The Book of the Farm: Detailing the Labours of the Farmer, Farm-steward, Ploughman, Shepherd, Hedger, Farm-labourer, Field-worker, and Cattle-man [6, 4 ed.]

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Mole-drainage
Cattle
Scotch example
A Mid-Lothian example
Quantity of lime per acre
Systems of irrigation
Plans of farm cottages
Outhouses of cottages
| Swine
Devon cattle
Norfolk and Suffolk red polled cattle
Kerry cattle
Hampshire downs
Roscommon sheep
Middle white breed
Ordinary ploughmen
Farm book-keeping
Final exhortations
435
Cattle pastoral farming
GUERNSEY
428
OXFORD DOWN
Haymaking
376

Citation preview

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MICHIGAN

Experiment Słałion Library. Class 3d, N.

Cas

RULES . Books of Class Third may not be drawn except by mem bers of the Faculty, or upon their order.

SCIENCE

LIB

Michigan's.cc University

1

NOTE TO THE BINDER

With this Division of ' The Book of the Farm ’ are given Titles and Contents for rebinding the Work in Three Volumes, for the convenience of those who may wish to do so.

LIB

Michigan web University

THE

BOOK

OF

THE

DIVISION VI .

FARM

Wherefore come on , O young husbandman ! Learn the culture proper to each kind. VIRGIL.

EXPER IME

Y

BOOK OF THE FARMICH DETAILING THE LABOURS OF THE

FARMER , FARM -STEWARD , PLOUGHMAN , SHEPHERD, HEDGER,

FARM -LABOURER , FIELD -WORKER , AND CATTLE -MAN

BY

HENRY STEPHENS , F.R.S.E. CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE NATIONAL AND CENTRAL SOCIETY OF AGRICULTURE OF FRANCE ,

OF THE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF GALICIA ; OF THE AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE OF GOREGORETZK IN RUSSIA ; OF TIE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF SWEDEN ; OF THE ROYAL IMPROVEMENT SOCIETY OF NORWAY

FOURTH EDITION REVISED , AND IN GREAT PART REWRITTEN, BY

MACDONALD

OF THE ' FARMING WORLD ' ; AUTHOR OF ' FOOD FROM THE FAR WEST ' ; JOINT AUTHOR OF POLLED CATTLE ,' HEREFORD CATTLE ,' ETC., ETC.

IN

SIX

DIVISIONS

DIVISION

WILLIAM

VI.

BLACKWOOD

EDINBURGH

AND

MDCCCXCI

C.

All Rights reserved

AND

LONDON

RAR

AGRICU : VAL COLLEGE ,

THE

JAMES

LIB

TATION

SONS

498

SCIENCE LIBRARY

S 511

SSE 1899

V.6

CONTENTS OF DIVISION VI. The INDEX TO THE COMPLETE WORK being included in this Division, the Contents are con sequently not so copiously given as in the earlier Divisions, but reference to any subject under its title in the Index will supply the information required.

PRACTICE -AUTUMN (continued). PAGE

Mole-drainage

Process of mole-draining Surface -draining

Improving waste land Rules for land improvement Scotch example

281 282 285 286

PAGE

Steading for arable farming Steadings for mixed husbandry Steadings for dairy farming Steadings for suburban farming

286 | Farm -houses

287 287

Plans of farm-houses Outline and ornamentation

Improving poor land

291

Second-class farm-house

Improvement of hill pasture A Mid -Lothian example .

292 | Third -class farm -house

Improvements at Glenbuck Trench andsubsoil ploughing . Liming land

294

General principles . Plans offarm cottages

295

Family cottages

Other methods

Injuryfromimprudent liming Quantity of lime per acre

Chalking land . Marling land Limestone

Preparing lime Over-liming Compost Gas -lime

293

297 Single-storeyed detached cottage 297 Two-storey cottages . 300 Cottages of different sizes 301 Composite cottages . 302

Outhouses of cottages

302

Bothies

303 Evils of the bothy system 303 304 304

Irrigation

304

Systems of irrigation

308

Specification of labourers' cottages :

FARM BUILDINGS. Modern homesteads .

General principles . Farms and steadings Situation of the steading . Principles of arrangement

Iron buildings . Specifications . Specification for a steading for a farm of 5000 acres Specification for modern stone stead ing

311 BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK. 316 316 | Horses 317 Shire horses

Plans of steadings

318 319

Pastoral farming

319

Clydesdale horses Suffolk horses . Cleveland bays

Cattle pastoral farming Sheep pastoral farining Pastoral and arable farming

319

The hackney horse .

321 321

Shorthorn cattle

Sheep and arable farming

323 | Hereford cattle

Cattle

324

326 336 338 340 344 353 353 353 357

358 359 362

363 374 374

375 375 376 378 378

378

385 389

393

393 396 401

402 404 405

406 409

vi

Devon cattle Sussex cattle

Norfolk and Suffolk red polled cattle Long -horned cattle .

Polled Aberdeen -Anguscattle : Galloway cattle Ayrshire cattle

CONTENTS.

436 436

410 / Small white breed 413 Small black breed 416 Tamworth pigs 416 Other breeds 417 Sheep -dogs

436 436 436

Kerry cattle

420 420 421 422

Index of subjects

Welsh cattle Shetland cattle

424 424

Cattle

Jersey and Guernsey cattle

424

Ringworm

Sheep

425

Sheep

484 485

Leicesters

425 | Swine

491

Cotswolds

Recipes Appendix

493

Lincolns

426 426

Southdowns

427

Administering medicine .

495

West Highland cattle

Shropshires Hampshire downs

AILMENTS OF Farm LIVE STOCK.

Oxford downs .

FARM -SERVANTS AND WAGES.

Methods of hiring

Suffolk sheep

428

Devon long-wools

428 Wages and perquisites

Dorset horned sheep

429 429

Swine

495

427

428 428

Border Leicesters Blackfaced sheep Cheviots . Roscommon sheep Weights of sheep

439 442 470

Horses

Ordinary ploughmen Law of farm -service

.

499 499 501

503

433

433 Care of implements .

505

434

Farm book -keeping .

434

Final exhortations

507 524

Berkshires

434 435

Large white breed

435

Middle white breed .

435 | INDEX

527

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN DIVISION VI.

ANIMAL

PORTRAITS . PLATE

POULTRY

2

.

GUERNSEY COW

23

OXFORD

28

DOWN RAM

BORDER LEICESTER Ewe and LAMB ( 1850)

32

FARM BUILDINGS .

DETACHED PASTORAL FARM - STEADING FOR REARING CATTLE I

COMPACT PASTORAL FARM -STEADING FOR REARING CATTLE S FARM-STEADING FOR REARING CATTLE WITH ARABLE CULTURE 2

FARM - STEADING FOR REARING SHEEP WITH ARABLE CULTURE SMALL DAIRY FARM- STEADING

3 SUBURBIAL FARM-STEADING FOR ARABLE CULTURE COMMON FARM-STEADING CARSE FARM -STEADING

4

.

5 6

PLAN OF A DAIRY HOMESTEAD FOR EIGHTY COWS AND FORTY YOUNG CATTLE

FARM-STEADING AT INVERQUHARITY

7 8

FRONT ELEVATION OF FARMHOUSES

GENERAL ILLUSTRATIONS. AUTUMN - continued . PAGE

FIG .

668. Mole-draining

281

FIG .

PAGE

679. Upper floor of a steading for carse

669, 670. Mole-draining ploughs

282

671. Junction with main drain

283 680. Upper storey of a steading for com

672. Auxiliary and mole-drains 673. Closing coulter- track

283

674. Mattock

288

ing for farm of 500 acres

675. Levelling-box, or scoop

290

683. Entrance elevation of main build

676. Catch -work water -meadow

310

325 327

328, 329

ings

330 330

684. Back elevation of main buildings

pastoral farming with arable cul.

685. Side elevation of shed, barn, stables, 322

&c.

686. Side elevation of main buildings

678. Upper floor of a steading for sheep pastoral farming with arable cul. ture

mon farming

.

284 681 , 682. Ground -plan of complete stead

677. Upper floor of a steading for cattle ture

farming

.

324

.

330 330

687. Section and elevation of main build ings at A B 331

ILLUSTRATIONS IN DIVISION VI .

viii

688. Section of main buildings at C D 689. Section of stables at E F

331 331

690. Ground - plan of modern Scotch

elevation of a single-storeyed 735. Front detac hed cottage

steading

691. Section of cow -byre 692. East elevation 693. South elevation 694. North elevation

.

695. Section at A B

333 736. Ground-plan of a single-storeyed 333 333 737. Frontelevation of a single-storeyed detached cottage 333 334 738. Ground plan ofa two-storeyed de tached cottage 334 334 739. Chamber-floor plan ofa two-storeyed

696. Section at C D 697. Upper or roof plan

698. Upper storey of a steading for small dairy farming . .

699. 700. 701. 702.

734. Ground-plan of single-storeyed de

Butter -dairy . Section at Å B Section at C D Front elevation

detached cottage

-detached

338

742. Alternative ground-plan of single

703. Upper storey of a steading for sub urban farming with arable culture 339

storeyed double - detached cot

704. Ground -plan of a kitchen, &c. , of farmhouse . 342

705. Cheese-room , &c. , of farmhouse

343 345

706. Ground- plan of farmhouse 346 707. Chamber- floor plan of farmhouse 708. Alternative arrangement of part of chamber - floorstorey 346 709. Side elevation of farmhouse 710. Back elevation of farmhouse .

347 347

711. Side elevation of farmhouse, finished to show stone-rubble walling

714. Ground -plan of farmhouse in Italian style :

351

354

723. Cellar-plan of a second- class farm 724. Chamber - plan of

a

farmhouse .

farmhouse .

367

plan in fig. 741

367

plan in fig. 741

747. Alternative ground -plan to ground 368

hed

ges

749. Chamber-floor plan of fig. 748

728. Ground - plan of a third -class farm house

369

748

.

369

752. Ground-plan oftwo-storeyed double detached cottages 369 753. Chamber-floor plan of fig . 752 370 754. Front elevation ofcottages in fig. 752 370 755. Two - storey double ground - plan

cottages 370 371 371 371

756. Upper floor 757. Section . 758. Front elevation

759. Ground-plan of modern English 372 372 373

355 762. Ground -plan of single - storeyed double cottages, 355

consisting of

larger and smaller houses

.

356 764. Elevation of small two-storeyed double cottages .

374

356 | 765. Upper storey of composite cottage 375

357 | 766. Ground- plan of a two -storeyed 376

two-storeyed farmhouse . of a single-storeyed 731. Ground -plan of a small hind's house 358 768. Ground-plan bothy 360

732. Ground-plan of a large hind's house of one room

a

376 378

770. Window-sill .

380 380

772, 773. Mangers

361

376

769. Iron buildings

360771. Coping to yard wall

733. Ground -plan of a small hind's house with two rooms .

373

763. Small two -storeyed double cottages 374

729. Chamber-floor plan of a third-class bothy farmhouse . 358 767. Chamber -floor of thir d-class 730. Front elevation of a bothy of one room

368 368

750. Front elevation of the cottages in

761. Front elevation

727. Side elevation of a second- class farmhouse .

366

746. Alternative ground-plan to ground

cottages

second - class

725. Front elevation of a second -class farmhouse . 726. Side elevation of a second -class

365 366

.

.

354 | 760. Upper floor

house

364

745. Alternative ground-plan to ground

fig. 748

Back elevation in the Italian style . 351 Side elevation in the Italian style 352 Side elevation in the Italian style 352 farm of a -class second -plan Ground house

363

349 751. End elevation of cottages in fig.

718. Front elevation of farmhouse Italian style

363

366 tached cottages in fig. 741 744. Alternative front elevation to front elevation in fig. 743 367

plan in fig. 741

715. Cellar plan 350 716. Alternative cellar plan 350 717. Chamber- floor plan of farmhouse in Italian style 350 719. 720. 721. 722.

tages . 743. Front elevation of the double-de

348 748. Ground-plan of two-storeyed double detac cotta

712. Back elevation of alternative design 348 713. Vertical section of milk-house and cheese-room , figs. 706 and 707 349

362

365

336 740. Front elevation of thetwo-storeyed - plan of single- storeyed 741. Ground 338 38 double cottages

3

361

774. Shepherd's dog or collie

380 438

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PLATE XXXII

1

MOLE -DRAINAGE.

MOLE -DRAINAGE .

281

sandy or friable, it cannot retain the shape of the mole, the channel being

On land of a suitable nature mole- obliterated by the collapse of its walls. drainage is frequently found to be a Mole -draining Permanent Pasture. desirable substitute for pipe - drainage. It is on land under permanent pasture 1

It has, for instance, given satisfactory that this system of drainage may be re results in most of the eastern and mid- sorted to with the greatest prospect of land counties of England. permanency, and least injury to the

Advantages. The chief advantages surface. The slit made by the coulter remains it offers are that it is less costly, and that it may be more expeditiously carried longer open under such circumstances, out. as there is little loose soil to fill it up, Its cheapness commends it specially to drawing off the rain -water and prevent the tenant-farmer, for although it may ing theforming of pools on the surface. require repetition after the lapse of from Mole - draining Tillage Land.— In twelve to twenty years, the initial ex- the case of land under cultivation, the pense does not amount to more than seeds break affords the best opportunity

from one-sixth to one-fourth of that of of doing this work ; and when seeds are the ordinary method ; hence it is from down for several years, the last season , his point of view the more economical. just before the land is broken up for å Different Soils and Mole -draining. grain crop, is the time generally chosen.

-A strong firm clay or loam , free from Occasionally the fallow break is drained, stones, offers the greatest facilities for and, more rarely, the land on which wheat is actually growing; but it is mole-drainage.

The presence of a few boulders, which obvious that a considerable amount of may throw the implement out of the surface damage must result in either ground occasionally, need not be re

case .

garded as an insuperable obstacle. Very Time for Mole -draining . — The sur fine plastic clays are liable to shrink and face of the field need not of necessity crack excessively in dry seasons, thus be perfectly flat or even, for the mole allowing particles ofloose soil to crumble plough may be raised or lowered to some

into the conduit and choke it up ; while, extent to suit irregularities of surface, on the other hand, if the subsoil be too but it must admit of a moderate and

Fig. 668. - Molc -draining .

tolerably uniform fall being given upon the amount of autumn rainfall. In throughout the entire length of each wet seasons a start may be made in No drain . vember or December ; but the work has The time of the year at which mole- often to be postponed until February or drainage may be commenced depends Mar when thewinter's rains have made VOL. III.

S 2

DRAINING LAND.

282

the subsoil sufficiently soft. Autumn the medium of a windlass and horse-gear the advantage that the soil can bear the tended drain. See fig. 668, which, with weight of the engines with least injury, the kind permission of Messrs Blackie

work , when it can be undertaken, has anchored at the higher end of the in and there is time for the inevitable com- & Sons, we reproduce from Morton's

pression of the surface to be counter- Encyclopaedia of Agriculture. Now, acted by the frost before the following however, the work is invariably done seed -time. by the steam ploughing engine. Mole - draining Ploughs. — The ac Process of Mole-draining. companying illustrations, figs. 669 and Formerly the work of mole -drainage 670, of Fowler's larger and smaller

was performed by horse-labour through draining-ploughs, showthe construction B.

B

B

B

VIU JU

G

Figs. 669 and 670.-Mole- draining ploughs.

of the implement adapted for steam trac- are placed two in front and two behind, the front pairbeing connected with worm In both of these ploughs the frame, A, and pitch -chain steerage, in the sameman is of wrought iron, and slides on the ner as the steam cultivator. Attached to ground when the implement is at work ; the frame, in such a manner that it may but when travelling from place to place be raised and lowered to regulate the tion as now used .

it is raised in relation to the four wheels,

depthof the drain, is a broad flat coulter,

B , upon which it is borne. The wheels E, which carries a wedge-pointed " sock,"

MOLE-DRAINAGE.

283

F, at its lower extremity. The pitch or tivation ( 9.v., vol. i. ) are applicable to angle of the sock, in relation to the steam drainage. Sometimes two engines ground, may be adjusted by means of a are used, usually 14 horse -power ; occa rod and screw . The “ mole,” G, an iron sionally one engine and roundabout clog, somewhat oval in shape, and about tackle ; but more commonly an engine, 372 inches in diameter, is attached to placed at the higher side of the field, the hinder extremity of the sock by draws the mole-plough when at work, a means of a couple of links or a jointed team of horses returning it out of work bolt. It is this " mole,” forced through to the lower side.

Outfall.-- Nothing is more injurious

the ground at the required depth, which forms the drain -conduit. The front of

to these drains than the presence in them

of standing water, and, to avoid this, a

the frame bears the windlass, D, round which passes the steel-wire rope, d, from the engine. By the use of the windlass half the power required for direct traction is sufficient, but the rope must consequently be double the length of the drain. Any of the systems ofsteam culvel

ui.. U , ....

free and ample outfall should be secured

before the work of mole-drainage is com menced. Main Drain . — The main is cut in the

ordinary manner along the lowest side of the field, and laid with pipes of a calibre 410.A.

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A ....

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.. ....

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Fig. 671.- Junction with main drain.

A, B Main drain piped and filled up.

D Mole-track , the arrow showing the direction

c Branch , also piped and filled . in which the mole-plough has been drawn. E Branch left open to receive the mole.

in accordance with the area to be drained. advisable to cut an auxiliary main across Brushwood and sundry other materials the middle of it, so as to relieve the

occasionally take the place of pipes, but strain on the mole-drains. When depressions traverse the field in there can be no doubt as to the superior economy of the latter.

any direction, it be The main should be six to nine inches comes necessary to lay deeper than the mole-drains, to facilitate a main along each . To

the discharge of the water into it. Be- obviate the trouble and

fore returning the earth over the main expense of connecting pipes, branches, four to six feet in length, are cut at the proper distances apart, to form the terminations of the mole-drains and toconnect them with themain. In each of these branches a couple of pipes may be laid, to form a junction with the main, which is then filled up. Part of the branch , E , fig. 671, say three feet

the mole - drains with the auxiliary mains, the latter may be cut nine inches deeper, and the trench having been filled up with gravel, B,

iliary fig. 672, to a depth of Fig:672.7Aux mole-drains. 12 or 15 inches above A Pipe of auxiliary main .

in length, is left open, so that the mole the pipes, and the soil may be dropped into it and start work returned to the top of at the proper depth. Auxiliary Mains.— When the field

c Mole conduit drawn

through gravel, B.

this, the mole may be drawn through the gravel,when its water

is more than ten chains in width, it is will readily percolate to the pipes, A.

284

DRAINING LAND .

On some parts of the Essex coast, noticed, indicated by the implement slip where cockle-shells may be had in abun- ping rapidly through them , they should dance, they are used instead of gravel, be at once marked , in order that the

for which they form an excellent sub- mole-channel may there be opened and laid with pipes. This precaution will

stitute.

Depth of Mole -drains. In the days save much trouble from subsequent de of horse-traction mole-drains were made rangement. Contracting, and Price for Mole as shallow as eighteen inches ; but with

steam -power the common depth is 2 % draining. — Drainage of this kind is sometimes contracted for at so much per feet, and occasionally 3 feet.

Channel. — The mole is usually 372 acre for mains, pipes, and mole-drains, all It is also undertaken at a forced its way through the soil, it leaves fixed price per chain , usually 472d. to

inches in diameter, and, when this has complete.

a channel at first about three inches in 672d., depending upon the depth and bore. The compression of the sides of calibre of the drain, and upon the nature the conduit by the mole is no doubt a of the ground, the farmer in this instance disadvantage ; but this is largely counter- providing the mains, and supplying coal acted by the slight upheaval of the soil, and water for the engines. A third and and by the slit which the coulter leaves common arrangement is for the contrac tor to supply one engine and tackle, or

behind it.

Distance apart. — The distance apart two engines, and the draining - plough, at which the mole -drains are made varies together with a ploughman, and an

considerably according to the nature of engineer for each engine. the soil and the regularity of the surface. A fair day's work may be reckoned at When there are high -backed ridges to take into account, the drains are best

300 to 350 chains. Cost per Acre . — Respecting the cost

drawn up the furrows, and may be eight per acre, let us take, for example, a field or ten yards apart; but when the surface ten chains in width , with mole-drains at is flat, one rod is a favourite and con- one-rod intervals : each chain-length of venient width.

such a field will have four mole-drains,

Coulter -track . - In order to prevent the coulter - track opening too widely during times of drought, it is a useful practice to run

measuring together forty chains. Under average circumstances the items of cost against the farmer might be thus ap proximately stated :

the ordinary plough along

the course of the proposed Hireof steam -power,mole -plough , engineers, and ploughman, at 5d. drain to turn back a furrow

slice ; then, when the mole

per rod

Coal

plough has been drawnup Cartage of coal and water

Per acre . £0 15 0 1

0 6

0

0

9

0

2

3

0 0

3 1

0 0

0

0

6

£1

4

0

the grip so formed , the fur- Cuttingmain (1 chain ), laying pipes, Fig.ing673.--Clos- row -slice is laid over into coulter track .

and filling Pipes for

its original position, form Digging “ main branches " at 3d. each

ing a flap over the opening Sixteen 3 - inch pipes for branches left by the coulter, and preventing the

earth from falling into it (see fig. 673). Method . — When all the necessary pre

parations have been made, the mole is It is sometimes necessary to continue dropped into the open branch, and, the the main to a brook or ditch at a dis

engine being set in motion, the draining- tance from the field, thereby augmenting plough is slowly pulled to the higher the cost. side of the field. It is drawn back to

When the farmer owns the engines

the lower side by the other engine, by and plough himself, the expense may be horses, or by steam tackle, to start again reduced to, say, 18s. or žos. per acre. from the next branch, the operation

Cost of Mole and Pipe Draining

being repeated until the whole field is Compared. - In comparing mole and drained . pipe drainage as to economy, we must Whenever beds or pockets of sand are allow 5 per cent interest on

SURFACE -DRAINING . 68. 9d. , the more permanent part of the work

£0

0

4

And, on the cost of mole - drains,

inches wide at the surface, 18 to 20 inches deep, and 4 to 9 inches wide at the bottom .

178. 3d., an annual sum sufficient to pay 5 per cent and refund the

285

Where the soil is of a

sandy nature, or “ rotten ” friable peat,

capital outlay in, say, 14 years 0 Total annual charge £ 0

1

9

the sides should have a greater inclina

2

1

tion ; whilst if boulder-clay or other stiff

soil, or tough fibrous peat, the sides may The be steeper. Caution in Surface - draining. duration of mole -drains varies greatly, according to the nature of the subsoil, the “ Flows " or flat bogs, producing “draw amount of fall, and the manner in which moss " ( the Eriophorum vaginatum of Duration

of

Mole - drains. -

the work has been performed. When botanists), so invaluable for spring food, well done and in a suitable soil their must be dried with caution. Draw -moss average life may be estimated at four- can flourish only where there is abun teen or fifteen years ; under less favour- dance of moisture, and on such land no able circumstances eight or ten years ; other plant will yield half so great an whilst occasionally in a very firm subsoil amount of food.

Hence bogs of this

they may be found in working order at kind should be dried only sufficiently to allow the sheep to feed upon them with the end of twenty or even thirty years . Destruction of Mole - drains. — The safety and comfort.

It is by no means

ultimate destruction of mole -drains is difficult to overdo the surface-draining

usually due to their becoming blocked of hill pasture, and in this matter there by silt or roots, or to the collapse of the is needfor theexercise of great care and sides and roof of the conduit under the practical experience. continued action of the water assing Distance apart. - In draining " flows, " therefore, wide distances, 20 to 100 yards, through it. Enemies of Mole -drains.

The live

are adopted, as the condition of the sur

mole and the water-rat are amongst the face may indicate. most dangerous enemies of mole -drainIn grassy hollows and slopes much

age, and their thorough extermination greater frequency is desirable, as these, is necessary to its preservation. save in exceptional cases, cannot so easily Repair.— The repair of mole-drains be made too dry.

is always unsatisfactory. Short lengths may

Occasionally it is expedient, in remote

be patched up by cutting them open situations, to preserve a certain quan

and laying with pipes.

tity of "sprit ” ( Juncus articulatus) for

When the mains have been properly laid thatching purposes, and as after drain they may be regarded as permanent, and age that plant is displaced by others, it new lateral drains may beconnected with may be desirable to leave certain patches them as often as the land is re -drained .

undrained on that account.

Under or

dinary circumstances surface - drains are SURFACE-DRAINING.

cut in such land six to ten yards apart. Arrangement of Surface - drains .

The general arrangement is similar to Thorough ,

methodical,

surface

that recommendedin the case of deep

drainage, variously called “ open drain- drainage. ing " or " sheep -draining," is quite as The mains, which are somewhat larger essential to the successful management of than the lateral drains, are usually cut

our higher sheep -walks, where the nature along the bottom of theslope, the lateral

of the ground and the value of the land drains entering them atregular intervals. render the more expensive systems im- The lateral drains should curve in the practicable, as deep drainage is to our direction in which the water is flowing, arable lands and old pastures.

at their junction with the mains, to les

Considerable skill is required to carry sen the risk of silting up. out effectively and economically the surOn long slopes, sub -mains should in face -drainage of hill-farms. tercept the lateral drains where required , Form of Surface - drain . — The ordi- to prevent the washing out of gullies nary surface-drain is a ditch 20 to 22 along their course.

IMPROVING WASTE LAND.

286

Cost. — The price, dependent upon the Cutting Surface - drains. — The cutting of surface-drains can be best done nature of the soil, varies from 3d. to 6d. by skilled men who spend the whole or per chain , when the ordinary tools are nearly the whole of their time at the sufficient , but if the trenching-spade be work. The work is most economically required , the cost may amount to 7d. or

performed by two men together. One 8d . per chain. cuts the sides with the “ ritting " spade,

Repairing Surface - drains.

Sur

while the other shovels out the bottom face -drains ought to be cleared out at of the drain.

The turfs are taken out frequent intervals, at least once every

by the latter with a two-toed hack with eight years on black ground, and every curved handle, and prongs about 10 inches five years on green land. in length, while theformer detaches them

with the cross-cut spade, using the handle as a lever to assist in starting.

Note. - In the portion of the chapter on

vol. v .atypographical Drainage in Divisional Placing the Sods. — The sods should error occurs , In the paragraph on Sub

be deposited on the lower side in a regu

lar line, not less than two feet from the mains," p. 261, it is stated that “ Any neces edgeof the drain, so that theymay not sity for making theminor drains ofa greater length than two chains may be obviated by

readily fall into it if disturbed by providing sub -mains.” It should be read as cattle.

ten instead of two chains.

IMPROVING

WASTE

LAND.

The method to be pursued in the re- Sir John Sinclair, Bart., for the improve clamation of waste land will of course ment of waste land, which are as appli

depend very much upon the character cable to the present day as to the time in and condition of the land to be operated upon. Throughout the British Isles vast tracts of rough uninvitingland have been, by the enterprise of landowners and tenant-farmers, reduced to a useful con-

which he wrote : 1. Not to put in practice any scheme

of improvement without the fullest con sideration, nor without the command of an adequate capital. 2. Not to begin on too great a scale, dition for arable or pastoral farmingthe cost of reclamation in many cases nor until, by experience, it be found that

unfre the design is suitable to the soil, situa exceeding £10 per acre, not unfrequently running to £15, £20, or more, tion, and climate. per acre.

In recent years less has been

3. When the intention is to cultivate

done in this way than formerly. In bogs or peat-mosses, not to begin crop most parts of the country the limits of ping till at least one season after the advantageous reclamation have been drains are completed, and the soil

nearly reached ; in some cases they have thoroughly reclaimed from superfluous been exceeded, and it is hardly probable water. that there will be great activity in this 4. To plough or delve peat-mosses in direction in the immediate future.

autumn, that it may first be effectually

Still there are, no doubt, considerable areas of land which might be reclaimed with advantage, so that the methods of improving waste land demand notice here. At this time of day, however,

exposed to winter frosts and rains, and not to summer heat, which would harden it and prevent its decomposition. 5. Whatever is done, to do it effec

tually, -not to think of laying on four

brief notes will suffice. acres the manure necessary for three, nor the lime, chalk, &c., required for two Rules for Land Improvement. given to one. We cannot do better than produce here 6. To carry on the improvement of

the following rules, laid down by the late waste lands without encroaching upon

IMPROVING WASTE LAND .

287

the dung necessary for the improved part until the succeeding spring or winter, of the farm ; and when it was again ploughed , and then 7. To lay down any land improved made suitable for the reception of seed. from waste, in high and bleak situations, In the second year the land sown with as soon as possible into grass, and to re- oats was put under turnips, and as time tain it in that state as long as it is toler- went on the turnip break was gradually ably productive. For though grain and increased. A second crop of oats was roots may be cultivated on waste lands, taken where the land was rough and the

when properly improved and favourably turf not decayed. situated, yet grass land pastured particu-

Part of the land being peat-moss, the

larly by sheep is principally to be de- drains were put down to the clayif prac pended upon for improving weak soils in ticable ; but where this could not be done

barren districts and remunerating the 5 feet was about the average depth. improver .

A considerable time was allowed to elapse

Scotch Example. We have in our mind an instance of somewhat extensive improvement effected

before ploughing was commenced, so as to allowthe drains to dry the land, and to let the boggy parts settle and con solidate.

upon waste land in the north of Scotland,

In the course of some ten years over 600 acres were in this instancereclaimed,

in which these rules were carried out to

aconsiderable extent during the progress the entire work being done by the ordi of the work .

nary implements of the farm , with little Original Condition of Land . — This extra strength, except where the land farm before the improvements were be- was much broken and rough ,when labour gun consisted of heath, with patches of ers had to be engaged to fill up the holes mixed waste land which had been at one and delve such of the roughest places as time under cultivation. For many years horses could go over it. the whole farm had been under sheep. Result . - Even the first rotation of

Steading. The position for the stead- crops left the land level and fairly planted ing was chosen near the centre of the with grass. From the success in this in

would infer that in the recla stance one land to be brought under cultivation,and mation of land extra time may lessen

at a level where all the water drained

from the higher ground could be used for expense to an extent out of all proportion driving thethreshing -mill, and for other tothat required to effect the same object in a shorter period. purposes. Process of Reclamation . — The first

Stones. - The stones turned up were

part of the operation was laying off the used for building dykes, forming leader land near the steading into fields of about drains, and making the farm -roads. 20 acres each. Along the boundary -lines Other Methods. of the fields open ditches were cut during

the first year. Into these ditches the In other cases, where the surface of the leaders for the furrow drains were made ground is rough and much covered with to fall, and after about 40 acres were fur- hassocks of coarse grass, it requires to be row -drained, thewhole was ploughed as brought into cultivation by other means

deeply as possible. Two men followed each plough, one holding the plough and the other turning over any part of the furrow the plough left unlaid, and marking the position of land -fast stones by means of wooden pegs. Cropping. – During the first year very

than the plough. When the ground is the site of an old plantation, it is impos sible to bring it in with the plough. Whenthe subsoil contains a large quan tity of stones, of whatever size , it may not be possible to stir it with the plough. Where much brushwood exists - as

of

little of the land was put under crop. hazel, alder, birch , broom , and whin The only parts so treated were where the the plough should not be tried. land admitted of being brought into orTrenching .-- To bring the land soon dinary tilth. The rest was allowed to lie into cultivation in all these cases the best method is to trench it with the spade. 1 Rural Cyclopædia .

Spade-work is expensive, but it is effec

IMPROVING WASTE LAND .

288

tive amongst roots and stones, and the as the cost of draining would be much

ground is put by it in so prepared a state increased amongst roots and stones. that the succeeding operations are exeDepth and Cost of Trenching. – No cuted with ease and satisfaction. Reclaiming Plantation Ground.

trenching among tree -roots and boulders should be less than 18 or 20 inches deep

In trenching the site of a removed plan- of the solid ground. The cost of such tation, a good plan is to mark out the depth of trenching may be heavy, but ground in divisions of 30 feet in breadth. then by it rough useless land is at once

Three men working together will do more broughtinto a fit condition for cropping. and better work than each man alone, the one assisting the others when extracting the roots of the

Although trenching may not be the cheap est mode of making land available to the plough, it is the most pleasant and satis factory.

trees.

Trenching may be executed at any sea No implement is son. To allow time for subsequent opera

so efficient in cutting tions, however, it is best and most com

T

the ramified roots of fortably done in the long dry warm days a tree as the common

mattock , fig. 674, which on one arm

has a horizontal cut ting face, and on the Fig. 674. - Mattock. other a vertical. It is used like a hand -pick, and one or both

of summer. Small hollows and heights should be levelled in trenching. The

contractor should be bound to be always with his workmen, and the farmer should have a superintendent to overlook the work, as even the contractor may direct the men to make the trenched ground

faces alternately are required to cut seem as high as it should be, although ong root. An axe would the solid ground has not been dug to the through a soon be bluntedby the earth adhering proper depth . Removing Turf. - If turf is desired for to the smaller roots, though a large root is easier cut through with an axe than a any purpose, it may be cut from waste mattock . land about to be improved . In many

The roots and stools, great and small, parts good tough turf is not easy to are laid upon the surface of the trenched

be obtained, and at all times it fetches

ground behind the workmen , and the a high price. A man will cast from hollows left by them in the ground filled four to six cart -loads of one ton each up, and the surface levelled. Trenching

Stony

Ground .

trenching very stony ground, the

in a day, according to the smoothness In and softness of the ground. foot- In most cases, however, the best plan

pick is the most efficient implement for will be to reclaim the land as it stands, loosening them out of the subsoil. The ploughing down the turf as in the Scotch crowbar or pinch is required to raise instance referred to . Levelling Ridges.—In levelling high, what cannot be effected by the foot-pick ;

and the largest boulders may have to be gathered -up, crooked ridges in clay soil, blown topieces by gunpowder or dynamite. The stones are laid upon the trenched ground. In many parts stones are so numerous in the subsoil that they

much precaution is requisite, because the soil, exposed after the lowering of the ridges, will take some time to be rendered fertile. James Carmichael,Raploch farm ,

re not only sufficient to form the drains Stirlingshire, thus describes his mode of for the land, but that to get quit of the doing it :

overplus, “ consumption -dykes,” several “In winter, ploughing the land in feet in height and breadth, are built in tended to be levelled and straightened in lieu of fences. As many as 800 tons of the succeeding summer , the plough was stones have been trenched out of one acre entered in the side of the ridge, exactly in the county of Kincardine, in the north- in the middle between the crown and open furrow ; and thus one -fourth of the

east of Scotland.

Draining. - In improving the site of ridge was gathered up from the open fur a plantation, or very stony ground, it row on each side of the ridge, while the should be trenched before being drained, open furrow was left as open and deep as

IMPROVING WASTE LAND .

289

possible. The remaining half of the ridge more subsoil should be ploughed than was then cloven down, without gore-fur- can be removed during the course of the rows, the crown being laid completely bare, sothat every ridge was divided into

day.

Levelling Land. — Besides larger ine

two. The work thus remained high and qualities of surface, minor ones require dry during the winter.

emendation, the neglect of which renders

“ In May or June following, the plough the surface of improved arable land un gathered up about 2 feet on each side of pleasant to the sight. The inequalities the crown of the ridge of the exposed we allude to are slight hollows, low subsoil, which was about 5 feet in breadth. heights running across several ridges,

After this itwas ploughed into drills, and making one sideor part of a ridge higher removed, either by shovels or with a two- than the other, or part of the head -ridge horse levelling-box, into the deep open higher than the ridges, and suchlike furrows. Theplough was again employed blemishes. to make drills in the crown, and the subsoil removed into the open furrows; and

Levelling -box.- The best and most

economical method of getting quit of

the same operation was repeated until them is with the levelling-box, fig. 675 ,

the open furrows were raised apparent- which, according to the nature of the ly above the level of the crowns. This

soil to be removed and the distance to be

being done, part of the formerlyaccumu- carried, may be worked by one or two lated soil on the sides of the ridges was

horses. The two sides having the same

cloven down by the plough upon the depth where they join the back,are curved recently removed subsoil in the open fur- off to nothing at the front. It is requisite

rows on the one hand, and upon the bared for strength that it be made of hardwood; crowns on the other hand. The land was but the common willow, from its tough then cross-harrowed , and two times cross- ness and lightness, is perhaps better ploughed and harrowed alternately as adapted than any other wood for this deep aspossible, and every inequality re- purpose. The sole of the scoop is armed moved before the ridges were re-formed with a strong shoeing of iron , termina straight.

ting in a sharp cutting -edge. Two skeds

“ The whole process is exceedingly or bolsters are fixed on the lower side of simple, and its advantages are perfectly the sole, thinned off forward to give obvious : for while every particle of the facility of entrance in the soil to the cut scoop, and upon which original surface is thus carefully pre- ting-edge of athesledge when filled. All served, the subsoil is so sparingly and it runs like equally incorporated with it, that not a

the

corners

are strongly bound with

doubt can remain ofthe beneficial result iron plates, and the skeds upon which it of the operation . Where the ridges have runs are covered with strong sheet or been very broad and high, it will be hoop iron. The handles are bolted to

found necessary to remove part of the thesides, and so fitted as to bring their subsoilfrom the sides of the ridges also extremities to a convenient distance for after the crown has been refilled, par- being held in the hands of the conductor. ticularly when the subsoil is tilly ; but The draught-chains, with their stretcher,

this is easily performed by two or three are attached to an eye-bolt or a staple on women or boys going after the plough either side of the scoop. and throwing the remains of till turned The levelling-boxis used in this manner. up into the furrows; or should the ridges After the plough is first made to turn be too broad for this, the levelling -box over the soil lightly on the height to be will effect the purpose.” removed, the levelling -box, worked by The labour attending this operation one pair of horses, then follows, and takes will depend on circumstances, such as the up from one end of the ploughed ground

breadth and crookedness of the ridges, as much soil as it can contain, the con and the strength of the clay soil. In dry ductor holding by the stilts or handles. weather the operation will be more ex- The box is filled by the conductor allow

peditiously and betterdone than in wet, ing the handles to rise as much as that the soil being rendered light by the heat In changeable weather no

of the

VOL . III.

1 I'r

High. Agric. Soc., ix. 37-39. T

IMPROVING WASTE LAND .

290

the edge of the sole shall bite the ground ; and on these being drawn forward by the horses, the box is filled to any extent, when by the handles being pressed down

of the load of earth, the handles falling and resting upon the stretcher ; and whenever it is emptied, he levels the earth by passing the box over it.

the front edge is relieved from the ground,

The box is returned to its working

and the machine travels upon its skeds. position upon its bottom immediately, On arriving at the hollow place to be or it may move along upon its mouth,

filled up, the conductor, by raising up the smoothing the surface till it reaches the handles, capsizes the box, and gets quit ploughed soil, when, by a sudden pull of

23

Fig. 675. - Levelling -box, or scoop. ba, ba Two sides of box. b b Back of box .

a a Sharp edge of iron sole. cc Handles.

a rope attached to one of the handles, it regains its working position . In all these movements the horses are

d Stretcher attached to the

draught- chains.

An Irish Example.

On the estateof Brockley Park, Strad

not stopped, but proceed from one place bally, Queen's County, a scheme of suc to another as directed, while the box is cessful improvement of land carried out

filling and emptying in constant succes- by the proprietor, Mr William Young, is sion. A strong active man is required worthy of description here. to work this implement. Cropping New Land .

Original Condition of the Land. Land so

When Mr Young succeeded to the estate,

drained and trenched usually bears for about 1860, it contained a considerable

its first crop either potatoes or turnips , area of rough, “ cut-away ” peat bog. that is, if a sufficiently fine tilth can be obtained. Turnips are generally preferred to potatoes, because they may be eaten on the ground by sheep, and thus at

Uneven in the surface, and full of stag nant water, it was in parts so soft and boggy that people or animals could not safely walk upon it. The drier portions once put the drained land into a state of were covered with furze and scrubby comparative fertility. Where the land is hazel bushes ; while the other parts car

ploughed, oats are a favourite crop for ried a strong growth of reeds and rushes. the first, because it assists in rotting turf This rough land was almost worthless

quicker than green crops. Where grass except as a resort for snipe and wild has been ploughed, it is the best first crop duck. Anxious to turn it to some good that can be taken.

Waste land broken

account, and to give employment to the

up by the plough cannot be made suitable people, Mr Young decided to reclaim it. for a turnip crop, it being so rough and Process of Reclamation . In the first tough that ordinary implements have place the land was under-drained with little or no effect in breaking down the tiles and collars, great difficulty having furrows. been experienced in many parts in getting

IMPROVING WASTE LAND .

291

the drains formed, owing to the extreme fineness of the sandy subsoil. In fact, here and there it was found necessary to use boards in binding up the sides of the

the following year sown with 4 lb. of rape, i bushel of vetches, 1/2 bushel of perennial rye-grass, 1/2 bushel of Italian rye-grass, 4 lb. of cocksfoot, 4 lb. of

drains.

timothy, and 4 lb. each of alsike and

The land ( except where it was so soft white clover per Irish acre. This crop that horses could not walk upon it) was came up exceedingly well, giving a close then ploughed twice — the one furrow at heavy yield. In the autumn of the same right angles to the other, and the large year — in August and September — it was cross -cut sods were left exposed to the consumed on the land by sheep. The winter's frost.

Some of the softer spots crop was so rank that much loss would

had to be cut andlevelled with the spade. have been sustained by allowing the sheep First Crop . - In the following spring to trample upon it, and therefore they

the ploughed land was harrowed , the had to eat it through wooden hurdles. roots and rougher sods burned, and the ashes spread over the surface. It was then sown with rape. The rape plants came irregularly , and the crop was not of much value. It, however, cost very little,

These hurdles, made for the purpose at Brockley Park, were light, with upright bars. They were shifted forward every second day ; and with a scythe a “ swathe ” or “ bout” of the crop was

and the action of its roots, together with thrown up against them every morning. the treading of the sheep that consumed The sheep were allowed a moderate quan it, assisted in breaking up the surface and tity of cake along with what they could in preparing it for further cultivation .

eat through the hurdles, and thus the

Second Crop . — The first crop having land, while robbed of its richness through been eaten off by sheep, the ground was the crops it yielded , was being recuperated

again ploughed, and, in the following by the droppings of the sheep. June, sown with 14 lb. of rape and about

Results.

The results of the treatment

a bushel of Italian rye - grass per Irish briefly described were eminently satisfac

acre. A top-dressing of 3 cwt. of Lawes's tory. The sheep were withdrawn from turnip manure wasallowed to the Irish the land duringwinter, and next spring acre ; and with that treatment the land there came up a beautiful growth of per gave a good crop. This crop was also manent pasture. No accurate account of eaten off the land by sheep . It made the cost of the reclamation could be given , excellent feeding the first autumn ; and as the work was carried out from time to the sheep having had an allowance of time along with other estate improve cake upon the land, the rape and grassments, and with the ordinary erations came up well the following spring, afford- of the home farm . Mr Young, however,

ing a very useful change for ewes and feels certain that these crops to which lambs. we have referred fully repaid himfor the Third Crop . — In May of that year it cost of reclamation, and that the per

was once more ploughed up, harrowed, manent value of the land is increased at and drilled , and manured with about 25 least five-fold . tons of farmyard manure and 3 cwt. of Improving Poor Land. Lawes's turnip manure per Irish acre. Another and larger portion of Mr The main portion was planted with cab-

bage, but wherever the tilth could be Young's property at Brockley Park, men made fine enough, turnips were sown. tioned above, consisted of poor worn -out Both these cropswere heavy and of good

land .

This presented difficulties of a

quality, and both were consumed on the different character, which were also suc cessfully overcome.

land by sheep. Laying to Pasture.—The land was

This land, like a

great deal of the poorer and partially

now in a fit state for being laid down waste lands of Ireland, consists of a thin,

for permanent pasture.

It was clean, in moory, or peatysoil, with sandy or gra

good heart, and wonderfully fine in the velly subsoil. Such land is generally tilth .

Accordingly, as soon as the turnip kept in what is called " pasture,” on

and cabbage crops were consumed, the which a few half-starved cattle drag out land was again ploughed ploughed,, and in May in a miserable existence.

292

IMPROVING WASTE LAND.

One great hindrance to the improve- August. During winter the land was ment of land of this class is that a large left clear, and early next spring it again

extent of it is of so poor a nature that presented a nice rich cover of rape and when reclaimed it cannot be calculated rye - grass, which was once more eaten upon as certainto prove remunerative un- down by ewes and lambs. der either arable farming or mixed farmIn June of that year it was ploughed

ing, or as likely to carrypermanent pasture up as in the previous year, manured as with any reasonable degree of success. on that occasion, and then laid down We therefore look upon Mr Young'ssys- into permanent pasture. The seeds sown tem of improving and utilising such land upon the Irish acre were 4 lb. of rape, as of the utmost public importance.

14 to 20 lb. of vetches, 2 bushels of

He found, in the course of some years' perennial rye-grass, 12 bushel Italian rye experience, that even after beingthor- grass, 4 lb. of timothy, 4 lb. of cocksfoot,

oughly drained, it would not pay under 4 lb. of alsike clover, and 4 lb. of white any system of regular cultivation. It clover.

In the part where clay and not

would not even repay him for his outlay bog or moss prevailed , 4 or 5 lb. of red in an ordinary course of corn and root clover were added ; while for the pur crops. As the manure seemed to go pose of learning the young sheep to eat down through the subsoil and give no roots, a very small quantity of turnip adequate return, it was only when under seed was also thrown in. grass that the land was really useful. Result . — The land thus treated was

Renewing Pasture. — But seeing that generally ready to carry sheep some time the land would not carry a sufficientcover in August, and, without exception, the

of pasture for more than two or three pasture laid down in this manner has consecutive years without the grasses excelled that sown in the course of an

being renewed, and seeing also that a ordinary rotation. The rape and vetches course of cropping the usual method afford useful feeding for sheep - no cattle adopted when grasses have to be re- are put upon the land - early in the first

sown — always resulted in a loss (the crop season ; afterwards the vetches die out

being so poor asnot to repay seed, labour, and leave a wonderfully close rich cover and manures), it becamenecessary to de of grass and clover. The sheep take very vise some other means by which the kindly to this sort of food , and thrive

grasses might be profitably and effectively remarkably well upon it. renewed . This stubborn difficulty was at

Mr Young finds it advantageous to

last successfully overcome by the adop- sow , for variety of feeding, a small patch tion of the following treatment, which of mustard instead of rape. The mustard we have no doubt might with much plant grows rapidly, affording good feed

advantage be pursued in many similar ing six weeksafter being sown. Sheep cases.

are fond of mustard, and it prevents

When the permanent pasture on any liability to scouring. field or division was observed to be giving

In addition to the method of renewing

way, the short sweet cover of grass

the pasture land which Mr Young pur

which usually came up early in the sea- sued, and which wehave briefly described, son was at once eaten down by sheep, being efficient for the desired object, it and then the land (that is to say, the was also in itself a profitable operation.

field or portion giving way) was ploughed The extra feeding which the rape,vetches,

up in the first week of June, and imme- & c., afforded more than repaid the cost diately sown down with 10 lb. of rape of the labour and manure which were

and 11/2 bushel of Italian rye -grass per employed in that work." Irish acre. It was at the same time top

dressed with 3 cwt. of superphosphate and 2 cwt. of Lawes's special manure per

Improvement of Hill Pasture. The improvement of hill pasture and of

Irish acre, the value of thisdose ranging grazing land which cannot be advantage from 358. to 40s. per Irish acre. The ously put through a course of cropping

rape and rye - grass generally came up is a matter of considerable difficulty . In rapidly, and were eaten down by ewes and lambs about the middle or end of

1 Irish Farmers' Gaz., Nov. 26, 1881, 467.

IMPROVING WASTE LAND .

293

all probability the prospects of return ture. The attemptsat improvement by would not justify a heavy outlay, and lime as by manures should be confined to without this it is not easy to effect any the green land. If the land is wet it marked improvement in the pasture. must first be drained, either by under

Deterioration of Hill Pastures. - It ground drains, or by open or « sheep is not surprising that complaints of de- drains (the former are the more effec

terioration in hill pastures should occasionally be heard. By the system of grazing pursued on these, there is a gradual exhaustion of the natural re-

tive, and of course also the more expen sive), and about a year or so after the draining has been completed , the lime may be spread . A good dressing would

sources of the soil without the slightest be about four to six tons of lime per acre. compensation from any external source. Effects of Lime. - The lime has a

The repairing and replenishing forces of wonderful effect upon the rough green nature are ever at work, but these are pasture. It brings up a growth of sweet often inadequate to recoup the land for er, greener, and more juicy grasses than what has been removed from it in the grew there before, so that in a few years

bodies of the animals reared upon it. the character of the herbage is vastly Deterioration becomes manifest in the changed. The sheep soon discover the

pasture, and the farmer is puzzled to portion that has been limed, and show know what should be done.

by their partiality for it what they think

Cropping. – On hill pasture little can of the “ lime-sweetened ” pasture. Six

be done with advantage in the way of months after the application of lime they improvement by tilling and cropping the feed on the land with avidity. In certain cases small portions

Enduring Effects of Lime. - More

have been renovated by this method, but the cost is great, and the results rarely satisfactory. The process of renewing the grasses on poor land followed by Mr Young of Brockley Park, Stradbally,

land.

over, the good influence of lime upon pasture is by no means short-lived. It endures for twenty or thirty years, and has in manycases been visible for even a longer period.

Queen's County, Ireland, and described

Heather - burning. - By systematic

above (p. 292), might be carried out with and judicious heather-burning,much may good results on low - lying permanent pasture which has become deteriorated. Manuring Hill Pasture. — Many experiments have been tried in the way of manuring worn - out hill pasture with bones and superphosphate. The effect on the pasture has usually been marked ; but, as a rule, we believe it is acknow-

be done to improve black hill pasture. See Divisional vol. iv. p . 437.

ledged that the results are too uncertain

an advantage on a hill-farm , on account

Bracken -cutting .

Brackens should

be kept in subjection by cutting with the scythe. If they are allowed free growth , they may seriously lessen the supply of pasture. On the other hand, a clump of rank brackens here and there may be

to warrant such heavy expenditure, at of the excellent shelter afforded to lambs. any rate on an extensive scale.

A few

Irrigation .

Hill pasture may be

patches of specially good pasture, on well- greatly improved by irrigation. In many sheltered low -lying parts, are a great ad- cases where streams or springs exist this vantage on a pastoral farm , and these may be carried out with little trouble or

may profitably have an occasional dress- expense. Water from running streams is preferable to water immediately from The manuring of hill pasture, however, the spring. By a network of shallow

ing of artificial manure.

has never been regularly or extensively runs, the water may be carried over black or partially barren land, which will be practised in this country.

Liming Hill Pasture. In the im- thereby much improved for pastoral pur

proving of hill pasture, lime has been used poses. This work of irrigation is carried much more extensively than manures, and out in spring and early in summer. the results from the former have, as a

A Mid - Lothian Example. rule, been highly satisfactory. It can A good example of what may be done hardly be expected that it would pay to spread lime upon poor black moory pas- in the improvement of hill pasture by

IMPROVING WASTE LAND.

294

draining and liming without the aid of which were limed eighteen and twenty tillage is to be found on the compact ad- years ago can be traced by the eye at joining little estates of Baadpark and the distance of a mile. On close exam

East Cairns, Mid -Calder,the property of ination the difference between the im Mr William Hamilton. These estateslie proved and unimproved land is most on the north side of the Pentland Hills,

marked .

running from 900 to 1800 feet above seaThe property is entirely under sheep, level. The geological formation is car- the stock consisting of blackfaced ewes boniferous sandstone. At a former period and lambs. Prior to the improvement portions of the land had been under cul- of the pasture these were smaller in size

tivation, but had been allowed to go back and of less value than any other stock in to natural pasture.

At the time Mr the neighbourhood.

Hamilton began his improvements even the once-cultivated land was producing coarse herbage of poor feeding quality, while the other portions were in their natural state, growing bent, other coarse

They have now

been increased 15 per cent in numbers, and at least 20 per cent in value. From 95 to 100 lambs are now reared from every 100 ewes, a considerable number of doubles being obtained . The wedder

grasses, rushes, heather, &c. Most of the lambs usually make about the top price lower -lying land was green on the sur- at Messrs Oliver & Son's sales at Edin face, but the pasture was coarse and wiry.

burgh, while the cast ewes run up to 46s.

Draining.— The improvements con- There has also been a substantialincrease sisted of tile-draining and liming. The in the clip of wool, while the death-rate drains were cut from 6 to 16 yards apart,

has decreased.

The whole of the ewes

and from 3 to 5 feet deep, according to put to the ram in November 1883 were the nature and condition of the land. with one single exception on the roll at Two-and -a -half- inch tiles were used for clipping-time in the following July. the most part, and Mr Hamilton says The blacker and poorer portions of the

that if he had the work to go over again property were not touched, for it could he would be inclined to use 3 -inch tiles. not be expected that these would repay

The drains have worked admirably, but such heavy outlays as are involved in tile they, of course, require a little repair draining and liming. In certain parts a little has been done with advantage in now and again . Liming. --The lime was spread on the the way of surface-draining. We had the pleasure of going over this surface at the rate of about six tons of shells per acre. The liming of the wet property quite recently, immediately after land was delayed about a year after the a heavy rainfall, andwere much delighted draining, so asto allow the soil to get rid with its condition. The drained land was of its excess of water. Such portions of remarkably dry, and the character of the the green land as were naturallydry were pasture showed unmistakably that a per limed withoutbeing drained, and on these manent improvement of great value had and on the drained land the lime was

been effected .

equally beneficial. Improvements at Glenbuck. These improvements were Cost. In his report on “ The Improvement of begun in 1870, and they have been extended over an area of nearly 300 acres. Hill Pasture,” in the Transactions of the

The draining cost on an average about Highland and Agricultural Society , Mr £5, 108., and the liming about £ 4, 48. Alexander Macdonald gives the following notes in reference to improvements on

per acre . Results .

The total sum expended hill pasture carried out by Mr Charles

was about £ 1800 , and Mr Hamilton Howatson of Glenbuck : " The farm of considers that the investment has been Glenbuck, Lanarkshire, which carries one a good one.

By the draining and liming of the finest sheep stocks in Scotland ,

the character of the pasture has been has been vastly improved through liming entirely changed. A growth of fine and draining by its enterprising owner nutritious grasses has come up in place and occupier, Mr Charles Howatson. of the coarse wiry herbage which before

covered the ground. Even yet patches

1 Fourth Ser., xix. 170.

TRENCH AND SUBSOIL PLOUGHING.

295

Draining.- " The greater part of it a rule 50s. per acre. By this system of has been intersected with tile -drains, top-dressing the character of the pasture

most of them 18 feet apart, and others has been materially enriched and im 36 feet. Between each of those 36 feet proved, and parts of it which were limed apart, a shallow tile-drain is sunk, and is some thirty yearsago are still

green and

found to do good work . The size of the vigorous, while the adjoining land that tiles used is 2/2 inches, and the open got no lime is perfectly bleak and sterile. drains, of which there are a great many, Breaking up Unsuccessful.- " With are 20 inches wide at the top, 18 inches a view to compare the results of an ex

deep, and 9 inches wide at the bottom . periment in breaking up hill pasture, in The cost of laying the tile-drains 18 feet apart and at the ordinary depth was about £9 per acre. Mr Howatson recommends in cutting open drains that all stones or tree roots which may impede the spade should be extracted, and the earth taken out removed 3 feet off the

trying to improve it, with the liming and draining of it without breaking it up, Mr Howatson trenched 2/2 acres, gave it two tons of bone-manure, and sowed it down with grasses and clover, but it is not likely to prove successful. It cost nearly £ 17 per acre. Mr Howatson side of the drain . finds that ploughing, before top -dressing Liming .-- " Lime has been applied to hill pasture, is no advantage whatever, the pastures at various times, costing as while it incurs considerable expense . ”

TRENCH AND SUBSOIL PLOUGHING . When Mr Smith of Deanston, by his example and precept, had put the drainage of land on a systematic basis, he turned his attention to the deepening of

face, is stirred or brokenup, which allows water and air to percolate through the soil, thus dissipating the injurious ele ments and improving the whole character

the staple of the soil. This he found of the land. Subsoiling also increases could effected trench Air, be

by

-ploughing or the beneficial action of drains.

by subsoiling, it altogether depending when it enters a soil, raises the tempera

upon the character of the soil which of ture, renders the dormant ingredients these operations would be most suitable. active or soluble; and, lastly, the opera Trench -ploughing. – Trench- ploughing can be done in two ways. It may be done by one plough drawn by three or more horses taking an extra deep furrow , or by one plough following another in the same furrow . The latter method enables the farmer to take up an inch or two of the subsoil for mixing with

tion of subsoiling increasesthe area for the ramification of the rootsof plants.

the upper soil.

land is wet.

Subsoiling can be best done when

ploughing the fallow, and ought never to be attempted until the soil is perfectly dry. The subsoil ought to be broken up and not cut, which would be the case if the operation were carried out while the subsoiling ought to The

Injurious Ingredients in Subsoil.— be done across the line of the drain , But in deciding to carry out this process especially if the subsoil contains any of of taking up subsoil, to be mixed with the numerous forms of " pan,” which can the surface-soil, great care must be exer- be more readily broken up by following

cised . The subsoil often contains sub- this method. It also helpsthe drains, as stances that are deleterious to plant- it forms ruts to each drain for the water growth, and if these are brought up the to run in. Trench - ploughing following Sub soil may for a time be seriously deteriorated .

soiling.-- After this subsoiling the land

Subsoiling .— The use of the subsoil- may be safely trench -ploughed when it plough is the safer practice. By it the comes next into fallow , as all the dele subsoil, without being taken to the sur- terious substances will have been either

296

TRENCH AND SUBSOIL PLOUGHING.

washed out of the soil or rendered in- less practice too common is to urge the soluble by the action of oxygen or other horses on when encountering a stone, elements. running the risk of breaking the plough, Subsoil-plough. — Various implements straining the horses, and snapping asun have been devised to descend as far into der some part of the harness. The two

the soil as to stir the subsoil effectually, and they have obtained the name of subsoil and trench ploughs, according to their action upon the subsoil. The subsoil. ploughs stir the subsoil lying under the upper soil, without affecting their relative positions, whereas trench -ploughs com-

labourers are at hand to bring up the deeper stone to the ploughed surface. An acre is stirred everyday with these

two ploughs in autumn ; the horses are not oppressed, the men are quite able for their part of the work, and the work done is effectual, satisfactory, and permanent.

Perhaps abetter plan in medium land to start the plough with two horses, is subsoil the upper soil. The working of plough is shown in fig. 46, p . 119, and and let the man have pegs to mark the fig. 47, p. 120, Divisional vol. i. stones, the subsoil-ploughfollowing with mingle more or less the subsoilwith the

Economy of Trenching and Sub- three horses. The land-fast stones can soiling. - One great advantage attending be removed then at the convenience of this mode of trenching and subsoiling is the farmer.

that in thus stirring the soil in autumn

Such a subsoiling is sufficient for a

the upper soil requires only to be stirred

lease of nineteen years, and even longer.

in spring by a grubber to effectually pulverise the surface and prepare it for a When a facility is put into the power of the farmer to work his land in ashort time and in the most efficient

manner, two good results must ensue-

the entire fallow -break may be devoted to a green crop, and a smaller horse-power will suffice for the work .

Process of Trenching and Subsoiling. — The execution of subsoil trenching with the trench -plough and subsoiler is as follows: The trench -plough, drawn by three horses, takes the lead and lays open a furrow of 10 to 14 inches deep, according to the character of the soil. When

The stones which can be lifted by hand are carted off the surface. Some boulders

may require blasting with gunpowder on the spot, and others have to be drawn off on a sled. This operation is most effective a few years after thorough drainage. The sub soil trenching is not required in a natu rally porous subsoil, but deep stirring of the surface-soil is a necessity on every class of land. Hand Trenching. — Trenching with the fork is more efficient than ordinary subsoil -ploughing as regards the stirring of the soil and subsoil. It is also a more perfect operation, inasmuch as it exposes

a large stone is encountered, the horses the subsoil to view , breaks every portion are not urged , but taught to stand still of it to a greater depth, and frees it of until the ploughman marks its spot. He every stone that, from its size, would passes the stone the best way he can, injure the implements in any future and goes on with the ploughing until he operation of culture. The cost, however,

meets with another stone. Two labourers is great, and the process a slow one. follow the plough, one with a spade and “ In digging light soil, or any soil in another with a hand-pick or crowbar, to a friable state, the spade should be driven turn out the stone upon the ploughed to the head into the ground by one pres land .

sure of the foot, and thus twenty cuts

The subsoil trench -plough, provided may be made in one minute. In Ireland

with four horses, the extra ploughman one perch of soil is dug 9 inches deep, walking beside the foremost pair, follows at the same cost that half a perch of in the same furrow , and goes 6 or 7 drain, 272 feet deep, is cast out; but inches deeper into the subsoil.

Should more wages should be obtained for cast

a stone be encountered, the extra plough- ing drains than digging soil, to provide man marks it, and he also helps to turn against the extra tear and wear of shoes the horses at the end of the landing. and clothes, and the risk of injuring These horses are also taught to stand health by cold and wet. The most when coming against a stone. A reck- economical way of digging a large piece

LIMING LAND .

297

of land is to set from twenty to thirty spade has to be thrust in 700 times, and diggers at work together, at so much for 11,900 lb. of earth is lifted. To dig one one acre, and place a confidential man acre takes 112,000 spadefuls, weighing

over them to see that every spadeful is 850 tons, and adding the weight of the properly formed and turned over. 1 A spades, 1278 tons : the space travelled spit by a common spade No. 5, weighing

over in doing this is fourteen miles. An

8 or 9 lb., should be 7 or 8 inches broad, able man can dig 10 square perches in 9 inches deep ; and the earth weighs 17 one day, provided the soil is light and Ib. In digging one perch of ground, the moderately moist.

LIMING

LAND.

Lime has been applied to land in the and mellow. It is, moreover, itself also a farming of this country for many years. This has been done with the double ob-

direct plant-food . Lime acts mechanically inasmuch as it

ject of increasing crops and stimulating the action of the ingredients of which the soil is composed. Sources of Lime. — Lime, or, to be

changes the texture of a soil, opening and rendering more friable stiff loams and heavy clays, and giving cohesion and firmness to loose and sandy soils.

more definite, “oxide of calcium

is

met with in nature chiefly in the form of the compound carbonate of lime,

Benefits from Lime.

The result of

these changes effected by the use of lime are an increase of produce, grain of better

otherwise known as limestone, chalk, quality and colour, stiffened straw, sweet &c., also as phosphate of lime or ened herbage, and an earlier harvest.

coprolites, sulphate of lime or gypsum . Lime often almost entirely changes the It is likewise present under other forms ; herbage of pasture -land, notably when but the preceding are the compounds, of applied to rough grass or heath, which which lime forms a part, that fall to be it kills out to make room for a higher

considered from an agricultural point of order of vegetable growth. Injury from Imprudent Liming .-

view .

Action of Lime. — Lime when ap- But there are disadvantages attendant plied to the soil acts in several ways, upon the too free use of lime. By its

both chemically and mechanically. When action we must look upon it as a stimu the carbonic acid and water are driven off lant rather than as a manure.

Indeed , by heat it becomes a strong alkaline if it were regularly applied to land with earth, and in this caustic state com- out other manures, the soil would soon bines with the oxygen and carbonic become exhausted . This well -established acid set free by the decomposition of character of lime has been aptly expressed

organic bodies present in the soil. The in the saying that " lime without mulch decay of organic matter is thereby enriches the father and impoverishes the quickened. It also breaks up the com- son ." Application of Lime. Before green pounds of inorganic matter which have become dormant or insoluble, and by crops found a permanent place in the

combining with the elements of which rotation of the farm , the most convenient these are made up, renders them active time for applying lime was to the bare or soluble in water, and so available or summer fallow in spring. It is now for plant - food. It combines with and generally applied to the leas in autumn neutralises or utilises free or injurious or winter before they are broken up. In acids which are present in a soil, and some counties the custom is to spread it which render it sour, thereby chang- on the land after the turnip crop has been

e when spread the lim ing its character, and making it sweet removed. Othersprepared for the turnip the land is being

1 Yule's Spade Husb. , 86, 2d ed.

seed, or in small heaps immediately after

298

LIMING LAND .

the turnips are sown, and consider that the nitrogenous materials which are

the after- cultivation of the crops will accumulated in the soil. mix the lime with the soil. These three “ These reserves are precious, and if, methods, however, are objectionable, as on the one hand, it is useful to draw by placing the lime into such close con- upon them, it would be a very short tact withthe manure, the latter may be sighted policy to waste them recklessly. As the most luxuriant vegetation can seriously dissipated. Lime Dissipating Plant - food . only absorb annually a small quantity of Caustic or quick lime applied in excess nitrogen , it is important to introduce to newly manured land isapt to liberate lime only in such proportions as to

a greater quantity of the most valuable render assimilable the quantity of nitro ingredients of the food of the plants gen necessary for the growing crop. than the crop can immediately absorb. Guided by the Crop. “ One must

On this account much plant-food may be guided in this matter by the appear be lost by being washed into the drains, ance of the crop. If scant of growth, or evaporated in the form of ammonia and of poor colour, the quantity of lime should be increased . On the other hand,

or other volatile gases.

Lime and Nitrification. — Lime, it should be diminished if the growth is says Professor Wrightson, “ is the base too quick , the colour too deep , the ripen required in the process of nitrification, ing difficult, and the laying of the crops to seize upon newly liberated nitric acid. frequent. Regulating Action of Lime. The nitrification of nitrogenous matter existing in a state of organic combina- “ When the soil is rich in lime, the em

tion isone of the most recent, and one ployment of lime is not only useless, but

of the most important facts brought out will be positively prejudicial for the by agriculturalchemistry. Lime plays an important part in this process, bypromoting the oxidation of nitrogenous matter, and then furnishing a base for combination with nascent nitric acid .

reasons I have given.

In such a case

the difficulty will be to regulate the action of the lime, which the plough brings up and mixes with the super

Nitrate ficial nitrogenous layers.

of lime is easily washed through the soil, and a great deal of it passes away in solution to the lower strata of the soil, or is discharged by drain water . " 2

The most

simple means of effecting this is to gradually mix the superficial humus holdinglayer with the subjacent lime by shallow ploughing at first, and sub

Lime and soil Nitrogen . - It is a sequently ploughing deeper and deeper. common practice, and a prudent one, to But since good cultivation demands a

apply lime to land which has been for a soil deeply stirred, the plough may be considerable time under grass, and which followed by a subsoiler, so that the soil

is now to be broken up for cropping. may be stirred to a suitable depth." ; This is done for the purpose of rendering

Lime for Sandy Soils. — The late Dr

available to the first crop a portion of Voelcker showed clearlythe importance the inert nitrogen that has, under the of liming poor land before dressing it grass, accumulated in the soil in the with dung or other manure.4 “ The most

form of organic matter. Here again, liberal application ,” he says, " of farm however, harm may be done by exces- yard manure ofthe best quality never sive liming: The danger of this is produces so beneficial and lasting an effect well pointed out by M. H. Joulie, who on poor sandy soils as when they have been previously well marled or limed. says : " Lime ought only to be employed in There are some soils which swallow up moderation, so as not to overstep the manure with, so to speak, an insatiable mark, and so bring about too active a appetite, without ever feeling the better nitrification, which would cause the grain 3 From a paper read at a meeting of the crops to be, laid, and prodigally waste Société des Agriculteurs de France, 1881. 1 For description of the process of nitrification , see Div. vol. ii. 105.

? Prin . of Ag. Prac., 34.

Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc. Eng ., sec. ser ., xviii. , part i. 221. 4 Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc. Eng ., sec. ser., xiv. , part ii. 546, 547 .

LIMING LAND.

299

for the manure — they are appropriately rate of 5 to 6 cwt. per acre, do positive called very hungry. On all such soils much manure is wasted, or the most is not made of it, if previously to the application of farmyard manure, guano, & c., the land has not received a good

injury to root-crops, and more moderate applications of 2 or 3 cwt. per acre pro duce a less favourable result on sandy soils, and on all land poor in lime, than the same amount of superphosphate poor

dose of lime.

in soluble phosphate. Indeed, the ex

“Lime not merely acts beneficially on perience of light-land farmers in districts sandy soils in a direct manner, bysupply- in England where the land is deficient in ing a deficient element of nutrition, but lime goes to prove that on land of that also because it preserves in the soil the description it is better to apply bone -dust more valuable fertilising matters, which, or precipitated phosphate,or phosphatic

like salts of potash orammonia, rapid- manures containing no soluble phosphate, ly filter through sandy soils, unless a to root-crops, than to use superphosphate, sufficient quantity of marl or lime has or similar artificial manures containing a been previously applied to the land. By large proportion of acid soluble phosphate these means the bases of the more value

of lime."

able saline constituents of rotten dung or Lime for Grass Land.-M. H. Joulie of guano are retained in the land, whilst shows that lime should play an important

the acids filter through it incombination part in laying land down to grass.

“ If

with lime - a constituent which is, com- on analysis,” he says, “ the soil does not show at least 5 per cent of lime, it is paratively speaking, inexpensive.

Lime and Soluble Phosphates.- absolutely necessary to give it a calcareous “The presence of much or little lime in a dressing before laying down to grass. soil has also a powerful influence on the This may be done either with marl or

changes which soluble phosphates, or lime. Marl breaks up slowly , and its manures containing soluble phosphates, mixture with arable soil only takes place, undergo in contact with the soil. It is a little by little, under the influence of re

curious, and apparently anomalous cir- peatedploughings, so thatit is not suit cumstance, that on sandy soils, and on all soils deficient in lime, concentrated superphosphates, rich in soluble phosphate, do not produce nearly so beneficial an effect upon root-crops as upon calcareous soils,

able in the special case before us [laying land to grass), as the soil will not be ploughed up again. Lime is infinitely to be preferred, since it readily breaks up, andhas, moreover, a much more powerful

or upon soils containing even a moderate action on organic matter than marl, due proportion of lime.

to the causticity which it retains suffici “ When applied to root-crops upon ently long to allow it to effect some use sandy soils greatly deficient in lime, a ful reactions.” 1 Top -dressing Grass with Lime. concentratedsuperphosphate produces a

smaller crop than à manure containing In the paper referred to above, M. H. only one-fourth the percentage of soluble Joulie explains the exhaustionthat takes phosphate.

When this fact was first place annually by the removal of a hay

brought under my notice I ascribed it to crop, or by the pasturing of grass land, prejudice, or accidental and unobserved and discusses themanurial dressings that circumstances ; but direct experiments would be required to repair this exhaust and an extended personal experience have ion and maintain the quantity and qual shown me that there is no mistake about ity of the produce.

this matter. The true explanation no doubt is, that the excess ofacid soluble phosphate in a concentrated superphosphate is not precipitated as efficiently in à soil deficient in lime as it is in land

Lime is an essential

ingredient in these manurial dressings, not only because it is necessary as a plant food itself, but because it is required to remove the sourness that has been gen

erated by the continued accumulation of débris in the upper layers of the soil “ Acid compounds are extremely in- carrying the grass. jurious tovegetation, even in dilute solu containing a good deal of lime.

tions; and hence concentrated superphos

1 Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc. Eng., sec. ser. , xviii. ,

phates used in large quantities, say at the part i.203.

LIMING LAND.

300

“ It is always well,” says M. H. Joulie, when being filled. Slaked lime is heavy ; “ to dress the soil of temporary and per- but all that can lie upon a shovel is light, manent grass lands with a certain amount and each ploughmantakes one heap, and

of lime, say about 7.96 cwt. per acre with one of his horses in a cart, for a annually, to prevent sourness, to favour yoking, fills his own cart, and spreads the decomposition of the organic débris, the lime from it upon the ridges allotted and to render assimilable a certain

to him.

The direction in liming should

amount of the nitrogen it contains. This be against the wind, and the men should dressing of lime will not add to the ex- arrange themselves on the ridges so that pense of maintenance, for it will always the cart farthest down the wind takes the

be possible by its means to reduce pro- lead in spreading. portionately the expense of nitrogen or In spreading lime, the man walks along potash, according as the Graminaceæ or the middle of the ridge, and casts the

Leguminosæ are most abundant. Lime shovelfuls right and left from the middle is useful even for permanent grass lands towards the furrows, which will become,

on calcareous soils, for it is not rare to by ploughing, the crowns of the future find meadows sour on the surface which ridges. The man who can cast the shovel at 7 or 8 inches deep are highly cal- fuls with either hand will spread lime careous.

better than one who is right or left handed only. The lime should be spread evenly over Joulie says shouldbe applied to the grass land in autumn. the surface ; but to suit irregularities in Lime in Restoring Grass Land.- the character of the soil, it may have to This annual top-dressing of lime M.

In the restoring of grass land which has become deteriorated , M. Joulie states that the very first step should be to apply in the autumn about 16 cwt. of lime per acre .

be spread thicker on one part of the field than another. On light knolls it is spread thinner than in hollows, where the soil is deeper or stronger. This, he says, should be done in Whenever rain falls, liming should be

order to render a sufficient quantity of discontinued.

the nitrogen in the soil assimilable by Care of Men and Horses in Lim the ensuing spring, when the application ing. In the operation of spreading lime it is advisable to put a cloth over the Lime for Hill Pasture . - In the notes horse's back and harness ; while the on improving hill pasture in this vol. men should cover their face with crape, (pp. 292-295 ) information is given as to to save the eyes, lips, and nose. The of other mineral manures is advised.

the application of lime to permanent horses, whenever loosened from work,

pasture on sheep farms, and also as to should be wisped down and brushed, tó its effects on herbage. Burning Lime. - For use on land as for mortar, lime is burned in kilns, and conveyed to the farm or field in shells. Manyfarmers who have limestone within

free the hair of lime; and if the men feel a smarting in their eyes or nose, sweet thick cream is the best emollient to

apply. Quantity of Lime per Acre.—The

reach burn their own lime, using peat if quantity of lime applied depends mainly it is to be had, and, if not, purchasing coal on the nature of the soil, the lighter soils for the purpose . requiring less, and the stronger greater

GroundLime.—The plan of grinding the limestone to a fine powder instead of burning it has been introduced and is highly commended, but has not yet been adopted to any great extent.

quantities. On light turnip soils, some think from 80 to 100 bushels upon one acre sufficient, whilst others use 150 bushels. We have seen as much as 510 bushels applied to one acre of wheat-land,

Spreading Lime. — The lime is spread with manifest advantage. But perhaps in this manner : Frying-pan shovels are from 100 to 200 bushelsmay be considered

the best implements for filling carts with lime, and spreading it upon land. A calm day is chosen for thepurpose; but in case of a slight breeze, the single-horse carts are placed to the windward of the heaps

average quantities, from the lightest to the heaviest soils. On weak moory soils,

75 bushels are enough to commence its improvement. Frequent Liming. - Formerly the

LIMING LAND .

301

prevailing custom was to apply large be avoided ), a rotation may pass before

dressings of lime at long intervals, most it shows any effect ; when harrowed in, likely once in fifteen or twenty years. The general custom now is to give moderate applications at short intervals. perhaps from 80 to 100 bushels every eight, ten , or twelve years. This is unquestionably a marked improvement upon the old plan.

and the land ribbed for barley after tur

nips eaten off by sheep, it has effect at once ; when ploughed with a light fur row above the dung in summer -fallow

(which, however, is in the long -run a wasteful practice ), even after the lapse

It employs the lime much of a few weeks it has a sensible effect on

more economically, and the effect upon the first crop ; it has its best effect on the land is evener and altogether more grass of any crop, and most upon clover ; satisfactory. Lime has a strong tendency it has often an injurious effect upon the to sink in the soil, and when a large potato crop ; it loses effect on the same

dressing is applied at one time, a good land after several repetitions ; it has deal ofit may be lost by sinking into the little effect on soils in the neighbour subsoil before it has had time to exert hood of large towns ; it has good effect

its beneficial influence upon the upper on fresh soil, on moss that has been stratum . thoroughly drained, on all drained soils, Many farmers now apply lime once and it is wasted upon undrained land. in every rotation of crops. With soils While it is true that lime has a sensible

specially requiring the action of lime, effect on the first crop, when applied this planis the most effective . As has above or in close proximity to it, it been explained above, M. H. Joulie re- should be kept in view that, as already commends the plan of applying a small pointed out, this is liable to cause loss in dressing of lime to grass land every year. the manure. Effete Lime. — It is the opinion of Varieties of Lime.It must also be remembered that lime varies in strength. some farmers that lime is equally effi In deciding as to the quantity, the cacious in the soil in the effete as in the

strength of the lime, as well as the caustic state, and Lord Kames was of character and wants of the soil, must be that opinion ; so that the precautions to considered . English lime is more caustic preserve it in a caustic state in winter than Scotch. are by them deemed unnecessary ; but Lime with much magnesia in it is unfit as the general opinion is in favour of for land.

quicklime, we have treated the subject

Covering in Lime. - In view of the accordingly. There is the advantage in tendency oflime to sink in the soil, it is using quicklime of its being easily spread desirable that it should be covered in as upon, ploughed into, and mixed with the

lightly as possible. If the lime is ap- soil ; and if pulverisation is of use, it plied on lea, as it now usually is, the should mix with the soil, and act with it land should be ploughed with a shallow more quickly than in an effete state. furrow . If the lime is applied on the Chalking Land . fallow or root break after ploughing, a A top - dressing of chalk is given in turn of the harrows will suffice for the first covering, and the first furrow there- several districts of England for afford after should be shallow .

ing calcareous matter to the soil.

It

Weight of Lime. — Lime weighs from has a striking effect upon fresh -broken

75 lb. to nearly 1 cwt. in a bushel, which up land; but at length it loses its effi indicates that it ought not to be laid on cacy.

It is applied again when its effect

by measure alone, but by measure and becomes inert.

weight, giving preference to the lightest

For this purpose the solid chalk of the

weight. Varying Effects of Lime. - The effects of lime are manifested in a re-

lower stratum is preferred to the more porous substance near the surface. It

effect is observed on the first crop ;

causes them to fall down into a powder,

is taken out of pits in lumps, which are markable manner. When ploughed down put upon the ground to be dressed ; and, with an ordinary furrow by itself, no the lumps being wet, the frost in winter

when ploughed in deep (which should which is then spread over the surface of

LIMING LAND.

302

the ground.

Dry chalk will not fall

down, and is therefore useless for the purpose.

Chalk is used in Hampshire to render

Carbonate of lime . Oxide of iron and alumina

8.4 2.2

Organic matter Clay and silicious matter

2.8

84.9

Water .

1.4

the soil more loose, and in the wolds of Yorkshire more firm .

The quantities applied vary. In Essex, in the clay - land district, about

99.71

Limestone.

The lime used in the agriculture of this

fifteen cart-loads, of 40bushels each, are' country is derived chiefly from the moun considered a full dressing on one acre. tain -limestone of the carboniferous series, In Lincolnshire, 80 cubic yards of chalk as also from the coal-formation. The rock forms a broad belt across the centre are applied to one acre. of Scotland, along the centre of England, Marling Land. and in the whole of the centre of Ireland.

The composition of peat shell-marl of Logie, in Forfarshire - a county which afforded and used so large a quantity of this substance as positively to become detrimental to the soil — is this :

Carbonate of lime

Lime in Scotland is mostly derived from the coal-formation, where it is associated with shales, sandstones, and ironstones. In Ireland large beds and knolls of lime stone nodules, in the form of gravel, are

From the From the found in many districts. The gravel, of when laid upon the land, acts as lime in bottom topbedofthe . the bed . the course of time; and it affords a very 77.6 81.7

Oxide of iron and alumina . 1.8 Organic matter . 14.6 Insoluble ,chiefly siliciousmatter 6.0

14.6 3. I

ready means of reclaiming drained bogs, and of reducing their vegetable into earthy matter.

100.0

100.0

Composition of Limestone. — The

0.6

composition of some good limestones for Shell-marl retards the ripening of corn agricultural purposes is here given : crops, while lime hastens theirmaturity. Cockermouth. Kilnhead . Relig. It is not suited to gravelly soil, and its Carbonate of lime Carluke. 93.91 94.86 95.89 93.97 0.23 0.32 0.85 Sulphate oflime tenacity in rendering and keeping, all Phosphate of lime 1.14 soils loose for a long time is remarkable. Carbonate of mag 2.06 1.26 1.32 0.54 nesia The process of marling as practised in Alumina and oxide 0.73 1.57 England is similar to that of claying. of iron xide 1.63 1.20

Marl is a clay containing particles of chalk, which are visible in the mass of clay. The marl is applied both to heavy and light land. On heavy land it is

Silica

0.41

2.92

2.05

3.14

I00.00

100.00

100.00

100.00

Composition of Lime. - The com

used on newly broken -up pasture, and position of the limes obtained from the mixed with farmyard manure in com limestones mentioned above, with the post. On light soils it is more exten- exception of Relig, is as follows : sively employed, and its benefits are Lanarkshire, Cumberland, Dumfriessh .

chiefly derived from an improved texture From 40 to 50 cubic yards are applied

of the soil. on an

acre.

Carluke, Lime

sum )

Its action produces better Phosphate of lime :

and oxide of quality of grain and regularity of crop. Alumina iron Excess of organic matter in a new soil Silica in the state of

loosens it, which the marling corrects;

dry and loose texture of sand is rendered more adhesive and retentive of moisture ; and peat is benefited by consolidation

89.78

Sulphate of lime (syp

silicate

1.45

Cockermouth . Kilnhead .

89.77 0.38

88.64 0.51

1.93

1.69 2.76

1.02

0.43

1.23

1.98

0.70

4.92

3.39

1.69

2.68

5.05

100.00

100.00

100.00

Carbonic acid and moisture

Characteristics of Lime.-- The purer The following analysis may give a lime is, the better it is considered for fair idea of the composition of a clay marl. The specimen was found in Ayr1 Johnston's Use of Lime in Agric., II .

and the supply of inorganic matter .

shire :

2 Trans. High. Agric. Soc ., July 1848, 299 .

LIMING LAND .

303

agricultural purposes ; it is then said to which is the end aimed at in putting be in the fattest and strongest state. Of limeshells on the land in small heaps the varieties of limes whose analyses ap- along the ridges. pear above, it would seem to me that the Slaking. — They are more properly

Kilnhead is the best for applyingto the slaked , however, by water being poured land.

Plasterers like fat lime, as it runs upon them . Pouring water too quickly

best and makes the strongest putty: upon shells causes the lime to be gritty , When a considerable proportion of sand and to contain many small lumps which occurs, it is the better adapted for com- refuse to be slaked . The spontaneous

mon building purposes, as itthen requires slaking is attended with the least trouble less sand to convert it into good mortar, as usually practised , but in effect it chills

and the natural union of silicious matter the surface and produces much gritty is much better than any artificial method lime; and it gives sufficient time for

of adding that can be devised. Of these much of the powdered lime to absorb the Cockermouth is the best for buildings. carbonic acid from the air, and go back Much magnesia in lime is hurtful to to the state of carbonate and become vegetation, and is therefore unsuited for effete. the land ; but it is a useful ingredient in To succeed well with the spontaneous

lime intended for buildings under water, mode of slaking, the heaps should be such as piers and docks, where it becomes covered with sods, which is a trouble no

very hard , and on that account is called farmer will undertake with heaps lying hydraulic lime.

Of these limes the Car- on the field. Farmers will willingly cover

luke would seem best suited for building large heaps of limeshells that are to re piers ; but the proportion of magnesia in main over winter, to be spread upon the it is but small compared to much of the land in spring, by which time most of the

magnesian lime of England, as at Hartle- lime will be found slaked in an excellent pool, where it contains about 45 per cent state for mixing with the soil. of the carbonate of magnesia, one ton of

Lime absorbs about one- fourth of its

which affording no less a quantity of the weight of water ; it increases from two calcined magnesia of the shops than 938 anda half to three and a half times its cwt. bulk ; and the powder has strong caustic and alkaline properties. Preparing Lime. Composition of Slaked Lime. — The Limestone, on being broken into handy ultimate results are, that the slaked lime lumps, is packed in alternate layers with

consists partly of caustic lime, partly of

coal or peat in kilns and burned, when a carbonate of lime, partly of hydrate of very material effect is produced upon its lime, somewhat in these proportions in appearance and character.

From being one ton :

a close-grained , hard, heavy stone, it is reduced to a porous,light, splintery cin der. One ton of limestone , when thus

burned, yields about 11 cwt. of the

Per cent.

Carbonate of lime Hydrate of lime

lime

32.41

57.4 )

water 10.2 } 42.6 ) 100.0

Cwt.

fuis or

18% 201

cinder. Limeshells .

Over-liming. The cinder is called limeshells, and is the state in which lime There is no doubt that lime is an ex is taken to the farm . Being light, they hausting substance for the land . Long are easily carted, though not safe to the ago it was quite common in Scotland for skin to handle. The burning has the tenants, whogrudged to purchase manure, effect of driving off water and carbonic to procure lime and apply it as manure, acid from the limestone ; of forming gyp- just as the shell-marl was used, until the sum with the sulphur of the coal, and land was rendered almost incapable of

with the pyrites of the limestone ; and growing any crop , when it was laid down silicate of lime with the silicious matter to grass to rest for a number of years. present in the limestone and the coal.

The varioussubstances of the soil, organic

Limeshells have a strong affinity for and inorganic, are more rapidly set free water. They will extract it from the at mosphere and become in time slaked,

1 Johnston's Use of Lime in Agric., 44 .

IRRIGATION .

304

after lime has been applied than before ; fresh matter from the subsoil, and gives and, on being set free, the roots of plants greater body to the land . Now, how obtain them the more readily and in

ever, an instance of over-liming is rarely

greater abundance ; and then, as the met with. Deficient liming is much plants themselves growmore rapidly and more general. to a larger size, and perfect all theirparts Compost.

more completely, they carry off a larger

Acompost of lime and earth is a better quantity of ingredients from the soil, and if these are not replaced in some way, top -dressing for grass land than either the soil must become exhausted. If separately. This compost is usually made more lime is applied to correct the evil, too weak in lime. The proportion should the exhaustion will become the more be one cubic yard of lime to three cubic yards of earth well mixed .

severe.

But with

Over-liming was an evil from which labour scarce and dear the making of

the land suffered in a former generation ; compost on a large scale would not likely and when it occurred was confined to poor pay the farmer. The appearance of white clover, Tri weak soil, that was soon rendered too

loose by the use of the plough. It is folium repens, on top -dressing heathy soil therefore so far correct what Johnston with lime, is a well-known fact. Lime

over-liming is extirpates the corn marigold, Chrysanthe says, that “ thenotevila called chemical one. The mum segetum , butit encourages the red a mechanical, extreme openness of the soil has been poppy, Papaver Rheas ; and on sinking brought on by prolonged ploughing, and into strong clay it favours the growth of

too frequent croppingof corn. An oppo- colt’s-foot,Tussilago farfara. site procedure must therefore be adopt ed, and mechanical means employed, by which a gradual solidification may be

Gas -lime. Lime may be obtained from other than natural sources . The rubbish of old

effected ,” among which none is more effective than the eating of turnips by buildings afford it an effete state. sheep on the land. Where the subsoil is Gas-lime is procured from gas-works,

of anature that it may be taken to the and is used as a manure. The use of this surface without serious injury to the crop, substance is noticed in the chapter on the effects of over-liming may be cor- Manures and Manuring, Div. vol. iii. rected by deep ploughing, which brings P. 120.

IRRIGATION.

The artificial watering of land is an will yield none of it to the plant. It is ancient practice. Applied to certain soils well known that underskilful irrigation, and for certain cropsit is usually highly or in a moist season, soils which are nat beneficial. urally poor yield wonderfully abundant Moisture and Vegetation . It very crops. On the other hand, no amount of

often happens that the vegetable produce manure or inherent fertility in the soil of soils is regulated more by the supply will produce even a moderate crop if of moisture than by the store of other the supply of moisture is insufficient. plant-food.

The sterility of the desert is

Reasons for Irrigation . — It is not

due to the deficiency of water, rather than difficult to understand whymoisture is of

to the want of soil-food for the plant. so much importance to the growth of Soils, indeed , will not produce vegetation vegetation. Growing plants usually con of

any

kind unless they contain a consid- tain water to the extent of from about

erable amount of moisture. Professor Church states that soils which contain no

70 to 95 per cent, and the whole of this water has to be absorbed through the

more than 5 to 9 per cent of moisture soil ; for while plants give off a great deal

IRRIGATION .

305

of moisture through their leaves, they the fertility of a soil by carrying into it

cannot absorb any directly from the atmospheric air and other gases, and atmosphere. It was found at Rotham- organic and inorganic matter held in sus

sted that an acre of wheat in five months and eighteen days evaporated through its leaves no less than 33572 tons of water. And as has been remarked by Professor John Scott, every drop of this water was more or less instrumental in transporting an atom of food from thesoil to some part of the plant.

pension or solution in the water used for irrigation. In the great majority of cases the influence of this is beneficial, but occasionally substances decidedly injuri ous to vegetation are introduced. By

irrigation plant-food is carried towards the roots of plants, while injurious as

Plants indeed can take up well as useful elements are often con

their food only in a fluid condition, so veyed beyond the reach of the plants, that in the economy of plant-life mois- most probably into the drains. ture performs a twofold function of the Irrigation and Soil Temperature. Irrigation has a direct and immediate greatest importance.

ProfessorChurch states the reasons for influence on the temperature of the soil. In the winter season it will most likely “ 1. To make up for the absence of communicate heat to the soil and pro irregular seasonal distribution of rain, or tect it to some effect from the frost. In for a local deficiency of rainfall. warmer weather, by promoting evapora 2. Sometimes a particular crop is irri- tion from the surface, it tends to cool the gated because the plant is of an aquatic soil, thus moderating the influence of the irrigation as follows :

or semi-aquatic nature.

extremes of cold and heat.

Irrigation and Drainage. It is ab “ 3. To encourage early and rapid growth, by warmth of the water, or by solutely necessary that land which is to the dissolved plant- food which it con- be irrigated shall be thoroughly drained. tains. If thenatural drainage is imperfect, the

" 4. That the land may be enriched deficiency must be supplied by forming and its level raised by means of the de- underground drains. Unless the land is posit from the water." 1 well drained, irrigation will most likely

Discussing the subject more fully, Pro- be positively injurious, for the soil will fessor Church remarks that the third of be very liable to become water-logged, these reasons “ is the determining cause and therefore sour and unwholesome for of nearly all the artificial watering of plants. land in temperate climates. It is notperIrrigation Exhausting . - Irrigation

formed because the soil is dry and hot, exercises a stimulating influence upon for it is carried out mainly in the wettest the land . It promotes the growth of and coldest months of the year. It is a greater produce than would other

not performed because the crop to be wise be obtained, thus increasing the raised is of an essentially aquatic nature, for ordinary grasses and meadow herbage are principally watered. But it is performed that growth may be stimulated

drain upon the natural resources of the soil. To the skilful and liberal farmer this is a most useful function. His object is to increase production, and it

and fed through certain agencies which will be easy tomaintain the condition of the water brings to bear upon the vegeta- the land by judicious manuring. tion in question."

Water - meadow Irrigation. — Dis

Effects on the soil . — Irrigation facili- cussing the theory of irrigation as applied tates the decomposition of soluble organic to meadows, Professor Church says : and inorganic matter in the soil, and thus Although in many cases it is easyto

preparesfood for absorption by the plant. explain the reason why water, artificially Its immediate effect isto soften the soil, applied to land, brings crops or increases but ultimately land which is submitted the yield, the theory of our ordinary to constant irrigation for a long period of water-meadow irrigation is rather obscure.

time is liable to become injuriously dense For we are not dealing in these grass lands and.hard . Irrigation may sensibly affect with a semi-aquatic plant like rice, nor 1 Ency. Brit ., 9th ed. , art. Irrigation . VOL. III .

are we supplying anylack of water in the soil, nor restoring the moisture which U

306

N IRRIGATIO .

a plant cannot retain under a burning ing-machine, or for field -watering, a mea dow may be formed ; and whether you " We irrigate chiefly in the colder and have a right totake as much water from wetter half of the year, and we ' saturate ' a rivulet, which forms the boundary of

sun.

with water the soil in which are growing the estate in which your farm is situate, such plants as are perfectly content with as your water-meadow will require — you earth not containingmore than one-fifth can use the water of a brook which wholly of its weight of moisture. passes through your farm as you please,

“ We must look, in fact, to a number provided it be not injured in its quality, of small advantages, and not to any one nor directed out of its natural channel

striking beneficial process, in explaining when it enters the property below; but the aggregate utility of water -meadow you cannot appropriate to your particular irrigation . “ We attribute the usefulness of water-

use more than half the water of a march

burn .

If half the water is not sufficient

meadow irrigation then to the following for the purpose of irrigation, youshould causes :

negotiate with your neighbour for the

" 1. The temperature of the water being rarely less than 10° Fahr. above freezing, the severity of frost in winter is thus obviated, and the growth, especially of the roots of grasses ,is encouraged. “ 2. Nourishment or plant-food is actually brought on to the soil, by which it is absorbed and retained, both for the immediateand future use of the vegetation. “ 3. Solution and redistribution of the

use of the whole. It would be a pity to allow the water to be useless to both parties because either can legally use only the half. Assuming that there is sufficient water for irrigation, it is better

to take it direct from the brook than erect a dam across it ; because the nearer the bottom the water is obtained the better it is for irrigation , on account of the sedimentary matter in it ; and the

plant-food, already present in the soil, more clay and vegetable matter the sedi occurs mainly through the solvent action ment contains, the richer it is for irrigated

of the carbonic acid gas present in a dis- plants. These general remarks apply -work and catch -work water

solved state in the irrigation water.

alike to bed

“ 4. Oxidation of any excess of organic meadows. Advantage of Water -meadows . - In matter in the soil, with consequent production of useful carbonic acid and nitro- the southern counties of England great

the water gen compounds, takes place through the advantage is derived fromforces up an

dissolved oxygen in the water, sent on meadows.

The irrigation

is a great boon to the through the soil, where the drainage is early growth which The foll good ; and

ewes and lambs.

n

ows a crop

“ 5. Improvement of the grasses, and of hay, and after that again a heavy

especially of the miscellaneous herbage, cutting of aftermath. It is within the ofthe meadows is promoted through the mark to say that on many of these mea encouragement of some, at least, of the dows the produce is double d by the arti better species,and the extinction or reduc- ficial watering. tion of mosses and of innutritious weeds."

Water -meadows for Highland Dis

There are several points which should tricts. — Great as are the benefits deriv

be carefully weighed before deciding to able from water-meadows in the low form a water -meadow .

country, catch -meadows would prove of

Water -supply. - It must in particular perhaps still greater advantage to our be considered whether there is likely to Highland districts, where hay is the most be a sufficient supply of water in a dry valuable food for stock in winter that can

season to irrigate the meadow thoroughly, be raised at such altitudes. That the for and if not, it should be abandoned ; mation of water-meadows is practicable in whether water can be spared for irriga- all our Highland glens is apparent from tion, without depriving other purposes of these statements ofG. Stephens, which we

its use, as threshingcorn and watering commend to the considerationof such as live stock in grass-fields — if water canbe may betake themselves to hill-farming : used in irrigation before it is wanted for, or after it has been used by, the thresh-

“ Fallaws Meadow , on Sir George Montgomery's large sheep -farm , contain

IRRIGATION .

307

ing 15 acres, was enclosed from moorland won, before the departure of summer. in 1816, and, by collecting the water from Such a meadow is useful in a backward the surrounding sheep -drains, 5 acres are spring for the support of ewes and lambs:

partially irrigated, and the remaining 10 and the sheep belonging to Sir George are top -dressed with the manure made Montgomery would have inevitably per from part of the produce which is consumed in winter by the sheep of the farm in a wooden shed near the meadow . By this simple method of improvement, 15 acres of common sheep pasture-land gave the proprietor from 3500 to 4000 stones of hay per annum, averaging 6d. per stone. In that year of drought, 1826, the hay of this meadow was sold from

ishedin the cold and backward spring of 1826 had it not been for the grass afforded

by a water-meadow from the middle of April to the beginning of May ; after which latter period the meadow was irri gated, and produced nearly 300 stones per acre. The attention of hill-farmers cannot , therefore, be too strongly drawn to the subject of water -meadows. Any

attempt to irrigate meadows in such situa is. to is. 3d. per stone. “ What an immense advantage to a tions in winter, and to pasture them in

sheep- farmer ! By this simple process of early spring, would but injure the mea enclosing and cutting a few small feeders and drains, the owner is enabled to provide food for his flock , when his less fortunate neighbours' sheep must either starve or be supplied from the farmyard ; but I am afraid there are few sheep-

dow by means of frost, and at the same time rot the sheep ; but sheep may be pastured, if necessary, in perfect safety on dry meadow -land in spring ; and the meadow , on being afterwards irrigated, might yield a good crop of hay.” :

farmers who are so fortunate as to have

Soils for Irrigation. - Irrigation will,

any hay over and above what is requisite as a rule, give the best results on sandy for stock at home. Sir George fed the and gravelly soils. A retentive soil may same number of sheep on the farmas he be injured by irrigation, for instead of

did before the meadow was cut off and percolating through it the water may enclosed, and I am fully persuaded that lodge on the surface, increasing the

the same improvement might be made on tendency to sourness, and lowering the almost every sheep-farm in Tweeddale; soil temperature by excessive evapora

for in almost all of them there are situa- tion. It is generally recognised that a tions where 5, 10, or 15 acres might be sandy soil, with a slight admixture of enclosed and partially irrigated, as in every pastoral district there are numerous rills which might be easily collected, and used to the greatest advantage, at a very trifling expense; so that, instead of being obliged, in snowstorms, to send 50,000 sheep toa milder climate of the south

be expected, irrigation is more beneficial in dry than in moist climates. It is useless, may even be injurious, in a wet

parts of Dumfriesshire, where the owners

Crops for Irrigation.- Where mois

clay, is the best of all soils for irrigation. Climate and Irrigation . — As would

season .

The best results are obtained

in a genial climate.

are obliged to be at the mercy of their ture is deficient, all crops will be bene neighbours — not to mention the very fited by prudent irrigation. For certain serious injury the flocks receive by so crops, however, it may be employed with

long and fatiguing a journey - by adopt- greater advantage than for others. In ting the above system of improvement a the British Isles irrigation is confined considerable portion of the losses 121 gener- almost entirely to meadows; but in other

ally sustained would be prevented."

warmer and drier countries it is used

Time for Irrigation.— “ As it is im- largely for other crops upon arable land. practicable to irrigate meadows in winter Rye-grass and lucerne are especially suit

in Highland districts, that process should able for artificial watering, while, to a be delayed till every chance of frost has subsided — until May, after which there will still be sufficient time for a crop of natural hay to grow , be cut down, and

certain extent, turnips and grain crops will—in their earlier stages — in a dry year be benefited by a moderate amount of irrigation .

1 Stephens's Prac. Irri., 82.

? Stephens's Prac. Irri., 82.

ON .

IRRIGATI

308

Sewage Irrigation. — By means of deeper than the feeder will draw the

irrigation applied to meadow - land, the sewage of towns is now, in many cases, turned to excellent purpose. The Edinburgh sewage meadows afford a good

water out of it; neither is it of any use to make the bottom of the feeder any

deeper than the last floating gutter ( or irrigating channel) will drawit off.

“ In forming the master-feeder it will example of what may be done in this From permanent grass, cut four be necessary to ascertain the breadth and

way.

or five times a-year, a grossyield of nearly depth that will hold all the water that 40 tons per acre is obtained per annum ; the conductor brings to it, and thence while land sown with Italian rye - grass to the end of the feeder, where the last

affords five or six cuttings, and perhaps floating gutter goes out. as much as 60 tons of produce in one year. The grass is used by cowfeeders in Edinburgh, and brings from £20 to £35 a-year per acre. Systems of Irrigation. The systems of irrigation best known

Its breadth

should be diminished all the way ; and

whatever its breadth may be at the be ginning, it should end about 2 feet in breadth, where the last floating gutter goes off.

“ If the ridges or beds be 10 or 12

yards wide, and about 100 yards long,

are bed -work irrigation, catch -work irri- with 6 or 8 inches of fall, the breadth of

gation, sub - irrigation , side - irrigation the floating gutters should be about 18 hose, irrigation by surface pipes, flooding to the length of the gutter, and about 6 or swamp irrigation, warping, sewage inches at the lower end of the ridge.

with open drains, irrigation by pipe and inches at the head , or 2 feet, according irrigation , and irrigation by watering. This diminution of the gutter serves to carts, water-drills, &c.

force the water out over the sides of the

Bed -work Irrigation. — This system is applied only to grass land that is nearly level on the surface. The ground is laid out in sloping beds or ridges, the

beds ; and as a part of the water is al ways going out of the gutter, it is always growing less, and consequently does not require so much room to hold it. The

ridges varying in width from 10 to 12

stuff that is taken out of the feeder

feet,according to the nature of the soil should be laid smoothly along its sides, and lie of the land. The supply of water with a slope outwardly, and raised about is introduced by a main feeder at the 6 inches above the surface of the ground ;

highest points, so that by gravitation it and in crossing ridges the hollows must may be distributed to all the irrigation be filled up with superfluous stuff from channels.

the high places or out of the drains, so

The process of forming water-meadows that the top of the banks of the feeder on the bed -work system is thus described may represent a straight horizontal line, by Sir John Sinclair :

and keep the water above the surface of

“ The water being carried with a pro- the ground, which is necessary to make per

fall — that is, with from 1 inch offall it flow down and over the sides of the

in 20 yards to 1 in 30 yards, according floating gutters with proper effect. to the weight and velocity of the water “ In making the floating gutters, after above the mouth of the conductor - to both sides of one are cut with a spade,

the highest part of the meadow, the next by a line, then cut again with a spade object is, to make the conductor large down the inside of your lines on both enough to receive all the water that the sides, beginning at the head about 5 or 6

stream containsif there is land enough inches from your line, so diminishing all to use it. If there is a great fall from the way down to the end, and pointing the wear or dam (sluice ) to where the the edge of your spade so as to make it meadow is to begin, it (the conductor)

intersect your outside cut.

When both

may be made comparatively deep and sides are done, the land in the breadth

narrow ; but on nearly level ground it of the gutter will be divided into three must be made shallower and wider, as it is only near the top of the stream that the water has any draught. It is of no use to make the bottom of the conductor

strips, the outside of which will be loose, and will turn out whole in triangular furrows, which form the sides of the gutters and keep up the water above the

IRRIGATION .

309

surface of the ground. After the sides These small drains, if in a dry soil, will are cut, there will remain a fast strip in do 6 inches wide at the head and 18

the middle, which must be taken out and inches at their junction with the main laid in equal portions on the outsides of drain .

The stuff that is taken out of

the said furrows, or into the lowest places. them is always wanted to make up " In taking out the fast strip, it is hollows, or to make up the banks of the best to leave here and there a piece un-

feeders, to carry themthrough low places

removed, which serves for stops and to higher ground ; but wherever it is put saves putting in afterwards. These stops it must be properly smoothed to let the will be wanted more or fewer innumber, water flow regularly over it. according as there is much or little de“ When a meadow is large and the scent in the floating gutters.

When surface not all upon one section, but has

there is nothing left in for stops as above, the defect must be supplied by putting in boards or sods to check and raise the water to the height you want

high and low places in it, more feeders must be made,and more cross or master drains. Sometimes it happens that a feeder must cross a drain in carrying

it. Without stops the water would all the water from one eminence to another

flow to the lowest end of your work, and through a hollow : in this case a trunk there run out too deep ; while the higher must be made with boards of the size of parts of the meadow would remain dry. your drain and placed in it, and the Notches are commonly used at first in feeder carried over it.

The trunk must

letting out the water from the feeders be as much longer than the width of the and gutters over the beds; but when feeder as will be sufficient to give room

the sides become older and firmer, it for proper banks to the feeder, otherwise may be made to flow over them. The breadth of the beds should not

the weight of the water will force them out.

If the feeder be small and the

exceed 10 or 12 yards; but if less than drain large, it will be cheaper to make

8 yards, it is best, in general, to put two the trunk or spout correspond with the into one, either with the spade or the size of the feeder, and carry the water

plough. The length of a division of over the drain in it. Hatches or sluices floating gutters should never exceed 100 (one or more, according to the size of the yards in the ridges or beds; because, if feeders) are always necessary in the they are too long, it makes the water mouths of them, for excluding or ad more difficult to regulate, and if the mitting the water at pleasure, and also stream be fluctuating when the water for changing it when the meadow is falls in, the upper parts of the beds will divided into divisions." be dry. All floating is the better of a Catch -work Water -meadow . - The

descent, from the crown of the ridge to catch -work form of water-meadow is well the furrow , of from 1 inch in a yard to adapted to pastoral farms. It is appli 2 inches.

This must be attended to if

cable to an irregular surface of grass ; and

the land is to be formed into beds with the irregularity being varied, no descrip the spade or the plough ; but where it tion can be given which would have a

is in proper ridges before, they may be universal application. “ To give exact taken as they are, be the descent less or directions for the formation of catch greater than as above. work," remarks Stephens, " is beyond the

“ At the lower end of the meadow, ingenuity of man; for no two pieces of and indeed at the end of every set of

land are precisely alike, which renders it

beds, there must be a main drain, and impossible for the irrigator to follow the betwixt every two gutters there must be same plan in one field that he has done a small drain, to receive the water that in another. Each meadow , therefore, re flows over the beds and carry it into the quires a different design, and the con main drain . These small drains must struction to be variedaccording to the be parallel with and reverse in their di- nature of the ground and the quality

mensions to the floating gutters, least at and quantity of the water.”

It may be the upper and largest at the lowest end ; useful, however, to describe the system whereas the gutters are largest at the as applied to patches of smooth grass

upper end and smallest at the lower.

near brooks.

IRRIGATION .

310

In fig. 676 the ground is supposed to fall from ato d and from c to u ; and op is a ridge of ground falling from o to p, from which the ground declines on the

it as a drain ; but it is in its turn a feeder, and disposes of its surplus water down the descent to g h, which sends it to i, which sends it to k , and which lastly

right to q t, and on the left to v z . A sends it to a main drain u m. Part of the main conductor, a b, cut at the highest water finds its way to the drain n, which

part of the ground, conveys the water conveys it to the main drain at m. In down the incline from a to b, where it is like manner the water issues out of the divided into the two feeders c and d, main conductor a b into the sub-con feeders being channels cut widest at their ductor o p, from which it flows, being a

origin, and coming at their extremities to ridge or watershed to the right to the a point, to impel the water in them to

feeders q, r, s, t ; and to the left to the

overflow and run to a lower level. In the overflow from c to d the water finds its

feeders v, w, x, y , and 2 ; to all of which

way to e f, which collects what comes to

the horizontal position of c d , the water

feeders l u acts as a main drain .

From

a

d

9

10

9

n

k

P

22

m

Fig. 676. - Catch -work water meadow .

will impart most of its sedimentary con- water flows with unequal velocity, whe stituents to the ground between it and ther in conductors or feeders, stops are fe, and by the time the water has reached placed in them to retard the velocity.

k, verylittle foreign matter will be left in The stops are made of various materials it, so that the grass in the upper part of of projections of the natural turf left the meadow will be better nourished than uncut, of pins of wood driven into the

in the lower ; but the perpendicular sub- middle of the channels, of sods pinned conductor o p carrying the water from down, of one stone, of stones piled in a the main conductor a bdirectly to all the heap, and of short boards of wood thrust feeders in connection with it, the water into the edges of the channelsat an angle.

bestows equal advantage upon every por- But all the stops enumerated are objec tion of that part of the meadow .

Each

tionable.

Pins collect straws and sticks

feeder may supply water for 30 feet of brought by the water ; stones and turfs ground in breadth, if the descent is cause holes in the channels by the water

gradual; but if sudden, the breadth may falling unequally over them ; and notch be increased to 40 feet. Regulating Water - flow .

boards injure the edges of the feeders, Where

besides causing deep holes by waterfalls.

FARM BUILDINGS.

311

The best stop consists of a piece of wood and from which it passes intothe open

forming two wedges with their bases drains, where it collects till it rises to the united , which , when placed firmly at the level of the surface or very near it, ac bottom between the edges of a conductor cording to the extent of watering desired. or feeder, the water flows over in an Sluices are then opened in the canal and

unbroken mass, with a retarded velocity. the water is withdrawn. A number of such stops of different Other Methods.- Irrigation by pipe breadths should be kept to fit any size of and hose, and by rows of stationary pipes, channel. No stops are required where hardly needs description here, any more the water directly overflows from b c and than irrigation by the water-cart and

bd ( fig. 676 ) ; but where it is guided water-drill. from the main conductor a b to o down

Swamp Irrigation is of little value in

the steep sub -conductor o p, one stop is the United Kingdom , except for growing requisite at each of the feeders q , r, s, t,

water-cress.

Warping is not capable of extensive Where the ground falls continuously application on the British Islands, yet in from one patch of grass to another, the certain cases it has been carried out with water should be conveyed in a lead from advantage. It consists of the repeated and v, w, x, y, 2.

the lowest main drain as from m of one flooding of low -lying river or tidal land. water-meadow to the main conductor of The object here is not merely to water a lower meadow . the land , but also to enrich it, and

Liquid Manure for Irrigation.- probably raise its level by allowing the Where there is a scarcity of water, water to deposit the alluvial matter liquid manure may be poured into the which it has held in suspension. The main conductor to enrich the irriga- water to be employed in warping is tion. · Many are of opinion that liquid admitted to the land to be warped by manure gives better results applied in a canal from the sea or river, sluices

this waythan when it is applieddirectly being provided to regulate the admis sion and discharge of the water. The Side-irrigation. For the system of land to be treated is hedged in by

upon bare soil.

side -irrigation with open drains, open drains are formed in the field, perhaps from 10 to 12 yards apart. These open drains communicate with drainage canals, into which the irrigation is admitted

FARM

water-tight banks, to confine the water to the fixed area . Where warping can be carried out effectually, it will most likely enhance the fertility of the land to a remarkable extent.

BUILDINGS.

The equipment of a farm with appro priate buildings is a matter which de mands careful consideration as well as

MODERN HOMESTEADS .

For some general notes on modern

the exercise of special knowledge. It is farm homesteads, as well as for assistance one of those subjects as to which one in the general revision of this chapter, we

cannot, in book form , give precise directions suitable for all circumstances. By the perusal of what follows, however, especially by the intelligent study of the plans submitted, landowners or farmers may derive information and ideas which will be useful to them in

are specially indebted to Mr Gilbert Mur ray, agent to the Earl of Harrington, El vaston Castle, Derby. Mr Murray has had much experience in the erection of farm steadings, alike in the tillage and grazing districts of England, and his notes, which are as follows, form a fit

designing buildings to suit their particu- ting introduction to this chapter. lar wants and circumstances.

The Effects of Cheap Transit.

FARM BUILDINGS.

312

“ The extension of railways in foreign intelligent and skilful farmer so to blend lands, and the vast improvement effected and balance the various kinds of food in ocean -going steamers, have placed the as to ensure the most efficient results produce of distant continents within easy with the least possible waste. Not only reach of our shores. From New York is this object fully attained where the

to Liverpool is a far cry, and yet the buildings are skilfully arranged, but swift steamers cover the distance in six another important point is likewise at

days. It is well within the recollection tained, and that is the conservancy of of men now living, that in pro-railway the manurial elements contained in the days about the same time was spent by residue. the drovers of fat cattle which during

Mixed Husbandry a Necessity.

the season weekly travelled by road from “ We hear much of small industries and

the great feeding districts of the north small occupations. The small industries, midland counties to the London markets.

poultry and fruit, where well managed,

It is idle to say that population and

contribute to the income of a large occu

prosperity have increased by leaps and pation. If they do not greatly swell the bounds. The scanty supply ofsalt beef balance -sheet, they contribute to the and mutton has been replaced by a pro- comfort and lessen the household ex fusion of fresh meat throughout the year. penses, and in the case of poultry pre Cheap land and sparse population have vent waste about the farmyard by pick

enabled the pioneers of civilisation to ing up the stray corns. supply us with their surplus; and this is “ The craze for the indiscriminate lay not confined to live cattle or dead meat. ing down of land to grass has spent its Dairy produce and cereals are largely fury and settled down into a more ra imported into every seaport of any im- tional state . The future of British

portance in Great Britain, and prices have receded all round — more particularly in the case of cereals, prices having touched a point at which, under former

agriculture is more than ever dependent on the numbers and quality of its live stock . Intelligent men have now come to fully realise the fact that more stock circumstances, they could not be raised at can be kept on mixed occupations than

a profit.

In all probability population can be kept where inferior soils are all in

will sooner or later jibe the heel of pro- grass. An increase of cattle necessitates duction ; whether this may be a near or greatersteading accommodation. A con

a distant contingency depends on causes siderable portion of the produce of the beyond human control.

land is converted into beef, mutton, and

Importance of Suitable Buildings. wool, and by this means the fertility of

—“Yet by legitimate combination the the soil is steadilyincreasing, while more owners and occupiers of British soil will stock are kept, and better crops grown. Rainfall and Climate.— “ The rain Our hold the field against all comers.

present task is to suggest a means of fall, elevation, and temperature are fac aiding in this purpose , and that is by tors not to be ignored either in the system

, or in designing and describing a well-equipped of working and stocking the farm of the homestead, so arranged that the labour

the arrangement and construction

of attendance is reduced to the mini- buildings necessary for the occupation of mum , and where the requisite amount the land . The structural details neces of shelter is furnished atthe least pos- sary to withstand the storms common to sible cost, consistent with economy and a maritime district require strength and stability much beyond what is necessary stability. Breeding and Feeding.- " Circum- for inland and sheltered localities. Pro

stances alter cases, yet under present vision has to be made for the reception, conditions the great majority of farms conveying, and storage of the rain -water should supply their own requirements in collected from the roofs — in providing live stock , whether it be cattle, sheep, or for such conservancy the mean rainfall of horses. We have lately made immense the district is an important factor in the

advances in our knowledge of the feed- calculation . A critical and close observer ing value of the different products within will form a tolerably correct idea as to our reach. This knowledge enables the the different climatic zones by the indica

FARM BUILDINGS.

313

tion of the crops and general system of ding for 20 head per 100 acres, including the work -horses, was considered the maxi

management. Farmyard

Manure .

The

con

mum . Now , on good mixed occupations

servancy of farmyard manure is an im- accommodation for double the number is

portant consideration in the arrangement not too much. “ In designing a new homestead the

and construction of farm buildings.

Manure made in open yards surrounded chief point is economy of labour. All quality compared with that made in of the stall, and if practicable should by unspouted buildings is of very inferior the cattle should be fed from the front

covered yards. In the latter there is no waste through drainage, and, contrary to popular opinion, the manure is fit to apply to the land at any time. The difference

stand in double rows with a feeding passage down the centre, and of sufficient width to allow the passage of a trolly for the conveyance of the food. All the

in value between the manure made in gangways for feeding passages must com

open and covered yards is often 50 per municate directly with the food-store or cent in favour of the latter.

Economy of Hay and Straw .— “ The

mixing-room . Barn Machinery .— “ The use of fixed

economical use of hay and straw is an- barn machinery is now in England matter

other important factor in the financial of ancient history . If the holding is not should be fed in a long state ; both for a portable engine and threshing

results of a holding. Very little of either sufficiently large to warrant the outlay should be prepared and fed with a mixture of pulped roots and meals. Except under peculiar circumstances, very little straw should be used for litter, for the feeding value of straw is greater than is generally supposed. On most farms spent hops and peat-moss litter should take the place of straw for litter. The very es-

machine, the owner of itinerant tackle will be glad to do the work at about the sum it would cost to take the sheaves from the stackyard to the barn. The threshed grain requiresat most only once passing through the winnowing-machine to make it fit for market. If it is de sired to cut the straw into chaff, a cutter

sence of the manure, the liquid part, is is attached to the tail of the threshing fully absorbed by these and retained, and machine, and the work done at a single when applied to the land produces an operation at the cost of two or three immediate effect. Warmth and Shelter. " These are

extra hands.

Barns are not now neces

sary except on a small scale, chiefly as a

important food economisers, although in store-room for the threshed grain . the case of store stock they may be easily

Pastoral Farms.

