os u s ta in ing t h ec oppe ra nd t i ns upp l ie s . Em ig ra t ion w a s r i f e ,a nd p opu la t ion e v iden t ly b egan t od ec l ine - af a c to rw h ich t a ke so ns ome i mpo r t a nce w hen w ec on s ide rt h eo t he rn a tu ra lm ean so fo b ta in ing c oppe ra nd t i n ,n ame ly b y t h em e l t ing d own a nd r e u se o fe x i s t ing b ronze a r t e f a c t s . Ar e duced r emnan tc ou ld s u r v i ve f a rl o nge ro nt h ea c cumu la ted w ea l th o f af o rme r , much l a rge rp opu la t ion . T he p ro g r e s s ive a bandonm en to fs i t e s ,p a r t icu la r ly t h es ma l le r ,o u t ly ing o ne s ,i s af e a tu re w h ich s uppo r t st h e n o t ion o fi n c r ea s ing d i ff i cu l t ie s i no b ta in ing m e ta l s . R eg iona ld i f f e rence s w i th in t h eG r eek w o r ld b ecome s t ead i ly mo re a ppa r en ti nt h em a te r ia lr e co rd s ugge s t ing i n c r ea sed d ecen t ra l i sa t ion ;w he r ea so ne o ft h ef e a tu re so ft h ep a la ce s y s t em h ad b een t h e ma in tenance o f as o r t o fA egean c u l tu ra l k o ine , d oub t le s s f ounded o n t h e c l o se c om mun ica t ion s , a t ah i gh l e ve l ,b e tween t h er u l ing c l a s se so fe a ch r eg ion . P r e sen t ly , i nt h e l a te rp a r t o ft h e L a te H e l lad ic I I Cp e r iod , t h e se p roce s se s a c ce l e r a t ed . I tw i l lb es imp le s ti fIg i ve ab a re l i s to ft h em a jo rc hange sa ppa r en tf r om t h ea r c haeo log ica lr e co rd w h ich l i eo n e i the rs i de o ft h ep henomenon t h a tw ea r e s e ek ing t o e xp la in ,t h ea dven to fa nI r on A ge . F i r s t ,i nt h el a te rt we l f th c en tu ry B .C . a nd t h u sd e c i ded ly e a r l ie rt h an t h ec onve r s ion t oi r on ,w eh ave t h es udden u p su rge i ns i ng le b u r ia l w h ich i so ppo sed t ot h e p r ev iou s w ide sp read Mycenaean c u s tom o fb u r ia l i nf am i ly

2 5

v au l t s ( D ick in son 1 983 ) . I nt h e s ame g ene ra lp e r iod , w eh ave a l so mo r e ma rked s i gn s o fd epopu la t ion , l e ad ing t o as i tua t ion w he re , i nt h eE a r ly I r on A ge ,w eh ave n os i ng le c eme te ry t h a ta t te s t st o ac ommun i ty p opu la t ion o fm uch mo re t h an 5 0p eop le a ta ny o ne t ime ; a nd n os e t t lemen tw ho se a r ea ,u n le s si mp robab ly d en se ly s e t t led , s ugge s t af i gu r e o f mo re t h an a bou t t e n t ime s t h a t n umbe r ( Snodg ra ss 1 983a ) . B y t h i s t ime C yp ru s , t hough n o ty e tp a r to ft h eA egean w o r ld ,i ss how ing a ni n ten se i n te r e s ti na pp ly ing i r on t op rac t ica lu se s ,e spec ia l ly i nt h ep roduc t ion o fk n ive s ( Snodg ra ss 1 980a , 1 983b ) . We k now t h a tt h eG reek s w e re i na tl e a s ti n te rm i t ten tc on tac tw i th C yp ru st h roughou tt h i s p e r iod , a nd t h e re c an b el i t t le d oub tt h a tw eh ave h e re t h ei mmed ia te s ou r ce o ft h el a te r c onve r s ion o ft h eA egean w o r ld t ot h eu se o fi r on :n o tt h a tt h a tc on s t i tu te sa n e xp lana t i on o fi t ss p read t oG reece ,a nd t h us t oC on t inen ta lE u rope . N ex t ,a nd s t i l l mo re o rl e ss s ynch ronous w i th t h ea dop t ion o fs i ng le b u r ia ls ,t h e re i s ac hange o fc u s tom w h ich l e ad s t o t h e d epo s i t ion o f h and -made c oa r se p o t te ry i ng rave s , a l ong s ide t h e w hee l -made p a in ted w a re w h ich h ad p r edom ina ted f o rc en tu r ie si nf une ra ry c on tex t s( t hough s e t t le m en t ma te r ia lt e l l s as l igh t ly d i f f e ren ts t o ry ) . We h ave n ow r e ached t h eh o r izon o ft h ef i r s tt r ue I r on A ge i nG reece ; a nd t h e re a r e t wo o the rp henomena w h ich c o inc ide a lmo s te xa c t ly i nt ime w i th t h e a dop t ion o fi r on a st h ep ref e r red m e ta lf o rp rac t ica lu se s . O ne i st h ea dven to fc r ema t ion ; a nd t h eo t he r i st h ea dop t ion o f an ew s t y le o fw hee l -made p o t t e ry ,t h eP ro togeome t r ic . T h i sp o t te ry i sd i s t ingu i shed b y t h e u se o ft wo t r iv ia l b u td i agno s t ic m echan ica l a i d s , t h e c ompa s s a nd t h e mu l t ip le b ru sh ,i ni t sd eco ra t ion . B u tt h ei n te re s t ing t h ing i st h a t ,l i ke i r on i t se lf , b o th t h e se i nnova t ion sa r ef ound o n ly i ns e lec ted a r ea so fG reece ; a nd t h a tt h ea r ea si n q ue s t ion d on o tc o inc ide f o re ach o ft h et h ree i nnova t ion s . T hu s ,t h en or th -e a s ier nP e lo p onne se ,w h ich i sf o rwa rd i nt h ea dop t ion o fb o th i r on a nd t h eP ro togeome t r ic s t y le ,a l mo s te n t i re ly r e jec t s c r ema t ion ; w h i le c en t ra l C re te e mb race s i r on a nd c r ema t ion l o ng b efo r e i ta dop t s t h eP ro togeome t r ic s y s tem o fd eco ra t ion ( on t h e se q ue s t ions s e e mo s t c onven ien t ly S nodg ra s s 1 971 : 5 5f f . ( po t te ry ) ; 1 47f f . a nd 1 64f f . ( c rema t ion ) ; 2 17f f . a nd 2 49f f . ( i ron ) ) . F inaly , a nd o np re sen te v idence n o td e tec tab le u n t i l s ome w ay i n to t h e I r on A ge ,w eh ave a na r ch i tec tu ra lc hange t h a ti sl i kew i se r e s t r ic ted i ni t sg eog raph ica l e x ten t , b u tw h ich l i kew i se f a i ls t oc o inc ide i ni t s s cope w i th a ny o ft h ee a r l ie ri nnova t i ons .T h i sc hange c on s is t so fa na dop t ion o fc u rv i l inea rb u i ld ing p l an s ,w he the rs ub -e l l i p t ica l o r ( much mo re c ommon ly ) a ps ida l . T h i s f e a tu re i sc ha rac ter i s t ic o n ly o ft h e G reek ma in land a nd o ft h e G reek -speak ing s e t t lemen t s o n t h e w e s te rn c oa s t o fA s ia M ino ra nd i t so f f sho re i s land s . I nC re te a nd t h eC yc lade s ,b yc on t ra s t ,r e c t i l inea rp l an s s t i l lp reva i l . T hu s ,w i th in as pace o fa bou t 1 50 y ea r ss i nce t h eb reakdown o ft h ep a lace s y s tem , a f a r reach ing t r an sfo rma t ion h ad t a ken p l ace i nt h em a te r ia lc u l tu re o f ma in land G reece : t h es e t t lemen t -pa t ter nh ad b een d ra s t ica l ly t h inned ;r e g iona ld i f f e rence sh ad b een a ccen t u a ted ; b u i ld ing type s h ad a l te red ; b u r ia l -fo rm s a nd r i te s , t oge the rw i th o the rf une ra ry d epo s i t iona l p rac t ice s , h ad u nde rgone as e r ie s o fc hange s ; a nd an ew s t y le o fp a in ted p o t te ry h ad a r r ived . Wha t s oc ia l c hange s a r e s ugge s ted b y t h is a ccumu la t ion o fc hange s i nt h e m a te r ia l r e co rd? A nd h ow c an t h ey b eb rough tt ob ea ro nt h eq ue s t ion o ft h ea dop t ion o fi r on?

2 6

1S nodg rass

A l l manne ro fs pecu la t ive a n swe r sh ave b een g iven t ot h ef i r s to ft h e se q ue s t ions . T o men t ion o n ly t wo r e cen ta nd i n t r igu ing o ne s : t h eh ypo the s i so f ar eve r s ion t op a s to ra l n omad i sm o rt r an shumance i nt h eE a r ly I r on A ge h a sb een a dvanced o nt h ee v idence o f o ne o ro t he ro ft h ep henomena j u s tl i s ted . S ake l la r iou ( 1980 : 18f f . ) ,f o re xamp le , a r g ued t h a tt h ea p s ida lh ou se -p lan , ar eve r s ion o f ab u i ld ing -fo rm much f avou red i np re Mycenaean G reece , w a s c ha ra c te r i s t ic o fn omad ic p opu la t ion s ; w h i le K i r s ten ( 1983 : 4 37 ,n .6 4 )h a st h rown o ft h es ugge s t ion t h a tt h ei n c rea sed i n c idence o fh and -made p o t t e ry i nE a r ly I r on A ge G r eece b e token sa nu psu rge i nt r an shumance . T he se h ypo the se s w e re i n t r in s icaly a t t rac t ive t om e , s i nce Ih ad b een a rgu ing f o r many y ea r s ( Snodg ra s s 1 971 : 3 79f ; 1 980b : 3 5 f ) t h a tp a s to ral i sm w a s w ide sp read i nG reece d u r ing t h e e a r l ie r p a r to ft h eI r on A ge . I tc ou ld e ven b ea rgued t h a t am e ta ll i ke i r on ,w ide ly a va i lab le f r om n a t ive s ou rce si nG reece ,w ou ld p re sen td i s t inc t ly g rea te ra t t rac t ion st o amob i le ,p a s to r a l i s tp opu la t ion t h an w ou ld b ronze ,a na l loy o fm e ta l so b ta inab le o n ly b yl ong -d i s tance e xchange . H oweve r , Is ha l lf o r swea ra ny a t temp tt op re s st h ec a se f u r the r , s i nce Ih ave b een a s su red b ya l l my p reh i s to r ian c o l league st h a tt h ee v idence p roduced i ns uppo r to f t h i sv i ew ( wh ich n ow i n c lude st h eo n ly a va i lab le s amp le o fa n ima l -bone sf r om a nI r on A ge s e t t lemen ts i te ( S loan a nd D uncan 1 978 ) )n o to n ly h a sf a i led t oe s tabl i sh t h ea r gu men t ,b u ti si np r inc ip le i n capab le o fe ve rd o ing s o ,a nd Is ha l li n s tead f a l lb ack o n al e s s c on t rove r s ia li n te rp re ta t ion o ft h es ame b ody o fe v idence . O ne t h ing t h a tc l ea r ly e me rge s f r om t h e c hange s i nt h e a r chaeo log ica lr e co rd a tt h e e nd o ft h eB ronze A ge i nG reece i st h a t ad ecen t ra l isa t ion o fp o l i t ica lc on tro lt ook p l ace , l e ad ing t oa ni n c rea sed l o ca li ndependence . T he d i sappea rance o ft h ep a lace e conom ie s , t h et h inn ing o ft h es e t t lemen tp a t te rn ,t h e mo re o bv ious d ive r s i ty o ft h em a te r ia lc u l tu re -a l t h ese a r e man if e s ta t ion so ft h a tp ro ce s s . O ne n a tu ra lc on sequence o fs mal c om mun i t ie sb e ing t h rown b ack O nt h e i ro wn r e sou rce si st h es imp l if i ca t ion o fc e r ta in s oc ia l p rac t ice sa nd t e chno log ica lp roce s se s . T hu s ,a mong t h ec u l tu ra lc hange sw eh ave c on s i de red ,t h ea bandonmen to fb u r ia li nf am i ly t omb sw il h ave c ome n a tu ra l ly t op eop le w ho e i the rh ave j u s tc hanged t h e i rp lace o fh ab i ta t ion ( a st h e re i sr ea son t ob e l ieve many Mycenaean c ommun i t ie sd id , o n ap u re ly l o ca l s c a le ,i nt h eL a te H e l lad ic MC p e r iod ) o re xpec tt od os oi nt h ef a i r ly n ea rf u tu re . T he a dop t ion o fa p s ida lb u i ld ing p lans ,i nr e g i on sl i ke m a in land G reece a nd I on ia w he re mud b r ick h ad b een t h es t anda rd b u i ld ing ma te r ia l ,c an a l so b es e en a s ac on sequence o ft h ea bandonmen to f as t anda rd ,c en t raly d e te rm ined s i ze o fb r ick , a nd t h er eve r s ion t o' do i t -you r se l f 'p rac t ice s ( Gul in i 1 983 ) . T hu s , a ga in , t h ep rog re s s ive s ub s t i tu t ion o fh and -made f o rw hee l -made c oa r se p o t te ry may r e f lec tn o th ing mo r et h an ar e s t r ic ted a cce s st ot h ep roduc t so fp rof e s s iona lp o t te r 's w o rk shops . P henomena s u ch a st h e se h ave b een c ha rac te r i sed b yD ick in son ( 1983 : 6 7 ) a se xemp l ify ing t h ep r inc ip le o fe conomy o fe f fo r t ;a nd my v i ew m e re ly p rov ide s ac on t e x tf o rt h e eme rgence o ft h a tp r inc ip le . H ow w i l lt h i sr ef lec to nt h ea dop t ion o fi r on? T he a n swe ri sf a i r ly o bv iou s . B ronze w o rk ing ,q u i te a pa r tf r om t h es pec ia lc i rcum s tance sw h ich ,i nt h eA egean ,h ad c ome t o l i nk i tw i th ap a lace -cen t r ed r ed is t r ibu t ive e conomy ,a cqu i re sf r om i t sv e ry n a tu re a na u ra o f my s t ique a sw e l la so fa r t isan sh ip . T he b ronze -sm i th o pe ra te sw i th r aw m a te r ia lt h a t c ome sf r om d i f f e ren ts ou r ce s ,i nm any c a se se xo t ic t oh i sn a t ive r eg ion ; h em ixe st h em

2 7

i nc a refu l ly -ob served p ropo r t ion s ; t h u s p rov id ing am a te r ia l w h ich w i th t h e n ece s sa ry s k i l ls c an b e g i ven a n a t t rac t ive a ppea rance e ven b efo re a ny s u r f ace d eco ra t ion i sa t t emp ted ; i fa nd w hen i ti s ,t h ea e s the t ic c on s ide r a t ion sa s sume a ne ven mo re i mpo r tan t p l ace a l ong s ide t h ep u re ly t e chn ica lo ne s . A bove a l ,t h er aw ma te r ia l sa nd mo r ee spe c i a l ly t h e f i n i shed p roduc t a r e , a t mo s tp e r iod s , l i ke ly t ob e e xpen s ive . A l lo ft h is e n c ou rage s a n a t t i tude o fd ef e rence : t ot h e ma te r ia l , t ot ho se w ho p rocu re i ta nd t ot ho se w ho c an w o rk i t . I r on , o nce i ti st ur ned t op rac t ica lu se s ,p re sen t s ac on t ra s ti na lmo s t a l lr e spec t s . I ti so fw ide sp read o ccu r rence ; i t s a e s the t ic p o t en t ia l i sa lmo s tn on -ex i s t e n t ; i t s wo rk ing r equ i re sd i f f e ren ts k i l l s ,a nd much mo re h a rd w o rk o fa nu n rema rkab le k ind , t h an t h a t o fb ronze . T h is c on t ra s t w a s a pp r ec ia ted i nt h e C la s s ica lp e r iod , a si s s hown b y ar ema rk o fP lu ta rch 's w h ich ,a l though i tr e f e r st oa nu n spec if ied p e r iod i nt h e p a s ta nd a l though i tw a si n sp i red b yb ronze s t a tua ry ,i sv e ry much t ot h ep o in t : "W as t h er e t h en s ome c ompound ing p r oces s ,s ome s or cery o nt h ep ar to ft h ea nc ien t w ork er s i nb ronze , l i ke t h es o - c a l led q uench ing o fs word s , w hose a bandonmen tl e dt o at r uce o nb r onze i nw arf ar e?" ( Mora l ia 3 95 B ) . Quench ing i s , o fc ou r se , ap roce s s a pp rop r ia te t oi r on - w o rk ing , n o tb ronze , a sP lu t a r ch w e l lk new ( Mora l ia 1 56 B ) ; s ot h a tt h ep h ra se i nt h em idd le o ft h i sq uo ta t ion r ep r e sen t sa na na logy ,n o ta ne xemp l if i ca t ion . P lu ta r ch i sc ompa r ing t h e mo s ts pec tacu la r p roce s so ft h eb l ack sm i th 's t r ade ,w h ich h ea nd h i sr e ade r su nde r s tand ,w i th t h e' s ec re t ' s k i l ls o ft h eb ronze -sm i th w h ich a r e much l e s se a s i ly i n te l l ig ib le . E l sewhe re i nt h es ame p a s sage h ee xp r e s se s s im i la ra we a bou tt h em ean sb yw h ich ap a t ina w a sp roduced o n b ronze s t a tue s . B u th el i nk st h e se o b se rva t ions t oo ne o ft h e mo s ti mpo r tan te p i sode si n me talu rg ica lh i s to ry ,t h ea bandonmen to fb ronze f o rw eapon s . T he i ndependen tc h ie f ta in si nt h e i rt i ny I r on A ge c ommun i t ie sw i l lh ave s ha red n one o fP lu ta rch ' s s en t imen t s ( a pa r t , p e rhaps , f r om t h ea e s the t ic d ef e rence ) . T ot h em , i r on wo rk ing r ep re sen ted s e lf -suff i c iency , i nt h e s ame w ay t h a t s i ng le b u r ia lo rh and -made p o t te ry d id . F ur the rmo re ,i tn ow s e em st h a ti nG reece , a sw a sa l ready k nown t ob et h e c a se i nC ypru s , t h ey a nd t h e i rt e chn ic ian sr ap id ly a ch ieved a n a dded a dvan tage : t h ey l e a rned h ow t op roduce i r on t h a tw a sc l ea r ly s upe r io rt oe ven t h eb e s tb ronze ,i nr e spec t o fi t sh a rdne ss a nd c u t t ing p owe r( V a roufak i s 1 983 ; c f . Madd in 1 983 ) . A s mo re e xam p l e so fe a r ly C yp r io ta nd A egean i r on w eapon sa nd t oo l s a r et e s ted b ya na ly s is ,t h er e s u l th a sb een t op u sh b ack a lmo s tt ot h eb eg inn ing o ft h eI r on A ge t h ed a te a tw h ich t h e p roce s se so fc a rbu r i s ing ,t empe r ing a nd q uench ing w e re m a s te red ,a nd a tw h ich w rough t i r on w a s t h u s e f f ec t ive ly c onve r ted i n to m i ld s t ee l . T h i si sa n i mpo r tan td i scove ry . I t e xp la in s , n o tw hy i r on w a s o r ig ina l ly a dop ted , b u tw hy i t s i n i t ia l a dop t ion , b eg inn ing p e rhap sa s ae xpe r imen t made u nde rt h ep re ssu re o fc on s t ra in t ,t h en l e dt oa ni reve r s ib le p roce s so fc hange t h a ts wep ta c ro s sh a lf t h ew o r ld . T ho se r eg ion so fE u rope w h ich made t h et r an s i t ion t oi r on -u se u nde rt h ed i rec ti nf luence o ft h eG reek s ,a ss ome l a te rd id ,c ou ld t hus b enef i tn o tm e re ly f r om ac hange i nr aw m a te r ia l s ,b u tf r om ar ap id ly a ch ieved e x p e r t i se i nh and l ing t h e n ew m a te r ia l w h ich made i ta c tua l ly s upe r io rt ot h e o ld . T h i s mu s t i np a r t e xp la in w hy r eg ion s w h ich w e re w e l l s uppl ied w i th c oppe r a nd t i n , a nd wh ich t h e refo re s u f f e red f r om n one o ft h ec on s t ra in t sw h ich h ad p u shed t h eG r eek si n to e xp lo r ing t h ep o ten t ia l o fi r on , n eve r the le s s f o l lowed t h em a l ong t h e s ame p a th . Id o

2 8

1S nodg rass

n o t mean t oa s se r tt h a te ve ry p a r to fE u rope made t h i st r ans i t ion u nde rG reek o rE a s ter n Med i te r ranean i nf luence , a l though Id ot h ink t h a t ac a refu lr e con s ide ra t ion o ft h el o ca l c h rono log ica l s equence s ,o b se rv ing t h ec r i te r ia w h ich Is ugge s ted e a r l ie r , a nd i s o la t ing t h ep o in ta t wh ich e conom ic d ependence o ni r on b ecame p a ramoun t ,w i l lr evea lt h a tt h i s i sa tl e a s t ah i s to r ica lp o s s ib i l i ty . I nr e f e r r ing t ot h e ' c on s t ra in t s 't h a to pe ra ted i nt h eG reek c a se , Ia mm a in ta in ing t h e v i ew w h ich If i r s t p u t f o rwa rd s ome y ea r s a go ( Snodg ra ss 1 971 : 2 37f f . ) t h a t t h e v e ry f i r s ts t eps i nG reek i r onwo rk ing may h ave b een mo t iva ted b yt h es hor tage o fb ronze s up p l ie sa nd i np a r t icu la rt i n . Id ot h i sd e sp i te t h ee me rgence o ft wo a wkwa rd p i ece so fe v i d ence f r om t h ea na ly s is o fE a r ly l i on A ge a r tef ac t sa tN icho r ia ( Rapp ,J one s ,C ooke a nd H en r ick son 1 978 ) a nd a tL efkand i ( J one s 1 980 ) . T he se a na ly se sr evea led t h a tb ronze o b jec t so fE a r ly I r on A ge d a te h ad at i nc on ten tw h ich , f a rf r om i nd ica t ing s ho r tage o f t i n s upp l ie s , w a se xce s s ive ly h igh : a tN icho r ia i ts u rpa s sed 2 2% , a tL e fkand i2 0% , a s a ga in s ta no p t ima lp ropo r t ion o fa bou t 1 0% i nb ronze . B u tC a tl ing ,i n al a te rv o lume o f t h eN icho r ia r e po r t ( Ca t l ing 1 983 : 2 83f . ) ,h a sp o in ted t ow ha ti ss u re ly t h e c o r rec te x p l ana t ion o ft h e se a be r ra t ion s . T he o b jec t st e s ted a tb o th s i te sh ave a l lb een t i ny a nd a l l d eco ra t ive . T he i rh igh t i nc on ten ti st h us o fl i t t le s i gn if icance i nt e rm so fa b so lu te q uan t i t y : w ha ti tr ef lec t si sr a the rt h ed e s i re t o make d eco ra t ive b ronze s , s uch a sd re s s -p in s , mo re a t t rac t ive b yb oo s t ing t h et i nc on ten tt ot h ep o in tw he re t h er e su l tan ta l loy m igh t e ven b ec onfused w i th g o ld . I nG reece ,a tl e a s t ,t h eo the re v idence s t il c onfo rm st ot h e i d ea t h a tb ronze , a nd e spec ia l ly t i n , may h ave b een d i f f icu l tt oo b ta in i na ny q uan t i ty . P a r t icu la r ly n o tab le i nG reece i st h et empo ra ry r e cou r se ,e spec ia l ly i nt h et e n th c en tu ry B .C . , t o ma ldng i r on v e r s ion s o fs uch o b jec t s a sf i bu lae , f o rw h ich b ronze w a s av e ry much mo re a pp ropr ia te m a te r ia l . I na smuch a st h es ame p rac t ice ,f o l lowed b y ap a ra l le l r eve r s ion t ob ronze i nl a te rt ime s , o ccu r s a l so i nC yp ru s , C i l ic ia , s ou the rn I t a ly , S i c i ly a nd F rance ( Snodg ra s s 1 980a : 3 68 ) ,t h e re a r eg round sf o rt h ink ing t h a ts ome s uch c on s t ra in t s may h ave o pe ra ted w el b eyond G reece : a l lt h e se r eg ion s ,i tmay b en o ted , l i e a ts ome d i s tance f r om t i ns ou rce s . We may l e a rn s ome th ing , f i na l ly , f r om t h e s eque l t ot h is e a r ly p e r iod o fi r on -u se i n G reece : as eque l w ho se c ha rac te rh a s a l ready eme rged , b yi mpl i ca t ion , e a rl ie ri nt h i s p ape r . D ecen t ra l isa t ion a nd i ndependence f o s t e red i nd iv idua le n te rpr i se ; a nd i tw a si n d iv idua l e n te rp r i se wh ich e nab led t h e A egean c ommun i t ie s t oe s cape f r om t h e i n i t ia l a u s te r i ty o ft h ea ge o fi r on , a nd t oa ch ieve t h a tf u s ion o fi r on t e chno logy a nd a ff luence i nb ronze w h ich i sc ha rac te r is t ic o f mo s td eve loped l i on A ge c u l tu re s . H e re a tl a s tw e may d raw o nt h eo ne g r ea tl i t e ra ry a s se tw h ich t h eG reek E a r ly I r on A ge h a st os e ta ga in s t t h eg l amou ro ft h eL a te B ronze A ge : t h eH ome r ic p oem s ,b yw h ich Im ean n o tt h ec on t e n to ft h el e gend st h a tt h ey r e ta i l ,b u tt h ei n c iden ta ll i gh tw h ich t h ep oe ta tt ime st h row s o n l a te rp e r iod s , e spec ia l ly h i s o wn l i f e t ime , t h rough h i s s im i le s a nd o the rn on - t r ad i t i ona lp a ssage s . I ti sH ome r , a f te ra l l , w ho i n ag rue some s im i le p rov ide s o u re a r l ie s t l i t e ra ry p roof o ft h eG reek k now ledge o fq uench ing ( Ody s sey 1 0 :4 59 ) ,i nw o rd st h a ta r e u n l ike ly t oh ave b een c ompo sed much l a te rt h an 7 00 B .C . I ti sH ome r , t oo ,w ho g ive s u so u re a r l ie s t , i ndeed a lmo s to u ro n ly p i c tu re o ft h em eans - s od i f f e r en tf r om t h a to f t h e Mycenaean p a lace a tP y lo s -w he reby a ni n d iv idua li nt h er ev iv ing w o r ld o ft h ed e v e loped I r on A ge i nG reece m igh ts upp ly h i sc ommun i ty w i th b ronze :

2 9

" . .s a i l ing a cros st h ew ine -dark s ea t of or e ign p ar t s ,t oT emese ,a f t er c opper ,a nd c ar r y ing w i th m es h in ing i r on" ( i . e . ,f or e xchange )( Od y s sey 1 :1 83f ) T he s peake ri st h eg odde s sA thena ,b u ti nh e rd i sgu i se a s Men te s , ap rom inen tg en t le man f r om an e ighbou r ing i s land w ho h a sc a l led i na tI t haka . Whe the rT eme se i st ob e i d en t i f ied w i th T ama sso si nC yp rus ( p r ef e rab le o ng round so ft h ec ommod i ty s ough t )o r T empsa i nt h et o eo fI t a ly ( p ref e rab le i nt h a ti t sp eop le a r ed e sc r ibed a s' f o re ign ' ,t h a ti s n on -G reek s peake r s ) ,t h es i gn if i can tf e a tu re i st h a ti ti st hough tt ob e ac onv inc ing ' c ove r ' i nt h e wo r ld o ft h e Ody s sey f o r aG r eek t ob ee xchang ing n a t ive i r on f o rf o re ign c oppe r . H e re ,f o ro nce ,w eh ave e xp l ic i ta cknow ledgemen to ft h ef e a tu re w h ich ,b yi n f e rence , Ih ave b een a t t r ibu t ing t od eve loped I r on A ge s oc ie t ie s i nE u rope : t h e i r h unge r f o r b ronze . T he e v idence i sf am i l ia re ve rywhe re , b u tt h ei n f e rence s t i l l s e em s ap a radox i c a lo ne . I tp uzz le s a r chaeo log i s t s , a nd It h ink t h a ti tm i s led e ven Go rdon C h i lde . H i s f amou sp ronouncemen t ( Ch i lde 1 942 : 1 83 ) , " Cheap i r on d emoc ra t i sed a g r icu l tu r e a nd i ndu s t ry a nd w a r f a re t oo " , w a s , Iw ou ld a r gue ,e n t i re ly s ound i ni t s i n s t inc t s . N o th ing c ou ld b e mo re e ga l i ta r ian t h an a s t r ic t ly a nd e xc lu s ive ly i r on -ba sed e conomy . T he e xamp le o fG reece ( wh ich C h i lde p robab ly h ad i nm ind ) w ou ld s e em t ob ea r o u t h i s c l a im ,b u to n ly f o rt h eb r ief d u ra t ion o ft h a tp e r iod a tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h eI r on A ge w hen G reece h ad s uch a ne conomy . Wha tC h i lde d id n o ta low f o rw a st h e f a c tt h a ta nI r on Age s oc ie ty , o nce i tc ou ld g e ti t s h and so n a dequa te s upp l ie s o fb ronze , w ou ld f i nd i t s e lf a b le t op u tt h em t oe ven b e t te ru se t h an aB ronze A ge s oc ie ty ,t h ank si np a r tt ot h e a va i lab i l i ty o fi r on t oo ls t ow o rk t h em . C onve r se ly ,o ne a spec to ft h ev a lue o fd i scove r i ng n a t ive i r on n ea rby w a st h a ti tf o rmed ac ommod i ty f o re xchange w i th c oppe ra nd t i n f r om r emo te r s ou rce s . T he f a c tt h a tm any I r on A ge s oc ie t ie s i nE u rope i nd ue c ou r se c ome t os how a ne ven g r ea te rc oncen t ra t ion o fp o l i t ica la nd e conom ic p owe rt h an i nt h e p reced ing B ronze A ge i ss u re ly i np a r t ar ef lec t ion o ft h i sp roce s s : a n e l i te w h ich d i s p o sed o fa lt h ea dvan tage so fb o th m e ta l sw a si ndeed s t rong ly p l aced . N e i the rC h i lde n o rs ome o fh i ss ucce sso r sh ave a pp rec ia ted t h i sf a c to r : h eh im se lf e xp re s sed ap uzz led p a r t ia lr e t rac t ion o fh i s g ene ra l i sa t ion af ew y ea r sl a te r( 1950 : 2 22 ) , w hen c onf ron t ing w i th t yp ica lh one s ty t h ei n e scapab ly h i e ra rch ica ls t ruc tu re o fI r on A ge s o c ie t ie si nb a r b a r ian E u rope . T he G reek c a se i s , Iw ou ld a dm i to nce a ga in ,u n typ ica li n many r e spec t s . F ew E u ro p ean s oc ie t ie sc an h ave c omb ined t h es ame f e a tu re s ,o fb e ing o nt h eo ne h and s ob ad ly p l aced t o ma in ta in s upp l ie so fc oppe ra nd t i n , a nd o nt h eo the rh and s or e ad i ly i nnova t i ve i ne xp lo i t ing t h ep o ten t ia lo fi r on . T ha ti sn od oub tt h er ea son w hy t h eb ronze / i ron t r an s i t ion a ppea r si ns uch ac l ea r -cu tf o rm i nt h eA egean a r ea . P e rhaps Im ay e nd b yi l l u s t ra t ing t h e s equence . I nt h e e l even th , t e n th a nd n i n th c en tu r ie sB .C . a lmo s tt h e e x c l u s ive s ou r ce o fm e ta lf i nd sf r om G r eece i st h a to fg rave -good s . B u ti nt h ee i gh th c en t u ry ,t h i ss ou rce b eg in st od ec l ine ,a sf une ra ry p rac t ices c hange . A tt h es ame p e r iod ,a nd r a the ra b rup t ly , ad i f f e ren tc on tex tf o rm e ta lwo rk ,t h ed ed ica t ion sa ts anc tua r ie s ,b ecome s p rom inen t ; a nd i nt h e s even th a nd s i x th c en tu r ie s , i ti st h e s anc tua ry -f ind s w h ich p re d om ina te a se xc lu s ive ly a st h eg r ave -good sh ad e a r l ie r .

3 0

1S nodg rass

As e lec t ion o ft h e m e ta l f i nd s f r om f i ve o ft h er i che s tc eme te r ie s o fE a r ly l i on A ge G reece i sp re sen ted i nf i gu re 1 .T he t y pe sh ave b een w ronged ,f r om l e f tt or i gh t ,i nt h e o rde ra cco rd ing t ow h ich i r on w a si n t roduced i np l ace o fb ronze f o re ach p a r t icu la rt y pe . Ih ave s i ng led o u tt h ec l a s se so fw eapon a nd t o o lf o rw h ich t h ea dop t ion o fi r on w a sc r i t i c a l . T he p redom inance o fi r on o ve rb ronze ,i nt h e se c l a s se so fo b jec ta nd a tt h ep e r iod i nq ue s t ion ( b e tween t h eo u the rl im i t so fc . 100 a nd c .7 00 B .C .i ne ve ry c a se ) ,i si nf a c t a lmo s tt o ta l . I tr ange sb e tween 9 2a nd 9 9% a tt h es i te si nq ue s t ion a nd t h ee xcep t iona l b ronze p i ece s a r ea l le a r ly a nd mo s t ly s pea rhead s . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o ft ype sc l ea r ly i l l u s t ra te st h ep reva lence o fr e g iona l i sm i nG reece : n o te h ow t h et wo C re tan c eme te r ie s ( bo th a tK no s so s )a r ed i s t ingu i shed b yt h e i rp re f e rence f o rt h ej ave l in o ve rt h et h ru s t ing s pea r , f o ri n s tance , a nd h ow c l o se ly t h e i rp rof i le si ng ene ra lr e semb le e ach o t he r . T he t wo ma in land c eme te r ie s ,t h eK e rame iko si nA then sa nd V e rg ina i n Macedon ia ,a r en o t a b le f o rt h e i rw e igh t ing t owa rd st h el e f t -hand s i de o ft h eh i s tog ram . T he p redom inance o ft h e ' e a r ly ' i r on t ype s -k n if e , d agge r , d i rk , s wo rd - i nA then s a nd a tV e rg ina m ay p o s s ib ly r ef lec tt h ef a c tt h a tt h e se c eme te r ie sl i ei na r ea sw h ich w e re p ionee r ing t h eu se o fi r on i nG reece , w i thou t much g u idance f r om o u t s ide . T he re a r e s ome i ndependen t g round sf o rb e l iev ing t h i s ,j u s ta st h e re i se v idence t h a tt h eo the rs i te s ( Le fkand ii nE u b oea , Kno s so si nC re te )i ns ome r e spec t s w e re f o l low ing b eh ind t h el e ade r s ,a t ad e tec t a b le i n te rva l . B u tt h i si ss pecu la t ion ,a nd t h ed i f f e r ence sm ay i nd ica te n o th ing mo re t h an t h ed i f f e ren tn eed so fl o ca lc ommun i t ie sw i th in G r eece . Wha ti sn o td eba tab le i st h es eque l ,a sp o r t rayed b yt h ef i nd sf r om G reek s anc tua r ie s . T he c hange i nc on tex t -t h er ep lacemen t o fs ho r t -l ived p r iva te o s ten ta t ion b y p e rma n en t ,o f ten c ommuna ld i sp lay - i si n deed o fg r ea ts i gn i f icance i ni t se lf , b u ti td oe sn o t d i rec t ly r e la te t oo u rs ub jec th e re . Wha t Iw i sh t oe mpha s i se i si n s tead t h ea brup tc hange i nt h eb a lance o fm e ta l s . T he re a r ei ndeed i r on o b jec t sd ed ica ted i nG reek s anc tua r ie s ( K i l ian 1 983 ) , b u tt h ey make a nu n imp re s s ive s how i nt h ep ub l ica t ion s , a nd t h is i sn o t p r ima r i ly af unc t ion o ft h ee xcava to r s 'p r ef e rence f o rp ub l i sh ing b ronze s . T he t r u th i s t h a tf r om t h ee i gh th c en tu ry B .C .o nwa rd s ,b ronze o b jec t sw e re b e ing d ed ica ted a ts anc t u a r ie si na lmo s tu n imag inab le q uan t i t ie s . I ti si d le t os pecu la te a st ow ha tp ropor t ion o f t h eo r ig ina lt o ta li sr ep re sen ted b yt h es u rv iv ing f i nd s ,w ho se c on tex ti n mo s tc a se ss how s t h a tt h ey w e re j e t t i soned ( a nd t h u s s a f e ly b u r ied ) b ecau se o fo ve r c rowd ing . B u te ven t h ey o f f e r s ome q u i te i mp r e s s ive f i gu r e s ( s ee S nodg ra s s 1 980b : 5 2f f . , 1 04f f . , 1 31 f o r s ome e xamp le s ) , a nd m any o ft h em a r eo fs ub s tan t ia ls i ze . B ronze t r ipod -cau ld ron sa t t h es anc tua r ie so f ma le d e i t ie s , a nd b ronze d r e s s -a cce sso r ie so ft ho se o ff ema le ,a r et h e c ommone s tc l a s se s i nt h e e i gh th c en tury ; i nt h e s e ven th a nd s i x th , t h e l a t te rc on t inue , w h i le t h ep l ace o ft h e f o rme ri st a ken b y p i ece so fb ronze a rmou r . T he p reva lence o f b ronze e x tend sn o to n ly t ot h et ype sw he re w ew ou ld e xpec ti t- d eco ra t ive p i ece sa nd o b jec t so fs hee tm e ta l -b u ta l so t oo f f ens ive w eapon s : i nt h ec a se o fa r rowhead s , b ronze e x tend sn o to n ly t ot h et y pe sw he re w ew ou ld e xpec ti t- d eco ra t ive p i ece sa nd o b jec t s o fs hee t me ta l -b u ta l so t oo f f en s ive w eapon s : i nt h ec a se o fa r rowhead s , t h i sc an b e e xp la ined b yt h ee a se o fm u l t ip le c a s t ing ,b u tt h i sr a t iona le c an h a rd ly b ea pp l ied t ot h e s pea rhead s , a mong w h ich b ronze s how s an o tab le r e su rgence , h a lf am i l lenn ium a f te r t h ee nd o ft h eB ronze A ge p rope r . I ti s ,w i thou td oub t ,t h er ed i scove ry o ft h et ime -hon o u red a t t r ibu te so fb ronze ,t h e me ta lo fa ff luence a nd a r t i s t ry ,w h ich i sr ef l ec ted h e re ( c f . B u rge s s 1 979 : 2 78 ) .

3 1

4 9

n=9 1

1 7

1 6

1 4 -

3 3 2 1 1

3

1 8

1

1 2

3 3 r- 1f -- 1

3 1 2 3

1 0

1 8

4

8

4 I 1

1 6

6

1 7

3 1 1 0 L . a ) C 1 1 ( 7 1 M C_ )

1 2

L . 0 3 C l )

3

1

8

0

n=3 0

1 9 7

0 -1 3

1

n= 7

3 1 6

3

I -

n=2 3 1

2 5

2 0

0

n=3 4 6

1

0

L . M G J CL V)

C • C U > M -1

I 3 0 c _ . t _ _
1 te

ti

c n D C

0

D 0 ) W C 0 a ) L i . . 0 ) 3

n

c n

a ) 4 •

iD ( 3

0 C

0

o _

D 0

_ _

D

D _ 0

a )

—

I -

c u

C




_ C . ° a ) E D CD N L . _ 4 _ c _ C i n c . ) ( 1 )

CT C • i _

W

p

( 1 )

i a )

0

i n E C ( 1 )

Ci-0 -0

c

—

. . Y

0

0

L . -

_ c

E

( J)

c

i n -0 • D

9 .) c m .=

$ 2 )

c 0

c u 0 a)

L . _ 1 . 1 L .

iß u ni

Pu on n

nz

F igu re 8 6 .E n tw ick lung d e rB evö lke rung szah li nd e rN iede r l a u s i tz w äh rend d e r B ronze u nd f r ühen E i senze i t a uf d em H in te rg rund ö konom ische r ,s oz ia le ru nd n a tü r l iche rV e r -ä n d e rungen . ( Deve lopmen to ft h ep opu la t ion s i ze i nN iede r l a u s i tz t h roughou t t h e B ronze a nd e a r ly I r on A ge s o n t h e b ackg round o fe conom ic , s oc ia l a nd e co log ica lc hange s ) .

3 71

t a a a a NI

I c ,

c ) c p L i ,

I a a a a

I a a c ) L f )

0 l

1 + 1

X 2

•

0

•

0

3

4

ow i r

33 i n 5

6

7

8

9

5 0k m = em i l

e V 1 0

F igu re 8 7 . V e rb re i tung a u sgewäh l te rT rach t - u nd S chmuckgegens tände d e rB ilendo r f e rG ruppe . ( D i s t r ibu t ion o fs e lec ted d re s s -f i t t ing sa nd or namen t sf r om t h eB i l lendo r f e r G ruppe ) . 1 :K nochennade ln ( Bone -p in ) . 2 :S t e igbüge la rm r inge ( S t i r rup -b race le t ) , 3 : B ronzenade ln m i t p rof i l ie r tem S t abknopf , T yp /31111 . K le ine K re i se 1F und , g roße K re i se meh re re F unde , ( Bronze -p in w i th p rof i le r od - s haped -head , s ma l lc i r c le 1f i nd , b ig c i rc le s eve ra lf i nd s ) .4 :N ade ln m i tp rof il ie r tem S t abkopf ,T ypen / 3 1112 u nd / 3 1113 , K nopfnade ln m i tp rof i l ie r tem S t abknopf T yp / 3 1823 .K le ine K re ise 1f und ,g roße K re i se meh re re F unde , ( P in w i th p rof i le r od -shaped -head , a nd c rop -p in w i th p rof i le r od s haped -head , s ma l l c i r c le 1f i nd , b i g c i rc le s eve ra lf ind s ) . 5 :S chwanenha l snade ln m i t R o l lenkopf ( S chwan sneck -p in w i th c o i l -head ) . 6 : S chwanenha l snade ln m i t g roßem k on i schem g e r i l l tem K opf ( Schwansneck -p in w i th b ig c on ica l g rooved h ead ) . 7 : S chwanenha l snade ln m i t S tabknopf ( Swane sneck -p in w i th r od -shaped -head ) . 8 : E i ser ne S p inde lkopfnade ln ( I ron S p inde lh ead -p in ) . 9 :G ed reh te H a ls r inge m i t S t em p e lenden ( Tw i s ted n eck lace sw i th s t amped t e rm ina l s ) . 1 0 : B ronzeö senknöpf e ( Bronze b u t tons w i th l oops ) .

3 72

1 7 B uck

F igu re 8 8 .V e rb re i tung d e re i se rnen Me iße l ,T ü l lenbe i le u nd S i che ln i nd e rS üdzone d e r L au s i tze r Ku l tu r . ( D i s t r ibu t ion o ft h ei r on c h i se l ,s ocke ted a xe sa nd s i cke l si nt h es ou th e rn z one o ft h eL u sa t ian C u l tu re ) .

k e ine s fa l ls . A l ld i e se sd eu te ta uf e i ne s oz ia lökonom isch r e ta rd ie rende E n tw ick lung d e r S tämme i m E lbe -Geb ie t g egenübe r d en ü b r igen S tämmen d e r L aus i tze r G ruppe h in . V ie l le ich tw i rd d adu rch a uch d i er e la t iv r a sche E inbez iehung d i e se rG eb ie te i nd i eJ a s t o r f -Ku l tu rz u B eg inn b zw . i mV e r lauf d e rS tuf e V Iv e r s tänd l ich ( F ig . 7 7 ) . E sk onn te w ah r sche in l ich g emach t w e rden , d aß d i e H e rau sb i ldung d e r J a s to r f -Ku l tu r i nd i e sem R aum w e i tgehend d u rch A s s im il ie rung d e rL au s i tze rS tämme a nd i eg e rman ische E n t w ick lung e r fo lg te ( Buck 1 979 :144 f f . ) . Mög l iche rwe i se i s td i ei nd e r ma te r ielen K u l tu r f aßba re I n teg ra t ion v on L aus i tze rB evö lke rung s te i len i nd i eJ a s to r f -Ku l tu rm i tw i r t scha f t l i chen V e ränderungen v e rbunden ,d enn d i eF undp lä tze d e rl e tz te ren l i egen v i e lf ach a uf l e ich te ren B öden ( Du r ch se tzung d e sP f lugbaue s? ) . I nd e rg e i s t igen K u l tu r( z .B . G rab 3 73

s i t ten , K un s t ) l e ben L aus i tze r T rad i t ionen i nd e r J a s to r f -Ku l tu r d i e se s R aume s n o ch e i n ige Z e i tf o r t( Buck 1 987 ) . B e sse rs i nd w i rü be rd i eE n tw ick lung d eV e rhä l tn i s se a mü be rgang v on d e rB ronze z u rE i senze i ti nd en ü b r igen G eb ie ten d e rL au s i tze rG ruppe d u r ch i nd en l e tz ten b e iden J ah rzehn ten e r fo lg te a r chäo log ische u nd n a tu rw i s senscha f t l iche U n te r suchungen i n fo r m ie r t . I nd e rM i t te l sp ree -Un te rg ruppe ,d e rO be r sp ree -Un te rg ruppe u nd d e rN e iße -Bö r Un te rg ruppe e r fo lg te w ie b e re i t sb eme rk ts e i td e rS tuf eI Ve i nA nwach sen d e rB evö lke r ung szah l ,d a si ne i ne re rheb l ichen V e rd ich tung d e sS ied lung sne tze su nd d e rE r r ich tung b evö lke rungs re iche r Weh r s ied lungen s e inen N iede r sch lag f i nde t . B e rechnungen f üh r ten z u d em E rgebn i s , d aß i nd e r S tuf e Ve twa e i n S echs te l d e r B evö lkerung i n Weh r s ied lungen l e b te . F ü r d i e N iede r lau s i tz k ann e i ne V e rd re if achung d e r B evö lke r ung szah li nd en S tuf en I V -V ,d . h . i ne i nem Z e i t raum v on v i e r e inha lb J ah rhunde r ten g e schä tz tw e rden . D ie B e r echnungen e rgaben f ü rd i eB i l lendo r f e rP ha se e i ne B evö lke r ung sd ich te ,d i ez w i schen 2 , 5u nd 7E inwohne rp ro k m2l i eg t ,w obe ib e rück s ich t ig tw e r d en muß , d aß d i e B e s ied lung skonzen t ra ton i nne rha lb d e rS ied lung skamme rn n och e r h eb l ich h öhe rl a g . D ie b i sd ah in i nd i e sem R aum n i ch te r re ich te B evö lke rung szunahme , d i ee r s ti mf r ühen M i t te la l te r( S lawen )w iede re r r e ich tw o rden s e in d ü r f te ,z wang o f f en b a re i ne r se i t sz uw i r t scha f t l ichen V e rände rungen u nd f üh r te a nde r se i t s ,z up e rmanen ten S pannungen z w i schen d en S tämmen .

Change si ne conomy a nd i ns ub s is tence s t ruc ture sa tt he t r an s i t ion E ine g röße re B edeu tung g ewann o f f enba r d i e V iehha l tung , w ozu d i e a u sgedehn ten N iederungen b e s te V o rau s se tzungen b o ten . P o l lenana ly t i sche U n te r suchungen a uf d e r b ef e s t ig ten S ied lung i nZ ü tzen b e legen e i n Übe rw iegen d e rV iehzuch tg egenübe rd em A cke rbau ( Lange ,I l ig u nd We tze l1 978 :3 0 f . ) . D ie o s teo log i sche Au swe r tung d e rT ie r k nochen a u sd e r Weh r s ied lung L übbenau ( T e iche r t1 976 )e r gab e i nr a sche sA nwach sen d e rG roßv iehha l tung b e ig l e ichze i t igem S inken d e sA n te i l sv on S chwe in ,S cha f ,Z iege u nd W i ld t ie r en ( F ig . 8 9 ) . G le ichze i t ig s che in ts i ch a m Übe rgang v on d e rB ronze - z u r E i senze i te i n Wande li mF e ldbau z uv o l lz iehen . V e rmu t l ich s e tz ts i ch e r s ti nd i e se rZ e i t d e rP f lugbau b e id en S tämmen d e rL au s i tze rG ruppe d u r ch . P f lüge u nd P f lug te i le v on G l iechow , K r . C a lau , u nd B o l le r sdo r f , K r . S t rau sbe rg , ( F ig . 9 0 ) s ow ie e i n d u r ch P f lug spu ren u nd d en p o l lenana ly t ischen N achwe i sv on G e t re ide u nd A cke runk räu te rn a l sA cke rc ha rak te r i s ie r te F läche b e iK le in L ie skow , Lb .C o t tbu s ,( Buck 1 982b )b e legen d en P f lugbau i nd e rL au s i tze rG ruppe w äh rend d e rj üng s ten B ronzeze i tu nd i nd e rf r ühen E i senze i t . D ie ü be rw iegend l e ich ten B öden d e rN iede r laus i t ze r le ich te r ten d en E in sa tz d e se i nf achen H akenpf luge s . I mZ u sammenhang m i td e rE infüh rung d e sP f lugbaue si s t d i eE n t s tehung v on G ehöf t s ied lungen a l sB e t r ieb s s tä t ten d e rb äue r l ichen G roß f am il ien a l s u nm i t te lba re s P roduk t ion sko l lek t iv z u s ehen . D ie T endenz z u E inze lgehöf ten u nd w e i le ra r t igen K le in s ied lungen i s ta uch i n a nde r en T e i len M i t te leu ropa z ue rkennen

3 74

1 7 B uck

F igu re 8 9 . P rozen tua le r A n te i l d e r v er zeh r ten F le ischmengen n ach H aus - t i e ra r ten i nd e r S i ed l u ng L übb enau ,K r .C a lau ( S tuf en I V -V I ) . ( Pe rcen tage c on t r ibu t i on t om ea tc on sump t ion b y t h e d ome s t ic a n ima l s f r om t h e L üb b enau s e t t lemen t ) .

s chaf/ziege sch wein p ferd

9 i 2g l

r ind

j stBz

aB i

j Bi

F igu r e9 0 . P f lüge . A : H ö lze rne rH aken v on B uckow ,K r .S t rausbe rg ( n ach V og t 1 983 ) . B : H ö lze rne S t ie l scha r v on G l iechow , K r . C a lau . ( P lough s . A : Wooden a r d f r om B uckow ,K r . S t rau sbe rg [ a f te rV og t 1 983 ] . B : Wooden ' s tee l -b lade 'f r om G l iechow ,K r . C a lau ) . 3 75

F igu re 9 1 . P rozen tua le r A n te i l d e r We rk s tof f e a n d en E rzeugn isgruppen w äh rend d e rB i l lendo r f e rP ha se .( Rep r e sen ta t ion i np e rcen tage o ft h eg roup s o f p roduc t s d u r ing t h e B i l lendo r f e r p ha se ) . 1 .A rbe i t sge rä t ( Too ls ) ; 2 . Wa f f en (W eapon s ) ; 3 . S chmuck u nd T rach t ( Ornamen ts a nd D ress -f i t t i ng s ) ; 4 .T o i le t tenge rä t ( To i le te qu i men t ) . =E i sen ( i ron )

,

n u u

=B ronze ( b ronze ) =S i lbe ru nd g o ld ( s i lve ra nd g o ld ) =K nochen u nd S t e in ( bone a nd s t one )

1

2

3

4

( Mü l le r -W i l le 1 977 ) . Mögl i che rwe i se w u rde d e rH i r seanbau z ugun s ten v on We izen u nd G e r s te r eduz ie r t . O b d e r R oggen z unäch s t a l s p r imä re o de r s ekundä r e K u l tu rpf lanze a uf t r i t t ,i s tn och um s t r i t ten ( Hopf 1 982 ) ,j edoch e r re ich ts e in A n te i li mP o l lend iag ramm v on S t e ink i r chen ( K lo ss 1 986 )z e i twe i l ig b i sz ue i nem V ie r te ld e rG e t r e idea r t igen ,w a s v i e l le ich tb e r e i t sa uf b ewuß ten A nbau d eu ten k önn te . We i te rh in e r fo lg tg egen E nde d e r B ronzeze i td i eV e rb re i tung d e rA cke rbohne i nd e rL aus i tze rG ruppe ( J äge r 1 965 ) . M i t d en V e rände rungen i nd e ra g ra r i schen P roduk t ion w u rden o f f enba rd i eV o rau s se tzungen f ü rd i e Konzen t ra t ion g röße re rB evö lke rung s te i le a uf e ngem R aum u nd d am i t f ü rd i e E r r ich tung d e r Weh r s ied lungen g e scha f f en . D e ren E rbauung u nd d i e S i che rung d e r N ah rung sm i t te lp roduk t ion f ü ri h re B ewohne re r fo rde r ten e i ne s t ra f f e A rbe i t so rgan i sa t i on u nd e rmög l ich ten A n sä tze g e se l lscha f t l iche A rbe i t s te i lungen . I nd i e sen S i ed lungen w a ren me ta l lhandwe rk l iche S pez ial i s ten u nd K no chen schn i tze rt ä t ig . E in T e i ld e rK e r a i n ik k önn te e benfa l l sv on S pez ia l i s ten h e rge s te l l tw o rden s e in . I nd e rS tuf eI lb b eg in n end w u rde i nd en S tuf eI V /V e i nz unehmend g röße re rT e i ld e rG ef äße u n te rB enu tzung d e r l a ng sam r o t ie renden T öpf e r sche ibe g ef er t ig t . S pez ia l i s tena rbe i t d ü r f te a uch d i e g raph i t ie r te K e ram ik s e in . F e rne rw u rde d i eO rgan i sa t ion u nd S i che rung d e s Wa r enau s t a usche sv e rmu t l ich d u r ch B eauf t rag te d e rS ied lung sgeme inscha f tv o rgenommen .

3 76

1 7 B uck

D ie V e r r ingerung d e rB ronzezufuh rw i rk te s i ch a uch a uf d i eS t ämme i mS p ree -Ne iße B 6b r -Geb ie ta u s . D ie se r Me ta l lmange lk onn te j edoch s e i td e rS tuf e Vd u r ch d i eE infuh r v on e i se rnen We rkzeugen u nd G e rä ten b ehoben w e rden . I mpo r t ier te E isenba r ren e rmö g l ich ten d en B eg inn d e rE i senve ra rbe i tung ,d i ed u rch S chm iedewe rkzeuge ,B a r ren u nd e i gen s tänd ige F o rmen f ü rd i e se sG eb ie tb e leg ti s t . E i se rne We rkzeuge l ö s ten i nk u rze r Z e i td i eb ronzenen , s t e inernen u nd k nöche rnen a b ( Buck 1 981) . D e rA n te i ld e sE i sen s e r re ich te b e i We rkzeugen a nd G e rä ten 9 5 %u nd b e i Wa f f en k napp 5 0%( F ig .9 1 ) 4.Me t a l lana ly sen s pez if i sch B i l lendo r f e r We rkzeug typen v on K le in L ie skow l a ssen v e rmu ten , d aß b e re i t si nH a Dd e rA bbau u nd d i eV e rhü t tung d e rh i e ra ns tehenden R a sene i sene rze b egann .

S oc ia ld if eren t ia t ion a tt he t r an s i t ion Auf d e r B a s i s d e s g e sch i lde r ten w i r t scha f t l ichen A uf schwunge s b e i d en S tämmen i m S p r eeNe iße -Raum k am e s a n sche inend a uch z u r We i te ren tw ick lung d e r g e sel scha f t l i chen V e rhä l tn i s se . Zwe i te i l ige Weh r s ied lungen u nd d i eG ründung u nbef e s t ig te rV o r b u rg s ied lungen d eu ten a uf e i ne s oz ia le D if f e r enz ie rung . B e id e rL anze v on d e rz we i t e il igen Weh r s ied lung B u rg , d e r en Ho lz scha f t m i t Go ldd rah t umw icke l t w a r ( S iehe 1 889 )k önn te e ss i ch um e im S ta tu ssymbo lh ande ln . Wäh r end d i em e i s ten G räbe r f e lde r n u rw en ig d i f f e renz ie r ts i nd ,t r e ten a uf e i n igen F undp lä tzen r e ich a u sge s ta t te te u nd d u r ch b e sonde re B e s ta t tung sfo rmen c ha rak te r i s ie r te G räbe ra uf . D azu g ehö ren d i eS te in -u nd Ho lz ld s teng räbe r d e r S tuf e I V u nd d i e H o lzkamme rg räbe r d e r S tuf en I V u nd V . I n N euendo r fu nd K le in L ie skow s i nd d i e b i s z u 4 , 0 x5 , 0 mg roßen Ho lzkamme rg räbe r m i t7 0 -8 0B e igef äßen ( d a run te rz ah l re iche T r ink se rv ice ) ,S chmuck a us S i lbe r ,B ronze , Me ss ing u nd B le i ,e i ser nen We rkzeugen , Wa f f en ,P f e rde t rensen ,K u l tgegens tänden ,T ie r opf e rn , Nah rung sm i t te ln ,i mpo r t ie r te rs ch le s i sche rK e ram ik u nd g raph i t ie r te rK e ram ik a usge s ta t te t u nd o be r i rd isch d u rch P fo s tenk re i se , S t e in se tzungen , L ehmp la t ten u nd Ho lz s te len mak ie r t ( F ig . 9 2 ) . A n i hnen b zw . a uf a n i h nen e r r ich te ten O pf e ra l tä ren wu rden ü be r meh re re Z e i t s tuf en h inweg K u l thand lungen v o rgenommen ,i nd e ren V e r l a uf S chmuck , Wa f f en u nd G ef äße m i tS pe i sen a l sO pf e rgaben n i ede rge leg tw u rden . O f f enba r h a t te i mme r n u re i n M i tg l ied d e r S i ed lung sgeme in scha f tj ene s oz ia le S te l lung i nne , d i e z u e i ne rB e i se tzung i ne i nem K amme rg rab b e rech t ig te , w äh rend s e ine F am i l i enangehö r igen i ne i nf ache ren H o lzk is teng räbern b e ige se tz tw u rden . D ie sen r e ich a us g e s ta t te ten G räber ns t ehen a uf d en g l e ichen F undp lä tzen e i nf ache U rnenbe s ta t tungen -me i s t o hne j ede B e igabe - g egenübe r , d i e e rheb l ich u n te r d e r d u r ch schn i t t l ichen A u s s ta t tung g l e ichze i t ige rG räbe ra uf a nde ren B e s ta t tung sp lä tzen o hne K amme rg räbe r l i egen . E in T e i l v on i hnen s t e l l t N achbe s ta t tungen z u d en K amme rg räbe rn d a r( Buck 1 986a ) . D ie s oz ia le S t e l lung d e ri nd en K amme rg räbe rn B e s ta t te ten i s tu nk la r . D ie p e r iphe r e L age d e rK amme rg räber f e lde rN euendo r fu nd K le in L ie skow i nne rha lb d e rM i t te l sp ree Un te rg ruppe d eu te t n i ch t a uf e i ne p o l i t ische F üh rung s ro l le d e r h i e r b e s ta t tenden G e me in scha f ti n ne rha lb d e sS t amme sh i n . D agegen l ä ß td i eL age a ne i nem v e rmu te ten 3 77

F igu re 9 2 . K le in L ie skow , L k r . C o t tbu s . G rab 1 7 ( 1 70 C ) . A , B : A uf s ich tu nd P rof i le d e rG rabkamme r . C -E :E i se rne We rzeuge a u sd em G rab . ( A ,B :P lan a nd s e c t ion o ft h e g rave c hambe r . C -E : i r on o b jec t sf r om t h eg rave ) . d u rch Ho r te u nd E inze lfunde i m a n son s ten s i ed lung s lee ren G ubene rL and m a rk ier ten H ande l sweg u nd d i e Mög l ichke i t d e s A bbaue s d e ri nd i e sem A rea l s eh rb edeu tenden

3 78

1 7 B uck

R a sene i sene rzvo rkommen -w o rauf i nd i rek t Me ta l lana ly sen d eu ten -e i ne I n te rp re ta t ion i h re rS t elung a l s F e rnhänd le ru nd E i senhe r ren z u , d i ed i e l a ndw ir t scha f t l iche P roduk t i on d u r ch A bhäng ige b e t re iben l i eßen . I na l len K amme rg räber ng efundene ma s s ive s i l b e rne A rm r inge s che inen e i ne A r t S ta tus symbo l d i e se r A ngehö r igen d e r G en t i la r i s t ok ra t ie g ewe sen z us e in ,d i es i ch o f f enba rü be rm eh re re G ene ra t ionen h inweg e t ab l ie ren u nd k on so l id ie ren k onn t e( Buck 1 986a ) . D e rS i lbe r schmuck ,q ua l i tä t svo l le K e ram ik a u s M i t te l sch le s ien ,G ü r te lbe sch läge a u sd em a l p inen R aum s ow ie a nde r ee i ngefüh r te L ux u sa r t ike l d eu ten a uf w e i t re ichende H ande lsve rb indungen . D avon f a l len b e sonde r sd i e S i lbe rbe igaben s e i td em B eg inn d e rS tuf e V( Ha C l )a uf ,d . h .z ue i nem Z e i t raum ,i nw e l c hem i nM i t te leu ropa S i lbe rn och w e i tgehend u nbekann tw a r( F ig . 9 3 ) . S i lber ne A rm r i nge ,H a l s r inge ,F inge r r inge ,N ade ln u nd G ü r te l r inge ( ? ) -d i ev e re inze l ts pez ie l lf ü rd i e G rab legung g ef e r t ig tw u rden ,w o rauf n i ch te n t f e rn te G ußnäh te a nN ade ln ( F ig . 9 3 : 5 2 ) d eu ten -s t e l len K ennze ichen d e rh i e rb e s ta t te ten A ngehö r igen d e rs oz ia len Obe r sch ich t d a r .

E x terna li n f luence s D ie ma te r ie l le u nd g e i s t ige K u l tu rd e rL aus i tze rG ruppe w e is t e nge B ez iehungen z um o s ta lp inen u nd o s tmed i te r ranen R aum a uf . D abe i w u rden An r egungen a ufgenommen u nd i ne i nhe im i sche F o rmen umge se tz t . S o w u rden z .B . T r ink s i t ten d e s O s thal s ta t t I c r e i ses ü ber nommen ,d a fü rj edoch e i gene G ef äß fo rmen e n tw icke l t ,w ozu M i schke sse l , S chöpf e r ( Sp i tzkanne ) , T r ink scha le ( Ompha lo s scha le ) , G ewü rzbehä l te r( Doppe lgef äß ) u nd Wannha l tege rä t ( Tonof en m i tT e l le r ) g ehö ren . G eno s sen w u rde o f f enba re i n w a r m e s g ewü r z te sp un scha r t ige s G e t ränk . E ben so g ehen or n i thomo rphe , z oomo rphe u nd a n th ropomo rphe P la s t iken u nd A nhänge rs ow ie K opp lung sgef äße u nd P f annen a uf s üd l i che A n regungen z u rück ( Buck 1 980 ) . A uf d e r B a s i s d e r e i genen k u l tu re l len T rad i t i onen w u rden d e rar t ige A n r egungen w e i te ren tw icke l tu nd f üh r ten z u e i ne re i gens tän d igen k u l tu relen B lü te m i tA us s t rah lung a uf b ena chba r te G eb ie te . I n sge sam tz e ichne t s i ch m i t d em A uf t re ten v e rwand te r E r sche inungen i m Übe rbau ( Kamme rg räbe r f ü r A ngehö r ige d e rG en t i la r i s tok ra t ie , T rach t s i t ten ,K u l t , T r ink s i t ten , A r t d e r O pf e rhand l ungen ) ü be r w e i te G eb ie te e i ne A nnähe rung i mS t a tu su nd C ha rak te rd e rs pä tgen t i len

F igu r e9 3 .( oppo s i te )K le in L ie skow , LK r .C o t tbu s . G rab 3 0( 1 71 B ) . A uf s ich td e rG rab k amme ru nd G rabaus s ta t tung . ( P lan o ft h eg r ave c hambe ra nd s umma ry o fg rave c on t e n t ) . i d , 2 d , 2 e , 3 d , 9 ,4 7b , 5 2 , a nd 5 7b : S i lbe r ( S i lve r ) ; 5 0 , 5 1 , 6 0c : B ronze ( B ronze ) ;3 f :K nochenamu le ta us m enschl i chem S chäde ldach m i te i se rne rÖ se ( Bone a mu le to fh uman c r an ium w i th i r on r i ng ) ; A l le s ü b r ige ( a l l o the r s ) : K e ram ik ( c e r am ic )

3 79

3 f

4 1 © 4 3

e 3

6

3 2

8 a 1 L 1 4

Jb

W

8c

3 b )13b

W

1 5

4 50 ) 3 5a

4 2 -2 5a

2 9 0

3 1 W

32 % ,

)33

cm S i lbe r , B ronze , K nochen 6 cm Kerc im ,

3 6

W

55

W

3 80

53

3 9

1 7 B uck

F ühr ung sk rä f te a b , d i e d i eA uf lö sung g en t i le rS t ruk tu ren i ng roßen T e i len M i t te leu ro p a sa nze igen .

C onc lu s ion D e r Übe rgang v on d e rB ronze - z u rE i senku l tu rv o l lzog s i ch b e id en S t ämmen d e rL au s i tze rG ruppe i mS p ree -Ne iße -B6b r - R aum r e la t iv r a sch , d i ed adu rch d en B ronzeman g e la u sg le ichen u nd s oa uch w äh rend d e rH a l l s ta t tze i ti h re W i r t scha f ts t ab i lw e i te re n t w icke ln k onn ten . D e ra l lgeme ine w i r t scha f t l iche A uf schwung s che in tj edoch n i ch te i ne F o lge , s onde rn e i ne V o rau s se tzung f ü rd i eD u rch se tzung d e rE i senme ta l lu rg ie g ewe sen z us e in . E in e rhebl i che rA n s t ieg d e rA rbe i t sp roduk t iv i tä td ü r f te a le in d u rch d i eB enu t z ung d e r e i se rnen We rkzeuge n i ch t e r z ie l t w o rden s e in . A l s w e sen t l iche r V o r te i l e r s che in tv i e lmeh rd i e Mög l ichke i tz u rN u tzung e i nhe im i sche rE r z lage r s tä t ten ,d i e mög l i c herwe i se i nd e r L aus i tze r G ruppe s chon f r üh ( a b H a D ) b egonnen w u rde . A nde re V o r te i le d e s E isen s ( Schm iede - u nd S ch le i ff äh igke i t , H ä r tba rke i t ) k onn ten i n fo lge d e r g er ing e n tw icke l ten E isen techn ik n u rb eg renz tz u rW i rkung k ommen . A l le E i senwe rk z euge u nd wa f f en s i nd r e la t iv k l e in ,w a sw oh le i ne F o lge n i ch tb ehe r r sch te rS chm iede t e chn iken i s t . S ch lackee in sch lü sse u nd e i nh ohe rP ho spho rgeha l tv on b i sz ue i nem P ro z en t m inde r ten d i e Q ua l i tä t d e s E i sen s , d i e H ä r tung w u rde n i ch t b ehe r r sch t . D ie b ekann ten e i ser nen We rkzeuge u nd G e rä te ( S iche l , B e i l , Me s se r , Me iße l , H amme r , Amboß )e r se tz ten l e d ig l ich b ronzene V o r fo rmen ,s i eb ew i rk ten s om i ta uch k e ine S te ige r ung d e r A rbe i t sp roduk t iv i tä t . D e r Übe rgang z u r E i sen techno log ie e r fo lg te w oh l w en ige rw egen q ua l i ta t ive V o rzüge d e sE i sen sg egenübe rd e rB ronze a l sv i e lmeh rw egen d e r l e ich te ren B e scha f f ba rke i t d e s Me ta l l s . I mme rh in v e r s tanden e s d i e S tämme i m S p ree -Ne iße -B6b r -Geb ie td u r ch d i eE infüh rung d e sE i sen sd en w ir t scha f t l ichen N iede r g ang a nde re r S tämme (Wü s temann 1 978 ; K r i s t ian sen 1 980 ) n ach d em R ückgang d e r B ronzezufuh rz unäch s tz uv e rme iden . We i te rh in w u rde a uch d i eb e sonde re E ignung d e s E i sen sf ü rs pa l tende u nd s chne idende We rkzeuge e rkann t ,d aü be r9 5 %d e r We rkzeuge a u s E i sen g ef e r t ig t w o rden s i nd . D emgegenübe r w u rde f ü r d i e S chmuckhe r s te l lung w e i te rh in d i ed eko ra t ive re B ronze ( n eben S i lbe ru nd G o ld )b enu tz t ,u nd E isen f and h i e r n u rg e r inge A nwendung ( F ig .9 1) . F ü rd i ew ir t scha f t l iche u nd k u l tu re l le E n tw ick lung d e rS t ämme d e rL au s i tze rG ruppe i nd e rS tuf eI Vu nd V t r a f en a n sche inend m eh r e re F ak to ren z u sammen . D azu g ehö r td i e S t e igerung d er A grarproduk t ion d u r ch d en Übe rgang z us pez ia l i s ie r te rG roßv iehha l tung u nd d e ren A uswe i tung g egenübe rd em A cke rbau , d i e E infüh rung d e sP f lugbaues u nd n euer A nbaup f lanzen s ow ie n eue T echno log ien i ne i n igen P roduk t ionswe igen u nd i nb e g r enz tem Maße d i e V e rbe s se rung v on P roduk t ion s in s t rumen ten e ben so w ie d i e d u r ch d a s A nwach sen u nd d i e K on zen t ra t ion d er B evö lkerung i nv o r s täd t i schen S i ed lung s f o rmen n o twend igen n euen F ormen d er O rgan i sa t ion d er A rbe i t s -p rozes se u nd A n sä t ze z ug e se l l schaf t l ichen A rbe i t s t e i lungen .

3 81

ob e fes t ig te S ied lung •n i edergeb rann te S ied lung 6H or t fund +s ky t ische F unde

F igu re 9 4 . B rände u nd Z e r s tö rungen v on S ied lungen a m Übe rgang d e rS tuf en V c /V Ia . ( Bu rn ing a nd d i s tu rbance sa ts e t t lemen t sf r om t h et r an s i t ion b e tween p ha se V ca nd V Ia ) .

