The Book of the Farm: Detailing the Labours of the Farmer, Farm-steward, Ploughman, Shepherd, Hedger, Farm-labourer, Field-worker, and Cattle-man [3, 4 ed.]

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Middle white breel
PRACTICE-SUMMER (continued)
Haymaking
English methods
Autumn weather and field operations
Harvest labour
Modern reaping-machines
Self-binder
Stacking cereals
Stack ventilators
Stacking peas and beans
Poultry injuring crops
Plough digging
Sowing barley
Construction of dipping-bath
Tupping season
Management of fowls
Bee-keeping
Rotation of crops
Realisation
Judging land
Offering for a farm
Feudal customs
Insurance against fire and disease
Draining land
121
Mole-drainage
Scotch example
A Mid-Lothian example
Quantity of lime per acre
Systems of irrigation
General principles
Sheep pastoral farming
Steadings for dairy farming
| Third-class farm-house
Small white breed
442
22
Final exhortations
485
| INDEX

Citation preview

This is a reproduction of a library book that was digitized by Google as part of an ongoing effort to preserve the information in books and make it universally accessible.

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NYPL RESEARCH LIBRARIES

3 3433 00763001 9

NRC

1

Y

1

THE

BOOK

OF THE

FARM

st

VP C

- 16732 LI

A

BR

Y

JUN

AS

TO

AR

NE 1893 W

ro

Wherefore come on, O young husbandman ! Learn the culture proper to each kind. VIRGIL.

THE

BOOK OF THE FARM DETAILING

THE LABOURS OF THE

FARMER, FARM-STEWARD, PLOUGHMAN, SHEPHERD, HEDGER, FARM -LABOURER, FIELD -WORKER; AND CATTLE - MAN

BY

HENRY STEPHENS, F.R.S.E. CORRESPONDIXG MEMBER OF THE NATIONAL AND CENTRAL SOCIETY OF AGRICULTURE OF FRANCE ; OF THE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF GALICIA ; OF THE AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE OF GOREGORETZK IN RUSSIA ; OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF

SWEDEN ; OF THE ROYAL IMPROVEMENT SOCIETY OF NORWAY

FOURTH

EDITION

REVISED, AND IN GREAT PART REWRITTEX, BY

JAMES MACDONALD OF THE

AUTHOR OF

' FARMING WORLD ' ;

FOOD FROM THE FAR WEST ' ; JOINT AUTHOR OF

• POLLED CATTLE, ' ' HEREFORD CATTLE ,' ETC., ETC.

IN

THREE

VOLUMES

VOLUME III .

WILLIAM

BLACKWOOD

EDINBURGH

AND

AND

LONDON

MDCCCXCI

(IN

SONS

THE NEW YORK

PUBLIC LIBRARY ASTOR , LENOX LDEN

FOUNDAIONS

CONTENTS OF VOLUME III.

PRACTICE - SUMMER (continued ). PAGE

PAGE

Artificial hay-drying

4

Pressing hay

8

Scotch methods

II

Improved hay -stacking appliances

25

37 40 44 48

우

Haymaking Method ofcutting English methods

I

Bare fallow

Harvesting turnip -seed

PRACTICE- AUTUMN.

Autumn weather and field operations

48 | Sowing varieties of corn together

Sowing crimson clover

51 | Planting potatoes

Harvesting red-clover seed

52 52

Subsidiary farm crops Fruit, vegetables, and flowers

Grain harvest . Stage for cutting

53

Vegetables

53

Cabbages.

1 30 131 132 132 1 33 133

Harvest labour

56

Savoys

133

Reaping appliances

56 Greens, cauliflowers, & c. .

Sickle or " hook ”

56

Carrots, parsnips, and beet

Scythe

57 60

Storing carrots Carrot -pits

67

Onions Leeks

Sowing Italian rye- grass .

The reaping-machine Modern reaping-machines Process of reaping Self-binder

Stacking cereals Stack ventilators

Artificial drying Stacking peas and beans . Reaping buckwheat . Harvesting the sunflower Birds destructive to corn crops Methods of prevention

Poultry injuring crops Animals destroying crops Raising potatoes

70

79 | Turnips for table use 85 Beans and peas Fruit IOI Strawberries 102 109

109 ΥΠΟ IIO

114 115 115

Labour and soil Bush fruit Orchards . Flowers Bulbs Live stock in autumn

Cattle in autumn

116 Sheep in autumn 118 Bathing, smearing, dipping

.

133 134 134 134 134

135 135 135 135 135

136

136 137 137 137

138 138

Plough digging Storing potatoes Sowing cereals in autumn

121

Construction of dipping- bath

139 1 39 141

I 22

Dipping mixtures

146

Tupping season

Sowing wheat . Sowing barley .

126 Ram -breeding on hill-farms 128

Horses in autumn

Sowing rye

129

Shoeing

Sowing peas

130 | Poultry in autumn

149 150 150 150 154

Potato -digger

126

CONTENTS.

vi

Management of fowls

154 | Farm -houses

Animalsdestructive of poultry Bee- keeping

159

Plans of farm -houses

Realisation

Outline and ornamentation 168 Second -class farm -house 176 | Third - class farm -house

Physical geography of farnis

126 General principles .

Judging land .

185

161

Rotation of crops

Plans of farm cottages

340 344 353

353 353

357 358

Characteristics of soils

186 | Family cottages

359

Estimating rent Offering for a farm :

188 Single-storeyed detached cottage

362

Feudal customs

191 193 195 198

Land burdens .

198 | Bothies

Compensation for improvement

198 Evils of the bothy system

Entering a farm

198

Conditions of lease

Conditions of cropping

Adjusting farm labour

201

Valuing sheep stocks Stocking a farm Insurance against fire and disease

202 202

Iron buildings . Specifications

Specification for a steading for a farm of 5000 acres 204 Specification for modern stone stead

Mutual insurance against disease Enclosure and shelter

Two-storey cottages . Cottages of different sizes Composite cottages . Outhouses of cottages

205 .

ing

210 Specification of labourers'cottages

Draining land . Mole -drainage .

248 281

Horses

Process of mole-draining

282

Shire horses

Surface -draining

285

Clydesdale horses

Improving waste land

286 | Suffolk horses .

Breeds of farm live -stock .

Rules for land improvement

286

Scotch example

287 | The hackney horse . 287 Cattle Shorthorn cattie 291

Other methods.

Improving poor land Improvement of hill pasture A Mid - Lothian example . Improvements at Glenbuck Trench and subsoil ploughing Liming land

Injuryfrom imprudent liming Quantity of lime per acre Chalking land . Marling land Limestone

Preparing lime Over-lining Compost Gas-lime . Irrigation

Systems of irrigation Farm buildings

Cleveland bays

363 374

374 375 375

376 378 378 378

385 389 393 393 393

396 401 402 404 405

406

292

Hereford cattle

293 294

Devon cattle Sussex cattle

409 410 413

295

Norfolk and Suffolk red polled cattle

416

Long-horned cattle . Polled Aberdeen -Angus cattle . 297 300 Galloway cattle 297

416 417

Leicesters

420 420 421 422 424 424 424 425 425

308 Cotswolds

426

301

Ayrshire cattle

302 West Highland cattle 302 Kerry cattle 303 | Welsh cattle 303 Shetland cattle

304 Jersey and Guernsey cattle 304 Sheep 304

311 311

Lincolns . Southdowns

General principles

316

Shropshires

427

Farms and steadings

316 Hampshire downs

Situation of the steading .

317

Oxford downs .

Principles of arrangement

318

Plans of steadings Pastoral farming Cattle pastoral farming

319

Suffolk sheep Devon long -wools

428 428 428 428

319

Dorset horned sheep

429

319

Border Leicesters Blackfaced sheep

429 433 433 434 434 434 435 435

Modern homesteads .

Sheep pastoral farming

Pastoral and arable farming

321 321

Cheviots .

Sheep and arablefarming Steading for arable farming Steadings for mixed husbandry

326

Swine

Steadings for dairy farming

336

Berkshires

Stealings for suburban farming

338 | Large white breed

323

Roscommon sheep

324 Weights of sheep

426 427

CONTENTS .

435 Recipes 436 Appendix 436 Administeringmedicine . 436 Farm -servants and wages

Middle white breel. Small white breed Small black breed

Tamworth pigs Other breeds

Index of subjects Horses Cattle

Ringworm Sheep Swine

436 Methods of hiring

.

Sheep -clogs Ailments of farm live stock

.

436 Wages and perquisites 439 | Ordinary ploughmen 439 442

Law of farm -service

vii 493 495 495 499 499 499 501 503

Care of implements . 470 Farm book -keeping . 484 Final exhortations

507 524

485 491 | INDEX

527

505

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME III.

ANIMAL PORTRAITS. PLATE

28

OXFORD DOWY RAM

HAMPSHIRE DOWN WETHER LINCOLN

RAM

29

.

30

.

SUFFOLK RAM

31

BORDER LEICESTER EWE AND LAMB ( 1850)

32

BORDER LEICESTER RAM

33

BLACKFACED RAM

34

CHEVIOT RAM

35

LARGE WHITE PIG

36 BERKSHIRE BOAR

MIDDLE -WHITE BOAR ? 37 TAMWORTH

BOAR

38

BLACK SOW AND SMALL WHITE BOAR

FARM BUILDINGS.

DETACHED PASTORAL FARM -STEADING FOR REARING CATTLE I

COMPACT PASTORAL FARM - STEADING FOR REARING CATTLE

FARM -STEADING FOR REARING CATTLE WITH ARABLE CULTURE 2

FARM - STEADING FOR REARING SHEEP WITH

ARABLE CULTURE

3 SUBURBIAL FARM - STEADING

FOR ARABLE CULTURE

COMMON FARM -STEADING CARSE FARM -STEADING

PLAN OF A DAIRY HOMESTEAD FOR EIGHTY COWS AND FORTY YOUNG CATTLE FARM - STEADING AT INVERQUHARITY FRONT ELEVATION OF FARMHOUSES

inosco+

SMALL DAIRY FARM -STEADING

ix

ILLUSTRATIONS.

GENERAL ILLUSTRATIONS. SUMMER - continued . PAGE

FIG .

PAGE

| FIG .

457. Reaper knife-sharpener .

4

473. Pollock's hay -sledge

458. Howard's mower

5

474. Horse pitch -fork

459. The “ Munster " mower .

5

460. The “ Victor ” mower 461. The Albion mower 462. Caledonian Buckeye ”

6

475. 476. 477. 478.

66

7

reaper and

mower

7 9

463. Howard's haymaker 464. The “ Taunton " haymaker 465. The “ Acme" haymaker . 466. Hand hay -fork

9 9

467. Hay -shed

468. Hay-waggon , 469. Hay hand-rake .

476. Wallace’s hay-sledge, empty 471. Wallace's hay-sledge, in the act of loading

472. Wallace's hay-sledge, with load

.

Wallace's horse hay - fork The “ Star " horse- rake . Howard's horse - rake The “ Stamford " horse -rake

27 28

29 34

479. Hay -collector

480. Mode of erecting a rick -cloth over a hay -stack when being built

35

481. Threshing rye -grass seed in the field,

II 21

either in sheaf or in bulk 482. Hand - flail

23

483. Steam -power hay and straw press

24 26

484. Horse -power hay press 485. Bamber's hay -press

486. Barford & Perkins's hay -press

40 41 42 42

26 27

487. Turnbull's hay -press

43

37

AUTUMN.

517. Completed knot

82

518. Knot tied by the Hornsby binder

82

56

519. Hornsby binder at work

83

57 57

520 , Howard's binder 521. Bisset's binder

83 84

488. Progress of ripening in a stalk of oats

•

489. Toothed sickle

496. Large smooth -edged sickle 491. Sheaf-gauge

55

492. Reaping with the Hainault seythe : 493. 494. 495. 496.

Cradle-scythe for reaping Common reaping -scythe . Mowing corn with the scythe Bell's reaping-machine

522. Corn and hay cart tops or frame 523. Transverse section of the tops or 59 60

498. M'Cormick's reaping -machine 499. Harrison and M'Gregor's self-raking

frame

524. Common corn and hay cart

64 | 525. Farm waggon

497. Dray’s Hussey reaping-machine in perspective

66

67

526. Coiled -up cart -rope 527. Old throw-crook 528. Best throw-crook crook .

69 530. Coil of straw -rope :

501. Samuelson's back - delivery reaper 502. Wood's self-delivery reaper 503. Corn - band ready to receive the sheaf

70

504. Hand stubble -rake . 505. Ordinary stook of wheat 506. Barley or oat stook hooded

76

531. 532. 533. 534. 535.