" These are of two

carried too far. Growing animals require classes, the hill-farms of the north and

plenty of fresh air. Bythis meansthey those on the rich grazing lands of the are hardened, and so to speak acclima- midland counties of England. The former tised, and are less affected by a change requires at most only a comfortable resi from the yard to the pasture. Importance of Position .

dence for the tenant, with a stable and

“When- cow -shed on a small scale. On the purely

ever an entire new homestead is erected

stock farms of the more elevated districts

care should be taken to select a central cultivation is seldomattempted. In many position, more particularly in the case of cases the tenants of the more extensive à tillage farm , where the cartage is a sheep -walks are capitalists, occupying and matter of considerable import. Roads residing on lowland farms; hence all

can be made and the site embellished by that is required is a dwelling -house for

judicious planting. A homestead placed the shepherd and a rude winter shelter on the extreme boundary of a farm entails for his one or two cows. The home of a heavy tax on the occupier, which con- the shepherd is often many miles from a town or village. With his store of oat General Arrangement. " The ex- meal, and the scanty produce of his gar tent of the homestead is regulated ac- den and the rich milk of his cows, he cording to area and quality of the land, leads a happy and contented life. “ On the rich feeding pastures of the keeping in view the stock -raising capa-

tinues for generations.

bilities of the holding. Formerly shed- south the tenant is almost invariably

314

FARM BUILDINGS.

resident on the holding. A comfortable delivered into a trapped drain outside dwelling-house is a great inducement to the buildings. a good tenant, andconsiderably enhances Water - supply .- " All buildings are

the value of the farm . In addition to spouted, and provision made for receiving the dwelling-house all the buildings required are agood hackney stable having two loose-boxes and one stall, and shedding for two or three cows for supplying the family wants. On this class of land

and storing the rain -water.

In

well

arranged holdings the water-supply is an important consideration. In hilly dis tricts the farmyard can be supplied at a moderate cost by conveying the water

only a few cattle are wintered, and these from a higher level into service -tanks chiefly remain outdoors in all weathers. which supply the yards and sheds, so The owners of such land are fortunately that all the animals may have a constant

circumstanced in that only a small supply at will. It is likewise convenient amount of capital is required to provide and useful for flushing the_drains and the necessary buildings. washing out the mangers. For all kinds Dairy and Breeding.- " A farm of of stock an abundant supply of pure

this class, if worked on a modern system , water is of the utmost importance. In requires the most complete equipment of any. The best system of housing dairy cows is in double stalls, 6 feet 6 inches to 7 feet wide, with a feeding passage in front. The best mangers are made of fireclay, in lengths that two will fill the

deed, without a liberal supply of pure water the health of the animals of the farm cannot long be maintained. Purity is an important condition. Soft water is better adapted for the animal require ments, and more conducive to health

width of the stall. These are glazed in- than hard water. Wherever practicable side, and easily cleaned and kept sweet. the homestead should be supplied by The division at the head is constructed gravitation. Where the contour of the

of 1 - inch iron gas-pipes, which pass country is rolling, there is little difficulty through the front stall posts. This leaves in this. The water can be collected into the shed more airy, and therefore more a surface -reservoir, from which a service healthy. pipe is carried to the homestead, and then

“ In the case of milking cows a fre- distributed as required. Although the quent mistake is made in having the water may be originally charged with

standing too high and too long. The mineral impurities, the agitation by the length should be 4 feet from the front of wind and the exposure to the atmosphere the manger to the outside of the heelpost - a greater length hampers the milker. The standings should be 4 feet high at the shoulder and 3 feet 3 inches at the heel-post,measured to the top of the rail. On well-managed farms the old system of hay -racks has disappeared.

has the effect of softening and purifying Observant veteri nary practitioners are familiar with the class of diseases which follow certain geological formations, where the water used for the stock is chiefly drawn from

the collected water.

deep wells. Floors .— “ All the beds and floors are Ventilation and Exercise.- " All laid with well-prepared hydraulic lime sheds should be well lighted and venti concrete, finished off with fine stuff and lated . A constant circulation of pure air

hatched to prevent the cows from slipping. The beds have a gentle fall to the grip , which never exceeds 4 inches in depth, 20 inches wide, and quadrantshaped on section , and gradually sloping into the back passage without forming an abrupt angle. Drains. – Underground drains are

is necessary to health. In the case of young cattle exercise is also essential. In well-sheltered yards a certain amount of exposure is conducive to healthy

inadmissible in cow -sheds or stables.

stock the loose - box or hammel system

development. Stalls and Boxes.— “ In the case of

dairy cows in milk the tie -up system is the best.

For rearing and fattening

Where spent hops or moss litter is used, of the Border counties, combining the yard, is to be preferred. there is no liquid drainage to carry away. covered and openeight animals are con

Where straw is used for litter, the drain

Not more than

age is conveyed in open channels, and fined in one hammel.

The divisions

FARM BUILDINGS.

315

throughout should consist of gas-pipes my experience both with hard - worked passing through iron standards.

This

ensures better ventilation ; the cattle

draught-horses and with hunters. On the other hand limit the supply, and they

rest better, and the labour of feeding is frequently drink to their own injury. The cow For all stables well-laid concrete floors sheds should be well lighted . As a rule, are the best. The fall from front to

reduced to the minimum .

lighting the cow -shed from the roof is heel should be very slight.

A steep

objectionable, owing to the danger of gradient is uncomfortable and injurious breakage, and the difficulty of maintain- to the horses' legs. Under no pretence ing thejoints in a sound state. whatever can underground drains be Food -preparing Machinery .- " An tolerated in a stable . The drainage is

important part of a modern homestead carried in a slightly dished open channel,

is the food-preparing department. This till it reaches the outside of the building, should be easy of access from the out- when it may pass into a well-trapped side, and centrally situated as to the rest socket pipe -drain connected with the of the premises. It is essential to liquid -manure tank . If straw is used economy both of food and labour that a for litter, all the wet portions should be front gangway should be provided to the removed daily. If the ventilation is

entire buildings. The food is conveyed carefully arranged, the horses will be from the mixing -house by a trolly or maintained in a healthy and efficient small three -wheel truck, and each animal has its allowance in turn. Before feed-

state. Calves ' Shed.

“ There are no ani

ing commences , an attendant goes round mals on the farm requiring more atten and sweeps out the mangers where the tion and more comfortable lodgings than last feed has not been all eaten up.

By the young stock.

Young animals need

this means souring and fermentation is plenty of exercise in order to encourage prevented . Every animal should have the healthy development of bone and access to water at will.

Internal Divisions and Ventilation .

muscle. They should not be overcrowded. Weaning calves thrive best in warm

_ " In all cases, with the exception of well-sheltered yards of a composite char stables and cow- sheds, the internal di- acter — that is, partly coveredand partly visions should be of gas - pipe passing

open .

For litter we prefer peat-moss to

through oak posts or wrought - iron straw , as it absorbs the urine, and is

standards. By this means we obtain a always free from noxious smells. The freer circulation of air, which promotes yards do not require cleaning out oftener Much remains than once in six months. The buildings

the health of the animal.

to be done to further our knowledge of should be furnished with rain -water

the chemical nature of the organic im- conductors emptying into underground purities of the air.

It is now an accepted

drains as already described.

The calf

canon that a large proportion of these yards are divided by iron gas-pipes. The organic impurities consists of germs of young animals thrive much better than

living organisms. These are frequently when isolated and confined in small the floating germs of disease, which only pens from which they cannot see around require a genial host to increase by them . myriads.

Hence it is obvious that our

General Principles.- " In all cases

efforts should be carefully directed to we prefer covered or partly covered perfecting ventilation, and as far as yards to open yards, and except in the case practicable maintaining the purity of the of dairy cows, stock thrive best when surrounding air. kept loose in the yards. If dairy cows Cart -horse Stable .— “ This is a de-

were not tied up there would be loss of

partment that requires great care in time and inconvenience in milking. In designing, for here are lodged the most the use of large quantities of straw under valuable part of the live stock of the the old system of open yards, a great loss farm .

Provision should be made for

of manurial constituents was entailed Loose

an ample supply of pure water ; allow through excessive fermentation.

the animal access to water at all times, straw , when mixed with urine or water, and it never drinks to excess . This is gives off ammonia as soon as it reaches

316

FARM BUILDINGS.

a temperature of 170 °, and thus the discussed in detail in describing the plans essence of the manure is dissipated and to be submitted presently. Here it will suffice to say that while the outlay on lost.

“ Good buildings, well arranged and centrally situated, on an ordinary mixed occupation, are seldom appraised at their full value. Nevertheless the suitability or unsuitability of the buildings may

buildings should be kept as moderate as possible consistent with efficiency, it is very important that the capacity of the steading should be amply sufficient for the requirements of the holding. The

add or detract from the yearly rental best results cannot be looked for from value of the land not less than from any holding unless it is provided with 58. to 7s.6d. per acre over the entire sufficient house accommodation. Burden of Costly Buildings.It is occupation." assuredly of the utmost importance that GENERAL PRINCIPLES .

farms of all classes should be equipped with appropriate and comfortable build

Before submitting detailed plans it ings. It is, however, equally desirable will be well to glance at one or two that a careful eye should be kept upon important points of a preliminary and the outlay.

To burden poor land with

general character. Chief amongst these costly buildings is unwise policy. The are- ( 1) the designing of buildings to suit substantial farm steadings of Scotland the extent of the holding and the purposes for which it is employed or best adapted ; ( 2) the situation of the buildings ; and ( 3) the principles upon which

have long been the pride of that country. With their cold northern climate the farms of Scotland must be provided with houses that are both substantial and com

the various compartments should be fortable. Yet there is little doubt that in many cases more money has been sunk

grouped. Farms and Steadings.

in farm buildings in Scotland than was

Different Classes of Farms.— With the almost infinite variety in the character and management of the agricultural holdings of the British Isles, it

the character and extent of the holdings. And it should be borne in mind that any outlay beyond the actual requirements of the farm is even worse than the actual

absolutely necessary or was justified by

follows that there must be great varia- sinking of so much money.

It stands

tion in the design of the farm buildings. there as an incubus upon the holding, The purposes for which the farm is em- adding to the original burden by occa ployed or is best adapted in the main sional repairs. determine the general principles of the There is much to be said in favour of design, the details varying with climate, the custom which has been so prevalent

local custom, and individual fancy. The in Scotland of building farm steadings in general design having been decided upon, a form so substantial as to endure for the capacity of the steading is adapted to several generations. Landowners who the extent of the holding. can thus equip their properties without

The main classes of farms are pastoral borrowing money to do so are no doubt farms for cattle or sheep or both, purely well justified in taking this course. But arable or carse farms, mixed husbandry the prudence of the custom may be ques farms, dairy farms, and suburban farms. tioned when the money to construct these Of these systems there are many modifi- costly buildings has to be borrowed, and cations. Indeed, in certain parts of the the farm thus burdened with a heavy tax country the one runs into the other so in the shape of the high interest charged gradually that it is difficult to say where upon such loans.

In this case would it

the line should be drawn. There is thus not be wiser policy to build cheaper

ample scope for ingenuity and careful- houses, even if they should also be shorter ness in the designing of buildings to lived ? Let it be remembered that any suit each individual holding or group of additional outlay incurred to provide holdings.

extra substantiality not only imparts no

The nature of the accommodation re- corresponding benefit to the holding at quired by the different holdings will be the present time, but is actually tothe

FARM BUILDINGS.

317

full extent of the annual charge for that town or railway station is a natural in additional outlay an absolute and un- ducement to place the steading beside

necessary burden. With these considera- it. But this advantage, natural as itis, tions in view, the prudent course will be may be purchased by the sacrifice of a

to spend no more money in buildings greater. Should the steading be placed, than is necessary to provide the required in consequence, at the extreme angle of accommodation , with reasonable comfort, the farm , such a sacrifice would be made. the maximum of labour-saving conveni. We know a large steading which is thus

ence, and economical substantiality. Situation of the Steading. The situation of a steading is a point which demands most careful considera-

inconveniently placed for the sake of a good road and the command of water

power ; but these advantages were obtained at the additional expense of maintaining a man and pair of horses, tion. with their implements, to work the most Were theory alone to determine the distant fields of the farm . Better make

site of the steading, it would be at the a good farm -road to the turnpike from centre of the holding.

the centre of a farm , and erect steam

Difficulties, however, of a physical power, than place a steading at its utmost nature often interfere with the choice of

the centre as the site.

The centre may

corner.

Shelter . — Good shelter induces the

be very much elevated above the other placing of a steading in it. A warm and parts, or it may be a low marsh or a comfortable situation in winter conduces lake. In either case, the steading can- much to the wellbeing of the stock lodged

not be placed in the centre of the farm .

in a steading.

But this desideratum

When the farm contains both per- alone should not induce the placingof a manent pastoral and low arable land, the steading at a point whence the farm steading should be placed as near as would have to be worked at increased practicable to the centre of the arable cost. portion, whether that be the centre of

View . - A pleasant view from the

farmhouse may naturally induce the Water -supply . — Command of water- placing of a steading a short distance

the farm or not.

power is a strong incentive to place the steading by the side of a river or stream . But it is worthy of consideration at first, whether the river or stream is capable of

away from the centre of a farm .

It

is desirable that the farmhouse should

be situated so as to command a view of the fields of the farm , and also be near

affording a constant supply of water the steading ; and if any sacrifice of throughout all the seasons. If it is position on the part of either is neces then the steading may be economically sary, the house should give way to the placed near it, though that may not be steading. Sites to Avoid . — There are particular at the centre of the farm ; but if the

spots which should be avoided as sites for steadings. A rocky knoll presents difficulties in making a foundation for buildings, and it is unsuited to proper drainage from a steading. Close to a river or lake, on a level with its banks, renders drainage from a steading im practicable, and such a site should be avoided on account of dampness. A diverted . One essential consideration should be bed of dry loose sand is unsuitable for water be deficient in quantity, if it affords a sufficiency only in winter, then it is more economical to place the steading near the centre of the farm , and erect steam -power there. If it should be inconvenient to place the steading close to the watersupply, it may be possible to select a site to which the water may be

given to all sites, which is, whether a secure foundation to a steading, though

pump-water is obtainable or not. Where the difficulty might be overcome by it is abundant,

some inconvenience may artificial means. A clayey substratum be submitted to ; but if scanty, the most in front of a rising ground is not eligible site ought to be abandoned at an eligible position for the site of a steading, inasmuch as it will always Roads. - A good road to a market retain dampness, whatever may be the

once.

GS

FARM BUILDIN

318

drainage.

.

A very exposed spot in a strict conformity with the system of

gap between two hills is an uncomfort- agriculture adopted on the farm . able position for a steading, both for man and beast.

These points demand consideration in detail.

Sites on Sloping Farms. — It is a Straw .— Straw is not only the most question whether it is more economical bulky article in the steading, but is also

to place the steading at the higher or largely used by all classes of stock, and lower part of an inclining arable farm . having, though heavy and unwieldy, to be If situate at the higher part, all the pro- distributedin everyapartment by manual duce of grain , turnips, and potatoes has labour, it should, of necessity, be placed

to be carried up -hill ; andif on the lower, centrically, and at the shortest distance the manure is subject to the same incon-

from the stock.

Bearing in mind the re

venience. Where the surface of a farm lations of these particulars, it is obvious forms a round-backed ridge sloping both that they constitute the principle upon

ways, the apex of the ridge is the most which the construction of steadings economical site for the steading, and the should be based ; and as the centre is

case is the same when the steading is the nearest point to the circumference, it placed in the centre of a long slope of land. It should not be forgotten that loads have to be carried both to and from a steading, so that the high or low position will answer, provided there be no steep ascent or descent immediately at the steading. When both high and low situations are equally circumstanced,

is also obvious that the original recep tacle for the straw should occupy the central point of the steading. There can be no exception to this rule for every variety of farming where straw is in use. Every apartment occupied by stock should thus encircle the straw -barn. Different classes and ages of stock re

reason and experience would prefer the quire different quantities and kinds of low.

straw, so that those which require the Having thus pointed out the best most should be placed nearest the straw

position for the steading to occupy on a barn ; and in all cases straw should be farm , our next endeavour shall be to carried short distances, and not at all explain some general principles which from any other apartment than direct should guide the construction of stead- from the straw -barn. ings for every variety of arable husThe threshing - machine supplies the bandry.

straw at once to the straw -barn .

That

machine should therefore be erected nearest to it. The stackyard supplies

Principles of Arrangement. There are certain principles which, it the corn direct to the threshing -machine, seems to us, might be followed with and should thus be contiguous to it ; and

advantage in arranging or grouping the as the corn and straw are threshed most

various compartments in almost all easily and quickly in a straight line, it classes of farm steadings.

follows that the stackyard, threshing

Briefly stated, these general principles machine, and straw -barn should be in a are : That straw , being the most bulky straight line ; and it also follows that as

article in a steading in winter, should be the straw -barn should be in the centre of placed at its centre, as the point most the steading, and as the threshing-ma accessible to every apartment ; that the chine intervenes between it and the

apartments required for each sort of stackyard, the stackyard should be placed work in the steading should be placed on the outside of the steading. next each other, as it were in groups, to

Admission of Sunshine. — Another

avoid crossings when different sorts of important corollary, as regards the con work are simultaneously carried on , as struction of the steading , follows from are inconveniently experienced in too these premisses. The sun is an important many existing steadings ; that ample source of warmth, and, in consequence, accommodation should be afforded to of comfort to the animals in a steading each sort of work to be done ; and that in the winter season . Every facility the groups of apartments should bear should therefore be allowed the sun to such a relation to each other as to be in enter, and the removal of one obstruc

PLANS OF STEADINGS.

tion to the greatest amount of sunshine is, placing the length of the central straw -barn north and south ; and in settling this point, the straw - barn, threshing machine, and stackyard will as

319

the principles explained above to those in which straw is used. The plans, in illustration of these prin ciples, are the results of much thought and practical experience in the endeavour

a consequence be in a line north and to apply them to actual use.

In this

south .

endeavour, it will be observed that in This being the case, the building re- several of the plans the apartments

quired to accommodate the threshing- appropriated to arable culture such as machine, and its accompanying corn- the work - horse stable, cart - shed - are placed on the one side of the straw

barn , being always two-storeyed , a convenient position for the granaries will be to place them east and west, where they will form a good screen from the north

barn, while those devoted to live stock, whether in a dairy, breeding, or feed ing farm , are placed on the other side.

wind.

The plans might be adopted just as they

Here, then , we have fixed a principle stand, or modified according to circum

in the construction of steadings which is stances — the arrangements being rather For ex

capable of extensive application — namely, that the straw -barn should occupy the centre ; that the threshing - machine should be nearest to it and in a line with it ; that the stackyard should be near the threshing - machine ; and that all three should be in a line north and

suggestive than imperative. ample, the apartments consigned to the use of the arable part of the farm may be placed on the right or the left of the straw -barn, according to convenience in relation tothe fields ; and the same trans position may be made as regards the

south .

apartments occupied by breeding, feed

Live Stock . — It shall now be our ing, or dairy stock ; or any apartment endeavour to illustrate this principle in may be larger or smaller, according to its application to all classes of steadings. the work expected to be done in it. Cattle fattening, whether in hammels, boxes, or byres, requiring most straw ,

PASTORAL FARMING .

should be placed nearest the straw -barn. Younger cattle, being lighter, 'require less straw , whether for fodder or litter, and should be placed either at a greater distance from the straw -barn than the fattening cattle, or at the same distance

Simple pastoral farming embraces the breeding and rearing of cattle or of sheep, or of both combined ; and that sort of farming, combined with arable culture, devotes itself to the same ends.

on the other side of it.

Horses and cows requiring the least

straw, may be placed at the greatest distance from the straw - barn .

Cattle Pastoral Farming. On a purely pastoral farm on which cattle are bred and reared, the steading

The leading principle involved in the required is simply a protection in winter above arrangement is comprehensive and for the cows and young stock, and this

simple, and is applicable to almost every being the case, the rule propounded size and kind of steading.

But indis- above does not apply to it particularly.

putably correct as the principle is, it is The calves are put under protection in very seldom adopted in practice ; and winter when the weather is severe, or we may safely assert that, the greaterthe the ground covered with snow, and sup deviation from it, the less commodious plied with hay and water, or let out to

are steadings as habitations for stock in the water to drink every day. Such a winter.

steading may be erected in anyconvenient place, detached or near, as desired, to the farmhouse and herd's house.

PLANS OF STEADINGS.

Houses for Cattle. — A plan of such

a steading is given at fig. 1, Plate I., We shall now attempt to describe and where it is named “ Detached pastoral illustrate the steadings suitable for the farm steading for rearing cattle ” : ab, different sorts of farming, and to apply cd, each 30 feet long, and 18 feet in

320

FARM BUILDINGS.

width, are the sheds for the shelter of family and those of his herds, and he the stock, and e, f,g, h are their respec- will also have fowls and pigs. Such a steading is represented by tive courts, each 30 feet square. The entrances to both shedsand courts should fig. 2, Plate I. It is most easily and

be 9 feet in width. The entrance to the economically erected in a long straight sheds i i ii may be arched overhead if building in which the apartments are built of stone and lime, or have a flat conveniently arranged. a is the killing wooden lintel. The walls should be 8 house, which is a necessary apartment in feet in height above the ground.

The a pastoral steading, for when a beast is

roof may consist of trees placed in the breadth across the walls, and covered with broom , whin , fern, or branches of spruce, all of which materials will last

taken ill, and not likely to recover, it should be killed : it is 18 feet in width, and 20 feet in length, with a window in front and door at the back ; 6 is an out

several years. But, if desired, the roof house in which implements and other may be made of ordinary couples of articles may be locked up, 18 by 25 feet, timber and slated .

The courts should

with a window and door in front ; c the

be provided with water -troughs, one gig-house, 18 by 9 feet, with a wide door trough to two courts, an arched opening being made in the common wall at k k . Gates are placed at the openings 1 lll. The completed roof and the flat lintels over the doorways may be seen by the dotted lines of the isometricalperspective over the sheds a b c d . The walls may

in front;d the riding-horse stable of two stalls, 18 by 12 feet, with a window and door in front; e the hay-house, in which the corn -chest may be placed to contain the corn for all the horses, 18 by 15 feet, with a window and door in front ; f the cart - horse stable, furnished with three

be made of dry stone rubble, toothed or stalls, to accommodate a strange horse

pointed with lime on the outside ; or they when it comes, 18 by 18 feet, with a may be made of wood where timber is window and door in front; g the byre or plentiful on the estate . But the best shippen, 18 feet by 20, with a window and most durable materials are stone and and door in front, and four divisions for

lime, where these can be procured.

eight cows, if as many are wanted , —if

Such a plan may be contracted or en- not, it can be made proportionally

larged according to the wants and extent smaller ; h the hen -house, 18 by 8 feet, of the farm , and several may be erected with a window in front and a door at the

on the same farm at places convenient back, and a bole with steps leading up for the making of hay, to save the carry- to it by the side of the door; and i is ing of that fodder to a distance. Cows the cart-shed, 18 by 12 feet, with a 9 -feet in calf and calves will be well sheltered opening. in such a steading in wet stormy weather, The stables and byre, being most in

or when snow covers the ground ; and use, are placed at the centre of the build

even year-olds may be accommodated on ing, while the less used apartments are an emergency, or on a much - exposed at the outer ends. The hay-house may farm . From the dimensions given, it is easy for farmers to estimate the number of cattle, at their respective ages, which could be accommodated in

have internal doors leading into the rid ing and work stables, but in a small steading such as this it is unnecessary to incur the expense. The walls should be

the sheds.

9 feet above the ground, and the roof made of good couples of wood, and slated .

Other Houses. - Besides this accom-

modation for the breeding stock, a pas- The steading may be placed near the toral farm requires a steading for various other purposes. The farmer must have a horse and a vehicle to take him and his family to church and market. One or two work -horses are required to bring

cattle-sheds, fig. 1, or at a distance, as most convenient for both sheds and stead ing. The dotted lines show the structure of the walls and roof, and the positions and forms of the door and windows.

corn , provisions, and artificial food to the

The farmhouse and cottages for the

farm , as well as to carry a carcass to the herds should be near the steading. butcher, and hay to the stacks.

The

farmer must have a cow or two for his

The scale for figs. I and 2, Plate I., is half an inch to the foot.

--

PLANS OF STEADINGS.

321

The extreme length over walls of fig. 1, The walls are 9 feet in height from Plate I., is 125 feet ; the extreme breadth, the floor, and the dotted lines show the 51 feet ; and the width of the sheds is 18 structure of the walls, windows, doors, feet within walls. The length of fig. 2 and roof; the roof being made of wooden over walls is 153 feet, and the width of couples, and slated. the apartments within walls is 18 feet. The extreme length over walls of fig. The arrow indicates the direction of 3, Plate I., is 164 feet. The length of north .

the upper wing is 91 feet, and that of Compact Pastoral Steading. — It the lower 91 feet. The width of the may be deemed desirable to have the sheds and courts over walls is 52 feet. cattle-sheds connected with the steading. The width of the apartments and sheds

Such a plan is represented by fig. 3, within walls is 18 feet. The scale of fig. 3, Plate I. , is in the Plate I., where it is denominated “ Compact pastoral farm steading for rearing proportion of three-eighths and a third cattle," and where the central part of of an inch to the foot.

the building is occupied by the cattle-

The farmhouse and cottages for the

sheds a b c d , each 30 feet by 18, with herds should be placed near the steading,

their respective courtyards e f g h, each which should be erected in the most 30 feet square. With the sheds here, accessible part of the farm .

the apartments of the steading are not in a straight line, as in the above case,

Sheep Pastoral Farming.

but are thrown into the form of wings,

Sheep on pastoral farms are

never

the lower one in the plate being devoted housed in a steading in winter, although to the operations of the farm , and the in modern agriculture in the low country upper one to those of the house. The they are not unfrequently fed in sheds lower wing is occupied byi, the ridinghorse stable with three stalls, 18 feet by 18, with a window and door in front; k the hay -house, 18 feet by 12, in which

erected beside the steading. Neverthe less, sheep are at times protected in a certain class of buildings, named stells, in the upper pastoral districts.

a large corn -chest for all the horses may

The construction of these and the pro

be placed, with a door and window in viding of other forms of shelterfor sheep front; 1 the cart-horse stable, 18 feet by have been fully discussed in Divisional 18, furnished with three stalls, and a vol. i. p. 202, and Divisional vol. iii. The hay- p. 48. house being placed between the two Pastoral and Arable Farming. stables, internal doors of communication There aremany farms which are partly may be made if desired . The gig-house m, 18 feet by 12, with a wide door in pastoral and partly arable. Most likely door and window in front.

front. The litter-house n, 18 by 24 feet, the lower-lying land will be under tillage

is provided with a window and door in and the higher-lying in pasture. The front, as well as a door at the back, to tenant of a holding of this kind endeav allow the litter to be carried either way, ours to have as much arable land as as required .

will produce corn for the support of his

The upper wing contains o, the hen- family and servants and horses,

and sup

house, 18 feet by 10, with a door in ply straw and turnips for the use of his front, and a window and bole with steps stock in winter . Such a farm requires

at the side. There is another hay-house here at P, 18 feet by 10, for the use of the byre y, which is 18 feet by 20, furnished with four divisions for two cows in each . Both the hay -house and byre or shippen have a window and door in front. The outhouse r is 18 feet by 18,

an adequate steading, and such a stead ing is usually provided with a threshing machine and straw -barn . Wherever these requisites are available, the principle we advanced at the outset is applicable in the construction of the steading. Combined

Arable

and

Pastoral

with a window and door in front ; s the Steading . – Fig. 1 , Plate II., presents

killing-house, 18 feet by 26, with a door such a steading, where the central part and two windows in front, and may be is occupied with the threshing machine used for other purposes. VOL . III.

and straw -barn in a line north and south х

FARM BUILDINGS.

322

of a range of building having apartments propriated to any kind of live stock . in the upper wing connected with the The cattle courts and sheds may accom operations of the arable part, and in the modate either breeding-cows and calves, lower one with the pastoral department or young stirks and heifers bought from of the farm . The corn - barn a is 18 feet the breeders. The turnip-store w may by 26, with a door at the back to the be the gig -house, the gig-house f a stackyard, and a window looking into guano-store, and the turnip -store z al the cattle-court p ; 6 is the site of the lotted to any other purpose. stores could threshing machine ; c the chaff-house, 5 feet wide, with an internal door to the

straw -barn and a window into the cattle court P ; d the straw -barn, 18 feet by 21 , has four doors, two to cattle-courts, and two outside them, to the stables and

a

walls of the cattle-courts

noand p q at l' and c'. The walls are 9 feet high above the ground,

0

and

byre ; e the cart-shed, 18 feet by 22, with two port-holes ; f the gig- house, 18 feet by 9 ; and h the horse-course, 26 feet in

diameter.

b

at

h

lines

and the position of the The highest part of

To the left of the central range

i

the building contains two floors or storeys. upper floor or storey

are the cattle-sheds i and k, 18 feet by 30 each , with their respective courts n and o, 30 feet by 30 each . In the right wing are these apartments

The

consists of the apart

ments shown in fig. 677, where a is the upper

for arable culture : r the boiling-house, 18 feet by 7 feet 6 inches, having a door at the back and a window in front ; s the implement- house, 18 feet by 8, with a door in front ; t the cart-horse stable, 18 feet by 32, having four stalls and a loose box, 8 feet wide, with a door and two win

dows in front ; u the hay-house, 18 feet

dotted

doors and windows.

respective courts p and q, 30 feet by 30

by 12, with a door at the back towards

the

show the structure of the

roofs, the two - storeyed portion of the steading,

To the right of the central

range of buildings are the cattle -sheds l and m, 18 feet by 30 each, with their each.

Turnip

then be made in front of the

L

&

Fig. 677.- Upper

barn immediately above the corn -barn ; b the site of the threshing-machine with its gearing, drum, and shakers; c the dotted lines showing the posi tion

of the beams of

wood which support the

tħe straw -barn d forcarrying the straw floor of a steading threshing-machine; d the with ar to the cart-horse stable t, and a window farming able culture. in front ; v riding -horse stable, 18 feet

door, 6 feet wide, which leads into the stackyard,

by 12, with two stalls and a door and from which the sheaves window at the back; and w a turnip- from the stacks are brought either in store, 18 feet by 12, for the cattle-courts wheel-barrows along a gangway, or in carts placed right under the door and

р and 9

In the left wing are these apartments

forked into the barn ; g is a window at

for the pastoral department of the farm : the right handof the man who feeds the B' the hen -house, 18 feet by 9, with a sheaves into the threshing-mill; e is a

door in front and a window and bole at the back ; x an outhouse, 18 feet by 17, with a door and window in front ; y the killing -house, 18 feet by 18, with a door and window in front ; za turnip -store, 18 feet by 18, for the cattle-courts n and o and cow -byre a', with a door at the back ; and the cow-byre a', 18 feet by 18, with a door and window in front.

hatch, 3 feet by 3, communicating with the corn -barn below, for the purpose of passing the roughs of the grain to be re-threshed, where there are no elevators connected with the mill ; h is a bole, 4 feet by 372, communicating with the straw -barn i, through which the straw is forked , to be again passed through the

The mill when necessary; l is the granary over

killing-house is a convenience in all pas- the cart-shed and gig -house, 18 feet by 32, toral farms, and here, as it should be, it with an entrance by an outside stone stair is situated between apartments not ap- k , with four windows, two on each side.

PLANS OF STEADINGS.

323

The granary is placed here for simplicity of construction, but it would be

a door and window in front.

better to extend the central range into

corn-barn is the space b, 18 feet by 8

The corn -barn is a, 18 feet by 32, with Off the

two storeys over the cattle-sheds k and l, feet 6 inches, for the threshing -machine, fig. 1 , Plate II., and thus have two gran- as also the space c, 5 feet wide, for the aries, each 30 feet in length, with an

chaff-house, with a door to the straw

entrance direct from the corn -barn.

barn and a window in front.

In

The straw

barn d is 18 feet by 40, with a door in gig-house f should be brought down to front, and another at the back to the

that case, the roof of the cart-shed e and

one storey, and the end wall of the strawbarn elevated into a gable. The extreme length overwalls of fig. 1 , Plate II., is 188 feet. The length of

stackyard and horse -course, and also a bole at the back . The horse -course f is 26 feet in diameter. The killing-house g is 18 feet by 10, with a door and

the right wing is 96_feet, that of the left wing 95 feet. The length of the middle division over walls is 73 feet. The width of the sheds and courts is 53 feet, and that of all the apartments

window at the back. This apartment is far removed from any occupied by animals.

The cart-shed h, 18 feet by 18,

has two arched ports. The implement house p is 18 feet by 18, with a door All these

and of the sheds is 18 feet.

and window at the back.

The scale of fig. 1, Plate II., is in the proportion of rather more than three eighths of an inch to the foot. The scale of fig. 677 will be found at fig. 1 , Plate II. The farmhouse and the herd's cottage should be placed near the steading, which should be erected in an accessible

apartments are situate in the central range of the building. The two wings are so arranged that the

part of the farm .

stable i, 18 feet by 32, having four stalls

Sheep and Arable Farming. It is useful and convenient to have some arable husbandry connected with a sheep pastoral farm , as well as with that

lower one is devoted to the arable work

of the farm , and the upper to the pastoral. The lower wing contains the following apartments : the cart - horse and a loose -box k, 8 feet wide, with a door and window in front ; the hay

house l, 18 feet by 10, with a door and door leading on the one hand into window in front, as also an internal

for the rearing of cattle, and hence a the cart - horse stable, and, on

the

steading is required for it also. As this sort of farming is furnished with stells for the sheep, and does not require courts, the apartments might be placed in a single row ; but as such a form would place the apartments at the extreme ends at a considerable distance

other, into the riding-horse stable m , 18 feet by 12, with two stalls, and a door and window in front ; n the gig-house, 18 feet by 10, with a wide door ; and o the boiling-house, 18 feet by 14 , with a door and window in front, and a boiler and furnace at the gable. from one another, it is more convenient The upper wing has these apartments to make it into that of a hollow square in it : the byre or shippen q, 18 feet by or parallelogram . Where arable culture 25, contains five divisions, for two cows

is practised , it is advisable to have a in each , if required, with a door and

threshing - machine, unless itinerant window in front; r the hen-house, 18 threshing-machines are obtainable.

feet by 8, with a door at the back , and a

No courts being required, it is not absolutely necessary to place the strawbarn within the hollow square, although it is necessary to have it at hand ; and this is the case in the plan of a “ Farm steading, for rearing sheep with arable

bole and a window in front; s the outhouse, 18 feet by 17, with a door and window in

front ; and the wool-room t, 18 feet by 28, with a door and two windows in front, and three windows at the back for air and ventilation, and an internal door

culture, given in fig. 2, Plate II., show- to the outhouse for convenience.

There

ing a slightmodification of the principle is also a fireplace in it at the gable, with we have laid down as an axiom , in its a chimney -stalk ; u is a pump-well shaft, application to a case where little straw 5 feet in diameter, in the centre of the is required.

space common to all the

ents.

FARM BUILDINGS.

324

same dimensions ; b, the site of the

The dotted lines show the structure of

the building, roofs, doors, windows, and threshing - machine, with its gearing, chimney -tops.

drum , and shakers ; c, in dotted lines, are the beams of wood supporting the

The highest part ofthis steading is the central range which is divided into two floors or storeys. The upper floor consists of three apartments, as shown in fig. 678, where a is the upper barn immediately above the corn -barn, and of the

threshing -machine; d, the door, 6 feet wide, leading to the stackyard, from which the sheaves of the stacks are brought either on wheel-barrows over a gangway, or by carts loaded at the stack, d

OS

i

g

h 8

Fig. 678.- Upper floor ofa steadingfor sheep pastoralfarming with arable culture.

and then placed right under the door, the principle of construction wehave laid and the sheaves forked from it into the down, wherein the straw occupies the

barn ; e, the window ; f, a hatch in the central position, and all the other apart

floor, 3 feet by 3, communicating with ments cluster around it as a centre. the corn - barn below, for passing the

The corn -barn a is 31 feet by 28, with

roughs of grain to be re-threshed when

a door to the stackyard and a window into a court, containing within it the space for the threshing-machine b, 18 feet by 8 feet 6 inches, and for the chaff house c, 5 feet in width, with a door

no elevators are appended to the thresh-

ing -mill; 9, a bole, 4 feet by 372, communicating with the straw -barn , for the purpose of forking up any straw that

may require to go again through the leading into the straw -barn d, 18 by 46 threshing-mill; h is the straw-barn , with feet, with four doors, two leading into boles in the wall ; and i the granary, 18 the cattle-courts, and two into the open

feet by 48, extending over the killing- space conducting to thecart-horse stable house , cart-shed, and implement-house,

and cow -byre. The boiling -house e, 18

with three windows on each side, and by 24 feet, for the cooking of food for entered directly from the corn -barn by a the horses, is a continuationof the straw stair. barn, and being in a two -storeyed range,

The extreme length of fig. 2, Plate II., is provided with a cock -loft or gangway The length of to contain at hand the ingredients to be both wings is 113 feet. The width of cooked, and with a door towards the stable and a window in the gable between the apartments within walls is 18 feet. over walls is 125 feet.

The scale of fig. 2, Plate II., is in the the two boilers ; f is the steam -engine proportion of three-eighths and one-third room , 18 by 11 feet, with a door and of an inch to the foot. The scale of fig. 678 will be found in that of fig. 2, Plate II. Steading for Arable Farming. Such holdings as carse farms and any that are entirely under arable husbandry require steadings specially designed for

window, as also a trap - door into the boiler-house g, 20 by 10 feet, with which is connected by a door the coal-store h,

20 feet by 5, having a window at the end. The chimney - stalk, 50 feet in height, is seen at the end ofthe boiler house g ; i is a shed for cattle, 18 feet by

that purpose. Accommodation has to be 30, and k a court, 30 feet by 30, con provided for the corn and straw, for the nected with it ; 1 is a shed for cattle, 18 animals of labour, for fattening cattle, by 38 feet, and m its court, 38 feet by and a few cows to supply the farmer's

family and the work -people with milk .

A plan of a steading suited to these

1 In the plan (Plate V.) the cattle - courts are open , but the greater portion , if not the

whole, should be covered in . The merits and requisites is given in Plate V. It will demerits of covered and open courts have been befound that this plan fully illustrates fully discussed in Div. vol. i. p. 226.

PLANS OF STEADINGS.

325

30 ; n and o are the turnip -stores for the building, which consists of two floors or respective cattle-courts, n being 24 feet storeys . The upper storey contains the

9 inches by 7 feet,and 0, 26 feet 9 inches apartments as shown in fig. 679, where the corn -barn and steam -engine room, the central portion of the steading.

by 7 feet. These apartments constitute a a is the upper barn immediately above In the right wing are these apart- with a bole for air 0 ; b, the site of the ments : p, a loose-box, 18 feet by 18, threshing -machine with its gearing,drum ,

with a door and window in front ; 4, the and shakers; c, thedotted lines, the beams gig-house, 18 feet by 12, with a wide of wood which support the threshing door in front; r , a hay-house, 18 by 20 machine ; d, the door, 6 feet wide, lead

feet, with a window and door in front, ing to the stackyard, from which the and an internal door into the cart-horse sheaves are brought from the stackeither stable s s, 18 by 78 feet ; t is a central on wheel-barrows or by carts loaded at

door to bring the straw from the straw- the stack and placed right under this barn into the stalls, and in front are a door, and the sheaves forked into the

door and four windows ; u is another barn ; e, the sky -light in the roof for hay -house, 18 by 14 feet, with a window giving light to the barn ; f, a hatch in in front and a door at the back ; and v is the floor, 3 feet by 3, for passing the CANON

i

c

b

a

the riding-horse stable, 18 feet

by 18, with a door and window,

roughs of grain from the corn barn, to be again threshed by

9

and an internal door to the hay

the mill when elevators are not

house u .

appended to the mill ; 9, a bole, 4 feet by 372, communicating

In the left wing are the fol lowing apartments : w is the hen -house, 18 feet by 18, with a door and window in front, and

with the straw - barn , through which to fork any straw that

may require to go again through

a bole at the back : x x the cart

shed, 18 feet by 55, with six arched ports ; y the cow -byre or

the mill; h, the straw -barn ; i, one granary, 18 feet by 45, entered from the corn -barn by a stair through the engine-room ,

2 shippen , 18 by 40 feet, with 8 double-stalls for 16 cows, should ma the hinds have a cow's keep as part of their wages, with a door and two windows in front: z an Fig. 679. Upper

and two on the other, and one at the gable, and k is another granary , 18 feet by 61 , entered

implement -house, 18 feet by 18,

by a stair direct from the corn

with a door and window in

Roor of

a steading for carsefarming.

front ; a ' an outhouse, 18 feet

with three windows on one side

barn, with three windows on each side and one at the gable ;

by 15, with a door and window in front ; ?, a cock-loft or gangway over the boil and ' another outhouse for any purpose, ing-house, entered by a fixed trap-stair with a door and window in front.

in that house ; and m is a good place

The pigs may share the sheds and courts with the cattle, but a pig-sty for feeding them for domestic use may be erected as a lean -to against the gable of

of warmth from the boiler for a pigeon house, 18 feet by 6, up to the roof, and the pigeons to enter through the gable.

the boiling-house e.

The scale of this plan is in the propor

The dotted lines show the construction tion of two -eighths and two-thirds of an of the building and the style of roofing, inch very nearly to the foot. The scale with the positions of the doors and win- of fig. 679 will be found in Plate V. dows and chimneys. The extreme outside length of the They also show the highest part of the principal east and west range of the build

326

FARM BUILDINGS .

ing is 145 feet ; the length of the middle oxen, 120 oxen could thus be fattened at range north and south is 83 feet; the the same time, and of course a propor length of the right wing is 169 feet, that

tionate larger number of smaller cattle.

of the left 170 feet. The width of all Fig. 2 represents the mode of feeding in

the apartments within walls is 18 feet. boxes, which consist of pens large enough On looking at the plan on Plate V., to hold one large ox or two small ones, with the view of amendment, we think all under a roof. The same number of it would make a more compact arrange- cattle could be accommodated in a smaller ment to push the hay-houses and cart- space in boxes than in hammels. Sixty

horse stable up to the loose-box p, and cattle can be contained in boxes in the

place the gig-house q at the end of the space represented, as that number are in building on this side of the riding-stable, the two divisions of hammels on either with its wide door looking this way . side of the straw -barn . The third mode of feeding is in byres under a roof, as Steadings for Mixed Husbandry. seen in fig. 3, in which the cattle are

Mixed husbandry is the system offarm- arranged in double stalls, and tied by the

ing most largely pursued in the British neck to a stake ; and in the space repre Isles. Practised on every variety of soil sented, the same number, sixty, can be between the two extremes of pastoral and accommodated as in the boxes, fig. 2—50 carse farming, it is a combination in vary that byres take up the least room of the

ing degrees of arable farming and the three modes of feeding. Most farmers wouldnow prefer covered breeding, rearing, and fattening of live stock. courts to the hammels, chiefly on account This mode of farming requires a large of the saving in labour. accommodation for arable purposes and In fig. 1 , Plate IV., a is the corn -barn,

for stock, and the arrangement of the apartments for these two purposes should be kept distinct, to avoid confusion in conducting the business of the steading. This system may be prosecuted either on a large or small scale, but the arrangement of the apartments are similar in both ,

18 feet by 27 at one part, and 18 feet by 20 at another part, with a door and win

dow in front and one window at the back ; b is the space occupied by the threshing machine ; and c that by the chaff-house, 9 feet by 5, with a window in front and an internal door leading into the straw barn d d , 18 feet by 85, with two doors

In fig. 1 , Plate IV., we have given a opposite at the threshing-machine, and plan ofa steading for mixed farming on two opposite at the other end ; f is the

a large scale, in order to show the above steam -engine room , 18 feet by 12, with a requirements of the system in their ful- window in front and a door at the back ; ness. In the centreof the principal range, g the boiler-house, 20 feet by 8, with a as it should be, is the straw , to the right door in front and window at the end,

of which are the apartments for arable and an internal door to the coal-store h, purposes, and to the left are those for 20 feet by 5, with a window at the end.

live stock, and on either side of the straw- The chimney -stalk , 50 feet high, is seen barn are the apartments for fattening the rising from its basement. cattle in. In the right wing is i, a passage, 4 feet There are three accommodations for wide, leading into the stackyard ; k k is fattening cattle - namely, in hammels, in a turnip -cutting-machine house, 18 feet boxes, and in byres. All these three we by 50, with two doors and two windows

have illustrated in theplan. Fig. I com- in front, and a doorat the back leading by 4 ;l is prehends thefeeding of cattle in hammels, to the turnip-store i' i', 5824,feet with a door which consist of small sheds with small

a food -store, 18 feet by

open courts, in which cattle, few in num- and window in front ; m m is the work

ber -- two, three, or four together, accord- horse stable, 18 feet by 72, having twelve ing to their size and ages — are accommo- stalls and a loose-box n, 18 feet by 8, with dated . The hammels are arranged in a door and two windows in front ; o hay

four divisions, two on one side of the house, 18 feet by 23, with a door and straw -barn and two on the other. Sup- window in front, andan internal door to

posing each hammel to contain two large the work -horse stable and to the riding

PLANS OF STEADINGS.

327

horse stable p, 18 feet by 18, with a door other boiling -house, 18 feet by 18, with a and windowin front, and provided with door and window in front. three stalls ; q is the gig -house, 18 feet The hammels for containing the fatten

by 12, with a wide door ; r the horse ing cattle are at f' ti' f' f', 12 feet by 10 boiler house, 18 feet by 18, with a door in the sheds, and 14 feet by io in the and window at the back towards the courts g' s', o'g'. There are two rows

work - horse stable ; s the implement- of hammels in each division, on both house, 18 feet by 12, with a door and

sides of the straw -barn, each row con

window in front ; and t t is the cart-shed, taining fifteen hammels. We have 18 feet by 57, with six port-holes in placed the hammels in the plan in pref front.

erence to boxes and byres, because we

In the left wing are these apartments : believe they are the best kind of ac

u u a second turnip -cutting - machine commodation for cattle to be fattened house, 18 feet by 50, with two doors in the most healthy and sound con and two windows in front, and a door at dition, though the most expensive in con

the backleading to the turnip -store h' h ', struction. 50 feet by 4 ; v another food -store, 18

A tramway, 3 feet wide, starts from

feet by 24, with a door and window in opposite each of the doors m ' m ', of the front ; w w the cow -byre or shippen, 18 food -stores v and l, and runs parallel to by 40 feet, for eight stalls, with a door them and the cutting-machine rooms u u 区

IC

k

i at

and k k ; then turns at right

and window in front ; and x the

calf-house, 18 feet by 28, with a

angles and runs parallel to the

door in front and two windows at the back . Where only as many cows are kept as serve the farmer's

straw - barn dd ; turns again at

family with milk and butter, and

of the hammels, in the lines í ľ and k' k' ; then passes up the

right angles, and runs parallel to the walls of the courts o'g',

where no calves are brought up, the byres may be of a size to suit

the number of cows, and the calf

h

side of the hammels, and along their back, to the door m ' of the The small arrows

house dispensed with altogether, and used for some other purpose ;

food - stores.

y the servants' cow -byre, 18 feet

ways to and from the food-stores. The food prepared in the cutting

by 35, with a door and two win

indicate the routes of the tram

dows in front, and furnished with Fig. 680.-—Upper rooms u u and k k is placed in of a stead trucks upon the tramway, and Where the farmer storey ingfor common delivered to each hammel over does not breed any cattle, the farming. eight stalls.

servants dispose of their calves

the front walls o'g' of the courts,

to other purchasers ; z the hen -house,

into the feeding -troughs inside. 18 feet by 18, with a door and winFig. 2, Plate IV., is an illustrative dow in front, and a bole at the back ; plan of cattle -boxes, which may be

a' a hatching -house for poultry, 18 feet adopted where this method of feeding is by 9 ; b' an outhouse, 18 feet by 18, preferred to hammels : a a is the central with a door and window in front; c' Ċ passage, 10 feet wide, for receiving the pig-sties, six in number, the sties 8 feet

cattleand removing the dung from the

by 4 each , and their courts 10 feet by central boxes; b . b, b b passages, 5 feet 4 each .

The pig -sties may be extended wide, along which the food is delivered

as desired, or their space occupied for to each box on each side; cc are the some other purpose, and they erected by boxes, 8 feet square, to hold one ox ; d themselves elsewhere ; – the guano and are the doors by which the dung is re bone-dust store, 18 feet by 20, with a moved when desired . These boxes con door and window in front ; and é an- tain sixty cattle, the same as in a double

GS FARM BUILDIN .

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PASS

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20'0 "

200

20'0 "

BOXES

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COVERED

A ! SiS AGE

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1

BOXES

FEEDING

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CALVES

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ED

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RAIN WATER

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BOXES

FEEDING

COVERED

ROOT

HOUSE

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А р

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COVERED

-

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0

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70

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Fig. 681. - Ground -plan of complete steading

di

F

r farm of 500 acres .

90

100 FEET

PLANS OF STEADINGS.

329

row of hammels. The bottoms of the boxes are usually

dug 18 inches or 2 feet below the surface of the ground. Cattle-boxes are best lighted from the roof. In fig. 3, Plate IV., is an illustrative plan of cattle-byres,

when they are preferred for fattening cattle either to boxes CART

or hammels : a a is the middle passage, 5 feet wide, with

SNE 0

the roof.

a dung-grupe on each side ; b b and c c the feeding pas sages, 5 feet wide, and d d , d d the stalls affording ac commodation to sixty cattle. These byres may be lighted either by windows in the outside walls, or by sky-lights in Where the arrangement of byre-feeding is adopted, a

place for the dung will be required, and this is provided for in the covered dung-stance e e, fig. 4, Plate IV., the dimensions of which are 18 feet by 50, and a door, 9 feet

wide, at each end, for a cart to be backed through to re .

BARN CORN

move the dung. It may be both curious and interesting to state the space

occupied by each ox respectively in hammels, boxes, and

byres. The hammels give 191 % square feet to each ox, the boxes 11534 square feet , and the byres 1061/2 square feet — so that hammels occupy 134 and boxes 10 per cent more of space

than byres.

OVER LOFT

& HARNESS ROOM FOOO

Power can be derived from the engine to drive turnip cutters in the cutting-machine rooms u and k , and corn and oilcake bruisers in the food -stores v and I, as also a straw cutter in the straw -barn d.

The dotted lines show the structure of the buildings and

their roofs, and the positions of the doors and windows, and of the chimney -stalks, and specially of the engine-stalk rising 50 feet from its basement.

The highest part of this steading isa part of the princi -------40'0

CARTIMORSE

E

pal range on each side of the threshing -machine and the

centre range, the principal range being divided into upper

and lower storeys. In fig. 680 is the plan of the upper F

storey in both ranges, in which a is the upper barn, 18

STABLE

feet by 30 in the widest part, and 18 feet by 20 in the narrowest, directly over the corn -barn and the engine

room ; b the site of the threshing machine, with its drum

IMPLEMENTS LOOSE BOX

-.0.21

and shakers and gearing ; c the door, 6 feet wide, by which the sheaves of corn arebrought from the stackyard ; d a sky-light in the roof for light to the barn ; e a hatch in the

floor, 3 feet by 3, through which the roughs may be handed up from the corn -barn below to be again passed through the mill when there are no elevators ; f, bole to admit air

to the sheaves when stowed in the barn ; g an opening, 4 feet wide by 31/2 feet high, for permitting straw to be

forked up from the straw -barn , when it is desired to be again passed through the mill; h the straw -barn ; i a granary, 18 feet by 76, with four windows on each side, and entered by a stair from the corn - barn ; k a granary, 18 feet by 72, with three windows to the north and four to the south, and entered by a stair from the corn-barn

across the engine-room ; and i the pigeon-house, partitioned from the granary k, 18 feet by 6, with a trap-stair from the Fig. 682. - Ground - plan continued .

food -store v below, and entered by the pigeons through the gable.

I SO 10 10

20

JO

C 40

मानव

CLOT

so

60

buildings .elevation 686. -SFig main of ide

.6tc. ,b-SFig shed of ,eselevation tables ide 85. arn

80

90

FEET 100

n

AN FARM

70

684. .-BFig buildings main of elevation ack

683. .-EFig buildings main of elevation ntrance

330 BUILDINGS .

WHAT

PLANS OF STEADINGS.

331

The scale of this plan is in the pro

portion of rather more than 172 eighth of an inch to the foot.

The scale of .of EF at stables --Section 689. Fig

fig.680 will be found in Plate IV . The extreme length of this plan of steading over walls of the principal range is 463 feet, that of the right wing 128 feet, that of the centre range 106 feet, and that of left wing 129 feet. The width of all these ranges is 18 feet within walls. The length of each row of hammels over walls is 174

KC四

feet, and width 33 feet. The length of the cattle-boxes, fig. 2, over walls, is 125 feet, and width 57 feet. The

.6ection B-SFig A at buildings main of elevation and .87.

length of the cattle-byre, fig. 3, over walls is 153 feet, and width 42 feet. The length of the dung-house, fig. 4, is 55 feet, and width 29 feet. Modern English Steading. - In

figs. 681 to 689 are given the illus trations of a modern English steading

Soy

or homestead , suited for a farm of about 500 acres. In figs. 681 and 682 are given the ground-plan of complete steading ; in fig. 683, the entrance

elevation of main buildings ; in fig. 684, the back elevation of main build ings ; in fig. 685, the side elevation of shed, barn, stables, &c.; in fig. 686,

by Mr Gilbert

Murray, agent to the Earl of Harring ton, Elvaston Castle, Derby. It will be seen that the buildings are com modious, substantial, and convenient.

The complete specifications for the erection of this steading are given at page 378 of this volume.

Modern Scotch Steading . - In fig. 690 is given the ground-plan of a com modious, handsome, and very complete

steading erected on a farm in Inver ness-shire.

This steading is adapted for a farm of about 250 to 280 acres, worked on the five - course rotation, where cattle are reared and fed. The central part of the steading consists of the straw barn, turnip -house, and oilcake-store. In these the feeding materials are

.88. Dof C main buildings Sat .6ection -Fig

pared specially for this edition of the

Book of the Farm

AL

fig. 689, section of stables at E F.

The plans of this steading were pre

2

the side elevation of main buildings ; in fig . 687, section and elevation of main buildings at A B ; in fig. 688, section of main buildings at CD ; in

FARM BUILDINGS .

332

stored, and the byres, cattle-courts, and The granaries are over the cart -shed,gig stables are grouped around them, so that the labour of conveying the food tothe animals may be lessened as far as possible. The stables, byres, and cattle-courts all

house, turnip - shed, and oilcake - store. The grain is thus stored above compart ments in which no animals are kept, so that it cannot be injured by animal ex

communicate with the straw - barn by halations. covered passages, which prevents straw The byres and stables surround the

from being strewn about the steading. cattle-courts, into which the dung can be 1200

it'o

331

· 12'0 ---- 15'6 POULTRY HOUSE

WORK NORS STABLE

GIG HOUSE PONY STABLE

WORK SHOP

TOOL HOUSE NAIKS

OPEN TROU'GMS

COVERED CATTLE COURT

CART

COURT BNRC

COVERED CATTLE COURT

SHED

13z

TROUGNS

TROUGHS

PASSAGE

FEEDING

STRAW BARN

MILL

156

39 '

DILCAKE STORE

TURNIP SHED

PASSAGE

FEEDING

PASSAG HI E

TROUGNS AND

NAIKS

CO

NO

MAIKS AND TROUGNS

NAIKS Andi

VROUGHS AND NAIKS

MI

..

CORN ROOM

PROUGHS RAIKS AND

P. ONION 39VSSY

PIT WHEEL .10

79VSSY

9'0 "

STRAW BARN

COVERED CATTLE COURT

COVERED CATTLE COURT BYTIRE

IMPLEMENT

HOUSE

38'5 "

16'0 " .

i0 --2018

--- 20'0 ".

10

20

10

10

30

60

70

88

100

HOFT

Fig. 690. - Ground -plan of modern Scotch steading.

easily conveyed, and in which it is pro- comfort of the cattle. In all the other tected from deterioration by exposure to courts there is a small portionuncovered. rain .

The factor on the estate thinks it desir

It will be observed that the cattle -court adjoining the stables and cart-sheds is entirely covered in. It would perhaps have been the better of a small opening,

able to have a small uncovered space in all courts in which are wintered young cattle to be turned out to grass in the following spring. Even for fattening

but it was felt that if this had beenformed cattle he would have an open space,

here it would have caused a draught be- when it can be provided without caus tween the two courts, and destroyed the

ing draughts.

PLANS OF STEADINGS.

The cow -byre, poultry-house, stable, gig-house, and workshopare placed near

333

Fig. 691 gives a section of the cow -byre. If it were desired to have a few pigs in

the dwelling-house. Obviously this is a the courts, a small retreat for them could convenient and desirable arrangement.

easily be formed in a corner.

Fig. 691. - Section of cow -byre.

The steading is constructed in a sub-

In fig. 692 is given the front elevation

south stantial form , and finished with excel- of thissteading; in fig. 693 the eleva lent taste. From the elevations given elevation ; in fig. 694 the north it will be seen that the outward features tion ; in fig. 695, section at A B ; in fig. 696, section at C D ; and in fig. 697 , are attractive and symmetrical. in

Fig. 692.- East elevation.

பபாபாம்

FB

Fig. 693. - South elevation .

00

Fig. 694. - North elevation.

plan of the roofs, lofts, and men's this steading are given in this vol., sleeping-place. p . 385 . Forfarshire Steading. It may be ad The specifications for the erection of

FARM BUILDINGS.

334

Fig. 695. - Section at A B.

20

49

JO

70

700

20 FT.

DITT

Fig . 696. - Section at C D.

22'10 "

MENS SUCEPINO PUCE URL

3

GRAIN LORI

NIGHT 59'10 "

to

DC STRAW BARN CONTO

DC GRAIN

LOFT

13

SNEAR LOFT 1610 E3

E3

20

70

Fig. 697. - Upper or roof pla

80

90

100

HO !

PLANS OF STEADINGS.

335

visable before concluding this part of our feet by 93, with four doors in front ; r work, to give an illustration of how an old hen -house, 14 feet by 14, with a door in

and inconvenient steading may be altered front; s s cow -byre, 16 feet by 60, of into a new and convenient one. nine stalls, with doors into the adjoining

Plate VII. contains all the particulars cattle-byre p, open passage v, and cattle connected with the alterations and addi- court w ; t loose-box, 16 feet by 11 , with tions effected on the steading at Inver- a door in front. quharity, in Forfarshire. Fig. I contains The open space between the left wing the ground -plan of the new and old parts and central range is occupied by four

of the steading, the open outlines show- covered cattle-courts w , one being 31 ing the old, and the shaded lines the new feet by 41 , another 31 feet by 45, a

parts of the steading. Fig. 2 is a roof- third 31 feet by 45 at the widest part plan of the entire steading as amended. and 30 feet at the narrowest, and the

Fig. 3 is a south elevation of the steading fourth 31 feet by 41 at the broadest part, as amended, the plain part showing the and 14 feet at the narrowest, with doors

old, and the stippled part the new por- into the passages and gates in front ; tion of the steading. Fig. 4 is a vertical z the urine-tank, 15 feet by 5 ; and y section of the finished buildings, indi- turnip-store, 15 feet by 31 , with a gate cated by the horizontal line A B in fig. 1. in front. This store supplies turnips Fig. 5 is a vertical section at the vertical

from its centre to a double row of feed

line Č D in fig. 1. And fig . 6 is a verti- ing -troughs along a 3 - feet passage x, cal section at the vertical line E F in through the centre of the cattle-courts fig. 1 .

w, as also through three boles in each

In fig. 1 , Plate VII, in the central of its side walls into feeding-troughs in range are : a the corn -barn, 15 feet by 33, two of the courts at b'b'. These covered with a door and window in front ; b chaff- courts are lighted by eight sky-lights in house, 7 feet by 28, with a door into the the roof, as seen in fig. 2. They are

straw -barn ; c straw -barn, 22 feet by 51 , separated from the central range by a with two doors opposite near the mill ; d covered passage u , 5 feet by 72, and implement-house and guano -store, 12 feet from the principal range by an open by 22, with a large gate to the front. passage v, 6 feet by 97. In the right wing are these apartments : The two - storeyed portions of this

e cart-shed, 19 feet by 58, with five port- amended steading are the principal door in front, and an internal one to the The upper storey of the principal range holes : f hay-house, 18 feet by 19, with a range to the right and the central range.

cart -horse stable; g cart-horse stable, 18 comprehends the upper barn, 33 feet by 22, over the corn -barn and chaff-house, and window at the back, a window into and the granary, 19 feet by 77, over the the cattle -court k, and two sky-lights in cart-shed and hay -house, having a stair the roof; h loose-box, 18 feet by 10, with from the corn -barn, with windows on a door in front ; i cattle-shed, 18 feet by both sides. The upper storey of the feet by 65, of eleven stalls, with a door

23, furnished with a feeding-trough and central range consists only of one apart a turnip-shed ; k cattle-court, 22 feet byment over the implement-house d . 23, with a gate in front ; 1 riding-horse The double dotted lines show the urine stable, 12 feet by 16, with a door; m drainage from the byres and covered boiling-house, 12 feet by 11 , with a boiler courts to the urine-tank z. and furnace, and a door in front ; and a

It will be seen by the plan roof, fig.

outhouse, 17 feet by 6, with a door. 2, Plate VII., that only two stretches In the left wing are these apartments : terminate in gables, at the loose-boxes h n water-wheel ark or steam -engine room,

and t, the most in pavilions, while the

17 feet by 6, with a window in front, outhouse a' has a lean -to roof. and door into the open passage v ; o cowThe extreme length of this steading byre, 17 feet by it, with a window in over walls is 226 feet, and its extreme front and door to the passage v ; p cattle- breadth in the right wing is 98 feet, and

byres, 17 feet by 93, of fourcompartments, that of the left wing 108 feet.

The

each with a door into the open passage width of the apartments varies from 16, v and turnip -shed q ; q turnip -shed, 14

17, 18, 19, to 21 feet.

FARM BUILDINGS .

336

What the original form of this stead- are pursued along with dairying.

ing was, we do not know , but in the othersthe only live stock kept are cows amended form , as represented in Plate VII., it is arranged very much on the principles we have been advocating, having a principal range, a central one, and right and left wings. The straw is con-

(the stock of these being maintained by purchases), pigs, poultry, and horses to work the arable land . Steadings for dairy farms must therefore vary con siderably in design.

veniently placed in the central range for the stables on the right, and the covered cattle -courts on the left, and not far from the cow -byre s. Instead of having the

Large Dairy Farm . In Plate VI. is given the ground

plan of a modern steading for a large

wings extended to afford accommodation dairy and cattle-breeding farm. This to feeding cattle, the space between the plan was designed by Mr Gilbert Murray, central range and left wing is occupied and speciallyprepared for this edition.

by covered sheds and courts, with access The houses are adapted for the accom to them by means of passages. This modation of eighty cows and forty young arrangement admits of putting these cattle. The plan shows clearly the ar apartments under one roof. Upon the rangement of the buildings. Small Dairy Farm . — The plan of a whole, this is a compact, convenient

steading, and is a good illustration of farm steading for a small dairy farm is how an old faulty steading may be con- given at fig. 1 , in Plate III. Here the centre is devoted to the pur verted into a good new one. There

should be a window in the hay-house to poses of the straw , where a is the corn afford light to the men when taking the barn, 18 feet by 24, with a door and hay for the horses.

The cattle - shed

window at the back in the stackyard,

marked p should be fitted up as a byre including the space appropriated to the for feeding cattle, in order to allow the threshing - machine at b, and the chaff turnips tobe wheeled into the cow -byre house at c, 5 feet wide, with a window in front, and an internal door leading into the straw -barn d , 18 feet by 24,

s from the store at q.

Steadings for Dairy Farming. with a door in front and one at the back Dairy farming may be conducted en- into the stackyard ; e is the horse-course, tirely by itself or in conjunction with 27 feet diameter, in which a two-horse other systems of farming. In many power driving -gear is fixed . In the right wing is f, the cart-horse cases the breeding and rearing of cattle PUHEEPI

h

CARA23

9

b LEBIH

Fig. 698.- Upper storey of a steading for small dairy farming .

In the centre and left wing, connected stable, 18 feet by 18, for three stalls, and with a door and window in front ; § with the dairy, are the following apart cart-shed, 18 feet by 18, with two port- ments : 0 is the churning-room , 18 feet holes ; h the riding-horse stable, 18 feet by 18, with a door and window in front ; by 12, with a door and window in front, and furnished with two stalls ; i is the

q is the food-store and cheese-press room , 18 feet by 12, with a window and door

gig-house, 18 feet by 9, with a wide in front ; r the milk -house, 18 feet by door ; k the implement-house, 18 feet by 25, with a door in front and two win 10 feet 6 inches, with a door and window dows at the back , and furnished with in front ; I, an outhouse, 18 feet by 12, stone shelving all round ; 7 s the byre for with a door and window in front ; and 1 An improvement on plan would be the m, a bull's hammel, 18 feet by 11 , with a removal of the churningthis - room , cheese -press door and window in front. room , and milk -house to a separate building

PLANS OF STEADINGS.

heifers, 18 feet by 24 , with a door and window in front ; t t the cow -byre or shippen, 18 feet by 56, having seven double-stalls, each 8 feet wide; and u is the hen-house, 18 feet by 8, with a door at the back, a window in the gable, and

337

under-ground, into the hay-house v, for driving a hay -cutter there. The dotted lines show the structure of

the building, and the position of the windows, doors, and chimneys. The highest part of this steading is confined to the principal range, which is

a bole in front.

In the space between the wings are divided into an upper and lower floor.

these apartments: v the hay-house for The upper one contains the apartments supplying hay to the stables and byres, shown in fig. 698, where a is the upper 18 feet by 24, with a window , and with barn immediately above the corn-barn ;

a door on each side ; w the wash -house, b the site of the threshing -machine, with 18 feet by 12, with a window and door, its gearing, drum , and shakers. It would and boiler for cleansing the dairy uten- be better to have the mill near

the

sils ; x the boiling -house, 18 feet by 18, power, in which case the positions of with a door on one side and a window the corn -barn a, in Plate III., fig. 1 , and

on the other, and two boilers for preparing food for the cows, horses, and pigs ; and y y y are pig-sties, 5 feet 6 inches by 5 feet each, with courts 2 z 2,

the mill b and chaff-house c should be reversed. c the door, 6 feet wide, for receiving the sheaves; d a hatch in the floor, 3 feet by 3, to pass the roughs of

the central one being 5 feet 6 inches by grain from the corn -barn below to be re

5 feet, and the two extreme ones each 6 threshed by the mill ; e a bole, 4 feet by feet by 5. These sties are covered with 372, communicating with the straw -barn a lean -to roof against the gable of the to allow any of thestraw to be forked up adjoining boiling-house. to be again passed through the mill if Gearing may be erected for driving a necessary ; f the straw -barn ; 9 the gran straw -cutter in the straw -barn d, and the ary, 18 feet by 35, entered by a stair churn in the churning-room o ; and the from the straw - barn, to which direct gearing might be extended in front,

access is given by the back -door of the с

А

CHURNING

Room 16 :6 "... BUTTER

ENGINE MOUSE

ROOM

Loday B 10

RECT 10

20

JO rert

Fig. 699. — Butter -dairy.

straw - barn from the corn -barn ; and his

The scale of this plan is in the propor

the cheese-room , 18 feet by 15, with a tion of one-third and three-eighths of an window on each side, and one in the

inch to the foot.

The scale of fig. 698

gable, and entered by a stair from the will be found at fig. 1 , Plate III. cheese-press room below . The extreme length of the central range over walls is 103 feet, that of the right

near, but still detached from the steading. These now usually adjoin therearof thefarm and left wings 119 feet, and that of the intermediate range 71 feet. The width dwelling -house. VOL . III.

Y

FARM BUILDINGS.

338

within walls of all the apartments is 18

Steadings for Suburban Farming. The land in the immediate vicinity of

feet.

towns is usually devoted to the cultiva

tion of vegetables for the domestic use of the inhabitants. Around large towns this garden culture may extend for a mile or so , and beyond that distance commences what we have denominated . suburban farming, the object of which is to supply those products to the inhabi tants which are not

afforded by the

IT

h!

Fig. 700. - Section at A B.

Fig. 699 shows the ground -plan of a modern English butter -dairy, designed by Mr Gilbert Murray. Fig. 700 gives a section at A B, showing the position

Fig. 701. - Section at C D.

of the engine; fig. 701 a section at C D,

showing the positions of the separators garden, such as straw, hay, turnips, for and refrigerator ; and fig. 702 the front age, potatoes, milk , &c. Suburban farm elevation. ing is therefore either entirely arable or

Fig. 702. - Front elevation .

entirely dairy, each of which requires a central portion occupied by the straw , different arrangement.

and the right wing is devoted to arable

Suburban Farming with Arable culture, while the left is appropriated to Culture.- The plan of a steading appli- domestic purposes. In the central range

cable to a farm of thisdescriptionis isthe corn -barn a, 18 feet by 30, with a given at fig. 2, Plate III.

It has its window in front, and a door and window

PLANS OF STEADINGS.

at the back, in the stackyard.

339

The barn door to the straw -barn ; v the hen -house,

includes the space for the threshing- 18 feet by 13, with a door and window machine b, and the chaff-house c, 5 feet by 9, with a window in front, and an internal door leading into the straw -barn d , 18 feet by 40, with one door in the front, another on the opposite side leading into the cattle-court u, and a third

in front ; w outhouse, 18 feet by 10, with a door and window in front ; x imple

ment-house, 18 feet by 17 , with a door and window in front ; y turnip -store, 18 feet by 18, with a door and window at the back ; and 2 cow -byre, 18 feet by 31,

into the space in front of the cow -byre z ; with a door and window at the back. Itwould be an improvement to transpose

f is the boiling-house, 18 feet by 20,

with a door and window in front ; g is those three compartments, the hen-house the steam - engine room , 18 feet by 12, v, the outhouse w, and the implement with a door and window in front, and a house x , and the turnip-store y, and the trap -door at the back entering at level cow -byre z. The turnip-store would then of the top of the boiler, and leading by be in the corner, and within easy access steps to the floor of the engine-room ; h of the cattle-shed t, cattle-court u, and is the boiler-house, 20 feetby 7, with a cow -byre z. A cart-door should open to door in front and a window at the end, the outside of the turnip-store. A roof and an internal door into the coal-store i,

should be thrown over the cattle-court u.

20 feet by 4, having a window at the

The dotted lines show the structure of

end . The chimney-stalk is seen rising the buildings, the position of the doors 50 feet in height from the basement. and windows, and of the chimney-stalks. e

CC

The cart-shed 1, 18 feet by 38, has four arched port-holes, with 9

a door at the back at k, leading into the stackyard. At the inner end of the cart-shed are threeopen pig-sties, each 13 feet by 5 feet 3

The highest part of this steading is along the prin cipal range and the south projection

as far as

the

straw-barn, and the range

inches, with a door to each.

is divided into two floors or storeys, the upper one con

In the right wing are the fol lowing apartments : n the cart

taining the apartments as shown in fig. 703, where a

horse stable, 18 feet by 50, for eight stalls, with two doors and

is the upper or feeding -in barn, immediately abovethe

a window in front and a window

corn-barn ; b the site of the

at the end ; 9 a hay-house, 18 Fig;703; calipper storey threshing machine, with gear feet by 9, with a door in front, and two internal doors, one lead ing to the cart- horse, the other

urban farming with ing, drum , and shakers ; c the beams of wood which sup arable culture .

port the threshing -machine; tothe riding -horse stable ; r the riding- d the door, 6 feet wide, leading to the

horse stable, 18 feet by 18, having three stackyard , from which the sheaves are stalls and a door and window in front, brought from the stack to the barn, and an internal door to the hay-house; either on wheel-barrows or on carts loaded and s the gig-house, 18 feet by 12, with at the stack, and then placed under this a wide door in front.

door to be forked into the barn ; f sky

In the centre and left wing are these apartments : t a shed for cattle under the principal range, 18 feet by 32, with an arched port 9 feet wide, and outside a

light in the roof over the head of the man that feeds the sheaves into the mill ;

g a bole, 4 feet high by 372 feet wide, communicating with the straw -barn, for

courtyard U, 45 feet 9 inches by 26 feet, allowing any straw to be forked that having a gate to the space outside, and a requires to be again passed through the

FARM BUILDINGS.

340

mill ; h is the straw -barn ; k one granary, which the farmhouse and steading should 18 feet by 64, with four windows on occupy, it has been remarked that “ it each side, and entered by a stair direct is generally advised that the farmhouse

from the corn -barn ; i another granary , 18 feet by 62, with five windows on one side and four on the other, and entered from the corn -barn by a stair through the

should be placed directly in front ; to which, however, it may be objected that it casts a shade over the southern entrance of the yard, if very near ; and

engine-room ; and l the pigeon -house, if too far off, its distance will be found 18 feet by 6, entered by a trap -stair from to be inconvenient. Perhaps the best situation is on one side of the farmyard , the hen -house below .

The scale of this plan is in the propor- with the common parlour and kitchen tion of nearly three-eighths of an inch to opening nearly into it : farmers may

the foot. The scale of fig. 703 will be talk as they like about unhealthy odours arising from the stables and yards, but The extreme length of the principal there never was any one injured by range over walls is 158 feet, that of the them, and they cannot keep too close an right and left wings 95 feet, that of the eye upon their servants and stock .” 1

found at fig. 2, Plate III.

middle range 64 feet, and all apartments 18 feet in width within walls.

If farmers “cannot keep too close an

eye upon their servants and stock," and

Suburban Dairy Farming. — In sub- if theposition of their houses will enable

urban dairy farming the chief object is them to do so, they do something the production of new milk for immediate more than place themshould “ on one side of the

consumption in towns. For this purpose farmyard ” ; they must remain constantly vided for cows, and for the preparation stock ” to be continually in sight in the

a large accommodation should be pro- in them , and cause “their servants and of their food. At the same time, there farmyard, otherwise their watching will should be facilities for converting some be of no avail ; for when the servants of the milk into butter, and even into

come to know that the house has been

cheese. There must always be arable culture in connection with dairy husbandry, and in case the entire arable products should not be consumed on the farm , the surplus is sent to market. It will thus be easily understood that suburban dairy farming should be conducted

placed there merely to watch their pro ceedings, they, at least, if not the stock, can and will easily avoid the particular

place constantly overlooked by the house. The truth is, and every farmer knows it, that it is not the spot occupied by his house, whether here or there, that main

on a somewhat large scale, and that the tains his authority over his servants. He size of the steading should bear an ade- knows that he himself must be “ up and quate proportion to the extent of the doing” in the fields, in the farmyard ,

farming. The cows in a suburban dairy everywhere — ere he can ascertain whether being purchased, either calved or about his servants are doing their work well to calve, in the weekly markets, no ac- and his stock thriving apace .

commodation is required for the rearing Inconvenience to himself in going a of young stock ; nor are hammels for great distance betwixt his house and the bulls needed in such farming, as the cows steading will induce the farmer to place are allowed to yield milk as long as they his house near rather than at a distance

can, and are then disposed of to the from the steading. He wishes to be butcher in fair condition.

FARMHOUSES.

within call,—to be able to be on the spot in a few seconds, when his presenceis required in the farmyard, the stable , the byre, or the barn ; but more than this he does not want, and need not care for.

The principles which should regulate Place the house, therefore, if the choice the choice of the relative positions of the is given , on some pleasant spot, neither farmhouse and steading are deserving of

“ direct in front ” nor much in the rear

careful consideration . Position of Farmhouse and Stead

of the steading.

ing. - In regard to the relative positions

If there be no such

1 British Husbandry , i. 86 .

FARMHOUSES .

341

spot at hand, make one for the house, place it there, and dwell in it with the comfortable assurance that servants will not regard their master the less, or the

manner as to combine all that is desirable both in beauty and effect, as well as in utility, to make up a perfect whole in the family residence. stock thrive the worse , because he “ Attached to the building site should happens to live beyond the influence of be considered the quality of the soil as

the “ unhealthy odours arising from affecting cultivation and growth to stables and yards,” — odours, by the way, shrubbery and trees — at once the orna of the unpleasantness of which we never ment most effective to all domestic build heard a farmer complain . No one of ings, grateful to the eye always as objects

that class but a sloven would place his of admiration and beauty - delightful in the repose they offer in hours of lassitude house beside a dunghill. Site of Farmhouse.— With reference

or weariness; and to these, that indis

to site , Mr Allen, in his American work pensable feature in a perfect arrange entitled Rural Architecture, has some ment, the garden, both fruit and remarks worth quotation : " A fitness to vegetable, should be added .” the purpose for which the dwelling is Trees and Shrubs. - On the subject >>

constructed should unquestionably be the of trees and shrubs - a due appropriation governing point in determining its posi- of which “ to an agreeable residence is tion. The site should be dry and slightly equal in importance to the style and declining, if possible, on every side; but arrangement of the house itself ” —the if the surface be level, or where water same author has some remarks worthy of occasionally flows from contiguous notice. " The proper disposition of trees

grounds, or on a soil naturally damp, it and shrubbery around, or in the vicinity should be thoroughly drained of all

of buildings, is far too little understood,

superfluous moisture. That is indispens- although tree-planting about our dwel able to the preservation of the house lings is a practice pretty general through itself and the health of its inmates. The house should so stand as to present an

Nothing is more common than to see a man build a house,

out our country.

agreeable aspect from the main points perhaps in the most elaborate and expen at which it is seen, or the thoroughfares sive style, and then plant a row of trees

by which it is approached. It should be close upon the front,which, when grown, so arranged as to afford protection from will shut it almost entirely out of view , wind and storm to that part most usually while he leaves the rear as bald and occupied , as well as be easy of access to unprotected as if it were a barn or a the out-buildings appended to it. It horse-shed — as if in utter ignorance, as

should have an unmistakable front, sides, he probably is, that his house is more and rear ; and the uses to which its effectively set off by a flanking and back various parts are applied should distinctly ground of tree and shrubbery, than in appear in its outward character.

It front— and this is called good taste. Let

should combine all the advantages of us examine it. Trees near a dwelling are soil -cultivation, water, shade, and shelter, desirable for shade ; shelter they do not

which the most liberal gratification, con- afford, except in masses, which last is sistent with the circumstances of the always better given to the house itself by owner, may demand. If a site on the a verandah. Immediately adjoining, or estate command a prospect of singular within touching distance of a house, trees beauty, other things equal, the dwelling create dampness, more or less litter, and should embrace it; if the luxury of a frequently vermin . They injure the stream or a sheet of water in repose walls and roof by their continual shade present itself, it should, if possible, be and dampness. They exclude the rays enjoyed ; if the shade and protection of of the sun, and prevent a circulation of a grove be near, its benefits should be air. Therefore, close to the house, trees included - in fine, every object in itself are absolutely pernicious, to say nothing

desirable, and not embarrassing to the of excluding all the architectural effect main purposes of the dwelling and its from observation, when, if planted at appendages, should be turned to the best proper distances, they compose its finest account, and appropriated in such a

ornaments.”

FARM BUILDINGS.

342

Working Part of the House . — The

monto both, and which gives access by

principles which should regulate the another door to the principal kitchen en

arrangement of that part of the farm- trance door through the porch p .

The

house which is exclusively devoted to porch p , 6 feet square, is erected for the labour have an intimate connection with purpose of screening both the kitchen and the management of the farm . The part scullery from windand cold, and it has we allude to includes the kitchen and a window .

On going to the right from

dairy, and their accompanying apart- the kitchen to the kitchen -pantry k, is a ments.

Now it may frequently be seen wall -press in the passage at s.

in the plans furnished by architects, that to give the farmhouse a fashionable and airy appearance, the working portion of it is contracted and inconveniently arranged. The principle of its construction should be, to make this

The

pantry k is provided with a door; a window which should look to the east or north ; a larder l, and abundance of shelving at o ; it is 12 feet square, hav ing a roof of 10 feet in height. Beyond this pantry is the milk-house or dairy m ,

part of the house thoroughly commodi- having two windows also facing to the ous in itself, and at the same time pre- north or east ; a lock -up closet n, and

vent its giving the least annoyance to shelving o o around the walls ; it is 1872 the rest from noise or disagreeable feet by 12, and 10 in height. These are the different apartments on

effluvia, which cannot at all times be

avoided in the labours of the kitchen. the ground -floor, and their relative posi Both objects would be accomplished

by placing it independent of the main body of the house, and this is best effected by a jamb. Whatever

h 72

may be the external form given to the house, the relative positions of

its two parts may easily be preserved , of a front tenement and back jamb, or the more modern and beauteous

pa

whether in the old - fashioned form

mi

-

form of the Elizabethan style. Plan

of Kitchen ,

& c.

The

ground -plan which we recommend of the kitchen and useful parts of the farmhouse in which work is per formed, may be seen in fig. 704, where a is the kitchen, 18 feet by 16, and 10 in height, provided with two windows ; a door into the in

Z

X

o

terior of thehouse, another to the La kitchen -pantry k and dairy m , and a Fig. 704. - Ground -plan of a kitchen , & c ., of farmhouse. third to the scullery d and porch p. A large kitchen-range, oven , and furnace- tions, required for conducting the busi pot are at b, a commodious lock - up ness of a farm within the house, and in

closettable c, ag g.wall-press h, aand dresser fitting up ofrequire whichattention. are many The par and There is staira at c to the ticulars which the servants'and other apartments above, floor of the kitchen should be offlagged and which also leads to the principal bedrooms in the upper storey of the house. Beyond the kitchen is the scullery d, which contains a large furnacepot e, a sink in the window f, a wallpress h, and a dresser g. This apart-

pavement polished, that it may be cleaned with certainty and ease.

ment is 18 feet by 10 feet, and 10 in

should be of the same material as that of

In the scullery, the sink if should be

of polished free-stone, made to fit the window -void, with a proper drain from it, provided with a cesspool. The floor

height. A door from it, and another the kitchen, for the sake of cleanliness. from the kitchen, open on a lobby comThe large furnace-pot e should be built

FARMHOUSES.

343

in with fire-brick, surrounded with com- which must at times be filled with va

mon brick, plastered and protected with pours injurious to milk --- a substance cloth on the outside, rubbed hard into which is at all times delicately sus the plaster, and the mouth of the pot protected with a 4 -inch thick pavement polished. To carry off the superfluous steam , a lead -pipe should be fastened into a narrow immovable portion of the

ceptible of injury. Upper Storey . - On this side of the

kitchen will be observed a stair. It is 4 feet in width, and intended to lead to

the storey above the kitchen -floor, as also

pot-lid, and passed through the wall into to the upper storey of the principal part the flue.

A tin pipe soon rusts and

of the house.

The storey above the

kitchen may be subdivided in this way :

wastes .

Milk -house . — The outside walls and

let a continuation of the brick or stone

ceiling of the milk -house m should be wall which separates the kitchen and lathed, and the walls and roof plastered. scullery from the milk -house and kitchen The flooring should be of polished pave- pantry be carried up, in the form of a ment, for the sake of coolness. The win- partition of lath and plaster, to the roof dows should be protected in the movable of the second storey, which may be 9 feet

part with fly zinc-gauze, which is much in height, as seen on the right of g, fig. better than wire-gauze; and the side and 705. The wall of the kitchen -flue b should

door of the lock -up closet n should also of course be carried up to a chimney be lined with zinc - gau g ze. The best stack above the ridging, containing at shelving for a milk -house is marble,

and though this substance may appear extravagant in a farmhouse, the price of marble is now so much

Ć

m

reduced that it is worth the extra

expense. Marble is always cool, and easily cleaned and freed of stains. Scottish marble is hard and unequal of texture. The grey-veined marble from Leghorn is therefore prefer able, though the black marble of the county of Galway in Ireland is equally good ; but the grey colour

m

h

. b m

has a coolness and freshness about

it in a dairy which the black does d

not possess. Polished pavement is the next best material for coolness, but it is very apt to stain with milk

m

k

or butter, and the stains are diffi cult

of

removal.

This

shelving

should be 2 feet broad, 1/2 inch

Fig. 705. - Cheese - room , & c., of farmhouse.

thick, and, to be convenient, should

not exceed the height of 3 feet from the least four flues from below , one of the floor.

It is necessary to make the wall which separates the kitchen and scullery from the milk -house and pantry of brick or stone, to keep the latter apartments more cool, and less likely to beaffected by the

kitchen fire, one of the small furnace pot of the kitchen, one of the oven, and

one of the large furnace-pot in the scul lery ; but there should also be one from the room above the scullery, and one from one of the rooms above the

heat and vapour which must of necessity kitchen ; and, to render both kitchen sometimes escape from the scullery. It and scullery as wholesome by venti would no doubt be convenient for the lation as possible, there should be a removal of the milk - dishes to have a small flue from the ceiling of each to door between the scullery and milk- carry off heated air and vapour . The house ; but it is much better to avoid kitchen stack would thus contain six every risk of contamination from a place flues from below and two from above.

FARM BUILDINGS.

344

The upper storey should be partitioned and the one k down to the kitchen could off in the way as seen in fig. 705. Let be lighted by a long window at n. If

the apartment a above the scullery be there is no garret, then the cheese-room fitted up with a fireplace f as a bedroom will be 32 feet 3 inches in length, by dis

for the female servants, having a closet pensing with the stair l, as also with the c in the outer wall. After taking off a window n. passage g of 372 feet in width along the

These dimensions of kitchen and other

whole length of this part of the house, apartments would be suited to the farm this room will be 14 feet by 10. The house of a farm of from 500 to 1000

space above the kitchen may be divided acres, under the mixed husbandry. The into two bedrooms, one b, 14 feet by 9 milk -house may perhaps be large enough feet, and 9 in height, with a fireplace f for a small dairy farm ; but should it be

and window, and closet c. This might be preferred in the farmhouse, and it be too occupied as a sitting-room and bedroom small for that purpose , it might easily be by the housekeeper, if the services of such enlarged by increasing the length and a person are required ; if not, it might breadth of the building. be a large store-room , with a fireplace, which would be useful for various pur

poses.

PLANS OF FARMHOUSES .

The room d , 14 feet by 8 feet 3

inches, and 9 in height, having a win-

We now proceed to give illustrations

dow in it, but no fireplace, might be a of farmhouses of various sizes and in bedroom for occasional stranger servants.

different styles.

It has a closet e in it, 3 feet by 2 in First Design for First - class Farm . depth. house. In fig. 706 we give a ground

At the end of the passage is a watercloset i, lighted by a window in the gable of the jamb. It is 5 feet 3 inches by 372 feet. It has water from the same cistern that supplies the sink in

plan of a first-class farmhouse : a the entrance - steps ; b the ante-hall, 7 feet wide, with seat c ; d library, office, or study, 12 feet square. There are two doors to this room one, the public,

the scullery, and its soil-pipe descends in entering from the ante-hall b, the other an appropriate recess in the wall.

Its leading to the hall e e, 7 feet wide ; | f

window could give light to the passage drawing-room , 20 feet by 16 ; 9 g the 9 by a glass window above the door, or dining-room, 20 feet by 16 ; h h store light might be obtained by a cupola in room , 16 feet by 12 ; i i stairs to second the roof, or from the cheese-room h by floor, 3 feet 6 inches wide ; k k kitchen, 16 feet square ; 1 kitchen -pantry, 10 feet windows in the lath -and-plaster wall. Cheese - room. — The entire space 6 inches by 8 feet ; m m milk -house, 25 above the kitchen -pantry and milk -house feet by 16, with closet n, 8 feet by 5 feet

may be appropriated to a cheese-room h, 6 inches. A lift o is placed in this closet, 29 feet 2 inches by 12 feet, and 9 in by which articles are conveyed to the height, with

3

windows.

Besides the cheese-room above ; p p scullery, 14 feet

floor, proper shelving m m would afford by 8 feet 6 inches, with pantry 9, wash accommodation to the cheese, in its boiler r, and slop-stone s. The back various stages towards maturity ; and stairs to servants' bedroom are at tt ; the lower halves of the windows pro- u u a passage, 3 feet wide, leading to

vided with venetian shutters, outside the back -entrance v ; w a water-closet, 3 feet

glass, to regulate the air into the room when the windows are opened. Except

6 inches wide.

In the upper floor, fig. 707, a a , b b are

dairy farms, the milk - house and the principal bedrooms, 20 feet by 16 ; in cheese - room are most conveniently c c small bedroom , 12 feet square ; d d placed within the farmhouse.

nursery, 16 feet by 12 ; e linen -closet, 7

If there is sufficient room in the roof feet square; f water-closet, 3 feet wide ; above these various apartments for a 9 g servants ' bedroom , 16 feet square ; garret, access can be obtained to it by a h h cheese-room , 33 feet 9 inches by 16

stair at l, which would have to return feet ; i lift : k k roof of scullery. Fig. 708 shows an alternative arrange height of the storey ; and both this stair ment of part of chamber-floor storey, in

upon itself in ascending the 9 feet, the

FARMHOUSES.

345

which a corresponds with g g, fig. 707 ; design in the Italian style; fig. 2 being a passage b being taken off it, to give a second alternative design, adapted for entrance to a bedroom c built over the three storeys, in the Tudor Gothic style. scullery k k, fig. 707, or p p and pantry In fig . 709 we give a side elevation ( left hand in plan fig. 706) ; in fig. 710

9, fig. 706 ; d cheese -room ; e a room .

In Plate VIII., fig. 1, we give a back elevation (along the back of the drawing of front elevation in the Tudor plan, fig. 706 ) ; in fig. 711 side elevation

Gothicstyle ; fig. 3 being an alternative ( right-hand side ofplan in fig. 706), P

m

k

2

n

0

h

h

d

B

Fig. 706. -Ground plan of farmhouse - scale in Plate VIII .

finished to show stone-rubble walling; and alternative cellar plan, and in fig. in fig. 712 back elevation of alternative 717 chamber or first-floor plan of a farm design in same style as fig. 3, Plate house, designed in the Italian style, with VIII. ; in fig. 713 a vertical section of campanile tower. milk -house m m , fig. 706, and above it Ground -plan .- In fig. 714, a is the cheese -room h h, fig. 707. entrance-hall, 8 feet square ; b b draw Second Design

for First - class ing -room , 16 feet by 12 ; c c parlour or

Farmhouse. In fig. 714 we give ground- dining-room , 15 feet by 12 ; d d the plan , and in figs. 715 and 716 cellar plan, kitchen, 15 feet by 12 ; e the scullery,

FARM BUILDINGS .

346

h

g

0722

d

b

d

(

Fig. 707. - Chamber- floor plan of farmhouse -- scale in Plate VIII.

C

a

a

Fig. 708. - Alternative arrangement of part ofchamber- floor storey.

FARMHOUSES .

Fig . 709. — Side elevation of farmhouse - scale in Plate VIII .

TE ME TE TE TE Fig. 710.- Back elevation of farmhouse - scale in Plate VIII.

347

-

2

GS

348

FARM BUILDIN

.

ID:(

Fig. 711. — Side elevation of farmhouse,finished to show stone-rubble walling - scale in Plate VIII.

HA Fig. 712.- Back elevation of alternative design - scale in Plate VIII.

FARMHOUSES .

12 feet by 10 ; f the larder,

349

where the “ cheese-room ” and “ milk house

6 feet square ; 9 the china -

are not in the ground -floor, and

where a is the stair, 3 feet wide ; b the coal-store, 9 feet by 5 feet 6 inches ; c the beer and wine store, 9 feet by 5 feet 6

pantry , 6 feet square ; h the central lobby, 4 feet wide ; i i staircase, 6 feet wide ; k

inches ; d d milk -house, 24 feet by 11 . In this arrangement the bedroom d, fig. 717, is taken as the cheese -room . In fig.

closet

716 the cellar plan is shown as under the milk -house l 1,and cheese-room m m , fig. 714. In fig. 716 the part a a is arranged,

and place for hats, 3 feet

as in fig. 715, with coal and beer stores, as there indicated ; b b being a general

wide ; il milk house, 25 feet by 12 ; mm

store - cellar.

water

Chamber Plan . — Fig. 717 : a a bed

room , 12 feet square : 6 balcony ; cc cheese room , bedroom , 15 feet by 12 ; d bedroom , 12 25 feet by 12. feet by 11 ; e e bedroom , 12 feet 10 Cellar Plan . Fig ... 713. – Vertical section of at widest, and 6 feet at narrowest by part ; milk -house and cheese -room , - Fig. 715 figs. 706 and 707. ff bedroom , 12 feet by 10 ; g bath -room , shows the 8 feet square ; h balcony.

cellar arrangement under the kitchen ,

Elevations and Section of Farm .

2

m

m a

g

k

b e o

B

5 bmUUUU

15

25

11

Fig. 724.-- Ground.plan of farmhouse in Italian style.

35

1 Scale .

FARM BUILDINGS.

350

a

d

b

ji

d

Fig. 715. - Cellar plan - scale in fig. 714.

8

a

6

Fig. 716. - Alternative cellar plan - scale in fig. 714.

d

e

h

I

ſ

a

Fig . 717. - Chamber- floor plan of farnhouse in Italian style -- scale in fig. 714.

FARMHOUSES.

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口 口 Fig. 718.- Frontelevation of farmhouse in Italian style - ground -plan and scale in fig. 714.

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Fig. 719. - Back elevation in the Italian style - scale in fig. 714.

351

FARM BUILDINGS.

352

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00 Fig. 720. — Side elevation in the Italian style - scale in fig. 714.

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Fig. 721. - Side clevation in the Italian style - scale in fig . 714.

FARMHOUSES.

353

house, of which plans are given in figs. outline which will embrace this accom 714, 715 , 716, and 717. - Front elevation modation will be obtained as cheaply, at in fig. 718 ; back elevation in fig. 719 ; least very nearly so, as one which in its elevation of side towards left hand in

tameness will ever be a blot on the land

ground -plan, fig. 714, is given in fig. 720 ; scape and an eyesore to the man of taste. the elevation of side towards right hand A pleasing building does not depend on in plan, fig. 714, is given in fig. 721. The its external decoration for effect, but, as scale to which these drawings are con- we have already said, upon its general structed is given in fig. 714.

design or variety of outline.

The ex

ternal decorationappropriate to the style Outline and Ornamentation . doubtless gives a finish to the building, It may be objected to the designs but it may be dispensed with without in first-class farm- any degree marring the effect of the which we have givenarefortoo ornate, and structure. houses that they would involve in their erection a far

Second -class Farmhouse. greater sum than the ordinary circum stances of farming economy would warThe drawings which follow here illus rant or justify. While conceiving it to trate the arrangements and decoration of

be our duty to give each design complete, a farmhouse giving less accommodation with the peculiar ornament fitted to its than those preceding. style - leaving this to be adopted or not Ground -plan, fig. 722. as desired

a

entrance

-we have endeavoured to meet lobby, 6 feet wide ; b b dining -room , 16

the above objection by giving plans in feet by 14 ; c c parlour, 13 feet by 12 which the picturesque effect, which should feet 6 inches ; d d kitchen, 14 feet 6 be striven after in all rural structures, inches by 12 feet 6 inches ; e scullery, can be obtained by the outline of the

10 feet by 9 ; ſ pantry or store-room , 9

buildings, rather than by the ornaments feet by 5 feet 3 inches ; g stair, 3 feet

by which their exteriorsmay be decorated. wide ; h back -passage, 3 feet 4 inches It is possible, nay, a matterof easy attain- wide.

ment, to erect a house in which large Cellar Plan , fig. 723. — a stair, 3 feet sums may be expended in the exterior wide, entered from the back -passage h, decoration of its doors, windows, &c., fig. 722, by a door at the point i ; 7 the and yet a bald , tame, and anything but landing -place, 6 feet wide ; c c beer and

picturesque effect will be produced ; wine cellar, 13 feet by 12 feet 6 inches ; while, on the other hand, a house may d d store or general cellar, 16 feet by be erected with its exterior positively destitute of decoration, and yet present-

14 feet. Chamber or First Floor Plan , fig.

ing to the eye of the beholder a pleasing 724.-:-a a principal bedroom , 16 feet by picturesqueness of outline.

In the one

14 ; b b bedroom , 13 feet by 12 feet 6

case, the outline or general design of the inches; c linen -closet, 6 feet by 7 feet 6

building has been bald and tame- tea- inches ; d d nursery or back bedroom , 14 box fashion, so to speak — attributes feet 6 inches by 12 feet 6 inches, with which no amount of external decoration closet e , 3 feet by 4 feet 9 inches ; f could overcome ; while in the other case, servants' bedroom , 12 feet 6 inches by 9 general design has been calculated to feet ; g closet, 3 feet by 4 feet 3 inches ; produce a picturesque effect — by the h water-closet or bath, 6 feet by 3 feet variety of outline or projection calling 4 inches. into existence the effect of light and Elevations.-- Fig. 725, front eleva shade — which the lack of ornament does tion ; fig. 726, side elevation towards not diminish , and yet, if added thereto, apartments c and d in fig. 722 ; fig. it would at the same time be perfectly 727, side elevation towards apartments appropriate, and tend to give the house , h, and f in fig. 722. a more perfect because more finished Third - class Farmhouse. appearance.

The minimum of internal accommoda-

In fig. 728 we give ground-plan, and

tion being determined on, it may be con- in fig. 729 chamber plan, of two-storeyed sidered as axiomatic that a picturesque small farmhouse. VOL. III.

Z

FARM BUILDINGS .

354

pe

d

d

g

b

0

10 1

5

15

20

25

Fig. 722.--Ground -plan of a second-class farmhouse.

d a

d

Fig . 723. - Cellar plan of a second-class farmkouse- scale in fig. 722.

FARMHOUSES.

355

j 9

h

d

a

b

c

b a

Fig. 724. - Chamber plan of a second-class farmhouse - scale in fig . 722.

HO Fig. 725.- Front elevation of a second-class farmhouse - scale in fig. 722.

356

FARM BUILDINGS .

Fig. 926. - Side elevation ofa second-class farmhouse - scale in fig. 722.

I Fig. 727. - Side elevation of a second-class farnhouse - scale in fig. 722.

FARMHOUSES.

357

Ground -plan, fig. 728. — a entrance- 9 feet by 4 feet 6 inches ; g water-closet, passage, 5 feet 6 inches wide ; b stair- 6 feet 9 inches by 2 feet 6 inches. case, 2 feet 6 inches wide ; c c livingOf this house we give front elevation room, 14 feet square ; d d office or in fig. 730 . parlour, 14 feet by 10 feet 3 inches ; e e General Principles.

back- passage, 2 feet 6 inches wide ; f f

Plans of farmhouses, large and small,

kitchen, 14 feet by 12 ; g scullery , II

feet by 9 ; h pantry or store-closet, 9 could be given in endless variety. Those submitted here are given more as sug

feet by 4 feet 6 inches.

Chamber Plan, fig. 729.-a a land- gestions for such structures than as per ing-place, 5 feet 6 inches, and 2 feet 6 fect plans of their respective classes. Comfort and Convenience. - Con inches wide ; b b front bedroom , 14 feet square ; c c nursery, 14 feet by 12 ; d d venient arrangement of apartments, and

bedroom , 14 feet by 10 ; e servants' ample room in those of them which are bedroom , ii feet by 9 ; f linen-closet, constantly occupied, are requisites as

f

g

h

d

d

10

15

20 FY.

Fig. 728. - Ground - plan of a third -class farmhouse.

necessary in the farmhouse as in the

House and Farm to Correspond . -

farm steading. But how often do we see in the laying-out of a farmhouse the large space sacrificed, and the constant inconvenience in consequence experienced, by making one or two large bed-

It is a nice adaptation of things to cir cumstances to see thefarmhouse in every respect in keeping with the extent and value of the farm . It would be quite incongruous to find a large, handsome,

rooms for the accommodation of friends and ornamental house upon a poor small who only pay a visit once a - year,

farm in an obscure part of the country ;

or not so often. It would surely be a and it would be equally incongruous to wiser plan that a friend who stays only a few nights should put up with a moderately sized bedroom , than that the whole family be inconvenienced for want

see a mean, tasteless house set down upon a valuable farm in a rich, well-cul tivated district. The former incongruity is seldom , if ever, met with ; but the

of adequate room throughout the year.

latter is not so rare as it should be.

FARM BUILDINGS.

358

с

g

d a

d 6

Fig. 729. - Chamber.floor plan of a third - class farmhouse - scale in fig. 728.

Fig. 730.---Front elevation of a third -classfarmhouse - scale in fig. 728.

Ample accommodation in his house is due to every farmer ; but a large ornate house should be provided only for farms

PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES ,

It is gratifying to be able to say that

bearing a rental of several hundred much progress has been made in the pounds per annum .

improvement of the dwellings of farm

PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES.

359

labourers, although in many partsof the labourers may be of the same description, although it shall be our special duty to country much still remains to be done. Classes of Servants . — Farm -labour- describe such arrangements in the apart ers consist of two classes — those who are ments of cottages as shall be most suit

constantly employed in the daily opera- able to farm -servants. tion of the farm , and those who occa

sionally work on a farm , but principally

Family Cottages.

support themselves by independent la-

Accommodation . — While deprecating

Farm - servants are stewards or

the fault of too limited accommodation,

bour.

bailiffs, ploughmen, shepherds, cattle- we, on the other hand, conceive it neces men , hedgers, and field -workers, who are sary to say a word against the fault on

hired by the year, half-year, or month, the opposite side of giving too much. A and are, or ought to be, lodged on the farm .

larger house than a hind can well furnish is a burden to him ; and whatever part

Residence on the Farm . - In Scot- he cannot furnish becomes a dirty lum

land it is almost the universal prac- ber-room , or is let to some stranger in tice for servants to reside on or very the capacity of a boarder — a very objec near to the farm on which they are tionable class of persons on any farm. employed ; but it is otherwise in many A house that will just accommodate the

parts of England, where they have to number of persons of his household is walk long distances to and from their what the servant wants. houses in villages, thereby inflicting an Cottages of Different

Size8.- This

undue strain upontheir physical powers. object can be attained only by building The obvious remedy for this strain is to cottages of different sizes. The usual

build cottages nearthe steading. It has practice, when building cottages for farm often been a source of

nder to us to servants, is to adopt a uniform plan, upon

what cause may be ascribed the practice which all are built. The practice is not

of placing the dwellings of farm -servants founded upon sound principle, nor even on consistency, because it implies that labours. One should suppose that com- families consisting of very different num mon-sense would fix the lodging of a bers should , nevertheless, be accommo

at a distance from the scene of their

man who has worked ten hours in the dated with similar spaces.

Instead,

day with a pair of horses, upon the farm therefore, of a family accommodating it

itself, in which he might rest his wearied selfto thesize of the cottage, the cottage body, and from which he might easily ought to be adapted to the size of the

tend the animals intrusted to his care, family ; and there is no way of fixing the rather than farther to fatigue him by à proportions between the cottages and long journey after the labours of the their inmates but by building them with day had ceased, and at the same time to different extents of accommodation for

remove him entirely from the animals families of different numbers. This is under his charge. The payment of week- the only rational course to pursue, and,

ly money -wages entices the English farm- in pursuance of it, it is as easy to build servant into the beer-shop of the village a given number of cottages on different in which he dwells, rather than spend plans as on the same plan. his leisure hours with his family. The Following out this principle, we shall Scotch farm -servant, who is paid greatly give a number of plans, suited to fami from the produce of the farm , and lives lies of different sizes, taken from practical upon the spot where his horses are housed, examples, but modified in some instances feels a greater interest in the welfare of to suit our own notions of the conveni

the farm , and has no temptation to waste ences, comforts, and means of cleanliness his hours in imbibing liquor.

which such dwellings should possess.

Independent labourers are hired by Single - roomed Single - storeyed the day ; and as the scene of their work Cottages. — Objections have been made may frequently be changed, it may be to accommodating a family in one room . most convenient for them to live in The force of theobjections entirely de villages. pends upon the number of the family.

The dwellings of both these classes of In some parts of the country the ser

FARM BUILDINGS.

360

vant's family may consist of himself and where a is the entrance-door ; b the wife only, in which case a single room porch ; c the door of the apartment d ; and a single bed will suffice for their accommodation. In other parts the servant is obliged to supply the farmer with a female to work in the fields, when

e the fireplace ; f the window of the room ; g the plate-rack ; h the dresser ; i m n are three beds, so arranged that m enters from the room d, i from the

a bed must be procured for her. In this small closet entered by the door 1, and case, at least two beds are required in the house ; and even these may be ac commodated in one room . 22

Fig. 731 shows the manner of accom

g 722

modating two beds in one room : a is the door of entrance ; b the porch ; c the door into the room d ; e is the fireplace ; of the window of the room ; g the plate

P d

rack for holding the crockery, &c.; h the dresser ; i and k are the two beds, i en tering from the room d, and k from the

small room n, provided with a window , which is divided by a partition between this room and the store -room I, which is

Fig. 732. —Ground -plan of a large hind's house of one room .

entered from the porch by the door m . The apartment n has a door hinged on having the window k divided between

the corner of the bed k, if a box-bed, it and the store-room o, which is entered by the passage p, where is a door, and If the beds are box-beds, which is the has a bed in it, n . Box -beds would

and on the wall if not so.

most common form , the inmates at night make a complete separation of their

h

occupants by being so arranged. Tent beds would require wooden partitions to separate m from n ; and i would re quire one along the back next p, and at

If this cottage were of the same size as fig. 731 — that is, 22 feet by 15 — the room d would be equally large , but that the lobby b is taken off the end next o.

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it, to make up for which the size should be extended 26 feet in length, and 15

m

þc

in breadth . Box -beds. - Box -beds are objected to

a

Fig. 731. - Ground -plan of a small hind's house ofone room .

by medical men, as they are too con fined and inconvenient in form when

any of the family are sick . Modifica

will be sufficiently separated, the married tions in their form may be effected, couple entering the bed i from the apartsmall chamber n. Should the beds be of the tent-bed form , with curtains, farther separation might be effected by a

chiefly by having the back and ends to able, to promote ventilation, as well as to allow freer access to the patient. Curtains suspended from movable rods,

ment d, and the field -worker k from the open on hinges, and the top made mov

wooden partition between the two beds, made to draw forward in front, instead at the back of i next l. Such a cottage mended, to screen the person dressing

and at the ends of k next l and d, and of sliding panels, have been recom

measures 22 feet in length, and 15 in and undressing, when the beds do not breadth - giving the floor of d a space of occupy separate apartments ; but were 15 feet by 1172, which is enough for the beds arranged in the manner repre three adult persons .

sented in figs. 731 and 732 , such a con Even three beds might be accommo- trivance with the curtains would not be dated in one room, as shown in fig. 732, required. It is questionable, however,

PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES.

361

that box -beds will be voluntarily relin- is required in a servant's house, a separate

by farm -servants, and certainly room for it is better than any arrange

quished not so until every cottage is accommo- ment that can be made with the beds dated with fixed beds or separate bed- within one room , and the feeling of rooms ;

and if the fixed beds have the security and separation is more satis factory in the second apartment.

Fig.

733 gives the ground -plan of such a cot tage , where a is the entrance-porch, 3 feet 3 inches by 4 feet 9 inches ; b the apartment, 15 feet by 14, with a win

dow ; c the bedroom , io feet square, with a window ; d a light pantry, 4 feet 9 inches by 6 feet 6 inches; e e are fire

places, 472 feet by 372 feet ; and f a wall-press, 3 feet wide. One bed can stand against the back wall of b for the hind and his wife, and another if re

d

quired for two children ; and one bed Fig. 733.-- Ground -plan ofa small hind's house with two rooms.

might be put into the room c, for the field -worker, and another for two chil

dren , if required. Thus three adult per alcove form , which most of them have,

sons can well be accommodated in such

they are equally inconvenient for a a house, along with four children, if sick patient as the box -bed itself. required. Separate Rooms. - But it must be In such a house as fig. 733 tent-beds owned that, where more than one bed and curtains would look neat and be DO

1981

g

C a

5 1

15

10 1

20

Ft.

Fig. 734. -Ground -plan of single-storeyed detached cottage .

appropriate.

Iron bedsteads are now adapted for hinds than wooden ones.

quite common, and, for convenience of They also possess the advantage of giv putting up and taking down, and avoid- ing no shelter to bugs. The curtains of ing fracture, they are much better beds to be used in such houses ought to

FARM BUILDINGS .

362

be made of wool to resist fire, and not of bedroom (withfireplace), 9 feet 6 inches cotton, which would , in the circum- by 7 feet 9 inches; g a bed or store

stances, only be a little less dangerous closet, 7 feet 9 inches by 5 feet ; h than a covering of tinder.

scullery, with slop -stone or sink, and boiler, 7 feet 9 inches by 5 feet 6

inches. Single-storeyed Detached Cottage. In fig. 735 we give a front elevation of In fig. 734 we give the ground -plan of a single -storeyed detached cottage : a the the cottage of which, in preceding figure, porch, 5 feet 6 inches by 4 feet; cc we have given the ground-plan. Second Design . - In fig. 736 we give living -room , 15 feet by 11 , having a cup-

board d d at each side of the fireplace . ground -plan of a cottage in which a is A bed may be placed at the part e ; f f the entrance-porch, 3 feet 6 inches square ;

Fig. 735. - Front elevation of a single -storeyed detached cottage - scale in fig. 734.

Improved Accommodation . — A more i b the lobby or passage, 3 feet 6 inches wide ; c c bedroom , 13 feet 6 inches by correct idea now prevails in regard to the 12 feet; d d bedroom, 10 feet 3 inches extent of accommodation absolutely

by 10 feet 6 inches; e e nurseryor bed- required by a farm -servant and his family. room, 12 feet by 9, with closet f off it,

It is deemed proper that a man and his

3 feet 6 inches square ; I store-room or

wife should have a bedroom to them

office, 10 feet 6 inches by 6 feet ; h h living-room, 16 feet 6 inches by 10 feet ; i scullery, 8 feet by 3 feet 6 inches. This cottage would do for a farm -bailiff or

selves ; and as he is the head of the house, and probably works harder than any other members of the family, he should have the principal and most com

steward .

fortable bedroom in the house.

When

Front elevation of this plan is given in a separate room from the living -room is fig. 737

offered him for that purpose, he prefers

PLANS OF FARM

COTTAGES.

363

to have his bed near the warm fire, for themselves, and so must the boys. that he may turn into bed with the Thus three bedrooms at the least are least troubleand exposure to cold. The required for a ploughman and his family.

girls of the family must have a bedroom Moreover, if he is obliged to supply a h

h

IK

g

d

6

c

a

d

Fig. 736. - Ground -plan of a single-storeyed detached cottage scale, three-sixteenths of an inch to the foot.

日 Fig. 737. - Front elevation of a single-storeyed detached cottage scale in fig. 736.

field -worker for the farm , another room proprietors now prefer that plan for is required for her, for such a person is accommodating a large family. It should, however, be held in remem generally a woman. brance that a second sitting-room in a servant's house is an unnecessary appen Two-storey Cottages. Such an extent of accommodation in dage to it ; it will never be used as such.

the ground-plan would imply a large and when in the second storey it will be expensive roof.

A two-storey house is converted into a sleeping -room : and

thus necessitated to be made, and many when on the ground -floor, into a meal or

FARM BUILDINGS .

364

potato store, beside the beds that may figures are drawn of this example is the be put into it. The fire will never be same as given in fig. 734. kindled in it, and it will consequently

Double - detached

Cottages.

Labourers' cottages are most commonly built in long rows, and when several are required for a large farm, they fre quently assume the form of three sides

become damp and cold . It is only when the labourer is fixed resident, holding directly under the landlord, that he will furnish his second room in the groundfloor comfortably, and warm it by

of a square.

When outhouses are af

occasional fires.

forded , which ought always to be the Design for a Two-storeyed Detached case, much inconvenience is experienced

Cottage. - In fig. 738 we give ground- by the inhabitants living in long rows plan, and in fig. 739 chamber or bed- of houses, in going to and from them . room plan of a single two - storeyed This row form originated , no doubt, be cottage. cause of a larger number of houses being Ground -plan . — a entrance-porch, 5 feet erected at the same expense than in any

by 2 feet 9 inches; b a pantry or store- other form , and economy of the ground taken up by them had also entered into the calculation .

For comfort and convenience

combined, no form is equal to the double - detached house, having entrances at different parts, and g

f

the fireplaces in the centre of the building

Of this class of cottage

we now give examples, dividing them, as in the casesof the single

ASLAN

C

storeyed detached class of cot

tages, into single and two-storeyed

d

cottages. Single - storeyed

Double - de

tached Cottage — Ground -plan,

fig . 741. - a a passage or lobby, 3 feet 6 inches wide ; b b living room, 12 feet by 12, with space

for bed at c ; d scullery, 7 feet 9 inches by 5 feet 6 inches; e pantry, 5 feet 6 inches by 3 feet 6 inches ; f coal-closet, 5 feet 6

d

inches by 3 feet ; I press, 3 feet ofa two-storeyed detached cottage Fig. 738. - Ground - plan scale in fig. 734

by 2 feet ; h h back bedroom , 12 feet by ii feet six inches ; i i front bedroom , 12 feet by 8 feet

closet, 5 feet 9 inches by 2 feet 3 inches ; 3 inches. cc stairs to second storey, 2 feet 6 inches

Alternative Plan, fig. 742. - a pas

wide; d d living-room , 12 feet square, sage, 3 feet 6 inches wide, with locker with cupboard e on one side of fireplace ; seat b ; c c kitchen , 15 feet by 12 feet 6 f scullery, 8 feet square ; g store -closet, 8 feet by 3 feet 6 inches.

inches, with space for bed d, 6 feet by 3

feet 9 inches ; ee back bedroom , 14 feet Chamber Plan, in fig. 739 :.-a a stairs ; 9 inches by 8 feet 6 inches ; f f front b blanding, 2 feet 6 inches wide ; cc bedroom , 11 feet 6 inches by 11 feet; 9 front bedroom , 12 feet square, with closet scullery, 12 feet 6 inches by 5 feet, with

d off it, 5 feet by 3 ; e e back bedroom , coal-bunker h. 8 feet by 9 feet 3 inches ; f linen or In fig. 743 we give front elevation for clothes closet, 6 feet by 2 feet 6 inches. above plans, with an alternative design

Front elevation of cottage, of which in fig. 744 ; the front wall for this hav the preceding are the plans, is given in ing sets-off at the points a b, as shown in fig. 740. The scale to which all the part of the ground -plan of wall in fig.

PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES. 744.

365

The scale for all these

drawings is given in fig. 741. In fig. 744 is the alternative front elevation to the front ele ' vation in fig. 743. Alternative Plans. — In figs.

e a

745, 746, and 747 we give alter native plans of house in fig. 741 . In fig. 745 a a is the passage, 3 feet 6 inches wide ; b b living room , 14 feet by 12 ; c scullery , 7 feet 6 inches by 6 feet, with pantry d , entering off it, 3 feet wide ; e e bed -closet, 8 feet 6

e

d

inches by 7 feet ; f f back bed room , 11 feet 6 inches by II feet ; 9 g front bedroom, 12 feet

6 inches by 8 feet 6 inches. In fig. 746, a a passage, 3 feet 6 inches wide ; b b living-room , 14 feet 6 inches by 12 feet 6

inches; c scullery, 7 feet by 6 feet, with pantry d, entering from it, 3 feet wide ; e bed closet, 9 feet 3 inches by 7 feet ; f bedroom , 12 feet by u feet at

Fig. 739. - Chamber.floor plan ofa two-storey d detached cottage - scale in fig . 734.

the broadest, and 9 feet at the narrowest part.

In fig. 747, a a passage, 3 feet 6 inches wide ; b b living-room ,

14 feet by 12, with c space for bed, 6 feet by 4 feet 6 inches ; d scullery, 8 feet 6 inches by 6

feet ; e pantry, 6 feet by 3 feet 6 inches ; f back bedroom , 9 feet 6 inches by 8 feet 6 inches ; g front bedroom , 12 feet by 11 , with space for bed h ; i privy ; k coal-cellar. The scale to which figs. 745, 746, and 747 are made is given in fig. 747. Two - storeyed Double -de tached Cottages. — In figs. 748 to 754 inclusive we give draw ings of two-storeyed double-de tached cottages. Ground-plan . - In fig. 748, a a

passage, 3 feet 6 inches wide; i b stairs ; c c living-room , 13 feet by 12 ; d scullery, 9 feet by 7, with back -door protected by porch e ; f pantry , entering from scullery,5 feet by 3 feet 6 inches ; 9 g bedroom , i feet, and 7 feet wide by 10 feet 6

inches, and 7 feet long ; h coal cellar.

Fig. 740. - Front elevation og the two-storeyed cottage in fig. 738.

FARM BUILDINGS .

366

h

C

lit b

10

10

5

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15

20

Ft.

Fig. 741.-- Ground -plan of single-storcyed double-detached cottages.

g

b

Fig. 742. - Alternative ground -plan of single-storeyed double-detached cottages - scale in fig. 741 .

000 000 Fig. 743. - Front elevation of the double -detached cottages in fig . 741 .

PLANS OF FARM

COTTAGES.

주 10--0-0-0-11

0

Fig. 744.- Alternative frontelevation to front elevation in fig. 743.

b a

9

b

Fig. 745.- Alternative ground -plan to ground -plan in fig. 741 .