3 82

1 7 B uck

D ie O rgan isa t ion d e rA rbe i tg röße re rK o l lek t ive ( z .B . b e im B au d e r Weh r s ied lungen a l s w i r t scha f t l iche u nd p o l i t i sche Z en t ren v on S ied lung sgeb ie ten ) u nd d i e n ach I nan s p ruchnahme d e sg e sam ten l a ndw i r t scha f t l ich n u tzba ren B odenfond sb e iw e i te rer B ev ö lkerung szunahme z w i schen d en S t ämmen w a ch senden S pannungen f üh r ten z u rg e se l l s chaf tl ichen S tärkung d er g en t i l en F ührungsk räf t e . I ne i n igen G eb ie ten k am e sz ur H e r a usb i ldung v on m i tA bhäng igen w i r t scha f tenden H ofve rbänden . D am i tw a r en A nsä tze z u e i ne r s oz ia len D i f f e renz ie rung e n t s tanden . D ie s i ch k onso l id ie rende s oz ia le Obe r s ch ich tb e saß w e i t re ichende V e rb indungen u nd b i lde te o f f enba re i gene S i t ten u nd G e b räuche h e rau s ,m i td enen s i es i ch v on d e rü b r igen B evö lkerung a b se tz te . D ie se E n tw ick lung f and i m S p ree -Ne iße -B6b r -Geb ie t i nd e r S tuf e V c ( Ha D l) i h r E nde . U r sa chen w a ren a n sche inend i nne re u nd ä uße re F ak to ren . D a sA nwachsen d e r B evö lke rung f ühr te z up ermanen t en S pannungen ,d i e mög l iche rwe i se n och d u rch R aub z üge a uf e i gene R echnung s e i ten s d e r z u Mach t u nd R e ich tum g e lang ten G en t i la r is t ok ra t ie v e r s tä rk t wu rden . B rand spu ren i nf a s t a l len Weh r s ied lungen d i e ses R aume s , N iede r legung v on Ho r ten u nd i ne i genen F ä l len a uch S pu ren d e ra r chäo log i sch me i s t s chwe rn achwe i sba r en K amp fhand lungen a m Übe rgang v on V c /V Ia d eu ten a uf v er s tärk t ek r ieger i sche A u se inand er se t zungen . D azu k ommen F und s tücke s ky th i sche rP rov in i e nz , d i e z .T . i m Z u sammenhang m i t K amp fhand lungen s t ehen u nd a uf e i nen o de r meh re re s ky th i sche B eu tezüge i nc : i e sem R aum h indeu ten ( F ig . 9 4 ) . I nd e rL a teneze i t t r e ten f e rne ra uf m eh re ren S ied lungen ,G räbe r f e lde rn u nd A cke r f lu ren F lug sandab lage r ungen a uf . Dünenwanderungen l a s sen s i ch n achwe i sen . S ie s i nd v e rmu tl i ch F o lge e i ne r Wa lde sauf l ich tung d u r ch B rand f e ldbau , um fang r e iche Wa ldwe idew i r t schaf tu nd h ohen B renn -u nd B auho lzbeda r fd e rE inwohne rv on Weh r s ied lungen . V e r s tä rk tw u rde d i e se ö ko log i sche K r i se d u rch m eh r f ache K l ima schwankungen . D ie se u nd a nde re F ak t o r en f üh r ten a n sche inend z um Z u sammenb ruch d e s m i td en Weh r s ied lungen v e rbun d enen W i r t scha f t s sy s tem s . D ie m e i s ten Weh r s ied lungen w e rden z wa ri nd e rE ndha l l s t a t t -/ F rüh la teneze i tw iede raufgebau t , a be rm i ts chwäche ren F o r t if ika t ionen v e r sehen , d e ren w e i te re E rha l tung n i ch t g es iche r tw e rden k onn te , w ie d e rm eh r f ach n achgew ie s ene a l lmäh l iche Z e r f a l l b e leg t . D ie w i r t scha f t l ichen u nd k u l tu re l len B ez iehungen z u d en s üdo s ta lp inen H a l l s ta t tku l tu ren b rechen a b . D a sA uf la s sen d e r Weh r s ied lungen u nd d e r Übe rgang z uG ehöf t s ied lungen s ow ie e i ne rheb l iche rR ückgang d e rB evö lke rung s d i ch te s i nd e benso w ie d a sA u fhö ren d e rK amme rg räbe ru nd a nde re rs oz ia ld e te rm in ie r t e rE r sche inungen A nze ichen e i ne rt i ef en w ir t schaf t l ichen K r i se . S ie z wang z ue rneu ten V e ränderungen i m S ied lung swe sen u nd z u e i ne r Umo rgan i sa t ion d e r l a ndw i r tschaf t l i chen P roduk t ion . S i ef üh r te a uch z um Z u sammenbruch d e rs oz ia len S t ruk tu r en . E s w a ri nd e rS tuf e Vz wa rz ue i ne rU rban i s ierung g ekommen ,a be rd i e We i te ren tw ick lung d e rP roduk t ivk rä f te b l ieb b eg rennz t ,d i ee n t s tandenen s oz ia len S t ruk tu ren r e ich ten n i ch t z u r Abwendung d e r w i r t scha f t l ich -öko log ischen K r i se a us . D ie n och z u r L aus i tze r G ruppe g ehö rende B evö lke rung l e b tw äh rend d e rL a teneze i ti nr e tard ier end en h a l l s tä t t i schen T rad i t ionen w e i te r .

3 83

No te s 1 )A l sL au s i tze rG ruppe b eze ichenen w i rz usammenf a s send d i eb ronzeze i t l iche ' Lau s i tzSäch s ische K u l tu rp rov inz 'n ach 0 . K leemann ( 1942 ) u nd d en e i senze i t l ichen ' B i l l e ndo r f e rT ypus 'n ach A . V o s s ( 1903 ) . Monog raph ische T e i lbea rbe i tungen d e rL au s i t z e rG ruppe e r fo lg ten d u rch W . B ohm ( 1935 ) , W . K ropf ( 1938 ) ,W . G rünebe rg ( 1943 ) , W . C ob lenz ( 1952 ) ,J .S chne ide r( 1965 )u nd D . -W B uck ( 1977 ; 1 979 ) . 2 ) A l s S ch le s i sche G ruppe f aß tM . G ed l ( 1971 )d i eM i t te lsch le s i sch -G roßpo ln ische Un te rg ruppe ( Ged iga 1 967 ) ,d i eG lubczyce -Un te rg ruppe ( Ged l1 974 ) ,d i eP la ten ice -Un t e rg ruppe ( F i l ip 1 936 -37 )u nd d i eN o rdmäh r ische U n te rg ruppe z u sammen . We i te re T e i l b ea rbe i tungen d i e se rG ruppe e r fo lg ten u . a . d u r ch B .v . R ich thof en ( 1926 ) , G . R a schke ( 1932 ) , 0 . K leemann ( 1934 ) ,R . G la se r( 1937 ) ,T .R özycka ( 1960 ) ,M .G ed l ( 1962 ) , S . A lf aw icka ( 1970 )u nd M .G ed l( 1975 ) . 3 )D e rar t ige mode l lha f te B e rechnungen v on W i r t - s cha f t sa rea len e r fo lg ten a uch f ü r a nde re G ruppen d e rL aus i tze rK u l tu r( O s to ja -Zagö r sk i1 974 ;H ennebe rg u nd O s to ja -Za g ö r s id 1 977 ; R ydzewsk i 1 980 ; O s to ja -Zagö r s ld 1 983 ) . 4 ) P roduk t ion s in s t rumen te , f ü r d i e d i e V e rwendung v on S te in s pez if i sch i s t w ie Mah l s te ine u nd S ch le if s te ine b l ieben b e id i e se rS ta t i s t ik u nbe rück s ich t ig t .

B ib l iography A lf aw icka ,S . , 1 970 . C eram ika ma lowana o k r esu h a l sz tack iego w P o l sce . (W roc law : O s sol ineum ) . B ohm ,W . , 1 935 .D ie ä l t er eB ronzeze i ti nd er Mark B rand enburg . ( Be r l in : Wa l te rd e G ruy te r&C o . ) . B uck ,D . -W . , 1 977 .D ie B i l l endorf er G ruppe .T e i l 1( Be r l in : VEB D eu t sche rV e r lag d e rW i s sen scha f ten ) . B uck ,D . -W . , 1 979 .D ie B i l l endorf er G ruppe .T e i l 2( Be r l in : VEB D eu t sche rV e r lag d e rW i s senscha f ten ) . B uck , D . -W . , 1 980 . ' P rob leme d e sK u l te su nd d e rs oz ia lökonom ischen E n tw ick lung b e id en S tämmen d e rw e s t l ichen L au s i tze rK u l tu r ' . I nR o la o dd z ia lywän k r egu h a l s z t a ck iego w r ozwo ju s po lec zdn stw e pok iz e laza w P o l sce Z achodn ie jn at i eS rodkowoeu r ope j sk im , 1 69 -182 (W ro c law :P o l ska A kadem ia N auk ) . B uck ,D . -W . , 1 981 . ' Zu r Me ta l lu rg ie b e id en S tämmen d e rB i l lendo r f e rG ruppe ' .E th n ograph i sch -Archäo log i sche Z e i t schr if t2 2 , 6 57 -668 .

3 84

1 7 B uck

B uck , D . -W . , 1 982a . ' Bef e s t ig te S i ed lungen d e r L aus i tze r K u l tu r i m N o rden d e r DDR ' . I nB e i t räge z um b ron zeze i t l ichen B urgenbau i nM i t t e leuropa , 9 7 -118 ( Be r l in u nd N i t ra : S lovenske j Akadem ie V ied u nd A kadem ie d e rW is sen scha f ten d e r DDR ) . B uck ,D . -W . , 1 982b . ' Ho lzkamme rg räbe r f e ld u nd A cke r f lu rd e rL au s i tze rK u l tu rv on K le in L ie skow ,L k r . C o t tbus ' . A u sgrabungen u nd F und e2 7 , 5 8 -65 . B uck ,D . -W . , 1 982c . ' Ku l tu rele B ez iehungen d e rB i l lendo r f e rG ruppe z u ro s ta lp inen H a l l s ta t tku l tu ru nd z um s üdo s teu ropä ischen R aum ' . I nP o ludn iowa s t r ef ak u l tur yl u zyc k i e j ip ow iazan ia t e jk u l tury zp o ludn iem ,2 15 -2 29 (K raköw : U n iwe r sy te tJ ag ie l - l o n s k i ) . B uck ,D . -W . , 1 985 . ' S ied lung sfo rm u nd W i r t scha f t swe i se b e id en S tämmen d e rw e s t l i chen L au s i tze rK u l tu r ' . I n : H o r s t , F .u nd K rüge r ( e d s . )P roduk t ivk räf t e u nd p roduk t i on sverhä l tn i s se i nu r -u ndf rühgesch ich t l icher Z e i t ,8 3 -105 ( Be r l in : Akadem ie -V e r lag ) . B uck , D . -W . , 1 986a . ' S ied lung swe sen u nd S oz ia lökonom i sche V e rhä l tn i s se b e i d en S tämmen d e rL au s i tze rG ruppe ' . I nB uck ,D . -W . u nd G ram sch ,B . ( Ed s . ) B uck ,D . -W . , 1 986b . ' S chmuck -u nd T rach thegen s tände d e rl a u s i tze rK u l tu ra a us S i l b e r ,B le iu nd Me s s ing ' .A u sgrabungen u nd F und e3 1 , 6 0 -68 . B uck ,D . -W . , 1 987 . ' D ie f r ühe i senze i tl i chen S tämme z w i schen G e rmanen u nd K e l ten a uf d em T e r r i to r ium d e r DDR ' .I nF rühe V ö lk er i nM i t t e leuropa . A rchäo log i sche K u l t u r en u nd e t hn i sche G eme in schaf t en d es 1 .f t . v . u .Z . ,i nD ruck ( Be r l in : Akadem ie -V e r l a g ) . C ob lenz , W . , 1 952 . D ie G rabf und e d er m i t t ler en B ronzeze i t i nS achsen . ( D re sden : D re sdne rV e r lag ) . C ob lenz ,W . , 1 963 . ' D ie A u sg rabungen a uf d em B u rgwa l lv on N iede rN eundo r f ' .A rb ei t s - u nd F or schungsber ich t ez ur s äch s i schen B od end enkma lpf lege 1 / 12 ,9 -58 . D u rczew sk i , Z . , 1 948 . G rupa g o 'r nos 'l a sko -ma lopo l ska k u l tury l u zyck ie j wP o l sce , I ,I . ( K rako 'w : P o l ska Akadem ia Um ie je tno s 'c i Wydawn ic twa S' l a sk ie ) . F i l ip .J .1 936 -37 . D ie U rnenf e ld er u nd d i eA nf änge d er E i sen ze i ti nB öhmen .( P rague : S tä tn iT i skä rna ) . G ed iga . M . , 1 967 . P lem iona k u l tury l u zyck i e j we poce b razu n aS la sku s r odkowym . (W roc law : O s so l ineum ) . G ed l ,M . , 1 962 .K u l tura l u zycka n aG ornym S la sku . ( W roc law : O s so l ineum ) .

3 85

G ed l ,M . , 1 971 .' D ie E n tw ick lung d e sH a l ls ta t tS t i l si nd e rL au s i tze rK u l tu r ' .Z e i t sch r if tf ür A rchäo log ie 5 ,1 18 . G ed l ,M . , 1 974 . ' The G lubczyce s ubg roup i nt h ee a r ly I r on A ge ' .A rcheo log ia P o l sk i 1 5 ,2 23 -244 . G ed l ,M . , 1 975 .K u l tura P r zed luzycka . (W roc law : O s so l ineum ) . G la se r , R . , 1 937 . D ie b ema l t e K eram ik d er f rühen E i sen ze i ti nS ch l e s i en . ( Le ipz ig : C u r tK ab i tz sch -V e r lag ) . G r ie sa , S . , 1 969 . ' Beme rkungen z u r Gö r i tze rK u l tu r ' . I nC ob lenz ,W . ( e d . )B e i t räge z ur L au s i t zer K u l tur , 15 - 19 ( Be r l in : VEB D eu t sche rV e r lag d e rW i ssen scha f ten ) . G r ie sa , S . , 1 982 .D ie G ör i t zer G ruppe . ( Be r l in : VEB D eu t sche rV e r lag d e rW i ssen s c haf ten ) . G rünbe rg , W . , 1 943 . D ie G rabf und e d er j ünger en u nd j üngs t en B ronze ze i t i m G au S ach sen . ( Be r l in : Wa l te rd eG ruy te r&C o . ) . H ennebe rg ,M .u nd O s to ja -Zagö r sk i ,J . ,1 977 .' P roba mode low jr ekon s t rukc j ig o spo r d r ld m ie szkanc6w h a l s tack ich g rodow t y pu b i skup in sk iego ' . Kwar ta ln ik H i s tor i i Ku l n ay Ma t er ia lne j2 5 ,3 19 -430 . H e r rmann , J . , 1 969 . ' Bu rgen u nd b ef e s t ig te S i ed lungen d e rj ünge r en B ronze - u nd f r ühen E isenze i ti nM i t te leu ropa ' .I nH e r rmann ,J .u nd O t to ,K . -H .( e d s . )S i ed lung ,B urg u nd S tad t .5 6 -94 ( Be r l in :A kadem ie -V e r lag ) . H e r rmann ,J . , 1 970 . ' D ie f r ühe i senze i t l ichen B u rgen v on P od ro sche ,K r . We ißwa s se r , u nd S enf tenbe rg i n d e r N iede r lau s i tz ' . V eröf f en t l ichungen d es Mu seum sf ür U r - u nd F rühgesch ich te P o t sdam 5 ,8 7 -108 . Ho r s t ,F . ,1 975 .' D ie e ndb ronze -u nd ä l te re i senze i t l iche B e s ied lung i mn ö rd l ichen M i t t e l -u nd s üd l ichen N o rdeu ropa ' .. Z e i t schr if tf 129r A rchäo log ie 9 ,1 24 . Hopf . M . , 1 982 . V or - u nd f rühgesch ich t l iche K u l turpf lanzen a u s d em n örd l ichen D eu t sch land . ( Ma inz : V e r lag d e sR öm isch g e rman i schen Z en t ra lmuseum s ) . J äge r ,K . -D . ,1 965 . ' V e rkoh l te S amen a us e i nem b ronzeze i t l ichen G rabgef äß v on T o rn ow ,K r .C a lau . E in B e t rag z u rA nbauge sch ich te d e rA cke rbohne ( V ic ia F aba L . )i nM i t t e leu ropa ' .A usgrabungen u nd F und e 1 0 , 1 31 -138 . J äge r ,K . -D . ,u nd L ozek ,D . , 1 978 . ' Umwe l tbed ingungen u nd L ande sau sbau w äh r end d e r Ur nenf e lde rb ronzeze i ti nM i t te leu ropa ' . I nC ob lenz ,W . u nd H o r s t , F .( e d s . )M i t t e l e uropä i sche B ron zeze i t . B e i t räge z ur A rchäo log ie u nd G esch ich t e , 2 11 -229 ( Be r l in : Akadem ie -V e r lag ) .

3 86

1 7 B uck

K leemann ,0 . , 1 934 . ' D ie m i t t le r eb ronzeze i ti nS ch le s ien ' . [ Bre s lau : D i s se r ta t ion s d ruck ]B onner H ef t ez ur V orgesch ich t e , 1 2 / 13 ( Bonn 1 977 ) . K leemann ,0 . , 1 942 . ' De rB ronze fund v on We iß ig u nd s e ine B edeu tung f ü rd i eK u l t u rg ruppenfo r schung O s tm i t te leu ropa s ' . P räh i s tor i sche Z e i t schr if t3 2 /33 , 1 941/42 ,6 0 1 68 . K lo s s , K . , 1 986 . ' Po l lenana ly t i sche U n te r suchungen i n e i ne r B i l lendor f e r K u l tu r s ch ich t b e i L übben -S t e ink i r chen , O be r sp reewa ld ' . I n B uck , D . -W . u nd G ram sch , B . ( e d s . ) S i ed lung , W ir t schaf tu nd G e se l l schaf td er j ünger en B ron ze - u nd Ha l l s ta t t ze i ti n M i t t e l europe , 1 57 -162 ( Be r l in : VEB D eu t sche rV e r lag d e rW i s senscha f ten ) . K r i s t ian sen , K . , 1 980 . ' Be s ied lung , W ir t scha f t s s ta teg ie u nd B odennu tzung i n d e r B ronzeze i tD änema rk s ' .P räh i s tor i sche Z e i t schr if t5 5 , 1 37 . K ropf , W . , 1 938 .D ie B i l l endorf er K u l tur a uf G rund d er G rabf und e . ( Le ipz ig : C u r t K ab i tz sch -V e r lag ) . L ange ,E . ,I l ig ,J .u nd H . ,u nd We tze l ,G . , 1 978 . ' Be i t räge z u rV ege ta t ion sge sch ich te d e rn o rdwe s t l ichen N iede r lau s i t z ' .A bhand lungen u nd B er ich t ed es n a turkund emu seum s G ör l i t z5 3 /3 . Mü l le r -W ile , M . , 1 977 . ' Bäue r l iche S ied lungen d e r B ronze - u nd E i senze i t i nd en N o rd seegeb ie ten ' .I n Da s Do rf d er E i sen ze i tu nd d es f rühen M i t t e la l t er s , 1 53 -218 ( Gö t t i ngen : V andenhoeck & R up rech t ) . N ie s io low ska -W edzka , A . , 1 974 .P oc za tk i ir o zwo jg rodow k u l tury l u zyck ie j . (W ro c l aw :O s sol ineum ) . O s to ja -Zagö r sk i ,J .1 974 . ' F rom S tud ie so nt h eE conom ic S t ruc tu re a tt h eD ec l ine o f t h eB ronze A ge a nd t h eH a l l s ta t tP e r iod i nt h e No r th a nd We s tZ one o ft h eO d ra a nd V i s t u la B a s in s ' .P r zeg lad A rcheo log ic zny 2 2 , 1 23 -150 . O s to ja -Zagö r s ld ,J . ,1 983 .' A spek te d e rS ied lung skunde ,D emog raph ie u nd W i r t scha f t h a l l s ta t tze i tl i che rB u rgen v om B i skup in -Typ ' .P raeh i s tor i sche Z e i t schr if t5 8 , 1 73 -210 . R a schke . G . , 1 932 . Da s E nd e d er L au s i t zer K u l tur i nS ch les ien . ( Br e s lau : D i sse r ta t i on s te i ld ruck ) . v .R ich thof en ,B . , 1 926 .D ie ä l t er eB ronzeze i ti nS ch le s ien . ( Be r l in : Wa l te rd eg ruy te r &C o . ) . R özycka ,T . , 1 960 . ' Wy roby z e lazne k u l tu ry l u zyck ie j ip omo r sk ie jn aS l a sku ' . S i l e s i aA n t igua 2 ,4 9 -100 .

3 87

R ydzew sk i , J . , 1 980 . ' Bevö lke rung s s tä rke u nd P roduk t ion s - mög l ichke i ten d e r Um w e l t am B e i sp ie ld e rL au s i tze rK u l tu ri n Waw izenczyce b .K rakow ' . W i s sen schaf t l iche B e i t räge d er Mar t in -Lu ther -Un iver s i tä t Ha l l e -W i t t enberg L 1 5 , 15 -127 . S chne ide r , J . , 1 965 . D ie j ünger e B ronzez e i t d es B e z i rke s C o t tbu s . ( Hale : U nged r . D i s s . ) . S eye r ,H . , 1 982 .S i ed lung u nd a rchäo log i sche K u l tur d er G ermanen i m Have lSpr ee G eb ie ti nd en J ahrhund er t en v or B eg inn u .Z . ( Be r l in : Akadem ie -V e r lag ) . S iehe , E . , 1 889 . ' De r B ronze -Go ld fund b e i B u rg ' . N ied er lau s i t zer M i t t e i lungen 1 , 3 49 -350 . T e ichen , L . , 1 976 . ' D ie T ie r re s te a us d en S ied lungen d e rs pä ten L au s i tze rK u l tu rb e i L übben -S t e ink i r chen u nd L übbenau ,K r . C a lau ' . V eröf f en t l ichungen d es Mu seum sf ür U r - u nd F rühgesch ich t e 1 0 , 1 07 -130 . V i r chow , R . , 1 872 . ' Übe r G räbe r f e lde r u nd B u rgwä l le d e r N iede r lau s i tz u nd d e s ü be rode r ischen G eb ie te s ' . Z e i t schr if tf ür E thno log ie 4 ,2 27 -237 . V o s s ,A . , 1 903 . ' Ke ram i sche S t i la r ten d e rP rov inz B randenbu rg u nd b ena chba r te rG e b i e te ' . Z e i t schr if tf ür E thno log ie 3 5 , 1 61 -212 . V og t , H . -J . , 1 983 . ' E in s pä tb ronze -f rühe i senze i t l iches B odenbauge rä t v om G runde d e sS che rmü tze l see sG ema rkung B uckow b e iB o l le r sdo r f ,K r . S t rau sbe rg ' . A u sgrabun g en u nd F und e 2 8 , 7 5 -79 . Wüs temann , H . , 1 978 . ' Zu r S oz ia len tw ick lung w äh rend d e r B ronzeze i t i m N o rden d e r DDR ' . I nC ob lenz ,W . u nd Ho r s t ,F .( e d s . )M i t t e leuropä i sche B ronzeze i t . B e i t räge z ur A rchäo log ie u nd G esch ich t e , 1 95 -209 ( Be r l in : Akadem ie -V e r lag ) .

3 88

1 8 . CHANGES I N THE ECONO M IC AND SOC IAL S TRUCTURES I N NORTHERN POLAND AT THE TRANS IT ION FRO M THE BR9NZE AGE TO THE I RON AGE

J anu sz O s to ja -Zagör sk i

I n troduc t ion T he t r an s i t ion b e tween t h eB ronze a nd t h eI r on A ge w a s ac ompa ra t ive ly s ho r tb u tn eve r t h e le s s at u rbu len tp e r iod i nt h e h i s to ry o fC en t ra lE u ropean s oc ie t ie s . U nde rt h e i n f l uence o ft h e ma jo re conom ic a nd c u l tu ra lc en t re so fC en t ra lE u rope , wh ich a tt h et ime w e re c l o se ly c onnec ted w i th t h e Med i te r ranean a nd A s ia t ic c i v i l isa t ion s ,n ew s e t t lemen t p a t ter n sa nd c u l tu ra ls t ruc tu re sd eve loped . T he se s t ruc tu re ss l ow ly s upe r seded av a r ie ty o fo lde rc u l tu ra ls y s tem sw ho se r oo t sr e ached b ack i n to t h eN eo l i th ic . Ap ar t icu la r ly i mpo r tan tr o le w a sp l ayed b yt h ed eve lopmen to ft h eH a l l s ta t tc i v i l i sa t i on ,o r mo re p rec ise ly o ft h ee a s tH a l l s ta t tc u l tu re ,i nt h er eg ion o ft h eE a s te rn A lps i n t h em id -8 t hc en tu ry B .C .( G rabovec 1 980 :3 0 ) . A tt h a tp e r iod t h ew e s te rn s phe re o ft h e L u sa t ian c u l tu re , wh ich c ove red ac on s ide rab le a r ea o fC en t ra lE u rope , f ound i t se l fi n c l o se c u l tu ra lc on tac tw i th t h ee a s tA lp ine r eg ion . T he i nf luence o nt h eL usa t ian c u l tu r a lg roups o ft h ee a s tH al s ta t tc i v i l i sa t ion ( v i s ib le f o re xamp le i nt h eH a l l s ta t ts t y le ,G ed l 1 971 ) w a sr ef lec ted i nt h er ap id d eve lopmen to fr eg iona lv a r ia t ion ,i nt h ef o rma t ion o f d i s t inc tm ic ro -reg iona ls e t t lemen tp a t ter n s , a nd i np ar t icu la ri nh igh ly d eve loped f o rm s o fd ef ended s e t t lemen t so fB i skup in t ype ( Hen se l 1 970 ) . •Among t h ec u l tu ra lt i e sb e tween t h ed i f f e ren ta r ea s ,p a r t icu la ri mpo r tance mu s tb ea s c r ibed t ot h ef o rma t ion o ft h es o -ca l led a mbe rr ou te , o r mo re p rec i se ly o ft wo s epa ra te r ou te s :t h ew e s te rn ,s o -ca l led E lb ian ,a nd t h ee a s te rn ,r unn ing t h rough t h e Mo rav ian G a te t owa rd st h e Gdan sk B ay ( Ma l inow sk i1 971 : 1 09 ) . F o rn o r the rn P o land ,t h es e cond r ou te , o rr a the rt h ev a s tr eg ion o fc on ta c t sl i nk ing t h e s ou the rn B a l t ic w i th t h ee a s tA lp ine c i v i l i sa t ion , w a s o fc on s ide rab le i mpo r tance . A s ar e su l t o ft h e s t imu l i w h ich i nH a C r e ached t h el ow land z one o ft h eO d ra a nd V i s tu la b a s in , t h e re w a s am arked e conom ic d eve lopmen ti nn o r ther nP o land . T h i sw a sr ef l ec ted n o to n ly i n ac on s ide rab le e xpan -

3 89

1 8 O s to ja -Zagö rsk i

s i on o ft h ee conom ic b a s i s a nd i nt h ed eve lopmen to fn ume rou s a nd d en se ly o ccup ied d e f ended s e t t lemen t s , b u ta l so w i th in m a te r ia l a nd s ymbo l ic c u l tu r e . T he t r ade r ou te s w e re a l so c l o se ly c onnec ted w i th t h eg r adua ls p read o fi r on ,a nd i r on t e chno logy ,w i th i nt h e s o -ca l led L u sa t ian c u l tu r e ( a l though t h ef i r s ti r on i mpo r t s i n to t h i sr eg ion c ou ld h ave o ccu r red a se a r ly a sH aB 3 [ Bukow sk i 1 981 ] ) . W i thou tg o ing i n to d e ta i l s ,w em ay s t a te t h a tt h eH a l l s ta t tp e r iod , w h ich m a rked t h e b eg inn ing o ft h eI r on A ge i n mo s tr e g ion o fC en t ra lE u rope ,i nt h eP o l i sh t e r r i to r ie si n i t a l ly c on s t i tu ted at r an s i t iona ls t age b e tween t h eB ronze A ge a nd t h eI r on A ge . T he i n f l uence o ft h eH a l l s ta t tc i v i l i sa t ion g ave r i se , a sm en t ioned , t o am a rked e conom ic d e v e lopmen ti nt h e O dr a a nd V i s tu la b a s in ( O s to ja -Zagö r s ld 1 983 ) . Meanwh i le , a f te ra c ompa r a t ive ly s ho r tp e r iod o fe conom ic p ro spe r i ty s ymp tom so fe conom ic c r i s i sb egan t oa ppea r ( t h i s a f f ec ted e x ten s ive a r ea s o fC en t ra l E u rope : T abaczyn sk i 1 966 ) . I nt h e P o l i sh l i t e ra tu re o nt h i ss ub jec ti ti sa lmo s tu n ive r sa l ly a ccep ted t h a tt h ef i r s ts i gn so ft h e c o l lap se o ft h eL u sa t ian c u l tu r ea nd o ft h es e t t lemen tp a t te rn sa ppea red a tt h ee nd o fH a D 2 ,w h ich c o r re spond st ot h el a s tq ua r te ro ft h e6 t hc en tu ry B .C . ( Dehn a nd F rey 1 962 ; F r ey a nd G rabovec 1 971 ) . T he se e ven t sa r eu sua l ly l i nked w i th t h e s o -ca l led S cy th ian e xpan s ion ,a nd i ti so f ten f o rgo t ten t h a tt h i se p i sode o n ly d i r ec t ly i n vo lved t h eO d r aa nd V i s tu la a r ea s( Bukow sk i 1 977 :2 61 ) . T he d ec l ine o ft h e d e f ended s e t t lemen t s w h ich o ccu rred d u r ing H a D2 3 a nd t h e m a rked d ecen t ra l i sa t ion i np r ev iou s ly d en se ly p opu la ted a r ea s( ecumenes2 i n d ica ted b y p a r t icu la rs e t t lemen t s ) mu s th ave b een c au sed b yo ve ra l lc hange so fa n th ropo -geog raph i c a l a nd s o c io -econom ic /o rgan i sa t iona ln a tu r e ( O s to ja -Zag6 r sk i 1 980 ) . T he s omewha t s udden c l ima t ic c hange sa tt h ee nd o ft h eH a l l s ta t tp e r iod ,w h ich a f f l ic ted l a rge a r ea so f C en t ra lE u rope ( Bouzek 1 982 ) ,p l ayed a ni mpo r tan tr o le i nt h e se c hange s . T hu s ,w hen a t temp t ing t or e con s t ruc tt h et r an s fo rma t ion o ft h es o c io -econom ic s t ruc tu r ea tt h et r an s i t ion f r om t h eB ronze t ot h eI r on A ge , w eh ave t ob ea ri nm ind t h e ' f eedba ck 'c ha ra c t e ro fr e la t ion sb e tween e conom ic m ean sa nd a c t iv i t ie sa nd t h en a tu ra le nv i ronm en t . N a t u r e , e xcep ti ne x t r eme s i tua t ion s , a lway sp rov ide sh uman s w i th ac e r ta in s e to fp o s s i b i l i t ie sf o re f f ec t ive a c t ion ( E l len 1 982 :2 38f f . ; We l inde r1 983 ) . P r eh i s to r ic p opu la t ion s i np a r t icu la rh ad aw ide c ho ice o fn a tu ra lr e sou r ce sa tt h e i rd i spo sa l . O ccupy ing at e r r i t o ry c on s i s ted f i r s to fa l li nt h ec hb ice o ft h e mo s tc onven ien ts i te sw i th in t h ef r amewo rk o ft h e s pec if i c e conom ic c ond i t ion s a nd , a bove a l l , o ft h e ' s oc io -o rgan i sa t iona l ' s t ruc t u r e s . T hu si no rde rt oa t temp ta ne va lua t ion o fb o th e conom ic a nd s o c ia lt r an s fo rma t i on si nC en t ra lE u rope a tt h eB ronze A ge I ron A ge t r an s i t ion ,w e mu s tu nde r s tand t h e h i s to ry o fa n th ropogen ic c hange si nv a r iou sc omponen t so ft h eg i ven e nv i ronmen t . We s hou ld ,h oweve r , r ememb e rt h a tp eop le ' sn a tu ra le nv i ronmen ti s as y s tem o fn ume rou s i n te r re la ted f a c to r s ,c hange si nw h ich a r i se b o th f r om t h ep a t te rn o ft h e i ri n te rna ld eve l o pmen t a nd f r om t h e v a r iou s e x ter na l f o r ce s , i n c lud ing t h e i mpac t o fh uman s , a c t ing u pon t h em . F rom t h e momen ta tw h i ch p r eh i s to r ic p opu la t ion sc hanged t o as eden ta ry l i f e ,t h er o le o fp eop le a st h ea gen to fc hange i nn a tu re b ecame mo re a nd mo r em a rked , a nd i n c rea sed s t ead i ly a ss oc ie ty b ecam e mo r ec omp lex . I nt h i sa r t ic le ,h oweve r , Is ha l l n o tb ec oncer ned w i th ar e con s t ruc t ion o ft h eo ve ra l ln a tu ra le nv i ronmen ta tt h et r an s i t i on p ha se i nn o r the rn P o land ,b u tr a the rw i sh t oc oncen t ra te u pon t h ec l ima t ic c hange s a nd t h ev i ta li nf luence st h ey h ad o nt h ef o rm so fe xp lo i ta t ion o ft h er e sou r ce s . T he e f -

3 90

f e c t so ft h e se c hange so ne conom ic a nd s e t t lemen tp a t te rn s a r e mo s td i s t inc ti nt h en o r th o fE u rope i n c lud ing t h en o r the rn z one o ft h eO d ra a nd V i s tu la b a s in - t h a ti s ,t h er eg ion s o f mode rn P o land . Howeve r , b efo r e p re sen t ing t h e r e su l t s o f my r e sea r ch o n t h e e conom ic a nd s oc ia l c hange si nn o r ther nP o land a tt h et r ans i t ion f r om B ronze t oI r on , Is ha l lb r ie f ly d e scr ibe s ome o ft h ev i s ib le e f f ec t s ,o nt h eb a s i so fa r chaeo log ica ld a ta ,w h ich t h i sh ad o nt h ep re h i s to r ic s e t t lemen t si nt h ew e s ter nr eg ion o ft h eB a l t ic S ea i ng ene ra l ,t h a ti si nS cand i n av ia a nd S ch le sw ig -Ho l s te in . It h ink t h a t t h is w i l l a l low u s t ou nde r s tand b e t te rt h e mechan i sm o fc hange st h a tt ook p l ace i nt h es pec if ic a r ea s t ud ied . I n Sweden ,a f te r ap e r iod o fg row th d u r ing t h el a te rB ronze A ge ,t h e re a ppea red a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h eI r on A ge c l e ar s ymp tom so fe conom ic c r i s i s ( Hachmann 1 970 ; S t en b e rge r 1 977 ) . T he re i sn oe v idence o fs e t t lemen t so ve rc on s ide rab le a r ea so ft h er eg ion a nd i no the rp a r t sr eg re s sc an b en o t iced i nc ompa r i son t oe a r l ie rp e r iod s . A l though r e s u l t s o fp o l len a na lys i s ( wh ich s how c on t inu i ty o ft h e c u rve s o fp o l len o fc e rea l s a nd o the rs ynan th rop ic p lan t s : [ Be rg lund 1 969 ; F r ie s 1 958 ) 1 c on t rad ic tt h et h e s i so f at o ta l d epopu la t ion o fs ome o fc on t rad ic tt h et h e s i so f at o ta ld epopu la t ion o fs ome o ft h er e g ion s f o r wh ich t h e re a r e n o a r chaeo log ica ld a ta ( s uch a sV ä s te rgö t land ) , t h e i n ten s i ty o fs e t t lemen t , a ss hown b yt h ea r chaeo log ica le v idence ,d ec rea se sc on s ide rab ly ( Hachmann 1 970 ) . T he a r chaeo log ica le v idence f r om D enma rk a nd S ch le sw ig -Ho l s te in p re sen t s as ome wha td i f f e ren tp i c tu re o ft h ec on sequence so ft h ec l ima t ic c hange s . A l ready a tt h ee nd o ft h eB ronze A ge w ec an n o t ice t h ep ro ce s so fd ecen t ra l i sa t ion a nd t h ed i sappea rance o fs e t t lemen t sf r om t h et e r r i to r ie sw i th h eavy s o i l s ,t oge the rw i th t h ea dvance o ft h es e t t l emen t a r ea s t owa rd s l i gh t , m a in ly s andy s o i l sa nd t h eo u twa sh p l a in o fa no lde r mo r a ine -e spec ia l ly i nt h er eg ion so fw e s te rn a nd n o r ther nJ u t land . T h i st e ndency i n c rea se s i nt h ee a r ly I r on A ge a nd l a s t su n t i lt h ee a r ly p ha se so ft h ey ounge rp re -Roman p e r iod ( Hachmann 1 956 ;H ing s t1 952 ;J ankuhn 1 952 ) . T he c hange si nt h es e t t lemen ts t ruc tu re wh ich a r es oc l ea r ly v i s ib le i nt h i sp a r to fn o r ther nE u rope a r eh e re s ugge s ted t ob ea c c oun ted f o rb yt h ec hange si nc l ima te w h ich l e dt o ar i se i nt h ea nnua lr a inf a l l . T h i su n d oub ted ly t ur ned t h eh eavy i mpe rmeab le c l ay s o i l si n to ma r she s , a nd h ad a tl e a s t made t h ec u l t iva t ion o ft h e s o i l , b a sed o n al i gh t wooden c ou l t e r , v e ry d i ff icu l t , t hu sf o r c ing t h e m a jo r i ty o fp opu la t ion t ot r an sf e r t ot e r r i to r ie s w i th l i gh te r s o i l s , mo re f avou rab le b o th f o rs e t t lemen ta nd c u l t iva t ion ( K r i s t ian sen 1 980 ; 1 981 ) .

C l ima t ic c hange s . T he d e te r io ra t ion o ft h ec l ima te a tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h eS ub -A t lan t ic p e r iod i nn o r ther n P o land i sr ef l ec ted i np o l len d i ag ram sa sw e l la si nt h ee v idence o fp reh i s to r ic s e t t lemen t p a t te rn s . I no rde rt ou nde r s tand t h e s oc io -cu l tu ra lc hange sw h ich t ook p l ace w e mu s t , t h e re fo re ,f i r s tt ur no u ra t ten t ion t ot h ep r inc ipa lc l ima t ic c hange s . A sm en t ioned a bove , a tt h et u rn f r om t h eB ronze t ot h el i on A ge ,m a jo rc l ima t ic c hange st ook p l ace i nt h et e r r i to r ie so fn o r ther nP o land a sw e l la si nt h eo the ra r ea so fC en t ra la nd N o r ther nE u rope .

3 91

1 8 O s t o ja -Z agö r sk i T he se c hange s c on s is ted o f ama rked d rop i na ve rage t empe ra tu re s a nd a n i n c r ea se i n a nnua lr a infa l l . A l though t h ep rob lem so ft h ee x ten ta nd n a tu re o ft h e se c l ima t ic c hange s a nd t h e i ri mpac tu pon t h eh uman e conomy a r e s t i l l b e ing d i scu s sed ( Sö rbom 1 965 /66 : 8 3 ) ,w ec an s a f e ly a s sume t h a tt h ey p l ayed as i gn if ican tr o le i nn o r ther nP o land ,l e ad ing t on o t iceab le c hange s i ns e t t lemen t p a t te rn s a nd i nt h e m e thod s o fl a nd e xp lo i ta t ion . Mo s ts i gn if ican t ly ,c l ima t ic c hange a nd t h ec on sequen ti n c r ea se i nr a inf a l lc aused ar i se o ft h ew a te rt a b le i nl a ke sa nd r i ve r so ve rt h ee n t i r el ow land z one o ft h eO d ra a nd V i s t u la b a s in . C onv inc ing e v idence f o rt h i sc hange h a sr e cen t ly b een p u tf o rwa rd f o rt h i s a r ea . T hus ,w ec an a s sume t h a ta tc .5 00 B .C . t h ew a te rt a b le i nt h el a ke sa nd r i ve r so f n o r the rn P o land ( Dz ieczkow sk i a nd O s to ja -Zago r s ld 1 976 ; N owaczyk e t a l 1 981 ; S ka rzyn ska 1 965 )r o se s os ha rp ly t h a tt h el a nd l y ing c l o se t ol a rge b od ie so fw a te rw a s i nunda ted a nd d e se r ted ( Godw in a nd W i l l i s1 959 ) . T h is h ypo the s i si ss uppo r ted b ya bun d an ta r chaeo log ica le v idence o fs i te so ft h es o -ca l led L usa t ian c u l tu re b e ing b u r ied u nde r m ine ra ld epo s i t sc on ta in ing q uan t i t ie so fh umus a nd f r ac t ion st y p ica lo fd eg raded s o i l s i nd efo re s ted d ra inage a r ea s ( J äge r 1 962 ) . F u r the rs uppo r t ing e v idence i sf ound i nt h e r e s t r ic t ion o ft h ea r ea i nw h ich t h el a te H a l l s ta t t( Ha C /D )d ef ended s e t t lemen t sa r ef ound ( O s to ja -Zagö r sk i 1 976 ) . T he r i s ing w a te rt a b le g r adua l ly t u rned t h et e r r i to r ie sc ove red w i th r i ch h umus ,w h ich h ad f o rmed t h e ma in b ody o fl a nd u nde rc u l t iva t ion ,i n to s wamp s . T he c l ima t ic c hange sw e re a ccompan ied b y s u r f ace o u twa sh ing o ft h e s o i l so n t h eo ne h and ,a nd b yt h ef o rma t ion o fp od so l ic s o i ls o nt h eo the r ; a nd t h ev ege ta t ion u nderwen t q uan t i ta t ive c hange s ( Hun t ley a nd B i rk s 1 983 ; O dgaa rd 1 985 ; P e te r sen 1 985 ; R a l ska J a s iew iczowa 1 981 ; We l inde r 1 975 : 6 8f f . ) o fs ome s i gn if icance f o rt h ee conomy . T h i s p roce s si sp a r t icu la r ly n o t iceab le i nt h ea r ea o fm a r i t ime d une si nn o r the rn P o land w h ich w a se spec ia l ly s en s i t ive t oa n th ropo -p re s su re . A l so ,i ti sh i gh ly p robab le t h a td ue t ot h e c l ima t ic c hange s ,w h ich h ad b rough ta bou t ac on s ide rab le r educ t ion o ff o rme rs e t t lemen t z one s ,t h es e t t lemen t sn ow s p read o n to t h ed une a r ea so ft h es ho re land w h ich h ad h i the r t oa lways b een a vo ided . H uman i n te r f e rence w i th t h eo r ig ina lv ege ta t ion a cco rd ing ly i n c r ea sed c on s ide rab ly i nt h e se r eg ions a tt h et u rn o ft h e S ub -Bo rea l a nd S ub -A t lan t ic p e r iod ,a nd t h i sc ou ld h ave b een ad ef in i te f a c to ri nd e s t roy ing t h ee co log ica lb a lance o f a n e nv i ronmen ta ss en s i t ive a st h a to ft h e s e a sho re d une s ( Tobo l sk i 1 980 ) . I ng ene ra l t e rm sw ec an s t a te t h a tt h eg row th i ne conom ic a c t iv i ty a mong t h ep opu la t ion si nhab i t i ng t h et e r r i to r ie so fn o r the rn P o land a tt h ef i na lp ha se o ft h eB ronze A ge c o inc ided w i th ac omp lex s e r ie so fc l ima t ic a nd e co log ica lt r an sfo rma t ion s . We mus tt h e refo re a sk :w ha tr o le w a sp layed b yt h ea n th ropogen ic f a c to ri nt h ec ou r se o ft h e se c hange s? Wha t a c t iv i ty , a nd w hen ,h ad a f f ec ted t h e e co log ica l b a lance? T he a n swe r s t ot h e se q ue s t ion s , a sw e l l a st on ume rou s o the r s c oncer n ing t h e e vo lu t ion o f t h en a tu ra le nv i ronmen ti nn o r ther nP o land ,s hou ld b ep rov ided b yp a laeobo tan i s t s . T he i nve s t iga t ion o ft h e se p rob lem s , h oweve r , mus t b roaden i ns cope a nd , a sr i gh t ly i nd i c a ted b yT obo lsk i ( 1983 : 7 5 ) , t h ey mus to fn ece s s i ty b eo f ac omp lex c ha rac te r . H ow e ve r , a tp re sen tw ec an a s sume t h a tt h eu nfavou rab le c hange i n e nv i ronmen ta lc ond i t i ons mu s t h ave h ad c ons ide rab le i nf luence u pon t h e d i rec t ion s o fc hange s w h ich o c c u r red b o th i nt h es t ruc tu re o fs e t t lemen t sa nd i nt h es o c io -e conom ic s y s tem a tt h et r an s i t ion b e tween t h eB ronze A ge a nd t h eI r on A ge i nt h i sa r ea .

3 92

C hange si ns e t t lemen ts t ruc tur e sd ur ing t he l a te B ronze A ge . I no rde rt oa pp rec ia te f u l ly b o th t h ec ha ra c te ra nd t h es cope o ft h ese c hange sw eh ave t o g ob ack t ot h ee nd o ft h eB ronze A ge ( Ha B ) , w hen an umbe ro fs i gn if ican te conom ic , s oc ia la nd c u l tu ra lt r an sfo rma t ion sh ad b een i n i t ia ted t h roughou t mo s to fC en t ra lE u rope ( O s to ja -Zagö r sk i 1 982a ) . A tt h e e nd o ft h e B ronze A ge t h ep roce s s o f ac ompa ra t ive s t ab i l i sa t ion o ft h e s e t t lemen t p a t ter n b egan w h ich , i nt h e H a l ls ta t t p e r iod , l e d t ot h e g row th o fm ic ro - a nd mac ro reg iona lg roup si n many p ar t so fn o r the rn P o land ( O s to ja Z agö r sk i 1 982b ) . T he s t ab i l i sa t ion o ft h es e t t lemen tp a t ter nw a sa ccompan ied b y an o t iceab le g row th i n p opu la t ion . I n c rea s ing d emog raph ic p re ssu re i nt h el ow land z one o ft h eO d ra a nd V i s t u la b a s in i sd emon s t ra ted b y t h e a ppea rance o fd ef ended s e t t lemen t si nt h ev i c in i ty o f d en se ly i n hab i ta ted a r ea s . We c an t hu sa s sume t h a tt h ef o rme r ly p reva len tp henomenon o fp e r iod ic t r an sf e ro fs e t t lemen ts i te sr e la ted t os ea sona lo ccupa t ion o fa d jo in ing t e r r i t o r ie sw a s much r educed . I np l ace o fb r ief ly o ccup ied o pen c amp type s i te s , mo re a nd mo r e p e rmanen t n on -def en s ive s e t t lemen t s w i th d u rab le a bove - g round b u i ld ing s ( o f p o le o rf r amewo rk t y pe ) s t a r ted t oa ppea r , a nd i ns ome a r ea so fn o r th -we s te rn P o land w es e eh igh ly d eve loped d ef ended s e t t lemen t s( o fB i skup in t ype )( O s to ja -Zagö r sk i1 983 : F ig .2 ) . T he se t y pe s ( bo th v a s to pen s i te sa nd d ef en s ive s i te s )b ecame t h eo n ly p e rma n en t ly i n hab i ted s e t t lemen t s i ns ome r eg ion so fn o r the rn P o land , w h i le a ccompany ing s ma l le rs i te sb a s ica l ly h ad t h ec ha rac te ro fs e a sona ld we ll ing p l ace sc onnec ted w i th v a r i o u s f o rm s o fe xp lo i ta t ion o ft h e n a tu ra l e nv i ronmen t ( O s to ja -Zagö r sk i 1 981 ) . W i th in p a r t icu la rh ab i ta t ion e cumene s ma rked b y d ef en s ive s i te s o rv a s tn on -def en s ive mu l t i p ha sed s e t t lemen t s ,t h e re a l so a ppea r ed l a rge c r ema t ion c eme te r ie su sed t h roughou tt h e e n t i re H a l l s ta t t( Ha C )p e r iod a nd n o ti n f requen t ly e s tabl i shed d u r ing t h el a te rp ha se so f t h eB ronze Age ( Ha B ) . I ti se v iden tt h a tt h ea bove m en t ioned ,b a re ly s ke tched ,c hange si nt h es e t t lemen tp a t t er no fn o r the rn P o land ( i . e . t h e g row th o f mo re v a s ta nd h igh ly p opu la ted e cumenes ) mu s th ave b een a ccompan ied b y s oc ia la nd e conom ic c hange s . Af u l la wa r ene s so ft h e m echan i sm o ft h e se t r an sfo rma t ion s ,h oweve r ,r equ i re s ar e tu rn t ot h el a te rp ha se so ft h e B ronze Age ( 900 -7 00 B .C . , c f . C o le sa nd H a rd ing 1 979 : 4 32 ,F ig . 9 ;H a rd ing 1 980 ) . T h i s w a s t h e p e r iod d u r ing w h ich t h e s o -ca l led L u sa t ian c u l tu re w a s a tt h ep eak o fi t s d eve lopmen tc ove r ing l a rge a r ea so fC en t ra lE u rope3. A tt h i s t ime d ef ended s e t t lemen t s h ad a l ready a ppea red i ns ome t e r r i to r ie so ccup ied b yt h eL usa t ian c u l tu re . T he se s i te s ,c on s t i tu ted w i thou td oub tt h e mo s th i gh ly d eve loped f o rm o fs e t t lemen ts i te si nt h i sp e r iod i nC en t ra lE u rope . T he d ive r se p e r iod so ft h e i r g row th w e re c l o se ly r e la ted t o t h e s t age i n e conom ic d eve lopmen t w h ich h ad b een r e ached b yt h ei nhab i tan t so f ag i ven t e r r i to ry . E conom ic a nd s oc ia ld eve lopmen ti nt ur n w a sd ependen tu pon c on ta c t sw i th mo re e vo lved c u l tu re s , u pon t h ep roduc t ive a nd o r g an isa t iona la c t iv i t ie so f ag i ven g roup ,a nd u pon t h ee co log ica lo u tpu to ft h ea cce s s ib le n a tu ra le nv i ronmen t . T he c ons truc t ion o f ad ef ended s e t t lemen tw a su ndoub ted ly al a b o r iou se n te rp r ise . I td emanded a na dequa te d emog raph ic a nd o rgan i sa t iona ls t ruc tu re , w h ich o nt h eo ne h and c ou ld p e rm i to r e nab le t h ec on s truc t ion a ss u ch , a nd w h ich o n

3 93

1 8 O s to ja -Z agö r sk i

t h eo t he rh and c oncu r ren t ly w i th t h ec ons t ruc t ion c ou ld p rov ide f o rt h ed ay to -d ay e x i s tence o ft h e l a bou r f o r ce ( Hennebe rg a nd O s to ja - Z agö r sk i 1 984 ) . W i th t h e r i se o f d ef ended s e t t lemen t s t h e a r chaeo log ica ld a ta d emon s t ra te s an o t iceab le c oncen t ra t ion o fs e t t lemen t so ve rc ompa ra t ive ly s ma l la r ea s( w i th in t h ee cumene i nd ica ted b yp a r t icu l a ro b jec t s [ Foge l 1 985 : 5 Of f . , N ie s io low ska -W edzka 1 974 ; O s to ja -Zago r sk i 1 982 ; O s t o ja -Z ago r sk i 1 983 : f i g .2 ] ) . T oge the rw i th t h i sa ppa ren tc oncen t ra t ion o f al a rge n um b e ro fp eop le i n ac ompa ra t ive ly s ma l lt e r r i to ry ,t h ep rob lem o fp rov id ing t h en ece s sa ry f ood s upp ly d id u ndoub ted ly a r ise . T h i sr equ i red t h eu nde r tak ing o fc ommuna le con om ic a c t iv i t ie sb yt h ep eop le c onnec ted w i th t h es e t t lemen t . A l though s ub s i s tence a c t iv i t ie s mu s th ave b een i n tens i f ied ,c ompa red w i th H a Bt h e p o s s ib i l i ty o fc o l lec t ing l a rge c rops w a s s t i l ll im i ted b yt h e mode s tr ange o ft oo l s . T he l a ck o fa dequa te t o o l si nd i rec t ly l im i ted t h e a r ea s s ub jec ted t oe conom ic a c t iv i t ie sa nd t oc u l t iva t ion i np ar t icu la r , t ot h o se r eg ion s i nw h ich t h e re w e re e a s i ly w o rked b rown s o i l sa nd d eg raded h umu so fm a r sh o r ig in . T he m a in l im i t ing f a c to ro ft h ee f f ec t ivene s s o f' Lusa t ian 'f a rm ing w a su ndoub ted ly t h et e chn ique o fs o i lc u l t iva t ion . T h is p rob lem c anno tb e c ons ide red t ob e d ef in i te ly s o lved f o rt h ep e r iod i nq ue s t ion . I nt h i sp e r iod t h e s y s tem o f s o -ca l led ' a l te rna t ive f a rm ing ' w h ich i n ag i ven r eg ion a l lowed f o r t h e c ho ice o ft ho se t i l lage t e chn ique s( known s i nce t h eN eo l i th ic )w h ich w e re e conom ica l ly mo s t p rof i tab le i nt e rm s o ft h e e x i s t ing n a tu ra l c ond i t ion s s e em s t oh ave e x i s ted . I n n o r the rn P o land t h e manua l t e chn ique s o fg a rden t y pe c u l t iva t ion ( hoe d i gg ing ) w e re a ppa ren t ly p ref e r red . P robab ly t h e m a in a r ea s o fc u l t iva t ion w e re t h ef l ood p l a in t e r r a ce sr egene ra ted b ys e a sona lf l ood s( God low sk i 1 966 ;K u rna tow sk i 1 966 ;O s to ja -Z a g o r sk i 1 974 ) . T he re , a nd p o s s ib ly a l so o nt h eh ighe rt e r race s b eyond t h e f l ood p l a in , w e re c oncen t ra ted v a r ious f o rm so fg a rden -and -f ie ld e conomy c l o se ly c onnec ted w i th a n ima lh usband ry . I ts hou ld b eb or n ei nm ind , h oweve r , t h a ti nt h et r an s i t iona lp e r iod b e tween t h e B ronze a nd I r on A ge s , t h e i n ten s if ica t ion o ff a rm ing h ad n o ty e tb ecome g ene ra l , a nd i n many a r ea s w e h ave t oc on s ide rt h ep o ss ib i l i ty o fv ar ia t ion n o to n ly i n t h et e chn ique so fc u l t iva t ion b u ta l so i nt h er e spec t ive r o le so ff a rm ing ,a n ima lh usband ry , g a the r ing , h un t ing a nd f i sh ing i nt h e o ve ra l l s t ruc tu re o fl i f e o fp a r t icu la rg roups c on n ec ted w i th t h e s o -c a l led L u sa t ian c u l tu re ( O s to ja -Zagö r sk i 1 974 ) . I th a sa l ready b een m en t ioned tha ta tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h eI r on A ge t h e re o ccu r red a d e te r io ra t ion o ft h ec l ima t ic c ond i t ion s . T he se c hange sr e su l ted , a sd e scr ibed ,i n ar i s i ng w a te rt a b le a nd d id i ns ome t e r r i to r ie sc au se h i the r to i n ten s ive ly e xp lo i ted a r ea st o t ur ni n to ma r she s . T hu s , w i th in t h ei nd iv idua le cumenes t h ez one o fi n ten s ive f a rm ing s h rank c on s ide rab ly ,a nd t h em a in a r ea o fe conom ic a c t iv i t ie sw ou ld h ave b een r educed t ot h et e r race sp l aced b eyond t h ef l ood p l a in a nd t h ev e rge so fv a l ley s ,s ome t ime so ve r g rown w i th d ense l e a fa nd p ine f o re s t sa nd n o te a s i ly e xp lo i ted . B ecause o ft h e se c on d i t ion st h ei mpo r tance o fo t he rb r anche so ft h ee conomy mus th ave g rown ( i ns ome a r ea s e ven c on s ide rab ly ) . S uch e conom ic a c t iv i t ie sc ou ld i np a r t icu la rh ave b een a n ima lh us b andry a nd t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o fa va i lab le n a tu ra l r e sou rce s . T he i n c rea se i ns u ch a c t i v i t ie s , h oweve r , w ou ld q u ick ly h ave l e d t o ad ep le t ion o ft h er e sou rce s w h ich w e re a t t h ed i spo sa lo fp a r t icu la rp opu la t ion s . T he se c hange si nt u rn mu s th ave l e dt ot r an sfo r ma t ion si nt h et e chno logy o ff ood a cqu i s i t ion . W i th ac on s tan td emand t h e r en a tu ra l ly a ro se t h en eed f o ri n t roduc ing s uch o rgan i sa t iona lc hange s a sw e re e s sen t ia lf o rs u rv i -

3 94

v a l . O bv iou s ly t h eb a s ic n eed so f ap opu la t ion c ou ld n o tc hange ,a nd w es hou ld t h e re f o re e xpec t e i the r c on s ide rab le d epopu la t ion o ff o rme r ly d ense ly i nhab i ted m ic ro re g i on so ra l te rna t ive ly ,a nd mo re p robab ly i nt h i sc on tex t ,i mpo r tan tc hange si nt h es t ruc t u r es o fs e t t lemen t sa nd i nt h eo rgan i sa t ion o fe conom ic a nd s oc ia ll i f e . I td oe sn o ts e em v e ry l i ke ly t h a tr ad ica lc hange s o ccu r red w i th in t h ei mp lemen t s u sed f o rl a nd c u l t iva t i on a tt h i sp e r iod (Wozn iak 1 982 ) , a nd w e mus tt h e refo re a s sume t h a tt h ec hange se n f o r ced b yt h ee nv i ronmen tf i r s to fa l li nvo lved t h eo rgan i sa t iona ls t ruc tu re s .

C hange si no rgan i sa t iona ls t ruc ture i nt he l a te B ronz eA ge O nt h eb a s i so ft h e s e t t lemen te v idence w ec an g ue s sa tt h en a tu r eo fs ome o ft h e se o r g an i sa t iona l c hange s . S pa t ia l c hange s i nt h e s i ze a nd s t ruc tu re o fg roups d i rec ted t o w a rd s d i spe r sa l a nd d epopu la t ion ( e .g . a bandonmen t o fd ef ended s e t t lemen t s a nd i n h ab i ted t e r r i to r ie s ) c an b e s ugge s ted . When t h e p roduc t ivene ss o f a n e nv i ronmen t d ec l ine s , a nd a tt h e s ame t ime t h et e chno logy d oe s n o tu nde rgo e s sen t ia lc hange s ( t he n ew ma te r ia l -i r on -w a sa sy e to n ly s po rad ica l ly u sed f o rt o o lp roduc t ion )t h e re a r i se s t h en eed t oe x tend t h ea r ea o fe conom ic a c t iv i ty b ya cqu i s i t ion o ff e r t i le a nd v i rg in a r ea s .

T he d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h ep opu la t ion i sd e te rm ined b yt h ea r ea o fc u l t ivab le l a nd t oge the r w i th t r an spo r tf a c il i t ie s( Hennebe rg a nd O s to ja -Zager sk i1 984 ) . T hu si n ap re indu s t r ia l c on tex tt h ed i spe r sa lo fh ab i ta t ion i sa lway st h er e su l to f as i gn if i can te x ten s if ica t ion o f f a rm ing . S uch at r an sfo rma t ion t ook p l ace i nn or the rn P o land o nt h ee ve o ft h eI r on A ge . I ndeed ,i nt h e s o -c a l led P ome ran ian c u l tu re ,w h ich r ep laced t h ed i sappea r ing L u sa t ian c u l tu r e , w en o t ice t h a t , c ompa red t o' Lu sa t ian 'o ne s , t h ec eme te r ie sr educe i ns i ze a nd t h ec u s tom o fb u i ld ing d ef ended s e t t lemen t s i sa bandoned . I np l ace o ft h ee a r l ie rv a s t L usa t ian c eme te r ie s , mode s t b u r ia l g round s c on ta in ing e i the r s i ng le f am i ly g r ave s o r s ma l la s semb lage so fg rave sa ppea r( Gadz ik iew icz 1 954 ; Wozn iak 1 971 ) . C ompa ra t ive l ys ma l la nd b r ief ly i nhab i ted d we l l ing s i te st oge the rw i th mode s tc eme te r ie s -a lt h e se i nd ica t e t h e d im in i sh ing s i ze o ft h e g roup c onduc t ing c ommuna l e conom ic a c t iv i t ie s . T he movemen to fd we l l ing s i te si n to n ew a r ea sf i nd s ac onv inc ing e xp lana t ion i nt e rm s o ft h eu nf avou rab le e co log ica lc hange s ,c aused e i the rb yw o r sen ing c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s o rb yw a s tefu le xp lo i ta t ion o fr e sou r ce sb yp a r t icu la rh uman g roup s . I ts e em st h a tb o th f a c to r sh ad i nt h i sc a se e qua l ly i nf luenced t h e ' s peed 'o ft h ee conom ic a nd s oc ia lt r an s f o rma t ion s . T he c oncen t r a t ion o fp opu la t ion i n al im i ted t e r r i to ry w i th al im i ted e con om ic p o ten t ia l c ou ld h ave l e d t oo ve r -exp lo i ta t ion a nd i mpove r i shmen t a nd h ence t o f ood s upp ly c r i s i sa nd ad ec l ine o ft h ee x i s t ing e conom ic a nd s oc ia ls t ruc tu re s ,a nd e ven t u a l ly , a s men t ioned a bove , t oc hange si no lde rf o rm so fe xp lo i ta t ion a nd d i s in teg ra t ion o fs e t t lemen t s . We may s uppo se t h a tt h ep rev ious ly m en t ioned d e te r io ra t ion o ft h ec l i ma te c ou ld h ave c on s t i tu ted t h ev i ta la gen to ft h e se c hange s . T he b a lance b e tween h uman e conomy a nd t h e e nv i ronmen t , a l ready a ti t s b reak ing p o in t , h ad c o l lapsed . I ts hou ld b e b or ne i nm ind h e re t h a t t h e e co log ica l b a lance b e t ween t h ee nv i ronmen ta nd t h eh uman p opu la t ion i sd e term ined b y' e ne rgy t r an sm i ss ion ' -t h ew ay i nw h ich ac ommun i ty e xp lo i t si t se nv i ronmen t . I ts e em st h a ti nt h el ow land

3 95

1 8 O s to ja -Z agö r sk i

z one o ft h eO d ra a nd V i s tu la b a s in a tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h eI r on A ge t h ep o ten t ia ls f o re x p lo i ta t ion b yg roups i n hab i t ing p a r t icu la r ,d en se ly p opu la ted m ic ro reg ion s( t he v i c in i ty o fd ef ended s e t t lemen t s ,p ar t icu la r ly o fB i skup in t y pe )p roved i n adequa te i nt h ef a ce o f t h ee nv i ronmen ta lc hange sd e sc r ibed a bove . E co log ica lb a lance c ou ld b er ega ined o n ly b yi n t roduc ing e s sen t ia lc hange si n to t h ec u l tu ra ls y s tem . T he r e su l t so fr e sea rch i n to t h e se p rob lem s ,y i e lded b y at e n -y ea rf i e ld p ro jec ti nt h e S ob ie juchy m ic ro -r eg ion i nW ie lkopo l ska ( G rea te rP o land ,o nt h es ou the rn p e r iphe r ie s o ft h et e r r i to r ie si nq ue s t ion )a r eo fp a r t icu la ri n te re s t . D u r ing t h e se i nve s t iga t ions i tw a s e s tab l ished t h a tt h eg roup w h ich d ur ing t h eH a l l s ta t tp e r iod h ad u sed o ne o ft h eB i skup in t y pe s e t t lemen t s ( Sob ie juchy , s i te 1 ) mu s th ave c ons ide red ' u rban f a c to r s ' -i . e . f a c to r s r e su l t ing f r om s i te o f ah igh ly i n teg ra ted o rgan i sa t iona l s t ruc tu re -a ne s sen t ia le l emen t o ft h e i rc u l tu ra l -sy s tem a nd ,w ec an g ue s s ,a ne l emen ti l -f i t ted t ot h e i ri n fo rma t ion s t ruc t u re ( S t rza lko a nd O s to ja -Zagö r s ld 1 984 ) . T h i se l emen tc ou ld h ave b een i n t roduced i n to t h es t ruc tu r eo ft h e s y s tem o n ly w hen t h er e la t ion sh ips b e tween t h ee ne rge t ic r e sou r ce s o ft h ee nv i ronmen t ,t h es y s tem o fe xp lo i ta t ion a nd t h eb io log ica ls t a te o ft h ep opu la t ion w a sa dvan tageou sf o rt h eg roup ,i . e . i ft h ep o ten t ia lo ft h ee nv i ronmen tw a ss ub s tan t ia l g i ven t h ep a r t icu la rm e thod o fe xp lo i ta t ion ( S t r za lko a nd O s to ja -Zagö r s ld 1 984 ) . I ns u ch c a se st h is e l emen t( t he ' u rban f a c to r ' )c ou ld h ave p roved a dvan tageou si nc u l tu ra lt e rm s a l though ' non -r egenerab le ' i na dap ta t ion t e rm s , a nd t h e refo re c on s t i tu t ing t h ew eake s t l i nk i nt h e s t ruc tu r e o ft h ee xp lo i ta t ion s y s tem . T he d ec l ine o ft h e e co log ica lb a lance p robab ly c au sed t h e b reak ing o ft h i s l i nk w h ich m ean t t h e c o l lapse o ft h e s e t t lem en t s t ruc tu re s ( t he b ig d ef ended s e t t lemen t sw i th t h e i rn e two rk o fs a te l l i te d wel ing s i te s ) . S t i l la no the re f f ec to ft h i sc o l lap se w a st h ed e te r io ra t ion o ft h eb io log ica lc ond i t ion so f t h eg roup c onnec ted w i th t h ew an ing s t age o ft h eS ob ie juchy s i te ( S t rza lko a nd O s to ja Z agö r s ld 1 984 ) . O nt h i sb a s i sw ec an p u tf o rwa rd ah ypo the s i ss ay ing t h a tt oge the rw i th t h ea bandon men to fd ef ended s e t t lemen t sa nd t h er e tu rn t o ad i spe r sed s e t t lemen tp a t te rn ,t h es i ze o f h uman g roups c onduct ing a ny c ommuna l e conom ic a c t iv i ty w a s d e l ibe ra te ly l im i ted . T he c hange i nt h eo rgan i sa t iona ls t ruc tu re ( af am i ly o rc l an -ba sed s y s tem o ft e nt ot wen ty p e r son s ) h ad p o s s ib ly b een o ne o ft h e w ay s ( a pa r tf r om t h e d i spe r sa l o fh ab i ta t ion ) o f a dap t ing t ou nfavou rab le e nv i ronmen ta lc ond i t ion s . T hu sw ec an o b se rve t h a tt h ee me r g ence o f an ew c u l tu ra l s y s tem , w h ich i sk nown i nP o l ish a r chaeo logy a st h e ' Pome ra n i an ' c u l tu re , w a s a n a t temp t a t amod if i ca t ion o ft h e f o rme r c u l tu ra l s y s tem . T he se c hange s ,a ss hown b ya r chaeo log ica ld a ta ,w e re a l so a ccompan ied b ya dap ta t ion o fn ew c u l tu ra l s t imu l if r om t h e a r ea s o ccup ied b yt h eC e l t ic L aT ene c u l tu re a nd n ow r e ach i ng t h ea r ea sn or th o ft h eC a rpa th ian Moun ta in s (Wozn iak 1 970 , 1 979 ) . T he s p read o f t h i sc u l tu ra l i nf luence w a s f a vou red b y c hange s i nt h en e two rk o ft r ade i n5 t hc en tu ry B .C . ( t he i n c rea se o ft r ade c on tac t sw i th t h ew e s tH a l ls ta t tc u l tu re ,i . e . w i th t h er eg ion s w he re t h eL aT ene s t y le a nd L aT ene c u l tu re f i r s td eve loped ) . I ti sn o ti n f requen t ly s ug g e s ted t h a t t h e c u l tu ra lc hange sc on tempo ra ry w i th t h eb eg inn ing o ft h eI r on A ge ( t he d ec l ine o ft h e ' Lu sa t ian 'c u l tu re a nd t h er i se o ft h e ' Pome ran ian 'c u l tu re ) h ad b een a c c ompan ied b y t r ansfo rma t ions o f t h e e conom ic a nd s oc ia l s y s tem s ( O s to ja -Zagö r sk i 1 976 ; 1 982 ; Wozn iak 1 971 ) .