76

536. Lozenge mode of roping the covering

73 74

Bunch of drawn straw Thatch -making machine Making a stool for a corn -stack Building a stack of corn Stack - trimmer

507. Gaitin of oats 508. Finger arrangement 509. Conveyor-roll

80

537. Net-mesh mode of roping the cover

510. Needle .

81

538. Border mode of roping the covering

511. Knotter

81 81

539. Pyramidal boss and trestle

512. String laid across knotter

77

of a corn - stack

ing of a corn -stack

513. Quarter turn, showing position of string on top of jaw 514. Half turn 515. Whole turn, jaws open and string entering

87 88

89 90 90

90

of a corn - stack

540. Prismatic boss

91 91 92 93 95

95 90 98

99 99 IOI IOI

81

541. Taylor's stack ventilator

102

82

542. Richmond's corn -rack

82

543. Richmond's corn -rack - section 544. Potato-graip .

103 104 116

545. PowellBrothers & Whittaker's pota:

516. Jaws closed on string ; the string. knife then cuts the ends, and the

to -digger

lever draws the string off, com

546. Jack's potato -digger 547. Jack's farm -cart

pleting the knot

87

529. Making a straw-rope with a throw

reaper

500. Howard's self-delivery reaper .

.

82

118 118

119

ILLUSTRATIONS.

х

548. 549. 550. 551. 552.

Potato -raiser attached to a plough . Conical and prismatic potato -pits Potato -separator Iron harrows. Bath -stool for sheep

I 22

.

553. Bath - jug

554. 555. 556. 557.

Bathing sheep Dipping -bath Horse's foot in the natural state Shelter afforded by a low wall

123 125 126 140 140 141 145 151

605. Iron field -gate with iron posts and 245 245 246

stay

606. Wrought-iron field -gate. 607. Angle -iron field -gate

608. Gate for farmyard . 609. Field- wicket .

246 246

610. Turnstile

247

611. Fence steps

247

.

612, Water -table in drained and un drained land

254 256 258

214 | 613. Cause of wetness in land

against a cutting blast

558. Hand -pick

216

614. Water -level test-holes

559. Ditcher's shovel

216 217

615. Inclination of drains and strata 616-619. Wedge-and- shoulder drains

261

219

620. Surface -turf cut to shape

262

560. 561. 562. 563. 564. 565.

Thorn plant . Bad effect of weeds on thorns Switching - bill Triangular form of thorn hedge Breasting-knife Hedger's axe .

66

.

.

621 .

622-626. Stone drains

.

.

630. Special tool for cutting peat drains

263

222

631-636. Tile drains 637. Longitudinal sections

264 264

264

566. Breasted thorn hedge on bank and ditch .

627-629. Peat drains

263 263 263

Plug " draining

220

220 221 221

262

bank, and water - tabling a ditch . 568. Dead -hedge of thorns 569. Stake -and -rice fence

224

638-640. Sections of cylindrical pipe 641. Drain with cylindrical pipe

.

226

642. Longitudinal sections of collared

.

226

570. Common wooden paling . 571. Hedge -spade .

227

567. Plashing and laying an old hedge on

.

228 228 228

572. Dutch hoe

573. Hedge weed -hook

574. Building a dry-stone dyke 575. Increasing the height of a dry -stone dyke .

232

.

.

579. Straining-post with sole and

stay above ground

234

.

.

271 271 271 272 272 272

653. Positions of planks and props in a deep drain to prevent earth fall ing in

654. Drain gauge

273 273

655. Showing the line of pipes truly laid 236

with regular fall, and pipes im properly laid on uneven bot

236 236

656. Challoner's level. "Giving a fall of

237

tom

14 inch to the yard

273

273

238 657. Levelling-staff, or boning-rod , for

584. Wrought -iron standards 585. Barb -wire

270 270 270

271

651. Drain -scoop to push 652. Drain -shovel, square pattern .

235

582. Wrought-iron straining -post 583. Winding -pillar

.

650. Drain - scoop to pull

stay

580. Straining -post, with planks under 581. Straining-post, with standard and

tern

234

234

underground

.

.

234

578. Clump of trees within the meeting of four dykes

264

Ordinary digging spade . Draining- plough Divisions of trench Clay -cutter, hollow or circular pat .

watering-pool common to four 577. One fiel ds .

pipes, A and B

643. 644. 645. 646.

647. Clay -cutter, socket pattern 648. Cast-steel clay spade 649. Drain -scoop to pull, square pattern

576. Four watering-pools formed by two dykes crossing

264

238 239

testing the uniform fall in drains 273 274 658. Showing use of levelling -staff

239 239

659. American method of regulating fall

588. Wire-straightener . 589. Wire -knotting tools

239

660. Pipe-laying iron

275

590. Iron and wire fence 591. Section of bulb -angle iron 592. Horse and cattle fence

240 240

661. Drain cesspool 662. Drain -clearing rods

277

240

663. Section and plan of drain in process of being cleaned , showing arrange

.

586. Standard for barb -wire 587. Wire-strainer

593.

Corrimony " fence

241 241 242 242 243 243 244

594. Iron hurdle . 595. Iron hurdle on wheels 596. Wicket for hurdle - fence

597. Folding hurdle 598. Unclimbable hurdle 599. Light ornamental hurdle g and wicket . 600. Iron railin ble

601. Mallea

- iron fence

ular frame with diago.al 602. Rectang strut . .

603. Strong field -gate 604. Common wooden field -gate

0

in drains

ments

664. Windlass for chain cleaning drains. 665. Upright for lower end of drain , with runners

278

279

279 280

666, Section of drain with pipes laid in cinders

244

667. Displacementof pipes in a drain

244

668. Mole -draining

244 245

671. Junction with main drain 672. Auxiliary and mole -drains 673. Closing coulter - track

669, 670. Mole -draining ploughs 245

274

280 280 281

282 283

283 284

ILLUSTRATIONS. 288 290 310

674. Mattock

675. Levelling-box, or scoop 676. Catch -work water -meadow

677. Upper floor of a steading for cattle pastoral farming with arable cul . ture

322

678. Upper floor of a steading for sheep pastoral farming with arable cul.

xi

722. Ground -plan of a second -class farm . house

354

723. Cellar-plan of a second -class farm . house 724. Chamber - plan of a second - class farmhouse .

725. Front elevation of a sec se ond - class farmhouse . second- class 324 | 726. Side elevation of

354

355 355

a

ture

679. Upper floor of a steading for carse farming

327

728. Ground-plan of a third -class farm house 729. Chamber-floor plan of a third-class farmhouse . 730. Front elevation of third - class

330

685. Side elevation of shed , barn, stables, &c.

687. Section and elevation of main build ings at A B

688. Section of main buildings at C D 689. Section of stables at EF

356 357

358

a

358

farmhouse .

731. Ground -plan of a small hind's house 330 330

686. Side elevation of main buildings

а

farmhouse .

328 , 329 ing for farm of 500 acres 683. Entrance elevation of main build 330 ings

684. Back elevation of main buildings

second -class

727. Side elevation of

680. Upper storey of a steading for con mon farming 681 , 682. Ground -plan of complete stead .

356

farmhouse . 325

331 331 331

690. Ground -plan of modern Scotch

360

of one room

732. Ground-plan of a large hind's house of one room 733. Ground-plan of a small hind'shouse with two rooms .

360

361

734. Ground-plan of single-storeyed de tached cottage

361

332 735. Front elevation of a single-storeyed detac cotta

362

of a single-storeyed 333 736. Ground-plan detached cottage

363

333 334

elevation ofa single-storeyed 737. Front detached cottage

363

334

738. Ground plan of a two-storeyed de

697. Upper or roof plan 334 698. Upper storey of a steading for 336 small dairy farming

739. Chamber floorplan ofa two-storeyed

691. 692. 693. 694. 695.

steading w -byre Section of cow East elevation South elevation North elevation Section at A B

333

ge

333

696. Section at CD

699. 700. 701. 702.

hed

tached cottage

364

detached cottage

365

elevation of thetwo-storeyed 337 740. Front 338 cottage in fig. 738

Butter-dairy . Section at A B Section at C D Front elevation

338 338

703. Upper storey of a steading for sub339

704. Ground-plan of a kitchen, &c. , of farmhouse .

double - detached cottages

366

742. Alternative ground -plan of single

urban farming with arable cul . ture .

365

741. Ground - plan of single - storeyed storeyed double - detached tages .

cot 366

743. Front elevation of the double-de 342

tached cottages in fig. 741

366

744. Alternative front elevation to front

705. Cheese- room , &c. , of farmhouse

343

706. Ground -plan of farmhouse

345

367

707. Chamber-floor plan of farmhouse 708. Alternative arrangement of part of

346 745. Alternative ground-plan to ground 346 746. Alternative ground-plan to ground: plan in fig. 741 347

367

chamber - floor storey 709. Side elevation of farmhouse 710. Back elevation of farmhouse . 711. Side elevation of farmhouse, finished to show stone - rubble walling .

347

368

plan in fig. 741

348 748. Ground-plan of two-storeyed double detached cottages 712. Back elevation of alternative design 348 749. Chamber-floor plan of fig. 748 713. Vertical section of milk -house and cheese -room , figs. 706 and 707

714. Ground -plan of farmhouse in Italian style .

715. Cellar plan 716. Alternative cellar plan

349

368

750. Front elevation of the cottages in 369

fig. 748

751. End elevation of cottages in fig. 748 369 350 752. Ground plan of two-storeyed double detached cottages

350

369

350

370 753. Chamber -floor plan of fig. 752 754. Front elevation of cottages in fig. 752 370

718. Front elevation of farmhouse in Italian style

368

349

717. Chamber - floor plan of farmhouse in Italian style

367

747. Alternative ground -plan to ground

755. Two - storey 351

719. Back elevation in the Italian style . 351

ground- plan 756. Upper floor

720. Side eleration in the Italian style . 352 757. Section . 721. Side elevation in the Italian style . 352758. Front elevation

double

cottages

370 371 371 371

.

ILLUSTRATIONS .

xii

759. Ground -plan of modern

766. Ground - plan of a two - storeyed

English

cottages

760. Upper floor 761. Front elevation

372

372 373

762. Ground - plan of single - storeyed double cottages, consisting of lar ger and smaller houses

763. Small two-storeyed double cottages 764. Elevation of small two -storeyed double cottages .

two-storeyed bothy 768. Ground-plan of a single-storeyed

376

a

bothy 373 | 769. Iron buildings 374 770. Windor- sill

771. Coping to yard wall 374

772 . 773.

375

774. Shepherd's dog or collie

765. Upper storey of composite cottage applied to fig. 734

bothy

767. Chamber - floor of

| Mangers

376 376 378 380 380

380 438

66 ,OXFORD RAM DOWN

IA

191

A ,.U YLESBURY WINCHENDON E SQ PPER TREADWELL JOHN BY BRED

JUBILEE ROYAL .,"144

PLATE 28

O

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ZA R RY

LE

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OF HENRY PROPERTY THE

LAMBERT E ., SQ

., AMBRIDGE C BABRAHAM

FAMPSHIRE DOWN . VETEER

PLATE 29

1

AS

M

TO

, RA ITE

I H I

THE

PROPERTY OF

ESQ SMITH HENRY .T ,C GROVE ROPWELL HE

,. RAM LINCOLN ., OTTINGHAM N BI'TLER

PLATE 30

T

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H

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AS

A

BR

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}

PROPERTY THE MARQUIS . BRISTOL OF

SUFFO RAM LK .

PLATE 31

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PILLIAMSON

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PROPERTY THE OF DALHOUSIE EARL P ANMURE C ARNOUSTIE ,A ND . COCKBURNSPATH

BORDER LEICESTER RAM .

WW

O MESSRS THE BY BRED LDHAMSTOCKS ,CLARK MAINS

PLATE 33

T

H

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ES T , O LI ER

NY

66 BLACK FACED RAM ,

HOWATSON CHARLES OF PROPERTY THE L ESQ ,O F ANARKSHIRE .GLENBUCK

."-TWO 99 SEVENTY

PLATE 34

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AST LI A

BR

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PLATE 35

T

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TO

AS LI ER

PLATE

LARGE

36

VÝ FITE PIG.

THE PROPERTY OF SANDERS SPENCER , ESQ . , HOLYWELL MANOR , ST IVES , HUNTS .

MA

BERKSHIRE

BOAR .

THE PROPERTY OF N. BENJAFIELD), ESQ. , SHORT'S GREEN FARM , MOTCOMBE , DORSET .

E

H

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VIBRAH M

O OT

P

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Grilisi O AST

PIATE 37

CE

RA

B SA

MIDDLE -WHITE BOAR. BRED BY SANDERS SPENCER , ESQ. , OF HOLYWELL MANOR , ST IVES , HUNTS.

TAM TORTH

ROAR .