IT11 11 Fig. 746.- Alternativeground -plan to ground -plan in fig . 741 .

367

FARM BUILDINGS .

368

CIH

j h

b

a

10

5

0

15

10

20

25

30

Ft.

Fig. 747. – Alternative ground -plan to ground -plan in fig. 741.

h

I g d

a

30

10

20

1

10

‫ܨܢܢܢܢܢܢܢ ܢܢܨ‬

Fig. 748. -Ground -plan of two-storeyed double -detached cottages.

d

1

c

a

Fig. 749. - Chamber.floorplan offig. 748.

Ft.

369

PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES.

日 會 會上 Fig. 750. - Front elevation of the cotiages in fig . 748.

Chamber Plan, fig. 749. — a stairs ;

blanding; c front bedroom , 17 feet 4 inches by 9 feet 6 inches ; d back

bedroom, 14 feet 9 inches by 9 feet ; e bed - closet, 5 feet 6 inches square . In fig. 750 we give front elevation,

and in fig. 751 end elevation — both adapted for brick, and rising two steps from ground -line.

Ĝround - plan, fig. 752. —a porch, 5 feet 6 inches by 5 feet ; b stairs ;

c living -room , 15 feet by 12 feet 6 inches, with two pantries d d enter ing from it ; e pantry, entering from

A

scullery ; f scullery, 7 feet by 5 feet 6 inches ; g coal-closet; h bedroom , 12 feet 6 inches by 11 feet ; i privy ;

k pig-sty ; 1 ash -pit. Chamber Plan, fig. 753. — a landing:

H

Fig. 751. - End elevation of cottages in fig. 748.

fee C

Fig. 752. -Ground -plar oftwo-storeyed double -detached cottages. VOL. III .

2 A

FARM BUILDINGS.

370

с

40

20

30

10

Ft.

1

Fig. 753. - Chamber floor plan offig. 752.

FanThor JUL D-

Fig. 754. - Frunt elevation of cottages in fig. 752.

ASHES

ASHES

291

BEDROOM 6'6 " X 10'6 "

STAIR

LOBBY

11 0

126

STAIR

LIVING ROOM 12'6 " 15 ' 9 "

LOBBY

364

20 % 20% 10

20

40 FT

30

Fig. 755.– Two- storey double cottages - ground -plan.

--

-

1

F! 10

COALS

PRIVY |

10'6

PANTRY

LIVING ROOM 12'6 " x 15'9 "

BEDROOM 6'6 " X 10'6 " 10'6 "

PANTRY

1429

PRIVY

6,24

O COALS

PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES.

BEDROOM 5'6 " x

130

371

BEDROOM 5'6 " x

13'0 "

BEDROOM

BEDROOM 10'0 " X 14'6"

10'0 " X 14'6 "

LANDING

LANDING

FT 10

S

0

10

20

0 FT

30

Fig. 756.- Upper floor

b b closets ; cc bedroom , 13

feet square; d d bedroom , 13 feet by 11 . In fig. 754 we give front elevation. Other

Fig.

Designs.

755 gives the ground -plan of comfortable two - storey

cottages recently erected in

Morayshire. Fig. 756 gives upper floor, fig . 757 a sec

tion, and fig. 758 the front We give the specifications for the erec elevation.

tion of these cottages — see page 389.

Fig. 759 gives

the ground -plan of comfort

able cottages erected

on

Lord Harrington's property

at Chatsworth, from plans by Mr

Fig. 757. - Section .

Gilbert

LEFFA

MUTI

-TV

prepared

Fig. 758.- Front clevation.

FARM BUILDINGS.

372

SCULLERY

SCULLERY

D.P

- 10'0

-10'0 ".

ENTRANCE

ENTRANCE PANTRY

PANTRY

LIVING ROOM

LIVING ROOM PARLOUR CUPBOARD

CUPBOARD

PARLOUR

//' 0 " -10'0 ".

-10'0 "

DRO

PO.P.

20

10

JO F

Fig. 759. - Ground -plan of modern English cottages.

10'0 "

BEDROOM

BEDROOM

LANDING

BEDROOM

BEDROOM BEDROOM

" 12'0

LANDING

BEDROOM

-10'0": f

20

10

Fig. 760. - Upper floor .

30 FT

PLANS OF FARM COTTAGES.

373

FE

-Ceiling

Ceiling

Ceiling

Floor

Floor

TETOSC

Floor

Fig. 761.– Frontelevation .

X &

g

INÚLI Luni

B

11

15

co

JF:

Fig. 762. -Ground -plan of single-storeyed double cottages, consisting oflarger and smaller houses.

374

FARM BUILDINGS.

Murray. Fig. 760 gives the upper floor, things as to leave the sitting - room c and fig. 761 the front elevation .

always clean and comfortable.

One

large or two small bedrooms are placed Cottages of Different Sizes. over the sitting -room c. A larger house has an entrance-porch In the plans of the double cottages given above, the houses are of the same e, fig. 763, which is also the staircase for size, so that families of the same number the upper storey ; g is the sitting -room , would have to occupy the same double entering from the porch, and having two cottage ; but as we have already said, cot

tages for work -people should be planned of different sizes, so that a larger or smaller family should have the cottage that best suited their number,

With

2

k

9

this view we now give plans of double cottages containing houses of different sizes ; and as it is desirable that large families should not be associated to

gether, the numbers of their persons being too many in one cottage, we have arranged the plans so as to unite a large and small house together in each cottage. Small Single - storeyed Double -de tached Cottages , with Houses of

Fig. 763. - Small two-storeyed double cottages.

different sizes. In fig. 762 we give a

ground-plan of such a cottage, ofwhich windows, a fireplace, a pantry k , and on the right hand is the smaller house, where a is the entrance - porch, 4 feet wide ; b the living-room , 17 feet 6 inches by 14 feet ; c bedroom , 12 feet by 14 ; d

passing into the back -kitchen h, which has a window , boiler, and back -door, and enters to a light closet i. The light closet f enters from the porch e. Two

scullery, 4 feet by 8 ; and e coal-house, large or three small bedrooms are placed 4 feet by 3. In the larger house onthe left hand, f is the entrance-porch, 4 feet wide ; g the living -room , 17 feet 6 inches by 14 feet ; h front bedroom , 12 feet by 14 ; i back bedroom , 12 feet by 14 ; k scullery, 4 feet by 8 ; and coal-house l, 4 feet by 3. It would perhaps be more acceptable to the inmates were the bedrooms c and h

to enter from their respective living rooms instead of from their respective entrance-porches. Small Two - storeyed Double Cot tages Detached, with Houses of

different sizes . — Instead of having the

Fig. 764. - Elevation ofsmall two- storeyed double cottages.

sleeping apartments upon the ground floor, they may be placed in a storey over the apartments g and h and the Fig. 763 shows such an ar- closets i and k. above. Fig. 764 represents the elevation of rangement, in which a is the entrance-

porch of a small house ; 6 the staircase the houses whose ground -plans are given leading to the upper storey ; c the living in fig. 763. room , entering from the porch a , having a window , a fireplace, and wall - press, and continuing on to a back -kitchen d,

having a window , a boiler, and a back door.

Composite Cottages.

It will be useful to give a sketch

illustrative of what has been termed

This apartment is useful for composite cottages — that is, two-storeyed

washing clothes in, and doing such cottages, but of which the upper and

BOTHIES.

375

lower storeys form independent houses to kitchen cc - this room corresponding with separate entrances, the upper house to the apartment marked f f in fig. 734. The scullery d is entered from kitchen being generally entered from the back. In fig. 765 we give sketch of plan of d corresponding to the apartment h in

house over that given in fig. 734 : a a fig. 734 ; the closet f, fig. 765, to porch outside stairs ; b porch, giving entrance a in fig. 734 ; e e living room correspond

d

a

A 9

D

Fig. 765.— Upper storey of composite cottage applied to fig . 734 - scale in fig . 734.

ing to same apartment c c in fig. 734 ; cases the men cook the whole or part of

bed -closet g g to that marked g in fig. 734. their own food, but in all instances the Outhouses of Cottages. Although, in some of the examples of cottage arrangement which we have given, we have shown the privy or water-closet connected with the house, we would recommend the space to be

used in some otherway, as a closet for coals, pantry, & c. This will necessitate having the privy apart from the house, an arrangement which is in every way better. The separate structure should

cooking, cleaning, and bed-making should be done by a woman.

Improved bothies have separate com partments for cooking and for sleeping. The Rev. Harry Stuart, Oathlaw , Forfar

shire, in an interesting pamphlet on the housing of labourers, recommended that

to avoid the evils of the bothy as gener ally arranged, every bothy “ ought to have a cooking and a sleeping apartment; the one furnished with a strong table and chairs with high backs, wellbolted

be placed in the garden at a consider- and stayed with iron rods, and the other able distance from the house, and should with small iron bedsteads - one for each also comprise a place for coals and a man — both these apartments of health ful dimensions and construction . The

pig-sty.

In many cases vegetable- gardens are sleeping apartment floored with wood, now provided for married servants along well lathed on the walls, quite free of with comfortable cottages. BOTHIES.

damp, yet well ventilated with venti lating flues." Plans of Bothies.

In the “ Third

Annual Report of the Scottish Associa A bothy is a structure in which a tion for Improving the Dwellings and single man lives without the comforts of Domestic Condition of Agricultural

a resident housekeeper. In not a few Labourers, ” Mr Stuart illustrates and

FARM BUILDINGS .

376

screen rising about 2 feet above the the ground-plan is given in fig. 766, and surface of the bed. In fig. 768 we give a plan of bothy upper floor plan in fig. 767, where a a are the beds. for two men, designed also by Mr Stuart : The dimensions of the whole structure a kitchen, 9 feet 6 inches by 9 feet 4 are 22 feet by 16 ; the side-walls being 14 feet in height, measured from the sole

describes an improved bothy, of which

The thickness of the walls is 20 inches, but those of the lower

of the outer door.

e

storey are lined with hollow tiles.

1

A a

fire-brick sink is placed in the lobby a, d

8

с

Fig. 768. -Ground -plan of a single -storeyed bothy.

inches, with sink b ; resting bed c ; d and e bed -closets, 6 feet 6 inches by 7 feet ; f f meal-bins in the kitchen.

Evils of the Bothy System.

a

There has from time to time been much

discussion as to the evils of the bothy

20

10

F.

system. Fig. 766.- Ground - plan of a two-storeyed bothy.

In some districts the bothy system cannot, under present circumstances, be

fig. 766—a foul-air Alue being carried up got rid of, but it behoves the parties from this into the chimney or “vent " of having interest in these localities to see the wash -closet b. This has a fireplace that the bothies are improved so far as in it, so that it can be used as a spare to secure comfort to their occupants. room when any

of themen aresick. The The advantages obtained in healthier

dimensions of this apartment are 12 feet workmen would amply repay the cost incurred in this way. Origin of the Bothy System . - No at

difficulty ever occurred in accommodat ing married servants on a farm , for they must have their cottage and garden ; but the best manner of lodging unmarried

a

men has been a difficult question in many parts of the country. There are

a

just three modes of doing it. One is to lodge them in the farmhouse; another

is to provide a house for them to live in (

a

together; and the third is to lodge them ul

in the houses of married men .

Boarding in the Kitchen . — In prim itive times the farm lads used to take Fig. 767. - Chamber floor of a two-storeyed bothy scale in fig. 766.

their meals in the farmer's kitchen, at the table of which the farmer and his

by 5. Under the stairs c space is obtained wife presided. Under this arrangement for coals. In the kitchen d there is space they were well fed, and passed their time for a resting bed e, the side of this bed happily and under good influence. But next the door being finished and pro- there were drawbacks to it nevertheless. tected from its draught by a low wooden In wet weather the lads could not easily

BOTHIES .

377

have their clothes dried at the kitchen part of the construction of farm build fire, and at night they had to go to a loft ings. Our object has been mainly to in the work-horse stable to sleep.

At assist landowners and tenants in the

length, as the progress of refinement ad- selection of suitable designs for such vanced, when the farmer preferred his own snug parlour in the company of his family to the kitchen and its inmates, such an arrangement could not be continued. Left to themselves thus in the kitchen in the evening, all the servants did not conduct themselves with propriety, so that the farmer was glad

buildings as they may require. We therefore abstain from discussing

and describing the merits and character istics of the materials used in the con struction of farm buildings. One point, however, deserves notice, and that is the greatly increased and steadily growing extent to which iron is being employed

to purge his house of its unruly in mates. He provided a house for the young men to live in together, near the steading. The Bothy.— This house was

called the bothy. The change was an agreeable one to both parties : to the farmer, inasmuch as it restored order and quietness to his house ; and to the men, because they were freed from the surveillance of the

Fig. 769.- Iron buildings.

farmer's wife; and their bed in a

bothy was more comfortable than the in the formation of these buildings. Cor But, like most cases of compromise, the bothy system has not worked advantageously for either party. The farmer finds idle company congregating in the bothy in the evenings,

one in the stable.

rugated iron is now very extensively used in covering cattle-courts, hay -sheds, cart sheds, and other buildings on the farm ; and in many cases the entire building is constructed of iron. Fig. 769 illustrates

given to drinking, card - playing, and a homestead constructed of iron by F. Morton & Co. This is a step in the

other evil work.

Remedy. The remedy for the bothy right direction, for iron is both cheap system is obvious : Let cottages be and durable. built on every farm where the bothy sys tem exists. They will soon be crowded OUTLAY ON BUILDINGS. by the bothy men, anxious to marry and settle in life, or as inmates with their re

The change from the confused

For the tabulated statement of the

crowd of a bothy to the comfort of one's own house will soon work a marked change for the better in the character of the young men. They will then have no desire to change their service. There will then be no loss of time and work every half -year; no hiring- market will then be frequented for a bad purpose, and the outcry against them, and the bothy system itself, will cease for ever.

estimated expense of buildings on farms of various sizes on p. 378 we are indebted

lations.

to the commissioner on an extensive

landed property in Scotland.

The esti

mated cost of farm buildings is exclusive of local carriage of materials, usually per formed by the tenants. Rent is taken as the basis instead of acreage, as the former is a safer indication of the stock

ing the farm will carry .

This is no inferential result, but one established from our own experience. SPECIFICATIONS. IRON BUILDINGS.

The value of the plans we have given and described will be all the greater

It is not intended that we should in if we introduce one or two “ sample " Specifications.

this work enter into the more technical

FARM BUILDINGS .

378

Expense of Rent of

Total

Work .

Work.

Slater Work .

£ 50

£50

£ 25

80

55

50

70 130

70

Mason

Farm .

440

Total

(for

Description .

Dwelling-house Offices ,

Carpenter

Plaster Work .

(for all

buildings rately ). buildings). sepa

£ 15

£ 140

30 80

20

190 310

20

185

£325 80

Dwelling -house . Offices .

100

500 I 20

80

90

30

165

125

90

Dwelling -house Offices

220

380 600

160

Dwelling -house

I 20

1.10

210

160

35 105

30

Offices .

325 475

Dwelling -house

150 250

170 220

35 130

45

400 600

175 260

35 170

45

Offices

155 310

410 740

Dwelling-house

170

200

450

350

35 180

45

270 200

35

45

Offices .

170 450

300

200

450 950

Dwelling -house .

200

215

50

500

Offices

500

350

35 250

800 200

Offices .

...

1000

240

Dwelling-house .

1150 300

Offices

800

1250

400

Dwelling-house

.

1400 500

IIOO

1600

and perfect completion of the whole of SPECIFICATION FOR A STEADING FOR A

the above works.

The contractor shall provide at his own cost all tools, scaffolding, implements, &c.,

FARM OF 500 ACRES .

The following specifications refer par- necessary for the completion of the works. ticularly to the homestead illustrated in figs. 681-89, p . 328, from plans prepared specially for this work by Mr Gilbert Murray, Elvaston Castle, Derby. Specifications of various worksrequired in the erection and completion of a com

pleted and finished within nine calendar months from the date of signing the contract, or the contractor shall pay a penalty of five pounds per week for each

plete farm homestead at

after that date.

county of

in the

for

and in accordance with certain drawings prepared, and details to be hereafter supplied, to which drawings and details this specification refers. Conditions.

The whole of these works shall be com

week the works shall remain unfinished

The payments on account shall be made in four equal instalments — viz., the first when the walls are up to level of eaves ; second, when the roofs are covered and completed ; third, when the works are

completed ; and fourth, within three months after final and satisfactory com

The contractor shall properly execute pletion of the works. and complete the whole of the various

Should any unsound or inferior mate

works described, specified, or required by rials be brought on the premises, or any

the drawings, details, and this specifica- work be improperly executed, they shall tion, together withand including all such be immediatelyremoved or amended, as be fairly included in the same, in the In case the contractor shall become works as the architect shall consider to the case may require.

best and most workmanlike manner, and insolvent, or from any cause whatever

with the best materials, and to the entire shall notproceed with the work satisfac satisfaction of the architect, providing all torily, as in the opinion of the architect materials, labour, and carriage, & c., of may be necessary to ensure their timely all descriptions necessary forthe proper and proper completion, then it shall be

SPECIFICATIONS.

lawful for the proprietor to employ other

379

to both rain and soil drains in 9 -inch

workmen as requisite, and any extra ex- brickwork in mortar of the required

pense that may be incurred shall be de- depth to suit the drains at the different frayed by the contractor, and be con- . points : each cesspool shall be 2 feet 6 sidered as ascertained damages, and be inches wide and 3 feet long, rendered in deducted from any money due or to be- side with cement 1/2-inch thick, with pro come due to the contractor on account of perly formed concrete bottom, covered on these works. top with a 3-inch York or other approved

In case any dispute shall arise as to the stone flag, with iron ring in centre. Gullies. - Form small gullies in yards, meaning of the specification or the drawings, or with regard to any alterations, &c., where shown, for surface drainage, additions, or omissions, the decision of composed of 9-inch brickwork, in mortar, the architect shall be final and binding I foot 6 inches square and 2 feet deep, rendered, &c., inside as large cesspools, on all parties. The contractor shall be responsible for and provide and fix to same stone dished

any damage of any description that may and perforated covers 4 inches thick, with be caused in consequence of these works. extra - strong 9 -inch cast-iron grates let The contractor shall pay all fees, and into same.

serve all notices required by the local Provide and fix to each division of the authorities that may be necessary, with- covered cow -shed, calves'-shed, feeding out any charge to the proprietor for so boxes, and stables, approved trapped doing. earthenware gully, extra -strong 9 -inch The contractor shall keep the buildings cast - iron grate fitted to same. herein referred to in a thorough state of Water - tank . - Excavate for and form

repair until three months after their final the rain -water tank, where shown on plan, completion. Specification.

12 feet long, 5 feet wide, and 5 feet deep, below the inlet drains and the springing of arch, the side and end walls to be

Excavator, & c. — Excavate the ground built 14 inches in thickness, in mortar, and over whole area of site to a depth of 6 shall have proper footing courses resting inches, and further excavate as shown on a bed of concrete 2 feet thick, domed and required for concrete foundations, over on top with an arch to rise 9 inches

walls, cross-feet, &c. The whole of the in height,and to be formed of two half excavations shall be level at bottom , and brick rings in mortar. Render the tank be well rammed before the concrete is

on sides and bottom in Portland cement

thrown in ; also fill in and ram the 12-inch in thickness. ground round the walls below groundGravel Floors. — Torm gravel floors level, and distribute the earth round the to all open yards, cart and implement site, and level same as directed. sheds, on a 6 -inch foundation of approved Drains. — Note. The rain -water drains hard and dry material, such as broken

are indicated on plan by blue colour, and stones, bricks, slag, &c., and lay on top the soil drains by red colour ; each are to of same a 6 -inch bed of good and ap be laid separately, the rain-water to be proved gravel, all carefully laid to proper conveyed to a tank, and the soil to some falls, the lower and top beds being each convenient site of land. well rammed as the spreading proceeds. The whole of the drain -pipes are to be Concrete to Foundations to be com of the best quality and description of posed of one part hydraulic lime and one

cylindrical glazed socket-joint stoneware part sand, and fourparts of stone, brick, pipes, having all necessary bends and or slag — or one part lime and five parts

junctions, and laid with proper falls, and gravel - all to bebroken to pass a 2-inch jointed in prepared clay. Excavate for, provide, and lay the drains in the positions shown and as fig. ured on plan ; fill in and well ram the

ring, and to be well and thoroughly mixed. Form concrete foundations to all walls, cross-feet, tank, &c., as shown

on drawing ground after the pipes are laid . Well .- Form a circular well 8 yards Cesspools .- Excavate for and build deep, 3 feet 6 inches clear internal diam

the large cesspools where shown on plan eter, steened with proper well bricks,

FARM

380

BUILDINGS.

and covered over on top with a 5-inch

plinth bricks.

Also form weatherings

York stone landing, with hole formed in to all external piers in walls in a similar manner . same. Lime. - Approved hydraulic lime shall Coping to Yard - wall. – Form cop be used in all mortar and concrete below ing to all yard-walls where shown with ground -line, and ordinary local lime of blue brick coping ( fig. an approved description shall be used for 771), and finish same all other works. against gate-piers where Mortar.—The mortar shall be com requiredin yards to cow and calves' sheds with posed of approved lime as aforesaid , and clean sharp sand, one part of unslaked lime to two equal parts of sand well and

stone coping 18 inches long, 12 inches wide,

properly mixed. No mortar which has become perished shall be used. Bricks, & c. — The brickwork shall be

Fig. 771 .

worked to mitre with

blue brick coping. Caps to Gate - piers. — Provide and

executed with good and approved quality fix to top of piers to each of the gate

and description of common local bricks; ways to main yards atooled, weathered, the external facings shall be executed and throated approved stone cap, 2 feet with carefully selected and picked com- 3 inches by 2 feet 3 inches by 12 inches

mon bricks, neatly pointed in mortar as deep. the work proceeds. The bond shall be

Hook - stones.- Provide and fix to

Old English. No four courses of bricks shall rise more than 1 inch in addition to the height of the bricks set dry. All brickwork shall be executed plumb and

each of the piers to two gateways to main yards approved stone hook -stones, No. 2 to each pier, each 1 foot 6 inches by i foot 6 inches by 9 inches, tooled,

true, and in mortar as aforesaid .

rebated, and sunk forand provided with

Bed and set all stone and woodwork strong wrought-iron hooks, with 1 /2-inch and point to same; neatly point the pins 3 inches high, properly wrought on same. Also provide and fix to all other inside walls as the work proceeds .

Build the whole of the brick walls, as gateways in brick walls requiring same shown on the drawings, with proper No. 2 hook-stones in each pair, 1 foot 6 inches by i foot 2 footing courses, forming all openings, inches by 6 inches, piers, &c., as required for the proper rebated , tooled , &c. , as above.

completion of the works. Turn common brick arches over all

Also build in other

door and window openings as shown. Window - sills. - Form blue brick win

dow-sills in cement to all window -openings as in fig. 770.

birini Fig . 772 .

Bull-nosed Angles.

doorways requir ing same, No. 2 hook -stones in one

pier, and No. 1

Put bull-nosed angles to catch -stone in the other pier. Mangers. - Form mangers to feeding all inside piers and angles of doorways.

boxes and cowand calf sheds in main build

ings where shown, of pur posely made

Kerbs to stop Con

crete Flooring . – Provide and fix blue brick on edge Fig . 770 . kerbs to stop concrete floors in all cases, the kerbs to be well

WOOD , POST

and approved MANGER

MANGER

( fig. 772), the

bedded in concrete, and bedded and jointed in cement. Also form thresholds to all doors in a similar manner .

Salient Courses. — Form projecting

bricks

blue

Fig . 773.

ends

against

each

division

being formed

courses to gables, &c., as shown, and with solid blue brickwork, having the di details hereafter.

vision posts built in same, see fig. 773:

Plinth and Weathering to Piers.-- The whole shall be bedded, jointed, and Form plinths to gate-piers and capsame built in Portland cement, and the manger with two courses of pressed blue splayed bricks set 1 inch below floor-level.

MEN

N

)

EXP

TIO

AGRIC

381ULTURA

SPECIFICATIONS.

L

Each pos

You bUŁGE , Air - grates, & c.— Provide and fix roofs where shown. e feeraH. where directed No. 50 cast-iron aircarefully selected ,and go into the grates, 9 inches by 6 inches, and prop- 5 feet ; and have 9 inches by 4 cross-

erly form air-holes to same. Also form and No. 4, 6 inches by 6, stets No. 25 ventilation openings in walls as to posts and cross-feet, with 34-hoch diam will be directed. eter wrought-iron bolts passing Wrough Generally. - Run cement filleting to posts, and provided with proper heads, roof where gables abut against wall, nuts, and large washers. The cross-feet and any other place requiring same.

shall be secured to main posts with a 1

Execute any and all incidental brick- inch diameter bolt, 2 feet 6 inches long, work and bricklayer's work necessary let up the centre of the post, and secured

for the proper completion of the whole with a nut let into side of post. Each cross-foot shall rest on a bed of concrete

of the works.

Damp Course . - Form damp course

18 inches wide and 18 inches deep, and

over whole area of all walls with prop- of the necessary lengths. erly prepared asphalt, 12-inch in thick Roof 20 - feet Spans . — Provide and fix ness, laid on hot and covered with to each of the 20-feet spans of roofing sand. Concrete

over covered cow-sheds and covered calf Floors.

- Form concrete sheds No. 6 roof - trusses, one being

floors to covered feeding - boxes, cowsheds, calves' - shed, passages, mixing room , engine, cake and root houses, stables, loose - box, harness - room, and

placed over each main post, and secured to same. Tie-beams, 9 inches by 5 ; prin cipal rafters, 7 inches by 5 ; struts and foot-pieces, 5 inches by 4 ; purlins, ridge, corn - barn, with Portland cement con- and plate next open side, 11 inches by crete, as hereafter specified, and a 6-inch 3; wall-plates, 4/2 inches by 3 ; oak pads, bed of broken bricks or stones, and a 9 inches by 5, 3 feet long, under ends of

2-inch bed of fine concrete, composed of principals resting on walls.

Wrought

one part of Portland cement and five iron king - rod i inch diameter, with parts of granite chippings, the lower proper head and / 2-inch washer 5 inches bed to be carefully laid and thoroughly square at bottom, and proper nut and at top. Provide and fix to each well rammed, each piece of brick or washer at

stone being broken so as to pass a 2 -inch king -head an iron casting as detail,

ring, and the upper surface to be laid weighing 56 lb. each. Bolt the feet of in the best possible manner, care being principals at each end to tie-beams with a taken to fill up all the cavities in the 7 -inch wrought-iron bolt passing through lower bed, the whole being floated over both timbers, and having proper heads,

with a finishing surface 1/2 inch in nuts, and washers. Secure the ends of thickness, and composed as above, but each tie-beam to each post with a 272 172 of chippings to i of cement, and inch by 72-inch wrought-iron looped and left a perfectly even surface, laid with twisted strap, passed over end of beam such falls as shall be directed. and extending down posts 18 inches, secured to same with one 58-inch bolt Carpenter and Joiner. passing through post and strapand one The whole of the timber used in these 6 -inch coach -screw , and secured to tie works shall be of the best description of beam with No. 2 5-inch screws. Put to each bearing of purlins on prin seconds Memel, free from sap,shakes, large, loose, or dead knots, and all de- cipals a 12-inch by 7 -inch by 4-inch block, fects. The whole shall be sawn square well spiked to principal rafters. on all sides, and have the outside slabs

Roofs 24 -feet Spans. — Provide and

taken off. All timbers shall hold their fix to each ofthe 24-feet spans of roof required scantlings throughout. All deals ing overcow -shed and one of the covered and battens shall be best selected red- feeding- boxes No. 6 roof -trusses, one

wood. Any of the long timbers to roofs being placed over each main post and may be of pitch pine, of good and ap- secured to same. Tie-beams, 11 inches proved quality. by 5 ; principals, 8 inches by 5 ; struts Main Posts.- Provide and fix No. 15, and foot-pieces, 5 inches by 4 ; purlins, 1 inches by 11 , main posts to support ridge, and plate next open side, 11 inches

.

LIBRA R Y

ERI

STA

FARM BUILDINGS .

382

by 3 -- and in all other respects similar to formed by extending the purlins, ridge, the 20 -feet spans herein last specified . and wall-plates of the last specified roof Roofs 44 -feet Spans.— Provide and over same from wall to wall. Roof 24 - feet Span.-Construct the fix to the 44-feet span of roofing over the

two central covered feeding-boxes No. 3

roof over harness and food rooms in

roof-trusses, one being placed over each small block of buildings with No. 3 main post and secured to same. Tie roof-trusses. Tie -beams, 9 inches by 4;

beams, 13 inches by 6 ; principals, 9 principals, 7 inches by 4 ; kings, 9 inches

inches by 6 ; collars, 12 inches by 6; by 4 ; struts, 4 inches by 4 ; purlins,7

queens, i2 inches by 6 ; struts and plate inches by 4 ; ridge, 7 inches by 2 ; wall on tie, 6 inches by 6 ; jack-rafters and plates, 47 inches by 3 ; blocks to pur king, inches by 5; purlins, ridge, and lins, 9 inches by 6 inches by 4 inches ; plate next open sides, 11 inches by 3.

and pads under ends of principals 9 inches

Put 12-inch by 7-inch by 4 -inch blocks by 3, 3 feet long. The feet of principals to each purlin . Provide and fix, to se- to be secured to tie-beams with 34 -inch cure the principals to tie, and head of diameter wrought - iron bolts, and the

principals to straining-beams and queens, head of king and principal to be secured iron straps 3 inches wide and 2 - inch wrought-iron straps on each side, bolted

and also foot of queens to tie, wrought- together with 2/2 - inch by 38 - inch

thick, secured with gibs and cotters at together with 58-inch bolts, and foot of

242-inch by 38-inch straps feet of principal rafters ; No. 3 14-inch kings to havebolts.

bolts to queen -heads, and No. 1 similar and3/4-inch

Roof 20 - feet Spans. - Construct the bolt to foot of queen. Secure each end of tie-beam of each truss to main posts roofs over cart -shed with No. 4 roof

with a 3-inch by 2 -inch wrought-iron trusses, roof over corn -barn with No. 2

looped and twisted strap passed over trusses, roof over stables with No. 3 ends of beams, and extending down roof-trusses, and roof over implement posts 2 feet, and secured to same with

shed with No. I truss, all as follows :

No. 2 78-inch bolts passing through post Tie-beams, 9 inches by 4 ; principals, and straps and secured totie -beam with No. 2 6 - inch coach - screws.

Put block i

8 inches by 4 ; kings, 8 inches by 4 ; struts, 5 inches by 4 ; purlins, 7 inches

foot 6 inches by 6 inches by 4 inches by 4 ; ridge, 7 inches by 2 ; wall-plate, against sides of queens, well and securely 472 inches by 3 ; blocks to purlins, 9 inches by 6 inches by 4 inches; the

spiked to same.

Roofs 37-feet Spans. — Provide and feet of principals to be secured to ties fix to the 37-feet span of roofing over with 34 - inch bolts, and the heads of

fodder-mixing room No. 3 roof-trusses, kings to principals with 27/2-inch by 38 resting on the walls as shown.

Tie- inch straps on each side, secured together

beams, 12 inches by 4 ; principals, 8 with 5/8-inch bolts. The principals over inches by 4 ; collars, ii inches by 4 ; cart - shed , which rest on posts, to be

queens, 11 inches by 4 ; struts and plates secured to same with 27/2-inch by 72- inch on tie-beams, 5 inches by 4 ; jack -rafters looped straps, and secured in a similar and kings, 6 inches by 4 ; purlins and manner to those hereinbefore specified.

ridge, 9 inches by 3 ; wall- plates, 47 Put to foot of kings 27 -inch by 38 inches by 3 ; and pads under ends of inch straps and 34 -inch bolts. principals, 9 inches by 3, 3 feet long. The whole of the hereinbefore speci

Secure the feet of principals to tie- fied roof-trusses shall be mortised, ten beams with 24 -inch by 38-inch wrought- oned, birdsmouthed, framed, and finished iron straps ; and similar straps to head

and foot of queens, secured with gibs

in a thoroughly workmanlike manner. Ventilators . — Construct No. 3 ven

and cotters and 34 -inch bolts in a similar tilators on roof over cow -shed, and No. 3 manner as specified to the 44-feet span- similar ventilators over stables 3 trusses .

feet 3

Put block against sides of inches square inside, each having No. 4

queens under straining-beams 1 foot 6 angle -posts, heads, and sills, 3 inches by 3, covered externally with 1 /4 -inch wrought, inches by 6 inches by 4 inches. The roofs of root-house,portable engine rebated, and v-jointed horizontal board house, and cake and meal store shall be ing ; hip -rafters and intermediate rafters

SPECIFICATIONS.

383

3 inches by 272, the rafters to overhang fixed vertically for securing into stone, the heads 9 inches all round, and to have let into ground, also a strong rim latch

9 -inch by 1 /4 -inch wrought and beaded and approved strap with eyes and staples, fascia fixed to same ; the external board- with padlocks complete. ing to be finished at top level with lower

Provide and fix to each of the large

edge of fascia , the space above being left gateway openings, where shown on draw

forventilation. Fix to eachof the said ings, 272-inch wrought, rebated, cham ventilators a 1-inch wrought ledged door, fered, and square-framed gates, filled in hung to open on a centre,and fitted with with 1 /4 - inch wrought, rebated , and chamfered vertical boarding, each gate, regulating cords. Roof Boarding. – Cover the whole of where shown, to run and have 6 -inch

the hereinbefore specified roofs with 34- diameter wheels, secured by wrought- iron inch approved spruce boarding,laid from straps to top of gates, and run on 3-inch

eaves to ridge, properly nailed at each by 34-inch wrought-iron rails carried by 3 bearing on each purlin with No. 2 2-inch inch by 58-inch wrought-iron stays, built strong cut-nails. The boarding shall be into thewall at distances of about 3 feet laid so as to have a close joint. Any apart. Each gate shall have proper stop, and be provided with 3 -inch by 38-inch

joints opening to an extent of 1 of an

inch shall betaken up and relaid at the wrought-iron knuckle-jointed strap, with eyes formed in same for securing to Loft Floor . — Construct the loft floor staple, built into wall, and be provided

cost of the contractor.

over harness-room with a 12- inch by 9- with approved padlock and key. inch wood beam , running through the

Provide and fix to all stable doorways

centre of room and resting on wall by 272-inch wrought, rebated, and cham stables at one end, and wall of barn at fered doors hung in two heights, panels other end, supported by No. 2 9 -inch by filled in with 1 /4 -inch wrought, rebated,

9 -inch posts, with cross-feet, & c., as to and chamfered boarding, each door to have other posts. Floor joists, 9 inches by 3, proper 272-inch by 38-inch wrought-iron placed 2 feet apart,and covered with a bands for hangingto hooks before speci 1 / 2-inch rough dealfloor, closely jointed , fied ; the top outside half of each band secured with No. 2 3-inch cut-nails at each to each doorshall run full width of door, bearing on every joist. Form step- ladder and the inside half and both sides of the up to same, strings 9 inches by 272, bottom band shall be 15 inches long, all

treads 7 inches by 2, with 3-inch by 3- well and properly secured with bolts. inch handrail on one side, supported by Each top half of each door shall be sup 4 -inch by 3-inch uprights about 4 feet plied with an approved thumb-latch and apart. Form proper trap-door at top of stock -lock, and one bottom half of each

door shall have a strong 9-inch barrel same, with tee-hinges, & c., complete. Entrance-gates.- Provide and fix to bolt fixed on inside. Provide and fix to all other small door the two main entrances to yards 272-inch

wrought, rebated, and chamfered square ways ledged doors of the sizes shown, framed gates, hung in halves, filled in covered with 1 /4 -inch wrought, rebated, with 174 - inch wrought, rebated, and and chamfered boarding, hung with pro

chamfered boarding, fixed vertically, the per bands to hooks built into walls. Each top of gates to be finished with a 37/2 -inch door to have an approved latch and strong by4 -inch wrought, rebated, and weathered 9 -inch barrel-bolt. Windows. - Fit up all window -open capping. Each gate shall be hung with 212-inch by 1a -inch wrought-iron bands, ings with 134 -inch deal casements, pro the top band on one side of each gate ex- perly hung with strong butt-hinges to tending its whole width, and on other 4 % -inch by 3-inch wrought, rebated, and side to a length of 1 foot 6 inches. The chamfered deal frames, with oak sunk bottom bands shall extend on both sides sills, and provided with strong wrought of each gate 2 feet, and have proper iron casement-stays and turnbuckles, and shoulders, eyes, &c., neatly formed, and to details to be hereafter supplied . Stable Mangers .— Provide and fix to be bolted togates at every 9 inches with Ta-inch wrought-iron bolts. Each gate cart-horse stables and loose-box wrought

shall have a strong wrought-iron bolt deal mangers, as details, with 1 % -inch

FARM BUILDINGS.

384

fronts, bottoms, and backs, and 3 -inch by through post and have nut and washer,

3-inch oak wrought and grooved and the bottom hook to be driven into posts rounded capping on front edge, with a 372 inches. The L -shaped falling-post 3-inch strong wrought - iron ring and to each pair of gates shall have a strong staple fixed in centre of its length . Put bolt rivetedto same at bottom, and cast a 4-inch by 3-inch bearer tenoned into iron socket let into a stone in ground for same, and built into wall at other end. securing same, and each pair of gates Stall Divisions. — Construct the stall shall be provided with a strong wrought divisions with 6 -inch by 6-inch heel-posts, iron loop or ring riveted to one of the standing 6 feet 6 inches out of ground falling-posts for looping over the other. and 4 feet below, with clump ends, and Water -troughs. — Provide and fix No. 5-inch by 4-inch head -posts 6 feet 6 inches 12 approved strong wrought galvanised above ground, securely bolted through iron water-troughs in yards where shown, walls with No. 2 5/8-inch bolts to each 4 feet 6inches long, 1 foot 9 inches wide, post. Each post shall be grooved for and 1 foot 6 inches deep, and to be 2 boarding, and chamfered on outer edges, inches less in size at bottom, to give the and neatly wrought and weathered on sides and ends a slope, each tank having top, and the divisions formed with proper hole with ferrule, plug, and chain 112-inch wrought, both sides grooved, complete. and tongued boarding, fitted into grooves Felt on Roofs . - Cover the whole of on head and heel posts, all as details to the roofs with thick roofing felt of ap be given . proved quality, and equal tosample, laid

Posts and Fencing to Yards, &c.— longitudinal way of roof, each joint hav Provide andfix where shown on drawings ing a 2-inch lap and nailed with strong the fencing between yards, and at heads flat-headed tin tacks, at distances apart

of mangers, 412-inch by 4 /2-inch wrought of 3 inches. The bottom edge next eaves posts, standing 4 feet 9 inches above shall be turned down over edge of board ground and 3 feet below ground, with ing and nailed the same as at joints. clump ends, each post being chamfered The ridge shall be covered with a cap

at angles, neatly wrought and weathered ping of the same material 12 inches on top, and to have No. 4 holes bored wide, and nailed in å similar manner. through same. Provide and fix in con- The valleys shall also be laid in a similar nection with same No. 4 tiers of extra strong iron gas-piping, the top pipe being

manner .

The whole of the aforesaid felting shall

1 /4 - inch diameter, the second 1 - inch bewell and thoroughly gas-tarred all over diameter, and the two lower pipes 34- one coat, and afterwards gas-tarred and inch diameter.

Where these pipes run sanded two coats, and shall be left at

into a main post supporting roofs,they the completion of the works free from all shall have cheek-pieces 4 inches by 2 defects, sound and watertight. spiked to same and bored to receive the ends of the pipes. Wrought-iron Gates. — Provide and

Ironfounder. Eaves Gutters . — Provide and fix to all

fix No. 32 pairs of wrought-iron gates eaves 472 -inch strong half-round eaves of the size shown, and to details to be gutter, with all necessary stopped ends, given hereafter, with hanging-posts 134 outlets, bends, and nozzles, well and

inch by 5/8, falling-posts 134 inch by securely fixed with proper wrought-iron 12, one of the latter to each pair of gutter-stays, the joints being caulked gates shall be thus, L, to form stop for with red -lead. other half of gate, struts

13/4 inch

Down -pipes. — Provide and fix from

by %, top and bottom bars 134 inch eaves to drains (where shown on plan) by 12, and two intermediate 132 inch 37-inch clear bore down -piping, with all by , the whole being properly riveted necessary swan necks, and securely fixed up and put together in the neatest and to the walls.

most workmanlike manner, and hung by Provide all the wrought and cast iron strong eyes riveted on to heel-posts to work to roofs, sliding-gates, doors, &c.,

58-inch wrought hooks properly shoul- as specified in the carpenter's work and dered and formed, the top to pass elsewhere : the whole shall be forged or

SPECIFICATIONS.

385

cast and finished in the strongest, best, given in by contractor. Employer or and most workmanlike manner.

Glazier, Painter, Limewhite, dic. Glazing .

inspector to have power to reject any

workmanship or materials which are de fective or not in conformity with plans

Glaze the whole of the and specifications. Contractor to make

windows with 78-inch rough rolled glass, good any damage to his work, and properly puttied and back -puttied , and uphold it for twelve months from date left free from all defects at the comple- of completion. Works to be commenced tion of the works.

on acceptance of estimates, and to be

Gas - tar and Sand . — The whole of finished on dates to be specified .

Pay

the posts and cross-feet below ground- ments to be made in not more than levelshall be gas-tarred two coats.

three instalments, the two first during

Carbolinium .- The whole of the posts the progress of the works, at the rate of above ground and other exposed portions 75 per cent on value of work executed, hall be covered with two coats with Carbolinium Avenarius.

of wood

and balance when work is finished . Con

tractors to give detailed estimates and

Painter. — The whole of the wood schedules of their prices. gates and doors shall be painted three Mason -work.

coats with good lead and oil colour, of an Best rubble stones to be used for out approved colour. The whole of the eaves, gutters, down- side work . Mortar to be composed of good fresh piping, iron gates, iron fencing, and iron-

work , & c.,shall be painted twocoats with lime and clean sharp river or pit sand, similar paint.

in the proportion of i measure of lime

Limewhite. — Limewhite two coats and 172 of sand, thoroughly incorporated , the whole of the inside wall of buildings, soured fourteen days before being used, also the underside of boarding to all roof andto be twice beaten over with a baton. and all roof timbers.

Allow in amount of tender the sum of for extra works ; any portions of same not required shall be deducted from the amount to be paid to the contractor at the completionof the works.

Tracks for foundations to be cut to

depths shown on sections, or to such depth as will secure a good firm founda tion, and all intermediate area of build ing to be entirely cleared of soil. All foundations to be of large flat

bedded stones, going two-thirds through SPECIFICATION FOR MODERN STONE STEADING.

wall, and forming a scarcement of 4 inches on each side.

Stones to be laid

on their broadest and flattest beds, pro

The following is an abstract of the perly bonded, packed, bedded, and specifications for the construction of the grouted with good lime mortar. Walls to be of best quality of rubble Inverness-shire steading referred to at

p. 331 , and illustrated in figs. 690 to building, and built to thickness figured on plans, with two headers in every super General Conditions. — Each contrac- ficial yard going at least two - thirds tor to supply all materials, working through walls. Stones to be laid on their

697

tackle, and implements necessary for his broadest and flattest beds, and not to department of the work ; all materials rise higher than 8 inches or less than 3 to be of the best quality, and all work inches, and all to be bedded, packed, to be executed in a thoroughly efficient and grouted in good lime mortar. Sur and workmanlike manner ; tenant of farm face of outside walls to be of roughly

to perform all cartages of materials, the squared rubble, pointed neatly, horizon rubble stones from nearest quarry, all tally and vertically, and drawn in with other materials from nearest railway a " key. All inside walls to be neatly station.

Employer may make altera- sneck -harled.

tions on the plans and specifications Dwarf walls to be built under all during the progress of work, the value partitions, 14 inches thick , and finished of work caused or saved thereby to be on top to the depth of 4 inches with regulated by schedule of prices to be cement. The inside sills of all windows VOL . III.

2 B

386

FARM BUILDINGS .

and ventilators to be finished on top, tothe byres to form one side of urine strand , depth of 3 inches, with cement, finished to be set in bed of sand and properly smooth, and all to slope to inside. causewayed around. Cesspools to be built of stone and lime Dressings.-- All outside corners, rybats,

window -soles, lintels, mullions, scuntions, arch -stones, put- stones, pillars of cartshed, skew -tabling, and balls on gables to be freestone, clean scabbled . Keystone of

under urine strands i foot 6 inches deep and 1 foot square, and to be coped on top with a stone 5 inches thick, and to have a strong malleable iron grating

arches, along with every second stone of checked into it. Drains from these cesspools to be of same, to be of length to pass through the wall, as well as inband rybats and scun- 5 inches spigot and faucet glazed fire tions throughout walls. Corners and clay pipes, to be jointed with fine clay,

30. scuntions to be not less than 772 inches and laid with a fall of 1 in Urine Cesspool to be to feet by 3 feet All inside doors and

broad on the bed.

openings to be built with neatly hammer- by 5 feet deep. Side walls to be 1 foot dressed scuntions from rubble quarry. 4 inches thick, and to be built of stones Lintels, sills, and mullions to be in and cement. Bottom to be laid with

single lengths, the two former to have 8 4 inches of concrete, and it and the inches wall-hold at each end, and the sides to be pointed with cement and latter to be dowelled into the sills and made perfectly water-tight. Top to be

lintels, with oak dowels and white-lead. covered with Caithness pavement 272 Balls on gables to be similarly fixed. inches thick . Concrete. — Floors of corn - room and Bases of solid masonry to be built under feeding - troughs in covered part of straw -barn to be laid with ce courts and byres, and to be covered on

ment concrete.

Soil and rubbish to be

top with fair-faced, chip-edged Caith- removed, and a layer of 6 inches of ness pavement, to be of size to breadth gravel or road metal laid down, and to the top of troughs, and not thinner than be firmly beaten down and grouted with

15/8 inch, to be laid level and bedded lime mortar. The first layer of concrete in, and neatly jointed with mortar. to be the depth of 4 inches, composed of Bases of stone and lime, i foot

inches

five measures of small gravel or broken

square, to be built under metal in cattle -courts where shown on and coped with a block of stone 6 inches diameter and 9 inches

pillars plans, i foot thick,

stones and one of best Portland cement, and to be finished to the depth of 1 inch with concrete composed of one of best cement to one of fine sharp sand. Sur

and to be checked for bases of metal

face to be made smooth and level.

Con

pillars. Stone corbels 1 foot 9 inches crete to be properly prepared on a board by 10 inches by 6 inches to be built ing, and applied fresh. Pavement.--All parts of ground -plan into side walls of straw -barn, at 8 feet between centres, to support roofs of coloured blue - gig -shed, tool-house, poul courts. Bases of hard stone, 12 inches try - house, feeding material store, and cube, to be placed for heel - posts of feeding-troughs - to be laid with fine

stable travises, and to be bevelled and faced, chip-edged Caithness pavement, checked for posts, and to stand 4 inches not thinner than 15/8-inch thick, to be laid

above causeway. Stop stones for large on properly prepared beds of small stones opening doors to be similar, to be bored grouted with mortar.

for bolts of gates, and to be firmly fixed

Mill-wheel Arc - Walls to be of best

in the ground.

common rubble masonry. All the inside Causeway . — All parts on plans tinted of arc, where it comes in contact with the

light pink , stables, implement - house, water, to be of square dressed rubble byres, and feeding - passages, to be laid stones, not less than i foot 6 inches with selected egg -shaped causeway-stones, long, 6 inches high, and 9 inches broad , in a bed of sand at least 6 inches deep,

blinded with same, and well bishoped down. Curb. Dressed curb -stones, i foot deep and 3 inches thick, to be fitted in

and to be laid in and neatly jointed and pointed with cement. Openings for entry and exit for water to be formed ,

and to be built with scuntions and lin telled. Bottom of wheel-pit to be laid

SPECIFICATIONS.

387

with flag-stones, to prevent its breaking and to have 9 inches wall-hold at each end. Beams for support of mill machin Conduit for Water to and from Wheel- eryto be 8 inches by 9. Sarking. — All roofs, except those of pit. — Conduit to be 3 feet by 3, inside with water.

measurement.

Side walls, I foot 6

cattle-courts and inside roofs of byres,

inches of common rubble, 3 inches of to be covered with sarking deals, 34 -inch side next conduit to be built with ce- thick, close -jointed, double -nailed, and ment, foundations to be 9 inches below made to break band at proper intervals. finished bottom .

Bottom to be cause-

Roofs of cattle-courts and inside roofs of

wayed firmly, so as water may not under- byres to be fitted with rinds 2 inches by to be of flag-stones 372 1/4, to suit slates 14 inches by 10, hav mine it. Top inches thick at least, with a wall-hold of ing 3 inches of cover. Rinds to be of 7 inches on each side, and closely laid redwood . Brackets to be fittedup for cast-iron Giblet -checks to cut for all arched gutters. Sky-lights. The sky -lights to openings, which are to be fitted with clos- be i foot 4 inches by 2 feet, daylight

and pointed on the joints with mortar.

ing doors ; and recesses for down water-

measure, of cast -iron, with proper flange

pipes from roofs to be made . Raggles to frames, 12 to open, the others fixed, and be cut when necessary. Mason to up- all to be glazed with glass 7/8-inch thick, hold his work for twelve months. each strip being in one piece. Hanging posts, in lofts over implement, gig, and Carpenter-work. tool houses, and in men's sleeping-place, Timber to be of the best kind, free to be 4 inches by 2 ; to be nailed to raf

from blemishes, large or loose knots, sap- ters and joists ; to be prepared for lath wood, or shakes; to be of uniform colour, and plaster in men's sleeping -place, and and of the sizes specified ; all to be of lined from floor to sarking in lofts, with

Norwegian whitewood, except for win- 5/8-inch thick dressed and ploughed deal dows, and rinds for two-thirds slating, lining. which are to be of redwood : all wood to Partitions. - Wooden partitions to have be sawn die square and thoroughly seas- standards 4 inches by 2 placed 27 inches oned. Lintels. — Safe lintels to be 1 /4 -inch apart, and to have braces at top and

deep for every foot of carry, and to have bottom and intermediate, not more than 8 inches wall - hold. Joisting. - Joists 2 feet apart, firmly checked and nailed

for support of grain - lofts and sheafbarn to be 9 inches by 272, those for men's sleeping -place 8 inches by 27/2, placed at 18 inches apart from centres, on wall-plates 6 inches by 1 .

Roofing . — Rafters and ties to be 6 inches by 22, placed 18 inches apart from centres. Rafters for dormer windows to be 5 inches by 2, diagonal raf-

together, and to be lined with dressed and ploughed lining 34-inch thick. Those along feeding passages to the height of 3 feet above bottom of feeding-troughs. Other wooden partitions to be lined on both sides to height of side walls, there after on one side to apex . Openings 2 feet 6 inches by 1 foot 6 inches in parti tions of cattle-courts for feeding from.

ters, 772 inches by 372. Rafters over Passage to be fitted with doors of 34 -inch cattle -courts for two -thirds slating to be deal, with strong backings, and to be placed 22 inches between centres. All hinged from top , and to have fasteners rafters and ties to be checked and spiked at the apex with two nails that will rivet. Pillars. — Pillars for support of roofs of cattle-courts to be 5 inches diameter, metal 12 -inch thick, with flanges at top and bottom, the top to be bolted to wooden beams over, and the bottom sunk

at bottom. Troughs and Haiks. — Crib - trees in byres and cattle - courts to be 9 inches by 3, securely fixed. Haiks to be fitted over troughs in byres and in cattle

in stone cases.

3 ; splits, 1 /4 -inch square, placed 41%

courts where marked on plans. Upper rail, 4 inches by 3 ; lower, 3 inches by

Beams. - Beams over metal pillars to inches apart, angle out. be 8 inches by 9 ; those over stone corByre Fittings. - Travises to have head bels at side of walls 6 inches by 7. All and heel posts — the former to be batted

to be scarfed and bolted at the joinings, to the wall, the latter sunk 2 feet 3

FARM

388

BUILDINGS .

inches in the ground. Planking, 12 be batted to walls. inch , to be raggled into posts dowelled be fitted for doors.

Stops, 34 -inch, to Doors for large

at the joints, and to have a 272 - inch openings to be in two leaves ; backings and one diagonal to be 5 inches broad coping firmly fixed on. Stable Fittings. — Travises to have head and 1 74 -inch thick, and lined on face with and heel posts, the latter to be octagon- 14 -inch dressed, ploughed, and beaded

shaped, 8 inches in diameter ; to be sunk deal. Each leaf to be hung with crooks in stone bases supplied by mason; and and bands. Bands 28 inches long, 176 fixed at top to runner, 8 inches by 3, inch broad, and 38 -inch thick . Crooks to fixed to under side of ties. Head -posts be of 78-inch iron. Slip-bolts, 2 feet long, to be batted to walls. Posts to be rag- to be put on doors, and made to slip into gled for planking. Planks, 1/2 - inch iron socket at top and into stone at bot

thick, are to be beaded , closely put to. tom. Bar of malleable iron , 3 feet long,

gether, and dowelled with strong iron 238 inches broad, and 72 -inch thick, and dowels, not more than 1 foot 6 inches apart. Travises to be coped with strong hoop - iron. Striking plates, I foot 6 inches by 3 inches by 18 inch, of malleable iron, to befixed firmly with screws on heel-posts. Low hacks to be fitted up ; top and bottom rails, 5 inches square ; front and bottom spars to be firmly nailed

iron catches, to be bolted on each large door. Locks, & c . — Doors to grain -lofts, corn

room , tool-house, gig-house, poultry house, stables, and men's sleeping -place, doors to have 9-inch stock locks; stable to have concealed latches. All other doors to have 10-inch flat slip-bolts, with

bowl handles on both sides. together. Corn -boxes to be formed of 11/2 -inch Windows. — The windows to be made plank, ı foot 6 inches by 1 foot 3 inches as on elevations, 278 inches thick, dead

by 1 foot 2 inches, strongly dovetailed framed ; the upper half to have astragals, at joints, and put together with white- and be glazed with third crown glass;

lead, and to have a hoop-iron coping Binding - rings, 234 inches diameter, to be fitted on top rail of each stall. Iron hooks to be fitted on heel-posts for bridles, &c. Fittings for hanging harness to be put up on wall behind each stall.

the bottom to be fitted with opening doors, having hinges, snecks, and stops. Window in men's sleeping -place to be glazed in lower part, and hung with pulleys, weights, and cords. Louver -boarding. - Openings in stone

Stairs. — Stairs to sheaf-loft, granary, walls for ventilation to be fitted with lou and men's sleeping-place to be fitted up ver-boarding : frames of 2-inchwood bat as trap -stairs. Treads and stringers to ted in ; louver-boards i inch thick, and to be 134-inch plank, firmly put together, be hung on iron pivots, and to have iron

and lined on back with 34 -inch dressed jointed guide foropening and shutting. Painting. — The whole outside wood

and ploughed deal lining.

Flooring.-- All parts on planstinted and iron work, including iron pillars and light yellow to be laid with 1 -inch thick

sky-lights, to be painted with three coats

flooring, close-jointed, dressed off, and of good oil- paint; tints to be selected. firmly nailed down. Skirtings to be 6 The inside of byre doors and windows to inches high, and to be firmly fixed to get two coats of paint. walls, & c. Doors. - Small outside doors to have

Slater -work.

four backings 6 inches by 1/4, lined on Roofs, except those of cattle - courts face with 1 /8 - inch dressed, ploughed, and inside roofs of byres, to be covered and beaded deal. Linings not to exceed with best sizeable Ballahulish slates , put 5 inches in breadth.

Inside doors to on with 12 lb. malleable-iron nails, which

have linings 148- inch thick, otherwise have been dipped in oil while red -hot. same as outside doors. Stable doors to Slates to be properly dressed and close be in two leaves. All doors to be hung laid, having 3 inches of cover at the with crooks and bands.

The latter to

eaves, gradually diminishing to 2 inches

be 1 foot 8 inches long, 134 inch broad, at the ridge, and all to be shouldered and 38 thick. Crooks to be made of 34- with well - haired lime mortar. Roofs inch iron. Door-posts, 6 inches by 3 , to of cattle -courts and inside roofs of byres

1

SPECIFICATIONS.

389

to be two-thirds slated with best blue pipes, and weather -vane to be painted Port

slates, 14 inches by 10,

three coats of good oil-paint, colour to

and not thinner than 38- inch , securely be selected . nailed to rinds with 3 inches of cover at

Drains and Pipes. - Pipes to be of

eaves , diminishing gradually to 2 inches 5 inches diameter, fireclay, spigot and at ridge. Pointing. – The skews and faucet, and to be jointed with clay, in raggles to be pointed with cement, and tracks at least 12 inches from surface, and laid with a fall of 1 in 30.

left perfectly water-tight. Ventilators. Double - horned venti lators will be fitted on roofs where

shown on plans.

Lath and Plaster Work .

Ridges. — The ridges

Lath to be of the best quality of Bal

to be of Arbroath stone, and to be laid

tic material, 1 -inch thick, and to be

in a properly prepared bed of mortar, evenly split, and put on with cast -iron and to be pointed with cement. The lath -nails, and giving sufficient rivet for slater will leave the roofs complete and the plaster. water-tight, and maintain them in that Plaster . — Plaster to be composed of state for twelve months free of expense fresh lime, clean, sharp, fresh - water to the employer. sand, and long fresh hair, mixed in proper proportions , and to be thoroughly soured, Plumber -work. beat, and prepared twenty days before

Lead . — All lead used to be 5 lb. per being used. The partitions and ceilings superficial foot, and of the best milled of men's sleeping-place to be lathed, and kind. Valley and pared lead to be 12 they and the stone walls to receive two coats of plaster, properly prepared, inches broad and turned up at the edge. straighted , floated, hard rubbed in, fin Gutters.--Cast-iron gutters of Macfar- ished smooth, free of blisters or any lane's pattern, No. 35, 19 inches by 5, defects. The stone walls of stables,

inches broad, aprons of sky-lights 15

tapered, to be properly fitted in between oil - cake store, gig - house, tool- house, roofs, and to be jointed together with workshop, poultry - house, grain and bolts and red -lead . At side of granary sheaf lofts to receive one coat of plaster,

and straw - barn, over stone corbels, properly put on, finished smooth , and boundary - wall gutters, Macfarlane's free of blisters or defects. Any holes pattern, No. 28, 16 inches by 6, will be behind skirtings to be pointed up. fitted in, and to have a 6-inch lead flash- Window - cases and door - frames to be ing on walls, pointed with cement. The bedded in fine lime, and reveals to be

gutters to be laid so as to have a proper made up with cement, and to be left fall to the down -pipes. Down-pipes.- water -tight. All breakages in plaster Down-pipes from gutters to be 4 inches to be made good, and the whole works diameter, of cast -iron, to be properly left complete and satisfactory. joined to gutters and drains, and to have a cast-ironrose grating on top, to prevent leaves or rubbish entering pipes. Rones. — All eaves to have 5 - inch cast-iron semicircular rones, and to be

SPECIFICATIONS OF LABOURERS ' COTTAGES,

The following is an abstract of the

supported by straps 174 inch by 14. at specifications of the mason, carpenter, every 4 feet 6 inches apart. Down-pipes slater, plumber, lath and plaster works from rones to be 272 inches diameter, of the labourers' cottages recently erected of cast-iron, to be secured to walls by in Morayshire, which are illustrated in clips, and let into tile-drain . Vane. — One weather - vane,

figs. 575 to 578, pp. 370, 371. Macfar-

General Conditions. Each contrac

lane's pattern, No. 57, to be securely tor will supply all materials, working tackle, and implements necessary for fitted on front centre gable. Ventilators. — Double - horned venti-

lators, 6 inches diameter, to be fitted on roofs of byres and stables where shown on plans.

the due completion of his department of the works.

Cartages. -— The tenant of the farm

will perform all cartages from nearest Painting. All rones, gutters, down- railway station or a like distance .

FARM BUILDINGS.

390

Materials, dc. - All materials used partitions. Inside of all walls will be shall be of the best quality, and all neatly sneck -harled. work shall be executed in an efficient Dressings. — Sills, lintels, mullion,

and workmanlike manner, and to the rybats, corners, chimney - head coping, satisfaction of any inspector the em- jambs of fireplaces, and coping of ash pits to be of well-dressed freestone, clean ployer may appoint. Payments. — The first two payments to scabbled. Rybats andcorners, chimney contractors will be made during the pro- head, &c., will be finished with 2 inches

gress of the works, at the rate of 75 per droved margin, and the tails neatly pick cent, and the balance paid when the dressed. The mullion reveals of doors work is completed and taken off con- and windows to be tooled to match mar

gin. Lintels, sills, and mullion will be Scaffolding . — Each contractor to sup- in single lengths, the two former to have ply centres, moulds, scaffolding, &c., 8 inches wall-hold, and latter to be dow necessary for own department of the elled into sill and lintel. tractors' hands.

All freestone to be set in fine lime.

works.

Ventilation . - Four cast-iron ventila Mason-work.

tors, 6 inches square, will be fitted in

Stones. — Stones for rubble building freestone frames, and built into walls Quarry, and under floors. Door - steps. — Door - steps will be in to be of good, sound, durable material. Mortar. — Mortar will be composed of single blocks. will be taken from

one measure of good lime to one and a

Vents. — Vents will be 12 inches diam

half of clean sharp river or pit sand, the eter from living - rooms, and 10 inches lime and sand to be well mixed together diameter from bedrooms, carried up fair first in the dry state, in order that the and smooth, and made to vent freely. ingredients may be thoroughly incorHearths for living-rooms to be 4 feet porated, and to be soured fourteen days, 6 inches by 2 feet 2 inches, andbedroom and twice beaten over with a baton 4 feet by 2, of sawn -edged Caithness before it is used. pavement, to have beds of rubble build Excavations.-- Tracks for foundations ing on ground -floor, and beds of clay and to be cut as shown on section, and the lime on bedroom floor, at 3 inches internal area of building to be cleared within line of wall, and joined to back of soil.

Foundations.

hearth 12 inches broad. Foundations will be

Pavement. - Floors of lobbies, pantries,

laid of large flat-bedded stones, forming and privies, tinted blue on plans, to be a scarcement of 4 inches on each side, laid with 15/8 - inch fair-faced Caith and to be bedded, packed, and grouted ness pavement, to be bottomed with 6 inches of broken stones, and pavement to in good mortar. Walls. — Walls above foundations will be bedded in and neatly jointed with be built of the best quality of common lime mortar. rubble, building to thicknesses shown on Causeway.—Coal-cellars will be cause

plan, having two headers in every super- wayed with neat causeway -stones, in a ficial yard , going at least two-thirds bed of sand , blinded and bishoped down. through walls, from outside and inside

Sundries.---All jobbing in this depart

alternately, all carried up plumb. The ment will be done by the mason, and he stones laid on their broadest beds, and will cut raggles, bore holes, and do every not to rise higher than 9 inches or less thing necessary so as to complete the than 3, and all bedded, packed, and work. He will uphold it twelve months. grouted in mortar. The front and two end elevations will be of roughly squared

Carpenter-work.

rubble, pointed neatly, horizontally and Timber . — Timber for the works must vertically, and drawn in with a key.be of the best kind, free from blemishes,

The back elevation to be pointed knots, sapwood , shakes, and of sizes Outside doors, door - posts, draughts. Dwarf walls will be built projections of roofs, lintels and windows, horizontally , with occasional vertical specified.

14 inches thick under sleepers and to be of Swedish redwood.

Flooring,

SPECIFICATIONS.

sarking, joists, stairs,

ties,

391

rafters,

Wall-presse8. - Wall-press frames to be

sleepers, standards, wall - straps, finish

4 inches by 1 % , and lined round front

ings, &c., to be whitewood. and sides with 58-inch thick grooved and Lintels. — Lintels to be 1 1/4 - inch deep tongued lining. Fan -light. - Front entrance doors to to the foot of carry, and to have 8 inches wall-hold at each end.

have transom of wood and framed fan

Joists, dc. — Joists, 8 inches by 2/4, lights. Windows.--Windows to be framed in and sleepers, 6 inches by 2, to be placed 16 inches apart on wall-deals, 6 inches the ordinary manner with double sashes, by 1 . Trimmer - joists 3 inches thick. sunk sills, moulded astragals, brass-faced The joists will be boxed and bridled for axle pulleys, stout lifters and fasteners

hearth and stair openings, and all joists of brass, metal weights, patent plaited to have 10 inches wall-hold at each end . cord, &c., complete . All upper sashes

Roofing.- Rafters, 6 inches by 27 , will be hung. Lifters and fasteners will and ties, 6 inches by 2, half checked at be selected.

joints, and spiked with two spike- nails

Flooring .-- All portions on plans tinted

that will rivet, and placed 16 inches yellow will be laid with 148-inch flooring, apart on wall - deals, 4 inches by 134: grooved and tongued . Stairs.Stairs to be common traps All bridle and trimmer rafters to be 1/2 inch thicker. Diagonals to be 8 inches without risers, the treads raggled into by 272, and intersections of roofs to be strings, and lined on back. The hand carefully formed .

Ridge battens and

rails to be of birch, formed ovolo and

tilting - pieces to be put on where re- polished, and balusters of cast-iron. Shelving . – Pantries will have two and quired. Sarking. – Sarking, 34-inch thick, close presses three tiers of inch-thick shelves, jointed , double-nailed, and made to break supported on framed brackets in pantries and fillets in presses. band properly . Projections.

The ends of rafters will

Doors. - Doors on front entrances to

project beyond line of wall, and the be 218 inches thick, in two leaves, and on gable ends will have blocks of wood privies and coal-cellars 2 inches thick, one built into same and fixed to rafters, to

leaf, and framed and lined on face with

have ogee moulding on end, and made to project beyond line of wall, and finished with a moulding, 372 inches by 2, and facing, i inch thick . The slates to go over top of moulding. All roof projec-

V -jointed, dressed , and ploughed lining. Press and pantry doors to be 1/2 inch, and other inside doors 134 inch , framed and panelled , and plain sunk mould ings.

tions will be dressed .

Ironmongery.All doors will be hung

Deafening. – Deafening boards,58-inch on 6 - inch D.J. edge hinges ; double thick, will be put on straps, 1/4 inch by leaved doors to have two slip -bolts ; 34, nailed to joists of bedroom Hoor. front doors to have 8 - inch cased locks, Strapping . - The stone walls (with ex- and enamelled iron knobs ; privies to ception of coal-cellars and privies) to be have slip - bolts ; presses to have press

strapped with straps, 1 inch by 142, at locks, value 2s. P.C .; living-room , bed every 14 inches apart, and nailed to

room , &c. , doors will have 6 - inch rim

dooks or bondwood at every 20 inches in height, and framed across vents.

rim locks.

locks and brass furniture ; cellars 6 - inch

Stops. — Dressed stops to be put round Grounds to be fitted up for finishings. Partitions.— Partition standards, top doors. and bottom runners, and hanging-posts Skirting. --Skirting, 6 inches high, to be 4 inches by 2, all securely fitted with bead on top, to be put round all up, the standards placed at 14 inches apartments. apart, and hanging -posts spiked to joists Facings. - Beaded facings, 412 inches and rafters.

broad, will be put round all doors and

Door -posts. - Door-posts to be 6 inches windows. by 3, and to be dressed and checked for

Lining . — The ingoes, breasts, soffits,

of windows on ground-floor andbeelbows lath and plaster, and secured in stone to ned. walls by iron bats run with lead .

FARM BUILDINGS.

392

Beads.- Angles to be finished with 1 -inch beads.

Down - pipes. - Cast- iron down-pipes, 272 inches diameter, will be fitted up

Chimney -pieces. — Bedrooms and liv- where shown, having lead bend at top, ing - rooms will have plain chimney. and connected to tile-drain. Drains. — Drains will be of glazed

pieces.

Sky -lights. - Four-hinged cast-iron sky- fire-clay, spigot and faucet pipes, 4 inches lights, 2 feet by 1 foot 6 inches, will be diameter, to be not less than 12 inches placed in roof where shown. Carpenter from surface, and carried with proper

will fit up seats in privies with portable fall to point where will be directed. Drains to be estimated for per lineal Painting . – Wood -work to be primed yard.

cover.

before glazing.

Outside wood - work

Finials. - Two finials of Macfarlane's

painted three coats good oil-paint - doors pattern , No. 231, to be fitted on roofs marone, windows white, roof projections oak. Stair balusters and sky-lights to be painted two coats. Glazing. – All windows and fan -lights will be glazed with third crown glass, and sky-lights with clear sky -light glass,

where shown. The wooden blocks to be covered with lead. Painting. --- All rones, down - pipes, and finials will be painted with two

coats good oil-paint. Sundries. -The contractor

will

do

all cut to requisite sizes, and set in oil everything necessary , so as to render

putty, and made water-tight. his work complete and water-tight, and Sundries. The carpenter will perform uphold it twelve months after com all jobbing in his department, and leave pletion. all in a proper and workmanlike state. Lath and Plaster Work.

Slater -work.

Slates. — The whole roofs to be covered

Lath used to be of the best quality of Baltic material, -inch thick, evenly

with the best sizeable Ballahulish slates, split, and put on with cast lath -nails, put on with 12 lb. malleable-iron nails leaving sufficient rivet for the plaster. dipped in oil while red -hot.

Plaster to be composed of good fresh Cover, &c.—The slates will have 372 lime, clean sharp river or pit sand, and

inches cover at the eaves, gradually dimin- long fresh hair, mixed in proper propor ishing to 24 inches at ridge, and all tions, and thoroughly soured, beat, and shouldered round with haired lime mor- prepared fourteen days before being used. tar. Nail-holes drilled 11/2 inch down The bedroom floor of house will be deaf slates. ened with a coat of haired plaster-lime, Sundries. — The slater will leave roofs 272 inches thick, laid close. water-tight, and maintain them in that All strapped walls, partitions on both

state for twelve months free of expense sides, ceiling, soffits, breasts, and ingoes to employer.

( except where lined with wood ), will be lathed and then plastered, two coats ; Plumber -work .

plaster properly prepared, straighted, Lead . — Best milled lead to be used, Hoated, hard rubbed in, and finished and to be 5 lb. per superficial foot. smooth, free of blisters, water-cracks, or The ridges will be 14 inches broad, any such defects. Walls and parti and secured by iron straps at every 2 tions will be lathed and plastered down feet ; valleys and flashings 12 inches broad. Flashings to stand 4 inches high,

to floors behind skirting. Beads to be relieved on each side.

and batted into raggle 34 -inch deep, The window -cases and door- frames will which will be pointed with cement. be bedded in fine lime, and reveals made Aprons of lead will be placed at sky- up with cement, and left perfectly water tight. All breakages will be made good Rones. — Roofs will all have 5 - inch by the plasterer when the works are

light.

rones ; supporting straps 174 by 4 otherwise finished ,and the whole works inch. left complete and satisfactory.

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

BREEDS

OF

FARM

LIVE

393

STOCK.

In the space available in this work it and Cleveland Bay call for special notice would be useless to attempt to give any- in this work . That most useful animal the donkey is thing like a complete historical account of the many varieties of farm live stock well entitled to mention amongst “ horses

which are maintained in the British used for agricultural purposes,” for, par Islands.

Recognising that matters of ticularly in Ireland, itperforms an aston

practical concern rather than those of ishing amount of farm -work. The mule historical interest have, in the Book of is another most useful beast of burden, the Farm , the first claim upon our atten- largely used in street traffic as well as tion, we have in the preceding volumes in farm -work. dealt fully with the management of the different classes of farm live stock . Here we are compelled, and that re

SHIRE HORSES.

luctantly, to content ourselves with pre-

Origin . — The Shire horses of to-day senting in a brief pen -and-ink sketch the are the lineal descendants of the Old

English War-horse, which ancient writers tell us excited the surprise and admira tion of the Romans when they first in

characteristics of the various breeds as they now exist, prefixing to the sketch of each a few sentences setting forth the outstanding facts or most generally accepted notions as to the origin and development of the variety.

only surviving descendants of that noble race of horses (which at the time of the

We shall take the different classes

Roman invasions are said to have been

vaded England.

They may not be the

of stock in the following order - viz., distinguished alike for strength and Horses, Cattle, Sheep, and Swine.

courage ), but they are now generally regarded as the purest living representa tives of that earlier type.

HORSES .

In an interesting brochure, entitled A Short History, tracing the Shire1 It is of course with horses employed Horse to the Old English Great Horse, in farm -work that we are mainly con Mr Walter Gilbey says : “ Recent in

cerned . The chief breeds of these are vestigations appear to establish that the Shire, Clydesdale, and Suffolk . Be- what during the past few years has yond the limits of these breeds, as been spoken of as the Shire horse is marked by registration in the respective the closest representative of the pur stud-books, there are a very large num- est in descent from the oldest form of

ber ofagricultural horses throughout the horse in the island. A thousand years UnitedKingdom . Indeed the rank and ago this form was written of as i The

file of British farm -horses are of mixed Great Horse ' ; and nearly a thousand breeding, and represent types and degrees years before thatwe have evidence which of merit too numerous for individual men- goes to prove that the same stamp of

tion.

It must suffice to notice briefly horse then existed in Britain, and that

each of the three great breeds which are it was admitted by those who saw it

mentioned above, and upon which the here to be something different from—

British farmers have mainly to depend and something better of its kind than for the maintenance of their stock of what any of the witnesses (of that day) draught-horses. had seen before : and they had seen most 2 The other leading breeds of horses in of the horses of those times.” the British Isles are the Thoroughbred Name of the Breed. For a long time

( Racer), the Hackney, and the Cleveland prior to the advent of the nineteenth Bay. Then there are the Hunter and

other varieties, besides ponies of many patterns. Of these only the Hackney

1 Published in 1888 by Vinton & Co.,

Limited, London.

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

394

century, and for many years thereafter,

ment. In all these points a marked the breed was widely known as the Large improvement has been effected. To one

Black Old English Horse. It is now who, like the writer, has been regularly universally recognised by the title of attending the London Shire Horse Shows, “ Shire, " derived from “the Shire coun- the contrast between the general charac

ties in the heart of England, ” in which teristics of the animals exhibited at the Arthur Young, writing near the end of earlier and later shows is most striking.

the eighteenth century, stated that the The Society, with commendableprudence, Old English Horse was principally pro- put down its foot firmly in the matter of soundness. A stringent veterinary duced. Shire Horse Society . — The desira-

inspection has been insisted upon, and

bility of taking steps to encourage the no animal known to have the faintest

improvement of the old English breed trace of hereditary unsoundness has been of cart - horses was brought into public permitted to participate in the Society's notice by a paper read by Mr Frederick honours. The effect has been most Street at the Farmers' Club, London, in beneficial, and has in no small degree 1878. The result was the establishment contributed to the advance in the selling

of the Shire Horse Society, under whose price of Shires both for home and foreign fostering care the breed has been vastly buyers. improved ,-made more uniform in type Conception of Form.— There has and character, much sounder in wind

from time to time been much discussion

and limb, and altogether of a decidedly as to what constitutes perfection in the

improved stamp in the general attributes conformation of a draught-horse.

Com

of a draught -horse. The Shire Horse plete agreement has not yet been arrived Society issue a volume of the Shire Stud- at, and never will. A better and more Book every year.

The first volume, general understanding, however, now

published in 1880, contains the pedigrees prevails on the subject ; and thus we now

of 2380 stallions, many of which were find in the displays of draught - horses foaled in the eighteenth century. The of different breeds at leading shows a Society likewise hold a great annual much nearer approach to uniformity in Shire Horse Show in London every the more crucial points and features

spring, which has done much to further than was observable in the earlier history the interests of the breed.

of horse shows.

English and Scotch Notions.

It is

Characteristics.

a trite saying that in judging a horse a Colour.-As would be inferred from Scotchman begins with the feet and legs

the use of the title the Old English of the animal, an Englishman with its Black Horse, black was no doubt at one top. By this it is meant that the chief

time the prevailing colour of the breed . consideration with the Scotch judge is A very large number are still black, but

the feet and legs, and with the English

bay and brown of varying shades pre- the body of the horse. Of both judges dominate. Many are grey, roan , or there is truth in the statement, and in chestnut, but light colours are not, as a · these habits both are mistaken . It is rule, in favour in the market.

true, no doubt, as the Scotchman argues,

Size.It is undisputed that the Shire that without good, sound, well - formed, Horse is the largest of all the varieties of well- set legs and feet to carry and pro

draught-horses which exist in this coun- pel it, the best body one could conceive try, or indeed in any other country.

About 17 hands is a common height amongst the stallions of the breed. Form . - When the Shire Horse Society began its good work , the rank and file of the breed presented defects which materially impaired the value of the horses for hard work. Chief of these were short upright pasterns, wide hock

would be of little value.

It is equally

true, as the Englishman contends, that a horse with a big well-formed body will usually fetch more money in the market than one with a small weak body. And since both these contentions are well founded, it is surely the duty of judges to have due regard to both features, and thus encourage the development of a action, unsoundness, and sluggish move- class of horses equally meritorious in

SHIRE HORSES.

395

body and limb. Happily this desidera- Frederick Street thus describes a typical tum is now being more generally rec- Shire horse : “The feet should be firm ,

ognised than in former years, and as deep and wide at the heel, not too long a result we find better legs and feet or straight in pastern, flat bone, short

amongst the Shires, and better bodies between fetlock and knee.

A stallion

amongst the Clydesdales, than were to should not measure less than 11 inches be seen very generally at one time.

Pastern. - It is now universally acknowledged that a short upright pastern is an objectionable feature in a horse, whether for draught or other purposes. With such a pastern the shock to the system , in either walking, trotting, or galloping under aburden, must obviously be much greater than with the “ springy action of a moderately long sloping pastern.

below knee, and girth from 7 feet 9 inches to 8 feet 3 inches ; should not

stand more than 17 hands; should have wide chest, shoulders well thrown back, head big and masculine, without coarse ness ; full flowing mane, short back, large muscular development of the loin, long quarters with tail well set on, good

second thighs (this is a point where so many fail), large flat clean hocks ; plenty

This point is more keenly appre- of long silky hair on legs, or, to sum up

ciated in England now than in former times. There is still room for improvement in the pastern in the vast majority of Shire horses, yet visitors to the Lon-

in few words, a horse should be long, low , and wide, and thoroughly free from all hereditary disease. A main point is action : he should be a good mover in

don shows of Shire horses have observed the cart -horse pace, walking ; and, if re

a marked improvement, which has been quired to trot, should have action like a so well maintained that any defect in this respect must ere long be eradicated .

Norfolk cob .”

to the general conformation of legs and

ciation in November 1884, the late Hon.

In a paper on the same subject, read Legs.- Similar remarks would apply before the Kingscote Agricultural Asso

feet. The unduly wide hind action, so E. Coke thus refers to the typical Shire

prevalent atone time in English draught- mare andwere Shireasked stallion : look

horses, is still too common.

A bent hind

“ If I

to

at the mare

leg, set outside the body, so to speak, is or filly that you intend breeding from, I undoubtedly a source of weakness in a should first of all ascertain whether she

draught -horse. An animal with limbs has side-bones: if they are there, for my of this sort can have little endurance part I should not care to trouble myself under hard work .

Wide hind action was

with anyfurther

examination, as I should

one of the most notable defects in the at once say she is not a mare to breed earlier London shows of Shire horses. from ; but if she is clean, I should then A marked improvement has undoubtedly look at her fore feet, bearing in mind the taken place, yet it is a point to which old maxim, ' no foot no horse. ' I should

Shire breeders might with advantage hope to find them rather large, well give still closer attention.

Feet.—The foot of the horse is a point of the utmost importance. It is there very often that, under hard labour, the animal first gives way. Flat soft hoofs cannot be durable, and with the persistent

formed and open at the heels, not flat,

shelly, or contracted ; I should like to see rather long sloping pasterns, not short

and upright. Rising upwards, the bone from fetlock to kneeshould be flat, with nice silky hair, big knees and well-devel

striving for large sound feet with deep oped muscles in the arm , the shoulders strong walls, which has been fostered by well thrown back, although they need the show system , the feet of the rank not be as oblique as is required in a and file of Shire horses have attained a riding-horse. “ Having done with the fore legs, I decidedly better character than could

have been claimed for the breed prior should turn my attention to the hind feet. Society. small. The Clydesdale horse beats us

to the establishment of the Shire Horse These in the Shire horse are often too

A Typical Shire. — In a paper read there ; this being the result of careful pasterns I likeastobefore. find goodAbove before the London Farmers' Club in breeding. well the (already referred to), Mr behind

March 1878

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

396

pastern there should be a good flat bone, risen greatly in value and popular favour topped by a broad, flat, clean hock, and since 1877, when the Clydesdale Horse upwards a well-developed thigh, full of Society was established. Origin . — The fullest account of the

muscle . 66

· Having given you my idea of what the understanding should be, I will not detain you with the less important part of the animal—namely, the body - further than to say I like a good middle : this you will not find unless the mare is what is called well ribbed up. I do not think the biggest mares breed the best foals. They can't be too broad ; but

origin and progress of the Clydesdale breed yet written is to be found in the Retrospective volume of the Clydesdale Stud -Book. Two theories as to the origin of the breed are advanced. The one is to the effect that the breed is the result of a cross between the native Scotch mares and some Flemish stallions imported into Scotland by one of the

theymay be too high.

Dukes of Hamilton in the seventeenth

“ We now come to the horse to which you intend to put your mare. What I have said of the mare applies equally to the horse ; only that he should be

century. The other version is that the breed has beenbuiltup bythe careful selec tion and mating of the best horses and mares in the valley of the Clyde. There

coarser and stronger, and the hair, is no documentary evidence of the actual although it should be silky, need not importation of Flemish stallions, and be so fine as that of the mare.

although the tradition has obtained a

“ Before I have donewith the sire and wide footing, it is discredited by the

dam, let me strongly advise you to try most carefulof early writers. Aiton, in and breed stock as weighty and massive his report on the Agriculture of Ayrshire Some of my friends have to the Board of Agriculture in 1810, told me that, although they admire my records the tradition thus: “ One of the horses very much, they think them too ancestors of the present Duke of Ham

as you can .

heavy for agricultural work.

That may ilton is said to have imported from

be so, and undoubtedly on many arable farms lighter horses would do the work equally well, if not better. Bear in mind, however, that you breed for the best market, and that the agricultural market is not the best. There is a great and increasing demand for horses of the heaviest type, not only in this country but in America and the colonies. It is found

Flanders, about the middle of the seven teenth century, six fine black stallions, which he kept at Strathaven Castle for the use of his tenants and vassals. These are said to have greatly improved the breed of horses in the county of Lanark.” And in a footnote Aiton remarks: “ I have lived many years at Strathaven, where these horses are said to have been kept,

that the docks at Liverpool, and the and made all possible inquiry into the streets of Manchester and other towns,

fact ; but no person in that part ever

have become so crowded that it is far heard of such stallions till they read con more convenient to use one horse that cerning them in some of the Statistical

Accounts of other parishes or similar publications. I am confident that such The same remark applies to New York large horses as they are represented to

can move several tons, than some two or

three, which take up so much more room. and other seaport towns in America .”

have been would not, when coupled with

A celebrated Shire Stallion is repre- the diminutive mares then in that quarter, sented in Plate 4, vol. i. have raised an improved, but rather an CLYDESDALE HORSES.

This fine breed of draught-horses has

unshapely and unhealthy breed. It must have been better feeding and treatment

that improved the breed anywhere. ” What part,if any, Flemish blood played

its headquarters in the south -west of in the early history of Clydesdales, can Scotland. It is gradually extending into not now beascertained with undisputable other parts of its native country, and has accuracy.

Anyhow, it would seem that,

been exported in large numbers to the of whatsoever materials composed , the

United States, Canada, Australia, New breed was first brought to a high state of Zealand, and other foreign lands. It has perfection in the Upper Ward of Lanark

CLYDESDALE HORSES.

397

shire. The precise time at which the 1715, cannot now be definitely deter Upper Ward became noted for its draught- mined ; but there can be little doubt horses is not recorded in history, but there that they were mostly of English origin is a tradition (“ so well supported as to be and of a mixed character .

The old

thoroughly reliable”) ? to the effect that drove- road from Scotland to England sometimebetween 1715 and 1720, John crosses the Clyde at Hyndford Bridge, Paterson, of Lochlyoch, on the estate and and leads across the hills by Carmichael

in the parish of Carmichael, grandson of and Crawfordjohn - the very centre of one John Paterson, who died at Lochlyoch in 1682, went to England and brought from thence a Flemish stallion, which is said to have so greatly improved the breed in the Upper Ward as to have made them noted all over Scotland .”

the then horse-breeding district ; and the intercourse which the farmers would thus have with their neighbours from the south, and the amount of traffic done by pack -horses, would doubtless allow of many opportunities for selecting animals

Discussing this point, the writers of calculated to improve the breed . the historical sketch in the Retrospective

“The Lochlyoch mares were generally

volume of the Clydesdale Stud -Book, pro- browns and blacks, with white faces and ceed : " The Lochlyoch mares were famous a little white on their legs: they had

in the Upper Ward during the latter half grey hairs in their tails , occasionally of the last and the first two decades of the present century ; and a Mrs Paterson of Lochlyoch , mother of the present tenant of Drumalbin, now ( 1878] ninety-

grey hairs over their bodies, and invari ably a white spot on their belly, this latter being recognised as a mark of dis tinct purity of blood. The mares died

still has a recollection out at Lochlyoch about thirty years ago. of a noted black mare from which many “ The Lochlyoch stock having been

seven years of age,

of the best stock in the Upper Ward are long noted in the Upper Ward and descended. The family tradition is largely drawn upon by breeders, there strongly supported by the fact that the Patersons were in the habit of noting down important agricultural items from a very early period ; and the present representative of the family, Mr Paterson of Drumalbin, has in his possession a family tree of all the descendants of that John

is no doubt that to them, or more cor rectly to the black horse of 1715, the Clydesdale horse owes its present dis tinctive character."

Paterson who died in 1682 .

the first time opened a class specially for

Gradually the improved Clydesdale

extended its footing, and in 1823, at its show at Perth, the Highland Society for

" In the year 1836, in reference to a day's ploughing given to one of the Patersons on leaving Lochlyoch for Drumalbin, the following remarks appeared in an Edinburgh newspaper, from which it will be seen that their claim to being the founders of the breed was then

Clydesdale horses. The wording of the Premium List for the two horse classes possesses a peculiar interest, and merits production here : “ First, For the best Clydesdale or other mare well qualified for working the strong lands, which is brought into recognised. After descanting on the or retained in the county of Perth , the merits of the family and kindred topics, bona fide property of any landlord or

the writer proceeds : “ And it may be tenant in the county, and to be kept for here worthy of remark, that it was a the purpose of breeding - 10guineas. brother of Mr Paterson's grandfather

“ Second, For the best Cleveland or

who brought the notable stallion from mare of any other breed, combining great England to Lanarkshire — the sire of the activity withstrength, and otherwise well

famous Clydesdale breed of horses, of adapted for draught in the lighter lands, which the county has been so long and and for producing harness -horses, the justly proud.

“What were the distinguishing fea-

bona fide property , &c.- 10 guineas. “ N.B. — The object of the Society in

Premiums in the Second tures of the native breed previous to the awarding these breeding of encourage introduction of the Flemish horse, about District is to 1

Clydesdale Stud - Book, Retro. vol.

the

" First, Draught-horses calculated for the strong lands, of which there cannot

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

398

be a better model than the Clydesdale colours, and both are disliked and avoided. Latterly the taste for bayshas

horse ; and

“ Second, A very active and at same gradually increased, and now this colour time very strong horse, and which may is probably quite as common as the darker be adapted, according to circumstances, shades of brown. White markings are very common. either for working the land or for meet-

the demand for harness-horses of Indeed there arefew pure Clydesdales ing every description, which is at present without white on one or more of the supplied from England or Ireland. The legs, and a white star or stripe on the Cleveland Bays are the basis of such a

face. The latter, if not so large as to

breed ; but the Society does not wish to give the countenance a “ sickly ” appear

limit the competition to any particular ance, is highly prized . >>

breed .”

The movement which was thus publicly recognised at Perth in 1823 led to increased enterprise in the improvement both of light and heavy horses throughout Scotland.

Size. - The average Clydesdale is not quite so heavy or so high standing as the average Shire. In Scotland more atten tion has been given to the formation , strength, and soundness of the feet

Cleveland Bays were and limbs and to the action than to the

very largely introduced, especially into weight of the body, while in England the northern counties, as well as into the body was for long the first and main several districts in the south-west ; “ but consideration.

The average height of

the Galloways and the Clyde Valley the improved Clydesdale is about 16 counties remained true to their own

hands 3 inches, several stallions reach

particular breed ; and when the steam- ing, but very few exceeding, 17 hands, engine ran the coach-horse off the road, which is a common height amongst the they had their constancy rewarded by Shires. the great demand from the cities for The general features of the improved horses of the very heaviest description, Clydesdale are admirably described in to meet the increased commercial traffic the following notes, which we take from developed by the railway system .'

the Retrospective volume of the Clydes

Thus the breeding of improved Clydes- dale Stud -Book : dales has been stimulated by the wants Head . — The typical Clydesdale “ has of both town and country, and it is a broad jaw, ending as arule in a not

within the mark to say that for many very fine or well-tapered muzzle, but years no branch of Scotch farming has with large open nostrils. His eye is

paid better than the raising of a good usually full and vigorous, yet mild ; his class of Clydesdale horses. Clydesdale Horse

Society .

forehead broad and full between the

The eyes ; while from the eyes the forehead

Clydesdale Horse Society has done a vast deal to promote the improvement and the spread of the breed. It has been conducted with much enterprise and forethought, and with several other societies of the kind, has contributed not a little to the greatly increased and still growing wealth of the United Kingdom

tapers gradually upwards to the ears, which are long and active. Breeders of Clydesdales should attach considerable importance to these points, as a horse of such a description will generally be found to be of excellent temper, easily trained, and very wise in cart or plough. Neck and shoulder.— “ Experience

in its farm live stock. The Society was alone can teach one when the head is established in 1877 , and issues a volume well set on to the neck ; but the latter of the Stud - Book every year. should be strong, massive, and of me dium height, while the shoulder should Characteristics.

be more oblique than in the English

Colour. - Brown, of a dark shade, and draught-horse. This, indeed, is one of dappled, is the most popular Clydesdale the distinctive features of the Clydes colour. Black is also common, and is dale, as to his formation of shoulder is highly esteemed, but grey, or very light largely owing his long quick step, for bay, is not in favour. Neither chestnut which he is so justly admired . nor roan are recognised as Clydesdale

Fore Leg .- " Good sound feet and

CLYDESDALE HORSES.

399

legs are essential to all horses, and are being in all cases a certain indication of certainly not undervalued in the Clydes- a strong healthy bone, as the hair of a dales — in fact, some judges, in their short, coarse, matted kind suggests a admiration of such good qualities, fre- decided tendency to grease. quently lose sight of the top ' alto“All horses have a tendency to lose gether. their hair when being put into show

“ Quite as essential as the slightly oblique and closely topped shoulder of the Clydesdale for his long quick step is a strong forearm . This part, from a side

condition ( i.e., loaded with fat like a bullock), and so " blistering,' it is to be regretted, is sometimes resorted to to strengthen its growth. The hair pro

view, should be broad, loaded with long duced by this process is not, however, so strong muscles, so as to give him full silken or so fine as the natural, and the power to bring forward thepart beneath, difference is easily detected by the prac and in length should be proportionate tised eye. leg

to the length of the shoulder.

A flat

“ The sinews of the

Sinews.

and broad knee is also essential; but should be thick, strong, thrown well back

this is a point sometimes overlooked by from the bone, and capable of being felt the best of Clydesdale judges, who pre

with the hand ; if not, the leg is not a

fer strength of bone immediately under good one, however thick, as a soft round the knee in many horses, and so the leg leg, in which the sinews are not well de comes to the ground as if there were no fined, will not stand work. Pastern . — “ The lower end of the joint between the elbow and the pas-

shank - bone or fetlock should also be

tern.

Deficiency of bone under the knee large in all, so as to give full play to the has not unfrequently caused the rejec- tendons ; and Clydesdale judges are also tion of many good horses in the show- very particular as to this, and also to

yard in favour of animals which happen the pastern, which during the last few to be thicker at that particular place, years has come in for a large share of yet have not half the strength, owing to attention. Youatt, writing on this point,

the bone not being of the proper shape, says : " The concussion which attends the or to the entire absence of sinew

The

common action of the cart-horse is little,

shank -bone should be flat from a side because his movements are slow , and view, and tapering to an edge as it goes therefore the upright and strong pastern back. is given to him , which he can force into Feather .— “ The back of the fore leg the ground, and on which he can throw from the knee down should possess a the whole of his immense weight. If Mr

nice flowing fringe of silken hair, which Youatt had ever seen a draught-horse in should spring from the very edge of the the streets of Glasgow , or any other large bone.

This hair should be of what a town , “ forcing his upright and strong

judge of a Skye terrier would term a pastern ' into the granite pavement, he

pily ' nature ; and good judges will would possibly have halted before he not have a horse at all the feather of

wrote the above sentence.

which has a coarse matted appearance. Possibly too much attention is paid by Clydesdale breeders to this point, and many will not exhibit at certain shows, because their horses at the particular time happen to be what they term " bare of hair.' The hair certainly creates a false impression of strength of bone, as

upright pasterns always get worse with

an animal which has a broad forearm

and well-developed knee, if deficient in feather, does not compare well with one possessed of a nice flowing fringe several inches long, and this is decidedly dis-

.. Short

age and feeding, and theaction in due course of time becomes impeded .

A

horse with an upright pastern has little or no command of his foot, and literally walks as on a crutch ; and if he has no power of his foot he cannot have much in his shoulder. The streets of Glasgow are very trying to horses, which have to

scramble for a footing in the furrows between the hard smooth paving-stones ;

and horses with upright pasterns are sometimes almost powerless to move,

advantageous; but the high value set where those with pasterns moderately upon nice silky hair is on account of its sloped, and of a medium length, can walk

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

400

with comparative ease. Farmers around Glasgow are alive to this, and will not readily use a stallion which has this defect, however strong and shapely. Foot.-“ Without a good, sound, well-

strong and firm , and objection is always

taken to animals which have them loose and flabby, or which, to use a breeder's phrase, have ' fleshy hocks.' Hind Leg .– “ From the hock to the

shaped, healthy foot, a horse is of no use ground the leg should be short, broad, at all, however symmetrical and strong. flat, clean, evenly and straight or slight The Clydesdale is generally sound only inclined forward ; the sinews standing that point, though subject, like all other out from the bone, and having a similar breeds of the equine genus, to its various fringe of hair to thaton the fore leg, and diseases. Side-bone and ring-bone are said rising as high as the bottom of the hock by veterinary surgeons to be less common joint. than in the cart -horses of the south .

Hind Pastern .— " The hind pasterns Back .— “ An undue length of back is are a little larger generally than the fore not an uncommon defect in the forma- ones, and are more inclined, but not so

tion of the Clydesdale, and flat badly much as to give the idea that they are sprung ribs — the last of the latter occa- not supporting the quarters. Short sionally very short - form defects which steep hind pasterns are a very bad fault, it should be the object of breeders to as the animal is always sticking its toes remove.

The back is not unfrequently into the ground.

low, and the horse at first sight looks as

Action .

-

“ In walking, the horse

if he had no command of himself, the should, if approaching you, come with barrel merely forming a bridge between his head well carried and with an appa the fore and hinder ends. rently measured stride, lifting his feet “ Latterly this defect has been much well off the ground, and placing them modified .

The most popular stallion down again regularly, evenly, and with

in recent time was Darnley, 222, and apparent deliberation. one very striking characteristic of his

« On a side view one can notice if his

immediate and more remote descendants action be even—i.e., if his fore and hind is their roundness of barrel, depth of action be in unison — for in horses with rib , and lofty formation of shoulder.

Chest.— “ The chest is generally low,

long backs and weak loins the two ends seem to be under different control, and

broad, and full, if the body is large the hind legs being in a manner dragged and round -ribbed ; if not, it is narrow ,

with the toes along the ground, an un

and the horse has a wedgy ' appearance, pleasant effect is produced. “ In going at a walk, a horse should and in street traffic this want of breadth places him sometimes, in rounding cor plant his hind feet forward as deliber

ners, under command of the shafts of the ately as his fore ones, at the sametime waggon or lorry if at all heavily laden .

raising and bending the leg at the hock,

Broad , low - set hind quarters, with muscular thighs, descending into broad and proportionately developed hocks, sum up the good points

which should be evenly carried forward. If the hocks are turned out in moving them forward, the action is not good ; and a Clydesdale breeder considers this an exceedingly bad fault in either horse

Hind Quarters.

of the hind end of the Clydesdale. “ Narrow hocks are so sub-

or mare, though it is one which is (used

ject to thorough -pin , &c., that most

to be commonly overlooked south of the

Hocks .

breeders avoid them , though there should Tweed. be no perceptible marks of unsoundness.

“ In trotting, the horse should bend

Straight hocks are not liked ; but if the the legs at the knees and hocks, and

other parts are proportionate and the from a hind view the inside of the fore action sound, no exception is taken to hoofs should almost be seen at every this formation .

It is as a work -horse,

step.

If the animal be inclined to move

however, that the Clydesdale should be wide behind, this fault will be easily dis considered, and it is questionable if a covered at the trotting pace.”. straight hock affords asmuch propelling power as

A horse that goes wide behind gener

one moderately bent. The ally gives a more favourable impression

muscles surrounding the hocks should be at the trot than walking.

SUFFOLK HORSES.

401

A noted Clydesdale Stallion of modern regards pedigrees, and publishing a first volume or registry, from which it is pro

times ( 1890 ) is represented in Plate 3, vol. i.; Plate 5, vol. i., a typical Draught Stallion of 1840 ; Plate 7, vol. i., a typical Draught Mare of 1840 ; and Plate 6 , vol. i. , a Draught Horse of 1840.

posed to carry on in future a regular stud-book.

Through the courtesy of the

secretaries we have been favoured with the loan of some MSS., from which it

clearly appears that there is scarcely a SUFFOLK HORSES .

Suffolk stallion in the county , of any

note whatever, whose pedigree is not The Suffolk Punch is a distinct type of clearly to be traced in a direct male line horse. It has its headquarters in the for seventy years. The records in the county of Suffolk ; but although it has possession of the association , which re

long been held in high esteem there, it late to a period between 1790 and 1810, has never obtained an extensive footing throw some light on the matter, and beyond the south - eastern counties of point to the introduction of materials England. not ill calculated to bring about the

Historical. - As to the origin of the transformation that has taken place. Suffolk Punch, various accounts have Infusion of the Thoroughbred, Flemish, been given. Low says : “ The colour and heavier blood of native horses, has distinctive of this variety connects it with tended to exert upon the ' old breed ' the the race widely diffused throughout the influence such elements would be likely

north of Europe and Asia, from theScan- to produce ; but as far as a careful search dinavian Alps to the plains of Tartary, through the lineage of the horses now in which the dun colour prevails. It is extant in the county will show, not one seems to have inherited the alloy in the

believed to have been carried to the east-

ern counties of England from Normandy, male line, all of which terminate in an which yet possesses many fine horses of ancestry in all probability tracing back

to the old breed mentioned by Arthur

this variety, introduced, it may be believed, by the Scandinavian invaders. ” 1 Arthur Young was a native of Suffolk, and in his report on the Agriculture of this county, compiled about the end of the eighteenth century, he speaks of “ the old breed " of horses as if it had been specially associated with the district long prior to that date. Writing

tinctive feature in the Suffolk breed. It is a light dun or sorrel, sometimes, as Low has it, deepening into chestnut, with lighter coloured mane and tail.

in 1878, Mr Herman Biddel says : “Two

Form.-Arthur Young did not seem

Young." Characteristics. Colour . — The colour is the most dis

hundred years ago there were draught to have a high opinion of the breed. horses peculiar to the county, and of He cuts it off with this sarcastic touch :

standing enough as a distinct breed to “ Sorrel colour ; very low in the fore maintain their prevailing characteristics through generations of descendants, long after the originaltype had been considerably modified by repeated selection,

end ; a large ill-shaped head , with slouch ing, heavy ears ; a great carcass, and short legs : an uglier horse could hardly be viewed.” Now , however, the breed and the introduction of incidental crosses. is more gainly, although it is still a thick, How long prior to Young's time the chubby, or punchy animal, with a body

breed had existed we have no evidence disproportionately large for the length of its limbs. Its legs are stout, but Continuing, the same writer says: “ Up rounder in the bone than is considered to the present time (1878)there has been desirable for maximum strength. The

to show ." 2

no stud - book of the Suffolk horse : an

“ feather " has not been cultivated on the

association is now, however, under the Suffolk Punch, and so its legs are free presidency of Lord Waveney, formed for from the long hair which characterises the

the purpose of collecting information as legs of the Shire and Clydesdale horses. 1 Domestic Animals of British Isles, 619. ? Live Stock 1. Alk ., 1878. VOL . III .

Aptitude for Work . - The Suffolk Punch is a most faithful servant. It is

probably the hardest puller of the equine 2 C

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

402

race . A true Punch of the olden type in which, as a rule, the Cleveland Bay was a “ dour," dull, determined creature ; breeds to type, both in colour and con

it would tug and pull till it dropped formation, precludes the possibility of his down, rather than give in.

It is men- being the result of an elaborate system

tioned by Low and other writers that of crossing between the thoroughbred this property was so remarkable in the and the cart - horse.

Practically the

old Suffolk Punches, that cruel wagers Cleveland Bay is as fully entitled to used to be laid on their powers of draught, be termed a pure breed as any breed of and many fine horses were thus ruined domestic animals, and there seems every by their indomitable spirit.

reason to believe that it is descended in

The modern Punch retains not a little direct line, with importations of foreign of this useful attribute, and it is vastly blood perhaps, from the aboriginal horses improved in the important matter of of Britain. It is very probable that the Cleveland It is a hardy animal, and an action. excellent feeder.

Horses of the breed Bay derives a certain proportion of his

are now highly esteemed for van and courage and endurance from a pretty dray work in towns, although under large infusion of Eastern blood, which

heavy loads on hard streets they donot doubtless did take place in the earlier wear quite so well as theimproved Shire years of the Christian era. It is also possible that the Cleveland and Clydesdale horses. They are capital Bay may have been crossed with the farm -horses, especially for tillage work. Scandinavian horse during the time that CLEVELAND BAYS.

Cleveland Bay horses have played an important part both in road and farm work .

the Danes effected a settlement on the north -east coast of Yorkshire.

Characteristics . — The Cleveland Bay is a short-legged horse, standing from 16

The following notes regarding hands to 16 hands 3 inches, seldom being

them are from the pen of Mr W. Scarth

found under the one, and only a few

Dixon, hon. secretary of the Cleveland specimens being met with that exceed, or even attain to, the other. His head Bay Horse Society :

The value of a breed of horses with is rather plain, but is well set on, his

size, action, power, and a hardy consti- neck is well placed, and his shoulders tution, and at the same time clear of generally lie well back. His back is carting blood, is incalculable ; and such rather long, from the standpoint of a

is the Cleveland Bay, or, as it was for- riding man,butit is strong and muscular ; merly called, the Chapman horse. The latter name seems the more appropriate one of the two, as in a word describing the “ general utility ” horse ; whilst the modern name is merely derived from the

his quarters are long, level, and elegant ; and his tail is well put on and well car ried . He is remarkable for the quality of bone, which is as clean and flat as that of a race-horse, and his legs are almost

district which became famous for con- clear of hair. His action is of a high taining the best specimens of the breed. standard of excellence, both in a walk

Origin . — The origin of the Cleveland and a trot ; and although he has none of Bay has exercised the ingenuity of seve- that knee action so much admired by ralwriters, who have puzzled themselves the lover of the hackney, he moves his shoulders and hocks in rare style, and count for the existence of the Cleveland in a manner highly suggestive of getting

and their readers in vain efforts to ac-

Bay by promulgating elaborate theories over the ground. of crossing between the thoroughbred The following description of a Cleve stallion and the cart -mare. It is unnec land Bay stallion that did good service essary to enter into minute detail respect- in the country in which he was located , ing these theories.

The very confor- is taken from the first volume of the

mation of the Cleveland Bay clearly points Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, out that he cannot be descended from and is from the pen of Mr J. B.

the cart-horse, the elegance of his quar- Lloyd, a celebrated Gloucestershire agri ters especially showing that there can be culturist. “ When old Cleveland was at no kinship between them ; whilst the way his full size, " says he, “ he measured

CLEVELAND BAYS.

403

16 hands 1/2 inch high, 938 inches rule, retaining the size and substance of round the pastern, 10 inches round below the Cleveland, and naturally possessing the knee, 21 inches round the arm , 155/8 more quality and pace ; but after the inches round the knee, and 6 feet 10 second cross the tendency is for the breed

inches round the girth . When measured to lose size and degenerate. As an in he was in good condition, but not what stance of the value of the Cleveland Bay you would call full of flesh, his legs as as a foundation for breeding hunters may clean as a race -horse. "

be cited the fact, that some of the best

The Cleveland Bay is a capital worker, hunters bred by Lord Middleton at Bird and on light land he cannot be beaten, sall are third in direct descent from a whilst hisgreat activity and hardy con Cleveland mare. stitution make him able to hold his own

with the heavier cart -horse on all but the

Yorkshire

Coach - horse.

The

Yorkshire coach -horse is an offshoot of

very stiffest clays. He can also run in his the Cleveland Bay, and originated in the master's gig, and I have occasionally seen demand which sprang up in the ear some of the best specimens running in a lier years of the present century for big

gentleman's carriage, though the present flash carriage-horses.

The short-legged

fashion is in favour of a lighter and more compact Cleveland mare

was crossed

stylish animal. They are not often used with a big, lengthy, and flash thorough as saddle-horsesnow , but occasionally a bred horse; the produce, whether horse farmer in the Yorkshire dales may be or mare , was bred from, and eventually

seen riding one to market. Formerly, the Yorkshire coach -horse, or — as he was sometimes called, from the locality in Yorkshire, especially in the North in which he was principally bred — the Riding ; and occasionally one was found Howdenshire Cleveland, became recog that could carry his owner creditably nised as a distinct breed. Possessing to hounds. the length and fine level quarters of the Value for Crossing . — The value of Cleveland bay, as well as others of his the Cleveland Bay for crossing with other good properties, the coach -horse also has breeds is difficult to estimate , and to this much of the elegance of the thorough very fact is to be attributed in no small bred. He is apt, however, to grow leggy measure that falling off in the numbers in the course of a few generations; what of the pure breed which a few years ago is gained in quality is lost in bone ; and however, they were much used as hacks

nearly led to its extinction.

It was used recourse has to be had to the old breed

in Scotland in the early part of the pres- to restore that substance which is so ent century to improve the breed of essential in a good coach -horse.

From

agricultural horses in that country, and the Cleveland Bay and the coach -horse with as satisfactory results as seem to are bred a large proportion of what are have attended MrLloyd's Gloucestershire known in the trade as London carriage enterprise. Valuable ride and drive horses : the larger and stronger animals horses have also been bred by crossing a being bred from mares of the former

short-legged hackney sire with a Cleve- breed and sired by either thoroughbreds land mare ; and Cleveland mares crossed

or coach -horses ; whilst the lighter and

with a thoroughbred horse have bred lesser horses are bred from mares of the some of the best hunters that ever went latter breed, and sired either by coach out of Yorkshire. Great care, however, horses of high quality or by thorough is required in the selection of a stallion. bred horses of a coaching type. The latter should be of an active, wiry Latterly an attempt has been made,

character, with good shoulders, and a but without success, to prove that the short strong back , and rather under than Cleveland Bay is not a pure breed. Ab over 15 hands 3 inches. Especial care solute purity of breeding cannot, and should be taken to select a horse with short does not, exist ; but a breed which has

legs, this being a far more important mat- existed for centuries without admixture

ter than size,which is rather to be avoided, of foreign blood, transmitting its char even if the horse is ever so well put to- acteristics in so remarkable a manner as gether. land ma

The second cross from aCleve- the Cleveland Bay has done and con makes the best hunter as a

tinues to do, is fairly entitled to rank

404

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

amongst the pure breeds of British blood of unknown breeding. The dam horses.

A noted modern Cleveland Stallion is

represented in Plate 8, vol. i. THE HACKNEY HORSE .

of “ Shales," as of “ Hopeful," another son of “ Blaze ,” was a trotting mare.

From 1750 to 1780 Barb blood was freely used in Norfolk on trotting mares. The horse “ Shales ” is said in an old advertisement to have been “ the fastest

The Hackney horse, sometimes known horse of his day .” Through his get, as the Norfolk Trotter, is a most useful “ Scot Shales ” and “ Driver,” came all It is useful not the famous “ Shales ” and “ Fireaway animal on the farm . >>

only for the farmer's trap and for riding,

stock of the end of the eighteenth

but also for light spring -cart work. The century. Many of the good ones were term Hackney is now understood to in- bred in the Long Sutton district. The

clude riding -horses (other than thorough- “ Driver ” stock first won popularity in breds and hunters and small ponies), no Yorkshire — the “ Shales ” stock in Nor folk ; but there was a regular inter matter what may be their height.

Mr H. F. Euren, secretary to the change of the two strains from the out Hackney Horse Society, writes : set. Their descendants, Burgess's “ Fire Historical. — The name Hackney came away,” Wroot's “ Pretender,” and his son ,

in with the Normans, but the old Danish Ramsdale's “ Performer," Bond's (two) name Nag held its own. Hackney was “ Norfolk Phenomenon,” Chamberlain's applicable only to a pacing or trotting “ Marshland Shales," and the “ Norfolk horse, while nag was and is used as a Cob ” family, are a few of the horses name for any riding-horse. existing between the years 1788 and

Hackneys and Trotters are frequently 1850, whose names occur often in the mentioned in old farm accounts from the full pedigree of the horses which have

year 1331 to 1518 ( Thorold Rogers's won the Society's champion honours. History of Agriculture and Prices). In

Notwithstanding that examination of

1340, by 14 Edward III., s. 1 , c. 19, one an extended pedigree shows that the of three Acts passed to regulate purvey- modern Hackney is frequently an inbred

ance and to make illegal the practice of sending the “ king's great horses " on to farmers' lands; but there was reserved to the king's Master of the Horse privilege of purveyance for “ a Hakeney," which he might have : in the Paston

horse, it is claimed for the breed that it retains its old -time characteristics — good

action, high courage, and great powersof endurance. M. de Thannberg, who for nearly forty years was connected with the Government Studsin France, declared

Letters, under date 1470 : in Acts of in 1873 that the Norfolk Trotter had Henry VIII. — 1535-36, 1540, 1542— transmitted these very qualities to the the last-named providing that cart-horses French horses, and thus established what or sumpter-horses were not to be reckoned

is now known as the French coach -horse.

as trotting horses : by Blundeville, the The old custom of trotting against time Norfolk parson, who was the first and in matches, which prevailed in Eng

English writer on horses ( A.D. 1558 ): by land in the early years of this century, Thomas de Grey, The Phoenix of our having been discontinued, the qualities

Times (A.D. 1624), who spoke of the trot- which won for the Hackney its old repu ting horse as the English breed of horse, tation are not now so plainly in evidence ; the troop -horse of his day. but those who have a knowledge of

The Hackneys of the eighteenth and back -breeding have no difficulty in select nineteenth centuries trace back, almost without exception, to one horse, named “Shales," foaled about the year 1755. His sire was " Blaze.” The sire of “ Blaze was “Flying Childers,” which

ing horses which shall transmit the old time powers to the progeny. Practice of Breeding. —The prac

tice of the breeders of the Hackney, as shown by records from 1780 to 1820,

was that of using the Hackney stallion The dam of Blaze, known as on half - bred mares, the produce of

horse was a mixture of Barb and Arab blood .

“ Confederate Filly,” had Barb or Turk thoroughbred stallions and trotting blood in equal proportions with English mares. This has continued to be an

CATTLE.

405

almost universal practice in Yorkshire. regulations are enforced to guarantee the In Norfolk there have been experiments soundness of the horses which receive made of using thoroughbred stallions on any distinction, whether of prize or com trotting mares, and the result has not mendation. The proportion of unsound been so satisfactory as is the breeding in horses has been found to be very small.

Yorkshire, as regards form, endurance, The show is also doing a very great deal or action. The most experienced breeders are agreed that the truest mode of breeding Hackney stallions, so as to get a certain result, is to put the neces-

towards a return of the Hackney to its old place as a riding-horse without any lessening of the action for which the Hackney has always been famous. The

sary thoroughbred blood into the breed Society, which at the end of its first year through the mare,and better still through had 290 members, ended its eighth year her dam . The examination of hundreds with 1000. of pedigrees received from Yorkshire has shown me that in a very small propor CATTLE . tion of cases - certainly not more than two per cent - Yorkshire breeders have followed this plan of using Hackney The British Isles have long been famed

stallions — putting thoroughbred blood amongst the nations of the earth for their into the breed through the mares only. wealth in cattle. Nowhere else has the

One of these Yorkshire - bred horses, systematic breeding of farm live stock known as North Star,” which

was ex- been carried on so persistently and suc “ ported by Col. Barlow in 1860 to the cessfully as in this country. Our soil Austrian Government, and which I find,

and climate, as well as the habits and

on examination of the pedigree, had only tastes and skill and enterprise of our two parts in 64 of thoroughbred blood, people, are all peculiarly adapted to the

was found so pre-potent that he has industry. In the breeding of cattle in stamped his characteristics on hundreds particular, our farmers have been singu of horses in the district of Austria in Tarly successful.

For many years the

which he was used , so that it is com- improved breeds of British cattle have mon there to hear a horse spoken of as a been largely drawn upon by numerous

North Star. The breeding of two of the foreign countries for the amelioration of most successful stallions — Mr W. Flan- native races ; while the improvement ders's “ Reality ” and Mr Henry Moore's effected in the general cattle stock of “ Rufus ” —each a winner of a champion

Great Britain since 1830 has added

cup at the Hackney Society's London greatly to the agricultural wealth of the show, confirms me in my previously nation. formed opinion.

“ Reality's " dam was

There are over a dozen breeds of cattle

sired by a thoroughbred, but there were in Great Britain usually regarded as dis three previous generations of the best tinct varieties. In Englandthere are the Hackney blood. His sire had thoroughbred blood in the fourth generation only, and then through mares. “ Rufus's granddam was sired by a thoroughbred, and her dam was Hackney bred. On

Shorthorn (also widely diffused through Ireland and Scotland), Hereford, Norfolk and Suffolk Red Polled, Devon, Sussex, and Longhorn breeds. In Wales there are several varieties, such as the Pem

his sire's side the thoroughbred blood broke (or South Wales or Castle Martin )

came in five generations back, and only breed, the Anglesea (or North Wales) breed, the Glamorgan breed, and the

through the dam . Hackney Horse Society . — The Hack-

Old Castle Martin White breed.

The

ney Horse Society was organised in 1883 first two are the principal varieties. and incorporated in 1884, not only to provide a stud - book for the record of the breed, but also to ensure to the public that the horse used shall be on both

Scotland claims the Polled Aberdeen Angus, the Polled Galloway, the Ayr shire, and the West Highland breeds. Ireland has its one pure native breed,

sides of the best blood, and sound in the Kerry, with a sub -variety in the every respect. The Society holds an an- Dexter. The cattle of the Orkney and nual show in London .

The strictest

Shetland Islands are distinct in form and

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

406

attributes from the races of the main- days of shorthorn fame to speak of them land. The Jersey and Guernsey breeds as “ Teeswater Cattle,” this habit of are now so thoroughly acclimatised in course arising from the fact that several England and Ireland as to be entitled to of the most famous earlier improvers of the breed lived in the valley of the mention amongst British cattle.

A notable feature in stock - breeding Tees. enterprise in recent times has been the

We believe the fact may be accepted

establishment of herd - books for the as undeniably established that the im recording of pedigrees. Almost every proved shorthorn is in the main a direct one of the breeds named above has now

descendant of the aboriginal cattle of the

its own herd-book, and there is no doubt north -east of England. It is stated that that the influence of this movement has

some centuries ago a cross was introduced

been highly beneficial. The great ma- from some of the large-framed breeds of jority of the cattle of the country are the continent of Europe, notably Holland still of mixed breeding, but the number and Denmark. It is known that in more of animals with recorded pedigrees is recent times — to wit, early in the nine now far greater than ever before, and is teenth century - an infusion of alien blood

steadily increasing SHORTHORN CATTLE.

was taken from other British breeds.

These extraneous dashes of blood , how ever, have been but as drops in the ocean .