3 96

B efo re Ip re sen t my v i ews u pon t h is p rob lem Iw ou ld l i ke t od raw a t ten t ion t ot h ef a c t t h a t e conom ic a nd s oc ia l s y s tem s c anno t r e ad i ly b e i d en t if ied w i th c u l tu ra l o ne s ( T a b aczyn sk i 1 971 : 2 5 ) . T he l a t te rn o to n ly p o s se s st h e i ro wn s t ruc tu ra lf e a tu re sb u ta r ea l l t oo o f ten c ha rac te r ised b yd i f f e ren tp a rame te r so ft ime a nd s pace . Ac l o se c o r re la t ion o f s oc io -econom ic a nd c u l tu ra l s y s tem s , t hough t h eo re t ica l ly p o s s ib le , i si nf a c t a n i d ea l s i tua t ion w h ich o f ten d i f f e r sc on s ide rab ly f r om emp i r ica lr ea l i ty . A r chaeo log ica lo b se r v a t ion sh ave f u r the rmo re r evea led t h a tt h i sd i sc repancy g row sw i th p rog re s s( He r rmann 1 965 : 9 7 , 14 ) . T hu s w e a r ed ea l ing w i th c a tego r ie s o fp henomena w h ich a r ec l o se ly i n te rdependen t , b u t -a nd t h i ss hou ld b er emembe red - a r en o ti d en t ica l . T he f i r s tc a t e go ry emb race st e chno log ie so fp roduc t ion ,h uman c on t ro lo ve ra nd e xp lo i ta t ion o ft h e n a tu ra le nv i ronmen ta nd t h et y pe o fs oc ia lr e la t ion sw i th in t h ec ommun i t ie su nde rc on s i de ra t ion , wh i le t h es e cond c omp r i se s ad oma in o fr e a l i ty w i th i t so wn s epa ra te f e a tu re s a nd r egu la r i t ie s ,o fa c t ion ( s ymbo l ic c u l tu re ) , s epa ra te f r om t h e c a tegory o fs oc ia l a c t i v i t ies . B a s ica l ly ,a tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h eI r on A ge i nn o r the rn P o land w ea r ed eal ing w i th d i s t i nc t c on t inu i ty i nt h e r ea lm o fe conom ics ( d e sp i te s ome s h if t s w i th in e conom ic a c t i v i t ie s )a nd at o ta ll a ck o fc on t inu i ty i nt h ea r ea o fc u l tu re . T he se c on t rad ic t ion s ,w h ich a r en o tc onf ined t ot h ep reh i s to r ic p e r iod i nq ue s t ion ,c anno te a s i ly b ee xp la ined i nt e rm s o fc u l tu r eu nde r s tood a sa ni nd iv is ib le u n i t . I nt h i sr e spec tt h ec r i t ic i sm o fB info rd ( 1965 : 2 03f f . ) a nd R enf r ew ( 1969 : 1 51f f . ) i s mo s tp e rcep t ive i ni t se mpha s i s o n t h e d ef ic ien c i e s a nd m e thodo log ica l w eakne s s o fm any c oncep t s w ide ly a ccep ted i nE u ropean a r c haeo logy . Ad i scu s s ion o ft h e g ene ra lp rob lem o ft h er e la t ions b e tween s oc io - e con om ic a nd c u l tu ra lp henomena i so u t s ide t h es cope o ft h i sa r t ic le . I no rde rt oa vo id m i s u nde r s tand ing s ,h oweve r ,i ti sw o r th s t re s s ing t h a tt h ev e ry n o t ion o fv a r iab i l i ty o fh o l i s t ica l ly d e f ined a r chaeo log ica lc u l tu re sr a i se sd oub t so f af undamen ta ln a tu re . T he c r i te r i af o rc l a s s i f ica t ion o fc u l tu re s i na r chaeo logy mu s ti nva r iab ly r e la te t ot h e s phe re o f s ymbo l ic c u l tu re . T hus t h ec r i te r ia f o rd i s t ingu i sh ing t h eP ome ran ian c u l tu re w a sb a sed o nt h en ew p o t te ry f o rm s ( f a ce ur n s )o nt h eo ne h and ,a nd o n ad i f f e ren tt ype o fg rave s ( box g rave s ) o n t h e o the r ; a nd t h e refo re o n c hange s r e la t ing t o ac ompa ra t ive ly s ma l l s phe re o fs ymbo l ic a c t ion . I nt h e s ame v e in , w i thou t s ome s c ien t if i c p roof w e a r en o t e n t i t led t od raw c onc lus ion s a bou tt h e c hange s o ft h e h o l i s t ica l ly u nde r s tood c u l tu re i . e . emb rac ing a l ld oma in so fh uman a c t iv i t ie s( H igham 1 969 : 1 45 ) . We h ave t h e refo re t oc on s ide rt h er e a sons f o rt h ea bove -men t ioned s oc io -econom ic t r an sfo rma t ion sa nd t h e f a c to ft h e i rt empo ra lc onve rgence w i th t h et r an sfo rma t ion si nt h es ymbo l ic c u l tu re d e s c r ibed a bove . I th a sb een c l a imed t h a ta tt h e momen to ft r an s i t ion f r om t h eL u sa t ian t o t h eP ome ran ian c u l tu re ag r adua lp roce s ss t a r ted t h a tl e dt ot h ee conom ic c r i s i st h a tb e c ame c l ea r ly v i s ib le i nt h eO de ra nd V is tu la b a s in i nt h eP re ,R oman I r on A ge p e r iod ,c . 4 00 -200 B .C . (Wozn iak 1 979 : 1 47 ,F ig . 3 ) . P r e sen t ly ,h oweve r ,t h es t a te o fr e sea rch d oe sn o tf u l ly s uppo r tt h is c l a im o f ag radua l p roce s s . O nt h eb a s i so fa r chaeo log ica ld a ta w ec an s ugge s tt h a td ur ing t h el a te rp ha se s o ft h eH a l l s ta t tc u l tu re ( i . e .t owa rd st h ee nd o ft h en o r th E u ropean B ronze A ge )t h eL u s a t ian c u l tu r ew a su nde rgo ing as e r ious c r i s i s . T he r e a sons f o rt h i sw em ay h ave t of i nd i nt h e c on t rad ic t ion s b e tween t h e d eve lopmen t o ft h e s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu r e ( t he r i se o f h i gh ly d eve loped h ab i ta t ion f o rm s , i . e . t h ed ef ended s e t t lemen t s ) a nd t h e s t agna t ion o f

3 97

1 8 O s to ja -Zagö r sk i

t h er e la t ion o fp roduc t ion . D ue t ot h ei nva r iab ly l im i ted a s so r tmen to fe f f ec t ive t oo l s a nd t h e c on sequen t l a ck o fp o s s ib i l i t ie s t oa pp ly s ome e f f ec t ive m ean s o fa g r icu l tu ra l a nd p a s to ra lp roduc t ion , t h eg row th o fp opu la t ion w a sf a s te rt h an t h ec apab i l i ty o fp ro d uc ing a na dequa te a moun to ff ood . A na dd i t iona lf a c to rw h ich q u ickened t h ep ace o f t h ee conom ic c r is i sw a st h ec l ima t ic c hange sc on s ide red a bove . T oge the rw i th t h ec on t r ac t ion o ft h e c u l t ivab le l a nd t h e re mu s t h ave o ccu r red a n i n cr ea sed d eve lopmen t o f o the r s ub s i s tence s t ra teg ie s . T he i n tens if ied a nd , i n f a c t , o f ten w a s te fu l e conomy o f g roups c onnec ted w i th p ar t icu la rs e t t lemen t sh ad t ol e ad i n ac ompa ra t ive ly s ho r tp e r i o dt o ac on s ide rab le d eva s ta t ion o ft h ec on secu t ive ly i nhab i ted i nd iv idua lm ic ro reg ion s . T h i s f a c t may a ccoun t , among o the r s , f o r t h e d i f f e r en t d a te s f o r t h e d i sappe arance o f d ef ended s e t t lemen t s( O s to ja -Zagö r sk i 1 976 )i nt h eO d ra a nd V i s tu la b a s in4.T he u nf a v ou rab le n a tu ra lc ond i t ion s ,b rough ta bou tb yc l ima t ic c hange so nt h eo ne h and ,a nd b y o ve r -exp lo i ta t ion o nt h eo the r ,w e re n od oub tt h ec au se o ft h et r an sfo rma t ions o ft h es e t t l emen tp a t te rn i nn o r the rn P o land d u r ing t h ep e r iod i nq ue s t ion . T hu sa tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h eI r on Age w e s e et h es e t t lemen t sd e se r ted a nd l a rge n umbe r so fp eop le m ig ra t ing t on ew h ab i tab le l a nd s . C on tempo raneou s ly w i th t h e se e ven t s t h e p r ev iou s t e r r i to r ia l a nd e conom ic c ommun i t ie sw e re b roken u pa nd r e p laced b ys ma l lk in -g roups a st h eu n i t s o fc ommuna le conom ic a c t iv i t ie s . T he c hange i ns e t t lemen ts t ruc tu re a nd t h er educ t ion o fp a t ter na nd s i ze o fc o -ope ra t ing g roups ,w e re p robab ly a na t temp ta ta dap ta t ion t ot h e n ew e nv i ronmen ta l c ond i t ion s . T he i n c rea sed mob i l i ty o fp a r t icu la rg roup s s e a r ch ing f o r dwel ing land s mu s ta l so h ave i nf luenced t h ec hange si nt h ee conom ic p rac t ice s . Many s cho la r sr e la te t h e se c hange s , i n my o p in ion m is taken ly , t ot h et r an sf e ro ft h e P ome ran ian c u l tu re p eop le f r om a g r icu l tu re t op a s tu r e . T he p er iod ica lm ig ra t ion s hou ld , h oweve r , r a the rb e s e en i nt e rm so ft h e s ea r ch f o r mo r e f e r t i le e co log ica l z one s w he re t h ec ho ice o f as i te f o rt empo ra ls e t t lemen tw a sd e te rm ined b yw h ich s o i l sw ou ld a l low mo s te f f ec t ive c u l t iva t ion . T hu sw ec an b e l ieve t h a t , a f te rt h ec hange o ft h e s e t t lemen t s t ruc tu re a nd t h ed ec l ine o ft h ep rev iou s ly l a rge t e r r i to r ia la nd e conom ic c ommun i t ie s , s ome i mpo r tan tc hange si n managemen tm e thod so ccu r red ,w h i le t h ee s sen t ia ls t ruc tu re o fb a s ic a c t iv i t ie sd id n o tu nde rgo a ny t r ansfo rma t ion . T he e conom ic mode lr ema ined c omp lex a nd c ons i s ted o f as imu l taneous a pp l ica t ion o fv a r iou sf o rm s o fe xp lo i ta t ion , s o t h e i mpor tance o fd i f f e ren ts t ra teg ie s -t h a ti s ,f a rm ing a nd a n ima lh u sband ry -v a r i e df r om r eg ion t or eg ion . O nt h eo the rh and t h et e chn ique so fc u l t iva t ion ,k nown s i nce t h eN eo l i th ic ,d id n o tc hange . T he l im i ted r ange o ft o o ls d e te rm ined t h e s l ow i n f i l t ra t i on a nd a ccep tance o f mo re p rog re s s ive f o rm so fe conomy . S ome m ino rc hange s ,h ow e ve r ,c an b eo b se rved i nt h ec ho ice o fc u l t iva ted c rops . T owa rd st h ee nd o ft h eB ronze Age i nt h et e r r i to r ie so fn o r ther nP o land w hea ti sg r adua l ly r ep laced b yb a r ley w h ich i n t h el a s tc en tu r ie s B .C . a nd a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h eC h r i s t ian e r ag radualy a s sumed t h e l e ad ing r o le a mong s tt h ed ome s t ic p l an t s . A tt h et r an s i t ion f r om t h eB ronze A ge t oI r on Age t h ei mpo r tance o fr ye c u l t iva t ion ( o fn oc on sequence a tt h ec l o se o ft h eB ronze A ge ) i sa t te s ted i nP o l i sh t e r r i to r ie s f o rt h e f i r s tt ime ( Hopf 1 982 ; K l ichowska 1 961 ; 1 984 ) . I mp re s s ions o fr ye g ra in s o n p o t te ry f r om t h e P ome ran ian c u l tu re a r e a ugmen ted b y a bundan tr ye p o l len i np olen d i ag ram s f o rt h e s t ra ta s l igh t ly l a te rt h an t h eb eg inn ing s o ft h eS ub -A t lan t ic p e r iod . O nt h eb a s i so fa na ly s i so fa n ima lb one sf r om s i te sd a ted t o t h ee nd o ft h eH a l l s ta t tp e r iod ( Ha D 3 ) a nd t ot h eP r eR oman l i on A ge ,w ec an f u r the r mo r ea s sume t h a tt h et e ndenc ie st owa rd s ad ec rea se i nt h en umbe ro fc a t t le ( no t iceab le

3 98

a tt h ee nd o ft h eB ronze A ge )a nd t h es imu l taneou si n c rea se i nt h en umbe ro fp ig sc on t i nued i n to t h eb eg inn ing o ft h eI r on A ge ( Mak iew icz 1 977 :t a b . 1 , 2 ) . A tt h ee nd o ft h e se r ema rk si ts e em s a pp rop r ia te b r ief ly t oc on s ide rt h eb a re ly -men t i oned c u l tu ra lc hange sw h ich t ook p l ace a tt h et r ans i t ion f r om B ronze t oI r on . T he p rob l em i nq ue s t ion i st h ed ec l ine o ft h es o -ca l led L u sa t ian c u l tu re a nd t h eg row th o ni t sb a se o ft h es o -ca l led P ome ran ian c u l tu r e ,t hough s ome s cho la r sw ou ld e ven i s o la te w i th in t h e l a t te rt h e B e l l -g rave s c u l tu re ( Dab row ska 1 983 ; Weg rzynow icz 1 979 ; Wozn iak 1 979 ) . A cco rd ing t ot h em ,b o th c u l tu re s( Pome ran ian a nd B e l l -g rave )c o -e x i s ted r ough ly w i th i nt h e s ame c h rono log ica lp e r iod a nd o ccup ied n e ighbou r ing t e r r i to r ie s . T he b a s i sf o r t h e i rs epa ra t ion w a st h e refo re o n ly t h ed i f f e rence si nt h e i rr e spec t ive c ha rac te r is t ic b u r i a lf o rm sa nd g rave p o t te ry ( s tone b oxe sw i th f a ce -shaped c i ne r ary u rns f o rt h ef o rme r , b e l l -shaped g rave sf o rt h el a t te r ) , a sn oo t he re l emen t sw e re k nown . T he re i sn od oub t a bou t t h e ' g ene t ic ' t i e s o ft h e se t wo c u l tu re sw i th t h e L usa t ian , a nd t h el i t e ra tu re i nd i c a te sv a r iou si n te r re la t ion sd ur ing t h el a te rp ha se so ft h e i rd eve lopmen t . T he p rob lem s e ncoun te red b yt h es cho la r si nt h e i ra t temp t st od ef ine t h et e r r i to r ia lb a se o ft h et wo c u l t u re s a nd t h ei n ter na lr eg iona ld i v i s ion sc onf i rm my o p in ion a bou tt h er e la t iv i ty o ft h e s y s tem s o fc u l tu ra l c l a s s if ica t ion r e ign ing i nP o l i sh a r chaeo logy . T he se s y s tem s c on s t i tu te o n ly o ne a mong t h ep o s s ib le , l og ica l ly s ound a nd h igh ly i mpe r f ec t ( b ecau se o f i t s mono l inea rt y po log ism , c f . C la rke 1 968 : 3 7 ) w ay so fo rde r ing t h e s ou r ce ma te r ia l s . T he s t andpo in tp re sen ted i nt h i sa r t ic le s e em st h e refo re mo re f r u i t fu l .

C onc lu s ion . T he a im o ft h i sp ape rw a st op r e sen tt h er e su l t so fr e sea r ch i n to t h ep a r t icu la rc a tego r ie s o fc u l tu ra l p henomena w h ich a r e f ound i nn o r the rn P o land a tt h e t r an s i t ion f r om t h e B ronze Age t ot h eI r on A ge . I ts e em st h a to n ly ad e ta i led s t udy o ft h e s y s tem s o fp ro d uc t ion a nd d i s t r ibu t ion o fs ub s i s tence m a te r ia ls i nd i spen sab le f o rt h es u rv iva lo fh uman g roups w il e ven tua l ly a l low u s t od e tec t t h e mechan i sm o fc u l tu ra l c hange s a sw e l l . Howeve r ,o b ta in ing p o s i t ive r e su l t si nt h i sf i e ld r equ i re s ar e jec t ion o ft h eh o l i s t ic c on c ep to fa r b i t rar i ly i s o la ted c u l tu r e si nf a vou ro f mo re o pe ra t ive a pp roache sw h ich w ou ld b e t te r s u i t t h e c omp lex s t ruc tu re -o fp reh i s to r ic p roce s se s . T he a pp roach t ot h e s oc io e conom ic c hange so ccu r r ing a tt h et u rn o ft h eB ronze a nd I r on A ge s , p re sen ted i nt h is a r t ic le ,i ss e en a s as t ep t owa rd st h i st y pe o fr e sea rch . I tw ou ld b e u sefu l , t h e refo re , t o e nd t h e se r ef lec t ion sw i th ab r ief s umma ry o ft h eb a s ic d i rec t ion so ft ho se c hange s . I nt h e l i gh to fo u rp re sen tk now ledge i ti sb eyond d i spu te t h a t t h e s t ruc tu r e o ff ood p roduc t ion i nn o r the rn P o land ( a nd i no the rt e r r i to r ie so fC en t ra lE u rope )d eve loped o ve r af ew t hou sand y ea r sa nd d u r ing t h eB ronze A ge r ef lec t s as l ow a dap ta t ion o ft h em e th o d so fl a nd c u l t iva t ion t ot h ec ond i t ion so ft h el o ca le nv i ronmen t ( K ruk 1 980 ;T abaczyn s k i 1 970 ;W i s lan sk i 1 969 ) . I ng ene ra lt e rm si tw a sc ha rac te r ised b y amu l t i tude o fc u l t i va t ion t e chn ique s , a nd t h u s b y a n a b i l i ty t ou se s imu l taneous ly v a r iou s z one s o ft h e e co log ica ll a nd scape . T he se w e r ei n ten s ive t e chn ique s( s uch a sg row ing v ege tab le sa nd p ap i l ionaceou s p l an t s i ng a rden p lo t s a d jo in ing s e t t lemen t s i te s w h ich a l lowed f ou r t ime s mo re p eop le t ob ef e df r om t h e s ame a r ea o fl a nd a sc ompa red t oc e rea lf a rm ing )

3 99

1 8 O s to ja -Z agö r sk i

a sw el a s mo r ee x tens ive t e chn ique sb a sed o nt h eu se o f ac ou l te rf o rt h ec u l t iva t ion o f s ma l l f i e ld s , as c a t te red f a l low a nd s l a sh -and -bu rn t e chn ique s , a n ima l h usband ry a nd g a the r ing . I tw a sa l so d i s t ingu i shed b yc ons ide rab le f l ex ib i l i ty ,a ne a sy t r an s i t ion i np a r t i cu la rp e r iod s( a nd c ommun i t ie s )f r om e x ten s ive t e chn ique st oi n ten s ive o ne s ,a nd v i ce v e r sa . As im i la rt ype o fe conomy , a dap ted t ot h ed i f f e r en tc ond i t ion so ft r op ica lc oun t r ie s ,i ss t i l li nu se o ve rl a rge a r ea so fA f r ica ,S ou th -Ea s tA s ia a nd C en t ra l Ame r ica . T he s ame g roups w h ich u se t h el i e -f a l low t e chn ique o fc u l t iva t ion i na r ea sw i th p opu la t ion d en s i ty o f af ew p e r sons p e rs qua re k i lome t re a r ea b le ,f o rv a r iou sr e a son s ,t op a ss t oa n i n ten s ive manua lc u l t iva t ion o fs o i le n r iched w i th manu re ,a nd p o s se s st h es k i l lt oa l te r n a te t h e t y pe so ff a rm ing c u l tu re sa nd t ou se g r een m anu re , t h u sb e ing a b le t of e ed a g g lome ra t ion so fs eve ra lh und red p eop le p e rs qua re k i lome t re ( Gou rou 1 969 ) . O bv ious ly ,t h en a tu ra lc ond i t ion so fC en t ra lE u rope d id n o tp roduce s uch s ha rp c on t r a s t s i np opu la t ion d en s i ty , y e ti ti sk nown t h a ti ns ome p e r iod s , e . g . a tt h ee nd o ft h e B ronze Age , c on s ide rab le c oncen t ra t ion o f t h e p opu la t ion o ccu r red i nt h e h ab i ta t ion m ic ro -reg ions m a rked b yd ef ended s e t t lemen t so rb yv a s t mu l t i -pha sed o pen s e t t lemen t s . T hu s ,w ec an g ene ra l ly s t a te t h a td u r ing t h eH a l l s ta t tp e r iod ( Ha C -D )i nt h ep a r t so fE u r ope u nde rd i scu s s ion t h ec i v i l i sa t iona la ch ievemen t so ft h eB ronze A ge s p read o u tt o t h eu tmo s t . A s Ih ave a r gued i nt h i sa r t ic le , t h i sl e dt oa ni n c rea sed a nd u np receden ted b oom o ft h eL u sa t ian c u l tu re , a ccompan ied o nt h eo ne h and b yh ab i ta t ion c hange s( t he r i se o fd ef ended s e t t lemen t s ) a nd b y al a rge i n c r ea se i nd emog raph ic p o ten t ia l o n t h e o the r . Howeve r , t h e c oncen t ra t ion o fp opu la t ion i nt h e s e t t lemen t s a nd t h e i rv i c in i ty c o inc ided w i th u nf avou rab le c l ima t ic c hange sw h ich ,a sw er e ca l l ,t ook p lace a tt h et u rn o ft h eS ub -Bo rea la nd t h eS ub -A t lan t ic p e r iod s . T he n ece s s i ty o fs e cu r ing t h ee s sen t ia l q uan t i ty o ff ood p roduc t s f o rt h ep opu la t ions i n hab i t ing c oncen t ra ted s e t t lemen tc en t re s l e dt ot h ea pp l ica t ion o f mo re e x ten s ive e xp lo i ta t ion t e chn ique s . B ecau se o fi t sw a s te f u lc ha rac te r ,t h ei n c r ea sed e conom ic a c t iv i ty w a sb ound e venu ta l ly t oc ause a ne co log i c a ld eva s ta t ion o fs ome p a r t icu la r ly d en se ly p opu la t ed m ic ro reg ions . T hu s a tt h e b e g i nn ing o ft h e I r on A ge ( i . e . a tt h e t u rn o ft h eH al s ta t ta nd P re R oman I r on A ge p e r i o d s ) , t h en eed t os e a rch f o rn ew a nd mo r ef avou rab le h ab i ta t ion c ond i t ions a ro se . T he d ef ended s e t t lemen t s w e re d e se r ted , t h e f o rme r ly n ume rous t e r r i to r ia l a nd e conom ic c ommun i t ie sb roke u pa nd t h es e t t lemen ts t ruc tu r er e ver ted t oe a r l ie rp a t te rns t y p ica lo f t h ee nd o ft h eB ronze A ge ( Ha B ) . A s Ih ave t r ied t os how ,t h et r an sfo rma t ion o ft h es e t t l emen tp a t ter n w a s a ccompan ied b y t r an sfo rma t ion s i ne conom ic p rac t ice s . T he u n d oub ted e conom ic c r i s i si ni t st ur nl e dt ot h ep redom inance o f mo re e x ten s ive t e chn ique s , f o ri n s tance t o aw ide ru se o ft h ef a l low a nd s l a sh -and -burn t e chn ique s . F rom t h el i t e r a tu re o n t h eb eg inn ing o ft h eh on A ge i nt h eP o l i sh t e r r i to r ie si ta ppea r sc l ea r ly t h a t i mpor tan tc u l tu ra lc hange so ccu r red a tt h i sp e r iod ,s uch a st h ed ecl ine o rd i sappea rance o ft h es o -ca l led L u sa t ian c u l tu re a nd t h er i se o ft h eP ome ran ian c u l tu re . A s men t ioned a bove ,t h eo r ig in o ft h el a t te ra nd i t sd eve lopmen th ave b een much d i scu s sed a nd many c on t rove r s ia lt h eo r ie s a nd h ypo the se sh ave b een s ugge s ted . I ti so f ten f o rgo t ten , h ow e ve r , t h a tt h e n ew ly -bor nc u l tu re w a s ad i rec tc on t inua t ion o ft h e ' Lusa t ian 'c yc le a nd t h a tt h et r an sfo rma t ion so ft h ep r inc ipa lf e a tu re sa r ei ne f f ec tl im i ted t ot h eb ur ia lr i tua l a nd t ot h ef o rm so fg rave p o t te ry . I tt h e refo re s e em sa si ft h ea bove d a ta d on o ts uppo r t p re sen tf o rmu la t ions o ft h eh ypo the se so fc u l tu ra lc hange s . R a the r ,t h e se c hange so ugh t

4 00

t ob ec ons ide red i nc l o se r e la t ion t oc hange si nt h ef o rm so fe conom ic a nd s oc ia ll i f ea nd i ns e t t lemen ts t ruc tu re s . O ne i mpo r tan tq ue s t ion r ema in st ob ea sked : c an t h ec hange so ccu r r ing i nn o r the rn P o land a tt h et r an s i t ion o ft h eB ronze A ge t ot h eI r on A ge b ec on s ide red p rog re s s ive i n a ne vo lu t iona ry s en se? If e a rt h a tt h ea n swe rg i ven m ay n o tb ep o s i t ive . I ts e em st h a t t h e re w a s an o tab le r eg re s si nt h es e t t lemen tp a t te rn c ompa r i son t ot h ep rev iou sp e r iod . T he c on tac t sw i th t h ec oun t r ie st ot h es ou th o ft h eC a rpa th ian Moun ta ins b ecame much w eakened . T he refo re , Iw ou ld r i sk as t a temen ts ay ing t h a tt h es oc io -econom ic c hange s a tt h eb eg inn ing o ft h eI r on A ge w e re af o re ta s te o ft h ea pp roach ing e conom ic a nd d emo g raph ic c r i s i s t h a t g r adua l ly e nve loped l a rge a r ea so ft h e O de ra nd V i s tu la b a s in . T he a cqu i s i t ion o fn ew c u l tu ra lf e a tu r e s( l e tu sl a be lt h em ' Pome ran ian ' )a sw e l la st h ec hange i ns e t t lemen tp a t ter n s a nd o fs oc io -econom ic s t ruc tu re sc ons t i tu ted a na t temp tt oa vo id t h ei mpend ing e conom ic c r i s i sw h ich w a sb eg inn ing t oa f f ec t( w i th v ary ing i n ten s i ty ,o f c ou r se ) l a rge a r ea s o fC en t ra lE u rope . T he a t temp tf a i led , a nd i nt h e 3 rd c en tu ry B .C . t h ee conom ic c r i s i si sv i s ib le i nt h ea r chaeo log ica le v idence f r om v a r ious p a r t so fC en t r a lE u rope .T he e conom ic d ead -end w a so ve rcome o n ly b yn ew a g r icu l tu ra ls k i l l s( t he i n t roduc t ion o fa ni r on s k im -cou l te r ,t h eu se o fr o ta ry q ue rn s ) ,t h ed eve lopmen to fm e t a l lu rgy a nd o the rc r a f t s( e .g .p o t te ry mak ing ) a sw e l la sb yt h er enewa lo ff o rme r ly d y n am ic c on tac t sw i th s ou ther nc oun t r ie s . T he r i se o ft h eP i t -g rave c u l tu re ,w i th t h eP rze w o r sk g roup i nt h es ou th a nd t h eO k sywy g roup i nt h en o r th ,i nt h ep a r to fE u rope c on s i de red , ma rk s t h eb eg inn ing o f an ew c u l tu ra lc yc le w h ich d i f f e r sd ec i s ive ly f r om t h e p rev iou s c yc le wh ich , a sw e k now , emb raced t h e L usa t ian , P ome ran ian a nd t h e B e l l g rave c u l tu re s( s epa ra ted b yt h et y po log ica lc l a s s if i ca t ion o ft h e ma te r ia l ) . T he se e ven t s , s o p regnan t i nc onsequence s ( a s t h ey h ad ma rked t h e b eg inn ing o f an ew e poch -t h e h on A ge )w e re p receded b y amo re w ide sp r ead p roce s so f' l a ten iza t ion 'o fC en t ra lE u r ope .

A cknow ledgemen t T he i n te rd isc ip l ina ry r e sea r ch p ro jec to nc hange si nt h ee xp lo i ta t ion o ft h en a tu ra le nv i r onmen ti nt h eS ob ie juchy m ic ro -r eg ion h a sb een u nderway s i nce 1 982 a sp a r to fa ni n t er na t iona lc o l labo ra t ion b e tween t h eD epa r tmen to fA rchaeo logy a tD u rham U n ive r s i ty , E ng land a nd t h eD epa r tmen to fA r chaeo logy o fW ie lkopo l ska a tt h eI n s t i tu te o ft h eH i s t o ry o f Ma te r ia lC u l tu re o ft h eP o l i sh A cademy o fS c ience si nP oznan . F rom t h eB r i t i s hs i de t h er e sea r ch i ss upe rv i sed b yA .F .H a rd ing ,a nd f r om t h eP o l ish s i de b yJ .O s to j a -Zagö r sk i .T he r e su l t ss of a ra r eo fp a r t icu la ri n te re s tf o rt h ei nve s t iga t ion o ft h eb io logy o ft h eh uman p opu la t ions i n hab i t ing t h eS ob ie juchy r eg ion a tt h et ur no ft h eB ronze a nd I r on A ge ( J an S t r za lko , t h e D epa r tmen t o f A n th ropo logy o f t h e A dam M ick iew icz U n ive r s i ty i nP oznan ) ,a nd f o rr e con s t ruc t ions o ft h en a tu ra le nv i ronmen t( J ame sR ack h am , D u rham U n ive r s i ty ; A nd rze j D z ieczkow sk io ft h eP a laeobo tan ica l L abo ra to ry a t t h eI n s t i tu te o ft h eH is to ry o f Ma te r ia lC u l tu r eo ft h eP AN a nd B o le s law N owaczyk o f t h eG eomo rpho logy D epa r tmen to ft h eI n s t i tu te o fG eog raphy ,T he A dam M ick iew icz U n ive r s i ty ,P oznan ) .

4 01

1 8 O s to ja -Z agö r sk i

N o te s 1 ) T he f i na lw o rk o nt h i sa r t ic le w a sc onduc ted i n We s tG e rmany w h i le t h ea u tho r ' s w a s ar e sea r ch F e l low a tt h eA lexande rv on H umbo ld tF ounda t ion . 2 ) E cumenes i sh e re u sed t oi mp ly i nhab i ted m ic ro -reg ions w i th in p a r t icu la re co -sy s t em s . 3 ) A tt h is j unc tu re i ti sa pp rop r ia te t od raw a t ten t ion t ot h ed oub t so f ten r a i sed i nt h e l i t e ra tu re ( e spec ia l ly P o l ish ) a st ot h ev a l id i ty o ft h e c u r ren tp r inc ip le s o fi s o la t ing t h e s o -ca l led L usa t ian c u l tu re f r om t h es phe re o ft h eC ine ra ry U rn C u l tu re s( Ged iga 1 983 ) . 4 ) D ef ended s e t t lemen t sd id n o ta ppea ra ga in i nt h eP o l i sh t e r r i to r ie sb efo re t h ee a r ly Med ieva lp e r iod ,c .7 th c en tu ry ( Z .a nd S .K u rna tow scy 1 983 :9 5 ,F ig . 1 ;L o s in sk i1 982 )

B ib l iography B e rg lund , B . , 1 969 . ' V ege ta t ion a nd h uman i nf luence i nS ou th S cand inav ia d u r ing P reh i s to r ic T ime 'O iko sS upp lemen tum 1 2 ,9 -28 . B info rd ,L .R . , 1 965 . ' A rchaeo log ica lS y s tema t ics a nd t h eS tudy o fC u l tu r eP roce s s ' . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 3 1 , 2 03 -210 . B ouzek , J . , 1 982 . ' C l ima t ic C hange s a nd C en t ra l E u ropean P reh i s to ry ' . I nH a rd ing , A .F . ( e d . ) , C l ima t ic C hange i n L a t er P r eh i s tor y , 1 79 -191 . ( Ed inbu rgh : E d inbu rgh Un ive r s i ty P re s s ) . B ukow sk i , X . , 1 977 . T he S cy th ian I nf luence i nt h eA r ea o fL u sa tan C u l tur e . (W ro c l aw : O s so l ineum ) . B ukowsk i ,Z . , 1 981 . ' Na js ta r sze z na lez i ska p rzedm io td ow z e laznych w s r odkowe jE u r op ie ap ocza tk im e ta lu rg i i z e lar a wk u l tu rze l u zyc i c ie j wd o rzeczu O d ry iW i s ly ' . A r c heo log ia P o l sk i2 6 , 3 21 -401 . C la rke ,D .L . , 1 968 .A na ly t ica lA rchaeo logy ( London : Me thuen ) . C o le s ,J .M . ,a nd H a rd ing , F .A . 1 979 . T he B ron ze A ge i nE urope ( London : Me thuen ) . D ab row ska , T . , 1 983 . ' Zagadn ien ie c i ag lo sc i u zy tkowan ia c men ta rzy sk w o l c r e s ie p rzed rym sk im ' . I nH en se l , W . , ( e d . ) P r zem iany l udnosc iowe ik u l turowe It y s iac lec ia p .n .e . n az i em iach m ied z y Od ra aDn iepr em ,2 81 -291 ( W ro c law : O sso l ineum ) . D ehn ,W .a nd F r ey ,O .H . 1 962 . ' D ie a b so lu te C h rono log ie d e rH a l l s ta t tu nd F rüh la t6 1 z e i tM i t te leu ropa sa uf G rund d e s S üd impo r t s ' . I nA t t id e lV IC ongr es so I n t ernaz iona le d e l le S c ienze P r eh i s tor iche eP ro toh i s tor i sche , 1 97 -208 ( F i renze :G .C .S an son iE d i to re ) .

4 02

E l len , R . , 1 982 . E nv ironmen t , S ubs i s t ence a nd S y s t em . T he E co logy o f Sma l l -sca le S oc ia lF orma t ion . ( Camb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s ) . F oge l , J . , 1 985 . ' P rzem iany o sadn ic twa m ik ro reg ionu b n in sk iego w e poce b razu i w cze snych o l c re sach e po ld z e laza ' . I nZ ak , J . ,a nd F oge l ,J . , Ma t er ia ly d os t ud iow n ad o a sadn ic twem b n in sk im . Mk ror eg ion b n in sk i ,3 5 -118 P oznan : U n ive r s i ty P re s s ) . F rey , 0 .H . ,a nd G rabovec , S . , 1 971 . ' Zu rC h rono log ie d e rH a l l s ta t tze i ti mO s ta lpen r aum ' . I nA c t es d u V i l le C ongr e sI n t erna t iona l d es S c iences P r gh i s tor iques e tP ro to h i s tor iques , 1 93 -218 ( Beog rad : C om i t6 N a t iona ld 'o rgan i sa t ion ) . F r ie s , M . , 1 958 . ' V ege ta t ion su tvec ld ing o ch o ld ing sh i s tor ia iV a rnhem s t rak ten . E n p o l lenana ly t i sk u nde r sökn ing iV ä s te rgö t land ' . A c ta P hy togeograph ica S uec ica 3 9 , 1 6 4 . G adz ik iew icz , M . , 1 954 . ' Wyb rane z agadn ien ia zb adan n ad k u l tu ra g rob6w k lo s z owych ' .W iadomo sc iA rcheo log ic zne 2 0 , 1 34 -173 . G ed iga , B . , 1 983 . ' Da s D ef in i t ion sp rob lem d e rL aus i tze rK u l tu ru nd i h re re i nne r en D if f e r enz ie rung ' .P r zeg lad A r cheo log ic zny 3 1 , 1 59 -174 . G ed l ,M . , 1 971 . ' D ie E n tw ick lung d e sH a l l s ta t t s t i l li nd e rL au s i tze rK u l tu r ' .Z e i t sch r if tf ür A rchäo log ie 5 , 1 18 . God lowsk i , K . , 1 966 . ' P rob lem p rze lomu w t e chn ice u p rawy r ol n a z i em iach p o l s I dch w p i e rw szym t y s iac lec iu n . e . ' . S tud ia zD z ie jow G ospodar s twa W ie j sk iego8 ,7 7 9 1 . Godw in , H . a nd W il i s , E .H . 1 959 . ' Rad io -c arbon D a t ing o fP re - H i s to r ic Wooden T rackway s ' .N a tur e ,L ondon 1 84 ,N o . 4 685 , 4 90 -491 . G ou rou , P . , 1 969 . P r inc ipes dune g gograh ie U n ive r s i ta i re sD eF rance ) .

h uma ine e t g conom ique . ( P re s se s

G rabovec , S .1 980 . ' De rB eg inn d e rH a l l s ta t tku l tu ru nd d e rO s ten ' . I nD ie Ha l l s ta t t k u l tur . F rühf orm e uropä i scher E inhe i t .I n te rna t iona le A uss te l lung d e sL and sO . 3 0 5 3 . ( S tey r : L and Obe rö s te r re ich ) . H achmann ,R . , 1 956 . ' Zu rG e se l l scha f t so rdnung d e rG e rmanen i nd e rZ e i t um C h r i s t iG ebu r t ' .A rcheo log ica G eograph ica 5 , 7 -2 4 . H achmann ,R . , 1 970 .D ie G o t en u nd S cand inav ien . ( Be r l in : Wa l te rd eG ruy te r ) . H a rd ing , A .F . , 1 980 . ' Rad ioca rbon c a l ib ra t ion a nd t h e c h rono logy o ft h e E u ropean B ronze A ge ' .A rcheo log ickg R ozh ledy 3 2 , 1 78 -186 .

4 03

1 8 O s to ja -Zagö r sk i

H ennebe rg , M . , a nd O s to ja -Zagö r sk i , J . , 1 984 . ' U se o f aG ene ra l E co log ica l Mode l f o rt h eR econs t ruc t ion o fP reh is to r ic E conomy : T he H als ta t tP e r iod C u l tu re o fN o r th w e s te rn P o land ' .J ourna lo fA n thropo log ica lA rchaeo logy 3 ,4 1-78 . H en se l ,W . 1 970 . ' Rema rque ss u rl e so r ig ine sd e sv i l le se nE u rope C en t ra le ' .I nS tud i S u l la C i t ta A n t ica .A t t i d e lC onvegno d iS tud iS u le C i ta E t ru sca eI t a l ica P r eromana . 3 23 -328 . ( Bo logna :I n s t i tu to p el aS to r ia ) . H e r rmann ,J . , 1 965 . ' A r chäo log i sche K u l tu ren u nd S oz ia l -ö konom i sche G eb ie t ' .E th n ograph i sch -Archäo log i sche Z e i t -s chr if t6 ,9 7 -128 . H igham ,C .F .W . , 1 969 . ' Towa rd sa nE conom ic P reh i s to ry o fE u rope ' .C urr en tA n thro p o logy 1 0 , 1 45 :150 . H ing s t ,J . , 1 952 . ' Ka r ten z u rB e s ied lung S ch le sw ig -Ho l s te ins i md e rV o r ch r i s tl i chen E i senze i tu nd ä l te r en K a i se rze i t ' .A rchaeo log ica G eograph ica 3 , 8 15 . Hopf , M . , 1 982 . V or - u nd F rühgesch ich t l iche K u l tu rpf lan zen a u s d em n örd l ichen D eu t sch land ( Ma inz : V e r lag d e sR öm i sch -Ge rman i schen Z en t ra lmuseum s ) . J ankuhn ,H . , 1 952 . ' K l ima ,B e s ied lung u nd W i r t scha f td e rä l te ren E isenze i ti m We s t l i chen O s t seebecken ' .A rchaeo log ica G eograph ica 3 , 2 3 -35 . J äge r , K .D . , 1 962 . ' Übe rA l te ru nd U r sachen d e rA ue lehmab lage rung T hü r ing i sche r F lü s se ' .P raeh i s tor i sche Z e i t schr if t4 0 , 1 59 . K l ichow ska , M . , 1 961 . ' Zna lez i ska z böz n at e ren ie z i em p o l sk ich o dn eol i tu d oX I I w ieku n . e . ' . Kwar ta ln ik H i s tor i iK u l tury Ma ter ia lne j9 , 6 75 -701 . K l ichow ska ,M . , 1 984 . ' S t ruk tu ry u p rawne w e po ce b razu iw cze sne je po ce z e laza n a z i em iach p o l sk ich w s w ie t le b adan a r cheo log icznych . 'A rcheo log ia P o l sk i2 9 , 6 9 -108 . K r i s t ian sen , K . , 1 980 . ' Be s ied lung , W i r t scha f t s s t ra teg ie u nd B odennu tzung i n d e r B ronzeze i tD änema rk s ' .P raeh i s tor i sche Z e i t schr if t5 5 , 1 37 . K r i s t iansen ,K . , 1 981 . ' Econom ic mode l sf r om B ronze A ge S cand inav ia -t owa rd sa n i n teg ra ted a pp roach ' . I nS he r idan ,A . a nd B a i ley , G . ( e d s . )E conom ic A rchaeo logy .T o w ard sa nI n t egra t ion o fE co log ica la nd S oc ia lA pproaches . 2 39 -303 . ( Oxfo rd : B .A .R . I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s9 6 ) . Ku rna towsk i ,S . , 1 966 . ' P rze rn iany t e chn ik iu p rawy r o hiw c za sach m iedzy e poka b ra z owa iwwcze snym s r edn iow ieczem ar ozm ie szczen ie s t : ref z a s ied lan ia . 'S tud ia zD z ie j ow G ospodar s twa W ie j sk iego 8 ,9 2 -99 .

4 04

Ku rna tow scy , Z . a nd S . , 1 983 . ' P rob lema tyka k sz ta l towan ia s i e o s ied l i w cze sno m ie jsk ich w W ie lkopo l sce ' . I nJ .Z ak , a nd J .O s to ja -Zagö r sk i , ( e d s . ) .S tud ia zd z ie jöw i k u l tur yz achodn ie jS l owan s zc zy zny . 8 9 -106 . ( Poznan : U n ive r s i ty P re s s ) . L o s in s ld ,W . , 1 982 . O sadn ic two p l em ienne P omor za . (W roc law : O s so l ineum P re ss ) . Ma ldew icz ,T . ,1 077 .' Go spoda rka h odow lana w k u l tu rze p rzewo r s Ide jn aK u jawach . ' A rcheo logoa P o l sk i2 2 , 11-135 . Ma l inow sk i ,T . , 1 971 . ' Übe rd en B e rn s te inhande lz w i schen d em s üd l ichen b a l t ischen U f e rgebe i ten u nd d em S üden E u ropa si nd e rf r ühen E i senze i t ' .P raeh i s tor i sche Z e i t sch r i f t4 6 , 1 02 -110 . M ie s io low ska -W edzka ,A . , 1 974 .P oc za tk i ir o zwo jg rodow k u l tury l u zyck ie j . (W ro c l aw : O s sol ineum P re s s ) . Nowaczyk , B . , O s to ja -Zago r s ld , 0 . , P azdu r , A . , a nd R omanow ska - G rabow ska , 0 . , 1 981 . ' Zm iany p oz iomu wod w J ez io rze Wo l sk im w s w ie t le b adan a r cheo log icznych i d a towan me toda C -14 . 'B adan ia F i z jograf ic zne n ad P o l ska Z achodn ia 3 4 , 1 41 -148 . Odgaa rd ,B . , 1 985 . ' Ap olen a na ly t ica li nve s t iga t ion o f aB ronze Age a nd P re -Roman I r on A ge s o i lp rof i le f r om G rOn tof t , We s te rn J u t land . 'J ourna lo f Dan i sh A rchaeo logy 4 ,1 21 - 1 28 . O s to ja -Zagö r sk i ,J .1 974 . ' F rom S tud ie so nt h eE conom ic S t ruc tu re a tt h eD ec l ine o f t h eB ronze Age a nd t h eH a l l s ta t tP e r iod i nt h eN or th a nd We s tZ one o ft h eO d ra a nd V i s t u la B a s ins ' .P r zeg lad A rcheo log ic zny 2 2 , 1 23 -150 . O s to ja -Zagö r sk i , J . , 1 976 . ' Ze s t ud iöw n ad z agadn ien iem u padku g rodöw k u l tu ry l u zyc ldef .S lav ia A n t igua 2 3 . 3 9 -71 . O s to ja -Zagö r sk i ,J . , 1 980 . ' An A t temp ta tt h eR econ s t ruc t ion o fE conom ic T ran sfo r ma t ion si nt h eH a l l s ta t tP e r iod i nt h eN o r th a nd We s tZ one o ft h eO de ra nd V i s tu la R ive r B a s in s ' . I n S ch i ld , R . ( e d . ) U nconven t iona lA rchaeo logy 1 41-156 (W roc law : O s so l i n eum P re s s ) . O s to ja -Zagö r sk i ,J . ,1 981 .' Ek sp loa tac ja s r odow i ska p rzy rod -n i czego us chy lku e po ld b razu iw o k re s ie h a l sz tack im w n i zowe j s t ref ie d o rzecza O d ry iW i s ly ' .A c ta A rchaeo l o g ica C arpa th ica 2 1 , 2 37 -246 . O s to ja -Zagö r sk i ,J . , 1 982a . ' P rzem iany s t ruk tu rg o spoda r czo -s po lecznych w o k re s ie h a l sz tack im iw czesco la t en s ldm w p ö lnocno -zachodn ie js t ref ie Do r zecza O d ry iW i s ly ' . I nH ense l ,W . ( e d . )P r zem iany l udnosc iow e ik u l turowe It y s iac lec ia p .n .e . n az i em iach m ied zy Od ra aDn iepr em . 3 45 - 3 61 . (W roc law : O s so l ineum P re ss ) .

4 05

1 8 O s to ja -Z agö r sk i

O s to ja -Zagö r sk i , J . , 1 982b . P r zem iany o sadn ic ze , d eomgraf ic zne ig o spodar c ze w o kr es ie h a l s z tack im n aP omor zu . (W roc law : O s so l ineum P r e s s ) . O s to ja -Zagö r sk i ,J . ,1 983 . ' Aspek te d e rS ied lung skunde D emog raph ie u nd W i r t scha f t h a l l s ta t tze i t l iche rB u rgen v om B iskup in -Typ ' .P raeh i s tor i sche Z e i t schr if t5 8 , 1 72 -210 . P e te r sen , K . S t rand , 1 985 . ' The L a te Q ua ter na ry h i s to ry o fD enma rk . T he We ich se l i an i c es jee t s a nd l a nd / sea c onf igu ra t ion i nt h eL a te P le i s tocene a nd H o locen . 'J ourna l o f Dan i sh A rchaeo logy 4 ,7 -22 . R a l ska -Ja s iew iczowa ,M . ,1 981 .' Wp lyw z a s ie t i len p rah i s to rycznych n ak sz ta l towan ie s i e s z a ty r o s l inne j Wo ry tow w c i agu o s ta tn ich 5 000 l a t ( wyn ik i a nal izy p y lkowe j ) . ' I n D ab row sk i ,J . ,( e d )W ory ty .S tud ium a rcheo logoc zno -pr zyrodn icze z e spo lu o sadn ic zego k u l tu ry l u zyck ie j , 3 3 -42 (W roc law : O s so l ineum P r e s s ) . R enf rew , C . , 1 969 . ' T rade a nd C u l tu re P roce s si nE u ropean P reh i s to ry ' .C ur r en tA n t h ropo logy 1 0 ,

1 51 -160 .

S ka rzynska , K . , 1 965 . ' P roba a d two rzen ia b i lan su w odnego h i s to rycznego n a t i e b adan p a leodyd ro log icznych . 'P r zeg lad G eof i zyc zny 1 0 , 3 3 -55 . S öebom ,G . , 1 965 / 1966 . ' Ru tge rS e rnande r sK l ima tfö r säm r ing s t e o r i ' .T or 1 , 2 55 -274 . S tenbe rge r , M . , 1 977 . V orgesch ich te S chwed en s . ( Neumün s te r : K a r l Wachho l tz V e r l a g ) . S t rza lko , J .a nd O s to ja -Zagö r sk i , J . 1 984 . ' B io log ica l - C u l tu re C hange si nt h eH a l l s t a t tP e r iod i nt h e M ic ro r eg ion S ob ie juchy n ea rZ n in , i nt h e V o iv id sch ip B ydgo szcz ' . A rchaeo log ia P o lona 2 3 ,2 3 -48 . T abaczyn sk i , S . , 1 966 . ' S t ruc tu re 6 conom ique d e s s oc i6 t6 s b a rba re se nE u rope c en t r a le : l an eo l i t ique ,l ' äge d ub ronze ,l ' äge d uf e ra nc ien ' .A rchaeo log ia P o lona 9 , 1 31 1 47 . T abaczynsk i , S . , 1 970 . N eo l i t s r odkowo e urope j sk i . P od s tawy g ospodar c ze . (W ro c l aw : O s sol ineum P re s s ) . T abaczyn sk i ,S . , 1 971 . ' Ku l tu ra .Z naczen ie p o jec ia ip rob lemy i n te r -p r e tacy jne w b a d an iach a r cheo log icznych ' .A rcheo log ia P o l sk i 1 6 ,

1 9 -36 .

T obo l s ld , K . , 1 980 . ' The f o ss i l s o i l s o ft h e c oa s ta l d une s o n t h e L eba b a r a nd t h e i r p a leogeog raph ica li n te rp re ta t ion ' . Q ue s t ione sG eograh icae 6 , 8 3 -97 . T obo lsk i , K . , 1 983 . ' Wp rowadzen ie d op o s tg lac ja lne j h i s to r i ir o sl inno sc i n aP omo r z uZ achodn im ' .I n Ma l inow sk i ,T . ,( e d ) .P rob lemy e pok ik am ien ia n aP omor zu . 6 1 -76 . ( S lupsk ) .

4 06

Weg rzynow icz ,T . , 1 979 . ' Ku l tury g robow k lo szowych . 'I nH ense l ,W . , ( e d . )P rah i s t o r ia z i em p o l sk ich 4 ,1 69 -178 ( W roc law : O s so l ineum P re ss ) . We l inde r ,S . , 1 975 . ' P reh i s to r ic A g r icu l tu re i nE a s te rn m idd le Sweden . 'A c ta A rchae o log ica L und en s ia S e r ie si n 8° m ino re n o . 4 . We l inde r , S . , 1 983 . ' The e co logy o fl ong te rm c hange . 'A c ta A rchaeo log ica L und en s i aS e r ie si n 8° m ino re n o . 4 . W i s lan sk i ,T . , 1 969 .P od s tawy g ospodar c ze p lem ion n eo l i tyc znych w P o l sce p ö lnoc n o -zachodn ie j . (W roc law : O s sol ineum P re s s ) . Wozn iak ,Z . , 1 970 . O sadn ic two c e l tyck ie w P o l sce . (W roc law : O s so l ineum P re s s ) . Wozn iak ,Z . , 1 971 . ' Zp rob lema tyk ib adan z an iku k u l tu ry l u zyck ie j wP o l sce p o lud n iowe j ' .A rcheo log ia P o l sk i 1 6 , 1 97 -209 . Wozn iak ,Z . 1 979 . ' Ch rono log ia m lod sze j f a zy k u l tu ry p omo r s Ide j ws w ie t le i mpo r t öw in a s ladown ic tw z aby tköw p ochodzen ia p o ludn iowego ' . I n Mal inow sk i , T . ( e d . ) P rob l emy k u l tury p omor sk ie j 1 25 -148 ( Ko szal in : Muzeum O k regowe w K o szal in ie ) . Wozn iak ,Z . , 1 982 . ' De rE inf lus sd e rK e l ten a uf d i eW i r t scha f tu nd d i e s oz ia len V e r h ä l tn i sse a uf p o ln i schem G eb ie t i nd e rv o r röm i schen E i senze i t . ' I nH e r rmann , J . , a nd S e l lnow , I . ,( ed s . )P roduk t ivk räf te u nd G ese l l schaf t sf orma t ionen i nV orkap i ta l i s t i scher Z e i t4 51 -460 ( Be r l in :A kadem ie -V e r lag ) .

4 07

1 9 . THE SOCIAL S TRUCTURES OF THE LUSAT IAN CULTURE POPULAT ION AT THE TRANS IT ION OF THE BRONZE AND I RON AGES

J an D abrow sk i

I n troduc t ion T he s oc ia lo rgan i sa t ion o ft h e L usa t ian c u l tu re p opu la t ion i ss t i l l n o tv e ry w e l lu nde r s t ood a l though s ome p rog re s sh a sb een made w i th in t h i sf i e ld d u r ing t h el a s tf ew y ea r s . F o rt h i sr e a son t h er ema rk sp re sen ted h e r ec an b eo n ly a no u t l ine o ft h ep rob lem i mp l ic i t i nt h et i le . T hey c e r ta in ly d on o tc l a im e i the rt oe ncompa s st h ee n t i re r ange o fp rob lem s o rt h ew ho le l i t e ra tu re o nt h e s ub jec t . T he s omewha th aphaza rd c ha rac te ro ft h e se r ema rk sr e su l t sf r om t h ef a c tt h a ts t ud ie s o ft h e s oc ia l s t ruc tu re so fc u l tu re sf o rw h ich w el a ck w r i t ten r e co rd s a nd e t hnog raph ic o b se rva t ion s a r en o ty e tf a ra dvanced ; a nd t h e i rd eve lopmen ts t i l lf a ce m e thodo log ica l d i f f icu l t ie s a sw e l l a sp rob lem so f mo re s ub s tan t ive n a tu re . We a r e a lway si nw an to f s y s tem so fa r chaeo log ica lr e sea r ch h e lp ing t h er e con s t ruc t ion o fs oc ia ls t ruc tu r e s( St j e rn q u is t 1 971 : 2 7f f . ) . T he s t udy o fs uch s t ruc tu re si so ne o ft h e mo s td i ff icu l t f i e ld so fa r c haeo log ica lw o rk b ecau se w eh ave a to u rd i spo sa lo n ly i nd i rec ts ou rce s . E thnog raph ic , d emog raph ic a nd s oc io log ica ld a ta c an o no ne c ond i t ion b eu se fu lf o re xp la in ing a r chae o log ica ld a ta - n ame ly t h a tt h ey a r en o tu sed t oi lu s t ra te a na l ready a ccep ted t h e s i s ;b u t t h i si su nfor tuna te ly ac ommon p rac t ice . I ti sc l ea r t h a t , b ecause o ft h e d ive r se v a lue o fv a r iou s c a tego r ie s o fa r chaeo log ica l s ou rce s ( Egge r s 1 959 : 2 64f f . ) , s o c ia l r e la t ions c an b y n o m ean s b e d e te rm ined o n t h e b a s is o fo n ly o ne c a tego ry o fd a ta ,e . g . c eme ter ie s ,h oa rd s ,o rs e t t lemen t s . O n ly s t ud ie s o ft h ee n t i re ma te r ia lf r om al a rge t e r r i to ry m ay b eu sef u l ( Ged iga 1 963 : 7 ) . F o rt h eL u sa t ian c u l tu r e , h oweve r , t h er e a l isa t ion o fs uch as t udy i so n ly p o s s ib le i n s ome o ft h er eg ion so fi t so ve ra l ld i s t r ibu t ion . T he p o s s ib i l i ty o fc onduc t ing s uch a ni n v e s t iga t ion i sf u r the rc omp l ica ted b yd i f f e r ing d eg ree so fk now ledge w i th r e spec tt oi n d iv idua lr eg ion sa nd b ys ub s tan t ia ld i f f e rence si nt h el e ve lo fr e sea rch o np a r t icu la rc a -

4 08

1 9 D ab row sk i

t e go r ie so fd a ta . A no the rd i f f icu l ty i sc on ta ined i nt h ef a c tt h a tt h eL u sa t ian c u l tu re e x t e nded o ve r av a s ta r ea ,w h ich i st o day t h et e r r i to ry o ff ou rc oun t r ie s( Po land ,G e rmany , C zecho s lovak ia a nd U SSR ) . T he s t udy o ft h e L u sa t ian c u l tu re i sa cco rd ing ly c ha ra c t er i sed b y an umb e ro fv e ry d i f f e r en tt y pe so fa pp roache s , l o ca lt r ad i t ion sa nd r e sea r ch o r ien ta t ion s . A ny a temp t ,t h e r e fo r e ,t og a in ag ene ra lu nde r s tand ing o ft h es o c ia ls t ruc t u r e so ft h eL u sa t ian c u l tu re a s aw ho le f a ce s an umbe ro fd i ff i cu l t ie s . We m u s ta lway sb ea ri nm ind t h a tt h e re i sn oc e r ta in ty a bou tw he the rt h ea r cha eo log i c a lc u l tu r e s ,w h ich w ed i s t ingu i sh ,e qua te w i th d i sc r e te s o c ia la nd e conom ic u n i t s( Neu s t u pny 1 960 : 3 6 f f . ) . W i th r ega rd t ot h eL u sa t ian c u l tu r et h i sp rob lem i sf u r the rc omp l i c a ted b yt h ed i ff i cu l t ie sw i th r e spec tt oi t sp rec i se d ef in i t ion . C u r ren td i scu s s ion sc on c e rn ing t h ei n ter na ld i f f e ren t ia t ion a nd d i v i s ion so ft h eL u sa t ian c u l tu r er e vea l ma jo rd i f f e r ence so fo p in ion ( Ged l 1 980 ; D ab row sk i 1 980 ; G ed iga 1 980 ) , a nd s ome g oe s s of a r a st on ega te t h ee x i s t ence o ft h e ' Lu sa t ian c u l tu r e 'a s as i ng le c u l tu ra lu n i t . Meanwh i le , r e cen ts t ud ie s i nd ica te e ve r mo r e s t rong ly t h a tt h eL u sa t ian c u l tu r e w a si ndeed ac om p l ex o fr e la ted c u l tu r e s , a nd t h e t r ad i t iona l ly a ccep ted t e rm ' Lu sa t ian c u l tu r e ' s hou ld t h e re fo r e b e u nde r s tood a sd ef in ing al a rge c u l tu ra l p rov ince i nC en t ra l E u rope , i n te r n a l ly d i f f e r en t ia t ed , a nd c on s t i tu t ing a ni n t eg ra lp a r to ft h el a rge rc omp lex o fU rnf ie ld c u l tu r e s . T he s i tua t ion i sf u r the rc omp l ica ted b yt h ef a c tt h a t a' Lu sa t ian 't y pe o fp o t te ry h a sa s t i l lw ide rd i s t r ibu t ion t h an t h et e r r i to ry o ft h eL u sa t ian c u l tu r ei t se lf ( Dab row sk i 1 980 : 3 9f f . ; J a anu sson 1 981 : 1 20f f . ) 1.T h i s m ake si te ven mo re d i f f icu l tt od ef ine p r ec i se ly t h el im i t so ft h ec u l tu r ec on s ide red i nt h i sd i scu s s ion . I ts hou ld t h e r e fo r eb ee mpha s i sed t h a tt h ep r e sen tp ape rg i ve st h ed e sc r ip t ion o f ap a r t icu la rc omp lex o fC en t ra lE u ropean p opu la t ion sr a the rt h an o ft h es o c ia lr e la t ion so f as i ng le u n if ied c u l tu re . T he c h rono log ica ls cope o ft h i sp ape ri sa l so n o ts e l f -ev iden t . I r on a ppea r si nd i f f e r e n tp ar t so ft h eL u sa t ian c u l tu re a r ea a td i f f e r en tt ime s( Bukow sk i 1 981 ) . I ta ppea r sl a t e s ti ni t sn o r the rn a nd e a s te rn a r ea sw he r et h eB ronze A ge l a s ted t i l lt owa rd st h ee nd o f Mon te l iu sP e r iod V I( Dab row sk i 1 968 : 1 41f f . ) . U nque s t ionab le H a l l s ta t ti n f luence sa r e s t rong ly m a rked i nt h e s ou the rn a nd w e s te rn p a r t so ft h eL u sa t ian c u l tu re a r ea a nd i ti s h e r e t h a t t h e I r on A ge ( Hal s ta t t CP e r iod ) b egan e a r l ie s t ( Cob lenz 1 981 ; G ed l 1 971 ; N ekva s i l 1 983 ) . I ti so f ten a s sumed t h a tt h e se H a l l s ta t ti nf luence s a l so a f f ec ted s oc ia l s t ruc tu r e s , a l t h ough many t h eo re t ica ld i ff i cu l t ie s a r i se w hen w et r yt of o l low t h ep roce s s ( Dab row s k i 1 980a ) . U n fo r tuna te ly , t h eo r ie s a bou t c u l tu re a r e n o t a sy e t e spec ia l ly d eve loped w i th r e spec tt ot r an sm i s s ion a nd r e cep t ion o fn ew e l emen t s ( T inda l l 1 976 : 1 95 ) . O ne p o in to fi mpo r tance ,h oweve r ,i st h a tt h e mo r er ad ica lt h ei n nova t ion t h es t ronge rt h er e s i s tance ( Znan ieck i 1 971 :2 71f f . ) , ap o in tt ow h ich w es ha l lr e tur nl a te r . T he re fo re ,t h e g r ea t e rt h e s im i la r i t ie sb e tween n e ighbou r ing c u l tu re st h ee a s ie rt h ep roce s so fc u l tu ra l d i f fu s ion . When t h ed i f f e rence sa r eg r ea t , t h ea ccep tance o fn ew s t ruc tu re sc au se sa sa r u le t h ec olap se o ft h el e s sd eve loped o ne s . I f as oc ie ty i sc apab le o fa dop t ing f o r e ign p a t te rn s o f s o c ia l a nd e conom ic s t ruc tu r e s w h i le r e ta in ing i t s i nd iv idua l c ha ra c te r i t p rove st h a tc ond i t ion sm u s th ave e x i s ted i nt h i s s o c ie ty f o rt h ei n dependen tc r ea t ion o f

4 09

t h e s ame o rs im i la rs t ruc tu re s . I n s uch ac a se w ha tt a ke sp l ace i sm a in ly t h ea cce le ra t i on o fl o ca l p roce sse s . I n a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t s i ti sp a r t icu la r ly d i ff i cu l t t ok now whe the ro b se rved c hange sa r ed ue t ot h ee f f ec to ff o re ign i n f luence s ,t op a ra l le lb u ti n d ependen tl o ca ld eve lopmen t ,o rt os ome c omb ina t ion o ft h e se . A na ly s i s mu s tt h e r efo re i n c lude e xam ina t ion o fo b se rved p henomena o ve r ar e la t ive ly l ong t im ep e r iod a nd o n ab road c u l tu ra l b ackg round , a s w e l l a s c on s ide r ing w ay s i nw h ich n ew p henomena c ou ld h ave b een t r ansm i t ted .

S oc ia lg roup s T he L u sa t ian c u l tu re s ub s i s tence e conomy w a sb a sed p r ima r i ly o n a g r icu l tu re a nd a n i ma lh u sband ry . T he p re sence o fl ong l ived c eme te r ie si nd ica te sl ong la s t ing h ab i ta t ion o fp ar t icu la rs ma l lr eg ion s . C a lcu la t ion sb a sed o nt h el e ng th o ft h et ime t h ec eme te r ie s w e re i nu se a nd o nt h e mo r ta l i ty r a te i nd ica te t h a tt h ep opu la t ion u s ing ac eme te ry d id n o t e xceed t h e n umbe ro f3 00 p e r sons a ta ny o ne t ime ( O s to ja -Zagö r sk i a nd S t rza lko 1 982 : 1 57 ) , a nd w a s g ene raly much s ma l le r , e spec ia l ly d u r ing t h e L a te B ronze A ge . P opu la t ion d a ta c oncer n ing s e t t lemen t sa r el e s sc er ta in . S ome f o r t if ied s e t t lemen t sf r om t h eL a te H a l l s ta t tp e r iod may h ave b een i nhab i ted b ya bou t 1 , 000 p e r son s ( O s to ja -Z a & sk i 1 983 : 1 86f f . ) b u tt h ey s e em mo s t ly t oh ave c omp r i sed g roups o f af ew h und red i nd iv idua l s( N ie s io low ska -W edzka 1 974 : 17f f . ) ,a nd e ven s male rg roup sa r es uppo sed t oh ave o ccup ied u nfo r t if ied s e t t lemen t s( Bukow sk ia nd D ab row sk i 1 982 :2 66f f . ) . T he s i ze o ft h ep opu la t ion sa nd t h e i r mode o fl i f es ugge s tt h ep o ss ib i l i ty o fa pp ly ing s oc io log ica lt h eo r ie so fs ma l l ( p r ima ry ) g roups i nt h e i ri n te rp r e ta t ion ( Be r r eman 1 978 ; B ukowsk ia nd D ab row sk i1 982 ) .S uch g roups a r es ome t ime sd e sc r ibed a s' f a ce to -f a ce ' g roups ,b ecau se a l lm embe r s ma in ta in d i rec tc on tac t sw i th e ach o the r . S uch g roups a r e p e rmanen t ,r e la t ive ly e ga l i ta r ian , a nd i s o la ted ,w i th p r eva i l ing s oc ia lb ond so fp e r sona l c ha rac te r ,l i nked p robab ly b yt r ue o r my th ica lt i e so fk i n sh ip . T he m embe r so ft h eg roup s u nde rd i scus s ion a r ea wa r eo ft h e i rm embe r sh ip b yv i r tue o fc e r ta in c ommon i d ea sa nd i n te re s t s wh ich t h ey s ha re ( we -g roup ) . I ns uch g roups e ve ry i nd iv idua li sa lway sp laced u nde rt h ec l o se c on t ro lo fh i s /he rs u r round ing s ,w h ich i mpo se g ene ra l ly a ccep ted s t and a rd so fb ehav iou r . T he s oc ia l g roups s ugge s ted f o rt h eL usa t ian c u l tu r e s hou ld n o tb e t r ea ted a se xc lu s i ve ly t r ad i t iona l ly o ne s . T he i ri s o la t ion w a s b roken b y t wo b a s ic f a c to r s . T he f i r s ti s t h es i ze o ft h ea ve rage p opu la t ion i nt h eL usa t ian c u l tu r e ,w h ich w a s much s ma l le rt h an t h a to ft h eb reed ing g roup ( S t rza lko , P ion tek a nd Ma l inows ld 1 981 : 8 5f f . ) . T he s i ze o f e ach b reed ing g roup mu s tb es uf f ic ien tt o ma in ta in t h eg ene t ic v a r iab i l i ty o fg ene p oo l s , wh ich wou ld i nd ica te t h en ece s s i ty o f ma r r iage sb e tween p a r tne r sf r om d i f f e ren tr e s iden t i a lg roups . O n ly i nhab i tan t so ft h el a rge s tf o r t if ied s e t t lemen t sf o rmed s uf f ic ien t ly l a rge g roups t or e ach t h el owe rl im i t so ft h es i ze n eeded t ob e ab reed ing g roup ( S t rza lko ,H en n ebe rg a nd P ion tek 1 976 : 4 2f f . ) . T he i n hab i tan t s o ft h e r ema in ing s e t t lemen t sh ad t o l ook f o rp a r tne r si no t he r , s ome t ime se ven r e la t ive ly d i s tan tg roup s ; a nd t h i sf a c i l i ta ted t h ef l ow o fa r tef ac t sa nd i d ea sb e tween g roups . A sc on tac t st ook p l ace b e tween a na lo g ou s( o rv ery s im i la r )g roup s ,t h ey o n ly i nf luenced s t r uc tu ra lc hange st o as ma l ld eg ree .