THE PROPERTY OF THE AYLESBURY DAIRY COMPANY, HORSHAM , SUSSEX .

VRAM

A

O

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A AR BBRR LI I H

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PLATE

BLACK

33

SOW.

BRED BY JOSEPH A. SMITH , ESQ. , RISE HALL , AKENHAM , IPSWICH .

SMALL

WHITE

BOAR.

THE PROPERTY OF HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN , AND BRED BY THE RIGHT HON . LORD MORETON, TORTWORTH COURT , FALFIELD , GLOUCESTERSHIRE .

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HAYMAKING. The converting of fresh grasses and not without limitation. By the too in clovers into hay by the drying influ-

dustrious “ making ” of hay, under clear

ences of sun and wind is an operation of scorching sunshine, the quality of the great importance to the British farmer. food may be considerably impaired. To Object of Haymaking . - Haymaking expose the fresh grass to such drying is the handmaid of stock -rearing. As stock- influences as will preserve it with the rearing increases or diminishes, so in all least possible loss in its bulk and nutri probability will haymaking . Haymaking ment necessitates the exercise of the is the means by which the farmer endea- utmost skill and care. vours to preserve for the winter feeding It is therefore desirable that the

of his stock the class of food which they various methods of haymaking pursued pick up for themselves on the fields in in different parts of the country should The quality and feeding value be discussed fully.

summer.

of this preserved grass much depend

Varieties of Hay .-- There are three

upon the manner in which it has been main varieties of hay: ( 1 ) hay made transformed from the green to the dry

from grasses and clovers sown in the

condition. It is thus of the utmost importance that the process of haymaking should be conducted on the best method known and attainable. We say " attainable ,” because in our precarious climate

preceding year ; (2 ) hay made from sown grasses which have endured for several years ; and (3) “ meadow -hay,” or that made from natural meadows, the herbage of which consists of plants which have

the best - laid schemes of farmers are grown up at nature's own sweet will.

often upset by tantalising outbreaks of The first is the variety most general unfavourable weather.

where arable farming prevails, notably

Hay- in Scotland and the north of England. making is peculiarly subservient to cli- The last abounds chiefly in the south matic conditions. It goes without say- of England and in certain districts in ing that hay cannot be made in wet Ireland. The second variety is found weather. Even the proverbial injunction here and there throughout the United to “ make hay while the sun shines ” is Kingdom. Weather and Haymaking .

VOL. III.

HAYMAKING .

2

The chief principles of haymaking are In timothy, cocksfoot, and one or two alike applicable to all classes of hay. other natural grasses, the order of de Several modifications desirable for par- velopment of the ingredients would seem ticular varieties of grasses, and for cer- to be somewhat different, for these do tain localities, will be noticed presently. not reach their maximum feeding value

The process of haymaking may, for until the seed is nearly ripe. These,

the purposes of description and study, however, are exceptions. be conveniently divided into three sec-

Best Stage for Cutting. — The stage, tions— 1 ) cutting, ( 2) treatment between therefore, at which hay ( from which seed

cutting and carrying, and (3) carrying is not to be taken) should be cut is when and stacking, the plants are in full bloom , or at latest within a few days after the bloom or Time for Cutting.

flower has disappeared. Many farmers An important preliminary is to decide delay cutting in the belief that any little when the crop is ready for cutting. For loss by the maturing of certain of the

the moment we will leave the probability plants will be more than made up by the of unfavourable weather out of consider- increase which they imagine they obtain ation, and assume that the weather is all by growth of the under or bottom grass. the most ardent haymaker could desire.

This, however, is often fallacious.

The precise time at which it is most Aftermath. — Moreover, the subse desirable to cut down the crop will de- quent cutting or aftermath should be pend upon the object in view. kept in view . The longer the first crop Hay for Seed . If it is intended to is left on the ground the poorer as a obtain seed from the crop, then of course rule — will be the after -growth. If the the plants must be left until the seeds plants are left uncut until their stems

This is easily deter- become withered at the bottom , the roots heads may be rubbed may be so much impaired as to seriously lightly in the hand, and the seeds and lessen after-growth. To ensure the greatest possible quan the heads examined. A common plan is for the farmer to sweep his hat tity of feeding matter in the course of smartly along the heads of the plants, the year --and this in the great majority

have matured. mined . A few

and note the seeds it catches,

of cases will be the object of the farn er

Hay for Feeding. - But if the object —the best plan is to cut the first crop is to raise good hay for feeding, and not early rather than late. to procure seed, then the cutting should take place at an earlier stage. It is well

Tax upon the Soil. — Another point worthy of consideration is that the ripen

established, though the fact has not in ing of the seeds makes a much greater all cases its due consideration in practice, demand upon the fertility of the soil that the production of seed and the than the growing of the stalks and leaves

securing ofthe maximum feeding value of the plants. in the hay are incompatible.

This is

All things considered, therefore, it

not due to the mere loss of the seed in

will be admitted that it is far more

the food , but rather to the fact that the common for farmers to lose by delaying

seed is matured at the expense of the cutting too long than by cutting too nutrient juices of the plants. It is the early. soluble ingredients of the hay - those Premature Cutting . – Yet it is well soluble in water — which are chiefly valu- to bear in mind the fact that the cry for

able for feeding. Nearly all grasses and early cutting may be carried too far. clovers contain the greatest quantity of The agricultural chemist has shown

these soluble ingredients when they are clearly that the nutritive ingredients of in full flower, and before the seed has grasses are not fully elaborated until the been formed. The formation of the plants have reached the flowering stage, seed and the general ripening of the —in a few cases not indeed until the

plants have a strong tendency to increase seed has been nearly ripened.

Water

the proportion of woody fibre, and thus is the principal constituent of young

lessen the nutritive properties of the grasses, and it is not until they have hay.

reached the full stature of the flowering

HAYMAKING.

3

The warmer the weather the greater

stage that the feeding properties are fully developed.

the loss from the wasting of hay by rain

Thus the farmer should wait for the

—this for the reason that warm water is,

bloom before putting the mower into as a rule, a more powerful solvent than the hay-field. But when the flower ap- cold water. Hot and pears he should have everything in readi-

Cold Rain.— The difference

ness, and begin operations as soon as the in the influence of hot and cold rain upon weather justifies him in doing so.

half -made hay is very noticeable in Sep

Study the Weather.— In the foregoing remarks upon the time to begin cutting, we assumed that the weather Unfortunately, howwas favourable.

tember, when a second cutting of grass is made into hay. At that season it is ob served that the half-made hay will bear with impunity double the quantity of

ever, inclement weather has often to be rain it would stand in June or July. When wet weather sets in at the be contended with by the haymaking farginning of the hay harvest, it is not wise mers of this country. In the hay harvest the farmer must to go on mowing , in the expectation that

study the weather indications with un- the hay will be easilymade safe when ceasing care. In this he would do well dry weather returns. Before the return to procure the aid of an efficient bar- of dry weather the cut grass may be ometer, which can now be purchased for dead, and the hay very seriously damaged by the drenching rains to which it is

a very small sum .

Notwithstanding all that has been subjected. It is better policy to delay cutting un said as to the advantages of cutting the crop before the seed is formed, it will, as a rule, in the case of wet unsettled

til the weather has become favourable. If there are indications of more rain at

weather, be safer to delay the mower for hand, the mowing should be prosecuted a few days, until more settled weather sets slowly, and then, when there is reason to in, than to cut down the hay and get it believe that a spell of dry weather has spoiled in the swathe by drenching rains. set in, the order to all hands should be In contingencies of this kind, which “ full speed ahead.” Cutting Rotation Hay . The two are of frequent occurrence, the prudent farmer will choose the least of the evils first varieties of hay mentioned above, which afflict him . There is no operation those made from Sown grasses and on the farm which demands more con- clovers, are roughly classed as rotation

stant and careful attention or better judg- hay, as distinguished from hay made ment than haymaking.

At best, in

from natural meadows that lie perma

unfavourable seasons, it will often be a nently in grass. First year's hay, that matter of compromise, involving not a grown from seeds sown in the previous little of the experimental element. Yet season, as a rule consists chiefly of peren there are certain known conditions and nial or Italian rye-grass and clovers, or

influences which the haymaking farmer it may be all three. Perennial rye- grass should bear in mind.

It is our object and clovers are most largely used.

If

here to set forth these, leaving the farmer the weather is favourable, the mowing of to apply them to his own individual

this hay should be begun when the rye

circumstances.

grass has been in flower for a day or

Hay Injured by Wet. -- One con-

two.

If the breadth of hay to cut is

great in comparison with the available in mind is that rain is much more in- force of labour, begin early, so that the

sideration which the farmer should bear

jurious to cut than to uncut hay. No

main bulk of the crop may be cut down at the right time. In case of wet weather, blade of a grass while it remains in life, delay a little as advised above. no matter how heavy the rainfall may Cutting Early and Late Grasses. be. When the plant is dead, however, In hay from subsequent years' growth nutriment is washed out of the stalk or

every shower of rain to which it is ex- (as in meadow-hay), several of what are posed is liable to dissolve and wash away known as natural or permanent grasses a certain portion of its most valuable are included in varying proportions. Of these permanent grasses cocksfoot and feeding ingredients.

HAYMAKING .

4

foxtail are among the earliest, and when ments for hay-cutting. See that all pre these are plentiful, the crop should be liminaries are attended to beforehand, cut as soon as they go out of bloom . In so that when the work of cutting begins a piece of meadow -land, having a variety there may be no avoidable delay. of grasses, it is bad policy to lose the Method of Cutting. substance of the earlier grasses in waiting for the flowering of the later plants, more

Mowing-machine. — To ensure satis

particularly if it should happen that the factory work, the mowing -machine must early varieties predominate. Here again be in good order. Have the knives it is erring on the side of safety to begin well sharpened, and see that they work cutting early. smoothly and close to the face of the Ill -suited Mixtures. - Early and late fingers. It is advisable to use a good set of grasses, so advantageous for grazing pur-

poses, are not well suited for companion- knives for cutting the hay crop, more

ship in the hay crop. A certain amount particularly if the crop is heavy or con of variation in this respect is practically tains a large quantity of soft grass in the bottom . Half-worn knives, although good enough for cutting oats or wheat, often make very unsatisfactory work in

unavoidable. It would be well, however, to guard against the association of extremes. For instance, it is imprudent to sow timothy and cocksfoot together for a hay crop . When the latter is ready for cutting , the timothy is not nearly at its

possible. In many cases the outside end

best ; while, if cutting were delayed till

is by far the closest — in fact, so close that

the timothy attained its greatest value, the cocksfoot would be deteriorated by over - ripeness. When timothy is sown for hay, which is extensively done, it is

the knives are often considerably dam aged — while the inside end is so high that

the same time as it ripens. Clover, Sainfoin , and Lucerne. Many experienced farmers consider it

of the greater weight of produce ob

soft grass . Whenever cutting has begun, see that the cutter -bar is as near level as

far too much of the crop is left on the

ground . best sown by itself, as none of the other Close Cutting. -- Moderately close principal plants grown for hay ripen at cutting is no doubt advisable on account

desirable to cut clover and sainfoin as

soon as the first traces of the flower appear.

Lucerne is often cut even ear

lier. In dry hot seasons its growth seems to cease before the flowering stage is

reached, and in that case it is the prac tice with many to cut it down at once .

Preparing to Cut. The prudent farmer will have the mowing -machines looked out and put into the pink of condition before the

day arrives for the commencement of cutting. Any necessary repairs will have

been effected at the end of the previous No judicious farmer would think of laying up a machine or imple season.

Fig. 457. - Reaper knife-sharpener.

ment of any kind for the idle season un

til the needed repairs have been attended tained than by higher cutting. Very It is very bad practice indeed to close shaving, however, is verydoubtful delay such matters until the time arrives policy. Indeed most good farmers re

to.

for the active employment of the machine gard it as decidedly undesirable. or implement.

It

incurs greater risk of delays and break

These general remarks apply with ages in cutting. Then it is also observed special force to preliminary arrange that when the plants are cut excessively

HAYMAKING.

5

close to the ground, they are, as a rule honoured scythe has been relegated to

(rye-grass and clover especially), un- quite a secondary position. usually long in springing up again.

In

Types of Mowers.

In the section

very hot dry weather the roots may be on the harvesting of the grain crops, the injured by undue exposure to the sun . Sharp Knives.- Keep the knives as

sharp as possible, as low -cutting and easy drawn mowers cannot be had without

sharp knives. Where two or more mowers are kept going, it is advisable to keep one man sharpening knives, as then they

are always in good repair, and cutting goes on more smoothly and rapidly than

TUMO

RS

when the driver has to look after not

only his horses but his mower and knives as well.