In the swelling tide of pure shorthorn The shorthorn has abundantly earned blood they have long since lost their

the right to the premier position amongst distinctive force, so that for all prac British breeds of cattle. It is by far the tical purposes the pure-bred shorthorn of most numerous, as it is the most widely to-day may be taken as the direct de diffused .

More wealth is bound up in

scendant of the ancient cattle of the

it than in any other variety of the bovine north -east of England. race .

In the development of the live-

Early Improvements. — The first to

stock industry of the British Isles, it has begin the systematic improvementof the played a great part, far exceeding that of shorthorn breed were the brothers Charles

any other distinct class of animals. And and Robert Colling, who were probably it has done more than develop wealth at home. It has gone in vast numbers to foreign countries, bringing in exchange foreign gold to the British farmer, and creating wealth, and promoting pastoral prosperity wherever it has appeared. The breed which has done all this — and is as busy at work as ever, widening its field of operations from day to daywell merits a word of homage from the

busy at this important work at the dawn of the nineteenth century. We are told that in those days the great majority of shorthorn cattle were large high-stand ing animals with good milking prop erties, but rough in form and slow in fattening. The Collings at once directed themselves to the improvement of the cattle where they were most defective, and there is ample evidence to show live-stock historian. that very early in the nineteenth century Origin and Progress. — The credit of these pioneerbreeders had succeeded in

giving to the world this fine race of im- establishing herds of cattle which were proved cattle belongs to the north -east of decidedly superior to any others in the

England, —in largest measure perhaps to country. From the earliest glimpses we the county of Durham . It is probably get of the Collings cattle, we learn that, right to regard the county of Durham as in comparison with the unimproved “the cradle " of the shorthorns. They cattle of the district, they were wider in

have often been spoken of, both at home the rib, more symmetrical in the frame, and abroad, as the “ Durham Breed ,” yet shorter in the leg, slightly smaller in the valuable race of native cattle from size, heavier in Hesh, and much more

which the improved shorthorn was raised speedy in growth and in the accumula were the prevailing class of stock kept in tion of flesh and fat. the adjoining counties as far back as re-

As to the methods of breeding followed

liable history enables us to trace their by the Collings, there has been a good career . It was also common in the early deal of speculation. It is asserted by

SHORTHORN CATTLE.

407

some writers — but there is no absolute wonder that this should be the case .

proof in support of the assertion -- that The importance of the work which was in improving the native cattle .the Col- taken up and carried on by them can lings introduced an infusion of blood hardly be overestimated. At the pres from some of the other smaller breeds ent day there is not a well-bred living of the country. We do not presume to shorthorn in whose pedigree Colling controvert this suggestion,

We are,

blood does not figure prominently — mar

however, more inclined to the belief that vellous testimony, surely, to the import the Collings relied upon “selection " in ance of the work done by these two great breeding that is, upon the mating of men . the animals of the shorthorn breed which

Booth and Bates Shorthorns.— The

most nearly approached to their ideal of character, and fixing the type by pursuing what is designated “ in- and- in breeding. This system of “ in -and -in

most famous of the Collings' more im mediate successors were Thomas Bates and Thomas and John Booth, names

which have long occupied prominent breeding ” —that is, the mating ofanimals positions in connection with shorthorn which are closely related to each other— cattle.

At the Ketton sale in 1810,

is well known to assist greatly in stamp- Thomas Bates purchased the two - year ing or fixing peculiar features and char- old heifer, “ Old Duchess," for 183 acteristics upon races of stock .

The

guineas.

Thomas Booth bought the

Collings, wehave reason to believe, soon bull “ Albion ” for 60 guineas, while at discovered this, and it is clear to us that

the Barmpton sale in 1818, his brother

they employed with great skilland discrim- John Booth purchased the yearling bull ination this somewhat uncertain agent,

“Pilot

>

for 270 guineas.

With these

which, according to the manner in which purchases the shorthorn breed drifted it is directed, is possessed of great power into two great channels, which by de for good or evil.

grees absorbed the main current of the

But whatever may have been their method of breeding, it is well known that the success of the Collings was both speedy and complete. The fame of their cattle spread so rapidly, that in the first

Booth, as we have thus seen , had one common origin in the stock of the brothers Colling. In the hands of their

few years of the nineteenth century they

race .

These two strains of Bates and

new owners the strains developed distinc tive shapes and characteristics, which in

were obtaining the hitherto unheard -of the purer representatives are still main price of £ 100 each for cows and bulls of tained and easily recognised. their improved strains.

The Bates cattle, says Mr Robert

and Barmpton Sales.- Bruce, " are higher - standing, better Charles Colling's historical sale at Ket milking, and perhaps gayer-looking cat Ketton

ton in 1810 is usually spoken of as the

tle than the Booths. They have as a

first great public sale of shorthorns. On that historical occasion twenty -nine cows and heifers realised an average of £140, 4s. 7d., while the average attained for eighteen bulls was £ 169, 8s. each. The crowning sensation was the

rule more upright shoulders, flatter fore ribs, opener sides, with long hind quar ters, less fully packed with flesh than the rival strain. As a rule their heads are clean cut and pretty wide, while the bulls have long arched muscular necks and keen tempers. The prevailing col

purchase of the renowned bull “ Cornet for the fabulous sum of 1000 guineas.

ours in this strain of blood are, generally

An equally important event took place speaking, deeper than in the other, being eight years later, when at Robert Col- reds and rich roans. The Booth cattle

ling's sale at Barmpton, notwithstand- are wider, deeper, and perhaps less pretty. ing the fact that the time was

one

Their shoulders are more laid back , their

of great depression, the herd of sixty- fore ribs and flanks deeper and better one animals

£ 128, 9s. rod.

realised an average of

filled . They are more a beef than a milk

breed , with well - packed quarters and

Lovers of this fine race of cattle de- thick loins.

The sires remind one more

light to dwell upon the doings of the of a fat Smithfield ox, and they move

brothers Colling, and there is little without that courage and dash so pecu

408

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

liar to the ' Duke's' and other highly continent of Europe, in Australia, New Zealand, and other countries, the short

valued strains of the Bates tribes."

But while the Booth and Bates are the horn has been extensively introduced, two chief strains of pure-bred shorthorn and has been employed with great suc cattle, they do not by any means embrace cess in the improvement of native races the whole.

Beyond these there are of cattle. The particular mission of the

many excellent herds and families of improved shorthorn would seem to be shorthorns which show but little leaning to remove or make up for the deficiencies

either to Booth or Bates, and which are, of other breeds. Its remarkable adapt in their own way, equally meritorious and ability for crossing with and improving useful. Chief amongst these must be other varieties of cattle has imparted to

mentioned the “ Cruikshank ” families, it quite exceptional value and celebrity. long maintained and bred with great The great bulk of improved shorthorns success by the brothers Cruikshank at have therefore, during the existence of the the farm of Sittyton, in the county of race, been employed as indirect as well as Aberdeen .

direct agents in the production of meat Colour . — Roan of varying shades is -in bringing meat out of other races as the prevailing colour of shorthorn cattle. well as raising it upon their own frames.? Many of them are red of different hues, Milking Properties.The milking and a considerable number are white. properties of improved shorthorns vary The last-named colour is decidedly un- greatly. Many breeders of shorthorns popular ; but the objection to it is by no have unfortunately cultivated the fatten

means well founded . Not a few short- ing to the detriment of the milking prop horns are red and white, the patches oferty, carrying on this one-sided develop red and white being distinct from each ment much further than was either nec other. This colouris also objected to, essary or desirable. It is thus by no and breeders strive to avoid it as far as means uncommon to meet with shorthorn possible. cows which are greatly deficient in milk

Characteristics.-- Enough has been production. Taking the breed as a said at the outset of this notice to indi- whole, however, it is still fairly satisfac

cate that the attributes of the shorthorns tory in this point, while the majority Indeed, both of pure-bred shorthorn cows and of

are of the very highest order.

in the production of meat and in general crosses from the breed are entitled to utility the shorthorn is unsurpassed. It rank as heavy milkers. Good shorthorn may be excelled by some other varieties cows give from 700 to 1000 gallons of

in special aptitude for peculiar purposes, milk in twelve months, and occasionally or for certain limited districts, but for a much higher yields are obtained. combination of all the more useful proper-

Weight and Early Maturity . — The

ties of domestic cattle, as well as adap- improved shorthorn has all through its tability to varying conditions of soil, cli- recorded history been noted for its pre

mate, and treatment, there is no other breed of cattle that can equal the short horn. With remarkable facility the shorthorn adapts itself to extremes of

cocity. It grows rapidly, attains great weight, and accumulates flesh and fat with great rapidity. At the Smithfield Fat Stock Show in December 1887, the

soil, climate, and management, and this class of shorthorn steers under two years characteristic, combined as it is with old (averaging 672 days each ), gave an another valuable property which the average live-weight of 1396 lb. Short breed possesses in an unequalled degree- horn steers over two years and under

namely, suitability for crossing with and three years of age (averaging 988 days) improving other and inferior races of averaged 1870 lb .; while shorthorn steers cattle - has spread the improved short- over three years old (averaging 1321 horn far and wide, not only in the British days) gave an average live-weight of Isles, but also in many foreign lands.

2116 lb. each .

In North and South America, in the ? “Shorthorns in Scotland and

1 Chambers's Encyclopaedia, article on « Cat tle " by James Macdonald.

Ireland,”

Journal Royal Agricultural Society of England, by James Macdonald . Vol. xix., part I., 1883.

-

HEREFORD CATTLE.

409

Points of the shorthorn . — The fol- improved Hereford, which is as widely lowing description of the points of the noted for its picturesqueness and beauty improved shorthorn is from the pen of as for its practical utility. Origin .-- The generally accepted opin the late Mr Henry Strafford , editor of

Coates's Herd - Book : " The head of the ion as to the origin of improved Hereford time fine, very broad across the eyes, but aboriginal cattle of the county of Hereford

male animal is short, but at the same cattle is, that they trace directly from the

gradually tapering to the nose, the nostril and adjoining districts. The improve itself of a rich flesh -colour, neither too century , by the Tomkins family . There

of which is full and prominent — the nose ment wasbegun far back in the eighteenth

light nor too dark ; eyes bright and placid, with ears somewhat large and thin. The head, crowned with a curved and rather flat horn, is well set on to a lengthy,

is abundance of evidence to show that, as early as 1766, it was taken up in a syste matic manner by Benjamin Tomkins,who continued the work with great energy and

broad, muscular neck ; the chest wide,

success until his death in the year 1815 .

deep, and projecting ; the shoulders fine, For four years after, his herd was main oblique, and well formed into the chine ; tained by his daughters , and when it was

fore legs short, with the upper arm large dispersed by public auction in 1819, one and powerful; barrel round, deep, and year after the famous Barmpton sale of well ribbed up towards the loins and shorthorns, twenty -eight breeding animals

hips, which should be wide and level ; realised an average of £ 149 per head back straight from the withers to the four adult bulls bringing £ 267, 155. each, setting on of the tail, but still short , and two bull-calves £ 181,28. 6d. each. that is, from hip to the chine - the opinion

Other early breeders of skill and enter

of many good judges being that a beast prise took up with commendable spirit should have a short back with a long the work which had been so well begun frame. As a consequence of this, the by Tomkins, and to their successful efforts hind quarter must itself be lengthy, but the Hereford farmers of to -day are in well filled in. The hair is plentiful, soft, debted for a valuable race of rent-paying and mossy, with a hide not too thin, and cattle. It is generally considered that infu in fact something approaching the feeling of velvet. The female enjoys nearly all sions of foreign blood have contributed to the same characteristics as the above, with some extent to the building up of the the exception of her head being finer, improved Hereford. In the history of longer, and more tapering ; her neck this breed , it is mentioned that in the thinner, and altogether lighter ; and her seventeenth century cattle had been shoulders more inclined to narrow towards imported into Hereford from France by the chine. Like most well-proportioned Lord Scudamore, and that in later times animals , the shorthorn often looks smaller there have been introductions of stock into Hereford from various parts of Eng than he really is.” 1

A famous Shorthorn Cow of modern land and from Wales. Undoubtedly, times ( 1890) is represented in Plate 9, however, the dominant ingredient in the

vol. i. Plate 10, vol. i., represents a Shorthorn Bull of 1850. Plate 11, vol. i., represents a Shorthorn Ox of 1850 ; and Plate 12, vol. i., Shorthorn Cows of

improved Hereford is the aboriginal race of the county - the same race of cattle which, under different conditions of soil, climate, and management, have given

1840.

us such breeds as the Devon and Sussex. HEREFORD CATTLE.

Colour. — The colour of the improved Hereford is red with white face, white

This handsome breed of cattle has its marks in the top line of the neck, back home in the English county whose name

over the crops as well as in the chest

it bears. No other variety of stock in and bottom line, all the way backwards. the British Isles displays more distincThe white face has been well described tively marked characteristics than the as the “ tribal badge ” of the Hereford, 1 Article “ Shorthorn Cattle,” Morton's Cy clopedia of Agriculture.

History of Hereford Cattle, by Macdonald and Sinclair. Vinton & Co. , Limited, London.

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

410

and we are told that this distinctive mark modern breeders have with good results is traceable to the infusion of foreign given careful attention to the removal of

this deficiency. . . .

blood referred to.

Many animals of the breed were at

“An important characteristic in Here

one time grey or spotted in the face, and ford cattle is that they carry flesh most even yet there exists a strain of Here- heavily on the parts of the frame from fords known as “ Smoky-faced Mont- which the best meat is cut. Their broad gomerys."

backs are usually loaded with meat of

Characteristics. — The following notes the very finest quality, and the average as to the characteristics of Hereford

Hereford carcass is found to have its fat

cattle are taken from the work already and lean mixed in the most admirable referred to : 1 “ Hereford cattle are re-

manner.

Butchers and consumers alike

markable for the distinctiveness and hold Hereford beef in the highest esteem.

uniformity of their outward character. Indeed, the grass-fed Hereford beef en istics and general attributes. The red joys quite an enviable reputation, and curly hair, and broad kindly -looking bringstop figures in the best markets of white face, mark the trail of the Here- the country. . “ Hereford cattle are unsurpassed as ford wherever the breed has roamed. In

.

former times, as we have seen, the mottlefaced and grey strains were cultivated ; but all these have disappeared, and now the white faces ' reign supreme. This distinguishing feature would seem to be indelibly stamped in the breed. . . . The almost unique permanency of the white face is the strongest possible evidence of the purity of the Hereford breed. Hereditary power is the surest sign of purity of

graziers. Robust in constitution, quiet in temperament, kindly feeders, and large growers, they thrive and fatten admirably on pasture land. ” Milking Properties . — Dairying has not formed a prominent feature in the agriculture of Hereford. The milking properties of its native breed of cattle have therefore been neglected. Hereford cows, as a rule, are deficient as milkers,

descent ; and it may be doubted if any the one special object of the breed being

characteristic in any of our domesticated the production of high-class beef at an varieties of farm live stock is more firmly early age. fixed than the white face of the Hereford. ...

“ In conformation, the breed displays nearly as much uniformity as in colour. The most striking features in this are their broad level back, deep wide chest and brisket, hanging dewlap, light thighs, and great wealth of flesh .

We have

often heard strangers remark upon what some of them have designated the

Size and Weight.-In stature as well

as in height the Hereford corresponds very closely to the shorthorn . At the Smithfield Fat Stock Show in London in December 1887 the class of Hereford steers under two years old (averaging 634 days) gave an average live-weight of 1390 lb.—6 lb. less than the average of the corresponding class of shorthorns. The average live -weight of Hereford

6

'wedgy ' appearance of Herefords,their steers over two and under three years of great development in front, broad loins, age (averaging 938 days) was 1742 lb.; and thin thighs.

The light hind leg as while the steers over three years (aver

well as the great development in the aging 1310 days) gave an average live fore parts are heritages of the good old times when Herefords were beasts of

weight of 2041 lb. each. Plate 13, vol. i. , represents a noted

burden , when they tilled the fields, and Hereford Bull. carried the harvest .'

The broad back ,

wide rib, and wealth of flesh have been cultivated for the purpose of meat pro

duction ; but the old characteristic of

DEVON CATTLE .

This breed has its headquarters in the

light thighs, though less apparent than it counties of Devon and Somerset. There has been, is still a noticeable defect in it has held undisputed sway for hundreds many animals. The more successful of of years. It is the directdescendant of the aboriginal cattle of the south -west of * History of Hereford Cattle, p. 258.

England,and has been bred in purity for

DEVON CATTLE.

411

centuries. In some respects, indeed, the same, he prefers a small cow rather than Rubies of the West,” as these cattle a large one for breeding a bull, because are fondly designated by their admirers, it isvery rare to see any very large one occupy a position which is almost unique.

handsome; but to breed oxen , a large

Few breeds of live stock of which we have

cow . To have them sharp and thin from

any acquaintance have so long main- the throat to the nose ; in the throat the tained undisputed sway over their native cleanest have small variations from the districts as have the Devons ; and there perfect snake ; though fat there, it should are perhaps equally few that can lay not bag. To be thin under the eyes and

claim to as long a career of prominent tapering to the nose, which should be The history of the Devon white, but the original breed was yellow . breed of cattle does not cover a wide Between the eyes to be rather wide ; eyes usefulness.

extent of country, yet it stretches far themselves to be very prominent, like back in years, and is, locally, full of in- those of a blood -horse, and no change of terest and edification, bound up as it is colour round them . The horns to be in the agricultural development of the white, with yellow tips; thin at root and counties of Devon and Somerset. long, spreading at the points. The Early Breeders . — Arthur Young had breast or bosom should project as much evidently been fascinated by the Devon as possible before the shoulder and legs ;

cattle, for he put himself to no little and the wider between the fore legs the trouble to obtain information regarding better. To have the line of the neck them for incorporation in his report, from the horns to the withers straight dated 1776. He mentions Mr Quartly with that of the backbone. The belly of Molland as the most celebrated of to be light and rather tucked up ; if fat the breeders at that time in North before the udder, it is a sign of a good

Devon, and he gives details of an in- milker.” terview which he had at Molland with

The Quartly Herd. — Any one who

Mr Quartly (then spelt “ Quarterly ") knows the Devons of to -day would readily and his brother, “ the clergyman who recognise in the ideal cattle thus por interests himself much in live stock.”

trayed the true progenitor of the im

Young inspected their herd, and they proved breed. Intelligent breeders with had the goodness “ to satisfy the in- so clear an ideal, so well defined a model,

quiries " he troubled them with. He and the relation of all important points thus describes the aims and objects of so well reasoned out, could not fail to leave an almost indelible stamp upon these noted early breeders :

“The points they have aimed at in the race on which they operated. No breeding have chiefly been to gain as wonder that the fame of the Quartly great a width as possible between the Devons still lives, for the efforts of Mr hips; to have the hip -bones round and Quartly must have done much to mould

not pointed ; that the space from the the breed into the strongly set type catch to the hips should be as long as which it now displays. Young tells us possible ; the catch full, but not square ; that the points which he describes so that the tail should fall plumb, without fully are the points which these gentle a projection of catch and rump; to have men considered desirable to breed for in

the tail not set on high — not to rise- Devon cattle, which “ they consider as but be snug, and the line to be straight the best in England ; ” and he adds, “ Of with the backbone--no pillow just below their fattening qualities they observed the cross-line from pin to pin ; to be that the Somerset graziers are the judges, thick through the heart under the chine ; who are known to prefer them. that the shoulder-point be not seen-no working none can exceed them.

For As

projection of bone, but to bevel off to the milkers they are represented as possess neck, all elbowing out being very bad. ing much merit. They had two cows All the bones to be as small as possible ; that gave each 17 pints at a meal, and

the rib -bones round, not flat ; the leg as would make in general 10% lb. of butter small as possible under the knee ; not an per week in the flow of the season .” The systematic improvement of Devon cattle In respect to size, if other points be the as a breed began with this Mr Quartly. atom of the side to have any flatness.

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

412

He stated to Young that his father had round, with a thick even padding of the begun breeding Devons about twenty very choicest of meat. “ Plump as a

years earlier - twenty years prior to 1776 Devon " is a frequent expression, and and that he thought the breed there or there is no other breed of cattle, excep elsewhere was no better then, or at any ting, perhaps, the Dexter variety of

rate “two years ago," than it was when Kerry cattle — when these are really well his father commenced , so little progress fed — which represents so fully the idea had there been made by any one in im- of plumpness as does the well-fattened proving the breed. About this time, “ Rubies of the West.” It is wonderful

however, the demand for Devon. cattle to see the great weight of carcass which began to increase, giving a stimulus to these little low -set cattle sometimes carry the good work so systematically taken in —who that have been in the habit of

hand by Mr Quartly and a few other men attending fat stock shows have not been struck with this ? And while the legs of “light and leading. Down to this day the Quartly strains are short and fine, the expression of the are held in high esteem by all the face is bright and gentle, the clear promi leading breeders.

The value of the nent eye being encircled by an orange

work done by that family is well in- coloured ring. The head is comparatively dicated by that experienced and suc- small, with a broad indented forehead, cessful breeder, Mr W. Perry, when he tapering rapidly towards the nostrils, says, “ When I use a bull of any other which are fine and clean. The horns of

blood (than Quartly ), I find instead of the female are long and spreading, with advancing one step forward I go two a graceful upward turn. The horns of steps backward.”

the bull are much thicker set, and often more highly curved , than those of the cow, breeds of live stock display more striking and in some instances they stand out Colour and Characteristics . - Few

uniformity of colour and general charac- nearly square, with only a slight upward teristics than Devon cattle. The South Devons — those bred in the rich valley of

inclination . Beef Production . — As has been indi

Taunton Dene, are larger in the frame cated , the Devon cattle were in former

and higher on the leg than the more times much esteemed for working proper plump North Devon, which is the popular ties. In this respect they hadscarcely type. Red is the invariablecolour, vary- an equal, but now cattle are worked so ing from a dark to a shade almost as seldom that this quality is hardly worthy

light as chestnut. The nose, which once of consideration . As beef producers,

was yellow, is now creamy white, and in however, Devon cattle enjoy quite a first summer the skin is beautifully mottled class reputation. In certain circum by dark spots. Some of the earlier stances, indeed, they could hardly be ex breeders were very particular as to celled for this purpose. For the conver colour.

Lord Somerville, who gave sion of the hilly pastures of their native

much information to Arthur Young regarding the breed, states that he considered much depended upon the colour. Those with curled hair werd deemed excellent provers, and he also held in much esteem those with a very glossy

districts, no other variety of cattle has been found to equal them . It is, in fact, broadly asserted that from the consump tion of the herbage of any given number of acres, Devons would produce in the aggregate as much beef as any other

mahogany skin, paler or lighter, " with breed , though a greater number would be curls like ripples of wind on a smooth required to consume it ; while at the mill-pond."

same time there would be a greater

Plumpness. The North or typical weight of the most valuable beef, with Devon is emphatically a “ big little ani- less of the coarse joints and offal. It is mal” —a large body upon short fine limbs well known that Devon beef, along with

--small in comparison with the shorthorn or Hereford, but weighing more than either for its height. Its symmetry is admirable, and when mature in growth

“ prime Scotch ” beef, brings the highest price in the London market; and another valuable property in the Devon is that, beingsmall and active, it can forage well

and condition its body is wide, deep, and walk over much ground for its food

SUSSEX CATTLE.

413

so that it is peculiarly adapted for poor cattle as they were in the last century,

Heasman, editor of the Sus pastures. The Devons have not migrated Mr Alfred sex Herd - Book, and author of an ac

in any large numbers from their native

districts, but in these they have never count of Sussex cattle in Coleman's been successfully assailed . Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs of Great Milking Properties. - Speaking gen- Britain, mentions the custom of the

erally, it could not be said that thedairy farmers of West Sussex attending the properties of Devon cattle are of a high fairs at Lewes and Battle in order to buy

order. The quality of the milk is of the up the aged working oxen, which weighed very highest, but on an average the yield when fat a year later from 180 to200 is not large, although many instances of heavy yields are on record . Vancouver, writing in 1808, mentions a cow which, although only three weeks from her time of calving, yielded in seven successive days 1772 lb. of butter, several meals of the milk during these days averaging 14 pints. In one day — and she was clean milked out the previous evening — Mr J.

stone. This was certainly a grand breed on which to found a modern meat-pro

ducing type. MrEllman of Glynde,the great improver of Sussex sheep, found the Sussex ox a long -legged, strong boned, coarse , but useful beast of bur den ; and after breeding and exhibiting the native cattle with great success for many years, and encouraging others to

G. Davis's “ Cherry ” (5177 ) gave 33 pints do so, he left them much improved. of milk, from which 2 lb. 5 oz. of butter Still they were an old - fashioned sort. were made.

A cow belonging to Mrs Their colour was either light or dark The type was greatly improved

Stone, living at Catford, on Brendon red.

Hill, often gave 272 lb. of butter per during the Ellman period, and in spite day, and it is recorded that this cow of thedecay of the breed which we read milked till nearly twenty years old, was of in the prize report on Sussex farming then fattened slowly on grass alone, and in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural

slaughtered, when her dressed carcass Society of England, 1850, several farm weighed 800 lb. Weights. The weights which Devon

ers in the county, predecessors in some cases of the breeders and prize -winners

cattle attain when fattened are small of the present day, still retained good compared with those credited to our herds. larger breeds, but, as already indicated,

Coming down to more recent times,

they are great for the apparent size of we find the breed taking high honours

the cattle, while the percentage of dead at the Smithfield Club shows.

The

meat to live-weight is exceptionally high, first volume of the Susser Herd - Book and the amount of cheap meat relatively was published in 1879, but unfortun

small. Occasional animals of the breed atelyit contains no introductory chap reached as much as 19 cwt. ter showing the exact steps which have live-weight at four years old, but the been taken in forming the present im

have

average is much below that. At the proved race . It is now so well under

Smithfield Fat Stock Show at London in stood that in the case of most improved December 1887, the class of two years old breeds of cattle and sheep judicious cross

Devon steers (averaging 681 days) gave ing has preceded selection, that Sussex an average live-weight of 1235 lb.; steers breeders would most probably be willing over two and under three years old to admit the depth of theirrepeated dips

(averaging 996 days) 1489 lb.; and steers into the Devon blood . The Royal Society over three years (averaging 1320 days) first gave separate prizes for Sussex cat 1734 lb. each. tle at Leeds in 1861 .

Plate 14, vol. ii., represents a noted modern Devon Bull.

At the Paris exhibition of 1859 the Sussex and Devon breeds were conjoined in competition, though it was agreed that

they differed sufficiently to make such mixing undesirable. They ran neck and Mr Henry Evershed contributes the neck , however, the Devons winning in the class for bulls under two years old, following notes on this breed : SUSSEX CATTLE.

Speaking of the old breed of Sussex and the Sussex in the old bull class.

At

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

414

Kilburn, in the same year, the persever established a class of animalsof great uni ing exhibitors of this hardy, beef-making formity of character, which had lost the breed were highly complimented on unlevel outline that once distinguished their position, since their cattle, as stated them, and which retained immense length , by the reporters in the Journal of the with a carcass good enough for the most

Royal Agricultural Society of England, fastidious West End butcher. The cows “ formed one of the main features of

are not behind the bulls in massive

generally abovine splendid exhibition of the frames of well-balanced meat, surpassing race. It was admitted by the respect all 2

reporters that the Sussex steers would,

in this other breeds. It could not be expected that such a conformation

at two years of age, be as heavy as the of the females would be accompanied Devons at two years and six months, by good milking qualities, and as dairy though the comparative weight of the stock it must be admitted that the Sussex animals by no means decides the ques-

breed is defective.

tion of their comparative profit. Pass-

As the showyard representatives of the breed have for some years past been very

ing on to the year 1881 , when Sussex

cattle had already risen high in public numerous compared with the total num favour, the reporter of the live stock

ber of Sussex cattle, they must have

at Derby, in the Journal of the Royal stamped their character on the stock at

Agricultural Society of England, assists large in averymarked degree,and for us in carrying on their history.

“ No

this reason we have brought forward

breed,” he wrote, “ has been so im- what may be styled official evidence of proved as the Sussex during the past the " vast progress ” of the prize-winners thirty years.. Their form has at the Royal exhibitions and the Smith been levelled up to fair and comely

field Club shows.

So able and impar

proportions, and their touch mellowed tial a reporter as Mr William Macdonald , by happy selection ; and it is acknow- late editor of the North British Agri

ledged that in respect of early matur- culturist, said of them, after the York ity, as evidenced at the shows of the show of 1883, that with something like Smithfield Club, they are fast ap- the scale and outline of the shorthorn, they

Devon in uniformity and proaching to the standard of short- approachof ed the flesh. They are, said this Kentish and Sussex butchers quality prefer well -bred Sussex bullocks to authority, " grand beef-producing cattle,

horns.

any others.”

and deserve a wider hold than they yet

In the report of the judges after the possess of this meat-raising country." In Reading show in the following year, we regard to early maturity, MrMacdonald find anacknowledgment of themerits of remarks of a victorious yearling heifer, “ Few animals of any breed, at the age, the observed of all observers, although a would scale with her, and withal she is

a breed of cattle which had now become

few years previously breeders of Here- symmetrical. " The least important characteristic of fords, shorthorns, and Devons had passed them by with a shrug of the shoulder. a breed of cattle probably is colour, but As the origin of a breed is always a we must nevertheless state that instead matter of interest and importance, we of the lighter or darker red, which are may mention that the experts just re- now fashionable with Devon breeders, ferred to spoke of them as big Devon- an intermediate or cherry colour is pre like beasts ; but they described them as ferred by the fanciers of the Sussex

having more size and a deeper colour, as cattle, indicating, they think, good flesh, being higher on the leg, and possessing good quality, and aptitude forfattening. less finish, less elegance, but a more it happens that the writer has recently robust appearance ; adding to this description , “ they give one quite the idea of being of Devonshire extraction.” The same experts assigned to those enterpris-

inspected some of the best herds of Devon and Sussex cattle, and it seems to him that the remarks of Captain

Davy, late editor of the Devon Herd

ing tenant-farmers, to whose successful Book, on the superior beauty of his enthusiasm the improvement of the breed favourite breed, though made as long

was solely due, the full credit of having ago as 1863, are still applicable. The

SUSSEX CATTLE .

415

Sussex cattle are now , as they were then, are allowed to drop their calves all the

less pleasing in appearance, coarser in year round. Among their other good qualities, the bone, with comparatively upright shoul-

ders and less perfect form . The remarks uniform character of the breed is strong of Captain Davy being quite dispassion-

ly transmitted to the progeny of Sussex

ate, may be quoted as follows: “ It is bulls, when they are crossed with other not difficult to observe that the Devon- cattle. It is no slight merit that they shire and Sussex races are of the same can clear up the roughest pasturage, extraction ; indeed so nearly do they bear hardships, and walk any distance resemble each other in colour and length without suffering. Before concluding this brief accountof of horn that, if a stranger to the breeds were showntwo animals, one a Devon, a breed of cattle which is even now far the other a Sussex, I doubt if he would too little known, it will be well to de

observe any material difference between them , except that the Sussex beast might appear rather the larger, or, as the Swiss would say,the taller breed, from the greater length of the leg ; but the more experienced observer would discover in him a larger and less finely chiselled head, coarser eyelids, combined

scribe, as a typical animal, a bull bred by Messrs Stanford, and acknowledged to be the best Sussex bull ever shown. This is “ Goldsmith ,” thus described in the report of the live-stock York show, 1883 ( Journal of Royal Agricultural Society of England ): “ With a brisket well down to the ground, this ponderous

with a less pleasing expression of the bull is no more noteworthy in respect of eye, and a crescent-shaped upward horn, size, width, and length, than for levelness instead of the deer-like head and grace- and accumulation of flesh. He is aston fully curved yellow -coloured horn of the ishingly coated, and retains his bloom Devon .” wonderfully.” The present owner of The hardiness of the Sussex breed is

“ Goldsmith " is MrW.S. Forster of Gore

acknowledged, but in this respect it is Court, Maidstone, in whose boxes the not perhaps superior to the Devons, which

writer has seen “ Goldsmith ,” still ( 1891)

in their own county, in a humid climate, blooming in his twelfth year, with his

are frequently wintered out of doors grandson " Mikado," which has been little from anearlyage, running at will in the, if at all less successful in the showyard more sheltered of the pastures, with open than himself. sheds for their only lair.

The following

Mr Forster is now one of the most

merits of the breed, set forth by an ex- distinguished breeders of Sussex cattle, cellent authority, cannot be disputed : standing on a level in the great showyard “ The Sussex cross well with any breed ; struggles with the Stanfords and Agates ,

by using the male, animal substance and and others among the older exhibitors. firmness of flesh are imported, and the He owns a herd of ninety-two, and there colour of the offspring is generally red. can hardly be a more interesting pastoral They are of themselves a hardy breed, scene than the herd in the grass fields andhave been found to surpass all others round his house ona fine day in summer,

in the poorest pastures of their native when the glossy rich coats of the animals county.”

He adds, “ The cows are not shine in the sun.

Mr Forster has found

good milkers ; those with the heaviest that in pastures of moderate quality Sus flesh are the worst, but produce sufficient sex cattle do better than any other kind. to rear their calf.” Then follows a good They are very large in frame, hardy and hint in regard to management: “ The robust in constitution, and, as a rule, very

most successful way of breeding is to gentle and tractable. His heifers

are sent calve them down in October and Novem- to the bull at two years old, and the pro ber, let them have their own calf through geny run with their mothers in the pas the winter, which can be weaned in the tures till they are six or seven months spring and another calf put to the cow. If managed in this way, each cow will rear two calves, and the number of barreners be greatly diminished ; ” and barreners are sure to follow when cows

old.

The hardihood of the breed is

maintained by the treatment of those animals which are not in training for the shows, the cows (when their calves are weaned ), as well as the two-year-old

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

416

heifers in calf, running out alike in summer and winter, day and night, having however, a yard and sheds where they can find shelter at will. The cows, with calves by their side, also run out summer and winter, unless the weather is very severe, but the calves are taken in at night in winter. The yearling steers and

fattened to above 50 stone ( 14 lb.) ; the milk -veins remarkably large; cows upon good land give a great quantity of rich milk .” From these useful native cattle the

improved Red Polls have been built up, entirely, it may be said, by selection in breeding and by judicious treatment. heifers are wintered in yards,and fed on Characteristics. — The improved Red straw and roots and a little cake, so as Polls are considerably larger than their

progenitors were at the beginning of the to bring them on steadily. It should be added that the butchers nineteenth century. They are still uni

of Kent and Sussex prefer the Sussex formly red in colour, but without the bullocks to any others; and this is not mottled face spoken of by Marshall. a mere prejudice, for amongst a large They are good beef producers, and, as

number of prize beasts of the Smithfield has already been indicated, are possessed show of 1888, a Sussex bullock came out best in the proportion of dressed carcass to live-weight. This bullock was a steer a few daysless than three years old. Its dressed carcass weighed 1422 lb., and the percentage of dressed carcass to gross live-weight was 71.67.

of excellent dairy properties. Indeed, it is with good reason contended that there

is no other variety of cattle in the British Isles which in so high a degree combines fattening and dairy properties. No doubt, Shorthorn cows will be found to exceed Red Polled cows in the

An improved Sussex Cow is repre- yield of milk ; but, taken as a whole, the sented in Plate 16, vol. ii.

latter are superior to the rank and file of Shorthorn cows.

The Red Polls,

NORFOLK AND SUFFOLK RED POLLED moreover, are hardy docile cattle, mature

at a moderately early age, and are on the whole an eminently thrifty and profitable Amongst the native cattle of England class of cattle. CATTLE .

the Norfolk and Suffolk Red Polled Yield of Milk . — Mr Thomas Fulcher, breed stands highest for dairying pur- one of the most successful breeders of poses. The Red Polls are handsome Red Polls, states “ that many good cows

symmetrical animals of medium size.

yield from 45 to 50 lb. of milk per day

Origin.— They bear a close resem- for five months after calving, and they

blance to the polled cattle of Scotland, and have not that tendency to go dry which from the factthat in former times Scotch belongs to the Alderney, Ayrshire, and cattle were in large numbers transported the Shorthorn.

It not unfrequently

for fattening in Norfolk, it is assumed happens that a cow will continueto give that this likeness in form arises in some milk from one calving to another.” The part from kinship in blood . Be this as Red Polled cattle have been exported in it may, however, the Red Polled breed considerable numbers to foreign countries. can be traced as a distinct and well-de-

A modern Red Polled Bull is repre

fined variety far back into the eighteenth sented in Plate 15, vol. ii. century. In his Review of Norfolk, pub lished in 1782, Marshall states that the native cattle of the county were “ a small

LONG - HORNED CATTLE .

hardy thriving race, fattening as freely This ancient and characteristic breed at 3 years old as cattle in general do at of cattle would seem to be approach 4 or 5 .

They are small-boned, short- ing extinction.

It was the first breed

legged, round -barrelled, well-loined, the upon which Bakewell, the great pioneer favourite colour ablood-red, with a white breeder of farm live stock, began his experiments in the improving of cattle. Writing twelve years later, Arthur These experiments were begun as early

and mottled face."

Young says, the Suffolk breed of cattle as 1755 , and from that year dates the

is universally polled --that is, without breeding of farm live stock upon scien horns; the size small, few rise when tific principles.

POLLED ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE.

417

The Long-horned cattle at one time British Isles, but also in many foreign existed in large numbers throughout lands. The breed is as much thought England, chiefly in the Midland counties.

of abroad as in its native regions in the

They were also introduced into Ireland, but long ago they have been supplanted at one point after another by the Shorthorns or some othervariety, and now the

north -east of Scotland . It is gradually extending into England and Ireland, and has been exported in large numbers to foreign countries, chiefly to the United

last few remnants of the breed are to be

States and Canada. Origin . - It is

established beyond The Long-horns are big, long, rather doubt that the improved Aberdeen -Angus ungainly cattle, with long drooping horns, cattle are the direct descendants of the

found in the Midlands of England.

which are often so shaped as to make it ancient polled cattle of “ Angus ” and

difficult for the animals to graze short “ Buchan,” two varieties of cattle of the pasture. The cows are fair milkers, and

same type known in the former district

the bullocks attain great weight. In the as “ Doddies," and in the latter as general properties of rent-paying stock, Humlies.” The history of this breed

however, they are surpassed by most has been traced fully in a volume pub other improved breeds ; and although we

lished in 1882 ; and those who are inter

look upon them with a kindly historic ested either in the descent of this par

interest, it must now be reluctantly ad- ticular breed, or of polled cattle gene mitted that there is little reason for their continued existence.

rally, may be referred to that work. Early Improvement. — It is stated

in that volume that there is good reason POLLED ABERDEEN -ANGUS CATTLE.

Amongst the polled varieties of cattle, the Aberdeen -Angus breed is by common consent allowed the first position. No race of British farm live stock has made more progress since the middle of the

to believe that both in Aberdeen and in

Angus the systematic efforts to improve the breed had begun some time before the advent of the present century. In

Angus, the first improver was the late Mr Hugh Watson, farmer, Keillor, Meigle. In Aberdeenshire, the work which was

nineteenth century than this famous race so well begun by Mr Watson was taken

of beef-producingcattle. At the great up heartily and methodically, and with International Exhibition at Paris in 1878, great advantage to theinterests of the the late Mr William M'Combie of Tilly- breed, by the late Mr Wm. M‘Combie of

four carried off the champion prize for Tillyfour, who has been justly described e

the best group of meat-producing cattle. as th " great deliverer” of the polled His victorious group consisted of five race - a distinction which he earned by

black polls, all of his own breeding ; and the fact that when the fast- spreading when it is remembered that no fewer popularity of the Shorthorn threatened than sixty different varieties of cattle- the extermination of local breeds, Mr including the best of the English breeds M'Combie came to the rescue of his -were represented in that memorable favoured race of Aberdeen polls, holding contest, it will be understood that the to them against all comers, and as we

triumph gained by Mr M'Combie and have already seen, carrying them through his favourite polls was one of no ordi- to world-wide renown . nary importance. That great victory has Characteristics. From the work on been followed up byrepeated successes at the history of the breed already referred

the annual fat stock shows at Birming- to we take the following extracts as to ham and London - representatives of the the attributes of the improved polled breed having won the £ 100 Champion Aberdeen -Angus cattle : Plate at the London Christmas Fat Stock “ In general form a model polled

shows in 1881, 1885, and 1887. These animal differs considerably from a model great achievements, backed up as they shorthorn.

Both should be lengthy,

have been by the undeniably high char acter of the Northern polls as beef-pro

Aberdeen or Angus Cattle.

1 History of Polled ducing animals, have won for the breed By James Macdonaldand James Sinclair. W.

high esteem, not only throughout the Blackwood & Sons. VOL . III.

2 D

418

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

deep, wide, even, proportionate, and should lie well backwards, fitting neatly cylindrical. The polled animal, how- into the body, and not lying awkwardly ever, should be more truly cylindrical in outside it : they should show no undue

the body than the shorthorn . Its points should be more quickly rounded off ; or, in other words, the frame of the polled animal is not so fully drawn out to the

prominence on the shoulder -top, on the points, or at the elbow. An upright shoulder in cattle is generally accom panied by a light waist - an important,

square as that of the shorthorn. Critics and in all breeds a much too common, have pointed out in some of the best defect. The chest should be wide and polled animals now or recently living, a deep, so as to give plenty of room for tendency to approach too nearly to the lung-development. The bosom should square type of the shorthorn. In a beef- stand well forward between the fore

producing animal, a broad square frame can hardly be said to be a blemish ; for if it is thoroughly well covered all over, it will carry more beef than a rounder frame. A compact well-rounded frame, however, has always been a leading characteristic of the polled breed ; and the main reason why a square shorthornlooking frame is objected to in a polled animal is, that such a form is foreign to

legs, and underneath should be well covered with flesh and fat. The crops should befull and level, with no falling off behind them ; the ribs well sprung, springing out barrel - like, and neatly joined to the crops and loins ; the back level and broad; the loins broad and strong ; the hook -bones not too wide narrower than in an average shorthorn ; the quarters long, even, and rounded,

the breed, and therefore apt to arouse with no hollow from the hooks to the

suspicions of impurity. The admirers of tail ; the tail should come neatly out of

the breed claim for it valuable natural the body, not too far up the back, and properties not found to an equal extent not higher

the root than the line of

in any other breed ; and they fear that the back. A high tail-head was to some should the breed lose its characteristi- extent characteristic of the ancient polled

cally natural appearance, it may also lose breed, but it is one of the defects that its superiority in those valuable pro- are being gradually removed by the more

perties -- the genuine article should scientific systems of breeding now pur always bear its trade-mark .'

Careful

sued.

improvers of the breed are specially par“Some good polled cattle, too, have ticular as to the hind quarters. While been found to show a development of

they aim at developing long, level, thick, soft worthless flesh and fat on the rounds deep quarters, they also strive to retain behind ; but that defect, which is dis therounded appearance which was origi- liked very much, is also almost obliter nally one of the dominant characteristics ated. The tail should hang straight of the breed. down, close to the body all the way

“ The head of the polled male should it comes near to the level of the flank. not be large, but should be handsome On both sides of the tail the quarters and neatly set on. The muzzle should should turn away in a rounded manner,

be fine; the nostrils wide ; the distance swelling out downwards, and ultimately from the nostrils to the eyes of only moderate length ; the eyes mild , large, and expressive; the poll high ; the ears of fair size, lively, and well covered with hair ; the throat clean, with no develop-

set well apart, and not detached from

ment of skin and flesh beneath the jaws,

soft, so that a good handful may be got

passing into thick deep thighs. The twist should be full, and the hind legs the body until the level of the flank is reached. The flank should be full and

which should not be heavy ; the neck out of it . The bottom line should be as pretty long, clean, and rising from the even as the top and side lines ; and the head to the shoulder-top, and surmounted bones of the legs fine, flat, and clean, by a moderate ' crest,' which contributes with plenty of muscle and flesh above to masculine appearance - a desirable the knees on the fore legs. The body

point in a bull. The neck should pass should stand neatly and gracefully on full neck - vein. The shoulder - blades ary , the fore legs should be perfectly

neatly and evenly into the body, with the legs; and when the animal is station

POLLED ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE.

419

straight, and the hind legs very slightly and Hereford, have been developed to so bent forwards below the hock. All over high a degree, it could not be expected the frame there should be a rich and that with anything like unanimity any even coating of flesh. Even the hook- one breed would be accorded the premier bones, and other prominent parts, should position. Be that as it may, we think

be well covered , and above all, there the polled Aberdeen or Angus breed may should be no patchiness — no hollows, safely be said to be inferior to none as and no rolls of hard flesh, with spaces of all-round beef cattle, and superior to all soft useless fat between them, such as others in some respects. The brilliant

are always found in a patchy animal. and unequalled position it has latterly

Except in rare cases, the skin is fairly taken, alike in the show -yard and market thick, but soft and pliable : it ought to place, sufficiently establishes its claim to be so free over the ribs as that one could that description. Its show - yard achieve fill one's hand of it. The hair is, as a ments will be fully noticed afterwards.

rule, not long, but fairly thick and soft ; Here it may be noted, that at the Paris and in the best animals shows two Exhibition in 1878 it carried off every

growths, or rather two lengths - one single honour for which it was entitled short and thick , and the other longer

and thinner.

to compete, including the £ 100 prize

When walking, a good for the best group of beef-producing

animal of the breed presents a very com- cattle in the Exhibition ; and that in

pact, graceful, and symmetrical appear- British show -yards, both fat stock and ance. Indeed it is fairly enough claimed breeding, it has attained to a leading for the breed that in these and in some position. In a strictly butcher's point other respects it has hardly any equals,

of view , it has very seldom to yield to

and no superiors. The above description any other race of cattle. refers more correctly to bulls than to “ The superiority over most other COWS .

The latter, of course, differ con- breeds, for the butcher's purpose, lies

siderably in character.

The head is mainly in the excellent quality of beef,

much finer, the neck thinner and cleaner, with no crest ; the shoulder-top sharper ; the bone altogether finer; the skin not quite so thick ; the udder large, and

and in the high percentage of dead-meat to live-weight. As a rule, the beef of the northern polls is very well mixed, and contains a greater proportion of com

milk -vessels large and well defined .

pact, finely grained flesh, and less soft,

“ In appearance, as well as in other coarse fat, than most other kinds of beef. characteristics, the polled Aberdeen or Inside, the carcass is usually well lined

Angus breed differs substantially from with fat of the finest quality ; while in the polled Galloway race.

The former the density and quality of the carcass

has lived under a dry cold climate, and itself, the breed may fairly enough claim has been fed in the house during a large the premier position among all our lead part of the year. The latter has its ing breeds of cattle. Some place the home in a moist climate, and has spent small Devon breed alongside, if not even much more of its time in the open fields. before it, in this respect; but with that The differences between the two are just exception, we do not think that any such as might be expected from their other breed in the British Isles will on different conditions of life. The Gallo- an average yield so high a percentage of

way, as already noted, has a thicker skin dead -meat to live-weight. In butcher's and stronger coat of hair, and has altogether a slightly more shaggy appearance than the northern polled cattle, and does not mature quite so quickly. “ It is claimed that the northern poll surpass all other races of cattle in the production of beef. On that point there is, of course, considerable difference of

phraseology, it 'dies' well and cuts up admirably. In all the leading fat-stock markets in the country the breed is held in high estimation, and, as a rule, com mands the very highest prices-- in fact, generally a higher price in comparison to its size and live-weight than any of the other leading breeds. This is especially

opinion; for at the present day, when the case at the great Smithfield Christ leading breeds, notably the shorthorn compact polls from the north never fail

thebeef-producing properties of our other mas Market in London, where the plump

420

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

to find a ready sale at the highest history been infused into the breed from quotations."

any outside quarter whatever, must no

In the direction of early maturity this breed has in recent years made marked progress. At several of the large recent Fat Stock shows it has surpassed all

doubt be traced one of its most marked and valuable characteristics — viz., the extraordinary impressivenes impressivenesss of the breed."

At the

Characteristics of the Galloway.

London Christmas Fat Stock show in

Galloways are black and hornless like

other breeds in this respect.

December 1887 the class of polled Aber- the polled Aberdeen Angus cattle. From deen steers two years old (averaging the latter they differ substantially, how

667 days in age) gave an average live- ever, not merely in outward features, but weight of 1475 lb., while steers over also in their inherent characteristics. two years and under three years (averag- The two breeds are similar in size ; the

ing 984 days) gave an average live-weight Galloway is the more shaggy and muscu lar in appearance, has a thicker hide and Colour. — Black is the all-prevailing a ranker coat of hair, and is perhaps on

of 1874 lb.

colour of the Aberdeen - Angus cattle.

the whole the hardier of the two.

Aber

Formerly red was by no means uncom- deen - Angus cattle, however, have a mon . Occasionally a red calf is still decided advantage in regard to early dropped, but it is an unwelcome visitor, maturity , and to their adaptability for house-feeding. and is seldom allowed to “ stay." Plate 17, vol. ii. , represents a noted For grazing the Galloways are especi ally renowned, and for this purpose they Polled Aberdeen-Angus Bull. have long been eagerly sought after both in England and Scotland, while in later GALLOWAY CATTLE. years they have gained considerable

This hardy and picturesque breed of popularityin the ranches of the Western black polled cattle takes its name from States ofAmerica. Milking Properties. — Galloway cows, the south-west of Scotland. There it is believed it has existed for centuries, com- as a rule, are below the average in the

ing down to us with a long line of pure production of milk. The dairy propertiesof the breed have

descent.

Origin . - The origin of the Galloway

never beensystematically cultivated, and

cattle is lost in the mists of antiquity. many of the cows give a very small Yet enough is known to justify its claim quantity of milk. As a rule, however, to rank as one of the oldest and most the milk is exceptionally rich in quality. Plate 18, vol. ii. , represents an im distinguished of the British breeds of

They are referred to by proved Galloway Bull. live stock. several writers as having exhibited great excellence as grazing cattle about the

AYRSHIRE CATTLE.

beginning of the nineteenth century . As to the more recent progress of the Of all the native British breeds of breed, the Rev. John Gillespie, writing cattle, the Ayrshire is the most valuable,

in 1886, says : “ The improvement made judged exclusively from the dairy far in the breed during the last sixty years mer's point of view. The production of This is an era milk is the one special function of the within the memory of living men, and Ayrshire, and this it fulfils in so admi there has never been the slightest shadow rable a manner as to have earned the of a doubt cast upon the fact that it has highest estimation of dairy farmers. Al

has been very great.

been brought about by the identical though it has its headquarters in the means employed last century - viz., by systematic and skilful mating of the best specimens of both sexes, and also by attention to diet and general management. To the early improvement of the

county whose name it bears, the breed is now widely diffused throughout the south - west of Scotland, while it has spread into England and Ireland, as well as into many foreign countries.

Galloways, and to the further fact that Origin. — There is much uncertainty no blood has at any period of their as to the origin of the Ayrshire breed.

WEST HIGHLAND CATTLE.

421

The most generally accepted idea is that spine at the shoulders, straight back, its progenitors were of Dutch extraction. It has been located in the south -west of

wide hook - bones placed the same dis tance from outline of tail as from the

Scotland for a very long period of time, fore rib ; the ribs well sprung and gradu

and has been there bred in its purity ally deepening backwards, hind quarters with the greatest success . There is long, broad, and straight; soft elastic abundance of evidence to show that it skin, with the whole body set on short

had established its name as a distin- legs, and exhibiting throughout fineness guished dairy breed of cattle in the of bone. The teats should be well set, south -west of Scotland before the close of moderate length and thickness, and of the eighteenth century. the milk-vessel not fleshy, but large and Characteristics. — The prevailing col- capacious, well up to the escutcheon be ours of the Ayrshire are brown and hind, level with the belly, and the milk

white, each colour being distinctly de veins on the abdomen showing largeness fined. Some, however, are almost entire- and superior development. The animal

ly white, while others are almost wholly should be a free, jaunty mover, exhibit brown. Ayrshires are wide, low - set ing style and grace in her actions." cattle, with long horns curving upwards. A noted modern Ayrshire Cow is illus Their beef-producing properties are not trated in Plate 19, vol. ii. of a high order, and if it were improved in this respect without materially deteriorating its milking properties, the pop

ularity of the Ayrshire throughout the country would be vastly increased.

WEST HIGHLAND CATTLE.

This singularly handsome breed, often spoken of as the “ Kyloe, ” has its head

Writing of Ayrshire cows, Professor quarters on the high- lying farms of the

Primrose M'Connell says : “They will counties of Argyll,Perth, and Inverness. cost £ 15 per head to lay in ; will cost £ 15 per annum to feed ; will yield about £ 20 of produce, which will be over 600 gallons of milk per annum , showing 3.5

Amongst all the many varieties of British cattle there is none more handsome than

the typical West Highlander. It is quite

as handsome in form as the improved to 4 per cent of fats, 12 to 15 per cent of Shorthorn , is almost as large in size, and

cream , 1272 per cent of solids, and 200 with its rank, shaggy coat of hair, long, lb. of butter per annum ; and she will spreading, gracefully turned horns, hardy

sell when fat at £12 to £15. Her muscular appearance

and defiant gait, bardiness will enable her to live and to throws all other varieties of cattle into thrive in exposed situations and onscanty the shade in picturesquenessand beauty. fare ; while when taken south, if she gets Origin . The prevailing idea as to the plenty of good water to drink, and is not origin of West Highland cattle is that pampered with too much good food, she they are descended, and that in a direct will do better, and will repay the outlay unadulterated line, from the ancient and trouble. ” 1

native cattle of the districts still regarded Mr William Bartlemore gives the fol- as the home of the breed. It is gene

lowing description of a typical Ayrshire rally considered that the Wild White cow : “ The Ayrshire cow of the present Cattle of Chillingham , the Wild Cattle day is a fully medium -sized beast, with in Hamilton Park, the useful little Kerry wide upstanding clear horns and body of Ireland, and the West Highland cattle

Scotland, are the purest representa somewhat wedge-shaped. What breeders of tives of the ancient cattle of the British

have universally aimed at in order to en-

sure the highest milking qualities was to Isles. Characteristics. — The West High produce an animal with a body light before, and heavy behind, with capacious land breed exhibits considerable variety udder. The leading characteristics of a in size, form and colour. The strains desired specimen are a nice clean short which are reared in the South -Western

head, full lively eyes, clean long neck, Highlands are much larger than those broad but clean chest, well-developed which have their home in the higher and bleaker mountain -ranges of the northern 1 Live Stock General Almanac, 1886, p. 112.

counties.

The former are also the more

422

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

handsome, and in all respects the more Origin.--It is generally acknowledged profitable class of cattle. The prevail- that nowhere in the British Isles is there ing colour is dun or yellow, of various a purer representation of the smaller

shades, but many of the animals are black varieties of the aboriginal cattle of Nor thern Europe than is provided in the The West Highlanders are slow in Kerry cattle of Ireland. They are the growth, and equally slow in taking on smallest of the many varieties of British Hesh and fat. When fully matured for cattle, and none possess more distinctive the butcher, however, they sell readily, features or more certain marks of purity

or brindled , and a few are dark red .

and bring a high price per cwt. Their of descent. Their individuality is indeed beef is well mixed, choicely flavoured, very striking, and although small in size and is in high repute amongst the best and slow in maturing, they are most class of butchers. Like all other breeds, useful cattle in their own proper sphere. they have in recent years made some The breed has its headquarters in the

progress in the matter of early maturity. bleak steep hills of county Kerry, where As a rule, however, they are not fully it has had to subsist upon scanty fare, matured until four years old.

exposed to wind and rain, with little

The West Highland is the hardiest breed of cattle known to exist. They live and thrive on exposed heather and hilly ranges on which no other variety

artificial shelter or attention of any kind. This untoward treatment has of course told its inevitable tale. It has cramped the stature of the cattle, and made them ·

of cattle could maintain an existence.

slow in maturing ; but it has also en

For Highland districts, therefore, the dowed them with a sound constitution breed possesses a special value, while and exceptional hardiness, as well as the they are also in request for stocking rare and useful faculty of existing and

gentlemen's parks, where, as might be feeling happyon smallfare. Proverbially, expected, their picturesque appearance Irishmen make the best of emigrants. is highly appreciated.

A similar property can be claimed for

In his work on domestic animals, Low the Irish national breed of cattle ; for the

gives the following description of a typi- little Kerry "adapts itself readily and cal West Highlander : “ The neck should agreeably to change of scene, and seems be strong and muscular, the forehead as muchat ease in the wooded parks of rather broad, and the nose from the eyes England as on the rocky heights of its to the muscle somewhat short ; a dewlap Irish home.” By degrees Kerry cattle should exist as a character of the breed ;

are making their way into England,

the eyes should be prominent and clear, where they are found specially useful on the horns should be of a good length poor land and in small family dairies.

without approaching tocoarseness, spread-

The Typical Kerry.- In outward

ing and tipped with black. . . Their form Kerrycattle are somewhat similar limbs are short, though muscular ; their to the cattle of Brittany, fully as high, chests wide and deep, their ribs well but rather more slender and deer-like. arched, and their backs as straight as in

The Kerry is active and graceful, long

any other breed. The neck, indeed, and dewlap, seem somewhat coarse in the bull ; but these are characteristics indicative oftheir mountain state, and almost

and light in the limb, head small and fine, throat and neck slight and clean, eyes prominent and keen, horns turned upwards, and white with black tip ;

all their other points are what breeders shoulders thin and sloping, and sharp would term good .” on the top ; chest fairly wide, back Plate 20, vol. ii., represents a modern straight, but rather narrow ; ribs West Highland Cow and Calf. KERRY CATTLE.

fairly well sprung, barrel not deep, hooks wide, quarters long but often uneven ; tail - head

sometimes rather

high, tail slight and long, thighs thin ; As has been already indicated, Ireland udder large in size and well shaped, being

claims only one pure breed of cattle— full behind and carried well " forward ; namely, that which takes its designation milk-veins full and well defined, skin from the rugged mountains of Kerry.

moderately thick and mellow, colour

KERRY CATTLE.

423

usually black, but some have white spots whether we have any breed of cattle in underneath, and now and again a red this country which will beat the Kerry Kerry is seen. The bull is thick, straight, in the return in milk and butter from fine in the skin, with good masculine a given quantity of food. Youаtt gave head and neck. Many of the animals the Kerry cow a high character, and yet have curiously “ cocked ” horns, first he was well justified in what he said : projecting forwards and then taking a " Truly the poor man's cow , living every peculiar turn backwards - caused , says where, hardy, yielding for her size abun an Irish wag, by the strong winds the dance of milk of a good quality, and cattle have to face in mounting the fattening rapidly when required ." Kerry hills ! An increasing demand for exporta The Dexter.— The animal just_de- tion and neglect of the breed at home scribed is the typical Kerry. The “ Dex- seemed to endanger its existence. Just ter,” a distinct branch of the samebreed, in time, however, a movement has taken is an animal of a very different type- shape for the cultivation and improve much shorter in the leg, thick and plump ment of the breed. A herd -book has in the body ; indeed , in all respects, ex- beenestablished, and the interests of the cepting that of size, an admirable sample breed are at last being well looked after. of a beef-producing animal. If less eleMr Robertson's Herd . — For many gant and “ milky ” looking than the years Mr James Robertson, La Mancha, typical Kerry, the Dexter is decidedly Malahide, Co. Dublin , was the most suc more symmetrical; and if increased in cessful exhibitor of both Kerries and size, as by selection in breeding and Dexters, and his valuable herd has sup liberal treatment it might soon be, it plied breeding stock to many admirers of would be found to be a very profitable the breed in England as well as in foreign class of stock , very hardy and docile, countries. easily fattened, and producing beef of the An average Kerry cow under favour very choicest quality. T'he origin of the Dexter variety, so distinct from the parent stem, is somewhat uncertain . The prevailing im-

able conditions will yield from 12 to 13

quarts of milk daily,and very little over 10 quarts of milk will give one pound of butter. Mr Robertson's famous prize

pression is that it resulted from a cross cow “ Rosemary ,” afterwards the property introduced upon the Kerry, bred by a of Mr Martin J. Sutton, of Kidmore gentleman of the name of Dexter between Grange, Reading, was one of the most 1830 and 1840 ; but there is no actual

handsome Dexters we have ever seen .

record of this, and no information vouch. Her height at theshoulder was only 3 feet safed as to what breed had been resorted to for the cross. Others believe and

4 inches, and yet behind the shoulders she girthed 5 feet 7 inches, her length

contend that Mr Dexter established his from the shoulder -top to the tail -head favourite variety entirely by selection in being 3 feet 9 inches ; and what is more

breeding. Be this as it may, it is certain remarkable still, her udder when in full that he succeeded in stamping the milk girthed no less than 34 inches. Dexter type very firmly upon the cattle, Live-weights.--Mr Pierce Mahony, for there is now as much fixity of type of Kilmorna, has made efforts to increase and character in the Dexter variety as in the size of the Kerry cattle, and the the true Kerry itself. following figures giving the live-weights Characteristics . - Irish farmers have of a few of his animalswill show that he

paid little attention to the Kerry breed, has made some progress : Bull, 2 years and thus have neglected their own in- 8 months and 2 weeks old, 8 cwt. i qr.; terests. The breed certainly possess bull, 15 months old, 5 cwt. 2 qrs. 7 Ib. ; characteristics which, with careful cultivation, would earn for them an excellent reputation as rent-paying stock . They are specially adapted for high cold situations where food is not too plentiful.

bull, 12 months old, 4 cwt. I qr. 15 Ib. ; bull, 872 months old, 4 cwt. 2 qrs.; cow, aged 4 years, 6 cwt. 2 qrs. 7 lb .; heifer, 2 years and 2 months old, 6 cwt. 21 lb. ; heifer, 14 months old, 4 cwt. Kerry

As dairy cattle they have gained a good cattle fatten readily on moderately good name.

Indeed it may be doubted

treatment, and they are well liked by

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

424

butchers, who can readily dispose of in 1887 the class of Welsh steers gave their handy little cuts of sweet whole- an average live-weight of 2111 lb., their

average age having been 1286 days.

some meat.

A Family Cow.—The Kerry or Dex

ter cow is admirably adapted for the villa dairy — for those who have only a small plot of grass, and yet would wish

SHETLAND CATTLE .

The native cattle of the Shetland and

to indulge in the unspeakable delights Orkney Islands are quite distinct in of a cow of their own. The hardyand character from the races in the mainland. docile Kerry will thrive well in the house They show a considerable resemblance to or on the lawn, and will give a bountiful the Kerry cattle of Ireland, and, like return of delicious cream and butter. these hardy animals, are well adapted to

In England Kerries are making their their surroundings. way in the family dairy.

There are

They are small in size, and, as a rule,

now several large herds of Kerries and not of a high character. The true Shet

Dexters in England, one of the largest land cow, however, is a handsome animal, and most select being that which Mr with fine brown mellow skin and silky Martin John Sutton has established at hair.

On the poor scanty feeding which

Kidmore Grange, Reading. Mr Sutton she generally obtains she gives a wonder drew principally from the La Mancha fully rich yield of milk . herd, and his stock have thriven so well with him that it is doubtful if even in

JERSEY AND GUERNSEY CATTLE .

Ireland itself there is a herd of higher The valuable breeds of the islands of average merit. Mr Sutton's fancy leans to the Dexter, and he has bred some Jersey and Guernsey have been imported excellent representatives of this variety. into England and Ireland in large num

Plate 21,vol. ii., represents improved bers during recent years. Where the chiefobject is the production of milk of

Kerry and Dexter-Kerry Cows. WELSH CATTLE.

a rich quality, these cattle are highly esteemed, and they are steadily growing in favour in the British Isles.

In the principality of Wales several

Origin. There is hardly any doubt

varieties of cattle have existedfrom time that, although the Jersey and Guernsey immemorial, all of them derived from breeds are now so different in appearance, the aboriginal cattle of the country. At they were descended from one common

least four varieties are generally spoken origin. Be that as it may, it is known of-namely, the Pembroke, Glamorgan, that they have been bred in absolute Anglesea, and the Merioneth cattle.

purity in their respective islands for up

The first -named has generally been wards of one hundred years. In each regarded as the best. Although these breed the type is fixed with remarkable varieties present considerable diversity firmness, showing that the family current of type and character, there is all through has all the strength of concentrated them a noticeable family likeness, sup- breeding for a longperiod oftime. porting the belief in their common

Characteristics.— The Jersey and

Guernsey breeds are both essentially dairy

origin.

Characteristics. — The Welsh cattle cattle. They give an abundant yield of

are generally black in colour, with long rich, highly coloured milk . The Jersey

horns , hardy in constitution, slow in is the smallerof the two, and is a delicate, maturing, but able to subsist and thrive attractive- looking animal , of a graceful upon scanty fare.

Many of the cows are

deer-like form . It is of little value for

excellent milkers. In recent years the the production of beef, but its milking best of the varieties have been greatly properties are of a remarkably high order.

improved, especially in their fattening When in full milking, whole herds of properties. Jersey cows give an average of 972 lb. The larger strains attain great weight of butter each cow per week, an excep when from three to four years old. At tional cow occasionally giving as much the London Christmas Fat Stock Show

as 16 lb. of butter in one week .

Good

SHEEP - LEICESTERS.

425

Jersey cows yield from 500 to 700 gallons Romney Marsh sheep are useful animals of milk and from 300 to 350 lb. ofbutter ofthe long-woolled variety. In the moun tain districts of West Somerset and North

in twelve months.

The Guernseyis larger in size than the Devon the Exmoor breed is highly Jersey, is a trifle hardier, and on the esteemed. whole more generally useful. Guernsey The Lonk breed of sheep, somewhat

cows occasionally give over 800 gallons resembling the Scotch Blackfaced sheep, of milk in twelve months. A noted cow, are kept in several parts of Lancashire,

when 6 years old, gave 227 lb. of Yorkshire, and Derby, chiefly on the butter in seven days, her daily yield of higher and poorer pastures. The Rye milk at that time being 19 quarts.

land breed is one of the oldest in Eng

These records, high as they are, however, land , but it has been to a large extent

have been exceeded in several instances, supplanted by the improved Downs, and both in this country and in America.

it is now in the hands of a very small

A celebrated modern Jersey Cow is number of flock -owners, the great ma represented in Plate 22, vol. ii.

jority of these being in their native

Plate 23, vol. ii., represents a noted county of Hereford.

In Cumberland

and other parts of the north of England the Herdwick breed is much thought of, and is cultivated with great success, hav ing been considerably improved in recent

modern Guernsey Cow. SHEEP.

years.

The British Isles are possessed of great

The Wensleydale sheep are a very

wealth and of exceptional advantages in useful class of animals. They are some their large and diversified stock of sheep. times known as Yorkshire-Leicesters, are Small as they are in area , the British large in size, high standing, somewhat Isles present great variety both in soil similar in appearance to Leicesters, and It is therefore natural are much esteemed for crossing with and climate. and desirable that there should be many other breeds, notably with Scotch Black different races of live stock, with varying aptitudes and characteristics. It has been already seen that in regard to cattle,

faced ewes. In Wales the Welsh mountain and

Radnor varieties are extensively raised ,

British farmers are in this respect well and much valued for their hardiness and provided. If anything they are even for the choice flavour and quality of their better supplied in respect of sheep.

mutton.

In Scotland there are only three pure There are throughout the British Isles even a larger number of races of sheep breeds of sheep specially associated with than of cattle, all possessing distinguish- that country - namely, the Border-Lei ing features which adapt them in a spe- cester, Cheviot, and Blackfaced breeds. In Ireland the only breed of sheep cial sense to their particular surroundings. The existence of these many local varieties which has attained to the distinction of

of sheep is an undoubted advantage to being classed as a breed is the Roscom the country, for by these our live stock

mon variety.

They are large and un

industry has no doubt been more success- gainly, yet on the whole very useful fully developed than it could have been sheep . by a much smaller number of breeds,

LEICESTERS.

however meritorious.

In England and Wales alone there are This is the breed upon which Bake some fifteen or sixteen varieties of sheep, well first tried his cunning hand. It is all less or more distinct, and each with well entitled to rank as the pioneer of its own special habitat. The chief of all our improved breeds of sheep, for it

these are the Leicester, Cotswold , Lin- is acknowledged that Leicester blood has coln, Southdown, Shropshire, Hamp- played an important part in the improve shire, Oxford, and Suffolk breeds. Two ment of several other varieties, mainly, important breeds in the south-west of of course, those known as long and inter

England are the Devon Long -woolled mediate woolled sheep. and the Dorset horned breeds.

The

Characteristics. -

The typical Lei

426

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

cester is a thick, plump, rather short have contributed to the result. In Bake

sheep ; fine in the bone, broad back, well's time, Leicesters were tried on the usually very wide at the heart, clean, Cotswold Hills, but the climate was too firmly set head, which is free from col- severe for them, and they were soon

oured wool and hair ; mutton of medium abandoned. But in all probability the

quality, with a tendency to excess of fat ; visit of the Leicester may have tended fleece averaging from 7 to 8 lb., and car- to accelerate the improvement of the cass exceeding 80 lb. native breed. Anyhow, alike in form ,

The Leicester is exceptionally well maturity, and weight, the Cotswold

covered with flesh along the back, while sheep of to-day are vastly superior to the fore parts are deep and full, the neck those of former times. being short, muscular, and well set into The patronage of the Royal Agricul

wide sloping shoulders, which do not tural Society stimulated theimprovement • rise above the level of the back.

For-

as well as the demand for Cotswolds ;

merly, bare heads were preferred ; but and although the breed is not, as a rule, latterly, and with good reason, heads exhibited in large numbers at the Royal which are protected from the fly by a Show, and does not cover a very exten

covering onthe top of close, short, white sive area of land, yet through its antiquity and intrinsic merit it is entitled to a pro

wool, are preferred.

Value for Crossing. — Upon richminent place among the leading varieties abundant pastures, this breed does well of sheep in England. Characteristics.-- The Cotswold dis in its pure condition ; but its main value,

perhaps, lies in its splendid properties plays a majestic appearance, with a huge, for crossing with other races. It has been said that there is not a county in the British Isles, and probably few civilised countries in the world , where the

long, broad, regularly formed body, set evenly on long, clean legs ; head large, clean, and handsome; features usually white, but sometimes grey or spotted,

Leicester or traces of its blood cannot be well woolled on the crown, with long found.

It hastens maturity and ameliorates the fattening properties of all varieties with whichit is crossed. The Leicester is quiet, docile, moderately hardy, not very prolific, the wool being

curling locks hanging down the face. The neck is long and thick , the top line from shoulder to tail-head is long, broad, and level, with great covering of flesh and fat; ribs well sprung ; under line

fine and fairly long.

often slightly irregular and deficient;

Plate 24, vol. ii., represents an im- the wool long, open, and curly, coarser proved ( 1890) Leicester Ram . in the staple than the Leicester, but heavier per fleece. Hoggets often reach COTSWOLDS. or exceed 14 lb. , and whole flocks, young and old, exceed an average of 7 lb. of

The Cotswolds are the largest and wool per head. There is frequently rather upon highest standing of the long -woolled an excess of fat along the back; but there breeds. Like the Leicesters, their anti- the carcass, in one place or another,

quity is well established.

They have is a large percentage of lean meat of

their home in the Cotswold Hills of fairly good quality. Cotswolds fatten rapidly with good Gloucestershire, which they are known to have inhabited in the days of Queen treatment, and weigh, when about twelve Elizabeth, when they were described as months old, from 22 lb. to 25 lb. per attain great strong in the bone and long in the wool. quarter. Older sheep attain Origin and Improvement. - In re- weights ; sometimes as much as 70 lb. cent times the Cotswolds have been perquarter, dead -weight. vastly improved in form and in feeding Plate 25, vol. ii., represents an im properties. No doubt this advance in proved Cotswold Ram . character has been brought about mainly,

if not wholly, by selection in breeding LINCOLNS . and better management. It is regarded as more than probable, however, that a The improved Lincoln breed is a suc slight infusion of Leicester blood may cessful blend of the Leicester and the

SOUTHDOWNS - SHROPSHIRES.

native sheep of the county. As woolproducers they stand pre- eminent in

427

short wool, while a little soft wool on the cheeks is esteemed. The head backwards

this country . Prior to about 1850 they should be closely woolled, the neck thick were flat-sided , ungainly, slow -feeding and muscular, passing neatly into a wide

sheep. Now,thanks to a judicious ad- cylindrical body, set on theshortest and mixture of Leicester blood, and to careful

finest of legs. They are as broad and as

breeding and management, they are well covered with flesh and fat below as vastly improved in form as well as in above, almost as wide behind as in front, fattening properties ; while their wool and the Southdown leg of mutton is the production has in no way deteriorated.

thickest of any, and of course is also

In the fairly rich pastures of their comparatively short. native districts no other breed can equal

The wool is close, fine, and short,

them as rent-paying sheep, and in recent weighing close on 4 lb.

Southdowns

yearsthere has been a growing demand maturemore slowly than the long-woolled for Lincoln sheep, not only in other parts sheep, but have improved in this respect

of England, but also in foreign countries. in recent years. The carcass of well-kept

They are hardy and wonderfully prolific, sheep from twelve to fourteen months old about 30 per cent of the ewes producing should weigh from 18 lb. to 20 lb. per twins, triplets being frequent, and now quarter. The amount of offal is less than and again fourlambs aredropped at one in any other breed, and they often yield birth. The body of the Lincoln is smaller 65 per cent of dead -weight to live-weight . but more symmetrical than that of the

A modern Southdown Ram is repre

Cotswold, the back broad and firmly sented in Plate 26, vol. ii. fleshed , the ribs well sprung, the shoulder deep and wide, neck thick, head pretty SHROPSHIRES. strong, with good legs of lean mutton.

It matures at an early age, and the fleece, The Shropshire breed of sheep has which is long and lustrous in the staple, surpassed all others in the march of pro often exceeds 20 lb.-indeed as much as gress. It is fast spreading throughout 261/2 lb. of wool has been clipped from a the three kingdoms, and, excepting in fourteen -month sheep. high-exposed localities, is found to be an An improved Lincoln Ram is repre- excellent rent-paying race. The Shrop sented in Plate 30, vol. iii.

shire has been built up from the native

sheep of the district from which it takes SOUTHDOWNS.

its name, a dash of Southdown blood

This breed justly holds the premier position amongst the short and intermediate woolled varieties. Indeed, like the Leicester amongst the long-woolled

having been employed by its earlier im provers. For many years, however, it has been maintained in its purity, and the characteristics of the breed are clearly defined and well established. It may

sheep, the Southdown has been the pio perhaps be best described as a magnified neer of the vast improvement which has Southdown, bigger all over, but par taken place in these useful races, most taking largely of the same features and of which have been benefited by a lesser properties . It is from 4 to 5 lb. heavier or greater infusion of Southdown blood.

per quarter, matures earlier, fleece nearly

Characteristics . — The Southdown is twice as heavy but not so fine, and is a small-sized, low -set sheep, bigger than little inferior in quality of meat. The

it looks, meat from head to heels, the face is darker, usually blackish brown, perfection of symmetry, fine in the bone, the head longer and thicker, and closely active, fairly precocious, and in quality covered withwool on the top. of meat surpassing all other English varieties.

In the times of Arthur Young

1 In some notes on improvement in sheep,

and Youatt, speckled faces were the order in Divisional vol. ii. p. 362, reference is of the day. Now we will have none of made to the remarkable Southdown ram

these. Any departure from a uniform “ RoyalNewcastle.” This fine sheep was bred and by Mr Edwin Ellis, Summers tint, varyingfrom brown to fawn, is dis- bury,exhibited Shalford, Surrey, and not by Mr J. J. liked .

Theforehead is covered with fine

Colman , as there indicated .

DS

BREE

428

OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

Shropshire rams are now extensively give a good fleece, weighing on an average used for crossing purposes, the results from 6 lb. to 7 lb., shearling rams often yielding asmuch as 20 lb. ofwool. They being highly satisfactory. Animproved Shropshire Ram is repre- mature early, giving mutton of excellent sented in Plate 27, vol. ii.

quality, weighing 20 lb. per quarter when twelve to fourteen months old .

HAMPSHIRE DOWNS.

The face is dark in colour; the body thick and well proportioned, with a broad,

Originating in a cross between the Old thickly padded back.

The proportion of

Wiltshire horned sheep and the Old lean mutton is comparatively large. Berkshire Knot with Southdowns, the An improved Oxford Down Ram is Hampshire Downs are now well estab- represented in Plate 28, vol. iii. lished as a valuable breed of sheep. The foundation was laid early in the present

SUFFOLK SHEEP.

century, but it is only in recent years This is a variety of the Downs which

that the Hampshire Downs have attained

the great excellence which now dis- has been vastly improved since 1870. It tinguishes them. Å trifle heavier than the Shropshire, the improved Hampshire Downs are scarcely so symmetrical, being higher on the leg, and lighter in the underline, but exceptionally good along the back, which is usually covered with lean meat in a manner not equalled by any other breed in the kingdom . They are big in the

is a hardy , active, profitable sheep, maturing early, excelling in the produc tion of lean meat.

In outward form the Suffolk sheep is

not unlike the Hampshire, but more compact, and finer in the head. Its im provement is being promoted with com mendable energy by its leading breeders, who have formed themselves into a society

bone, head large, and a trifle coarse for the purpose.

looking, with strong Roman nose. Plate 31, vol. iii. represents an im They have lately been much improved proved Suffolk Ram . both in form and in fattening properties, and they now attain great weights at an DEVON LONG -WOOLS .

early age.

Indeed, the precocity of

Hampshire lambs has become quite remarkable.

This breed , which is a very favourite The fleece is not heavy, from one in the Vale districts of North and

East Devon, West Somerset, and some 4 to 5 lb., but is of fine quality. An improved Hampshire Down Wether parts of Cornwall, is a cross between the is represented in Plate 29, vol. iii. OXFORD DOWNS .

old Bampton variety and the Leicester. The Bampton was one of the native breeds of Devon, and was a middle woolled sheep, but its alliance with the

The Oxford Down is a successful blend of the Hampshire and Cotswold breeds. It was founded before 1830, and is now as firmly established in its own distinctive features as either of the parent varieties. It has grown rapidly in public favour,

Leicester gave length of staple and larger quantity to the fleeces, so that the variety has ever since been classified as distinctly long-woolled. The history of the ancient Bampton stock is lost in obscurity. and is much esteemed both for rearing in From about 1820 to 1830 these sheep

purity and for crossingpurposes. It is still bore the name of Bamptons, although spreading throughout England, and is some were beginning to call them Devon

making its way into Scotland, where Notts. The late Mr Andrew Hosegood Oxford Down rams are being very suc- recollected them at this period as having cessfully crossed with the mixed bred grey faces, and has left it on record that ewes of that country. they were very hardy, and excellent In an admirable manner the Oxford for weight of mutton and wool.” As Downs combine the meat-producing pro- regardsweight of carcass, Mr Hosegood 66

perties of the Hampshire with thewool- considered that it surpassed that of their yielding qualities ofthe Cotswold . They descendants after more Leicester blood

DORSET HORNED SHEEP_BORDER LEICESTERS.

429

had been infused, although earlier ma- gives place to greensand, oolite, and turity and greater aptitude to fatten were lias, and the pastures are less elevated derived thereby.

Wilson, writing on the and more productive, they have never

various breedsof sheep in the Journal of been displaced, nor indeed are likely to the Royal Agricultural Society for 1855, be. In fact, since their great improve

says oftheBampton variety : " Like most ment in grazing character, they have been of the old indigenous breeds of the preferred to either Southdowns or Hamp county, it has gradually been displaced shires on many farms in the neighbour by the improved breeds, and now it is hood of Dorchester and Puddletown

very difficult to find the pure Bampton having water meadows, and consequently unmixed with other blood , few only now have reconquered some of the territory remaining in Devon and West Somerset ." won from them previously. Eastward, There was an endeavour some years throughout the Isle of Purbeck, probably

since to get the breed christened the there are at the present day more Dorset Devon -Leicester, but Devon Long-wool is Horned flocks than existed half a century the appellation now generally applied,

and much more uniformity of type is

ago.

Few breeds at the present day are pos

observable in sheep belonging thereto sessed of greater uniformity of type than now brought to the showyards than was the case prior to 1870.

the Horned race of Dorset and Somerset.

The breed deserves to bear the name

of one county as much as that of the other, and in fact the sheep are often called Somerset Horns. At any rate, the

DORSET HORNED SHEEP.

The old type of this breed was native breeders of Somerset have brought it into

to the Dorset hill district, and probably showyardsmore than those of the other the little Portlander was branch county. a

of it.

Mr Thomas Danger was for

While the latter is getting very scarce, many years the principal exhibitor, but the former of legitimate ancient type is duringthe past two decades it has been now entirely extinct, the modern Dorset Mr Herbert Farthing. The flocks of both Horn being the progeny of a cross with are associated with the district between the Somerset Horn,which had a longer

Taunton and Bridgewater.

bodyand larger size. Even when Claridge wrote his Survey of Dorset to the Board

BORDER LEICESTERS.

of Agriculture in 1793 this change had been wellnigh accomplished, for he reMr John Thomson contributes the fol marked therein , — “ The original breed of lowing sketch of this valuable breed : Dorset sheep is very scarce to be met Historical. — The Border Leicester has with, as most of the farmers have crossed been known under that name for only a

their flocks with either Hants, Wilts, or comparatively short time - only since Somerset sheep, which certainly improved about 1860. Before this, although its them in size." distinct characteristics had been glar The Dorset hill country was the battle- ingly apparent, it was classed along field between the old Horned variety and with the English sheep descended from the Southdowns in the last century. the same source, and termed the Leices The latter always cropped the fine herb- ter, or the Improved Leicester. The age of the chalk hills better than their Border and the English Leicesters were competitors, but the contest chiefly bore so widely different in their form and

on the wool question. The fleece of the wool, that it became impossible they

Southdown, although light, was of ex- could compete satisfactorily in the same ceeding value, for the chief dependance classes ; as the judges in the showyards, of our cloth manufacturers for short wools however carefully chosen, could not be

was either on that variety or on flocks of otherwise than biassed. When the ma the Ryeland breed until the Australian jority happened to be breeders of the

colonies became stocked with largemerino English variety, the premiums went very flocks. Ultimately they were driven off naturally, though none the less con the highest ranges of the chalk hills ; sistently and surely, to the type they but in Western Dorset, where the chalk favoured, and vice versa .

If the judges

430

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

were solely on one side, then a grave tups. So general was the breeze of im injustice followed. The position became provement in sheep stock about that the more acute as in the course of time time that it was computed no less than

the differences apparent in the two £ 100,000 were annually spent by Mid rieties widened ; and at length it was land agriculturists in procuring sir

found necessary to have distinct classes Large although this sum is, it is not

for the variety under notice, which has altogether improbable, considering that since been known as the Border Leicester. in 1789 Bakewell received from £1000 So recentlyas 1868, all Leicesters, whether downwards for the season's use of a single from the Midlands of England or the ram . Border counties, were forced to compete

Such being the condition of sheep

in the same classes at the shows of the breeding in the Midlands, it need not be

Royal Agricultural Society ; but next marvelled at that agriculturists in far off year, at the Manchester meeting, they shires, even in these days of slow, tedious, were divided as in Scotland. and imperfect communication, should Both varieties had their origin at have desired to share in the results which Dishley, near Loughborough, where Mr others had accomplished . Robert Bakewell began to improve the

When Bakewell commenced his im

sheep he found around him in or about provements, two brothers, George and 1755. The precise method adopted by Matthew Culley, were farming at Denton , Bakewell is unknown, as a certainty. It not very far from Darlington. In 1762 is believed by some that he crossed the and 1763, the brothers visited and be sheep of his shire of Leicester—"said to

came intimate with Bakewell, and from

have been large coarse animals, with an Dishley they brought rams with which

abundance of fleece and a fair disposi- they crossed the native Teeswater sheep, breeds, probably possessing smaller long -woolled breed . Proceeding in this propor- manner, they were not long in forming a frames and more symmetrical tions. Another and highly probable flock of their own, which was transferred

tion to fatten ” —with other long-woolled which then stood in high favour as a

theory is, that without going beyond the sheep at his hand, he boldly adopted this material, and by breeding from selected animals of close affinities, and continuing this system as far as was advisable , he managed to establish a

to North Northumberland in 1767 — the Hegira of the Culleys — when they took the farm of Fenton, near Wooler, and subsequently Crookham Eastfield, on Tillside, -Wark, on Tweedside,-as well as other farms in the district, until the

distinct breed, whose main character- brothers paid an aggregate rental of istics were large yet symmetrical frames, £ 6000 a -year. After having bred in carrying heavy flesh upon fine bone, North Northumberland for nearly forty decided aptitude to fatten upon a mod- years, the Culleys retired in 1806, when erate quantity of food ; and capable of their sheep were sold out. Mr Robert Thomson, who, like one of being brought early to maturity, while

bearing a fleece of large weight and the Culleys, had been a pupil with Bake superior quality. To the writer it is evident that the

well, also took a leading part in the in troduction of the breed .

He farmed at

materials, whatever they may have been, Lilburn, and afterwards at Chillingham which Bakewell used, must have been Barns ; and his flock, long known as one very plastic, since his improvements were of the very best on the Borders, was bred

quick in displaying themselves. So early directly from Bakewell's. It was at Lil as 1760, he commenced letting his rams burn that the first sale by auction of for a guinea for the season's use . The Bakewell sheep took place in the north.

reputation of the Dishley flock increased At Chillingham Barns, Mr Thomson held

by “ leaps and bounds,” rising to such a annual lettings, and there, in May 1814, pitch that twenty years after he com- his entire flock was dispersed. menced to let rams, Bakewell received

A part of Mr R. Thomson's flock

no less than £ 3000 in hire fees in a passed into the possession of Mr James single season. In 1789, it is stated that Thomson, Bogend, Duns, who had also

he netted £6000 by the letting of his formerly obtained rams from the Culleys

BORDER LEICESTERS.

431

and from Chillingham Barns; and it may in 1802, and for about thirty years to be stated that this flock is still in existence, being now in the hands of Mr James Thomson, Mungo's Walls, a grandson of the tenant of Bogend. Having been

this date (1890) it has been entirely a self-supporting flock, nota single animal, male or female, being introduced from any other flock during all this time. It

bred by the Thomsons for upwards of a has consequently long been and still is a

century, the Mungo's Walls flock forms the most perfect connection between the time of Bakewell and the present day in the history of the breed. It seems there were in Bakewell's flock two types of sheep, known as “ blue-caps" and " redlegs," the latter being much the hardier of the two ; and from what the writer has been able to learn, Mr Thomson's sheep were of this hardier sort. Rams from the flocks of the Culleys and Mr Thomson must have been very early and very generally used in the dis-

matter for surprise and comment that the sheep have all through combined re markable constitutions, and large and robust frames with unusual fertility; at the same time being living evidences of the purest breeding, as shown in their blood -like heads, elegant forms, and stately and graceful movements. There can be no question that that at Mertoun

is emphatically a self -supporting and self-supported flock . Rams from the Mertoun flock have for

many years been keenly sought after by

trict around them as well as north of the other breeders, and in 1890 Lord Pol Tweed, since flocks had multiplied to a warth's 30 shearling rams sold at Kelso

wonderful extent at the time of the dis- broughtwithin a few pence of £54 per persion of the Culley sheep. Whether head , one ram realising £ 155. these other breeders obtained ewes of the

Characteristics. - As already stated,

improved breed or “ bred in ” from the there were two families in Bakewell's ordinary country stock with Dishley rams flock, the “ blue-caps " and " red -legs." it were now difficult to determine satis- Formerly “ blue-caps ” were pretty com factorily. Yet this question affects the mon on the Border, but for a longperiod

purity of the breed in later times to a the “ red -legs,” owing to their greater grave extent, and certainly gives weight hardiness, have held possession. Their to the prevalent impression that there is representatives of the present day are much Cheviot blood in the Border Lei- admirably described by Mr John Usher, cester. It is next to an impossibility in The Border Breeds of Sheep, thus :

that all of the Tweedside, Glendale, and “ The head of fair size, with profile “ Barmshire ” breeders could have ob- slightly aquiline, tapering to the muzzle, tained their stock ewes and gimmers but with strength of jaw, and wide

from Thomson and the Culleys so quickly nostril; the eyes full andbright, showing and to the extent necessary to account both docility and courage ; the ears of for the size and number of the flocks in

fair size and well set ; the neck thick at

1806. Besides, these pioneers were chary the base, with good neck vein, and tapering gracefully to where it joins the in parting with females. The subject is a difficult one to treat head, which should stand well up ; the

of satisfactorily, and is referred to here chest broad, deep, and well forward, only in asuggestive way. One thing is descending from the neck in a perpen most evident: that flocks of “improved dicular line; the shoulders broad and Leicesters," whether pure relative open , but showing no coarse points ; from though the term may be - or not, sprang where the neck and shoulders join to the up like the proverbial mushrooms in rump, should describe a straight line, North Northumberland, from which they the latter being fully developed , in both quickly spread into Berwickshire and arms and thighs the flesh well let down to the knees and hocks ; the ribs well Roxburghshire.

The Mertoun Flock. As was aptly sprung from the backbone in a fine stated of a famous herd of shorthorns, circular arch, and more distinguished by the history of the Mertoun flock is vir- width than depth, showing a tendency to tually the history of a breed. It was carry the mutton high, and with belly founded by Mr Hugh Scott of Harden, straight, significant of small offal; the

grandfather of the present Lord Polwarth, legs straight with a fair amount of bone,

432

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

clean and fine, free from any tuftiness of sheep has a bluish grey or white face, wool, and of a uniform whiteness with often corded, and usually carries a tuft

the face and ears . They ought to be of wool on the head (which keeps off the well clad all over, the belly not excepted, flies ), while it is also woolled on the with wool of a medium texture, with an shanks. The skin is pink all over, while

open pirl, as it is called, towards the end. In handling, the bones should be all covered, andparticularly along the back and quarters (which should be lengthy) there should be a uniform

the wool is thick and curly. It is not such a large-framed sheep as the Border Leicester, and is considerably shorter in both neck and legs ; but it is much more compact, wider through the heart, and

covering of flesh , not pulpy, but firm heavier in front in proportion to its size. and muscular. The wool, especially on It is also a much deeper sheep ; at the the ribs, should fill the hand well.” same time it is “ baggy ” below, and has That Mr Usher's description is just as not that appearance of lightness of offal

a whole, will readily be conceded. However, the present writer may be permitted to add to it a few observations, not altogether unnecessary. He is quite well aware that many of the best sheep in most flocks are occasionally fleshcoloured in the muzzle, but it is regarded as an evidence of hardiness to have it perfectly black ; therefore in any general

which is the great feature of the Border sheep. The bone, too, is finer, and from what the writer can remember of a repre sentative flock he saw a few months ago, the amount of mutton carried , size con sidered, is greater than that of the Border sheep. They seemed to one who all his life has been partial to Border Leicesters to lack style altogether, and the clipped

description this point ought to be urged . sheep reminded forcibly of well-filled The ears should be of moderate length, wine-skins in engravings of oriental and boldly set, but thickness, even at subjects ; but they fulfilled Bakewell's the base, in shearling rams as well as in toast— “ Small in size and great in value ”

ewes should be a disqualification. Again , or, as their breeder characteristically the ear should neither be too much flesh- put it: “ What do I care about your coloured, nor blue nor purple. A darkish —not a brownish - skin, covered with fine white hair, is most to be preferred, although black spots are not at all objectionable. Then the face should be covered with short white hair ; and on

no account should there be any blueness. Corded or scored faces are specially to be avoided in females and shearling rams.

These are considerations of primary im-

fancy heads, lugs, and style ? Look at the loads of mutton : that pays the rent ! ” Except as ram -breeding flocks, Border

Leicesters are not now kept to the same extent as they formerly were; the mutton being too coarse in its texture, and the fat too much of the consistence of tallow to be put to a profitable use, or please the palate. These are drawbacks to the

portance. The legs, from where thewool general utility of a breed which has few ceases to grow , should be covered with rivals in reaching early maturity, and in

short white hair; the " cluits ” should producing the greatest weight of mutton be black, and the pasterns as upright as and wool in a given time. Its outstand ing merit liesin its pre-eminent suita

possible.

The “blue - caps” of by - past times bility for crossing with other breeds, such have been described by the late Mr John as the Cheviot, Blackfaced, &c. The Grey, Dilston, as having “ blue faces, cross with the former is the most popular,

generally bareon the scalp, and red when the produce of the Border Leicester ram lambed ; and when mature, easily broken and the Cheviot ewe being termed a half by flies ; on which account they were not bred. On most turnip and barley farms favourites with the shepherds. They a stock of half-bred ewes are kept,which

were good feeders, but light of wool.” being again crossed with the Border It is evident what are now termed Eng- Leicester ram , produce three-parts-bred lish Leicesters are the representatives lambs. These quickly develop, and being of this Bakewell family, although time fed at high pressure, are generally in the has both modified and accentuated their butcher-market before they are a year old. former

characteristics.

The English

A modern Border Leicester Ram is

BLACKFACED SHEEP - CHEVIOTS.

represented in Plate 33, vol. ii. A typical Border Leicester Ewe is illus trated in Plate 32, vol. iii. BLACKFACED SHEEP.

433

CHEVIOTS.

Origin.— Northumberland was the actual birthplace of the Cheviot, and is

still largely inhabited by it. It was early introduced into the Border counties

Origin. The origin of this ancient of Scotland, and these may now be re breed is obscured in antiquity. It is garded as the principal stronghold of the conjectured that it is not indigenous to breed. A greater area of suitable climate, Britain ; that it is of foreign origin, and altitude, grass and turnip- growing, and, was imported by one of the Scottish it may be, greater energy on the part of kings for the use of the royal house farmers, have given to Scotland un hold. We are inclined to believe, how- questionable superiority in the breeding ever, that it originated amongst the of Cheviots. mountains in the north of England and Characteristics. — The breed is natu in Scotland. Be this as it may, the rally very hardy, and can subsist at an

form and general independent bearing elevation suitable to only one other breed of the sheep point it out as the native —the Blackface. The face and legs of of high andstormy regions. the Cheviot are covered by short, wiry, Differences in Type. — The influ- pure white hair, which extends over the ence of soil and climate on the quality of ear, and well back behind the head. In both wool and mutton is considerable, so some instances the ram is horned ; in

marked, indeed, as to cause a variance, others he is hornless. His nose is highly not onlyin the type of sheep reared, but arched, nostrils black,and eyes dark, full, also in the system of management pur- and bright. The wool is moderately

sued. In the West of Scotland , for long and very close set - straight, and free from kemp covering

example, the prevailing type differs from that in the central counties. It partakes more of a parallelogram , so to speak, than the Mid - Lothian sheep ; has longer sides,

— equally and well all parts of the body, including legs down to the knees and hocks. The clip of wool, which is generally shorn early

and is altogether a bigger and rougher in July, runs from 3 to 4/2 lb. per head. sheep. Thesheep of the higher altitudes In its wealth of mutton, the Cheviot and of the far North , too,have certain outweighs the Blackface. Wethers from

peculiarities. They are lighter in type the hills, three years old, killed and than the Lothian sheep, extremely hardy, dressed , scale from 70 to 80 lb. ; while and less disposed to fatten.

These latter

others a year younger, if fed on turnips,

points are indispensable in the real usually attain about the same weight. mountain sheep. Cast ewes ' are purchased by Lowland Famous Flocks. Amongst the farmers for crossing purposes. They pioneer improvers of the blackfaced are mated with Lincoln, Border Lei

breed, the more noted are Mr Howatson cester, or Wensleydale rams, the result of Glenbuck, Messrs Archibald, Over- of which is a half -bred stock now ex

shiels, and MrFoyer,Knowhead, Campsie. tensively fed on the lower arable farms The celebrated Glenbuck stock is perhaps in Scotland . the oldest in the country. It has posImprovement of the Breed. sessed a

well-earned reputation for upwards of a century. It has been distinguished for superiority of blood and excellence of type. The celebrated Overshiels flock is also a reliable and

- To

look back upon ancient sketches of the Cheviot sheep which we find occasionally in historical books, affords one acquainted with the existing class of stock a pretty

good idea of the great strides that have been made in the improvement of breed. much -prized source of pure blood . Blackfaced sheep are unequalled for Without some suchdata, indeed, it would

hardiness, and as rent-paying stock for be almost impossible to suppose so much the great part of Scotland they are su- really good work had been done. In perior to all other breeds.

the counties of Northumberland, Berwick,

A famous Blackfaced Ram is repre- Roxburgh, Selkirk , Haddington, Dum sented in Plate 34, vol. iii. VOL. III .

fries, and Sutherland, attention has been 2 E

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

434

effectually directed to the amelioration of the breed.

SWINE.

The best flocks are to be met

with in the neighbourhood of the Borders,

It might be thought to be impossible to draw up a scale of points which would compactly built Cheviot reigns supreme. be strictly applicable to the whole of the Foremost amongits promoters have been many improved varieties of pigs. Per

where the smaller but thicker and more

the Robsons of Northumberland, the haps this view is a correct one, yet we Elliots of Roxburgh and Selkirk, and think it may be possible to sketch the

Mr Brydon of Kennelhead. The stock points of a useful pig according to the ideas of the producer, of the fattener of leading agricultural shows in recent years the pig, and of the butcher and the bacon shown by the Robson brothers at the

have been exceedingly creditable. The curer, all of whom have to study the Hyndhope stock, solong associated with wants or fancies of the consumer. At all the name of Elliot, is about the oldest in

events the attempt was made some few

Scotland, and contains the finest strains years sinceby Mr Sanders Spencer when of blood. They are of the small-sized he was Honorary Secretary of the close-woolled sort, which for hill pasture National Pig Breeders' Association . This

is considered superior to the heavier scale of points was adopted by the sheep with opener skins reared in Dum- Council, as were the more precise de scriptions of the points sought for in An improved Cheviot Ram is illus- those breeds of pigs, the pedigrees of

friesshire.

which are recorded in the herd -book .

trated in Plate 35 , vol. iii.

We give the scale, and we have also taken the description as a foundation for our remarks upon the six principal varieties

ROSCOMMON SHEEP.

The Roscommon is, as already indi- of pigs — namely, Berkshires, Small cated, the only variety of sheep in Ire- Blacks, Large Whites, Middle Whites, land dignified by the title of breed.

It Small Whites, and Tamworths.

is a native race, improved by selection Points of the Different Breeds.

and by the infusion of Leicester blood. Large in size and often somewhat un

Points . IO

gainly in form , the Roscommon sheep Head wide and deep, lower jaw sprung are extensively reared in Connaught, Shoulderswidebut not open

5

where they hold a good name as rent- Fore legs straight and well placed out side the body paying stock. The fleece is long, heavy, Ribs well sprungand deep and of good quality. Loin wide, not slack

.

IO

I2

8

Flanks deep and full WEIGHTS OF SHEEP.

voor

.

7

Quarters long and straight from hip to tail

13

wide, with meat down to the It may be interesting to give here the Hams hocks following figures showing thelive -weights

IO

well outside and not of wethers and lambs of the leading Eng- Hindtoolegsplaced much under the body

5

lish breeds of sheep exhibited at the

Bone flat and not coarse

Smithfield Fat Stock Show in December Hair long and silky, butwithout mane 1886, the heaviest pens being selected in or bristles along the neck and each case, and the weights being the

shoulders

7

average for the three animals in each Total

100

pen : Lambs over 12 and Lambs 9 to under 24 months. 10 months. lb. Ib.

Leicester Cotswold

273 322 312

To the foregoing general standard may be added the following distinctive char acteristics : Berkshires . - Colour, black , except feet and tip of tail, which should be white, and white

Hampshire

254 282

154 194 193 181 143 233

of hair of fine quality. Skin without rucks or

Oxford Suffolk

277 290

183

lines.

179

Lincoln Southdown

Shropshire

214

blaze or mark down the face.

Blacks. -Colour, black .

Fair quantity

Head and body

BERKSHIRES-LARGE WHITE BREED .

435

slightly longer than Small Whites ; other six months old those long, deep-sided, points similar.

lean -fleshed carcasses of 160 lb. weight, Large Whites.—Colour, white, occasionally which the present tastes of the public

with blue spots on the skin, but without black hair.

Head rather long ,wide betweenthe and the bacon -curer demand.

ears , which should be inclined forward.

Size,

if accompanied by quality, of great importance. Middle Whites.

Colour as above.

more compact, on shorter legs. dant and silky.

LARGE WHITE BREED .

Head

shortened and ears pricked . Body generally Hair abun

These qualities are most commonly found associated with pigs of the Large

Small Whites. - Colour, white without blue White breed, or, as the best of them are now being called in Canada and in several

spots. Head short, jowls heavy, ears pricked.

Body short, thick, wide, and close to the foreign countries, Improved Yorkshires. ground. Tail fine. Hair abundant, silky and long, not curly. Skin thin and free from

The colour of these should be white, but

scurf.

on some of the best of the successful

Tamworths. — Colour — red with dark spots show pigs of some ten or fifteen years on the skin ; other points as near as possible approaching the general standard.

since blue spots on the skin were by no means infrequent. This did not neces sarily prove that a cross of the Berk

BERKSHIRES.

shire or of some other breed had been

Berkshires have undergone considerable changes in recent years both in their formation and in their colour. Within the last forty years many of the best pigs of the breed were black,

introduced, for the purest bred of the Large White pigs were not free from the discoloration in the skin. But it is an open secret that some exhibitors were believed to have a liking for the more compact Berkshire or the Middle White

with white or sandy spots, long and a longing to get the broad backs, short deep in the body, which was well heads, and heavy jowl which unfortu

covered with rather strong hair ; the nately for pig-breeders were at that time, head was long, the jowls light, and the and even sometimes now are, in great ears pricked.

favour with a certain set of judges, who

The Berkshire breed appears to have place a higher value on symmetry than been the first to be taken in hand by on utility. wealthy men and connoisseurs to be imThese blue spots are far less frequent proved, and from this process has evolved now than formerly, and will eventually

the present type, which may be described as a black pig, barring a white star or shine on the forehead, white feet as far as the ankles, and having a white tip to the tail ; the head comparatively short, the jowls and shoulders heavy, the

be bred out. The head of the LargeWhitepig should be of fair length, the lower jaw nearly straight, the jowls, neck, and shoulders light, the forehead broad, the ears pro portionately large and inclined forward,

ribs well sprung, carcass deep, loin wide, not so heavy as to deserve to be termed and the hind quarters well developed, just lop ears, which cover the eyes and render the form of a pig to supply prime joints the pig to all intents and purposes blind ; of small pork, such as bring the highest the legs should be straight and placed prices in the London market, where the well outside the body, thebone notbeing pigs are termed London porkets, and coarse and round, the ribs deep and well

should weigh not more than 70 to 80 lb. sprung, loin fairly wide and not slack,

It is also admirably suited for exhibi- quarters longand square,and hams wide tion at our fat stock shows, as a Berk- and deep. Soft hair, and plenty of it, shire will stand almost any amount of indicates early maturity and lean meat, forcing and cramming without losing its the two great essentials. form .

Having these valuable and much sought-after qualities, it can scarcely be expected that a Berkshire is so well

MIDDLE WHITE BREED.

Middle White pigs should possess all

suited for the present demand for pigs the good points of the Large White, but which mature early, and yet furnish at altogether on a smaller scale, with heads

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

436

shorter, ears more erect, hair finer and

OTHER BREEDS.

in greater quantity, bone finer and legs

There are various other local breeds,

shorter.

such as the newly named Oxfordshire SMALL WHITE BREED.

pigs, which have for fifty years been bred in

Northamptonshire, Leicestershire,

Some go so far as to say that the Buckinghamshire, and Oxfordshire. They Middle White pig should be an en are evidently a cross of the White, the larged Small White.

From this we are

Black, and the Sandy or Tamworth

inclined to differ, as the latter does not breeds, and they are very prolific and at the present time appear to satisfy the make capital scavengers, and furnish good requirements of the farmer or the bacon- carcasses of meat, but they require more curer : the body is too small and too short time for development. and the proportion of lean to fat too small.

A well-bred Small White is a

Typical pigs of the Large White and Berkshire breeds are represented in Plate

handsome pig : its short snout, profusion 36, vol. iii.; of the Middle White and of silky hair, fineness of bone, high Tamworth breeds in Plate 37, vol. ii . ; quality, and docility of disposition are and of the Small Black and Small to be admired ; but the current demand varieties in Plate 38, vol. iii. is for something more useful even if less ornamental.

White

SHEEP DOGS.

SMALL BLACK BREED.

The collie dog is well entitled to men tion amongst the live stock of the farm .

The Small Black is very much after It is a faithful and worthy servant, abso the same style as the Small White, lutely essential upon sheep farms. except that the colour is a whole black, The natural temper of the shepherd the hair less profuse, and perhaps the may be learned from the way in which carcass somewhat longer. It is neverthe- he works his dog among sheep. When less much liked in some of the Eastern you observe an aged dog making a great

and South -Western counties . In parts noise, bustling about in an impatient of the counties of Cambs, Essex, and manner, running fiercely at a sheep and Suffolk , it used to be a very common turning it quickly, biting at its ears and

practice to run these black pigs on the legs, you may conclude, without hesita clovers during the summer, and it was tion, that the shepherd who owns it is a

claimed by the followers of this system man of hasty temper. Most young dogs that the sun affected the skin of the exhibit these characteristics naturally, black less than that of the white pig. and they generally overdo their work ; and if you observea shepherd allowing a young dog to take its own way, you may conclude that he also is a man of hasty The Tamworth is a red pig, with occa- temper or careless of his flock. If you TAMWORTH PIGS.

sional black spots, and is one of the oldest varieties in the country. By judicious mating and infusion of alien blood the Tamworth has been improved , the nose has been considerably shortened, and the body lengthened and made deeper, the legs are shorter and the ears longer, whilst the colour of the hair and skin is lighter, and quality finer. Considerable numbers were exported to the bacon -curers in Denmark, Germany, and Sweden ; but the im-

observe another shepherd allowing his dog, whether old or young, to take a range round the fences of a field, driving the sheep as if to gather them , you may be sure he is a lazy fellow, more ready to make his dog bring the sheep to him than he to walkhis rounds to see them. Great harm may accrue to sheep by working dogsin these ways. Whenever sheep hear a dog bark that is accustomed to hound them every day, they will in stantly start from their grazing, gather

provement to the native pigs was not together, and run to thefarthest fence, marked, so that the foreign demand has and a good while will elapse ere they fallen away will settle again. And even when sheep

SHEEP DOGS.

437

In short, a thoroughly good shepherd are gathered, a dog of high travel, and allowed to run out, will drive them hither only lets his dog work when its ser

and thither, without an apparent object. vices are actually required , he bestow This is a trick practised by lazy herds ing his own labours ungrudgingly, and

every morning when they first see their only demanding assistance from hisdog flock, and every evening before they take when he cannot do it so well by him up their lair for the night, in order to self ; and at no time will he allow count them with what he deems the least his dog to go beyond the reach of his

trouble to himself. When a dog is allowed to run far out, it gets beyond the control of the shepherd ; and such a style of working among wether sheep puts them past their feeding for a time : with

immediate control. Dogs, thus gently and cautiously trained, become very sa gacious, and will diligently visit every part of a field where sheep are most apt to stray, and where danger is most to be

ewes it is very apt to cause abortion ; apprehended — such as a weak part of a it is apt to overheat them, induce pal- furrows into which sheep may possibly

and with lambs, after they are weaned, fence, water-runs, deep ditches, or deep

pitation and a considerable time will fall and lie awalt or awkward - on the

elapse before they recover their natural broad of their back, unable to get up , Whenever a sorting takes and which they will assist to raise up by place among sheep, with such a dog they seizing the wool at one side and pulling will be moved about far more than the sheep over upon itsfeet. Experienced

breathing

necessary ; and intimidated sheep, when dogs will not meddle with ewes having worn into a corner, are far more liable to lambs at foot, nor with tups, being well break off than those treated in a gentle manner. When you ordinarily hear at a distance a great noise from the dog among the sheep,you may depend upon it the

aware of their disposition to offer resist ance.

They also know full well when

foxes are on the move, and give evident symptoms ofuneasiness on their approach

shepherd is not the man that is fit for to the lambing-ground. your service:

A judicious herd works his dog in quite a different manner.

He never disturbs

the sheep when he takes his rounds amongst them at morning, noon, and night - his dog following at his heel as if he had nothing to do, but ready to fulfil its duty should any untoward circumstance arise, such as breaking out of one field into another.

They also hear

footsteps of strange persons and animals at a considerable distance at night, and announce their approach by unequivocal, signs of uneasiness by whinging and rest lessness, aware that noisy sounds would alarm the sheep. A shepherd's dog is incorruptible, cannot be bribed with a bite of food, and will not permit even a known friend to touch it or its charge

When hegathers when intrusted with an act of duty.

sheep for sorting, or catching a particular

Varieties of Collies . — There are, we

one, the gathering is made in a corner,to believe, at least two varieties of the

gain which he will give the sheep plenty of time, making the dog wear to the right and left, to direct the sheep quietly to the spot ; and after they are gathered, he makes the dog watch, and, with an occa-

sheep-collie, -one smooth, short-haired , black on the back , white on the belly, breast, feet, and tip of tail, with tan coloured spots on the face and legs ; the other larger and longer-bodied, having

movement, prevent any sheep long rough hair of different colours, sional breaking

away When a sheep does patched or intermixed , and long flowing break away, and must be turned, he does tail. Fig. 774 is a portrait of the rough not allow the dog to bite it, or even to haired class on the watch. In their re

bark, but to give a bound against its spective characters we conceive them to head, and thus turn it. In turning a blackfaced wether in this way, the dog runs the risk of receiving injury from its horn , to avoid which it seizes the coarse wool of the buttock, and hangs on by it like a drag, until the sheep turns round, when it lets go.

be very like the pointer and the setter. The small smooth kind, like the pointer, is very sagacious, slow, easily trained, and admirably suited to work in an enclosed low country among Leicester sheep ; the other, like the setter, is more swift, bold, ill to break, requiring coercion, and fitter

438

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

for work on the hills among Blackfaced sheep. Our liking is to thesmooth -haired, and we like to hear both kinds named collie. The white tip on the point of the

truth be said of the sagacity and faith fulness of the collie. Suffice it to give a few sentences, which we know to con tain correct information. “ If he be

tail is a sure mark of true breeding.

but with his master , " observes Youatt,

Training Collies . — Most shepherds profess to train young collies, wherein many display much ignorance of the nature of the breed , and of the aptitude of the particular individual for its peculiar work ; and hence many dogs are unfit for useful service. Every colliepup has a natural instinct for work amongst sheep ; nevertheless, they should be trained with an old dog. Their ar-

“ he lies content, indifferent to any sur rounding object, seemingly half asleep and half awake, rarely mingling with his kind, rarely courting, and generally shrinking from the notice of a stranger. But themoment duty calls, his sleepy listless eyebecomes brightened, he eagerly gazes on his master, inquires and com prehends all he is to do, and, springing up, gives himself to the discharge of his duty with a sagacity and fidelity and devotion too rarely equalled even by man

himself. ” “ If we consider," says Buffon , “ that this animal, notwithstanding his ugliness and melancholy look, is superior in instinct to all others ; that he has a decided character, in which education has comparatively little share ; that he is the only animal born perfectly trained for the service of others; that, guided by

natural powers alone, he applies himself to the care of our flocks— a duty which he executes with singular assiduity, vigilance, and fidelity ; that he conducts them with an admirable intelligence,

Fig. 774. - Shepherd's dog or collie.

which is a part and portion of himself; that his sagacity astonishes at the same time that it gives repose to his master, while it requires great time and trouble to instruct other dogs for the purposes to

dent temperament requires subduing, and which they are destined ; if we reflect on there is no more effectual way of doing these facts, we shall be confirmed in the this than keeping it in company with an opinion that the shepherd's dog is the

experienced dog. A long string attached truedog of nature, the stock and model to the pup's neck, in the hands of the of his species.” The ugliness ascribed to the appear shepherd, is necessary to make it become acquainted with the language of the ance of the shepherd's dog by Buffon various evolutions connected with work. is only applicable to the shepherd's dog With this contrivance it may learn to —we cannot call it a collie-in Conti “ hold away out by ," come in ," come nental countries, for a more handsome in behind,." " lie down,” “ be quiet,” and beautiful dog than our collie cannot “ bark," " get over the dyke," " wear," be seen anywhere. “The shepherd's “ heel, " " kep.” It will learn all these dog,” remarks Graguier, “ the least re

terms, and others, in a short time. It is moved from the natural type of the dog, said the bitch is more acute in learning lives and maintains its proper charac than the dog, though the dog will bear teristics while other races often degene the greater fatigue. Of the two, I believe rate. Everywhere it preserves its proper

the quietly disposed shepherd prefers the distinguishing type. It is the servant bitch, and is chary of working her when of man, while other breeds vary with a p

in up .

thousand circumstances.

It has one ap

Sagacity of the Collie. — A volume propriate mission, and that it discharges would not contain what might with

in the most admirable way ;

there is

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

439

evidently a kind and wise design in this.” Neither hunger, fatigue, nor the worst The Ettrick Shepherd truly says that “ a of treatment will drive him from his

single shepherd and his dog will accom- side, and he will follow him through plish more, in gathering a flock of sheep every hardship without murmur or re " 1

from a Highland farm , than seventy pining." shepherds could do without dogs; in fact, In the course of some conversation re that, without this docile animal, the lating to dogs, Governor Anderson of pastoral life would be a blank. It would Ohio related a Texan practice in training

require more hands to manage a flock of dogs with sheep. A pup is taken from sheep, gather them from the hills, force itsmother before its eyesare opened, and them into houses and folds, and drive put with a ewe to suckle. After a few

them to markets, than the profits of the times the ewe becomes reconciled to the whole flock would be capable of maintain- pup, which follows her like alamb, grows ing Well may the shepherd feel an up among and remains with the flock ; interest in his dog : he it is indeed that and no wolf, man, or strange dog can earns the family bread, of which he is come near the sheep ; and the dog will

himself, with the smallest morsel, always bring the flock to the fold regularly at grateful and always ready to exert his half-past 7 o'clock P.M. if you habitually utmost abilities in his master's interests

AILMENTS OF

feed him at that time.

FARM LIVE STOCK.

It is not presumed that the farmer arrives. The information necessary for

should become so familiar with veterinary these purposes will be found, carefully science as to be able to dispense with classified, in the following treatise, com the occasional services of the professional piled by G. H.C. Wright, LL.B.; Veterinary Surgeon. The farmer, how- edited by F. Tonar, M.R.C.V.S.-third ever, should unquestionably know enough edition, revised and extended by a of the ailments which afflict his live stock Fellow of the Royal College of Veter

to enable him to recognise the symptoms inary Surgeons, who is one of the most of each when he sees them, and also to experienced and trusted members of successfully treat those of the more the veterinary profession. For the simple kind, as well as to decide when

use here of this treatise we are in

the veterinary surgeon should be sent debted to the proprietor of the ' Farm for, and what had best be done until he ing World. ' SUBJECTS. PAGE

PAGE

PAGE

CATTLE SHEEP

Bastard strangles 442 Anthrax, or splenic fever 448 452 Black leg. See Anthrax 472 (horse) 470 472 472 quart See Anthr er. (cattle) ax 485 water. See Red water 479 486 (sheep)

SWINE

490

RECIPES

493 | Apoplexy,

HORSES

.

or

(horse)

Abortion (cows) (ewes)

Abrasion, an Abscesses . Acute founders

· pneumonia

490

( swine)

442

Amputation of the tongue (horse) .

stone in the

457 459

449 485 Bladders, tongue (sheep ) 453 489 Arsenic-poisoning (horse) . 459 Bleeding (horse) 479 · ( cattle) 479 ( cattle) 463 from the nose (horse) 448 472 485 466 Back sinews, sprain of the 464 Blindness . weak 475

480

.

490 Blistering. See Firing

Administration of medicine 195 Afterbirth

Bladder, inflammation of . 457 neck of

staggers

497 Blood, staling of racking striking . See Anthrax 482 Bandaging. See Note in rupture of suspensory (cattle) ligament 462 i 449 (swine)

1 Youаtt On the Dog, 59-64.

469 459

472 490

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

440

See Dysen-

Bloody flux.

476

tery

milk :

481

Cough, chronic (horse ) (cattle) Cow -pox

450 | Fever, scarlet mud . 473 480 puerperal

.

463 Cracked heels. See Grease 461

Bog -spavin Bone-spavin Bots .

462 Cramp 455 Crib -biting

Bowels, inflammation of the (horse )

456

.

(cattle )

.

Cud , loss of Curb .

cattle) (wat er on the

.

460

Diabetes

Flooding after calving 456 Flukes in the liver 456 Foaling

487 460

(swine)

470

486

Braxy, or sickness

.