4 10

1 9 D ab rowsk i

T he s e cond f a c to ri st h en eed f o re xchange c on tac t s . T he n ece s s i ty o fa cqu i r ing r aw ma te r ia la nd b ronze p roduc t s mu s th ave b rough tg r ea tc hange si nt h ep sycho log ica la t t i t ude st owa rd s s t range r s( T abaczyn s l c i 1 969 : 9 2 ) . T he f u l f i lmen to ft h is n eed r equ i r ed t h e e x i s tence o fr egu la ted e xchange c on tac t s , l ong - d i s tance a sw el a sl o ca l o ne s . I t mu s t t h e r efo re h ave b een p o s s ib le t oa l low s t range r s p a r t ic ipa t ion , b e i to n ly t empo r a r i ly ,i nt h eg roup 's l i f e . T h i si nd ica te s ad ec rea se i nt h ee xc lu s iv i ty o ft h es oc ia lg roups u nde rd i scu ss ion . T h is a ppea r st ob ee xp r e ssed b y a mong o the rt h ing s ac hange i nt h e b r ing ing u p o f c h i ld ren , o b se rvab le i nt h e c eme te r ie s o f C en t ra l E u rope ( Dab row sk i 1 973 ) . When c ompa r ing d a ta f r om t h eN eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly B ronze A ge w i th t ho se f r om t h e t ime o ft h e L u sa t ian c u l tu re w eo b se rve ad i s t inc tc hange o ccu r r ing i nt h e M idd le a nd L a te B ronze A ge ,m a rked b y ac ons ide rab le i n c r ea se o ft h ep e rcen tage o fc h i ld ren b u r ied i nc eme te r ie s a nd b y t h e s ha rp g row th i nt h e p rac t ice o fp l ac ing c h i ld ren 's r e ma in sn o t , a sw a st h ee a r l ie rc u s tom ,t oge the rw i th a du l t s ,b u ti ns epa ra te g rave s . D a ta f r om c eme te r ie so ft h eL u sa t ian c u l tu re r evea led t h a t3 5 .4% o ft h ed ead w e re c h i ld ren , o u t o fw h ich 8 9 .1% h ad b een b u r ied i ns epa ra te g rave s . T he r e su l to b ta ined i sl owe r t h an a n t ic ipa ted ( Hennebe rg 1 977 : 1 06 f f . ) , a nd i ti st h e refo re p o ss ib le t h a t ap ropo r t ion o fc h i ld ren w e re n o ta dm i t ted t ot h ec eme te r ie s . I ti sc l ea rt h a tc h i ld ren d u r ing t h i st ime w e re b u r ied a cco rd ing t os im i la rf une ra lc u s tom sa st ho se a pp l ied t oa du l t s 'b u r ia l s . T he b igge s t a n th ropo log ica l ly i d en t if ied s e r ie s o fi nd iv idua l s , o b ta ined f r om t h e m ixed i n h uma t ion / c rema t ion c eme te ry o fP rzeczyce ,i nd ica ted o n ly t h a tt h eg rave so ft h ey oun g e s tc h i ld ren w e r e d ep r ived o fg r ave g ood s mo re f r equen t ly t h an o the r s ( Szyd low ska 1 972 : 1 80 ) . T he f a c td e sc r ibed m ay b ee xp la ined b y ac u s tom ( we l la t te s ted a mong p r im i t ive p eo p l e s )o fi n i t ia t ion , wh ich i ni t sl a te rp ha se so f ten b ecome s af o rma lr i te a s sum ing amuch a t tenua ted ,f am i l ia rf o rm ( K rzyw ick i 1 957 ) . T he a bove -men t ioned i n c rea se o fi n te rhu man c on tac t sd u r ing t h e B ronze A ge m ay h ave b een f o l lowed b y a ne a s ie ra c cep tance o fm embe r sh ip o f ag iven s oc ia lg roup . T he f a c i l i ta t ion o fe n te r ing i n to t h eg roup ( t he re f o re a l so a cqu i r ing t h e r i gh t o fb u r ia l i nt h e c ommon c eme te ry ) mu s t h ave o bv iou s ly c once rned n o to n ly s t range r s , b u ta l so t h ec h i ld ren . T he r e laxa t ion o fc ond i t ions o fi n i t i a t ion l e dt os ma l lc h i ld ren b e ing t r ea ted a sg roup m embe r sw i th f u l lr i gh t s . I nt h i sc on t e x ta t ten t ion mu s tb ed rawn t ot h e g roup o fg rave sw i th t r ace s o fr e c tangu la r wooden h ou se c ons t ruc t ion ( F ig . 9 5 )i nt h eH a l ls ta t tp a r to ft h ec eme te ry i nK ie t rz ( Ged l 1 973 ) . I ti s as ma l lg roup o fb u r ia l s , a l so c on ta in ing c h i ld ren ,d i s t inc th oweve rb y t h ef o rm o f g rave sa sw e l la sb yt h e i ri n ven to r ie s . I nt h e P rzeczyce c eme te ry r a t t le s a ppea red f i ve t ime s i nt h e g rave s o fn ew -bo rn i n f a n t s , t w ice i nb u r ia ls o fc h i ld ren , b u tf ou rt ime si nt ho se o fa du l t s . H oweve r , t h ef a c t t h a t6 8% o ft h er a t t le sf r om t h i sc eme te ry h ave b een f ound e i the rl o o se o ro ve rt h eg rave s s ugge s t s t oS zyd low ska ( 1 972 : 1 53f f . ) t h a tt h ey w e re c onnec ted w i th t h ef une ra lc e re mon ie s . O ne g rave f r om D ank6w o ugh tt ob em en t ioned h e r e ,s i nce i tc on ta ins b e s ide s t h er a t t le t wo s ma l lf ou r spoked c l ay w hee l sf r om ac u l tw agon ( Ged l 1 963 : 1 28f f . , P l . V .5 -9 ) . T he p re sence o fr a t t le s h a s b een n o ted a tm any L u sa t ian c eme te r ie s , a nd i ti s c l ea rt h a tt h ea ge o ft h ed ecea sed i n many c a se sd oe sn o t make a ni n te rp r e ta t ion o fr a t t

4 11

F igu re 9 5 . G rave 3 9 / 1937 w i th w ooden h ou se c on s t ruc t ion a tK ie trz . V o ivode sh ip o f O po le ( a f te rG ed l 1 973 ) .

t i e s a st oy sl i ke ly . R a t t le sf ound i ng rave sm ay t h e refo re r a the rb e s ymbol i s ing ap e r s on p rac t i s ing s ome k ind o f c u l tf unc t ion s . A l lt h ea bove men t ioned f a c t s may s i gna lt h a tc h i ld ren w e re a s s igned d ef in i te s oc ia l r o le s , wh ich - i nt h ec a se o ft h e i re a r ly d ea th ,w a sm a rked b yu se o fa na pp rop r ia te b u r i a lr i te . I ts e em st oi nd ica te a( howeve rv e ry s l igh t )r e f lec t ion i nt h eL u sa t ian m a te r ia l c u l tu re o f ap roce ss o fs oc ia lp rede s t ina t ion ,p robab ly g enea log ica l , i . e . t h ed e te rm ina t i on o ft h es oc ia lr o le o fa ni nd iv idua l ,p r eced ing h i sb i r th ( O s sow sk i 1 966 : 1 69f f . ) . T he h e red i ta ry t r an sm i s s ion o fs o c ia lr o le sw ou ld b eh e r et h e mo s tp robab le e xp lana t ion ( c f . t h eg rave sf r om K ie t rz ) . I ti sa sy e td i ff i cu l tt os peak a bou tt h en a tu re o fs o c ia lo rgan i sa t ion i nt h eL u sa t ian c u l t u re . T he s ma l le s t s oc ia lg roup w a sc e r ta in ly t h ef am i ly ,b u tw ed on o tk now a ny th ing a bou tt h ef o rm o f ma r r iage i nt ho se t ime s .B a sed o nd a ta o na ge s t ruc tu re f r om s ome o f t h ec eme te r ie st h es i ze o fa n ' a ve rage s t a t i s t ica lf am i ly 'c an b ep ropo sed . T he e s t ima ted s i ze sr ange f r om 4 . 3 t o6 . 6 . p e r son s( S t rza lko ,P ion tek a nd Ma l inow sk i 1 981 : 8 3 ; P ion t e k 1 975 : 1 80 ) . I tm eans t h a t , f o ri n s tance , t h e a ve rage f am i ly a t Wo ry ty c ons i s ted o f t wo i nd iv idua l si nt h er ep roduc t ive a ge w i th t wo c h i ld r en a l ive ; e ve ry f i f th s u ch f am i ly wou ld h ave t h ree c h i ld ren a nd e very t e n th f am i ly w ou ld a l so i n c lude o ne m emb e ra ged

4 12

1 9 D ab rowsk i

F igu r e9 6 . Go ld , g l a s s , a nd b ronze o rnamen t sd i scove red o nt h e s ke le ton o f aw oman , a ged 2 5 -30 y ea r s ,f r om t h ef o r t if ied s e t t lemen ta tW ic ina ,V o ivode sh ip o fZ ie lona G o ra ( a f te rK o lodz ie js k i 1 971 ) .

o ve r5 0 . I n s ome c eme te r ie s , t h e re o ccu rd i s t inc tg roups o fg rave sv a r ious ly e qu ipped a nd c on ta in ing t h er ema in so fs eve ra li nd iv idua l s( Mo skwa 1 971 ) . T h i s may r e f lec tk i n s h ip b ond s c onnec t ing t h e d ead , a nd c oncen t ra t ion s o f s eve ra l g rave s c ou ld t h e r efo re r ep re sen tp a r t icu la rf am i l ie s . T he h igh mo r ta l i ty o ff ema le si nt h ea ge c l a s se so fi u ven i s a nd a du l tu s( Buga jska 1 974 : 1 53f f . ; K ap ica ,L uczak 1 971 : 1 47f f . )w a ss u re ly t h er e su l t o fc omp l ica t ion sd u r ing c h i ldb i r th . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a ts ome o ft h ed oub le ' c h i ld -g rave ' , a sf o ri n s tance G rave 3 2f r om C za rnowa sy ( M i szk iew icz 1 966 : 8 4f f . ) a c tua l ly c on ta in t h er ema in so f ay oung mo the r( 14 -15 y ea r so ld )a nd h e ri n fan tc h i ld ,a nd t h i s may s ug g e s ta ne a r ly b eg inn ing o fs exua li n te r cou r se . T he g roups u nde rd i scu s s ion a r ew ide ly h e ld t oh ave b een p a t r ia r cha l . We l a ck ,h ow e ve r ,d i rec tp roof so fs uch ah ypo the s i s . O ne o ugh tt oa dd t h a tt h ee conom ic s y s tem o f t h e L u sa t ian c u l tu re p o in t s t od om ina t ion b y m en . T h i s i s , h oweve r , n o tc onf irmed b y a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l . I tw a sf ound a tt h eG rabowo c eme te ry t h a tt h ec en t ra lg r ave i n

4 13

s ome o ft h eb a r row sc on ta ined t h er ema in so fw omen ( Lachow icz 1 968 : 2 3f f . ) . O rna men t s d i scove red o n t h e s ke le ton s o fw omen , k i l led d u r ing t h er a id u pon t h ef o r t if ied s e t t lemen ta tW ic ina ( Ko lodz ie js k i 1 971 :9 8f f . ,F ig .4 )s how t h a tt h ey w o re ar a the rr i ch s e to fj ewe l le ry ,i n c lud ing g o ld o ne s ,f o re ve ryday u se ( F ig . 9 6 ) . O nt h eo t he rh and t h e f ema le s ke le ton si nP r zeczyce h ave r evea led f r equen ti n ju ry o ft h eh ume ra lb one ,i nd i c a t ing h eavy p hy s ica lt o i l( Szyd low ska 1 972 :2 02 ) . Ma le g r ave sa r eo n ly e xcep t iona l ly d i s t ingu i shed i nL u sa t ian c eme te r ie s( Szyd low ska 1 974 : 1 64f f . )a nd e ven a mong t h eb u r i a l s o fm en i nt h e a ge c l a s s o fs en i l i sw ef i nd g r ave s w i thou ta ny g ood s ( Szyd low ska 1 968 : 2 09f f . ) . N od i s t inc tf a vour ing o ft h ed ead i nr e spec to fs ex o ra ge h a s b een o b s e rved i nf une ra lc u s tom s . T h i ss ugge s t s ,t h e r efo r e , ar a the re ga l i ta r ian s o c ie ty . T he e x i s tence i nt h i sp e r iod o fs ome k ind o fs oc ia l o rgan i sa t ion c omp r i s ing a tl e a s t t h ei nhab i tan t so f as e t t lemen ti sc on f i rmed b yt h ee v idence f r om t h ef o r t if ied s e t t lemen t o fB i skup in , w h ich w a sb u i l ta cco rd ing t o ap rev iou s ly d e s igned p lan , w i th am ax ima l u se o ft h e i s land 's mo rpho logy . Abou t 8 , 000 m3 o fc a refu l ly s e lec ted t ype s o fw ood w e re u sed i nt h eb u i ld ing s ( Ra jew sk i 1 960 : 1 8 ) . T he e x i s tence o fl a rge rs oc ia lg roup s i sa l so c onf i rmed b yt h ee x i s tence o fh uge b a r row sw i th c ompl i ca ted s t one c on s t ruc t ion s . R ecen ti n ten s ive i nve s t iga t ion so fs e t t lemen tp a t te rn sh ave l e dt ot h ea t temp t st od i s t in g u i sh t h es epa ra te r eg ion si nhab i ted b yg roup sc oncen t ra ted a r ound t h ec en t ra lf o r t i f ied s e t t lemen t sd u r ing t h eH a l l s ta t tC -D p e r iod s( P ion tek a nd K o lodz ie js k i1 981 ) . A ssump t i on sa bou tt h ee x i s tence a tt h i st ime o fg rea tf am il ie sa nd t r ibe ss e em p l au s ib le ,b u to the r s ugge s t ions h ave a l so b een p u tf o rwa rd ( Dab row sk i 1 980 : 1 20 ) ;a nd w el a ck ,a tp re sen t , c r i te r ia t h a tw ou ld a l low u st ot e s tt h e se k ind so fa s sump t ion s .

S oc ia lg rada t ion T he p opu la t ion o ft h e L usa t ian c u l tu re w a s , n o d oub t , a l ready s oc ia l ly d i f f e ren t ia ted . F u l l i nve s t iga t ion o ft h e s oc ia l s t ruc tu r e s w ou ld r equ i r e t h e u se o f as cheme o f ' s oc ia l s yn the t ic g rada t ion '( O s sowsk i 1 957 :4 2f f . ) . I tm ean st h a tt h es oc ia lr ank o fa ni nd iv id u a li sc e r ta in ly d ec ided b yi n commen su rab le a nd s om e t ime si mmea su rab le f a c to r s ,s uch a sf o ri n s tance s ex ,a ge ,p e r sona lc ha rac te r i s t ic s ,f o r tune ,b e long ing t o ap a r t icu la rr e l ig i ou sa nd /o rf am i ly g roup ,f i gh t ing a b il i ty a nd s of o r th . I np rac t i se t h e ma jo r i ty o fs uch c ha rac te r i s t ics c an n o tb ea r chaeo log ica l ly o b se rved , b u tt h i sd oe sn o tr e l ieve u so ft h e d u ty o fd i scu s s ing t h e p rob lem s a l though g r ea tc au t ion i sn ece s sa ry b efo re a r r iv ing a t a ny c onc lus ion s . L i te ra tu re c oncer n ing t h er ef lec t ion o fs oc ia ld i f f e r en t ia t ion i nc r ema t ion c eme te r ie s i ss can ty . C e r ta in ly ,t h ei nven to ry a nd f o rm o fg rave sr ef lec tn o to n ly s oc ia ld i f f e r en t ia t i on , b u t a l so b e l ief s a nd c h rono log ica l a nd r eg iona l c u l tu ra l d i f f e rence s . F o ri t s a na l y s i se ve ry c eme te ry t h e refo re d e se rve st h ed e s ign o fa ni nd iv idua ls e to fc r i te r ia ,w h ich c an a low f o ri t sp a r t icu la rs oc ia li n te rp re ta t ion ( Ged l 1 961 : 1 3 ) . T he r e su l t so ft h ei n t e rp re ta t ion w i l lb eh aphaza rd a nd d i s to r ted d ue t om any l o ca lf a c to r s ,b u tt h rough c om p a r i son b e tween t h ea na ly se so f an umbe ro fc eme te r ie sa nd c onf ron ta t ion w i th t h er e s u l t so fa na ly s i so fo the rc a tego r ie s o fs ou rce s mo re r e l iab le c onc lu s ions c an b e made . S ince L u sa t ian g rave s a tt ime s a r eb e ing e qu ipped w i th s ub s t i tu te g ravegood s , s uch a s

4 14

1 9 D ab row sk i

f r agmen t so fm e ta l o b jec t s ( Luka 1 951 : 1 56 ) o rm in ia tu re a r te f ac t s ( Rennebach 1 967 : 8 2 ) , w e d o i np a r t icu la r s ugge s t t h a t t h e q uan t i ta t ive a s pec t o fg rave i n ven to r ie s i so f m ino ri mpo r tance i nt h ea na ly s i so fs o c ia ld i f f e ren t ia t ion ,a nd t h a ta t ten t ion s hou ld r a the r b ep a id t ot h ec ha ra c te ro ft h eo b je c t s . T he g ene ra lp i c tu re i nd ica te so n ly f a i r ly w eak s o c ia ld i f f e r en t ia t ion a mong t h eL u sa t i a nc u l tu r eg roup s . T he s e t t lemen t sd on o ti n d ica te e i the rt h ee x i s tence o fd we ll ing sd i s t i nc tb yt h e i rd imen s ion sa nd r i che s ,o rs u ch d i s t inc t ive p a r t st h a tc ou ld b ei d en t if ied w i th t h es e a to f ar u le r( N ie s io low ska -W edzka 1 974 : 1 05f f . ) . T he a na ly s i so fl a rge c eme te r ie s ( e .g . N ekva s i l 1 982a ) s how s n o t r a ce s o fd i s t inc t d i f f e rence s b e tween g rave s w i th r e s pec t t ot h e q uan t i ty o rk ind o fg r ave g ood s . T he s am e c once rn s t h e f o rm o fg r ave s . S tone b a r row sa r ea tt im e sb u i l to ve rp a r to ff l a tc eme te r ie s( M i sk iew icz 1 968 )a nd s ma l l b a r row so ccu rt o ge the rw i th ' f l a t 'g r ave s( Nekva s i l 1 982a ) . T h i s may a ga in s ugge s tt h e e x i s tence o f ar a the re ga l i ta r ian s o c ie ty . T he b i g a nd r i ch ly e qu ipped b a r row -g r ave s , o f ten c a l led ' p r ince ly 'b u r ia l s , a r ev e ry r a r e . T he b a r row o fB an ie f r om P e r iod I Vo ft h eB ronze A ge c on ta ined o ve r5 0b ronze a r te f ac t s ,a mong t h em c h i se l sa nd i mpo r ted o b jec t s( Egge r s 1 936 ) . A no the re xcep t iona l t umu lu sd a t ing t ot h eH a l l s ta t t DP e r iod i sk nown f r om Z ukow ice ( Ko lodz ie js ld 1 974 : 7 4 f f . ,P l a te sI X -X I I ) . I nt h en e ighbou r ing t e r r i to r ie s ' p r ince ly 'g r ave so ccu ri nn umbe r s s ugge s t ing h e r e ar e la t ive ly h i gh i n ten s i ty a nd l o ng d u r a t ion o ft h i st y pe o fb u r ia l( Kau s 1 981 ; P i ch le rova 1 969 ; Wü s temann 1 974 ) . As ma l l n umbe r s o fr i ch g rave s w i th c ha r i o t sh ave b een d i scove red i nt h es ou ther np a r to ft h eL u sa t ian c u l tu re a r ea ( P le ine r1 978 : 5 29 f f . ) . I fw ea s sume t h a ts u ch b u r ia l sa r et h eg r ave so fl e ade r so fs ome k ind o fo rgan i s a t ion ( t r ibe s? ) t h en t h i sp i c tu r ei si ng ene ra la g reemen tw i th t h ed e sc r ip t ion o ft h e s o c i a lg roup so ft h eL u sa t ian c u l tu re g i ven a bove . S uch s ma l lg roup sd on o tc r ea te p o s s i b i l i t ie s o fd eve lop ing l a rge s o c ia l o rgan i sa t ion s w i th a u tho r i ta r ian r u le r s , a nd e ven i f s ome l a rge rp ol i t ica lo rgan i sa t ion sw e re f o rmed t h ey w ou ld h ave b een ap a s s ing p he n omenon a nd t h ey d id n o tc r ea te s u i tab le c ond i t ion sf o rt h ee s tab l i shmen to fs u ch ' d y n a s t ie s 'a si no t he ra r ea s . A no the rq ue s t ion c once rn st h ev e ry e s sen t ia lp rob lem o ft h e s e to fr o le so ft h ei nd i v idua l( Go ld tho rpe 1 974 : 1 08f f .f : T h i s ,n od oub t , mu s th ave c on ta ined d i f f e ren ta spec t s t h an i th a s t o day b ecau se o f ah i ghe rd eg r ee o f mu tua ld ependence o fr o le s ,d ue t ot h e s y s t em o fk i n sh ip ,p robab ly t h ew ho le s e t . S uch s e t so fs o c ia lr o le s may h ave a l lowed ac on s ide rab le a c cumu la t ion o fv a r iou ss o c ia lf unc t ion sw i th in o ne p e r son b u tr ende r ed d i ff i cu l ta l iena t ion o fa ni nd iv idua lo u to fh i ss o c ia lg roup . T he p a r t ia lc onve rgence o f s i gn so fv a r iou ss o c ia lr o le sm ay b es t a ted i ns ome g r ave i n ven to r ie s .T he b a r row f r om B an ie w i th t h ec h i se l ss hou ld b en o ted h e re a sw e l la st h eb a r row o fB rzezn iak ,c on ta in i n ga mong o t he rt h ing sp a r t so f at h ree -whee led w agon i nc l ay w i th b i rd sf i gu r ine s( Ko s t r zew sk i 1 958 : 6 8f f . , F ig . 5 3 ) , a nd s ome o ft h e a bove m en t ioned g rave s w i th w ooden h ou se c on s t ruc t ion s ( F ig . F ig . 9 5 ) e qu ipped w i th c l ay l u na r f i r e -dog s s ugge s t ing c u l t p r ac t ice s . T h i sc onf i rm st h a tt h es ame i n d iv idua l sm ay h ave h ad av a r ie ty o fs o c ia lf unc t i on s , a nd t h a tt h e i rh i gh r a nk i ns o c ie ty w a s i n d ica ted b y s pec ia l s i gn s , r i ch a t t i re a nd o b jec t so f al u xu r iou sc ha r ac te r . T he m a jo r i ty o fr i ch h oa rd sa nd a l so o fd epo s i t so fv o t i ve c ha ra c t e ri s mo s tp robab ly l i nked w i th s u ch p eop le s ( Ged l 1 961 : 5 0 ) .

4 15

T he c u s tom a cco rd ing t ow h ich t h ed ead w e re p rov ided w i th t h ea t t r ibu te so ft h e i rs o c i a l p o s i t ion a nd w h ich b ecame w ide sp r ead i n t h e L usa t ian c u l tu re d ur ing t h e L a te B ronze Age a nd E a r ly I r on A ge i sp roof o fs ou the rn i nf luence s . H oweve r ,t h ef a c tt h a t g rave i nven to r ie si n c rea sed i na ff luence i na r ea sw he re H a l l s ta t ti n f luence sd id n o tr e a ch c l ea r ly i nd ica te s al o ca ld eve lopmen ta sw e l l( Mo skwa 1 976 :9 7f f . ; Weg r zynow icz 1 973 : 7 4f f . ) . T he c us tom , c onnec ted w i th t h e s p read o f an ew t y pe o fh a rne s s ( Hü t te l 1 981 : 1 72f f . ) , o fb u ry ing t h ed ead w i th h o r se h a rne s s , a ppea r si nt h eL u sa t ian c u l tu re d u r ing t h eL a te H a l l s ta t tP e r iod ( Foge l1 979 :2 2f f . ) . As u rvey o fs uch g rave s( Foge l1 979 :T ab le 1 . 1 a nd 1 . IV ) s uppo r t s t h e s t a temen tt h a t mo s to ft h em , a pa r tf r om p a r t s o fh a rne s s o r h o r se s ku l ls , c on ta ined k n ive s ,c e l t sa nd s pea r -h ead sr a the rt h an s wo rd s . T h is r ef lec t s t h eg ene ra ls i tua t ion a sr ega rd st h ef u rn i sh ing o ft h eg rave so ft h eL u sa t ian c u l tu re w i th w eapon s . D a ta r evea led t h a t9 1% o ft h eg rave sw i th w eapon s i nt h eO de ra nd V i s tu la r i ve r b a s ins w e re f u rn ished w i th s pea r - h ead s , a r row -head s , k n ive s a nd a xe s ; a nd t h e ma jo r i ty o fw a r r io r sd id n o t , a ppa ren t ly ,u se s pec ia l i sed f i gh t ing w eapon s . Mo s tp rob a b ly t h ey made u se o fo b jec t s u sed a l so f o rh un t ing ( s pea r - h ead s , a r row -head s ) o ro f c ommon u se ( kn ive s , a xe s ) . I ti sa l so c l ea rt h a t mo s to ft h e m en p a r t ic ipa t ing i nc on f l i c t sd id n o tn eed t ob ea s s igned s pec ia le qu ipmen ta nd a pp rop r ia te a t t r ibu te sa f te rt h e i r d ea th . T he o ccu r r ence o fv a r iou ss ymbo l so fs oc ia lp o s i t ion o rt h e i rs ub s t i tu te si ng rave s ,i n d i ca te st h e a ccep tance o fp a r t icu la rs oc ia lr o le s , w h ich a r eb e ing e xp re s sed b yp l ac ing t h em w i th in t h ec omp lex o fc oncep t sc oncer n ing t h ew o r ld o ft h ed ead ( von B runn 1 953 : 2 4f f . ) . T he f a c t s d e sc r ibed i nc onnec t ion w i th t h e s ma l l n umbe ro fg rave sc on ta in ing w eapon s may t h e refo re s ugge s t aw eak s oc ia la ccep tance o fi nd iv idua l sw ho se p r ima ry s oc ia lr o le w a st h ew a r r io r . T he c hange sv i s ib le i nt h e ma te r ia lf r om t h eH a l ls ta t tP e r iod a r en o to f af undamen ta l n a tu re . One c an men t ion t h e mo re f r equen to ccu r rence o fg rave sw i th w eapon s( 64% o f t h ei nven to r ie sc omp i led b yF oge l 1 979 ) ,t h ea ppea rance o fa t t r ibu te so fh o r semen -wa r r i o r s a nd an o t iceab le i n c rea se i nt h e n umbe ro fl onge r s wo rd s w h ich w e r e s omewha t b e t te ra dap ted t of i gh t ing o nh o r seback ( Foge l 1 979a : 7 9 ) . A l lt h e se p henomena s how t h a tt h e s oc ia lr o le o ft h ew a r r io rw a sg radua l ly i n c rea s ing ,a nd t h i st e ndency may w el h ave b een a cce le ra ted b ys ou the rn i nf luence s . B ronze s wo rd sa ppea r ing i nt h eL usa t ian c u l tu re s hou ld b ec on s ide red n o to n ly a sa f u l ly f unc t iona lw eapon b u ta l so as i gn o fp re s t ige . S ome o ft h e se s wo rd sh ad h i l t ss haped i ns uch aw ay t h a te a sy u se w a si mpeded ( Foge l1 979a :7 8 ) . T he i rt h in b l ade sw e re l i ab le t of r ac tu re , e spec ia l ly d ue t oi n app ropr ia te c ho ice o fc omponen t so rc on tam ina t ion o f t h ea l loy ( e .g . R a jewsk ia nd A dam czak 1 959 -60 : 2 64 ) . H ome rm en t ions s e ve ra lt ime s t h e b reak ing o fb ronze s wo rd s d u r ing f i gh t s a r ound T roy . N o w onde r t h a tt h e a bove men t ioned g rave sc on ta ined ,b e s ide ss wo rd s , a l so o t he rw eapon s . S h ie ld s ,h e lme t sa nd b a t t le -axe sa r ev e ry r a re i nt h eL u sa t ian c u l tu re a nd s hou ld b ec on s ide red a ss ymbo l so f

4 16

1 9 D ab rowsk i

F igu re 9 7 . T he i nven to ry o fG rave 8 9 ,c on ta in ing t h er ema in so f a6 0y ea r so ld ma le ,a t t h eP rzeczyce c eme te ry ,V o ivode sh ip o fK a tow ice ( a f te rS zyd lowska 1 968 ) .

s o c ia lp re s t ige a sw e l l a sw eapon s . Mo s to b jec t so f t h i sk ind c ome f r om h oa rd s a nd d epo s i t so f av o t ive c ha rac te r . T h i ss e em st os uppo r to u rp rev iou sc onc lu s ion sc once rn -

4 17

i ng t h es oc ia lr o le o ft h ew a r r io r ,a nd s ugge s t st h a tt h el im i ta t ion s ,w h ich c l ea r ly e x is ted a sf a ra st h e se t y pe so fg rave g ood sa r ec once rned ,h ad o the rt h an j u s te conom ic c ause s . G rave sc on ta in ing l u na rf i re -dog s ,r a t t le so rc u l t -wagon sa r ei n te rp re ted a st h eb u r ia l s o fi nd iv idua ls p rac t i s ing s ome c u l ta c t iv i t ie s -b e ing p r ie s t so rw iza rd s . B u tm any o the r o b jec t so ccu r r ing i nt h eg rave s( Ma l inow sk i 1 962 : 6 4f f . , map s XXV a nd XXV I )c an b e i n te rp re ted a sb e ing c onnec ted t oc u l ta c t iv i t ie s . S uch o b jec t sa r e , f o re xamp le ,t h ea n t h ropomo rph ic ( a lso p ha l l ic )s t a tue t te s ,f i gu r ine so fa n ima ls a nd b i rd s ,a sw e l la sz oomo r p h ic ,o rn i thomo rph ic a nd o the rt y pe so fs pec ia lv e sse l s( Ged iga 1 970 : 3 0 f f . ) . A ni n te r e s t ing g rave f r om P rzeczyce mu s t b e m en t ioned h e re ( F ig . 9 7 ) . I tw a s a n i nhuma t ion b u r ia lo f aman o fa bou t6 0 , e qu ipped w i th p o t te ry , o rnamen t s , s ome p endan t so ra mu l e t s a nd aP an -p ipe ( Szyd low ska a nd K am in sk i 1 965 ) . R i tua l c ann iba l i sm , w h ich i s k nown f r om e a r l ie ri nt h eL usa t ian c u l tu re ,p robab ly b ecame w ide sp read i nt h eH a l l s ta t t P e r iod ,a si no the ra r ea so fE u rope ( Chudz iakowa 1 975 ;G e i s le r1 981 ; Ma l inow sk i1 968 ) . T he s anc tua r ie s i nS i le s ia a r e a l so d a ted t ot h e H a l l s ta t tP e r iod . I nt h e S l eza Ma ss if e t h ree l ow a nd w ide s t one c i rc le s s u r round ing t h e moun ta in t op ,i n te rp re ted a st h er em n an t so fc u l tc en t re sa nd p o s s ib ly c onnec ted w i th s ome o ft h eg r ea ts t one s cu lp tu re sf r om S l eza ( Ged iga 1 976 : 1 08f f . ) , a r ek nown f r om t h ep e r iod . We k now v e ry l i t t le a bou tt h eb e l ief so ft h ep opu la t ion o ft h eL usa t ian c u l tu r e . T he i r r el ig ion w a sa ppa ren t ly f a i r ly d ive r se --t h ek nown d a ta s ugge s t st h ee x i s tence o f as o la r c u l t( a s soc ia ted w i th t h ec u l to ff e r t i l i ty ) , al una rc u l t ,a nd t h ep roceed ing a n th ropomo r p h i sa t ion o fd e i t ie s ( Ged iga 1 976 : 1 9f . ) . T he c hange si nt h eb e l ief so ft h ep opu la t ion o ft h eL u sa t ian c u l tu re w h ich o ccu r red d u r ing t h eL a te H a l l s ta t tP e r iod a r en ow s t re s sed i nt h el i t e ra tu r e( Buck 1 980 : 1 7Of f . ;G ed iga 1 976 : 1 39f f . ; Weg rzynow icz 1 982 :2 37f f . ) . T he m en t ioned c ha rac te r i s t ics s e em t os ugge s tt h a tt h ec hange si nb e l ief s y s tem w e re a c c ompan ied b yc e r ta in c hange si nt h eo rgan isa t ion o ft h ec u l t , a nd o ne may s ugge s tt h a t t h ee x i s t ing s t ruc tu re sb ecame mo re f o rma l i sed a nd i n s t i tu t iona l i sed ,p o s s ib ly a s ar e su l t o fs ou thern i nf luence s . T he f i r s t d i f f e r en t ia ted f unc t ion i nt h e d eve lopmen t o fh uman s oc ie ty i ss ome t ime s c on s ide red t oh ave b een t h a to ft h ew iza rd ( Bauman 1 966 : 2 79 ) . E thno log ica la nd h i s t o r ica ld a ta s ugge s tt h a tt h ef unc t ion so fw iza rd sa nd h ea le r sw e re o f ten c onnec ted . I n d i rec tp roof o ft h ee x i s tence o fs uch p e r son si nt h eL usa t ian c u l tu re c an b es e en i nt r ace s o fs ucce s sfu lm ed ica lo pe ra t ions s uch a st r epana t ion o ft h es ku l lo rt h es e t t ing o fb roken c o l la r -b one s( Kap ica a nd L uczak 1 971 : 3 3f f . ) . T hey c onf i rm ,a ta ny r a te ,t h ee x i s tence o fe xpe r t s ,a b le t oe xecu te c omp l ica ted s u rge r ie s . T he l a s to ft h eg roups d i scu ssed h e re a r ep rof e s s iona lp roduce r s . Ir e cen t ly g ave ad e f i n i t ion o ft h ec oncep to f' p ro f e s s ion 'a nd p ropo sed c r i te r ia w h ich w ou ld a l low a r chae o log i s t s t od ec ide w he the r ag i ven o ccupa t ion w a s a l ready ap rof e s s ion ( Dab row sk i 1 977 ) . T he refo re h e re Is ha l l l im i t my se lf t o af ew g ene ra lc ommen t s . T he n ece s sa ry e conom ic c ond i t ion f o rt h ee me rgence o fp rof e s s ions i ss u rp lus p roduc t ion o ff ood s u f f i c ien tt oa l low f ood t ob eu sed f o rr e la t ive ly p e rmanen te xchange . T he s u rp lu sa cqu i r ed i nt h eB ronze A ge w a so f ten i n s ign if ican ta nd t h et r an spo r ts y s tem i n suff ic ien t( G i lman 1 981 : 5 ) . I ts hou ld t h e r efo re b ea ccep ted t h a ta l lt h em embe r so ft h eg roup su nde rd i s-

4 18

1 9 D ab rowsk i

c u s s ion h ad t ob ep r ima r i ly emp loyed i nf ood p roduc t ion . I na dd i t ion i tmus tb ek ep t i n m ind t h a t p r im i t ive s o c ie t ie s w e re mo s t ly d i s inc l ined t op roduce mo re t h an t h e i r e l emen ta ry n eed sr equ i r ed ( Bauman 1 966 : 2 49f f . ) . T h i s a l low su s t os uppo se t h a tt h e p rof i tg a ined b ye xecu t ing p rof e s s ion sc ou ld b en o mo r et h an as upp lemen tt of a rm ing . T he d i scu s sed s i ze so ft h ep opu la t ion i nd ica te st h a tt h ec i r c le o fr e c ip ien t sw a sv e ry s ma l l , a nd t h i sa dd i t ionaly c onf i rm st h is c onc lus ion . Mo s to ft h en eed so ft h em embe r so ft h e p opu la t ion s o ft h e L u sa t ian c u l tu r e w e r e n o d oub t s a t i sf ied o n t h e b a s i s o f s e lf -suf f i c i ency . S pec ial i sed /p ro f e s s iona l a nd d ome s t ic p roduc t ion w e re n o t s ha rp ly s epa ra ted . T he manuf ac tu r ing o fv a r iou st ypes o fo b jec t sn o tf o rs a le b u ta s ar e su l to fs ome d iv i s i on o fl a bou r among t h em embe r so ft h ep opu la t ion c an b es uppo sed ( f o ri n s tance ,l oom w e igh t sa r ef ound o n ly i ns ome o ft h eh ou se sa tB i skup in -S za f ransk i 1 950 :F ig . 2 4 ) . T he e x i s tence o fs eve ra l d i f f e r en tp rof e s s ion s s e em s mo s tp robab le , s ome o f wh ich h ad o n ly l o ca li mpo r tance ,l im i ted t os ma l lr eg ion s , s uch a sm in ing a nd l e ad p roce s s ing ( Szyd low ska 1 982 )o rt h ep roduc t ion o fp a in ted p o t te ry ( A lf aw icka 1 970 ) . P rof e s s ion s d eve loped i nc l o se d ependence o ns oc ia ld i f f e ren t ia t ion a nd o nt h ea dvance o fe xchange ( S t je rnqu i s t 1 971 : 5 9f f . ) . E x is t ing p rof e s s ion s s t imu la ted t h e d eve lopmen t o fo the r s wh ich ,i nt u rn , a cce le ra ted i mp rovemen t s . S o ,f o ri n s tance ,t h ed eve lopmen to fb ronze wo rk ing a c ted a l so o ns t one w o rk ing ( t he p roduc t ion o f mou ld s )a nd a p icu l tu r e( d emand o fw ax ,i nd i spensab le t ot h ec a s t ing b yc i r ep erdue m e thod ) . Wh i le s peak ing o fp rof e s s ion s , w e s hou ld m en t ion b ronze manuf ac tu r ing ( Dab row s k i 1 981 ) . G rave sc on ta in ing mou ld sa r ev e ry r a re b u ti ti sp o s s ib le ,t h a tt h e r ea r eo the r a t t r ibu te s wh ich i nd ica te m e ta l lu rg i s t s( Ma l inow sk i 1 982 ) . Ag r ave f r om K a rzec s hou ld h e re b en o t iced ,i tc on ta in st h er ema ins o f aw oman ( ? )o fa bou t4 0a nd i sf ur n i shed w i th , a mong o the rt h ing s ,f i n i shed a nd h a lf -f in ished s t one mou ld s( Sm ig ie l sk i 1 961 ) . T he e x i s tence o fp r iva te o wne r sh ip o ft oo l s may a l so b es uppo sed . T he b igge s tk nown s e to f mou ld s , f ound i n ag rave , a r ef o rt h e manuf ac tu r eo fo n ly f i ve i mp lemen tt y pe s ( Ka le t yn 1 973 :6 9 ;T om czak 1 975 ) . T he l im i ted a s so r tmen to ft h ing sp roduced b yo ne c r a f t s p e r son h a s b een c onf i rmed b y e xam ina t ion s o f mou ld f r agmen t s f ound c oncen t ra ted w i th in p a r t icu la ra r ea s o fs e t t lemen t s ( Ra jew sk i 1 960 : 2 2 ; C ob lenz 1 967 ; F oge l 1 966 6 7 ; G a jewsk i 1 982 ; M icha l sk i 1 982 ) . B ronze h oa rd s , i n te rp re ted a s t h e d epo s i t s o f c r a f t s -peop le , a l so s how t h a tt h e enumbe ro ft y pe sp roduced w a sl im i ted ( e .g . D u rczew s k i 1 948 : 4 5f f . ;P odbo r sky 1 970 : 2 6f f . ) . S uch al im i ta t ion m igh ti nd ica te ah igh d eg ree o fo rgan i sa t ion o fp roduc t ion ( Unde rwood 1 958 :2 2 ) . A ni n te re s t ing p henomenon c on n ec ted w i th t h i sq ue s t ion i st r ace so fr epa i ro b se rved o nb ronze a r tef ac t s ,w h ich mo s t ly a r ep r im i t ive a nd i n ef f ec t ive ( Kazdova 1 971 ) . I ts e em s t h a t a pp ropr ia te r epa i r s ome t ime se xceeded t h es k i l lo f ag i ven c r a f t s -pe r son ( D re sche r 1 959 : 2 17 ) . I tm ay b e s up p o sed ,t h a tb ronze o b jec t sw e r ep roduced a tm any s ma l lw o rk shops w i th in t h es ame t e r r i to ry ,b ecau se o ft h ed i f f e rence si nt h er e pe r to i re o fa r tef ac t sa sw e l la sv a r ious i n s t i tu t i ona l isa t ion o fw o rkmen ' sg roup e xp re s sed , f o ri n s tance , b y ac onsc iou s mu tua la c t iv i t yo fw o rk a nd s ome n o rma l i sa t ion o f mu tua lr e la t ion se s tab l i shed b yc u s toma ry l aw o r t a c i tu nde r s tand ing . T he re a r e a l so many t r ace so fp o t te ry p roduc t ion . I ti ss uppo sed t h a tc e ram ics w e re p roduced ma in ly f o rp e r sona l n eed s , a nd t h a t s pec ia l i sed p roduc t ion e x is ted o n ly t oa

4 19

v e ry l im i ted e x ten t ( Mog ie ln icka -U rban 1 980 : 1 59f f . ) . H oweve r , t h eH a l l s ta t tp a in ted p o t te ry a dop ted f r om t h es ou th i sc ons ide red t oh ave b een manuf ac tu red b yp rof e s s iona l p o t te r s . T he se v e s se l s w e re manuf ac tu red i n ar e la t ive ly l im i ted a r ea a l ong s ide ' t r ad i t i ona l 'p o t te ry ( A lfaw icka 1 970 ) . T h i st ype o fp roduc t ion c ea sed a f te r as ho r tt ime w i th o u tl e av ing a ny l a s t ing t r ace si nt h e ' Lu sa t ian 'p o t te ry . We c an t h e refo re s uppo se t h a t t h ep rof e s s iona lo rgan i sa t ion o fp o t te ry p roduc t ion w a sn o ta ccep ted b yt h el o ca lp opu l a t ion . T he q ue s t ion o fr e s i s tance t oi nnova t ion sh a sa l ready b een m en t ioned . Two w ay so f a dop t ing n ew c u l tu ra le l emen t sc an b ed i s t ingu i shed :w et a lk o ft e chn ica la dop t ion w hen ap a t te rn i st a ken o ve rt oge the rw i th t h ea b i l i ty t ou se i t ,a nd o fp e r iphe ra la dop t ion w hen r e f e r r ing t oe l emen t s w h ich d o n o ti nf luence ag iven g roup ' s b ehav iou r ( Cza rnow sk i 1 956 : 1 23f f . ) . T he g r ea te rt h ei nf luence o ft e chn ica la dop t ion i so nt h es o c io -econom ic s t ruc tu re o f t h e g roup a nd t h e h ighe r t h e a u tho r i t ie s e ndange red b y t h e c hange , t h e s t ronge ri st h e r e s is tance o ft h e g roup . T he r e s is tance i si nf a c t ap ro tec t ive m ea su re a ga ins tt h e s o c ia lc on sequence s o fc hange . I nt h i s c on tex ti ti si n te re s t ing t on o te t h a t l o ca l me ta l lu rg i s t sf a i r ly q u ick ly a dop ted t h et e chn ique o fi r on w o rk ing ( Ged l1 971 :7 f . ; Ho r s t 1 971 : 1 93f f . ) . I ti sc l ea rt h a ts oc ia lr e s is tance a ga in s tc hange i np o t te ry p roduc t i on w a si nt h is c a se s t ronge r ; a nd t h i s may s ugge s t st h a tt h i sp rof e s s ion h ad n o ta sy e t b ecome s epa ra ted . T he r ea l so d id n o te x i s ts u i tab le c ond i t ion sf o rt h ee s tab l i shmen to f s uch an ew w ay o fp o t te ry p roduc t ion . T he e x i s tence o fs imp ly o rgan ised ,l o ca l ma rke t si st ob ea ccep ted . T he s i ze so fp opu l a t ion so ft h eL usa t ian c u l tu re i nd ica te ,t h a tt h ec i r c le o fr e c ip ien t so ft h ep roduc t so fo ne c r a f tpe r son w a sn od oub tl a rge rt h an t h ei nhab i tan t so fo ne s e t t lemen t . N e i the rd id a l l p rof e s s ions h ave r ep re sen ta t ive si ne ve ry s e t t lemen t . T he o ccu r rence o fl o ca lt ype so f b ronze a r tef ac t sw a sc ommon , a nd t h e i rs p read d id f r equen t ly n o te xceed 2 00 km f r om t h e i r manuf ac tu r ing c en t r e ( Dab row sk i 1 968a : 1 72f f . ) , w h ich m eans s eve ra l d ay s o f t r ave l . T he b ronze h oa rd f r om K opan iewo f ound i n awooden c he s t sa dap ted f o rt r an s p o r ta t ion ( Kunke l 1 931 : P la te 2 6b ) c onf i rm s t h e e x i s tence o ft h ei t ine ran ts m i th . T he r ange o ft r ave l l ing w i th o rf o rp roduc t s mus t ,h oweve r ,h ave d epended o nm any f a c to r s ( Dab rowsk i 1 980b : 1 31) . T h i s , among o the r s ,g i ve sr i se t ot h eq ue s t ion o fw he the rt h e se l o ca l ma rke t sa l r eady k new t h ei n s t i tu t ion o f me r chan t s .I ti sc l ea rt h a ts ome g ood sc ame t o ma rke t sf r om o u t s i de ( e .g . me ta l s ,s a l t ) ,b u t mo s t ly w e re t h en p robab ly d i s t r ibu ted a sl o ca lp roduc t s( Ba l c e r1 975 :F ig .6 8 ) . T h is i sf o re xamp le s ugge s ted b yh oa rd s ,i n te rp r e ted a sc r a f t s -peop le ' s h oa rd s , wh ich b e s ide sf i n i shed p roduc t sc on ta in r aw m a te r ia l s , b roken t h ing sa nd i m p o r ted o b jec t s ( Ko s t rzew sk i 1 953 : 1 91f f . ) . T he re a r e ,h oweve r ,s ugge s t ion sf o rt h ee x i s tence i nt h eH a l l s ta t tC -D p e r iod so fg roup so ft r ade r s ,e ngaged i nt h ea mbe rt r ade ,l i v i ng i n s pec ia l t r ad ing c en t r e s a nd b e long ing t ot h e ' uppe rc l a s se s ' o f s oc ie t ie s ( Ho r s t 1 982 : 2 4Of f . ; Ma l inowsk i 1 971 : 1 06f f . ) . T he r e la t ive ly s ma l lq uan t i ty o fg ood sm ean t f o rt r ade r a the rc on t rad ic t st h ei d ea o fp rof e ss iona lt r ade r si nt h eL u sa t ian c u l tu re w he r e p eop le o f ten d id n o th ave s u rp lu so fg ood sf o re xchange . We s hou ld t h e refo re r a the ra s s ume t h a tc r a f t s -peop le w e re s imu l taneou s ly f u lf i l l ing t h ef unc t ion o fm e rchan t s . T hey d e l ive red t h e i ro wn p roduc t st r ave l l ing p robab ly a l ong e s tab l ished r ou te s . I tmay a l so

4 20

1 9 D ab rowsk i

b e s uppo sed , t h a t t h ey p l ayed s e ve ra l o the r s oc ia l r o le s a sw e l l . T he se n o t n ume rou s p rof e s s iona lp roduce r s , mus th ave e n joyed c on s ide rab le s oc ia lp re s t ige ,n o to n ly d ue t o t h e i rs k i l l ,b u ta l so o w ing t ot h e i rc on tac t sw i th d i f f e ren tp opu la t ion sw h ich e nab led t h em n o to n ly t od i s t r ibu te p roduc t sb u tt oc onvey i n fo rma t ion b e tween g roup sa sw e l l .

C onc lu s ion A sh a sb een s a id a bove ,t h i sp ape rd oe sn o te mb race t h ew ho le r ange o fp rob lem sc on c e rn ing s o c ia ls t ruc tu re so ft h ep opu la t ion o ft h eL u sa t ian c u l tu re i nt h eL a te B ronze A ge a nd E a r ly I r on A ge . E ven an umbe r o f m a t te r s d i scu s sed i n t h e l i t e ra tu re h ave b een om i t ted h e re . T he a bove r ema rk sc on s t i tu te o n ly ac o l lec t ion o fh ypo the se sw i th v a r i o u sd eg ree so fp robab i l i ty . T hey a r eb yn om ean so ppo sed t ot h ee x i s t ing a r chaeo log i c a l s ou r ce s a nd g i ve ag ood c ohe r en t a nd l og ica l c on s t ruc t ion , b u tt h i sd oe s n o tm ean t h a tt h ep i c tu re i sn ece ssa r i ly t r ue .G r ea tc a re mus tt h e refo re b et a ken w hen f o rmu la t ing a ny p ropo s i t ion sa bou tt h e se i s sue s . O n ly a f te rr em ind ing t h er e ade ro ft h i sr e se rva t ion may w e a t temp tt os um u p t h e se r ema rk s . T he p i c tu re w eo b ta in i so f as o c ie ty w h ich d eve loped s l ow ly a nd p ro tec ted i t s s t ruc tu re sf r om s udden c hange s . I ti sc l ea r ly a ne ga l i ta r ian s oc ie ty w i th l i t t le s oc ia ld i f f e r en t ia t ion . S low ly s epa ra t ing g roup sd on o ts t and o u tc l ea r ly a nd o f ten i n te r sec t . R a i s i ng t h e s oc ia l s t a tu so fa ni nd iv idua lw a sn o td i f f icu l ta nd t h el e ade r so fg roups h ad t o b el im i ted b y at r ad i t iona l s e to fn o rm s ,t y p ica lf o rs ma l lg roup s . I nt h i ss i tua t ion t h ea ppea rance i nt h eL u sa t ian c u l tu re o fi r on a r tef ac t si nl a rge q uan t i ie s ( t he b eg inn ing o ft h e I r on A ge ) b rough t n o b a s ic c hange s i nt h e e x is t ing s oc ia l s t ruc tu re s . S uch c hange so ccu r red o n ly a f te rt h eu se o fi r on h ad b ecome g ene ra l . T he t r ad i t iona l i sm o fs t ruc tu re se x i s t ing a tt h et ime t u rned o u tt ob es t i l lv e ry s t rong ,t hough s u ff i c ien t ly l im i ted t oa l low aw ho le s e to fn ew e l emen t s , ma in ly f r om t h eH a l ls ta t tc i v i l i sa t ion ,t ob ea dop ted . T he se e l emen t sc e r ta in ly a cce le ra ted t h ed eve lopmen to fl o ca l s t ruc tu re sb u tt h ey w e re t o ap o in tl im i ted b yt h e i ra dap t ive a b i l i t ie s ,w h ich c l ea r ly c au sed s ome i n nova t ion st ob er e jec ted . A tt h ep re sen ts t age o fr e sea r ch i ti sd i f f icu l tt oc om p a re t h er e la t ion o ft h es t ruc tu re sd e sc r ibed h e re t os t ruc tu re sf ound w i th in o t he ra r ea s . G ap si nr e sea rch o ns oc ia lr e la t ion sa r ec ha rac te r i s t ic n o to n ly o ft h e s t ud ie so ft h eL u s a t ian c u l tu re . I tc an t h e refo re o n ly b ec onc luded t h a tt h es oc ie t ie sd e sc r ibed h e re w e r e l e s sd eve loped t h an t h e i rs ou ther nn e ighbou r s . T h i sc u r so ry s u rvey o fs o c ia lo rgan i sa t ion s how sh ow much i ss t i l lt ob ed one w i th in t h i s t y pe o fr e sea rch . We n eed f u r the r w o rk c once rn ing b o th t h e t h eo re t ica l u nde r s t and ing o ft h ei s sue s a th and a nd t h e d eve lopmen to f me thodo log ie s f o r s o lv ing s pe c if i c p rob lem s a sw e l l a sd e ta i led s t ud ie s w i th in v a r ious r eg ion s . D i scu s s ion o ft h e se p rob lem sf r om t h ep o in t so fv i ew o fd i f f e r en ts choo l sa nd b a sed o nv a r iou sr e sea rch e x p e r ience i so ne o ft h eb e s tw ay so fo b ta in ing p rog re ss i nt h i sa r ea . T he w i sh t op a r t ic i p a te i nj u s ts uch ad i scus s ion s hou ld j u s t ify t h er ema rk sp re sen ted h e r e .

4 21

Wa r saw , Ma r ch 1 984 .

N o te s 1 )I ts hou ld , h oweve r , b e n o ted , t h a t s i nce t h ep ub l ica t ion o fC h i lde ' s a r t ic le ( 1928 ) t h eL usa t ian i nf luence o no the rr eg ion sh a sb een g r ea t ly o ve re s t ima ted . O ne c anno td eny , h oweve r ,t h a tt h ey e x i s t .

B ib l iography A lf aw icka ,S . ,1 970 .C eram ika ma lowana o k r e su h a l sz tack i ego w P o l sce . (W ro c law : O s so l ineum ) . B a lce r , B . , 1 975 . K r zem ien s w iec iechow sk i wk u l tur ze p uchar6w E k sp loa tac ja , o b iaka ir o zpr zes t r zen ien ie . (W roc law : O s sol ineum ) . B auman ,Z . , 1 966 .K u l tura as po lec zen s two .P r e l im inar ia .

l e jkowa tych .

(W a r szawa : P an s twowe

Wydawn ic two N aukowe ) . B e r r eman ,G .B . , 1 978 . ' S ca le a nd S oc ia lR e la t ion s ' .C ur r en t A n thropo logy 1 9 ,2 25 2 36 . v on B runn , W .A . , 1 953 . ' F rühe s oz ia le S ch ich tungen i m N o rd i schen K re i s u nd b e i d en G e rmanen ' .F e s t schr if td es R öm i sch -German i schen Z en t ra lmu seum i m Ma inz 3 ,1 3 2 8 . B uck , D .W . , 1 980 . ' P rob leme d e s K u l te s u nd d e rs oz ia lökonom i schen E n tw ick lung b e id en S tämmen d e rw e s t l ichen L au s i tze rK u l tu r ' .I nR o la o dd z ia lywan k r egu h a l sz tac k i ego w r ozwo j us po l eczen stw e pok iz e la za w P o l sce z achodn ie jn at l es r odkowoeuro p e j sk im , 1 69 -182 . (W roc law ) . B uga jska , B . , 1 974 . ' Un te r suchung d e r S t ruk tu r d e r P opu la t ion i nd e r T a rnob rzeg G ruppe ' . Z eszy ty N aukowe U n iwer sy t e tu J ag ie l lon sk iego -P race A rcheo log ic zne 1 8 , 1 45 -160 . B ukow sk i ,Z . , 1 981 . ' Na js ta r sze z na lez i ska p rzedm io töw z e laznych w s r odkowe jE u r op ie ap ocza tk im e ta lu rg i i z e laza w k u l tu rze l u zyck ie j wd o rzeczu O d ry iW i s ly ' .A r c heo log ia P o l sk i2 6 , 3 21-401 . B ukow sk i , Z . , a nd D ab row sk i ,J . , 1 982 . ' E ine d emog raph i sche A na ly se d e rA n s ied l ungen d e rL au s i tze rK u l tu r a nd i h re s oz io log i sche A u swe r tung ' . I nH e r rman , J . , u nd S e l lnow ,I . ,( e d s )P roduk t ivkräf t e u nd G ese l l schaf t s -f orma t ionen i nv orkap i ta l i s t i scher Z e i t ,2 63 -275 . ( Be r l in :A kadam ie -V e r lag ) .

4 22

1 9 D ab r ow sk i

C h i lde ,V .G . , 1 928 . ' The L au s i tz C u l tu re ' .A n t iqu i ty 2 ,3 7 -4 2 . C hudz iakowa ,J . , 1 975 . ' S lady k an iba l izmu o dk ry te n ag rodz isku k u l tury l u zyck ie jw G z in ie ,p ow . C hel inno ' . W iadomo sc iA rcheo log ic zne 4 0 ,2 91-297 . C ob lenz ,W . , 1 967 . ' Zu d en b ronzeze i t l ichen Me ta l l funden v on d e rH e iden schanze i n D re sden -Co sehü tz u nd i h re rR o l le b e id e rz e i t l ichen u nd f unk t ione l len D eu tung d e rB u r g en d e r L au s i tze r K u l tu r ' . A rbe i t s - u nd F or schungsber ich t e z ur s ächs i schem B od en d enkma lpf l ege 1 6 / 17 , 1 79 -211 . C ob lenz , W . , 1 981 . ' Beme rkungen z u rH a l l s ta t t - u nd z u rw e s t l ichen L au s i tze rK u l t u r ' .I nD ie Ha l l s ta t tku l tur B e r ich tü be rd a sS ympo s ium i nS t ey r 1 980 ,3 15 -332 . ( L inz : 0 .0 .L ande sve r lag ) . C za rnow s ld , S . , 1 956 . ' Ku l tu ra ' . I nD z ie la I ,1 -168 . d awn ic two N aukowe ) .

(W a r szawa : P an s twowe Wy -

D ab row sk i ,J . ,1 968 .Z aby tk im e ta lowe e pok ib razu m i ed zy d o lna W is la aN i emnem . (W roc law : O so l ineum ) . D ab row sk i , J . , 1 968a . ' Zp rob lema tyk iw y twö r czo sc i me ta lu rg iczne j e pok ib razu w p ö lnocno -wschodn ie jP o lsce in at e renach s a s iedn ich ' .A rcheo log ia P o l sk i 1 3 , 1 51 -167 . D ab row sk i ,J . ,1 973 . ' Zp rob lema tyk is t o sunköw s po lecznych l udno sc ik u l tu ry l u zyc k i e j ' .A rcheo log ia P o l sk i 1 8 ,3 37 - 3 53 . D ab row sk i ,J . ,1 977 . ' A r cheo log iczne a spek ty b adan ia p ocza tköw z awodöw ' .W iado m osc iA rcheo log ic zne 4 2 ,9 -29 . D ab row sk i ,J . , 1 980 . ' P rzyda tno sc c e ram i ld l u zyck ie jd l ap odz ia low k u l tu rowych . 'I n Z rö zn icowan ie w ewne t r zne k u l tur yl u zyck ie j ,3 5 -55 . ( K rakow ) . D ab row sk i ,J . ,1 980a . ' Mozl iwo sc ia r cheo log icznego b adan ia o bcych o ddz ia lywan n a s t ruk tu ry s po leczne ' . I nR o la o dd z ia lywan k r egu h a l sz tack iego w r o zwo ju s po l ec zn s tw e pok iz e laza w P o l sce z achodn ie jn at i es r odkowoeurope j sk im , 1 27 -137 (W roc l law ) . D ab row sk i ,J . ,1 980b . ' An A t temp ta tt h eR econ s t ruc t ion o fC e r ta in S oc ia lS t ruc tu re s i nt h eP opu la t ion o fL usa t ian C u l tu re ' .I nS ch i ld ,R .( ed . )U nconven t iona lA rchaeo logy , 17 -129 . (W roc law : O s so l ineum ) . D ab row sk i ,J . ,1 981 . ' Beme rkungen z um B e ruf d e sH e r s te l le r sv on B ronzegegen s tän d en i nd e rL au s i tze rK u l tu r ' .I nB e i t räge z ur U r - u nd F rühgesch ich t e 1 ,3 97 -402 . ( Be r l i n : VEB D eu t sche rV e r lag d e rW i sen scha f ten ) . D re sche r , H . , 1 959 . ' Ausbe s se rungen a nv o rge sch ich t l ichen B ronzen ' .J ahr es schr if t f ür m i t t e ld eu t sche V orgesch ich t e4 3 ,2 14 -219 .

4 23

D u rczew s ld , Z . , 1 948 . G rupa g ö rno s la sko -ma lopo l ska k u l tu ry l u zyck ie j wP o l sce I . ( K rakow : P o l ska A kadem ia Um ie je tno sc i Wydawn ic twa S l a sk ie ) . E gge r s , H .J . , 1 936 . ' Da sF ü r s teng r ab v on B ahn , K r . G re i f enhagen u nd d i e g e rman i s c he L andnahme i nP omme rn ' .B a l t i sche S t ud ien N .F .4 ,7 -47 . E gge r s , H .J . , 1 959 . E inf ührung i nd i e V orge sch ich t e . V e r lag ) .

( München : R . P ipe ra nd C o .

F oge l , J . , 1 966 -67 . ' P ra cown ia o d lewn ic twa b razu zo k re su w cze snoze laznego w B n in ie ,p ow . S rem ' . W iadomo sc iA r cheo log i c zne 3 2 ,5 12 -531 . F oge l , J . , 1 979 . ' S i ly z b ro jne l udno sc i k u l tu ry l u zyck ie j wd o r zeczu O d ry iW i s ly ' . Ma t er ia ly Z achodn iopomor sk i e2 5 ,7 -51 . F oge l ,J . , 1 979a .S tud ia n ad u zbro j en i em l udno sc ik u l tur yl u zyck ie jw d or z ec zu ( ) d ry iW i s ly . ( Poznan : Wydawn ic two N aukowe U n iwe r sy te tu i m .A .M ick iew i cza ) . G a jew sk i , L . 1 982 . ' S lady o b robk i m iedz i ij e j s t opöw zw cze sne j e pok i z e laza w G rzyb iana ch k o lo L egn icy ' .P am ie tn ik Mu zeum M i ed z i 1 ,1 47 -155 . G ed iga , B . , 1 963 . ' Cmen ta r zy ska k u l tu ry l u zyck ie j w b adan ia ch s t o sunköw s po l e cznych ' .A r cheo log ia P o l sk i8 ,7 -43 . G ed iga ,B . ,1 970 . Mo t ywyf igura lne w s z tuce l u dno sc i O s sol ineum ) .

k u l tu ry l u zyck i ey . (W roc law :

G ed iga ,B . , 1 976 .S ladam ir e l ig i iP ra s low ian . ( W ro c law :

O s so l ineum ) .

G ed iga ,B . , 1 980 . ' Zagadn ien ie z ak r e su p o jec ia ' k u l tu ra l u zycka ' . ij e j w ewne t rzne g oz r ozn icowan ia ' . I nZ rö zn icowan ie w ewne t r zne k u l tury l u zyck ie j , 1 -34 . ( K rakow ) . G ed l ,M . , 1 961 . ' Uwag i og o spoda r ce is t ruk tu rze s po leczne jl udno sc ik u l tu ry l u zyc k i e j wp o ludn iowe jP o l sce ' .Z e s zy ty N aukow eU n iwer sy t e tu J ag ie l lon sk iego .( K rakow ) . G ed l ,M . , 1 963 . ' Cmen ta rzy sko k u l tu ry l u zyck ie j wD ankow ie ,p ow .K lobuck c z . I I ( ma te r ia ly zb adan p rowadzonych w l a ta ch 1 959 -196 1 ) ' . Ma t er ia ly A r ch eo log ic zne 4 , 17 -198 . G ed l , M . , 1 971 .' D ie E n tw ick lung d e s H al s ta t tS t i l s i n d e r L au s i tze r K u l tu r ' . Z e i t schr if tf ür A r chäo log ie 5 ,1 18 . G ed l ,M . , 1 973 . Cmen tar zy sko h a l s z tack ie wK ie t r zu ,p ow .G lubc zyce . ( W roc law :O s s o l ineum ) .

4 24

1 9 D ab r ow sk i

G ed l ,M . , 1 980 . ' Z rözn icowan ie k u l tu rowe w s t r ef ie z al i czane jd o' k u l tu ry l u zyck ie j ' . I nZ rö zn icowan ie w ewne t r zne k u l tur yl u zyck ie j ,7 8 -94 . ( K rakow ) . G e i s le r ,J . ,1 981 . ' D ie O pf e r s chä ch te v on F rank fu r t /0 -L o s sow ' .I nC ob lenz ,W , .a nd H o r s t ,F .( e d s )M i t t e l europä i sche B r on zez e i t , Ie d . ,3 07 -313 ( Be r l in :A kadem ie -V e r lag ) . G i lman ,A . , 1 981 . ' The D eve lopmen to fS o c ia lS t ra t if i ca t ion i nB ronze A ge E u rope ' . C ur r en tA n thr opo logy 2 2 , 1 8 . G o ld tho rpe ,J . E . ,1 974 . A nI n t r oduc t ion t oS oc io logy , Ie d . U n ive r s i ty P re s s ) .

( Camb r idge :C amb r idge

H ennebe rg , M . , 1 977 . ' P ropo r t ion o fd y ing C h i ld ren i nP a leodemog r aph ic S t ud ie s : E s t ima t ion b y G ue s s o rb y Me thodo log ica l A pp roa ch ' . P r zeg lad A n t ropo log ic zny 4 3 , 1 05 -114 . H o r s t , F . , 1 971 . ' Hal s ta t t impo r t e u nd -e i nf lü s se i mE lb - H ave l -Geb ie t ' . Z e i t schr if t f ür A rchäo log ie 5 ,1 92 -2 14 . H o r s t ,E , 1 982 . ' D ie j ungb ronze -u nd f r ühe i senze i t l ichen H aup tve rb indung swege i m n ö rd l ichen M i t te leu ropa ' . I nP o ludn iowa s t r ef a k u l tury l u zyck ie j ip ow ia zan ia t e jk u l t u r y zp o ludn iem ,2 31 -245 . ( K rak6w ) . H ü t te l , H .G . , 1 981 . ' B ronzeze i t l iche T r en sen i nM i t te l - u nd O s teu rope ' . P räh i s tor i s che B ron zef und e . 1 6 /2 . ( München : C .H .B eck ) . J aanu s son ,H . , 1 981 . Ha l lunda . AS tud yo fP o t t er yf r om aL a t eB r on ze A ge S e t t lemen t i nC en t ra lS w ed en . ( S tockho lm : S t a ten sH i s to r i ska Mu seum ) . K a le tyn ,T . , 1 973 . ' Legn ica ' .I nf o rma tor A r cheo log ic zny .B adan ia r ok 1 972 ,6 8 -69 . K ap ica , Z . , a nd L uczak , B . , 1 971 . ' Cmen t a rzy sko k u l tu ry l u zyck ie j wP rzeczycach , p ow .Zaw ie r c ie w s w ie t le b adan a n t ropo log icznych ' .R oc zn ik Mu zeum G örno s la sk iego wB y tom iu .A r cheo log ia . 8 . K au s , K . , 1 981 . ' He r r scha f t sbe re iche d e rK a lende rb e rge r - k u l tu r ' . I nD ie Ha l l s ta t t k u l tu r .B er ich tü ber d a sS ympo s ium i nS t eyr 1 980 , 1 49 -158 . ( L inz :0 .0 .L ande sve r lag ) . K azdova , E . , 1 971 . ' R epe ra ce p ravekych b ronzu ' . S born ik p rac iF i lo sof i ck eF aku l ty b rnen sk e U n iver s i ty , E1 6 , 1 1 -117 . K o lodz ie jsk i , A . , 1 971 . ' Badan ia z e spo lu o sadn iczego l u dno sc i k u l tu ry l u zyck ie j z o k re su p öznoha l sz tack iego w W ic in ie ,p ow . L ub sko , wl a ta ch 1 966 -1969 ' .S prawo zda n i aA r cheo log ic zne 2 3 ,9 1 -108 .

4 25

K o lodz ie j sk i , A . , 1 974 . ' P rob lema tyka k u l tu ro l c r e su h a l sz ta c Idego n aZ iem iL ubu s I d er .Z i e lonogör sk i eZ e s zy ty Mu z ea lne 4 ,6 7 105 . K o s t rzew s ld ,J . , 1 953 . ' Wy twö r czö sc m e ta lu rg iczna w P o l sce o dn eol i tu d ow cze sne g oo l c r e su z e laznego ' .P r zeg lad A r cheo log ic zny 9 ,1 77 -213 . K o s t rzew s ld , J . , 1 958 . K u l tura l u zycka n aP omor zu . ( Poznan : P an s twowe Wydaw n i c two N aukowe ) . K rzyw ic ld , L . , 1 957 . ' P ie rwoc iny w iez i s po leczne j ' . I nD z i e la 1 . (W a r szawa : P an s twowe Wydawn ic two N aukowe ) . K unke l ,0 . , 1 931 .P ommer sche U r ge sch ich t ei mB i ld ern .

( S te t t in : S aun ie r s ) .

L achow i cz ,F . J . , 1 968 . ' Cmen ta r zy sko k u rhanowe w G rabow ie ,p ow .B y töw ,s t anow i s ko 1 ' . Ma t er ia ly Z achodn io -p omor sk ie 1 4 ,9 125 . L uka ,L . J . ,1 951 .' Cmen ta rzy sko K u l tu ry l u zyck ie j wC zamkow ie zI V -V o l c r e su e po ld b razu ' .F on t e sP raeh i s tor ic i 1 ,1 160 . Ma l inow sk i ,T . , 1 962 . ' Ob rzadek p og rzebowy l u dno sc ik u l tu ry l u zyck ie j wP o l sce ' . P r z eg lad A r cheo log ic zny 1 4 ,5 135 . Ma l inow s ld ,T . , 1 968 . ' The P rob lem so fC ann iba l i sm a mong T r ibe so ft h eL u sa t ian C u l tu r ei nP o land ' .A rchaeo log ia P o lona 1 0 , 1 47 -153 . Ma l inow s ld ,T . , 1 971 . ' Übe rd en B e rn s t e inhande lz w i schem d en s üdo s t l ichen b a l t i s chen U f e rgeb ie ten u nd d em S üden E u ropa si nd e rf r ühen E i senze i t ' . P raeh i s tor i sche Z e i t schr if t4 6 , 1 02 -110 . Ma l inow s ld ,T . , 1 982 . ' G roby o d lewcöw w k u l tu rze l u zyck ie jn az im ia ch p o l sk ich ' . P am i e tn ik Mu zeum M ied z i 1 ,2 49 -270 . M icha l sk i , J . , 1 982 . ' P ra cown ia o d lewn i c twa b r azu w Z awadz ie , w o j . T a rnob r zeg ' . P am i e tn ik Mu z eum M ied z i 1 ,1 99 -207 . M i sz ldew icz ,B . , 1 966 . ' Ana l iza a n t ropo log iczna g roböw c i a lopa lnych zm ie jscowo s c iC za rnowa sy ,p ow .Opo le ' . W iadomo sc iA rcheo l og ic zne 3 3 , 3 03 -314 . M i sk iew icz , J . , 1 968 . ' Cmen ta r zy sko k u l tu ry l u zy ck ie j wm ie jscowo sc i K r a szewo , p ow . C iechanöw ' . W iadomo sc iA r cheo log ic zne 3 2 , 8 0 -87 . Mog ie ln icka -U rban ,M . , 1 980 . ' O rgan iza c ja p roduk c j ig a rnca r s Ide j wk u l tu rze l u zyc k i e j ' .I nR o la o dd z ia l ywan K r egu h a l s z tack iego w r o zwo ju s po l ec zen s tw e pok iz e la za w P o l sce z achodn ie jn at i es r odkowoeur ope j sk im , 1 55 -168 (W ro c law :) .

4 26

1 9 D ab row sk i

Mo skwa ,K . , 1 971 . ' Pözno luzyck ie c men ta rzy sko w T rze söwce , p ow . K o lbuszowa ' . Ma t er ia ly iS prawozdan ia R zes zow sk i ego O srodka A rcheo log ic znego z a r1 967 ,9 -98 . Mo skwa ,K . ,1 976 .K u l tura l u zycka wpo ludn iowo -w schodn ie jP o l sce .( Rze szöw : Mu z eum O k regowe w R ze szow ie ) . N ekva s i l ,J . , 1 982a . ' Poh reb i s te l u z icke k u l tu ry vMo rav icanech ' .F on t es A rchaeo lo g iae Morav icae 1 4 -1 a nd 1 4 -2 . N ekva s i l ,J . , 1 982b . ' Mohy ly sk amennym ik on s t rukcem in ap oh reb i s t i w Mo rav ica n ech ' .I nP o ludn iowa s t r ef ak u l tury l u zyck i e j ip ow iazan ia t e jk u l tu ry zp o ludn iem , 1 53 1 78 . ( K r akow ) . N ekva s i l ,J . ,1 983 . ' Pocza tk ih a l sz ta tyzac j i mo raw sk ie jg rupy k u l tu ry l u zyck ie j ' .S i l e s i aA n t igua 2 5 , 6 1-68 . N eu s tupny , J . , 1 960 . 'S ome S ugge s t ion s C once rn ig A rchaeo log ic R eco rd s a nd A r c haeo log ic C u l tu r e s ' .S w ia tow i t2 3 , 3 1-40 . N ie s io lowska -W ed ska ,A . , 1 974 .P ocza tk i ir o zwö jg rod6w k u l tur yl u zyck ie j . (W ro c l aw : O s so l ineum ) . O s sow sk i , S . , 1 957 . S t ruk tura k l asowa w s po leczne j s w iadomosc i . ( Lodz : O sso l i n eum ) . O s sow sk i ,S . , 1 966 . ' W iez s po leczna id z iedz ic two k rw i ' .D z ie la ,I . (W a r szawa :P an s twowe Wydwn ic two N aukowe ) . O s to ja -Zagö r sk i ,J . ,1 983 .' Aspek te d e rS i ed lungskunde ,D emog raph ie u nd W i r t scha f t h a l l s ta tze i t l iche rB u rgen v om B i skup in -Typ ' .P raeh i s tor i sche Z e i t schr if t5 8 , 1 73 -210 . O s to ja -Zagö r sk i , J . ,and S t rza lko , J . , 1 982 . ' Cmen ta r zy sko h a l sz tack ie w S ob ie j uchach , s t an .2 , wo j . b ydgo sk ie : Ws tepne w yn ik i b adan a r cheo log iczno -an t ropo - l o g i cznych ' .K omun ika ty A rcheo log ic zne B iura B adan iDokumen tac j iZ aby tköw w B yd g o s zc zy ,2 -3 , 1 27 -163 . P i ch le rova , M . , 1 969 . N ove K osar i ska -k n iezac ie m ohy ly z o s t ar se j d oby z e l ezne j . ( B ra t i s lava : S lovenske N a rodne Muzeum ) . P ion tek , J . , 1 975 . ' Badan ia p a leob io log iczne p opu lac j i zI I -V o l c re su e pok i b razu z S u lec ina ,w o j .z ie lonogo r sk ie ' .P r zeg lad A n t ropo log ic zny 4 1 , 1 73 -190 . P ion tek ,J . ,a nd K o lodz ie jsk i ,A . , 1 981 . ' Excava t ion sa tW ic ina , P o land ' .C urr en tA n t h ropo logy 2 2 ,7 3 -74 .