The most common method of sharpen ing the knives of reapers is with a fine

file supplied for the purpose. Machines for sharpening are now in use, however, one of the most successful of these being shown in fig. 457, made by Harrison,

Fig . 458. - Howard's mower .

M'Gregor, &Co.,Leigh, Lancashire. Mower v. Scythe. — The mowing -ma- ' introduction of the mowing and reaping chine is now almost universally employed machine will be referred to more fully. in cutting hay. Except in the case of Here it will suffice to say that this most

holdings too small to employ horse useful appliance has reached a very high labour, the advantages which the mow- state of efficiency, and that this improve

ing - machine possesses over the scythe ment in the working of the machines are so decided and great that the time has been accompanied by the further

WARE

Fig. 459. - The " Munster " mower .

advantage of a reduction in price. A cient, durable, and cheap, some of course very large number of firms are now extensively employed in manufacturing mowing (and reaping) machines, and farmers have the privilege of selecting from a very ample collection of different and patterns, nearly all effi-

better suited than others for certain

localities and other conditions. Excellent mowers are represented in

figs. 458, 459, 460, and 461, made respec tively byHoward, Bedford ; Keane, Cap poquin ,County Waterford ; Pierce & Co.,

HAYMAKING .

6

Wexford ; and Harrison, M'Gregor, & Ayrshire, and held in high esteem , is Co., Leigh, Lancashire. The last named shown here in fig. 462 . is the famous “ Albion ” mower, shown

All - round or Side Cutting.– The

at work in fig . 461. The combined reap- greatest speed is of course, as a rule, er and mower is a popular and most use- attained by working the machine in a ful machine.

Some of the best forms of continuous course all round the field.

these are mentioned and illustrated in This, however, is not always practicable the section on the harvesting of grain. or advantageous. The Caledonian Buckeye mower and If the crop is moderate, and mostly reaper, made by Jack & Sons, Maybole, standing, it may be cut round about

NARE

Fig. 460. - The " Victor " mower.

where the field is no larger than can be track should, before coming back, be cut in one day.

Should the field be

cleared by the rake for the inside wheel,

large, however, it will be advisable, otherwise it and the shoe are apt to get even in a moderately standing crop, to blocked up by loose hay. The trouble is rather cut two ways only, after having very little, and much neater work can be

thoroughly opened up the field by tak- done. The cutting may then be pro ing five or six swathes round the out- ceeded with till the breadth cut is equal side. The field may then be cut into to what remains between the first be

breaks about 50 or 60 yards wide, and ginning and the side of the field , after the horses driven through the crop where which the mower should go round the a beginning is desired to be made. The remaining part. crop, flattened by the horses' feet and the By cutting in this manner very little

wheels of the machine, should be cut unnecessary time is lost at the turnings. on the return journey, as the fingers then get easily in below it, and cut it clean.

Many fields, if inclined to be laid, or if heeled over by the wind, can be easily

Unless the crop is very light, a narrow enough cut in this way, while they would

HAYMAKING .

7

be anything but pleasant to cut round against the direction in which the crop

about. Moreover, by the cutting being islaid. done from one side or end of a field right Direction to Cut.-In choosing the forward, the crop can be much readier direction in which to cut, it is always coiled and ricked afterwards,more partic- advisable to let the crop lie, if anything, ularly if the work is interrupted by bad against the divider instead of falling to wards the horses' feet, as by doing so the

weather.

Laid Patches . — Where for any reason

face of the standing crop remains more erect and clean than

the

where

opposite

course is followed. Clearing Swathe Ends. Where the crop

is

moderately

heavy, it is a great convenience

to

the

person in charge of the mower to have

a boy or girl along with each machine, or one for two ma

ALGION MOWER

chines, who, with a rake, can clear a small

300

Fig. 461.- The “ Albion "

Mower .

space at the entry to each swathe, and draw back the cut hay after

it is desired to cut a field round about, the first swathe and before the second ; and patches here and there are lying and when the finishes are not parallel, in the wrong direction, it is the custom rake the cut crop out of the way, so as in some districts to turn such back by

hauling a heavy plank broadside over

to allow a free passage out and in.

Head -ridges. Ifthe head -ridges are

the crop in the opposite direction to much laid or twisted, it may be impos that in which the mower ismoving, and sible to cut them satisfactorily by the a swathe or so in advance of it. A horse mowing-machine. In this case, the scythe is yoked by a pair of plough -chains to willhave to be resorted to. the centre of the plank , a boy then gets With the exceptions here mentioned, on the horse's back, and drives it where no other hand -labour need be used during required. the cutting process. Cutting Laid Crops.-If the crop is One - way Cutting. — If mowing is

very heavy and laid, it, as a rule, can be done one way only, the horses should always travel back in the clear spaces between the swathes, and the wheels of the mower should straddle the

swathe of cut-grass. By so doing the grass lies much more open, and dries quicker and more regularly than where it is carelessly trampled on and pressed close to the ground. Loosening Lumps . — The boys or girls who are keeping the ends of the swathes clear, or the man who sharpens Fig. 462.— " Caledonian Buckeye " reaper and mower .

the knives,should also come behind,and regularly throw outany unusually thick

cut only in one direction. In this case pieces of grasswhich have been pulled to a beginning is generally made at that gether by the bar of the mower, raked up side of the field which admits of the by the boys, or from any cause whatever

mowing - machine going almost right are gathered into a thicker part than usual.

HAYMAKING .

8

weather,” and that important " function ary ” is so fickle, that every season, nay, The operations between the cutting even every week, may demand treatment “ MAKING ” THE HAY.

and the carting or stacking of the hay may be conveniently described under the above heading. Indeed these operations may be said to constitute the " making ” process. Variations in Practice. -

In this which is really the chief part of the work of the hay harvest, practice varies greatly throughout the country. To a large extent, no doubt, these variations have no

peculiar to itself. The farmer must watch closely these uncertain and shifty condi tions, and be prepared at any moment to vary his practice to suit them . This very fact renders it all the more

important that the farmer should ac quaint himself as fully as possible with the various methods of haymaking pur sued with success throughout the country, so that he may have the greater resource

other grounds for their existence than the in battling with untoward circumstances peculiar tastes and notions of the farmers as they arise.

themselves, who, it may be frankly con fessed, own a full share of the contrarieties

English Methods.

In England, speaking generally, the and perversities of human nature. Grounds for Variations. - In very prevailing methods of haymaking are many cases, however, the differences in

somewhat different

the methods of haymaking are accounted

largely pursued in Scotland. As a body,

from

those most

for by variations in the soil, climate, sys- Scotch farmers are not so highly accom tem of farming, and the purposes for which the hay is intended . In particular, the making process must be varied with wet and dry seasons, heavy and light

plished in the art of haymaking as are their English brethren . Less expierience and less encouragement are mainly ac countable for this. There is only a very

crops, and with the particular class of small extent of Scotland really well suited for hay -culture, while in many parts of There is thus good reason for variety England the hay crop plays quite a lead

hay.

in the practice of haymaking; and while we append notes descriptive of methods

ing part in the economy of the farm . We have many a time observed and

which we know to be pursued with suc- contemplated with delight the care, in cess on widely separated parts of the telligence, and methodical precision ex country, and in different conditions of hibited on well-conducted English farms soil, climate, and system of farming, we in the harvesting of hay. The practice deem it right to say that it is not pre- would seem to be reduced almost to the sumed that these are positively the best nicety of a fine art, and it is conducted methods for all circumstances. with the enterprise and forethought hap In haymaking, asin most farm prac- pily characteristic of British agriculture. tices, each individual farmer must think

Meadow -hay. — The making of natu

for himself. The prudent farmer is eager ral or meadow hay — hay grown from per to know the methods which are pursued manent grasses - is, as a rule, slightly with success by others.

Having ac- different from the making of rotation or

quainted himself with these, he must clover hay. The former abounds largely carefully consider their adaptability to in England and Ireland. With this class

his own peculiar circumstances. He will of hay chiefly in view the late Mr James not hesitate to adopt such features of

Howard , of Bedford, read an admirable

these methods as seem to improve upon paper on haymaking before the London his practice hitherto, yet he rightly deems Farmers' Club in 1886 . In that paper it wise to introduce radical changes in a Mr Howard gave much useful and reliable tentative way. information , which , to a large extent, is

Haymaking controlled by Weather applicable to all parts of the country. --- Haymaking, beyond almost every other Haymaking Machines. — The ted farm operation, is incapable of being con- ding or haymaking machines are largely ducted with success upon any definite or used in England, and to a smaller ex

hard -and -fast system . It is so thoroughly tent in Scotland and Ireland. Types of within the control of the “ clerk of the these useful machines are represented in

HAYMAKING .

9

figs. 463, 464, and 465. The first two upper side, while the portions on the are popular English machines, made re- lower side remain fresh and damp. spectively by Howard, Bedford, and On many farms the crop is immedi Jeffrey & Blackstone, Stamford. The ately turned a second time by the hay last of the three is an ingenious Ameri-

making machine, the back action being

usually employed after the first turning. Forward and Backward Tedding .

Tedders are made with both a forward and a backward action. By the first the grass is carried forward below the

machine right over the top, and then scattered behind.

In

the backward

action, the tedder merely picks up the

grass and gives it a less or more vigorous kick ” backwards. The former move ment is of course much more violent

Fig. 463. - Howard's haymaker.

than the latter, and many farmers are

can invention, introduced into this coun- opposed to it in the belief that the hay try by Messrs Lankester & Co. , London, is thereby injured, seeds dashed out, and and highly spoken of by British farmers the leaves and stems bruised and broken. for lightness and efficiency.

Mr Howard believed that incalculable

Tedding . – Opinions differ somewhat damage has been done to our hay crops as to the tedding of hay. In favour able weather and with a good crop cut by the mower, most farmers set the tedder to work to scatter the swathes soon as a few acres have been

as

cut down.

Others think it better to

leave the swathes to wither for a day

or two before being disturbed ; but Mr Howard argued that if the for ward action of the tedder were used

for spreading, the greener the grass

Fig. 465.— The “ Acme" haymaker.

when tedded the better, inasmuch as

less loss of leaf and seed takes place' by the unjudicious use of the forward

in the green stage than when partially action of haymaking machines, and this Moreover, if the weather is under the impression that when in the favourable, time is lost by the delay, as back action the machine does not move

made.

the hay sufficiently. It is well known, however, that while fresh grass may be injured by too much knocking about,

this is doubly true of half -made hay. Mr Howard would never resort to the forward action when the backward ac

tion would accomplish what is necessary. In no case could he conceive the neces

sity for using the forward action twice on the same crop .

Experiments in Tedding. – An im CARE

portant point in working the haymaking machineis the speed at which it revolves.

Fig. 464.- The “ Taunton ' haymaker.

In a series of experiments which Mr the grass will be withered or dried more

Howard made, he found that the barrels

quickly and uniformly when spread than with the slowest speed for the back ac when it lies as left by the mower.

Ob-

tion made the bestwork, the crop being

viously grass which lies in a thick left looser and more hollow ; the higher swathe gets withered and dried on the speeded machines, owing to the greater

HAYMAKING.

IO

violence of the throw , left the crop flatter same day. As will be readily under stood, a fall of rain upon the windrows on the ground. Speedy Haymaking. – With a light would cause more delay than a similar

crop the back action will be quite suffi- fall of rain upon hay in the swathe or cient for spreading the swathes. Indeed, thinly spread as by the tedder, for in Mr Howard stated that, in favourable this case the windrows would again have weather, he had crops of a ton or more to be “ spread out to dry .” In dry, per acre, cut by a machine one day, the settled weather more freedom may, of swathes left untouched until the next, course , be exercised in these all-important when they were simply drawn into wind- operations . “ Cocking ” Hay. As soon as the rows by the horse -rake, shaken out by

the haymaker in the back action , then hay is in a fit condition for putting into raked together, and carted in capital cocks, the horse -rake is run along the order the same day. windrows, drawing the material into Tedding with High Wind . — High heaps, which by the hand - fork are

wind may be troublesome in haymaking. speedily formed into cocks. During a strong wind it is desirable to

The practice in the cocking of hay

arrange for working the haymaker, when varies greatly in different parts of the used in the forward action, sidewise to country, andis likewise modified to suit the wind ; this may often be done by the weather at the time. working obliquely across the swathes. It

Large and Small “ Cocks.”

In the

is, however, desirable to avoid using the greater part of England, the half-made forward action when the wind is trouble- hay is usually collected into very small some, inasmuch as the crop becomes very cocks, often containing no more hay than unevenly spread . a man could lift by the hand-fork at two Tedders injuring Clover -hay.-- Hay or three turns, sometimes even less. In

in which clover forms a considerable Scotland, Ireland, and the north of Eng very liable to injury by the use land the more general practice is first to

part is

of the haymaking machines. The leaves put the hay into very small and then of the clover become so brittle that the into larger heaps. In discussing the violent motion of the tedder breaks them

merits of large and small cocks or coils,

in pieces, and thus causes loss in the

the late Mr James Howard said that

crop.