Broken knees

469 455 443 455

463 Flatulent colic (horse)

Cutting Diarrhoea (horse ) (cattle ) ( calves) ( sheep)

442

(horse)

492 452

simple 450 Firing 478 Fistulous withers 460 Fits. See Epilepsy

442

inflammation of the

swine

492

•

477 Cut, speedy 457

twist of the Brain fever

453 465 482

476 485 487 491 471

471

476 480 478 457 496 466 466 468 483

( cattle )

Fomentations Foot , contraction of the inflammation of the weakness of the

.

rot (cattle ) Dishorning 489 450 Dislocation of the stifle ( sheep) 465 Foot - and - mouth disease ribs (horse) 451 joint 474 tle 451 450 Distemper . (cat ) Bronchitis (horse) 486 474 Docking 498 (sheep) ( cattle ) Bull-burnt,or clap 491 480 Dropping after calving. (swine) See Puerperal fever 482 Foreign bodies in the 6 Calculus. See Stone in the Dropsy of the chest 47 paunch 451 482 Foul. See Foot Rot . 459 womb 483 bladder (horse ) 487 belly . 466 477 Founders, acute ( sheep ) chronic Dunt. See Staggers . 467 Calf-bed, falling down of 485 the Fractures , 480 Dysentery or bloody flux 461 skull the of e 6 (hors ) 443 Calves, special diseases of : 484 45 477 - nose and jaw 443 ( cattle) Calving. See Parturition . 480 Cancer of the 488 (sheep) tongue 454 Galls, saddle 471 ( cattle) horns

wind .

.

.

.

.

466 Elbow , capped .

Canker

460 Enemas (injections ) 460 Enlarged knees . 497 Enlargement of the hock 445 Erysipelas.

Capped hocks elbow

Castration . Cataract

Catarrh. See Cola (cattle) 486 473 Epidemic catarrh . Influenza (sheep) demic

epi

.

See In

465 487 481 489 475

483 Garget (cattle ) ( sheep) 491 Gargle. See Murrain

460

Glanders

See

447

.

475 Glass eye

446 448 485

and acute pneumonia 475 Gleet,nasal 443 Goggles. See Staggers

475 Epilepsy or fits .

fluenza

wind . 460 496 | Gall -stones

Extracting teeth

malignant. See Mur:

449

Grain -sick .

477 445

glass . 475 Eye, inflammation Grass staggers of the 446 Grease Catarrhal fever. See Dis: rain

Cattle plague, or rinderpest 451 472

Chest, dropsy of Choking (horse ) ( cattle)

(cattle)

471 (cattle) 447 Grogginess

wounds in the

fever

492

Chronic cough constipation

450

456 467

founder

Gut tie

472 455 478

Hard udder

481

446 Gullet, stricture of the

of the

inflammation of the

Cholera, hog. See Swine

477

461

Growth on the eyeball

450 Eyelids, tumour or itching 472

461

446 Gripes. See Colic (horse). 455

(horse)

temper

or ophthalmia (horse) (cattle) warts on the

446 471

447 Haw , thickening of the

447 454

Heart disease

Clap, or bull-burnt

480 Falling down of the calf

Cleansing, removing :

482

bed

Heaving. 480

See Parturition

fever

489 481

466 Hefting, or overstocking Coffin -joint, sprain of the . 464 False quarter 451 | Hide -bound 451 Farcy Cold, common (horse) ess 476 Hip knocked down 473 Fardel-bound or costiven (cattle) d es ice e c 467 sprain of pum Feet, 455 Coli orgrip (hors )

464 Hock ,enlargement of the . 460 476 Felon chine. See Rheuma460 tism ( cattle ). 483 Hocks, capped 455 Hog cholera. See Swine: 476 Fern -sick . See Staggers fever 485 455 ( sheep ) 492

- (cattle)

Hatulent (horse ) simple (cattle) spasmodic (horse) Constipation (horse) . · ( cattle ) (calves)

(sheep) Consumption .

Corns

Costiveness or

456

Fetlock, sprain of the

464 Hoose or husk (cattle)

476 484 487

Fever catarrhal

452 451

473

Contraction of the foot Contused wounds Convulsions

469 462

fardel-bound

466

463

inflammatory . Anthrax

472

fever

486 491 477

Hoove or hove (cattle)

See

milk. See Puerperal

474

( sheep ) ( swine)

488

(sheep )

Horns, broken 482 Hyan. See Anthrax

491

parturition

466 476

rheumatic ,

.

450 Impaction of the paunch

splenic

.

452

471 472

489 Incised wounds .

.

477

463

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK. Inflammation of the bladder 457 | Lockjaw or tetanus (cattle) neck of the bladder 457 - (sheep) 456 Loss of cud bowels (horse ) (cattle ) 477 “ Louping -ill " or trembles 442 Lumbago. See Rheuma brain (horse ) 470 tism (cattle) 446 Lungs, inflammation ofthe eye (horse) 471 (horse) ( cattle)

eyelids (horse) ( cattle)

446

(cattle)

471

(sheep) ( swine)

466

jugular vein

453

kidneys (horse ) .

457 Mad staggers 478 Madness or rabies 458 Maggots. See Vermin

(cattle )

488

(sheep)

.

.

muscles of the neck

stomach (horse ) :

.

fourth (cattle ) (sheep ) udder.

.

486 492 454 457 477

.

sore throat Mallenders

.

See Garget

(sheep ) (cow ). Inflammatory fever.

See

Anthrax

Influenza. See Distemper

458

Navel rupture .

481

Navel illº

(horse)

(cattle)

475 Open joints

(cattle )

.

469 Opticnerve, palsy of the

446 Overstocking or hefting

Jaundice or yellows (horse) (cattle) ( sheep ) Joint-ill. " See Anthrax

of the optic nerve 478 488 Paralysis. See Palsy

Kidneys, inflammation of the (horse ) ( cattle ) Knees, broken enlarged

Over -reaching

458 Palsy or paralysis

472 Paralysis of lower lip 453

.

of the tongue cattle

-(cattle) (sheep)

463 Pleurisy

492 Pleuro -pneumonia 447 | Pneumonia . See

Inflam

of the

lungs

( horse)

493

495 479

492 Removal of the eyeball 462 Respiration 469 Rheumatic fever 483 Rheumatism (horse ) . 492 (cattle) (swine ) 444

446

461 446

mation (horse )

472 467 469 484 454

488 489 464

Saddle galls Sallenders and mallenders

471 Sand - crack 446 Scab . 467 Scarlet fever

481

Scrotal rupture . Seedy toe

445 Shoulder-slip 449 sprain of sore

454

462 468 490 453 459 468 498 490

464 464 454 487 468 476

.

470 Sickness. See Braxy 457 Side-bones 482 Simple colic Sitfasts Skull , fracture of

455 443

Small-pox, sheep 487 Sole, pricks and wounds in the 467 451 Sore teats 483 throat (horse) 450 454 .

473 (cattle) malignant (swine) 492

475

epidemic and acute ( cattle) ( sheep) Poison (horse ) ( cattle) Poll evil

462 Polypus

478

462

.

Sore shoulders 453

454

shins .

475 Spasmodic colic 475 Spavin , bone 486

bog

O

458 Spaying

478 Speedy cut 454 Splenic fever. 448

rectum

Lockjawor tetanus (horse) 443 Puerperalor milk fever

492

482

464

.

462 463 498

463

See An

thrax

round bone shoulder

.

455

497 Splint Poultices Liver, inflammation of the 499 Sprain of the back sinews 458 Pregnancy, time of (horse ) (cattle ) 478 Pricks or wounds in the sole 467 coffin -joint ( sheep ) 488 Protrusion of the anus fetlock 459 flukes

499 450

475 Ringworm (horse)

489 fever . 478 | Peritonitis. See Inflam mation of the bowels 460 458 483 (horse)

490

493 494

475 | Red water .'

449 .

Lameness

suspensory

Recipes (horse) .

444 490

445 Setoning

462 Pink eye. See Distemper

Ligament, rupture of the

442

457

465 469 483

473

445

446 Sheep ticks. See Vermin:

.

Parturition or foaling or calving

459 479

See Madness

.

.

Lacerated wounds

Lampas Lead -poisoning (cattle) Legs, swelléd Lice (horse ) ( cattle ) ( sheep) ( swine)

472 472

467 .

.

Knee - tied .

.

See Anthrax

448 Round bone, sprain of 467 | Rupture of suspensory 462 ligament

.

Itching or tumour of the eyelids

vein , inflammation Jugular of

felon. See Anthrax:

498

476 Ophthalmia (horse )

.

466

ill.

470 Rot, foot (sheep )

or epidemic catarrh

.

Quarter, false

453

( cattle) 459 Roaring 485 Rot

Nettle -rash or surfeit 472 Nasal gleet

493

483

plague 465 Ringbone

.

Navicular jointdisease 451 | Nursing the sick

Inoculation Intestinal worms Itch . See Mange

453

449

Mud- fever

481 Murrain 489

womb (mare)

+63

485 Purpura .

Measles (swine) . 483 492 479 Rhododendron -poisoning · 479 Mercury -poisoning Rickets Milk -fever. See Puerperal 490 See Cattle fever 482 Rinderpest.

Megrims

488 Mouth, wounds in :

(cattle)

499 467

Punctured wounds

Rabies.

lungs or pneumonia (horse ) 453 Mange (horse ) (cattle) (cattle) 475 (swine)

478

492

478 Malignant catarrh

.

( sheep )

470 | Pulse 485 | Pumiced feet

475 Quittor 486 Quinsy

foot

(cattle) liver (horse)

441

452

463 464 464 464

464 464

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

442

Sprain of the stifle-joint Staggers. (horse)

See Apoplexy

465 | Tetanus. (horse)

(sheep) ( grass)

445

mad (horse)

442 | The whites

stomach

445

Warbles (cattle)

Lockjaw

See .

442 Tetanus . 485 ( cattle)

484

on theeyelids. See' Lockjaw 443 Wartsteats . 470 Water, black . 485 482

(sheep )

447

481

See Red

water

479

- on the brain 455 Weak back . See Rickets :

486

Staling of blood Stifle-joint, sprain of the

459 Thickening of the haw 465 Thoroughpin

447 Weakness of the foot 465 Whistling and wheezing

468

dislocation of the Stomach, inflammation of

465 Throat, sore (horse) ( cattle)

450 White skit 473 / Whites

485 482

(swine)

492 Wind, broken

450 455

457

se) (hor(sheep)

.

Thick wind

488 Thrush

468

477 in the mouth fourth (cattle) 445 referred to in canker , staggers Stone in thebladder (horse) 459 Toe, seedy

( sheep ) g ."See Parturition Strainin fever

Strangles bastard

.

Strictureofthe gullet String -halt Sturdy

.

Suppression of urine . Surfeit (horse) (swine) Suspensory ligament, rupture of

Swelled legs Swine-fever

Teats, sore warts on

Teeth, diseases of Teething cough . Temperature

.

487

Tongue bladders wounds of

489

paralysis of amputation of

449

cancer of the

471

455 Trembles or " louping-ill 465 Trichinosis 485 Tumours on theudder 483

in the brain

470

of the eyelids (horses)

492

.

Turn sick .

455

thick .

470 Wind-galls 465 466 Withers, fistulous 455 468 Womb, inflammation ofthe 458 449 (mare) 481 449 (cow ) .

448 448

.

490

449

dropsy of the intestinal (swine)

Worms (horse)

485 Wounds (horse) 493

489

.

482 459 493

463

(cattle) sed

484

contu

463

442

punctured .

446 462 485

lacerated incised

463 463

.

463

of the coronet

467

in the eye . 462 Twist of the bowels 447 457 mouth 465 Udder, hard 449 481 sole 492 Udder, inflammation of 467 tongue 449 the. See Garget ( cattle) 481 483 ( sheep ) Yellows. See Jaundice 48 9 | 481 tumours on the . 489 458 (horse). 449 Urine, suppression of 483 ( cattle) 449 479 499 / Vermin 478 490 / Yew -poisoning

on the back of the head .

Give a physic

HORSES.

ball (No. 17 ). Remove dung from lower

DISEASES AFFECTING THE HEAD,

warm glyster(No. 13) two or three times a -day, and if it can be done without

intestines with the hand. EYES, MOUTH, AND NERVOUS SYSTEM .

Administer a

disturbing the animal too much, give the following every four hours : Bromide of potassium , 4 drs. ; brandy, 6 oz. ; water, 8 OZ. But perfect quietness is the best Apoplexy or Staggers. medicine. more can be done : This almost hopeless disease results this almost Nothing invariably fatal disease must be left to take its course.

I.-- THE HEAD AND NERVOUS SYSTEM.

from an effusion of blood producing pressure on the brain . Symptoms. — Head carried low.

The

Tumours on or in the Brain

horse staggers till he falls. Eyes fixed and pupils dilated. Muzzle cold. Hear- can seldom , if ever, be recognised and ing and sight affected. Teeth clenched. localised during life, and their treatment

When convulsions come on,the horse is practically hopeless. soon dies.

Cause . - Apparently the breaking of a small blood -vessel on or near the brain, occasioned by the derangement of the

system from overfeeding, or by violence.

Brain -fever or Mad Staggers, or Inflammation of the Brain . Symptoms. — Sleepy and daft condi tion.

Nostrils distended .

Flanks heav

Prevention .-- There is practically no

ing Eye wild. When delirium comes means of prevention beyond the ordinary on, the horse becomes violent and danger proper management of the animal. ous ; his struggles will continue till he is

Treatment. - Apply ice, or cold water exhausted, and the stupor returns. in a douche or stream along the spine and

This disease is sometimes thought to

HORSES.

443

be colic ; the difference is, however, very Fracture of the Skull. apparent. In colic, the horse is conscious, and only plunges and rolls from pain, The bones of the skull are so thick often turning his head round to his that a fracture can only arise from a fall

flanks; in mad staggers the struggles when a horse rears, or else from brutal are more violent, and consciousness is violence.

This is a common occurrence

with pit ponies, and is caused by their Cause. - Fulness of blood to the head knocking their heads against the roof

lost .

through being over-heated in hot weather.

timbers.

In most pits they wear a

Treatment. — This disease is so often leather skull-cap to prevent this. It is fatal, and so little can be done to check generally fatal. it by medicine, that bleeding seems the Treatment. — The parts should be only course to pursue.

elevated and fastened with adhesive

Put the horse in a cool stable. Open plasters, to prevent their moving. To the jugular vein of the neck, and bleed reduce any inflammation, give purgative till he is weak.

(No. 18) and a spare diet.

Give purgative - croton -nut, 12 dr., or croton -oil, 20 drops, in warm gruel, and

Fracture of the Nose repeat in 10 gr. or croton -oil 10 -drop is caused by a fall or a blow with a

doses every eight hours till the bowels stick across the bones of the nose. are open .

Bathe head with iced or cold water.

Treatment. — Place the finger up the nose, and gently push the bones back

Inject warm soap - and - water. After into their place, and retain them there purgative has been administered, give by an adhesive plaster. every few hours, in gruel, a draught con taining chloral hydrate, 4 drs. ; bromide

Fracture of the Jaw.

of potassium , 4 drs.; Fleming's tincture Generally caused by a kick, fall, or of aconite, 5 drops ; spirit of chloroform , accidental violence. I oz.

Treatment. - If the animal is of any

When recovering, feed moderately for value, get the jaw set by a veterinary a few days on bran -mashes and a little surgeon, who purp will place it in a cradle made for that

hay.

ose.

Epilepsy or Fits. A disease on the brain not very com-

Lockjaw or Tetanus. A disease affecting the nervous system , mon among horses. and one of the most fatal which attacks Symptoms. - Attack is sudden . Horse the horse. stares round, trembles, and falls to the Symptoms. — A difficulty in chewing ground. Convulsions more or less severe its food and some stiffness about the jaws follow .

When consciousness returns, the horse will feed as if nothing had happened. Cause. - A derangement of thebrain ; but very little is known about it, and

is often the first symptom observable. Water is gulped down, the jaw becomes rigid, and saliva runs from the mouth.

Afterwards the muscles of the head, neck, and shoulders become fixed, till

there are no known means of prevention the whole muscular system of the body seems cramped . After some days, if the

or cure.

A horse subject to these fits is danger- disease is not checked, the horse will die ous for either riding or driving.

in agony from sheer exhaustion.

Treatment. Give a purgative (No. 17 ), and if the horse is restless or excitable give a draught composed of chloral hydrate, 4 drs.; tincture of belladonna, I oz. ; water, 8 oz., morning and evening ; but little can be done to guard against a

be contagious ; but the apparent cause is generally some wound, kick, or blow. Docking has been known to cause it. In some cases the only apparent cause

return of this disease .

Cause. — It is now believed by many to

has been the existence of bot-worms in the stomach. Exposure to cold and

general neglect have also brought it on.

Fits, see Epilepsy, supra.

Prevention . There is no particular

444

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

means of prevention beyond the proper care of the animal ; but if the beginning

Madness or Rabies.

This is the most fearful disease of this disease is suspected, give at once linseed -oil, i pint; aloes , 2 drs. ; Flem- affects the nervous system .

which

Symptoms.- Horse suddenly stops,

ing's tincture of aconite, 8 drops.

Treatment. - In this disease there is paws the ground, trembles, staggers, and considerable difficulty in giving remedies, falls ; he will rise and once more fall. Saliva flows from his mouth. owing to the contraction of the muscles After a short time he springs up in a of the jaws and the general stiffness. If

the cause of the disease is some wound, violent manner, kicking and biting any it had better be poulticed, and dressed thing near. Fit will succeed fit till he with carbolic oil or carbolic acid in 20 dies. But the symptoms do not always parts of water.

Open the bowels by come on suddenly, and for a day, or

giving 1/2 dr. of powdered croton (or even more, the attendant may wonder 20 drops croton-oil) in warm water, re- what is the matter with his horse that peating the powdered croton in doses of he is so extremely sensitive to noises, 10 grs. (or croton -oil 10 drops) every movements, and even to changes of eight hours till purging commences. light. If costiveness still continues, administer

The animal rarely lingers more than

a glyster of olive oil, 8 oz.; opium , 14 three days. Cause.—The bite of a mad animal, or

oz. ; warm gruel, 2 quarts. Put the horse in a cool rather dark

inoculation with the virus by some

stable where there is plenty of air, keep other means. him very quiet, and let no one but the Prevention .Among veterinary sur attendant have anything to do with him. geons, there is practically no means of Mix an ounce each of extract of bella- preventing an attack of madness, if the

donna and bromide of potassium together, germs or microbes of the disease are and place a piece of it about the size of once implanted in the blood. A bite a bean between the molar teeth every from a mad dog should be immediately five hours by the aid of the forefinger.

cauterised with the hot iron, and if four

Put a pail of gruel or sloppy mash in months pass without illness the horse the manger, so that the animal can, if may be considered safe. Treatment. — M. Pasteur, of Paris,

inclined, partake of it.

Never try to force food down the claims to have discovered a remedy for, animal's throat : it only aggravates the and preventive against, madness, which disease.

he has applied with more or less success

A veterinary surgeon, if called in, in the cases of human beings. But in would probably inject hypodermically, lower animals, when the dangerous na ture of the disease is recognised, the every four hours, atropine or morphia. Tetanus does not extend to the in-

sooner the animal is put out of its mis

ternal organs ; the horse will suffer from ery and beyond the risk of harming its

hunger. When the horse is recovering, attendants the better. he should be fed moderately with nour

ishing food (bran -mashes, linseed, and oatmeal in preference), and he will be

Megrims.

This disease is said to be caused by all the better for a turn or walk out of an undue pressure of blood in the head. doors

the weather is suitable. Symptoms.- The horse will suddenly Ifyou wish to save your horse, avoid stop, shake his head, and proceed on his

bleeding, so often recommended for this journey, at considerable speed. Some the moment when nature requires the often, perspiring profusely, fall down, greatest vitality and strength appears to and either struggle on the ground, or be suicidal. I am not an advocate for lie quietly. The attack may last five

disease . To weaken the vital power at times he will turn round twice, or, more

bleeding in any disease, except brain- minutes, and when it is over, the horse fever, and I think in a few years the will resume work as though nothing had

practice will altogether

die out, as done in the medical profession .

it has happened ; he will, however, be con siderably weakened.

A horse subject

HORSES.

to these attacks is particularly dangerous to ride or drive; and after one attack will always be liable to others in the future. Sometimes horses will die instantly when seized with an attack. Violent exertion in hot Cause.

445

Symptoms. — The first symptom may be dull, colicky pains, sleepy look, pulse very slow , profuse perspiration. In many cases blindness. Rests his head against

the manger or wall, and sometimes moves his legs in a peculiar manner.

Stagger

weather ; too small a collar or · tight ing gait till the horse falls down and bearing -rein ; a high system of feeding. dies in a state of stupor. Cause. — Unsuitable or over feeding. Prevention . - A proper-fitting collar and not too violent exercise ; a judicious Food in an overloaded stomach will

system of feeding, and an occasional dose swell and distend it, producing an op of purgative medicine, such as No. 20. pression on the brain which causes Treatment.— Bleeding is of little use, staggers. though recommended by many authoriPrevention. - Proper, regular, and ties.

Let the animal stand a few min- systematic feeding with food of good

utes, dash cold water on his head, push quality will ensure immunity from this the collar forward, proceed and

home as

disease.

quietly as possible. Then give a phyTreatment.- Give a purgative medi sic ball (No. 17 ), and every six hours in cine, such as i pint linseed -oil and 1 oz. water bromide potassium , 1/2 oz., for two

of tincture of ginger.

An hour after

or three days; afterwards give tonic the dose of oil give in gruel draught (No. 21 ). Mashes and green meat (No. 9), and repeat the dose of oil if should be given in preference to dry action of the bowels is not obtained. food, and a run out to grass for two Glysters of warm soap -and-water should months.

Palsy ( Paralysis). A deficiency in nervous power, which affects usually the hind quarters. Symptoms. - Stiffness in their action,

also be given every four hours. Grass Staggers. A disease of the nervous system aris ing from the stomach.

Symptoms.— They come on slowly, difficulty in turning, disinclination to lie the horse is dull and listless at first, but

down from the difficulty in rising again, gradually passes into a somnolent con dition. In time the animal gets weak, and sometimes a total inability to rise. Cause.- Pressure on the spinal cord reels, or staggers about, and if sharply from effusion of blood or serum , or from turned, will most likely fall down. It tumours within the spinal canal. Falls, seldom lies down when suffering from injury to the spine from blows or from this disease. turning in too narrow a stable, old age, Cause. Itis mostly seen during the and heavy loads.

months of July and August, but varies

Prevention. — Humane treatment and according to the season . It arises from ordinary care. eating rye-grass at a certain stage of its Treatment.— Give mild doses of pur- growth, as if eaten in this state it gative medicine, such as linseed -oil, i causes the disease. In hot and dry pint ; which will not only open the seasons it is most frequent. Treatment . — Remove the animal into bowels, but also support the system . give ball ( 17) and draught mustar loose-box, a embroca , as stimula d Rub tion ting

liniment ( No 15 ), on the part affected, (9), and repeat the draught every four the spine. Give morning and evening but steamed oats, bran-mashes,and a little

and in cases of doubt, especially along hours. Do not give any more rye-grass,

nux vomica tincture , 2 drs. ; spirit of hay. Fresh, succulent, natural grasses may be given in very small quantities. Rabies, see Madness (p. 444). II . —THE EYE .

ammonia , i oz. , in 10 oz. of water.

Stomach Staggers. Oppression on the brain resulting

Cataract

is an opacity of the crystalline lens, and

from a deranged and distended stomach. often follows an attack of ophthalmia.

446

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

Symptoms. A whitish speck in the

Itching or Tumour of the Eyelids. Treatment. — Rub the eyelids with shape, position, and size. They sometimes become large enough to cause mercurial ointment and lard in equal

eye, which varies in different eyes in blindness.

Cause. From a blow, after an attack

parts, and give sulphur, 72 oz., and nitre, i dr., in the food once a - day till the

of ophthalmia, or inflammation of the animal is cured. eye. Treatment. — In the lower animals

very little can be done for it. Glass Eye.

Removal of the Eyeball.

It is necessary sometimes, when the eye has been severely damaged, or has a cancerous growth in it, to remove it.

Paralysis or loss of special sensation This can be done only by a veterinary surgeon, who will not only remove the in the optic nerve . Symptoms. - The eye looks larger, eye, but, if you wish, place a glass one pupil dilated, animal stares — in fact, the

in its place.

In using glass eyes always

eye is blind and motionless, and looks take them out at night, for if kept in

more like a glass eye than a natural very long they become painful. one .

Cause. It is seen as a temporary condition in some cases of poisoning, but

Ophthalmia. Violent inflammation of the eyelids,

when permanent it is the result of either extending to the cornea and internal partial or total loss of function in the structures of the eye. optic nerve.

Symptoms. -- Light pains the eye, Treatment is of no use unless it is which is kept shut ; a profuse flow of

the effect of a poison, then give ball tears.

Pupil is contracted, and iris

( 17 ), a pint of linseed -oil, and every two changes colour. The opacity usually hours give in pint of cold water 4 oz. of extends from the circumference towards brandy and 2 oz. of spirits of ammonia the centre, and the inflammation dimin aromat. ishes one day to increase twofold the next, till in a few weeks, if not checked, Inflammation of the Eye, or Simple the eye becomes opaque and blindness Ophthalmia. on. comes After an apparent cure Symptoms. - Eyelids swollen, water- the disease will sometimes come on

ing, and nearly closed. Eye bloodshot, again , either in the same eye or in the

other which had not previously been and inside of the eyelids very red. affected . Cornea cloudy. Health not affected. Cause. — Foreign matter, such as a Cause . — A foul-smelling, ill-ventilated hay - seed or chaff in the eye ; a blow stable, reeking with ammonia and decom

with a whip ; or, more generally, cold. posing manure, is a frequent cause of It is sometimes produced in a young this disease. Confinement in a dark horse by over-exercise.

stable and a sudden transition into the

Treatment. - Firstremove any foreign glaring sunshine often accounts for it. substance. Give mild purgative (No. The tendency to inherit this disease from 20), and a mash diet ; bathe the eye with sires with defective sight is too well

poppy -heads and warm water every two known from sad experience to need any hours, and if that is not handy, with

comment.

The management of horses

weak brandy -and-water ; if no improve- being now better understood , this disease ment, bathe with a solution composed is becoming rarer every day. of liquor opium sedativus 1 oz ., in i pint

Prevention . - A

well drained and

of cold water. A useful lotion for in- lighted stable and cleanliness are the flammation of the eye is, sulphate atro- best preventives. pine, 4 grs., in i oz. of water. Keep Treatment. - Foment the eye with the animal in a dark box until better.

warm water, and bathe with a lotion

The inflammation should be cured in a composed of sulphate of atropine, 4 grs.,

few days; if not, treat as for Ophthalmia, in 1 oz. of water. Feed on spare diet; infra .

put the horse in a cool, airy , but dark

HORSES.

447

stable, where there is perfect cleanliness.

III.—MOUTH , NOSE, TEETH, TONGUE,

Give purgative (No. 18 or 19). The use

PALATE.

of the lancet may in extreme cases be useful ; the inside of the eyelid should

Glanders,

be exposed, and the lancet drawn lightly or enlargement and ulceration of the along for the purpose of relieving the glands in the lower jaw. parts affected by pressure of blood. Symptoms. - Small discharge of glu

Cloudiness of theeye, or complete opac tinous matter from the nose, generally ity, is a frequent consequence of this from one nostril, and that the left, but disease, which may be treated by bath- no cough. Swelling of the glands be ing with solution of corrosive sublimate, neath the lower jaw, which afterwards I gr., in 2 oz. of water. subsides, leaving the glands more fixed to the side of the jaw. Mucous mem Thickening of the Haw. brane of the nose becomes purple instead

The haw of the eye is situated in the of red, owing to inflammation. Lastly,

inner corner of the eye filling the lid. pus-discharging ulcers appear in the nos A horse can bring it forward over the trils, accompanied by cough, failing ap eye, and with it wipe away any foreign petite, weakness, and staring coat; these matter that may have got into it. This ulcers increase in number till they finally haw sometimes enlarges and protrudes, extend to the lungs, when death is cer so that it cannot retract.

tain.

This disease may at first be con

Treatment. — Give purgative (No. 19 ), founded with Strangles (see p. 448 ): the and bathe the eye with poppy-heads and difference, however, between the two warm water. Should the ulceration con- diseases is well marked. In strangles tinue, bathe with white vitriol, 12 dr.; the membrane of the nose is red, the water, 6 oz. ; or paint with a weak solu- discharge from the nose profuse ; there tion of silver nitrate. If further treat- is cough and sore throat, besides a swell ment is necessary , it must be left to a ing of the glands on both sides of the The opinion of a veterinary throat. veterinary surgeon . surgeon should always be obtained should Warts on the Eyelids. glanders be suspected. Treatment. - Cut off with a pair of Cause . — Unhealthy stable, want of

scissors and touch with lunar caustic, fresh air, improper management, and eye , and not contagion, are the most frequent causes to put on more than is necessary. Rub- of this disease. bing the roots with blue vitriol will Prevention . - Do not run any possible sometimes effect a cure. Take care also risk of contagion . See that there is good that any bleeding, when cutting, does ventilation and cleanliness in the stable, not touch any other part, as blood from , combined with judicious and proper ment taking care not to touch the

a wart may spread the disease. Wounds in the Eye or Eyelids.

manage

of the animal.

Treatment.-- Completely isolate from When once glanders is other horses.

Generally caused by brutality or care- declared by the veterinary surgeon, the lessness.

sooner the horse is destroyed the bet

Treatment. - Very little can be done ter ; there is no recognised and practi except to reduce the inflammation by

cable cure, and the danger of its being spread by contagion is so great as to make it safer to destroy the animal at once. Notice must be immediately given to the police, as it is included the aid of a feather, which, when soaked under the Contagious Diseases (Animals) in the lotion, should be drawn gently Acts. across the eye. When the eyelids are purgative medicine (No. 20), and bathe with warm water, and apply a lotion composed of atropine, 4 grs., in 1 oz. of water. This lotion is best applied by

torn, never cut any of the skin off, but retain it in its proper position by the aid of silver wire.

In these cases the horse

should be kept in a dark box.

Lampas. A fulness of the lower bars of the

palate. Cause .

It generally occurs

with

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

448

young horses, and is a natural result tincture of perchloride of iron, I OZ.; from the congestion caused by the shed- spirits of sweet nitre, 2 oz. ding of their milk -teeth and the growth Strangles. of the permanentones. Treatment.—Cut the bars lightly with A disease more common among horses a penknife several times across, avoiding under four years old than among older the artery. Never burn them . Give ones . bicarbonate of potash, 6 drs., morning Symptoms. — A cold, cough, sore

and evening in drinking-water,and warm throat, and profuse discharge of yellow bran - mashes. Use lotion (No. 16) for mucus from the nostrils, swelling under washing the sore places.

the throat, which increases and renders

swallowing painful. Nasal Gleet.

The tumour is

situated in the centre of the throat

under the jaw, and feels like one solid A profuse and unnatural discharge of mass .

mucus from one or both nostrils.

Owing to its solidity this disease

Symptoms. — The nasal discharge con- can readily be distinguished from Glan tinues after every other sign of cold has ders (see p. 447 ) when the tumour is com

left. Mucus in large quantities,mingled posed of separate parts, which can be with matter, constantly flows or is blown easily identified . The centre of the from the nose, till the horse becomes tumour is soft, and when it bursts it much weakened . Every care should be discharges an immense quantity of pus,

taken to make certain that it is not a quickly healing after the discharge. case of glanders. Treatment.

When the cough subsides, the horse Should cough remain, begins to recover from the extreme

treat as for Cough (p. 450 ). "If the dis- weakness attending this disease. charge is fætid, give daily a dose contain-

Cause.—Probably cold or climatic

ing sulphate copper, i dr.; ginger, 2 drs.; changes. I have strong reasons for be gentian, 2 drs. If the discharge is not lieving that this disease is contagious, offensive, but only an excessive discharge though this opinion is doubted by many of the fluid which moistens the nose, give authorities. Prevention . - None. daily, sulphate copper, i dr., made into a ball with flour and treacle.

Horses

Treatment. — Blister the tumour with

affected by this complaint should always ordinary blister (No. 1 or 2)to hasten its have a lump of rock -salt in their racks, progress and prevent the inflammation and a little salt mixed with the most spreading. When the tumour is soft on

nourishing food possible. Tonic (No. 21 ) the top , lance it and suffer the pus to may be useful in treating this disease. drain out without any pressure . After Nasal gleet of long standing is mostly the discharge, keep the place clean by due to a diseased tooth or bone in the bathing it well with warm water ; rub head , which must be removed to effect a with vaseline, which will soften the cure, wound and promote its healing. Give twice daily, in a pint of gruel, No. 9, and Polypus. keep the bowels open with carrots and An excrescence growing in the nostril bran -mashes. Feed on bran -mashes and which impedes the breathing. It must green food, and keep the animal in a cool

be removed by a veterinary surgeon, and and comfortable stable. When recovery no treatment by an unprofessional man is established , give morning and night can be of any use. tonic (No. 21 ), and keep the horse well. The discharge from the nose will continue Bleeding from Nose. sometime, but will gradually cease. If The result of irritation of the nose, this disease is neglected, death will prob glanders, bursting of a blood -vessel in ably follow . the head or lungs, and sometimes a blow on the head .

Treatment. — Keep animal quiet, head

Bastard Strangles.

A low form of strangles, in which ab

elevated, and pour cold water over it. scesses appear on different parts of the Give every two hours, in a pint of gruel, body. The treatment should be the

HORSES.

449

same as for ordinary strangles. In this and blister throat with mustard lini ment (No. 15 ), and give every night and morning, in a pint of gruel, draught blood -poisoning. ( No. 10). Teeth ( Diseases of ). Wounds of Tongue. The irregular growth and rough edges Treat as for wounds of the mouth. of the teeth frequently produce wounds disease there is much more danger of

in the mouth.

A horse out of condition

Tongue Bladders. should be examined , and if his teeth Sometimes occur underneath the are irregular or have rough edges, they should be rasped down with a file that tongue. Produced by a slight de is made for the purpose. Sometimes it Cause.

is necessary to cut off part of a tooth rangement of the system . which projects far above the level of the others.

Treatment. - Give a physic ball (Nos. 17 or 18), which will reduce any fever. The bladders may be readily removed by opening with a lancet.

E.ctracting Teeth . To extract the corner teeth of a three

or four year-old horse, so as to try and alter his age, is cruel, and any one with experience of horses can easily see on

Paralysis of the Tongue. Palsy of the tongue.

Symptoms. The tongue hangs in a looking into the animal's mouth if such loose manner from the mouth, and be

a thing has been done. Wolf - teeth . — These little teeth are

situated in front of the molars, and are believed by some to interfere with the animal's feeding. They can be easily extracted by the aid of a pair of forceps, or else punched out. But unless it is

comes swollen and inflamed . Cause . — A severe injury to tongue, or

by dragging on the tongue when giving a ball .

Treatment. — Suspend the tongue in

a loose bag tied to the head -stall ; give purgative (No. 19) and a drachm of nux

distinctly evident that they are causing vomica night and morning in a half -pint of water.

trouble, they should be left alone.

Molar Teeth . — They sometimes be The animal quids his

Amputation of Tongue. This is sometimes done by veterinary food, and frequently when feeding pauses for a few seconds. The breath surgeons when the tongue has been ex 1S

come diseased .

very offensive.

Their

treatment tensively lacerated.

A horse that has

should certainly be left to the veterin- lost part of his tongue must be fed from ary surgeon . a deep manger, and in drinking these Jounds in the Mouth .

animals force their heads deeply into a pail of water.

From a cruel bit, &c. Treatment. - Wash it with a solution

of alum, i oz., dissolved in twenty-eight times its weight of water ; or use lotion ( No. 16 ).

Paralysis of the Lower Lip.

A pendulous condition of the lower lip. Symptoms. — The animal's health is

not interfered with, and he feeds fairly

well, but lets a little food drop, his lip Teething Cough. A persistent and violent cough.

hangs down, and a little saliva flows from it.

Usually seen between the age of three and four. Food re-

Cause . — Paralysis of the nerve of the

times a tooth is found in the manger.

Treatment. — Give a physic ball, con

Symptoms.

lip , which is usually brought about by the fused, head poked out, gums red and curb - chain being too tight, or a badly swollen, frequent coughing, and some- fitted bridle.. Cause . — Teething, which causes irri- taining 5 drs . of aloes, and rub into

tation of throat.

the lip and sides of the face a little of

Treatment. — Extract any temporary embrocation (No. 12 ). Feed on sloppy

teethVOL. showing signs of getting loose, mashes. III.

2 F

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

450

DISEASES AFFECTING THE THROAT, CHEST, RESPIRATORY ORGANS, AND BLOOD .

Bronchitis, or inflammation of the bronchial tubes.

Symptoms. — Coughing,

Choking. Substances which have lodged in the gullet can generally be forced down by the use of a flexible tube, similar to that used for cattle ; if not, an operation by a

veterinary surgeon will be necessary.

wheezing,

hard breathing, and weakness.

Sore Throat.

The

horse may die in a severe attack from suffocation .

A common complaint, and associated with such diseases as strangles, influenza ,

Cause.—In cases of neglected cold or and scarlet fever, & c. catarrh, bronchitis often follows. Ex Animal has a nasty Symptoms. posure to cold or wet. cough, quids his food, and pokes out

Treatment. - Give plenty of fresh air, his nose. but keep warm .

Apply embrocation

Treatment. - Blister the throat with

( No. 12) to the chest ; give nitre, 3 drs., embrocation ( No. 12 ), feed on sloppy and Fleming's tincture of aconite, 10 food, and give in gruel twice a day ( No. you drops, three times a - day , and increase 10). Be careful in drenching that you the dose if necessary.

Feed on bran- do not choke the animal, for

are

mashes containing linseed - meal. For very liable to do so when it is suffering drinking -water, give weak infusion of from a sore throat. linseed . In acute cases, give in gruel Rheumatic Fever.

draught No. 10 three times a -day .

A specific fever due to a constitutional Broken Wind.

condition of the system.

Symptoms. --- In this disease the ex

Symptoms.--Animal restless, breath

piration of the breath takes two efforts, ing hurried, slight cough, shows signs of and the inspiration only one; the breath- pain, goes stiff, and joints swell. ing, therefore, is not regular, as in thick Cause.

Cause. --Hereditary tendency, bad stables, and insufficient food .

wind .

It is the rupture of air-cells,

Treatment. — Give physic ball (No.

and is generally attended by adry cough. 20 ), put an ounce of nitre frequently in Gross feeding, previous inflammation, drinking -water, and give twice a day the and violent exercise after heavy feeding. following ball: iodide of potassium , i Treatment.

There is no cure.

Keep dr.; powdered colchicum , 20 grs.; liquor

for slow work, and feed on soft nourish- ice-powder, 2 drs., made up with linseed ing food which occupies a small space. Crib -biting

is more of a habit than a disease. Symptoms. — The animal seizes the

manger or any fixed object, and makes a

meal and treacle.

Rub the swollen joints.

every night with embrocation ( No. 12 ). Chronic Cough. A most annoying disease to the rider. This cough frequently follows an attack

gulping noise as if trying to swallow air. of inflammation of the lungs. Cause.- Indigestion or habit ; one Symptoms. - If the horse coughs after horse will learn it from another.

Treatment. — It takes a lot of curing Anchovy paste on the manger will sometimes effect a cure. Any saddler will

drinking, the cough will arise from the

windpipe. It does not affect the general health . Cause.

Previous inflammation, ne

make a strap to go round the horse's glected cold, and sometimes worms.

neck to prevent crib -biting. An inven- Treatment.- If the coat is staring, tion has been recently brought out to the cause of the cough will generally be cure it by the aid of electricity. The worms, in which case give turpentine, battery is placed in such a way, that 72 oz., daily, in 4 oz. of linseed-oil; or whenever the animal seizes and squeezes santonine, 20 grs ., and aloes, 3 drs., made the top part of the manger, he at once receives a severe shock .

into a ball with linseed -meal and treacle, in the morning on an empty stomach ,

HORSES.

451

and repeat after two days ; or give a -day containing spirit nitrous ether, I draught (No. 11 ). If the cough pro- oz., liquor ammonia acetatis, 3 oz., in a ceeds from the throat, feed on green pint of water, and rub the throat with meat and mashes, and give ball (No. 8). embrocation (No. 12 ). Half fill a nose

Apply blister (No. 2) to the throat if bag with hay, and pour boiling water other remedies fail. Water, in which a upon it, and keep the horse's head in it little linseed or treacle has been boiled, till it ceases to steam , but be careful not

is useful instead of plain water, for to burn the horse's nose. In cases of extreme depression, as in pink eye, give drinking purposes. every three hours spirit nitrous ether, i Common Cold.

oz. ; whiskey, 4 oz. ; water, 6 oz.

Char

Symptoms. -Slight discharge from coal - powders night and morning are the nose, and weeping of the eyes ; fever useful for improving the blood. When and cough.

recovering, give tonic (No. 21 ) in a pint

Cause .- Changes of temperature and chills.

of beer twice a -day. Great care should be taken to prevent these attacks pro

Treatment. — Clothe warmly, and ducing roaring and other diseases. place in a cool stable. Feed on warm bran - mashes with a little linseed - meal in them, and give in gruel night and morning till fever is reduced

-acetate

Broken Ribs.

The ribs of horses are frequently

broken through accidents and kicks.

of ammonium , 3 oz. ; potassium bicarTreatment. — If the ribs are only bonate, 12 oz.; chloroform , 7/2 oz.; and broken and not the skin, put a good apply liniment (No. 14) to the throat, or pitch -plaster over that side of the chest ; embrocation (No. 12 ).

Distemper, Catarrhal Fever, or Influenza.

Most prevalent in spring and autumn, especially when the weather is cold and wet.

but if the skin is broken and there is a

hole in the chest, it is beyond the power of any one but a veterinary surgeon to effect a cure.

Dropsy of the Chest.

The result usually of pleurisy.

Symptoms.— At first dulness, loss of

Symptoms can be detected only by

appetite, and there may be shivering, placingthe ear against the chest. cough, weakness, inflamed eyes, nose a pale red, watery discharge from nostrils. Later the discharge from the nostrils

Treatment.— Tap the chest and let the fluid out.

There is a disease amongst colts run

becomes thick, but seldom offensive, ning on low marshy land of a dropsical glands of throat and under jaw swell, nature, but in this diseasethe swelling which make swallowing difficult. Gen- is seen on the outside of the chest and erally there is intense weakness. along the abdomen. Treatment. Take colt in from the There is a violent form of influenza which has lately come into notice called grass, give good food, and every night

“ pink eye."

It is attended with ex- and morning, in a pint of gruel, give

treme weakness, depression , and loss of tonic ( No. 21 ). appetite, and has been the cause of seri

Farcy. ous loss in many parts of the country. A glanderous ulceration which first af Cause . -Contagion , influences of climate producing cold, amounting almost fects the superficial lymphatics or glands. to an epidemic.

Symptoms. - Small tumours or cords

Treatment. — Remove into a cool box, which follow the track of the lymphatic clothe warmly, feed on warm bran -mashes vessels ; they increase in number and at

(the steam from which is very beneficial) length ulcerate. Fætid discharge from and green food, a little hay, or a carrot nostrils. Swelling round muzzle and of

or two, and give in weak infusion of lin- the limbs, which sometimes increase to seed i oz. nitre, instead of pure water an enormous size ; at other times the

for drinking. Sponge the nostrils with heels crack and mangy eruptions cover

vinegar and water. Give draught twice the body. There are various forms of

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

452

this disease, and the aid of a veterinary

Cause. The chief cause is contagion,

surgeon should always be obtained . It through the animal receiving into its is included in the Contagious Diseases ( Animals) Acts along with glanders, and notice must be at once given to the police. Cause.—Bad ventilation and sanitary arrangements; neglect of proper exercise and cleanliness ; contagion.

system the germ which causes the dis ease — the Bacillus anthracis.

This it

is most likely to do in its food or water, or it may be into a scratch or wound .

The Bacillus anthracis is a rose- like vegetable organism which grows and mul tiplies in the blood with great rapidity.

Prevention . - None beyond proper The disease is mostly seen in low -lying lands and near stagnant pools.

management.

Dogs,

Treatment. -- Remove into a clean, birds, vermin , and flies are propagators cool, well - ventilated box, and isolate of it through feeding on diseased car from other horses.

Give opening medi

casses.

cine, corrosive sublimate, 8 grs. ; gentian Prevention . - Drain the land, run off 2 drs ; ginger, 2 drs., every night ; in- any stagnant pools. Bury the diseased crease the dose of sublimate gradually till carcasses 8 to 10 feet deep, and throw I scruple is given. Should the mouth be- oil of vitriol and quicklime over them.

come sore, give daily sulphate of copper, i dr., and powdered aniseed ,1 oz. Ifthe horse is too violently purged, give a ball

Be careful you do not infect yourself through handling these carcasses, and do not allow any more animals to graze on

containing opium , i dr., mixed with

the land that has caused the disease

meal and treacle. Cauterise the ulcer- until it has had a good dressing of lime. Treatment is very unsatisfactory, al ated buds with red iodide of mercury ointment (No. 4). If the cauterised though the disease is not necessarily places do not look firm , bathe with lotion fatal.

Give purgative (No. 17 ) and

containing corrosive sublimate, i dr.; carbolic acid in half-drachm doses, in a rectified spirits of wine, 4 oz.

When pint of water, every five or six hours ;

the buds become healthy, apply friars' or alternate it with salicylic acid in half balsam to heal them. The horse should ounce doses in gruel. Give also stimu

be fed on green meat and carrots, and, lants occasionally; in this case turpentine should the season permit, a run out of in ounce -and-half doses is perhaps the doors for a few hours in the middle of Rock -salt should always be placed in the rack. If limbs are greatly swollen, foment frequently with hot water. the day will be beneficial.

best, given in thin gruel ; and administer salines, as nitrate of potash in half-ounce doses, and chlorate of potash in 2 -drachm doses, — the purpose being to get the system rapidly saturated with substances inimical to the life of the bacterium .

Anthrax or Splenic Fever

The greatest care should be exercised

in treating and attending to the animal, Symptoms. — The animal suddenly as the attendants have sometimes become

is a blood disease of a virulent type.

becomes ill, perhaps during work ; violent fatally affected by receiving the contagion trembling, excessive perspiration, hurried from the animal under their care. breathing ; the animal reels, loses the Simple Fever. power of his legs, and, after a few con vulsions , becomes unconscious and dies. Symptoms. - Staring coat, cold legs In some cases the symptoms are not so and feet, dulness, alternate shivering and pronounced at first, the animal only hot fits, constipation. There is no cough sweating, going stiff, trembling, and or turning round to the flanks. Cause. - Sudden change from heat to extremely dull ; and if it lives over the

first twelve hours, there is generally ex- cold, often produced by the improper spreading down the under part of the ration.

tensive swelling of the throat, often ventilation of a stable ; checked perspi neck toward the chest, and a sticky

Treatment.— Place in a cool stable

straw-coloured fluid trickling from the where there is good air without draught, nostrils. But it gradually gets worse, and give soft food while the fever is at and in a few days will probably die.

its height, and then a more generous

HORSES.

453

diet. Give mild opening medicine, such severe illnesses. The legs, nose, and lips as linseed -oil, 12 pint. On no account swell, pink spots are seen inside nose and

give active purgatives. Glysters of warm eyelids; animal refuses food, and looks a soap - and - water will aid the action of pitiful object.

the bowels, and give every four hours a

Cause.-Sequel to other diseases, or

draught containingsolution acetate of from bad stable drainage. ammonium , 3 oz.; Fleming's tincture of

Prevention . — See that your stable

aconite, 5 drops ; spirit nitrous ether, drainage and food are good. 1/2 oz., in pint of water. The disease is Treatment. — Is best left to a veterin not dangerous, unless complications ensue. ary surgeon . Bleeding Inflammation of the Lungs, or Pneumonia . is gradually becoming a thingof the past, Symptoms. - Fever and quickening but it is sometimes beneficial, especially

where there is great blood pressure, such pulse, cold ears and legs, breathing thick, as brain-fever, mad staggers, and acute nostrils dilated, restlessness, unwilling founder. ness to lie down, and staring coat. Some How to Bleed an Animal. — Put a

times the attack comes on suddenly and

driving bridle on the horse, bring his sometimes gradually. Death has been head round to the light, turn it to the left side, raise the jugular vein on the

known to ensue in twelve hours.

right side by pressing on it with the

of condition.

Cause . — Cold , over -driving when out

fingers, hold the fleam in the left hand Treatment. — Remove to a cool airy parallel with the vein, and give it a smart loose-box, and clothe warmly ; rub the

blow with the blood - stick ; keep the legs well, using white oil liniment (No. bucket pressed against the neck below 14) ; feed on green meat and bran-mashes

the wound, and if the blood does not only; apply embrocation (No. 12 ) to flow freely, insert the fingers into the each side of the chest ; give every four mouth to keep the jaw moving. Take hours a draught containing acetate of from 1 to 3 quarts of blood, afterwards ammonium , 3 oz.; bicarbonate potash, place a pin through the lips of the 12 oz. ; Fleming's tincture of aconite, 3 wound, and wind tow around it. not use too large a fleam .

Do

drops ; water, 8 oz., till the fever is subdued . When recovering, give tonic

(No. 21 ), and two months' run at grass Inflammation of the Jugular Vein if the season permit. after Bleeding. This is a very dangerous disease, and The wound caused by bleeding is gen- the aid of a veterinary surgeon should be

erally held together by a pin and piece obtained . of twisted tow ; it will usually heal in a While suffering from fever the diet couple of days. If the fleam has been should be sparing, and entirely composed carelessly used, or has been dirty, the of green meat, carrots, and cold bran wound is apt to become inflamed , swell, mashes. The open air is preferable to a and discharge matter. Abscesses will close warm stable : it is of the first im then form , and if not checked will prove portance that the horse should have cool dangerous.

fresh air to breathe.

If this disease is

Treatment. - Inject a weak solution neglected, the after consequences, even of nitrate of silver into the abscesses; should the horse recover, will be most

wash the wound at once with a solution serious, and his constitution will be of carbolic acid, containing about 20 ruined . parts of water, and if this does not pre Scarlet Fever . vent the abscesses forming, further treat ment must be left to the veterinary surgeon .

A feverish disease of the horse, char- ,

acterised by pink spots in the nose and mouth, and usually associated with a

Purpura, or Purpura -hæmorrhagica.

sore throat.

A blood disease of a very low type. Symptoms.-- Is seen frequently after

Symptoms.-—— The animal dull and off its feed, eyes swollen , pink spots inside

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

454

the nose and eyelids ; there is sometimes neck and head from striking the manger, or given by a savage attendant. Treatment. — Apply cooling lotion, Place the animal into a comfortable loose -box, give thrice a-day, such as goulard water, to theswelling,

a sore throat. Treatment.

in gruel, draught ( No. 9), and when and keepthe bowels openwith purgative recovering, give tonic (No. 21 ) in a pint (No. 18 ). If the tumour increases, apply of ale twice a -day.

common blister (No. 3) to hasten its dis

charge, and when it is soft in the middle it should have a seton drawn through A disease affecting the membrane cov- the tumour from the top, through the ering the lungs and lining the chest. bottom , out at the side below the tumour : Pleurisy.

Symptoms.- Very similar to those of this will completely drain the abscess. inflammation of the lungs, except that the Then foment and clean with warm water pulse is hard and small, the breathing till cured.

The aid of a veterinary

shorter and painful, and performed mostly surgeon should be obtained to ensure by the abdominal muscles, showing a line the successful treatment of the tumour. at each expiration from the lowerborder of the ribs to the flank .

Cause . — Chills.

Roaring. A disagreeable noise made by some

Treatment — Removeinto a cool airy animals during respiration, especially if stable, and feed on cold bran -mashes and green food .

Rub the chest and sides

forced to exert themselves. Symptoms. A roaring sound when

with embrocation (No. 12 ), and give sharp exercise is taken, caused by the twice a - day oil of turpentine, 1 oz.; difficulty of the air passing through the

opening of the larynx. iodide of potassium , 2 drs.; linseed -oil, contracted Call in a Cause .-- Frequently results from an veterinary surgeon, who may resort to attack of strangles. Tight reining tends

4 oz. ; lime - water, 6 oz.

the use of the trocar to puncture the to produce it.

chest. Complete rest at grass, if possible, and tonic (No. 21 ) should follow when

Treatment – There is no cure in the case of a confirmed roarer .

In early

the animal is recovering.

stages rub blister (No. 1 ) on the throat, and give a ball morning and night, com Heart Disease. posed of nux vomica, 12 dr. ; arseniate A disease causing interference with of iron, 3 grs. ; quinetum , i dr. Nothing

blood circulation.

further can be done.

Symptoms. — There is really but one

Saddle Galls.

true symptom , and that is the irregularity

of the pulse, but often associated with Cause .--A badly fitting saddle. this there is weakness, cough, hurried Treatment. — Apply lotion (No. 7 ), breathing, and sometimes the animal alter the saddle, and do not work until cured. staggers as if in want of breath. Cause. -Rheumatic usually in its

origin. Treatment.- None.

Sore Shoulders.

The shoulders of horses sometimes

There are several other inflammatory become very sore and painful, and when diseases of the heart, but it would only in this condition, if neglected, large be wasting time to enumerate them here,

for they are of a complicated nature and

wounds and abscesses soon follow.

Cause. - Badly fitting collar, heavy loads, using one trace longer than the other, and working horses too young.

very rare.

Poll Evil.

Treatment.

Bathe

the shoulders

A painful swelling on the upper part night and morning for an hour with

of the neck behind the ears, generally warm water, then apply lotion (No. 16 )to the parts where theskin is broken. Do terminating in an open sore. Symptoms. Inflammation and swell- not work the animals until they are pro ing of the ligaments over the atlas bone.

perly healed, for you can be summoned

Cause.— Tight reining, blows on the for working a horse with sore shoulders.

HORSES.

455

into a deep ulcer, which extends down

Sitfasts.

to the bone.

These are small hard tumours which

Cause . — Pressure on the withers from

an ill-fitting saddle or collar. Treatment. — Give the horse complete the harness comes in contact with it. Pressure of the saddle. rest till cured ; do not work him till Cause. Small pimples or pustules from an un- then under any pretence. Upon the healthy condition of the skin. first appearance of the swelling ,foment, form in the substance of the skin where

Treatment.-- Give rest, foment, and and apply lotion (No. 7). If the tumour apply cooling lotion. Should they sup- appears, apply blister (No. 1 or 3). The purate, wash with tincture of myrh, I oz. ; carbolic acid, 1/2 oz. ; glycerine, 2 oz. ; and water, 10 OZ . If they make no progress towards healing, apply a little

veterinary surgeon should be called in, if this does not stop the inflammation.

Keep the bowels open by feeding on green meat and bran-mashes.

blister ( No. 1) to the ulcers, and dress the wounds with friars' balsam .

But

it is often advisable, and brings about a far more speedy recovery, to have the

DISEASES AFFECTING THE STOMACH, LIVER, BOWELS, KIDNEYS, AND OTHER INTERNAL ORGANS, AND

hard core in the centre carefully removed with the knife. make it fit.

PARTURITION .

Alter the saddle and

Bots.

The larvæ of the gad -fly. Most com Stricture of Gullet. mon in spring and early summer. The Symptoms. — A contraction of the eggs of the gad -fly are deposited among gullet which prevents the passage of food. the hair, and are introduced into the Can be cured only by a veterinary stomach through the horse licking him self.

surgeon.

They attach themselves to the

lining of the stomach during the winter, Thick Wind . injuring and weakening it, till finally Symptoms. - Difficulty of breathing they are seen escaping in the spring out when driven.

Short hurried respira-

of the anus, causing great itching.

tions. This complaint is most usual in Treatment. — No medicine will totally horses with contracted chests, often re- destroy these bots. The use of salt sulting from an attack of inflammation among the food may serve to mitigate of the lungs. the evil, and a draught containing oil of

Treatment. This annoying disease turpentine, 1 oz., linseed -oil, 10 oz., may can be mitigated only by careful man- remove many of them, but very little can be done, and nature must be left to feeding, and by never giving a very full take its course. meal. The food should be of a very Colic or Gripes. nutritious nature in a small bulk . A

agement, avoiding sharp exercise after

thick -winded horse may be able to go a good pace without inconvenience, if he is

1. Flatulent Colic.

Symptoms. – Stomach and intestines

not hurried when he first leaves the stable. distended with gas ; pain and depression . Whistling and Wheezing

Cause. — Overloading of the stomach

mitigated only by using the animal for

17 ), and glyster ( No. 13), and every two

with green meat ; cold and over-exertion. Treatment. — Give a purgative (No. are forms of broken wind, which can be

slow work. Å drink made of linseed- hours give a draught containing opium meal, one pint, boiled in six pints of tincture, 1 oz. ; spirit of ammonia, 1 oz. ; water, with a little treacle, may do good , carbolic acid, 15 drops ; chloroform , i but there is no cure .

Withers ( Fistulous ). Symptoms. — This troublesome dis-

oz ., in 12 oz. of water.

2. Spasmodic Colic .

Symptoms. - Acute pain, rolling on

ease first appears as a swelling on the the ground, suddenness of attack, ex withers, develops into a tumour, then cited countenance, and the intermittent

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

456

nature ofthe pain. This last characterSymptoms. — It first starts with diar istic distinguishes the disease from in- animal rhea, which passes into dysentery ; the flammation of the bowels. becomes restless, occasionally lies Cause. — Chills from drinking cold down ; in the course of a few hours it trembles ; clots of blood are passed with Treatment. If taken in time, this the dung, which has a bad smell if not disease can usually be cured by giving soon checked ; a cold sweat breaks out, linseed -oil, 1 pint; and every two hours, the legs become cold , the eye glassy, and

water when hot, or otherwise.

in a pint of gruel, a draught containing death closes the scene. oil of turpentine, i oz.; tincture of Cause. — Too large a dose of physic, opium , I oz. ; chloroform , 1 oz . Walk worms and improper feeding, associated

the horse about after giving the dose. with a bad sanitary condition of the If the attack continues, apply hot fo- stable. Treatment. — Put animal in a warm mentations to the belly till the aid of the veterinary surgeon can be obtained. box, if cold ; put a rug and bandages on.

Give every six hours until the purging ceases the following drench in half a pint of gruel: Chlorodyne, 14. oz. ; pow

Diarrhæa.

Frequent passing of fluid dung. Symptoms.

Animal dull,

refuses

dered opium , i dr.; prepared chalk, 12

food, slight colicky pains, and frequent oz.; tincture of cardamoms, i oz. ; old

dunging, which , ifnot checked, will ter- port wine, 72 pint. minate in inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bowels.

Diabetes.

Symptoms. - Unnatural discharge of Cause. — Bad feeding, or feeding on raw potatoes, too succulent green food, urine, weakness, and unthrifty appear cold and irritation of the bowels, from

ance,

Cause. — Irritation of the kidneys by a too frequent use of diuretics or bad box, if cold, put a rug on, keep short of food . Treatment.—Feed on green food and water, and give in half-pint of gruel worms or innutritious food . Treatment. — Place animal in a warm

twice a day the following : Tincture of mashes, and give morning and night in

catechu, 1 oz.; powdered chalk , 2 oz. ; gruel a draught containing dilute hydro tincture of cardamoms, 1 oz .; opium chloric acid, 2 drs.; quinetum, i dr. ; powder, 12 dr. To be continued until tincture of opium , 12 OZ. The part of the diarrhea ceases.

the loins over the bladder should be cov ered with a hot cloth.

Constipation .

Attend to the

quality of the food, and in severe cases

Generally arising from the nature of call in a veterinary surgeon. the food or torpidity of the liver or in Inflammation of the Bowels. testines. Prevention. All dust from chop or chaff should be sifted out of horse's food ,

and too much mealy or dry food should

Very fatal, often resulting in death in a few hours.

Symptoms. — At first uneasiness and

not be given without access to water. dulness ; fever, and in some cases shiv Treatment. Give purgative mediering fits; nose red and mouth hot ;

cine - linseed -oil, 1 pint, and plenty of breathing and pulse quick ; ears and legs watery food, gruel, &c. , and warm glys- cold ; and the passing of small quan ters of soap -and -water, repeating the tities of dung at short intervals.

The

dose of oil when required. For chronic horse will show great pain by kicking constipation give daily a ball composed at his belly and whisking his tail. of aloes, i dr.; nux vomica, 12 dr. ;

Cause. — A chill when overheated, carbonate ammonium, i dr.; ginger, i often from drinking cold water when hot, over-exertion, a too full meal when dr. ; gentian, i dr. the animal is tired and worn out. Dysentery. Prevention . — These inflammatory dis A continual passing of semi - solid eases of the internal organs are very dung, tinged with blood.

common among draught-horses.

There

HORSES.

457

Treatment. Nothing can do any is no more pernicious habit than that of working horses during hot weather, with- good except opium, which will ease pain out allowing them for hours together to until death . have any drinking-water till they get into Inflammation of the Bladder. a probably cold stable, where they are

See Inflammation of the Kidneys for allowed to drink their fill and stand for an hour during the dinner -hour till they symptoms and treatment, infra. Cause. — Irritant matter in urine, or are chilled inside and out. It seems extraordinary that so many horses stand stone in the bladder. this treatment.

Allow farm -horses fre

quent moderate drinks of water while at their work, when that work is heating or the weather hot.

The exercise after

Inflammation of the Neck of the Bladder .

Symptoms. - Distended bladder and

drinking will prevent any chills, and on partial to total suppression of urine. their return to the stable they will eat

Cause. — Overstraining or cold .

their corn without requiring water to an

Treatment. - Give purgative (No. 17 ),

injurious extent.

Treatment. -- Place in a cool stable and clothe warmly ; give warm glysters of thin gruel and Epsom salts, %2 lb. Foment the belly with hot water and rub it with embrocation ( No 12 ), and every three hours give in gruel tincture of ginger, 1 oz. ; tincture of opium , 1 oz. ;

and three times daily in gruel a draught containing Fleming's tincture of aconite, 5 drops ; tincture of opium , 1/2 oz. ; bi carbonate of potash , 1/2 oz. Apply hot fomentations to the loins, and call in a veterinary surgeon, who will, if necessary , draw off the urine with a catheter.

Parturition . chloroform , 4 drs. Rub and bandage the legs. Give plenty of warm linseedThe act on the part of a mare to bring gruel. If costiveness continue, give forth her young. The period of preg

with great caution in gruel small doses nancy in the mare is usually eleven

of aloes, ,2 and drs. dissolved, 72 pint months, sometimes variesThis be send for aandveterinary tween tenthough and ittwelve months. linseed -oil animal seldom brings forth more than

surgeon .

one at a time, nevertheless twins some

Inflammation of Stomach. A disease of rare occurence .

Symptoms. - Animal shows signs of

times do occur, but they rarely live long after birth.

Signs of Foaling . – The mare is dull,

pain, breathes hard, sweats about the abdomen sprung, back bent,vulva swollen , shoulders, thirst, flow of saliva, great and a little mucus discharged. The

becomes enlarged, wax appears prostration, legs and ears become cold, udder ends of teats. As the time draws at the the animal staggers, and soon dies. Cause . — Foreign body in stomach, or near the mare becomes restless, paws, from a vegetable or mineral poison .

keeps on lying down, an anxious ex

Treatment. — Give linseed -oil, i pint ; pression in the eyes, and frequent pas tincture of opium, 2 oz., and give after sing of dung and urine. The water-bag every two hours two eggs beaten up in a soon makes its appearance, which ulti

pint of linseed -gruel, and add to it an mately bursts, after which the young foal ounce of tincture of nux vomica, and one of tincture of belladonna .

Twist of the Bowels.

appears.

Treatment. — The mare should be

placed in a nice clean loose - box with plenty of straw , and do not disturb her

A twist in a portion of the bowels, by keeping open the door and looking in which causes strangulation, mortification, frequently. and death . Inflammation of the Kidneys. Symptoms. — Excruciating pain, the Symptoms. - Fever and peculiar posi animal is up and down, blowing heavy and sweating, nothing seems to give ease, tion, standing with legs wide apart ; hot loins, and tenderness in that part; sup and death comes as a happy release.

Cause. Mostly rolling when in pain .

pressed urine, which is darkin colour

NTS

OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

AILME

458

and tinged with blood ; straining to avoid urine.

Treatment. - Should the attack be

Put the hand up the severe, call in a veterinary surgeon. Give

rectum, and the bladder under the for a purgative - sulphate of magnesia, rectum will be empty without undue 5 oz.; virgin scammony, 30 grs.; and In cases of inflammation of the

heat.

feed on bran -mashes with a light diet. A

neck of the bladder, it will feel hard and useful draught, to be given three times full.

In cases of inflammation of the a -day in gruel, is composed of chloride

bladder, it will feel empty, but there will ammonium, 2 drs.; bicarbonate potassium , be great heat. 1/2 oz.; Fleming's tincture of aconite, 5

Cause. - Unwholesome food, particu- drops ; chloroform , 1/2 oz. larly musty oats, or a violent overstrain ingor cold. Treatment. — Remove into a comfort-

Jaundice or Yellows.

Symptoms.-- A yellow tinge in the able box, clothe warmly, give plenty of eyes, skin, and mouth ; urine quite water, feed on linseed and bran mashes, yellow ; loss of appetite, and constipa foment the loins with hot water. Apply

embrocation (No. 12 ) to the loins over

tion. Cause. — Obstruction of the flow of

the kidneys, but leave the turpentine bile from the liver, disease of the liver out of the embrocation, and give purga- or congestion arising from cold or other tive (No. 17 ) ; give also warm glysters cause.

of soap-and-water. When the purgative

Treatment.Feed on mashes, thin

has acted give white hellebore, 5 grs . ; warm gruel, and green food ; clothe well tartar emetic, i dr., mixed into a ball, if weather is cold ; give every morning three times a day till cured.

If pos-

calomel, 22 dr.

If inflammation sets in ,

sible, find out and remove the cause of give every morning in gruel a draught

the disease, if it arises from improper containing solution acetate ammonium , food . 4 oz.; Fleming's tincture of aconite,

Inflammation of the Womb. An inflammatory disease of the womb shortly after foaling. Symptoms. Animal becomes dull

5 drops ; spirit of nitrous ether, 1/2 oz.

When recovering give tonic (No. 21 ). Peritonitis.

Inflammation of the lining membrane

and stiff, appetite lost, secretion of milk of the abdomen. diminished , breathing hurried ; the aniSymptoms. Small hard pulse, colicky mal grinds its teeth, suffers from colicky pains, dulness, constipation, and tender pains, frequently lies down, stamps, kicks ness on pressure over the abdomen,

its belly, the vulva is swollen and a dis- which feels hard and rounded. charge comes from it, which is at first

Cause. — It may arise from cold and

yellow , but afterwards becomes a choco- neglect, but generally from worms or wounds, as after castration.

late colour.

Cause.-- Exposure to cold, retention of

Treatment.-- Hot fomentations per

the after-birth , and injuries received dur- sistently applied ; give opium or laud ing foaling Treatment.

- Put hot cloths across

the loins, and give every three hours the following draught in a pint of linseedgruel : tincture of belladona, i oz. ; spirits, ether (nitrous), 2 oz.; and soda sulphite, 1 oz. Inflammation of the Liver. An uncommon disease.

anum , with small doses of spirits of ammonia every four or five hours, gruel

and linseed-tea to drink, and soft sloppy food. Poisons.

The only vegetable poison that need The eating of this tree accounts for the death of many horses every year. If the poison is be mentioned is yew.

Symptoms. - Dull pain, but no great suspected, give at once linseed -oil, 20 oz., uneasiness, yellowness of the mouthand and drench with spirits of ammonia, nostrils.

3 oz. ; brandy, 5 oz. ; gruel, i pint.

Cause. - Overfeeding and insufficient Repeat dose of oil, if it does not operate exercise.

in twelve hours.

HORSES.

Lead -poisoning.

Treatment. — Castrate by the covered operation (p. 497 ).

A disease due to the introduction of lead into the system.

Symptoms. — The horse has a care worn expression, staring coat, back arched, legs cramped, colicky pains, and

459

Staling of Blood, or mixture of blood with the urine.

Cause . — Inflammation of the kidneys. Treatment. - Feed on green meat and flow of saliva from the mouth . mashes ; clothe warmly ; give Fleming's Cause .— Grazing near rifle - butts or tincture of aconite, 8 drops, every night.

lead -smelting works, drinking water im- Purgative (No. 17 ) should be given, and

pregnated with lead, licking lead paints, three times a -day a draughtin gruel, andthe barbarous practice of giving shot composed of extract of ergot, 1/2 oz. ; tannin, 4 oz.; dilute sulphuric acid,

for broken wind.

Treatment. — Give sulphate of mag 2 drs.

When the appearance of blood

nesia, 8 oz., in a pint of water, with in the urine has ceased, give daily Per

tincture of belladonna, 1 oz.; tincture of uvian bark, 1 oz. ; sulphate of iron, i dr. capsicum , 72 oz. Afterwards, give every Stone in the Bladder ( Calculus). four hours until the animal is purged , Symptoms. — Irregular voidance of sulphate of magnesia, 1 oz. , tincture of belladonna, 1 oz., in half a pint of water. urine, sometimes total suppression, great pain, suddenness of attack, great uneasi Arsenic-poisoning. ness, a sediment from the urine on the

Due to arsenic either given acci- floor of the stable, and profuse perspira dentally or intentionally.

Symptoms. — Colic, staggering gait,

tion during attack. Cause.-Formation of solids in the

quick breathing, cold ears, diarrhea, bladder, often brought on by weakness or disease of the kidneys .

and death.

Treatment. - Give morning and even clever grooms giving it to improve the ing, in gruel, a draught containing bicar condition of their horses, or by allowing bonate of potassium , I oz. ; benzoate Cause.—It is sometimes caused by

animals to graze where recently dipped ammonium , i oz. If the gravel or small sheep have been lying. stones are not passed, place the case in Treatment. Give every two hours the hands of a veterinary surgeon, who the following in half a pint of water : will treat it for calculus, the removal of -

iron sesquioxide, 12 oz. ; brandy,

which requires an operation, the stone

pint.

being too large for the horse to pass. Navel Rupture.

A round swelling under the belly of young horses.

Symptoms.-- A soft swelling in the

Worms.

Symptoms.-Rough coat and half starved appearance, at other times an

enormous appetite, but no improvement

centre of the abdomen, ranging in size in condition ; appearance of a yellow from a fowl's egg to a cocoa -nut.

powder about the anus, with irritation

Cause. — Due to non - closure of the and switching of the tail. When fasting give in Treatment. navel. Treatment. — Trusses, bandages, or gruel draught (No. II ), and repeat in plasters frequently fail, and it may have three days. to be operated on by a veterinary sur

Protrusion of Anus. geon.

Scrotal Rupture. Descent of the small intestines into the scrotum .

Cause.- A drastic purge, straining during foaling, or in a violent fit of colic.

Treatment,

Wash the anus with

Cause. — By galloping, or a severe equal parts of olive-oil and liquor opii strain, but very often there at birth.

sedativus, and gently work it back to

Symptoms. — The testicles look large its proper place ; afterwards depress the and feel soft.

tail.

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

460

DISEASES AFFECTING THE LIMBS, FEET, AND SKIN. I. -

THE LIMBS .

Broken Knees.

Symptoms.- Rarely lameness ; the swelling is hard, and about the size of a large hen's egg Cause. — It is caused by the heel of the shoe in lying, which either irritates or squeezes the skin at the elbow, and sets up inflammation.

Cause . — A fall. Horses first brought from a stable are liable, from no fault in their build, to stumble and fall through excitement. They are also apt to tread on a rolling stone and fall. A horse that stands over - i.e., whose fore legs are too far under him — and those that shuffle

Treatment.If observed when only

commencing, treat as for capped hock; but if left until it gets confirmed and callous, even blisters and setons are of little use .

Then it may have to be cut

out, but save the skin ; place in the wound a piece of tow saturated with

along without lifting their feet, owing to chromic acid, i part to 20 parts of the formation of the shoulder, are very water, sew the wound up, pull the tow liable to fall forward .

out next day, dress again with the

Treatment. - Wash with warm water lotion, and continue dressing and remove the dirt. Apply a linseed- healed.

meal poultice to allay inflammation ; after twelve hours remove the poultice. If a yellow kind of oil exudes from the

until

Curb.

A swelling below the hock , seen plainly wound, it shows that the joint has been when the horse is viewed sideways. cut into, and a veterinary surgeon alone Cause . - A sprain of the ligament

can deal with the case , which , to say the under the hock . least, is a desperate one.

If, however,

Treatment. — Foment with hot water

there is no yellow joint-oil to be seen, wash and apply cooling lotion (No. 7 ). If the

the wound with aweak solution of carbo- swelling does not go down, apply blister lic acid, or boric acid, 1 part ; water, 30 (No. 4 ), and give complete rest. Curby

parts ; adjust the injured pieces of skin, hocks are natural to some horses, but apply a piece of carbolised tow , bandage once the horse reaches maturity they with carbolised gauze, and so dress twice seldom give trouble. a -day. Keep animal on the pillar reins Cutting. until the knees are healed . If inflam mation runs high, give every four hours The name given when a horse strikes in gruel a draught containing salicylate the inside of the fetlock with the shoe sodium , 3 drs. Purgative (No. 19 ) may of the other foot. Horses with feet be useful if the health of the horse is turned in or out, especially the latter, are most liable to this defect.

affected.

It is

often brought on by fatigue or by work ing a young horse too soon.

Capped Hocks, or a swelling on the point of the hock, Treatment. Let the shoe fit the which does not often cause lameness, but hoof of the cutting foot, which should is shown by the swelling and tenderness be rasped on the inside to reduce it. on the point of the hock . Foment the swelling caused by the Cause. Often caused by striking a bruises, and apply lotion (No. 7). See closing door or gate. remarks on “ Speedy Cut ” (p. 463). Treatment. — Foment with hot water

and bathe with cooling lotion (No. 7 ) ; give complete rest till cured . Apply

Enlargement of the Hock. Arising from inflammation . Cause. — A sprain or a blow , such as a

blister (No. 4 ) if the swelling has a tendency to harden. If this swelling is kick by another horse : it produces great lameness. neglected it may prove incurable. Capped Elbow .

Treatment. — Foment with hot water,

apply lotion (No. 7 ), and give perfect A hard swelling at the elbow, varying rest. Purgative ( No. 19) will help to in size.

relieve the inflammation, or a draught

HORSES.

461

in gruel, containing salicylate sodium , 3 with cold water without afterwards dry drs., every four hours.

ing the legs, and chills caused by work

If any enlargement remains when the in wet, muddy ground, after keeping in inflammation is reduced , apply blister too warm a stable.

(No. 4). The object in view must be to

Prevention . — The legs of horses sub

prevent a permanent enlargement of the ject to this disease should not be washed hock . unless they are afterwards dried . Let the mud dry on the legs, and then brush Fractures it off ; it is more than probable if you

are divided into simple , compound, and do this, you will have no more trouble, compound comminuted fractures.

provided other conditions are favour

A simple fracture is when the bone able.

is broken into two pieces, compound when broken and associated with a

Treatment.

- Wash the

heel with

warm soap-and-water, or if very bad,

wound, and a compound comminuted poultice at first with boiled turnips and when broken into several pieces and bran, sprinkling the sores all over with associated with a wound. soot before applying the poultice, and In the horse simple fractures are the rub in ointment composed of oleate of only ones worth trying to treat. In the zinc, i part, and vaseline, 2 parts; or case of the other two kinds, the sooner lard, 1 oz ., sugar of lead , i dr.; or wash the animal is destroyed the better. with lotion containing chromic acid, i

Before trying to set a fractured limb, part, water, 8 parts. If the case proves it is wise to consider whether the animal obdurate, use ointment containing white is worth it, and if placed in slings will precipitate of mercury, i dr.; liquor

he be quiet. Having decided to set the carbonis detergens, i dr.; vaseline, 1 oz. limb, place the animal in slings ; take Give a mild alterative, Barbadoes aloes, some gutta -percha, place it in hot water, 4 drs. ; Castile soap, i dr.; oil of cara and mould it to the limb, or use some ways, 10 drops, or condition powders

sheet-tin , and after moulding it to the (No. 6 ). Sulphate of soda, 4 oz., in the part, cover with some flannel to prevent food every night may prove a useful its cutting at edges. Take the splints aperient. Iodide of arsenic, 4 grs. ; thus made, place them on the part to liquorice-powder, 2 drs. ; gentian, 3 drs., be set, and pack where they do not made into a ball with treacle and lin

exactly fit with tow ; then take a nice seed -meal, is a very good thing for this long bandage, wind it tightly around, disease, and a ball should be given every and do not touch it for a couple of night. Grogginess, see Navicular Disease If the animal is a restless one, it will ( p. 467 ). be only wasting time to try and set the limb. It is a false but popular idea that Open Joints. horses' bones will not unite ; nothing months.

will unite quicker, if the animal will only nurse its limb. Grease.

The following joints are sometimes opened : hock , stifle, knee, and fetlock joint. Symptoms. — Great pain and lame

A disease of the skin of the heel, gen- ness ; a small wound is seen, and from erally of the hind feet.

it flows a yellowish fluid the consistency

Symptoms.-Inflammation, with pain of glycerine. Cause . - Kick from another horse, and lameness at first ; discharge of matter ; at first limpid, soon gets thick,

accidents of various kinds, and by a

fætid, and irritating; swelling; often groom pricking the horse with his fork going on to ulceration and the forma-

tion of fungus - like growths called grapes.”

when bedding the animal up. Treatment is unsatisfactory. Give a dose of physic ; place a cold -water band

Cause. — Too little exercise and too age around the joint for twenty - four much corn ; bad or innutritious food ; hours ; afterwards call in a veterinary too much coarse boiled food ; washing surgeon .

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

462

Knee- Tied.

sary in extreme cases to apply blister

(No. 1 ). Rupture of the Suspensory Ligament. It is a want of depth under the

A natural defect, for which there is no cure.

knee, owing to the hinder knee-bone not

Lameness from this cause is generally

incurable. The suspensory ligament sus

being large enough.

tains the foot, and the rupture of it Mallenders and Sallenders.

allows the fetlock to drop down almost

Dry scurfy humours, which, when to the ground. If the horse cannot bend affecting the front of the hock, are called his foot, it is not the suspensory ligament Sallenders, and when under the back of that is ruptured. the knee Mallenders.

Cause . — Over -exertion or strain.

Cause.-- Neglect in the stable.

Treatment. — Perfect rest, and put on 1

Treatment.--- Rest, and apply oint- a high-heeled shoe. Bandage the legs, ment containing tar, 1 oz.; sugar of lead, 1/2 oz.; lard, 4 oz.; and give draught morning and evening containing bicarbonate potassium, 6 drs.; spirit nitrous

foment, and apply lotion (No. 7) ; if this does not reduce the swelling, apply blister (No. 4) and give a mild purga tive (No. 19).

In most cases the lameness will be ether, I oz .; tincture gentian, 1 oz. ; Feed on green food and permanent. improve stable management. If the Hip Knocked Down. above treatment is not successful, apply

water, 8 oz.

blister (No. 4), mixed with three times its weight of lard.

Symptoms.- At first great swelling, the animal goes lame, but when the swelling is reduced the hip that is

Tumours.

knocked down looks less than the other

There are two kinds, internal and ex- when looking at it from behind. ternal. The former are usually situated Cause.—Through falling, in knocking

in the brain, womb, abdomen, and liver, against a wall, in passing through a and nothing within the power of man doorway. can do any good. The external tumours

Treatment . — Little can be done ex

are the ones we are often asked to cure, cept placing the animal in slings, and and they usually appear on the shoulders, bathing the part with hot water ; if an neck, under the tail,and at the end of abscess forms, the piece of bone that is knocked off must be cut down upon and Treatment. — There are various ways removed.

the cord after castration .

of removing them, and the best is by the knife.

If the tumour is narrow at its

base, an easy and safe way to remove it

Spavin. There are two kinds :

is by winding a piece of green silk 1. Bone- Spavin . around its base, and allowing it to drop off. In cutting large tumours out, veterSymptoms. - Bony enlargement on inary surgeons sometimes come in con- the inside of the hock -joint towards its

tactwith large arteries, and these must lower aspect, producing lameness when be caught up and tied.

When a tumour first formed, till the parts accommodate

appears after castration, use the hot iron themselves to the enlargement. After and clams to remove it. Rheumatism .

wards, the lameness may be apparent only when the horse is first taken out of the stable, unless it interferes with the

Change of temperature and cold often movement of the joint, when a small

produce stiffness of the joints, varying spavin may permanently lame a horse. in intensity. Treatment. — Keep the animal warm ,

Cause. —Hereditary, local injury, sprains of the ligaments and concussion,

and rub the part affected with lini The frequent bandaging of the legs is apt ment of belladonna, and morning and to 1 produce an unsightly curliness of the hair. evening give in 12 pint of water iodide The application of alum , 1 oz .; salt, 2 oz.; in

of potassium , i dr. It might be neces- 1 quart of water, will do much to remedy it.

HORSES.

overwork when young, peculiar forma-

tion, improper shoeing. Treatment. — Perfect rest and repeated

463

Symptoms. — The skin is torn, but

the wound is not of any depth. Treatment. - Wash well with warm

application of blister (No. 4). Should water, dress with tincture of myrrh, and blistering not remove the lameness, firing dust fuller's earth over it. may have to be resorted to. I have Incised Wounds. found ossoline effect a cure when other remedies fail. Spavins always constitute Caused by a knife, scythe, or any such unsoundness. sharp instrument.

Symptoms. The wound usually is 2. Bog - Spavin .

deep, and the edges cleanly cut. Treatment. — Having thoroughly Symptoms. — A tumour, resembling a wind -gall on the hock, formed on the cleansed the wound, sew it up with car inside of the front of the hock. The bolised gut, and dress with liq. carbo

swelling is due to distension of the bursa detergens, 1 oz. to 30 oz. of water. of the hock with joint-oil, and is usually permanent, but does not much interfere with slow work.

Punctured Wounds.

Caused by long nails, horns of cattle,

Cause. — Sprain and over - exertion. forks, parts of agricultural implements, Hereditary conformation. and broken shafts. Symptoms. — A wound of some depth, Treatment. If it is not considered advisable to keep the horse for slow and though it may not be large to look

work without treating the spavin, which, at, it is the most fatal of all wounds. in my opinion, is the wisest course to

Treatment.-If it is bleeding freely,

pursue, apply blister (No. 3) and allow plug it up for some hours with carbolised perfect rest, in the hope of effecting a tow ; after the tow is removed, inject cure, but it is not likely to be permanent. into the wound, by the aid of a wound syringe, the following lotion : glycerine, Speedy Cut. 3 oz. ; carbolic acid, 1 oz. ; water, 30 oz. ; Horses are apt to strike the inside of and keep in the wound a piece of tow

the fore leg at the lower part of the knee soaked in the lotion, until it heals. Re with the other foot when trotting fast, member, wounds of this kind must heal or lifting their feet high. Horsesliable from the bottom. to this are dangerous to ride or drive, Contuscd Wounds.

the force of the blow being sufficient in some cases to bring them down. Great

pain and inflammation and swelling result from the blow.

Prevention . — Cut the hoof away on

Caused by a severe blow, fall, or kick. Symptoms. — This is more of a bruise than a wound.

Treatment.— Bathe for two hours

the inside, and put on a shoe of equal twice a -day, and afterwards dress it with thickness at toe and heel, having only lotion (No. 7 ). one nail on the inside, and not project

ing beyond the part of the hoof which has been rasped. Keep a speedy cutting boot on the injured leg to protect it. Treatment. Foment the bruise, apply lotion (No. 7 ), and allow complete

rest till cured .

If the bruises have a

tendency to harden , apply blister (No. 4). Wounds.

Lacerated Wounds.

Caused by a bite from a dog or horse, by being entangled in a fence and strug gling, and in coming against the latch of a door in passing through it. Symptoms.-- A wound usually of some size with its edges ragged . Treatment.-Cleanse the wound well with hot water, sew up any part you

Wounds are divided into abrasions, in- think necessary , and dress with liq. carbo cised, punctured, contused, and lacerated detergens, i part ; water, 30 parts. wounds. An Abrasion .

Caused by falls, kicks, barb -wire, and short nails, &c.

Splint.

Symptoms. — A bony enlargement on the inside of the fore leg below the knee.

464

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

It often produces lameness until fully on for a few days, and then blister with grown, when the lameness disappears, (No. 1 ). unless the splint interferes with a tendon Sprain of the Fetlock. or joint. Splints are not thought much of unless near a tendon or joint.

Symptoms. - Lameness, attended with

Cause. — Young horses are very sub- heat and tenderness of the fetlock, is prob ject to splints : they arise from injuries ably a sprain of the fetlock . to and a sudden weight thrown upon the

Treatment.-- Apply repeatedly blister

bones of the legs, and usually found on (No. 3) till the heat subsides, then ban the inside of the canon -bones of the dage lightly to strengthen the fetlock ; fore legs.

give perfect rest.

Treatment.-- Blister (No. 4) applied once or twice will generally effect a cure.

Sprain of the Round Bone or Hip.

As a horse gets older splints will gener-

Symptoms. - A sprain of the rounded

bone of the thigh, by which the horse loses all power of moving that quarter, Sprain of the Back Sinews. and drags his leg, resting it on the toe Symptoms. - Great pain, thickening alone. and inflammation in the leg above the Cause. - Sudden strain , slip, or fall. fetlock, preventing the horse bringing Treatment. - Foment and apply im

ally disappear.

his footflat to the ground . The leg will mediately blister (No. 3), and call in a appear to be round instead of flat. Cause . - Inflammation of the sheath

veterinary surgeon. Sprain of the Shoulder .

which encloses the back tendons, the re sult of hard work or excessive strain .

Symptoms. - Great pain, especially

Treatment. — Perfect rest; foment when going down -hill, and a dragging with hot water and then poultice with linseed -meal and bathe with lotion (No. 7 ) ; keep the bowels open with purgative (No. 19). When the heat subsides, and the horse can put his foot flat to the ground, bandage the leg with bandages steeped in vinegar. Should the inflam-

of the foot forward on the toe. If the foot is drawn forward, the horse shows pain. No outward swelling or heat. Cause . — Accident from slipping or

going over rough ground. Young horses are very liableto this. Treatment.- Perfect rest ; apply hot

mation continue, apply embrocation (No. fomentations to the shoulder and bathe 12 ), or blister (No. 3 ), and give two or with lotion (No. 7 ), and, if necessary, blister (No. 3) ; keep down inflammation by giving purgative (No. 19). A long Sprain of the Coffin -joint. rest, combined with this treatment, will Symptoms. - Sudden lameness, and generally effect a cure. heat and tenderness round the coronet. Shoulder -Stip. Treatment. This kind of sprain three months' complete rest.

should be treated at once, before the

A peculiar outward movement of the

inflammation spreads. Apply blister shoulder when the animal walks, some (No. 3), and give occasionally purgative times, but not always, accompanied by

( No. 19). Bandage the leg and give lameness. Symptoms.

perfect rest .

The shoulder -joint looks

enlarged, but the muscles of the shoulder Sore Shins.

are wasted .

Common in young horses that have

Cause . — By horse being put to plough too young ; by the one foot being in the Symptoms. — Lameness ; if both legs furrow and the other out, and by pulling are affected, the animal rests first on one awkwardly and using the shoulders un then on the other leg, and the legs have equally before getting accustomed to the a doughy feel. draught. Cause.-By a young horse galloping Treatment.-- Blister the shoulder with before the bones are properly developed. (No. 1 ), and turn the animal out for three not done much work .

Treatment. Put cold -water bandages months.

HORSES .

465

morning, may relieve and strengthen the Sprain of the Stifle -joint. system with satisfactory results . Symptoms. - Dropping of the hind Mud - fever. quarters and dragging of the leg ; great heat and swelling, and tenderness of the Symptoms. - Heat and swelling of the stifle.

Cause.—A blow, sprain, or overwork.

legs, and the animal goes stiff ; there is a certain amount of fever, hence the

Treatment. - If the stifle has been

name.

Cause . — The chilling and caustic dislocated from a kick or blow, send for a veterinary surgeon, who alone can action of mud, which in cold weather judge as to the treatment. In case of produces inflammation in the legs of sprain, apply warm

fomentations and horses, especially when the legs are ren

lotion (No. 7) till the inflammation is dered tender by clipping, repeated wash somewhat reduced, and then apply blister (No. 3) ; give perfect rest and purgative (No. 19). Dislocation of the Stifle-joint. This disease is usually seen in young horses, and is due to the slipping outwards of the patella or bone which corresponds to the lid of the human knee.

ing, and imperfect drying. Prevention . - Do not clip the horse's legs; let the mud dry, and then brush it off ; never wash them.

Treatment. —Dress the legs with a

mixture of glycerine, 8 oz.; carbolic acid, i dr.; and liq. plumbi acet., 1 oz. Swelled Legs. Horses of a coarse nature are very sub

Symptoms. - One or both stifles may ject to swollen legs, especially the hind be wrong, the joint looks swollen, and ones. Symptoms. With or without great when the animal moves it slips out and heat ; lameness accompanied by quick in with a peculiar noise.

Cause.-- Hard galloping, feeding on pulse and fever. Cause. — Overfeeding, too little exer hilly pasture, and often a disease of the cise, and change of food . joints occurring in foals. Treatment. - In young horses, seems Treatment. — If there is much fever, to be of little use ; but blisters may be foment the legs, bathe with lotion (No. 7 ),

tried. If the swelling is accompanied by and give a ball containing turpentine, i heat and pain, apply hot fomentations

oz. ; ginger, 12 dr.; linseed -meal, %2 02.;

and cooling lotion first. In older horses and two hours after give purgative (No. it can be reduced by flexing (working 19 ). If there is not much feverbut backwards and forwards) the leg ; push swelling, stiffness, and pain in the legs, it back into its proper place, and apply a foment them and rub lightly with em blister. brocation (No. 12 ). Give gentle exercise and purgative (No. 19). String-halt. Thoroughpin . Symptoms. - A sudden snatching up only . usually Sympt hind but legs, or leg of the oms —Very similar to wind

one leg, which makes the horse's action gall (see below ). An enlargement at peculiar.

Probably a nervous disease, the upper and back part of the hock

and practically incurable.

It produces between the tendon and the bone. It

no lameness, but is liable to get worse, usually projects on both sides of the hock , but rarely causes lameness, if Cause . Often produced by rheuma- taken in time before the swelling be tism or by leaving a horse standing in a comes callous. and is always considered unsoundness.

stable without sufficient exercise, and is

Cause . — Overwork or strain .

hereditary.

Treatment. - Rest, and apply blister

Treatment. - Doses containing citrate (No. 3 or 4) till the swelling is reduced. iron, 2 drs.; and ammonium , 2 drs.; tincture nux vomica, 2 drs. ; tincture capsicum , 2 drs. ; carbonate of ammon-

Symptoms. -Puffy elastic swellings

ium , 2 drs., given in water night and

situated just above the fetlock, which

VOL. III .

Wind -galls.

2 G

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

466

become large and hard, causing lame

Corns.

ness .

Cause. — Strain of the tendons, and overwork in young horses.

Symptoms. — The horn of the sole

becomes reddish, soft, and tender. The Treatment. —- Bandage with flannel horse will flinch when this part is pressed, steeped in vinegar till the swelling sub- and occasional or permanent lameness re sides. If this does not effect a cure, sults. Careless shoeing or tight blister (No. 3) should be applied. WindCause.

galls do not, as a rule, cause unsound- shoes, producing undue pressure at a particular point.

ness .

Treatment. — Old corns are difficult

to cure ; fresh ones may be prevented increasing by proper shoeing, and by Canker . paring the corn as far as possible with A disease of the frog, often extending out wounding the sole. A bar-shoe may II . -

THE FOOT.

be put on in serious cases with advan tage, and the horse shod with leather. times the result of neglected thrush, and False Quarter . differs from it in its tendency to spread, and in the swelling or enlargement of Symptoms. - It is due to a division

to the sole. Symptoms.

This disease is some-

the affected parts. The diseased frog assumes a soft, fungatory appearance ; is liable to bleed on being touched ; emits a very fætid , offensive , although nearly colourless discharge; and unless energetically treated the disease is apt to spread over the who sole.

of or a want of secretion by part of the coronary band, which extends as the

horn grows downwards, making a fis sure or wide groove in the hoof. a serious defect, often resulting in in flammation and lameness, and from the

le thinness of the horn it is very liable to Cause. — Hereditary ; but often neglect injury during work . and want of cleanliness. Cause. - Injury to the coronary liga

Treatment. - Cut away the sole where ment, and sometimes the consequence of the canker is situated, removing all fun- neglected sand -crack . gus, and apply acid solution of nitrate of Treatment.-- Apply blister ( No. 5 ) to mercury and bandage up the foot, or dust the coronet, and treat the fissure as for

on iodoform night and morning; morn- Sand -crack' ( see p . 468).

Should the

ing and night bathe with lotion - carbolic secreting coronary band be permanently acid, 1 part; glycerine, i part ; and in injured , no remedy will cure the disease. four days repeat the application of acid Founder (acute), solution. If the fungus still grows, call in the aid of a veterinary surgeon.

or inflammation of the feet.

Symptoms. — Great restlessness and

Contraction of the Foot. continual shifting of the animal's weight Symptoms. - A natural hoof is nearly from onefoot to the other ; pain, fever, circular, but sometimes through neglect heaving flanks, hot feet. After a time or bad shoeing the hoof is made concave,

the horse will lie down and will then

and the heel contracts, producing per- rest quietly. manent lameness if not attended to .

Cause.

Violent exertion on hard

Cause. - Neglect in stable manage- roads, or cold causing inflammation ; ment or shoeing. Extreme dryness, or feeding on wheat; unusual or inordin allowing the shoes to remain on too long, ate feeding of any kind ; from inflam will cause the hoof to shrink .

mation of the lungs, or bowels ; or from

Prevention. Stopping the feet with drinking largely of cold water when cow -dung or moist clay , and removing overheated. the shoes.

Treatment.

Remove

the

shoes,

foment the feet, and poultice with lin hardly ever be cured, but if it is decided seed -meal or bran . Give a draught in Treatment. -A contracted foot can

to attempt a cure, a veterinary surgeon gruel every six hours, containing bi should be called in .

carbonate of potassium , 1 oz.; Flem

HORSES.

467

ing's tincture of aconite, 5 drops; the tender part being of course shown nitrous ether, i oz.

Feed on mashes by the horse flinching.

and green food, and keep the poultices Cause . - Commonly a fault in shoe on for three days. Bathe the foot with ing, or a wound caused by a stone, flint, lotion containing ammonium chloride, 2 piece of glass, or nail on the road . oz.; potassium nitrate, 2 oz. , in 16 oz. Treatment.— Having found the ten water .

If the inflammation continues der place, pare that part of the sole

after three days of such treatment, ap down to the quick, and fill up the ply blister (No. 2) to the pastern. In wound with a little tow dipped in extreme cases the aid of a veterinary friars' balsam . If the horse is very lame, or if the wound is festering, apply a poultice of linseed -meal or bran. If it does not heal, touch the place with

surgeon is necessary.

Founder (chronic ).

The result of acute founder or inflam- chloride of antimony, which should in mation of the foot, and nothing can cure

duce the crust to form .

it ; shoeing may do good.

Pumiced Feet,

Navicular Joint Disease.

A result of inflammation of the feet.

Symptoms. - A sprain of the joint The exudate thrown out between the made by the shuttle -bone at the back wall of the hoof and the coffin -bone dur of the coffin -joint in the foot of the horse ing inflammation of the feet forces the

will, if the cartilage of the bone is in- latter to press on the sole of the foot, flamed, produce lameness. When first flattening it and causing what is called brought out of the stable, the horse will a " pumiced ” foot. tread on his toes and avoid bringing his

Symptoms.

Hollowness

of

the

heel to the ground ; consequently he will middle of the front part of the foot. go lame down-hill ; when resting he will Fulness or convexity of the sole. point his feet.

This lameness is very

Cause.— Inflammation of the foot, or

deceptive, and has often been judged to very hard work, especially on hard roads or streets. be in the shoulder. Treatment. — No cure. Blisters or Hereditary ; over - exercise Cause . after undue rest. stimulating dressings to the coronets

Treatment.-- Foment and apply hot may be tried, to increase the growth of linseed-meal or bran poultices; and give healthy horn. Care-in shoeing — that purgative (No. 19). The early advice of nothing presses on the pumiced part of a veterinary surgeon should be obtained, the foot, or a bar-shoe, is the only thing and he will best determine how ulcera-

that can be done.

tion and ossification of the cartilage can Quittor.

be prevented.

A suppurating wound of the coronet, often arising from a neglected prick.

Over-reaching,

or wounding of the coronet with the Wounds of this nature are very serious, and should be left to the veterinary

other foot.

Symptoms.Often inflammation and surgeon . pain ; and the wound, however slight apparently, should not be neglected . Treatment. - Wash all dirt from the

Ringbone. A most prevalent disease situated in

wound, apply a piece of tow dipped in the pastern. In the hind feet, unless friars' balsam , and tie it up.

In severe

the disease is found at the front of the

cases poultice with linseed -meal or bran . foot, the horse will walk on his toes ; If the wound does not heal, call in a in the fore feet, owing to the greater veterinary surgeon . concussion, it is generally at the front and sides, and the animal will walk on Pricks or Wounds in the Sole.

Symptoms. - Lameness, which can

his heel.

Symptoms. — Pain and inflammation,

probably be located by pressing all with enlargement of the bone above the

round the sole with a pair of pincers, coronet, generally on both sides of the

S

468

AILMENT

OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

pastern -joint, which, if not checked, will practicable ; pare away the diseased por tion of the hoof, and apply blister (No. 2) to the coronet. Rest till cured . terns are very liable to this disease, ow- Afterwards shoe with side-clips.

spread rapidly.

Cause. — Horses having straight pas-

ing to their peculiar formation.

It may Side -bones.

also be hereditary. Treatment.-- Apply hot poultices to

Symptoms.

Somewhat similar to

the leg and give purgative (No. 19), repeating the dose if necessary. If there is no improvement, blister once or twice with No. 4. Firing is often resorted to

Ringbone (p. 467 ), except that the disease is located above the heel ; it is an ossi fication of the cartilages of the foot. Usually found in heavy draught-horses,

with success. Complete rest for some months will be necessary .

and in the fore feet rather than in the hind feet. If the horse has good, well

developed feet, they do not generally Sand -crack. Symptoms . - Cracks in the fore feet

cause lameness. Cause .

Concussion and hereditary

will generally be found on the inner predisposition ; bad shoeing. side, and in the hind feet in the front Treatment.-- Apply blister (No. 5 ) ; of the hoof. if this does not cure the lameness, have Cause. — Brittle nature of the hoof, Professor Smith's operation performed

previous disease, heavy work or neglect. on the foot by a veterinary surgeon ; Treatment. - Wash the crack to clean

some of the well-known patent specifics

it from gravel and dirt. If the pain and may be tried with a chance of success. lameness are severe, it may have to be Thrush .

poulticed. Pare and rasp it, and apply ointment composed of oil of tar, 2 oz. ;

A disease of the frog, which secretes a

fish -oil, 4 oz.; and stop the foot with cow -dung and moist clay. By passing a red -hot iron above and below the crack, healthy sound horn may be got to grow from the top. If any growth of proud flesh appears in the crack, apply nitric

fætid matter instead of horn . Symptoms. -A discharge of matter from the cleft of the frog. There is not often lameness, and the disease can be detected only by the matter exuding from the frog. If thrush is neglected, it

acid, and blister the coronet with No. 2.

will increase, the frog will become soft

and split up, the horn will disappear, and plaster made of pitch, and bind the canker of the sole may supervene.

Give rest and cover the crack with a

whole up firmly for five days.

If the

Cause . — Generally excessive moisture

coronet has been divided, the aid of a in the bedding, bad stable management, veterinary surgeon had better be ob- and constitutional predisposition . tained. Treatment. - Give purgative (No. 19), clean the frog thoroughly, and pare away Seedy Toe. all loose horn, apply a lotion to the frog, A disease of the foot in which an un- composed of carbolic acid, i part ; gly

healthy horn is secreted that fails to cerine, 6 parts, and place tow moistened maintain the connection between the with this lotion in the cleft of the frog horny lamine and the wall of the hoof. every night. If possible, remove the Symptoms. — There may or may not cause of the disease.

It is not necessary

be a swelling of the wall of the foot, or expedient to turn the horse out to generally situated at the toe; sometimes grass. the par attended with lameness.

If

t

Weakness of the Foot. affected is rapped with a hammer it will sound hollow , and by paring, the crack Generally a fault in the make of the or hollow inside the wall-part of the foot horse. Sometimes the result of disease. can be found .

A well-formed foot should be at an angle

Cause. — Previous disease or injury, of 45° from the coronet to the toe ; a naturally weak feet, pressure of a part weak foot will be perhaps 36 ° to 40 °, which is not sufficient to bear the pres of the shoe, generally the clip. Treatment. — Remove the cause, if sure required. No cure for this defect.

HORSES.

Rasping the wall of the hoof is often the cause of this complaint.

469 Lice

may be destroyed by applying a lotion Firing composed of tobacco, 4 drs., in a is a painful operation often unnecessarily pint of hot water, or by using an oint

performed, for more than 50 per cent of ment composed of white precipitate of the horses that are fired are as lame mercury, i part, lard, 12 parts, well after the operation as they were before.

rubbed in . It is best to clip the horse

Firing was at one time greatly in vogue, before applying these dressings. Clean but, like bleeding, it is getting out of liness and nourishing food will prevent

fashion, and by-and -by horses with fired their reappearance. legs will be as rare as those with cut ears.

Mange or Itch. It is thought by some that the lines in oms e ent Sympt .-- Loss of hair, itching, the to bandag firing act as a perman weakened part: such is not the case, tenderness, and scurfy eruption, from but firing does act as a counter-irritant which matter issues. When the scab falls off, a larger blotch will appear. It of a severe kind.

begins at the root of the mane generally your or firing, Before on the neck . it a three giveblister twice, toand or resort onceyou horse Cause . — Stable neglect, dirt, and con months' run at grass ; then if it comes presence of tagion, it being due to theinsects up lame, think about firing; but remem- animal called parasites small ber there are some cases of lameness that nothing will ever cure.

Acari,

Treatment. — Give purgative (No. 20), There are two kinds of firing - lines and dots : line firing is the best for and rub the places with ointment com curbs, ringbones, and the back tendons ; posed of sulphur, 1 oz. ; lard , 1 oz . If the dots are preferable for splints and this does not effect a cure, add to the spavins.

ointment 30 grs. of white precipitate of

Having clipped the hair offthe part to be fired, secure your animal, take the iron and make the lines at first superficial, then with a fresh iron deepen them ,

mercury. This disease is often very obstinate , and patience must be exercised . A little salt should be given with nour ishing food, and the skin kept clean ,

but never go through the skin in line using warm soap -and -water for the pur firing ; afterwards rub blister in, and tie pose. Complete isolation is necessary.

the animal's head up for forty-eight Wash the stable, harness, brushes, &c., with solution of chloride of lime, i pint

hours.

Blistering.

in 3 gallons of water, before they are

used again. Clip the hair off the chosen part, and Ringworm . rub the blister in for at least ten minutes, then tie the animal up for twenty -four Symptoms.- A parasitic fungus, which hours. After a few days a second or affects the skin in circular patches ; the

third application may be necessary .

hair comes off, leaving a dry and scaly eruption.

III. --THE SKIN AND ITS DISEASES .

Cause .— Contagion, neglect, or dirt. Treatment. — If the animal is in high condition, or in a disordered state, give

Hide-bound.

purgative (No. 20 ), but if not, give

A want of oily matter, which produces nourishing food, and keep him clean hardness of the skin, giving the coat a and isolated from other animals.

Rub

rough look . It shows that the digestive the fungus with ointment composed organs are out of order, and is not so of oleate of mercury, i part ; lard, 2 much a disease of the skin itself.

parts, till cured.

Clean the stable,

Treatment. - Givepurgative (No. 19), harness, brushes, & c., with water con and afterwards daily in the food condi-

taining i pint of chloride of lime to

tion powder (No. 6). Powerful tonics 3 gallons of water before they are used should be avoided .

again.

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

470

Nettle-rash or Surfeit.

by injury to spine, and before or after

calving, and is called parturient paralysis. Treatment. Give purge (No. 27 ), Symptoms. - Large pimples, disappearing as quickly as they come, which and apply liniment (No. 26 ) to the whole

spread from the neck to different parts of length of the spine, and every night and the body.

morning give in a pint of ale thefollow Cause. — Exposure to chills, or drink- ing drench : tincture of nux vomica, 2

ing cold water when hot.

oz . ; iodide of potassium , 2 drs. ; sulphate

Treatment. — Give in a pint of water of iron , i dr.; turn the animal once a 2 oz. of spirits of ether and i oz. of day. When paralysis appears before tincture of ginger, and then treat the calving, the cow usually calves before she same as for Hide-bound (p. 469). rises ; but if it appears after calving, CATTLE. DISEASES AFFECTING THE HEAD,

treatment often does little good, and if fat it may be best to kill the animal. But if a cure is to be tried, pursue the same line of treatment as before calving, and try galvanism .

EYES, MOUTH, AND NERVOUS SYSTEM. Thrush in the Mouth .

Inflammation of the Brain. This usually appears as an epidemic May arise from violence, disease, or as amongst cattle in cold and wet weather. an effect of poisons. Symptoms.-- Small pimples and vesi Symptoms.-- Great pain and moaning, cles appear on the tongue, lips, and slow respiration, eyes red , loss of con- about the mouth ; they break and form sciousness. Attacks of delirium , and ulcers, but these ulcers soon heal. There

the beast becomes ungovernable till is not much danger inthis disease, though stupefaction returns, accompanied by ex-

treme weakness ; at length death ensues.

a little fever often exists.

Treatment. — Give purge ( No. 28) ;

Cause. — Exposure to great heat, want wash the mouth out with alum -water, i of water, overdriving ; sudden change part of alum to 30 of water, and give into a rich pasture. Treatment.

If the beast is in fair

night and morning, in a pint of water, i oz. of salicylate ofsoda.

condition you should slaughter it at once. If not, give linseed -oil, 2 pints ; croton oil, 12 dr., and three times a day, in

Lockjaw or Tetanus. A disease of the nerves , producing

gruel, hydrate of chloral, 1 oz. ; bromide contraction or spasm of the muscles. of potassium , 1 oz.; and apply ice or Symptoms. - Sluggishness, and for cold water to the head . If the animal some days increasing difficulty in masti survives the first stage, blister the crown cation and swallowing, till the jaw sud

of the head and sides of the neck denly becomes rigid . The contraction Most probably the animal of the muscles will then extend to the will never recover . head, neck , and shoulders, and appear to cramp the whole body. Constipation. with No. 22 .

Paralysis.

There may be palsy of the half, or any

Recovery is very doubtful. Cause. -Generally some wound or

blow affecting a muscle, or exposure to part, or of the whole of the body. Symptoms. — The animal lies, eats, cold. Prevention . If this disease is sus and chews its cud as if nothing were wrong ; but when you try to rouse it you pected, give in gruel Epsom salts, 1 lb. ,

will see it makes several attempts to get and Fleming's tincture of aconite, 10 on its legs but fails.

When parturient drops.

paralysis appears before calving, it is not

Treatment. - Any treatment must be

so serious as the form of paralysis that prompt to be efficacious.

Give if pos

comes after calving or an attack of milk- sible at once, linseed -oil, 2 pints ; croton fever.

oil, 12 dr.

Inject every three hours

Cause.—By derangement of the glyster of warm gruel , with 12 lb. Epsom stomach, and is called reflex paralysis ; salts in it. If constipation continues, re

CATTLE.

471

peat the dose of croton -oil in warm the base of the horn, which is much

water. Should the attack result from thicker in young than in old animals. a wound, poultice it ; and treat as Dishorning causes an abnormal increase directed for the same disease in the of pulsation and temperature, which ex

horse.

Try to induce the animal to tends over several days. The appetite

drink strong gruel to support the sys- is also affected during the twenty-four

tem , and keep the bowels open by the hours succeeding the operation . (4)

addition of Epsomsalts, 42 Ib ., or com- Dishorning is more especially to be re mon salt, 1/2 lb. As in the case of the commended for those animals that are

horse, tetanus does not affect the inter- of vicious temperament, that are what nal organs ; the beast will often suffer are termed 'masters '; to be applied to intense hunger if it cannot get gruel. bulls and to beef animals that are kept

quiet and closely stabled or shipped. (5) From evidence quoted from other This disease, though not often sus- sources, it appears that dishorning is not pected, frequently exists, and the teeth necessarily a cruel practice, but may be Cancer of the Tongue.

are usually blamed for it ; but the dis- conducted to promote ends that are both ease now known as actino -nycosis is humane and desirable in live-stock often mistaken for cancer.

breeding

Symptoms. — The animal is unthrifty, off its food, frothy saliva flows from the mouth, and it quids its food. On examining the mouth you find the tongue hard in places, and slightly swollen. Treatment.-- As soonas it is detected, kill the animal, or else it will gradually

at Chicago, reports that in his very ex tensive district the system of dishorn ing or dehorning cattle is rapidly in creasing. Some farmers have dehorned

Mr Sadler, British Consul

their whole herd.

It has been calcu

lated that 200,000 cattle and horses die each year in the United States from

starve to death . The enlargements on horn -thrusts. The advocates of the sys

the tongue, caused by the presence tem of dehorning claim that, besides amongst the tissues of the parasitic lessening this loss and that of human fungus known as the actino-nyces, are life, much shed -room is saved, less hay

sometimes successfully treated, if not is consumed, there is less turmoil from too far advanced , but they should be left to the veterinary surgeon . Dishorning and Broken Horns. In saying a few words about dishor-

restive animals, and that cows, being more quiet and docile, give more milk. “ In the case of calves, the horn is

extracted by a gouge or punch when two or three months old, and with full

ning, we cannot do better than quote a grown animals the horn is sawn off at

paragraph from the Veterinary Journal the point where the matrix joins the of November 1888.

bonehorn, and should be done early in If sawn higher up, the

“ Dishorning of Stock.— The Tennessee the spring.

Agricultural Experimental Station has horn grows again ; if below, the process issued a report on the subject of dishorn- of granulation would not take place .” ing cattle . The conclusions to which the experimentalists have come are : that (1 ) For removing the horns, an or-

dinary meat-saw is perfectly satisfactory (2) The horns should be removed as close to the head as possible, without cutting the skull proper. The sawing should be done rapidly, and with long sweeps of the arm if possible. (3) Ani-

Broken Horns.

If the horn is severely crushed, it is best to amputate it ; but in cases where it is only torn or broken off, wash clean, smear some Archangel tar over it, wrap some tow around, and take a long linen bandage and wind around the horns in the figure-of-8 style.

mals one and two years of age appear to

suffer considerably indishorning.The Ophthalmia. Inflammation of the Eyes. painful effects decrease with increase of The symptoms and treatment of the age, so thatan animal of ten years old diseases affecting the eyes are practically may suffer but

very

little.

This is the same as those given in the section

owing to the layer of flesh surrounding on Horses (see p. 446 ).

472

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

Growth on Eyeball. There is sometimes seen in cattle a

Cold wet districts are peculiarly subject to them, and certain farms are more liable to them than others.

Prevention . — A seton in the dewlap be removed by cutting it off with a pair is the most common preventive. In

growth on the eyeball : this can easily

of scissors, afterwardstouch with nitrate many herds calves are always setoned of silver.

in the spring of the year.

Salt should

be given, 1/2 oz. daily, and care taken DISEASES AFFECTING THE THROAT, to remove the herd to poor pastures if the disease makes its appearance . In CHEST, RESPIRATORY ORGANS, AND oculation as a preventive is now being BLOOD. experimented on. Abscesses.

Treatment. — Foment the swellings Symptoms. - Frequently large lumps on the limbs with hot water, and rub appear on the side of the jaw or on other well with liniment (No. 26). Every six

parts of the body. In time they burst hours give, in gruel, sulphite of sodium , and discharge a large amount of matter, 2 oz.; salicylate of sodium , 1/2 oz. ; and often affecting the health of the animal. Fleming's tincture of aconite , 15 drops. Cause. — Generally a blow , prick, or Wash the ulcers with chloride of lime, other injury.

12 02., in a quart of water.

Bury the dead body at once, and Treatment.- A mild purgative (No. 28) should be given in gruel, and the cover with quicklime to prevent in abscess should be fomented with hot

fection.

water, and opened as soon as it is ready. If making little or no progress, it should be rubbed with blister (No. 22 ). Tonic (No. 29) may be given in a pint of warm

An acute, specific, contagious fever. Symptoms. — Weakness, shivering,

ale morning and evening when recovering Anthrax or Splenic Apoplexy.

cold feet and horns, short breathing, red eyes, mucous discharge from nostrils, sore places on the inner side of the lips

Cattle Plague or Rinderpest.

and roof of the mouth, diarrhoea, aver A disease of the blood (see p. 452 ). sion to green food, loss of appetite. In

Diseases generally regarded as allied to the advanced stage the body is distend

anthrax - namely, Black -leg, quarter-ill, ed, and while at first there is constipa joint- ill, black -quarter, quarter - felon, tion, it gives way to profuse and fætid blood -striking, inflammatory fever, hyan, diarrhea. Cause. & c . — are usually confined to animals un- It is indigenous to the der two years old, while anthrax attacks steppes and elevated regions of Central animals of all ages indiscriminately. Asia, and is always due to contagion Symptoms. — These diseases usually in Britain. affect cattle under two years old, and

Prevention.

During

the

cattle

are most prevalent in the spring. The plague epidemic all kinds of disinfec animal will first separate itself from the tants and precautions were tried , with others, lie down, shiver, lose its appetite, varying success. Carbolic acid and pulse feeble and rapid, mouth hot and water is the most powerful disinfectant, dry, lameness and stiffness.

Hot and

and, combined with the isolation of in

painful swellings appear on the loins, fected beasts, may do much to prevent neck, or limbs, afterwards becoming the disease spreading. Treatment. —Immediately slaughter cold, painless, and tympanitic, and containing a dark bloody fluid. The urine any beast affected with the disease, and becomes bloody and the dung fætid .

thoroughly disinfect the premises.

Death will often ensue after an illness

lasting from a few hours to several days. These diseases, concerning Cause .

Choking.

Very often cattle get pieces of turnips

which at the best little is known, are or linseed -cake into their throat, especi

most prevalent in spring when the grass ally if the turnips are cut in large is flushed and the weather changeable. pieces.

CATTLE.

473

Symptoms. - Animal ceases to feed, the following every three hours between nose poked out, saliva flows from the the molar teeth : extract of belladonna mouth ; the animal in time becomes and chlorate of potash of each an ounce , hoven, and frequently dungs. If it is and made into a paste . choked by a piece of turnip, you can smell it in the breath , and if the piece

Consumption,

is near the larynx there may be coughing. or chronic disease of the lungs, arising Treatment. — Give a pint of linseed- from a tuberculated state of the lungs. Symptoms.—Loss of condition, cough,

oil very slowly. If this does not pass it

on, you must use the probang. In using which is at first clear, but gradually this instrument you must first place the becomes shorter, weaker, and more pain gag in the animal's mouth, and have it

ful.

Appetite unaffected.

After a time

held there by two men, who cross their the breath becomes offensive, diarrhea

hands, holding the gag in one and grasp- becomes constant, and the dung fætid ; ing a horn with the other ; then take the skin dry and scaly, the loins tender, the probang, oil it well, and gently pass and the whole system disordered .

it down the throat until you reach the

Cause. — Hereditary ; neglected cold ,

offending body. Do not use much force influences of climate, and close, badly in passing it into the stomach, for it is ventilated cow -house. It is now known an easy thing to rupture the gullet. If to be due to the irritation set up in the it cannot be moved by the probang, it tissues by the presence of a bacillus must be cut down upon and extracted by the Bacillus tuberculosis, or, as it is often

a veterinary surgeon .

called after its discoverer, Koch’s Bacillus.

Treatment. — The object in view is to prevent the confirmation of the disease ; Dulness ; running dis- taken in time the cough will often dis

Cold or Common Catarrh .

Symptoms.

charge from the nose ; cough ; watering eyes ; loss of appetite. Cause. This common complaint is most frequently met with in spring and

appear, and the beast recover perfect health.