4 27

P le ine r ,R . , 1 978 . ' Spo lecensky v yvo jl u z icke as l er skop la ten icke o b la s t i vC echa ch ' . I nP le ine r ,R . ,a nd R ybova ,A . ,( e d s )P raveke d e j iny C ech ,5 28 -532 .( P raha : Akadem ia ) . P odbo r sky , V . , 1 970 . Mähr en i nd er S pä tbron zeze i tu nd a n d er S chw e l le d er E i sen z e i t . ( B rno : U n ive r s i ta J . E . P u rkyne ) . R a jew sk i , Z .A . , 1 960 . ' D ie B e s ied lung v on B i skup in u nd Umgebung i nd e rf r ühen E i senze i t ' .I nF rühe p o ln i sche B urgen ,9 -26 .( W e ima r :V e r lag H e rmann B oeh laus N ach f o lge r ) . R a jew sk i , Z .A . , a nd Adamczyk , S . , 1 959 -1960 . ' M iecz b razowy zWenec j i k o lo Z n ina ' . ' W iadomosc iA rcheo log ic zne ,2 6 ,2 61 -2 65 . R ennebach , G . , 1 967 . ' Re t tung sg rabung a uf e i nem G räbe r f e ld d e rL au s i tze rK u l tu r b e iS te inbach ,K r .N ie sky ' .A u sgrabungen u nd F und e 1 2 ,7 8 -82 . S t jernqu i s t ,B . , 1 971 . A rchaeo log ica lA na ly s i so f P r eh i s tor ic S oc ie ty .( Lund : CWK G lerup ) . S t rza lko , J . , H ennebe rg , M . , a nd P ion tek , J . , 1 976 . W s t ep d o e ko log i ip opu lacy jne j c z low ieka . ( Poznan : Wydawn ic two N aukowe U n iwe r sy te tu i m .A .M ick iew icza ) . S t r za lko ,J . ,P ion tek ,J . ,a nd Ma l inow s ld ,A . , 1 981 . ' Ana l iza p a leob io log iczna p opu l a c j il u zyck ie j u zy tku jace j cmen ta r zy sko k u l tu ry l u zyck ie j w Wo ry tach ' .I nD ab row sk i , J . , ( ed . ) W or y ty . S tud ium a rcheo log ic zno -pr zyr odn ic ze z e spo lu o sadn ic z ego k u l tu ry l u zyck ie j ,7 4 -86 (W roc law : O sso l ineum ) . S za f ran sk i , W . , 1 950 . ' C ieza rk i t k ack ie ip rze s l ik i zg rodu k u l tu ry l u zyck ie j wB i s k up in ie ' . I nK o s t rzew sk i ,J .( e d . )I IS prawozdan i e zp rac w ykopa l i skowych w g rod z ie k u l tu ry l u zyck i e j wB i skup in ie wpow iec ie z n in sk im z al a ta 1 938 -1939 i1 946 -1948 , 1 32 1 60 ( Poznan :P o l sk ie T owa rzys two P reh i s to rzyczne ) . S zyd low ska , E . , 1 968 . ' Cmen ta rzysko k u l tu ry l u zyck ie j wP r zeczycach ,p ow ia tZ a w ie r c ie ' .R oc zn ik Mu zeum G örnos la sk iego w B y tom iu .A rcheo log ia .5 . S zyd low ska ,E . , 1 972 . ' Cmen ta rzysko k u l tu ry l u zyck ie j wP rzeczycach ,p ow .Zaw ie r c i e -omöw ien ie ma te r ia low . 'R oc zn ik Mu zeum G örnos lask iego w B y tom iu . A rcheo lo g ia . 9 . S zyd low ska ,E . ,1 974 .' Ze s t ud iöw n ad cmen ta r zy skam ib i ry tua lnym i zp rzewaga g ro b öw s z lde le towych w k u l tu rze l u zyck ie j ' .P r zeg lad A rcheo log ic zny 2 4 , 1 51 -172 . S zyd low ska , E . , 1 982 . ' Ek spo la tac ja ip rze twö r s two m e ta l i k o lo rowych n a Gö rnym S la sku us chy lku e pok ib razu iw p ocza tkach e pok iz e laza . 'P am ie tn ik Mu zeum M ied z i , 1 ,1 31 - 1 45 .

4 28

1 9 D ab row sk i

S zyd low ska , E . , a nd K am in sk i ,W . , 1 965 . ' L ' ins t rumen td e mus ique d el ac u l tu re l u s a c ienne t r ouv6 aP rzeczyce ,d i s t r ic tZ aw ie r c ie ' .A rchaeo log ia P o Iona 8 ,1 30 -148 . Sm ig ie l sk i ,W . , 1 961 .I nI nven tar ia A rchaeo log ica -P o logne .7 ,P l a te 3 7 . ( Lödz :P an s twowe Wydawn ic two N aukowe ) . T abaczyn sk i , S . , 1 969 . ' The E conom ic S t ruc tu re s o fC en t ra l E u rope ' s B a rba r ic S o c i e t ie s ' .I n IM ied zynarodowy K ongr es A rcheo log i iS low ian sk ie j ,I ,8 8 -101 . (W roc law : O s so l ineum ) . T inda l l ,B .A . , 1 976 . ' Theo ry i nt h eS tudy o fC u l tu ra l T ran sm i s s ion ' .A nnua lR ev iew o fA n thropo logy 5 ,1 95 -208 . T omczak , E . , 1 975 .I nven tar ia A rchaeo log ica -P o logne . 3 5 , P la te 2 23 . (W a r szawa : P an s twowe Wydawn ic two N aukowe ) . Unde rwood , L . , 1 958 . ' Bronze A ge T echno logy i n We s te rn A s ia a nd No r ther nE u r ope ' . Man 5 8 , 1 7 -22 . Weg rzynow icz ,T . , 1 973 . ' Ku l tu ra l u zycka n a Mazowszu w schodn im iP od la s iu ' . Ma t e r ia ly S tarozy tne iWc zesno sr edn iow iec zne 2 ,7 126 . Weg rzynow icz ,T . , 1 982 .S zcza tk iz w ier zece j ako w yraz w ier zen w c zasach c i a lopa l e n ia z w lok . (W a r szawa : P an s twowe Muzeum A r cheo log iczne ) . Wü s temman ,H . , 1 974 . ' Zu rS oz ia l s t ruk tu ri mS edd ine rK u l tu rgeb ie t ' .Z e i t schr if tf ür A rchäo log ie 1 0 , 6 7 - 1 07 . Z nan ieck i ,F . , 1 971 .N auk i ok u l tur ze .N arod z iny ir o zw6 j . Wydawn ic two N aukowe ) .

4 29

( W a r szawa : P an s twowe

2 0 . RE MARKS ON S TUD IES OF THE REL IG ION OF LUSAT IAN CULTURE CO M MUN IT IES

B ogu s law G ed iga

I n troduc t ion T he t i le o ft h is p ape ri nd ica te st h a to u ro b jec t ive h e re w i l ln o tb et op re sen t at o ta lp i c t u re o ft h er el ig ion o ft h e c ommun i t ie s o ft h e L u sa t ian C u l tu re . R a the r , w ew il l im i t o u r se lve s t oc h ief ly m e thodo log ica l c onc lu s ions r e su l t ing f r om t h e a t temp t s a te s tab l i sh ing t h i sp i c tu re t h a th ave s of a rb een p ub l i shed ( Hen se l 1 974 : 1 24f f . ; G ed iga 1 976 : 7 7f f . ; 1 979 :3 2Of f . ;S za f ran s ld 1 979 : 1 09f f . )a nd t os ugge s t ion so ft h ei mpo r tance o ft h is a spec to fc u l tu re f o ru nde r s tand ing c hange sr ef lec ted i nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd . B efo re t ur n ing t oo u ro b jec t ive w ew i l l make c l ea rs ome o ft h e mo re g ene ra l i s sue s c once rn ing r e l ig ion a nd i nd o ing s oa l so b r ief ly o u t l ine t h er ea son sf o rp l a c ing t h e se r e ma rk si n av o lume d evo ted t ot h eB ronze A ge I ron A ge t r an s i t ion . I tw i l lb ea r gued t h a t t h ec hange s d i sce rn ib le w i th in t h er el ig iou s s phe re o ft h e L u sa t ian C u l tu re i n E u rope s hou ld n o t n ece ssa r i ly b e s een a sb e ing d i rec t ly r e la ted t ot h e c hange f r om t h e u se o f b ronze t ot h eu se o fi r on , i ns p i te o ft h ep a r t ia l c on t empo ra r i ty o ft h e se c hanges , b u t s hou ld r a the rb eu nde r s tood i nt e rm so fr e l ig ion i t se l f . O nt h i sb a s i sw ea r et h e r efo re a r g u ing t h a tf u r the ra t ten t ion s hou fd b ep a id t ot h er e con s t ruc t ion o fr e l ig ion w hen c on s i de r ing d i f f e ren ta spec t so fc hange d u r ing t h is p e r iod . T he l im i ta t ion o ft h i sd i scus s ion s pec if ica l ly t op rob lem s c once rn ing t h er e l ig ion o f t h ec ommun i t ie so ft h eL u sa t ian C u l tu re i sn o ta cc iden ta ls i nce i to r ig ina ted f r om s t ud ie s o ft h e ma te r ia l c onnec ted w i th t h i s a r chaeo log ica l c u l tu re . T h i s make s i tp o s s ib le t o a vo id ap u re ly t h eo re t ica ld i scou r se a nd t ol i nk t h eg ene ra lc on s ide ra t ion so fr e l ig ion t o ac onc re te h i s to r ica lr e a l i ty man i f e s ted i n ad ef ined c omp lex o fa r chaeo log ica l ma te r i a l s . T he g eog raph ica le x ten to f as o -ca l led ' Lu sa t ian C u l tu re 'h a sb een v a r ious ly d e sc r ibed i nE u ropean a r chaeo log ica ll i t e ra tu re . T he w ide s td ef in i t ion h a sb een g i ven i ns ome o f t h e P o l i sh l i t e ra tu re i nw h ich t h e L u sa t ian C u l tu r e s p read s o ve rt h e O de ra nd V i s tu la d ra inage a r ea a nd Mo rava , Wag , N i t ra a nd H ron f r om t h ed ra inage b a s in o ft h ec en t ra l

4 30

2 C Gedea

D anube . C h rono log ica l ly , t h i sc u l tu re r ange sf r om t h ed ec l ine o ft h e s e cond p e r iod o f t h eB ronze A ge ( Mon te l ius I ) u pt ot h eb eg inn ing o ft h eL a' I r ene p e r iod . D i scu s s ions a bou t t h e c o r r ec tne s s o fa dop t ing s ow ide ad ef in i t ion o f a' Lu sa t ian C u l tu re ' ( Ged iga 1 983 ) ,a nd i np a r t icu la rt h ep rob lem o fi t sh omogene i ty a r e ,h oweve r ,o fn os pec ia ls i g n if icance f o rt h ep re sen ti s sue s i nce t h i sp ape ri sd i rec ted a t as pec if ic e l emen to ft h ec u l t u re -n ame ly t h er e l ig ion o fc ommun i t ies i nhab i t ing ac on s ide rab le a r ea o fC en t ra lE u r ope f r om t h eM idd le B ronze A ge t ot h eE a r ly I r on A ge . T h i st empo ra l s pan a l so em b race st h et r an s i t ion b e tween t h et wo -B ronze A ge a nd I r on A ge -e poch s . T h i s make s i tp o s s ib le t oc ons ide rt h e s i gn i f icance o ft h i s t r ans i t ion f r om t h ep o in to fv i ew o fp e r c ep t ib le c u l tu ra l c hange s w i th in as phe re s uch a sr el ig ion . T he t r ad i t iona l n o t ion o fa ' Lu sa t ian C u l tu re 'a su sed i nt h i sa r t ic le h a s , t h e refo re , ap u re ly p rac t ica l m ean ing s i g n a l l ing t e r r i to r ia l a nd t empo ra lb o rde r s a nd ad ef ined g roup o f ma te r ia l sf r om t h i sp a r t o fp reh i s to ry .

T he u se o fa rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l sf o rt he s t udy o fr e l ig ion . T he r e l ig ion o fp reh i s to r ic c ommun i t ie s ,b e ing as i gn o fs oc ia lc on sc iou sne s sa nd a ne s s en t ia lc u l tu ra le l emen to fa ny p e r iod ,r e p re sen t sa ni mpo r tan ta l though d i f f icu l to b jec t f o ro u rs t udy o ft h ep a s t . T he s pec if ic i ty o ft h ec l a s se so f ma te r ia l s ,w h ich a r er e levan t f o rt h es t udy o fr e l ig ion a nd a tt h es ame t ime b e ing a to u rd i spo sa l , make si ti mpo s s ib le t os e pa ra te t h e p rob lem sl i nked t ot h e s t udy o ft h er e l ig ion o fp reh i s to r ic c ommun i t ie s f r om p rob lem sg ene ra l ly i nve s t iga ted b yp reh i s to r ian s . O ne m ay t h e refo re p o s tu la te t h a t , w i th r ega rd t ot h ew o rk o fp r eh i s to r ian s , t h es t udy o ft h ef orm a nd f unc t ion o fr e l ig ion p lay so rs hou ld p lay ac en t ra lr o le . T he s t udy o fr e l ig ion i np reh i s to ry d oe s ,h oweve r ,p o se ap rob lem w h ich d emand st h e i nvo lvemen to fs eve ra ld i f f e r en td i sc ip l ine s , -b o th w i th r e spec tt ok now ledge o fb a s ic p rob lem sa nd p rope r t ie so ft h ed i f f e ren ts ub jec t sa nd w i th r e spec tt ot h ed i f f e ren tm e th o d s emp loyed b yt h em . I np rac t ice t h i sc a l l sf o rt h ec o -o pe ra t ion o fp reh i s to r ian s ,h i s t o r ians o fr e l ig ion a nd e t hno log i s t s ,a ni n te rac t ion w h ich i ss e ldom o b ta ined T he d i f f i cu l t ie sa r i s ing f r om t h is n eed f o rc o -ope ra t ion a r eu ndoub ted ly k nown t o mo s tp reh i s t o r ian s , a nd t h ey a r e man if e s t b o th i no u rp rac t ice a nd i ne s tab l ished a t t i tude s t oc on s i de ra t ion o fr e l ig ion . A s ar e su l t ,s t ud ie so fr e l ig ion s ome t ime sr ead i ly a s soc ia te t ho se o b jec t sa nd a c t iv i t ie sw h ich d on o th ave c l ea r ly d ef ined f unc t ions o rw h ich d on o ts e em t ob e l i nked t oe veryday p ra c t ica l o re conom ic a c t iv i t ie s w i th r e l ig ion o r ( a s mo re f r e q uen t ly h appen s )w i th ap a r t icu la rc u l t -i no the rw o rd st h ey a ccep t ar eady d iv i s ion b e t ween t h ep rofane a nd t h es a c red . T h i sa pp roach h a sm e tw i th ac r i t ica l ,t hough f r equen t l ys upe rf i c ia l ,a s se s smen tb y ac on s ide rab le g roup o fa r chaeo log i s t ss c ep t ica l ly d i spo sed t owa rd ss uch a t temp t s . T he se a t t i tude sa r e ,h oweve r ,t o al a rge e x ten tt h ee xp re s s ion o f a-mo re o rl e s sr e a l i sed -l a ck o ft h ec ompe tence r equ i red t or e cons t ruc to rc ons ide rt h e r e l ig ion o fp reh i s to r ic c ommun i t ie s . B u tl e tu sl e ave t h i s p rob lem a nd d evo te s ome a t t e n t ion t oa s se s s ing t h ep o t en t ia ls o fa r chaeo log ica l ma t er ia l sf o rs t udy ing r e l ig ion a nd t ot h en ece s s i ty o fu s ing a na log ie s s upp l ied b yc ompa ra t ive h i s to ry o re t hnog raphy .

4 31

T he d i s rega rd o ft h e u sefu lne s so fa r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l sf o ri n f e rence a bou tv a r i o us a spec t so fs oc ia lc onsc iou sne s s ,i n c lud ing r e l ig ion ,h a sb een e mpha s ised many t ime s . I ti st r ue t h a t t h e se ma te r ia l s r ep re sen t o n ly t h e ma te r ia l t r ace s o rr e su l t s o fp a r t icu la r t ype so fb ehav iou r s ; y e tr e l ig ion emb race s av e ry c omp lex s phe re o fp henomena , a nd i t sl im i t sa r ed i f f icu l tt od ef ine ( Pon ia tow sk i 1 958 :6 f f . , Ma rgu l1 958 :3 1f f . ) . T h is make s e ven s uch t r ace so fs oc ia la c t iv i t ie sa st ho se r ef lec ted b ya r chaeo log ica lm a te r ia l sp o ten t i a ls ou rce sf o rc on s ide ra t ion o fr e l ig iou s s t ruc tu re sa nd a c t iv i t ie s . S ince t h ed ef in i t ion o ft h es ub jec to fr e sea r ch i so f b a s ic s i gn if i cance ,t h ei s sue o fd i s t i ngu i sh ing w ha ti sr e l ig ion a nd w ha ti sn o tp o se s am a jo rp rob lem w h ich i sf undamen t a lf o ro u rc oncep tua l i sa t ion o fr e l ig ion a nd f o ro u ra pp roach t ot h em a te r ia l . T he p rob l em ,h oweve r , c an n o tb ed i scu s sed , l e ta l one a na ly sed ,i n ac u r so ry f a sh ion . I f ,t h e re f o re ,a s af i r s ts t ep t owa rd sc on s ide r ing t h er e l ig ion o fp reh i s to r ic c ommun i t ie s ,w ew an t t oc on s ide rt h eu sefu lne s so fa r chaeo log ica lm a te r ia l s ,w es hou ld h ave amo re c onc r e te u nde r s tand ing o ft h en o t ion o fr e l ig ion . R e l ig ion a s ap henomenon h a sv a r iou s a spec t s , b u ti t si n teg ra l n a tu r e s hou ld a lway s b e empha s ised . Ac omp le te c omp rehen s ion o fr e l ig ion mu s t ,t h e refo r e ,t a ke i n to a ccoun t a l lo fi t se l emen t s . A ny r e l ig ion c on ta in s as e to ft h eo re t ica la s sump t ion so rp re sc r ibed r e la t ionsh ips a nd t h e se r e su l ti n ar ange o fp rac t ica la c t iv i t ie sw h ich a r ea s soc ia ted w i th p a r t icu la re xpe r ience s . T he se s e t so fi n te rac t ion f u r the rmo re m ean t h a tr e l ig ion f u lf i ls a ni mpo r tan ts oc ia lr o le a nd u sua l ly i sc onnec ted w i th o rr e su l t si ns ome s o r to fo rgan i s a t ion . T he se d i f f e ren t e l emen t s o r a spec t s o fr e l ig ion i nd ica te t h e d ive r se s phe re o f p rob lem se ncoun te red w hen a t temp t ing t or e con s t ruc tt h er e l ig ions o fp reh is to r ic c om mun i t ie s ,h av ing a to u rd i spo sa lo n ly a r chaeo log ica lm a te r ia l s . B u ta tt h es ame t ime t h ey a l so p o in t t ot h e i n te r lac ing n a tu re o fr e l ig ion w h ich m ake s i ta n e s sen t ia l s t ruc tu re i n a ny s oc ie ty a nd o fi mpo r tance f o ri t so u twa rd a ppea rance . An a wa rene s so ft h ec omp lex i ty o ft h ep rob lem a nd o ft h ep o s s ib i l i t ie so f f e red b ya c t u a la r chaeo log ica lm a te r ia l sf o rt h er e cogn i t ion o fr el ig ion i n c l ine u st od ef ine t hose a s p ec to fr e l ig ion w h ich h ave ac hance o fb e ing r e cogn i sed i np rac t ice . T he refo re , a pa r tf r om h av ing t oa dop t al im i ted d ef in i t ion o fr e l ig ion w ea l so h ave t o a ccep tc e r ta in s t ruc tu res a sb e ing t h e mo s t ' r ea l 'e xp re ss ion o rr ef lec t ion o fr e l ig ion f o r t h ep u rpo se o fs t udy ing t h i s a spec to fc u l tu re . O p in ion s a r e ,h oweve r ,d i v ided w i th r e g a rd t ow h ich a r e t h e e s sen t ia l e l emen t s . H e re w e s ugge s t , t h a tc on s ider ing t h ep o ss i b i l i t ie sf o rr e cogn i t ion w h ich e x i s t a nd o u rd e s i re t oa ch ieve ac omp le te i mage o fr e l i g ion ,i ts e em st h a tt h e mo s tc o r rec ta pp roach w ou ld b et oa ccep tt h ec oncep t ion o ft h e re b e ing t h ree c omponen t so fr e l ig ion ( Pon ia tow sk i 1 965 : 2 2f f . ) , w h ich a r e : t h e t h eor e t i c o -d oc t r ina la spec to fr e l ig ion ,t h ep rac t ica l -cu l ta spec ta nd t h eo rgan i sa t iona la spec t . T he t h eo re t ica lc omponen to fr el ig ion i n c lude sb e l ief si nt h ee x i s tence o f as uper na tu ra l wo r ld ,i te s tab l i she sw ha ta ny r el ig ion p reache sa bou tr ea l i ty a nd i td i rec t st h ep eop le 's t h eo re t ica lc onv ic t ion t h a ti ti sp o s s ib le t oe s tab l ish c on tac tw i th t h i ss uper na tu ra lw o r ld . T he p rac t ica l -cu l ta spec ti n vo lve sp l ace s ,a c t iv i t ie s ,a nd o b jec t s r equ i red t oe s tab l ish t h is c on tac t ; a nd i ti n c lude sa mong o t he r sv a r iou sr i te sw h ich t h en a ga in n ece s s i ta te p a r t icu l a rf o rm so fo rgan isa t ion ( Low rn ian sk i 1 979 : 1 2 ) .

4 32

2 0 G ed iga

T he p rac t ica la spec t so fr e l ig ion C on s ide r ing t h ec on ten to ft h et h ree c omponen t so fr e l ig ion a sr e f e r red t oa bove ,a r chae o log ica l ma te r ia l s c l ea r ly p rov ide t h eb e s tb a s i sf o r ar e con s t ruc t ion - n o tt o af u l le x t e n t , o fc ou r se - o fv a r ious e l emen t s o f ac u / t , t h a ti st h ep rac t ica l -cu l t a spec to fr el i g i on ,w h i le b o th t h et h eo re t ico -d o c t r ina la nd t h eo rgan i sa t iona la spec t st e nd t oe l ude u s . We c an , f o re xamp le , t o al a rge e x ten tr e con s t ruc tv a r ious a c t iv i t ie s l i nked w i th b u r ia l r i te s ,o r d i s t ingu ish w i th c er ta in ty d i f f e r en to b jec t sf ound i n ac u l tu ra ll a ye ra nd c o r rec t l yd e te rm ine t h e i rl i nk sw i th ac u l t ,o ri d en t ify t h ep l ace o ft h ec u l t . I ti s much mo r ed i f f i cu l t ,h oweve r ,t or e con s t ruc tt h ed oc t r ina l mo t iva t ion o fv a r iou sr i tua la c t iv i t ie so rt h e mo t iva t ion c onnec ted w i th d i f f e r en to b jec t sa nd p l ace so bv ious ly s e rv ing c u l tf unc t ion s , o r t oa t temp t ar e con s t ruc t ion o ft h eo rgan isa t iona l s t ruc tu re s w i th in w h ich s uch a c t i v i t ie st ook p lace . Howeve r , i ns p i te o ft h ed i f f icu l t ie so fa ch iev ing t h i s o n t h e b a s i s o fa r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l s , t h er e cons t ruc t ion o ft h er e l ig ion o f as pec if ic p e r iod n ece s s i ta te s c on s ide r a t ion o fa l t h et h ree e l emen t so fi t ss t ruc tu re . Mo reove r ,t h ea va i lab il i ty o fr e levan t ma t e r ia l s a sw e l l a st h e i rc ha rac te r ( bu r ia l s , c u l t s ymbo l s , r i tua l o b jec t s , t r ace s o fc u l to r g an isa t ion a nd s oo n ) v a ry f r om p e r iod t op e r iod a nd f r om a r ea t oa r ea . F o rt h e se r e a s on s a s se s smen to ft h e u se fu lne s s o fa ny p a r t icu la rk ind o fa r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l a s w e l la st h ec on s ide ra t ion o fi t se v idence mu s tb ec a r r ied o u ti nr e la t ion t ot h ee n t i re r ange o f ma t e r ia l sr e la t ing t ot h ep a r t icu la rp reh is to r ic c on tex ti nw h ich i tb e long s . T h i st a sk , c a r r ied o u t w i th r e spec t t ot h eL u sa t ian C u l tu r e , w ou ld f a re xceed t h ei n tended a im o f t h is p ape r . Howeve r ,b efo r ep roceed ing t ot h ec onc re te e xamp le -n ame ly r ema rk sd ea l i ng w i th s t ud ie s o f t h e r e l ig ion o f t h e c ommun i t ie s o f t h e L u sa t ian C u l tu re -s ome t hough t sc once rn ing t h e g ene ra lp rob lem sa r i s ing f r om t h et a sk o fi d en t ify ing a nd s t u d y ing ma te r ia l sr e levan tt op reh i s to r ic r e l ig ion mus tb ee xp re s sed .

G enera lp rob lem so fs t ud ie so fr e l ig ion Above a l lw eh ave t or ea l ise t h a ta r chaeo log ica le v idence i st h eo n ly d i rec ta nd t h us t h e mo s ti mpo r tan t s ou rce f o r t h e i nve s t iga t ion o fp reh i s to r ic r e l ig ion s . T h is s t a t emen ti s o bv iou s ,b u tt h el i t e ra tu r ed evo ted t or el ig ion i np reh i s to r ic s oc ie t ie sd oe sn o ts how t h i s . R a the r ,i nt h ep roce ss o fr e con s t ruc t ing p reh is to r ic r e l ig ion sa u tho r sh ave o f ten u sed i n a pp rop r ia te e t hnog raph ic a na log ie s ,c a r ing l e s sf o rt h ev a lue o ft h er e cons t ruc t ion t h an f o rt r y ing t o make t h e i rp a r t icu la ri n te rp r e ta t ion c omp rehens ive a nd e l abo ra te . T he p rope ri d en t i f ica t ion o fs ou rce sf o rp reh i s to r ic r e l ig ion si st h e re fo r e s t il o ne o f t h e b a s ic p rob lem si nt h i st ype o fs t udy . I ti s ad i ff icu l tt a sk t od i s t ingu i sh t h e o b jec t s w h ich r ep re sen tc u l ts ymbo ls ,r e l ig iou sa r tefa c t so rs a c red p l ace s ,b u ti ti sn eve r the le s s i mpo r tan tt oa t temp tt od o t h i s . R ef e r r ing t oi th e re , Iw an tt od i rec ta t ten t ion a tp rob l em sp o in ted t ob yt h ec r i t ics o fp rac t ice sh i the r to emp loyed .

4 33

T he g ene ra l ly e xp re s sed a nd o f ten r epea ted a ccu sa t ion t h a ta r chaeo log i s t sh ave f a rt oo r e ad i ly i d en t if ied v a r ious o b jec t so rp l ace sa sb e ing c onnec ted w i th r e l ig ion i sr a the ru n j u s t . A r chaeo log is t sh ave o f ten i d en t i f ied o b jec t sa s' r i tua l 'i ft h ey c ou ld n o tb ee xp la ined i nt e chn ica l -u t i l i ta r ian t e rm s . T h is p rocedu re i sc l ea r ly e xpo sed t ot h e o b jec t ion t h a ta l l o b jec t s ,i n c lud ing t ho se o fa nu n iden t if ied f unc t ion ,q ua l ify a sp o ten t ia l ' r i tua l 'o b jec t s . Howeve r , s of a ra t temp t s a ti d en t ify ing t h o se o b jec t sw h ich w e re c u l ta r t ic le sh ave n o t e va luda ted t h i s s imp le o b jec t ion . I np rac t ice e very o b jec t s i sn o t ap o ten t ia lr i tua l o b j e c tt ot h e s ame d eg ree , a nd a tt h e s ame t ime w es hou ld n o td eny t h a tt h eg roup o fo b j e c t s o fu n iden t if ied f unc t ion ( i . e . n o tr e la ted t oa c t iv i t ie s i n vo lv ing e ve ryday m a te r ia l e x i s tence )f a c i l i ta te st h es e a rch f o rt ho se t h ing sw h ich c ou ld h ave b een u sed i nc u l tf unc t i ons . Y e t , t h is d oe s n o tm ean t h a ts uch i n te rp re ta t ion mu s tl e ad t ot h ee xc lus ion f r om t h ec i r c le o fr i tua lo b jec t s t h o se i t em sw h ich h ave ac l ea r ly u t i l i ta r ian f unc t ion i no rd i n a ry e ve ryday a c t iv i t ie s . S uch c a se s c an , h oweve r , o n ly b ei d en t if ied s po rad ica l ly i n t h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd . T he c a s t ing f o rm sw h ich w ef i nd p l aced i ns ome o ft h eg rave s o ft h eL u sa t ian C u l tu re a nd w h ich p r e sumab ly p l ay as ymbo l ic r o le i nt h i sc on tex tc ou ld b e ar e levan te xamp le o ft h i s . A ga in s tt h eb ackg round o ft h e se r ema rk s , w ew i l lp o s tu la te t h a ta s an ece s sa ry c on d i t ion f o rr e con s truc t ing p r eh is to r ic r e l ig ion w e mu s tu nde r take t h e a na ly s i s a nd i n te r p re ta t ion o fe x tens ive c o l lec t ion so fa r chaeo log ica lm a te r ia l sw h ich u ndoub ted ly a r ec on n ec ted w i th r e l ig ion . T h i sw i l l make i tp o s s ib le t oe x t rac tr e pea ted c o r r e la t ion sb e tween c e r ta in o b jec t s /ac t iv i t ie sa nd v a r iou sc u l to b jec t so rr e l ig iou s s ymbo l i sm s . I ts hou ld b e empha s i sed h e re t h a t , a so ppo sed t os u ch e x tended c ompa ra t ive a pp roache s , w e h ave b een s e e ing a na ly s is a nd i n te rp re ta t ion o fs i ng le c a se si ni s o la t ion f r om ac on s ide ra t ion o ft h e i rb roade rc on tex t ,a nd ad i rec tu se o fp a r t icu la ra na log ie su nc r i t ica l ly s e lec ted f r om e t hnog raphy o rc ompa ra t ive h i s to ry o fr e l ig ion . T h i sc an e a s i ly l e ad t o ad i s to r ted p i c t u re ,a sh a so f ten h appened ,p a r t icu la r ly i nt h ec a se o fe xcep t iona lr e l ics l i nked w i th r e l i g i on , w he re a ni n te rp re ta t ion o ft h eo b jec ti sm ade o nt h eb a s i so fr emo te c ompa ra t ive ma te r ia l sw i thou tc on s ider ing t h el o ca lc on tex t . R e sea r che r sn eg lec tt oc on s ide rw he the r t h e ' i deo log ica l s ub s tance ' w h ich i sb e ing l i nked t ot h e o b jec t t h rough a na logy c ou ld h ave f unc t ioned a mong t h ep opu la t ion i n hab i t ing t h ea r ea i nw h ich t h eo b jec tw a sd i s c ove red , o rt oa sk w he the rt h e r ei s aw ide rc onf i rma t ion w i th in t h ec u l tu re i nt h e a r ea . T hus , f o re xamp le , af i gu re o fa eRoman d e i ty d i scove red i nP o land i nd ica te s c on tac t s w i th t h eR oman w o r ld . T he c r eed s ub s tance c onnec ted w i th t h i sd e i ty c an b er e ad w i th o u tg rea td i f f icu l ty . I ti smo re d i f f icu l t ,h oweve r ,t od e te rm ine t h er o le t h i sf i gu re p l ayed i nP o land a nd w he the ra nd h ow i tw a sa dop ted b y t h en a t ive r e l ig ion . T he s ame p rob l em i se ncoun te red i nr e la t ion t oo t he rc u l tu ra lp e r iod sa nd a r ea s . T he r e con s t ruc t ion o f ar e l ig ion i n ap a r t icu la r s e c t ion o fp reh i s to ry s hou ld b e c a r r ied o u t , t h e refo re , o n t h e b a s i so fl a rge c o l lec t ion so f ma te r ia l sa nd c an b ev e r if ied o n ly b ys uch m ean s . I n te rp re t a t ions a nd r e cons t ruc t ions o fc r eed s ub s tance s l i nked w i th e xcep t iona l , u sualy s i ng le f i nd s ,c an s upp ly i n te re s t ing d e ta i l so f' r e l ig iou sd oc t r ine s ' ,b u tt h ey a r eo n ly m ade u se f u lf o ro u ru nde r s tand ing o ft h en a tu r eo fr el ig ion i nt h ec onc re te c a se i fw ea sk w he the r a nd h ow t h ey f unc t ioned w i th in t h e r e l ig ion i nt h e p a r t icu l ar a r ea a nd c h rono log ica l s pan i nq ue s t ion .

4 34

2 0 G ed iga

O ne mo re g ene ra lr ema rk w h ich s hou ld b e made c oncer n st h eu se o fc ompa ra t ive m a t e r ia l t a ken f r om e t hno logy o rc ompa ra t ive h i s to ry o fr e l ig ion . C on s ide r ing t h er a the r l im i ted p o s s ib i l i t ie su sua l ly o f f e red b ya r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia ls f o rt h er e con s t ruc t ion o f p reh i s to r ic r el ig ions , t h e u se o f t h e se a na log ie s b ecome s v e ry a t t rac t ive a nd , w i thou t d oub t , a l so a dvan tageous . I ti sn ece s sa :y ,h oweve r ,t om a in ta in ac r i t ica la s se ssmen to f t h e p o s s ib i l i t ie so fu s ing s uch a na log ie sa nd t h ep r inc ip le se me rg ing t h e ref rom . I nr e c en tP ol i sh l i t e ra tu re P o se rn Z ie l in sk i a nd O s to ja - Z agö r sk i ( 1 977 ) h ave c on s ide r ed i n d e ta i lt h ep rob lem o fe t hno log ica li n te rp re ta t ion a nd e t hnog raph ic a na log ie si na r chae o log ica ls t ud ie s ,a nd t h ey h ave a dvanced m any i mpor tan tp o s tu la te s . H oweve r ,t h ep rac t i ca l a pp l ica t ion o ft h eo re t ica l a s sump t ion s w h ich a r e d oub t le ss c o r rec t i sn o t a n e a sy ma t te r . I f ,p u sh ing a s ide t h eo f ten d i f f icu l tl i nk sb e tween t h ea s sump t ions o f t h eo re t ica la nd m e thodo log ica lr e sea r ch a nd t h ep rob lem so ft h e i rp rac t ica lr e a l i sa t ion , w e w e re t ot r y t oa r r ive a t( e ven i fo n ly mo re g ene ra l )m e thodo log ica lp o s tu la te s ,t h ey c ou ld b er educed t ot h ef olow ing s t a temen t : T he u se o fe t hnog raph ic a na log ie sw h ich d e r ive f r om s i ng le f a c t so b ta ined f r om u sua l ly a c c iden ta l ly c ho sen s ou rce s s hou ld b e a vo ided i nt h ei n te r p re ta t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l m a te r ia l s . E thno log ica l w o rk s d ea l ing w i th d ef ined p rob l em ss hou ld b eu sed i n s tead . Mo reove r , a t ten t ion s hou ld b ed i rec ted a tt h e mu l t ip l ic i ty o fe t hnog raph ic c o r robo ra t ion s , w h i le ,w i th r e ga rd t op reh is to ry , mo re u sefu la na log ie s o rt ho se w he re d e f ined o b jec t so rm a te r ia lf a c t sa lway se xp re s sa na logou sb ehav iou ro r a na logous i d eo log ica ls ub jec t s s hou ld b eu sed .

T he r e l ig ion o ft he c ommun i t ie so ft he L usa t ian c u l ture F o l low ing t h e se g ene ra lr ema rk sc oncer n ing t h eu sefu lne s so fa r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia ls f o rs t ud ie so fp reh i s to r ic r e l ig ion s a nd c er ta in m e thodo log ica l a spec t so ft h e se s t ud ies , w ec an t ur nt ot h e mo r es pec if i cp rob lem -s t ud ie so ft h er e l ig ion o fc ommun i t ie so ft h e L u sa t ian C u l tu r e . I ts e em st h a tc hange sr evea led b y a r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l sc oncern i n gt h er el ig ion o ft h e se c ommun i t ie sm ay p r e sen t as u i tab le i lus t ra t ion o fm any o ft h e a bove g ene ra l r ema rk s ; a nd t h rough t h i s t h row s ome l i gh t o n t h e p o s i t ion o fr e l ig ion w i th in ap a r t icu la rc u l tu ra lc on tex ta tt h et r an s i t ion f r om t h eB ronze A ge t ot h eI r on A ge . T he d eve lopmen to ft h eL u sa t ian C u l tu re o ve r al a rge a r ea o fC en t ra lE u rope b rough t a bou t -a sw e l la sv a r iou so t he rc u l tu ra lc hange s -a tl e a s to ne c l ea r ly d i sce rn ib le c hange i nt h e s phe re o fr e l ig ion , n ame ly t h e a dop t ion o ft h e c r ema t ion r i t e . T h i s c us tom p re v a i led t h roughou tt h ee n t i r eM idd le B ronze A ge u pt ot h ed ecl ine o ft h eL u sa t ian C u l t u r e , a nd e ven b eyond . I nc er ta in a r ea s a nd i nc e r ta in p er iod s , g r ave s c on ta in ing i n huma t ion s a r e , h oweve r , f ound s i de -by -s ide w i th c r ema t ion g r ave si nc eme te r ie so ft h eL usa t ian C u l tu re . A no b s e rvab le i n c rea se i nt h i sp henomenon o ccu r red i ns ou the rn P o land i nt h ef i na lp e r iod o f t h eB ronze A ge a nd t h eb eg inn ing o ft h eI r on A ge ( Ha C ) . D u r ing t h es ame p er iod t h e re w a s ac l ea ri n c rea se i nt h eq uan t i ty o fo b jec t sr e la ted t oc u l ta c t iv i t ie s ,s uch a sc l ay f i gu re s o fb i rd s ,z oomo rph ic v e s se ls ,h o rn -shaped b eake r s ,f oo t -s haped o rb oa t shaped v es se l s ,

4 35

a nd p o t te ry i nt h e s hape o fh uman a nd a n ima l f i gu re s ; a sw e l l a st h e a ppea rance o fa g r ea te r n umbe ro fs ymbo l ic s i gn s c h ief ly a mong p o t te ry o rnamen t s , s u ch a st h e s o la r mo t i f sa nd t h eo b l ique c ro s s( Ged iga 1 970 ) . T he re w e re a l so c e r ta in c hange si nt h et h eme o ff i gu ra lr ep re sen ta t ion s l i nked , a tl e a s ti np a r t , w i th r e l ig ious my tho logy , s u ch a sf o r i n s tance e ng raved s c ene so np o t te ry o f an a r ra t ive c ha rac te ri lu s t ra t ing h un t ing o r ap ro c e s s ion w i th ac a r t . T he se f a c t ss e em t oi n d ica te c er ta in t r ansfo rma t ion so ft h er e l ig ion a tt h et r an s i t ion f r om B ronze A ge t oI r on A ge w i th in ar eg ion i n c luded i nt h ea r ea c ove r ed b yt h e s o -ca l led L usa t ian C u l tu re . Among s tt h ev a r iou si n te rp re ta t ions s ugge s ted f o rt h e se f a c t sa tl e a s to ne c an b er e ad i l yr e jec ted . T he se c hange sw e re n o t ,a sm igh tb ea s sumed ,l i nked w i th t h et ur n ing -po in t o fe poch s , ma rked b y t h e f i r s t u se o f an ew r aw ma te r ia l , i r on . U p t ot h i s p o in t i r on p l ayed n o ma jo rr o le i nt h er e levan tc u l tu re . V a r iou sp e r cep t ib le c u l tu ra lc hange sa tt h e t ur no ft h eB ronze A ge a nd t h eI r on A ge i nc en t ra lE u rope ,i n c lud ing c hange sw i th in t h e p rac t ica l a spec t so fr e l ig ion , w e re d ue t od i f f e r en tf a c to r s , w h ich may b el o oked f o ri n i nf luence sf r om i mpo r tan tc u l tu ra lc en t re s ,p o l i t ica lc hange sa nd ,t o ad eg ree ,i ne co log i c a l c hange s . B u t t h e a ppea rance o fi r on p l ayed n oe s sen t ia lr o le i nt h i sc a se , b ecau se i r on me ta l lu rgy w i th in t h is a r ea p l ayed a ni n s ign if i can tr o le i nt h el i f eo ft h ec ommun i t ie s . T he c onf i rmed f a c to f aq uan t i ta t ive i n c rea se o fv a r iou so b jec t ss e rv ing c u l tf unc t ion s a nd o fr e l ig ious s ymbo ls i nt h eH a l l s ta t tp e r iod r equ i r e se xam ina t ion . I tw ou ld b e ag r ea t s imp l if i ca t ion o re ven n a ive ty t oc onc lude t h a tt h e r ew a sa ni n ten s if i ca t ion o fr e l ig iou s l i f e o r a n i n c rea se i n t h e n umbe r o fr e l ig ious r i te s . T he o b jec t s a r e mo s t ly v a r iou s z oomo rph ic a nd l e ss f r equen t ly a n th ropomo rph ic i mage so fa na tom ic d e ta i l so fm an o r b ea s t ,o fc u l tc ar t s ,e t c . I ts e em st h a tt h eq uan t i ta t ive i n c rea se i nt h ese o b jec t se xp re s se s c hange sw h ich o ccu r red w i th in t h er e l ig iou ss t ruc tu re so ft h ec ommun i t ie so ft h eL u sa t i a n c u l tu re a nd w h ich w e re c onnec ted w i th w ide rc u l tu ra l c hange s t a k ing p l ace a tt h e t ime . A ne s sen t ia lr o le w a sp l ayed t h e re b yi n f luence se xe r ted b yt h e ma jo rc u l tu ra lc en t r e sd eve lop ing i nc on tempo ra ry E u rope ;i nt h es pec if ic L u sa t ian c a se t h e se c ame a bove a l lf r om t h eH a l l s ta t tc en t re . A t temp t ing t os pec ify t h e se c hange s , w ec ou ld i n c lude al i s to fa c t iv i t ie sa nd o b jec t s c onnec ted w i th r e l ig ion w h ich a ppea red a tt h ec l o se o ft h eB ronze A ge b u tw h ich w e r e a b sen t f r om t h e a s semb lage sr e la t ing t oe a r l ie rp e r iod s . T h i s s imp le o pe ra t ion m igh t , h oweve r , f a i l t os how t h ec hange sc l ea r ly e nough . T he refo re ,i fw ea ccep tw ha ts e em t ob e s uff i c ien t ly w e l l d ocumen ted , t h a t a c t iv i t ie s a nd o b jec t s w h ich a r ec onnec ted t o r el ig ion a r e , t o al a rge d eg ree , m a te r ia l e xp re s s ion so ft h e my th s o rd oc t r ina l a s sump t i on so ft h a tr e l ig ion ,i tw i l lb e mo r ea pp rop r ia te t oc a r ry o u tc ompa r i son su s ing t h ew ho le r ange o fa r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l sr e la t ing t op a r t icu la rd eve lopmen ta l s t age so ft h eL u s a t ian C u l tu re i no rde rt o empha s i se t h et r an s fo rma t ion sw h ich o ccu r red a mong s to the r s , i nt h i s s phe re , a f te rt h e d ec l ine o ft h eB ronze A ge . T h i s o pe ra t ion w ou ld e nab le u st o g ra sp t ho se p a r t so ft h ea s semb lage sw h ich e xc lud ee ach o the ra nd t ho se w h ich a r ea l ike t h roughou tt h ep e r iod s l. T oe s tab l ish t h en ece s sa ry c o l lec t ion o ft h e ma te r ia l sr e levan tt ot h er e l ig ion a tv a r i o u sd eve lopmen ta ls t age so ft h eL u sa t ian C u l tu re p r e sen t ss eve ra lb a s ic p rob lem s .

4 36

2 0 G ed iga

T he f i r s tp rob lem w e a r e f a ced w i th i sw he the rt h ec o l lec t ion s hou ld i n c lude a l l t h e a va i lab le i n fo rma t ion o rw he the rw e s hou ld t r y t oi n c lude o n ly t h a tw h ich i sf e l tt ob e e s sen t ia l . T he l a t te rp o s s ib il i ty g i ve sr i se t ot h ed i f f icu l tp rob lem o fd ec id ing w ha tc on s t i tu te se s sen t ia li n fo rma t ion . I no rde rt oa ch ieve as u f f ic ien t ly u sefu la nd ' t ru thfu l 'r e s u l t i ts e em s t h a tt h e c o l lec t ion s s hou ld o n ly e mb race e s sen t ia l i n fo rma t ion ; a nd i fw e o n ly r e a l ise t h ea bundance o fd i f f e ren t ia ted f a c t sd i scove red a tc eme te r ie st h en ece s s i ty o fs e lec t ion s e em si nd i spensab le . A tt h e s ame t ime ,t h i s s e lec t ion o fs ou rce s mus ta sa ma t te ro fn ece ss i ty b eb a sed o n ac omp rehens ive a na ly s i so fa l li t em s . I ng ene ra l , o b j e c t sw h ich h ave c l ea r' h i s to r ica ls ub s tance 'a nd w h ich r e la te t oi mpo r tan td oc t r ina la s s ump t ions ,o rw h ich r ef l ec ta spec t so fr i te so rr e l ig iou so rgan isa t ion , may b ec on s ide red e s sen t ia l . B u tt oi d en t ify t h e se i np rac t ice w i l ln o tb ee a sy . F o re xamp le ,t h ev a r ie ty o f t ype so fg rave sw i th s t one p a ck ing s may b ec on s ide red e s sen t ia l ,f o ri n s tance b a sed o n t h ei n ven tory f r om t h e' Shaman ' s 'g r ave ( no .8 9 )f r om P rzeczyce , Wo jew .C ze s tochowa , a nd i t sa n th ropo log ica l a na ly s i s( Szyd lowska 1 972 : 2 01 ) . A no the re xamp le i st h ep o t t e ry s how ing ah uman f i gu re w i th av e s se lf r om D e szczno , Wo jew .G o rzöw W1 19 .( Ged i g a 1 970 : 3 Of f . , f i g . l a ) . B u tw i l li tb e s u ff i c ien tt oa cknow ledge t h e a ppea rance o ft h e g rave a nd i t s c ons t ruc t ion a nd l e ave o u t ap e t rog raph ic d e sc r ip t ion o fs t one sk now ing t h a tt h ey a r eb u to rd ina ry r ock sa cce s s ib le i nt h en ea re s te nv i ronmen t -a nd w i l lt h ed i s t i nc t ion b e tween t h ee s sen t ia la nd t h eo rd ina ry a lway sb et h a te a sy? A no the rp rob lem i nvo lve s t h e q ue s t ion o ft h er ep re sen ta t iv i ty o ft h e i n fo rma t ion i n s pa t ia l a nd c h rono log ica l t e rm s a nd a tt h e s ame t ime t h ep rob lem o ft h ei nd i spen sab le n eed f o r g ene ra l i sa t ion s . T he q ue s t ion i sf o re xamp le w he the rt h ec o l lec t ion ss hou ld b e c r ea ted i n r e la t ion t o t h e e n t i r e a r ea i nhab i ted b y L u sa t ian C u l tu re c ommun i t ie s o r w he the rt h ey s hou ld t a ke i n to a ccoun tr eg iona ld i f f e rence s . I fs o , t h en t ow ha te x ten t? Mo reove r , s hou ld t h ec ho sen c h rono log ica ls e c t ion sb ei na cco rdance w i th t h ep e r iod i s a t ion o ft h es e c t ion o fp reh i s to ry i nw h ich t h eL u sa t ian C u l tu re d eve loped o ro nt h eb a s i s o fd eve lopmen ta l s t age so ft h i sc u l tu re w h ich c an b ed i s t ingu i shed w i th in p a r t icu la rr e g i on s? T he a nswe r st os uch q ue s t ions mus t a r ise f r om a c tua lr e sea rch o nt h eL usa t ian C u l tu r e . H oweve r ,t h e re s hou ld b eu nan im i ty a bou tt h ec on s t ruc t ion o fc o l lec t ions w i th i nd i s t ingu i shab le z one so rr eg ions o ft h eL usa t ian C u l tu re o f ac e r ta in u n i fo rm i ty o fd e v e lopmen ta nd w i th in t h er ange o fs epa ra ted s t age so fi t sd eve lopmen t . T he t h i rd f a c to r c once rn ing g ene ra l i sa t ion w h ich d e serve s a t ten t ion i sl i nked w i th p rob lem sa l ready r e f e r red t o ,i . e . ,t h es e lec t ion o fi n fo rma t ion . R ega rd les s o ft h is o pe r a t ion , t h eo b jec t ive ,o fw h ich i st os epa ra te e s sen t ia lf a c t sa nd i n fo rma t ion ,i t si n t roduc t i on i n to t h e c o l lec t ion c r ea ted n ece ss i ta te s ac e r ta in s imp l if ica t ion a nd g ene ra l isa t ion . H ow f a rt h is c an b ed one w i l lr equ i re c ons ide ra t ion i nr e la t ion t oe ach c a se i nd iv idua l ly . T he c o l lec t ion s o fs ou rce sf o rt h er e l ig ion o ft h eL usa t ian C u l tu re c ommun i t ie sw i l l a low u st ou se ar a the rw ide r ange o fc ompa ra t ive m an ipu la t ions . T h is t h en w i l l g i ve r i se t oa no the rp rob lem c oncer n ing t h er ange o ft h e se c ompa r i sons w h ich may e xceed t h ea r ea o ft h eL usa t ian C u l tu re . I ns uch c a se s ,s im i la rm e thodo log ica la s sump t ion sw i l l h ave t ob ea pp l ied .

4 37

C onc lud ing r emark s T he me thodo log ica lr ema rk sp re sen ted h e re r ega rd ing s t ud ie so ft h er e l ig ion o ft h eL u s a t ian C u l tu re r ea l ly c oncer n t h e d i f f e ren t ' s t age so fk now ledge ' o fs ou rce s u sab le f o r s uch s t ud ie s . T hey i nd ica te c e r ta in p r inc ip le sf o rs epa ra t ing s ou rce sc oncer n ing r e l ig ion , o ft h e i ra r rangemen t ,o ft h ec r ea t ion o f' i nfo rma t ion -c o l lec t ion s 'a nd o f a na lys is . Af u r t h e rp rob lem i nvo lve s , o fc ou r se , t h er e su l to ft h i s a c t iv i ty , w h ich s hou ld b et h er e con s t ruc t ion o fr e l ig ion , i no u rc a se w i th in t h eb road ly u nde r s tood n o t ion o fL u sa t ian C u l t u re c ommun i t ie s . We e ncoun te rh e re p rob lem sr e la t ing t op r inc ip le s o fi n te rp re ta t ion a nd t ot h ec ons t ruc t ion o fg ene ra l mode l so f ap a r t icu la rr e l ig ion . T he se p rob lem sa l so r equ i re f u r the rd e ta i led d i scus s ion d raw ing o n t h ee xpe r ience sg a ined s of a r . S ome i mpo r tan t p r inc ip le s a r r ived a ta tt h i s s t age d e r ive f r om r ema rk s made a tt h e o u t se tc oncer n ing s t ud ie so fr e l ig ion so fp reh i s to r ic s oc ie t ie si ng ene ra l ,w h i le o the r sw i l l b e mo re s pec if ic t ot h ep e r iod o fL usa t ian C u l tu re d eve lopmen t . T he se p r inc ip le sw il t o ah igh d eg ree r e su l tf r om c ompa r i sons o fc o l lec t ion so fi n fo rma t ion a bou tr e l ig ion a t p a r t icu la rs t age so fc u l tu ra l d eve lopmen ta nd i nv a r iou sr eg ions . T he n ex t s t age o fr e s e a rch d epend s , t h e refo r e , t o ah igh d eg ree o nt h er e al i sa t ion a nd t h ee f f ec t so ft h ee l a b o ra t ion so ft h e ' k now ledge o fs ou r ce s s t age ' . I tw ou ld b ed i f f icu l ti na dvance o ft h i s t ot r y h e re t of o rmu la te m e thodo log ica l r ema rk s c once rn ing t h e a c tua l p roce s s o f a t t emp t ing ar e con s t ruc t ion o fL u sa t ian C u l tu r er e l ig ion . T hu s ,w es hou ld a tp re sen td e s i s tf r om d e ta i led s t a temen t sa bou tt h i sn ex ts t age o fr e s e a rch ( name ly t h er e con s t ruc t ion o ft h er e l ig ion o fL u sa t ian C u l tu re c ommun i t ie sb a sed o np rope r ly c o l lec ted , c l a s s if ied a nd a na ly sed ma t e r ia l s ) a l though w ec an s a yw i th c e r t a in ty t h a tt h eu se o fe t hno logy ,c ompa ra t ive h i s to ry o fr e l ig ion a nd r e l ig iou st h eo ry w il b e mo re u sefu la tt h a ts t age t h an a tt h e' k now ledge o fs ou rce ss t age 'w h ich h a sb een d i s c us sed i nt h i sp ape r . O b jec t ion sc oncer n ing t h ei n suf f ic ien tu se o ft h e se d i sc ip l ine sb y p reh i s to r ians c on s ide r ing p rob lem so fr e l ig ion a r e f r equen t ly f ound i nt h el i t e ra tu re a nd a r e o f ten q u i te j u s t if ied . We s hou ld , h oweve r , a l so r emembe r t h a t a r chaeo log i s t s a r e u sua l ly c onsc ious o ft h en ece ss i ty o fu s ing t h ese a ccomp l i shmen t sb u tt h er e su l t so ft h e se d i sc ip l ine sd on o to f f e rr e ady f o rmu lae f o rs t ud ie so fp reh is to r ic r e l ig ions . T hey r evea l , h oweve r , a l l t h e c omp l ica ted a nd o f ten c on t rove r s ia lp rob lem s o ft h e s t ud ie s o f ' l ive ' r el ig ions . T h is m ake sp reh i s to r ian sc onsc iou so ft h ec omp lex i ty o ft h ep henomenon o f r el ig ion , a nd i tf a c i l i ta te s ,b u ta sy e to n ly t o as ma l ld eg ree ,d ea l ing w i th t h ed i f f icu l t ie s e ncoun te red i n s t ud ie s o fp reh is to r ic r e l ig ion s . W i thou t i n te rd i sc ip l ina ry a c t iv i t ie s i n t h e se s t ud ie sr ea lp rog r e s sc an n o tb ee xpec ted . T h i si sw hy t h es hap ing o fc l o se r ,p e r manen tf o rm so fc o -ope ra t ion b e tween a r chaeo log i s t sa nd ,a bove a l l ,r e sea rche r so fr e l i g ion a nd e t hno log i s t sr e p re sen t s amo s tu rgen tn eed .

N o te s 1 )I ts hou ld b e empha s i sed t h a tt h i sp ape rd oe sn o ta im t og ive ac onc re te a ccoun to f t h et r an sfo rma t ion o ft h eL u sa t ian r e l ig ion . T he p ape ri sm ean te n t i re ly a s at h eo re t ica l

4 38

2 0 G ed iga

me thodo log ica l s t a temen t c once rn ing h ow w e may b e a b le t od e tec t s uch t r an sfo rma t i on s .

B ib l iography G ed iga , B . , 1 970 .F igur em o t if si nt h ea r to ft h ep eop le o fL u sa t ian C u l tur e ,E ng l i sh s umma ry (W roc law : O s so l ineum ) . G ed iga ,B . , 1 976 .S ladam ir e l ig i iP ra s low ian . (W roc law : O s so l ineum ) . G ed iga ,B . ,1 979 .' Zagadn ien ia r e l ig i i ' .I nH en se l ,W . ,( e d . )P rah i s tor ia z i em p o l sk ich , 4 ,3 20 -341 (W roc law : O s sol ineum ) . G ed iga , B . , 1 983 . ' Da s D ef in i t ion sp rob lem d e r L aus i tze r K u l tu r u nd i h re r i nne ren D if f e renz ie rung ' .P r zeg lad A rcheo log ic zny 3 1 , 1 59 -174 . H en se l ,W . , 1 974 . U ru nd F rühgesch ich t eP o len s .( Be r l in : Akadem ie -V e r lag ) . L om ian sk i ,H . , 1 979 .R e l ig ia S low ian i j e ju pad ek . (W a r szawa :P ans towe Wydawn ic t wo N aukowe ) . Mak iew icz ,T . ,a nd P r inke ,A . , 1 981 . ' Theo re t ica lp o ss ib i l i t ie so fi d en t i fy ing as a c ra l p l a ce ' .P r zeg lad A r cheo log ic zny 2 8 ,E ng l i sh s umma ry , 5 7 -90 . Ma rgu l , T . , 1 958 . ' Def in ic ja r el ig i i wr e l ig ionznaw s tw ie p o röwnawczym ' .Euhemer 2 -3 -4 ,3 1-46 . P on ia tows ld , Z . , 1 958 . ' Def in ic ja r el ig i i as y tuac ja w r e l ig iozna s tw ie ' .Euhemer 2 -3 4 ,6 16 . P on ia towsk i ,Z . , 1 965 .T r e sc w ier zen r e l ig t jnych . (W a r szawa : K s iazka iW iedza ) . P o se rn -Z ie l in sk i , A . a nd O s to ja -Zagö r sk i , J .1 977 . ' E thno log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion a nd e t hnog raph ica l a na log ie s i na r chaeo log ica l a nd p r eh i s to r ic s t ud ie s ' .S /av ia A n t igua 2 4 , E ngl i sh s umma ry , 3 9 -71 . P o sem -Z ie l in sk i , A . 1 982 . ' Phenomeno log ica l i n sp i ra t ion i na r chaeo log ica l s t ud ie s o n p reh is to r ic r el ig ion s . E thno log ica l r ema rk s ' .Pr zeg /ad A cheo log ic zny 3 0 , E ng l i sh s umma ry , 1 87 -2 00 . S za f ransk i ,W . , 1 979 .P rad z ie j e r e l ig i i wP o l sce . (W a r szawa : I s k ry ) . S zyd low ska , E . , 1 972 . Cmen tar zy sko k u l tu ry l u zyck ie j wP r zec zycach ,p ow .Z aw ier c i e . ( By tom : Muzeum G ömo s la sk ie ) .

4 39

2 1 . THE I NTRODUCT ION OF I RON I N DEN MARK

Kar in Twedde l lL ev in sen

I n troduc tory R emarks I n S cand inav ian a r chaeo logy t h e re i s al o ng t r ad i t ion o fe xp la in ing t h e c hange s i nt h e ma te r ia lr e la ted t ot h et r an s i t ion f r om B ronze A ge t oI r on A ge i nt e rm so f monocau sa l e x te rna lf a c to r s , s uch a sf o re xamp le t h ei n t roduc t ion o fi r on . I np a r t icu la r , t h ec o l lap se o ft h eD an i sh ' Bronze A ge a r is toc racy 'h a sb een e xp la ined b yB ronze A ge s cho la r sb yr e f e r r ing t od ec rea s ing b ronze s upp l ie si nc omb ina t ion w i th aC en t ra lE u ropean monopo ly o ni r on ,w h ich i si n te rp re ted a sp reven t ing t h en o r th f r om g e t t ing ar ep lacemen tf o rt h eb ronze . W i th in t h i sf r amewo rk t h e s i tua t ion a tt h ee nd o f t h e B ronze A ge i nD enma rk h a s b een v i ewed a s ap roces s o fd evo lu t ion - ap roce s s wh ich w a sf i r s ta b le a ga in t ot ur ni n to e vo lu t ion w i th t h ec om ing o fi r on . I r on Age s cho la r s , o n t h eo t he rh and , h ave e xp la ined t h e o b se rved c hange si nt e rm s o ft h ep rogr es sw h ich a s ag ene ra l ly a ccep ted f a c tw a st hough tt ob ei nhe r en ti nt h er e p lacemen to fb ronze b yi r on . T hu s ,d epend ing o nt h ea r chaeo log ica lv i ewpo in t -e i the rf ocu s ing o nt h ee nd o ft h e B ronze Age o rt h eb eg inn ing o ft h eI r on A ge - w eg e tt os ome e x ten tc on t rad ic to ry a s s e r t ion s o ft h er o le o fi r on i nt h et r an s i t ion f r om B ronze Age t oI r on A ge . T he re a r e , h oweve r , s ome c ommon e l emen t s b e tween t h e se d i f f e ren t e xp lana t ion s , a nd t h e se i n c l ude b o th a s sump t ions a nd f a c t s : T he a s sump t ions a r et h a t : 1 )i r on a s af o r ce o fp roduc t ion i sa c t ive ly p a r t ic ipa t ing i nt h ep roce ss o ft r ans i t ion . 2 )t h e c oncep t s ' i ron ' / 'f ron A ge ' h ave b ecome s ynonymou s w i th t h e c oncep to f p rog re s s . 3 )t h ei n t roduc t ion o fi r on h appen ss udden ly . 4 ) ad e lay i nt h e i n t roduc t ion o fi r on w a sc aused b y monopo ly ( e .g .t h eH i t t i te s ,t h e C e l t ic H ansa ) . 5 )i r on r ep laced b ronze a s am a te r ia lf o rt o o l mak ing .

4 40

2 1 L ev insen

T he f a c t sa r et h a t : 1 )t h ea ppea rance o f i r on i nt h ea r chaeo log ica lr e co rd i su sua l ly n o tt a ken i n to a c c oun te i the rw hen t h eo r i s ing a bou th ow a nd w hy i r on w a si n t roduced ,o rw hen e xp la in i ng t h ei n t roduc t ion o fi r on o nt h eb a s i so fa s sump t ion sa bou tp rope r t ie si n he ren ti ni r on i t se lf o ri nt h eu se o fi r on . 2 )t h e t h eo r ie s a nd a s sump t ion s h ave b een r epea ted o ve ra nd o ve ra ga in a nd t h ey h ave n ow r e ached ap o in tw he re t h ea ppea ra si ft h ey a r et r ue f a c t sr a the rt h an t h eo r ie s -t h a ti s ,t h ey h ave t u rned i n to m y th s . 3 )t h e re i s as t rong t e ndency t op ref e r monocau sa l e xp lana t ion s , s u ch a sc l ima te , t r ade ( monopo ly ) ,o rt e chno logy ( i ron ) ,t o mu l t icausa lo ne s . Ip e r sona l ly b e l ieve t h a ti ti su se le s st od i scus sw he the ro ne o rt h eo t he r monocausa l e xp lana t ion i st h eb e t te r . T he r e a son f o rt h i s s t andpo in ti sp r ima r i ly t h a ts uch e xp lana t o ry e xe rc i ses a r eo fl im i ted v a lue b e fo re w e s t a r tt oi nve s t iga te t h ea c tua l ma te r ia le v i d ence b y a sk ing q ue s t ion sl i ke w hen , h ow , a nd w her ed oe si r on a c tua l ly a ppea rs ot h a t w ec an f o rmu la te i d ea s a bou th ow a nd w hy i r on w a si n t roduced a nd w ha ti t si n t roduc t i on mean tf o rt h ep roce ss o ft r an s i t ion . S econd ly , It h ink i ts hou ld b e em ra s i sed t h a t , d epend ing o n wh ich l e ve lo ffu nc t ion o ft h es oc ia l s t ruc tu re i sc on s ide red ,t h ei n ter na l p roce s se sw i l l b ed i f f e ren ta nd h ave t h e i ro wn c au se sa nd e f f ec t s -a nd y e ts t i l lb e ad i a l e c t i ca lp a r to ft h et o ta l s y s tem . T h is m ean st h a to ne s hou ld n o te xpec tt h a tc hange si n t h ea r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia lf r om d i f f e ren tl e ve l so ff unc t ion a r en ece s sa r i ly c on tempo r a ry w i th e ach o the r , a l though t h ey m igh tb e ap roduc to ft h e s ame b a s ic c hange si nt h e t o ta ls t ruc tu re . T he refo re , i no rde rt ou nde r s tand a ny p roce s s , s uch a st h ep roce ss o ft r an s i t ion f r om B ronze A ge t oI r on A ge , i ti su sefu l , a sa n a na ly t ica l a pp roach , t os p l i t s oc ie ty u p i n to manageab le a b s t rac t ion s ( i dea l s y s tem s 2)s uch a sl e ve lo ff unc t ion w i th r e f e rence b o th t ob a s i s a nd s uper s t ruc tur e , b efo re a sk ing q ue s t ions a bou tw h ich f a c to r s d om ina te t h e p roce s se sw i th in s i ng le l e ve l sa nd h ow t h ey i n te rac tw i th o the rp a r t so fs oc ie ty T he f o l low ing e xamp le s ,w h ich a r en o tt h ough to fe i the ra sr e p re sen t ing a l lt h ep o s s i b i l i t ie so ra sn ece s sa r i ly b e ing t h e mo s ta pp rop r ia te o ne s ,i lu s t ra te t h er o le o fi r on a td i f f e ren tf unc t iona ll e ve l si ns o c ie ty : B a s i s : 1 )I r on a s F or ce o fP roduc t ion ,b o th i nt h ef o rm o fr aw m a te r ia la nd a st oo ls u sed i np r ima ry s ub s i s tence a c t iv i t ie sa nd i ns e conda ry p roduc t ion ( t he manuf ac tu re o fi t em s u sed i np r ima ry p roduc t ion s uch a s , f o re xamp le ,t o o ls ) . 2 )I r on a s R e la t ion o fP roduc t ion r ef lec t ing c on t rad ic t ion sw h ich m igh to rm igh t n o tb ea c t ive i nt h e p roce s s o fc hange . U nde rt h e se a r ei n c luded : a )G eog raph ica ld i s p e r sa l , mean ing p roduc t ion a r ea s v e r su s n on -p roduc t ion a r ea s . b ) S oc ia l d i spe r sa l , m ean ing p roduce r s v e r su sn on -p roduce r sa nd d i s t r ibu t ion v e r su sc onsump t ion . H ie r a r chy w i th in t h ep roduce r s( b lack sm i ths )a nd w i th in t h e d i s t r ibu to r s ( t he t r ade r s ) . I r on ( r aw ma ter ia l a nd /o rp roduc t s ) a s amean so fc ap i ta l i sa t ion .

4 41

S uper s truc ture : 1 )I r on a s ad i r ec tm ean so fp ow er i nt e rm so fa rm sa nd a rmou r . 2 )I r on a s a ni nd ir ec tm ean so fp ow er e xp r e s sed i nt e rm so f s t a tu s s ymbo l s . 3 )I r on a sa n i d eo log ica ls ymbo lo fp ow er o n ar e l ig ious - my tho log ica ll e ve l ,s uch a s I r on =Ma le =G od ( o fw a r ) . L e tu s t h en a t temp t ac on s ide ra t ion o ft h ed i f f e r en tr o le s a nd i mpo r tance w h ich i r on m igh th ave h ad i nt h ed i f f e ren tp ha se so fi t si n t roduc t ion i n to D enma rk .

T he i n troduc t ion o fi r on i nD enmark I r on a ppea red a lmo s t s imu l taneou s ly i nD enma rk a nd i nE u rope n o r th o ft h e A lps i n g ene ra l . T he o lde s td a ted p i ece o fi r on i nD enma rk i s af r agmen ti na nu rn g rave f r om G rOdeby ( V ede l1 886 )3d a ted t o Mon te l iu sP e r iod I I . F rom P e r iod I Vt wo b ronze r a zo r s w i th i r on i n lay a r ek nown ( Broho lm 1 946 :g rave 8 93 a nd 9 61)4;t h ey a r eb o th t y p ica l ly No rd ic a nd t h ey d o t h e refo re i nd ica te s ome l o ca lk now ledge o fi r on . F rom P e r iod V , i r on a ppea r si nu rn g rave sa sw e l la si nh oa rd s i nt h es hape o fp i ns , s ma l lk n ive s , a rm r i ng sa nd s ome H a l l s ta t tt weeze r s ( Broho lm 1 946 ; S t jer nqu i s t 1 961 : 8 1 , n .1 02 ) . T he ur ng rave sw h ich c on ta in i r on o b jec t sa r e s im i la rt og r ave s w i thou ti r on o b jec t s d a t ing t ot h e l a s tp e r iod s o ft h e B ronze A ge a nd t oP re R oman I r on A ge I 5.T he u rn g rave sw i th i r on o ccu re spec ia l ly i ns ou ther nJ u t land a nd F unen ,F ig .9 8 ,a r ea sw h ich i n many w ay s a r er e la ted t ot h ee a r ly I r on A ge ( J a s to r fp ha se )o fS ch le sw ig -Ho l s te in . O f l a te P e r iod V I /ea r ly P re R oman I r on A ge d a te a r ea l so t wo h oa rd sw i th i r on ( Broho lm 1 946 : M .211 a nd M .230 ) . O ft h e se , t h eR Oge rup h oa rd c on ta ins f i ve i r on a rm r ing si n a no the rw i se t y p ica lP e r iod V Ic on tex tw h i le t h e Me j l s t rupgaa rde h oa rd ,i ns p i te o fi t s c l ea rB ronze A ge f e a tu re s , mu s tb ed a ted t oP re R oman I r on A ge b ecau se i tc on ta in sa l a te w end e l r ing a nd a ni r on p l a te c ove red w i th b ronze s hee t( Baudou 1 960 : 1 28 ;J en sen 1 969 : 1 79 ) . I t mus tb ee mpha s i sed h e re t h a t ,c on tempo ra ry w i th t h e se e a r ly D an i sh a ppea rance s o fi r on ,t h e re i sa l ready ad i f f e ren t ia ted u se o fi r on f o rw eapons a nd t o o l si nt h eH a l ls ta t t c u l tu re ( Ho r s t 1 971 ; K o s t rzew sk i 1 958 ) . T he t ype so fg r ave -good so b served i nD enma rk i nP e r iod V Ic on t inue t ob ef ound i n P re R oman I r on A ge Ib u tw i th amo r ef r equen to ccu r r ence o fi r on ,w h ich i sn ow t y p i c a l ly u sed i nb i - m e ta l l ic or namen t s a nd p i n s 6,F ig . 9 9 . N o l a rge ro b jec t s a r e k nown f r om t h is p e r iod b u tt h a ti s ac ommon f e a tu re o ft h ee a r ly I r on A ge c u l tu re st h roughou t t h e n o r th E u ropean l ow land ( J a s to r f [ Ho r s t , t h i s v o lume ] , B i l lendo r f [ Buck , t h i s v o l ume ] , Gö r i tz [ G r ie sa , t h i sv o lume ] ) . L a rge ro b jec t sm ade o fi r on f i r s ta ppea ri na bou tP re R oman I r on A ge I / I I I . T he o l d e s t k nown i r on a xe i st h e o ne f ound t oge the r w i th t h e B ra c au ld ron ( K l ind t -Jensen 1 953 ) . I ti s as ocke ted a xe ,o f at y pe k nown f r om b o th t h eG e rman ic a nd t h eC e l t ic a r ea s a nd d a ted t ot h ee a r ly I r on A ge i ng ene ra 1 7.F rom t h eH jo r t spr ing b oa ta nd t h eK rog s -

4 42

2 1 L ev insen

F igu re 9 8 . D i s t r ibu t ion o fi r on o b jec t s i nD enma rk i nP e r iod V I .

F igu re 9 9 . ( oppo s i te t op ) E xamp le s o ft h e r ange o fo b jec t s p roduced i ni r on i nD en ma rk d ur ing t h eP re R oman I r on A ge . F igu re 1 00 . ( oppo s i te b o t tom ) E xamp le s o ft h e r ange o fo b jec t s p roduced i ni r on i n D enma rk d ur ing t h ee a r ly R oman I r on A ge .