Easy back action may be em- in a damp climate, or in cases where

ployed in fresh clover-hay with impunity, the hay has to be carted along distance to the homestead, these big cocks may Turning with the hånd-fork, however, is be desirable ; but for districts similar clover safer

if it is done carefully and at a slow pace. for

-hay.

Collecting Hay. — In collecting the hay after it has been scattered for drying, manual labour has to a large extent given place to horse-labour and mechanical appliances.

The horse - rake is an

to Bedford, or where expedition is the order of the day, he failed to see any advantage in the method. " That it is attended with waste, through long ex posure of so large a surface, seems to be obvious; nevertheless, reasons in favour

excellent labour-saving machine, and is of the system for moist climates are ad

now universally employed. By it the vanced for those who adopt it. For in partially withered grass is drawn into stance, in the north it is alleged that 56 windrows." The rake is started at the turnip-hoeing and haymaking press for side of the field first cut, and emptied at attention at the same time ; that as the

intervals, regulated according to the carry- whole of the hay crop intended to be put ing capacity of the rake and the weight in a stack cannot be got ready in one

of the crop. The rows of gathered hay day, it is safer and more convenient to In draw into large heaps that portion which these rows the hay lies loosely, and in is ready, in order to secure it against

thus formed are called windrows.

this condition, with favourable weather, danger until the remainder of the crop it dries speedily .

is also fit, and in order that as much ex

Unless the weather is dry and quite pedition as possible may be used in fin settled, no more hay should be gathered ishing the stack when once begun. Itis into windrows than can be cocked in the

also maintained , that if these large cocks

HAYMAKING .

II

are properly formed , an excessive amount noon of the day following. A heavy of rain must fall to penetrate more than crop, however, even in good weather, an inch or two ; that the loss from ex- will require a clear day be

posure is not discernible, and that the tween cutting and coiling ; liability to heat in the stack is consider- while an extra heavy crop, or ably diminished through the sweating one including a largeamount of clover, will most likely re

the hay has received in the cock .”

Differences in Methods. - Although quire two clear days. If the it is convenient to treat of English and weather be dull, damp, or wet, Scotch customs separately, it should be the process of coiling may be stated that no very distinct line can of necessity delayed an indefi

be drawn between the practices of the two countries.

On each side of the

nite time.

Turning Clover -hay . - It

Tweed nearly all the methods of hay- has been explained that the

making known in this country are pur- turning of the swathes of hay sued to a lesser or greater extent.

Cer

grown from permanent grasses

tain methods are more prevalent in the is usually performed by the north than in the south, but the differ-

haymaking or tedding ma

ences lie in degree more than in prin- chine.

Rotation

or

clover

hay, on the other hand, is

ciple.

The hay made from permanent grasses generally turned by a small can be tossed about with greater freedom

hand -rake or by the hand-fork ,

than clover-hay. The former is thus, by

such as is shown in fig. 466

the use of the tedding-machine, effectu-

(Spear and Jackson, Sheffield ).

ally spread out to the drying influences The reason for this difference of sun and wind, so that it can usually in practice is, as already ex be stacked sooner than is, as a rule, pos- plained, that the rotation or sible with the rotation hay in the more clover hay is more easily bruised and broken than the precarious climate of the north.

The English custom of taking the hay softer and tougher produce of right from the first small cock or coil the permanent grasses. into large stacks or hay-sheds has the Process of Turning.-In

effect of saving time, and of inducing the forenoon of the day on amongst the hay in the stack or hay-shed which it is considered that the a certain amount of fermentation, which grass should be ready to coil, the is regarded as rendering the hay more swathes should be turned over palatable to stock. by rakes, so as to expose the under surface to the

Scotch Methods.

sun , and

allow the wind to easily play through the whole mass. This

In Scotland and the north of England Fig . 466. Hand hay . first year's hay — that grown from grasses it cannot do if allowed to lie fork. and clovers sown in the previous year- one or more days in the con is the variety most general. Hay of this dition in which it was left by the mower, kind, especially when it contains a con- as the longer it lies it claps the closer to

siderable proportion of clover, must be the ground, and although the upper sur handled more tenderly in making than facemay be hard and dry, the underly hay from permanent grasses, as the for- ing stalks and leaves will be wet and mer is more liable to injury by break- damp. ing and bruising. This circumstance is The turning -over process should, if at in a large measure responsible for the all practicable, be done early in the fore noon, so that as long time may elapse as

distinctions between the methods of hay-

making most prevalent in England and possible between the turning and coiling, Scotland respectively. without allowing it to lie exposed to the Rotation Hay.-A light crop of rye- dews of another evening, and the risk of

grass and clover, if cut before mid - day rain on the day following: in clear dry weather, may be in condiThe operation of turning is best per tion to 6 coil ” or “ cock ” by the after- formed by the person walking in the

HAYMAKING .

12

cleared space left by the mower on the under most circumstances raking with side of the swathe furthest from the the rows is speedier. turned -over part, and then by catching Arranging the Force. - According the folded-over part of the swathe with to the thickness of the crop, the length the teeth of the fork or hand -rake, and

of the swathe, and the speed at which

sharply pulling it towards him , the whole the horse travels, from four to eight under surface is brought to the top. The coilers will be required for each rake. work is more easily performed when the operator walks in the same direction in which the mowing - machine went.

Some farmers allow the rake to be started some time before the coilers begin ; the latter then take a row each, which they

Several persons generally go together finish before they begin with another. when turning -over is being done, the Most farmers, however, consider the best one following at a yard or two behind system is to start the rake and coilers at the other. Care should be taken

to turn

the

the same time, each coiler getting the same number of rows to coil. By this

whole swathe upside -down, because if arrangement, if the number of coilers

the work is slovenly done, the near side be properly regulated, according to the of the swathe will not be turned over

weight of the crop, and speed and width

at all, and, of course, when the hay is of the rake, each person will do more gathered together, those parts may in work than where each begins at the one that case be quite damp, while the bulk end of a row and follows it right on to

of the hay may be in good condition.

the other end .

Fit for Coiling. - If after mid - day the grass is withered and free of all

By beginning with the rake, each per son gets a direct reminder, every time

positive damp or wet, even although it the rake goes past, whether or not he or should have a raw feel , it will be in con-

she is keeping abreast or falling behind

dition for coiling. Should the crop have with his or her work . This manner of lain on the ground for several days, and doing the work necessarily entails more

there be damp or wet parts in it which travelling than the other ; but the relief have not been exposed to the sun and obtained in travelling from one row to air, it is a good plan to rake it together the next more than makes up for the an hour or two before coiling begins. time lost in doing it, and in the end By doing so the rake on being relieved more work will be done in a given time

turns the hay upside-down, so that any than by the other arrangement, which is damp parts are exposed to the sun , and often a matter of very great importance. have a chance of getting dried before

being covered up in the coil. Again, it may be remarked , that so

Coils or Cocks.-Coils or cocks are

small conical heaps of half -dried hay, put together of such a size and shape as

much depends on the crop, season, and to admit of the hay continuing the dry

weather that it is utterly impossible for serious ing process, and yet preserving it from deterioration by rainfall. Ac the requisite conditions of dryness suit- cording to the class of crop, the climate,

any one to properly describe what are

able for coiling. It is not difficult to and dryness of the hay at the time, coils

1 1

learn, but can only be learned by practice range in size from à foot in diameter experie

nce. and Collecting the Hay.-It having been considered that the requisite dryness has

and a foot high to 3 feet in diameter and 3 feet high. On the hillsides and higher - lying

been obtained, the crop may be gathered farms, where the principal hay grown is together by the horse - rake, preparatory obtained from water and other meadows, made very small, of to coiling. The best rakes are the self- the coils are at first to 18 inches in diameter.

relieving ones, as the man can then ten from a foot devote all his attention to his horse and In such situations the grass is, as a rule, machine, and put off the rows more naturally soft, the climate is often wet,

1

nearly straight and regular. By raking and the season frequently late. Hollow Coils . - Under such adverse across the rows, as left by the handrakes, a small or "grown - in ” crop of circumstances, in a trying season the

1

hay may be more cleanly gathered , but coils are occasionally made hollow in

1

HAYMAKING .

13

stead of solid, so that the wind easily jecting from one-third to one-fourth of plays through them , while the rain at the the coil. This, when caught hold of, is

the same time is thrown off. This class suddenly jerked out, because if pulled of coil is generally called a lap - coil or slowly and steadily the coil might be

lap- cock, and is made in the following drawn over. This handful of hay, when manner : A moderately sized armful of pulled out, is comparatively straight, and hay, as straight as possible, is taken,and when spread over the top of the coil, if not naturally straight it is partially assists very materially in throwing off made so by putting the foot on the one

wet.

The whole base of the coil is gone

end and then on the other, and pulling round in this way, generally three or out the loose and tangled grass.

The

four stretches of the arms being neces

armful is then put down in such a posi- sary. The handfuls of straight hay are tion that the ends lying on the left arm carefully spread on the top , each in a lie flat on the ground. With the right contrary direction to the one previous. hand the other ends of the bundle are

brought over and laid on those first put on the ground, the bundle having now the appearance of a rough tube or globe of hay with a hole through it. In this

Well-made Coils.

Theprotection of

the hay from damage by rain in the coil very much depends on the carefulness

with which the bottoms or bases are pulled, and how the pullings are spread form the grass very readily dries, and on the top. The operation is compara is not easily soaked through. The pro- tively simple, yet many farm -hands do cess is by no means so slow as might

it very badly ; and while a properly -made

at first be imagined. Indeed, several of these hollow coils might be made during the time it has taken to describe the operation. This class of coiling was much more

coil is proof against any moderate rain fall, a badly - made one may be much damaged by a single heavy shower. Badly-made Coils.—The great faults

of badly-made coils are portions of the

common when grass was cut by the hay being put into the heap in a doubled scythe than now , the mowing -machine up condition, which holds the rain in and hay-tedder putting the practice out stead of throwing it off ; the one armful of date. being put on the top of the other without

Forming Coils. - Ordinary coils, as a being properly shaken out,which allows rule, are about 3 feet in diameter, and

the rain to go down the division between

when newly erected a little more in

the two, and admits of the top half being

Many contend that they are

easily blown off ; and neglect of pulling

height.

best made by the hands, unassisted by the bases, causes the loose hay round the An armful of hay is bottom to easily get wet, and when once taken as left by the horse - rake, and wet it is difficult to dry — a well-pulled

graips or forks.

roughly shaken and allowed to drop on

coil drying at the base in half the time

itself as regularly as possible. A second required by a badly -pulled one. Neglect armful is then put on the first, being of pulling at the base also leaves the however, a little more carefully shaken

top of the coil unprotected, for the

or spread, and kept within as little space straight hay carefully spread over the as possible, so as to leave the top narrow . top acts very much as thatch to an or A third and smaller armful should now

dinary stack.

It leads the rain from the

be taken and, more carefully than the top to the side, down which it readily previous two, shaken over the top. The flows, while without it the rain would coil will now present the appearance of run right down the centre of the coil. Fork - made Coils. — In most parts a blunt - pointed cone widened at the base.

coiling is now done by forks or light

Pulling and Topping Coils.— The graips.

Few can make such a perfect

base is now narrowed by pulling all the coil with these tools as by the hand, al loose hay out and spreading it carefully though for a strong man they make the

In pulling the coil, the work much easier as well as speedier. If rain -proof coils are desired to be made and, bringing the hands together, takes where coiling is done by the fork, greater

over the top.

person advances with outstretched arms,

hold of the loose ends of the hay pro- care than usual should be exercised in

14

HAYMAKING.

pulling the base of the coils, and in result being that heavy rains damage spreading it regularly over the tops.

the crop very badly by running down through it. Thunderstorms and Haymaking. thorough condition for coiling, and the weather looks as if rain were about to Coils, although a fair protection against Small Coils. If the hay is not in

fall, the crop may be secured in smaller moderate showers, are often little pro coils than usual, which will act as a tection against heavy thunderstorms.

partial protection against the rain, and Where thunderstorms are frequent and yet be small enough to allow the wind heavy, the system is therefore little re

to blow through them , and in part com- sorted to for open crops such as clover. plete the drying.