In advanced stages death will

probably result. If the beast is in good condition and fit for the butcher, I should

autumn ; it arises from exposure to strongly recommend it to be slaughtered ; draughts and from chills caught in wet if otherwise, remove into a cool, well weather. If neglected, it will lay the ventilated box, feed on the most nourish foundation of serious coughs, inflamma- ing food, give porridge made of linseed tion of the lungs, and other formidable

meal, and water in which linseed has

diseases.

been boiled instead of pure water for Treatment. - Epsom salts, 1 lb., and drinking. Twice daily give, in gruel or

ginger, 72 oz ., may be given at first in water, draught (No. 25).

Frequently

warm gruel ; afterwards, morning and rub the throat and chest with liniment evening, in gruel, solution of acetate am- (No. 26). When recovery takes place, monia, 4 oz.; bicarbonate of potassium , the beast should be fed for the market

I oz.; spirit of chloroform , y oz. All as quickly as possible ; it will not be drinking-water tobe given with the chill suitable for breeding. off ; and feed on bran -mashes and green meat.

Cause .

Sore Throat or Quinsy. Inflammation of the mucous membrane of the throat.

Cough. Neglected colds are apt to

develop into coughs which are difficult to cure. Cold caught when the system is relaxed , as is the case with cows after

Symptoms. — The animal refuses to calving, may take the form of a cough

feed, pokes its nose out, breathes hard, which will settle on the lungs and pro and makes a peculiar noise in the throat. duce serious consequences. Cause . — Cold and an insanitary con-

Treatment.— Keep the animal warm ;

dition of the byre, associated with bad give water in which linseed has been boiled for drinking purposes, and morn feeding Treatment - Blister with No. 22, and ing and evening, in gruel, draught (No.

place a piece about the size of a bean of 25 ).

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

474

wheezing, loss of condition, and death, Foot-and -mouth Disease.

A specific, contagious, eruptive fever.

if means are not taken to remove the thread - worms in the bronchial tubes.

Symptoms. — Shivering, staring coat, In the later stages of the disease there fever, quick pulse, weakness, loss of ap- is much slimy mucus about the mouth petite, tenderness over the loins, tender and nose. It is very prevalent among

ness of the jaws, profuse discharge of calves and growing stock during the

stringy saliva, generally accompanied by first summer out of doors,and especially smacking of the lips. Vesicles on the lips so in the autumn when the weather is and tongue; sometimes vesicles on the wet. The cough is particularly notice feet, udder, and between the toes. Pain able if the animals are chased . Prevention . - The losses Cause and lameness. There is a peculiar smacking noise made by the mouth, which is caused by these parasites render it most

very characteristic, and a movement of important that every care should be the affected feet resembling an attempt taken to keep animals likely to be to kick the hoof off. In mild cases the affected free from the influences calcu attack is soon over, and in a week the lated to invite an attack . These para animal will be well.

In aggravated sites frequent low, marshy, and undrained

cases the constitution is much reduced, ground. During awetseason any kind strength being rapidly lost.

Pregnant of grass-land will be found to contain

animals often suffer abortion.

them.

Cause.—Contagion . The germs of the disease may be carried by the wind from place to place and retain their vitality for a long period.

be kept in good condition, and, if pos

Calves and young stock should

sible, during the autumn should be

housed at night, and not turned out till the dew is off the grass. This is the

Prevention . U ler the Foot-and- surest preventive. Mouth Disease Order, complete quaranTreatment. – Stock in the autumn tine of infected areas and powers for should be daily examined, and upon the compulsory slaughter served as the best first sound of husk the affected beast

means of preventing the disease spread- should be attended to. Give daily to a

ing. The liberal use of carbolic acid calf turpentine, a oz ., beaten up with and water among the cattle is a valuable milk and an egg ; keep him well, giv preventive. ing linseed - porridge ; and if the calf Treatment. — Completely isolate the is young, new milk . In the case of

cattle. Give, morning and evening, sul- older cattle, give morning and night phite of sodium , 3 drs., dissolved in turpentine, i oz. , in six times the water, and place in the crib some fine quantity of sweet oil. I have tried meal, which will induce the animals to applications of tar to the animals' noses,

lick a little without increasing the irrita- but they do no good. A new method

tion of the mouth.

If constipated, give of treating this disease is to inject

Epsom salts, 12 oz ., in water. Apply remedies directly into the windpipe, ointment of boric acid between the claws but this should be left to a competent of the feet and the teats, if sore.

Water

veterinary surgeon.

in which linseed has been boiled is use

ful for drinking purposes.

Bronchitis.

A useful

medicine is chlorate of potassium , 72 oz.; camphorated spirits of wine, i oz., in a

quart of water, to be given daily.

Inflammation of the small air -tubes of

the lungs. Symptoms.

Animal dull, breathes

Trouble must be taken to induce the quick and short, fits of coughing, and, animal to eat hay, small pieces of oil- on placing the ear against the chest, a peculiar wheezing noise is heard.

cake, and cut grass.

Hoose or Ilusk

Cause. - Cold , exposure to wet, and allowing medicine to get into the wind

is a peculiar disease produced by the pipe in the act of drenching an animal. thread -worm or lung parasite of cattlethe Strongylus micrurus. Symptoms. Peculiar short cough,

Treatment. — Remove to a warm box, throw a couple of sacks over its back , rub each side of the chest with embroca

CATTLE.

475

tion (No. 12 ), and give in a pint of gruel

the nose. As the disease advances, blood

twice a -day (No. 25). Inflammation of the Lungs or

becomes offensive.

is mixed with the dung, and the breath Great weakness sets

cough dry and hard, rapid breathing,

in, the mouth becomes ulcerated , till finally the beast dies, a mass of cor ruption. Cause. - Contagion or epidemic.

hot mouth, very cold ears, horns, and

Treatment . - If this dreadful disease

Pneumonia. Symptoms. - Dulness, loss of appetite,

feet, slimy discharge from mouth . is suspected, completely isolate the beast ; Cause . - Exposure to cold and sudden give every four hours, in warm gruel, chills.

salicylic acid, 3 drs.; tincture of cin

Remove into a cool chona, 2 oz. ; brandy, 4 oz., till the loose-box, and give every six hours, in opinion of a veterinary surgeon can be Treatment.

a pint of gruel, Fleming's tincture of obtained, who will decide whether to aconite, 20 drops ; solution acetate of slaughter the beast or not. ammonia , 4 oz.; spirit of nitrous ether, 12 oz. Feed on mashes and green food ;

Contagious Pleuro -pneumonia .

rub the chest repeatedly with blister An infectious lung disease confined to (No. 23). If the bowels are costive, the ox tribe, which must not be con give ingruel Epsom salts in 1-lb. doses. founded with ordinary inflammation of Clothe with rugs or sacks about the the lungs. It is a combination of in shoulders and chest. flammation of the lungs and pleurisy. Influenza or Epidemic Catarrh. Symptoms. - All the symptoms at

This destructive and contagious disease often remains latent in a beast for a long time, and sometimes is not discovered

tending common colds are intensified in till it is slaughtered, when it is found the more serious form of influenza .

Pro-

some part of the lungs is almost entirely

fuse discharge from eyes and nose, pain- gone. When, however, the beast is not

ful cough, obstinate constipation , fever, strong enough to withstand the disease followed by equally obstinate diarrhca; after its development, it is very rapid in swellings about the head, accompanied its progress, and death may result in by great weakness. Usually the disease forty -eight hours. runs through a herd, and is attended

Symptoms. -An acute attack com

with considerable loss among the cattle. mences with a hard dry cough, dry Cause. — Influences of climate, which muzzle, hot mouth, excessive thirst, loss

seem to make the disease an epidemic. of appetite, rough coat, weakness and Treatment. Isolate the affected often lameness of the hind quarters, beasts. Give linseed -oil, 1/2 pint, fol- heaving flanks, dung dry, black, and lowed by gruel to drink ; if constipation

fætid.

As the disease develops, the

continues , give enemas and every six cough becomes painful, and a frothy hours a draught containing acetate of ammonium , 4 oz.; bicarbonate of potash, I oz.; spirit of chloroform , 1/2 oz. Keep the body warm , and for drinking purposes give water in which a little linseed has been boiled. green food .

mucus runs from the mouth ; the breath

may become offensive; the dung watery ; and the beast dies a mere skeleton. Cause.—The primary cause is con tagion ; but its spread and development

Feed on mashes and is favoured by exposure to cold, neglect, and dirt. It has been introduced into

this country by direct infection from Murrain , or Gargle, or Malignant Catarrh.

abroad.

Cattle sales and markets have

always been the most active centres of

Symptoms. — This disease, which is the disease, from which it has been one of the most contagious and fatal spread over the country by contagion. to which cattle are subject, usually

Prevention.— The only means is the

begins with a cough, followed by heav- isolation and slaughter of the beasts ing flanks, shivering, tenderness over affected , and the free use of such disin the loins, horns cold, dung hard, black,

fectants as chloride of lime in the cow

and foetid, bloody matter running from sheds, stalls, & c.

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK

476

Inoculation . - Inoculation as a pre- slimy.

Frequently the body will swell.

ventive to pleuro-pneumonia is a some- Inflammation follows, and loss of appetite.. what ancient remedy, and has been tried Cause. - Excess of dryness in the food, in various countries, but has not been or the peculiar properties of some kind of very successful. Treatment.-- Should the disease be

underwood often eaten by cattle. Often also a symptom of some other disease .

Treatment. — Give linseed -oil, 1 pint ; be called in, and if he pronounces it to and warm oatmeal-gruel, in which % oz. be pleuro -pneumonia, it must be at once salt has been mixed. If this does not reported to the police. act, give, in gruel, purgative (No. 27), and, if necessary, a warm glyster of gruel and 1/2 oz. salt. STOMACH, DISEASES AFFECTING THE suspected, a veterinary surgeon should

LIVER , BOWELS , KIDNEYS, AND IN . TERNAL ORGANS .

Bloody Flux, see Dysentery (p. 477) . Colic or Gripes is of two kinds.

Foreign Bodies in the Paunch . Some cows at times suffer from de praved appetites, and pick up almost any.

thing that comes in their way. Leather, wire, cutlery, rags, &c., have been found in the paunch of an animal. Symptoms.

They are not very notice

1. Flatulent Colic.

able, and an animal might have a foreign Arising from retention of food in the body in its paunch for months without third stomach and bowels.

feeling any inconvenience from it, but if

Symptoms. — Fever, moaning, and the foreign body passes into any vital pain ; discharge of gas from anus, swell organ, symptoms such as loss of appetite ing on right side of the belly, restlessness. and colicky pains are soon noticed . Cause. - Costiveness, produced by dry

Treatment. - Nothing can do any good

food, or overfeeding on dry meal or hay in the shape ofmedicines ; if you are sure Treatment. — Give purgative (No. 27) there is something in the stomach that

in gruel, and every four hours, in gruel, should not be, you must cut through the solution of ammonia, i oz. ; spirit of left side and take it out. chloroform , i oz. Give gentle exercise, Diarrhoea . and rub the belly with liniment (No. 26). Symptoms. - A frequent discharge of Glyster of warm water may be necessary. Feed on mashes and gruel. fluid dung mixed with mucus, which soon causes great weakness. 2. Simple Colic. Symptoms. -Spasmodic

Cause.

Change of food, especially

attacks of when moved from a poor into a luxuriant pain, increasing in violence. Irritability, pasture. Bad water or atmospheric in and constant striking of the belly with fluence, amounting almost to anepidemic. the hind legs or horns; continual restTreatment. — Ğive linseed -oil, 1 pint ; tincture of opium , 172 oz.; oil of turpen Cause. — Chills from drinking cold tine, /2 oz ., and repeat the dose, if nec essary, which will remove any cause of water when heated ; improper food . Treatment. — Give linseed -oil, i pint, irritation in the intestines : till this is repeating the dose if there is costiveness; done, no astringent should be given. lessness.

and every four hours give in gruel: oil of When the oil has cleared the system , oz. ; spirit nitrous ether, 2 oz. Walk the powdered opium , 2 drs.; catechu, 4 drs.;

turpentine, 72 oz.; tincture of opium, 1/2 give morning and evening, in cold gruel:

animal about. In obstinate cases send galls, powdered, 4 drs.; prepared chalk , for a veterinary surgeon, and in the 1 oz. Looseness of the bowels, unat

meantime rub the belly with liniment tended with pain and weakness,should not be regarded as serious, provided it can (No. 26). be accounted for by change of food ; it Costiveness or Fardel-bound. should be carefully watched , and steps Symptoms. Excessive costiveness ; taken to prevent its assuming too violent dung hard, and at intervals loose and a character.

CATTLE.

Dysentery or Bloody Flux. Symptoms.- Continual and obstinate

477

Impaction of the Paunch, or Grain -sick . This disease is seen when animals are

purging, the animal is hide-bound, eyes allowed to gorge themselves with such pale, pulse weak, extreme weakness. In foods as succulent grass, chaff, potatoes, time the dung appears like undigested turnips, and grains. food, and water with clots of blood in it.

Symptoms. - Animal dull,refuses food ;

Cause. — Internal inflammation from disinclined to move and generally lying neglected diarrhea. down ; greatly swollen on the left side, Treatment. — Clothe warmly , foment but, unlike hoove, it has a doughy feel. Treatment.— Give purge ( No. 27), and rub the belly with liniment (No. 26). Feed on gruel made of oatmeal and lin- and with it i pint of linseed -oil and 2 seed, with 4 oz. of starch and i oz. nitre

oz. of tincture of nux vomica ; if this

in it. Give three times a -day in gruel: fails, you must get a veterinary surgeon ipecacuanha, i dr.; chlorodyne, 40 drops; to perform an operation to remove it. opium, 2 drs. ; chalk, 1 oz.; galls, 2 oz. Inflammation of the Bowels. Give also cold glysters ofoatmeal-gruel ; and laudanum, 2 drs. This disease most dangerous and almost hopeless.

is

Symptoms. — Restlessness, pain, per

spiration, hard breathing, quick pulse. Cause . — Sudden chills in hot weather,

Gripes, see Colic (p. 476).

as from drinking a great quantity of cold water when overheated .

Hoove, Hove, or Hoven ,

Treatment. — Give, morning and even

or distention of the stomach by gas, ing, linseed-oil, 72 pint ; spirit of nitrous owing to the food being retained in ether, 1 oz. ; tincture of opium, 1 oz. ; the stomach so long that it begins to and repeat the dose of spirit of nitrous ether and tincture of opium in a little

ferment.

Symptoms. - Swelling of the belly; gruel every four hours. heavy breathing ; moaning and unwill ingness to move.

Dropsy of the Belly.

As the gas is evolved,

the stomach becomes further distended, An accumulation of fluid in the ab there is even danger of the paunch domen. bursting ; the circulation of the blood

Symptoms. — The beast increases slow

is impeded ; gradually suffocation sets ly in size; the swelling is on both sides in, till at length the beast falls and and on the lower part of the abdomen ; dies. as the fluid increases the breathing be

Cause. - Overloading of the stomach comes hurried , belly hangs low , the animal looks thin , and if you force your tents, greedy feeding on green food, feed- fist against the side of the belly youfeel so that it is unable to react on its con-

ing on clover before the dew is off it,

the impulse of the returning water

hence it is often termed - dew -blown.

against it.

Treatment. - In desperate cases the Cause. Debility and organic disease only cure is to relieve the stomach by of the liver or spleen. means of a stomach -pump, which will be Treatment. The chance of success almost beyond an ordinary breeder of in treatment is not great, for the only stock. In cases of sudden emergency, thing to be done is to tap the abdomen an incision into the paunch behind the with a trocar and canula to let the fluid

short ribs with a penknife will giverelief. out, and if it again accumulates the case A trocar and canula should be used if it is hopeless. can be got. In ordinary cases give at Inflammation of the Fourth Stomach . once in a pint of water hyposulphate of Symptoms.- Uneasiness, pawing of soda, 4 oz., repeating the dose till relief is afforded . When recovering, Epsom the ground, striking of the belly with

salts, 1 lb., and ginger, 12 oz., may be the feet, showing where the pain is lo given, and but little food allowed till the cated ; dung thin and offensive; pulse digestive organs have recovered their hard and quick ; breathing accelerated ; strength.

alternately hot and cold shivering fits.

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

478

Cause . — Unwholesome or poisonous food ; change from a poor to a rich pas

Inflammation of the Liver ( Yellows or Jaundice).

ture ; prolonged indigestion.

Symptoms. — Yellowness of the eyes Treatment. — Feed on bran -mashes, but no green food ; give linseed -oil, i and skin ; pulse quick ; ears and horns

pint ; and every six hours, in gruel, tinc- hot; muzzle dry ; shivering of the right ture of opium , 2 oz.; Fleming's tincture side ; stiffness, fulness of the belly ; pain of aconite, 30 drops ; spirit of chloroform , when the right side is pressed ; urine and I

oz.

The belly may be frequently dung light brown in colour. Cause.-Over-fattening ; driving in hot weather ; injury to the body near the liver, impeding circulation and in

rubbed with liniment ( No. 26) . Gut Tie.

It is only seen in castrated animals, ducing inflammation. Treatment. - Give in warm water and generally terminates fatally. Symptoms. — It is usually seen at the purgative (No. 27), and feed on bran

age of two or three, rarely before. mashes. Morning and evening give in loses its cud ; after a time colicky drs. ; bicarbonate of potassium , 1 oz.; pains appear, it strikes its belly with ginger, 4 drs. Keep free from draughts.

The animal at first appears dull and warm water chloride of ammonium , 4

hind legs, goes stiff, breathing becomes The animal should be sold when occasion hurried , the animal wears an anxious offers ; it is never likely to do well after expression, no medicine seems to do the attack .

any good, and in a few days it dies

Flukes in Liver.

in great agony. Cause . — The cord of the testicle en-

Cattle, like sheep, suffer from flukes circling a portion of the small intestines in their livers, but not so severely, and and strangulating it.

it is rarely discovered until their death .

Treatment.There is only one thing to be done, and that is, cut into the right side, introduce the hand, and release the imprisoned gut. Inflammation of the Kidneys. Symptoms. - Straining to void urine,

The reasons for cattle not suffering so severely as sheep are — firstly, they do not feed so close to the ground, andthus pick up fewer fluke-eggs ; and, secondly, their livers are larger, and can stand the ravages of the fluke better.

Loss of Cud .

which is forcibly ejected in small quan tities ; loins tender and hot.

After a

Symptoms. — Very often cattle do not

time blood and pus may be mixed with chew their cud properly, and a great the urine and the straining increases ; quantity of saliva dribbles from their muzzle becomes dry, horns cold ,breathing mouth .

quick. Diarrhæa follows, dung becomes Cause. - Indigestion . fætid ; pain increases, total suppression Treatment. - Change the food, and of urine takes place, and the animal will give a dose of linseed -oil, i pint, and, in die in about three days. the case of a calf, give oatmeal-porridge Cause.—Unwholesome food or a chill with bicarbonate of soda,i dr., night and which has produced inflammation in this morning. A little salt thrown with the food will help to remedy the evil. particular part. Treatment.-- Foment the loins with

hot water, and rub in mustard mixed

Poisons.

The poisons that cattle usually suffer with water ; give glyster of warm gruel with 2 oz. salt init, adding tincture of from are yew, rhododendron, arsenic, opium , 1/2 oz., if straining continues. mercury, and lead . Give at once, in gruel, purgative (No. 27 ), Yer -poisoning and three times a day give, in gruel, a

draught containing Fleming's tincture of is perhaps most frequently met with. aconite, 20 drops ; solution acetate of Symptoms are those of a virulent ammonium, 3 oz.; and tincture of opium , poison , and is rapidly fatal. The animal I OZ. usually dies in a few hours.

CATTLE.

479

Cause.By animals being allowed to graze in the vicinity of yew -trees, or by

the trimmings of these trees being thrown within theirreach.

Red Water.

When in an acute form, it is often called Black Water. Symptoms. – The first thing that -

Rhododendron -poisoning.

Symptoms.-- This poison is not so

draws attention to the animal is usually the red colour of the urine, which froths

quick in its action ; the animal staggers, becomes partially paralysed, colicky pains; animal lies and moans and frequently vomits, the vomit being greenish

when it falls to the ground ; this is gener ally accompanied by diarrhoea or scour ing, which soon gives way to constipation. The urine gets darker, the appetite fails, in colour. the animal gets weaker, and the heart Cause . — Same as yew. can frequently be heard beating while Treatment. — The treatment of these standing behind the animal. Death

three or four days. identical. often ensuesItwithin two vegetable poisons areremove is not very well known. Cause. the

Open the stomach and

poisonous stems and leaves, then give It is most common in milk cows, occur purge (No. 28) and half a pint of brandy ring generally from ten to fifteen days in some water every three hours. Arsenic - poisoning.

Symptoms. — Great prostration, shiv

after calving. But in some districts when it is very common it attacks bulls,

oxen, and heifers as well, and at all seasons .

Too many turnips have been

ering, colicky pains, diarrhoea, and death. blamed for it, and particular plants grow

Cause. In being given by accident, ing in some soils. Undoubtedly it is and by grazing on land where recently most common on moorland soils, and where there is a wet retentive subsoil. dipped sheep have been lying. Treatment. — Give the following in a Prevention. — Careful feeding after

pint of water every hour : dialised iron, calving, a limited supply of turnips, some I oz.; brandy, 6 oz. Mercury -poisoning. Symptoms. - Flow of saliva from the

mouth, breath fætid, gums red and tender, colicky pains, and appetite lost. Cause. — By dressing cattle with mercurial preparations tocure mange and warbles.

linseed - cake, and other foods allowed. Thorough draining and manuring of the land. Treatment.If observed before the

appetite and rumination are diminished, give in gruel : Epsom salts, 16 oz., and

ginger, 1/2 oz., but not otherwise ; and morning and evening give tincture of perchloride of iron, 1/2 oz. ; spirit of

Treatment. — Give purge ( No. 28) chloroform, 72 02., in gruel, and give with half-a-dozen eggs, and follow every milk, raw eggs, and stimulants if appe two hours with iodide of potassium , 2 tite lost. drs.; opium powder, 2 drs., in gruel. Lead - poisoning.

Symptoms. - Animal dull, abdomen

tucked up, eyes staring , unsteady gait, bowels constipated, swelling under jaw,

Yellows, see Inflammation of the Liver (p. 478). Bleeding. Cattle are bled from the following

and emaciation.

veins : jugular, the vein below the eye, Cause.Grazing near smelting fur- and the milk-vein. The jugular is usu

naces or rifle-butts, and by eating red ally opened in cases of milk -fever, apo paint or tea -lead.

plexy, & c., and is easily got at on either

Treatment. Use the stomach -pump,

side of the neck. First raise the vein by

afterwards give the following in a quart of water: sulphate of magnesia, i lb.; sulphuric acid dil. , 3 drs . Give every three hours the following: iodide of

placing a rope tightly around the neck, turn the neck a little to the opposite side, and a sharp blow will send the fleam through the skin into the vein .

potassium , 2 drs. ; sulphuric acid dil., 3 The fleam should be a size larger than drs. ; 3 eggs ; ar half a pint of water.

that used for a horse.

Afterwards, close

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

480

the wound with a pin, and twist tow

Calving, see Parturition ( p. 482).

around it. The vein below the eye is opened with a lance in cases of inflam mation of the eye, and the milk -vein in

Cow -pox. Symptoms. --Small ulcers or pustules cases of inflammation of the udder. Two on the teats, which, when large, produce

quarts of blood is a fair quantity to take inflammation and affect the health . from an animal.

DISEASES AFFECTING THE PARTURI.

Cause . - Constitutional, and contagion from other cows, carried by the milker's hand. Treatment. Give purgative ( No. 28 ); keep the teats clean, and bathe them with goulard water, or chloride of

TION AND MILKING ORGANS.

Abortion .

Symptoms. — When abortion takes lime, 72oz., dissolved in half-gallon of place in early stages of gestation, as it water. The pustules will soon heal. often does in the second month, the symptoms are very slight, and may be

passed unnoticed , especially in the summer when the cattle are at grass.

Bull-burnt or Clap.

This is a contagious disease of the

In genital organ, and is propagated through

symp- copulation. the later stages of gestation, the toms are easily recognised. There is Symptoms. - In the cow a glairy restlessness and derangement of health, discharge is seen coming from the vagina the udder becomes enlarged, accompanied a few days after being bulled ; inthe

by calving pains, and discharge from the bull this discharge is seen issuing from vagina. But frequently the first symp- the penis. Treatment. — Inject into the vagina tom is the appearance of the calf.

Cause. — Thereis so much uncertainty twice a -day a little of the following, after connected with this disease, that it is syringing with lukewarm water : liquor sufficient to remark here that blows,

opium sedativus, i oz. ; sulphate of zinc,

injuries, exposure to cold, improper food, 12 oz. ; water, i quart. In the case of foul smells, and overdriving are the most the bull, it must be injected into the immediate causes . But there are some sheath . Give the animal purgative (No. forms of abortion that, once started in a 28) now and then to keep its bowels herd of cows, are to all appearance communicable by contagion .

Prevention. — Careful attention , good water, and the removal of any existing

open.

Falling Down of the Calf-bed . Symptoms. - After calving, the womb

influence will do much to make the sometimes follows the calf, and hangs A goat down like a large red bag.

occurrence of the disease rare .

allowed to run amongst the cows is a

Treatment.

.

Return the womb

as

good preventive. Have the cow isolated soon as possible, having first dressed it as soon as observed, before abortion if with lotion composed of extract of bella

possible, and attend to the thorough cleansing and disinfection of everything with which the calf or the discharges could have come in contact. And, lastly,

donna, 1 part; water, 30 parts. Give a draught in warm gruel containing tinc ture of opium , 2 oz. ; chloral hydrate, i oz. ; spirit of chloroform , i OZ. Raise

the rejection for breeding purposes of the animal higher behind than in front. Afterwards place a truss on the animal Treatment. —Should any symptoms to keep it in .

any animal that has once aborted .

of abortion appear, give Epsom salts, 12

oz. ; Fleming's tincture of aconite, 10 drops ; chloral hydrate, 1 oz., in a pint of warm water, and repeat the dose of

Flooding after Calving. A flow of blood from the womb. Cause. Rupture of some of

the

aconite in a half-pint of water three times vessels of the womb through using force a -day if there is no improvement. Bury in extracting a calf. the fætus at once, and if it takes place in

Treatment.

Keep the cow higher

behind than in front ; place ice or cold a field, remove any cattle in it to another water cloths

pasture.

across the loins ; give every

--

CATTLE .

481

three hours in a pint of cold water the on the udder after each milking, and if

following : tincture of perchloride of there ismuch tenderness give purgative iron, 12 oz. ; tincture of opium , i oz. ; ( No. 28) in gruel . and tincture of ergot, 2 oz.

Bloody Milk. Symptoms. — Generally the first and or inflammation of the internal part of only symptom is the presence of blood Garget,

in the milk, and it is very often confined Symptoms. — This is a very serious to one teat. The udder may neither disease, and often attacks young cows be hard nor painful. This disease is the udder.

after their first calf, and if the inflamma- especially prevalent among young cows tion is not reduced, the milk will become after the first calf. discoloured, the health and appetite Cause .-- Injuries to the udder ; sudden affected, and the cow may be lost. change to a rich milk - producing diet;

Cause.---Careless milking ; too hasty

chills ; too hasty drying of the cow ; care

drying of the cow ; injury to the udder; less milking, & c., & c. lying on cold wet land in the autumn.

Treatment. — Give Epsom salts, 1 lb.;

Should there be any nitre, 1 oz.; and ginger, 1 oz. Follow appearance of the disease, the calf with tonic (No. 21). Milk the affected should, if possible, be put to the mother, teat or teats into separate vessels. Prevention .

and it will, by its sucking and bumping,

Warts on Teats.

speedily relieve her of the pressure of

These little but troublesome things milk and disperse the lumps. Treatment. — Should the disease be- can easily be removed by winding green

come established, draw off gently all the silk around them and allowing them to milk at frequent intervals, and apply drop off; or by cutting them off with a

linseed -poultices to the bag, containing pair of scissors, afterwards touching the belladonna, 3 drs. Give four times a parts with nitrate of silver. day, in gruel, bicarbonate of potassium , I oz.; Fleming's tincture of aconite, 10 drops. Should ulcers form and break ,

Inflammation of the Womb.

Symptoms.After calving, inflamma

they should be dressed with lotion con- tion of the womb sometimes sets in, taining carbolic acid , 1 part ; water, 20 causing fever and loss of milk, accom parts. panied by inflammation of the bladder, and a fætid discharge from the uterus ; Overstocking or Hefting. sometimes the discharge from the uterus This is not a disease, but the conse- is suppressed. There is generally pain,

quence of the cruel practice of placing fever, stiffness, straggling gait, and an elastic band around the teats, or straining. plugging them up with grains of barley, Cause. - Generally injury done during andnotmilking the animal for twenty- parturition, either from violence used in

four to thirty -six hours, with the result the assistance given, or otherwise. High that the animal arrives in the market condition and improper rich food induce with a beautiful udder, and the owner a tendency to this complaint. tries to get more for the cow than she Prevention . — A fortnight before calv

The results of overstocking ing, a cow's diet should be reduced to are intense suffering of the animal, in- the simplest character. If the condition

is worth .

flammation of the udder, and a permanent ofthe beast is very high, Epsom salts, interference with the secretion of milk .

1 lb., and % 2 oz. ginger in gruel, or a pint

of linseed -oil, given a few days before Hard Udder.

calving, will do much to ensure safe

Cows' udders frequently become hard, recovery. Treatment. If there is difficulty in passing urine, the aid of a veterinary Symptoms. — Swelling and inflamma- surgeon should be at once obtained.

especially with heifers after their first calf.

tion.

In the first stages of the disease give

Treatment. - Rub a little goose -grease a warm glyster containing tincture of VOL. III.

2 H

482

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

If constipation, give pur- of ammonia, 4 drs., should be given gative (No. 27), and repeat in half-doses every day, unless diarrhea supervene,

opium, 2 oz.

until it appears. Should decomposition actually commence, the hand must be introduced, and the placenta removed as gently as possible. and rub the spine and loins with lini Dropsy of the Womb. ment (No. 26 ). Feed on mashes, and be

till the bowels are opened ; then give every six hours in gruel, salicylate of sodium , 4 drs.; tincture of opium , 1 % oz.; solution acetate of ammonium , 4 oz.,

careful not to allow the animal to get a

An accumulation of fluid in the womb,

and is often mistaken for pregnancy. Symptoms. — The cow looks as though

chill. The Whites.

she were pregnant ; but when her time is

Called so from the colour of the dis- up — that is to say, if she has been to the bull - she shows no sign of calving,

charges.

Symptoms. — The cow is unthrifty, and if you place your hand up the and a white discharge runs from the rectum nothing but a huge water-bag vagina, especially when she coughs or can be felt. lies down . Treatment consists of tapping the Cause. From injury to the womb, womb and allowing the fluid to escape. usually after difficult calving.

Treatment.-Give tonic (No.29) night Puerperal or Milk Fever ( Dropping after

and morning in a pint of ale ; inject into the vagina, by the aid of a syringe, the

Calving). Symptoms.

After calving the cow

following twice a -day : sulpho-carbolas of will appear restless, muzzle hot and dry, zinc, 12 oz.; water, i quart; and feed udder tender and hot, constipation. In creasing weakness, ending in death , if

the animal well.

the treatment is not successful.

Parturition or Calving.

The natural presentation of a calf is with the muzzle resting between the fore feet, with the back of the animal upwards.

In cases of unnatural presenta-

Some

times cows have been known to suddenly drop down a few hours after calving without the herdsman previously know ing that anything was wrong. Cause. The origin of the disease is

tion, assistance will always be required. as yet not satisfactorily settled ; there Every endeavour should be made to get are many opinions, the enumeration of the calf into a proper position . Experi- which would occupy too much space to ence and skill in extracting the calf is be profitable for our present purpose. more needed than mere force. Every care must be taken not to wound the cow.

Prevention . — A fortnight before calving keep the cow on a spare diet,

No description within the scope of the composed in winter of bran -mashes and present treatise could give a proper idea other opening food ; a little linseed meal of the methods used in all cases of un- or cake will help to keep the bowels natural presentation. The aid of an ex- open. After calving, it has always been perienced surgeon must therefore always mypractice to give a drink of thin gruel be obtained if the case is beyond the with 12 oz. Epsom salts in it ; and

knowledge of the man in charge. Two should any signsof derangement appear, or three hours after calving it may be prudent to give, in warm gruel, purgative (No. 28 ). Shortly after calving the cleansing or after-birth should comeaway. If retained more than twenty-four hours,

add Fleming's tincture of aconite, 10 drops ; repeating the dose of aconite every six hours should signs of restless ness continue. Treatment. — When once this disease

with no appearance of coming away, it is established, give linseed-oil, 2 pints ; should be carefully removed before de- and every four hours a draught in gruel composition is too far advanced, as it containing carbonate of ammonia, 4 drs.; very often sets up a septic or putrefactive powdered ergot, 1 oz. ; whisky or brandy, inflammation ; but if not removed, a 6 oz. Apply cold water to the head,

draught in gruel containing Epsom salts, but keep the body warm, as, if the cow 8 oz.; powdered

I oz. ; carbonate is very ill, the temperature very often

CATTLE.

falls below normal.

483

Warm glyster of Then dress the feet with a mixture of

gruel, containing 72 lb.of Epsom salts, gas-tar and powdered sulphate of copper. will help to loosenthe bowels.

The in- Should much swelling of theankle with

jection of olive - oil and liquor opium sedativus, one to seven, into the uterus, repeating the injection every twelve hours, has in some cases been tried with success in addition to the above treatment. This disease is a very dangerous one, and

some lameness remain, apply blister (No. 23). If there is a wound in the foot caused by a splinter, apply a hot poultice of linseed -meal and bind up the foot.

in many cases the animal will have to be

Cows in byres frequently suffer from

Enlarged Knees.

slaughtered. If milk - fever does not an enlargement on the front of the knee come on before the end of the third day through lying on the stony floor. Treatment. — If there is much pain after calving, the cow may be held to be and swelling, apply warm fomentations nearly out of danger. assiduously , and cooling lotion (No. 7). Sore Teats. See that the knees are protected from the

Symptoms. - After calving, cows are hard floor and from the manger. liable to have sores or small cracks or

chaps on the teats, making them tender and painful.

Lice.

very

Symptoms. — Cattle in poor condition

Treatment. —Apply boracic acid oint- often lose their hair, especially on the

ment to the teats, having previously neck and back, owing to their being bathed them with warm water to remove all scabbiness and dirt.

infested with lice.

Cause. — Want of cleanliness and poor condition.

Suppression of Urine.

Treatment. - Wash the part affected

Cows in calf are very subject to this with lotion made from tobacco, 4 drs.,

complaint, in consequence of the pressure dissolved in i pint of hot water. Oint

caused by the calf. It is also a symptom ment made of lard, 6 oz ., white precipitate of several other diseases.

of mercury, 1/2 oz., is a certain remedy,

Treatment. — Keep the bowels open but requires careful handling. Improve by giving in warm gruel purgative ( No. the quality of the food and keep the 28 ), assisted by a glyster of warm gruel, animal clean ; give tonic (No. 29). and give till relieved, morning and even Mange. ing, in gruel, tincture of perchloride of iron, 1 oz. ; spirit of chloroform , 72 oz. Symptoms. - Itching, loss of hair, scurf, scab, or sores, especially on the back. Cause. It is caused by a small in DISEASES AFFECTING THE LIMBS, FEET, AND SKIN.

sect ( the Acarus bovis), and it is favoured by dirt, poverty of the blood, and ne glect ; and is very contagious when

Foul or Foot Rot.

animals can get into contact. Treatment.-Improve the food given, Symptoms.— Cattle are very liable to this disease of the foot, which produces and keep the animal clean. Rub the

great lameness. There is a good deal of places affected with ointment composed

fætid discharge from the cleft of the of sulphur, 1 oz.; lard , 4 oz.; give in gruel mild purgative (No. 28 ), adding foot, also swelling of the ankle. Cause. - Driving over rough roads or sulphur, i oz. If this does not effect a

for long distances ; injury from a prick, cure, wash the places with corrosive sub nail, or splinter ; standing on moist and limate, 72 oz.; muriatic acid, 1 oz . ; soft water, 2 quarts ; or by the treatment

dirty bedding. Treatment.

- Put the beast into a

dry, clean place. Dress down the dis eased hoof with a knife, and wash with hot water and soda. If there is pain and

recommended for lice.

Rheumatism , Lumbago, Felon Chine. Symptoms. - Swelling of the joints ; fever, and the lameness excessive, poultice stiffness ; listlessness ; unwillingness to for some days to reduce the inflammation. move, which the beast does with pain .

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK. 484 Cause . - Cold, especially after calving maggot about May or June in the fol lowing year. or when weakened by illness. Treatment. - Give a draught in gruel Prevention.- None, except the exter or warm water, morning and evening , mination of the flies by diligent destruc containing carbonate of ammonia, 1 oz.; tion of the maggots. bicarbonate of potassium , 1 oz.; gentian, Treatment.— In April or May all

I oz.; ginger, I OZ. Rub the parts cattle should be examined, and the mag affected with liniment of belladonna, i gots squeezed out between the fingers, part, compound liniment of ammonia, i which may easily be done, and in my

part. Give nourishing food and a little opinion is the best way of ensuring their linseed meal or cake, and keep free from

destruction.

chills till quite cured.

with M'Dougall's cattle-smear, the mag gots are no doubt killed, but they re

Ringworm

If the holes are smeared

main in the ulcer, and certainly the

is caused by a parasitic fungus growing most healthy way is simply to crush them out and relieve the beast of them

in the skin.

Symptoms. - Loss of the hair, which

comes off in circular patches, leaving a

at once.

The damage done by this fly to the

cattle and the hides in the country may back, and root of the tail are the parts be estimated at millions of pounds ; every means should therefore be taken most generally affected . Cause .- Contagion, neglect, and dirt. to remove this pest from the country. Treatment. - If the animal is in high Wounds.

dry and scaly eruption.

The face, neck,

condition or out of health, give purga tive (No. 28), and keep on nourishing

In severe cases, unless the animal has food. Rub the parts affected with oint- a fancy value, it would be better to ment composed of oleate of mercury, I slaughter at once. Simple cases may part ; lard , 2 parts, or use a lotion of be cured by bringing the edges of the

perchloride mercury,1 part ; water, 500 skin together, and fastening them with I have used lotions composed carbolised gut and a bandage of car

parts.

of sulphurous acid , but have found the bolised gauze. The bowels must be mercurial ointment the most efficacious ; kept open by doses of purgative ( No. sometimes a second application is not 28), and the wound kept clean by bath even necessary. Wash the cribs, rub- ing with warm water. bing-posts, &c., which have been used

by a beast affected with ringworm with I pound chloride of lime dissolved in 2

SPECIAL DISEASES AFFECTING

gallons of water, to avoid spreading the

CALVES.

disease among other stock . Warbles.

Constipation . Cause.—Frequently the first milk or

Symptoms. — Early in the year and in biestings from the cow has not been the spring, from January till May, large given to the calf, and constipation en lumps about the size of half-a-crown may sues. Also, when milk has been taken

often be found along the backs of cattle ; to excess it is apt to coagulate and pro these increase in size till the contents, duce constipation. the maggots of the bot-fly ( Estrus bovis), Prevention . In a young calf the There is always a small air-hole natural first milk of the mother is to be seen in the middle of the lump, most suitable, and afterwards care

escape.

and the head of the maggot is often should be taken that only as much visible.

milk is given as the digestive organs

Cause . — The bot-fly pierces the skin can dispose of. of the beast while out at grass during

Treatment. - Give castor -oil, I OZ.,

the hot weather in July and August, and leaves an egg at the bottom of the wound, which hatches, develops, and grows, till at length it emerges a large

beaten up in the yolk of an egg, with ginger, i scr. ; repeating the dose if necessary. Glysters may be required, but not so often as in young foals.

SHEEP.

485

sheep on the richest pastures, especially in the spring of the year. The animal Cause. - Injudicious feeding, and at seized will drop down suddenly, and in Diarrhoea .

too long intervals; bad smells, cold , extreme cases die at once. Any animal

acidity in the stomach, produced by affected should be killed immediately. any sudden change of food, or by any

thing which deranges digestion . Prevention.-Care should be taken

Louping -ill or Trembles. A disease of the nervous system .

that the milk given to calves should be Symptoms. - The animal trembles, sweet, and that the air is kept pure. breathes in a jerky manner, moves its

Treatment. - If the calf refuses its legs in an automatic style, occasional food, and blood is mingled with the spasms of the muscles of the neck , which dung, accompanied by great pain and usually terminate in paralysis. weakness,

immediate steps must be

Cause. It is seen only in certain dis

taken to remove the irritating matter. tricts, and is supposed to be due to a Give castor-oil, 2 oz., to relieve the in- peculiar formation of the soil or the con

testines, and after this has had time to dition of the grass. act, give morning and evening i oz. of

Prevention.—Dip the sheep, remove

calf-cordial (No. 24). If this does not them to fresh pasture, and give them produce any effect, give four times daily, corn and salt ; to every pound of salt tincture of catechu, 2 drs. ; spirit of add one ounce of sulphate of iron.

chloroform , 30 drops ; and dilute sul-

Treatment. – Of little use ; look to

phuric acid, 30 drops, in thin gruel. prevention . Diarrhea, indigestion, and death are also caused by hair balls, which form in There is no preventive. the stomach.

Blindness.

Sheep are sometimes attacked by tem

Caused by the calves licking each other. porary blindness, often lasting only about ten days. Navel-ill.

Cause. - Changes of temperature ; Calves sometimes suck one another's blight. navels, which causes swelling and inflamPrevention .-- None. mation of it ; or it may be caused by the Treatment.-- If left to nature, the

cord breaking off too short, by neglect, blindness will probably pass away. exposure to cold, wet, and dirt.

Lambs thus affected require extra care,

Treatment. - Poultice, if no tendency and should be put to the ewes so that to bleeding, or apply hot fomentations they should not suffer from loss of milk . persistently, and carbolic oil to the raw surface. White Skit.

Whitish diarrhæa seen in calves that live on a milk diet.

Lockjaw or Tetanus. Symptoms.- Practically the same as

those in the case of the horse (p. 443). Cause.-Cold, especially during lamb

ing-time; also produced by careless cas

Treatment. — Give castor-oil, i to 2 tration , wounds, &c.

oz., according to the size of the animal,

Prevention .-- Shelter and careful at

and follow up with calf-cordial (No. 24). tention will do much to avert this dis Keep the animal for a few days on lin seed or oatmeal gruel.

ease. (See pp. 443, 444. ) Treatment . - Give castor-oil, 2 oz., repeating the dose every six hours till it takes effect. Give, in gruel, tincture of

SHEEP.

opium, i dr., morning and evening. Flem ing's tincture of aconite, 5 drops, may be added to the gruel if there is no relief.

DISEASES AFFECTING THE HEAD,

EYES, MOUTH, AND NERVOUS SYSTEM.

Apoplexy. This disease

cannot be treated or

Staggers, Sturdy, Goggles, Fern -sick, Dunt, or Turn -sick. Symptoms. - Dulness; unsteady walk ,

guarded against ; it attacks the fattest generally in a circle ; separation from

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

486

the rest of the flock ; blindness.

The

Treatment. —Give daily, in linseed

animal affected will often fall into a gruel, nitre, i dr.; digitalis, i scr., ditch and perish, or die gradually. This keep the animal warm .

and

disease generally attacks sheep in good Foot-and-mouth Disease.

condition.

Cause. — A species of parasite — the

A disease of the blood. (See p . 474.)

Coenurus cerebralis - in cysts or bladders

Symptoms.- Mouth hot, with small

containing fluid, which lodge in the vesicles on the inside of it, dribbling brain . saliva, swollen and painful legs. The Prevention . — Young sheep in damp udder and teats of ewes become sore situations are very liable to this disease, and painful. Cause. — Usually contagion. and care should be taken to avoid putting them into such pastures. The use Prevention . Careful isolation of of lump or rock salt, which they can lick infected stock, and the free use of dis as often they like, helps this and similar diseases.

to ward off infectants, such as carbolic acid and

Keep your sheep -dog free from tape-worms, for it is

the egg brain.

water.

Treatment. - Give three times a -day,

of this worm that gets into the in warm water, sulphite of sodium , i dr.

Apply carbolic acid ointment to the Treatment.-- Slaughter is the most udder and teats, and the same or boracic profitable course to follow . There is a acid ointment to the feet. Completely method of treating this disease bypunc- isolate all sheep affected, and induce

eat fine meal and hay. turing the soft place in the skull, and them to disease comes under removing the bag or cyst ; but unless

This

this is done in good time, and performed tagious Diseases Act. skilfully, it is rarely successful. Hoose or Water on the Brain .

the Con

Husk.

Symptoms. — A short husky cough,

This disease often affects very young which increases if the animal is hurried. lambs.

Gradual loss of condition, till the health Symptoms. - Dulness and stupidity ; is undermined. In time the diseased

staggering gait ; rapid loss of flesh. Death may ensue in about a month.

lungs will no longer be able to purify the blood, and the animal will die.

Cause. The presence of parasites Cause. -- Often congenital, taking place before birth ; constitutional weak- the Strongylus filarius — in the throat and lungs.

ness.

Treatment. — No cure, so far as the farmer is concerned .

Prevention .

Lambs should never

be depastured on land fed previously the same year with sheep.

If this ad

vice is acted on, and proper care taken DISEASES AFFECTING THE THROAT, CHEST, RESPIRATORY ORGANS , AND BLOOD .

Anthrar.

of the flock , cases of hoose will be less frequent on most farms.

Treatment.--- Give daily : turpentine, i dr. , for a lamb ; 3 drs. for a sheep, in

respectively 6 and 12 drs, of sweet-oil,

See Anthrax (p. 472) for description of and feed liberally, giving some good this disease.

Sheep will die in convul- linseed -cake with the food .

sions in about twenty -four hours. Pneumonia - Inflammation of the Lungs. Catarrh.

Symptoms.--Hard breathing ; loss of

Symptoms. — Dulness; loss of appe- appetite ; fever ; cough, which becomes tite ; difficulty in swallowing ; water more and more distressing ; fætid dis running from the eyes and nose ; hot charge from the nose ; thirst. After mouth and muzzle ; constipation ; cough, wards intense weakness sets in, followed and discharge of yellow mucus from the by unconsciousness and death. nose .

Cause .—Chills and exposure.

Cause . - Cold, particularly from shear ing in cold weather.

---

SHEEP.

Treatment. — Give, in linseed - tea,

487

Fleming's tincture of aconite, 5 drops,

Fleming's tincture of aconite, 5 drops, may be given in gruel every morning, three times a -day, and with it once a- and the food should be sparing, with a day tartar of antimony, 12 dr. Keep little linseed. The treatment of the dis warm, and in cases of complete prostra- ease is generally unsatisfactory . Change tion, give, as a stimulant, in the gruel, their pasture, and if on good arable grass, gin, 1 or 2 oz. put them on the heather, if possible, for a day or two. Small- pox. Calculus or Gall-stones, and Kindred A very rare disease in this country. Diseases of the Bladder. Symptoms.- Loss of appetite ; sep Symptoms. — Dulness; loss of appe aration from the flock ; stiffness of the

hind quarters; costiveness ; red patches tite ; separation from the flock ,generally

on the limbs and stomach ; later a small lying down ; quick breathing ; when red eruption appears on the skin and roused, painful efforts void urine, only face. In severe cases a great part of the a few drops of which come away. Saline flock may succumb to the disease ; and deposits will sometimes be found in the when mildest it is a very serious malady. sheath. Cause.--Contagion. Cause.—High and stimulating system

Prevention. — This disease should be of feeding, especially on saccharine roots, stamped out and not treated ; the ani- such as mangel-wurzel ; want of exercise ; malsattacked should be destroyed, and absence of water for drinking. the premises disinfected. Prevention. — Avoid an exclusively saccharine and starchy diet, and allow free access to water. DISEASES AFFECTING THE STOMACH,

LIVER, BOWELS, KIDNEYS, AND PARTURI INTERNAL ORGANS. TION AND MILKING ORGANS.

I.–STOMACH, LIVER, BOWELS, KIDNEYS, AND INTERNAL ORGANS .

Braxy or Sickness.

Treatment.

In the latter case warm

fomentations and syringing with tepid

water may get rid of the deposit ; after wards wash out the sheath with an astringent lotion. But if the seat of the malady cannot be reached , the sheep should be at once slaughtered when the disease is suspected .

Symptoms.-Restlessness ; hanging of

Constipation. the head ; aching of the back ; grinding of the teeth ; cold extremities ; kicking Symptoms. - Dulness and costiveness. Cause.--Especially prevalent among of the belly with the hind feet; separating from the rest of the flock . young lambs, caused by the quality or

Cause. - Inflammation of the bowels too great quantity of the ewes' milk, from cold or feeding on strong rank which has coagulated in the stomach. grass, some of which may have been rot-

Prevention . — Avoid any irregularity

the ewes' food, and especially too ten. Prevalent in the autumn, especially in luxuriant pasture among the lambs ; often runs through a

flock like an epidemic.

.

Treatment. — Put the ewes on shorter

Prevention .-- If possible, keep the pasture, and give every morning as much sound pastures for the lambs, andavoid

warm water, with Epsom salts, i oz.,

letting them have too succulent pasture dissolved in it, as the lamb can take. for grazing, and always let rock -salt be within reach.

Don't allow an affected

animal to be bled or slaughtered on

Lambs also suffer from wool balls, which form in the stomach. There is no cure, but care should be taken that the

ground that the rest of theflock have bags of ewes should be kept as clear of access to, as blood diseases of an anthra- wool as possible, in order to prevent coid nature, as well asinflammation of the lambs getting it into their stomachs. bowels, enteritis, and acute indigestion, Diarrhoea.

are sometimes all included under the

general name of braxy.

Symptoms. — Simple looseness of the

Treatment.-Give purgative (No. 34). bowels without much pain.

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

488 9

Cause. — Fresh, succulent herbage, gas. The subsequent food should be especially when it has been touched with rather scanty. frost.

Treatment. — Change the pasture or source of irritation, and if weakness

Inflammation of the Liver. Symptoms. — Loss of appetite ; skin

comes on , give rhubarb, i dr., and after- hard and itchy ; tongue foul; dung white wards, in warm gruel, powdered opium, and foetid ; weakness. Cause .--Sudden change from poor to 20 grs.; catechu, 1/2 dr.; prepared chalk , nutritious food is generally the cause. 14 oz. Prevention . — Extra care when any Dysentery. change of food takes place.

Symptoms. - Frequent evacuations of

Treatment.Give daily,in gruel, pur

hard lumps of fætid dung, mixed with gative (No. 32). Foment the body near slime and blood ; loss of appetite ; pain, the liver with hot water, and inject warm fever, and great weakness. Affects sheep

water if the bowels are costive.

of any age, generally in the summer .

chronic cases of this disease, salt (4 oz. per

In

Cause.-Aggravated and unchecked head per week ) should be given in addi diarrhoea; chills after being clipped. tion to the purgative above mentioned . Many believe it to be contagious.

Prevention . - Sheep that are scouring should be watched, the food altered, and

Inflammation of the Stomach .

Symptoms. -Loss of appetite and

any aggravation of the attack checked . Treatment.

-

separation from the flock ; alternate hot Give in warm water, and cold shivering fits ; restlessness ;

three times a day, ipecacuanha, 72 dr.; straining to empty the bladder. powdered opium, 20 grs.; chlorodyne, 10 Cause . — Too nutritious food, or, in drops ; chalk, 74 oz. Gruel, or if animal some cases, inflammation after castration. will eat, flour-porridge, sprinkled with Avoid exposing the Prevention . salt, should be given.

lambs to chills and cold east winds after

being cut, and exercise care when forcing Hoove. on sheep for the market. Treatment.-- Foment the belly ; give A distention of the stomach by gas,

owing to the fermentation of food which Fleming's tincture of aconite, 5 drops, has been too long retained in it.

twice a day, and purgative (No. 34), Enlargement of the halving the dose in the case of young belly, especially on the left side, which lambs. Keep warm , and let the food sounds hollow when tapped. Stupor consist of warm gruel with a little boiled Symptoms.

and death follow , unless the animal is linseed in it. relieved .

Cause . — When sheep are incautiously

Jaundice.

Symptoms. — Yellowness of the skin fed on green clover orturnips, they are apt to eat to excess, and fermentation of and eye ; constipation ; urine brown ; food in the stomach sets in before the loss of appetite.

Cause . - Richness of the pasture, es pecially in damp sultry weather. Prevention . — The use of salt among Prevention.—Green clover and turnips should be given in small quantities the artificial food, combined with care as at first, and sheep should only be turned to the nature of the pasture, will make

organs are able to dispose of the accumulation of food.

into a very succulent pasture for an hour the appearance of thisdisease rare. Treatment. — Give purgative (No. 32) or two till they get accustomed to it,

when there will be no danger of hoove. and frequent doses of salt, 4 oz. per head Treatment. — The insertion of a trocar per week. into the flank will relieve the pressure of

gas, and a dose of purgative (No. 33)

Rot.

Symptoms. — At first the animal will will open the bowels. A drachm of chloride of lime dissolved in a quarter of lay on fat very quickly, but afterwards

a pint of water, and horned into the the wool begins to fall off ; the eyes sheep, will often reduce the pressure of become hollow , the belly enlarged ; swell

SHEEP.

489

ings appear on the body ; scouring sets 8 parts, carbolic acid, 1 part. in, and finally death ensues.

Great

cleanliness should be observed in the

Cause.-— The presence of the Distoma lambing - yard, and a free use made of hepaticum , or flukes in the liver, especi- carbolic acid, and the hands washed and

ally prevalent in wet seasons, or when nails cut before manipulating the womb. turnips are mildewed . Sheep fed on Treatment. - Besides theinjection of low -lying, wet, and undrained land are carbolic lotion, give every four hours very subject to this disease.

carbolic acid, 20 drops, in water; and

Prevention.--The use of salt in the if constipated, purgative (No. 33) ; give food and judicious grazing during wet plenty of gruel and linseed - tea . If straining and diarrhoea come on , give seasons will do much as preventives. Treatment.

- Remove the flock at whisky, 4 oz., and tincture of opium , i

once to dry uplands or salt-marshes if oz., in gruel. The treatment is, however, available, and give salt in the food, 4 generally unsatisfactory. oz. per head per week, and as much in

the troughs as the sheep will lick up.

Abortion ,

or the premature expulsion of the fætus. II. -PARTURITION AND MILKING ORGANS .

Symptoms. There are no particular symptoms in abortion among ewes.

Garget, or Inflammation of the Udder. Cause.- Overdriving ; cold ; improper Symptoms. — Pain when the lambs food ; injuries to or disease of the ab are sucking, lameness, restlessness, fever, domen . A very frequent cause is the inflammation, and swelling of the udder, disturbance of sheep by dogs. which becomes ulcerated and painful. Prevention and Treatment.— When Cause. – Stoppage of the secretion of cases of abortion occur, the cause of the milk ; exposure to cold ; injuries. disease must, if possible, be ascertained Prevention . -Care should be taken and removed . It may generally be to prevent the udder being surcharged traced to one of the causes mentioned with milk, especially when the lambs are above. When one sees a flock of ewes weaned or dead . occupying a turnip -fold, only vacated by the fat hoggs when it was too bad for with udder the Foment Treatment. warm water, and clear it from all wool. them, up to their bellies in mud, one can If not very painful, let the lamb suck it hardly be surprised that cases of abortion and knock it about as much as possible. are only too frequent.

Given a proper

Give purgative (No. 33 ), and remove all rational system for the management of the milk by frequent milkings ; rub the a breeding flock, and cases of abortion will be rare, and only the result of cir cumstances which cannot be altogether Parturition Fever_"Heaving ," avoided . Should a ewe appear sickly

udder with belladonna liniment.

“ Straining ." after abortion, inject lotion composed of Symptoms. - Fever, loss of milk, list- carbolic acid, i part ; water, 40 parts ;

lessness, frothy saliva, stiffness of the and give purgative (No. 33). hind quarters, discharge of dark fluid Tumours on the Udder. from the vagina, swelling of the vagina, Treatment.--Give purgative (No. 33), straining, and pain. The whole con-

stitution will now be affected, diarrhoea and lance the tumours, taking care that will set in, followed by death . This the bottom is reached ; afterward dress with lotion ( No. 30). disease is nearly always fatal. Cause . — Probably the result of blood

poisoning , owing to deleterious matter entering the system through wounds of the parturient organs.

Prevention . - Should any wounds be made during parturition , they should be

DISEASES AFFECTING THE LIMBS,

FEET, AND SKIN. Foot-rot.

Symptoms.- Lameness, which may washed with warm water and syringed with lotion (No. 30) daily for some days, be traced to disease between the claws

and afterwards anointed with glycerine, of the feet, indicated by the discharge

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

490

of matter and swelling, which, if not elements necessary to produce a perfect

checked, will gradually extend to the offspring. whole of the foot.

Food grown on light moor

tillage land, dressed with caustic lime,

Cause .--Often contagion, grazing on will produce rickets. low, rich pastures, encouraging over-

Prevention .-- Avoid in-and-in breed

growth of the hoofs, which are apt to ing, and also food grown on land which, split and crack and collect dirt. as above described, is apt to produce the Prevention . — The maxim , “ A stitch malformity.

in time,” &c. , if put into practice, will Treatment.-- Direct treatment is use prevent the disease spreading, and will less. soon cure those affected .

As a means

Scab.

of prevention it is useful to pass the

A pustular eruption of the skin, pro whole flock twice a - year through a solution of arsenic, put into a trough, duced by parasites — the Dematodectes through which the sheep are driven ovis — minute acari which burrow in the slowly. The solution is thus prepared : skin. rubbing Boil 2 lb. of arsenic with 2 lb. of potash

Symptoms.

Constant

(pearl-ash) in i gallon of water over a against gates, & c.; loss of wool ; skin slow fire for half an hour ; keep stirring, red , rough, and afterwards covered with and when like to boil over, pour in a hard scabs ; loss of health and condition. Cause.—Generally contagion. little cold water ; then add 5 gallons of Prevention . - Bottling, or smearing cold water. Put this solution into the

trough to the depth of 1/4 inch. The the sheep with salve, is the best pre solution is poisonous, so the trough

servative, and isolation of infected stock.

Treatment.—Rub the part affected when not in use. be kept locked should Treatment. Pare away all loose with ointment composed of corrosive

ragged horn, to allow the matter to dis- sublimate, 4 oz. ; train -oil, 3 gals. ; resin, charge, cut away any proud flesh with

1 lb. ; tallow , 1 lb.; and wash all posts

sharp scissors, dress the foot with chloride and gates against which the sheep may of antimony. If much diseased, wrap it have rubbed with carbolic acid, 1 part, in tow to prevent its getting fly -blown,

and every day dress it with lotion

water, 100 parts. This disease comes under the Con

(No. 31 ). Cauterising with carbolic acid tagious Diseases Act. might be tried, but it must be done very carefully. Note. — Sheep, when they have trav-

Vermin .

Sheep ticks and lice may be destroyed

elled far on hard stony roads, get very by the use of one of the many dips When thus affected, the sore which are sold for the purpose. feet should be dressed daily with vaseMaggots may be destroyed by apply

foot-sore.

line, and poulticed if required ; any ab- ing spirit of tar, i part, olive-oil, 4 parts, scesses should be opened with a knife, to the places affected. It will also keep and bathed with carbolic acid, I part, off the flies. water, 30 parts. Rickets- Weak Backs.

SWINE.

Lameness of hind quarters, resulting from fracture of bones, which, from their

Anthrax - Blood -striking (see p. 472 ).

malformation, are liable to injury under trifling exertion. This disease only af-

A disease of the blood.

Symptoms. — Dulness ; thirst, hot

fects the lambs, and when once it ap- ears, brownish - red eyes, tender hind pears, will run right through the flock. quarters; urine, and sometimes the The outbreak may occur at any time of dung, mixed with blood, black spots on the year.

the skin , external swellings.

When

Symptoms. — Difficulty in rising ; the caused by eating the flesh or blood of fore feet are not affected .

animals dying of the disease, there is

Cause. — Peculiar condition of the soil, nearly always great swelling about the pointing to an insufficiency of particular throat.

SWINE.

491

Cause. — Generally contagion. goes down at the end of a few days, a Prevention . - Keep in good condition, dark-red patch will be left. and avoid close buildings, putrid food, Cause. — Want of ventilation ; dirt ; and bad water. Completely isolate all heating food ; wounds. diseased animals.

Treatment.-Give, in gruel, jalap, i

Treatment. - Owing to the rapid and dr. ; sulphate of magnesia , 3 oz., mixed fatal nature of this disease, all treatment

in a little water, and as soon as the pur

is unsatisfactory. But it is not so fatal gative has acted, give muriate of iron, as in horses and cattle, although young 10 drops, night and morning in food . pigs are more easily affected by it than Foment the swellings on the skin with grown ones. Give Epsom salts, 3 oz., water, i quart, in which i oz. of sul and oil of turpentine, 2 drs ., in a little phate of zinc has been previously dis

linseed -gruel, and rub the limbs with solved. Good nourishing food should oil of turpentine. Call in a veterinary be given, and the animal should be com surgeon , who will inject diluted carbolic pletely isolated. acid under the skin.

Foot-and -mouth Disease. Convulsions.

A disease of the blood (see p. 474 ). Symptoms. - Shivering ; hot and dry Symptoms. — Young pigs are subject to convulsions, which take the form of mouth ; lameness ; blisters in the mouth, sudden spasms with complete insensi- on the teats, and between the claws.

bility, frothing from the mouth, and Sometimes the entire hoof drops off. redness of the eyeballs. Animal buries itself in its bedding. Cause . — Contagion, especially by Cause . — Disorders of the brain ; indimeans of milk , which should be boiled gestion ; sometimes intestinal worms. Prevention . - Good water and nour- if suspected. Prevention . — Total isolation of dis ishing food. Treatment. — Give a purgative eased stock and the use of disinfectants. Treatment.-Give Epsom salts, 2 oz. Epsom salts -- regulating the dose ac-

cording to size. Remove as far as pos- Wash the mouth with lotion composed sible the cause of the attack - i.e., expel of borax, 1 oz.; tincture of myrrh, 1 oz.; the worms if they exist (see p . 493), or and water 12 oz. Dress the feet and

alter the food if it has produced indiges- teats with carbolic acid , 12 dr.; glycer tion. Give sulphate of iron , i dr. , in the ine, 10 oz. Feed on mashes, and re food .

move all diseased horn in the feet, and

poultice if much inflamed.

Diarrhoea .

Symptoms. - Looseness of the bowels, which affects the health .

Very dan

gerous to sucking-pigs. If unaccom-

The disease comesunder the Contagious Diseases Act.

panied by loss of appetite, fever, or pros

Husk (see p. 474). Symptoms . — Short, dry cough ; frothy care that the complaint does not increase. Cause.Often a symptom of some discharge from the nose ;loss of appe other disease. Often caused by indi- tite ; thirst; loss of flesh, till finally death results. gestion, putrid food or water.

tration, no treatment is required beyond

Prevention . — Proper food and attention . Treatment.

Cause.

The presence of worms in

the air-passages, amounting almost to an Give castor-oil, 3 oz.,

epidemic in certain districts.

Prevention .---Keep in good condition, and peppermint-oil, 5 drops, in gruel, and if possible remove the cause of the and isolate from infected animals. complaint.

Treatment.—Give, in milk, salt, I

teaspoonful ( i dr.) ; oil of turpentine, i Erysipelas. teaspoonful, daily. Fumigate in a close Symptoms. -– Heat ;; itching ; red- building by burning flowers of sulphur ness ; tenderness and swelling of the on a hot shovel till the animals can bear skin , generally on the head and neck ; no more without coughing violently, and loss of appetite. When the swelling repeat the fumigation every week . Give

AILMENTS OF FARM

492

linseed -porridge, nourishing food and plenty of skim -milk.

LIVE STOCK .

Treatment. — Give Epsom salts, 1 oz.,

and sulphur, i oz. , in thin gruel, and repeat the dose twice a - week.

Keep

Inflammation of the Lungs. warm, and feed on nutritious food of Symptoms. --- Shivering ; hot skin ; good quality. Rub the limbs with tur laboured breathing ; red eyes, nose, and pentine, 4 parts ; mustard, i part ; and

mouth ; cough deep and dry; yellow Olive-oil, 2 parts. discharge from the nose. Cause. - Cold, aggravated by neglect

Sore Throat (Malignant). Symptoms.-- Swelling of the throat Prevention . — Nourishing food, and and neck ; bluish -black colour of the

and predisposition to the disease.

lining membrane of the mouth and

warm dry bedding.

Treatment. — Cover with a warm rug, throat; swelling of the tongue ; loss of but allow plenty of cool fresh air ; rub appetite; difficulty in breathing and the chest with mustard, 1 part, and tur- swallowing w; eakness and death. pentine, 4 parts, and repeat the rubbing. Cause . — Exposure to cold and wet ; Give spirits of nitrous ether, 2 drs.; improper food , dirt and neglect. tincture of opium, 2 drs., in a little milk Prevention.— Cleanliness and com

twice a-day, and put 2 drs. of nitrate of plete isolation of diseased animals, and potash in its food every time the animal disinfection of premises tenanted by them. is fed .

Treatment. — A dose of Epsom salts, Measles.

to be followed by small doses of chlorate Symptoms. - Fever ; cough ; loss of of potash and acetate of ammonia in appetite ; red patches on the skin ; pus- their food, with very hot fomentations tules under the tongue. Treatment. - Give, fasting, I oz. of

sulphur in the food, and repeat the dose till the animal is quite recovered. Keep the animals warm .

to the throat.

Surfeit. Symptoms. - Fever ; swellings in

patches on the lips, eyelids, and nostrils, which quickly appear and disappear.

Protrusion of the Rectum . Cause.--Change of food or climate. After parturition the rectum sometimes Generally occurs in the autumn. protrudes and swells. Treatment. — Give in gruel, jalap, i Treatment.

The gut should be dr.; Epsom salts, i oz., and avoid im

emptied and washed .

It may be re- proper feeding.

turned by inserting the finger into the Swine-fever -- Hog-cholera. opening and pressing it into the anus. A nourishing diet should be given. Symptoms. — Shivering ;; dulness ; Sometimes a truss will be necessary to sunken eyes ; loss of appetite ; thirst ; keep the gut in its place after it has unwillingness to rise ; heat and sore been returned. It may be necessary to ness of the skin, which is covered with

amputate the protruding part. Advice red and black patches; costiveness, fol should be obtained if this is found to be

lowed by fætid diarrhea mixed with

necessary .

blood.

Cause. - Contagion.

Rheumatism , Cramp, Lameness. Prevention. - Cleanliness and good Symptoms. — Dulness; lameness, es- food, together with ordinary care. Iso pecially of the hind quarters ; tenderness lation from all infected animals, and the of the joints ; constipation.

use of disinfectants, such as carbolic

Cause . - Damp bedding ; lying on acid. cold brick floors : chills. Especially Treatment.— Immediate slaughter is prevalent where pigs lie on fermenting the only course to follow at present. horse -manure. Prevention.

Allow

Immediately bury the dead body, and young. pigs cover it with quicklime ; disinfect the

plenty of exercise and dry bedding in premises. This disease comes which they may bury themselves. Contagious Diseases Act.

under the

-

RECIPES.

Worms ( Intestinal). Symptoms. — Ill-health ; scurvy ; dry

493

2. Powdered cantharides ( Cantharis ), % lb. Lard ( Adeps præparatus ), 1 lb. Resin (Resina ), 4 lb. Melt the resin and lard together at a low

skin ; irregular appetite ; itchiness of temperature, then sprinkle in the cantharides, the arms, and the passing of worms; loss of flesh ; cough ; scour. Prevention . - Sound food and water. Treatment. — Give santonine, 3 grs., on an empty stomach, and four days

and stir till cold.

3. Perchloride mercury ( corrosive sublimate)

(Hydrargyri perchloridum ),40 grs. Methylated spirit ( Spent methyl ), 1 oz. To be applied with a small brush. Shake

later repeat the dose ; thenext day give together in a bottle until dissolved. 3 oz. Epsom salts.

Allow access to

plenty of coal, slack, or cinders, so that the pigs may eat as much grit as they like.

Trichinosis.

4. Red iodide of mercury ( Hydrargyri iodi dum rubrum ), 2 lb.

Lard (Adeps præparatus), 4 lb. Mix together. Poison . 5. Iodine ( Iodum), 2 oz. Iodide of potassium ( Potassii iodidum ), 1 oz.

Camphor (Camphora), /2 oz. A parasitic disease of the pig, but Methylated spirit, i pt. Should be made up by a qualified party. rarely seen in this country. Symptoms. — The animal is dull, loss Put the iodine and iodide of potassium in a

of appetite, goes stiffly, vomits frequent- bottle with 15 oz. of the spirit, shaketill dissolved. Dissolve the camphor in 5 oz. , then ly. As the disease advances, the animal mix together. persistently stands , and when it lies CONDITION POWDERS . down it tries to bury itself under the 6. Fenugrek , 2 parts. bedding Carbona Cause.

te of iron, I part.

It is due to a minute worm

alled the Trichina spiralis, which infests

Nitrate of potassium ( Potassii nitras ), 2

the whole body, causing what is called measly pork ; far more common in Germanyand America than in this country.

Gentian powder (Gentiana radix ) i part. Sulphur ( Sulphur sublimatum ), 2 parts. Mix all together and sift. Give i oz. daily

parts.

Treatment. — Slaughter and bury the in the food .

animals at once, for the diseased pork is poisonous to human beings.

COOLING LOTION .

7. Solution of subacetate of lead ( Liquor

plumbi subacetatii), i part. Lice.

Tincture of arnica ( Tincturæ arnicæ ), 3 parte.

These may be easily removed by wash ing with water saturated with petroleum .

Water ( Aqua ), S parts. Mix . COUGH BALL .

RECIPES.

The scientific names are given as found in the British Pharmacopæia and Squire's Companion to the British Pharmacopoeia.

8. Digitalis ( Digitales folia ), 2 dr. Powdered opium (Opium ), i dr. Aloes (Aloe barbadensis ), i dr. Soft - soap ( Sapo mollis) enough to

Linted medarbinir farina) } enmakler tilball. Give one ball every

Make into a stiff mass .

day.

Directions for preparing the mixtures

DRAUGHTS.

are appended to each recipe. ABBREVIATIONS .

Grains, grs.; scruple, scr.; drachms , drs .; Pounds, lb.; ounces, oz.; quart, qt.; pint, pt. HORSES. BLISTERS.

1. Powdered cantharides ( P. Cantharis), 1 oz.

9. Spirits of ammonia ( Spiritus ammoniæ aro maticus ), 1/2 oz. Chloroform ( Chloroformum methyll), 1 oz . Bicarbonate of potash ( Potassiï bicarbonas ), 12 oz. Water ( Aqua), 10 oz.

Mix. Shake up well before giving in gruel or other bland liquid . Every two hours till improvement, then twice aday.

Olive-oil ( Oleum olivæ ), 8 oz.

Use the ordinary “ salad - oil” obtainable Mix together in an earthen

from grocers.

ware pot, and infuse in a water -bath for four

hours ,and strain . Clip hair off the part before application.

FOR BRONCHITIS .

10. Tincture of digitales ( Tinctura digitalis ), 3 drs .

Bromide of potassium (Potassii bromidum ), 2 drs.

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

494

Nitrous ether SPIRIT ( Ætheris nitrosi) , 1 oz. Water ( Aqua ), 10 oz.

19. Aloes ( Aloe barbadensis), 1/2 dr. Tartar emetic ( Antimonium tartaratum ), I dr.

Dissolve bromide of potassium in water, add the other ingredients, and make up with water to 10 oz. To be given three times a - day.

Nitre ( Potassii nitras ), 2 drs.

Digitalis ( Digitales folia ), 72 dr. To be made into a ball with meal and treacle.

FOR WORMS.

ORDINARY PURGATIVE .

11. Extract male fern (Extractum filicis liqui dum ), 2 drs.

Oil of turpentine (Oleum terebinthina ), 1/2 oz. Linseed - oil (Oleum lini), i pt. Mix and shake well together. EMBROCATION .

12. Hartshorn ( Liq . ammon . dil.), 1 oz. Turpentine (Oleum terebinthinæe), 2 oz. Spirit of camphor (Spiritus camphoræ), 2 oz .

Laudanum ( Tinctura opii), 1/2 oz. Olive-oil (Oleum oliva ), 6 oz.

Mix the hartshorn with the olive -oil, and shake, then the turpentine, spirit of camphor,

20. Barbadoes aloes ( Aloe barbadensis ), 112 dr. Calomel ( Hydrargyri subchloridum ), i dr. To be made into a ball with meal and treacle. TONIC .

21. Sulphate of iron ( Ferri sulph .), 1/2 dr. Sulphate of quinine ( Quinince sulph .), 20 grs.

Sulphuric acid, diluted ( Acidum sulphuri cum dilutum ), 2 drs. Water ( Aqua ), 10 oz .

Dissolve the sulphate of iron in water , diffuse quinine in the solution, then add di luted sulphuric acid, and make up to 10 oz. Give morning and night.

and laudanum , shaking after each addition.

Shake well before using. CATTLE. GLYSTER, BLISTER

13. Oatmeal, 3 qts. Salt, 3 oz. Olive -oil, 12 pt. Give warm , and repeat till relief is given. IRRITANT.

14. Ammonia solution ( Liquor ammonia , F. ) ,

22. Powdered cantharides ( Cantharis ), 1 oz. Olive -oil ( Oleum olivæ ), 8 oz.

Use the ordinary “salad-oil ” obtainable from grocers. Mix together in an earthenware pot, and infuse in a water -bath for four hours, and strain . Clip hair off the part before appli cation.

3 oz .

Soft -soap ( Sapo mollis), 4 oz. Oil of turpentine (Oleum terebinthince ), 8 oz .

Olive-oil (Oleum oliva ), 4 oz. Rub the soap with the olive -oil to smooth ness, then add turpentine and ammonia solu

tion. Bottle, and shake well.

23. Powdered cantharides, i part. Venice turpentine, i part. Resin , I part. Lard, 4 parts.

Melt resin and lard together, then stir in the cantharides and Venice turpentine. CALF - CORDIAL ,

LINIMENT.

15. Mustard ( Sinapis), 4 oz . Oil of turpentine ( Oleum terebinthina), 5 oz .

Linseed -oil (Oleum lini ) , i pt. Mix together, and shake thoroughly.

24. Prepared chalk ( Creta præparata ), 2 oz. Powdered catechu (Catechu ), i oz. Ginger (Zingiber ), 72 oz . Opium (Opium ), 2 drs.

Peppermint-water (Aquæ menthæ peperitæ ), I pt .

LOTION ,

16. Tincture of myrrh ( Tinctura myrrhæ ), I oz .

Dose for calf, two tablespoonfuls morning and evening ; dose for sheep,one tablespoonful

morning and evening. Mix all together .

Alum ( Alumcu ), 2 drs . Water (Aqua ), 6 oz.

DRAUGHT FOR COUGHS, &c.

Mix together. PURGATIVES .

17. Aloes powdered (Aloe barbadensis), 6 drs. Ginger ( Zingiber ), 2 drs . Made into a ball with soap or treacle.

25. Powdered digitales ( Digitales folic ), i dr. Liquor ammonia acetatis ( Liquor ammonii acetatis ), 3 oz .

Spirit nitrous ether ( Spiritus atheris nitrosi) , 2 oz.

Extract belladonna ( Extractum belladonna ),

18. Calomel (Hydrargyri subchloridum ), i dr. Opium , powdered ( Opium ), 20 grs . To be made into a ball with linseed -meal and treacle.

2 drs.

To be given in a pint of water . Melt extract of belladonna in a little warm water ; when cold, add the other ingredients.

APPENDIX .

495 SHEEP.

Shake, and make up to a pint with cold water .

LOTION , LINIMENT.

30. Carbolic acid (Acidum carbolicum ), i part. Water ( Aqua ), 50 parts.

26. Oil of turpentine (Oleum terebinthina ),

Shake.

8 oz . DRESSING FOR FOOT- ROT .

Solution of ammonia ( Liquor ammonia , F. ),

31. Red nitrate of mercury (Hydrargyri

3 oz.

Soft-soap ( Sapo mollis), 4 oz. Rub down the soft-soap in the turpentine , then add the ammonia , and shake .

oxidum rubrum ), i oz. Nitrous acid , 2 oz.

To be mixed with two tablespoonfuls of water ; dissolve the red nitrate of mercury in the acid, and then add the water.

PURGATIVES .

PURGATIVES .

27. Epsom salts (Magnesii sulphas), 16 oz.

Powdered aloes (Aloe barbadensis), 8 drs. Ginger (ground) (Zingiber), 1 oz. To be given in a quart of warm water or

32. Calomel ( Hydrargyri subchloridum), 5 grs. Powdered opium ( Opium ), 4 grs. Epsom salts (Magnesii sulphas), 1 oz.

gruel. Epsom salts for cattle costs Is. a stone.

To be given in 3 oz. of gruel or water. All obtainable from a druggist. Mix and

Use Barbadoes aloes and ordinary domestic ginger.

give in gruel.

Ask for Epsom salts for cattle.

33. Epsom salts (Magnesii sulphas ), 3 oz. MILD PURGATIVE ,

Ginger (ground ) (Zingiber ), i dr. Take ginger used for domestic purposes, In thin gruel.

28. Epsom salts (Magnesii sulphas), 12 oz. Powdered ginger ( Zingiber ), 72 oz. To be given in a quart of warm water or gruel.

mix with the salts, and give in thin gruel.

34. Castor -oil ( Oleum ricini), 2 oz . Tincture of opium (laudanum ) ( Tinctura

Salts for cattle, and ordinary ginger.

opii ), 2 drs. Use ordinary castor- oil and laudanum ; mix, and give. Note . — The doses given , except where other wise stated, are intended for fair - grown

TONIC .

29. Gentian (Gentiana radix ), i oz. Ginger ( Zingiber ), 1/2 oz. Carbonate of ammonia ( Ammonii carbonas), 12 oz.

animals of medium size.

Allowance must

therefore be made should the age or size of the animal to be treated exceed or otherwise

Carbonate of iron , 2 drs.

the average .

To be given in a pint of gruel or water .

TABLE OF DOSES. Horse .

Swine,

I year 6 months

I part.

6 months

I year 6 months 3 .

3

I

I

.

1

1 to part. la to to part.

4 years and over

2 years

2 to 3 years · I year 2 to 10 months .

I

.

Doses.

Sheep.

Cattle .

11

11

.

A drench should never exceed a quart, APPENDIX.

and before giving it, make sure that it is neither too hot nor too strong, for

choking will follow . A tin bottle is the best for drenching Some notes will be useful as to the with ; if this cannot be had, use a methods of administering medicine to champagne-bottle. ADMINISTERING MEDICINE .

the various animals.

The Horse.

How to fix the animal.--Put on a head -stall or halter ; take a piece of rope

or plough -line, make a loop at one end, Medicine is usually given by the pass the loop first through the nose -band mouth, but sometimes injected under of the halter or head -stall as the case the skin into the blood, the rectum, and may be, then into the mouth, throw the by inhalation . other end over one of the rafters above,

496

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

and pull the horse's head up ; the medi- place the toe of the boot into the pig's cine should be slowly poured into his mouth, pour the medicine into the leg mouth, for horses are slow swallowers.

portion of the boot, and the pig will bite

Never be guilty of pouring it down the savagely at the boot and swallow the horse's nose, as I have seen some men do, and kill the animal.

medicine at the same

ne.

If the animal

makes an attempt to cough whilst you FOMENTATION . are drenching him, let his head down Fomentation is of great value in all instantly. The Ball. — They should never exceed cases of pain and inflammation. Never

1/2 oz. in weight, and never be given start to foment a part, however, without

when they have become hard. The best having plenty of hot water and time, way to give a ball is by the hand, and tinued for itdoes little or no good unless con for an hour or two.

with a little practice it can be soon learned . Take the tongue gently in the

In cases of external injuries or inflam

left hand, and draw it to the side of the mation—if it is on the knee or below it mouth, place the ball between the fingers --place the leg in a tub full of hot water,

of the right hand, quickly run the hand if elsewhere soak a piece of flannel or along the roof of the mouth, and leave sponge in hot water, and hold on the

the ball at the back of the tongue ; with- part. draw the hand, and let go the tongue.

For internal inflammation, such as in

The animal will soon swallow, and you the bowels and the chest, double a will see the ball pass down the left side If you are not clever of the neck. enough to give it in the manner described, use a balling gun or iron. Do not attempt to give a ball on the end of a pointed stick , for you are sure to run the stick into some vital part of the throat, and perhaps ruin the animal. Cattle.

blanket, soak it in hot water, and have it held against the chest or belly as the case may be, by a man on each side of

the animal, and place over it a water proof carriage -rug to keep in the heat. The blanket must be dipped into the hot water every three or four minutes. If the blanket is too hot for your hand it is too hot for the horse's skin, so be careful not to scald the animal.

The cow is best drenched with a bottle or horn, and the quantity should not

ENEMAS .

exceed 2 qts. In giving the medicine, stand on the right side of the cow , seize

Enemas or injections are of various

the nose with the thumb and finger of kinds, and are given in cases of constipa the left hand, and get some one to hold tion to hasten the action of the bowels; A cow in dysentery and diarrhea, to check swallows much more quickly than the the action of the bowels ; in debility, to horse, so it takes but a minute or two to support the animal, and when in pain

the horns on the left side.

to relieve it.

give a drench.

An enema for constipation should consist of linseed -oil, 1 pint ; salt, 4 oz ; A long-necked sauce-bottle is best to and warm water, i gallon, to be repeated, use for sheep. The quantity to be given if required , every four hours. should not exceed 4 oz. Stand on the For diarrhoea and dysentery use liquor Sheep.

right side, span the nose with your finger opium sedativus, 2 oz. ; starch, 4 Oz.; and thumb, place the finger in the and warm water, 3 pints. For weak mouth, and slowly run the medicine in ness and debility use half a gallon of at the right side of the mouth.

warm milk with two eggs, or the same

quantity of beef -tea to be given every Swine.

The quantity to be given should not

four or six hours.

To relieve pain use warm water, I

exceed 5 oz. In giving physic to a pig, quart; extract of belladonna, í drachm ; take a child's old boot,cut a hole in the toe of it about the size of a shilling,

or liquor opium sedativus, 1 oz. ; to be given every three hours.

APPENDIX.

497

An enema is given by the enemaHaving haltered the colt, take him syringe, and the tail should be depressed to the chosen spot, pass his head through for a few minutes after it is given. the loop in the rope, pass the two ends between his fore and hind legs, bringing BACK -RACKING .

them back, pass them through the loop at the shoulders, and draw tight until

This is occasionally done to remove the animal is on his side ; then tighten

the hard dung from the bowels, but it up , wind the rope around the fetlock,

is not necessary if an enema has been include the fore legs, and get a man given . The person who performs this on each side to hold the end of the

operation should have a small hand, rope so as to keep the animal on his cut the nails short, and oil the hand before introducing it.

back . To remove the stones by torsion, make

POULTICES .

stone, place the clams around the cord, put the torsion forceps on the cord about

a bold cut through the bag, release the

Poultices are applied to certain parts half an inch from the clams, and twist to relieve pain, soften, and draw out the forceps slowly around until you sever any matter that may exist. The poul- the cord; the other stone to be treated tice should be made of boiled turnips in the same way.

To operate with the hot iron : Having or bran, the softer and warmer the better. A poultice to do any good must placed the stone in the clams, take a red

be of considerable size, kept on from hot iron and saw the cord slowly through twelve to twenty -four hours, with hot close to the clams. As to after-treatment, house the animal water continually poured over it, taking care not to scald the animal.

for a few days, and then let it run out

For the foot the poultice should be during the day, housing it again at placed in a stout bag, and fixed around night. the fetlock by a strap. CASTRATION.

From castration, lockjaw , bleeding, inflammation of the bowels, or broken back sometimes arise.

If the animal has only one stone down,

The horse is usually operated upon postpone the operation, for it is almost at the age of one or two years ; but he certain to come down in a few months ; is sometimes allowed to go uncut until if it never appears, the animal is most three years old to see if he is worth likely a “ rig, and must be operated on keeping for an entire horse, or to allow as such .

his neck to get developed. The spring Calves.

or autumn is the best time to perform When a few weeks old they can be cut this operation, as we then avoid the by twisting the tail around one standing, sultry the cold winds of winter, and weather and the troublesome flies of hind leg. Stand behind the calf, cut through the bag, twist the stone several

summer.

There are various ways of performing timesand scrape the cord closely through this operation, but the best and most with your finger-nails or a blunt knife. successful way is either by torsion or When they are several months old they the hot iron . Some precautions should require to be cast. This is done by

be taken before operating. Handle the tying the hind legs together with a rope, colt for several weeks before, so that place a halter around the neck, take the when he comes to be cast he will not

shank end of the halter and run it

fight, struggle, and break out into a sweat; feed him sparingly the day before the operation ; make sure that both testicles are down and no rupture exists ; always see that the ground is soft and

through the rope that joins the hind legs, tying it back, pass it through the portion that is around the neck, and draw the legs tight, and fasten. The fore legs can be held by a man. Take

free from stones where you intend to the stones off with the hot iron as in cast the animal. VOL.

III .

the case of the horse. 2 I

S

AILMENT

498

OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

The bull is best castrated standing of either draining an abscess, acting as with the hot iron.

a counter-irritant, or for the purpose of inoculation.

Pigs. In using a seton for draining an abscess, Let a man seize the pig by its hind such as poll-evil or fistulous withers, al legs and hold it between his legs. ways bring it out at the lowest part of

Cut through the bag, twist the stone the abscess, so as to secure drainage. several times, and scrape through the In using setons as counter-irritants in

cord with a blunt knife or your finger- cases of lameness, diseases of the eye or brain, pass them simply underneath the

nails.

skin, and be careful not to wound any Lambs.

Let some one hold them on a bench

internal structure.

For inoculation, in cases of black

for you ; cut the tip of the bag off, and quarter or pleuro-pneumonia, the seton use the hot iron and clams, or do them

must be soaked with some irritant, such

the same way as the pig. In many parts,

as embrocation ( No. 12 ) in the case of

one person takes the lamb in his arms, black -leg, but in pleuro-pneumonia with holding its four legs tightly, two in each the serum of a diseased lung. hand , while the shepherd cuts the top off

the bag with a sharp knife, presses out the stones with his fingers, and draws them away with his teeth, then using the hot iron .

NURSING THE SICK .

All the doctoring in the world is of

no avail unless associated with good SPAYING .

nursing Sick horses should be placed in a com fortable loose -box, free from draughts,

Heifers and sows are frequently spayed and with plenty of straw in it. In cold in order that they may fatten more weather a rug should be placed on the

quickly, but a description of this opera- animal, and its legs bandaged. Animals, tion would not enable one to do it, and like human beings, soon lose their appe it can be learned only by watching those tite when sick , so that every means should be tried to induce them to feed.

skilled in it.

The diet must be soft, nourishing, and DOCKING

given frequently in small quantities.

The following foods are recommended : It is best performed when the animal bran - mashes, with bruised oats, sweet

is but a few months old, and at that age hay with a little treacle-water sprinkled the tail can be easily cut off with a stout over it, scalded oats, a little linseed -cake,

pocket -knife, and the end seared with and, when in season, grass, tares, carrots,

the poker. In adults the operation is as and parsnips can be given sparingly if simple, but often followedby excess of the horse is not suffering from any bowel bleeding, lockjaw, or an abscess at the affection.

A pail of oaten or linseed

Having parted the hair gruel should be placed within the reach at the spot where the tail is to be cut of the animal, and if it does not drink end of tail.

off, tie the top hair back, get some one

this, give it treacle -and -water, or water

to hold the tail out, and with a sharp with a tablespoonful of nitre dissolved in stroke of the docking-machine it is di- it. Take the chill off the water if the vided. Afterwards, hold the tail up, weather is cold. slightly sear it with the searing- iron,

Never allow one kind of food to re

then place a piece of tow saturated in main too long in front of the animal ; perchloride of iron on the end, bring the take it out and try something fresh. hair over it, and tightly tie below. SETONING.

The animal should , if strong enough,

and the weather permits, be taken out every day, and led up and down for half an hour with a rug on .

Exercise of

Setons are tapes passed through cer- this kind strengthens the animal and tain parts of the body, with the object

increases the appetite.

See that the

FARM -SERVANTS AND WAGES.

499

manger and bucket from which the horse A USEFUL TABLE . is fed are clean , for horses are naturally It is useful for stock -owners to have very sensitive as to what they eat, and more so when they are sick. Sick horses before them the following table, indi

should every morning get a thorough cating a normal condition of the pulse, wisping down. Do not work the animal before it has

properly recovered, and then gradually.

respiration, and temperature of their various animals ; also the period of ges tation .

Pulse .

Beats per Minute .

Horse Cow

Sheep Pig Dog

40 45 75 60 100

Where felt.

Jaw Jaw At the heart At the heart

Thigh

Respira

Tempera

tion Beats per

ture Degrees

Minute .

Fahrenheit .

Average Dura tion of

Pregnancy.

IO

100

II months.

12

IOI

18 15

IOI

285 days. 151 days.

20

102

100

4 months. 9 weeks.

FARM -SERVANTS AND WAGES.

The labour of the farm is an important held at many centres throughout the element in agricultural economy. Its cost has advanced from 30 to 50 per cent, in some parts even more, since the first edition of this work was issued. In all respects the condition of the farmlabourers the British Isles been greatly ameliorated since 1850. They

country; but there is a growing tendency to avoid these public fairs and have the engagements madeby private inquiry or through registry offices. For harvest-work extra hands are em ployed , most likely at fairs held in towns and villages. not only receive higher wages, but they Wages and Perquisites. are also provided with more comfortable dwellings, are better treated in regard to The rate of wages, as well as the form food, and have shorter and more regular in which the payment is made, varies hours of labour. greatly throughout the United Kingdom . A few samples will best indicate the Methods of Hiring. general custom The methods and times of hiring South of England. - In Essex a

and terms of engagements vary greatly horse-keeper or ploughman is paid as throughout

the country. Generally follows: speaking, half -yearly or yearly engage 52 weeks at 148. per week . ments prevail in Scotland , with wages Extra forhaymaking, 4 weeks paid in one sum at the end of the term , Do. in harvesting

£36 8 0

or in instalments as arranged.

larly terminable.

Total value for the year .

o

O

I

land and Irelandthe terms are shorter Firewood, beer-money, &c., say and less regular, wages being as a rule payable weekly and engagements simi

10

3 lo

.

5

o

I

2

£47 10

This is the rate for the best men.

O

Ordi

Hiring markets, at which servants and nary men get about is . per week less. farmers meet and make engagements, are In the neighbourhood of London the rate

500

FARM-SERVANTS AND WAGES.

of wages is higher by 2s. or 3s. per week. haytime and harvest, and is conditional On the other hand , in counties further upon the man giving satisfaction to his away from London, the rate is lower— employer. Ios., 11s. , and 12s .per week, with similar The feeding of farm -servants in this perquisites, being paid in several English part of the country is very different from counties.

what it was about 1850. Tea and coffee

In Essex, a day's work with horses is are now largely substituted for oatmeal, only 772 to 8 hours. Including cleaning and beef and mutton for bacon. The and feeding, the men are daily about hinds have usually at least a two-roomed

9% to 10 hours in actual work ; general house, with a garden for vegetables. A labourers, 9/2 hours, sometimes 10 hours man who has in his family a lad or a daily. Field -work all stops at 4 P.M., except in haymaking and harvesting.

woman to work out in the fields can

generally obtain about is. per week more

Bailiffs get about £ 50 to £60 in wages than ifhe could not provide these with house and perquisites in workers. Although what is known as addition . Cattle-men generally get 2s. the “ bondage system has been nomi

money,

or 38. per week more than ploughmen, nally abolished, families with working as their hours are a little longer, and members in it are most in demand. they have Sunday work .

Housemaids

As to the hours of labour, the rule in

get about E7 to £8 per annum . No this district in the spring and summer

servants are boarded ; every man brings months is for the ploughmen to take his own food , and takes his meals in the their horses out of the stable at 6 A.M.; The they are allowed a quarter of an hour for men will likely have a fire in the harness- breakfast, and a quarter of an hour for

stable, barn, or outside in summer. room in cold weather.

tea in the field , with two hours for dinner,

These rates with little variation would the day's work terminating at 6 P.M. apply to a great part of England. North of England.—As a rule, the

Female field -workers commence work at 8

A.M., have an hour and a half for dinner,

rate of wages is higher in the northern and stop work for theday at 6 P.M. than in the southern counties of England ; In Northumberland and many other and it is asserted by many that the parts, the women and the men have the quality of the labour is better. The same hours at work.

following are the wages and perquisites on a farm in North Durham : Steward

Berwickshire.— Where paid by the " old boll,” the allowances for ploughmen

—21s . per week, free house and garden, are, per annum : £12 in money ; 60 coals driven to him , a cartload of pota- bushels of oats ; 30 bushels of barley ; toes as they are lifted, and a sack of 1800 yards potato -ground ; one

COW

flour at Christmas. Cattle-men — 198. per housed and fed ; free house and coal

week, and the same perquisites as above. Ploughmen — 18s. per week , and the same perquisites as above. Women field workers — 28. 6d. per day in harvest, and 18. 2d. per day at other times. Kitchen servants- £ 19 per annum and board . Housemaid - £ 12, ios. and board . Lads, boarded in the farm kitchen, hired half-yearly, get from £20 to £ 27 a -year, according to ability.

driven ; butcher-meat for one month in harvest. When paid by money, the rate is : 135. per week, with a cow's keep, 1800 yards of potato- ground ; or 16s. per week , if no cow is kept. Women at farm work get gs. per week in the summer half-year, and 8s. per week in the winter, with 158. per week in the few weeks of the grain harvest. Farm grieves get about £10 more.

In Northumberland wages are about Cattle-men get about the sameas plough Is. , and in South Durham 28. , per week men. Shepherds have similar perquisites, less than the above. but instead of money most of them are In this part of the country the men allowed to keep a “pack” of their own,

are usually hired for the year, and the consisting perhaps of about 10 ewes and wages paid fortnightly “ in sickness and 3 hoggs, it being a condition that they in health, rain or shine.". The sack of keep a strong lad, who receives about 98. flour mentioned above as given at Christ- per week . The shepherds on the Cheviot mas is anent food and extra hours in Hills will have about 50 Cheviot ewes and

FARM-SERVANTS AND WAGES.

hoggs in their own

501

pack," with a cow's similar, although the form in which the

keep, three loads of oatmeal, and coal or perquisites are given varies considerably. peat ” driven.

The general tendency

West of Scotland .-- In the west of

now is to lessen the perquisites and in- Scotland the good old system of boarding crease the payment in money ; but it is the servants in the farmer's kitchen still

very doubtful if this change is advanta- survives, although it is not so general as geous to the servants.

in former times . On an Ayrshire farm,

East Lothian. - In East Lothian, with half-yearly engagements, the rates Farm managers who have entire charge

are : ploughmen from £ 12 to £ 17 per get from £70 to £ 100 a -year, a cow's half-year, with board and lodging ; dairy keep, 1 ton dressed potatoes,and in some maids from £ u to £ 14 per half-year; cases free coals and light. Stewards get general women servants, for wintering £ 40 to £60, a cow's keep , i ton dressed cattle, house and outdoor work , from potatoes, 40 to 65 stones oatmeal, harvest £8 to £ 10 ; and lads from £5 to £ 10 food or £ 1 for same; in some cases 2 tons Fall with board and lodging. of free coals and % 2 quarter of wheat. Forfar and Perth . The wages and

Working grieves get £ 30 to £ 40, a cow's perquisites generally paid in these coun keep, i ton of dressed potatoes, 40 to 65 ties are : stones oatmeal, 12 quarter wheat, har or Stewards (generally vest food or £ 1 for same. Ploughmen, Farm Grieves Married Men ). when a money wage is agreed upon, get Experienced men of this class, at 155. to 16s. a -week, 16 cwt. to i ton

dressed potatoes, harvest food or £i present, get on an average wages equal of for same. A leading ploughman, who in value to about £65 a -year, or 255. stacks and sows, gets 12 quarter wheat a -week, as under :

for same. When the payment is in money 1. Cash, from £ 40 to £45, say £42 10 and meal, the ploughman gets £30, with 2. Oatmeal, an allowance of 672 65 stones oatmeal, 16 cwt. to i ton

O

bolls ( a boll of meal being

140 lb. ) during the year, dressed potatoes, harvest food or £ 1 for equal in value to about men em s on the “ gain ” syst same. Plough 3. Sweet milk , an allowance gene get £24 to £26, 65 stones oatmeal, 16 rally of 24 gills daily, yearly cwt. to i ton dressed potatoes, 172 value

5 10

0

O

O

2 10 6 O

o

£65 10

O

9

quarter barley, ya quarter beans (some 4. Potatoes,i ton of potatoes, aver: get in place of barleyand beans 2 quarters 5. Freehouseandgarden, equal to

O

wheat), harvest food or £ 1 for same. On some farms in the upland parts of

the county a cow is kept by the plough

man, and £ 5 to £6 deducted from the Besides other small perquisites, such as money wage. Cattle-man . — If a first -class firewood for kindling, not included. man, he is paid the same wage as a

Very often grieves get a whole cow's

ploughman, but has extra for Sunday milk, which would be worth not less than £ 15 a -year ; but when a cow is given, the allowance of money is generally less in proportion, so that the result would be much the same. Ordinary Ploughmen . This class of servants get on an average

about £48, 108. a -year,or 18s. 6d. a -week. In the case of married men, as under : 1. Cash, from £28 to £32, say 2. Oatmeal, 672 bolls, value .

3. Milk, 16 gills daily, value .

· £ 300 5 to 0

These generally are the sons and daugh- 4. Potatoes, 1 ton ,average value

2 IO

ters of the householders on the farm , and

4 10

reside with their parents. In adjoining counties the rates are

5. Free house and garden, value

ооооо

labour, generally £ 1 , but in some cases is. for each Sunday's labour. Cottars (out-workers) get is. 4d. a -day, 8 to 10 cwt. dressed potatoes, harvest wages and food for a month, or, in place of harvest wages and food , £2. Some also get extra pay during potato -lifting, to the extent of 6d. or 8d. per day. Frequently cottars do not take potatoes, and in such cases is. 6d. a -day is paid instead of 18. 4d . Boys and girls get from 9d. to 28. a -day, according to qualifications.

£48 10

O

FARM - SERVANTS AND WAGES.

502

1. Cash , from £30 to £ 34, say • £32 0 2. Oatmeal, usual allowance of 672

the master, equal to

5. Lodgings, valued at is. a -week .

£2 12

4 bags potatoes, say

o 15

Meal, same as married men

4 lo

£7 17

O

5 10 6 0

O

bolls , value .

3. Milk, 16 gills daily, value . 4. Fuel and light supplied free by

ооо

In the case of unmarried men living Lodgings, 18. a -week in bothies, the details are somewhat different, namely

0

Ploughmen (single, in bothy), £22 to £27 , and the following perquisites :

o

2 10 2 12

Potatoes, say

. £i

0

o

Meal, same as married men

4 10

O

Coals for bothy fire, say ·

2

.

0

o

o

£48 12

£7 10

O

Foremen in this class and experienced cattle -men generally get from £2 to £3 Lads (in lodgings), £ 12 to £ 19, and

more.

Meal Potatoes

Orra " Labourers, engaged only from day to day.

Extra or

· £ 4 10

Lodgings

.

This class of servants get : Men, from 38. to 3s. 6d. a -day ; women and young

o

0 15

0

12

O

£7 17

O

2

lads, from is. 4d. to is. 6d. , without any other allowance.

During harvest and

Lads (in bothy), £ 12 to £ 19, and

potato-lifting, however, these orra workers same perquisites as single ploughmen .

Lads ( in kitchen), £ 12 to £ 19, and In harvest, men get from 3os. to 36s. board in kitchen , say £ 10. a -week ; women , from 25s. to 30s. a -week. Out-women, £,12 to £ 16 , and board During potato-lifting, men get from 18s. in kitchen, say £10. to 218. a -week ; women and boys, 125. Kitchen -women, £ 10 to £ 15, and

get extra pay.

to 158. a-week.

board in kitchen, say £ 10.

Women engaged for the year to work in the house and out on the farm when required, get from £ 16 to £20 a -year, with board . Servants for house-work only, about £ 2 less. Halflin " lads engaged for the year get from £14 to £ 17, with the same

Milk is paid for in all these cases. The men get it at the farms good and by large measure, but they pay for it. They may buy it, however, anywhere else,

allowance of meal and milk as other men.

which they never do.

This is to save

complaints as to quality of it. As to the housing of servants, ex Provost Black of Sherifston, to whom we are indebted for the foregoing figures,

Morayshire. — The following are the says: “ Morayshire is on the whole well pro

rates for the year paid by several farmers

vided with houses for married servants.

in this county :

Grieves, in money, £30 to £35, and I have all I need --seven in number. “ I have sometimes a single man or

the following perquisites : OOO

lad , or both . They are lodged with some House, say · £3 0 o of the ploughmen , or in a cottage on the Coals, i ton o farm , where they find lodgings when they Potatoes , say prefer it. They get their food prepared, Meal, 66 stones, at average of, say, their house-room , and fire and light, for 138. 6d. per imperial boll — in 4 10 o is. a -week. They sleep at the steading all, say in an apartment for the purpose, adjoin I

2

o

£ 10 10

ing thestable — indeed, over a loose-box. I mean to turn the loose -box itself into a

Ploughmen (married ), £22 to £27, sleeping -room after Whitsunday, fitting it up properly for the purpose. Ploughmen (single, in lodgings), " I have no bothy. They are used,

and thesame perquisites.

£22 to £27, and the following per- however, on most of the large farms, and quisites :

are generally of a superior and comfort

FARM-SERVANTS AND WAGES.

503

able character, kept clean and tidy, and bound to receive his domestic servant to

the men's food prepared either by one of his or her situation, and to provide the the out-women " or one of the kitchen- servant with bed and board during the period of the service, unless there be an

women .

“ On the smaller farms a good many agreement to the contrary. A male do still have the men and lads in the kit- mestic servant maybe compelled to reside chen. Young lads prefer this to the out of his master's house, the master

bothy - or, at any rate, their fathers and paying expenses, but a female is entitled mothers do. Some of the men prefer to the protection of her master's house. A master is not bound to provide medical the kitchenothers the bothy.

Out-working women are very few in attendance or medicine to a servant in sickness, even in cases where the servant I hire all is entitled to bed and board from the

number now - I mean fee'd ' ones. Most

of them are hired by the day.

at is. 3d. a -day. They find everything master. But if the master himself call themselves. Sometimes at hoeing - time in the medical man, or authorise this to the wage is is. 6d.; and in harvest this be done, he will be liable for the bill, year ( 1890) it was 178. a -week - last year, and will not be entitled to charge the 158. 6d .-- they finding everything except servant with the amount, or retain it out the usual drink of beer and piece of of the wages. bread in the middle of both the forenoon Duties of Servants . - Servants are and afternoon work turns.” LAW OF FARM-SERVICE.

bound to serve their masters in every

thing relating to the situation for which they have engaged themselves. They must be respectful to their master and

“ Arles.” — It is not necessary to give his family, and in their general conduct earnest or - arles '"

to

servants when

avoid actions scandalous or of bad ex

hiring them, unless such be the universal ample. They have no right to absent custom of the district ; but if such a themselves without leave.

They are re

custom does prevail, the engagement is sponsible for everything committed to not complete unless earnest be given. their charge in the routine of their duty, A servant who has received " arles ” on

but not for such accidents as are not

engagement is not entitled to dissolve the attributable to their fault. They have no right to draw nice distinctions between engagement by returning the " arles." Period of Engagement.-- Farm -ser- what comes within their duty and what vants are presumed to be hired for one does not ; but they cannot be employed

year when no specified period of endur- against their will on any duty really ance is stipulated, and when no other

different from the customary duties of

period is to be presumed from the cir- the service which they have undertaken, cumstances of the contract or the custom

and therefore any unusual branch of

of the district. If a servant be engaged service should be matter of special ar for a period differing from the customary rangement when the engagement is

period, and particularly if the engage- made. ment is to endure for more than one

Payment of Wages, & c., and Breach

year, it is desirable that the agree- of Engagement.-— Where the amount of

ment be in writing and signed by both wages isnot fixed, the customary amount, parties.

or such amount as the Court in case of

Travelling Expenses . — In ordinary dispute shall fix as reasonable, will be circumstances the master is not bound to payable. The servant has a right to pay the expense incurred by the servant leave his master and claim wages (and in going to the place where the engage- board wages if entitled to board) should ment is to be fulfilled, or in returning his wages not be paid at the terms agreed after the termination of the engagement ; on or implied from the engagement. but when servants are brought from a The servant may also leave in the event great distance, it is usual for the em- of any other serious breach by the master

ployer to pay the expense of their removal of the conditions of the employment, to the place of service. Board and Lodging . - A master is

but should, where practicable, first en deavour to have the grievance remedied .

FARM-SERVANTS AND WAGES.

504

Though a farm -servant be engaged by the he may sustain against the servant, and year, his wages are payable half-yearly. in the case of a female servant, against Sickness or Accident.-- If a servant

her husband.

be disabled from performing his service

Enlistment is not a justification of by sickness or accident attributable to breach of his engagement by any servant ;

his own fault, wages will not be due for but may give riseto a claim of damages the period of disablement, and the ser- at the instance of the master. A servant vant may even be liable in damages to unjustifiably leaving or failing to enter the master should such be sustained

on the master's service may not only

beyond the amount of the wages. But forfeit all claim for wages for any period a short temporary disablement in the for which service has been rendered ; but course of service, not attributable to the is liable for the damages resulting from servant's fault, will not entitle the master his desertion. to retain part of the servant's wages,

Dismissal. — A servant may be dis

particularly if the illness of the servant missed for immoral conduct, disobedience, has not necessitated the employment of or habitual neglect of duty, or for absence a substitute. What length of disable- without leave, or other serious fault ; but ment will entitle a master to provide a remonstrance is expected of a master for

substitute, or to terminate the engage- the less serious faultsbefore resort is had

ment and cease payment of wages de- to dismissal. Legal dismissal forfeits the pends upon the circumstances of each right of the servant to wages even for the case . period of actual service ; but in some If a servant die between terms, his cases, where the dismissal, though justi representatives are entitled to wages for fiable, has not been for the gravest fault, the period during which he gave his and the forfeiture of wages would be service. disproportionate to wages earned , the Death or Bankruptcy of Employer. Court has held that the servant is entitled -When the master dies during the en- to wages for the period of actual service. gagement, wages, and also board wages, A servant is bound to leave, when dis if the servant be entitled to board, are missed even without sufficient or any

due to the servant to the next term (not cause, and by leaving quietly does not within the period of notice) or to the end forfeit right to compensation for wrongous of his engagement if that bé earlier. But dismissal. should make reasonable

Notice of Leaving. – If a master

exertions, if called on, to get another situation, and on the new engagement commencing, the wages in respect of the former will cease. While in receipt of

wishes to part with a servant, or the servant wishes to leave his situation, at the expirymust of the warning be engagement, given, unlessreasonable the local

wages after his master's death, the servant

custom is to give no warning. The period of warning requisite in thecase of

the servant

is bound to continue service.

The effect on the engagement of the agricultural and domestic servants, en master's bankruptcy is similar to the effect of his death. Domestic and farm servants have for long enjoyed in Scotland a preference for their wages for the current term on the death or bankruptcy of their master. In England by statute the same preference is accorded to them

gaged for a year or for half a year, is forty days. If timeous warning be not given oneither side, the engagement will be held to be renewed for one year, or such less period as may be usual in the particular occupation and locality. Character.

A master is not bound to

as to other servants.

give a servant a character, or to state his A master may at any time turn off his reason for withholding it. If he know servant on paying him full wages to the ingly give an untrue character, he will be

end of theengagement, including board responsible for the damages consequent wages, if the servant is entitled to board.

on his act.

But if, when asked for a

The marriage of a servant is not a character, he gives it to the best of his ground for dismissal ; and if a servant belief, he will not be liable to the servant leaves service on marriage, the master in damages, although the character be may have a claim for any damage which unfavourable and injurious to the servant.

CARE OF IMPLEMENTS .

CARE

OF

505

IMPLEMENTS .

Farmers are in many cases not so care- paired, taken to pieces and cleaned, the

ful as they ought to bein protecting their journals greased, and the separate parts implements from injury, by exposure to the weather. Implements are used both within and without doors. Those used without doors may be divided into those in use every season, and those only occasionally. Implements frequently in use

stowed away in the implement-house. The small manual implements, turnip hoes, spreading-graips, dung-hawks, hay knives, scythes, if not placed in the implement-house whenever out of use , are liable to be lost.

upon the soil cannot be otherwise than Of all implements, carts receive the constantly exposed to the weather ; and most neglect. Their axles are not

fortunately they are of simple construc- greased, their bodies and wheels un washed, holes in the bottom or sides get complicated construction, which are used enlarged, and the tire of a wheel becomes

tion, and are less affected than those of for a short time at certain seasons.

loose, till some day it flies off, to the risk

The implement most frequently in use of breaking down the felloes.

The

is the plough. Being now made of iron, threshing machine should be cleaned out it can withstand

exposure .

Harrows,

every time a different sort of corn is

also frequently in use and much exposed threshed , otherwise samples will be im to the weather, are now made of pure. The gudgeons are oiled every iron. Not beingrequired in winter, they time the mill is in use . Wherever a are placed in the implement-house. The repair is required, it should be done tines should be sharpened just before the immediately, otherwise a serious and commencement of the oat-seed in spring. expensive fracture may ensue. The roller being only occasionally in use,

Holes in sacks and in barn and chaff

in rolling young grass and spring crops, sheets should be instantly repaired by and pulverising the soil in summer, is patching and darning ; and a broken replaced in its shed whenever its services mesh in a riddle or a hole in a " wecht ” are no longer wanted . The small double or basket should be at once repaired. mould -board ploughs, being used in spring Implement-house. and summer, should be placed in the The fitting up of the implement-house, implement-house before winter sets in, scraped clean of earth, and have the irons for the accommodation of the finer and smaller implements, should be so arranged repaired. There are few implements which receive as to have the floor unencumbered , and

less regard when not in use than scufflers give free access to every implement re

and grubbers.

They are often allowed quired at a time. To effect this most

to remain at the sides of head - ridges easily, the house should extend from the and corners of turnip and potato fields, floor to the roof. The floor is flagged to perhaps the whole winter. Being made prevent rusting of iron in the implements. of iron, they do not suffer much from

A wooden floor should be placed half

weather ; but having many small parts— way between the ground and roof to form tines, coulters, wedges, screw-bolts — they a loft, covering only two-thirds of the are best preserved in the implement-house, area of the house, and having one trap after having been repaired. Delicately constructed machines - such

stair to ascend to it.

Both floors contain

a large number of things, while the

of long forks, as grass-seed sowing, drill-sowing, turnip- height to the roof admits sowing - are seldom allowed to remain shafts, feering -poles, &c., being put into longer in the field than in use, but often

a corner .

remain unheeded at the steading for a Wheels, short shafts, and angular considerable time. Instead of, as is often pieces of iron are best placed against a the case, being taken to the stackyard and wall upon strong nails. Articles of

covered with straw , they should be re- length, as sowing -boxes, are best sup

CARE OF IMPLEMENTS .

506

ss -beams ported against a wall upon brackets. large implements ; and were cross

Small articles of iron and other material put upon the wall-heads, they would are best kept upon shelves. Hand -hoes contain many others. and weed -hooksare best placed in framed Neglect of implements may fairly be

stands. Scythes are best suspended from

imputed to the steward. Were he to

the balks. " The bodies of small ploughs, give strict orders that every implement grubbers, and scufflers should be placed out of use shall be put into the imple along the foot of the walls.

ment- house, that every one may know

Ifevery implement were put into its where to find it when again wanted, and own place at the end of its season, con- to see that his orders are obeyed, there fusion would be avoided in seeking for would be no waste of time in seeking them , and many more articles find room

for anything — there would be no loss of

in the implement - house when well implements or parts of them

and the

arranged, than when things are put implements themselves would last much down anywhere,

without

regard

to longer, to the manifest advantage of the

order.

The cart-shed forms a good store for

farmer, and to the steward himself in the long-run.

INVENTORY AND VALUATION OF STOCK.

507

FARM BOOK-KEEPING. It is generally believed that farmers Such an attempt at estimation would in have no regular system of book -keeping. volve the labour of many men, and incur The belief is true in regard to farmers as the disbursement of a large amount of

a class ; but many farmers have correct wages. Estimation of such items may

sets of books, and many more now keep amuse the leisure hours of the amateur books than in former times.

Difficulties of Farm Book -keeping -But, at best, farmers cannot keep a perfect set of books as mercantile men can .

or the investigator, but they would not suit the matter-of-fact working business of a farmer.

Common-sense Book -keeping. — The

It would be impracticable for them common-sense view of the matter is this :

to put a value on every article they use

Let the farmer keep such books as will

on the farm ; for consider how a farm is The farmer, for example, conducted. cannot estimate the value of every stone of straw given daily to his live stock as

acquaint him whether the balance of pro duce and of cash is greater or less this year than in the last. The theory of a system of book-keeping for a farmer is

fodder or litter. He cannot estimate the various amount of labour, manual and

simply this : Let the farmer take an in ventory and valuation of his live stock,

mechanical, bestowed on the land before implements, crops, cost of labour, and it yields its produce. He cannot esti- debts due to and by him at the begin

mate the value of manure when first ning of every agricultural year, and he taken to the dunghill, or then estimate will see whether his capital has increased it again when applied to the soil after or diminished in the bygone year. Let

being fermented . He cannot put a value him keep a cash-book, which will inform on every turnip, every handful of corn

him whether he has received or paid

course of the year. or forage, and every mouthful of grass away more cash in the-book, into which is his live stock consume. The weight of Let him have a day all these articles could be ascertained by inserted every transaction as it occurs.

the steelyard ; but of what use would It is clear that a knowledge of all these the estimate of their weight and money- particulars will acquaint him with the ket and turned into cash, except in farms of every agricultural year. Here are in the neighbourhood of large towns ? samples of inventory :

value be, since they are not sent to mar- real state of his affairs at the beginning

INVENTORY AND VALUATION OF STOCK ON IST OCTOBER 1889. Farm 500 acres under the mixed husbandry.

In British Linen Co.'s Bank :

£

:

:

:

:

40 300

£ $. d .

$. d.

Oo

I. CASH On hand

0

оо

OO

340 300

II . IMPLEMENTS III. HORSES

14 horses, at £25

350

оо

IV. CATTLE

1 Shorthorn bull

6 Shorthorn cows, at £ 12 10 steer calves , at 64 5 heifer calves, at £ 3 15 yearlings, at £ 8 , 1os.

20

o

72 40

o

O

15 O 127 10

0

0

O

o

274 10

Carry forward

£ 1264 10

O

O

Brought forward £

V. SHEEP

200 Leicester breeding ewes, at 328. 60 Leicester draft ewes, at 328. 290 Leicester hoggs, at 218. 320 Half-bred wethers , at 308. 3 Leicester tups, at 6os .

OOOOO

FARM BOOK -KEEPING .

508

£ s. d . 1264 10 0

$. d .

320 O 96 O 304 to

480 o

1 209 10 VI. Pigs ‫ܘ‬

3 Sows, at 6os.

9

i boar, at bos. 20 pigs, at 228. .

3 22

O

34

300 544

OOO

396

11 stacks wheat, 20 qrs . each , 220 qrs. at 36s. 10 11 barley, 30 each, 300 at 208. 17 oats , 40 each , 680 at 16s.

00

ооо

VII. CORN

1240

o

0

350

O

o

VIII . SEED AND LABOUR

Upon 100 acres of turnips at 70s. per acre IX . DEBTS DUE ME AS PER LEDGER James Marrowman Thomas Butters

30 45

0

O

o

O

75

оо

4173

X. I OWE TO MY LANDLORD Half- year's rent due Martinmas 1889 11 Whitsunday 1890

500 500

O

O

o

1000

CAPITAL IN 1889

0

o

£ 3173 0

INVENTORY AND VALUATION OF STOCK AT IST OCTOBER 1890. We shall suppose this to be the inventory and valuation of stock at the beginning of the succeeding year, 1890 . £

I. Cash On hand

In open account with B. L. Co.'s Bank

:

:

40 1125

& S. d.

8. d . 2

7

0

O

II. IMPLEMENTS OOOOO

III. HORSES, 14 at £25 IV. CATTLE

i Shorthorn bull, at £ 20 15 calves, at £5, 108. 14 yearlings, at £ 11 20 yearlings, at £ 8

20

:

72

2

7

300

o

0

350

00

‫ܘ‬

6 Shorthorn cows, at212

1165

.