4 43

4 44

2 1 L ev insen

F igu re 1 01 . E xamp le so ft h er ange o fo b jec t sp roduced i ni r on i nD enma rk d u r ing t h e l a te R oman I r on Age .

Ni le h oa rd ( Becke r 1 948 ; R o senbe rg 1 937 ) w ek now o fi r on s wo rd s , s pea rhead s ,a nd t h e wooden s ha f t sf o rs ocke ted a xe sw h ich c an b ed a ted t ot h i s s ame p e r iod , F ig . 1 00 . T he re a r ef ew g rave sf r om t h em idd le o ft h eP re R oman I r on A ge b u tt h ey c on t inue f o r me rt r ad i t ion sa nd c on ta in m a in ly p e r sona lo rnamen t s . F rom P re R oman I r on A ge Io nwa rd st h eu se o fi r on b ecame mo re d i f f e r en t ia ted ,a nd w es t a r tt of i nd o rnamen t s ,w eapon s ,a nd t o o l sf r om g rave sa nd f r om af ew s e t t lemen t s , s uch a sO ve rbygaa rd i nN o r the rn J u t land ( Lund 1 979 ) . T h i sd i f f e ren t ia t ion o ft y pe sc on t i nue si nt h eR oman I r on A ge w he re d i f f e ren tt r ade s ( b lack sm i th ,c a rpen te r ) a sw e l l a s a g r icu l tu re a r e r ep re sen ted b y i r on t oo l s . Sma l le r o b jec t s f o r c on s t ruc t ion s ( hou se s , s h ips , v eh ic le s ) l i ke s p ike s a nd r i ve t s a l so a ppea ra l ong w i th ma te r ia l s i gn s o fp r iva te p rope r ty i nt h es hape o fi r on k ey sa nd l o ck s( F ig . 1 01 ) . I r on i sa tt h i st ime n eg lec ted a s ama te r ia lf o ro rnamen t s a ss uch b u ti so f ten u sed f o rt h e mo re f unc t iona lp a r t so f ,f o r e xamp le ,f i bu lae o rc l a sp s .

4 45

T hese d a ta t e l lu st h a ti r on w a si n t roduced g radua l ly b o th i nt e rm so fq uan t i ty a nd i n t e rm s o fv a r iab i l i ty w i th in b o th t y pe s a nd f unc t ion s . I nt h e b eg inn ing i r on w a s i n t ro d uced f o rs ma l li t em s -p e r sona le qu ipmen ta nd o rnamen t s -a nd i r on i so f ten c omb ined w i th b ronze i nc on tex t se xp re s s ing s t a tu sr a the rt h an u sed i nt h ep roduc t ive s phe re o fs o c i e ty . L a rge ro b jec t sf i r s ta ppea ri nP re R oman I r on A ge T h i sm eans t h a ti r on h ad b een k nown f o r al ong t ime i nD enma rk b efo re i tw a su sed a s af o r ce o fp roduc t ion 8.

T he i n troduc t ion o fi r on i ng enera l D iach ron ic a na ly s i so ft h et y pe Ih ave d rawn o n a bove h a s s hown t h e s ame t e ndenc ie s i no t he rp a r t so fE u rope ( Bukow sk i 1 981 ;H o r s t1 971 ;K imm ig 1 961 ;P odbo r sky 1 970 ) . I nt h eH aB 3 -P e r iod V h o r izon w ed o ,h oweve r ,o b serve mo re i r on o b jec t si nt h ef unc t i ona lc a tego r ie s( t oo l s ,w eapon s )i nt h es ou th t h an i st h ec a se i nS cand inav ia ,a nd i ta p p ea r s t h a t t h e g r ea te r t h e d i s tance a way f r om t h e c en t re s o f e a r ly I r on A ge c u l tu re s ( G reece , R oman ia , A na tol ia , P a le s t ine ) t h e mo r ei r on o b jec t st h e re a r e ,p ropo r t iona l ly , i nt h ec a tego r ie so fp e r sona le qu ipmen ta nd o rnamen t s9,s e eF ig . 1 02 . T h i st e ndency i s e ven c l ea re r i nH a C -P e r iod V I w he re p e r sona l e qu ipmen t a nd o rnamen t s c omp r i se a bou t7 0% o ft h e S cand inav ian i r on o b jec t s , w i th t h er ema in ing 3 0% b e ing d i s t r ibu ted a sf o l low s :t oo l s 1% ( on ly s ma l lo b jec t s ) ,w eapon s 4% a nd m isce l laneou so b jec t s1 6% .

C a tego r ie s /A rea :

B a lkan

E .UFC

W . UFC

O rnamen t s T o i le te qu ipm . T oo l s Weapon s O the r s

1 7% 0% 3 1% 4 9% 3%

4 1% 0% 4 1% 1 4% 3%

4 4% 0% 2 4% 2 0% 1%

No rd i sch K . 4 8% 0% 3 3% ( ? ) 5% 1 4%

F igu re 1 02 . F unc t iona lg roup ing so fi r on o b jec t si nH aB 3 -P e r iod V i nd i f f e ren tp a r t s o fE u rope . E . UFC = E a s te rn Ur nf ie ld C u l tu r e , W . UFC = We s te rn Ur n f ie ld C u l tu re , No rd i sch K . =' No rd i schen K re is '( a f te rL ev insen 1 980 ) .

C a tego r ie s /A rea :

Gö r i tz

S i le s ia

O rnamen t s T o i le te qu ipm . T oo l s Weapon s H o r seb i t s O the r s

5 6% 1 4% 2 0% 4% 0% 5%

4 4% ? 3 9% 1% 7% 0%

N o rd i sch K . 4 6% 2 4% 1% 4% 0% 1 6%

F igu r e 1 03 . F unc t iona l g roup ing so fi r on o b jec t si nH a C -P e r iod V Ii nn o r the rn E u r ope . No rd i sch K . =' No rd ischen K re is ' ( a f te rL ev insen 1 980 ) .

4 46

2 1 L ev insen

T h i sc ompa r e sw i th t h eB i l lendo r fa nd G ö r i tz c u l tu r e s ,w he re t o o ls r ep re sen ta bou t2 5 % o ft h e ma te r ia l , o r t h e S i l ic ian H a l l s ta t t c u l tu re , w he re t o o l s r ep re sen t a bou t 4 0 % ( Ho r s t 1 971 ; L ev in sen 1 980 ; 1 984 ) , s e eF ig . 1 03 . A tt h e s ame t ime i ts hou ld b en o ted t h a t t h e H a l l s ta t t ma te r ia l i sa l ready a tt h i s p e r iod v e ry d i f f e ren t ia ted , w h i le t h e t oo ls p re sen ti nn o r thern E u rope a r em a in ly i nt h ef o rm o fi mpo r ted s o cke ted a xe so ft h eH a l l s t a t tc u l tu re ( Ho r s t 1 971 ; K o s t rzew sk i 1 958 ) . A no the rw ay t oa pp roach t h ep rob lem sr e la ted t ot h ei n t roduc t ion o fi r on w ou ld b et o l ook a tt h e d egr ee o fc omp lex i ty o f t h e e l emen t s i n vo lved i n t h e s p read ing p roce s s . P le ine r ( 1968 : 3 7 ) , i nh i s w o rk o n t h e i n t roduc t ion o fi r on i nG reece , h a s d ef ined t h e f o l low ing s t age so fc omp lex i ty : 1 ) S po rad ic u se w he re i r on a ppea r si nu n ique c on tex t ss uch a sr e l ig ious a nd a dm in i s t ra t ive c en t re so ri nt h ef o rm o fo rnamen t s . 2 ) Mo re f r equen t u se b u ts t i l lf ound i nu n ique c on tex t s a nd r e la ted t ot h eh ighe s t s oc ia ll e ve ls i nf o rm o f or namen t sa nd w eapon s . 3 ) G ene ra lu se w he re i r on a ppea r si n ab road s o c ia lc on tex ti nt h ef o rm o fw eapons a nd t o o l s . 4 ) O rgan i sed p roduc t ion o fr aw m a te r ia la nd i r on o b jec t sf o rs pec if i cu se . O rgan ised d i s t r ibu t ion . I r on i su sed i nm a jo rp ro jec t s d emand ing j o in te f fo r t s s uch a sb u i ld ing s , b r idge s , a nd mach ine s . G eograph ic D i stan ce ,

D enmark

E as tern M e d iter ranean

1 000 B C

0

1 000 A D

T ime

F igu r e 1 04 . C o r re la t ion b e tween t ime a nd d i s tance i nt h es p read ing p roce s so ft h ee a r l i e s to ccu rence o f ( 1 ) i r on ; ( 2 ) s l ag ; ( 3 )i r on e x t rac t ion o ven s ; ( 4 ) ' La rge -sca le 'p ro d uc t ion .

4 47

I ts hou ld f i r s t b e n o ted t h a tt h e se s t age s a r e mo re i n tu i t ive t h an e xac t a nd s e cond ly t h a ts i nce t h ey r e la te t o as pec if ic h i s to r ica ls i tua t ion t h ey c anno tb ed i rec t ly t r an sf e r red t oo the ra r ea so rs i tua t ions . I ti st h e refo re o n ly t h ei d ea o fd egr ee o fc omp lex i ty w h ich c an b e t r an sf e r r ed a sa n i mpo r tan tf a c to ri nt h e a na ly s i so ft h e s p read o fi r on a nd i r on t e chno logy . T he s p read ing o ft h e se f ou rs t age st h rough t ime a nd s pace c an b ei lu s t ra ted g raph ica l ly i nt e rm so f ac en t re -pe r iphe ry mode l( s ee F ig . 1 04 ) . F rom t h is r ep re sen ta t ion o ft h es t age so fc omp lex i ty w ec an s e et h a tt h e d i f f e ren tl e v e l so fc omp lex i ty a r ei n t roduced w i th ad e lay w h ich i sd i r ec t ly p ropo r t iona lt ot h ed i s t a nce f r om t h ec en t re ,a nd f u r the rmo re t h a ti ne ve ry l o ca la r ea t h el e ng th o ft h ei n te rva l b e tween t h e i n t roduc t ion o f an ew l e ve l i sd i r ec t ly p ropo r t iona l t ot h e i n c rea sed c om p l ex i ty ,F ig . 1 05 . T ime

2 00

. • R oman

0 L TD LT C

P rzew or s k

2 00

•

S eed

7

L T3 2 1

I r on A ge

4 3

I I

oman P r e- R d o r fI r on Ag e I

•

4 00 L TA

Ai l len d o r f J a s_ t o 2 r 110 G o r i tz 0

H aDi 6 00 H a C2 1 H aB 3 8 00 H aB 2

remsW es se n- T t ed t b ü te l d or fI s on t . v i onty ! M on t v i M G o r it z aM L aus i tzX M on t . vX

H a B 1 1 0 00 H a A N 3 a lkan 3 öhm en R umen ia M äh ren S i les ia X

A

L unebu rg H o ls ten J u t land

e arliest o ccurrence o f i ron e a

A

S . Ge rman yP o land N .A lps

r liest o ccurrence o f s lag

F igu re 1 05 .

" large s cale" p roduction

4 48

T he a ppea rance o f

P l e ine r ' sf ou rs t age so fi r on u se s w i th r e spec tt o t ime a nd p l ace .

e arliest i ron e xtraction o vens e arliest

S pace

2 1 L ev insen

T h i sm ean s ,i no the rw o rd s ,t h a ta sl o ng a sw ea r ed ea l ing w i th e l emen t st h a tc an e a s i l yb ea dop ted ( s uch a so rnamen t sa nd o t he rs ma l lo b jec t so u t s ide t h es phe re o fp roduc t i on ) t h en t h e d e lay e f f ec t i sn o tv e ry d i s t inc t . H oweve r , w ec an a l so o b se rve t h a tt h e m or ec omp lex t h en ew e l emen t s -t h eg r ea t er t h ed e lay i nt h es pr ead ing p rocess . Mo re o ve r ,t h ed i f f e r en tl e ve l so f c omp lex i ty a ppea ra si ft h ey a r ep re sen ti n ar e la t ive ly c on s t an tf o rm , -a nd a si ft h ey s h if ti n to an ew f o rm r a the rq u ick ly ( aq ua l i ta t ive j ump ) . T he ' j ump -e f f ec t ' i ss e en b o th i nt h e c en t re a nd i nt h ep e r iphe ry , a nd f r om t h is Ic onc lude , t h a ts ome o ft h ee s sen t ia lm echan i sm sg ove rn ing t h ep roce s s mus tb eo f ag ene ra lc ha r a c te ra nd mu s tb er e la ted t ot h ei n ter na ls t ruc tu re so ft h ed i f f e ren ts oc ie t ie sw ea r ed ea l i ng w i th . O fc ou r se e x ter na lf a c to r sm igh tb ei mpo r tan ti n as pec i f ic h i s to r ica ls i tua t ion , b u tt h ey c an n eve rb eu sed a sg ene ra le xp lana t ion s . B a s ica l ly , i no rde rt oa dop t a n i n nova t ion i n am anne rw h ich w i l l a l low i t si nhe ren t p o s s ib i l i t ie sa nd c on t rad ic t ion st og row i ti sn ece s sa ry f o rt h es oc ie ty i nq ue s t ion t oh ave r e ached ac e r ta in p o in to fo rgan isa t ion a nd s u rp lu s . T h i s ,h oweve r , d oe sn o tm ean t h a t w ec an p u tu p al i s to fw ha ti sn ece s sa ry i no rde rt oa dop t as pec if i ci n nova t ion . A l ls o c i e t ie sa r ed i f f e ren ta nd m igh tr e ac td i f f e ren t ly t ot h es ame i mpu l se s . T he refo re ,w eh ave t oi n ve s t iga te as pec if ic p roce s si n as pec if ic s y s tem o ni t so wn t e rm s . Wha tc an b eh e ld i nc ommon f o rs uch i nve s t iga t ion si st h eo ve ra l ls e to fa s sump t ion sa bou tt h eb ehav iou r o fs o c ie t ie s ; a nd Ib e l ieve t h a t t h e se a s sump t ions a r e i mpor tan t w hen t r y ing t ou nde r s t and a nd e xp la in t h eB ronze A ge - I r on A ge t r an s i t ion . A ccep t ing t h ea s sump t ion st h a ti r on h a s ar o le ,t h a ti tf unc t ions o nc er ta in l e ve ls ,a nd t h a ti ti mp l ie sv a r ious d eg ree so fc omp lex i ty ,w ec an p roceed b ya sk ing : w ha tf unc t ion s d id i r on h ave a nd i n wh ich f unc t iona ll e ve lo fs oc ie ty d id i r on o ccu ra tt h et ime o ft r an s i t ion ;w ha tl e ve lo fc omp lex i ty h ad t h ep roce s sr e ached a tt h et ime o ft r an s i t ion? O ne w ay o fc onduc t ing ad i scu s s ion a im ing a tt h e s pec if i cc ha rac te r i s t ic si st h e re fo re t oi n v e s t iga te wh ich ma te r ia l s a r er ep laced b y i r on w i th in t h e s phe re o fp roduc t ion , a nd i n w h ich a r ea so ft h e s phe re o fp roduc t ion d oe si r on b ecome i mpo r tan t .

T he d egree o fc omp lex i ty o fi r on u se a tt he t ime o ft r an s i t ion f r om B ronze A ge t o I ron A ge F rom t h ea ppea rance o fi r on w i th in t h ed i f f e ren tf unc t iona lc a tego r ie si tl o ok sa si fi r on f i r s tb ecome si mpor tan ta s af o rce o fp roduc t ion i nP re R oman I r on A ge I I1 0 .T h i sc on c l u s ion ,h oweve r ,c an n o tb er e ached s oe a s i ly b ecau se t h e ma te r ia lf r om t h el a te B ronze A ge t ot h eP re R oman I r on A ge I / I Ii sv e ry s pa r se . I ti st h i sl a ck o fm a ter ia lw h ich h a s g i ven r i se t ot h ed i f f e ren tt h eo r ie so fd evo lu t ion i nc onnec t ion w i th t h et r an s i t ion . T he c ha ra c te ro ft h i s ' l ack o ff i nd s 't h e refo re b ecome sa ni mpo r tan tf a c to rw hen t r y ing t oi n t e rp re tt h er o le o fi r on . F rom P e r iod sI Va nd V w ek now o fw eapons a nd t o o l s ,s uch a s s wo rd s , s pea r s , s i ck le s , s o cke ted a xe s , s ocke ted h amme r s a nd s o o n , m ade o fb ronze . B u ta f te rt h e se p e r iod st h i sg roup o fo b jec t sv an i sh c omp le te ly u n t i lP re R oman I r on A ge I I . I ts e em sa b su rd t oc onc lude t h a tw eapon sa nd t oo l ss imp ly d id n o te x i s to ve rs u ch a l o ng p e r iod ,b u tw ed on o tk now w he the rt h ey w e re m ade o fb ronze o ri r on .

4 49

T h i s ' g ap 'i nt h em a te r ia ls e em st ob es pec i f ica l ly c onnec ted w i th t h ea r ea so ft h el a te B ronze Age c u l tu re so fS cand inav ia a nd t h eJ a s to r fc u l tu re . T he d ec rea se i nt h en um b e ra nd v a r iab i l i ty o fm e ta lo b jec t sh appen s m a in ly f r om P e r iod V t oV I , b u tt h et e nd e nc ie sa r ea l ready p re sen ti nP e r iod I V( J en sen 1 966 ) . J ensen h a ss hown t h a tt h ec hange s i nb u r ia lc u s tom sf o l low as im i la rp a t te rn , a nd t h a tt h e re i si nf a c t ,t h e re fo re ,c on t inu i ty f r om l a te B ronze A ge t oP r eR oman I r on A ge I .H eh a sf u r the rmo r ed emon s t ra ted ( J en s en 1 969 ; 1 972 )h ow t h rough t h el a te B ronze A ge t h eh oa rd sc hange c ha rac te rf r om c on t a in ing many a nd d i f f e ren to b jec t s t oc on ta in ing o n ly af ew o b jec t s o ft h e s ame t y pe ( ' e in typ ige f unde ' ) . Weapon sa nd t oo l sd i sappea rw h i le a rm r ing sa nd n eck lace sb ecome d om inan t . T hus ,w eo b se rve ad ec rea se i nt h ea ppea rance o fm e ta li nt h ree r e spec t s . F i r s t ly ,t h e re i s ad ec rea se i nt h en umbe ro fo b jec t sp e rg r ave /hoa rd . S econd ly ,t h e r ei s ag ene ra ld e c r ea se i nt h e amoun to fm e ta lu sed p e ro b jec tb ecau se s ma l le ro b jec t sa r ei n vo lved ( J en s en 1 969 ; 1 972 ) . T h i rd ly , t h e re i s ad ec rea se i nt h e n umbe ro ff i nd s a ss u ch - a nd b y P re R oman l i on A ge Is ome a r ea sa r ea lmo s tw i thou ta ny f i nd sa ta l l . I fw ec ompa re s ou the rn a nd m idd le J u t land i nP e r iod V It oP re R oman I r on A ge Iw i th r e spec tt ot h ea b so lu te n umbe ro ff i nd st h en i tt ur n so u tt h a tt h en umbe ro ff i nd si sf a i r l yc on s tan t l1.I nt h i sa r ea w et h e re fo r eo n ly o b se rve ad rama t ic c hange i nw ha ta nd h ow t h ing sa r ed epo s i ted . T he c hange i n' d epo s i t ion c u s tom ' ,w h ich a ppa r en t ly i se xp re s sed i nJ u t land , a nd i nt h ea d jacen ta r ea so ft h eJ a s to r fa nd t h eB i l lendo r fc u l tu r e s , t a ke si t s b eg inn ing i nt h el a te B ronze A ge a nd s t and sf u l ly d eve loped i nP re R oman I r on A ge I . O u t s ide t h i s a r ea - i nt h eH a l l s ta t ta nd L aT ene a r ea t h e re a r ew eapon s a nd t o o l sm ade o fb o th b ronze a nd i r on . I tt h e r efo r el ook sa si ft h el a ck o ft oo l sa nd w eapon si nP e r iod V Ia nd P re R oman I r on A ge Ii st h er e su l to f ac hange i nd epo s i t iona lc u s tom r a the rt h an a ne xp re s s ion o ft h e se t y pe sb e ing r emoved f r om t h ea s semb lage a nd t h us n o te x i s t ing . T h i sc onc lu s ion ,h oweve r ,d oe sn o tb r ing u sa ny a n swe ra bou tw h ich m a te r ia l sw e r eu sed f o rt h ep roduc t ion o fw eapon s a nd t o o l s i nt h e l a te B ronze A ge a nd e a r ly I r on A ge i n D enma rk . T he ma jo rc u l tu ra la nd s oc ia lc hange ss t a r t ing i nt h el a te B ronze A ge a nd a ppea r ing f uly d eve loped i nt h eP re R oma r r I ron A ge 1 2 c ou ld n o t -i nt h e i rb eg inn ing - h ave b een a f f ec ted b y t h e c om ing o fi r on . T he a va i lab le i r on f r om t h i s p e r iod w a sr a re a nd o c c u r r ed i ne xc lu s ive c on tex t s ,a nd o n af unc t iona ll e ve l w he re i tc ou ld n o tc ompe te w i th ag ood c o ld -hamme red b ronze ( W a ldbaum 1 978 : 6 8 ,f i gu re V I , 1 ) . I n s tead ,t h ep roces o ft r an s i t ion s hou ld b eu nde r s tood a s ad i a lec t ica lp roce ss i nvo lv ing m a jo rs h if t si nt h e a g ra r ian e conomy , s e t t lemen tp a t te rn s , a nd i n te rna l / ex te rna l r e la t ion s ( e .g . S tu rnmann H an sen 1 979 ) . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a ti r on p l ayed ap a r ta tt h ee nd o ft h is p roce ss b u tt h a tw e d on o tk now . Mo reove r ,r e cen tw o rk h a sp roduced l a rge u rnf ie ld s ,s e t t lemen t sa nd ' c e l t i cf i e ld s 'i nq uan t i ty ,w h ich make si ta b su rd t oc on t inue t oi n te rp re tt h et r an s i t iona lp e r i o da so ne o fd evo lu t ion . S ome f i nd si nd ica te t h a ti r on h ad a ni mpo r tance a l ready i nt h ee a r ly I r on A ge . T hu s , t h es i te B runebo rg i nJ u t land ( J acob sen 1 979 )1 3 h a sp roduced s o much s l ag a nd r oa s ted b og i ron , t h a ti r on e x t rac t ion mu s th ave b een a n a c t iv i ty o n s i te e ven t h ough n oo vens

4 50

2 1 L ev insen

o rh ea r th s w e re f ound . A no the r , e a r ly e xcava ted s i te ( Ha t t 1 936 ) a tF rog s t rup , a l so i n J u t land , s howed l a rge ,f l a tp i t sw i th g r ea tq uan t i t ie so fc ha rcoa la nd s l ag . O nt h eb a s i s o ft h e i r s i ze a nd mo rpho log ica l s t ruc tu r e , t h e se s l ag s h ave b een i n te rp re ted a sw a s te f r om i r on e x t rac t ion . A tb o th s i te st h es l ag m a te r ia li sr e la ted t oP re R oman I r on A ge I p o t te ry . A tt h is p o in t ,h oweve r , w ec an o n ly s ay t h a ti r on w a sp roduced l o ca l ly i nt h i s p e r iod a nd i ti sa lmo s ti mpo s s ib le t oe va lua te w he the ri th ad a ny i mpo r tance i ns oc ie ty a ts uch a ne a r ly d a te .

D id i r on r ep lace b ronze? B ronze t o o l sf r om t h el a te B ronze A ge a r ep r ima r i ly f ound i nt h ef o rm o fs ocke ted a xe s a nd s i ck le s . O the rt oo lt y pe sf r om t h ep e r iod ( s aw s ,s ocke ted h amme r s ,a w l s ,a nv i l sa nd s oo n )a l lo ccu re i the ri nu nu sua l ly r i ch g r ave so ri nl a rge c ompo s i te d epo s i t s , a nd t h ey d on o tb e long t ot h es phe re o fd a i ly p roduc t ion . I ng ene ra li ts e em sa si fb ronze d id n o t p lay a ny i mpor tan tr o le w i th in t h ef o rce so fp roduc t ion c ompa red t ow ha tw el a te rs e e t ob et h ec a se w i th i r on . S o ,t h e re fo re ,w ha tw e re t h et oo l sm ade o fu n t i li r on c ame i n to g ene ra lu se? Af ew p ub l ica t ions m en t ion o t he rm a te r ia l ss uch a ss t one ,f l in t ,b one ,a nd a n t le r( Mü l l e r1 919 ;S t römbe rg 1 953 ;S t je rnqu i s t1 969 ) . I tt hus t ur n so u tt h a tb e s ide t h ek nown ma t e r ia lo fb ronze , w eh ave a na s semb lage c on s i s t ing o fb o re r s , s c rape r s ,k n ive sa nd s i ck l e s made o ff l in t . Mo reove r , b o th f l in ta nd s t one a xe s a r ek nown f r om s e t t lemen t s , a s a r ea n t le rs ocke t sf o rf l in ta xe s( Broho lm 1 953 :v o l .I V ,F ig .4 01 -04 a nd 4 41 -470 ) . F u r t h e rmo re ,o n t h er e cen t ly e xcava ted D u tch s i te o fB ove rnka r spe l ( I jze reef 1 981 ) ad i f f e r en t ia ted a s semb lage o fb one t oo l sw a sf ound d emon s t ra t ing t h ep o ten t ia li mpo r tance o ft h i s ma te r ia l . A r chaeo log i s t s d i sag r ee a bou tt h ep o ten t ia lq ua l i t ie so fb ronze a s ar aw m a te r ia lf o r t oo l s . P a r t icu la r ly ,w ed on o tk now i fs ocke ted a xe sw e re s u i tab le f o rh eavy w ood wo rk i ng . O nt h eo the rh and , a r chaeo log i s t st e nd t oa g ree t h a ts t one a xe sw e re u sed f o rv a r i o u s p u rpo se s . A t s e t t lemen t s b e long ing t ot h e B i l lendo r f e rC u l tu re ( Buck 1 979 : 1 31 ) s eve ra ls t one a xe sw i th t r ace so f' w ea rh ave b een f ound . B audou h a sa l so t o uched u pon t h is q ue s t ion o ft h ef unc t iona lu se o fs t one a xe si nt h eL a te B ronze Age ( Baudou 1 960 : 1 39 ) , a nd aNo rweg ian e xper imen t w i th s t one a xe s s uppo r t s t h e s ugge s t ions o f u se ( O s tmo 1 977 ) . O n t h e t e chno log ica l l e ve l i tt h us l ook s a si ft h e t r an s i t ion w i th in t h e s phe re o fp roduc t ion w a so ne f r om aS tone A ge t oa nI r on A ge . I ti st h e refo re i n te re s t i ng t oq ue s t ion w he re a nd h ow i r on b ecame i mpo r tan tw i th in t h es phe re o fp roduc t ion . I nt h eL aT e 'ne a nd R oman I r on A ge o fE u rope i r on p lough sha r e sa r ec ommon . T he re a r e ,h oweve r ,n o s i gn so ft h e i ru se i nD enma rk b efo re t h eV ik ing A ge . W i th in a g r icu l t u re i ts eem st h a tt h e mo s ti mpo r tan ti nnova t ion i nr e la t ion t ot h eu se o fi r on i st h es cy the . A s ap rog re s s ive f o r ce , i r on f u r the rmo r e b ecome s v e ry i mpo r tan t w i th in c a rpen t ry a s s oon a st h es upp ly o fs t ee l( a so ppo sed t o me re ly i r on )i ss u ff i c ien t . B e t te rt oo ls mean s c on s t ruc t ion o fb e t te rh ou se s , s h ips , a nd v eh ic le s . T ha tm eans t h a ti r on i nd i rec t ly i sa n a c t ive p a r ti nt h ep roce s so fd eve lop ing c ommun ica t ion ,t r an spo r t ,a nd t r ade b yt h eq ua l i -

4 51

t a t ive c hange sw h ich w e re f a c i l ia ted t h rough t h eu se o fi r on . T h rough t h e se p roce s se s i r on i st h e refo re a c t ive i nt h e c r ea t ion o fn ew c ond i t ion s f o rt h e i n teg ra t ion o fs oc ie ty a nd f o rf u r the r ing c en t ra l isa t ion ( wh ich w eh ave d ocumen ted a r chaeo log ica l ly l a te ri n t h eI r on A ge ) ,a sw e l la sb e ing a c t ive ly i nvo lved i nt h ed i f f e r en t ia t ion o fa c t iv i t ie sf r om h omec ra f tt os pec ia l i sed t r ade .

C onc lu s ion T h rough t h e a bove d i scu s s ion i ta ppea r s t h a tt h e re a r e s ome g ene ra lp rope r t ie s w h ich c an b eg ene ra ted f r om t h ep roce s so fi n t roduc t ion o fi r on . T he se p rope r t ie sw e re : T he p roce s s s how s ag radua li n c r ea se i nt h en umbe ro fo b jec t sm ade o fi r on . T he p roce s ss how s ag radua li n c rea se i nt h ev a r iab l i ty o fo b jec t s made o fi r on . T he i n c rea s ing d eg ree o f c omp lex i ty o ft h er o le a n f unc t ion o ft h e e l emen t s i n v o lved t a ke st h ef o rm o f aq ua l i ta t ive ' j ump ' . I r on r ep lace s ma te r ia l s s uch a ss t one ,f l in t ,b one , a nd a n t le r r a the rt h an b ronze a s aF o rce o fP roduc t ion . F rom t h eD an ish m a te r ia li ti sn o tp o ss ib le t od ec ide w he the ri r on i si nf a c ta c t ive a s aF o rce o fP roduc t ion a se a r ly a si nt h eP re R oman I r on A ge I . O n t h e o t he rh and , a s w i th t h ep i c tu re o ft h ei mpac to fi r on p roduced b yt h e ma te r ia li no the rp a r t so fE u rope a nd t h eE a s ter n Med i te r ranean w ec an n o te xp la in a ny o ft h e ma jo rc hange si nt h el a te B ronze Age i nt e rm so fi r on ,a nd t h i si sp a r t ia l ly ac l ue t ot h ei mpo r tance a nd r o le o fi r on i nt h is p e r iod . T he d i scove ry o fi r on m igh tb e a s soc ia ted w i th b ronze t e chno logy , a nd i r on i si nt h e e a r ly s t age su sed s im i la r ly t ob ronze a s am a te r ia lf o ro rnamen t s . T he c hange f r om s t a tus o b jec tt ob ecom ing p a r to ft h ef o r ce so fp roduc t ion d oe s ,o nt h eo the rh and ,n o tn ece s s a r i ly r e la te t ob ronze . P robab ly ,t h er e cogn i t ion o ft h ep o s s ib i l i t ie si nhe ren ti ni r on w a s r eached t h rough w o rk ing w i th i r on a s ama te r ia lf o ro rnamen t s . T he p o ten t ia ls f o rr e a l i s ing t h e se p o s s ib i l i t ie sa r e ,h oweve r ,n o tj u s tg iven i nt h er e cogn i t ion i t se lf ,b u ta r ea l so s oc ia l a nd t h ey w i l lb ec on s t ra ined b y s oc ie ty ' sc apab i l i ty t oa ccep t a nd u se t h er e cog n i t ion . I tD enma rk - i ts e em s -t h en ece s sa ry c ond i t ion s w e r ef i r s tp re sen ti nt h eP re R oman I r on A ge .

N o te s 1 ) Iu se t h ec oncep tl e ve lo ff unc t ion a si ti sd e f ined b y s t ruc tu ra l -ma rx i s t s , s uch a s A l thu s se ro rG ode l ie r .

4 52

2 1 L ev insen

2 ) ' I dea ls y s tem 'i su sed t oi mp ly t h a tt h e s i tua t ion d e sc r ibed i sa n a b s t rac t ion b a sed o nt h ei s o la t ion o fp r e sumed i mpo r tan te l emen t s . 3 ) B o th S t je rnqu i s t( 1961 : 7 6 ) a nd K imm ig ( 1 961 : 2 74 )d a te G rOdeby t ol a te P e r iod I Io re a r ly I V . 4 ) K je ldbymag le ( Broho lm 1 946 ,G .961 ) ; A rn i t lund ( Broho lm 1 946 ,G . 8 93 ) . A n o the rf i nd f r om hen ,Z ea land , i sm en t ioned b yK imm ig ( 1961 : 2 79 ) . T h i sf i nd , h ow e ve r ,i sn o tm en t ioned b yB roho lm a nd i ti st h e refo re om i t ted h e re . 5 ) S ome o ft h eu rn g rave s s a id b yB roho lm ( 1946 ) t ob eo fP e r iod V Id a te m igh ti n f a c tb e long t oP re R oman I r on A ge I ,s i nce t h es epa ra t ion o fL a te B ronze A ge a nd e a r ly I r on A ge f une ra ry p o t te ry i sd i f f icu l t , a nd n o tl e a s ts oa tt h et ime w hen B roho lm c om p i led t h ec a ta logue . 6 )F o re xamp le ' Bombehoved -p ins ' a nd ' d oub le -sp i ra l s hee t - f i bu lae ' . I nt h en o r th e rn E u ropean l ow land k n ive sw i th b ronze h and le sa r ec ommon . 7 ) T he t ype i sg ene ra l ly s e en i nC en t ra lE u rope , b u tt h rough a na ly s i so ft h ec on ten t o fP ho spho ru si tm igh tb ep o s s ib le t os epa ra te a xe s made o fb og i r on ( h igh c on ten to f p ho spho ru s )f r om a xe s made o f moun ta in i ron o r e ( l ow c on ten to fp ho spho rus ) . 8 ) T he c oncep tF o rce o fP roduc t ion i sd ef ined a se ve ry th ing w h i ch r e la te st ot h ep ro c e ss o fp roduc t ion - h uman b e ing s w i th t h e i rp hy s ica la sw el a st h e i rp sycho log ica l p rope r t ie sa nd ma t e r ia lt h ing sl i ke t oo l s ,t h ee a r th a nd s oo n . 9 ) T he s t a t is t ic sb eh ind t h ea r gumen tp u tf o rwa rd i nt h is p ape ra r eb a sed o n ly o nl i s t s p ub l i shed b y d i f f e ren t a u tho r s a nd s hou ld n o tb e v i ewed a sa b so lu te . T hey a r e , h ow e ve r ,a pp ropr ia te f o rd emon s t ra t ing t h eg ene ra lt e ndenc ie s . 1 0 ) B yt h ec oncep tf unc t iona lc a tego ry i sm ean tt h ed iv i s ion o ft h e ma te r ia li n to t h e f unc t iona lg roup si r on w a su sed i n , s uch a sw eapon s ,o rnamen t s , a nd t oo ls . 1 ) T he n umbe ro fg rave si sa lmo s tt h e s ame i nP e r iod V I( 8 3 ) a nd P re R oman I r on Age I( a pp rox . 6 0 ) . T he se f i gu re sa r eb a sed o nB roho lm 1 946 ; B ecke r 1 961 ; A lb rech ts en 1 954 a nd 1 971 . 1 2 ) H e re It h ink o ft h em a jo rc hange si ns e t t lemen tp a t te rn sa nd s ub s i s tence e conomy w h ich h ave b een s ugge s ted o nt h eb a s i so ft h el a rge e xcava t ions o ft h ep a s tt wo d ecade s . 1 3 ) T he s i te s how si r on e x t rac t ion a nd b l ack sm i th ing f r om P re R oman I r on A ge Ia nd

4 53

B ib l iography A lb rec t sen ,J . , 1 954 .F yn sk eJ erna ld ergrave V o l . I .( Oden se ) . A lb rec t sen ,J . , 1 971 .F yn ske J erna ld ergrave V o l .V .( Oden se ) . B audou , E . , 1 960 .D ie r eg iona l e u nd c hrono log i sche E in t e i lung d er J ünger en B ron z e ze i ti m Nord i schen K r e i s . A c ta U n ive r s i ta t i sS tockho lm ien s i s I( S tockho lm :A lmqv i s t & Wik sel ) . B ecke r ,C .J . , 1 948 . ' D ie Z e i t l iche S t e l lung d e rH jor t sp r ing f unde s ' .A c ta A rchaeo log i c aV I I , 1 45 -187 . B ecke r , C .J . , 1 961 . F Or romer sk j e rna ld er iS yd - o g M id t jy l land . N a t iona lmu see t s sh if te r . S ta re b e re tn inge r 6( KObenhavn : N a t iona l Mu see t ) . B roho lm ,H .C . , 1 946 . Danmark sB ronzea ld er .V o l . I I I (K obenhavn :N o rd i sk F o r lag ) . B roho lm , H .C . , 1 953 . Dan ske O ld sager . Y ngr eB ron zea ld er . ( KObenhavn : N o rd i sk F o r lag ) . B uck ,D . -W . ,1 978 .D ie B i l l endorf er G ruppe .( Be rl in : VEB D eu t sche rV e r lag d e rW is s enscha f ten ) . B ukow sk i , Z . , 1 981 . ' D ie ä l te s ten E i senfunde u nd d i e ä l te s ten E i sen g ew innung i m B e re ich d e rL au s i tze rk u l tu ri mF lu s sgeb ie t z w i schen O de ru nd We iche l ' . I nH aefne r , H . ( ed . )F rühes E i sen i nE uropa , F e s t sch r . f ü r Wa l te rU l r ich G uyan , 15 -128 ( Scha f f h ausen : V e r lag P e te r Me i l i ) . H a t t ,G . , 1 936 . ' Nye i a g t tage l se rv ed rO rende o ld t iden sj emudv ind ing iJ yland ' .Ä rb -

( l e e rf or Nord i sk O ldkynd ighed o gH i s tor ie

1 8 -45 .

Ho r s t ,F . , 1 971 . ' Ha l l s ta t t impo r te u nd -e i nf lüs se i mE lb -Have l -Geb ie t ' .Z e i t schr if tf ür A rchäo log ie 5 ,1 92 -2 14 . I j ze reef ,G .F . ,1 981 .B ronze A ge a n ima lb ones f r om B ovenkar spe l . ROB ,N ede r land s eO udheden 1 0 ( Ame r sfoo r t : R i jk sd ien s tv oo rh e tO udhe idkund ig B odemonde rzoek ) . J a cob sen ,J .A . , 1 979 . ' Brunebo rg -e nt i d l ig f O r rome r sk b op lad s med j e rnudv ind ing ' . I nT h rane ,H .( e d . )F ra J erna ld er t i lM idd e la ld er ,S k r if te rf r aH i s to r i sk I n s t i tu t XXV I I , 4 -14 ( Oden se : O den se u n ive r s i te t ) . J ensen ,J . ,1 966 . ' J y ske F ladma rk sg rave f r as l u tn ingen a fy ng r eb ronzea lde r ' .Ä rboger f or N ord i sk O ldkynd ighed o gH i s tor ie 3 6 -66 .

4 54

2 1 L ev insen

J en sen ,J . , 1 969 . ' E in T h rakok imme r i sche rG o ld fund a u s D änema rk ' .A c ta A r chae o l og ica XXX , 1 59 -184 . J en sen ,J . ,1 972 . ' E in n eue sH a l l s ta t t schwe r ta u sD änema rk . B e i t rag z u rP rob lema t ik d e rj ungb ronzeze i t l ichen V o t ivfunde ' .A c ta A rchaeo log ica 4 3 , 15 -164 . K imm ig , W . , 1 964 . ' S eevö lke rbewegungen u nd U rnenf e lde rku l tu r . E in a r chäo log i s ch -h i s to r i sche rV e r such ' . I nU s la r ,R .V . ,a nd N a r r ,K .J . , ( e d s . )S tud ien a u sA l t eur opa , V o l . 1 ,F e s t sch r . f ü rK ur tT ackenbe rg ,2 20 -283 ( Kö ln : B öh lau -V e r lag ) . K l ind t -Jensen ,0 . , 1 953 .B räk ed len ( A rhus :J yd sk A rkaeo log i sk S e l skab ) . K o s t rzew sk i , 0 . 1 958 . ' S tud ien ü be rd i e ä l te ren E i senze i ti nP o len . 'A c ta A rchaeo l o g ica XX IX ,5 1 -94 . K r i s t ian sen , K . , 1 978 . ' The C on sump t ion o f Wea l th i nB ronze A ge D enma rk . A s t udy i nt h e Dynam ic so fE conom ic P roce s se si nT r iba lS oc ie t ie s ' .I nK r i s t ian sen ,K . , a nd P a l ludan - Mü l le r ,C . ,( e d s . )N ew D ir ec t ion si nS cand inav ian A r chaeo logy ,1 58 1 90 ( KObenhavn : N a t iona l Musee t ) . L ev in sen ,K .T . , 1 980 . E na na ly se a fj e rnf r em s t i l l ingen ia e ld r eJ erna ld er o g e nv ur d er ing a f d e k u l tur e l le k on sek ven ser h eraf U npub l i shed C and . P h i l . D i s se r ta t ion ( A rhu s : A rhu sU n ive r s i te t ) . L ev in sen ,K .T . , 1 984 . ' J e rne t sI n t roduk t ion iD anma rk ' . K um l 1 982 -83 , 1 53 -168 . L und ,J . , 1 979 . ' T r eF Or rome r ske k ae ld re f r aO ve rbygaa rd ' . K um l 1 09 -140 . Mobe rg ,C . -A . , 1 941 .Z oneng l ied erungen d er v orchr i s t l ichen E i sen ze i ti nN ord euro p a . ( Lund : G le rup ) . Mü l le r ,S . , 1 919 ' Bop lad s fund f r aB ronzea lde r en ' .Ä rboger f or N ord i sk O ld kynd ighed o gH i s tor ie 3 5 -101 . P ia skow sk i ,J . ,1 970 . ' The a ch ievemen t so fr e sea rch c a r r ied o u ti nP o land o nt h eh i s t o ry o fe a r ly t e chno logy o f i r on ' . A r ch .P o lona . P le ine r ,R . , 1 968 .I r on w ork ing i nA nc ien tG r eece . ( P rague : s eum ) .

N a t iona lt e chn ica l Mu -

P l e ine r ,R . , 1 980 . ' Ea r ly I r on m e ta l lu rgy i nE u rope ' .I n We r t ime ,T .A . , a nd Muh ly , J .D . , ( e d s . )T he C om ing o f t h eA ge o f Ir on ,6 9 -98 .( New H aven :Y a le U n ive r s i ty P r e s s ) . P l e ine r , R . , 1 981 . ' D ie Wege d e sE isens n ach E u ropa ' . I n H aefne r , H . , ( e d )F rühes E i sen i nE uropa , F e s t sch r . f ü r Wa l te r U l r ich G uyan , 15 -128 ( Scha f fhau sen : V e r lag P e te r Me i l i ) .

4 55

Podborsky, V., 1970. Mahren in der Spatbronzezeit und an der Schwelle der Eisen­ zeit. (Brno: Universita J.E. Purkyne). Rosenberg, G., 1937. Hjortspringfundet, Nordiske Fortidsminder III (K0benhavn: Nordisk Forlag). Stjernquist, B., 1961. Simris II. Bronze age problems in the light of the Simris exca­ vation, AAL, Series in 4, no. 5 (Lund: Lunds Universitet). Stjernquist, B., 1969. 'Beitrage zum Studium von bronzezeitlichen Siedlungen'.Acta Arch. Lund ser. in 8°, 8, 1-218. Stromberg, M-, 1954. 'Bronzezeitlichen Wohnplatze in Schonen'. Medde/anden fraan Lunds Univ. Hist. Museum 1954, 295-380. Stummann Hansen, S., 1979. 'Nogle aspekter omkring ejendomsformer og social ar­ bejdsdeling i Danmarks yngre Bronzealder og aeldre jernalder. Et fors0g paa en hist. or­ isk placering af de saakaldte "Celtic fields"'. In Kontactstencil 16, Arcaheology as a So­ cial Science, 56-66 (Arhus: no publisher). Tylecote, R., 1980. 'Furnace, Crusibles, and Slags'. In Wertime, T.A., and Muhly, J.D., (eds.) The Coming of the Age of Iron, 69-98 (New Haven: Yale University Press). Vedel, A., 1886. Bornholms O/dtidsminder og O/dsager

(K0benhavn: G.E.C. Gad).

Waldbaum, J.C., 1978. From Bronze to Iron. The Transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age in the Eastern Mediterranean Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 54 (Goteborg: Paul Astroms). Wertime, T. A., and Muhly, J.D., (eds.) 1980. The Coming of the Age of Iron. (New Haven: Yale University Press). 0stmo, E., 1977., 'Schaftlochaxte und Landwirdschaftliche Siedlung'. ActaArchae­ ologica XLVIII, 155-206.

456

2 2 . PER IOD V I RECONS IDERED : CONT INU ITY AND CHANGE AT THE TRANS IT ION FRO M BRONZE TO I RON AGE I NS CANDINAV IA

Mar ie L ou i se S t ig S Oren sen

I n troduc t ion I th a sb ecome t r ad i t iona lt os e et h et r an s i t ion f r om B ronze A ge t oI r on A ge i nS cand ina v i a a s as ha rp a nd s udden b r eak i nc u l tu ra l d eve lopmen t . T o u nde r s tand t h e w ays i n w h ich t h e ma te r ia lf r om t h ep e r iod c .7 00 t o5 00 B .C . h a sb een a pp roached , c l a s s if ied , a nd i n te rp re ted w e mu s te xp lo r eh ow t h i s a ccep ted c oncep to f at r an s i t ion c ame a bou t . I ti so n ly t h en t h a tw ec an b eg in t od i scu s st h en a tu re o ft h ec hange sa s s igned t ot h i st r an s i t ion . T he g ene s is o ft h ec oncep tc an b ep l aced w i th in t h ec on tex to fC .J .T hom sen ' sT h ree A ge s y s tem . T he s ugge s t ion o fd i f f e ren tA ge si mp l ied t r ans i t ion sb e tween t h em ,w h ich o r ig ina l ly w e re t hough tt oi nd ica te m ig ra t ion so ft h e' p eop le 'm en t ioned i ne a r ly l i t e ra ry s ou r ce s( e .g .T hom sen 1 836 :6 0 ) . F u r the re xp lana t ion w a sn o tn eeded u n t i lt h el a te n ine t e en th c en tu ry when ag roup o fn ew f i nd sw e re p ub l i shed ,w h ich w e re a r gued t ob e long t o ap rev iou s ly u n recogn i sed e a r ly I r on A ge ( P re R oman I r on A ge h e rea f te r PR IA ) ,f o r f u r the r d i scu s s ion s e e K l ind t -Jen sen ( 1981 ) . F rom b e ing as e conda ry p roduc t o ft h e T h ree A ge d i v is ion ,w he re t h et r an s i t ion w a sm e re ly t h en ece s sa ry l i nk b e tween t h eA ge s i tw a sn ow s e en t or ep re sen ti ni t se lf as i gn if i can tp ha se i nt h ep reh is to r ic d eve lopmen t . F ur the rmo re , t h e ma te r ia lf r om t h et hu sr e cogn ised e a r ly I r on A ge s ugge s ted am a rked d ec rea se i nt h e ma te r ia l w ea l th f r om t h i sp e r iod c ompa red t ot h eB ronze A ge , a nd t h i s w a si n te rp re ted a sr ef l ec t ing ad ec l ine i nt h ec u l tu ra ld eve lopmen t . T h i so b se rva t ion o p p o sed t h ee xpec ta t ion o fc u l tu ra le vo lu t ion h e ld a tt h et ime ,a nd t h ed i f f e r ence sb e tween t h e ma te r ia lc u l tu re f r om t h el a te B ronze A ge a nd t h a to ft h e PR IA w e re t h e refo re s e en a sr ef l ec t ion o fc a ta s t rophy o rc o l lapse i na n o t he rw ise u n i l inea rc u l tu ra ld eve lopmen t ( SO r ensen 1 984a ) . S tud ie s o ft h eb ronze o b jec t sf r om t h e S cand inav ian B ronze A ge r eached e a r ly o n a h igh p rof e s s iona l s t anda rd . T ypo log ica ld i v i s ions w e re e s tab l i shed a nd t h ec on tex t si n

4 57

2 2 S o rensen

w h ich b ronze sw e re f ound w e r ei n ve s t iga ted ( Mon te l iu s1 885 ; Mü l le r1 876 ; 1 887 ) . T h i s r e su l ted i n as upe rb ly d e ta i led k now ledge o ft h eB ronze A ge s oc ie ty , w h ich , h oweve r , w a s r e s t r ic ted t o as pec if ic l e ve l o fi t s m a te r ia l c u l tu re . I n s tan t c o r re la t ion s b e tween b ronze sa nd o t he rc u l tu ra la spec t s ,s u ch a st h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fs e t t lemen t so rt r ade r ou te s , w e re a ccep ted ; a nd ac oncep to f aS cand inav ian B ronze A ge c omp lex o r ' Ku l tu rk re i s ' d eve loped a nd w a s t a ken f o rg ran ted w i thou tf u r the rd i scus s ions o fh ow t h i sm igh tr e l a te t o a' r ea l 's oc ie ty . I nt h i sp ape r Is hal a t temp tt oc l a r i fy t h en a tu re o ft h i st r an s i t ion b yc ha rac te r i s ing t h e e v idence a to u rd i spo sa l , b y d i scu s s ing w h ich l e ve l s o fs oc ie ty r ef lec tc hange , a nd b y c on s ide r ing t h e s oc ia ls i gn i f icance a nd r o le o ft h o se p a r t so ft h em a te r ia lc u l tu re w h ich c hange . P +2 3 r .

Ma ter ia lc u l ture i nl a te B ronze A ge S cand inav ia T he r e s t r ic ted s oc ia la nd c u l tu ra lb ackg round o ft h em a te r ia lt r ad i t iona l ly a s so c ia ted w i th t h et r an s i t ion m ean st h a tt h en o t ion o ft r an s i t ion mu s tb eu nde r s tood t ob ee n t i re ly b a sed o nt h eb ronze o b jec t sa nd t h eb ronze -us ing a c t iv i t ie s ( SO ren sen 1 984 ) . T he c oncep to f aS cand inav ian B ronze A ge c omp lex i sb a sed , mo reove r , u pon t h e r e cogn i t ion o f a l im i ted d i s t r ibu t ion o f as pec if i cr a nge o fm a te r ia lo b jec t sa nd c ha rac te r i s t ic c u l tu ra la c t i v i t ie s( Baudou 1 960 ; S p rockho f f1 956 ) . V a r iou si n ter na ld i f f e rence sw i th in S cand ina v i ac an b ed ocumen ted ( e .g .D ra iby n . d . ;L a r s son 1 986 ) ,b u tt h ee n t i re a r ea s ha r e sa tt h e s ame t ime ac ommon c onsen su st owa rd s t h eb ronze s , t h e i rd eco ra t ion a nd u se ( So ren s en 1 986 ; 1 987 ) . I ,t h e refo re , s ugge s tt h a tt h eg r ea te rp a r to fS cand inav ia c on s t i tu te sa c u l tu ra l u n i tw i th r e spec tt ot h e c u l tura lp rac t ices r ef l ec t ed b yt h i sp ar t icu lar m a t er ia l . T he d i f f e ren te nv i ronmen t se ncoun te red i nS cand inav ia h ave v a r iou se f f ec t so nt h e se a c t i v i t ie s ,b u t ,a sa rgued e l sewhe re ( SO r en sen 1 984b ) ,d e ta i led s t ud ies o ft h eb ronze s ,t h e i r mode o f p roduc t ion a nd u se ,s how t h a tt h en a tu r eo ft h eb ronze sa nd o ft h eb ronze u s ing a c t iv i t ie si np e r iod V a nd V Ia r ee s sen t ia l ly t h es ame o ve rt h ee n t i re a r ea o fS cand inav ia w he re ' No rd ic 'b ronze sa r ef ound ( s ee a l so B roadben t1 983 ;J ohansen 1 980 ; 1 981) . T h i s i si lus t ra ted , f o re xamp le , i n t y pe spec if ic s t y le s o fd eco ra t ion f ound t h roughou t t h e a r ea i ns p i te o fv a r ia t ions i nt h es k i l l so ft h ec r a f t spe r son a nd t h ep o s s ib i l i ty o fr eg iona l s ub -pa t te rns ( SO rensen 1 984b , f o r i lu s t ra t ion s s e e S p roc i chof fa nd Hö ckmann 1 983 ) . T he b ronze sf r om S cand inav ia s how c l o se s im i la r i t ie s a tt h i sl e ve l , a nd t h i sc au se st h e l o ca l ly p roduced o b jec t s t os t and a pa r t f r om t h o se i mpo r ted o r i nf luenced b y o b jec t s f r om t h e s ou th . F ur the rmo re , t h ew ay s i nw h ich o u t s ide e l emen t s i n te rac ted w i th a nd w e re i n co rpo ra ted i n to t h e l o ca l c u l tu re a r e t h e s ame t h roughou t S cand inav ia - o nce a ga in d emon s t ra t ing s ha red a t t i tude s r ef lec ted b y t h e b ronzes ( SO ren sen 1 984b a nd 1 987 ) . F rom t h i s t y pe o fe v idence S cand inav ia c an b ed e sc r ibed a sa n a r ea p e r iphe ra l t oc en t ra lE u rope b u ta tt h es ame t ime r ep r e sen t ing ac ohe ren ta nd ,i n many w ays ,r e la t ive a u tonomou sc u l tu ra lc omp lex .

4 58

O n t h e b a s i s o ft h e b ronze o b jec t s f r om p er iod V a nd V I t h e c ha rac te r is t ics o ft h i s c omp lex c an b ed e sc r ibed b r ie f ly . T he l a te B ronze A ge i sp r ima r i ly k nown f r om ma ter i a l sf r om g r ave s , d epo s i t s , o rs i ng le f i nd s . T h is i n c lude sc e ram ic s ,v a r ious o rgan ic ma t e r ia ls , a nd d i f f e ren tm e ta l s ; b u ti ti sc l ea r ly t h eb ronze o b jec t sw h ich h ave s haped o u r i mage o ft h ep er iod a nd w h ich c on s t i tu te i t s mo s tn ume rous a nd s pec tacu la rr e f lec t ion s . T he b ronze sc an b ed i v ided i n to s t anda rd i sed a nd u n ique o b jec t sd epend ing o nt h eq ua l i ty a nd u n ique c ha rac te ro fd e s ign a nd e xecu t ion ( SO rensen 1 984b ; 1 987 ) . B o th g roup sa r e o fi mpo r tance b u tt h ey p rov ide v e ry d i f f e ren ti n s igh t i n to t h ep rac t ice s o ft h e s oc ie ty . S tanda rd i sed o b jec t sa r ef ound r e cu r r en t ly a nd c an e a s i ly b ea s c r ibed t o at i gh t t y pe d e f i n i t ion . T h roughou tt h el a te B ronze A ge s t anda rd i sa t ion b ecome si n c rea s ing ly r i g id a nd emb race sb o th s hape a nd d eco ra t ion o ft h eb ronze sa sw e l la sf o rma l i sa t ion o ft h er i tua l a c t iv i t ie st h em se lve s . A s t h is o ccu r st h ed i s tance b e tween t h es t anda rd a nd t h eu n ique b ecome sg rea te r . We b eg in t of i nd aw ide r ange o fu n ique l o ca lp roduc t sa nd a ni n c rea se i nr a re i mpor t s , s uch a sv e s se l s a nd s h ie ld s , w h ich t a ke p a r ti n as e lec t ive r a nge o fd e p o s i t iona la c t iv i t ie s . T he r ea r ev a r iou sd i f f e rence si nt h eu se o fs t anda rd ised a nd u n ique o b jec t sw h ich h e lp t of u r the rc ha rac te r i se t h et r ad i t ion o fb ehav iou ra nd m ean ing w h ich d eve lops i nt h ea r ea . T he s t anda rd i sed o b jec t s c l ea r ly r e f lec t r i g id c l a s s if ica t ion , w h ich r e su l t s i nc l ea r c a t e go r ie so ff unc t iona l g roup ing s a nd c on tex t so fu se : s uch a st h e ' s e t s 'o ft weeze ra nd r a zo ru sed a lmo s te xc lu s ive ly i ng rave s . T he c l a s s if ica t ion o ft h e s t anda rd i sed o b jec t s f u r the rmo re s e em st or ef lec tg ende rr e la t ion s( So ren sen 1 987 ) ,w h i le s oc ia la nd r eg iona l d i f f e rence s a r el e s s c l ea r ly s t a ted . T he u n ique o b jec t s ( a nd t os ome e x ten t t h ef o r e ign o ne s ) a r e c l ea r ly s e pa ra ted a nd p o s s ib le e ven e xc luded f r om t h e se t y pe s o fa c t iv i t ie s . S ome o ft h ec a tego r ie sw h ich a r ee xp re s sed w i th in t h es t anda rd o b jec t sa r ea l so r e f lec ted b yt h eu n ique o ne s( s uch a sg ende r ) ,b u th e re t h ey s e em t ob e as e conda ry o r' a cc iden t a l 'd imen s ion r a the rt h an ap r ima ry c l a s s if ica to ry p r inc ip le . F o re xamp le , o b jec t sl i ke as h ie ld o r as t a tue m ay b e a s soc ia ted w i th g ende rb u t t h e i rp a r t icu la r a ppea rance s a s w e l l a st h e i r u se s ugge s t i mpo r tance w h ich g o b eyond t h e se b a s ic a s soc ia t ion s . I ti s t h rough t h en o rm s ,m ean ing s ,a nd a c t iv i t ie sw h ich w es e er ef l ec ted i n ,f o re xamp le ,t h i s s epa ra t ion o fa nd i n te rac t ion b e tween t h e s t anda rd i sed a nd t h eu n ique o b jec t s , t h a tw e mu s tf i nd p a r to ft h e' p e r sona l i ty 'o ft h eS cand inav ian l a te B ronze A ge . We h ave ad i s t i nc tS cand inav ian b ronze i ndu s t ry , s e eF ig . 1 06 ,w h ich t h rough i t sr ema rkab ly t i gh tt y p o log ica ld eve lopmen td emon s t ra te st h e l o ca l a nd h i s to r ica l ly s pec if ic d ec i s ions made c once rn ing r ep roduc t ion a t ap a r t icu la rl e ve lo ft h em a te r ia l c u l tu r e ( SO ren sen 1 989b ) . We s hou ld a pp rec ia te ,t h a ti ti st h i sd i sp lay o fu n ifo rm i ty a nd t h er e f lec ted c ohe s ion ,e x p re s sed t h rough a p a r t icu la rr ange o f ma ter ia lo b jec t sa nd t h rough a n s epa ra t ion o ft h e u n ique / fo re ign , w h ich , b ecau se o ft h er e la t ive ly s udden d i sappea rance o ft h is r ange o f o b jec t s ,i st h eb a s i so fo u rc oncep to f at r ans i t ion f r om B ronze t oI r on A ge i nS cand ina v i a . I nt h i sp ape ri tw i l lb ed emon s t ra ted t h a td ra s t ic c hange i si nf a c to n ly o b se rvab le w i th i n ar e s t r ic ted r ange o fa c t iv i t ie sa nd m a te r ia l s ,a nd t h eq ue s t ion b ecome sw ha ti st h ei m p o r tance o f t h e se c on tex t s a nd w ha t i st h e e s sence o f t h e c hange s? H ow m igh t t h e c hange sr e la te t ot h o se a spec t so fs oc ie ty w h ich s e em t or ef lec tg rea te rs t ab i l i ty a nd c on t i nu i ty o rr ef lec t ad i f f e r en tr a te o fc hange? I no rde rt oc on s ide rt h e se q ue s t ions at h e -

4 59

2 2 S o rensen

o re t ica l u nde r s tand ing o ft h ei mpo r tance a nd f unc t ion o fm a ter ia lc u l tu re i sn ece s sa ry . W i thou ts uch af r amewo rk w ea r en o ta b le t oc on s ide rt h en a tu re o fc hange ; a nd w ea r e f a rt oo w i l l ing t or e f e r t h ec omp lex p i c tu re o fc hange a nd c on t inu i ty t o ag ene ra ln o t ion o ft r ans i t ion w i thou t much i d ea o fw ha tt h i s t r an s i t ion c on s is t so fa nd w ha ti tr e f e r st o . S tab i l i ty a nd c on t inu i ty a r e , o fc ou r se , a si mpo r tan t a sc hange f o ru nde r s tand ing as o c i e ty ' s t r a jec to ry . T he b u rden o fp a s t a s sump t ion s d oe s m ean , h oweve r , t h a tf o cu s ing o n t h e mo s to bv iou s a spec to fc hange ( i . e . t h eb ronze sa nd t h e i ri n te rac t ion w i th o t he r a spec t so ft h ec on tempo ra ry s oc ie ty )h e lps t ob r eak t h ep re sen tn a r row f o cu so nd i scon t i nu i ty a nd c o l lapse a sw e l l a sa dd s n ew d imen s ions t oo u ru nde r s tand ing o ft h i sp a r t i cu la rp ha se . T o ta l i ta r ian o rs y s tem ic a pp roache s t ot h i sp rob lem h ave t e nded t or e su l ti ns imp l i s t i c mode l so ft h et r an s i t ion . I ts hou ld t h e refo re b es t re s sed t h a ts uch mode ls a r ee n t i re l yi n compa t ib le w i th t h e c omp lex i ty o ft h ep rob lem . T he se t y pe s o f mode ls e i the ri g n o re c er ta in a spec t so ft h e ma te r ia lo ra s sume t h a tt h ep a t te rns o fc hange w i th in d i f f e r e n t ma te r ia lg roups o ra c t iv i t ie sa r ed i rec t ly i n te r re la ted . F u r the rmo re ,s uch a pp roache s w i l la lway st e nd t oi gno re t h es l igh te rs e r ie so fc hange sw h ich d on o tf o l low e a s i ly p e r c e ived p a t te rn so rw h ich s e em t oc on t rad ic tt h eg ene ra lt e ndenc ie s . S ince t h ea im h e re i st oc ome t ot e rm sw i th t h ec hange sw h ich c on ta in o u rc oncep to f at r ans i t ion ,i ti si m p or tan tt of ocu so n t h ec hange sp er s er a the rt h an o np re sumed a nd p re -e s tab l i shed r e l a t ionsh ips b e tween l e ve l so fc hange . I ti sf o rt h i sp u rpo se t h a tt h ef unc t ion o fm a te r ia l c u l tu re w i th in s oc ie ty mus tb ec on s ide red . A tt h e s ame t ime a s as epa ra t ion o fd i f f e ren ta spec t so ft h e ma te r ia lc u l tu re i sa dvo c a ted i tmu s tb e empha s ised t h a t ma te r ia lc u l tu re i sn o ta na cc iden to fh i s to ry ,a nd s oc ia l s t ruc tu re sd on o te x i s ti n av acuum . I nt h is p ape r af r amewo rk i su sed i nw h ich v a r iou s d om inan tf a c to r si ns oc ia l l i f e a r ee mpha s i sed b u tw h ich a tt h e s ame t ime d oe s n o ta c c ep tt h e se t ob e n ece s sa r i ly u n ive r sa l ly d om inan to rd e te rm in ing r e la t ionsh ips . S uch a f r amewo rk w ou ld o bv iou s ly t a ke n o te o ft h en a tu ra le nv i ronmen t ,a nd t h eo ppo r tun i t ie s a nd r e s t r ic t ions w h ich t h is p rov ide s . Y e t , a tt h e s ame t ime i ti s empha s i sed t h a t t h e c ho ice s b e tween a nd t h eu t i l i sa t ion o fs ou rce s , a l though r e s tr ic ted b yn a tu re , a r em ade b yc u l tu re . I nt h is p ape r t h ew o rd c u l tu re r e f e rt ot h e s oc ia l s t ruc tu re o rs y s tem s t h rough w h ich h uman l i f ei so rgan i sed . C u l tu re o rs oc ia ls y s tem se xp re ss t h em se lve st h rough d i f f e ren t means a nd b yd i f f e ren tm eans . O ne o ft h e se i sm a te r ia lc u l tu re ,w h ich h a s mu l t ip le f a c e t sa nd w h ich c an f unc t ion s imu l taneou s ly a td i f f e ren tl e ve l s . I deo logy i mp l ie s an on ma te r ia la spec to fs oc ie ty ( a l though p o s s ib ly e xp re s sed t h rough ma ter ia lm ean s )a nd e s t a b l i she s as y s tem o fb e l ief a nd a s sump t ions w h ich c once rn ss oc ia lr e la t ionsh ips . T he se r e la t ionsh ips w i l lo f ten i mp ly h i e ra rch ica l o r s t ruc tu red d om inance b e tween p eop le b y r e f e rence t o as upe rna tu ra lw o r ld o ra nce s to r s ,v i ar i tua la c t iv i t ie s ,o rt h rough t h eu sage o f ma ter ia l o b jec t s . I nt h i s p ape ri ti sf u r the rmo re a s sumed t h a t ma ter ia l c u l tu r e -i t s g ene ra t ion ,f unc t ion sa nd r ep roduc t ion - c on ta in sa ni n ter na ll o g ic a nd d ynam ism w h ich i sp a r t ly a va i lab le t o t h e a r chaeo log i s t t h rough i t s p a t te rn ing o f t h e ma te r ia l c u l tu re ( SO ren sen 1 984b ; 1 987a : 9 7 ) . Meanwh i le ,a l though t h is l og ic i sp a r t icu la rt o as pec if i c a spec t o fc u l tu re , i ti sn o t i ndependen to ft h e b roade r c on tex t i nw h ich i ti sb e ing d e -

4 60

M . V I

M . V

M. I V

P R IA

4 t1 , % W #

ORNAMENTS

e n> N eck r ings

B elt boxes

Armrings W EAPONS Swords

Knives

S pearheads

TOOLS S ocketed axes

I t

I 7 , 7 , e \

M EN

'N u n

. / —a T OILET EQUIPMENT

A l o rm

Razors

' 1 41 1 , , P

n

'

I

• 11

M ae

° m e Q

1 F1 ' MO M

I I

" 6 1 1 •

j A

Tweezers

he

* e f i T i

i mm e

DRESS F ITTINGS

v e

F ibulae

e

6 .4 ‚

P ins

i (

[ 1 1 M i l il

4 61

F igu re 1 06 . S chema t ic i lus t r a t ion o ft h e s t anda rd b ron z e s f r om p e r iod I V -V I a nd P R IA I .

2 2 S o rensen

v e loped ,u sed a nd r e -u sed a nd t ow h ich i tmu s tr e la te . D if f e ren tt ype so fs oc ia la c t iv i t ie s , r ang ing f r om p roduc t ion t oc on sump t ion o ff ood ,s exua lr e la t ionsh ip s ,a nd ma te r ia lc u l t u r e mus tt h e refo re b e a pp roached a si n te rdependen tw h i le a tt h e s ame t ime t h ey mu s t b ea na ly sed i nr e la t ive i s o la t ion i no rde rt or e a ch a tt h em echan i sm sd i rec t ly c au s ing t h e i r a ppea rance . O nt h i sb ackg round t h el a te B ronze A ge s e t t lemen ts t ruc tu re s ,t h eg r ave s , a nd t h ep rac t ice o fd epo s i t ing b ronze si nh oa rd sa nd s i ng le f i nd sw i l lb ec on s ide red a nd t h e i rc on t r ibu t ion t ot h ec oncep to f at r an s i t ion a s se s sed .