Securing Wet Coils. — During a heavy thunder-shower, or light contin weather has become bright again , the uous rain for one or more days, as Remaking Coils. As soon as the

coils should be remade; and if the crop occasionally happens, the rain often runs

is now in moderately dry condition, two under the coils, and so wets them that heaps may be put into one. Should the only in exceptional cases could they ever crop have been put together too green, be expected to dry if allowed to remain the coils may be shaken out in the sun in their original position. After such

a few hours before being remade ; but rains the probability is that in a few on no account should coils be shaken out days it will be found that, while the

to any great extent, unless the weather very top of the coil is dry enough, three is such as to give a reasonable assurance or four inches further down it is quite

of their being rebuilt before rain again wet. If the weather is settled, and the falls.

centre of the coil is sufficiently dry to

Avoid Over-working. At this stage enable it to be put into the field -rick, or it may be mentioned that rye-grasses and tramp coil or cock, the tops ( which will

clovers are rarely improved by much likely be damp with the morning dew) shaking out and remaking. Hay from maybe taken off and laid to one side, these plants, indeed, as formerly indi- while the body of the coil is taken away cated, should always be secured with as and secured in the rick , the bottoms also little knocking about as possible. being left alongside the tops. These, if

Timothy-hay . — Timothy, like natural carefully spread out in the sun for an meadow -hay, will stand a good deal of hour or two, very soon dry, and can shaking. Timothy is the easiest secured ultimately be gathered up with the of all the grasses, owing to the small

rakings.

proportion of leaves which it contains, If, however, the body of the coil is and the length and strength of its seed- not dry enough to admit of being stalks. A heavy crop of timothy can secured in the field -rick, the top should often be cut the one forenoon and coiled be taken off to well under the damp

the afternoon of the day following, where- portion, and a new coil made, the tops as a similarly heavy crop of rye-grass and and bottoms being loosely spread over clover would require two or three days the top. In this way the damp material

1

to get ready for coiling. The great pre- very soon dries, unless the quantity of ponderanceof stalks which this crop con- it has been all the greater, while at the

1

1

same time the operation can be performed that, in the coil, it dries much quicker without exposing the crop to further

tains over all others keeps it so open,

and more efficiently than any other grass. damage from the elements. Owing to the length of the stalk , timothy

Hours for Coiling. – As a rule, the

coils have generally to be made much dew prevents coiling early in the morn larger than coils of other classes of hay. ing. In most cases coiling is done be But its openness in texture, although an tween eleven o'clock in the forenoon and advantage in drying, is also a disad- evening, the bulk being done after mid vantage in case of heavy rains. On day. Raking. - As soon as possible after account of its exceptional length and strength, timothy is probably the worst the coiling is finished, the land should to coil of all the grasses, and in conse- be raked clean between the rows of the

quence it often is the worst coiled , the coils, before it gets any rain if at all

1

1

HAYMAKING.

15

These rakings are in some usually made about one ton in weight, cases carefully spread over the tops of more as a matter of convenience for the nearest coils, and in others coiled by loading the carts than for any other themselves. The rakings become soaked reason , In other districts, however (and very easily, and if once wet are very they are the most numerous), where the difficult to dry, more particularly if they hay is consumed at home, the field -ricks have been put on the top of the coil are generally made to weigh from 10 without being methodically shaken out. cwt. to 15 cwt. If put into the smaller Great care should therefore be taken to size of field -ricks, there is much less risk see that only a few are put on each coil of damaging the hay by ricking it too

possible.

--if put there at all — and that these are soon . As a rule, hay can safely be put thoroughly shaken out. into a 12 -cwt. or 14 -cwt. rick a day or

Coiling in High Wind. — If a good two earlier than it would be judicious to

breeze should be blowing during the put it into one weighing a ton.

This

operation of coiling , considerable annoy- alone is no mean consideration, for every ance is often caused by the tops being additional hour the hay stands in the carried off.

Under such circumstances,

coils, the greater will be its risk of

the hay should be built well to the damage. windy side of the coil, the operator

Rick “ Kilns ”

or

“ Bosses. ” — For

always standing on that side, with his the purpose of saving one or two days' or her back to the wind. In this manner exposure in the coil, it is customary in the coils can be built so that they are some districts to use triangles, “ kilns," less liable to be blown over . After the or 6' bossings " for the centres of the

field or plot is finished, the whole should ricks. According to the district, these be again gone over, and the damaged are usually from 7 to 10 feet high, and ones repaired, as when rain falls on them

are made of thinnings of plantations or

in this state they are liable to be seriously other suitable wood. Some farmers have injured. a supply of such permanently bolted Time for Field - ricking. — The time together at the top and nailed by spars hay should stand in the coil before being atthe sides, while others form them as

transferred to the field -rick is regulated required out of the ordinary supply of solely by the dryness of the crop and stackyard props. In the latter case they the weather at the time.' Where the are usually tied at the top with a piece

crop is light, and has been well dried of stack -rope, which is made very tight, before being put into the coil, it occa- no side-spars being used at all. Used in sionally may be ricked the day following, this way, stack-props serve a double pur should circumstances and the weather

permit.

pose, and as single props they are more

In fact, during very dry and easily handled and stored away when

settled weather it often is not coiled at

not in use than are permanently made

all, although in most parts of Scotland, triangles. The labour of setting tem unless under exceptional circumstances, porary triangles up is also very little, as the practice is not considered a good

à man can tie the three props together

one .

and set them up in a minute or two ;

The stage at which the crop will keep and if there is likely to be little time for in the rick without loss of colour or ex- such while ricking is going on, they can cess of fermentation is one which must often be made and erected in the morn

be seen to be learned , as it cannot be ing before the dew is off the hay. Still

described in words. When, however, the the permanent “ kilns” are in some re hay is considered in condition to rick, no spects more convenient. time should be lost in making it secure Situation of Ricks. - In some locali

if the weather is at all favourable, for ties it is the custom to build the ricks hay can never be considered anything anywhere over the field , wherever hay like secure until it is in the field -rick . Field or Temporary Stacks. - In

can be got, while in others the usual method is to build a row of ricks across

districts where it is customary to sell the rows of coils. If the rows of coils hay and cart it direct from the field to are short, say under 150 yards long, the the consumers' premises, the ricks are ricks are built at the middle, and the

HAYMAKING.

16

crop brought in from both sides. If, how- horse, thus pulling the sledge out from ever, the rows are longer, two or more under the load. If the sun is bright and the hay dry, the load of hay is shoved off rows of ricks may be required. Hay - sledge. — For the purpose of with very little exertion . In fact, in

hauling the hay from each end of the going up even a very slight incline the row to the rick, several methods are in common use. The best known and most

load may sometimes come off of its own accord ; but if the sledge has been wetted

efficient method is the hay-sledge. This by rain or dew, or by dampness from the sledge has two runners, which are usually bottoms of the coils , it is sometimes very straight or nearly so on the upper edge, difficult to get it removed. Other Methods of Hauling.— Be sides the method of bringing in the hay bars, on which are nailed thin boards by the sledge here described, there are and more or less curved on the under Across these are fixed four cross-

one.

running the whole length of the sledge, several other ways in which the same which may either be fitted closely to- operation is performed. The most primi gether or have spaces between each strip. tive is to carry it in by forks, or as occa The sledges may in size be from 7 feet to 9 feet wide, and say from 8 to it

sionally has to be done on very soft

meadows, by thrusting two poles under feet long. They are inconvenient if each coil and then carrying it off by two made wider than can easily pass through persons, after the manner of a double an ordinary field -gate. For the smaller handed barrow. This system is of course sizes one horse will be sufficient to draw adopted only where the land is too soft all that can conveniently be put on, to safely carry a horse, or where wages while for the larger sizes two horses will are very small . be required . Another method is to join the chains In working, the sledge goes to the end from two horses by a pair of stout ropes, of the row furthest from where the rick travel a horse along each side of a row of is to be, the coils being loaded on it as it coils, catch the coils by the rope connect

moves nearer the rick. If the crop is ing the horses, and sweep all that can be light and the rows short, the whole row caught into the rick. between the end and the rick will be

American Method.- The Americans

cleared by one sledgeful. If longer and have invented a machine to attain the heavier, two loads may be required. same result in an easier way for both Loading the Sledge . — One person , man and horses, and with less damage to

usually a boy, will be required to lead the hay. This machine is about 12 feet the horse in the sledge, while one, two, or wide, and rests on three light wheels, one more boys, women, or men lift on the coils on each side and another a few feet be

with light steel graips or forks, the former hind. To the under side of the framing being preferable, as by the graip or of the machine twelve teeth 5 feet long spade handle the workman prevents the are bolted . These teeth are of wood and load from turning round in his hand, an

pointed with iron, and are fixed about a

accident which is frequently happening foot above the ground . The driver, sit

with the ordinary fork. Two persons, ting on a seat above the hind wheel, can particularly women or boys, work best raise or lower the points of the teeth , together, as they have then quite suffi- whether loaded or unloaded, until they gth

cient stren

to lift between them a full are a foot above the ground .

In this way fewer rakings are left, the hay is not unnecessarily tossed about, and is in consequence easier forked at the rick, while more can be put coil each time.

On the

outside of the apparatus, at each side of the teeth, a pole is placed , outside of each of which a horse is yoked to a plough tree at one end of the pole and by a

on the sledge than if each coil has been breast-strap or chain at the other. The points of the teeth being lowered in front Unloading the Sledge.-On arriving of a windrow of loose hay or coils, and at the rick, two or more persons put their the horses guided down each side, the

lifted at two or three times.

forks into the front part of the load,

teeth slip under the hay until a load is

against which they throw their whole gathered, when the driver lifts the points weight, when the lad moves forward the of the teeth from the ground, turns round

HAYMAKING .

17

It often happens that mere turning of Here he drops the the coils upside-down is not sufficient to teeth of the apparatus on the ground, make the crop dry enough for ricking.

his horses if need be, and carries off his load to the rick .

backs his team , when the breast-straps

In this case the rows of coils must be

of the horses pull the apparatus from thoroughly shaken out, the space occu under the load of hay, the points of the pied by the spread hay depending very much on whether or not the crop requires much or little drying. If the day is dull, or the crop more This apparatus is called a “ Monarch

teeth are again raised, and the team move off for another load.

Sweep ” rake, is very light, being built than usually damp, the coils not only re almost entirely of wood, and very strong. quire to be shaken out, but to be turned It is said to be able to gather and carry over with rakes or forks, in much the

from 4 cwt. to 7 cwt. of hay ; but as yet same way as the swathes are turned up

its adaptability to this country has not side-down, before it is brought into the been thoroughly tested.

rick.

Soft grown meadow -hay often re

In 1889, Mr John Speir, Newton Farm , quires to be treated in this way, although Glasgow , procured a " Monarch Sweep ” it is very unusual to do so with timothy rake, but unfortunately it arrived too or clover and rye-grass. Where hay has late for trial in the ordinary hay crop been thus spread out, it should be gather that season. In the month of September ed into narrower rows by hand rakes or a trial was made with some hay made forks, or by the horse-rake, before begin from a second crop of Italian rye-grass ; ning to rick, as the time thus spent is but either owing to the softness and

saved when ricking is begun, while the

dampness of thehay or some other un- crop is drying all the time.

If one or

noticed cause, the hay did not slip well more persons can be spared to collect the up the teeth. Before trial it was ex- scattered hay, this may be done as the pected that some boarding would require ricking proceeds. to be put up at the back of the machine Ground for Ricks .-For the row of

to keep the hay from running over the ricks, as dry and level a portion of the top of it ; but the difficulties experienced field should be chosen as possible. If were all the other way, as the hay re- the foundation be damp, the hay in the

peatedly stuck on the points of the teeth bottom of the rick is often considerably and would not slip up, after which the rake slipped over the top of the crop.

damaged , and if the land is not level, it is difficult to build the rick so that it will

It is hoped, however, that with ordinary not ultimately lean over to the low side. hay in an average season ,this defect may Owing to soft places being in many yet be avoided .

Thousands of this giant

meadows, it is also advisable to see that

rake are said to be in use in America, the ricks are placed in such a position where they have a species of horse-fork that no difficulty will be experienced in which lifts the whole load at one time getting the load out of the field.

The

on to a waygon or stack, without being position of the gates and water-courses touched by hand at all. must also be considered in selecting

Preparing for Stacking. If there is the positions of the ricks. any dampness worth speaking of on the bottom of the coils, they should be turned upside-down an hour or so before ricking is commenced. In turning them over,

These dif

ferent obstacles, in the case of water meadows particularly, often necessitate

departure from the rule already laid down as to building the ricks in a line across

faces the sun , and if the day is cloudy,

the rows of coils, and an equal distance from either end .

the bottom should be turned to the wind.

Work with the Wind .-- Unless there

they should be turned so that the bottom

As it is never advisable, even in good is some reason for doing otherwise, a be weather, to turn up a great many coils at ginning with ricking should always be one time, no more should be done than

made at that side of the field from which

will just allow them to dry before being

the wind is blowing, as what is left after

removed, an odd person going in front each rick is completed, and the rakings turning the coils over at or about the and dressings from it, can much more same speed as the crop is being ricked . easily be conveyed to the next rick , when VOL . III .