154 160

101 Leicester draft ewes and gimmers, at 30 $.

9

3 35

32 pigs, at 228. .

918 10

4

0

967 10

o

ооо

VI . Pigs 3 sows, at 60s. i boar, at 60s .

o

320 0 151 10 297 150 0

200 Leicester breeding ewes , at 328. 297 Leicester hoggs, at 2o8 . 200 Half-bred hoggs, at 158.

488 10

o

OOOO

V. SHEEP

O

47

VII. CORN

50 acres of wheat, 3 % qrs. per acre = 175 qrs ., at 308. 50 acres of barley , 472 qrs. per acre = 225 qrs ., at 208 . 100 acres of oats, 672 qrs. per acre = 600 qrs ., at 16s.

262 10

O

0

O

480 0

O

225

VIII. SEED AND LABOUR on 100 acres of turnips, at yos. per acre

350

00

IX. DEBTS DUE ME AS PER LEDGER

The Shepherd .

2 15

Carry forward

0

4589 11

7

£ 4589 11

7

INVENTORY AND VALUATION OF STOCK.

509 £

Brought forward X. I OWE TO MY LANDLORD

Half- year's rent due Martinmas 1889 11 11 Whitsunday 1890

500 500

o

o

O

0 o

o

3589 II

7

O

O

£ 416 11

7

3173

Gain on crop 1889

d.

8. d .

1000

CAPITAL IN 1890 11 1889

$.

4589 II 7 £

On comparing the two inventories, we find that the capital hasincreased by £ 416, 118. 7d. in the year from ist October 1889 to ist October 1890.

We do not propose giving the elab- would thus show the profit or loss for orate details of a whole year of a farm , any period that may be wanted. of which the foregoing are the inventories.

For those who have not time to

This is the system which was illus trated and recommended in former edi

keep more detailed accounts, a simpler tions of this work, and although other system may be adopted, showing a cor- systems may be better or as good in cer rect result in so far as money transac- tain respects, yet it is well thought of

tions are concerned — the basis of the by many farmers, and is reproduced in system being that all sales and purchases the original form . or sums due, such as rent, are entered in

To carry out this system the books re

a Day -book (whether received orpaid or quiredare : not).

Every entry in this Day -book is

1. DAY-BOOK , containing a record of

posted to its individual ledger account,

sales and purchases, and of moneys

and when the transaction is settled it passes through the Cash - book, from

2. CASH-BOOK, containing a record of

which it is posted to the Ledger. The

the receipt or paymentof the sums

system is one that does not enter into

the settlement of accounts between buyer and seller, but shows the balance on each

due.

referred to in the Day-book.

3. LEDGER, containing the combined entries in the two previous books.

branch of receipt and expenditure. The A specimen of each kind of book is here balancing of such Ledger, combined with given, drawn up by an eminent account the estimated value of crop and stock, ant in Edinburgh.

[DAY-BOOK.

FARM BOOK -KEEPING .

510

Dr.

DAY-BOOK.

Cr.

Ledger

1889. Mar. 9

Folio .

£ 8. d .

To manure purchased , 130 bags Peruvian guano from Dun

128 17

sales,78 sheep sold to By live-stock J. Tod

£ s. d.

4

‫اللاا‬

& Co. 13

£174 10 3

6 cattle, do

O

I15 o 25 15

7 pigs, do ..

o

7 IO

3 o

9

7

6

33

7

0

315 !! 11

16 19

" crop sold , J. Steel & Sons, 4 tons potatoes , at378. 6d . To rent and taxes, poor - rates for year to Whitsunday

20

By cropsold, J.Barr, s tons potatoes,at 373. 6.

21

To live stock purchased, R. Buist, for 11 pigs, £22, custom and

8

1889

purchased, g . Jack, fors tons seed , crop - pota: toes £13 15 o

Railway carriage of do. : April 2 5

:

I

25 30 2

19 25

crop purchased, Roughead & Co.

0

5

15

4

2

53 13 II

1

46 6 0

29 bush. annualrye-grass, at 49. 60.

5 8 4 7 610

11 Italian rye -grass, at 58. od. 29 25 bags, at 6d ..

0 I2

8

9 o

6 9

By crop sold, J. & J. Tod, for 14 quarters wheat, at 468.

2

To servants ' wages, J. King, for 2 bags meal , at 438.

7

By crop sold , Lindsay & Son , 29 quarters barley, at 378. To crop purchased , J. Elder, for i cart hay, 162 stones, at 672d .

2

wages, for y year to Whitsunday 1889– I servants' J. Kirk .

J. Gray

.

J. Thomson

12

6

5

7

6

4

7

9

53 13

0

O

o

12 10

o

O

O

12 IO

o

II

I

31 IT

7

£ 14 0

R. Gardiner J. Allan

5

o

May

22

I

2

purchased , M‘Lean & Co. , for 53 bags nitrate " manures of soda . 168 lb. cow -grass , at 9d . 174 " red clover, at 7 /2d. 58 alsike, at is. 6d.

11

9

4

5

4 19 II

2

toll , 5s.

27

2

11

11 manure purchasedJ. Raeburn, 6 tons 6% cwt. stable manure, at 6s.

11 11 11

W. Dickson , 144/4 tons, at 78. . J. Harley, 122 tons 97 cwt., at 78. P. Binnie, 10674 tons, at 78.

£2

I

50 13 42 17 • 37 5

auwo

62 0 0 HT

5 O

132 17 June

1

#1 rent and taxes Rent of farm for crop 1888

Less property -tax

2

8

£615 0 15

0

O O

600

0 O

1

11

o 200

I do. , J. Bell, for 60 acres potatoes, at £ 20

2

I 200

o

1 live-stock sales, J.Smith,for10 pigs, at 63 : crop sales, R.Mackintosh,for 60 bush.turnip-seed, at

3

30

o

o

To implements, & c., D. Robertson, for repairs onsheds, &c.

60 6

12 8 3

5

19 2 6

OO

2

208 .

Nov. 21

.

O

o

30

0

8 O 19 το

o

Sept. 26

By crop sales, Jeffrey & Co. , for 100 qrs. barley, at 40s.

6

o

2

ts, harness, &c., w. Bell, for repairs on har: ,, implemen ness do., D.Grant,for do., on ploughs,& c. :

7

2

11 11

wages, J. Young, 1 day threshing turnip -seed, To servants' at 408 .

1890. Jan.

9

Feb.

13

By live-stock sales,Buist, for i pig :

27

To crop purchased , J. Bell, for 7 bolls'potatoes, at ios.

1 manures purchased , police commissioners, for 108 tons manures

28 0

3 TO o

5 12

2

4

3 22

4

0

1915 16

9

o O

By crop sales, K. Mackenzie, for 2 qrs. oats, at 328. To live stock purchased, Buíst, for 11 pigs .

3 I

1149 17

0

CASH-BOOK,

511

Dr.

CASH-BOOK, Ledger Folio.

1889. 9

11

13 11 11

?!

11

19 20

11

#1

27

April 2

By manure paid, Dun & Co. , for guano To Bank of Scotland, drawn " live-stock sales, received from J. Tod By Bank of Scotland , paid in

3 IO

una

5 30

May

2

11 11

128 315

$ . d.

£ 8. d. 128 17 4

o

5

3

315

оо

li miscellaneous expenses, paid commission sale of stock

9

5

1 rent and taxes , paid poor -rates for year to Whitsunday 1889

8

4 19 II

To crop sold , received from j. Bait : By miscellaneousdexpenses, paid tolls , &c. , of potatoes " crop purchase -Paid G. Jack, for seed -potatoes Railway carriage of do .

2

3

9

9 7 6 o

7

6

15

4

2

9 I

£ 13 15

O

19

2

" manures purchased , paid M'Lean & Co. for nitrate of soda

40

&

5 10

5 10

To Bank ofScotland, drawn By crop purchased , paid Roughead & Co. for grass seeds

2 10

servants'wages, paid half-year's wages to Whitsunday 1889

11

To Bank of Scotland, drawn .

11

01

By manure purchased, paid

00

31 II

:

0

53 13

7 IO

60

6

7 6

5

7

To crop sold, received from Lindsay & Son for barley By Bank of Scotland, paid in

41

50

I

li servants' wages, paid J. King for meal .

25

53 13 IT

50

0

62

0

0 O

Mar.

Cr.

00

5

J. Raeburn

£2

1

o

W. Dickson

50 13 42 17 37 5

6

J. Harley P. Binnie

3

2

132 17 25

June

I

To Bank of Scotland, drawn

TO

o

600

оо

o

8

By rentand taxes, paid Rent of farm for crop 1888

130

£ 615 0

Less property -tax

15

implements and harness, & c., paid W. Bell for repairs

2

оо

ооо

11

10

ооо

To Bank of Scotland, drawn By servants 'wages, paidJ.Young

O 5ON

600 11

Sept. 30 11

To live-stock sales, received from J. Smith for pigs By miscellaneous expenses, paid commission to J. Smith on sale ofpigs

.

Nov. 21

200 1200

0

30

0

O

3

1200

0 O 15 30 0

0

10

" implements, &c. , paid D. Robertson for repairs .

2

8

3

" manure purchased , paid police commissioners

5

. BankofScotland, paid in

11

2

o

do.,received from J. Bell By Bank of Scotland , paid in

10

o

11

TO

To crop sales, received from Jeffrey & Co. for barley.

Oo

do ., paid D. Grant for dó. 2

9

O

28 11

To live-stock sales, received from Buist " crop sales, received from K. Mackenzie . By live stock purchased , paid Buist for pigs To Bank of Scotland, drawn By balance

з 10

о

4

O

22

o o

::

11

‫ببهیا‬ ‫جهة‬

9

Feb. 13

‫دبیا‬

1890. Jan.

2804 19 10

To balance

86

1

9 3

19

26

22

оо

86

I

3

2804 199

20 Apr 25 il

. 1890 Feb. 13

Sept 30 .

.1889 Mar. 13

19

11

p7igs

78 sheep c6attle

Tod J. to sold To

Buist to sold ipig

Smith J. to 3,s£ t a"10old pigs

. Folio

D.-B.

O 13

.d8£.

3

3

1

D.-B. Folio .

Mackenzie K. old ,sa"2uarters 328. t oats qto

10 3 174 00 115 15 25

$.d £

3

i .old Jto Tod & J. swheat t .,a1472 46s quarters on SLindsay & s378. to ,,abarley quarters "29told 2 o. Cto & Jeffrey ,sdo 408. t00 .a"1old quarters 2 Bell J. to ,s2£a+60old t0 potatoes acres 2 Mackintosh R. old .,s,aturnip 2os to t0 -·6eed bushels 3

Barr J. .,s378. to 6d at . old do

9I2

spotatoes S378. & Steel J. to on .,aTo 6d tons 4told

C.-B. . Folio I

I2000

10 3

O

o

348 15 3

.d $ £

3

o

1 6 1567

4 3

o 200

315 5 30 o

60

33 7 13 53

7 9

10 7

.d8£.

56 515

9

II 6 31

14 2 15

d5£. .

OOOOOOO

28 Feb.

. 1890

30

26 Sept.

2 June 2

May

115tons

II folio to carried 11balance

for ss gra

-potatoes seed for Jack G. paid cash To

oughead ash ,R"co. ,&Cpaid

. do of carriage Railway

1889 .

-STOCK .LIVE SALES

Sept. 1 30 1890 . Feb. 13

.1889

Feb. 28

. 1890

June2

1889 . Mar. 20 May 2

. SALES CROP

Feb 27 .

189 . 0

May 19

5April

Mar. 27

.6/2d

29

fJ,Bell " .or

11 folio to 1.balance

6d ,a. t bags 25

Buist from received cash

1cash Smith J. from received

received cash By 13 .Mar. Tod J. from

#cash Mackenzie K. from received

Bell . received J. from #cash

2

I

D.-B. . Folio

&Son Lindsay from received cash barley for

J. from received cash By potatoes for Barr

t ,a16s potatoes .bolls 7

stones t62 f·Ja.or ,1icElder hay art

Italian ryegrass 58. .,at gd

&Co. Jeffrey from received cash

dt ,58 a.6is " lsike

dtnnual bush ,a29 .6ryegrass .4s

pfrom Jack G. totatoes 5 -By seed ons

t clover ·r7,a%d. ed 174

C"& o. Rfor oughead god - rass cow lb. .,a168 t

.carriage do of Railway

‫يد‬

!!

. 1889 Mar. 16

. 1890 Feb.

5April

.1889 Mar. 27

PURCHASED .CROP

. LEDGER

5

2 I 9

4 7

6 8

2

2

I

C.-B. . Folio

2

2

I 2

. Folio

C.-B.

6 012

86 9

10 6

9

15 13 o

8. d.£

56 515

O

7 4 9

6

315 3 5 0o 30

348 15 3

10 o 3

.8d€.

1 6 1567

4 0 3 0 17 100

O 200 0 оо 1200

o

.ds£ 679 13 53

512

n31

215 4

8. d.£

512 FARM BOOK-KEEPING.

VOL. III .

JuneI

.1889 Mar 19 .

Nov 21 .

JuneI

.1889

Jan. 9

1890 .

May 25

. 1889 9March April 2

1889 sunday

soda

nitrate of M'Lean Cpaid & for "co. ash

commissioners police paid cash

CTo & Dun paid cash o. guano for

:

1888 "cash crop for farm of rent paid

Whit -rates poor paid cash To to year for

repairs for Bell W. paid cash To 5cash D. paid repairs for Grant Robertson "cash D. paid repairs for

Less tproperty - ax

.

J. Harley Binnie P.

Dickson W.

Raeburn J. paid " ash c

.balance folio to II

pigs for Buist paid cash To :

2

1

C. B. Folio .

2

I

C.-B. . Folio

15

o

2

2 !

D.-B. Folio .

50 13 3 42 17 5

2 O I

.d£ s 0 615

37 5

.ds£ €

£4

22

22

. d 8.

0 5 44

2

o

ΙΟ 19

2 K

604 19 11

о o боо

II 149

d. 8.

3 18 39

8312

8o

O

.d 8£.

II IO 334

26 19

132 17

II 13 53

12 17 8 4

5

O

.d 8. £

1889 .

April 2

9March

. HARNESS AND IMPLEMENTS

11

I

1889 .

, TAXES AND RENT

Nov 21 .

June 1

. 1889

Jan. 9

.1890

May 25

11

. PURCHASED MANURE

1889 .

Feb. 28

. 1890

Mar. 21

. PURCHASED STOCK LIVE

.a, t 6s ure

tLess - ax property

D.-B. . Folio

2

an .ons ,6t"Jtable sRaeburn cwt 62 .-m

o. C& rom fM'Lean ,53 soda of nitrate bags I

o. Cbags & Dun rom I ,fBy guano Peruvian 130

tons 108 "police for commissioners

. on ops .W ,a%t1Dicks 7s . t44 ,"Jtons 1Harley .78 cwt 92 t .a.22 . "P%,1at78 Binnie 06 ons t .

•

June crop for farm of 11rent 1888

for pigs 11

2·B2ustom £ pigs 11 for Buist .,cR. 58 toll and y

-r1889 poor By 19 Mar. Whit to year for ates sunday 2

D.-B. .Folio

harness on repairs for Bell W. By ,&c.#D. ploughs on repairs for Grant Robertson 1D. sheds on repairs c.for ,&

‫ايد‬

1

1890 .

28 Feb.

C.-B. Fol . io

doo 15

O

3

2

C.-B. .Folio

3 50 13 5 17 42

o 0

$.d £

об15

37 5

I0 2

.d£ s

3

I

D.-B. . Folio

£

19

22

2

8d. .£

II 10 334

6 2

11 19 604

600 0

II 19 4

.£ $d

339 18

10 19 12 3 8

8o

132 17

d.8. 1248 17 II 13 53

0 5 44

оо

22 5 O

.d£ s

Doom

OO

.continued LEDGER

LEDGER. 513

paid "cinash paid c "inash inash "cpaid

May

2 Se 30pt.

June

in paid cash To

Mar. 13

. 1889

20 Sep 30 t.

Mar. 13

Young J. ·cash paid

c.,fpotatoes & ash " or tolls paid

C.-B. Folio .

1

C.-B. Folio .

2

2

1

pigs of sale on Smith J. to commission "cash paid

stock of sale on Young J. to commission paid cash To I

1888 to Whitsunday -ywages half for paid ash "cear

I

C.-B. Folio .

€8.

o

o

315 o O 50

ds.£ .

63

o

5 9 3 6 07

.d£ 8.

6769

1889 .

OOOO

Feb. 28

1890 .

June I

1!

March 9 April 2 May 25

1889 .

at 408 .

!!

Gardiner R.

drawn cash 11 Ibalance 11 folio to

drawn cash drawn 1|cash drawn 1cash

drawn 1cash

drawn cash By

. 11 folio to balance By

Thomson J.

J. Gray

Allan J.

Kirk J.

. EXPENSES MISCELLANEOUS

. SCOTLAND OF BANK

Feb.

.1889

JuneI

April 30 May 25

D.-B. Folio . 2

,-sturnip threshing ne oYoung day "J.eed

1889– Whitsunday -year half to for liwages

aBy .t ,438 meal bags 2'42 for King J. 14 12

o O

10 12

2

I

1

I

C.-B. Folio .

12 o TO II o o

.d 8£.

2

128 0 50 60 130 600

7 69

62 0

22 O

1595

605 0

o

0

.d£ 8.

63

s.£ . d 63

6

. 8d.£ 675

o

1595O

30

200 I

O5 1

2

62

7 5

W SERVANTS '. AGES

.c— ontinERued LEDG

O

1889 .

June1

meal for King J. paid cash To

Oosto

. 1889

April 30 May 25 ‫ܘܕܘ‬ ‫ܘ‬

OOOOO

O

OOOOO

514 FARM BOOK-KEEPING . o O

ооо

PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT. 515 STATEMENT OF TRANSACTIONS FOR YEAR TO FEBRUARY 1890 . Crop sales, ledger folio 2 Live -stock sales,

6 3

£ 1567 1 348 15

Crop purchased ,

ledger folio

£ 56 15 5

Live stock purchased,

4

Servants ' wages ,

00

Rent and taxes ,

10

Miscellaneous expenses ,

11

am 00

Manure purchased , Implements and harness, .

44 5 0 334 IO II

5 6

3 6

39 18 69 7

604 19 113

9

£ 1156 3 3 Balance,

£ 1915 16 9

759 13

6

£ 1915 16

9

£ 100 17

o

605

0

O

86

1

3

6791 18

3

STATE OF BALANCE , Balance as above

Due by farm for crop purchased, as per ledger folio

£ 759 13 6 : Due fol to iofarm for crop sold, as per ledger 2 .

9 19

9

Due by farm forlive stock purchased, as per ledger folio 4

22

5

o

Balance due by Bank of Scotland, as per ledger folio 10 Balancedueto farm , as on cash -book

£791 18 3

ооооо

PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT, FEBRUARY 1890. Horses per inventory Implements do . Cattle

£ 1000 87 To

do, do .

Pigs Sheep

115 o 25 IO 68

do.

£ 396 0 Accounts due to farm

Cashinhand :

0

O

£ 100 17

In bank

* 605

0

o

86

1

3

791 18

3

£ 1187 18 3

£ 9 19 9

Less due by farm for crop purchased Do.

for live stock purchased :

22

5

o

32

CAPITAL, 1890 CAPITAL, 1889 .

:

Profit for year

When it is desired to have a detailed

account of the disposal of the crop and stock, it is necessary to have sheets ruled

:

4

9

£ 1155 13

6

O

O

700

£455 13 6

orders given to be executed on any par ticular field , for any other field.

on purpose to show all the particulars at There should be a plan of the Stack a glance. On a farm , say of 500 acres, yard , which should contain a number

divided into twenty equal-sized fields of appertaining to each stack, and the let 25 acres each, which should each be

ter or letters of the alphabet of the field

named, perhaps by a letter of the alpha- or fields upon which the stack was reaped. bet, wrought in a five-course rotation , Such a plan will be found on the follow ing page.

the Fields A, B, C , and D, will be in turnips. 81 wheat and barley. E , F , G , and H, 11 first year's grass. I, K , L , and M , 11 11 second year's grass . N, O, P, and Q, 11 !! oats. R, S, T , and U , 00

On every farm the fields are designated by a particular name. Such a designation is required for each field, otherwise confusion might arise in mistaking the

The Corn - accounts show the time

when the crop was threshed — the par ties to whom it was sold - the uses which were made of it on the farm

the balance of corn on hand at any

time in the corn -barn and granary - the weights of the corn, and the prices ob tained for it.

FARM BOOK-KEEPING .

516

Whole

Date ,

. bushel per

Weight

CORN -ACCOUNT — CROP 1889. Amount of Produce .

Disposal.

WHEAT.

Rate .

Quantity. Clean . Qrs.

Bu .

Used .

Light.

Ib. Qrs. Bu. Qrs. Bu

Price.

Sold .

£ 8. d .

Qrs. Bu, Qrs. Bu .

1889.

Threshed from field G ( stacks

4

By

60

11

2

11

To

21

3

3

By

23 7

4

15

7

21

11

9, 10 , 11) 11

4

-

6

Nov. 7

To

11

11

By

1

Sown on field A and part of B Threshed from field E (stack 2)

20

.

TI2

37/4

оо

7

4

1

6

4

Bruised for pigs

T

9

Το

40

10

By

7

4

32 31

4

1

4

To

62

3

28

By

63 63

7 7

Sold to John Factor (3 qrs. 7

30

Το

20

7

May 5

Ву

20

Threshed from field E(stack 3) Soldto Isaac Marshall & Son

11

MI

35 35

II

1 3

5

60

Threshed froin field E (stack 1)

Na

36

60 64 21

11

Sold Isaac Marshall & son :

4

62

11

3

To

‫انا‬

Oct.

Sold to John Cuthbert .

1

35 1 | 34 /

63

59 14 3

1890.

Threshed from field E (stacks 4 and 5)

11

13

Apr. 25

11

:

Sold to J. Marrowman Threshed from field G (stacks 6, 7, 8) .

60

20

2

3

"

7

64

17

5

7

Totals

227

STACKYARD

2.

Field E.

Wheat.

3. Wheat. Field E.

35/

54

637 | 36 /

116 31

371

37 00

4.

Wheat.

Field E.

5 210

11

17

5

227

5

379 24

5

CROP 1889. 5. Wheat. Field E.

6. Wheat.

Field G.

7. Wheat . Field G.

8.

Wheat. Field G.

16. 9.

10.

II .

12 .

13 .

14.

15 .

Wheat. Field G.

Wheat.

Wheat.

Barley.

Barley.

Barley.

Field G.

Field G.

Field F.

Field F.

Barley . Field F.

18. Barley.

20 .

21 .

22 .

Barley.

Barley.

Barley.

Barley.

Field H.

Field H.

Field H.

Field H.

Field H.

Oats . Field R.

23 . Oats , Field T.

29 . Oats. Field s.

30 . Oats. Field T.

Field T.

17.

19 .

25 .

26 .

27 .

28.

Oats .

Oats. Field R.

Oats. Field R.

Oats . Field s.

Field R.

34 .

33. Oats . Field T.

36.

38.

Oats .

35 . Oats .

Oats.

37. Oats.

Oats.

Fields T & U .

Field U.

Field U.

Field U.

Field U.

2 Loads of U.

50

7 220

1.

11

20

64

Bruised for pigs

Wheat. Field E.

4

31

11

11

7 7

7

63

bu. light )

11

1

:

11

11

11

38 4

Sown upon field B :

un

Jan.

Field F.

31 . Oats.

Barley . Fields F & H . 2 of each , 24. Oats.

Field s.

32 . Oats . Field T.

Weight per bushel .

CORN -ACCOUNT.

Whole

517

Amount of Produce ,

Disposal.

BARLEY.

Date.

Rate .

Quantity Clean .

Qrs.

Bu .

32

3

Ib .

Light.

Used ,

Price .

Sola

£ s. d.

Qrs. Bu . Qrs. Bu. Qrs. Bu. Qrs. Bu ,

1889. 2

To

Threshed from field H (stack 21 )

3

Dec. 26

6

6 5

To

25 30

Ву

55 50

To

5 29

Ву

31

Used for wages (supper barley)

6

Threshed from field H (stack 28

20) 11

30

1890. Jan.

I

11

11

01

11

Sold to John Newman .

.

Threshed from field H (stack

6

Used for wages

616

27 3

7 5

Light bruised for pigs

3

24 24

2 2

Sold to James Marrowman

3

Threshed from field II (stack

To

31

27

Ву

30

28

To

34

30

Soid'to John Factor 3 4

Threshed from field H (stack

11

11

Ву 11

2

33 30

2

50

00

7 3

Light bruised for pigs .

I

5

11

I

19/6

22 12 o

18/

27 00

18/6

27 15 0

30

19/

28

61 ,

61 00

27

201

27 15 0

3

54

30

33

18) 35

Feb. 3

11

55

17) 1

24

20 /

/ 20

24

11

3

11

11

50

5

34 6

6

30

1

56

11

11

11

6

6

5 11

19)

11

3

2

By

I

4

I

-

Oct.

2

3

4 11

Sold to John Factor

56

30

.

11

11

16

3

Threshed from field H (top of stack 16 ) .

11

1

11

30

30

11

Το

33 31

7

Mar. 15

64 3

7 7

61

TI

11

17

11

Ву

6

6

56

2

60

3

6

Sown on field C

9

2

Sown on field D

9

4

Boiled for horses .

3

11

37 3

4

11

May 23

56

6

11

11

28

37

Threshed from field F (stacks 13 and 14) Used for wages

11

34 27

4 6

Sold to John Factor

6 6

6 6

Used for wages

11

11

Boiled for horses .

2

4

1

30

9

25

11

56

.

47 9

11

2

11

63

11

11

11

11

To

3

28

4

Threshed from field F ( stack

Sold to Jonathan Cornbuyer

11

30

11

61

11

April 14 !

By

11

from field F (stack

Do.

15) . Sold to Jonathan Cornbuyer

12) 11

11

o

7

Ву

11

63 24

4

from field F (top

Do.

of stack 16) . 19

13

16

.

To

11

1

16

‫هبای‬

4

56

66 298 6

7

58 5 253

11

5

12

7

58

311

5

Totals

12

ZII

244 12 O

FARM BOOK -KEEPING . Weight per . hel bus

518

Whole Quantity .

Date .

Amount of Produce .

Rate. Clean .

1889. Oct. 15

11

11

Disposal.

Oats .

Ib .

Qrs .

Bu .

To

65

7

Threshed from field T (stacks

Ву

10

7

31 and 32) Used for horses Threshed from field T (stacks

Light.

Used .

Qrs. Bu. Qrs. Bu. Qrs. Bu. Qrs. Bu . 55

11

1Ο

Price.

Sold .

£ 8. d .

7 IO

7

55 11

22

2

2

Ву

144 бо

6

83

4

11

60

!!

4

To

23 40

63

4

80

30 and 33) 11

11

11

26

Sold to Isaac Marshall & Son

43

бо

80

80

161

48 00

11

16 /

64 od

1

15/6

62 00

120

11

16 /

96 Oo

11

Threshed from fields T and

45

11

108 80

4

28

4

U (stack 34) Threshed from field U (stack

35

11

5

4

-

1

606

5

-

Nov.

92

Used for wages

11

89

11

To

38) 11

2

To

123

4 11

80 51 19

4

32

4

20

11

12 I 20

4

132 43

4

175 30

4

145 30

4

115 31

4

84

4

Threshed from field U (stacks 35, 36, and 37) Sold to Thomas Dewar .

I10

11

13

42

Used for horses Used for horses

20

11

30

11

-

n. 30

11

20

11

Ву

1890 . Ja

4

19

-

4 11

!!

11

11

30

39 42

11

131

.

Sold to J. Clay Used for horses

20 8

Dec.

11

11

30

Ву 11

11

4

Feb. 7 11

10

To

1

T!

Threshed from field S ( stacks 23, 24, and 29) Threshed from field R (stack 27)

Mar. 15 11

11

By

11

20

ΙΟΟ

40

11

3

11

Used for horses

Sown upon fields N and P 30

(Sandy)

9

11

Used for horses

20

20

4

20

To

Used for horses

55

4

41

11

Threshed from field S ( stack

31

By To

Used for horses

20

76 June 6

6

35

28) 11

96 4 120

11

Threshed from field R (stacks 22, 25, and 26 )

130

ΙΟ -

May 23

31

11

9 75

April 30

Sown upon fields 0 and Q ( Potato )

1

31

1

11

11

24

206

9 | By -

1

Sold to Isaac Marshall & Son 43

120 86 86

4

864

In granaries for horses .

1614 | 4 |825 357 Totals

82

5

1 340 357

697

1

1697

1

270

00

STOCK ACCOUNT.

519

The Live-Stock Accounts give, in like numbers on hand at different periods

manner, the particulars of every species the prices obtained and the prices paid of stock — the disposal of them—the

for them .

STOCK ACCOUNT — 1889. Price.

Whole No.

Date.

CATTLE .

Steers. Cows. Calves.

Received.

Paid ,

1889. Oct.

To

I

Bull

11

11

6

Cows

11

11

11

ΙΟ

Steers rising 1 year old

11

5 15

Steersrising 2 years old

15

37 30

2 -year-old steers bought at Yarm , at £7

26 30

11

11

11

ΤΟ

11

1

6 5

То

52 15

11

Steers sold Adam Butters, at £18

15

Steers bought at Darlington , at £7

41 15

20

15

11

!!

14 68 16

8

15

1

11

11

June

Ву

-

May

21

52 15 37 15

11

20

-

252

оо

Steers sold at Newcastle, at £ 14 .

57 16

224

оо

0

41

Steers sold at Newcastle, at £12 .

15

180

Steers sold at Edinburgh, at £ 11

26 15

165 o o

MI

0

TI

Steers bought at Darlington, at £6, 6s.

126

20

о о

31

Heifer died

4 100 5610

IO

-

Calves weaned

15 10

31

56

Total stock of cattle

56

o

1095 10

o

To

41 15

оо

Steers sold at Newcastle, at £ 18 .

-1°

1

120

71 14

42

Sept. 29 By

оо

15

22

То

105

Steers bought at Darlington , at £ 8

82 !

270 00

56

67 Mar.

210

o

15

II

56

67

20 By

IO

Heifers

o

1890. Feb.

£ s. d .

£ s. di

2

11

FARM BOOK-KEEPING.

520

Whole No.

Date.

Ewes.

SHEEP.

Price.

Feed ing Hoggs. Rate. Sheep . Paid .

£ s . d.

1889. Oct.

2

To

200

Ewes

!

11

290 320 3

Hoggs

!

11

11

11

290

Wethers

320 3

Rams

2 hoggs and 1 wether dead

I

810

Nov. 30

2

Dec. 25

808 40

!!

322

Hoggs dead

2

11

4

O

100

Wethers sold to Timothy Wood

34/

40

.

68

00

282

3 hoggs and I wether dead

Ι ΙΟ

1

Ο

‫دي‬

31

150

288

286

768 11

2

323

3

£ s. d .

200

813 30 By

11

Received.

1890.

60

30

11

704 3

60

Wethers sold to Jacob Keyworth .

108

36/

0

221 110

3

Hoggs died

o

11

764 1

283 o

Jan.

281

701

280

701

Feb. 28

11

2

I ewe and 1 hogg dead

699 11

100

Wethers sold at Edinburgh

30

FI

3

2 ewes and 1 wether dead

596

Apr. 14

1

120

32/

100

2

I21 1

197

120

599 11

Wethers sold at Edinburgh

0

279 o

2

0

210

35 /

I 20

160

o

Mar. 15

0 15

1

1

199

o

оо

476 30

May 30

11

474 3

471 170

2

Hoggs dead 2 ewes and 1 hogg dead .

2

1

195

276

Clipped hoggs sold at home .

170

Account altered by addition of Lambs. July 8

200

11

170 130

IOI 11

11

Sept.27 By

541 200

30

І

оо

255

30 /

Breeding ewes and gimmers Draft ewes and gimmers Wether lambs weaned do. do. Ewe

0

301 200

IOI

170

130 300

Draft ewes sold at St Ninians fair

96 оо

32/

бо

41 200

140

00

140

o

Half -bred wether lambs bought at Melrose

/ 14

11

601 60

0

106 195

301

To

1

277

o

1

2

o

June 15

11

741 11

By

3

Hoggs dead

500 3

497 41

738

200

Total stock of sheep

738

I 15 O

o

908 5 0

ACCOUNT OF CHARGE AND DISCHARGE.

521

Price.

Feed Whole No.

Date .

Breed ing or Rate . ing

Pigs .

store

Pigs.

Pigs.

Paid .

1889. 2

To

11

!

11

!

11

20

11

24 18

Sows

3

Nov. 7

42 8

1890.

50 20

To

30 25

May 8 By

55 48

June 8

7 30

-

11

1. By

Το

£ s. d .

3

Boar

1

Store pigs

-

11

24

Jan

. d.

£

Oct.

Received .

20

4

Weaned (2 litters)

18

Weaned

38 8

46

Sold at Edinburgh

20

30 /

Bought at Berwick

26 25

15/

30 o o

18 15 0

51

Sold at Edinburgh

48

30 /

72 Oo

3

Weaned (3 litters)

30 33

37

Died

1

1

18 15

Boar and sows

Total stock of pigs

102

оо

o

32 4

36

36

ACCOUNT OF CHARGE AND DISCHARGE OF THE INTROMISSIONS OF A— B-, FARMER AT

FOR CROP AND YEAR ENDING IST OCTOBER 1890.

C-

CHARGE . BRANCH

I. - Balance on hand at 31st October 1889 Cash

Balance in account with British Linen Bank :

Oats

do.

do.

0

£ s. d .

0

o

340 75 379 2 244 12 270 o

Oo

BRANCH II.- Debts due me at 1st October 1889, per last account BRANCH III. - Corn sold Wheat sold , per corn account do. do. Barley

£ s. d . 40 300

0 o

o

o

893 14

4

BRANCH'IV . — Live stock sold : 1. Cattle 1095 10

o

Cattle sold , per stock account 2. Sheep

Sheep sold , per stock account

908 5 0

3. Wool Wool sold

153

4

102

o

o

O

4. Pigs Pigs sold, per stock account .

2258 19 0 Sum of charge

3567 13 4

FARM BOOK-KEEPING.

522

DISCHARGE.

£ 5. d .

BRANCH I. - RENT, TAXES , AND INSURANCE.

£ s. d .

£ s. d .

Jan. 24

June 24

By paid half-year's rent, due at Martinmas do . due at Whitsunday By

1889. Nov, 22

o

1000

o

0

o

2. Taxes

500 500

OO

1. Rent

1890.

By Schoolmaster's stipend, for year ending this date

I 17

6

1890 . May 28

By poor-rates for year, to Whitsunday 1890

25

Aug. 26

By assessed taxes By income-tax

11

11

0

7 18

O 1

o 872

45 16 372 3. Fire Insurance

1889. Nov. 20

By premium paid Phoenix, for one year

7 17

9

1053 14 0% BRANCH II.-LIVE STOCK Bought. 1. Cattle

11

3. Pigs Pigs bought, per stock account

140

o

!!

11

o

11

5610

o

Cattle bought, per stock account 2. Sheep Sheep bought, per stock account

18 15 0 719 15

0

BRANCH III.-- FARM WORKING.

1889 7

11

2. Furnishings and Repairs By John Irons, for castings for mill By ironmonger's account, for past year By sundry accounts Farrier 65 0 2 IO Roper

6

0

0

8

0

o

Nov. 7 1890 . Jan ,

1. Seed bought By clover and grass seed account By turnip-seed account By 10% qrs, of beans, at 225. :

16 18

By 3 tons of cake from James Cuthbert , at £ 8 per ton

April 1 11

22

July 1 11

11

1889. Oct. 27 11

Nov. 22 May 26

July

1

o

12 II

2

9

208 13

5

00

Bysaddler's account, for past year By lime, bought at Sunderland kilns

By 15 tons of guano, at £9 per ton By 3 loads of palings, at1os. .

24 8

OOMOO

Slater

Feb. 20

50 IO

o

O 4 10 4 4 17 10

Mason

NO

11

BOULOO

1890 . June 9

9 135 I

10

2. Labour and Oatmeal

By harvest expenses

71 8 10 610 o

By 5sacks of oatmeal,at 263. : By Labour account, for half -yeardo. to date

130

7

By William Young for use of his stallion

1

2

By

do.

do.

134 II

6% 8 6 344

o 672 626 6 842

BRANCH IV . - DEBTS DUE ME.

1890.

Sept. 30

By shepherd , due me for fallen mutton

2 15

0

1165 2

7

BRANCH V. - BALANCE . Cash on hand

40

2

7

1125

O

o

Balance at credit in account with the British Linen Company Sum of discharge

3567 13 4

LABOUR -BOOK .

523

Memorandum -book. — Every farmer stances of accuracy in farmers who trans

ought to be provided with a pocket acted business of the most multifarious memorandum -book, to contain every character by memory alone; neverthe item , great or small, connected with the less, the safer plan for every farmer is to

farm , whether involving cash or not. jot down every particular incident in the

Without such a memorandum , confusion memorandum -book that involves the in may arise from broken promises, forget- terests of others as well as his own . Labour - books . — Here is a simple fulness, or neglect. At one time it was customary in farmers to trust solely to form of keeping the field -workers' daily the memory to retain their transactions ; labour-account : and we have heard extraordinary in Isabel Kerr ,

0ct. III- 111-111.1|||||10 1...11 = 18 days, at is. ,

Anne Paterson ,

11

Mary Scott,

111111|1.1.11111111111111

= 19

1.111.1.11111|111.-1.11.11

= 16

11

Ło 18 O

at Is. ,

0 19

at Is . ,

0 16 0

0

Between the long strokes is compre- .of wages per day, and the gross amount hended one week ; the short strokes are of the half-year's earnings is brought out the days of the week . Suppose the distinctly. account runs for the half-year across two A proprietor not living on the estate

ruled pages of the book. The name of in which his home-farm is situated, is the field -worker is written on the left desirous of knowing how the work goes hand.

A short stroke is made for every

on on his distant farm .

Here is an ex

full day the field -worker has worked. If ample of a labour-book which would suit she has only worked 12 day, the 12 is his purpose. It contains columns indica

marked. If 34 of a day, 34 is marked. ting the number of hours each labourer If she has not been working, then i dot · is employed daily, with a weekly sum is made. Thus at a glance is seen the mary showing the total number of days work done every week, as well as when and hours for each person employed, and work was not done.

The account thus

rate of wages, from which the amounts

kept for the half - year, the days are earned can easily be calculated. summed up and calculated at the rate LABOUR -BOOK . Date of First Day of Week

WORK - PEOPLE'S NAMES.

Hours each Day .

M. T. w . Th. F.

S.

Time each

Rate

Week .

Day.

D.

H.

per

8.

d. | £

SUM.

s.

d.

FINAL EXHORTATIONS.

524

FINAL

EXHORTATIONS.

When the young farmer is settled on

tion on his live stock.

In winter, those

his farm , he undertakes certain duties confined in the steading should have and obligations which he must fulfil.

abundance of food at regulated hours,

Work well advanced .It is an im- be comfortably lodged, and carefully

portant duty of a farmer of arableland to tended, and those in thefields provided advanced with shelter and food. Turnips should have his field operations in an state at all seasons. If by negligence a be stored in the best state, in case of delay of an operation takes place for one frost ensuing. In summer, pasturing day or two in its proper season, it can- the grass fields requires attention, both not be executed in the best way ; and if on account of the pasture itself and the

then overtaken by bad weather, the risk stock upon it, with a sufficient supply is incurred of a deficient crop. When of water. Any stock on green forage re field operations are in advance, a few quires more particular attention. Marketing Corn.—As long as the days'waiting can do no harm ; and when finished in a good state, a well-founded hope may be cherished of a good return.

To secure an advance in labour, the working stock should be adequate to complete every operation in its season. Time lost then can never be made up by inefficient

corn - market is active in winter, the

farmer should attend to the threshing and cleaning of grain, for the double purpose of supplying his stock with straw, whether with fodder or litter, and of disposing of the corn. It is not

means of labour.

a farmer's duty to speculate on his own Efficient and Well -arranged La- corn in the stack ; for the live stock

bour. — That labour may be employed most economically, the farmer should have the ingenuity to arrange the labourers to work for one purpose. For example, when ploughs are working by themselves, and

have a legitimate demand upon the straw, and if by speculation they are deprived of fodder and litter, so is the land of manure; and, on the other hand, if he thresh faster than the stock can consume

the field -workers by themselves, they do it, the straw suffers deterioration as fod their respective works efficiently ; but der and litter, and as manure. The corn when ploughmen and field -workers are at presented at the market should be in a

the same work - manual and mechanical perfect state of cleanliness, not only on labour combined the strength of each account of the farmer's own sake of ac party should be proportioned to produce quiring the character of a clean dresser of

the desired result in a given time. To grain , but for his demanding the highest make the co-operation perfect, the horses price . should be well matched, sufficiently fed, Bearing towards Work - people. and judiciously wrought ; and as a coun-

In his bearing to his work - people the

terpart , the field -workers should be active, farmer should be kind and reasonable . He should not be constantly rebuking. willing, strong, and skilful. Good Implements.

-Still further

A fault should be checked ; and one

means to the same end, the best-con- arising from the head, not the heart,

structed implements should be selected, should be gently dealt with. Theft and for skilful labourers require the best implements, and the horses use them with the greatest ease. Ploughmen, horses, implements, and field -workers are the work-

falsehood should never be forgiven, and the delinquent should be got rid of at the first term , for no trust can ever be confided in him . When a ploughman

ing stock of a farm ; and unless all these quarrels seriously with his horses, the are maintained in the most efficient state, safest expedient is to cause him to put

the farmer cannot expect his operations them into the stable till next day, when his temper will have calmed down, and Attention to Live Stock . — Besides the affront will have served to curb it. the land, the farmer must bestow atten- A mere severe rebuke at the time, with

to be executed in the best manner.

FINAL EXHORTATIONS.

525

allowance to continue at work , will never evening is great. It is then physically convince him that he was wrong. The impossible to betake to readingon a sub

wives and children of married men are ject that requires thought. The desul frequently troublesome on a farm ; when tory newspaper affords the most fitting

a man cannot control his own household, reading until the hour of bed, which he should be parted with. Much more must be early. In winter it is different, work will be obtained from field -workers and at that season it is not true that by a little indulgence than by over exac- the farmer does not read - for many read tion of work. A short rest at mid- much ; and as they advance in years,

yokings has a wonderfully encouraging much leisure is given to reading. We effect, especially upon field -workers. have only to peruse the discussions in Punctual in paying Wages.— The farmers' clubs to be satisfied that the farmer should be punctual in his pay- present race of farmers read, and have

ments to his servants at the specified read to good purpose. terms ; for if he be not, he loses control,

Townspeople also believe that the

and places himself in their power in many ways. Work-people calculate on laying out their earnings when they become due ; and on being disappointed, it causes them much inconvenience and vexation of spirit. Women especially feel the disappointment keenly. Relation to Neighbours. — In relation to his neighbours, the farmer should be punctual to his engagements. If he

artisans of towns are much more intel ligent than the labouring people of the country. There are different kinds of intelligence . We have had many opportunities of conversing with both classes of workpeople, and we like to do it, but never could observe the supe

rior intelligence of the town artisan. The country labourer is a keen observer of nature : he knows the symptoms of the

promised to buy or sell any commodity weather, different kinds of soil, of rocks, with a person on a given day and hour, he should keep his appointment. If he has promised to settle accounts with any tradesman at a given time, he should do

of trees, the habits of many animals, and the properties of the plants he culti vates ; and as to the shepherd, no ordinary artisan is his superior. The manufacturer

so without fail. A few breaches of pro- is favourably contrasted with the farmer, mise soon affect a man's character where since he avails himself of every improved he resides, and a few more may ruin his piece of machinery, while the farmer veracity, and even credit. neglects similar opportunities for improv Recreation and Instruction. — The ing his business. The cases are not farmer should provide himself with re- analogous. The manufacturer knows

creation and instruction at home. Re- withcertainty that machinery and ma creation he will find in his own family, terials which suit a co-manufacturer will in field-sports and manly exercises, and suit him also ; but the farmer has no in visits to and from friends at a dis- certainty of any implement or manure tance, and neighbours around. For in- suiting his own climate, soil, situation, struction he must have recourse to books, and locality, until he has tried it—and papers, and conversation. If he does not it is only once in a year that he can try provide attractions at home, he will go it. He prudently waits the approval of elsewhere for them , and neglect his farm . others before he adopts it. It is a common remark among townsIn catering for mental food, the young

people, that farmers, as a class, read farmer should take the periodicals con little. If they knew the habits of farmers nected with the agricultural societies of

as well as we do, they would consider this no obloquy. Little do townspeople know the fatigue which is endured in early rising and constant exercise in the fields on foot, when even ordinary operations are going on in summer, and

the kingdom , as well as those in any class of literature which suits his taste. Agricultural chemistry and physiology, animal and vegetable, he should not ne glect. His local newspaper he patron ises; and, above all, he should have a

especially when improvements are on good agricultural paper. It is a great The lassitude consequent on matter for the farmer, especially the fatigue which overtakes the frame in the young one, to take a short ramble now

hand.

526

FINAL EXHORTATIONS .

and then, in summer, in Continental between the proprietor and labourer of Travel expands the mind, presents new objects, refines intelligence, corrects prejudices, and adds many materials tohappiness. In parting with the young farmer, now no longer a pupil, we would exhort countries.

the soil. He thus belongs to that middle class which forms the staple portion of

the community. In taking leave of our young friends, we do so in the anxious

and heartfelt hope that this effort in the cause of agriculture may prove as pro

him always to maintain independence fitably instructive and as practically use of mind and honourable behaviour.

Heful as have the former editions of this

forms the connecting and binding link work.

527

IN DE X. * * Volume I. embraces Divisions 1 and 2 ; Volume II., Divisions 3 and 4 ; Volume III., Divisions 5 and 6.

VOL. PP .

Aberdeenshire manure experiments Abortion, after -risks from

ii. 170-175 ii .

among ewes bad smells and

13 80

Actions of various ploughs .

ii . ii. 13 ii. I2 ii . 14 ii. 12 ii. 13 ii. 14 ii. 281 ii. 81 ii. 82 ii . 13 ii. 14 ii. 13 i. 97

Administering medicine to cattle

causes of

coarse pasture causing ergot and

hemp seed as a preventive is infectious in mares 11

" 09

Mr Woods on 1 Youаtt on

preventing . preventing recurrence of symptoms of 00

10

Magpie

iii. 160

Mice . Rabbits Rats . 11

iii. 115, 160 iii. 115 iii. 115 , 159

destructive of poultry iii. 160

iii. 159

iii. 495

sheep

iii. 496 iii . 496

swine

.

iii. 160

iii. 159 iii . 159 ii. 506

iii . i.

12

Apatite

ji. 114

i.

15

Arable and pastoral steading, combined

iii. 321

curriculum .

i.

68

education importance of practice and science

i. i.

68 69

Arable farming, steading for Arc, modes ofdescribing

jii. 324 i. 457

i.

68

" teaching facilities teaching institutions

11

year

Ailments of farm live stock cattle , horses . sheep swine

Air -engine Air -grates Albumen Albuminoid ratio of foods illustration of

2

i. i. i.

84 72 69

food .

ratio for different classes of stock Alluvial deposits .

Alta Velaphosphates : American reaping -machines Ammonia in rain .

sulphate of .

Arseniccondemned for sheep -bath

iii . 148

Artificial drying of cereal crops

iii. 102

11

hot-air method

10

Nelson system

1

i. 499

bean straw .

i. 500

cabbage

i. 73 iii . 442 iii. 485 iii. 485 i. 30

102

iii. 102

Ash of barley straw

jii . 439 jii . 470

i. 165

i. 166 ; ii. 384

carrots

ji. 334

hops kohl -rabi

i. 166

11

oat straw

i. 165 i. 499

10

parsnips

i. 166

pea straw rye straw

i. 500 i. 500 i. 164

"I mangels

iii. 381

11

ii. 475

10

i . 280 i. 280

11

importance of properly balancing

11

iii . 115 iii. 115

Hares

Rooks Weasels Wild cats Annatto

operations

"

Ground game

Carrion crow

1. preparing and commencing winter

!

i. 23 i. 116

Animal excrements, solid and fluid i: 515 ; ii. 94 " parasites i. 16 Animalsdestroying crops ,

Fox

Agricultural botany

"

Aneroid

Angle ploughing

iii. 496

Aftermath

!!

i. 17 i. 501 i. 24

horses

Agriculture, the sciences applicable to 11

VOL . PP .

Anatomy

Ancient threshing machine . Anemometer

turnips 11

i. i. iii . ii. iii .

281 282 177 114 66

i.

38

11

ii. 106

!!

11 11

green tops greystone heavy swedes yellow wheat straw

Atmosphere, chemical composition of . constituents of of .

i. 165 i. i. i. i.

165 164 164 164

i. 498 i. i. i.

23 22 23

INDEX .

528 Atmosphere, height of pressure of

Aurora borealis a prognostic of rain Autumn anomalies 11

i. 23 i. 23 i. 39 iii.

iii.

barometer cattle in

11

clouds . crops

iii. 48 iii. 50

field -sports

iii. iii. iii.

flora

folk -lore

1

48 138

50

iii. 138 iii.

49

rewards of labour sheep in

jii.

48

.

study ofthe seasons

summary of field operations and of the weather .

winds work

Aylesbury ducks Ayrshire cattle, characteristics of

milking properties of origin of typical cow

11

truss roofs for

i. 446 i. 446

11 upper Barometer aneroid 11 11 fall of the 11

its inventor

wheel . Bath jug

iii. 139 iii. 126

iii.

48

iii.

48

iii, iii. ii . iii. iii. iii.

49

iii. 421 ii. 486

culture for .

ii. 201

harrowing drills . leguminous plants

and nitrogenous manure

i. 95

peas mixed with .

i. 476

"I ploughing for "I preparing, as food

Bands and binding grain

7

Barberry blight

ji . 414

BarclayandSellar's patent digger

ii. 342

Barley · chaff 11

11 classifying by the ear grain 11

cooked !1

after corn

11

as a forage crop

11

germinating of, and the weather grains in a bushel of

harrowing for , judging

limits of culture . 1 malting 11

manuring land for

11

meal

10

"

for pigs quantity of seed

Rothamsted experiments with 11

soil for

11

sowing steeping

11

stock feeding with

11

straw , ash of

composition of .

11

strength of tillage for 11

11

uses of

11

utilisation of

11

varieties of .

11

yield and weight of

Barn harrow 10 brooms door of the corn

. English

1

" "

i. 489 i . 498 i. 489

"

11

i. 248

11

i. 211 iii. 128 ii. 209

ji. 203 i. 256

11

ii . 202 iii. 108

quantity of seed for

" reaping "I sowing autumn -manured spring.manured spring tillage for

i. 489

ii. 201, 205 ii. ji . ii. iii.

stacking

i. i. ii. i.

490 490 210 490

i. 248 ii. 208 ii. 210 ii. 209

11

"I

ii . 202

i. 496

248 248 499 499 499

ji. ii. i. ji.

207 210 490 209

i . 490 i. 463 i. 475

i. 95 iii. 161

iii. 163

bees v. shorthorns clover for bees

iii. 161 iii. 161

collecting driven bees

ii . 165

commencing

iii. 161

iii. 165

"I driving swarms as a farm industry 11

food for bees

iii. 161 iii. 168

"

heather honey honey-extractor

iii. 164

management, preliminary

iii . 164 iii. 166

ii. 128, 208 i. i. i. i. i.

üi. 167

in autumn

11

11

spring

iii. 165

summer

iii. 166

winter

iii . 165 iii . 162

!! marketing honey

iii. 164 iii. 165

new swarms

purchasing swarms " spring food . stimulating stocks . sugar-cakes for use in winter

iii . 168

iii. 166 iii . 168

iii. 165 iii . 134 ii. 396

weak hives ,

Beet, farm culture of : insects which attack

i. 444 i. 442

i. 266

root-pulp

Bell's reaping-machine

floor of the corn

i. 444

granaries in connection with hay

i. 447

i. 442

11

construction of cost of reaping :

hoë

i. 475

11

faults

implements .

i. 473 10

slow progress of

machinery precautions against vermin in

!!

Bere

iii. 63 iii. 65

and

merits of

iii . 313

i. 447

204 204 203 109

i. 256

for stock feeding varieties of .

! yield and weight of Bearing -reins i. 489 | Bee -keeping ii. 209 " appliances for i. 490

256 135 495 205 395 496

ii. 202 ii. 202 ii . 205

manure for

Back -band

73

i. iii. i. ii. ii. i.

insects which attack

Bagging grain Bailiff, his duties

i. iii.

496 395 205 256 500 496

ash of : consumption of farm culture of field-bean

.

23 23

ji. 205

aphis . botanical character of 11 composition of

11

i. i.

i. ji. ji. i. i. i.

11

.

23 23 37 23

iii. 140

for dairy cows 300 421 421 420

i. i. i. i.

iii. 140

stool for sheep Beans, ancient notions regarding ancient superstitions regarding

10

“ Baby” separator

i. 443

upright

rain

11

i. 474

.

straw

10

live stock in

! sowing cereals in

Barn stool

iii.

66

iii.

66

i. 252

INDEX. ii. 35

Biestings, composition of Binder, self .

iii.

Biology , study of Biphosphate

79

i. 14 ii . 117

Bisset's binder

iii. 84

Birds devouring insects . destroying sparrows " I poisoning

iii . iii . iii . jii . iii . ii.

· prevention, not extermination scaring

"

in spring storms . Birds destructive to green crops Chaffinch

iii .

Crows Greenfinch

ΙΙΟ

House- sparrow

II2

Partridge Pheasant

Seed -bunting Skylark Wood -pigeon Yellow -hammer

iii. iii. iii. iii . iii.

III 113 112 III III

iii.

II2

iii. 110 iii . 433

Blackfaced sheep Bleeding cattle

jii. 479 jii. 453 ii. 104 i. 122

horses .

Blood, dried

Boiler, steam , and mountings Boiling -point Bone ash flour

manure , composition of dissolved

early use of preparing

11

III

II3

Linnet .

11

5

iii. III

Corn -bunting

11

113 114 114 114 114

Book -keeping for a farm Boracic acid as a milk preservative Border Leicester sheep Botany, study of II classification of plants of cultivated plants

i.

32

ii. ii. ii. ii . ii . ii.

110 110 III III 109 I10

jii. 507 ji . 477 iii. 429 i. 14

i. 15 i. 14 i. 15 i. 15

germs

"I plants of the farm

Brewer's grains, storing Bridle, horse

i. 254

Briggs's turnip -thinner Brood -nest

ii. 367 ii. 293

Brood -sows, honsing

ji. 292

i.

Bothies, boarding in the kitchen

ii. 376

" plans of

iii . 376

Bothy system , evils of the

iii. 376

origin of the remedy for

11

Boulders, removing and avoiding Boussingault's experiments with stub. ble and roots of cereals Box -beds Boxes for cattle

iii. 377 iii . 270 iii . 107

u cutting " drying "I feeding properties of as aforage plant produce of "I reaping for stock feeding, Building dry -stone walls

iii.

Brackets

iii. 387

61

iii. 109

iii. 311 iii. 377 jii. 377 jii. 137

" outlay on Bulbs, culture of, on farms . Bulls, number of cows they serve process of ringing " ringing " rings for

summering, in the house temper of treatment of

Bunt of wheat

disinfecting seed prevention Burning land, how conducted Bush fruit, catch cropping . cost of planting disease in black currants farm cultivation of

10 11

Butter beaters or boards

ii. ii. ii. ii. ii. ji. iii. iii. iii. iii.

467 465 416 416 416 304 136 136 136 136

ii. ii . ii . ii.

519 497 519 499

ji . 497

extractor fat

ii. 499 ji. 474

fresh

ii. 498 ii. 498

hand -working of,objectionable making

ii. 487

methods of making

ii. ji. ii. ii. ii. jii.

495 497 496 496 495 387

i. i. i. i. i.

220 222 220 222 221

rolls and pats of . " salting I washing working Byre fittings Byres for cattle 1 drainage of . 11

11

467 466 465 465 467

ii. 497

.

11 blending house . centrifugal drier and cheese making, associated "I colouring details of working

11

ii. ii. ii. ii. ii.

i. 382

Butcher's beast, history of a

10

255 109 109 110 260

iii . 109 i. 255 iii. 230

Buildings of the farm 11 iron

jii. 360 i. 219 ; iii. 327

Boyce's reaping -machine Bracken -cutting

i. iii . iii. iii. ii.

Buckwheat, composition of .

"

95

i . 475 i. 455

Bucket water -wheel

15

jii. 375 jii. 375

construction of

1.

Broom for barn

scope and necessity for botanical research

529

mangers of . ventilation of windows in .

iii. 293 .

i . 266

Bran, analysis of

i. 247

01

ash of

11 for stock feeding Bratting sheep Breeding horses

i. 248

1!

farm culture of :

iii. 133

from heifers

ii. 31

!!

I principles of sheep Breeds of farm live stock 11

o cattle 1 horses

!1

" pigs " sheep

10

composition of Brewer's grains, desiccated . desiccated v . wet grain 11

I!

11

VOL, III .

for dairy cows

i. 211 i. 405

ii. 456 iii . iii . iii. iii. iii .

393 405 393 434 425

i. 253 i. 253

i. 253 i . 253

Cabbage, analysis of

i. 165 i. 160

" lifting .

manuring land for

ii. 258

planting

ii. ji. ii. ii. ii. i. i. i.

u

plants required per acre

11

soil suitable for

plants .

sowing seed " storing

11

. stalks, utilising thousand -headed kale

258 259 258 258 258 159 160 266

ii. 259 i. 261 i . 260

utilising

Cake, cocoa , composition of 11 cotton -seed , composition of 2 L

INDEX.

530

Cake, linseed , composition of,

i. 258 | Calving, leading cows .

i. 261 " poppy , composition of ... rape, composition of i. 259 Calf-rearing i. 383, 385, 389 ; ii. 30 allowances of foods for ii . 38 .

milk - fever

.

prevention of "I preparations for . 11

ti

progress of .

are calves nuisances ? . artificial food for calves aversion of farmers to

ii.

30

protruding womb "I quietness for cows "I reckoning table

breeding from heifers . breed longer from cows

ii.

31

!!

ii .

31

.

32 34 46 35 44 35

Il

symptoms of

11

ii . ii. ii. ii . ii. ii .

11

10

ii.

31

11

too early bulling unwise twin calves . udder and its treatment

ii. ii .

32 46

. I

calf- crib

calf's first food . castrating composition of biestings danger of gorging calves decrease in suckling deficiency of store cattle details of

1

diseases of calves 11

does suckling hinder breeding

eggs for calves "1 feeding calves for veal . general rules for . hand rearing 1 hay -tea for calves 11

11

home breeding,not importation . 11

1

housing calves in pure bred herds late calves ,

letting out calves 11

11

licking and rubbing beneficial milk substitutes . navel- string

on large farms " preparing foods for calves " quantities of milk for calves " rearing bull - calves rearing or selling calves

ii.

32

ii. 37

11

to

red -water

ii.

19

uterine discharge

46

"I veterinary advice in Cambridge-road scrapings Camembert cheese and its production

ii. ii.

44

Canadian experiments in sheep -feeding

39

Candlemas entry

ii. ii . ii.

36 41 31

Capon . Caponing fowls

ii . 517 i. 436 ii. 303

ii. 32

Caps to gate-piers

iii. 380

ii. ii.

42 40

Carbolinium

Carbonic acid in the air

iii . 385 i. 23

ii. ii. ii .

33 45 32

Carpenter -work :

iii. 390

Carrion -crow

ii. ii.

33

Carrots

iii. 160 i. 266

31

" analysis of

ii. ii.

37 37

11

ii. ii .

32

31

i. 261

Carob beans

ii. 384 ii. 386

and rye ash of .

i. 166

Belgian, storing

i, 160

11

botanical orderof

.

carrot -tops as food for cattle cleaning for

ii. 384 ii. 384 ii. 385

35

" produce "I pulling

skim -milk for

11

spare dietary for calves suckling

ii, ii .

ii.

45 41

attention to serving

11

the calf coming in season

11

conception completed cow's record of character dead calf

I

desperate cases

11

detecting pregnancy

11 difficult presentations

" extracting a dead calf N

fatigue affecting pregnation flooding

immediate milking 16

soil for

" sowing 11 storing

ii.

barley for newly calved cows

11

36

weaning calves

in -calf heifers

11

inflammation in the womb

11

isolation in difficult cases

i. 362 iii . 315

ii. 465 i. 383

ii. 19 ii. ii . ii. ii.

15

16

ii. ii . ii . ii . ii. ii . ii. ii. ii. ii. ii. ii . ii. ii.

20

17 18 22

i: 160 ; ii. 385 ; iii. 134 i. 160

ii . 385 ii. 385

thinning

iii. 134 i. 266

time of storing !! tops food for cows to

11

ii. 386 i. 5

varieties of .

Carse farm, stocking a farms for grazing cattle

ii . 464

Carse -land farming

i. 5 i. 5 ii. 349 iii. 87

farmers

Cart, farm tip 11

21

21

ii. 385 ii. 385

11 tillage and manuring

19

ii .

ii. 385 ii. 386 iii. 134

red 11

14 21

iii . 134 iii . 134

preparing carrot seed :

ii. 34

whey for calves

iii. 134 iii. 134

farm culture of

11

ii. 35

with heifers .

ii. 518 i. 189 jii. 199

Cantal cheeseand its production

44

ii. 35

11

11

ii. 20 ii. 18 ii. 113

45

"I growing and heating in pits " liability to rot !! pits

11

16 16 14

ii.

37 46 36

11

23 23

ii.

ii. ii . ii.

assistance in attendance at

20 19

20 18

31

Calving of cows, afterbirth

ii . ii. ii. ii .

19

ii.

!! shed, construction of "I weaning "I wintering

15

16

the remedy.

Calves for early maturity

15

ii.

ii.

11

11

23

ii.

ii. ii. ii. ii. ii. ii.

reverse presentation reviving calves

ii.

teaching calves to drink

ii.

refreshing the cow

rear more calves. reform

and milking combined .

22 23

restless cows in

11

1 scalding skim -milk " setoning

ii. ii.

11 11

frames harvest 17

iii. iii. iii.

improved

ropes

ii . 474 i. 256

Casein . 11

88 88 88

vegetable

ii. 46 ; iii. 497

17 18 21

Castration of calves horse

20

1 operation of

iii . 497

19

"

iii. 498

22

lambs .

Cattle,accommodation for, on the

20

18

pigs

iii. 497

iii. 498

steading Il

ailments of .

i. 214

jii. 470

INDEX.

531 Cattle, calving of

ii. 14 ii. 9 i. 391

calving season cart 11

cheaper meat from young animals

·

early maturity

than old . form

fattening in winter 11

in England for show .

without turnips grooming and cleaning 11

houses for in autumn

11

exposing

ii. 505 composition of making of . ii. 505-511 scale of points in judging cheese ji. 505 ii . 500 Cheese, apartments for

11

11

11

i. 380 i. 240 iii . 319

Cheddar

11

Cheshire

ii . 505 ii. 512 ii. 501

11

circular, tub curd breaking

iii . 139 jii. 139

136 138 138 138 138

formula of nutritive properties

Roquefort

i . 239 i. 371 i. 225 jii. 319

rapid fattening on pasture sheep ofmechanical feeding " rapid respiration and force

i. 364 i. 365 i. 241

... Scotch feeding customs

i. 372

“ soiling southern systems of feeding store symptoms of pregnancy " temperature of animals varieties of food for

weights of . winter feeding of store winter housing of store Cattle -boxes

plans for

cart

i. 221

i. 243 i. 239

Galloway Hereford

Jersey and Guernsey Kerry Long -horned

utensils for making II

ii. 500 ii. 500

vat

Chemical elements important to farmers

agricultural general . inorganic 1!

organic

Cheshire cheese and its manufacture Chesset or cheese-mould, metal

Cheviot flocks, management of "

9

i. 242 i. 244 i. 367

i. 357 i. 354 i . 219 iii . 327 i. 392

i . 215 i. 233

iii. 405 iii. iii. iii . jii. iii. iii.

420 410 420 409 424 422

iii. 416

10

1

is claying injurious to sheep ?

Cleveland bay horse, characteristics of . origin of value for crossing Yorkshire coach - horse, an off 11

shoot of .

farm -buildings Clip fork Clipping sheep Cloud , cirrus cirro -cumulus

iii. 416

I

Shetland Shorthorn Sussex Welsh

iii. 424 iii. 406

11

cirro -stratus cumulo - cirro - stratus cumulo - stratus

11

cumulus

.

Cesspools for drains

ii. 485 iii. 126

iii. 85 jii. 379 iii. 277

530 530 531 531 531 532

iii. 402 iii. 402

iii. 403 iii. 403

iii. 178-185

and rainfall in connection with

iii . 417

Centrifugal separator Cereals, sowing, in autumn . " stacking

j. i. i. i. i. i.

spreadingthe clay top-dressing bare heights

Norfolk and Suffolk red polled

West Highland

ii. 492 ii. 490

clay pits

Polled Aberdeen - Angus

iii. 413 iii . 424 iii . 421

13 13

ii . 489

types of

Climate

13

ii. 491

mixing soils !!

13

i.

i. i.

i. 426

Claying lands, benefits of 10

I2

i.

ji. 494

whole -milk .

11

11

12

i. 192 iii. 433

sheep .

Churns, barrel diaphragm !!

i. i.

ii. 512 ii. 508 ii. 508

wooden

11

514 505 500 519 516

ii. 517 ii. 511

Stilton

Chickens, young broods in winter

9, 232

Ayrshire

ii. 516 ii. ji. ii. ii. ii.

Churning milk

i . 233

Devon

!!

Gorgonzola Gruyère judging making of

i. 360 ii .

duties of

time-table of

11

ii. 468

4 troughs Cattle-man, dress of Cattle of the British Isles

"

ii. 458-468 Chemistry

fat - show

seal or binder shelter for for show

11

Parmesan

i. 387 i. 389

11

ii. 501

ii. 515 ii. 505

Dutch .

10

preparing for breeding shows

10

ji. 517

11

i. 369

pastoral farming . pasturing of

11

ii . 518 ii. 518

Cantal

Neufchatel .

methods of fattening, in winter

11

Camembert 11

17

nomenclature of .

11

Brie

jii. 139

Lawes onhigh-pressure and pro fitable feeding loss from bad management of

10

!!

store

forage crops for

FI

i . 379 i . 239

ii. 505

11

house feeding housing fattening

food and shelter .

11

i. 362 i. 361

iii . iii . iii. iii. iii.

fattening stock 11

10

Charlier method of shoeing horse Cheddar cheese, characteristics of

iii. 138

dairy cows .

11

i. 318 ii. 493 jii . 153

i. 369 i. 361

i. 232-392

feeding

11

i. 335 jii. 301

Charlemont churn and butter worker .

and perfection of

11

Chaff-cutting

Chaffing for ensilage Chalking land

11

" purple stratus Clouds 11

altitude of :

1 study of the Clover, alsike 11 composition of

iii. 312 29

ii. 442

i. 35 i. 35

i. 35 ; ii. 4 35 ii. i. ii.

35 4

i. 35 i.

34

i. 35 i. 35 ii. 233 i . 270

INDEX.

532

Clover, crimson 1 creeping trefoil "I

dodder

for fattening cattle 1 .

for permanent pasture fungoid attacks on importance of impurities in meadow trefoil

perennial red 11 I

red seed

silage soils and climate for

" 11

Trifolium incarnatum varieties of white .

Clydesdale horse , breeding of 00

iii . 51 ji. 233 ii. 417 i. 377

ji. 235 ii . 414 ii. ii. ii . ii.

231 234 232 231

iii .

52

ii. i. ji . ji.

231 319 231 233

ii. 231 ii. 233 iii. 397

characteristics of

iii . 398

origin of Society

iii. 396

Stud -book , quoted

10

iii. 396 i. 128

Cocoa cake .

i. 261

11 analysis of food for young calves . Cod - fish soup for cattle

i. 261 i. 261 i, 278

i. 94

Colorado fly

iii . 438 ii. 407

Comfrey, prickly, as a forage plant

ii. 260

Common farming Compact pastoral steading Compensation for improvements . Composition of grasses Compost, preparation of

i. jii . 321 iii. 198

Collies, training

Compound engines Concrete floors "I foundations

i. 271

iii. 381

iii. 358 iii. 359, 374

farm

of different sizes outhouses of

iii. 375

.

separate rooms

ii. iii. iii . iii.

" single-roomed, single-storeyed " 10

single-storeyed detached two-storey

Cotton - cake PO

caution in using indecorticated :

0

Cow's milk for lambs . womb .

Cows, mangels and turnips for serving

silageand mangeis fordairy 11 summering water for dairy . winter feeding of winter rations for dairy Cream , airing

Devonshire clotted

11 jar methods of raising period of ripening preserving 11

11

11

raising ripening

selling

ii. 486

separated skimmer

ii. ii. ji. iii.

487 481 519 387

iii.

51

i. 131

Conditions of lease Conduit for water

iii . 193

Creameries Crib - trees

iii. 387

Crimson clover as a forage crop

Cooke's double -furrow plough

ii . 189 iii . 380

Coping to yard -wall Coprolites composition of 11

Corn aphis at the steading 11

barn barrow

boxes 11

crops, insects which attack 11

culture, general principles of dressing

11

fanner for dressing mildew

10

11

11

hereditary means of prevention prevention of

11

11

culture in England

i. 439 i. 444 i . 463

iii. 195 i. 318 iii . 115

rotation of . valuing

iii. 168 iii . 200

10

11

iii . 171

ii. 391

Cross fertilisation of grain

i. 464

period

11

i. 468 i. 470

periments Cross-furrow , depth of

ii. 415

!! system of

i. 480 i. 472

11

i. 475

11

threshing and winnowing varieties of . Cornish boiler Cotherstone cheese

Cotswold sheep Cottage gardening Cottages , accommodation of

i. 476 i. 462

beans oats peas

wheat

ii.

jii . 359

"

ii. 390

f!

ii. 387 ii. 390

11

mill

Currants, black, culture of 11

ii. 217 ii. 218

11

i. 483 Curd -breaker i. 123 Curd , artificialsouring ii . 513 " heating iii. 426

ii . 391 ii. 219 ii. 217

10

rye 11

ji. 391 ii. 391

i. 141 ii. 390 ii. 387

Cultivation , steam Culture of barley in summer

sacks

10

11

1

i. 47 °

shovels strikes

process of ex recent

11

ii. 414 | Cross-ploughing land ii. 414 " harrowing before ii. 415

for

crossing

ii. 398 ii . 216

modern winnowers screens

iii. 51 iii. 51

Crop sickness Cropping, conditions of Crops for silage . poultry injuring

i. 400

chest

11

ii. 398

iii. 388

carting, to be threshed

sowing 9)

ii. 112 ii. 113

338 343 480 513 487 481 479 487

ii. 479 ii. 479 ii . 487

principlesof raising

Condensing engines Condimental foods

11

IO

342 463 345 462

ii. 487

10

iii. 379

i. 275

i. i. ii. ii. ii. ii. ji. ii.

cheese .

1

333 205 59

ii. 463

11

10

i. 261 i. 260

jii . iii. ii. ii. i. ii. i. ii.

clubs

11

i . 260 i. 260

i. 226

covered

Cow -byre, construction of :

.

361 359 362 633

i . 261

manurial value of

. preparing for feeding uses of decorticated Courts for cattle, covered and un

iii. 304 i. 133

iii. 359

1 family

i. 436

Collar, horse

ii. 364

doubledetached .

11

ji. 398

Coal as fuel Cockerel

jii. 374

Cottages, composite

disease in black .

ii. 388 ii. 509 ii. 504 ii. 501

ji. 501

ii. 136 iii. 136

INDEX.

i. 372 | Dipping mixtures, quantity of arsenic i. 178 safe method of using

Customs, Scotch feeding Cutter cart, the

Curry-comb, brush , foot-picker, mane

11

Dairy factories, origin and develop farming farm , stocking a . farm , cow -byre for

sheep 11

ii. 520 i. 5 i.

ment of

333

stirring

11

11

i. 404

comb

11

533

process of time for dipping tossing sheep into bath . weather for dipping

Diseases of calves 11 of horses

motive power for 11

movable milk - stands situation of the

Drainage accelerating harvest iiii.. 482 471 and autumn -sown crops

·

steading for

iii. 336

10

finishings of the .

11

milk - shelves

utensils work

iii. 226 iii. 62

Dead hedge . De Laval separator

Devon cattle, beef production 10

colour of

1!

PO

early breeders

!!

11

milking properties . origin of

11 11

plumpness

11

Quartly herd of weights . Devon long-woolled sheep 11

11

11

Devonshire cream - stove Dew

beneficial intluence of .

11

cause of

Dr Wells's theory of " heavy, foretelling rain measuring

11

ii. 485 iii . 412 jii . iii . jii. iii . iii. iii. iii. jii.

412 412 411 413 410 412 411 413

custom in executing “ Deanston " system of determining necessity for 10 early methods of 11

andeconomical manuring “ Essex " system of

evaporation lessened by drainage 11 11

11

11

11 11

ii. 483

11

34

10

ii. 309

1

ii. 309

11

i. 34

11

iii. 270 iii. 250

fertility from rain-water first step in improving pasture increasing produce and irrigation land, antiquity of loans for

mitigating drought

ii. 310

11

ji. 309

10

outfalls

iii. 146

depth of

iii. 142

iii. 143

11

11

1

10

dripper, the emptying the finishing the

iii. 143 iii. 144

length of

iii. 146

making the concrete for plans of .

iii. 144

Drain -cesspools for liquid manure

iii. 145

Draining, best season for

11

11

concrete for

11 11 11

" !!

.

11 11

11

situation for

.

2

size of dipper, and num

11

and root cultivation

11

soils retaining water and soil temperature of springs

" superintending, work : time for

1 varying with soil and ventilation of the soil

hill pasture 11

11

land machines

iii. 146

" per acre , cost of . "I plough

Wood's swimming bath .

iii. 141

11

11 !!

11

jii. 142

iii. 146

mixtures

11

iii. 258 iii . 255

iii. 251 iii. 251

iii . 259 iii. 269 iii . 257 jji . 259

iii . 253

.

ber of hands stone and wood

11

jii. 250 iii . 254

jii. 277

146 " plunge-bath for small flocks iii. iii. 14

!!

" I outfalls, scouring

11

iii. 254

iii. 256 iii. 248 iii. 255

cost of

catching pen

255 253 256 255

iii. 253 iii . 250 iii. 257

11

.

iii. iii. iii. iii.

natural

construction of

11

iii. 249 iii. 251 jji. 251

iii. 258

jii. iii. iii. iii.

Dipping bath for sheep

iii. 256 iii. 249 iii. 255

execution of extension of

and nitrification object of

141 145 142 141

255 268 268 249

evaporation and loss of heat examining soil for

1. facilitating tillage 11

iii. 428 i.

!!

iii. iii, iii. iii.

11

Deanston reaper

11

of clay-land

i.

i . 255

jii. 255

conducive to health by contract

Dari or durra for stock -feeding

iii. 251

iii. 256

II

9

iii. 429

iii. 255

11

i . 147

iii. 498

causes of wetness in land

ii. 470-521

iii. 381

iii . 148 iii. 146 iii. 148 ii. 46

i. 253

Draff

ii. 473 , 479

Damp course Darby's steam -digger

characteristics of

Docking animals Dorset horned sheep

11

Dairymaids, duties of

11

Divisional fences

ii. 472

temperature of the

11

Distillery wash 472 472 472 473

iii. 147

iii. 147 jii . 141 jji. 145

iii . 442 i. 254 iii. 210

iii . i. ii. ii. ii. ii .

1 knowledge required for a " compartments in the

iii. 148

composition of non

223

75 294 248 276 276

iii. 270

surface

iii. 285

waste land

iii. 288

Drains, blocking of

iii. 278

chart of

iii. 276 iii. 278

poisonous dips

iii. 147

dressing for scab

iii . 148

good mixture, a

home-made dips

iii. 147 jii. 147

mixing poisonous and non-poison ous dips

iii. 148

11 falling in of

non -poisonous dips

iii . 147

11

oil in dips

iii. 148 jii. 147

poisonous dips

i. i. iii. iii. iii. iii.

11

"I clearing rods cost ofcutting depth of

11 11

displacement of pipes in 11

11

distance between

filling flushing of inspecting

•

jii . jii. iii. iii. iii .

274 259 260 260 271

iii . 276 iii. 277

iii. 271

INDEX.

534

iii. 262 iii. 273

Drains, material for planks for peat

" pipe -laying iron "

pipes

" plug "I preliminary surveying for "

iii. iii . iii. iii .

263 275 264 263

11 11

iii. 260

11

iii . 263

ir

width of

vii . 270

1

i. 436

11

11

11

11

building

11

11

building in stretches .

11

carrying stones for coping

11 11

11

cost of dykes

11

covers

01

10

11

11

curves in dykes

11

dimensionsof

double and single faced dykes dry weather for

01

!!

dyke-building 1

dykes as fences

11

frames for dykes . gaps in dykes joining stones

11

11 !1

11

levelling the dyke top . lining carts for

11

preparing founda

11

process of build:

11

stones

ing !!

11

1!

iii.

66

i. 254 ii. 346 ii. iii. iii. iii. jii.

243 102 232 230 230

.

iii. iii. iii. iii. iii . jii .

231 232 231 232 234 230

iii. 231 iii . iii . iii . iii. iii.

231 233 232 233 234

iii. 231

iii . 232

iii. 231 iii. iii. iii. iii.

shelter

11

11

stones to be used : sunk fence .

235 234 230 235

dykes for sheep

thorough -bands tools for dyke building utility of dykes watering pools wire overdykes Duck dung, its composition Duckling

iii. 233 iii. 232 jii. 231

i. ji.

ji.

duck -rearing in Ayles bury for ducks

Duncan's rack for drying sheaves Dung, application of for bare fallow

ii.

ii. 299

iii. 105 ii. 126

iii.

ii.

covered courts for COW

11

duck

"

emptying courts of fordifferent kinds of crops

oozing of liquid from heaps of

i. 509 ii. 96

i. 502 i. 513 ii. 304

pigeon

i. 509 ii. 303

poultry

iii. 47 ii. 128

preparing putrefaction of

sheep .

11

spade for :

"

spreading

1

stock

i. 513 i. 507 iii .

varieties in the quality of

ii. 94

for wheat

ii. 129 i. 502

Dunghills, forming Dung-spreading machine

ii . 351 ii. 512 ii. 515

Dunlop cheese Dutch cheese hoe .

iii. 228

Eaves, gutter

Edam cheese Egg -ended steam boiler Eggs, number of, in a setting selecting, for hatching 1 selecting hen 11

sex of .

11

testing fertility of

Electricity

Enclosure and shelter . Enemas

95

i. 510 i. 512

ii. 304 i . 505 i. 502

ii. ii. ji. ii. i.

293 292 293 294 28

i. 28

i. 27 iii. 210-215

crops for silage examples of stack "feeding value of silage

11

future of

" grain crops for silage : for hay

11

454 384 515 122 293

iii. 183

Engines, steam , simplicity in

11

ii. iii. ii. i. ji.

ii. 310

11 motion of Electro -culture Elevation and local climate .

11

47

i. 512 i . 506

.

" turning

46

i. 504 ii. 126

11

ii. 98

clover silage

composition of 11

i. 501 ii . 100

mechanical uses of mixing

English sowing- basket Entomologists , services of Entomology 304 Entrance gates | Ensilage 436 299 advantages of 299 " analysis of sweet and sour silage chaffing for 300 choice of methods

carting out .

carting

i. 512 ji. 99

influence of . losses from want of care of . loss of residual manure

11

hens as foster -mothers

11

i. 513 ii. 304

iii. 235 iii. 234 iii . 234

ii.

96

hen

pit

11

97

horse and cow, compared :

Engineering

!!

Ducks, hatching care of ducklings

ii .

pig

11

ii .

ji. 304 ii. 130

for grass lands heat from various kinds of .

Embankments against a stream

supplementing

11

fresh and rotten goose

open and covered dung -court

"

ii. 96

i. 507

Ear -marking sheep iii. 232

repairing dykes !!

11

11

providing stones :

!!

11

iii . 232

iii. 231

tion

10

field sheds for

iii. 263

.

"

10

stone tile

Drake, duck , duckling Dray's Hussey reaping -machine Dreg Drill-plough Drill-sowing, advantages of . Drying racks Dry -stone wallsor dykes,art in building 11 badly built dykes

11

Dung , farmyard , its character and uses fertility in a ton of

history of an increased facility for storage introduction of, into Great Britain meadow -grass silage methods of pressure oat silage and roots

iii . 496 i, 22 i. 124

ii . 193 ii. 395 i.

16

jii. i. i. i.

383 306 325 313

i. 31 i. 317 i. 319 i. 318

i. 314 i. 323 i. 327 i. 322 jii. 37

i. 306

i. 326 i. i. i. i.

307 318 311 323

INDEX.

rearing stock on silos

i. 307 i. 324 i. 307

special silage crops

i . 322

stack

i. i. i. i.

Ensilage, progress of 11

11

.

stacks v. silos

sweet and sour silage sweet silage, making

311 311 312 312

water and dry foodin silage and hay i. 319 ii. 312

Evaporation in spring Ewes, age of draft 11 breeding " feeding of

ii.

Farm buildings, ventilation

water-supply of : 11 10 1 11

business cottages

horses, treatment of, in winter

!! 10

house and farm

ii. 457

11

i. 191

11

11 11

01 !!

treatment of drafi

ji . 457

01

ii. 174

By Highland and Agricultural

iii. 357

milk -house outline and ornamentation

plan of kitchen , &c. plans of different classes of position of, and steading . second -class, designs for

11

1

11 11 11 11

ii. 175-185

Society

to corre

spond

i. 194

In Sussex

jii. 344 iii. 357

first-class, designs for general principles for

5

ii. 524 Exhortations, final Experiments with different kinds of manure at Rothamsted ii. 135-170 Experiments with manure ii. 170-175 In Aberdeenshire .

iii. 357

of . 11

ji. 453

11

site of

10

third -class, designs for

11

trees and shrubs around

iii . ii . i. jii . iii.

10

live stock

11

plants, new varieties of pupils, hints to

ailments of ment of

system , utility of Fahrenheit thermometer Fallow, bare, antiquity of . dung for objects of wheat, sowing : Fanner for dressing grain Farm , adjusting, labour

ii. 520 ii. 521 i. 29, 30

11

fees for must work

11

personal attention by

11

iii.

44

11

11

iii.

46

11

1

iii. 44 iii. 126

iii. 201

00

. compensation for improvements on

iii. 198

11

10

iii. 193

11

10

iii. 198

10

conditions of cropping 11

conditions of lease

" entering a " estimating rent methods of estimating rent " offering for a . produce rent of : " stocking a term of tenancy 11

valuing sheep stocks on Farm book -keeping Account of charge and discharge . 11

iii. 189

iii. 523 iii. 507

iii. 503

Travelling expenses Farm steward, his duties tip -cart Farmer, his duties " young, parting advice to

road to

iii . 317

11

sites to avoid

11

stalls and boxes

iii. 317 iii. 314

i. 7 ii. 349

i. 7 ; ii. 316 526

Farming, advantages of a thorough training to farmers

iii. i.

difficulties in learning a faithful guide

i.

farm pupils

2

iii. 176

.

learn young

iii . 314

jii. 315

jii. 503

11

iii . 316 3 i. iii. 316 iii. 313

jii. 503 iii . 504

Sickness or accident

11

lossfromwant of training methods of acquiring practical

4 I, 2

" necessity of foresight : search for information

selecting, a system of . 11 study stock feeding

11

principles of arrangement iii. 318

TO

iii. 499 iii. 503

Character

hill

11

11

steward

iii. 519 iii. 311

food -preparing machinery iiiii. 315 31

!!

shepherd

iii . 504 iii. 503

10

10

iii. 502 et seq . iii. 499 et seq .

Notice of leaving Payment of wages, &c. Period of engagement

for different classes of farms drains

importance of position internal divisions

ploughmen

500 et seq. 501 et seq. 500 et seq.

iii. 504 jii. 503

iii. 515 jii . 515

general arrangement of

lads

500 et seq .

Death or bankruptcy

iii. 516

general principles of

iii . iii. farm managers iii. field -workers iii.

Dismissal Duties of servants

State of balance Statement of transactions Stock account

+1

3

iii. 521

Stackyard crop

!!

3 3

iii. 202

iii. 515

11

i.

jji . 504 iii. 504

Memorandum -book Profit and loss account Rationale of .

11

I 2

iii . 499

servants, wages of Farm service, law of Board and lodging

iii. 189

Corn account iii. 516 et seq iii. 510 Day -book Inventory and valuation of stock : iii . 507 iii. 523 Labour -book . iii . 512 Ledger .

Farm buildings

2

393 439

i. i. i. ' i.

training

11

jii. 511

Cash - book

343 413

ii. 187

servants, hiring bailiffs cattle -men .

iii . 195

iii. 202

343 353 342 344 340 353 341

a word to guardiansof

i. 468

iii. 188 iii. 188 iii. 191

iii . iii . iii . iii. iii. iii . iii.

jii . 353 iii. 341

upper storey of insects, literature on labour, variety of

11

Factory dairies, origin and develop

iii. 344

10

11

milking

. management of

i. 401-408

house , cheese -room of . comfort and convenience

i. 192, ii. 457

.

.

535 iii. 314 jii . 315 i. 73, 74 iii . 358

tutor farmers

variety of farm labour Farmyard manure 11

11

11

treatment of :

i, i. i.

2

iii. 313 i. 501

INDEX .

536 Farmyard manures for turnips

Farrowing of sows Fat as a food constituent Fat-globules Fecundity of swine Feeding cattle, systems of 11 horses in the field " value of silage Feering hland Felt on roofs Fences, economical 1 hedges as and houses . and renewals

"

repairing for shelter

in upland districts wire field Fertility, exhaustion of restoration of Feudal customs

Field -gates angle -iron gate construction of

deficiency of common gates 1. fastening 1 fence steps . 11

gate forfarmyard painting gates

1 preserving gate -posts wickets forfoot-passengers . 11 - wire gates Field-mice

Field -workers, duties of Fields, convenient . large !!

number of

" shape of size of

1

small .

" straightening Final exhortations

Fire-extinguisher Fire -fang in manure Fish -guano as food Fish -meal for cattle

Fish -offal, utilising

Flail, the, and itsconstruction Flauchter -spade

Flax, advantages of, over corn botanical position of 1 composition of the ash of disadvantages of, over corn 11

" experiments in growing fibres of for fibre and seed , growing.

10

"

growing in Great Britain meal

plant, structure of " pulling, steeping, and drying 1

rotation for seed

10

soil for

sowing

straw for paper-making straw , uses of " tillage for top -dressing · twine, rope, and thread weeding yield per acre .

10

i. 303

11

ii . 475 ji. 292

i. 338 iii. 94 i. 322 ii. 219 i. 107

iii. 384 jii. 213 iii. iii. iii. ii. jii. iii. iii.

215 201 201 431 213 215 235

ii. 89 ii. 89 iii. 198 iii. 243 jii . 247 iii. 243

iii. 246 iii. 248 iii. 248 iii . 247

jii. 247 iii. 248 iii. 248 jii. 247

iii. 248 iii. i. iii. iii. iii. iii. iii . iii. ii. jii. iii.

115 9

212 212 212 211 212 212 211 524 205

ii . 451

Fleece of wool, parts of 11

iii. 248 iii. 248

gate- posts .. hanging 1 iron gates 10

ii. 363 ii. 290-292

peculiarities of

ii. 451

how rolled .

ii. 448 ii. 448

rolling and weighing Fleeces, rolling, weighing, and assorting Flesh -meal, for cattle . its composition " feeding value of 11

11

i. 280 iii . 130 iii . 137 i. 26

Flour, mixed, preferred Flowers, farm culture of Fluids, motion of weight of Flushing ewes

i . 25 iii . 149 ii . 282

Foaling , assistance in attention to the foal box

11 11 11

ii. 283

i. 399 ; ii. 281

difficult

ii. 282

the mating season rearing foals reviving an exhausted mare reviving weak foals risks, insurance against

ii. 282

season , the symptoms of

ii. 281 ii. 282

ii. 289 ii. 283

ii. 283 ii. 281

ii. 282 ii. 288 ii. 281

watching mares at weaningfoals working mares in foal Foals , attention to 10

11

11

11

i. 280 i. 280 i. 280

i. 280

for pigs

for sheep

10

ii. 448

ii. 283

ii. 285

cow's milk for extra food for health of the reviving weak

rearing weaning Fætus, the, of the cow Fog or mist . Folding hurdle Food, function of 11 regarded as fuel . varieties of, for cattle .

ii. ii. ii. ii.

10

284 286 283 283

i. 406 ; ii. 289

11

ii.

ΙΟ

i. 35 iii. 242

i. 240 i. 243 i. 244

Food rations

Animal's requirements . Composition of foods

i. 290 i. 291

Composition of the principal feed

i. 231

For cows and young stock

i. 292 i. 295

i. 279

Disturbing element, a For fattening oxen

i. 303 i. 293

What the feeder has to determine

i . 290

ing stuffs

i. 278 i. 279 iii .

.

Feeding in Sir John Lennard's

37

ii . 305 ii. 325

i. 297

dairy

Feeding standards

i. 290

ji. 317

For horses

ii . 317

Making up feeding rations

i. 301 i. 293

ii. 325 ii . 324

Nutritive ratio

i. 299

Nutritive ratio the essential point

ii. 318

For small and large cows

i. 300 i. 298

i. 258 ii. 323

Want of care and precision in

ii. 327 ii. 326 ii. ii . ii. ii. ii. ji .

321 318 319 ! 318 319 324

ii . 324

feeding

Foods, bruising grain . cake-breaking chaff -cutting 11

cooked , for pigs . cooking or steaming

11

evidencein favour of pulping

11

feeding cows in Ayrshire

10

feeding in milk -selling dairies

10

ii. 318 ii . 320 ii . 327 ii. 320

ii. 324

in Norfolk dairies rations

in a Tyneside dairy 10 11

food -preparing compartment home-grown and purchased in Jersey herds :

i. 292

i. 336

i. 336 i. 335 i. 423 i. 334 i. 331

i. 350 i. 344 i. 347

i. i. i. i. i.

371 350 333 339 348

INDEX. Foods, mangels and turnips for method of cooking mixing 1 11

milk -fever preventive . motive power in preparing COWS

i . 333 i. 346 i. 333

iii. 208 ii. 298

preparing pulped mixtures . proportion of

" rations for dry cows 1 silage in the Duke of Manchester's dairy skim -milk as, for cows warm mashes for cattle

1 wintering dry and breeding cows winter rations for dairy cows " Foot-pound” and horse -power . Forage crops

for heavy lands :

i. i. i. i. i.

330 332 331 360 352

i. 346 i. 343 i. 341

39

i.

Fork for straw

i. 404 i. 532

.

Forming compost

Fowler's double - furrow plough with ii. 189

single lever

i. 434

Fowls,fattening of

iii. iii . iii. iii.

care of laying hens collecting eggs ducks

eggs for preserving

iii. 158 iii . 154 iii . 155 iii. 156 iii. iii. iii. iii. iii. iii .

nests

non - sitters nutrition in an egg

" pigeons " preserving eggs

1 " 1

156 155 155 158 158 156

rearing turkeys selecting winter layers shell- less eggs specific gravity of eggs stray hatching weight of eggs

" comparative value of different

!

FI

how to feed stock on a green food for winter

"

preparing, as food

11

as winter food

ii. 242

vantage changes incident to composition of seeds

ii. 241 ii. ii . ii. ii. ii.

conditions essential for

11 deep and shallow sowing depth for grass seeds . of sowing turnip seeds 11

241 240 249 251 252

!!

destruction of seed

ii. 253

"

dibbling

ii. 244

11

ii. 248

machines

11

different methods of sowing com pared

ii. 246 ii. 240 ii. 242

moisture and 11

ji. 247 ii. 241

the embryo . " importance of economising seed

multiple stems or tillering .

" produce from different methods ii. 246

of sowing quantity of seed per acre 11 11

1

ii. 246 ii. 242

seeds dissected

thick and thin sowing tillering transplanting

ii. 246

ii. 246, 252

waste of seed

the young plant .

ii. 253 ii. 244 ii. 241

iii . 387 iii. 393

32

Furze, whins, or gorse, composition of

ii. 240

air and germination

Gladstone's reaping -machine Glazing Glo'ster cheese Gooseberries, farm culture of Goose dung, its composition

iii. 154

Furrow -water

18

19

ji. 239

iii. 61

ii. 392, 393

.

i.

i.

Gilbey, Walter, on the Shire horse

iii. 158 iii. 154 iii. 156 iii . 87

Fungoid attacks on crops

17

Giblet -checks

Fuel kinds of

.

i. 32 ji. 414 ii . 212

i. 269 i. i. i. i.

268 268 268 268

iii. 385 ii . 513 iii. 136 ii. 304

Gore -furrows, how made

i. 438 i. 439 i. 112

Gorgonzola cheese and its production .

ii. 516

" composition of Gosling

ii. i. ii. i.

11

ii. 498

Fructification , organs of

19

i.

iii . 155

iii. 156

Fresh butter Frost -nails

relation of, to animals

i.

iii. 158 iii . 155

Frame for corn and hay cart

ji. 299 iii. 176

broadcast sowing and its disad

jii . 155

" prevailing laying period of . " preventingclucking " "

11

ii. 298 ii. 298 ii. 297

Germination of seeds

iii. 155

nest -eggs

artificial hatching and care of the goslings period ofincubation

formation of soils 1

iii. 154

humane methods of management individuality of eggs "I moulting 11

156 Is6 158 157

i. 121

. produce in eggs I rearing of

iii. 158

fancy prices for poultry goose rearing hatching in autumn

periods .

!!

11

i. 24 iii. 185

Forests and temperature

i. 36 ii. 297

Geese, hatching

Geology

ii . 254

iii. 384

Gaws or water - runs

i. 129

Foretelling weather

"

Gates , repairing " wrought-iron Gauging snowfalls

Geography, physical, of farms Geological survey

ii. 254

importance of as substitutes for turnips

iii. 304 ii. 120 ii. 431

Gas- lime

i. 350 i. 343

386 ii. 253, ji . 254

Force- pump

I

Company . Gander

use of .

i. 346

" pulped, for store cattle

"

iii. 420

Mr Carrington's system of feeding

nutrition in dry and green " "

i. 342 Gallowa Gallowayy, cattle, milking properties Rhins of, Cattle Insurance

i. 335

10

11

537

composition of

Gouda cheese and its production Grain ,bagging Boussingault's experiments with !!

11

crops for silage

cross -fertilisation of : measuring 11

number of grains from plants

1

total weight of crop

517 436 515 476

iii. 107

i. 322 ii. 391

i. 476 iii . 107 iii . 106

Grain harvest, advantages of early cutting iii. 53 “ Gaiting" Gaitins, carting

ii. 76 iii. 93

Galloway cattle, origin of

iii . 420 iii. 420

11

characteristics of

11

40

barley

11

beginning of

!! !!

degrees of ripeness experiments with wheat

54

iii. jii .

53 55

iii.

53

INDEX .

538

54 | Harrowing, process of

Grain harvest, happy medium 11

!!

11

11

10

19

10

harvest labour

56

Harvest forks

judging ripeness loss bytoo early cutting potato -oats progress of ripening

55 53 54 55

Hatchingcompartment

ripening process

iii.

55

ripening in the sheaf

iii . iii. iii.

54 54 54

seed grain

shedding or shaking stage for cutting

!!

i. i. ii. iii.

11 construction of Grass as food for cattle 11 and rotation Grass - seed sowing

De Laune's mixtures

frost injuring clover hand -sowing

11 11

harrows

machine -sowing

11

methods of sowing sowing with spring crops time of sowing varieties of Grasses and clovers

determining their grazing value for different soils

for permanent pasture

1 varieties of, sown Gravel floors

Grazing bulls and cows together . Green maize and its composition . " manuring . rape, a spring and autumn food

Grubbing for turnips

Gruyèrecheeseand Guano, composition its of

production

clover and meadow

i. 272 i . 272

11

damaged

11

for feeding

iii.

11

ii. 239

11

for seed v. artificial food

ji. 219

i. 269 i. 269 ii. 235 ii. 235 ii . 234 iii . 379

ii. 103

iii .

improved hay-stacking appliances

iii. 25

!!

Irish method of

iii.

iii.

11

Scotch methods

iii .

11

by stages

11

threshing hay

11

time for cutting

2 I

11

varieties of hay weather and

Frey Bentos Peruvian

ii . 104 ii. 102

, sources of Gypsum use of •

value of

Hackney horse or Norfolk trotter "

origin of

"

practice of breeding

"

Society and Stud -book

20

I 20

ii. 317

for horses

ii . iii. i. i. i.

Hay-stackingappliances Heat, conductors of 11 dissipation of economical uses of 11

its properties

11

thesource of energy

iii . 404

Heather-burning :

iii. 404 iii . 404 iii. 404

Hedge plants,different kinds of .

ii. 437 ; iii. 293 iii . 229 iii. 228 iii . 228

weed -hook

i.

Haiks Haims . Hammels

iii. 387 | Hedgers, duties of i. 95 | Hedges, beginning i. 219 planting :

for fattening cattie Hampshire sheep

iji. 326 ii. 428 ii. 368

bank and ditch hedges , breasting care of

iii. 216

1

Hand -hoes

Hand-pick Hand-threshing machines Harness pegs 1

Harrison &

94

M Gregor's self-raking

reaper . Harrows, iron 11

i. 454 i. 398 i.

plough

grass seed

11

. dead -hedge .

68

ji. 196 ii. 238

"

duration of a dead -hedge

earthing the plants exposing hedge -roots Il filling gaps .

8

for

and breasting over . an old

!!

iii.

operations

charring stakes cutting down 11

316 25 130 130 130

i. 29 i. 129

spade . 11

40 II

19 34

Hay - stack , how built method of cutting a

i. 436

Gunpowder, a scare for birds

31

making the hay methods of cutting mowing-machines tedding " object of permanent stacking preparing to cut . " pressing hay

ii. 103

379 114 120 120 120

37

11

ii. 104

iii . iii . ii. ii. ii.

21 22

drying

dissolved

.

iii .

hot -air and Neilson systems of

fish

Guinea - fowls Gullies

32

38

" hay-stacks

10

jii. 133 ji. 341 ii. 514

8

11

i. 276 47

I

37 31

11

11

i. 267

i. 272

artificial hay -drying 11 dressing stacks English methods Fifeshire practice Gibbs's hay -drier " hay -barns

ii. 467 iii .

i. 272 i. 273 i . 397 ii . 86 iii. 106 iii. 2

Haymaking .

11

2

ii. 317

knife

ii. 219-239 ii. 239 ii . 236

Greens, cauliflowers, &c., farm culture of

i. 271

rack for horse for storm roots of

ii. 236

21

composition of

loss in hay -making

iii. 129

rye as manure

1

11

iii.

manurial value of

ii. 237 ji. 239

i. 272

barns

11

ii . 238 ii. 237

iii. 313

Hay and straw ,economy of Hay

11

ii. 237

ji. 294 ji. 294 iii. 216

10

jii. 299

Grass -seeds, crops accompanying 11

447 447 459 173

iii. 169

soil nitrogen Grass-land, lime for

1.

open -air laying and tíme for setting training hens to sit Hawthorn plant . 11

i. 234

Graip Granaries

"

iii. 53

ii . 196 iii. 88 ii. 293 ii . 295

iii . 217

iii. 221 iii. iii . iii. iii.

229 227 220 221 222

iii . 227 iii . 227 iii. 218

iii. 226

iii. 225

INDEX.

Hedges, form of hedge forming right angles curves the trench " growth of the 11

hawthorn seed

. hawthorn an ancient fence hawthorn plant !! hedge -planters 11 injured by snow . 11

keeping theline straight 11 laying the plants young twigs method of plashing 11

I

along a water -course thorn

iii. 215

young quicks

iii. iii. iii. iii. iii. iii. iii. iii .

11

old nien for weeding

! "

paling planting

"I plashing

in England

I!

" I preparing the ground 11 protecting young " prevention fromdamp pruning

" railway fences " repairing hedge-banks 11

scouring ditches . shelter from stake -and -rice fence stake -and - rice fence

11 surveying the ground

thornhedges around plantations

11 11

I 11

11

jii . 293 iii. 294

jji. 293 iii. 292

heather-burning improvement of irrigation of liming

iii. 293 jii. 293

manuring,

iii. 293

Mid - Lothian

improve

ments .

iii. 293 i. 192

Hinds . Hoar- frost

i. 34

Holly hedges

ii . 368 iii . 229

Homesteads, modern Hooding

iii.

Hook -stones

iii. 380

Hoeing -machines

311

26

Hop culture After culture

Creasoting poles dressing Details of Drying hops .

Harvesting hops Hop plant Hop poles

Insect and fungoid attacks Longevity of the hop Manuring

Picking

Planting hops Pocketing Poling . Preparing land

ii. 431 iii . 224 iii.. 224 iii . 227 iii. 226

Rearing hop plants Soil for hops

iji . 217 iii. 219

Substitutes for poles

Stacking

Tying up the bines

ji. 330 ii. 331 ji. 331 ii . 333

ii. ii. ii. ii . ji. ji. ii. ii. ji.

332 334 331 332 332 330 332 329 333

ii. 331

ji. 329 ii. 329 ii. 328 ii. 334 ii. 332

ii. 332

jii. 219

Hop -growing risky

ii . 336

trench -planting

iii. 216 jii. 221 jii. 227

Insects which attack

ii . 403

Male and female hops

ii. 334 ii . 430

trimming old

11

turf fence untrimmed thorns

up and down strokes in cutting 1 weeding hedges weeds

wire fences .

Hemp, composition of seed : 1 culture of

.

iii. 221

iji. jii. iii . iii .

223 227 219 227

ii. 327

ii. 327

method and object ofits culture

ji. 327

narcotic properties of .

" pulling, steeping, and stacking of sowingof Hen dung, its composition

ii. ii. ii . ii. ii. ii .

Hereford cattle, origin of

jii. 409

oil

1. plant, structure of

328 328 328 327 327 304

characteristics of

jii. 410

colour

iii. 409 jii. 410 iii. 410

milking properties size and weight . Herring-meal for cattle 11 composition of 11

value of

Hop plant, the Acreage under the Ash of hops .

Cost of hop -planting hop cultivation

Mildew in

Price of hops Produce of hops Spent hops as manure Varieties of hops Horizontal engines

ii . 328

its botanical position

condensing engines Horn-branding sheep . Hornsby binder working of Horse, ailments of the 11

forks

11

hoe

power in threshing of steam -engines Horses, breeds of 10

Cleveland

Clydesdale Hackney . Shire Suffolk Yorkshire

i. 278 i. 279 i . 279

manure experiments

. 9

Hill- farms, configuration of geology of

Hill pasture, bracken cutting

binding breeding carrot for

ii. 175-185 iii . 176 iii . 176 jii. 293

ii. 336 ii. 334 ii . 335 ii. 335

ii. 336

ii. 336 ii. 335 ii. i. i. ii .

iii.

11

Highland and Agricultural Society's 10

Glenbuck improvements

trees and

"

11

11

transplanting thorns

timely weeding tools for planting weeding

11

11

11

225 223 224 215 226 218 220 215

215 228 216 228 216

jii. 293

Hill pasture, cropping deterioration of

iii . iii. iii. iii. iii.

time for planting

11

223 223 221 221 218 228 227 75 219

11

cutting down . old system :

11

iii. 225

11

mode of breasting over

1

220 218 218 218 220 228 228 216 217 220 217 218

iii. iii. iii. iii. iii. iii. iii. i. iii.

" mismanagement of

11

iii. iii. iii. iii. iii. iii. iii. iii. iii. jii. iii. iii.

539

clipping corn

"

English rations for feeding

334 134 134 455

79 79

iii . 442 iii .

27

ii. 366 i. 462 i. 129 iii. 393

iii. 402 iii. 396 404 iii . 393 iii . 401 iii. 403

i. 399 i. 405 i. 414 i. 419 i . 400 i. 413

i. 408

INDEX.

540

Horses, feeding, in the field " grooming " hay - racks for intelligent animals •

11

injured by green food . in autumn

1 spring 11 summer

.

" language to horses . littering maize for mashes for

"

mixed food for names of farm nomenclature of . oats for

11

i. ii. iii. ii.

ii. i. i. i.

407 470 150 280

rubbing

singeing soiling

stablemanagement of tramway

i. 412

Colorado beetle

ji . 469 i. 414 i. i. i. ii. i. i.

414 403 419 469 420 416

General observations Green fly, & c .

iii. 153

ii. 405

jii. 151 jii. 154 jii. 153

Red spider

ii. 405

Servicesof entomologists

ii. 395 ii. 404

jii. 153

Wire-worm

iii. iii. jii. iii. jii. jii. iii.

jii. 152

152 151 151 153 151 151 152

iii. 152 iii. iii. iii. jii. iii. iii.

Wire -worm in hops Instruction of farm servants

Insurance against fire and disease

Insuring crops and stock Ireland , agricultural education in Iron hurdles

Ironmongery Irrigation

153 154 154 151 154 152

i. 478

Hurdles,construction of . English wooden " erecting

i . 212

growing willows for Husbandry, mixed

a necessity ởháĪ₁&hȚyáchặd̀ch& qấĽhȚĂtĂŠKŠŅέấtp₁.▸Šấ&úsáĢÙ³₁ ram

Hydraulics Hydrostatics Hygrometers

Catch -work water -meadow Climate and

Crops for And drainage Effects on the soil of

Exhausting

Of hill-pasture

i . 170

Chiminello's quili

i. 25 i. i.

31 32

ii . 404 iii. 525 iii . iii . i. iii. iii.

204 205 72 242 391

jii. 304

i. 170 i. 212

iii. 312 i. 26 i . 218 i. 26

411 411 401 402

iii. 308 iii. 309

i. 169 i. 7, 84

wooden

ii. ji. ii. ii.

Bed -work

iii. 83 iii. 69

Hummellers

ii . 405 ii. 408

Reasons for

iii. 170 i . 28

1 its character

ii. 396 ii. 406

hoof growing hoof, the

Humus

ii. 403

ii . 395

Onion -fly

Weevils, &c. Wheat-midge

self-delivery reaper

ii. 410

· Peaandbean weevils

Turnip saw -fly grub

chữáếhấ̀6o₁6ĴáữệĂȚ✓₁ếETÉSṬŪÉ.'ủŪĂźzĚh�ƯấỗzặchĒ∞³₁ặŲ ✓Ī³₁6Ū₁ĪŲtм

410 407 402 412

iii. 153

jii. 152

sole

ii. ii. ii. ii.

ii. 399

iii. 154 iii. 152

11 studs " weight of shoes

ii. 399

ii. 398

Hop-aphis Hop -flea Hop -fly Insect injury to crops Mangel-leaf maggot

frost -nails functions of parts have the foot level

process of rasping roughing " shoeing for ice

ii. 398 ii. 398

ii. 403 ii. 405

frog

" 1

ii. 397

Hessian fly

Slugs Thousand legs Turnip -fly

not always necessary

1

Death's -head moth Ear cockles

iii. 152

object of " principles of

"I

Cone- fly. Corn aphis Corn -fly Corn saw -fly . Daddy longlegs Dart-moth maggot

i. 412

iii. 150 jii. 153

ment in improve nails

ii . 395

ii. 397 ii. 407 ii. 404

whin for

fore and hind feet form of shoes

ii. 303 i. 255 iii . 173

Cabbage butterfly

Horse -shoeing . calkings

shoe

ii . 302

i. 413 i. 408 i. 407

1 ventilation for 11 watering

19

Incubation , phenomena of

ii. 396 ii. 396

i. 395 i. 401 i. 414

evils of shoeing " faulty . " fitting the Charlier shoe

iii . 521

Bean -seed weevils Beet - carrion beetle Beet - fly

i. 413

Charlier method .

i. 31 jii. 505 jii. 505

house

" . temperature for 469 | Indian corn for stock feeding 97 Infield and outfield 418 Insect pests 413 Bean aphis

" turnips for

11

Hygrometers, conservatory Implements, care of " good

i. 301

rations for roots for

"

i. 397

i. 412

" pasturing work " potatoes for pulse of

!

iii . 94 i. 403

iii. 305 jii . 305 iii . 305 iii. 293

iii. 311

Liquid -manure for Moisture and vegetation Regulating water flow Sewage :

jii. 304 iii. 310

Side irrigation

iii . 311

And soil temperature Soils for

iii . 307

iii . 308 iii. 305

Systems of

iii. 308

Time for

iii. 307 iii . 305

Water-meadow

Water-supply for Italian rye-grass, characteristics of 11

iii. 307 iii . 307

1Ă>ll

11 Ě&✓&ởf ₁f ₁³

iii. 306 iii. 52

6áấ6₁ĒŠ„ñqzĽƯ³Ù³₁³νullÙĪźấƯŠậ̀

iii.

53

³ȚETŲ³ĚậÑź³ếŠ>ŠĒh

iii.

53

iii.

₁▸[₁5ŲKĂźS3S₁ff

Sowing

INDEX. Jack's farm - cart

iii. 119 | Lambing , hand -feeding lambs hardiness iii. 118

1 potato -digger Jersey creamer 11

11

11

11

milking pro perties of

Johnson's ensilage press Judging land u etiquette of farm -seeking 11 examining a known farm soil and subsoil an unknown farm

11

local knowledge necessary variety of soils on a farm

11

of hill sheep hay-rack for storm heating milk for lambs 11 hospital 11

ii. 484

and Guernsey cattle, origin of characteristics

11

jii . 424

of iii. 424

10

iii. 425 i. 315 iii. 185 iii . 186

!!

17

iii. 140

Keel-marking sheep

ii. 455 iii . 62

Characteristics A family cow

Live-weights Milking properties Origin of Robertson herd

Typicalanimal vetch as a forage plant Kidney Kohl - rabi

advantages of " analysis of ash of .

· planting or sowing I

produce of .

11

soil for

storing

thinning and hoeing 11

tillage and manuring time for sowing uncertain crop varieties of .

Labour, efficient and well-arranged hours of Lactocribe 11

Laddersfor farmyard :

iii. 423 jii. 423 jii. 424 iii. iii. iii. iii. iii. ii.

423 423 422 423 422 260

on arable farms PI 11 11

fattening feeding of losses of

11

marking

ii. 383

10

pet

ii. 383

11

preparing ewes for railway travelling ii. 85

!1

produce of

11

ram

i. 266 i. 166

11

risk of over-forcing

10

scour in

ii . 383 ii. 384 ii. 383 ii. 384 jii . 524 ii . 315

second

shearing

11

shed

11

stimulants for weak 11

i. 464

11

" assisting in .

ii .

54

ii.

55

1 11

11

11 11

catching ewes changing ewes and lambs classifying ewes for cleaning 11

ewe's udders:

ii .

60

ii. 60 ii.

76

ii.

61

ewe and lamb box

ii .

84

false presentations

ii. ii .

53 61

feeding of ewes

59

ii. 64, 65 ii.

65

fold for

ii .

49

forcing young lambs

ii. 63

56 59

ii . ii .

ii. ii. 50 , ii . ii. ii. ii.

50 73 79 85 59 57

ii. 55 ii. 453

ii. 63 ii.

57

ii. 452

ii.

65

jii . 198

iii. 289

11

presser , use of the

Lath -work

ü.

ii. 58

" levelling

ii .

55

73

Lancashire boiler Land breeze customs

Language to horses Lantern, safety

cow's milk for lambs

fattening lamb and ewe together

11

56

ii .

i . 195 ; ii.64

ewes and

unkindly mothers weaning yard

ii. 58 ii. 48

docking lambs early market lambs

flushing ewes 11

ii. 60 ii. 72, 75

" stocks ” for refractory ewes training, to artificial food : the, and its mother treatment of

10

ii.

ii . 53 ji. 447

shelter on hill-farms "I shepherding hill sheep snow in lambing .

ii. 474

ii. ii.

weak

11

11

castration of male lambs

i. 192

i, 160 ii. 384

11

59

86

ii.

"I removing ewes and 1 reviving hill

51

I

ii. .

ii. 383 ii . 384 ii . 383

ii.

lambs to suck

454 192 192 453 191 66 455

11

assistance in

Cæsarean operation carrying lambs

i. 193 ii . 62 ii . 72 i. 192 ii. 454

ii. i. i. ii. i. ii. ji.

ewe

11

bad weather and

for breeding clipping dipping drafting early

1

80 55

11

ii. 87 ii. 453

Lambs, age for breeding

82

11

56

56

ii. 47-87 ii. 51

season

11 table Lamb store

ii. ii. ii.

after

ii.

protecting lambs from foxes

symptoms of

ailments among lambs

Lambing, abortion among ewes

58 48

newly -born lamb preparations for

Kerry cattle The “ Dexter "

ii. ii. ii . ii. ii.

lamb hurdles management

Keds

Kerr's reaping-machine

57 65

mothering lambs

!

50

ii.

11

!!

59

ii .

ii.

10

ii. 259 ii . 259 ji. 259

ii.

ii .

of the udder .

iii. 185 iii. 185

73 86

introducing a strange lamb to a ewe lambs dropped

iii . 186

iii. 186

55

ii. ii.

in ewe's udder 11

!!

ii.

inflammation after

11

iii. 185

Kale, consuming . thousand-headed transplanting

11

541

Leading -stick Lease, care in drafting conditions of

Leeks, farm culture of manuring of Legumes and cereals, mixture of . 11

Leguminous crops and soil nitrogen

i. 24 ii. 200

i. 97 i. 237 iii. 389 ii. 467 jii. 193 jji . iii . iii . iii . iii .

193 134 134 130 170

land

iii . 425 iii . 289 iii. 289

ridges

iii. 28

Leicester sheep Levelling box 11

i. 123

INDEX.

542 Light, nature of .

ii. 312

Malt -combs as manure

Lightning :

ii. 310 ii. 310

Malt, comparison of, and barley

conductors Lime, action of application of

jii. 297 jii. 297 iii. 297

11

"I

benefits from

dissipating plant- food . effects on land effete

.

frequent

10

for grass land

.

11

"

iii. 298 iii . 293 iii . 301 jii. 300

guided by the crop for hill pasture

jii. 299 iii. 298

on hill pastures

jii . 300 jii. 293

and nitrification . preparing

iii . 298 jii. 303

quantityof, per acre

regulating action of in restoring grass-land for sandy soils " slaking 11

iii. 298

Limestone, composition of :

299 299 301

. cake, analysis of " preparing and using, as food Istori ng " varieties of Liquid -manure cart

composition of 11

compost with

11

drains

ii. ii. ji. i.

botanical position of 11

i. i. i. i. i. i. i. i. i.

258 258 257 259 257 523 514 525 521

i. 224, 521

scoop tank

i. 224, 520

i. 524

valuable character of . Literature on farm insects Litter for cattle . .

Littering courts of a steading Live stock, ailments of farm 10

11

attention to insurance of in summer

Lochlyoch stock . Locust or carob beans .

analysis of how to be used for cattle

iii . 439 iii . 524 iii . ji. iii. i. i.

205 430 297 261 262

characteristics of .

Lonk breed of sheep

Lucerne, botanicalposition of for cattle -feeding crop of

soil suitable for :

i. 159

diseases and insect attacks: . dung for 11

u 1

11

sowing

Lupin, the cultivation of

green, and its composition v. grass silage Malleable iron fence

Malt-combs, composition of for cows

i. 321 iii. 243

i. 253 i. 253

ii. i. ii. ii. i. ii. ii. ii. i. i. ii. ii.

produce of

11 10

11 11

seed soils for

stored in houses storing

thinning and after cultivation time of sowing

transplanting 11

varieties of .

"

fire-clay

11

metal ,

Mann's reaping-machine Manures and manuring " application of 11 11 11 11

11

i . 188

377 265 382 382 158 378 376 376 158 158 382 382

ji. 377

ii. 382 ii. 382 i. 220

Mangers ofbyres

artificial for cereals for different rotations for different soils

i. 398 i. 398 iii. 63 ii . 87 ii . 126 ii. 102

ji. 176 ii. 133 ii. 131 ii. 123

estimating the value of experiments in Aberdeenshire ii. 170-175 by Highland and Ag ricultural Society ii. 175-185 at Rothamsted . ii. 135-170 11

11

II

i. 276

manures for

pulling salt for

I!

i. 320 ii . 260

ii . 382 ii. 396

11

iii. 416

ii. 436 iii. 381

injuring plants insects which attack lambs and sheep

"

in Sussex .