T he o rgan i sa t ion o fb ronz ep roduc t ion I n o rde r t oc ons ide r t h e r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e b ronze s a nd t h e s oc ie ty p roduc ing , u s ing a nd r e -p roduc ing t h e se o b jec t si ti si mpo r tan tt oc on s ide rt h e means ,r e la t ion sa nd o rgan i sa t ion o ft h ep roduc t ion o fm e ta lwo rk . We h ave d i rec t m e ta l lu rg ica l e v idence f o r b ronze p roduc t ion f r om mou ld s , i n go t s , c ruc ib le s ,p o s s ib ly f r om s ome o ft h ef i rep lace sa nd h ea r th s , a nd maybe f r om s ome a s p ec t so ft h e s oc a l led ' s c rap d epo s i t ' s . L e ss d i r ec te v idence i sp rov ided b yt h ep a t te rn s o fr epa i r , t h e d e ta i l s o fd eco ra t ion a nd t h e d ec i s ion mak ing r ef lec ted i nt h e t y po log ie s ( SO rensen 1 989b ) . T oge the rt h e se a spec t so ft h eb ronze o b jec t ss how t h a tt h e re w a sl o ca l b ronze p roduc t ion i nS cand inav ia i nt h el a te B ronze A ge . T he b ronze i ndu s t ry w a se l a b o ra te a nd mu s ti np a r th ave b een c onduc ted b ye x t reme ly s k i l fu lc r a f t spe r son . E labo r a t e f o rm s a nd s oph is t ica ted d e s igns a r e s e en i np roduc t ion , d eco ra t ion a nd s ome t ime s a l so i nt h er epa i ro fo b jec t s ,a nd t h i sr ange o fv a r iab le sd emon s t ra te sp r io r i t ie sa nd v a lue s . D i r ec te v idence f o rp roduc t ion c ome sm a in ly f r om s e t t lemen t s . C a s t ing r e s idue sa r e o n ly r a re ly f ound i ng rave s o ra ss i ng le f i nd s , b u tc an b e f ound i nd epo s i t s a nd p l ay a ma jo rr o le i nt h e s o c a l led ' s c rap d epo s i t s ' . T he e v idence f o rb ronze p roduc t ion w a s o f ten d i scu s sed i no lde rl i t e ra tu re ( Nede rgä rd 1 908 ;O ldebe rg 1 942 -43 ) ,b u ti th a so t he r w i se b een s omewha t n eg lec ted ( bu t s e e Wrang 1 982 ) . T he e v idence s how s t h a t t h e k now ledge o f m e ta l p roduc t ion w a s w ide sp r ead a nd t h a t t h i s p robab ly i n c rea sed t h roughou tt h eB ronze A ge . Wrang ( 1982 )h a ss hown t h a ts e t t lemen t sw i th b ronze p ro d uc t ion a r e c ommon a nd t h a t t h ey v a ry c on s ide rab ly i nt e rm s o ft h e a moun to fm e ta l l u rg ica ld eb r i sp re sen t ,r ang ing f r om af ew p i ece st ot h ick l a ye r sa nd p i t s . S he a l so s ug g e s t st h a tt h e ma jo r i ty o fl a te B ronze A ge s e t t lemen t si ns ou ther nS cand inav ia w e re a b le t os upp ly t h eb ronze sf o rt h e i ro wn n eed s . Is ugge s tt h a tt h is c onc lu s ion c an b ee x tended t oi n c lude l o ca lp roduc t ion o fa tl e a s t s ome t y pe s ( l ow p r e s t ige o b jec t s a nd f unc t iona l t y pe s , s uch a st h es ocke ted a xe )i nt h ee n t i re S cand inav ian B ronze A ge a r ea , s i nce e v i d ence o fl o ca lp roduc t ion i n sp i red f r om t h es ou th a sw e l la st h ee a s ti sp re sen tf a rn o r th i n Sweden a nd N o rway ( Bakka 1 976 ; 1 980 ; S t enbe rge r 1 971 ) . W ide sp read b ronze p roduc t ion , a nd t h e i n c r ea se o ft h i s t e ndency i nt h e l a te B ronze Age ,i ss ugge s ted b yt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o f mou ld s . T h i sm a te r ia lh a su nfo r tuna te ly n o tb een r ev iewed i nr e cen t y ea r s , b u t O ldebe rg ' s p rev iou s s u rvey ( O ldebe rg 1 942 -43 ) s how s w ide s p read d i s t r ibu t ion i nS cand inav ia o fl a te B ronze A ge mou ld s c ompa red t ot h e much mo re l im i ted d i s t r ibu t ion i nt h ee a r ly B ronze A ge . T h is p a t tern i s ,o fc ou r se , i n -

4 62

f l uenced b o th b y d i f f e ren t ia lr e la t ive s u rv iva lo fc l ay a nd s t one mou ld s a nd b y t h eo c c u r r ence o fl a te B ronze A ge F inno -Ru s s ian i n sp i red b ronze si nt h en o r th ( Bakka 1 976 ; S t enbe rge r1 971) . I ts hou ld b ee mpha s i sed ,h oweve r , t h a ts t one i nm any w ay sp rov ide s ab e t te rm a ter ia lf o rb ronze p roduc t ion a st h en umbe ro fu se so f as i ng le f o rm i n c rea se s t oa na ve r age 5 0c a s t ing s( O ldebe rg 1 942 -43 ) . T h i sc ha rac t e r i s t ic i s ,o fc ou r se ,p a r t icu l a r ly r e levan t i n as oc ie ty w he re s t anda rd i sed o b jec t s a r e u sed . T he h i gh n umbe r o f mou ld s f r om m idd le a nd n o r the rn S cand inav ia f r om t h e l a te B ronze A ge i st h e r efo r e p robab ly as i gn o fw ide sp read a nd d ecen t ra l i sed b ronze p roduc t ion i nt h e l a te B ronze A ge . T h i se xpan s ion o ft h ea r ea i nw h ich b ronze manuf ac tu r ing t a ke sp l ace c o r re spond st o t h et r ad i t iona ls ugge s ted e a s twa rd s movemen t so ft r ade r ou te sa nd c en t r e so fw ea l th d u r i ng t h el a te B ronze A ge ( f o rd i scu s s ion s e ef o re xamp le J a cob -F r ie sen 1 967 ;J en sen 1 972 ; a nd Mobe rg 1 941 ) . T h i s ' movemen t 'h a sr e cen t ly b een i n te rp re ted a sb e ing c aused b y t h e ' e xpan s ion i s t ic ' a nd c ompe t i t ive n a tu re o ft h eB ronze A ge t r iba l s y s tem ( K r i s t ians en 1 981 ; 1 983 ) . T he c hange i nd i s t r ibu t ion o fo b jec t s f r om w e s tt oe a s ti s ,h oweve r , n o ta b so lu te b u td epend so nw h ich a spec to ft h em a te r ia li s empha s i sed . T he e v idence f o rr e la t ions a nd o rgan isa t ion o fb ronze p roduc t ion t h e r efo re n eed sf u r the rc on s ide ra t ion b e fo r e t h e c ha rac te ro ft h i s e xpans ion c an b e f u l ly u nde r s tood ( s ee a l so J en sen 1 972 ; 1 983b ) . B a sed o nt h ee v idence o fp roduc t ion ,a so ppo sed t oa r tefac td i s t r ibu t ion ,i tc an f o re xamp le ( a so u t l ined a bove ) ,b es ugge s ted t h a tw es e e ad ecen t ra l i sa t ion a nd ab reak d own o f monopo l ie s . T h i s ,h oweve r ,d oe sn o tn ece s sa r i ly r e la te t ot h ee xpan s ion o f ,o r c ompe t i t ion w i th in , ac en t ra l i sed s y s tem b u tc ou ld a sw e l lr e la te t oo the rc hange so ft h e s oc ia la nd e conom ic s t ruc tu re sw h ich c au se c hange sw i th in c e r ta in a spec t so ft h er e la t i on so fp roduc t ion , w he reby f o re xamp le a cce s s t op a r t ic ipa t ion i nb ronze p roduc t ion b ecame mo re f r ee ly a va i lab le . T ow ha td eg ree s u ch c hange sa r ec on tro l led b yt h ep re v iou sh o lde r so ft h e monopo ly w ed on o tk now ,b u tn o rd ow eh ave a ny i d ea o ft h en a t u r e o fs uch amonopo ly i nt h eB ronze A ge . O ne m igh te ven s ugge s tt h a tt h eb ronze s f r om t h ep e r iod s Va nd V Id o n o tr ef l ec to bv ious p e rmanen t c en t r e s o fp roduc t ion o r monopo l ie s o ft r ade r ou te s , b u t d oi ndeed e mpha s ise t h eh igh l e ve lo fc ommun ica t ion a nd c oe r c ive r i tua l / ideo log ica ls t ruc tu r e s .

T he u se o f' e xo t ic ' ma ter ia l si nl a te B ronz eA ge S cand inav ia I no rde rt oi lum ina te t h es p ec if ic p o s i t ion o ft h eb ronze si np e r iod V a nd V It h eu se o f o t he r ma te r ia l s , w h ich c ou ld h ave b een p o ten t ia l ly p re s t ig iou s , mus tb eo u t l ined . T h is d oe sn o tm ean t h a t as imp le d ependency e x is t sb e tween d i f f e ren tm a te r ia l s ;b u ti ti s ,o n t h e o the rh and , o n ly i nc ompa r ison w i th t h e s imu l taneous u se o fo t he rm a te r ia l s , t h a t t h e s pec ia l u se o ft h e b ronze s c an b ep e rce ived . T he m ean ing a nd r o le o ft h e b ronze s mu s tt h e refo re b ea s se s sed p a r t ly t h rough ar e cogn i t ion o ft h e i rp o s i t ion r e la t ive t ot h a t o fo t he r ma te r ia l s . Amber : Ambe rh a st r ad i t iona l ly b een i n te rp re ted a sp rov id ing t h ee conom ic b a s i sf o r t h es ou th S cand inav ian ' B ronze A ge A r i s toc racy '( Und se t 1 881 ; Mü l le r1 897 ) . T he i n s i gn if ican tc ha rac te r a nd t h e i n f requen t u se o fa mbe ri nt h e l a te B ronze A ge d o , h ow -

4 63

2 2 Sorensen

e ve r ,i mp ly t h a tt h e ma te r ia lw a sn o tu sed a s al o ca lp re s t ige o b jec td i sp layed i n am an n e ra r chaeo log ica l ly p e r ce ivab le n o rd i di th ave a ny d i rec tv i s ib le s ymbo l ic i mpo r tance . T h i s i so ppo s i te t ot h eu se o fa mbe ri ne a r l ie rp er iod s , a nd i th a st h e re fo r eb een r e cen t l ys ugges ted t h a ti tm igh th ave b een a s cr ibed s ome k ind o fm ag ic ( J en sen 1 982 ; 1 983b : 7 5 ) o rt h a t a' t aboo ' a ga in s tu se i nt h el o ca l a r ea w a s a t tached t oa mbe ra s ad ev ice f o r r e se rv ing i tf o rt r ade . T h i sc ou ld t h en a ccoun tf o rt h eu se o fa mbe ri ni t s ' r aw ' s t a te i n s ome g rave sa nd f o rt h er a r eo ccu r rence so fs pec ia lu se ss uch a st h ea mbe ri n lay o nt h e l i do ft h eV o ld tof te b ronze c au ld ron ( J en sen 1 983c : 7 8 ; T h rane 1 975 ; 1 984 ) . I ti sa l so w o r th s t re s s ing t h a ta mbe rd oe sn o ta ppea ri nt h ed epo s i t sb u to n ly i ng r ave s ,w h ich ,a s ac on tex t , a r e mo re o bv iou s ly c onnec ted w i th t h ei nd iv idua l . We mu s t , t h e refo r e ,c on c l ude t h a t ambe r d id n o t p l ay ad i s t inc tr o le i nt h e S cand inav ian B ronze A ge , a nd i t s f unc t ion w i th in t h a ts oc ie ty c an n o tr e ad i ly b ea s se s sed . Me ta l s : Me ta l sc ons t i tu te t h e mo s to bv ious g roup o fp o ten t ia l ly p re s t ig iou sm a te r ia l s . B ronze , t i n , l e ad , c oppe r , i r on a nd g o ld c an e i the rb ed emon s t ra ted o ri n f e r r ed t oh ave b een u sed . T he e v idence f o rf i n , l e ad a nd c oppe ri sl im i ted , t h e i rp re sence i sp r ima r i ly i n f e r r ed b yt h ep rope r t ie so ft h el o ca lm e ta lwo rk ( O ldebe rg 1 942 -43 ) ,a nd t h ey w i l ln o t b ec on s ide red f u r the rh e re . G o ld : Go ld i sr e la t ive ly f r equen ti nt h eb eg inn ing o ft h el a te B ronze A ge ,b u ti ts e em s t ol o se i t sp o s i t ion a s a' p re s t ige ' ma te r ia li np e r iod V I . T h i sd i sappea rance o fg o ld a sa s i gn if i can ti nd ica to r o fw ea l th a nd s t a tu s h a s b een s ugge s ted t or e la te t ot h ei n c rea sed f o rma l i sa t ion o ft h e ma te r ia l c u l tu re w h ich t a ke s p l ace a tt h i s t ime ( SO r en sen 1 984b ) . D ur ing p e r iod V g o ld s t a r ted t ob eu sed i n as e to ff o rma l i sed r i tua la c t iv i t ie s ,w h ich h ad b ecome d i f f e ren tf r om f o rme rp rac t ice sa nd i nw h ich b ronze sh ad ad om inan tn o rma t ive r o le . O ne c an t h e r efo re s ugge s tt h a ti tw a s d ue t ot h ec hange si nl o ca lr i tua l a c t iv i t ie s a nd i nt h e mean st h rough w h ich p r e s t ige ,s t a tus ,a nd p owe ri sb e ing e xp re s sed t h a tg o ld d u r ing t h ee nd o ft h eB ronze A ge ,i ni t s' c ompe t i t ion 'w i th t h eb ronze s ,l o se si t sp rev iou s r o le o fi mpor tance ( J ensen 1 983a ; 1 983c ) a nd i t sa s soc ia t ion w i th s ymbo l ic s t ruc tu r e s . T he b ronze s ,q u i te s imp ly ,t a ke o ve ra st h em a te r ia lm eans o fs ymbo l ic a nd c u l tu ra le x p re s s ion s . G o ld i s' r obbed 'o fi t sp owe rt oe xp r e s sp o s i t ion w i th in ah i e ra r chy , a nd i ti s e xc luded f r om t h er i tua lc ommun ica t ion . T h i sm igh t ,o fc ou r se ,o ve r lap w i th o re ven b e c aused b yc hang ing m e ta ls uppl ie s . T he d i rec tm a t e r ia le f f ec t so fa nd t h ew ay si nw h ich ac hange i nm e ta l s upp l ie sa r ea r t icu la ted w i th in t h ec on tex to ft h em a te r ia lc u l tu re a nd t h er i tua la c t iv i t ie ss hou ld ,h oweve r ,b ec on s ide red a nd e xp la ined i ns pec if ic l o ca lt e rm s l i ke t ho se s ugge s ted a bove . T h i s i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e d ec r ea se i nt h e i mpo r tance o fg o ld i np e r iod V I i sf u r the r s uppo r ted b yt h eg ene ra ll a ck o fi n te re s ti no t he rm a te r ia ls ,l o ca la sw e l la se xo t ic o ne s , i nt h is l a s tp ha se o ft h eB ronze A ge . T he v a r ie ty o fm a te r ia ls n a r row sd own , a nd t r ad i t i ona l ' p re s t ige 'm a te r ia l s s uch a sa mbe r , g l a s s , a nd g o ld l oo se t h e i ri mpo r tance ; w h i le n ew ma te r ia ls , s uch a si r on , s e em u nab le t os e cu re a ny p o s i t ion w i th in t h e m a te r ia lc u l t u re . I np er iod V I t h e b ronze s a l one d om ina te a nd monopo l ise t h e ' p r e s t ige ' l e ve l a s w e l la st h es ymbo l ic a nd r i tua la c t iv i t ie s .

4 64

I r on : I nt h ec on tex to ft h e t r an s i t ion , i r on i si mpo r tan t s i nce i tf o rme r ly w a s s e en a s d ef in ing t h et r an s i t ion . T he i n t roduc t ion o fi r on w a sa s sumed t oh ave r e su l ted i n at e ch n o log ica lr evo lu t ion w i th p enet ra t ing e conom ic a nd s o c ia lc on sequence s . R ecen ts t ud ie s h ave d emons t ra ted t h e f a l s i ty o ft h i s ' my th ' , a nd i r on i sn ow c ommon ly r ega rded a s p l ay ing al im i ted r o le i nt h et r an s i t ion i nn o r the rn E u rope ( Bronge r sa nd Wo l te r ing 1 979 ; H o r s t 1 971 ; L ev insen 1 984 ; S o ren sen 1 989a , a nd a r gumen t sp re sen ted t h roughou tt h i s v o lume ) . A l though i r on w a sp re sen tt h roughou t mo s to ft h eB ronze A ge ( Lev insen 1 984 a nd t h is v o lume ; S t jemqu i s t 1 961) i tn eve rg a ined ap o s i t ion p a ra l le lo rc ompa rab le t ot h a t o fb ronze , n o r i si tp o s s ib le t os t a te t h a t i r on i n c rea s ing ly r ep laced b ronze d u r ing t h e B ronze A ge . I tt h e refo re s e em sf e a s ib le t oa s sume t h a ti r on ,w hen i tb ecame ac ommon a nd d om inan t ma te r ia l , p l ayed ar o le i nt h es oc ie ty w h ich i sv e ry d i f f e ren tf r om t h a to f b ronze i nt h eB ronze A ge . C e r ta in ly ,t h el a te rf unc t iona lu se o fi r on i sr ad ica l ly d i f f e r e n tf r om t h eu se o fb o th b ronze a nd i r on i nt h eB ronze A ge . I tc an a l so b ed emon s t ra ted t h a tt h ep rev iou sh e ld n o t ion o ft h ep re s t ig ious r o le o fe a r ly i r on ( Brond s ted 1 959 ) h a s n o emp i r ica lb a s i s , a nd t h e re a r en os ugge s t ions o fi r on b e ing a s c r ibed p a r t icu la rv a lue s d u r ing t h eB ronze A ge . I r on w h ich ,c ompa r ed t ob ronze ,h a sc l ea rt e chno log ica la dvan t a ge s , w a sn o tu sed d u r ing t h eB ronze A ge f o rt h ep roduc t ion o ft o o l s , a nd t h eo bv ious p o ten t ia lo ft h em a te r ia lw a sn o ta sy e tr e a l i sed o ra tl e a s te xp lo i ted2.N e i the rw a si r on i mmed ia te ly u sed i nt h ep roduc t ion o fn ew a r tef ac t st ype s ( w i th t h ee xcep t ion o fP R IA Ib e l t -hook s ) , a nd i ti sf i r s ti nP R IA I , w hen i r on b ecome sd om inan ti nt h ep roduc t ion o ft oo l sa nd w eapon s ,t h a ti t sf unc t iona lp rope r t ie sg a in i mpo r tance ( SO ren sen 1 989a ) . I r on a nd b ronze , t h e refo re , s e em t or e la te t od i f f e ren tl e ve l so fs oc ie ty a tt h er e spec t i ve p e r iod s i n wh ich t h ey w e r e d om inan t . T he d i f f e rence s w i th r ega rd t ot h e a moun t a nd u se o f me ta lo b jec t si nt h eB ronze A ge a nd i nt h eI r on A ge i s ,t h e refo re ,l i ke ly t ob e d ue t o mo re c omp l ica ted m echan i sm st h an m e re ly ac hange f r om b ronze t oi r on o b jec t s . T he o b se rved p a t te rn s mus tc l ea r ly r e la te t o ac hange i nt h ee xp re s s ion so fd i f f e ren ta c t i v i ty s phe res w i th in s oc ie ty . T he i s sue sa th and a r et h e refo re t ou nde r s tand w ha tc ause s r i tua l a c t iv i t ie s t od ecea se a nd t oi n te rp re tt h e a ppa r en tl a ck o fa c t iv i t ie sr ep lac ing t h e r i tua lp rac t ice so ft h el a te B ronze A ge . F rom t h is b r ief e xam ina t ion ,i tc an b ec onc luded ,t h a tt h ep o ten t ia l ly ' e xo t ic ' ma te r i a l sp re sen ted a bove a r eo fl im i ted i mpo r tance f o ru nde r s tand ing t h ed i rec tm a te r ia lr e f l ec t ion o ft h et r ans i t ion ,s i nce t h ey o n ly p l ay am ino rr o le w i th in t ho se l e ve l so fs o c ie ty w he re c hange sa r ee xp re s sed . T he se m a te r ia ls w i l lt h e refo re n o tb ec on s ide red a ny f u r t h e r , b u tt h ey s hou ld r ema in s e en a sp a r to ft h e g ene ra l f r amewo rk o ft h em a ter ia l e v i d ence f r om t h i sp e r iod . A tt h es ame t ime ,t h is e xam ina t ion h a si ns ome s en se made t h e p rob lem o ft h e t r ans i t ion mo re a s se ssab le s i nce i th a sb een c l ea re r l im i ted a nd c an b e d e sc r ibed a r chaeo log ica l ly a s ar ef lec t ion o fc hange w i th in as pec if ic l e ve l o fs oc ie ty . A tt h es ame t ime ,t h et r an s i t ion h a sa l so b ecome i n c rea s ing ly d i ff icu l tt oa pp roach a na l y t ica l ly s i nce c hange sw i th in t h er i tua ls upe r s t ruc tu re a r ee x t reme ly d i f f icu l tt oc ons ide r a sw eh ave v e ry l i t t le i d ea g ene ra l ly o fh ow t oa pp roach a nd u nde r s tand c hange sw i th in t h is l e ve la nd t h e i rr e la t ion sh ip t oo the ra spec to fs oc ie ty .

4 65

2 2 S o rensen

S e t t lemen tp a t terns i nl a te B ronze A ge S cand inav ia T he s e t t lemen tp a t te rn o fa ny a r ea a nd p e r iod i sa ni mpo r tan ts ou r ce f o ru nde r s tand ing t h e b a s ic s oc ia l a nd e conom ic c ha rac te r i s t ic s . A cco rd ing ly , f o r t h e t r an s i t ion f r om B ronze Age t oI r on A ge i nS cand inav ia i ti so fi n te re s tn o to n ly t od i scu s s t h ec hange s w h ich h ave g iven r i se t ot h i s c oncep t , i . e . t h e p a t ter n s i nt h e b ronze s , b u t a l so t oc on s i de rt h es e t t lemen tp a t te rn . T he p u rpo se h e re w i l l ,h oweve r ,s imp le b et oi n c lude ab r ief d e scr ip t ion o ft h i sa spec ti no rde rt od emons t ra te t h ee s sen t ia ld i f f e rence i nr a te a nd mode o fc hange s ugge s ted b yd i f f e ren tl e ve l so ft h ec on tempo ra ry s oc ie ty . T he B ronze A ge s e t t lemen t p a t ter n h a s b een s y s tema t ica l ly s t ud ied s i nce Mü l le r ( 1904 ; 1 914 ) s ugge s ted t h a t t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o fB ronze A ge b a r row s i nd ica te s t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e s e t t lemen t s a sw e l l ; at y pe o fe v idence w h ich w a s l a te rc omp lemen ted b ye nv i ronmen ta ls t ud ie s . T he s t udy o fs e t t lemen t sc ame f u r the ri n to f o cus i nt h e 1 960 s a st h er e su l tp a r t ly o fc hang ing d i sc ip l ina ry i n te re s t s a nd p a r t ly o ft h ed i scove ry o ft h e B ronze A ge h ou se a s ar e cu r r ing a r chaeo log ica l f e a tu re i nw e s ter n J u t land , D enma rk ( Becke r1 968 ; 1 972 ) . E x ten s ive s e t t lemen ta nd l a nd scape s t ud ies w e re a tt h es ame t ime c a r r ied o u ti ns ou ther na nd c en t ra lS weden ( Hyen s t rand 1 979 ; S t jer nqu i s t 1 969 ; S t römb e rg 1 973 -74 ; 1 980 ; We l inde r 1 975 ; 1 977 ) . U n t i l r e cen t ly s e t t lemen t s w e re m a in ly f ound o nm a rg ina ls o i la nd i th a sb een d i f f icu l tt ou se t h e i re v idence i n mo re g ene ra l i s i ng s t ud ie so ft h ep e r iod . C on s ide ra t ions a nd i n t e rp re ta t ions o fs e t t lemen tp a t ter n sh ave , t h e refo re , i ng ene ra lr e s ted u pon e nv i ronmen ta l s t ud ie s a nd i np a r t icu la ru pon t h e s pa t i a l d i s t r ibu t ion o fa r tef ac t s a nd monumen t s ( e .g . K r i s t iansen 1 978 ) . T h i s m ean s t h a t r e cons t ruc ted s e t t lemen tp a t te rn sa r ei nr e a l i ty u l t ima te ly b a sed u pon t h ed i s t r ibu t ion o f g rave s( wh ich a r e u sua l ly s e conda ry b u r ia l si ne a r ly B ronze A ge b a r rows )a nd d epo s i t s ( wh ich w e re i n c rea s ing ly l o ca ted i ns pec ia le nv i ronmen t s s uch a sb og s a nd m eadow s ) . T o i n te rp re t t h i s p a t ter n a s ac on sc iou s c ho ice o f s pec if ic s o i l t y pe s ( e .g . K r i s t ian sen 1 981) m igh tt h e refo r e b em i s lead ing a nd c ause u st or e con s t ruc t s ub s i s tence s t ra teg ie s o nt h eb a s i so fc hange sw i th in t h es phe re o fr i tua la c t iv i ty . I nr e t ro spec ts ome o ft h er e s u l t so ft h e se s e t t lemen ts t ud ie ss hou ld t h e refo re b eu sed w i th c au t ion . I ti sn one the le s s i mpo r tan t t os umma r i se c u r ren tr e con s t ruc t ion s o fs e t t lemen tp a t ter n s a nd s ub s is tence s t ra teg ie s i n a smuch a st h i s f undamen ta l l e ve l o fs o c ie ty i se s sen t ia l f o ru nde r s tand ing t h es oc ia l s t ruc tu re w h ich p roduced t h e ma te r ia lw es t udy . A n e l abo ra te mode l f o rt h e l a te B ronze A ge s o c ie ty a nd i t s t r a jec to ry h a s b een p ro p o sed b yK r i s t iansen ( 1981 ) . K r i s t iansen d e scr ibe st h el a te B ronze A ge a sp a r to f al ong t e rm s equence o f t r iba l s y s tem s , t h a t w en t t h rough d ef in i te c yc le s a nd i reve r s ib le c hange s( K r i s t ian sen 1 982 :2 42 ) . H ea r gue st h a tt h ee xp lo i ta t ion o ft h ee nv i ronmen t ,b y ag i ven s oc ia lf o rma t ion ,r e su l t si n ad ef in i te h i e ra r chy o fc ons t ra in t s ,w h ich d e te rm ine s t h ee vo lu t iona ry p o ten t ia l o ft h e s y s tem a s aw ho le . T ran sfo rma t ion o ft h e s y s tem ( i n t h is c a se t h e B ronze A ge -I r on A ge t r an s i t ion ) m ay o ccu ri fi n compa t ib i l i ty d eve lop s b e tween t h ed om inan ts oc ia lr e la t ions a nd t h ec ons t ra in t so nt h es y s tem . T h i sc an h ap p en e i the r b y a l te rna t ion s o ft h e e conom ic c ond i t ion s o fp roduc t ion o r b y n ew s e t s o f c on s t ra in t so nt h es y s tem . Mo s tc u r ren tc on s ide ra t ion so fS cand inav ian B ronze A ge s e t t l emen t s t ruc tu re sa r ec onduc ted w i th in as im i la ri n te rp re ta t ive f r amewo rk ( S t je rnqu i s t 1 980 ; 1 983 ; S t römbe rg 1 983 ;T h rane 1 980 ; 1 982 ; 1 983 ; We l inde r 1 983 ) . T he t e ndency

4 66

i st oa s sume t h a tt h ef undamen ta lm echan i sm so fc hange a r ec on ta ined w i th in t h ee con om ic s t ruc tu re o ft h es o c ie ty ,a nd t h a tt h ec ou r se o ft h el o ca ld eve lopmen ti sd e te rm ined b yi t s s pec i f ic r e la t ion so fp roduc t ion a nd t h eg i ven e co log ica lc ond i t ion s . A so ppo sed t ot h e se empha se s , Iw an tt os t re s st h a t ,a l though t h eg ene ra lc hange o fs oc ie ty c an c oa r s e ly b e i n te rp r e ted w i th in t h i sf r amewo rk , i tc an n o te xp la in d i f f e ren tl e ve l s o fc hange w i th in t h e s o c ia l s y s tem n o rc an i ta ccoun t f o rt h em inu t iae o fc hange w h ich w e o b s e rve . T he s e t t lemen te v idence h a si n c rea sed d ra s t ica l ly o ve rt h el a s tt wen ty y ea r s ,b u ti th a s n o ta sy e tb een p o s s ib le t or each ac l ea rp i c tu re o ft h es e t t lemen tu n i t sa nd t h e i ri n te rna l s t ruc tu r ing . E ven mo re u nfo r tuna te ly ,i th a sn o ta sy e tb een p o s s ib le t oe s tab l i sh w he the r ' t rue 'v i l lage s t ruc tu r e s a so ppo sed t oe x ten s ive f a rm s tead s e x i s ted a se a r ly a st h e l a te B ronze A ge . U n so lved a r e a l so q ue s t ion sr ega rd ing a ve rage s i ze a nd o r ig ina l a ppea r a nce o fs e t t lemen t sa sw e l la st h ed eg ree o fv a r ia t ion b e tween i nd iv idua ls i te s . Ar ange o fc en t ra li s sue sr e la t ing t ot h en a tu re o fs oc ia lo rgan i sa t ion a nd r e la t ions o fp roduc t ion a r et h e re fo re u nknown - s t il ,p r e sen te v idence g i ve s ab a s i sf r om w h ich d i f f e ren t mod e l s o f t h e s e t t lemen t p a t ter n s c an b e s ugge s ted ( e .g . J en sen 1 983b ; S t rombe rg 1 980 ; S t je rnqu i s t 1 980 ;T irane 1 980 ) . T he l a te B ronze A ge s e t t lemen t s a r e a l l c ha rac te r i sed b y p ove r ty o fb ronze o b jec t s . T he s i te s c on ta in o n ly af ew o b jec t s ; ma in ly b roken t o o l s , d re ss -f i t t ing s , t o i le t -equ ip men to rd eb r i sf r om b ronze p roduc t ion . O the rw ise ,t h e s i te sc on ta in q uan t i t ie so ff l in t , q ue rn s tone s ,c ook ing s t one s ,c e ram ic s , a nd , a tt ime s ,o rgan ic ma te r ia l s . T he ma te r ia l s a r em a in ly i nt h ef o rm o fd ome s t ic r ubb i sh a nd d eb r i s . T he s i te sa l so c on ta in ,a pa r tf r om t h e h ou se s t ruc tu re s , f e a tu re s s uch a sh ea r th s a nd p i t s a nd i ns ome c a se s s ma l l s qua r e p o s t -s t ruc tu re s ,i n te rp re ted a sg rana r ie s . I nc e r ta in a r ea so f Sweden a nd No rway , ' b u rn t mound s ' a r e f ound i nc onnec t ion w i th s e t t lemen t s , w he re t h ey c an a ppea r a s soc ia ted w i th k e rb s tone so rl e ve l led p l a t fo rm s ( J aanu s son 1 981 ) . F o r as i te a tS kam lebxk ,Z ea l a nd ,t h ep r e l im ina ry p ub l ica t ion s ugge s t s as t ruc tu red l a y -ou to ft h es e t t lemen td emon s t ra ted b yz one sr ad ia t ing f r om t h eh ou se s ,a nd w h ich w e re c ha rac ter i sed b yd i f f e rence s i np i ts i ze ,d eg ree o fp i tr e -u se ,a nd i n ten s i ty o ff i r ing a c t iv i t ie s( Lombo rg 1 982 ) . B yc ompar i son ,t h ee a r l ie s tI r on A ge s e t t lemen t sa r eg ene ra l ly c ha rac ter i sed b y as im i l a rr ange o ff i nd s , a l though d eb r i sf r om b ronze w o rk i sl e s sf r equen t . I no ne p a r t icu la r i n s tance ,i r on p roduc t ion s e em sd emon s t ra ted a t as e t t lemen td a ted t ot h e PR IA I( J acob s en 1 979 ) . D i s t inc td i f f e r ence s a r er ef lec ted b y t h e d eve lopmen to ft r ue v i l lage s t ruc t u r e s ,t h ea ppea rance o ff e nc ing ,a nd o fw e l le s tab l i shed d i v i s ion o ft h eh ou se si n to s t a l l a nd o ccupa t ion a r ea . T he se a r ef e a tu re s ,w h ich a l la ppea rt ob ea s soc ia ted w i th t h ef i r s t p e r iod o ft h eI r on A ge a f te rw h ich t h ey b ecome mo re p rom inen tc ha rac te r i s t ic s( Becke r 1 976 ; 1 980 ; J en sen 1 983b , P a rke r P ea r son 1 982 ; P a rke r P ea r son a nd S O ren sen f o r th c om ing ; S tummann H an sen 1 979 ) . I n many r e cen t mode l so fl a te B ronze A ge s o c ie ty i ti s mo re o rl e s se xp l ic i t ly a s sumed t h a t s pec ia l i s t s t a sk s , s uch a s b ronze p roduc t ion , w e r e monopo l i sed t h rough c en t ra l p l ace s . T he u n ifo rm i ty o ft h es e t t lemen t s ( w i th b ronze p roduc t ion f o re xamp le d emon s t ra ted o na lmo s ta l ls i te s )d oe s ,h oweve r , make i td i f f icu l tt od i s t ingu i sh s pec ia lp l a ce s

4 67

2 2 S o rensen

w i th r ega rd t ob ronze p roduc t ion . I ti s mo re l i ke ly t h a t ac er ta in l e ve lo fm e ta lp roduc t i on ( i np a r t icu la ro ff unc t iona lo b jec t ss uch a st oo ls a nd d re s sf i t t ing s )a nd ma in tenance ( f o rd i scuss ion o fr e pa i ra nd r e sha rpen ing s e e S O ren sen 1 984b ) t ook p l ace a t mo s t s e t t l emen t s ,w h i le s ome o ft h eb igge rs e t t lemen t sa c ted a sc en t ra lp l ace si nt h es en se o fp ro d uc ing ab roade ra s semb lage w h ich i n c luded o rnamen t sa nd u n ique o b jec t s ,e . g .H a l lun d a ( J aanu s son 1 981 ) . A sy e t , t h ee v idence f r om t h ee a r l ie s tI r on A ge f o rm e ta l lu rg ica l p roce s s ing a nd manuf ac tu r ing i st oo s c a rce t os ugge s t a ny r egu la rp a t t e rn , a nd w e a r e n o ta b le t oc onc lude w he the rt h i sp e r iod w i tne s se s am a jo rr e -o rgan i sa t ion o fm e talu r g i ca lp roduc t ion . I ts hou ld b ek ep ti nm ind ,h oweve r ,t h a tt h ea va i lab i l i ty o fi r on w ou ld h ave b een r ad ica l ly d i f f e ren tf r om t h a to fb ronze a nd t h a ti tm igh tp o s s ib ly h ave r e l ied o n a cce s s t oa nd k now ledge o fp a r t icu la rl o ca le nv i ronmen t s ( bog i r on )r a the rt h an a c c e s st ot r ade c onnec t ions . Nume rou sh ouse sf r om t h el a te B ronze A ge h ave n ow b een e xcava ted ,d emon s t ra t ing ar ange o fv a r ia t ion . Sma l lo va lh ou se s , s qua re s t ruc tu re s , p i t -hou se s , a nd r e c tangu la r h ou se s w i th l ow e a r then w a l ls h ave a l l b een f ound , b u t t h e mo s t c ommon t ype i st h e t h ree - a i s led h ouse . T he l a t te rt y pe i sn ow r e co rded i n mo s ta r ea so fD enma rk , a sw el a si nd i f f e ren t s ou the r ly r eg ion so f Sweden ( B jöhem a nd S ä fve s tad 1 983 ) , a nd a tl e a s t a to ne l o ca t ion i nN o rway ( J ohan sen 1 981 ) . T he h ou se su sua l ly h ave t wo i n ter na lr ow s o fp o s t s ,p o s t -bu i l tw a t t le -and -daub w a l l s a nd r ounded c o rne r s , a l though l og -wa l l sb e t ween u p r igh t s h ave a l so b een s ugge s ted i n af ew c a se s . E v idence o fw a l l -p la s te ra nd w a l l - p a in t ing h ave r e cen t ly b een d i scove red ( Be rg lund 1 982 ; L ombo rg 1 982 ) . T h i s s ugge s t st h ep re sence o fh a l f t imbe rs t ruc tu re s ,w h ich wou ld h ave b een mo re s im i la rt o t h eh ouse -urn f r om S to ra H amma rt h an w a sp rev ious ly b e l ieved t ob el i ke ly ( Lombo rg 1 982 ) ,f o r ar e cons t ruc t ion s e eF ig . 1 07 . T he h ou se sa r eu sua l ly o fi mp r e s s ive d imen s i on sa nd t h ey a r eo f ten b i gge rt h an t h eP R IA o ne s( f o rf u r the rd e ta i lo ft h eh ou se s t ruc t u re s e eB ecke r1 968 a nd 1 972 ;D ra iby 1 985 ) . I nD enma rk t h i st y pe h a sb een d a ted b ack t oa tl e a s tp e r iod I Io ft h eB ronze A ge ( Becke r 1 980 ) a nd i ti sa l so f ound i nt h e PR IA . D if f e rence sb e tween t h eB ronze a nd I r on A ge h ou se s ,s uch a sr ound a so ppo sed t os qua re c o rne r s , s e em t oe x i s t ( J en sen 1 967 ; B ecke r 1 980 ) , b u t t h e s im i la r i t ie s a r e s t i l l s o o b v ious t h a tc on t inu i ty o fh ou se t y pe so ve rt h et r an s i t ion mu s tb ea ccep ted ( Becke r 1 980 ; C o le sa nd H a rd ing 1 979 ;J en sen 1 967 ) . T h i sh a si mpo r tan ti mp l ica t ions f o ro u rc oncep t o f at r ans i t ion a nd i nt ur nf o ri t sr e levance f o rt h e s t ruc tu re o fe ve ry d ay l i f ei nt h e s o c i e ty i nq ues t ion . F o r s ome o ft h e D an i sh s i te si th a sb een s ugge s ted t h a tt h e a n ima ls w e r et e the red a t o ne e nd o ft h eh ou se w i th t h eh uman o ccupa t ion l o ca ted i nt h eo t he re nd , a si sa l so t h e c a se i nt h eI r on A ge . I ti s ,h oweve r ,s t i l ld i spu ted w he the rt h i st r u ly i st h ec a se a nd o n ly af ew s i te sc on ta in f e a tu re sw h ich c an b ei n te rp re ted a ss t ab le -d iv is ion s( Becke r 1 980 ) . T he l a y -ou t o ft h e i nd iv idua l h ouse s a nd t h e l o ca t ion o fs e t t lemen t s a r ef a i r ly u n i fo rm ( J ensen 1 967 ; 1 983b ;S t rombe rg 1 954 ) ;a l though t h ev a r ia t ion b roaden si nt h e moun ta in a r ea so f Sweden a nd N orway . A s pec ia l p henomenon , w ho se i mpo r tance f o r t h e s e t t lemen t p a t ter n h a s r e cen t ly b ecome o bv ious ,i st h e ' b u rn t mound s ' . T he se p i le so f' c ook ing ' s t one sw i th av a ry ing c omponen to fs e t t lemen td eb r i sa r ea ppa ren t ly s i tua ted i no ri nc l o se p rox im i ty t os e t t le

4 68

F igu re 1 07 . R econ s t ruc t ion so fS cand inav ian l a te B ronze A ge h ouse s . A :t h eu rn f r om S to ra H amma r , Sweden ,a nd B :t h er e con s t ruc t ion o ft h eh ou se a tS kam lebxk ( Aa nd B a f t e rL ombo rg 1 982 ) .

m en t s . T he f unc t ion o ft h e mound sa r en o ta sy e tk nown ; a nd r a the rt h an p rov id ing a n e a sy e xp lana t ion r e cen t r e sea r ch h a s d emons t ra ted v a r iab i l i ty w i th r e spec t t o , f o r e xamp le , s i ze , c ompo s i t ion , a nd l o ca t ion ( Ande r son 1 984 ; R . J en sen 1 984 W idho lm

4 69

2 2 S o rensen

1 984 ) . ' Bur n t mound s ' a r ec ommon i nc er ta in r e g ions o f Sweden a nd N o rway ,b u tt h ey h ave a l so b een f ound i nD enma rk ,w he re ,h oweve r ,t h es e t t lemen ta s soc ia t ion i sl e s so b v iou s a nd w he re t h ey m igh tp o s s ib ly b e o f ar i tua l n a tu re ( Th rane 1 974 ) . T he o ve ra l l d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h i sf e a tu re m ay s ugge s tt h a td i f f e ren ta c t iv i t ie st ook p l ace i ns e t t lemen t s w i th ' bu rn t mound s 't h an i nt ho se w i thou t . Mo r eove r ,t h i sf e a tu re m ay i ng ene ra lh ave ad i s t inc tf unc t iona lr e la t ion sh ip t o ac e r ta in t y pe o fe nv i ronmen t( r ocky u p land a so p p o sed t ot h ec l ay mo ra ine sa nd s and s ) . S uch r e la t ion sh ip s hou ld n o t ,h oweve r ,b et a ken t om ean t h a tt h ed i f f e r ence sb e tween s e t t lemen t sw i th a nd w i thou t' b ur n t mound s 's hou ld n o tb ec on s ide red i n' c u l tu ra l ' t e rm sa sw e l l . T he re c ou ld p o ten t ia l ly b ec u l tu ra l ly s i g n if i can td i f f e rence sb e tween t h ec ommun i t ie sw i th a nd w i thou tt h is f e a tu re w i th r ega rd t os uch e s sen t ia l m a t te r sa ss ub s i s tence a c t iv i t ie s , t h e manne ro ff ood p r epa ra t ion , a nd t h er ou t ine managemen to fr ubb i sh i nr e la t ion sh ip t o' s oc ia ls pace ' ;a nd t h rough t h i st h e d i s t r ibu t ion o f' bur n t mound s ' may s ugge s te s sen t ia lc u l tu ra ld i v is ion sc r o s s -c u t t ing t h e a ppa ren tc ohe s ion e xp re s sed t h rough t h eb ronze s . At r ad i t iona lt op ic o fd i scu s s ion i sw he the rt h eB ronze A ge c ommun i t ie sh ad ap a s to r a lo ra g ra r ian s ub s i s tence b a s i s . T he r ei se v idence o fb o th a c t iv i t ie sa nd e ach i nd iv id u a l s i te p roduce s i t s s pec ia l c omb ina t ion o ft h e t wo a sw e l l a sv a ry ing d eg ree o fs up p l emen ta ry h un t ing /ga the r ing /f i sh ing a c t iv i t ie s . A n ima lh u sband ry i sd emons t ra ted b y f a una lr ema ins f r om s i te s a nd b yd ep ic t ions o fa n ima l si nr o ck c a rv ing s . T he a n ima ls f ound a r ec a t t le , s heep /goa t ,p ig , h o r se , a nd d og , a nd p o s s ib ly a l so b i rd s . T he c u l tu ra l s i gn if icance o ft h eh o r se i ss ugge s ted b yh o r se f i gu re si nb ronze a nd t h e i rf i gu ra t ive i m p o r tance i nt h ed eco ra t ion o fb ronze sa nd i nr ock c a rv ing s ; t h e i ri mpo r tance i ns ub s i s t e nce a c t iv i t ie si s ,h oweve r , d i ff icu l tt oa s se s s . Ap i nw i th ah uman -cum ram h ead ( Go t l a nd , Sweden ) s how s t h ep r e sence a nd p o s s ib ly a l so t h ec u l tu ra l s i gn i f icance o fs heep . D uck sa nd f i sh a r es hown b o th o nb ronze sa nd r ock c a rv ing s ,b u tw i thou ta ny c l ea rs ug g e s t ion o ft h e i ri mpo r tance i ne i the rr i tua la c t iv i t ie so rs ub s i s tence . A n ima lr ema in sf r om s e t t lemen t s s how t h a tt h ea ge o fs l augh te r ing c an d i f f e rb e tween s i te sa nd t h i s s ugge s t s v a r iou sm ix tu re sb e tween c a t t le b r eed ing a nd a g r icu l tu re . T he re a l so a r ed i f f e ren tp ro p o r t ion so fd ome s t ic a nd w i ld a n ima ls a ti nd iv idua l s i te sw i th in a n a r ea , e . g . V o ld tof te a so ppo sed t oH a sma rk ,b o th F unen ,D enma rk ( Mü l le r1 919 )a nd a no bv ious d i f f e rence b e tween s ou ther na nd n o r ther nS cand inav ia i nt h i sr e spec t . Ap a s to ra ls ub s i s tence b a s is h a sa tt ime s b een a r gued o n t h es t r eng th o fc ha ra c te r i s t ic si nt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o f monu men t sa nd a c t iv i t ie s . Mo s tr e cen t ly t h i sl i ne o fa r gumen th a sb een u sed b yL a r s son ( 1983 ; 1 986 ) a nd b yL undma rk ( 1983 ) i nt h e i rs t ud ie so ft h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fg rave s a nd s e t t le men t si nv a r iou sp a r t so f Sweden . T he re a r e ,h oweve r ,b o th l i t t le d i rec te v idence a bou t t h e s pec if i c i t ie s o f s ub s i s tence a sw e l l a sm any d i f f e ren t w ay s o fi n te rp re t ing t h e d i s t r ibu t ion p a t ter n s . T he p o s s ib i l i ty o fv a r iou st y pe so fs ub s i s tence s t ra teg ie sw i th in e ach a r ea c an n o tb ei g no red . T he e conom ic p o ten t ia l so ft h el a nd scape st h em se lve sf u r the r mo r e s uppo r t as ugge s t ion o f d i f f e ren ts ub s is tence s t ra teg ie s . T h i s may b eu sed t oa r gue t h a tt h e s ou the rn a r ea so f Sweden a r ec l o se ly t i ed i nw i th t h e ( e a s t ) D an i sh s i te s , w h i le t h e r e s t o f Sweden a ppea r s t oh ave amo re s pec if i caly Swed i sh t y pe o fs e t t lemen ts y s tem ,t h el i ke o fw h ich m igh tb ed emons t ra ted i nN orway t h rough i n c rea sed r e sea r ch i nt h ei n land ( J ohan sen 1 980 ) . A sy e t ,s y s tema t ic i nve s t iga t i on o ft h i sd imens ion o ft h es o c ie t ie sd oe sn o te x i s t ;b u ta ni n ter im c onc lus ion s e em st o

4 70

b et h a ts i te sw i th d i f f e ren ts ub s i s tence b a s i s mus th ave e x i s ted c on tempo raneous ly d u r i ng t h el a t eB ronze A ge i nS cand inav ia . P o l len d i ag ram se x i s tf o rm any a r ea s ,e spec ia l ly i n Sweden . T hey s how e x ten s ive a g r i cu l tu ra la c t iv i ty i nm any r eg ion s , a nd g i ve e v idence o f ar a nge o fc hange st h roughou t t h eB ronze A ge . I th a sb een s ugge s ted t h a tn ew a r ea sw e re b rough ti n to u se a s ar e su l t o fs o i l d e te r io ra t ion a nd p opu la t ion p re s su re ( K r i s t ian sen 1 982 ; We l inde r 1 977 ) . T he mo s t g ene ra l i sed p i c tu re h a s b een d rawn b y We l inde r ( 1 975 ; 1 977 ) , w ho u sed m idd le Sweden a s as t udy a r ea . O n t h eb a s is o fs o i l t y pe s , t o pog raphy , a nd c l ima t ic e v idence i nc omb ina t ion w i th p o l len a na ly se sh eh a sd emon s t ra ted i n c rea sed a g r icu l tu ra la c t iv i ty t h rough e xpan s ion i n to ma rg ina la r ea si np e r iod sI Vt oV I . T h i st e ndency i si n te rp re ted a s ar e su l to ft h ei n te r -re la t ion sb e tween t h ep a r t icu la re conom ic o rgan i sa t ion , t h ee co l og ica l c ond i t ions , a nd p opu la t ion p r e s su re . T h i sp i c tu re c an n o t , h oweve r , b eg ene r a l i sed f o rt h ee n t i re S cand inav ian B ronze A ge a r ea a nd t h ed i f f e rence sw i th in i nd iv id u a lr eg ions h ave n o ta sy e tb een e s tab l i shed . I nc ompa r i son , t h ee v idence o fa g r icu l tu re i nt h ee a r ly I r on A ge s ugge s t sd epopu la t i on o fc e r ta in a r ea s , a nd i n c r ea sed i n ten s i ty i no the r s . T h i si sl i ke ly t oh ave h appened mo re o rl e s sc on tempo raneou s ly w i th t h er i se o ff i e ld sy s tem sa nd amo re c en t ra l i sed s e t t l emen t p a t ter n . T he e xac t n a tu re o f t h i s p ro ce s s r ema in s , h oweve r , s t i l l l a rge ly u n k nown . I ng ene ra li ti sd i ff i cu l tt or e la te t h ec hange si ns e t t lemen tp a t te rn so ra g r icu l tu r a lo rgan i sa t ion t ot h et r an s i t ion p ha se i t se lf . T he s i gn if icance o ft h ec hange so fa g r icu l t u ra lo rgan i sa t ion f i r s tb ecome s a ppa ren tl a te ri nt h ec ou r se o ft h e PR IA . W i th r ega rd t os e t t lemen t s t ruc tu re s a nd s ub s i s tence a c t iv i t ie s w e a ppea rt ob e s t udy ing l o ng te rm p roce s se sw he re n e i the rt h ec au se sn o rt h ec on sequence sc an b el i nked w i th s u ch ab r ief i n te rva la st h et r an s i t ion . T he e conom ic b a s i so fl a te B ronze A ge s o c ie t ie si nS cand inav ia i sl i ke ly t oh ave v a r i e dc on s ide rab ly r ang ing f r om i n tens ive a g r icu l tu re t ot r ad i t iona lh un t ing ( i nc lud ing r e in d ee rh un t ing a nd h e rd ing )a nd f i sh ing ( Broadben t1 983 : 1 6 ) . I ti sp robab ly f i r s tt h rough t h eI r on A ge t h a ts ub s is tence a c t iv i t ie sb ecome mo re u n ifo rm ,a l though s ome a r ea sc on t i nue t or e ly o nh un t ing , h e rd ing o rf i sh ing . I ti si mpo r tan tt or e cogn i se t h e se d i f f e ren c e si nt h es ub s i s tence b a s i s , s i nce t h ey p rov ide t h ee conom ic b ackg round a nd t h es t ruc t u re so ft h ed a i ly l i f ea ga in s tw h ich t h er ema rkab le u n ifo rm i ty o ft h eb ronze o b jec t sa nd ac e r ta in l e ve lo fr i tua la c t iv i t ie s mus tb eu nde r s tood . T he mode l sf o ra na g ra r ian s oc ie ty s ugge s t ac e r ta in p e rmanency o ft h es e t t lemen tp a t t er na l though t h i s d oe s n o tn ece s sa r i ly i mp ly v i l lage s , p rope r ty r i gh t s , o rp e rmanen t ly l a id o u ti nd iv idua lh ou se s . S ome s i te sa r ei n te rp re ted a sp e rmanen ts e t t lemen t sw i th c on c en t ra ted p opu la t ion s a nd s e rv ing a s ac en t ra lp l ace f o r al a rge ra r ea , s uch a sH a l lunda ( J aanus son 1 981 )o rV o ld to f te ( Th rane 1 980 ; 1 984 ) . T h i si sa r gued o nt h eb a s i so ft h e i r s c a le a nd t h ev a r ie ty a nd d eg r ee o fo n -s i te a c t iv i t ie s . O the rs i te sc l ea r ly r e f lec ts ma l li m p e rmanen tf a rm s tead so re ncampmen t s , a nd av a r ie ty i nf unc t ion a nd t y pe mu s tb es ug g e s ted .

4 71

2 2 S o rensen

T h rane ( 1980 ) h a s r e cen t ly p ropo sed , o n t h e b a s i s o fa n e x ten s ive s u rvey o fs ou th w e s tF unen , amode lf o rt h es e t t lemen ts t ruc tu re sa round V o ld tof te ,w h ich i n c lude ss ome o ft h ev a r ia t ions m en t ioned a bove . H es ugge s t s as em i -pe rmanen tc yc le o f mov ing s e t t l emen tu n i t s . T h i si n te rp re ta t ion s uppo r t s S tummann H an sen ' sh ypo the s is o fc ommu n a l ( o r monopo l ised )d ec i s ion r i gh t so ve rc u l t iva ted l a nd , w h ich i si lu s t ra ted b ys e t t le men t so f ten move o n to f o rme rf i e ld s . S tummann H an sen h a so nt h eb a s i so ft h el og ica l r e la t ion sh ip b e tween f i e ld s , c a t t le a nd t o o l s d i scu ssed t h e e v idence f o rp r iva te v e r su s c ommuna l owne r sh ip o ft h e se c a tego r ie s i nt h e l a te B ronze A ge a sw e l l a st h ec hange r ef lec ted a tt h e t r an s i t ion t oI r on A ge ( S tummann H ansen 1 979 ; 1 980 ) . H ed e sc r ibe s t h e s e t t lemen t so ft h el a te B ronze A ge a sg roups o ff a rm so rh ou se sl y ing c ha rac te r is t i c a l ly c l o se t oe ach o t he r b u t a ppa ren t ly w i thou t a ny j u r id ica l c onnec t ion b e tween t h e s i ng le h ou se s . T he g ene ra ll a ck o fs t a l ls ,f e nc ing a nd f i e ld s y s tem su n t i lp e r iod V Ii si n t e rp re ted a se v idence o fc ommuna lo wne r sh ip a nd p o s se s s ion o fc a t t le a sw e l la sc u l t i v a ted l a nd ( S tummann H an sen 1 980 : 4 ) . T he e v idence f o r s t a l l s , w h ich h e s uggge s t s b eg in t oa ppear i np e r iod V I ,i st h en s e en a s as i gn o ft h ed eve lopmen to fi nd iv idua lp o s s e ss ion o fc a t t le a nd f i e ld sw i th in as y s tem o fc ommuna l ly o wned c u l t iva ted l a nd . H e f u r the rmo re s t re s se st h a tt h es t a l l sf r om p e r iod V Ia r ea l lo ft h es ame s i ze a so ppo sed t o t ho se f r om PR IA I a nd I I , a nd h e s ugge s t s t h a tt h ey f r om p e r iod V Io nwa rd s mus tb e j u r id ica l ly t i ed t ot h es i ng le h ouseho ld . C ompa r ing t h e se e v idence sw i th t h eg rave sh e s t re s ses t h e s im i la r i ty i ns oc ia l s t a tu se xp re ssed w i th in t h ed i f f e r en tc on tex t sa nd i n te r p re t s t h em a s af a cade h i d ing ( f o rt h ep eop le i nvo lved ) t h ed eve lop ing p r iva t i sa t ion o f t h em eans o fp roduc t ion . T he s y s tem o fc ommuna l e mpha s i s3 b r eak sd own i nt h el a s t p ha se o ft h eB ronze A ge w hen c a t t le b ecome p r iva te p rope r ty a nd t h eo wne r sh ip o fc u l t i va ted l a nd c hange s . T he v a r ie ty i nt h es e t t lemen te v idence f r om t h el a te B ronze A ge s ugge s t st h a td i f f e r e n t s ca le s a nd t y pe s o fo rgan isa t iona l s y s tem s , t h e n a tu re o fw h ich a r e a sy e tu nc lea r , w e re a t wo rk c on tempo raneou s ly . O nt h eb a s i so ft h eb ronze sw ec an , h oweve r , a tt h e s ame t ime o b serve a ni n ten se n e two rk o fc ommun ica t ion b e tween t h ed i f f e r en ts i te sa s d emon s t ra ted b y t h e c u l tu ra l s im i la r i t ie s i nt h e i r u se a nd p roduc t ion o fb ronze s . T h is p a t ter nc hange i nt h eI r on A ge , w he re c en t ra l i sa t ion a nd g r ea te rr eg iona lu n i fo rm i ty o f t h e n ow a r i s ing v i l lage s t ruc tu re b ecome s o ne o ft h e ma in c ha rac te r is t ic s o ft h e c om mun i t ie sa nd t h e i ri n te rac t ion .

T he g rave s -b ur ia lr i tua l si nt he l a te B ronze A ge F rom p e r iod I Io nwa rd sc r ema t ion g r adua l ly b ecame t h ed om inan tb ur ia lr i te i nS can d inav ia a nd i np e r iod V a nd V Ii ti st h eo n ly f une ra ry p rac t ice l e f t( w i th af ew e xcep t ion s i nn o r th -ea s te rn a r ea so fS weden ) . I ns ou the rn S cand inav ia g rave sa r et h el a rge s tf i nd s g roup w h i le t h e i r n umbe rd ec rea se sc on s ide rab ly f u r the rn o r th . T he g rave sa r eg ene r a l ly p oo ra nd t h e i rc on t r ibu t ion t ot h em a ter ia lc u l tu re i sl im i ted . T he c oncep to ft r an s i t i on ,t h e refo re ,d oe sn o tt oa ny c on s ide rab le d eg ree r e s to nt h em a te r ia lf r om g r ave sa l t hough i ti sa ni mpo r tan tp o ten t ia ls ou rce o fi n fo rma t ion a bou ts oc ia lo rgan isa t ion ,r i tua l a c t iv i t ie s ,a nd b e l ief s t ruc tu re sa nd m igh ts hed s ome l i gh to nt h ep o s i t ion a nd r o le o ft h e i nd iv idua l a so ppo sed t ot h ec ommun i ty .

4 72

C ompa red t oe a r l ie rp e r iod so ft h eB ronze A ge t h eg rave g ood sf r om p e r iod V a nd V I a r ep oo r . T h i st e ndency i n c rea se sf r om p e r iod V t oV Iw hen b ur n t g r avegood s , w h ich a r e ac ha rac te r i s t ic o fP R IA I ,s t a r tt oa ppea r . T he p over ty o ft h eg ravegood si sf u r the r mo re e xp re s sed b o th q uan t i ta t ive ly ,i . e .d ec rea se i nn umbe r s ,a nd q ua l i ta t ive ly ,i . e .v a r i a b i l i ty a nd q ual i ty o ft h eo b jec t s( SO ren sen 1 984b ) . Af ew o u t s tand ing ly r i ch g rave sr e ma in i np e r iod s uch a st h e V o ld tof t e g rave ( Th rane 1 984 ) . T hey h ave o f ten b een s e en a s No rd ic p a ra l le l st ot h e' k ing 'g rave f r om S edd in , DDR (Wüs te rmann 1 974 ) ,a nd t h e re f o re a sr e f lec t ion o fs ome k ind o fr e g iona lc en t re s ( Th rane 1 981) . T en ta t ive d i v i s ions o ft h eg rave si n to d i f f e ren ts oc ia ll e ve l sh ave a l so b een m ade ( D ra iby n . d . ;T h rane 1 981 ) ; b u t t h e d i f f e rence s a r e s ma l l , t h e i rs oc ia l i mp l ica t ions d i f f icu l tt oa s se s s , t h ey b ecome e ven l e s sd i agno s t ic i nt h ec ou r se o ft h el a s tp ha se o ft h eB ronze A ge a nd t h ey a r e a b s en tf r om t h ee a r ly I r on A ge . S t anda rd i sed g ravegood s -se t s , s uch a st weeze r -razo r ,c an b ed i s t ingu i shed a s ac ommon p henomenon w h ich ,a st h er ange o ft y pe sn a r row sd own , o ccup ie s a n i n c rea s ing p e r cen tage o ft h e t o ta l a s semb lage . T he se s e t s , w h ich a r e u n i f o rm i na ppea rance a nd u sed t h roughou tB ronze A ge S cand inav ia , a r ei np e r iod V Ii n c r ea s ing ly r ep laced b y' e qua tab le 'i mpo r ted o b jec t so rb ys ub s t i tu te so rs ymbo l ic o b jec t s ( SO ren sen 1 987 ) . A tt h et r an s i t ion f r om B ronze t oI r on A ge t h e se s e t sd i sappea rf r om t h eg rave sa nd t h ey a r ei nt h ee a r ly I r on A ge r ep laced b yr eg iona l ly d i s t inc tt ype so fd re s s f i t t ing s( e spec ia l ly p ins ) . T he f o rm o ft h eg rave i t se lf a l so v a r ie s ( f o rd e scr ip t ion ss e eB roho lm 1 946 -49 ;H an s s on 1 927 ;J en sen 1 966 ; S t je rnqu is t 1 961 ; 1 983 ; S t römbe rg 1 975 ) . T he re i s ,h oweve r , a g ene ra ll e ve lo fs im i la r i ty ,w h ich i s ma in ly e xp re s sed t h rough t h ec r ema t ion ,t h eu rn ,t h e p ove r ty ,a nd t h er ange o fg ravegood s ;w h i le l im i ted l o ca ld i f f e r ence s( wh ich may i np a r t b ed ue t ot h ee nv i ronmen t ,e . g .f l a tf i e ld sa so ppo sed t o moun ta in p l a teaus4)a l so c an b e o b served . T he g rave sa r eg ene ra l ly e i the rs ma l lc i s t s made o fs t one s l ab s ( p re sen ti nt h eb eg in n ing o fp er iod V a nd l a te rd eve lop ing i n to a' s ymbo l ic 'r ep re sen ta t ion o ft h ec i s t si nt h e f o rm o fs t one p ack ing so rs t one s l ab s ) ,o rt h eu rn i t se l fc on s t i tu te st h eg rave . A s af i na l s t age t h ep y re d eb r i s , a ppea r ing l a te i nt h eB ronze A ge a nd c ommon i nP R IA I ,i si ni t s e lf t h e ' g rave ' . T he s e t t ing o ft h eg rave a l so v a r ie s ,a l though i ta lway si s' s imp le ' . S ome o ft h eg rave s a r e s e ti nt umu l i , e i the ra sp r ima ry ur n -g rave si ns ma l l t umu l io rs e conda ry u rn -g rave s i no lde r( e spec ia l ly e a r ly B ronze A ge )b a r rows . U rn -g rave su nde rf l a tf i e ld ( af o rm w h ich b ecome si n c rea s ing ly c ommon t h rough p e r iod V a nd V I ,a nd w h ich d om ina te si nP R IA I )a l so b eg ins t oa ppea r . A l lt h ef o rm sm en t ioned c an b ea s soc ia ted w i th s t one s ,p l aced a sk e rb s tone s , s h ip s e t t ing s , ' whee ls ' ,o t he re l abo ra te p a t ter n s ( e spec ia l ly o nB o rnho lm a nd G o t land ) o rj u s t a s s imp le ma rke r s . Ac ommon f a c to rf o rt h e se d i f f e ren t t ype s i s t h e i r g row ing t e ndency t oc l u s te ro rt of o rm r egu la rc eme te r ie s . T h is i s ap henomenon w h ich c l ea r ly f o re shadow st h eP R IA g rave f i e ld sa l though r eg iona ld i f f e rence s , s uch a s a r ep re sen ti nt h e PR IA ( Becke r 1 961 ) ,h ave n o ta sy e tb een f ound i nt h i sm a te r ia l . T he l a ck o fo ve ra l ls y s tema t ic a na lys is m ean s t h a to n ly t h e mo re o bv ious p a t ter n sc an b ee x -

4 73

2 2 S o r ensen

t r ac ted h e re a nd i tc an o n ly b ea rgued t h a tr eg iona ld i f f e r ence sw e re i nt h el a te B ronze A ge n o ta tt h es ame s t r ik ing ly v i s ib le l e ve l a st h ey w e r ei nt h e PR IA .

C ompar ison b e tween g rave sa nd b ur ia lr i te si np er iod V Ia nd PR IA I T he c ha rac te r i s t ics o fp e r iod V Ig rave s s e em i nm any w ay s t of o re shadow PR IA o ne s . T he ma in i mp re s s ion g a ined i so fc on t inu i ty t h rough r e p roduc t ion o ft h ee x i s t ing f o rm s i n sp i red b yl im i ted e xpe r imen ta t ion a nd i n f luenced b yi n c rea sed e mpha s i so nc r ema t ion . T he g rave sr e f lec tc on t inu i ty - t h rough f o rm a nd r i tua la sw e l la sb ya c tua lp hy s ica lc on t i nu i ty o fl o ca t ion o fs eve ra lc eme te r ie s . T h is mus t ,o fc ou r se ,h ave h ad s oc ia lr e a sons a sw el a sc on sequence s , a nd i ts ugge s t sp opu la t ion c on t inu i ty a nd s ome d eg r ee o fr i t u a lc on t inu i ty . A l though as er ie so fm ino rc hange sc an b ed e tec ted , ac l ea rc hange i nr e l i g iou s b e l ief a nd p rac t ice c an n o tb ed emon s t ra ted a tt h et r ans i t ion . Is ugge s tt h a tt h e mo re d ra s t ic c hange i nb ur ia lr i te ss hou ld r a the rb es ough ti nc onnec t ion w i th t h ei n t ro d uc t ion o fc r ema t ion a r ound p e r iod I I o ft h e B ronze A ge a nd t h en p o s s ib ly a ga in i n PR IA I Iw i th t h er e in t roduc t ion o fr i ch g r ave s ( J O rgen sen 1 968 ) . T he g rave sc on s t i tu te t h e mo s tn ume rous monumen ta lg roup a nd c on ta in ,i ns p i te o f t h e p over ty o fi nd iv idua l g r ave s , mo s t o ft h e o b jec t s . T h rough t h e l a te B ronze A ge g ravegood sb ecame i n c rea s ing ly s pa r se a nd s om ep e r iod V Ig rave sc on ta in b u rn tg rave g ood s . T h is s how s ad ec l ine i nt h e i mpo r tance o ft h e a c tua lp hy s ica l p r e sence , a so p p o sed t o ar e p re sen ta t ion , o ft h e g ravegood s . T h i s i si mpo r tan t f o ru nde r s tand ing t h e l a ck o ff i nd s f r om t h e PR IA Is i nce i tm ean s t h a t t ot h e e x ten t t h a t t h e p ove r ty o ft h e PR IA i sb a sed o nt h el a ck o fg ravegood si tc an b es e en t op re sen tc on t inu i ty o ft e nden c i e sw h ich a r eo bv iou si nt h el a te p e r iod V Ia nd w h ich d eve lop t h rough t h el a te B ronze Age . T he i mpor tance o fg ravegood sc l ea r ly d eva lue sa nd c hange i nc onnec t ion w i th c r e ma t ion . We s e et h ei n t roduc t ion o fs ymbo l ic o b jec t s , w h ich w e re p roduced s o le ly t o b e u sed i ng rave s w i thou tp r ev iou s u se s ( SO ren sen 1 987 ) . Among s uch o b jec t s t h ei n c i sed d raw ing s o fb ronze t y pe s ( e .g . c omb s , B roho lm 1 946 -49 : G rave 1 545 ) o n s ome u rns a r et h e mo s ts t r ik ing e xamp le sw h i le amo re c ommon p henomenon i st h em in ia tu re c op ie so fr ea lo b jec t s . Among m in ia tu r e s , s wo rd sa nd k n ive sh ave g ene ra l ly b een r e c o gn i sed . R ecen t ly t h is g roup o fs ymbo l ic o b jec t sh a s , o n t h e b a s i s o ft h e u se a nd a p p ea rance o fm any s o c a l led s c rap p i ece s o fb ronze s hee t a nd o ft h e r a zo r s o fB audou ( 1960 ) t y pe X IC , b een s ugge s ted t ob e f a r mo re n ume rous t h an e xpec ted ( SO rensen 1 987 ) . T he a ccep ted i n te rp re ta t ion o fs ymbo l ic o b jec t si st h a tt h ey r ep laced t h er ea lo ne s i nt h eg rave c on tex t ( Broho lm 1 933 ; 1 946 -49 ; B rOnd s ted 1 959 ) . T h is i n te rp r e ta t ion i s b a sed o nt h ef a c t st h a tt h eo b jec t sa r ef ound e xc lu s ive ly i ng rave sa nd t h a tt h ey c opy o r r ep lace t y pe st r ad i t iona l ly f ound i ng rave s . I no rde rt oa pp rec ia te t h i sc hange i nt h en a t u re o ft h eg r avegood si ts hou ld b ee mpha s i sed t h a tt h es ymbo l ic o b jec t sa r ec on tempo r a ry w i th t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e g radua lw i thd rawa lo fs wo rd s ( e spec ia l ly f o re ign o ne s t h es ame t y pe sw h ich mo s tc ommon ly a r ec op ied )f r om g rave c on tex t s ,a nd t h a tt h ey a r e c on tempo ra ry w i th t h e g ene ra ld ec rea se i n ma te r ia lw ea l th i ng raves a nd t h ei n c rea sed empha s is o nd epo s i t s . T h is u se o fs ymbo l ic o b jec t si sp a r t icu la rt ot h el a te B ronze A ge , a nd Is ugge s tt h a ti ts hou ld b eu nde r s tood a s ar e f lec t ion o ft h es t anda rd isa t ion o ft h eu se a nd m ean ing s o ft h eb ronze sd u r ing t h i sp e r iod - as t r uc tu ra t ion o ft h e m a te r ia l w o r ld

4 74

w h ich b reak sd own a nd s l ow ly d i s in teg ra te st h rough t h el a te p e r iod V Ia nd e a r ly P R IA I . T he e a r ly PR IA i sc ha rac te r ised b y an umbe ro fs pec ia lb u r ia lc us tom sw h ich ma in ly r ef lec tf u r the rd eve lopmen to fl a te B ronze A ge t r ad i t ions b u ta l so s how t h ei n t roduc t ion o fn ew f e a tu re s . T he z one d iv i s ion s ugge s ted f o rJ u t land b y B ecke r ( 1961) d oe s , t oa c e r ta in d eg ree , c o r re spond w i th d i f f e ren tb u r ia lc u s tom s , a nd r eg iona ld ive r s i ty i sn ow a ppa ren tw i th in t h i sa spec to fs o c ie ty . C eme te r ie sc on s i s t ing o fu rn si nv a r iou sr eg iona l t ype so fg rave - s e t t ing sn ow e x i s t . T he s i ze o ft h e se c eme te r ie s ,n umbe r ing u pt os ome 1 000 g rave s ( Becke r 1 961 ; B rOnd s ted 1 959 ; J O rgen sen 1 971 ) ,i sc on s ide rab ly d i f f e r en t f r om t h a to ft h el a te B ronze A ge o ne s . A no the rd i f f e rence i st h a tt h el a te B ronze A ge g rave -c lu s te r s a r el oo se ly s t ruc tu red w i thou ta ny f o ca lp o in ta nd o f ten i n c lude s e cond a ry b ur ia l si no lde rb a r rows ,w h i le i nc ompa r i son t h eP R IA c eme te r ie st e nd t oc ons i s to f u n ifo rm g rave s s t ruc tu red a r ound ac en t ra l p o in t s uch a s a n o lde r b a r row . B o th l a te B ronze A ge g rave sa nd PR IA o ne ss how t h eu se o fo lde rs t ruc tu re s , a nd t h e re m igh tb e ac on t inu i ty o f' l oo se 'a s soc ia t ion b e tween p re sen tb u r ia l s( t he ur n s ) a nd p a s to ne s ( t he b a r rows ) . T he g r ave s o ft h e PR IA h ave n o tb een s y s tema t ica l ly i n ve s t iga ted t h roughou tS can d inav ia ,a nd c onc lu s ion sr e s to nd i f f e ren tr eg iona ls t ud ie s( e .g .A lb rec t sen 1 954 ;B ecke r 1 961 ; N y len 1 965 ) . S ome r eg ion s , s uch a s Go t land a nd B o rnho lm , h ave u n ique f e a t u re s ;b u tt h eg rave sa r ei ng ene ra lv a r ia t ion so ns t onepacked ur n su nde rf l a tf i e ld sp l aced i ns ma l lc eme te r ie s . Many a r ea s a l so s how c on t inu i ty i nt h eu se o fo lde rb a r row sf o r s e conda ry ur ng r ave s ,w h ich o fc ou r se i so ne o ft h ec l ea re s ts i gn o fc on t inu i ty i nb u r ia l r i tes f r om p e r iod V It o PR IA I . T he g rave g ood si n PR IA Ic omp r i se o n ly d r e s s -f i t t ing s , s uch a sp ins a nd b e l th ook s o fb ronze o ri r on . Af ew n ew t y pe s a ppea r ( b e l th ook s ) b u t t h e l a rge rp a r ta r em e re ly n ew v e r s ion so ft y pe sw h ich b ecame i n c rea s ing ly c ommon o ve rt h el a s tt wo p e r iod so f t h eB ronze Age ,s uch a sp in s . T he r a nge o fo b jec t s ,h oweve r ,i sl im i ted a nd s hows c l ea r r eg iona lv a r ia t ion s ( A rbman 1 934 ; B ecke r 1 961 ;N y len 1 965 ) . I ti sg ene ra l ly a s sumed t h a tt h eo b jec t sf ound i n PR IA Ig rave sa r ep a r to ft h ed res si n w h ich t h e d ecea sed w a s b u rn t ( BrOnd s ted 1 959 ) . T he g eog raph ica l c l us te r ing o ft h e t ype sf ound i ng rave sc an t h en b ei n te rp re ted a sr ef l ec t ion so fl o ca ld i f f e rence si nd re s s f a sh ion , wh ich d eve loped i nt h ee a r l ie s tl i on A ge a nd w h ich i si nc on t ra s tt ot h eu n i fo r m i ty o fp e r iod V I . T he g rave o b jec t sf r om PR IA Id on o tp e rcep t ib ly d emon s t ra te p e r s ona ls t a tus o rs oc ia lh i e ra r ch ie s ,a nd t h eu n ifo rm i ty i nt h e ' wea l th 'o ft h eg rave s ,w h ich d eve loped t h rough p e r iod V a nd V Io bv iou s ly c on t inued i n PR IA . O ne c an t h en a r gue t h a tt h et r an s i t ion f r om ' Bronze A ge t oI r on A ge 'd oe sn o tc o r r e spond w i th at r an sfo r ma t ion o ft h er i tua lr o le o fg r ave sb u tr a the rw i th ac hange f r om c u l tu ra lc ohe s ion o ve r al a rge a r ea t oc l ea rr eg iona ld ema r ca t ion e xp re s sed i ng ravefo rm a nd d re s sf a sh ion . T he d eg ree o fc u l tu ra la nd r i tua lc on t inu i ty o ve rt h i sp e r iod c an b ef u r the ri lus t ra ted b yt h ec e ram ic s . B ecke r 's ( 1 961) a ccoun to ft h eJ u t land i sh ma te r ia lf r om t h e PR IA Ic an b e u sed f o rt h i sp u rpo se s i nce t h e g ene ra l p a t te rns e me rg ing s e em t oa pp ly t o aw ide r

4 75

2 2 S o r ensen

a r ea . S eve ra lc ha rac ter is t ics a r es ha r ed b yt h et wo p e r iod s( p e r iod V Ia nd PR IA I ) ,a nd t h e se s im i lar i t ie s d on o tm e re ly r e la te t ot e chn ica l a spec t s o ff ab r ic , c o lou ra nd s hape b u ta r ea l so e xp re s sed b y s im i la r mode so ft r ea t ing t h ep o t si nt h eb u r ia lc on tex t . S ev e ra l a u tho r sh ave d rawn a t ten t ion t ot h e t y po log ica l c on t inu i ty e v iden ti nt h ec e ram ic s ( Becke r 1 961 ; J ensen 1 967 ; S t je rnqu i s t 1 961 ; S t rombe rg 1 980 ) , b u tc on t inu i ty i sa l so f ound o n ad i f f e r en tl e ve l . T h i si se xp re s sed b y as im i la r i ty i nt h et r ea tmen to ft h ep o t s i nt h e i rp a r t ic ipa t ion i nt h ef une ra ry r i tua l s , a nd i ts ugge s t s c on t inu i ty i nt h em ean ing c on t ex t si nw h ich t h ef une ra li sb e ing c on s t i tu ted . F o rt h eP R IA o ne c an s ugge s tt h a ta s ag ene ra lr u le t h ep o t s u sed i nt h eg rave sd on o tr ep re sen t ap a r t icu la rt y pe b u ta r ed i s c a rded d ome s t ic i t em s . T he d eg ree o fd amage o nt h eu rns a l so s ugge s t st h a tt h ey w e r e n o tp roduced s pec if ica l ly a su rn s b u th ad a l ready b een u sed f o ro the rp u rpo se s . T he se c ha rac te r i s t ics a r ea l so r e levan tf o rt h em a jo r i ty o fl a te B ronze A ge u rn s ( Becke r 1 961 : 2 47 ; a nd i lu s t ra ted f o re xamp le b yg rave s 1 912 , 1 929 , a nd 1 865 i nB roho lm 1 946 -49 ) . Meanwh i le ,n o ta l lt h ep o t te ry t y pe sk nown f r om PR IA s e t t lemen t sw e r eu sed a su rn so r a s s e conda ry g rave p o t s a nd p r ef e rence f o r c e r ta in t ype s i sc l ea r ly r ef lec ted ( Becke r 1 961 ) . Wh i le t h i sa l so s e em st ob er e levan tf o rt h el a te B ronze A ge ,w ed ot h e r es e ea n a dd i t iona lp rac t ice o fp ur po se ly p roduced f une ra lu rn s . T he se a r et h eh ouse - a nd f a ce u rn sf r om p e r iod I V -V Io ft h eB ronze A ge ( Broho lm 1 933 ) ,r e p re sen t ing ap henomenon a b sen tf r om t h e PR IA . T he s im i la r i t ie si na t t i tude st owa rd st h ef une ra lu rns b e tween t h et wo p e r iod sa r ef ound i n t h e f a c to r s w h ich n ega te o r d eny b o th t h e i mpo r tance o f t h e c on ta ine r ( d am a ged / 'k i l led 'd ome s t ic p o t s , b roken o rd amaged b efo re u se , s e conda ry l i d s ) a nd t h ei n d iv idua lg rave ( many s e conda ry p o t s ,c l us te r ing / ceme te r ie s ) . T he se s im i la r i t ie sr ef l ec t t h e s ame a t t i tude s a sw e s e ee xp r e s sed i nt h ec r ema t ion r i te i ni t sf i na lf o rm : t h ei nd i v idua li se r a sed , g ravegood sd i sappea r ,a nd a l lg r ave sw i th in ar eg ion a ppea re qua la nd s im i la r . T he d i f f e rence sb e tween t h et wo p e r iod s ,o nt h eo the rh and ,r e la te t ot h ei mpo r tance a s s igned t ot h eu rn . I nt h eB ronze A ge w ed oi ns ome c a se ss t i l lf i nd a ne mpha s is o nt h e u rn a ss ome th ing d i f f e ren ti ne very r e spec tf r om t h ed ome s t ic s phe re . T he p o t su sed a s f une ra l ur n sd oi nb o th p e r iod sc on s is to ft y pe sw h ich t h rough t h e i rf une ra ry a s soc ia t ion b ecome s pec ia l . I n t h e e a r ly I r on A ge t h i s i se xp re s sed b y t h e s e lec t ion o f as pec i f ic r ange o fd ome s t ic t y pe s w ho se o r ig ina l f unc t ion m igh t b e d en ied t h rough d e s t ruc t ion . I nt h el a te B ronze A ge as im i la ru se o fp rev iou sd ome s t ic i t em si sc ommon , b u t a tt h e s ame t ime t h e re i sa l so ap roduc t ion o f as pec ia lg roup o ff une ra lp o t s , s e ee xamp le si n F ig . 1 08 . T he e mpha s is o n t h e f une ra l ( r i tua l ) c on tex t a so ppo sed t ot h e d ome s t ic i s t h e refo re i nt h el a te B ronze A ge i ns ome i n s tance se xp re s sed a l ready a tt h es t age o ft h e p r ima ry p roduc t ion ( po t sp roduced a su rns ) w h i le t h i sd i s t inc t ion i nt h ee a r ly I r on A ge i se xp re s sed o n as e conda ry ' u se leve l ' . F o rb o th p e r iod sw es e e ad i s t inc t ion b e tween f une ra l a c t iv i t ie s a nd d ome s t ic a c t iv i t ie s , b u t t h e re i sa n i mpo r tan t d i f f e rence w i th r e s pec tt oh ow p ro found ly t h is d i s t inc t ion p ene t ra te st h ed i f f e ren tl e ve l so fs oc ia lo rgan i s a t ion a nd p roduc t ion . O nce a ga in w e s e e t h e l a te B ronze A ge eme rg ing a s ap e r iod c ha rac ter i sed b y ac l a s s if ica to ry a t t i tude t owa rd sm a te r ia lp roduc t sa nd c u l tu ra la c t iv i t ie s .