B

G

HAYMAKIN

18

.

going with the wind, than when they the centre well filled, because, should such have to be taken against it. Again, by not be attended to, the water, as it trickles this plan, hay which blows off the ricks down the sides during rain , would be

in course of being built is carried towards conveyed into the centre of the rick , in the next rick, whereas if building were continued in the opposite direction, the wind would always be blowing the loose hay on ground which had quite recently been raked, thus causing unnecessary work .

stead of being always kept to the outside. As soon as a few courses have been

built, the rick should be tightly pulled at the very base, either by some one there for that special purpose or by the forker. As a rule, there are always one or more

Foundation for Ricks. — Theposition persons, generally women, to rake up the of the ricks and the direction in which leavings of each rick ; these persons suit they are to be built having been fixed very well for pulling the base, as build

on,and a sledge-load of hay having been ing then goes on uninterruptedly. When deposited, the building of the rick should the base has been pulled, this person may now commence.

In districts in which

also pull off any loose hay which is hang

wheat-straw is comparatively plentiful, it ing round the side, and probably give it is a good plan to place a couple of sheaves

a stroke down with the rake also.

below each rick, as it prevents the natuLittle taper should be given to the ral dampness of the soil from injuring rick until four-fifths or five -sixths of the lowest layers of hay. If tied up care- the whole quantity intended to be put fully and put into stooks when the hay in the rick have been built. The rick is removed, the wheat-straw is not much may now be rapidly tapered, the forker the worse, and the labour caused is not or some other handy person in the

very great. If the two sheaves are laid meantime roughly smoothing down the on the rick foundation with their heads

rick with a rake.

The rake should now

touching, and each then spread regularly be given to the builder, who, during the round in half a circle, with the band operation of building the head, should under, the whole may very easily and keep constantly raking it down, by catch

tidily be gathered again when the rick ing the rake by the end of the handle has been removed.

and shoving it from him .

As the apex

is reached, he should watch and put the bottom having been laid , the triangle hay only under his feet, and not at the should be erected, if one is to be used, sides, so as to have the centre as high after which forkfuls of hay should be and firm as possible. The top having Building Field - ricks.— The straw

laid round what is intended to be the bottom of the rick. This completed, the

been reached , two ropes of hay, straw,

or coir-yarn are thrown over the top, the

centre should be well filled in to a higher one at right angles to the other, the level than the first laid outside ring. ends of each being firmly fastened to the Another row of forkfuls is now laid on

hay at the base of the rick.

The builder

round the outside, and the centre filled now gently slides down, or is assisted up as before. The forker should always down by a small ladder, after which he drop his load as nearas possible to where carefully rakes the rick down all round,

however strong and shapely. bt.- “ Without a good, sound , wellHind Leg.- “ From the hock to the

shaped, healthy foot, a horse is of no use ground the leg should be short, broad, at all, however symmetrical and strong. The Clydesdale is generally sound on that point, though subject, like all other breeds of the equine genus, to its various diseases. Side-bone and ring-bone are said

Hat, clean, evenly and straight or slight ly inclined forward ; the sinews standing out from the bone, and having a similar fringe of hair to thaton the foreleg, and rising as high as the bottom of the hock

by veterinary surgeons to be less common joint. than in the cart-horses of the south. Hind Pastern .— “ The hind pasterns Back. - “ An undue length of back is are a little larger generally than the fore not an uncommon defect in the forma- ones, and are more inclined, but not so tion of the Clydesdale, and flat badly much as to give the idea that they are sprung ribs — the last of the latter occa- not supporting the quarters. Short

sionally very short-form defects which steep hind pasterns are a very bad fault, it should be the object of breeders to as the animal is always sticking its toes remove. The back is not unfrequently into the ground. “ In walking, the horse Action . low, and the horse at first sight looks as

if he had no command of himself, the should, if approaching you, come with his head well carried and with an appa rently measured stride, lifting his feet “ Latterly this defect has been much well off the ground, and placing them modified . The most popular stallion down again regularly, evenly, and with in recent time was Darnley, 222, and apparent deliberation. barrel merely forming a bridge between the fore and hinder ends.

one very striking characteristic of his “ On a side view one can notice if his immediate and more remote descendants action be even - i.e., if his fore and hind is their roundness of barrel, depth of action be in unison—for in horses with rib, and lofty formation of shoulder. long backs and weak loins the two ends Chest.— “ The chest is generally low, seem to be under different control, and

broad, and full, if the body is large

the hind legs being in a manner dragged

and round-ribbed ; if not, it is narrow ,

with the toes along the ground, an un

and the horse has a 'wedgy ' appearance, pleasant effect is produced. and in street traffic this want of breadth “ In going at a walk, a horse should places him sometimes, in rounding cor plant his hind feet forward as deliber

ners, under command of the shafts of the ately as his fore ones, at the same time waggon or lorry if at all heavily laden. raising and bending the leg at the hock, Hind Quarters. Broad, low - set which should be evenly carried forward.

hind quarters,with muscular thighs, de- If the hocks are turned out in moving scending into broad and proportionately them forward, the action is not good; developed hocks, sum up the good points and a Clydesdale breeder considers this of the hind end of the Clydesdale. an exceedingly bad fault in either horse Hocks.— “ Narrow hocks are so sub- or mare, though it is one which is (used ject to thorough -pin , &c. , that most to be commonly overlooked south of the breeders avoid them, though there should Tweed. be no perceptible marks of unsoundness.

“ In trotting, the horse should bend

Straight hocks are not liked ; but if the the legs at the knees and hocks, and

other parts are proportionate and the from a hind view the inside of the fore action sound, no exception is taken to this formation . It is as a work-horse, however, that the Clydesdale should be considered, and it is questionable if a

hoofs should almost be seen at every step. If the animal be inclined to move wide behind, this fault will be easily dis covered at the trotting pace. ". straight hock affords as much propelling A horse that goes wide behind gener

power as one moderately bent . The ally gives a more favourable impression muscles surrounding the hocks should be at the trot than walking.

SUFFOLK HORSES.

401

A noted Clydesdale Stallion of modern regards pedigrees, and publishing a first times (1890 ) is represented in Plate 3, volume or registry, from which it is pro vol. i.; Plate 5, vol. i., a typical Draught posed to carry on in future a regular

Stallion of 1840 ; Plate 7, vol. i., a stud -book. Through the courtesy of the typical Draught Mare of 1840 ; and Plate secretaries we have been favoured with the loan of some MSS. , from which it 6, vol. i., a Draught Horse of 1840. clearly appears that there is scarcely a Suffolk stallion in the county , of any SUFFOLK HORSES . note whatever, whose pedigree is not The Suffolk Punch is a distinct type of clearly to be traced in a direct male line

It has its headquarters in the for seventy years. The records in the county of Suffolk ; but although it has possession of the association, which re

horse.

long been held in high esteem there, it late to a period between 1790 and 1810, has never obtained an extensive footing beyond the south - eastern counties of England. Historical. — As to the origin of the Suffolk Punch, various accounts have been given . Low says : “ The colour distinctive of thisvariety connects it with

throw some light on the matter, and point to the introduction of materials not ill calculated to bring about the transformation that has taken place. Infusion of the Thoroughbred, Flemish,

and heavier blood of native horses, has

tended to exert upon the ' old breed ' the the race widely diffused throughout the influence such elements would be likely north of Europe and Asia, fromthe Scan- to produce ; but as far as a careful search

Alps to the plains of Tartary, through the lineage of the horses now dinavian in which the dun colour prevails. It is extant in the county will show, not one believed to have been carried to the east- seems to have inherited the alloy in the

ern counties of England from Normandy, male line, all of which terminate in an which yet possesses many fine horses of ancestry in all probability tracing back

this variety, introduced, it may be be to the old breed mentioned by Arthur lieved, by the Scandinavian invaders.” 1

Arthur Young was a native of Suffolk , and in his report on the Agriculture of

Young." Characteristics.

this county, compiled about the end of Colour.-- The colour is the most dis the eighteenth century, he speaks of tinctive feature in the Suffolk breed. It

“ the old breed ” of horses as if it had is a light dun or sorrel, sometimes, as

been specially associated with the dis- Low has it, deepening into chestnut, with trict long prior to that date. Writing lighter coloured mane and tail. in 1878, Mr Herman Biddel says : “ Two Form . - Arthur Young did not seem hundred years ago there were draught- to have a high opinion of the breed.

horses peculiar to the county, and of He cuts it off with this sarcastic touch : standing enough as a distinct breed to “ Sorrel colour ; very low in the fore

maintain their prevailing characteristics end ; a large ill-shaped head, with slouch through generations of descendants, long ing, heavy ears ; a great carcass, and after the original type had been consid- short legs : an uglier horse could hardly

erably modified by repeated selection, be viewed.” Now , however, the breed is more gainly, although it is still a thick , How long prior to Young's time the chubby, or punchy animal, with a body

and the introduction of incidental crosses.

breed had2 existed we have no evidence disproportionately large for the length

to show .'"

of its limbs.

Its legs are stout, but

Continuing, the same writer says: “ Up rounder in the bone than is considered to the present time( 1878) there has been desirable for maximum strength. The no stud - book of the Suffolk horse : an

“ feather " has not been cultivated on the

association is now, however, under the Suffolk Punch , and so its legs are free presidency of Lord Waveney, formed for from the long hair which characterises the the purpose of collecting information as legs of the Shire and Clydesdale horses. i Domestic Animals of British Isles, 619.

Aptitude for Work . — The Suffolk Punch is a most faithful servant. It is

2 Live Stock Il. Alk ., 1878.

probably the hardest puller of the equine

VOL . III.

2 C

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

402 race .

A true Punch of the olden type in which, as a rule, the Cleveland Bay

was a “ dour,” dull, determined creature ; breeds to type, both in colour and con

it would tug and pull till it dropped formation, precludes the possibility of his down, rather than give in .

It is men- being the result of an elaborate system

tioned by Low and other writers that of crossing between thePractically thoroughbred this property was so remarkable in the and the cart - horse. the old Suffolk Punches, that cruel wagers Cleveland Bay is as fully entitled to used to be laid on their powers of draught, be termed a pure breed as any breed of and many fine horses were thus ruined domestic animals, and there seems every reason to believe that it is descended in

by their indomitable spirit.

The modern Punch retains not a little direct line, with importations of foreign of this useful attribute, and it is vastly blood perhaps, from theaboriginal horses improved in the important matter of of Britain.

It is very probable that the Cleveland Bay derives a certain proportion of his are now highly esteemed for van and courage and endurance from a pretty dray work in towns, although under large infusion of Eastern blood, which

action. It is a hardy animal, and an excellent feeder. Horses of the breed

heavy loads on hard streets they do not doubtless did take place in the earlier wear quite so well as the improved Shire years of the Christian era . It is also possible that the Cleveland and Clydesdale horses. They are capital Bay may have been crossed with the farm -horses, especially for tillage work. Scandinavian horse during the time that CLEVELAND BAYS.

the Danes effected a settlement on the north -east coast of Yorkshire.

Cleveland Bay horses have played an important part both in road and farm work .

Characteristics. — The Cleveland Bay is a short-legged horse, standing from 16

The following notes regarding hands to 16 hands 3 inches, seldom being

them are from the pen of Mr W. Scarth

found under

one, and only a few

Dixon , hon . secretary of the Cleveland specimens being met with that exceed, Bay Horse Society :

or even attain to, the other.

The value of a breed of horses with size, action, power, and a hardy constitution, and at the same time clear of carting blood, is incalculable ; and such is the Cleveland Bay, or, as it was formerly called, the Chapman horse. The latter name seems the more appropriate

is rather plain , but is well set on, his neck is well placed, and his shoulders generally lie well back. His back is rather long, from the standpoint of a riding man, but it is strong and muscular ; his quarters are long, level, and elegant ; and his tail is well put on and well car

one of the two, as in a word describing

ried . He is remarkable for the quality

His head

the “general utility ” horse ; whilst the of bone, which is as clean and flat as that the of a race-horse, and his legs are almost modern name is merely derived from conclear of hair. His action is of a high district which became famous for taining the best specimens of the breed.

standard of excellence, both in a walk

Origin .— The origin of the Cleveland and a trot ; and although he has none of Bay has exercised the ingenuity of seve- that knee action so much admired by ral writers, who have puzzled themselves the lover of the hackney, he moves his and their readers in vain efforts to ac- shoulders and hocks in rare style, and

count for the existence of the Cleveland in a manner highly suggestive of getting Bay by promulgating elaborate theories over the ground. of crossing between the thoroughbred stallion and the cart -mare .