11

farmyard

" farmyard, ingredients in

ii . 174

i. 501 ii. 95

green rye as

iii . 129

11

mixing of

ji. 123

11

phosphatic

.

" purchasing of 11 11

Maggot-fly . Main posts Maize for ensilage as a forageplant

ii . 377

medium v. large roots 1. preliminary cleaning for

10

ii . 383 ii. 378

ingredients absorbed by

11

jji . 417

ii. 256 ii . 256 i. 257

i. 158

ii. 376

i. 262

ji. 257

376 375 375 265

cultivation for

11

iii. 425 ii . 256 i. 279

251 248 154 265 381

covering with dry straw

iii. 383

Loft roof

Long-horned cattie, scarceness of

11

i. 517 ji. 413 i . 214 i. 214

i. i. iii. i. ii.

1

irrigation with : i. 526, 528, 529 pump .

climate for

composition of cost of pulling and carting

i. 249 i. 252

11

302

iii. 426 i. 259 i. 257

. analysis of . " boiling

i. 165

autumn and spring tillage

iii. 303 iii. jii. jii . iii.

Lincoln sheep

ash of .

11

!

and soilnitrogen:

Linseed, adulteration of cakes

10

iments on rn Malt-tax controversy Management of fowls . Mangel, advantages of storing .: application of manure

10

and soluble phosphates 11 top -dressing grass with varieties of

10

11

jii. 300 iii . 300

i. 251

i. 252 i. 248 i. 251

costofpreparing for feedingcattle Howard on Rothamsted experiments on special properties of Wobu exper

10

iii. 298 iii . 298

i. 253

for slow and fast- growing crops sowing, by machines special

ji. ii. ji. ii. ii.

109 121 133 135 102

Manurial value of foods

Lawes's manurial tables Proportion of food assimilated and voided

Solid excreta Theoretical and realised manure values

i. 284 i. 283 i. 283 i . 288

Unexhausted value of consumed food .

i. 289

INDEX. Manurial value of urine

i. 283 | Molasses, useful properties of iii. 47 jii. 293 i. 404

Manuring, green hill pastures Mares in foal

Marks,registeringsheep Marl clay, composition of

Mashes, warm , for cattle Marketing corn

M'Cormick's reaping-machine

iii . 288 iii. 66

Meadows, water, advantage of

iii. 306

11

11

11

11

catch -work

jii . 309

forming for Highland districts

iii. 308 iii . 306

Mechanics Mertoun flock Meslin .

Meteorology Mildew, corn

Milk, artificial means ofmilking . souring of

11

11

11

ii. 489 ji . 477 ii. 474

consumption and selling of whole cream from . destination of the dishes .

11

fever, prevention of symptoms of, in cows as food for young animals globules 11

. heating and cooling 1 pail

ii. 500 ii. 479 ii. 474

ii. 478 ii . 480 ii.

23

Time for mole -draining Mortar for farm -buildings Mountain -ranges and temperature Mountains and climatic variations

Multitubular boiler, locomotive Mustard, botanical position of culture of

ii. 476

11

purifying insealedbottles

ii. 476

.

iii . 284 iii. 283 iii . 282

iii. 285 iii. 281

iii. 380 iii. 186 iii. 182

i. 124 ii . 260 ii. 260

iii . 205 i. 408

i.

15

i.

19

iii . 525

i. 171 ii. 26

ii. 477

sieve

iii. 285 iii. 285

iii. 283

ii. 519

preserving

statistics sugar .

iii . 284 iii. 281 iii. 282 iii. 281

Nievling in milking Nitrateof potash

period .

specific gravity of

iii . 281

Neufchatel cheese and its production

480 ii . 25, ii . 29

. selling trade " separated

Names of horses . Natural history " philosophy Neighbours,relation to Nets for enclosing sheep

iii . 284 iii . 285

i . 244 ii. 475

1

11

Process of mole -draining Repair of mole - drains

iii . 284 iii . 284 iii . 284

ii. 23

11

11

Duration of mole -drains Enemies of mole - drains Main drain Method of Outfall .

from different breeds ii. 474 Mutual insuranceagainst disease skim

11

11

ii . 503

condensed

11

11

Draining ploughs Draining tillage land

20

churning composition of

Draining permanent pasture

431 130 414 28

Contracting , and price for Cost of mole and pipe draining compared

Destruction of mole - drains Different soils and Distance apart

21

ii. 474 ii. 479

ash of . for calves

11

11

i. iii . iii . i. ii. ii.

iii. 283

iii. 284 iii. 284

Coulter track Depth of mole-drains

iii. 385-390

iii. 281

Channel of mole - drain

Cost per acre

iii . 130 iii. 524

Mashlack

11

Advantages of Auxiliary mains

iii. 129 i. 341

Martinmas entry .

i . 262

i. 262

Mole-drainage

iii. 302 iii. 302

1. shell, composition of Marling land

for young bulls

"

ii. 454 ii. 456 iii. 302

Marking of sheep

Mason -work Mattock

543

Nitrifaction , theory of

ii. 487 ii. 481 ii. 475 ji. 475

ii. 475

ji . 105

Nitrogenous manures, characteristics of .

ii. 106

Nomenclature of sheep

ii . 477

ii. 479

ji . 105 ji. 104

soda

11

cattle horse

" poultry Norfolk and Suffolk Red Polled cattle Characteristics of . Origin of Yield of milk

i. 174 i. 225 i . 407

i. 436

iii. 416 iii. 416 iii. 416

. testing percentage of cream

ii. 474

I

ii. 474

Nursing-mares, feeding working

ii . 287

ii. 476

Nursing sick animals :

iii. 498

11

various qualitiesof weighing

Milking cows,first milk 11

hefting . the operation of

theory of 11 11

I

troublesome :

side stool

tubes

Mill-dam , forming Mill- wheel arc Mist or fog .

Mixed farming flour preferred husbandry, steadings for Moist and dry winds Molasses or treacle

. 10

how , is used risky for breeding stock

ii. 287

ii. 24 ii. ii . ii. ii. ii. ii. ii.

25 26 24

26 26 28

i . 456 jii. 386

i. 35

as food for stock .

i. 491 i. 494 i. 494

. barley and, mixed

ii . 214

Oats

antiquity of cultivation of ti

11

i. 499

chaff 11

as a foot-warmer

classification by the grain " classifying by the ear . culture of 11

experiments with

i. iii . 130

!! grains in a bushel of 1 harrowing .

iii. 326 i. 34

.. improvements in culture of

i . 262 i . 262 i. 262

kernel and husk : limits of culture of 11

machine sowing manuring for

i. 499

i. 491 i. 492 ii . 211

jii. 131 i. ii. i. ü. i. ii.

493 212 493 212 494 212

ii. 214

INDEX.

544

jii. 131

Oats, mixed . meal

composition of

Pea, composition of ash of .

i. 500

i. 493

Peacock

i. 436

i. 494 49

Peas

yield of " origin of " ploughing for

i. 494 ji. 213

1 quantity of seed per acre

ii. 212 ii . 212

"

i.

Sowing

mixed varieties

ji . 213 i. 254 i. 499

for stock -feeding straw, composition of ash of

ii. ii. i. iii.

11 thick and thin sowing . I

3

varieties of .

yield and weightof Offering for a farm

Ogle & Brown's reaping-machine.

313 211 492 191

iii. 62 i. 303

Oil as food

albuminoids compensating for i. 305

want of

and beef production fat in foods .

i. 306 30

and milk production

i. 305

.. oily food decreasing milk

i. 304

11 11

i.

4

practical conclusions as to oily food . source of fat 11 11

i. 306

.

i . 304

valuable for sheep value of fat as a food constituent fat per unit 11

in food

Oil -can Onions, farm culture of

i. 304 i. 303

i. 305 i. 305 i. 465 iii. 134 iii. 137

Orchards

Organic matter, function of : Ornamental wire -fencing “ Outfield " land .

Oxen , rations for fattening Oxford Down sheep Oxygen and combustion

ii. 428

Paddocks , grass

iii. 212

i. 128

.

for sheep i . 209 i. 261 Palm -nut meal i. 261 . analysis of i. 261 food for calves and cows 304-3 ii. 08 Paring and burning land ii. 308 11 changes involved in burning soil . 11

11

methods of .

11 object of " plough process of burning

Parmesan cheese and its production Parsnips 11

botanical position of farm culture of leaves as food for cows

. storing Partitions, wooden Pastoral farm , altitude of drainage of !!

1

11

10

farmers . 1

fencing

sheep on a steading for

subdividing 11 farming 1 life, poetry of Pasture, preparing, for stock " improvement of hill 11 plants on hilly ground Pastures, analysis of

Pasturing of cattle

i. 256, 257

II

iii. 215

Phosphatic layers 0

manures

11

10

characteristics of :

Physics Physiology

i.

19

i.

17

Pigeon dung, its composition

ii. 304

10

iii. 112 ii . 300

wood

Pigeons, hatching Pigs, ball-feeding for castrating 11

i. 423

cocoa -nut meal for cod-liver oil for condimental food for .

11

disadvantages of feeding, in winter early maturity in farrow sows fed on raw and cooked food feeding

11

Howard's rationsfor :

11 10

litter for

" managing litters . 11

10

meals for

423 421 422 425 421 422

i . 425 i. 421 ii. 291

weaning young, litter for treatment of

ii. 305

Pillars for support of roofs

ii. 516

Pipes, down Pirling

ii . 290 i. 421 iii. 387

iii. 384

Plan of the work

i.

Plans for different classes of farm -houses

jji . 134 i. 160 i. 160

Plant- food

iii . 387

Plantations, shelter from

in dung

iii. 288 iii. 214 iii. 219

Planting along a water- course cabbage hops " potatoes

ii. 258 ii. 329

11

Plaster -work

. ii. 269 ; iii. 131 iii. 389

Pleuro, stamping out Ploughs, actionsof various . . American, and its working .

its constituent parts digging and pulverising " draught of " English wheel horses for, how harnessed irons

76 73

jii. 344 i . 57

ii. 138

Plantation ground, reclaiming

1

i. i. i. i. i. i.

i. 425

11

ii. 458-468

i. 420 i. 423

i. 421 i. 421

11

i. 203 i. 4 ii. 47 ii . 430 iii . 291 ii. 437 i. 270

422 422 422 423 420

nomenclature of : rearing

11

i. i. i. i. i.

numbers in a litter 10

ii. 306

i. 203 ; ii. 313

6 116 114 109 118

ii. 114 iii. 176

Phosphorite, composition of Physical geography of farms

ii. 304

i. jii. 213 i. 201

i. ii. ji. ji. ii.

ii. 169

!! manuring, experiments on

when weaned

i. 209

i. 497 ; ii. 206

Permanent fences

rest for

i. 203

jii. 109 ii. 206

Persons who conduct and execute the labour of a farm Phosphateoflime, composition of

11

ii. 386

ii. 206 jii. 130

in autumn stacking tillage for varieties of.. 11

11

i. 266 i. 166

ash of .

iii. 108

for sheep " sowing

ii. 305 ji . 307

useful on certain soils .

jji. 135 ii. 406 i. 497

farm culture of insects which attack

" production of " reaping

ii . 185 iii. 242 iii. 173 i. 293

i. 497

consumption of !!

ii. 405

insects which attack

ii. 300 i. 497

Pea-fowls, hatching

jii. 207

i. 97 i.

91

i . 85 ji . 343

i. i. i 90 et i.

91 87 seq .

99

INDEX.

Ploughs, mechanics of the I mole -draining !!

.

Small's

11

staff steam

Ploughing, angle . 10

bad

in breaks correct 11 01

11 11 UT

"

cross

crown and furrow deep and shallow furrows different forms of ridges

Destroying potato refuse Details of planting Digger .

ii. 426 ii. 265

97 91

i.

90

i. i. i. i. i. i.

116 116 114 ΙΟΙ 116 110

i. 119

finish or mould furrows friction of the earth

i.

gore -furrows head -ridges . irregular fields

i.

121

ii . 218

lea

i. 177

i. 75

ground

11

90

i. 112

land manured by sheep

1

i. 87 i. i.

i. 100 i. 106 i. ΙΙΟ

16

i. 118, 120

learning

i. 100

matches

i. 98 , 104

medals of the Highland and Agri cultural Society

i. i. i. ii . i. i. i. i. i.

modes of

rain -water channels 11 ridges and feerings shallow

. smashing " speed of horses u 11

.

steep land

stubble land subsoiling three horses trench and subsoil

i.

11

11

104 106 118 219 120 120 102 103 118

i. 119 i. 96

with two horses

97

iii. 295 ii. 341 i. 121 i. 121 i. 7

for turnips : unseasonable water-runs

Ploughmen ,duties of : how employed in bad weather

ii. 425 ii. 276

.

ji . 271 ii. 424

85

i. 140 i. 117

turn -wrest on wheels

545 Conditions of culture Cross -fertilisation .

Culture after planting Cutting off the tops

i.

modern

11

89

iii . 282 i. 95

reins Scotch

11

i.

i. 407

iii. 118

jii. 117 ii . 276

Disease .

Disease-resisting varieties Distribution of the

ji. ii. ii. iii.

Dry elevated land for potatoes Experiments with late planting Frosted

iii. 116 , 136 ii. 269 ji . 271

Graip Hand -basket

Hand - hoeing

i . 267

For horses How to cut sets

ii. 265 ii. 407 ii. 273 ii. 261

Insects which attack

Introduction into Europe Land suitable for planting Lazy -bed system Lifting and selecting

ii. 270 ji . 279

Male and female organs Manure for

ii. 276 ii. 425

.

ii. 261

Manuring for

ii. 278

Marking fertilised plum Methods of raising

iii. 116 ii. 280

Need for new varieties .

Period of development .

ii . 279

Pits

jii. iii. ii. ii.

Planting Planting boxed seed Planting machines Planting the seed . Plough Plough digging Points of a good

Preserving sets Process of cross - fertilisation

Quantity of seed per acre Raising Raising new varieties of Retain only superior varieties Rothamsted experiments with Securing and storing seeds Seed, how prepared

ii . 280

ii. 263 ii . 278

ii. 265 ii. 276 ii. 276

Seedless varieties

iii. 388

Seeds raised from the plum

iii . ii.

Selecting varieties for different

iii. 417

Characteristics of . Colour

iii. 420

Earlyimprovement Meat of

417 419 iii . 417

Origin of Points of Poncelet turbine

418

i. 461 ji . 433 ii . 432 ii . 433

Ponds, care of rain -water

" reliability of Ponies, rations for Poppy -cake . analysis of

i. i. i. i. i. i.

11

apt to become rancid

Portable engines .

, threshing machine Potassic manures Potato

Autumn planting Botanical position Boxing system of preparing sets Care of potato seed

Composition of VOL. III .

.

.

417 261 261 261 137 451

ii . 273

soils

Separator Sowing the seed Storing Sunshine and dry winds Tillage for Utilising diseased Value of, for cattle

iii. 125, 126 ii . 279

ii. 279 ; iii. 122 ii . 425 ii . 261

i. 267 i. 267 ii . 271 ii . 273 ii. 266

Varieties of

Varieties in use Various manures for the

i. 267

Water with , to animals Width and depth of sets Width of drills

121 274 266 277 266 116

ii. 276

Plunkett's reaping-machine Poetry of pastoral life . Polled Aberdeen -Angus cattle

123 131 275 268

ii. 269 ii. 267 iii. ii. ii . ii . ii . iii .

Plumber- work

61 47

273 425 270 125

ji . 270

ii. 269

.

ii. 272 ii . 279

Wild potato · Young seedlings Potato disease Cause of

ii. 417 ji. 425

ii . 119

Disease-resisting varieties Fungus

ii. 417

iii. 131 ii. 271 ii . 274

Fungus in its active state

ii. 418

Howthe fungus passes the winter Humidity necessary for the fungus Other potato diseases

ii. 421 ji. 425

Preventive measures

ji . 422

ii. 426

i. 267

2 M

ii. 426

INDEX .

546 Protective moulding and its merits

ii. 422

Recognising the fungus Remedial measures

ii. 418 ii. 422

Weather and the Poularde Poultry

Artificial hatching In autumn “ Brooders " . Bumble - foot . Catarrh

i. 436

Catching pigeons Characteristicsof old birds Common pigeons Crop-bound

Daily treatment of

ji. 303 iii. 154

i. i. i. i. i.

437 427 430 428 427

i. 437 i. 430

i. 437 i. 438 i . 437

Diarrhea

Diptheria Diseases of Ducks

Dung Egg- bound Eggs in winter Embryo of the chick Facts about eggs

Farming

i. 427 ji. 303

i. 438 i . 433 ii. 302

ii . 301 i . 439

Fattening

i. 434

Feathers Foods for

i. 436

Formation of feathers Fowls in town Geese

Hatching Imports of eggs and

Indigestion Injuring crops prevention Laying season Leg weakness

i. 432 ii . 302

Rheumatism . Roup

Sand, dust and water för fowls Scaly legs Soft crop

Soft or shell-less eggs

In spring Table poultry all the year round Temperature for incubation . Testing eggs for chicks.

437 115 115 292

i. 438

of spring

!!

i. 436

Pulped food for sheep .

i. ii. i. i. i.

mixtures, preparing Pulping

economises fodder

economy of . evidence in favour of

11

11

force

i.

liquid -manure

i. 224

critical period in

i. 283

Tests of cake Rack for drying sheaves

Radiation, preventingloss of heat by : Rain , ammonia in prognostics of theory of 11

ii. 301 i. 438

i . 438 i. 438 ii. 292

i. 434 ii. 303

ii. 302

i.

36

i. 224

1 spouts for steadings Rainfall and climate in connection with

iii . 312

farm buildings 11

amount of

i.

11

distribution of

11

in Great Britain

i. 37 i. 37

in a season

" position of the Ram-breeding on hill farms . intermixing blood I selecting and mating ewes selecting ram lambs Randall's system of stock -feeding 1

culture of

.

as green food for sheep " sowing of Rape -cake "

Reaperknife-sharpener

i. 259 i. 260 i. 260

iii. 176

self-delivery

iii. 70

manual v. self-delivery

iii .

Reaumur scale 11

453 259 260 260

ii. 260

preparing, for cattle

Realisation .

i, 436

74

i . 183 ; ii. 260

impurity of Indian

11

36 150 150 150 150

i. 381

Rape, botanical position of . 11

i. iii. iii . iii. iii . iii . i. ii . ii. ii.

Ransome's threshing machine

11

37

ji. 184 i. 38 i. 36

.

i. 433

iii . 118 ii . 12 ii. ji.

jii. 103 i. 130 i. 38 i . 38

jii. 379

water drains

11

Rakes, hand

i. 437

12

11

24

Purchase of foods

Powell Brothers & Whittaker's potato of cows

198 332 329 329 329

i. 331 i. 24

Pump, common sucking

i. 438

i. 426 i. 430 i. 428

Pregnancy, abortion

ii. 313 ii. 292 iii. 105 iii. 106

Pullet .

weight of, per acre Rain -gauge :

Varieties of farm

digger

39

ji. 314 ii. 5

i. 428 i. 431 i. 431

Time and place for feeding Turkeys Wood pigeons Young broods in winter

i.

i. 38

rainbow

summer weather . Prolificacy of swine Proportion of grain to straw crops and roots

i. 439 i. iii. iii. ii.

i. 437 i. 427

Weeding pigeons

i. 148

i . 282

434 301 429 300

Rapid fattening of Regularity in feeding

41

i. 282 i. 282 i. 282

i. ii . i. ii.

Poultry -houses

II

42 iii. 43 i. 277

1

11

IO

41

Hints on the . Purity of linseed- cake

Management of

Pigeon-house A plea for

Presses, steam -power, for hay horse -power, for hay hand-power, for hay Highland Society trials of Prickly comfrey Proctor's digger Prognostications of wind Prognostics of rain

I2

Guaranteed analysis

426 429 426 436

Phenomena of incubation

ii. ii . ii. iii. iii .

II II IO

Chemical analysis essential

i. i. i. i.

Nomenclature of :

oil -cake for calving cows testing

ii .

i . 427 ii. 292

i. 438

Pampered fowls

ii.

ii. 301

Lice

Movable poultry -coops . Neglect of

indication of bull-calves twins

treatment of in - calf cows

i. 438

Catching

11

ji. 417

i. 437 i. 434

Bronchitis in

ii.

Pregnancy, feeding in -calf cows

71

i.

29

i.

29

rule for converting into the Fahrenheit ,

.

INDEX. Reaping appliances 11

reaping-machine scythe

11

sickle or hook

11

cost of oats

process of

wheat, barley, oats, and rye machines, American

11

! 11

ancient . first effective

modern .

nineteenth -century Rearing stock on silage Recipes for ailments of farm live stock

iii.

56

iii . iii .

60 57

Roots,turnips consumed on the ground by sheep Roscommon sheep

iii .

56

Rotation of crops

iii. iii . iii .

68

Rothamsted experiments with manures ii. 135-170 for turnips Roughing horse-shoes Rubbing-post

iii . iii .

66 60

iii. iii.

63 67

iii.

61

iii. 52

harvesting threshing Redonda phosphates

iii . 52 iii . 52 ii. 114

Re-draining land

jii. 276 ii . 502

action of

ii. ii. iii. iii.

testing Rent, covenanted " estimating " offering 10

188

ii. 357 iii. 154 ii. 433

i. 494 i. 252

Rye

composition of

i. 495 iii. 129

flour 11

for forage as a forage plant

ii. 258 ii. 226

grass 11

11

11

for ensilage and timothy, analysis of , cut at different stages of growth

and timothy, composition of

!!

503 502 191

nitrogen

11

i. 324

Red - clover seed , cutting and drying

11

iii. 168-175 iii . 169

rationale of

70 70

Recreation for farm -servants

Rennet

11

limits of cultivation of sowing

straw , composition of ash of yield and weight of Ryeland breed of sheep !!

.

iii. 278 i. 315

Reynolds's ensilage press Rice for stock - feeding .

i. 255

Rice -meal for stock -feeding

Richmond's rack for drying sheaves Rick -lifters . !! stands .

i. 255 iii . 103 iii . 25

i. 440 üi.

Rickling,or temporary stalking Ridges,ancient form of

86

i. 473

Riddles ,wheat

11

lifter

Sainfoin , botanical position of 11

hay

1!

sowing

as a winter food for cattle Salmon's reaping-machine Salt on pastures 11

for sheep

Saltpetre in milk

"casting cleaved -down . direction of

i. 107

Science applied to agriculture

11

gathered . gathering up " levelling " parts of width of

Ring-fences . Ripening of grain , irregular

Roads tofarm -buildings

Rollers,diameterandweight of divided

ii. 215

speed in

ii. 216 ii . 216

time for

Roof-boarding Roots, advantages ofstoring carting

comparative mineral ingredients estimating weight of of hay

11

11

Sciencesapplicable to agriculture to be studied by farmers Scientific education widening 11

Scotch plough . threshing-machine Scots fir leaves for sheep Scott's reaping-machine

value of swedes nutritive matter in an acre of different kinds of

treatment of

10

i. 500 i. 495 iii. 425

i.

II

i. i. i. i.

10 IO 12

II

i. 85 i. 449 i. 210 iii. 61

ii. 46 i. 235 59

58

iii. 58

Hainault iron

method of, reaping setting a

sharpening 11

speed with the straight sned

Sea -breeze

Sea -weed , collecting Seeds, change of . . improvement in

pulling mangels

i. 158

Seed -time

i. 151 i. 150 149

selecting seeds " testing seeds Self-delivery reapers

turnips

II IO

cradle .

plan of stripping turnips

... quantity of, to be left for sheep :

i. i.

433 ii. 436 ii. 477 iii. 133 iii. 69

common

11

i. i. i. i.

.

257 257 277 61

iii.

i. 167 i. 158 i. 166

166 166 166 150

ii. ji. i. iii. ii .

iii .

i. 150

i. 168 iii. 106

i. 479 ii . 257

Sculls, willow Scythe, bent sned

i. 149

keeping properties and feeding

storing

jii . 129

i . 200 ; ii. 59 ii. 46

Scour in lambs

Scouring in calves

i. 215 ; iii . 389 iji. 383

ascertaining weight per acre careful and careless thinning of

growing in favour prominence to chemistry

with practice

iii. 425

RomneyMarsh sheep

!!

.

288 107 114 107 210 130 317 215 215

process of

Rones

1

i. 109

ii. 214

Rolling land

Samuelson's back -delivery reaper T!

ji. 215

water - ballast

Savoys, farm culture of

i. 112

iii. i. i. i. iii . iii . iii. ii. ii.

" twice-gathered -up

"

i. 270 i. 269 i. 495

i. 480

Sack -barrow

i . 107 i. III i. 115

11

i. 320

iii. 191 , 192

Reopening drains

"

i. 150 iii . 434

71

iii. 493 iii. 525

11

547

" germination of for rotation grasses standard mixtures of grass 11

57 59

58

iii. 59 i. 24 i. 532 ii. 187 ii. 186

ii. 239 ji. 234

ii. 235 ji. 185 ii. 186

ii. 187 iii.

70

INDEX.

548 Semi-portable engine Serpentine fences Setoning Servants, classes of 1 residence of, on the farm

i. 135

Feeding ewes in lamb in winter Feeding, in sheds .

iii . 211

ii . 46 ; iii. 498

Sewage, town, application of Sheaf-gauge : Shearing of sheep Sheaves, size of Sheep

iii. 359 iii. 359

i. 528 iii .

i . 182 i. 184 i . 176

Hand -feeding, when to begin

i . 182

Hay -silage and corn for hill feeding

i . 182 i. 187

Increase in tallow

57

Irrigation on hill - farms Lambs on turnips Linseed, beans, and turnips for

ii . 441-452 iii.

Fodder for

74

iii. 485

Linseed -cake saving roots Littering the turnip -break for

iii . 323

Mangels for lambs and .

Mixed, on turnips

training collies

iii. 436 438 438

varieties of collies .

iii . 437

Drafting Excessive valuations for Improvement in

Oats and hay for hoggs On pastoral farms

iii . 202

Ailments of .

And arable farming steading com bined

Dogs

" sagacity of the collie

Keds on

Lodging for

Marking of Marks,registering of Nets, dipping

precautions in setting setting

Pastoralfarming : Rapid feeding of

In spring In spring storms Washing of Weights of Sheep in autumn

Near towns

Nomenclature of :

ii. 456

Picking out turnip shells

i. 361

Prevention of foot - rot Rape for

iii. 140 ji. 457 ii . 454

heavy rains

iii . 321

Shed and yard feeding : Shelter for

i . 208

Shelter for, on turnips .

i . 183

Standing and floating flocks .

i. 183 i. 205 i, 176

Shed for

i. 365 ii . 46-87 ii. 46

Stells for Substitutes for racks

ii . 438

On turnips during snow Turnips for hoggs . Turnips on sheep -farm .

Turnips risky forewes . Turnip -tops for sheep Unripe turnips dangerous for Washing roots for

Wheat-meal v. linseed -cake for

ii. 434 ji. 441 ii. 447

Washing of Water for Sheep in winter Advantageous to use rich foods with turnips

ii. 438 43

Advantages of pulped food for

i . 199 i. 173 i. 173

ii .

White turnips v. swedes for . Young, on turnips

4

Cutting turnips for On dairy farins

i. 174

Blackfaced

429 iii. 433

426 iii. 428

Dorset horned

429

Hampshire Downs

iii. 428 iii . 425

i. 178

Liecester Lincolns Oxford Downs Roscommon .

i. 189

Shropshires

i. 190

Southdowns . Suffolk

i . 182 i . 188 i. 180

i. 173 i. 189 i . 209 i. 177

Weights of Shelter, effects of 11

i. 183 i . 174

Dry food with turnips . Enclosing, on turnips Ensilagefor tup hoggs Extent of roots given at a time Fattening wethers Feeding,avoid changes in

i. 175

from plantations .

on upland farms . Shepherd , his duties 1

i . 191

Draft ewes on turnips

Feeding cut turnips on lea

i . 186 i . 188 i. 185

BorderLiecesters

Devon long-wools .

hut medicines

Dangers of putting, in a wood in a snowstorm

174 180 204 204 174 174 181

iii . 433

Cheviots Cotswolds

i. 187

Consumption of food and increase of weight

180 204 185 184

Sheep , varieties in the British Isles-

Carting turnips to lea in wet Cots

i. i. i. i. i. i. i.

Tups on turnips

i. 368

iii . 139

weather

i . 180

Securing winter food for

Keds

farms

176 198 183 182

i. 172 i . 171

Object of dressing

Cake or corn for, on turnips Canadian experiments in feeding . On carse

i. i. i. i.

i. i. i. i.

iii. 139

Begin cautiously with turnips Begin turnip -feeding early Blackfaced , in winter Cabbages v. swedes Cake-breaker

188 174 191 174 179 201

Salt for

iii . 139 iii . 139 iii . 140

Shearing of Shearing-machine .

i. i. i. i. i. i.

i . 212

Fly and scab

Sheep in summer Pasturing of .

.

Ration for breeding ewes Removing, from turnip -land in

ii. 456

Bathing, smearing, and dipping Former customs

i. 187 i . 187 i. 184

Management of, in typical flocks . i. 191-213

ii. 436

Salt for

i. 211 i. 174

Shepherd's crook 11

knot

Shepherds, duties of

i. 169 Shetland cattle,characteristics of i . 180 i. 173 i . 181 i. 181

i. 177

milking properties of . Shire horses characteristics of

iii . 426 iii. 428 iii . 434 iii . 427 iii. 427

iii . 428 iii. 434 iii. 210

iii . 214

iii. 215

i. 8 ; ii . 48, 49 ii. 51 ii. 51 ii.

60

i. 151 8 i. iii. 424 iii . 424

iii. 393

11

form of

iii . 394 iii . 394

11

name of the breedi

iii. 393

INDEX. Shire horses, origin Stud -book typical Shire 11

11

Shorthorn cattleBooth and Bates stock . Characteristics of . Colour of

Early improvements

549

jii . 393 iii . 394 iii . 395

Deep and thin

jii . 407

Distribution of plant-food in Dry and wet

Diluvium or subaqueousdeposits .

i . 43 i. 55

Discriminating, by the plants pro i.

duced iii. 408 iii. 408 iii. 406

47

i . 58 i. 43

Exhaustion of,by removal of crops i.

and stock

62

Kelton and Barmpton sales Milking properties Origin of

iii. 407

Fertility of

iii . 408 iii. 346

Grateful

Points of the

iii . 409

Gravelly

i.

Progress of

iii. 406 iii . 408

Hard and soft

i. 43 i. 45 i. 45

Weight and early maturity Shropshire sheep .

Fine and coarse

43

Heat in

iii. 427

influenced by moisture

11

Sick , nursing the

iii. 498

Sickle .

iii . 56

Heavy Humus in

iii. iii.

Influence of colour in

smooth -edged still used toothed Sieves . Silos 11 11

above and below ground

i.

of subsoil

11

Lime as a manure

i. i. i.

61 43 65

Loamy .

i. 41

Manurial value of foods

i.

i. 65 i. 59

Kindly .

i. .309

Nitrate of soda

i. 310 i. 308 i. 310

Nitrates in, production of

converted

new

wooden

Siphon . Skim -milk cheese

44

55 51 43

and organic matter in

with lever pressure

concrete slab

11

43 59 43

i. i. i.

Inorganic matter in plants

i. 307

308 310 310 310 307 309 309

41

42

hillside

10

!!

Hungry

57

57 iii. 56 47 4 i.

Chezelles Goffart's

Bentall's concrete

!

i. i. i.

i. i. i. i. i. i. i.

11

11

i. 56 i. 43

Leguminous crops enrich , with nitrogen

Light

65

Nitrogen , phosphoric acid, and potash in

Nitrogenous manures which enrich

i. 24 ii. 513

i.

58

i.

61

i. 40 , 55

Originof

Sky- lights Slater -work .

iii . 387 iii . 388

Oxidation in different

1.

Oxide of manganese in

Sledge, hay

iii. iii . iii . iii. i.

Oxides of iron in

i. 51 i. 51

Smearing clean and dirty sheep reviving " sheep . Smoke wasteful Smut of corn

"preventing " propagation of Snow -harrow, mountain " line, perpetual plough Snowfalls, gauging Soiling cattle

16 141 141 140 128

i. i.

Physical condition of

i . 56

.

Porous and retentive Potash and soda in

ii . 417

43

i. 55

manures

11

ii. 417 ii. 86 iii. 182

42 65

Phosphatic manure, effect of, on

Peaty

ii. 416

62

44

Red

i.

Relation of, to water

i.

57

i.

57

!!

of plant -food to

Restoration of fertility by manuring

i.

64

i. 36

Retention of manures

i.

65

ii. 468

Retentive power of

i.

ii.

85

Rich and poor

Soil

Absorbing power of oxygen from the air

Accumulation and exhaustion of fertility of Alluvial deposits Alumina in

Analysis of Becoming sick

i.

45

i.

46

i.

60

i.

Brown

Causes of infertility of . Capacity of, for retaining water Capillary action of Chalky ,

Characteristics of Chemical analysis of, essential Chemical composition of Clay

Ofclay and sand : Clayey loams Colour of subsoils Conditions of Deaf or dead

i. i. i.

i.

i.

43

Silica in

i.

51

Sources of fertility in

i. 57

Stones afford renewed supplies of mineral matter . Structure andcomposition of

i. 51

Subsoil . Temperature of

i. i.

46

What plants withdraw from the

i.

White

With fine skin

Solublephosphates or superphosphates Sombrero or rock guano

i. i. i. i.

40 40 41

Sorghum

43

51

i. 55

51

43

as a forage plant Sour hay Southdown sheep Sowing barley 1

42

Upper mould Valuation of unexhausted manure in

i.

44

51

i. 45

Twelve substances in 68

51 i . 42 186 iii. 55

i.

i. 41

Solubility of phosphates and potash in i. 59

i. 55 i. 51 i. 54

Black

Blue clay

Sandy loans Sharp

basket

i. i. i.

66 54 44 44

ii. ji. i. ii.

116 114 277 260

i. 306 iii. 427

iii. 128, 207 ii. 193

INDEX.

550

ii . 201

Sowing beans ,, cereals in autumn crimson clover German practice of

iii. 126 iii. ii. ii. ii. ii . ii.

machines, broadcast in drills oats

219 192 194 195 211

ii. 205 ; iii. 130

peas

iii . 129 ii. 188

rye

" spring wheat " turnips I varieties of corn together 1 wheat . Sows, brood

Sparrows, plague of " destroying Spaying, advantages of COWS

ii . 336 iii . 130 iii. 126 i . 421 et seq . iii . 112 iii . 114 ii. 30 ii. 29

iii . 498

heifers and sows

Specific gravity of soils, rocks, minerals , Specifications

for a steading for a farm of 500 acres

1 1

of labourer's cottages . of modern stone steading

Speedwell cream -raiser Spring, clouds in 1 evaporation in " grass-parks in " prognostics of rain in

iii .

85

iii.

86

process of

iii. 385 ii . 484 ii. ii. ii. ii. ii.

roofed

tidy Stallions, exercise for

· feeding and management of 11

for feeding cattle

1

single and double

cart-horse, construction of

10

corn - chest dimensions of fittings floor of

"

foaling -box .

11 11

iii. 207

Stathels

iii. 94 i. 214

Steading,arrangementof, för cattle 11 1 11

11 10

"

harness -room in

hayhouse " hay-racks in hind -posts length of

01

.

11

10

mangers

11

metal mangers and racks paving stalls in

11 11 11

temperature of ventilation of window of .

Stack , bosses for . 11

corn , how built

ensilage formation of foundation for

"

"

foundations ground -plan of heating of ropes of

roping : " "

thatching trimming upon stathels

iii. 336

Forfarshire .

jii. 333

i. 445 iii. 326 iii. 331 iii. 331

modern Scotch

pastoral farming . preservation of wooden floors principles of constructing

iii. 319 i . 445

iii. 316-340

construction

roofs for

11

forsuburban farming with árable

Steam -cultivation Advantages of steam -ploughing

i. 399 i. 402 iii . 315 i. 400 i. 392

iii. 388 394 399 399 400 397 394 392

11

I 11

1 i. i. 441 iii. 100 90 97 97

iii. 96 iii. 94

131 123 131 127

different types of fuel per horse -power

i. 129

fuel, &c. grate 11

!!

Highland and Agricultural trials mountings softwater best for boilers

Steam generators 11

iii. 44 95

i. i. i. i.

weeds killed by

i . 398 i. 394 i. 392 392 IOI 95 311 441

and the action of the steam boiler . construction of corrugated boiler flue

Steam -engine

11

i. 395

149 148 146 148 seq .

cost of

principleof

iii. 383

i. 395

i. i. i. i. 30 et

Single-engine systems Steam -digging, advantages of

11

power on farms !

134 i. 128

i. i. i. i.

125 137 125 128

i . 124

i. 31

to agriculture, application of i. 128 122

properties of

Steelbow

Steerage horse -hoe Stells for sheep 11

concave

11

inside . outside

. plantation

Stilton cheese and its production Stock , preparing pasture for "

iii . 338 141 142 141 143 143 141 144

Injury by too deep ploughing Plough engines Ploughing plant, cost of Prejudice against steam-ploughing !!

i. 440 i. 446

i. i. i. i. i. i. i.

Double-engine system

392 et seq .

i. iii . iii. i. i.

for dairy -farming hanging doors in for mixed husbandry modern English

11

5

ii . 1-7 ii . 3 ii. 3

i. i. i. i. i. i. i.

i. 220

Stamping out pleuro

iii. 259

Stable for farm horses boxes for broom 11

i. 219

i. 219

culture

5

ii. 467

Springs, draining

ii. 289

number of mares to one Stalls for cows

summary of field operations and

Spring-hook

iii. 384 ii. 289 ii. 289

Stall divisions

snow in

of the weather weather in winds in

i. 440 i. 441 iii. 107

!! preparing

11

iii. 378 iii . 389

i. 440

Stackyard, fencing the

11

i. 25 , 26 iii. 376 et seq.

and woods

iii. 101

Stacking cereals

51

iii . 130

grass seeds hand

Stack ventilators .

rearing on silage

Stocking a pastoral farm Stone fences, repairing Stony ground, trenching Stooking or shocking grain Store lambs

Storing roots Storm signals

i.

iii. 199 ii. 389 i. 205 i. 206

i. 207 i. 205 i. ii. ii. i. i. ii. iii. iii.

206 511 430 324

5 431 288

74

ii. 453 i. 149

i. 39

INDEX. Straining- posts

Straw , advantages of stored straw.chafi

iii. 235

Form of surface-drain .

i. 274

Placing the sods Repairing surface -drains Surface- stones, removal of .

ancient uses of

i. 500

11

ash of .

i. 500

1

carrying, to the farm courts composition of different kinds of

i . 467 i. 273

10

farm culture of

·

.

feeding value of manurial value of mows of

10 !!

preparing and storing racks

i. 467

. removing " rope-making screen , straw.chaff :

iii.

value of

" yield of

Strawberries, duration of plants :

i. iii. i. iii.

454 318 500 136

iii . 135

fruit, the

irregular produce of

iii. 136

labour and soil

iii. 136 iii. 136 iii. 136

planting " price Strawsoniser, the

Stream ,how to measure its velocity Stripping in milking Studs .

Subletting alease Subsidiary farm crops flowers fruit .

vegetables . Suburban farming with arable culture, steading suitable 11

ii. 409 i . 27 ii. 26 iii . 154

for

farm , capital for a

Suffolk horse, aptitude for work 11

11

characteristics of

origin of stallions

#1 11

jii. 413 jii. 413

History of As meat-producers Success of, at shows

Sussex manure experiments Swine, ailments of 11 Berkshires 10

sheep

Sugar as food for stock v. starch

Sugar - beet, nutritive value of Summer Atmospherical complications in Culture of corn crops Dew

distinctive characteristics of Large White breed Middle White breed

11

10

miscellaneous breeds of points of the different breeds in spring

Tamworth pigs

ii. 291 iii. 436

i. 91

Table for stock -owners fowl, dressing

10

5 401

428 278 278 265

!!

187 255 256 256 320 377 255

for horses land for

ii. 256

cleaning land

for ensilage .

!!

iii. 499 i. 435

i. ii. ii. ii. i. i. ii.

Tallow , increase of, in sheep Tares or vetches, botanical position of 11

iii. 436 i. 420

in winter

Swing -trees .

ii. 256

" manuring . reaping

iii. i. i. i.

iji. 434

11

cutting

401 401 401

iii. 435 iii. 435 iii. 436

11

for fattening cattle

i. iii. iii. iii . iii.

413 174 490 435 434

iii . 436

iii . 137 iii. 135 iii. 133

iii. 338

jii . 413 iii. ii. iii . jii. jii.

Small Black breed Small White breed

iii . 198 iii . 132

11

10

jii. 415

Herd -book

90

i. 274

trusser

11

Hardiness of the breed

i. 467

11

11

i. 274 i . 216

iii. 286 iii. 430 iii . 415

Breeders of

iii . 135

ii. 95 i. 467

iii. 285 iii. 286

Sussex cattle

i. 275 i. 275 i . 500

fermentation of as food or litter

1

551

iii. 108

seed

ii. 256

spring

ii. 255

use of

ii. ii. ii. ii .

varieties of winter

Tar -marking sheep

255 255 255 455

Temperature and configuration ofearth's surface

ii. 178

. and latitude daily range of

iii. 178 iii . 184

17

drainage and soil

duration of vegetation and ii. 309

11

ii. 387

!!

elevation and evaporation

iii. iii . iii . iii. iii.

181 180 181 181 181

Electricity

ii. 309 ii. 310

forests and .

iii. 185

Evaporation

ii . 312

mean and actual:

iii . 179

Hail Heat of the sun

ii. 311 ii . 313 ii . 312

mountain -ranges and

and plant growth and produce of crops

iii. iii. iii . iii .

Light

Lightning Rain Rust and mildew :

ji . 310 ii . 311

ji . 310

Weather prognostics

ii. 313 ii. 311

Wind

Sunflower, harvesting : oil

Surface-draining Arrangement of surface-drains Caution in Cost of

11 II . 11

pulsations of

range of, forcrops of soil and atmosphere

of wheat ripening Tenancy, term of Thatch -making machine Thatching, materials for 1

ii. 314

the weather Thunderstorms

Summering cows .

!1

ii . 414

Summary of field operations and of

from earth and water

11

ii . 462 iii. 110 iii . 110

Thermometer 11 Fahrenheit . 11

iii. 285

iii. 180 iii. 181 iii. 179

389 iii . iii.

92

i. 29 i. i.

29

how placed for growing crops minimum

i.

30

11 placing

iii. 285

185 180 184 183

stack.

Thomas -slag Thorn hedges around plantations Thousand -headed kale

Cutting surface-drains

iii. 286 iii . 286

Distance apart

iii. 285 | Thraving

30

i. 30 i. 30 ji . 115 iii. 219 ii. 259 iii. 57

INDEX .

552 Threshing by out- going tenants . Threshing-machines 11

iii . 200

i. 448

hand

Consumed on the ground by sheep

irregular driving of

i. 466

For cows

motive power for portable Ransome's safety drums for . " Scotch .

11

1

steam engine for straw-trusser attached to

water-power for

i. 454

i. i. i. i. i. i.

451 452 453 449 454 454

Thunderstorms utility of

455 iii. 90 ii. 310 ii. 310

Tile -drains strain on Till

iii . 263 iii . 266 i. 41

Timothy hay

iii.

Throw -crook

Town sewage, application of Traction - engine Travis for horse-stables Tree -fruit, cultivation of Trees and hedges Trenching and subsoil ploughing Troughs 1 concrete " I water Truss - roofs for barns

Tuberculosis Tupping season Age of ewes for breeding Age of tups for using Changing tups Flushing ewes Mating Number of ewes to each ram Selecting ewes Service marks

Time for tupping Treatment of tups

Tups, changing Turbine, horizontal 11

Morton's

poncelet !! 11

principles of the Thomson vortex or inward flow :

14

i. 528 i. 138 393 iii . 137 iii . 219 iii . 295

iii . 387

Turkeys,care of turkey - poults food for turkey -poults hatching and rearing . as layers

as mothers Turnstile

the crop

After cultivation . Anbury, or club -root Application of manure for Ash of green tops .

Composition of different varieties of

As food for cattle .

Force employed In foreign countries For servants' cows

Fungoid injury to Greystone Growing may be overdone .

Harrowing Harrowing land for

injury Insects which attack

Irregularity in growth of Keeping properties of Large swedes best Lifting apparatus . Manuring

264 264 363 169

ii. 427 i. 330

iii. 348 ii. i. ii . i.

339 235 374 162

ii. 337 ii . 367 ii. 342 i . 210

i. 154 i . 168

ii. 366 i. i. ji. ji . ii. ii . i.

166 155 338 374 408 373 163

i . 164 153 , 154

Methods of storing

iii. 149

Mildew

ii . 429

Nitrogen for

ii . 357 i. 167 i. 263

i. i. i. i. i.

461 461 461 460 460

i. 460 ii. 296 ii. 296 ii . ji. ji. iii .

295 297 297 247

i. 263 ji . .336 ji. 373 ii . 427

Number of,per acre Nutritive value of Order of using

Peculiarities of seed Pests

i. 160 ii . 370 ii. 374

i. 157 ii . 360 i. 150 ji . 359

Plan of stripping Potash for

Preparing clean land for

ii . 344

foul clay land

ii. 343 ii . 348 ii. 338

I!

Process of sowing

Produce of different varieties Proportion of leaf and root Protecting the seeds Pulling .

Quantities of manures for

i. 163 ji . 374 i . 151

ii. 364

Quantity of, eaten by sheep .

i. 163

seed

ii . 353

1

In raised drills

165 164 164 346

Seed collecting

Rothamsted experiments 1

drill

i . 155

drying the harvesting " produce of

i. 153

"

339 367 338 337 263

i. 156

Pits in the field

i. 165

ii. ii. ii. ii . i.

ii. 353

Phosphates for

ii . 365

Bulbs for seed, transplanting Clay soils unsuitable for Cleaner Climatic influences on Common

Farmyard manure for Feeding sheep on, in winter . Finger-and -toe in .

i. i. ii. i.

jii . 150 iii . 150

ii . 206

Checkinggrowth in spring

Excess of water in roots

Insect attacks on .

yellow Broadcast sowing of Carting of

Earthing up : Economising

iii . 149

i. i. i. ii .

greystone swedes

ii. 348 i. 157 ; ii. 374

Dunging and sowing in raised drills

iii . 149

Turnips

Advantages of storing

i. 155

Dry weather best forstoring

jii . 149 149 149 149 150 149

ii. 345

Drill- sowing of

History of the Hoeing Ill-shaped Importance of storing roots

iii. 288

Turf, removing

Distance between plants

i. 446

iii . iii . iii. jii . iii.

164 374 150 235

ii. 353 ii. 369 ii . 338

Distribution of the

On hill -farms Hints to lifters

iii . 207

i. ii. i. i.

i. 177

Cutting , for sheep Depth for seed

i. 215 i. 217

i . 27

Turbines

11

Composition of heavy and light Conditions influencing nutrition of

i . 454

11

threshing selection of

ii. 346 ji. 357

iii . 48 ii . 349 48 48

ii . 48 ii. 353

Singling

ii. 366

Soils for

ii. 339 i. 164 i. 157

Specific gravity of Storing in furrows

INDEX. Storing in houses objectionable hurdle enclosures Swedes .

For table use Taking roots from the store Temporary storing on lea Thick and thin sowing . Thinning machines Tillage of land for Timefor storing swedes of sowing Topping and tailing Tops as food . 11

as manure

how to utilise

553 Poor land

ii. 353

Reclaiming plantation ground Removing turf Renewing pasture Rules for land improvement Scotch example

ii. 368

Trenching

i . 157 i. 157 ii. 339 i. 161

ii . i. i. i.

Varieties of

Cistern .

Horse-power of

How to measure quantity in stream Meadows for Highland districts

jii. 135

When to store white White varieties

i. 167

Ram

i. 161

Running

As winter food for cattle

i. 263

Yellow varieties

i. 162

Yield per acre of white of yellow

i. 161 i. 162

Supply in buildings for farm - buildings measuring the

ii. 337 i. 162

Undershot water-wheels

Unexhausted manures, value of Urine cesspools 11 composition of 1 decomposition of fixing ammonia 11

specific gravity of

Useful table for stock -owners Vapour weight of Veal, feeding calves for Velocity of water a stream , how measured Ventilation, principles of required for farm buildings 11

of stables

Vermin, precautions against

Turbines

i. 460

30

Velocity of, from an orifice

i.

ii . 29 i. 455 i. 66

i. i. i. i. i.

515 516 527 511 516

iii. 499

34

Wheels breast

i. i.

.

Prevention better than cure

26 27

447 134 135 123

ii. 235 i. 16

i.

17

i.

17

undershot

i. 27

Waggon, farm Washing of sheep Waste land, improving Cropping new land

iii .

Depth and cost of trenching

88

ii. 438-441

iii. 290 , 292 iii. 291

iii. 289 iii. 289 iii. 288 iii. 286

iii. 234 iii. 212

jii. 199

ii. 45, 465 i . 406 ii. ji. i. i. i. i. i. i. i. i. iii. jji .

lambs

most wholesome Weather forecasts Weathercock .

Wechts, barn

Weed -cleaning Weeds, cleaning of land from 11

on alluvial deposits ,, arable land, clay " gravel

11

35 20

24 474 197 171

i . 48 i. 49

peat

i.

sandy soils

i. 48 i. 50 iii. 46

vegetable soil

iii . 46 ii. 345 iii. 107 ii. 433

and harvest work on pastures . in relation to soils

i. 47 ii. i. i. iii.

Weevils, bean -seed

Weighing-machine, balance " . portable Well for farm buildings Welsh cattle, characteristics of 10

33 39 33

i. 47

" collecting . disposing of 11 forking out . 11

33

. mountain pasture 11

1

452 291

i. 48

" mossy land

jii. 290 iii. 288 iii. 288

i. 459

foretelling judging

17

Wages, punctuality in paying

VOL. III.

11

Weather axioms 1 and farm work

iii. 314

iii. 525

land ridges Methods of

11

27

i. 459

pigs

11

91

i . 460

foals

i. 25

Studying minor ailments

Levelling -box

1.

speed of the wheel troughs and sluices

Watering -pools Wayfares and fences Way -going crops . Weaning of calves

44

Vetches, how fed to stock

Draining Hill pasture : Irish example , an

maximum effects of overshot

11

11

26

i. 130 i. 27, 455 i. 27, 459

Waste steam , condensing

i. 34 i. ii .

i. 276

or tares

. i. 217 ; iii. 384

24

Vertical engines boiler and engine . boiler . 11

i. 455

iii. 379

ii.

i. i. i. i.

Veterinary science Guide -books .

432 26 432 217 313

ii.

i. 395 iii. 101 , 382

Ventilators .

ii . i. ji . i. iii .

Tank

i. 516 .

ii . 432 ii. 432

11

iii. 386

fresh, injurious to vegetation how the, may be utilised

i. 75 iii. 305

I!

Troughs sore, and its treatment

iii. 306

on farms

i. 162

" preventing, from running

i. 404 i. 75 i. 217 i . 28 i. 28

Channels in ploughed land :

Weight and sizes of white

Udder, cows, its structure

iii. 288

Brush

irrigation of On pastures : Pump Quantity of, for stock

1!

288 288 292 286

iii . 287 iii. 287

Trenching stony ground

i. 160

in use swedes

iii. iii . iii . iii.

Water

352 153 152 152

i. 265

tops

iii. 291 iii. 287

Process of reclamation

ii . 337 jii. 135

i. 264

Turnip -meal . "

i. 157 i . 157

396 481 482 379

iii. 424 iii. 424

milking properties of 2 N

>

INDEX.

554

jii. 424

Welsh cattle, origin of Wensleydale cheese 11

ji. 513 iii. 425

sheep

of West Highland cattle, origin characteristics of 11

11

11 17

11

meat producers typical animal .

421

Wind, force of the, how measured " prevailing 11

prognostications of storm signals

11

variable

iii. 421 jii. 422 jii . 422

iii. 128

After beans After grass

ii. 198; iii. 128 iii . 128

After potatoes

Ancientpractice of storing Antiquity of the cultivation of

Artificial supply of nitrogen essen tial for

Art of sowing Broadcast sowers For cattle and sheep

i. 487 i. 488

i. 39 i. 39

► velocity of the

i. 25 iii . 380 iii . 383

Windows for farm buildings Winnowing corn in olden times :

i. 470 i. 475

Winter Aurora borealis Clouds .

i. 78

Winnowers, modern

i.

78

Dull sun , moon , and stars Falling stars

i.

28

i. 245

Fog Freezing

i. i. i. i. i. i. i. i. i.

78 83 83 79 83 83 78 82 83

i.

78

Classification of, by the ear

i. 484

Frost

i. 485 i . 484 i. 245

Frost -smoke

Colour of

Hail Halos

Hoar - frost Ice

ii . 188 ii. 195 ii . 129

Date of sowing Drill sowers

Dung for

Prognostics

Experiments on the continuous growth of, at Rothamsted

Feeding value of, for cattle Firm seed -bed for For flour Good land for

Sky-tints Snow

Summary of the field operations

Harrowing Judging of

ii. 196 ii. 196 i. 485

Kernel and husk of Late varieties of

ii. 201

Hand seed -drill

Wire field - fences . Barb- wire

Corrimony fence Durability of Erecting Horse and cattle wire fence . Intermediate posts

i. 488 Limits of culture of Manuring for ii. 135, 169, 201 ; iii. 128

Number of grains of, in a bushel .

Iron standards strainers

i. 486 ii. 192

Pickling

ii. 190

Presser -roller

Standard for barb-wire . Straining -posts

i . 487

Production of an acre of

Varieties of wire

ji. 190

Quantity of seed

Relation of ear and grain of . For seed Seed -basket

i. 485

i. 486 ji. 192

i. 483

Simple classification of

Winding pillars Wood , selling Wood's self-delivery reaper Wool, composition of .

Sowing : in spring

i. 532 ii. 189

11

machines

ii. 194

1

Storing v. immediate selling of Straw , ash of uses of

Two-hand sowing .

Tillage for Varying with soil Vilmorin's classification of

Weight of Whin hedges

raising trimning

Whitsunday entry Wicket for hurdle-fence

i. 487

fences

10

disposing of

+

iii . iii. iii. iii. jii .

241 240 239 241 237

237

Number of wires

i . 487 ii . 199

i. 78 79, 80, 84 iii. 235 iii . 238

iii . 236

and wire fence Knotting wire

i. 487

Preserving, in granaries

i.

Winds .

i. 487

One-hand sowing Origin of

i. 75-85

and of the weather in Thunderstorms

i . 486 ii. 188 iii . 126

Grubbing for

i. 79 i. i. 80-82

Rain

ji . 137 iii . 126 i. 245 iii . 128

Fallow .

77

Corona

Classifying by the grains

Composition of

i.

ii. 141 ii. 193 ii . 194

i. 498

Chaff

24

39 39

tides and

Window - sills

Wheat

10

i. i.

moth

iii . 241 iii. 239 iii . 239

iii . 239 iii . 235 iii. 237 jii. 240

iii. 236 ii . jii .

7 70

ii . 452 ii . 45 ° ii. 449 ii. 450

packing

449 454 448 448

10

room

ii. ii . ii. ii.

selling, in spring

ii.

i. 486

t!

shears .

i. 485

!!

weighing

i. 486

11

worn

ii. 442 ii. 450 ii . 448

i. 498 i. 498 ii. 192

! preserving propertiesof rolling and weighing .

1!

1

ii. 188

iii . iii . jii. iii . jii.

229 230 230 199 242

Woollen rags, composition of Work -people, bearing of farmer towards Yorkshire coach-house

iii . 403

iji. 178

.

Wilkie's plough

i. 98

Willows,growing, for hurdies

i. 212

Zones, the

Wind .

i.

Zoology or natural history

24

ii. 452

jii. 524 jii. 524

Work well advanced

PRINTED BY WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS.

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THE

BOOK

OF

THE

FARM

Wherefore come on , O young husbandman ! Learn the culture proper to each kind . VIRGIL .

THE

BOOK OF THE FARM DETAILING THE LABOURS OF THE

FARMER, FARM -STEWARD, PLOUGHMAN , SHEPHERD, HEDGER , FARM -LABOURER, FIELD-WORKER, AND CATTLE -MAN

BY

HENRY STEPHENS , F.R.S.E. CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE NATIONAL AND CENTRAL SOCIETY OF AGRICULTURE OF FRANCE ;

OF THE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF GALICIA ; OF THE AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE OF GOREGORETZK IN RUSSIA ; OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF SWEDEN ; OF THE ROYAL IMPROVEMENT SOCIETY OF NORWAY

FOURTH

EDITION

REVISED, AND IN GREAT PART REWRITTEN, BY

JAMES

MACDONALD

OF THE ' FARMING WORLD ' ; AUTHOR OF ' FOOD FROM THE FAR WEST ' ; JOINT AUTHOR OF POLLED CATTLE , HEREFORD CATTLE, ETC., ETC.

IN

THREE

VOLUMES

VOLUME I.

WILLIAM

BLACKWOOD

EDINBURGH

AND

MDCCCXCI

All Rights reserved

AND

LONDON

SONS

-

PRE FACE .

MORE than twenty years have elapsed since the third edition of The Book of the Farm was prepared. In that comparatively short period of time British agriculture has undergone a striking change. It has seen its highest point in prosperity and almost

its lowest in depression. Since the disastrously wet and sun less year of 1879, bad seasons have in themselves swept away a vast amount of farming capital. Foreign countries, with virgin soil and cheap labour, have flooded our open ports with

meat and bread -stuffs ; and , in spite of a largely increased population and much greater purchasing power on the part of the consuming public, the prices of nearly all varieties of farm produce have greatly declined. How serious is the influence which these great movements

have exercised upon our beloved country cannot readily be conceived. What they have signified to the farming commu nity itself has, alas ! been only too clearly visible. How funda

mentally the fabric of British agriculture has been affected will be best understood by a consideration of the figures which represent the movements in imports and prices of agricultural produce, as well as the variations in the cropping and stocking of British farms.

The value of the imports of agricultural produce had grown

PREFACE.

vi

in 1887 to the formidable figure of £ 117,019,064, rather more than 48/2 millions sterling in excess of the sum sent abroad for these commodities twenty-one years previously. Reckoned per

head of population, the imports in 1887 amounted to £3, 3s. 9d. for every man , woman , and child in the United Kingdom , or nearly 18s. 6d. per head more than in 1866.

And the growth

in quantities has been greater than in the value of the imports by from 25 to 30 per cent.

With such a vastly increased volume of foreign competition as these figures exhibit, the prices of farm produce in British markets could not fail to have suffered decline. The falling off in prices has indeed been very great, and it has extended in less or greater extent to almost every article produced on British farms.

It has been greatest in grain, greatest of all in wheat. From about 5os. per quarter in 1866 wheat fell to 31s. in 1887 . In the same period barley lost iis. and oats Ss. per quarter. Wool has fallen from is. od. to from iod. to ' is. per lb.

The prices of beef and mutton have had many “ ups ” and

“ downs ” since 1866. They are now (May 1891 ) not much below the level they presented then, but are from 15 to 25 per cent below the high range of prices attained between 1870 and 1883.

In sympathy with these alterations in prices, the systems

of cropping and general farm management pursued throughout the United Kingdom have naturally undergone, and are still undergoing, considerable modification. In the extent of cultivated land—arable land and permanent

pasture — there has been a substantial increase in the past twenty years,-no less than 2,870,714 acres in Great Britain.

But, as the result of the depression, as many as 833,393 acres have in twenty years gone from regular tillage into permanent pasture.

Looking more narrowly into the division of the arable land amongst the various crops, we find that the twenty years from

PREFACE.

vii

1868 to 1887 introduced changes which are even more signifi cant. The corn crops have lost ground considerably, falling from about 52 per cent of the arable land in 1867 to about 48 per cent in 1887. Green crops and grasses have both grown in proportion

ate extent — the former by about 7 and the latter by 58 acres in every 1000 acres of arable land. But the most notable change occurs in the area of bare fallow , which has fallen off by nearly 50 per cent. In Ireland similar movements have taken place. In the relative positions of the individual crops in regard to

acreage, the past twenty years have effected some significant changes. Amongst cereals, wheat has had to yield the premier

position to oats. Barley has been nearly stationary. Beans have declined by nearly 30 per cent. Turnips are losing ground, potatoes gaining a little. The former is still, of course, by far the most extensively grown of the green crops. Mangels have increased by about 50 per cent .

It is thus obvious that corn - growing has lost its supremacy

in the agricultural interests of this country. Increased reliance is placed upon live stock ; and although this industry has not escaped the vicissitudes of the recent depression, it has never theless made substantial progress during the past twenty years. The progress

in that period has not been continuous, and it has not extended to all varieties of farm live stock ; yet the national wealth in the live stock of the farm is very much greater now than it was prior to 1870. Between 1867 and 1887 the stock of cattle in Great Britain

increased by nearly 172 million head, and in Ireland by about half a million head. Curiously enough, in the same period the stock of sheep fell off by nearly 3 million head in Great Britain

and 1/2 million head in Ireland. Somehow pig -rearing, although when well conducted it is notoriously profitable, does not find favour with the majority of British farmers, and their stock of pigs has decreased by more than half a million head in the past

twenty years. Irish farmers are more kindly disposed towards the pig, and their stock has increased substantially since 1867 .

PREFACE .

viii

Despite the prediction that the steam -engine would tend to sup

plant horse-labour, the demand for draught-horses is now greater than ever.

The stock of horses is larger than it was twenty

years ago ; yet it is undoubted that the breeding of horses might be extended with profitable results. The important circumstances thus briefly indicated have pro duced something like a revolution in the position and prospects of the British farmer. He can no longer be the easy independent waiter upon

Providence that he used to be when wheat was at 50s.

per quarter.

His life must be a struggle for existence , and he

must prepare himself with a scientific and technical knowledge of his work in all its details and departments ; must acquaint himself with the latest ideas of the practical and scientific agri culturist , and test them by his own experience and possibilities ; and must cast around him in search of information as to how he

can make the most of the altered condition of things.

It is by

knowledge combined with experience that the farmer of the future must make his way.

The State has begun to appreciate

this fact by establishing means of providing agricultural in struction . But the practical farmer requires more full and special

sources of information ,—a work which he can with profit make the subject of general study, and which he can with confidence refer to at any moment when he is in want of advice. Such a work, it is hoped, The Book of the Farm in its new and en

larged form will prove to be. In the preparation of this the Fourth Edition of The Book of the Farm , the important changes of the past twenty years have been carefully and anxiously considered. To a large ex tent the work has been rewritten ; what remains of the original text has been carefully revised .

Alike in providing the new matter and in revising the old, the great object aimed at has been to adapt the work to the altered and still shifting circumstances and surroundings of the

PREFACE.

ix

Without neglecting, or turning our back upon, any of the branches of farming which may perhaps be of comparatively less importance than in former times , we British farmer.

have devoted more attention than was given in previous editions to some other interests which have risen in the scale of import ance . Prominent amongst these latter is the great subject of stock -rearing, notably the breeding and feeding of cattle. The portions in the new edition relating to this branch of farming

consist almost entirely of fresh matter ; and so important is it considered , that it has been dealt with more fully and more

exhaustively than has ever before been attempted. Scientific and practical research have thrown fresh light upon

the fundamental processes of maintaining the fertility of the soil. An entirely new chapter places the reader in possession of this extended and corrected experience. The system of ensilage, the

latest agricultural innovation, and the extension of dairy farming, have received due attention. Every modification and develop ment of great or minor importance, every new or extended

influence affecting agriculture, has had careful consideration . Brief sketches of all the varieties of British horses, cattle, sheep,

and swine are enhanced in usefulness by a full series of high

class animal portraits, which embraces typical animals of all the leading breeds, and which has been specially prepared at great expense for this edition by eminent artists. It is interesting to contrast with these the few portraits retained of animals repre senting the period from 1840 to 1850.

The original plan of the work has been in the main preserved . With the view of facilitating reference, some minor changes, such as headings instead of numbers to paragraphs, have been introduced. Much care has been bestowed upon the introduc

tion of these paragraph headings, and they are set forth clearly, so that the reader may learn at a glance the subjects dealt with

in any part of the work. As in the third edition, the work is divided into heads : I.

INITIATION, in which the young man desirous of becoming a

PREFACE .

Х

farmer is advised to acquaint himself beforehand with certain branches of science which have a close relation to Agriculture, and is also instructed as to how this knowledge is to be obtained and as to where he can best learn the practice of his art ; 2. PRACTICE, which details the entire operations, through the four seasons, of raising crops, and rearing the domesticated animals ; 3. REALISATION , wherein the young farmer is advised how to bargain for and stock a farm - how to execute many

operations he may have to undertake-how to judge and to conduct the breeding of live stock—and, lastly, how to keep accurate accounts of all his transactions.

It is hoped that the new edition, in its greatly extended and

thoroughly revised form , may efficiently help farmers to pursue their occupation with pleasure and profit. Farming, if it is to

maintain its importance as an industry, must, like any other business, be conducted at a profit.

With reduced prices and

other magnified obstacles, it is more difficult than ever to

accomplish this. More than ever, therefore, is it important that

the farmer should fortify himself with all the guidance, stimulus, and encouragement which The Book of the Farm is capable of

affording to him . The work is designed as a guide to him in every piece of practical work and every item of farming business he is called upon to engage in. It presents itself as a faithful

compendium of the experience of a whole army of agricultural 66

- specialists ,”— !--men who have shown themselves to be proficient in some special branch of practical farming or province of allied

science. The work thus aims at forming in itself a compendious professional library for every well-equipped farmer. In taking up the life-work of the able and respected author of The Book of the Farm, I have felt the responsibility all the greater because of the exceptional conditions which at the

present moment surround the British farmer. Happily, in the

preparation of the new edition, I have had the privilege of the cordial co-operation of a great many of the leading agri cultural and scientific authorities of the day. I have, in particu

xi

PREFACE.

lar, had valuable aid from the following, to whom, and to many other helpers, I heartily acknowledge my indebtedness - viz., Mr Gilbert Murray , Elvaston Castle, Derby ; Mr George Brown, Watten Mains, Caithness ; Miss E. A. Ormerod ; Mr John Speir, Newton Farm , Glasgow ; Professor Primrose M'Connell ; Pro

fessor M-Cracken ; Dr A. P. Aitken ; Mr Bernard Dyer, F.C.S. ; Mr C. M. Aikman, M.A., F.C.S.; Mr R. Warington, F.C.S.; Dr Fream ; Professor Thomas Jamieson ; Professor R. Wright ; Professor Long ; Mr John Milne, Inverurie, Aberdeenshire ; Ex Provost Black of Sherifston , Elgin ; Mr Charles Whitehead ; Mr Martin John Sutton ; Mr Robert Bruce ; Mr Alexander

Macdonald ; Mr Thomas Bell ; Mr William Morton ; Mr John MʻLaren ; Mr H. Evershed ; Mr Edward Brown ; Mr Sanders

Spencer ; Mr R. H. Rew ; Mr W. Scarth Dixon ; Mr H. F. Euren ,

&c. &c. I feel that, by the assistance thus accorded to me, I have been enabled to impart to the work a comprehensiveness and efficiency which could not otherwise have been attained . It will be sincerely gratifying to me if the work in its new form should be considered worthy the memory of the late Henry Stephens, whose services to the interests of British farmers have

earned for his name a lasting place in the annals of agriculture. JAMES MACDONALD . EDINBURGH, 1891 .

CONTENTS OF VOLUME I.

INITIATION . PAGE

PAGE

Methods of acquiring a knowledge of practical farming

Different kinds of farming, Persons who conduct and execute farın -work

The steam-engine

30

I

Weather

33

4

Rainfall

36 40 42 43

Soils

6 | Subsoils

“ Science ” of agriculture

IO

Science with practice Scientific education in agriculture Sciences to be studied by farmers The atmosphere

IO

Barometers

II I2

50 51 51 56

Distribution of plants Structure and composition of soils

22 | Fertility of soils 23 24, 39

Wind

Conditions and characters of soils Relation of plants to soils

Exhaustion by removal of crops 62

and stock .

Principles of ventilation Weight of fluids

25 25

Specific gravity

Water -powers .

25 Restoring of fertility by manuring 26 Value of unexhausted manures

Horse-power

28

Electricity

28 | Agricultural education

Electro- culture

28

Teaching institutions

69

Heat

29 30

Plan of the work

73

Air -engine

Composition of crops Composition of animal products

63 64 64 66 68 68

Causes of infertility in soils .

PRACTICE_WINTER.

Weather and field operations in 75

Turnip-tops as food and manure Turnip - lifting appliances

Work in the steading

75

Methods of storing roots

Field work

75 Varieties, weight, and yield of tur

Varieties of ploughs Mechanics of the plough

85

Plough -harness Ploughing

94 Specific gravity and composition of

winter

.

nips .

89 Quantities of turnips eaten by sheep 96

roots .

Agricultural steam -engines

122

Sheep in winter

Fuel Combustion

128 128

Details of management in typical flocks

Properties of steam . Different types of engines

129 134

Cattle in winter Nomenclature of cattle

Steam- cultivation

141 Cattle -courts, covered and uncovered 146 Rearing and feeding cattle in winter 149 Food and feeding

Steam-digging . Storing roots

Turnips consumed by sheep

.

on

the ground

Varieties of food

150 | Albuminoid ratio

152 153

156 160

163

164 169 191 213 225 226

232 240 244 280

CONTENTS.

xiv

Hints on the purchase of foods

282 | Feathers ,

Manurial value of foods Food rations Oil as food

283 Diseases of poultry . 290 Corn at the steading 303 The stackyard . 306 Threshing - mill, straw - barn , and

Ensilage

436 437 . 440 440

Silos Methods ofpressure

307

Stack ensilage . Sweet and sour silage

311 312

Crops for silage

318 Threshing and winnowing corn

Feeding value of silage Preparation of food . Pulping

323

Dressing corn

328

Wheat

462 468 483

329 Barley

489

Cooking or steaming

334

Chaff -cutting

Systems offeeding

.

.

Winter feeding of cows

Winter dairying Store cattle in winter

Fattening cattle in winter Early maturity Scotch feeding customs

granaries

442

311 Threshing-machines

.

power Motive machines .

for

448

threshing 454

Oats

491

335 Rye .

495

338 Beans 338 | Peas

495 497

354

Wheat -straw

354 361

Wheat -chaff Barley- straw

361

Oat-straw

498 498 498 499

Cattle-feedingin England

372 Rye -straw 379 Bean and pea straw

Cattle -feeding in Ireland History of a butcher's beast

382 382

Preparation of show cattle

386 | The art of “ making ” manure .

510

Horses in winter Swine in winter

392

Different kinds of dung

512 514

Nomenclature of pigs Poultry in winter

Varieties of farm poultry Fattening fowls Nomenclature of poultry

Treatment of farmyard manure Covered manure -pits

420

Liquid manure

425

Const ruction ofliquid -manure tanks Claying

426

426

lands . Wheat-gowing .

434 Forming compost Collecting sea-weed .

436

499

500 501 509

528 530 532 532 532

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN

VOLUME

PORTRAIT OF THE AUTHOR

I.

Frontispiece PLATE

I

DOUBLE - HORSE CART AT WORK -OLD STYLE

ANIMAL PORTRAITS. POULTRY

.

.

CLYDESDALE STALLION

3

SHIRE STALLION

4

DRAUGHT STALLION

5 6

DRAUGHT HORSE ( 1840) DRAUGHT

7

MARE

8

CLEVELAND STALLION SHORTHORN COW .

9

DRAUGHT STALLION

IO

SHORTHORN OX

II

SHORTHORN COWS

I 2

HEREFORD BULL .

13

GENERAL ILLUSTRATIONS. INITIATION. PAGE

FIG .

I. Barometer 2. Aneroid

3. Fahrenheit thermometer mounted 4. Minimum thermometer

23 23 29

30

FIG .

PAGE

5. Stack or dung thermometer 6. Conservatory hygrometer

31

7. Funnel rain -gauge

36

8. Section of soils and subsoils

42

30

WINTER

9. Furrow - side elevation of a Scotch swing-plough 10. Land -side elevation of а Scotch swing -plough

11. Plan of a Scotch swing-plough

12. Sellar's modern Scotch plough (side 86

86 86

87

view )

13. Sellar's view modern Scotch plough (ver. tical )

14. Ransome's “ Newcastle ; plough

87 87

ILLUSTRATIONS .

xvi 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

Oliver's chilled plough Ransome's chilled plough Howard's chilled plough Plough -staff Swing-trees for two horses

20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

Swing - trees for three horses Trussed iron whipple- trees Swing -trees for four horses Scotch horse collar English horse collar

88 88 89 91

26. Scotch plough at work with three horses a rectangular furrow-slice Effectsof 27. 28. Effects of a crested furrow - slice

.

77. Elder's sheep -fodder rack 78. Gordon's “ Économiser " trough 79. Trough for turnip sheep -feeding

96

80. Bestform of turnip-picker 81. Turnip - cutter

170

171 171 172 175 175 176 176

1

76. Kirkwood's wire sheep-fodder rack .

176 177

82. Mode of occupying turnips with 97 97

98

178

sheep

83. Gordon's combined rack andtrough 179 84. Combined trough and bin

179

180

85. Oilcake -breaker 106 106 107 108

34. Gathered -up ridges from the flat 35. Open furrows with mould or hintend furrow -slices

73. Driver for stakes 74. Shepherd's knot on sheep -net

94 95 95

IOI

row-slice

Iron hammer nut-key Plough -slide . Feering -pole . Mode of feering ridges

72. Fold -pitcher in hurdle setting

75. Sheep -net set

29. View of the movement of the fur

30. 31. 32. 33.

170 170

71. English hurdle

92 93 93

25. Scotch plough at work with two horses

70. Shepherd's mallet .

86. Sheep -yard and shelter . 185 87. Trough for foot-rot dressing . 198 88. Steading for the arable part of a 203

sheep -farm

89. Outside stell sheltered by planta tion

IIO

.

205

90. Outsidestell without plantation

206

IIO

91. Ancient stells

207

III II2

93. Circular stell

208 211

113

94. Bratted sheep 95. Turnip-trough for courts

39. Ploughed ridgestwo-out-and-two-in 114 115

96. Iron cattle -trough

216

97. Wooden straw -rack for courts

41. Cleaved -down ridges without gore-

98. Iron straw - rack for courts

216 216 217 217 218

36. Cast, yoked, or coupled ridges 37. Mode of making a gore- furrow 38. Feerings for ploughing ridges two out-and-two-in .

furrows

115

42. Cleaved -down ridges with gore-furrows .

43. Ill-ploughed ridge :

116 117

44. Ransome's One-way plough 45. Cooke's One -way plough

117 118

46. Single plough and patent subsoiler

119

47. Conjoint operation of the common and subsoil trench-plough

48. The steam - engine cylinder 49. Vertical boiler and engine 50. Semi-fixed engine and boiler .

.

51. Portable steam -engine 52. Agricultural locomotive or tractionengine

53. Ploughing engine 54. Double -engine steam -plough 55. Single-engine steam -plough

99. Combined rack and trough 100. Water -troughs for courts 101. Section of hydraulic ram 102. Byre travis, manger, and stake 103. Baikie

ation for storing them

I 20

132 135

136

221

105. Byre window

221 222

107. Watson's ventilator 108. Drain grating for courts

222

109. Liquid -manure drain 110. Section of a spigot and faucet

223

tailing turnips

of 65. Turnip -lifter

and

224 224 229 234 234 235 235

III . Simplex pump 112. Roof for cattle - courts

139 142 142

113. Graip

144

115. Wheelbarrow

114. Square-mouthed shovel : 116. Willow scull or basket

238 146 | 117. Safety lantern 268 118. Furze masticator 147 149 119. Section of Lord Egerton's silo, showing its condition at the end 308

of the third day's work

151

120. Transverse section of M. de Che 152 153 153

153 154

66. Triangular turnip-store. 156 67. White globe, purple - top swede, Aberdeenshire yellow bullock 68. Ill-shaped turnips . 69. Wooden hurdles for sheep

223

drain -tube .

137

61 and 62. Implements for topping and

e. g 63. Turnip trimming -kniftai lin turnips 64. Mode topping

220 221

.

104. Cattle seal or binder

59. Methods of stripping the ground of turnips in given proportions 60. Method of pulling turnips in prepar-

215

106. Ventilator

56. Single engine and windlass steam

plough 57. The Darby digger 58. Proctor's digger

92. Inside stell sheltered by plantation 207

121. 122. 123. 124.

zelles's “Grange Silo " Self -registering thermometer . Johnson's ensilage press 's ensilage press Reynolds Blunt's ensilage press

310 313 314 315 316 316 318 328

125. Pearson's ensilage roller system 126. Ensilage cutter and elevator . 127. Root-washer .

161

126. Combined puiper,slicer, and finger:

167 169

piece cutter 129. Root -pulper .

.

.

329 332

ILLUSTRATIONS.

130. The “ Union " bruising and grind ing mill 131. Chaff - cutter 132. Horse -gear

xvii

185. Elevation of the dressing -fanner

468

332

186. Longitudinal section of the dress

333 333

ing-fanner, with riddles and sieves 469 187. Transverse section of the dressing

188. Transverse section of the finishing

135. Chaff - cutter .

334 335 335

136. Self-feeding chaff-cutter

336 | 189. Elevation of the finishing -fanner or

137. Corn -grinding mill 138. Hand flour or grist mill.

337 337 391 392 394 394 398 398

.

.

133. Steam food -preparing machinery 134. Food -steaming apparatus

139. Cattle - cart

.

140. Stable window

141. Stall for a work -horse stable 142. Stall with cast -iron hind - posts 143. Support for manger

144. Position of improved manger . 145. Corn - chest for work -horses 146. Birch broom for stables .

400

fanner

470

fanner or duster

470

duster

471

190. Longitudinal section of the finish ing-fanner or duster machine

472 473

192. Old wooden wheat -riddle

193. Old wooden barley -riddle

473

194. Old wooden oat-riddle 195. Old wooden bean -riddle .

473 473

402

196. Old wooden riddle for the roughs of

404

wheat and corn . 197. Wooden sieve 198. Iron -wire sieve

147. Curry -comb, brush, foot -picker,

471

191. Combined winnower and bagging

149. Common straw - fork 150. Steel straw - fork

404

199. Triangular -meshed iron -wire sieve .

405

151. Boiler and furnace

411

200. W'echt of skin 201. Corn -basket of wicker -work

152. Hand whin -bruiser 153. Peat -breaker .

415

202. Barn -stool

473 474 474 474 474 474 474

418

203. Barn wooden hoe

475

419

204. Wooden corn -scoop 205. Winnowing corn in olden times

475 475

425 429

206. Imperial bushel of a convenient

429

207. Corn -strikes . 208. Measuring up corn in the corn barn . 209. Bagging grain with sack -holder

and mane - comb .

404

148. Water -brush .

154. Horse -clippers 155. Ring pigs' trough, to stand in a court

.

156. Poultry -house on wheels 157. Portable (French) poultry - house 158. Shelter- coop . 159. Coop and run 160. Old -fashioned triangular coop 161. Shelter -coop .

.

429

476

form .

476

162. Wooden rick-stand

430 430 430 440

478 210. Simple hand -hummeller 211. Filled sacks on the barn - floor pro

163. Truss for a galvanised corrugated iron roof .

441

212. Sack -lifter

.

perly arranged

164. Isometrical perspective of an iron roof covered stackyard 165. Ground -plan of a stackyard 166. Section of the corn -barn floor 167. Corn -barn door

442 .

445 445

446 .

.

170. Upper barn and granaries 447 171. Granary window and section of shutter

485

219. Long medium -sized form of wheat . 485 220. Large size and long form of wheat . 485 ley, 2- rowed barley 222. Scotch bere or bigg 223. English barley

489 489 489

451

224. Potato oat

491 491 492 492

225. White Siberian early oat 452 453

176. Straw - trusser attached to thresh ing-machine 454 454 177. Small threshing machine 178. Section and elevation of a bucket water-wheel 458 461 179. Morton's turbine 180. Vertical section of horizontal tur bine . 461 .

226. 227. 228. 229. 230.

Spike of potato oat Spike of Tartarian oat Ear of rye Grains of rye Horse -beans .

495 495 496 497 507 508 523 523 524

231. Partridge field -pea 232. 233. 234. 235. 236.

Dung-spade Dung -pit for four fields . Liquid -manure cart New liquid -manure cart Scoop for filling a water -barrel

181. Corn-barrow :

463

182. Ladder, 15 feet long 183. Oil- can ,

464 237. Apparatus for discharging liquid 465 .

manure

238. Claying of soil

184. Feeding sheaves into the threshing machine of the olden type .

480 480 481 482 484

450

174. Portable threshing machine, show ing straw -elevator

479 479

221. 4-rowed bere or bigg, 6-rowed bar

threshing

175. Ransome's threshing machine

small size of wheat .

477

447

172. Modern Scotch threshing and dress machine

216. Portable weighing machine 217. Classification of wheat by the ear 218. Short, round , plump form , and

446

•

ing machine 173. Section of portable

214. Sack -barrow .

443 215. Balance weighing machine

168. Wooden king-post truss-roof : 169. Iron king-post truss -roof

.

213. Combined sack -barrow and lifter

477

467

239. Mud - hoe, harle, or claut

.

.

525 530 532

२

THE

BOOK

OF

THE

FARM

Wherefore come on , young husbandman ! Learn the culture proper to each kind. VIRGIL .

THE

BOOK OF THE FARM DETAILING THE

LA BOURS OF THE

FARMER, FARM -STEWARD , PLOUGHMAY, SHEPHERD, HEDGER , FARM -LABOURER, FIELD -WORKER , AND CATTLE -MAN

BY

HENRY STEPHENS, F.R.S.E. OORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE NATIONAL AND CENTRAL SOCIETY OF AGRICULTURE OF FRANCE ;

OF THE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF GALICIA ; OF THE AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE OF GOREGORETZK IN RUSSIA ; OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF SWEDEN ; OF THE ROYAL IMPROVEMENT SOCIETY OF NORWAY

FOURTH EDITION REVISED, AND IN GREAT PART REWRITTEN, BY

JAMES

MACDONALD

OF THE ' FARMING WORLD '; AUTHOR OF ' FOOD FROM THE FAR WEST ' ; JOINT AUTHOR OF POLLED CATTLE ,' ' HEREFORD CATTLE,' ETC. , ETC.

IN

THREE

VOLUMES

VOLUME II .

WILLIAM

BLACKWOOD

EDINBURGH

AND

MDCCCXCI

All Rights reserved

AND

LONDON

SONS

CONTENTS OF VOLUME II.

PRACTICE - SPRING . PAGE

Field operations and spring weather

I

Cattle in spring

9

The calving season

9

Abortion . Calving

Milking cows Calf-rearing

PAGE

Highland and Agricultural Society's experiments Seed- time

12

Wheat

188

14 24

Beans Peas

201

30

Barley

207

Oats

2II

Details of calf-rearing

32

Calf-rearing in pure-bred herds

42 Rolling land , & c.

Sheep in spring

46 | Grass seeds 47 Varieties of grasses Varieties of clovers

The lambing season . Lambing period — Details of man agement

Early market lambs .

Hampshire customs. Suffolk flocks .

60 | Varieties of grasses sown . Seeds for rotation grasses Grasses and clovers for permanent pasture 65

61 62

72

Grasses for different soils Standard seed mixtures Germination of seeds

After lambing

25

Different methods of sowing and

Abortion among ewes

80

Produce of lambs

86

germination . Forage crops

Lambing table Manuresand manuring Farmyard manure

87 | Vetches

66 68

Shropshire flocks Scotch flocks

.

Hill flocks

A word for dung Artificial manures

Nitrification

Potassic manures

Gypsum

.

Gas -lime

220

231 234 234 235

235 235 239 242 254 255

102 Cabbages . 105 Rape

258

Mustard

I 20

Varieties of potatoes

Compound manures Economical purchasing of manures

I 20 The boxing system of preparing

Analysis explained

I 21

Mixtures and mixing Application of manures Application of dung Application of artificial manures Rothamsted experiments . Aberdeen and Sussex experiments .

123 I 26

.

214 219

256

106 Planting potatoes 109 Tillage for potatoes . 119 Manuring potatoes I20 Details of planting

ures

205

89 | Lucerne 94 Sainfoin IOI Rye .

Characteristics of nitrogenous man Phosphatic manures

175

185

I21

126 130 135

potato sets Raising new varieties of potatoes Horses in spring The foaling season Reviving weak foals . Rearing foals Weaning foals .

169 | The mating season

257

258 259 260 261 261

261

265 271 274

276 281

281

283 283 288

289

CONTENTS.

vi

Swine in spring

290 290 292 292 295 |

Farrowingof sows Poultry in spring Hatching

Hatching and rearing turkeys .

Hatching geese Hatching ducks Hatching pea -fowls . Hatching pigeons Paring and burning .

297 299

300 300 304

PRACTICE - SUMMER . The weather

309

Horses in summer

469

Summer farm -work .

314

Horses injured by green food :

Flax culture

316 318

Dairy work Dairy utensils .

Hemp

327 Power for the dairy

Hop culture Sowing turnips Manuring turnips

470 471 473 473 474

353

Hay -stack for horses

am r-raiothsinerg me: thods Creila 336 Sim

Insect pests Fungoid attacks on crops

375 Centrifugal separator 383 Selling cream and skim -milk 387 Butter -making . 391 Important features in a churn : 395 Churning 414 Butter -working

Live stock in summer

430

Sheep in summer Sheep -washing

434 Cheese-making

Sowing mangels

Kohl-rabi, carrots, and parsnips Summer culture of corn crops . Cross-fertilisation of grain

Butter extractor

479

485 485 486 487 493 494

495 499 500

Shearing of sheep

438 441

Cheddar cheese Quantity of rennet

Clipping with the left hand

445

The curd .

Weaning lambs Dipping lambs Marking sheep

Stilton cheese . 454 Cheshire cheese 454 | Cream cheese 456 Skim -milk cheese

513

Cattle in summer Treatment of bulls

458

514

Soiling

468

Drafting sheep

452

Foreign cheeses suitable for Britain

465 Associated butter and cheese making

505 507

507 511 512 513

519

-

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME II .

ANIMAL PORTRAITS. PLATE DEVON RED

14

BULL

15 16

POLLED BULL

SUSSEX COW

17 18

POLLED ABERDEEN-ANGUS BULL

GALLOWAY BULL . AYRSHIRE COW

19

WEST HIGHLAND COW AND CALF

20

KERRY AND DEXTER COWS

21

JERSEY COW

22

GUERNSEY COW LEICESTER RAM

23

24

.

COTSWOLD RAM RAM

25 26

SHROPSHIRE RAM

27

SOUTHDOWN

GENERAL

ILLUSTRATIONS. SPRING. PAGE

YIG .

240. Head of timothy with numerous I2

ergots

241. 242. 243. 244.

Bullock -holder Milk -pail Milking-stool Milking-tubes

FIG .

PAGE

254. Broadcast manure-distributor 255. Fowler's double-furrow plough with single lever

22

246. Shepherd's house on wheels

257. 28 | 258. 33 259. 51 260.

247. Shepherd's crook

60

245. Calf's- crib wicket

Apparatus for pickling wheat Sowing-sheet and hand-sowing corn English sowing- basket Broadcast sower ready for work

261. Broadcast sower in transit 262, Horse -hoe

248. Mode of holding a lamb for castra

76 263. Broadcast hand-sower

tion

249. Ewe and lamb house 250. Mountain turn -wrist snow - plough

84 | 264. Corn and seed drill

85

265. “ Excelsior " seed -drill

251. Mountain snow -harrow .

86

266. Hand seed-drill

252. Frying- pan or lime shovel 253. Steel graip .

189 189

25 256. Cooke's double-furrow plough 26

.

127

267. English iron harrows

128 | 268. Scotch iron harrows

135

.

190 192 193 194 194 194 195

195 195 196 196 196

ILLUSTRATIONS .

viii

- roller 269. Action Presser of theedge of presser- wheels 200 307. Wheat plant in the state of germina 270. .

242

271. Clay's cultivator

203 308. Well-ploughed regularfurrow -slices 242

272. 273. 274. 275. 276.

203

309. Positions of seeds on regular furrows 243

205

310. Irregular braird upon regular fur rows . 311. IIl-ploughed irregular furrow -slices 312. Irregular positions of seed on ill

Broadshare cultivator Saddle drill- harrow Acme harrow Cast -iron land -roller Water - ballast roller

208 215 216 218

277. Field feered for cross-ploughing 278. 279. 280. 281. 282. 283. 284.

Fiorin, or creep

.

.

.

.

Smooth -stalked meadow -grass Rough -stalked meadow -grass . Evergre en meadow -grass Perennial

316. Newberry's

one-rowed dibbling

machine

248

317. Newington's 6 -rowed dibbling-ma: chine . 318. Double roots of deep -sown wheat

229

319. Roots of shallow -sown wheat . 320. Scotch drill-plough 321. Potato hand -basket

229

322. Triple drill-plough

230

323. Section of a flower 324. Horizontal section .

230 231

red clover 295. Red or broad clover 296. Perennial white clover 297. Alsike clover .

243

314. Regular depth of seed by drill-sow: 243 ing 315. Regular braird from drill-sown seed 244

221 221

223

288. Perennial rye- grass 289. Italian rye -grass

243

row

223 224 225 225 226 228

286. Sheep's fescue 287. Hard fescue .

291. 292. 293. 294.

220

222

285. Tall fescue

290. Timothy

ploughed furrows

270 277 277

.

233

and swing- trees . 300. Chain harrows

237

330. Potato -plum .

238

331. Plum cut,showing seeds inside

magnified .

.

.

301. Carriage forconveying harrows, & c. 238 332. Potato-seed magnified 240

333. 334. 335. 336. 337.

240 241 241

305. Soil with water and with air .

277 277 277

278

329. Vertical section of style and stigma

298. Common yellow clover or trefoil 299. Grass-seed iron harrows, with wings

304. Soil with air and without water

249 250 250

267 269

325. Vertical section of a potato -blossom 232 | 326. Stamen discharging pollen 232 327. Pistil with pollen -grains on top 233 328. Pollen -grain magnified

302. Cloddy and stony soil 303. Soil with water and without air

243 243

313. Irregular braird on ill-ploughed fur

220

bent grass

Meadow foxtail ing Sweet- scented vernal Yellow oat -grass Crested dogstail Rough cocksfoot Meadow fescue

.

306. Component parts of a grain of wheat 242

278 278 278 278

Sties for brood -sows under one roof 292 Common spade 305 Flauchter -spade at work 306 Paring - plough 306 306 Paring-sock . .

.

.

SUMMER .

338. Hay -knife 339. Lightning hay -knife

317 317

361. Wardlaw's turnip -thinner

368

362. Improved hand- hoe

340. Crosskill's clod -crusher 341. Side view of one wheel of the clod

318

363. Turnip hand-hoe

368 368

364. 319 | 365. 319 366. 329 367. 329 368.

crusher

342. Norwegian harrow . 343. Square mode of planting hops

344. Quincunx modeof plantinghops

369. Beet-fly

345. Barclay and Sellar's patent digger or cultivator

346. Digging and pulverisingplough

.

350. Cart tipped .

351. Dung -spreading machine 352. Turnip drill-sower . 353. Seed and water drill 354. Scotch drill-scuffler or horse -hoe

355. 356. 357. 358. 359. 360.

342 343

346 349

347. Drill-plough 348. Farmtip -cart 349. Tip -cartgoing down hill .

.

.

Weed -hook Steerage horse -hoe Organs of fructification in wheat Organs of fructification in wheat Bean aphis

350 350

351 351

352

370. Large white cabbage butterfly

371. 372. 373. 374. 375. 376. 377. 378.

Small white cabbage butterfly Grain aphis Daddy longlegs Ribbon - footed corn- fly Corn saw - fly . Hessian fly Hessian fly attack on barley Chlorops

366 379. Wheat-midge

English horse-hoe or turnip-scuffler 366 Horse -hoe and harrow 366 Turnip horse -hoe 367 367 M'Kidd's drill-scarifier 367 Dickson's turnip -cleaner Briggs's turnip - thinner . 367 |

380. Wire-worms . 381. False wire -worms 382. Ear cockles

388 389 392 393 395 397 397 397

398 398 399 399 399 400 400 401 402 402 403

383. Tulip -rooted oat plant infested by eelworm

384. Hop aphis

403 404

ILLUSTRATIONS.

ix

478

385. Hop - jumper .

405

421. Scalder and cooler .

386. Red spider 387. Onion fly

405

422. White Wedgewood -waremilk - dish : 480 480 423. Enamelled iron milk -pan 481 424. Iron milk -pan

406 406

388. Pea and bean weevils 389. Colorado beetle

407

407 408

390. Death's -head moth

391. Turnip -fly . 392. The strawsoniser at work 393. Turnip aphis .

409

394. Dart moth

411

410

395. Turnip saw - fly

.

411

396. Turnip saw -fly, grub at work

.

412

397. Section through a fragment of a 398. Section potatothrough -leaf a fragment of old

.

425. Milk -sieve 426. Cream -skimmer 427. Cream - jar

428. 429. 430. 431.

.

481

Movable milk -stand Swartz system Cooley system Devonshire cream stove .

482

482 483 483 484 484

432. Jersey creamer

433. Speedwell cream -raiser .

419 434. Speedwellmethod of skimming

421 potato-leaf 399. Anbury or club -root - early stage 427 400. Secure mode of fixing the hanging-

.

435. De Laval separator 436. “ Baby ” separator .

438. The “ ladies' " plunge-churn

401. Salt -roller

439. Barrel churn . 440. End- over -end churn

402. Washing- pool and sheep-washing

439

441. The “ Index Diaphragm " churn

403. Wool-shears .

442

442. Charlemont

404. First stage of clipping a sheep

443

churn and

485 485 486 486

437. Speedwell cream -cooler .

432 433

post of a field -gate

481 481

.

•

491 491 491 492

butter

worker

443. Box churn

405. Second stage of clipping a sheep 406. Third stage of clipping a sheep 407. New -clipped sheep .

444

408. Rolling a fleeceofwool .

448 446. “ Délaiteuse " centrifugal butter.

409. Fleece of wool rolled up 410. White -shouldered wool-moth . 411. Weighing and packing wool 412 . nching-nippers for sheep 413. Buisting -iron for sheep . 414. Branding -iron for sheep and cattle . 415. Opened bull's ring . 416. Closed bull's ring 417. Swivelled spring -hook 418. Sandringham dairy herd recorder

449 449

493 493

445

444. Speedwell crystal churn

494

446

445. Butter -worker

496

450

drier . 447. Butter -beaters or boards 448. Butter-boxes .

455 449. Milk - vat

419. Temperature can

455 455 465 466 467 476 476

420. Lawrence's refrigerator

477

450. 451. 452. 453. 454. 455. 456.

Curd-mill Single cheese - press Double cheese -press Curd -knives . Metal chesset or cheese mould Wooden chesset or cheese mould Curd -breaker

497 497

498 500 501 501 502 507 508 508 509

THE

BOOK

OF

THE

FARM

Wherefore come on, O young husbandman ! Learn the culture proper to each kind. VIRGIL.

THE

BOOK OF THE DETAILING

FARM

THE LABOURS OF THE

FARMER, FARI -STEWARD, PLOUGHMAV, SHEPHERD , HEDGER, FARM -LABOURER , FIELD -WORKER, AND CATTLE-MAN

BY

HENRY STEPHENS , F.R.S.E. CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE NATIONAL AND CENTRAL SOCIETY OF AGRICULTURE OF FRANCE ; OF THE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF GALICIA ; OF THE AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE OF GOREGORETZK IN RUSSIA ; OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF

SWEDEN ; OF THE ROYAL IMPROVEMENT SOCIETY OF NORWAY

FOURTH

EDITION

REVISED, AND IN GREAT PART REWRITTEX, BY

JAMES

MACDONALD

OF THE ' FARMING WORLD ' ; AUTHOR OF FOOD FROM THE FAR WEST ' ; JOINT AUTHOR OF POLLED CATTLE , 6 HEREFORD CATTLE ,' ETC., ETC.

IN

THREE

VOLUMES

VOLUME III.

WILLIAM

BLACKWOOD

EDINBURGH

AND

MDCCCXCI

All Rights reserved

AND

LONDON

SONS

CONTENTS OF VOLUME III.

PRACTICE - SUMMER ( continued ). PAGE

PAGE

Artificial hay-drying 4 Pressing hay I

Haymaking Method ofcutting English methods

S

Scotch methods

II

Improved hay-stacking appliances

25

37 40 44 48

Bare fallow

Harvesting turnip -seed

PRACTICE - AUTUMN .

Autumn weather and field operations

48

Sowing crimson clover

51

Harvesting red -clover seed

52

Sowing Italian rye-grass .

52

Grain harvest .

53

Sowing varieties of corn together Planting potatoes Subsidiary farm crops Fruit, vegetables, and flowers Vegetables

Stage for cutting

53 56

Cabbages . Savoys

Harvest labour

Reaping appliances

56 Greens, cauliflowers, & c.

Sickle or " book "

56

Scythe The reaping-machine Modern reaping-machines

57 60

Process of reaping

70

Self-binder

Stacking cereals Stack ventilators

67

Carrots, parsnips, and beet Storing carrots

IOI

1 30 131 132 132 133 133 133 133

134

Carrot-pits

134 134

Onions Leeks

134 135

79 Turnips for table use Bea

85

.

and peas ns Fruit Strawberries

135 135 135 135

.

Artificial drying

102

Stacking peas and beans . Reaping buckwheat . Harvesting the sunflower

109

Labour and soil

136

109

Bush fruit

136

IIO

Birds destructive to corn crops

IIO

Methods of prevention Poultry injuring crops Animals destroying crops Raisingpotatoes

114 115 115 116

Orchards . Flowers Bulbs Live stock in autumn Cattle in autumn

137 137 137

Potato -digger

118

Plough digging Storing potatoes

121

Sowing cereals in autumn

126 126 128

Tupping season Ram -breeding on Horses in autumn

150

129

Shoeing .

130

Poultry in autumn

150 154

Sowing wheat . Sowing barley . Sowing rye Sowing peas

I 22

Sheep in autumn Bathing, smearing, dipping Construction of dipping-bath Dipping mixtures

hill-farms

138 138 139 139 141

146 149 150

vi

CONTENTS.

Management of fowls

Animals destructive of poultry Bee-keeping Rotation of crops Realisation

154 159

Farm -houses

161 168

Outline and ornamentation Second - class farm -house Third - class farm -house

176

Plans of farm-houses

Physical geography of farms

176 General principles .

Judging land .

185

Characteristics of soils

186

Estimating rent Offering for a farm .

.

Plans of farm cottages Family cottages

188 Single-storeyed detached cottage 191

Two-storey cottages.

Conditions of lease

193

Cottages of different sizes

Conditions of cropping

195

Composite cottages .

Feudal customs Land burdens .

198 198

Outhouses of cottages

Compensation for improvements

198 198

Evils of the bothy system

201

Specifications

Entering a farm

Adjusting farm labour Valuing sheep stocks Stocking a farm Insurance against fire and disease

Bothies

Iron buildings .

340 344 353

353 353 357 358 359

362 363 374 374

375 375 376 378 378

202 Specification for a steading for a farm 202

204

Mutual insurance against disease Enclosure and shelter

.

Draining land . Mole -drainage . Process of mole -draining

of 5000 acres Specification for modern stone stead. ing

210 Specification of labourers'cottages 248 Breeds of farm live-stock .

378

385 389 393

282

Horses Shire horses

Surface -draining

285

Clydesdale horses

396

Improving waste land Rules for land improvement Scotch example

286

Suffolk horses .

287 The hackney horse .

401 402 404

Other methods.

287 Cattle

Improving poor land Improvement of hill pasture A Mid - Lothian example Improvements at Glenbuck Trench and subsoil ploughing Liming land

291

Shorthorn cattie

281

393 393

286 | Cleveland bays

292

Hereford cattle

293 294

Devon cattle Sussex cattle

295 297

Norfolk and Suffolk redpolled cattle

416

Long-horned cattle .

416

Injury fromimprudent liming

297

Quantity of lime per acre

300 Galloway cattle

Polled Aberdeen -Angus cattle

Chalking land .

301

Ayrshire cattle

Marling land

302

Limestone

302

West Highland cattle Kerry cattle

Preparing lime

303 / Welsh cattle

Over -liminy Compost Gas-lime .

303 Shetland cattle 304 Jersey and Guernsey cattle 304 Sheep

Irrigation

304

Systems of irrigation

308 311

Farm buildings

.

Modern homesteads .

405 406

.

Leicesters Cotswolds

Lincolns . 311 Southdowns

409 410 413

417 420 420 421 422 424 424 424 425

425 426 426 427 427 428 428

General principles

316

Farms and steadings

316

Hampshire downs

317

Oxford downs

318 319

Suffolk sheep Devon long-wools

428

319

Dorset horned sheep

429

Situation of the steading .

.

Principles of arrangement

Plans of steadings Pastoral farming Cattle pastoral farming Sheep pastoral farming Pastoral and arable farming Sheep and arablefarming Steading for arablefarming

.

.

.

428

319

Border Leicesters

429

321 321

Blackfaced sheep

433

Cheviots .

433 434 434 434

323 Roscommon sheep 324 Weights of sheep

Steadings for mixed husbandry Steadings for dairy farming Steadings for suburban farming

Shropshires

326 | Swine 336 | Berkshires

435

338 | Large white breed

435

CONTENTS. Middle white breed .

vii

435 Recipes 436 Appendix

493

Small white breed Small black breed

436

Administering medicine

Tamworth pigs

436

Farm -servants and wages

495 499 499 499 501

Other breeds

Sheep -clogs Ailments of farm live stock Index of subjects Horses Cattle

Ringworm Sheep Swine

436 Methods of hiring .

436 Wages and perquisites 439 Ordinary ploughmen 439 442

Law of farm -service Care of implements .

470

Farm book-keeping .

484 ; Final exhortations 485 491

INDEX

495

503 505 507

524 527

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME III.

ANIMAL PORTRAITS. PLATE

28

OXFORD DOWN RAM

HAMPSHIRE DOWN WETHER

29

LINCOLN RAM

30

.

SUFFOLK RAM

31

BORDER LEICESTER EWE AND LAMB ( 1850)

32

BORDER LEICESTER RAM

33

BLACKFACED RAM

34

CHEVIOT RAM

35

LARGE WHITE PIG

36 BERKSHIRE BOAR

MIDDLE -WHITE BOAR ? 37 TAMWORTH

BOAR

BLACK SOW AND SMALL WHITE BOAR

38

FARM BUILDINGS. DETACHED PASTORAL FARM-STEADING FOR REARING CATTLE I

COMPACT PASTORAL FARM - STEADING

FOR REARING CATTLE

FARM-STEADING FOR REARING CATTLE WITH ARABLE CULTURE 2

FARM - STEADING FOR REARING SHEEP WITH ARABLE CULTURE SMALL DAIRY FARM -STEADING

3

SUBURBIAL FARM-STEADING FOR ARABLE CULTURE COMMON FARM-STEADING

4

CARSE FARM -STEADING

5 6

PLAN OF A DAIRY HOMESTEAD FOR EIGHTY COWS AND FORTY YOUNG CATTLE FARM - STEADING AT INVERQUHARITY

7

FRONT ELEVATION OF FARMHOUSES

3

ix

ILLUSTRATIONS .

GENERAL ILLUSTRATIONS. SUMMER - continued . PAGE

FIG .

457. Reaper knife-sharpener . 458. Howard's mower

4 5

9)

459. The “Munster

PACE

27 28

474. Horse pitch -fork 475. Wallace's horse hay -fork

mower .

460. The “ Victor ” mower 461. The “ Albion " mower 462.

FIG .

473. Pollock's hay -sledge

7

“ Caledonian Buckeye ” reaper and mower

7 9 9

463. Howard's haymaker 464. The “ Taunton ” haymaker

465. The “ Acme” haymaker .

9

466. Hand hay -fork 467. Hay-shed

468. Hay-waggon 469. Hay hand -rake

34

479. Hay -collector 480. Mode of erecting a rick-cloth over a hay.stack when being built 481. Threshing rye-grass seed in the field,

II 21

29 34 34

476. The “ Star " horse-rake . 477. Howard's horse- rake 478. The “ Stamford " horse -rake

35

either in sheaf or in bulk

482. Hand-flail

37

23

470. Wallace's hay -sledge, empty

483. Steam -power hay and straw press 24 484. Horse-power hay-press 26 | 485. Bamber's hay -press

471. Wallace's hay-sledge, in the act of loading

26

472. Wallace's hay-sledge, with load

27

40 41 42 42 43

486. Barford & Perkins's hay -press 487. Turnbull's hay-press

AUTUMN.

517. Completed knot 518. Knot tied by the Hornsby binder

82

55

489. Toothed sickle

56

519. Hornsby binder at work

83

490. Large smooth -edged sickle

57 57

520. Howard's binder 521. Bisset's binder

83

488. Progress of ripening in a stalk of oats

.

491. Sheaf-gauge

492. Reaping with the Hainault scythe . 493. 494. 495. 496.

Cradle-scythe for reaping Common reaping-scythe. Mowing corn with the scythe Bell's reaping-machine

499. Harrison and M'Gregor's self-raking reaper 500. Howard's self-delivery reaper. Samuelson's 501. back -delivery reaper 502. Wood's self-delivery reaper 503. Corn - band ready to receive the sheaf 504. 505. 506. 507.

Hand stubble -rake . Ordinary stook of wheat Barley or oat stook hooded Gaitin of oats

508. Finger arrangement

.

58522. Corn and hay cart tops or frame 58523. Transverse section of the tops or frame

59

87

.

88

524. Common corn and hay cart 64 / 525. Farm waggon

497. Dray's Hussey reaping-machine in perspective 498. M Cormick's reaping -machine

82

89

526. Coiled-up cart -rope 66

90 90 90

527. Old throw -crook

67 | 528. Best throw - crook

529. Making a straw -rope with a throw crook .

68

91 91

69 530. Coil of straw -rope : 69

531. Bunch of drawn straw

70

76

532. 533. 534. 535.

76

536. Lozenge mode of roping the covering

73 74

77 So

509. Conveyor -roll

92 93 95 95 96

Thatch -making machine Making a stool for a corn -stack Building a stack of corn Stack - trimmer

98

of a corn -stack

537. Net- mesh mode of roping the cover ing of a corn -stack

99

510. Needle

81 538. Border mode of roping the covering

511. Knotter 512. String laid across knotter

81 81

513. Quarter turn, showing position of string on top of jaw 514. Half turn

81 82

515. Whole turn , jaws open and string entering

82

of a corn -stack

99

539. Pyramidal boss and trestle 540. Prismatic boss

.

IOI IOI

541. Taylor's stack ventilator

.

102

542. Richmond's corn - rack 543. Richmond's corn -rack -- section

544. Potato -graip .

103 104 116

545. Powell Brothers& Whittaker'spota:

516. Jaws closed on string ; the string knife then cuts the ends, and the

to -digger

lever draws the string off, com pleting the knot

546. Jack's potato -digger

118 118

547. Jack's farm -cart

119

82

ILLUSTRATIONS .

X

518. Potato -raiser attached to a plough . 122

549. Conical and prismatic potato -pits 550. Potato -separator

.

551. Iron harrows.

.

552. Bath-stool for sheep 553. Bath -jug 554. Bathing sheep

.

607. Angle-iron field -gate

140

608. Gate for farmyard . 609. Field-wicket

246 246

610. Turnstile

247 247

141 145 151

556. Horse's foot in the natural state 557. Shelter afforded by a low wall against a cutting blast 214 216 558. Hand -pick 559. Ditcher's shovel 216 217 560. Thorn plant . 219 561. Bad effect of weeds on thorns .

.

.

562. Switching -bill

220

563. Triangular form of thorn hedge

220

564. Breasting -knife

221

565. Hedger's axe .

221

thorn hedge on bank and 566. Breasted ditch . 567. Plashing and laying an old hedge on

222

bank, and water -tabling a ditch . 568. Dead -hedge of thorns 569. Stake -and - rice fence

570. 571. 572. 573. 57

Common wooden paling . . Hedge-spade Dutch hoe Hedge weedthe -hook . height of a dry-stone Building a

stay

126

140

555. Dipping -bath

605. Iron field -gate with iron posts and 245 245 246

123 125

.

606. Wrought-iron field -gate.

611. Fence steps

612. Water-table in drained and un drained land

615. Inclination of drains and strata 616-619. Wedge-and-shoulder drains 620. Surface - turf cut to shape 621. “ Plug " draining 622-626. Stone drains 627-629. Peat drains

264 264 264 264

641. Drain with cylindrical pipe

227

643. Ordinary digging spade .

270

228 228

644. Draining-plough 645. Divisions of trench

270

228

646. Clay -cutter, hollow or circular pat

264

pipes, A and B .

tern

232

234

stay above ground 582. Wrought-iron straining -post 583. Winding-pillar

263

630. Special tool for cutting peat drains 631-636. Tile drains 637. Longitudinal sections

642. Longitudinal sections of collared

577. One watering -pool common to four

578. Clump of trees within the meeting of four dykes 579. Straining-post with sole and stay underground 580. Straining-post, with planks under: ground 581. Straining-post, with standard and

270

271

.

.

648. Cast -steel clay spade

271 271

649. Drain -scoop to pull, square pattern

271

650. Drain -scoop to pull 651. Drain -scoop to push 652. Drain -shovel, square pattern .

272

272 272

653. Positions of planks and props in a deep drain to prevent earth fall

234

ing in 235

273 273

.

654. Drain gauge

655. Showing the line of pipes truly laid 236

with regular fall, and pipes im properly laid on uneven bot .

236

tom

273

584. Wrought-iron standards

236 656. Challoner’s level. Giving a fall of 4 inch to the yard 237 238 657. Levelling-staff, or boning-rod , for

585. Barb -wire

238

586. Standard for barb-wire : 587. Wire -strainer 588. Wire-straightener

.

.

239 659. American method of regulating fali

590. Iron and wire fence

240

591. Section of bulb-angle iron

240

592. Horse and cattle fence 593 .

.

Corrimony " fence

594. Iron hurdle 595. Iron hurdle on wheels 596. Wicket for hurdle-fence

273

testing the uniform fall in drains 273 274 239658. Showing use of levelling -staff 239 239

589. Wire-knotting tools

263 263 263

224

234

fields .

.

226 226

234 .

261 262 262

638-640. Sections of cylindrical pipe

576. Four watering-pools formed by two dykes crossing

256 258

614. Water -level test-holes

647. Clay -cutter, socket pattern dyke .

254

613. Cause of wetness in land

240 241 241

in drains

660. 661. 662. 663.

274

275 Pipe-laying iron Drain cesspool 277 278 Drain-clearing rods Section and plan of drain in process of being cleaned, showing arrange .

ments

279

242664. Windlass for chain cleaning drains. 279 242

665. Upright for lower end of drain, with

598. Unclimbable hurdle

243 243

666. Section of drain with pipes laid in

599. Light ornamental hurdle 600. Iron railing and wicket .

244

667. Displacementof pipes in a drain

280

601. Malleable - iron fence

244

668. Mole -draining

frame with diagonal 602. Rectangular strut .

669, 670. Mole-draining ploughs

281 282

244

671. Junction with main drain 672. Auxiliary and mole -drains 673. Closing coulter -track

283 283 284

597. Folding hurdle

603. Strong field -gate 604. Common wooden field - gate

244

245 245

runners

cinders

280

280

ILLUSTRATIONS. 674. Mattock

675. Levelling-box, or scoop 676. Catch - work water -meadow 677. Upper floor of a steading for cattle

288 290 310

.

722. Ground -plan of a second -class farm house

354

of a second-class farm 723. Cellar-plan house 724. Chamber - plan of

pastoral farming with arable cul. ture

xi

322

a

354

second - class

farmhouse .

355

725. Front elevation of a second -class pastoral farming with arable cul. farmhouse . 324 726. Side elevation of second - class ture farmhouse . 679. Upper floor of a steading for carse 325 727. Side elevation of second-class farming

678. Upper floor of a steading for sheep

355

a

356

a

680. Upper storey of a steading for com

farmhouse .

356

-plan of a third-class farm house 681, 682. Ground-plan of complete stead 327 728.Ground third-class 328, 329

357

683. Entrance elevation of main build

358

ing for farm of 500 acres

ings

684. Back elevation of main buildings 685. Side elevation of shed, barn, stables, &c.

330 330

of one room

360

732. Ground-plan of a large hind'shouse of one room

687. Section and elevation of main build

ings at AB

358

farmhouse .

731. Ground-plan of a small hind's house 330 330

686. Side elevation of main buildings

729. Chamber-floor plan of a farmhouse . 730. Frontelevation of а third-class

331 331

360

733. Ground-plan of a small hind's house

with two rooms 688. Section of main buildings at Ċ D 331 | 734. Ground - plan of single-storeyed de 689. Section of stables at E F tached cottage 690. Ground - plan of modern Scotch .

.

361

361

elevation of a single-storeyed 332 735. Front detached cottage

362

692. East elevation 693. South elevation

of a single-storeyed 333 736. Ground-plan detached

363

694. North elevation 695. Section at A B

333 737. Front elevation of asingle-storeyed detached cottage 334 334 738. Ground plan of a two-storeyed de:

steading

691. Section of cow -byre

.

333

333

696. Section at C D

697. Upper or roof plan

334

698. Upper storey of a steading for 336

small dairy farming 699. Butter -dairy 700. 701 , 702. 703.

337

Section at & B 338 338 Section at C D Front elevation 338 Upper storey of a steading for sub . urban farming with arable cul . ture

. 704. Ground -plan of a kitchen, &c. , of

farmhouse .

705. Cheese-room , &c. , of farmhouse

.

tached cottage

364

739. Chamber -floor planof atwo-storeyed 740. Front elevation of thetwo-storeyed

365

cottage in fig. 738

741. Ground -plan of single - storeyed double -detached cottages

366

742. Alternative ground -plan of single. storeyed double - detached

cot

tages .

366

342

366 tached cottages in fig. 741 744. Alternative front elevation to front

343

elevation in fig. 743

367

745. Alternative ground - plan to ground plan in fig. 741

367

346 746. Alternative ground -plan to ground .

347 347

711. Side elevation of farmhouse, finished

367

747. Alternative ground-plan to ground: 741 plan in fig.

712. Back elevation of alternative design 348

748. Ground-plan oftwo-storeyed double d

713. Vertical section of milk -house and

749. Chamber- floorplanof fig. 748

.

cheese-room , figs. 706 and 707 714. Ground -plan of farmhouse in Italian style .

715. Cellar plan 716. Alternative cellar plan 717. Chamber -floor plan of farmhouse in Italian style

718. Front elevation of farmhouse in

348

.

detache cottages

368 368 368

349

750. Front elevation of the cottages in

349 350 350

751. End elevation of cottages in fig. 748 369 752. Ground -plan of two-storeyed double detached cottages

350

753. Chamber - floor plan of fig. 752 370 754. Front elevation ofcottages in fig. 752 370

fig. 748

369

.

.

369

.

755. Two - storey

Italian style 351 719. Back elevation in the Italian style . 351 720. Side eleration in the Italian style

365

743. Front elevation of the double -de:

.

to show stone - rubble walling

363

339

345 706. Ground -plan of farmhouse 707. Chamber- floor plan of farmhouse 346 e t nativ gemen arran 708. Alter of part of

chamber - floor storey 709. Side elevation of farmhouse 710. Back elevation of farmhouse

cottage

double

ground -plan 756. Upper floor .

352 | 757. Section .

721. Side elevation in the Italian style . 352 | 758. Front elevation

cottages 370 371 .

371 371

ILLUSTRATIONS .

xii

759. Ground -plan of modern English cottages

760. Upper floor 761. Front elevation

766. Ground - plan of a two - storeyed 372 372 373

762. Ground - plan of single -storeyed double cottages, consisting of lar ger and smaller houses

373

bothy 769. Iron buildings 770. Window - sill

763. Small two-storeyed double cottages 374 764. Elevation of small two -storeyed double cottages . 374

771. Coping to yard wall

765. Upper storey of composite cottage

773

applied to fig. 734

375

376

bothy

767. Chamber- floor of a two-storeyed bothy 768. Ground-plan of a single-storeyed

772. Mangers 774. Shepherd's dog or collie

376

376 378 380 380

- 380 438

多

630

9833b2 V.6

Stephens EXP . STA . LIBRARY

495

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES

3 1293 02957 1209