4 76

D epo s i t sa nd s i ng le f i nd sf r om t h el a te B ronze A ge F rom t h e e a r ly t ot h e l a te B ronze A ge t h e re i s ac l ea rr educ t ion i nt h e a moun t , a nd a c hange i nt h en a tu re ,o ft h eo b jec t sf ound i ng r ave c on tex t ,a nd t h i sc hange i sp a ra l le led b y ag row th i nt h en umbe ra nd r i chne s so fd epo s i t s . T he r e la t ive s oc ia l s i gn if i cance ,i n t e rm so fv i sua ld i sp lay o f ma te r ia lo b jec t s ,o ft h e se t wo r i tua la c t iv i t ie sc l ea r ly c hanged t h rough t h eB ronze A ge , a nd t h i sp roce s so ft r an sfo rma t ion o fr i tua la c t iv i t ie si so fi m p or tance f o ra s se ss ing t h en a tu r eo ft h el a te B ronze A ge s o c ie t ie s . D epo s i t sw e re f i r s tr e cogn i sed a s as e pa ra te m a te r ia l g roup i n1 867 b y Wo r saae a nd h ave s i nce t h en b een t h es ub jec to fn ume rous s t ud ie s( e .g .B od i lsen 1 984 ; 1 986 ; B rad l e y1 982 ;B roho lm 1 946 -4 9 ;H und t1 955 ;J en sen 1 972 ;K r i s t ian sen 1 974 ;L au r sen 1 958 ; L evy 1 982 ; Mü l le r 1 887 ; S p rockhof f 1 956 ; a nd S t jemqu i s t 1 964 ) . T he d i scu s s ion s h ave ma in ly f o l lowed t wo l i ne s ,o ne o fw h ich w a st os ubd iv ide t h e ma te r ia li n to d i f f e r e n tc l a s se so fd epo s i t s ,w h i le t h eo t he rh a sb een c oncer ned w i th i n te rp r e ta t ion .

F igu re 1 08 . I lu s t ra t ion o ft h ep o ten t ia ld i f f e rence b e tween aB ronze A ge ur na nd aP R IA o ne . A : l a te B ronze A ge h ou se -u rn f r om Z ea land ,D enma rk ; B : l a te B ronze A ge f a ce u rn f r om L ange land , D enma rk ; C : P R IA ur no f at y pe k nown f r om s ou the rn a nd c en t r a lJ u t land ; D : PR IA ur no f at y pe k nown f r om s ou the rn a nd c en t ra lJ u t land .

4 77

2 2 S o r ensen

T he d epo s i t s c l ea r ly v a ry w i th in t h e g ene ra ld e scr ip t ion o ft h em a si n ten t iona l ly d e p o s i ted o b jec t s . T o r educe t h is v a r iab i l i ty t o as ubd iv i s ion o fa c t iv i t ie s o rt oe mb race t h em b y s imp l i s t ic i n te rp r e ta t ion i st h e refo r ep rob lema t ic a nd may e a s i ly e r a se t h ev a r i e ty o fa c t iv i t ie sa nd mo t ive sr e f lec ted ,a nd t h u sh i de t h ev a r iab i l i ty a nd p o ten t ia l ly a m b iguous f unc t ions o ft h ed epo s i t si nt h et r an s i t ion p ha se . As t r ik ing a nd u n ique a spec to ft h eS cand inav ian l a te B ronze A ge i st h ew ea l th o fo r n amen t s ,i np a r t icu la rn eck lace s ,b e l tboxe s ,b e l t s tud s ,a nd s pec tac le -f ibu lae ,a l lo fw h ich c ome f r om d epo s i t s . I nt y po log ica lt e rm st h e se o b jec t sa r ep a r t icu la rt ot h e' No rd ischen K re i s 'i nt h el a te s tp ha se so ft h eB ronze A ge ,a nd t h ey a r eo fp a r t icu la ri n te r e s tf o rc l a r i f y ing t h e f unc t ion a nd s i gn if icance o ft h em a te r ia l c u l tu re o ft h i sp e r iod . F rom at e ch n i ca lp o in to fv i ew t h e se o b jec t s a r eh igh ly s k i l led p roduc t s , s upe rb ly s h aped a nd d ec o ra ted ( f o rd i scuss ion o fd eco ra t ion s e e Mü l le r 1 921 , a nd f o ri lus t ra t ion o f or namen t s s e e S p rockhof fa nd H öckmann 1 983 ) , a nd t h ey d emon s t ra te aw e l l c on t ro l led a nd o r g an ised p roduc t ion p rocedu re . T he t e chn ica l a nd a r t i s t ic q ua l i ty o ft h e s i ng le o b jec t s v a ry d epend ing o n t h ei nd iv idua l s m i th s , b u t t h e n o rm s e xp re ssed b y t h e i r s im i la r i t ie s s ugge s t ar i g id f o rmal i sa t ion o ft h e or namen t sw h ich m igh th ave p a r t ic ipa ted i nd ec id i ng , a nd i nt ur nb ecame i n f luenced b y ,t h e i rr e s t r ic ted a s soc ia t ion w i th d epo s i t iona la c t i v i t ie s . O rnamen t sh ave t r ad i t iona l ly b een a s soc ia ted w i th w omen ( f o rd i scu s s ion s e eS o ren s e n 1 984b a nd 1 987 ) a nd t h e i rf r equen to ccu r rence i nd epo s i t sh ave i nf luenced o u ri n t e rp re ta t ion o fd epo s i t s a sw e l l a sc aused u s t os e e t h e l a te B ronze A ge d om ina ted b y r i ch a nd p owe r fu l f ema le s ( Mü l le r 1 897 ; K r i s t iansen 1 974 ; a nd L evy 1 982 ) . T h i se m p ha s is o n women s hou ld b eq ua l if ied . Women a r ei nt h i sp e r iod o n ly e xc lu s ive ly a s so c i a ted w i th an a r row r ange o fl o ca l ly p roduced s t anda rd i sed o b jec t s , a nd t h ey a r eo n ly e xc lu s ive ly r ef lec ted t h rough av e ry p a r t icu la rs e to fr i tua l s ,i . e .t h ed epo s i t ion o fs e t so f o rnamen t so rp a i r so fn eck la ce s . A sa na l te rna t ive t op rev ious v i ew s Is ugge s tt h a tb o th ma le a nd f ema le a r e e mpha s i sed i nt h e ma te r ia l c u l tu re a nd t h er i tua l a c t iv i t ie s o ft h e p e r iod - b u tt h a tt h ey a ppea rt ob e a s soc ia ted w i th d i s t inc tr ange so fo b jec t s a nd a c t i v i t ie s . T h i ss t r ic tc l a ss i f ica t ion o fg ende rr e la t ion sa nd a t t r ibu te si s ,h oweve r ,o n ly c l ea r l yr ef lec ted i nt h ep rac t ice o fh oa rd d epo s i t ion a nd i sn e i the rc l ea r ly r ef l ec ted i ng rave s n o r( a sy e t )t r aced i nf o re xamp le t h es pa t ia lo rgan i sa t ion o fd a i ly l i f e ;o ne s hou ld t h e re f o re n o t s e e t h e ma le / f ema le e mpha s i sr ef l ec ted b ys ome d epo s i t s a s ad i rec to ru nam b i guou sr ef lec t ion o fe i the rs o c ia ls t a tus o rr o le s ,o rp owe rr e la t ion s . O ne o ft h es t a r t l ing a spec t s o f PR IA Ii st h e d i sappea rance o fu nque s t ionab ly g ende r a s soc ia ted o b jec t s ' t oge the rw i th t h ed i sappea rance o ft h ep r ac t ice o fd epo s i t ing o b jec t si nt h ef o rm so fc om p o s i te h oa rd s , p a i r so rs i ng le f i nd s . O n ly al im i ted n umbe ro fd epo s i t sd a te t o PR IA I , a nd t h ey c on s i s to fn ume rou ss im i la ro b jec t s ,t y p ica l ly s imp le n eck -a nd b e l t r ing s . We c an , w hen c on s ide r ing t h e l o g ic b eh ind t h e se a c t iv i t ie s , d e tec t ag radua l d e c l ine i nt h e r i te o fd epo s i t ion o ve rt h ep e r iod 6 50 -400 B .C . i nw h ich t h ea c t iv i ty b ecome mo re f o r ma l i sed a nd f i na l ly i st a ken t oi t s u tmo s t f o rm i nt h e c a se o ft h e p a i r s a nd ' e in typ ige f unde ' ( J en sen 1 972 ) . T he b i gv o t ive o f f e r ing sa ppea r ing i nt h el a te rp a r to ft h eP R IA , e . g .H jo r t spr ing a nd D e jb je rg , s hou ld b es e en a st h er i se o f ad i f f e ren ts e to fr i tua lp rac t i ce s r a the r t h an a s at r ansfo rma t ion o ft h e l a te B ronze r i tua l s . T he i rd i f f e rence s a r e ,

4 78

a mong o t he r s ,r ef lec ted i nt h ee mpha s i so nm a le s ,o nw a r f a re a nd i np a r t icu la ro nf ood o f f e r ing s w h ich w e s e e i ns ome P R IA d epo s i t s a nd w h ich a r e i ns ha rp c on t ra s t t of o r e xamp le t h ed i sp lay o fw omen i nt h el a te B ronze A ge . T he d i f f e r en t t y pe s o f d epo s i t s ( e .g . c ompo s i te , p a i r s , s e t s , ' e in typ ige ' a nd s c rap h oa rd s )a r e ,i ns p i te o fs ome c l u s te r ing ,g ene ra l ly s ha red b yt h ee n t i re a r ea ( J en sen 1 972 ; J ohan sen 1 981 ; K r i s t ian sen 1 974 ; S t enbe rge r 1 971 ) , a nd t h e o b jec t s i nt h em a r e d ec o ra ted i ns im i la rw ays a nd h ave i d en t ica l w ea r p a t te rn s ( SO ren sen 1 984b ) . T he s im i l a r i ty i nt h ed i s t r ibu t ion o fd i f f e ren tv ar iab le ss ugge s tt h a t ac ommon S cand inav ian t r ad i t i on l i e sb eh ind t h e se a c t iv i t ie s . T he c l ea rt e ndency t owa rd se a s te r ly d i s t r ibu t ion o fd e p o s i t si nt h el a te B ronze A ge h a sc au sed s ugge s t ions o fs ub -d iv i s ion o fo rd e layed d e v e lopmen ti np e r iod V Ii nt h ee a s ter np a r t so fD enma rk ( Leyden 1 957 ) ,b u tt h e se i n te r p re ta t ion sa r en ow g ene ra l ly r e jec ted ( J acob -F r ie sen 1 967 ;J en sen 1 972 ;B audou 1 960 ) .

A no the rt e ndency , w i th r oo t sg o ing b ack t ot r ad i t iona ld i scus s ion o ft h er e la t ionsh ip b e tween g rave sa nd d epo s i t s ,i st os ugge s td epo s i t sa nd g r ave st ob e mu tua l ly e xc lu s ive b ya s sum ing d epo s i t st ob ea na l te rna t ive t og rave s . T h i s i d ea w a se xp re s sed b y Muü l l e ri n1 866 a nd w a st a ken u pa ga in b yH und t( 1 955 ) a nd A ne r( 1957 ) . Mo re r e cen t ly i t h a sb een s ugge s ted t h a tb o th a c t iv i t ie ss hou ld b eu nde r s tood a sw ay so fd i spo s ing w ea l th t op re serve e x i s t ing monopo l ie sa nd d i f f e rence s( Brad ley 1 982 ) . A sw i th o the ra spec t so ft h em a te r ia lt h ei n te rp re ta t ion d epend so nt h ee mpha s i sg i ven t os pec if i cf e a tu re s . I ti sc l ea r ly p o s s ib le t os t re s sa spec t so ft h ed epo s i t sw h ich s ugge s t t h a tt h ey a r ed i s t inc t ly d i f f e ren tf r om g rave sa nd w h ich i nd ica te t h ev a r ie ty o fi d ea sb e h ind t h e t wo p rac t ice s , s uch a sf o re xamp le t h e d i s t inc td i f f e rence s i nt h et y pe s o fo b j e c t su sed . T h i sm eans t h a tt h et wo c on tex t sa r eu n l ike ly t ob ej u s tl o ca l ly d i f f e ren tv e r s i ons o ft h e s ame a c t iv i ty . T he t y pe s f ound i ng rave s a r e ' p e r sona l ' o b jec t s o n a' l ow p re s t ige 'l e ve l , s uch a st o i le te qu ipmen ta nd d r e s sf i t t ing s . D epo s i t sc on ta in h a rd ly a ny o ft h o se t ype s6 b u th ave amuch b roade rv a r ie ty o ft y pe s s uch a so rnamen t s ,w eapon s , o ru n ique o b jec t s , a sw e l la st o o l s . R a the rt h an e mpha s i s ing as im i la r i ty i nt h er ea son s f o r t h e a c t iv i t ie s , s ome r e cen t a pp roache s h ave f o cu ssed u pon t h e p o ten t ia l ly s im i la r s o c io -econom ic f unc t ion o ri mpo r tance o ft h ea c t iv i t ie s . T he d i f f e rence si nd i s t r ibu t ion c an t h en b es e en i nt e rm so fd i f f e rence si nw ea l th a nd e conom ic s t a tus r a the rt h an a sa n e xp re s s ion o fd i f f e ren ts t age si nc u l tu ra ld eve lopmen t ,o rd i f f e ren tr eg iona lc u s tom s( J en s e n 1 972 ; 1 983b ;K r i s t ian sen 1 983 ; 1 984 ) . T h is a pp roach s o lve s many o ft h ep rob lem s w h ich w e re r e la ted t op rev ious v i ew s , b u ti tt e nd s t oi g no re t h er ea l i ty o ft h ep hy s ica l d i f f e rence s b e tween t h e t wo a c t iv i t ie s . T he p o ten t ia l i mpor tance o fw h ich o b jec t s a r e u sed a nd t h ep rec ise c ha rac te ro ft h ec on tex tb ecome r educed t ot h ea s sumed f unc t iona l r o le o fd epo s i t sa ss uch . Is ugge s tt h a tg r ave sa nd d epo s i t s ,i ns p i te o ft h ev e ry r e a lp o ss i b i l i ty o fs ome s im i la r i ty o ff unc t ion , h ave t ob e a na ly sed a sd i s t inc t ly d i f f e ren tr ef lec t i on so fc on tempo ra ry c u l tu ra l s t ruc tu r e s . We mus ta s sume t h a tb o th a c t iv i t ie sr e la te t o as y s tem o fs upe rna tu ra lb e l ief s ,a nd t h a tt h ey t h rough t h is r e la te t oa nd w e re p ar to ft h e s ame s upe r s t ruc tu re . T he r hy thm o fc hange ( Bod i l sen 1 986 ) w i th in t h e t wo a c t iv i t ie s may t h e refo re a tp o in t sc o r re spond w i thou tt h et wo b e ing s ubme rged i n to o ne a no the r .

4 79

2 2 S orensen

T he i mpor tance o ft h ed epo s i t s f r om t h el a te B ronze i so n ly s e conda ry t h ew ea l th o f ma te r ia lw h ich t h ey p rov ide . T he i rr e a ls i gn if icance i sf ound i nt h ei n s igh tt h ey g i ve u s i n to ar a nge o fn on f unc t iona l a c t iv i t ie sa nd t h ei mpo r tance t h e se w e r e a s s igned b yt h e c on tempo ra ry s oc ie ty . I ns p i te o fr e f e rence t oe t hnog raph ic c a se s t ud ie sd epo s i t iona la c t i v i t ie si nt h eE uropean B ronze A ge h ave r ema ined as omewha te n igma t ic a nd a l ien p he n omena . G rave r i tua ls a nd s e t t lemen t a c t iv i t ie s b e long w i th in t h er e cogn i sab le w o r ld e ven i ft h ey t a ke ad i f f e ren tf o rm f r om o u ro wn . T he d e s truc t ion o fw ea l th ,h oweve r , i s a l ien ; b u to u rs t ud ie sa nd i n te rp re ta t ion so ft h i sp henomenon n a tu ra l ly t r yt o make t h em r a t iona l a nd r e cogn i sab le . T he v ar iou si n te rp re ta t ion s a l l s e em t ob eo fs ome v a lue f o r i lum ina t ing c er ta in a spec to ft h ea c t iv i t ie so rt h e i ro ve ra l lc onsequence sa nd f unc t ion s , b u t n one o ft h ei n te rp re ta t ion s a r ei nt h em se lve s af u l l a ccoun to ft h er ange o fv a lue s , n o rm s , a nd p r io r i t ie s w h ich a r er e f lec ted i nt h e d epo s i t s f r om t h ep e r iod . T he i mpo r t a nce o ft h e d epo s i t s f o rt h e p re sen t d i scu s s ion i st h e refo re p r ima r i ly t h a t t h ey p rov ide i n s igh ti n to as t rong ly r i tua l i sed c l a s s if ica to ry s oc ie ty , w he re t h ep o s s ib i l i ty o fd e tach m en tb e tween v a r ious l e ve l so fs oc ia la c t iv i t ie ss e em s em inen t( s ee a l so P a rke rP ea r son a nd S O ren sen f o r thcom ing ) . I nt h i ss en se t h ed i sappea rance o ft h i se n t i r es e to fa c t iv i t ie s a nd i t sa s soc ia ted m ean ing s -comp lex i s a' t rue 'c hange w i th in t h a ts oc ie ty ;b u t ac hange w h ich r e la te st ot h e ' p e r sona l i ty 'o rs e lf -exp r es s ion o ft h es oc ie ty a nd n o tn ece ssa r i ly t o ar evo lu t ion o rc o l lapse o ft h es oc ia lt o ta l i ty ( c on t ra f o re xamp le N y la 1 974 ) .

C onc lu s ion E ach c a tego ry o fa c t iv i ty men t ioned i nt h i sp ape rg i ve si t so wn s ugge s t ion o fw ha ta nd w hen t h e t r ans i t ion f r om B ronze t oI r on A ge i s . Ih ave t r ied t od i scu s s t h e m a jo rc a t e go r ie s o fa c t iv i t ie s a nd t os ugge s tt h e n a tu r e o fc hange w h ich t h ey i mp ly . F o re ach g roup t h ed i scu ss ion h ad t ob ec en t red o nt h ea t temp tt oc l a r ify t h en a tu r eo fc hange a nd i np a r t icu la rt od i s t ingu ish b e tween t r an sfo rma t ion a nd r ad ica lc hange s . T he se d i scu s s i on sh ave t h en b een f o l lowed u pb ys ugge s t ions a bou tw ha tr e a lm o fs oc ia lr e a l i ty t h e se e n t i t ie s b e longed t o , a nd c on s ide ra t ion s o ft h e i r s i gn if icance a nd t h e i n te r re la t ion s b e t ween t ho se d i sc re te l e ve ls o fa c t ion a nd t h e s oc ia lt o ta l i ty . I ti su nque s t ionab le t h a tt h ee v idence w h ich r e la te mo s tc l o se ly t os ub s i s tence a nd t o t h eo rgan i sa t ion o ff unc t iona la nd p rac t ica la spec t so fd a i ly l i f ed oe sn o ts uppo r tt h ec on c ep to f at r an s i t ion . T h is d oe sn o t ,h oweve r ,i mp ly t h a tc hange d id n o tt a ke p l ace w i th i nt h i s l e ve l o fs oc ie ty , b u tr a the r t h a t t h e c oncep to ft r ans i t ion w i th i t s i mp l ica t ion o f s ho r t te rm r ad ica l c hange i sn o t a pp rop r ia te t ot h en a tu re o ft r an sfo rma t ion s o b served w i th in t h ese a c t iv i t ie s . T he c hange ss ugge s ted i nt h i sl e ve lo fs oc ie ty s e em r a the rt ob e l ong w i th in l onge r t e rm s t ruc tu ra l c hange s , a nd i np a r t icu la r t ob e r e su l t s o fc hange s w i th in t h eo rgan i sa t ion o fm ean sa nd r e la t ion so fs ub s i s tence p roduc t ion . I nc on t ra s t ,t h ec hange se xp re s sed b yt h ev a r ious c a tego r ie so fr i tua la c t iv i t ie sa r ei m p or tan t f o r a s se s s ing t h e n a tu re o fc u l tu ra l c hange s d u r ing t h is p e r iod . T he e v idence f r om t h eg rave sa ppa ren t ly d emon s t ra te sc hange f r om t h eB ronze t ot h eI r on A ge . Mo re

4 80

i n tens ive i n ve s t iga t ion o ft h en a tu re o ft h e se c hange sa nd i np a r t icu la ra t ten t ion t owa rd s t e ndenc ie sa ppea r ing a l ready i nt h el a te B ronze A ge d o ,h oweve r , d emon s t ra te t h a tt h e se a r eg radua lc hange s . T he c hange sa r ec l ea r ly t h er e su l to f at r an sfo rma t ion o ft h eb u r ia l c on tex tt h rough t h ei n f luence sf r om a nd t h ed eve lopmen to ft h ec r ema t ion r i te . T he d i f f e rences b e tween t h ea ppea rance o ft h ee a r ly I r on A ge g rave sa nd t ho se f r om t h eB ronze Age a r e t h e refo re n o tt h er e su l to fp opu la t ion c hange s o rs oc ia lr e -o rgan i sa t ion n o ro f c hange s i nt h er i tua lr o le o fg r ave s . I ti s , h oweve r , at r an sfo rma t ion o ft h eb u r ia lc on t e x tr e su l t ing i nt h es ymbo l ic d imen s ion so fb u r ia l sr e p lac ing t h ee a r ly B ronze A ge em p ha s i so nd i sp lay o fw ea l th a nd t h ec on sump t ion o fc ommod i t ie s ,l a bou r ,a nd a g r icu l tu r a lp o ten t ia l s ( i . e . t o p -so i l ) . T he g r ave sf r om t h ee a rl ie s tI r on A ge s ugge s tc on t inuous d eve lopmen to fa l r eady e x i s t ing s t ruc tu re s a nd a c t iv i t ie s w i th in as oc ie ty i nw h ich r e g iona li d en t i ty a nd b e long ing g a in ad i f f e ren to rn ew i mpo r tance a nd i nw h ich t h eg rave r i tua l i sl e s s p rofound ly s epa ra ted f r om t h e d ome s t ic r e a lm t h an w a s t h e c a se i nt h e B ronze A ge . I ti st h e refo re t h ed epo s i t sa l one w h ich c l ea r ly d emon s t ra te c hange . N ew v e r s ion so f t h ea c t iv i ty ,s uch a sb i gc ompo s i te d epo s i t sa nd d epo s i t sc ompo sed o fp a i r s ,s e t s ,o r' e in t yp ige 'o b jec t s , d eve loped d u r ing l a te p e r iod V a nd e a r ly V Ia nd d i ed o u ti np e r iod V I o ri nt h ec ou r se o f PR IA I .T he t r ad i t iona lc ompo s i te d epo s i t sb ecame i n c rea s ing ly f o r ma l i sed ,r ef lec t ing g ende rc a tego r i sa t ion a sw e l la ss epa ra t ion b e tween i mpor t sa nd l o ca l o b jec t s ( SO ren sen 1 986 ; 1 987 ) , a nd t h ey a r ei n c r ea s ing ly f ound i ns pec ia ln on -sub s is t e nce a r ea s s uch a sb og s ,w e ta r ea s , c l if f so ri nS tone A ge p a s sage g rave sa nd a r ew ide l yb u ta l so s pa r se ly d i s t r ibu ted i nS cand inav ia . T he b i gc ompo s i te d epo s i t sc ea se i nt h e c ou r se o fp e r iod V I a nd w i th t h em t h er i ch ly d eco ra ted omamen t s 7,w h ich d ef ine s a nd u n if ie s S cand inav ia , d i sappea r . T he c a tego ry o fs i ng le f i nd s a l so d i sappea r a nd w ea p on s , t o o l s , a nd o rnamen t sc ea se t ob e ap a r to ft h ed epo s i ted a s semb lage . T he c hange r ef lec ted b y t h e se d epo s i t iona l a c t iv i t ie s mu s t , o f c ou r se , b e o fc u l tu ra l s i gn if icance . T he r e i sn o e v idence f o rc on t inuou sp rac t ice o ft h i s f o rma l i sed d epo s i t ion a c t iv i ty n o r o fi t st r an sfo rma t ion b u tr a the r as ugge s t ion o f amo re o rl e s sr a p id ( 50 t o1 00 y ea r s )d i s a ppea rance o ft h i sp a r t icu la rc omp lex o fr i tua la c t iv i t ie sa nd a s soc ia ted o b jec t sa nd t h e re f o r ep r e sumab ly a l so o fi t s s o c io -e conom ic a nd c u l tu ra lr o le . T he n a tu re o ft h et r an s i t ion f r om B ronze A ge t oI r on A ge i nS cand inav ia mu s tt h e re f o re b ec on s ide red i nt h el i gh to fc on t inu i ty a ts ome l e ve l so fr i tua l a c t iv i t ie sa nd c l ea r d i scon t inu i ty a to t he r si nc omb ina t ion w i th t h er i go rous a s soc ia t ion b e tween t h e se a c t i v i t ie sa nd c e r ta in c l a s se so fo b jec t s . T he c hange sw ed e tec ti nr i tua la c t iv i t ie sb e tween t h el a te B ronze a nd t h ee a r ly /m idd le I r on a r ep a r to fs oc ia ld ynam ics , s i nce t h et h ey r e la te t ot h e mo t iv f o r , a nd t h er o le o f , r i tua l s . I ti si mpo r tan tt os t re s st h i sd imen s ion o ft h et r an s i t ion p ha se ,s i nce t h ee v idence f r om t h el a te B ronze A ge s oc ie ty r e la te s much mo re r e ad i ly t ot h er i tua ll i f eo ft h ep e r i o da nd s e em ing ly i sd e tached f r om t h ed a i ly p rac t ice so ft h es oc ia l a gen t s . T he d ome s t ic u n i t s ,i nw h ich t h ed a i ly w o rk ing o u to fs oc ia lr e la t ion st h rough d om in a nce a nd c on t ro lo ve rp roduc t ion a nd r e -p roduc t ion ,w ou ld u ndoub ted ly e xp re ss s oc ia l d ynam ics d i f f e ren t ly ,a nd p o s s ib ly mo re d i rec t ly t h an t h er i tua la c t iv i t ie sd o( s ee B a r r e t t

4 81

2 2 S o r ensen

t h i sv o lume ) . C on s ide ra t ion so ft h e s o c ia l s t ruc tu r e sa nd t h e i rd ynam ic r e la t ion st ot h e c on t inuous r ep roduc t ion o ft h e s oc ia l r e a l i ty h ave n o t a sy e t b een c a r r ied o u t w i th r e s pec tt ot h es e t t lemen te v idence f r om l a te B ronze A ge S cand inav ia . T he re a r ef u r the r mo re s eve re p rob lem so fr e la t ing t h et h eo re t ica lr e a l isa t ion o ft h e i ri mpo r tance t o ap ra c t i ca l u nde r s tand ing o ft h ep e r iod a nd t h e c hange se xp r e s sed . T he r efo r e , i ns p i te o fa c c ep t ing t h ee s sen t ia li mpo r tance o ft h ea r chaeo logy o fd a i ly l i f ef o ra nu nde r s tand ing o f t h e s oc ia lr e la t ion s w h ich s t ruc tu re h uman l i f e a nd t h e s o c ia ld i scou r se w h ich w i l lb e e xp re s sed t h roughou ta l i n te rac t ion s , Ia r gue t h a t s uch r e la t ions a r e a l so b e ing c a r r ied o u t , ma in ta ined , a nd c on s t ruc ted o n t h e l e ve lo fr i tua l a c t iv i t ie s , a nd t h a t , a tt ime s , th i s m igh tb e av e ry p owe r fu lp l a tfo rm f o rt h en ego t ia t ion o rm an ipu la t ion o fs oc ia lr e la t ions . R i tua ls a c t iv i t ie sc an t h e refo re b ea ne x t r eme ly s ens i t ive i n d ica to ro fc u l tu ra ls h if t sw i th i n as oc ie ty . T h is , Ib e l ieve ,i sw ha tw es e ei nt h ec hange so ft h e ma te r ia lc u l tu re d u r ing t h ee nd o ft h eS cand inav ian B ronze A ge . If u r the rmo re s ugge s tt h a ti nt h ec a se o fl a te B ronze A ge S cand inav ia ( bu ti np a r t icu l a rt h e s ou ther np ar to f Sweden a nd t h e e a s ter np a r to fD enma rk ) t h ef orma l i sa t ion o f t h er i tua l a spec to fs oc ie ty a r gue st h a ti ta c ted a s am a jo rm ean so fs o c ia lc ommun ica t i on a nd t hu si nf luenced m any d i f f e ren tl a ye r so fs oc ia li n t e rac t ion s . T he p a r t icu la rp o s i t ion o fr i tua l a c t iv i t ie sd oe s , h oweve r , m ean t h a tt h e i rr o le w i th in s o c ie ty may e a s i ly s h if tf r om b e ing d eep ly embedded t ob ecom ing i n c rea s ing ly d e tached f r om t h ec on t inu o us d eve lopmen to ft h es oc ia lt o ta l i ty . T he a r chaeo log ica lc oncep to f at r ans i t ion f r om B ronze Age t oI r on A ge i nS cand inav ia s e em s t h e refo re t ob e ar ef l ec t ion o f as oc ie ty s h if t ing f r om ap rev iou s ly r i g id ly f o rma l i sed a nd r i tua l i s t ic e xp re s s ion o fi t ss upe r s t ruc t u re t oa ni n teg ra t ion o fr i tua l sa nd t h em ean so fs ub s i s tence p roduc t ion . T he t r an s i t ion f r om B ronze t oI r on A ge r a the rt h an r ep re sen t ing ar evo lu t ion , ac o l lap se ,o rp o s s ib ly a d evo lu t ion s how s ac hange i nt h er o le o fr i tua la c t iv i t ie sf r om s e rv ing t h ed ua lp u rpo se s o fc ommun ica t ing c ohe s ion w h i le e mpha s is ing d i sp lay a nd s t re ss ing c a tego r ie s t ob e c om ing amo re i mmed ia te i n s t rumen tf o rr ef lec t ing t h ec oncer n so fa ni n c rea s ing ly r e g i ona la nd ' c la s s 'c on sc iou s s o c ie ty .

N o te s 1 )I n teg ra t ion o ft h ee v idence p rov ided b y r o ck c a rv ing s h a s n o t b een a t temp ted i n t h is d i scuss ion . 2 ) T he re i so ne e xamp le o f aH a l l s ta t ts wo rd f r om G o t land p roduced i ni r on a nd a s s umed t ob e al o ca lc opy ( Cowen 1 952 ; S t enbe rge r 1 971 ; T h rane 1 975 ) , b u tt h i si n te r p re ta t ion may h ave t ob eq ue s t ioned . 3 ) C ommuna lr i tua la c t iv i t ie so n s pec ia lp l ace sa nd p ar t icu la r ly o nu ncu l t iva ted l a nd c ou ld b ea no the ra spec to ft h ec ommuna lp o s se ss ion a nd r e la t ion sh ip t ot h ee nv i ronmen t d ur ing t h el a te B ronze A ge . 4 )T he re i sn o s y s tema t ic a ccoun t o ft h e d i f f e r ence s i ng rave t y pe s , a nd t h ey a r e i n g ene ra l o n ly m ino r v a r ia t ion s w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t h e i n huma t ion s f r om p e r iod

4 82

V I /PR IA If ound i nt h e s wed i sh p rov ince so fS ödennan land ,G o t land a nd O land . T he r ema in ing g rave s f r om t h e se a r ea s a r e u rn c r ema t ion s , a nd t h e s i gn if i cance o ft h e l o c a l ised i n huma t ion r i te i su nknown . I tm igh t ,h oweve r ,r e la te t ot h ed ive rg ing d eve lop men to fG o t land a nd s u r round ing a r ea si nt h ee a r l ie s tI r on A ge . 5 ) R ef e r ence t og ende ra s soc ia t ion i sh e re u sed i n at r ad i t iona ls en se ,a nd o ne s hou ld a pp rec ia te t h a td i f f e r en tt y pe sd on o tn ece s sa r i ly r e la te t og ende ri nt h e manne ri nw h ich w ea s sume t h em t or e la te . T he re a r e ,h oweve r ,i nt h eS cand inav ian B ronze A ge m a te r i a l sw h ich p rov ide u n ique i n fo rma t ion a bou tg ende r , s uch a sw e l lp re served g rave -c o s t ume s ,s t a tue s , a nd d ep ic t ion s , a nd t h e se e v idence d ot os ome e x tend s uppo r tt h et r ad i t i ona la s soc ia t ion s . 6 )T he a moun t o fp in s i nd epo s i t s i n c r ea se s c on s ide rab ly i np e r iod V I b u t t h ey a r e o f ten d i f f e ren tt y pe st h an t ho se f ound i nt h eg rave sa nd h ave b igge rp ropo r t ion s . 7 )T he n eck lace so fw ende l type s how st y po log ica lc on t inu i ty f r om p e r iod V It oP R IA I .D u r ing t h is p e r iod ,h oweve r , t h e i rd i ame te rc hange d ra s t ica l ly a l low ing i nt h eP R IA f o rt h er i ng t ob er emov ing r e pea ted ly o f ft h eb ea re r . T h i s s ugge s t s ac hange i nt h eu se wh ich i sa l so s ugge s ted b y t h ed ra s t ic i n c rea se i na moun to fw ea rf ound o n t h eP R IA r i ng sc ompa red t ot h ee a r l ie ro ne s .

4 83

2 2 S o rensen

B ib l iography A lb rec t sen ,E . , 1 954 .F yn ske J erna ld er G rave I( Oden se ) . Ande r son , p . , 1 984 . ' F r equence d i ag ram s a nd s i ze -vo lume c a lcu la t ion s . Am e thod d i scu s s ion c once rn ing t h e i rc ompa r ison ,i n te rp re ta t ion a nd a pp l icab i l i ty o nt h eh eaps o f f i re -c racked s t one s i nL i t s lena p a r i sh , U pp land . ' I n H yen s t rand , A . ,B ron sä ld er sf or s kn ing -k r ing a k tue l la p ro j ek t ,6 1 -75 . Ane r ,E . , 1 957 . ' G rab u nd H o r t ' . Of a 1 5 , 1 3 -42 . A rbman , H . , 1 934 . ' Zu rK enn tn i s d e r ä l te s ten E i senze i ti n Sweden ' .A c ta A rchaeo l o g ica V , 1 48 . . B akka , E . , 1 976 . A rk t i sk o g n ord i sk ib ron sea ld er en iN ord S kand inav ia . M i sc . 2 5 ( T rondhe im : D e tk onge l ige n o r ske V iden sk . S e l skab ) . B akka ,E . , 1 980 . ' Rep re sen ta t iv i te t sp rob lem iv e s tno r sk b ron sea lde r ' . I nT h rane ,H . , ( e d . )B roncea ld erbebygge l se iN ord en , 3 7 -58 . B audou , E . , 1 960 . D ie r e g iona le u nd c hrono log i sche E in t e i lung d er J ünger en B ronzeze i t i m N ord i schen K r e i s . A c ta U n ive r s i ta t i s S tockho lm ien s i s I .( S tockho lm : A lmqv i s t &W ik se l l ) . B ecke r , C .J . , 1 961 . F or romer sk j erna ld er iS yd - o g M id t j y l land . N a t iona lmu see t s s k r if te r . Se-r eb e re tn inge r6 .( K0benhavn : N a t ionamusee t ) . B ecke r , C .J . , 1 968 . ' Bronzea lde rhu se iV e s t jy l land ' . N a t iona lmu see t sA rbe jd smark 1 968 ,7 9 -88 . B ecke r , C .J . , 1 972 . H a l o g h u s iy ng re b ronzea lde r . N a t iona lmu see t sA rbe jd smark 1 972 ,5 -16 . B ecke r , C .J . , 1 976 . B o sae t te l sefo rme r ib ronze -o gj e rna lde r . I nT h rane ,H . , ( e d )B e b ygge l sesarkaeo log i , 7 0 -83 . B ecke r ,C .J . , 1 980 .B ebygge l se sfo rme r iD anma rk sy ng re B ronzea lde r . I nT h rane ,H . ( e d . )B roncea ld erbebygge l se iN ord en , 1 27 -141 . B e rg lund ,J . , 1 982 . K i rkeb je rge t -aL a te B ronze A ge S e t t lemen ta tV o ld tof te , S ou th w e s tF unen . I n J ourna lo f Dan i sh A rchaeo logy 1 ,5 1 -63 . B jö rhem ,N . ,a nd S ä fve s tad ,U . , 1 983 . " Fo s ie I V . 'A LE 1 / 83 , 3 -29 . B od i lsen ,I . ,1 984 .Y ngr eb roncea ld er sm ark -o gm o sef und iS yd skand inav i en .( A rhus : Unpub l ished t h e s i s ) .

4 84

B od i l sen , I . ,1 986 . ' Re l ig io se n ed l a egge l se r ib ronzea lde ren . ' V ar ia 1 2 , 5 16 . B rad ley ,R . , 1 982 . ' The d e s t ruc t ion o fw ea l th i nl a te rp reh i s to ry . ' Man 1 7 , 1 08 -22 . B roadben t ,N .D . , 1 983 . ' Too m any C h ief sa nd n o te nough I nd ian s . AP e r iphe ra lV iew o f No rd ic B ronze A ge S oc ie ty . 'I nR appo r tf r än d e tt r ed je n o rd i ska s ympo s ie tf ö rb ron s ä lde r s fo r skn ing iL und .S t ruk tur o ch F öränd r ing ib ron sä ld ern ss amhä l le .7 -22 . B roho lm , H .C . , 1 933 . ' S tud ie ro ve rd en y ng re B ronzea lde rm ed s z e r l ig t h enb l ik p ä g ravfundene . 'Ä rbe ger f or n ord i sk o ldkynd ighed o gh i s tor ie , 1 352 . B roho lm , H .C . , 1 946 -49 . Danmark s B ron zea ld er V o l . I I I IV . ( KObenhavn : N o rd i sk F o r lag ) . B ronge r s , J .D . , a nd Wo l te r ing , P . J . , 1 979 .D ep r eh i s tor ie v an N ed er land . ( Haa r lem : F ibu la -V an D i shoeck ) . B rOnd s ted ,J . ,1 959 . Danmark sO ld t id B d .I ,2 . ed i t ion ( KObenhavn :N o rd i sk F o r lag ) . C o le s , J .M . , a nd H a rd ing , A .F . , 1 979 . T he B ronze A ge i nE urope :a ni n t roduc t ion t o t h ep r eh i s tory o fE urope c .2 000 -700 B .C . . ( London : Me thuen ) . C owen , J .D . , 1 952 . ' Bronze Swo rd s i nN o r ther nE u rope . 'P roced ings o fP r eh i s tor ic S oc ie ty XV I I I , 1 29 -147 . D ra iby ,B . ,1 985 .' F rag t rup -e nb op lad sf r ay ng re b ronzea lde r iV e s th i rnme r land . 'Ä rb O ger f or n ord i sk o ldkynd ighed o gh i s tor ie , 1 27 -216 . D ra iby , B . , n . d . K v inde -o gm and sg rave iy ng re b ronzea lde r -r eg iona le v a r ia t ione r . P aper p r esen t ed a tt h e5 .n o rd i ske b ronzea lde r -sympo s ium , S andb je rg 1 987 . H ans son , H . , 1 927 . G o t land sB ron sä ld er , K ung l . V i t te rhe t sakadem ien s H and l inga r 3 1 . ( S tockho lm :V i t te rhe t sakadem ien . H o r s t ,F . , 1 971 .' Ha l l s ta t t impo r te u nd e in f lue s se i mE lb -Have lG eb ie t . 'Z e i t schr if tf ür A rchäeo log ie 5 ,1 92 -284 . H und t , H .J . , 1 955 . ' V e r such z u r D eu tung d e r D epo t funde d e r n o rd i schen j ünge ren B ronzeze i t . ' J RGZM 2 ,9 5 -132 . Hyen s t rand , A . , 1 979 . A rk eo log i sk r e g ion ind e l ing a v S ver ige . ( S tockho lm : R ik san t i kva rämbe te t ) . H yens t rand , A . , 1 984 . ( e d . ) B ron sä ld er sf or skn ing -k r ing a k tue l la p ro jek t . ( S tock h o lm : I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy ,S tockho lm U n ive r s i ty ) .

4 85

2 2 S o rensen

J aanu sson ,H . , 1 981 . Ha l lunda . As t udy o fp o t t e ry f r om aL a t eB ronze A ge s e t t lemen t . ( S tockho lm :T he Mu seum o fN a t iona lA n t iqu i t ie s ) . J a cob -F r ie sen ,G . , 1 967 .B ronzeze i t l iche L an zen sp i t zen N ordd eu t sch land su nd S kan d inav ien s ,V e röf f en t l ichungen d e rU rge sch ich t l ichen S amm lungen d e sL ande smu seum s z uH annove r ,B and 1 7 ( H i lde she im : A ugu s tL ax ) . J a cob sen ,J .A . , 1 979 . ' Brunebo rg -e nt i d l ig f O r rome r sk b op lad sm ed j e rnudv ind ing . ' I nT h rane ,H . ( e d . )F ra J erna ld er i lM idd e la ld er ,4 14 . J ensen ,J . ,1 966 . ' J y ske F ladma rk sg rave f r as l u tn ingen a fy ng re b ronzea lde r . 'Ä rboger f or n ord i sk o ldkynd ighed o gh i s tor ie 3 6 -66 . J en sen , J . , 1 967 . ' V o ld tof te -funde t . B op lad sp rob leme r iy ng re b ronzea lde r iD an ma rk . 'Ä rboger f or N ord i sk o ldkynd ighed o gh i s tor ie .9 1 -154 . J en sen ,J . , 1 972 . ' E in n eue sH al s ta t t schwe r ta u sD änema rk . B e i t rag z u rP rob lema t ik d e rj ungb ronzeze i tl i chen V o t ivfunde . 'A c ta A rchaeo log ica 4 3 , 15 -164 . J ensen ,J . , 1 982 .N ord en sG u ld . ( KObenhavn : N a t iona lmusee t ) . J ensen ,J . , 1 983a . ' Bo sae t te l se o gr i gdom scen t r e iO s tdanma rk is l u tn ingen a fy ng re b ronzea lde r . ' I nR appo r t f r än d e tt r ed je n o rd i ska s ympo s ie tf ö rb ron sä lde r s fo r skn ing i L und .S t ruk tur o ch F öränd r ing ib r on sä ld ern ss amhä l le ,4 6 -62 . J en sen ,J . , 1 983b T he P r eh i s tory o fD enmark . ( London : Me thuen ) . J en sen ,J . , 1 983c . ' E tr i gdom scen te rf r ay ng r eb ronzea lde rp äS jae l land . ' Ä rboger f or N ord i sk O ld kynd ighed 4 8 -9 6 . J ensen ,R . , 1 984 . ' Bron seä lde r sbo sä t tn ing iU pp land u t gäende f r är eg i s t re rade b op la t s e r . ' I nH yen s t rand ,A . ,B r on sä ld er sf or skn ing -k r ing a k tue l la p ro j ek t ,4 2 -51 . J ohan sen ,0 . , 1 980 . ' Nye e l emen te r ib ron sea lde r sb o se tn ing iN o rge . ' I nT h rane , H . ( e d . )B roncea ld erbebygge l se iN ord en , 1 0 -36 . J ohansen ,0 . , Me ta l lf unnene iO s tnor sk b ron sea ld er ,U n ive r s i te te t sO ld sak sam l ing s Sh if te r , Ny r ekke n r4 .( O s lo : O ld sak sam l ingen ) . J O rgensen ,E . , 1 968 . ' SOnde rV i l s t rup f unde t :E ng r avp lad sf r a x ld re j e rna lde r . beer f or Nord i sk O ldkynd ighed 3 2 -80 . J O rgen sen . E . , 1 971 . ' L iden t u e . 'S ka lk 1 971 ,2 : 3 , 3 7 .

4 86

A r-

K l ind t -Jensen ,0 . , 1 981 . ' Da t ing t h eE a r l ie s tI r on A ge i nS cand inav ia . ' I nE van s ,J .D . , C un l if f e ,B . ,a nd R enf rew ,C . ,( e d s . )A n t iqu i ty o fMan .2 5 -27 ( London :T hame sa nd H ud s on ) . K r i s t ian sen ,K . , 1 974 . ' G lerupfunde t . ' H iku in 1 ,7 -38 . K r i s t ian sen , K . , 1 978 . ' The C on sump t ion o f Wea l th i nB ronze A ge D enma rk . A s t udy i nt h e D ynam ics o fE conom ic P roce s se si n T r iba l S oc ie t ie s . 'I nK r is t ian sen , K . , a nd P a ludan - Mü l le r , C . ,( e d s . )N ew D ir ec t ion si nS cand inav ian A rchaeo logy , 1 58 -190 ( Kobenhavn : N a t iona lmu see t ) . . K r i s t ian sen , K . , 1 981 . ' Econom ic mode l s f o rB ronze A ge S cand inav ia -t owa rd s a n i n teg ra ted a pp roach . ' I n S he r idan , A . , a nd B a i ley , G . , ( e d s . ) E conom ic A rchaeo logy , B .A .R . , I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s9 6 ,2 39 -303 ( Oxfo rd :B r i t i sh A r chaeo log ica lR epo r t ) . K r i s t ian sen , K . , 1 982 . ' The F o rma t ion o fT r iba l S y s tem s i nL a te rE u ropean P reh i s t o ry -No r the rn E u rope 4 . 000 -500 B .C . ' I nR enf rew ,C . ,R ow land s ,M . ,a nd A bbo t t ,B . , ( ed s . ) T heory a nd E xp lana t ion s i n A rchaeo logy , 2 41 -280 ( Camb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s ) . K r i s t iansen , K . , 1 984 . ' I deo logy a nd Ma te r ia l C u l tu re -a n A r chaeo log ica l P e r spec t i ve . ' I n S p r igg , M . , ( e d . ) Marx i s tP er spec t ives i nA rchaeo logy , 7 2 -100 ( Camb r idge : C amb r idge Un ive r s i ty P re s s ) . L a r s son , T .B . , 1 983 . ' Samhä l l sfö ränd r ing b ron sä lde r j ä rnä lde r . E n s t ruk tu rana ly s med u t gäng spunk tf r än Ö s te rgö t land I . I nR appo r tf r än d e tt r ed je n o rd i ska s ympo s ie t f ö rb ron sä lde r sfo r skn ing iL und .S t ruk tur o ch F öränd r ing ib ron sä ld ern ss amhä l le ,9 6 1 05 . L a r s son ,T .B . , 1 986 .T he B ron ze A ge m e ta lwork i nS ou thern S wed en .( Umeä :U n ive r s i ty o f Umeä ) . L av r sen ,J . , 1 958 . ' Om v o t ivfünd f r ab ronzea lde ren ss l u tn ing . 'K um l ,7 0 -79 . L ev in sen ,K . , 1 984 . ' J e rne t sI n t roduk t ion iD anma rk . ' I nK um l 1 982 -83 , 1 53 -168 . L evy , J . , 1 982 . L a t eB ron ze A ge h oard s . B .A .R . , I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s 1 24 ( Oxfo rd : B r i t i sh A r chaeo log ica lR epo r t ) . L eyden ,A . , 1 957 . ' Zu rf r ühe s ten A uf t re ten d e rJ a s to r f -ku l tur i mN o rd i schen R aum . ' G erman ia 3 5 ,2 65 -275 . L ombo rg , E . , 1 982 . ' Bronzea lde rbop lad sen p ä S kam lebxk . ' I nA n t ik var i sk eS tud ier 1 ,1 23 -130 .

4 87

2 2 S o r ensen

L undma rk , H . , 1 983 . S amhä l lsfö ränd r ing b ron sä lde r -j ä rnä lde r . E n s t ruk tu rana ly s med u tgäng spunk t f r än Ö s te rgö t land I . I nR appo r t f r än d e t t r ed je n o rd i ska s ympo s ie t f ö rb ronsä lde r sfo r skn ing iL und .S t ruk tur o ch F öränd r ing ib ron sä ld ern ss amhä l le ,8 8 9 5 . Mobe rg , C . -A . 1 941 .Z oneng l ied erungen d er v orchr i s t l ichen E i sen ze i ti nN ord euro p a . ( Lund : G ler up ) . Mon te l iu s ,0 . , 1 885 . Om t i d sbes taemn ing mom B ronsä ld ern m ed s aer sk i ld ta f seend e p äS kand inav ien .K ong l .V i t te rhe t s H i s to r ie o ch A n t iqv i te t sA kede rn ien sH and l inga r3 0 , n y f ö l jd , 1 0 . S tockho lm . Mü l le r , S . , 1 876 . ' Broncea lde rens P e r iode r . E nU nde r sOge l se if o rh i s to r i sk A rchaeo l og ie . 'Ä rboger f or N ord i sk O ldkynd ighed 1 85 -312 . Mü l le r , S . , 1 887 . ' Vo t ivfund f r a S t en - o g B ronzea lde ren . 'Ä rboger f or N ord i sk O ld k ynd ighed 2 15 -251 . Mü l le r , S . , 1 897 . V or O ld t id . ( K0benhavn : N o rd i sk F o r lag ) . Mü l le r , S . , 1 904 . ' V e io gb ygd iS t en - o gb ronzea lde ren . ' Ä rbOger f or N ord i sk O ld k ynd ighed , 2 46 -348 . Mü l le r , S . , 1 914 . ' SOnde r jy l land sb ronzea lde r . ' Ä rboger f or N ord i sk O ldkynd ighed , 1 95 -246 . Mü l le r , S . , 1 919 . ' Bop lad sfund f r a B ronzea lde r en . ' Ä rboger f or N ord i sk O ldkyn d ighed , 3 5 -101 . Mü l le r ,S . , 1 921 .O ld t id en sk un s tI ,B ronzea lde rens k un s t iD anma rk . ( K0benhavn ) . N ee rgä rd , C . , 1 908 . ' Häg -funde t . 'I nÄ rboger f or N ord i sk O ldkynd ighed 2 73 -352 . N y l6n , E . , 1 965 . ' P rob leme d e rä l te s ten E i senze i ti mN o rden . 'I nS tud ien a u sA l t eu r opa ,T e i lI , 8 4 -108 ( Kö ln ) . N y l6n ,E . , 1 974 . ' Bronze ,E i sen u nd G e se l l scha f t .E ine s oz ia le umwä l tzung m i tw i r t s c ha f t l ichem H in te rg rund z w ischen B ronze - u nd E i senze i ti mN o rd ischen R aum . 'D ie K und e2 5 , 1 03 -111 . O ldebe rg ,A . , 1 942 -43 . Me ta l l t ekn ik u nd er f örh i s tor i sk t i dI I I . ( Lund ) . P a rke rP ea r son ,M . , 1 984 . ' Econom ic a nd i d eo log ica lc hange : c yc l ica lg row th i nt h e p re s ta te s oc ie t ie so fJ u t land . 'I nM i l le r , D . , a nd T i l ley , C . , ( e d s . )I d eo logy , P ower a nd P r eh i s tory , 6 9 -92 ( Camb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P r e ss ) .

4 88

P a rke rP ea r son ,M . ,a nd S O rensen ,M .L .S . ,f o r thcom ing ' T rad i t ion a nd t r an sf roma t ion i nD enma rk d u r ing t h ef i r s tm i l lenn ium B .C . 'I nH odg son ,J . , Ma son ,P . ,P a lk ,N . ,P a re , C .F .E . , a nd T ay lo r , C . , ( ed s . ) T he f i r s t m i l lenn ium BC i nE urope : n ew w ork . P ape r s p re sen ted i nh onou ro fJ ohn A lexande r( Oxfo rd :C omm i t tee f o rA r chaeo logy Monog raph S e r ie s ) . R appo r tf r än d e tt r ed je n o rd i ska s ympo s ie tf ö rb ron sä lde r sfo r skn ing iL und .S t ruk tur o ch F öränd r ing ib ron sä ld ern ss amhä l l e . ( Repo r tS e r ie s N o . 1 7 ) . L und , L und su n ive r s i te t sh i s to r i ske museum . S O ren sen ,M .L .S . , 1 984a . ' Chang ing I mage so fA r chaeo logy .S ou th S cand inav ian A r c haeo logy 1 818 t o1 978 . 'A rchaeo log ica lR ev iew f rom C ambr idge 3 : 1 , 3 8 -47 . S O r en sen , M .L .S . , 1 984b . T he t r an s i t ion f rom B ronze A ge t oI r on A ge i nS cand ina v i a . As t ud yo ft h ec hanges r ef l ec t ed b yt h eb ronzes f rom p er iod s Va nd V I .( Camb r idge : u npub l i shed P hD t h e s i s ) . S Or en sen ,M .L .S . , 1 986 . ' Ma te r ia lk u l tu ro fk u l tu r e lf o rand r ing 'V ar ia i 2 ,1 3 3 -142 . S O r en sen ,M .L .S . , 1 987 . ' Ma te r ia lo rde ra nd c u l tu ra lc l a ss if i ca t ion :t h er o le o fb ronze o b jec t si nt h et r ans i t ion f r om B ronze A ge t oI r on A ge i nS cand inav ia . 'I n Hodde r ,I .( e d . ) T he A rchaeo logy o fC on tex tua lm ean ing s , 9 0 -101 ( Camb r idge : C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re ss ) . S O ren sen ,M .L .S . , 1 989a . ' I gno r ing i n nova t ion -d eny ing c hange .T he r o le o fi r on a nd t h ei mpac to fe x te rna li nf luence so n t h e t r an sfo rma t ion o fS cand inav ian s oc ie t ie s 8 00 5 00 b . c . 'I nT o r rence ,R . ,a nd v an d e rL eeuw ,S . ,( e d s . ) Wha t ' sn ew? A c l oser l o ok a tt h e p roce s so fi nnova t ion ( London : U nw in H yman ) . S O ren sen , M .L .S . , 1 989b . ' The r ep roduc t ion o f ma te r ia l c u l tu re i nl a te B ronze A ge S cand inav ia a nd E ng land . ' I n N o rd s t röm , H . -Ä . , a nd K nape , A . , ( e d s . ) B ron ze A ge S tud ie s( S tockho lm : S ta tens H i s to r i ska Mu see t ) . S p rockhof f , E . , 1 956 . J ungbron zeze i t l iche Hor und e . D er s üd zone d es N ord i schen K r e i ses ( p er iod e V ) . ( Ma inz : R öm i sch -Ge rman i sche Z en t ra lmu seum s ) . S p rockhof f ,E . ,a nd Höckmann ,0 . , 1 983 .D ie g egos senen B ron zebecken d er j ünger en n ord i schen B ron zeze i t . ( Ma inz : R öm i sch -Ge rman i sche sZ en t ra lmu seum ) . S t enbe rge r ,M . , 1 971 .D e tf orn t ida S ver ige . ( S tockho lm : A lmqu i s t &W ik se l l ) . S t jemqu is t ,B . , 1 961 . S imr i sI .B ron ze A ge p rob lem si nt h e l i gh to ft h eS imr i se xca v a t ion , AAL , S e r ie si n4 ,n o . 5 . ( Lund : U n ive r s i ty o fL und ) . S t jemqu i s t , B . , 1 964 . ' P rä l im ina r ien z u MLUHM 1 962 -63 , 5 -64 .

4 89

e i ne r U n te r suchung v on O pf e r funden . '

2 2 S o rensen

S t je rnqu is t ,B . , 1 969 . ' Be i t räge z um S t ud ium v on b ronzeze i t l ichen S i ed lungen . 'A c ta A r ch .L und s e r . i n 8°,8 ,1 218 . S t je rnqu is t ,B . , 1 980 . ' Bron sä lde r sbebygge l se p äG ä rd lö sa . ' I nT h rane ,H . ,( e d . )Bron c ea ld erbebygge l se iN ord en 6 7 -71 . S t je rnqu i s t ,B . , 1 983 . ' G rava rna s om k ä l la t i l lk unskapen om d en y ng r eb ron sä lde rn s b ebygge l se iS käne . 'I nR appo r tf r än d e tt r ed je n o rd i ska s ympo s ie tf ö rb ron sä lde r sfo r s kn ing iL und .S t ruk tur o ch F öränd r ing ib ron sä ld ern ss amhä l le , 1 30 -14 1 . S t römbe rg ,M . , 1 954 . ' Bronzeze i t l ichen Wohnp lä tze i nS chonen . ' Medd e land en f rän L und s U n iv .H i s t . Mu seum 1 954 ,2 95 -380 . S t rombe rg , M . , 1 973 -74 . ' Un te r suchungen z u r B ronzeze i t i n S üdo s t schonen . P rob leme um d i eB e s ied lung . ' Medd e land en f r c in L und s U n iv .H i s t . Mu seum 1 973 -75 , 1 01 -168 . S t rombe rg ,M . , 1 975 .S tud ien z ue i nem G räber f e ld i nL öd erup , ( J ungneo l i th icum b i s r öm i sche K a ise r ze i t )G rab s i t te -K on t inu i tä t -S oz ia l s t ruk tu r ,A c ta A r chaeo log ica L und e n s ia , S e r ie si n 8°,n o . 1 0 ( Lund : U n ive r s i ty o fL und ) . S t römbe rg , M . , 1 980 . ' Bron sä lde r iH age s tad p ro jek te t , e n p e r iod ie t t l ä ng t id spe r s pek t iv . 'I nT h rane ,H . , ( e d . )B roncea ld erbebygge l se iN ord en 7 2 -82 . S t rombe rg ,M . , 1 983 . ' Bebygge l se si n ten s i te ten u nde rb ron sä ldem is ydvö s t ra S käne . ' I nR appo r tf r än d e tt r ed je n o rd i ska s ympo s ie tf ö rb ron sä lde r sfo r skn ing iL und .S t ruk tur o ch F öränd r ing ib ronsä ld ern ss amhä l l e , 1 41 -150 . S tu tnmann H ansen ,S . , 1 979 . ' Nog le a spek te ro rnk r ing e j endom sfo rme r o gs oc ia la r b e jd sde l ing iD anma rk sy ng re B ronzea lde ro g x ld re j e rna lde r .E tf o r s0g p äe nh i s to r i sk p l ace r ing a fd e s äka ld te " Ce l t ic f i e ld s " . 'I nK on tac t s t enc i l1 6 ,A rchaeo logy a s aS oc ia l S c ience ,5 6 -66 A rhus ,n op ub l i she r ) . 5 6 -66 . S tummann H ansen , S . , 1 980 . ' The r i gh t s o fp rope r ty i nt h e e a r ly I r on A ge i nD en m a rk . ' U npub l i shed m anu scr ip t2 .I n te rna t iona la r chaeo log ica ls t uden tc onf e rence . T hom sen , C .J . , 1 836 .L ed e t räd i lN ord i sk O ldkynd ighed . ( K0benhavn : N a t iona lmu s e e t ) . T h rane ,H . , 1 974 . ' Hund redv is a fe ne rg ik i lde rf r ay ng re b ronzea lde r . ' F yn sk eM ind er 1 974 ,9 6 -114 . T h rane , H . , 1 975 . E urop c e i sk ef orb ind e l ser ,N a t iona lmusee t sS k r if te r ,A rkaeo log i sk h i s to r i sk r a ekke 1 6 , ( K0benhavn : N a t iona l Mu see t ) .

4 90

T irane ,H . , 1 976 ( e d . )B ebygge l se sar c eo log i , Sh if te rf r aI n s t i tu tf o rh i s to r ie o gs am f und sv iden skab n r . 1 7 , 1 979 ( Oden se : O den se U n ive r s i te t ) . T h rane , H . , 1 979 . ( e d . )F ra J erna ld er t ulM idd e la ld er , S k r if te rf r aH i s to r i sk I n s t i tu t , n r . 2 7 ( Odense : Oden se U n ive r s i te t ) . T h rane , H . , 1 980 . ' Nog le t a nke r om y ng re b ronzea lde r sb ebygge lse p ä S ydve s tfyn . ' I nT irane ,H . , ( e d . )B ron zea ld er sbebygge l se iN ord en , 1 65 -173 . T h rane , H . , 1 980 . ( ed . ) B ron zea ld er sbebygge l se iN ord en , B e re tn ing f r a d e t a nde t n o rd i ske s ympo s ium om b ronzea lde r fo r skn ing , Sh if te r f r a h i s to r i sk i n s t i tu t , n r 2 8 ( Odense : O dense u n ive r s i te t ) . T irane , H . , 1 981 . ' La te B ronze A ge G rave si nD enma rk s e en a sE xp re s s ions o fS o c i a l R ank ing -a n I n i t ia l R epo r t . ' I nS tud ien z ur B ron zeze i t . F e s t sch r if t f ü r W .A . v on B runn ,4 75 -488 ( Ma inz : P .v on Z abe rn ) . T h rane , H . , 1 982 . ' Towa rd s aR e sea r ch P o l icy f o rB ronze A ge S e t t lemen t s . 'J ourna l o f Dan i sh A rchaeo logy , Val 4 5 -50 . T irane ,H . , 1 983 .' I nd ledende o ve rve je l se ra fs t ruk turudv ik l ingen iS yd skand inav ien s b roncea lde r . ' I nR appo r tf r än d e tt r ed je n o rd i ska s ympo s ie tf ö rb ron sä lde r sfo r skn ing i L und .S t ruk tur o ch F öränd r ing ib ron sä ld ern ss amhä l l e , 1 51 -165 . T irane , H . , 1 984 . L u seho j v ed V o ld tof t e -e n s ydve s ün sk s t orho jf ra y ngr e b ron c ea ld er . ( Oden se : O den se B y s mu see r ) . U nd se t ,I . ,1 881 .J erna ld er en sb egynd e l se i N ord -Europa .E t s t ud ie is ammen l ignende f o rh i s to r i sk a r kaeo log i . ( K r i s t ian ia ) . We l inde r ,S . , 1 975 .P r eh i s tor ic A gr icu l tur ei nE a s t ern M idd le S wed en ,A c ta A r chae o log ia L unden s ia , S e r .i n 8° M ino re ,N o 7( Lund :U n ive r s i ty o fL und ) . We l inde r , S . , 1 977 . E konom i ska P roces ser iF orh i s tor i sk E xpan s ion ,A c ta A r chaeo l og ia L unden s ia , S e r .i n 8° M ino re , No 8 ,( Lund :U n ive r s i ty o fL und ) . We l inde r , S . , 1 983 . ' The E co logy o ft h eB ronze A ge l a nd scape i nC en t ra l Sweden . ' I nR appo r tf r än d e tt r ed je n o rd i ska s ympo s ie tf ö rb ron sä lde r sfo r skn ing iL und .S t ruk tur o ch F öränd r ing ib ron sä ld ern ss amhä l l e , 1 66 -182 . W idho lm , D . , 1 984 . ' Fo r skn ing k r ing b o sä t tn ing sfo rme r iS käne u nde ry ng re b ron s ä lde r : n äg ra mö j l iga ma ter ia l o ch m e tode r . I n H yen s t rand , A( e d . ) B ron sä ld er sf or s kn ing -k r ing a k tue l la p ro j ek t ,8 5 -86 . Wo r saae , J . J .A . , 1 867 . ' Om mo sefund f r ab roncea lde ren . 'Ä rboger f or N ord i sk O ld k ynd ighed 7 -9 .

4 91

2 2 S o rensen

Wrang ,L . , 1 982 .B ronze A ge w ork shops . A spec t so fm e ta lurg ica lp roduc t ion i ns ou th e rn S cand inav ia . ( Uppsa la : u npub l ished d i s se r ta t ion ) . Wü s te rmann ,H . , 1 974 . ' Zu rS oz ia l s t ruk tu ri mS edd ine rK u l tu rgeb ie t . 'Z e i t schnf tf ür A rchäo log ie 8 ,6 7 - 1 07 .

\

4 92