It is unnec-

The following description of a Cleve land Bay stallion that did good service

essary to enter into minute detail respect- in the country in which he was located, ing these theories.

The very confor- is taken from the first volume of the

mation of the Cleveland Bay clearly points Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, out that he cannot be descended from and is from the pen of Mr J. B.

the cart-horse, the elegance of his quar- Lloyd , a celebrated Gloucestershire agri ters especially showing that there can be culturist. “ When old Cleveland was at nokinship between them ; whilst the way his full size," says he, “ he measured

CLEVELAND BAYS.

403

16 hands 12 inch high, 978 inches rule, retaining the size and substance of round the pastern, 10 inches round below the Cleveland, and naturally possessing the knee, 21 inches round the arm, 1558 more quality and pace ; but after the inches round the knee, and 6 feet 10

inches round the girth . When measured

second cross the tendency is for the breed to lose size and degenerate. As an in stance of the value of the Cleveland Bay

he was in good condition, but not what you would call full of flesh, his legs as as a foundation for breeding hunters may

be cited the fact, that some of the best

clean as a race-horse.”

The Cleveland Bay is a capital worker, hunters bred by Lord Middleton at Bird and on light land he cannot be beaten, sall are third in direct descent from a whilst hisgreat activity and hardy con- Cleveland mare. Yorkshire stitution make him able to hold his own

with the heavier cart-horse on all but the very stiffest clays. He can also run in his master's gig, and I have occasionally seen some of the best specimens running in a gentleman's carriage, though the present

Coach - horse.

The

Yorkshire coach-horse is an offshoot of the Cleveland Bay, and originated in the demand which sprang up in the ear lier years of the present century for big flash carriage-horses. The short-legged

fashion is in favour of a lighter and more compact Cleveland mare

was crossed

stylish animal. They are not often used with a big, lengthy, and flash thorough as saddle-horses now , but occasionally a bred horse ; the produce, whether horse farmer in the Yorkshire dales may be or mare, was bred from, and eventually

seen riding one to market. Formerly, the Yorkshire coach -horse, or - as he however, they were much used as hacks was sometimes called, from the locality

in Yorkshire, especially in the North Riding ; and occasionally one was found

in which he was principally bred - the Howdenshire Cleveland, became recog

that could carry his owner creditably to hounds.

nised as a distinct breed. Possessing the length and fine level quarters of the

Value for Crossing. — The value of the Cleveland Bay for crossing with other breeds is difficult to estimate, and to this very fact is to be attributed'in no small measure that falling off in the numbers

Cleveland bay, as well as othersof his good properties, the coach-horse also has much of the elegance of the thorough bred. He is apt,however, to grow leggy in the course of a few generations; what

of the pure breed which a few years ago

is gained in quality is lost in bone ; and

nearly led to its extinction.

recourse has to be had to the old breed

It was used

in Scotland in the early part of the pres to restore that substance which is so ent century to improve the breed of essential in a good coach -horse. From

agricultural horses in that country, and the Cleveland Bay and the coach -horse with as satisfactory results as seem to are bred a large proportion of what are have attended Mr Lloyd's Gloucestershire Valuable ride and drive horses have also been bred by crossing a short-legged hackney sire with a Cleve-

known in the trade as London carriage horses : the larger and stronger animals being bred from mares of the former breed and sired by either thoroughbreds

land mare ; and Cleveland mares crossed

or coach -horses ; whilst the lighter and

enterprise.

with a thoroughbred horse have bred lesser horses are bred from mares of the some of the best hunters that ever went latter breed, and sired either by coach

out of Yorkshire. Great care, however, horses of high quality or by thorough is required in the selection of a stallion. bred horses of a coaching type. Latterly an attempt has been made, character, with good shoulders, and a but without success, to prove that the The latter should be of an active, wiry

short strong back , and rather under than Cleveland Bay is not a pure breed. Ab Especial care solute purity of breeding cannot, and 3 inches. should be taken to select a horse with short does not, exist ; but a breed which has

over 15 hands

legs, this being a far more important mat- existed for centuries without admixture

ter than size,which is rather to be avoided, of foreign blood, transmitting its char even if the horse is ever so well put to- acteristics in so remarkable a manner as gether. The second cross from a Cleve- the Cleveland Bay has done and con land mare makes the best hunter as a tinues to do, is fairly entitled to rank

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

404

amongst the pure breeds of British blood of unknown breeding. The dam horses. A noted modern Cleveland Stallion is

represented in Plate 8, vol. i.

of “ Shales," as of “ Hopeful,” another son of “ Blaze," was a trotting mare. From 1750 to 1780 Barb blood was

freely used in Norfolk on trotting mares. THE HACKNEY HORSE .

The horse “ Shales " is said in an old advertisement to have been “ the fastest

The Hackney horse, sometimes known horse of his day.” Through his get, “ Scot Shales ” and “ Driver,” came all animal on the farm. It is useful not the famous “ Shales ” and “ Fireaway only for the farmer's trap and for riding, stock of the end of the eighteenth but also for light spring-cart work. The century. Many of the good ones were

as the Norfolk Trotter, is a most useful

term Hackney is now understood to in- bred in the Long Sutton district. The clude riding-horses (other than thorough- “ Driver ” stock first won popularity in

breds and hunters and small ponies), no Yorkshire — the “ Shales " stock in Nor folk ; but there was a regular inter matter what may be their height.

Mr H. F. Euren, secretary to the change of the two strains from the out set. Their descendants, Burgess's “ Fire Hackney Horse Society, writes : Historical. — The name Hackney came away ,” Wroot's “ Pretender, " and his son,

in with the Normans, but the old Danish Ramsdale's “ Performer," Bond's (two) name Nag held its own. Hackney was “ Norfolk Phenomenon ,” Chamberlain's applicable only to a pacing or trotting “ Marshland Shales," and the “ Norfolk horse, while nag was and is used as a Cob ” family, are a few of the horses name for any riding-horse. existing between the years 1788 and

Hackneys and Trotters are frequently 1850, whose names occur often in the mentioned in old farm accounts from the full pedigree of the horses which have year 1331 to 1518 Thorold Rogers's won the Society's champion honours. History of Agriculture and Prices). In Notwithstanding that examination of 1340, by 14 Edward III., s. 1 , c. 19, one an extended pedigree shows that the

of three Acts passed to regulate purvey- modern Hackney is frequently an inbred ance and to make illegal the practice of horse, it is claimed for the breed that it sending the “ king's great horses ” on to retains its old -time characteristics — good farmers' lands ; but there was reserved action, high courage, and great powers of

to the king's Master of the Horse privilege of purveyance for " a Hakeney," which he might have : in the Paston Letters, under date 1470 : in Acts of

endurance. M. de Thannberg, who for nearly forty years was connected with the Government Studs in France, declared in 1873 that the Norfolk Trotter had

Henry VIII. — 1535-36, 1540, 1542— transmitted these very qualities to the the last-named providing that cart-horses French horses, and thus established what or sumpter-horses were not to be reckoned is now known as the French coach -horse. as trotting horses : by Blundeville, the The old custom of trotting against time who was the first and in matches, which prevailed in Eng English writer on horses ( A.D. 1558): by land in the early years of this century,

Norfolk parson ,

Thomas de Grey, The Phænix of our having been discontinued, the qualities T'imes (A.D. 1624), who spoke of the trot- which won for the Hackney its old repu ting horse as the English breed of horse, tation are not now so plainly in evidence ; the troop -horse of his day.

but those who have a knowledge of

The Hackneys of the eighteenth and back -breeding haveno difficulty in select nineteenth centuries trace back, almost ing horses which shall transmit the old without exception, to one horse, named time powers to the progeny. Practice of Breeding. — The prac “ Shales," foaled about the year 1755. His sire was 6 Blaze .” The sire of tice of the breeders of the Hackney, as Blaze *

was " Flying Childers, " which

horse was a mixture of Barb and Arab

shown by records from 1780 to 1820, was that of using the Hackney stallion

The dam of Blaze, known as on half - bred mares, the produce of “ Confederate Filly," had Barb or Turk thoroughbred stallions and trotting

blood .

blood in equal proportions with English mares.

This has continued to be an

CATTLE.

405

almost universal practice in Yorkshire. regulations are enforced to guarantee the In Norfolk there have been experiments soundness of the horses which receive made of using thoroughbred stallions on any distinction, whether of prize or com trotting mares, and the result has not mendation. The proportion of unsound

been so satisfactory as is the breeding in

horses has been found to be very small.

Yorkshire, as regards form , endurance, The show is also doing a very great deal or action. The most experienced breed- towards a return of the Hackney to its ers are agreed that the truest mode of old place as a riding -horse without any

breeding Hackney stallions, so as to get lessening of the action for which the a certain result, is to put the neces- Hackney has always been famous.

The

sary thoroughbred blood into the breed Society,which at the end of its first year through themare, and better still through had 290 members, ended its eighth year her dam.

The examination of hundreds

of pedigrees received from Yorkshire has shown me that in a very small propor tion of cases - certainly not more than two per cent - Yorkshire breeders have followed this plan of using Hackney

with 1000.

CATTLE .

The British Isles have long been famed

stallions — putting thoroughbred blood amongst the nationsof the earth for their into the breed through the mares only.

wealth in cattle.

Nowhere else has the

One of these Yorkshire - bred horses, systematic breeding of farm live stock known as “ North Star,” which was ex- been carried on sopersistently and suc ported by Col. Barlow in 1860 to the

cessfully as in this country . Our soil

Austrian Government, and which I find, and climate, as well as the habits and on examination of the pedigree, had only tastes and skill and enterprise of our

two parts in 64 of thoroughbred blood, people, are all peculiarly adapted to the was found so pre-potent that he has industry. In the breeding of cattle in stamped his characteristics on hundreds particular, our farmers have been singu

larly successful. For many years the which he was used , so that it is com- improved breeds of British cattle have mon there to hear a horse spoken of as a been largely drawn upon by numerous

of horses in the district of Austria in

North Star. The breeding of two of the foreign countries for the amelioration of most successful stallions — Mr W. Flan- native races ; while the improvement ders's “ Reality ” and Mr Henry Moore's effected in the general cattle stock of

“Rufus” —each a winner of a champion Great Britain since 1830 has added

cup at the Hackney Society's London greatly to the agricultural wealth of the show , confirms me in my previously nation. formed opinion. “ Reality's ” dam was There are over a dozen breeds of cattle sired by a thoroughbred, but there were in Great Britain usually regarded as dis three previous generations of the best

tinct varieties.

In England there are the

Hackney blood. His sire had thorough- Shorthorn (also widely diffused through bred blood in the fourth generation only, Ireland and Scotland), Hereford, Norfolk and then through mares. 66 Rufus's granddam was sired by a thoroughbred,

and her dam was Hackney bred.

On

and Suffolk Red Polled, Devon, Sussex, and Longhorn breeds. In Wales there are several varieties, such as the Pem

his sire's side the thoroughbred blood broke (or South Wales or Castle Martin)

came in five generations back, and only breed, the Anglesea (or North Wales) through the dam.

breed , the Glamorgan breed, and the

Hackney Horse Society . - The Hack-

Old Castle Martin White breed .

The

ney Horse Society was organised in 1883 first two are the principal varieties. and incorporated in 1884, not only to Scotland claims the Polled Aberdeen provide a stud - book for the record of Angus, the Polled Galloway, the Ayr the breed, but also to ensure to the pub- shire, and the West Highland breeds. lic that the horse used shall be on both Ireland has its one pure native breed,

sides of the best blood, and sound in the Kerry , with a sub-variety in the every respect. The Society holds an an- Dexter. The cattle of the Orkney and nual show in London .

The strictest

Shetland Islands are distinct in form and

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

406

attributes from the races of the main- days of shorthorn fame to speak of them land. The Jersey and Guernsey breeds as “ Teeswater Cattle , " this habit of are now so thoroughly acclimatised in

course arising from the fact that several

England and Ireland as to be entitled to of the most famous earlier improvers of the breed lived in the valley of the A notable feature in stock - breeding Tees. enterprise in recent times has been the We believe the fact may be accepted establishment of herd - books for the as undeniably established that the im

mention amongst British cattle.

recording of pedigrees. Almost every proved shorthorn is in the main a direct one of the breeds named above has now descendant of the aboriginal cattle of the its own herd -book, and there is no doubt

north -east of England. It is stated that some centuries ago a cross was introduced been highly beneficial. The great ma- from some of the large-framed breeds of that the influence of this movement has

jority of the cattle of the country are still of mixed breeding , but the number of animals with recorded pedigrees is now far greater than ever before, and is

the continent of Europe, notably Holland and Denmark. It is known that in more recent times—to wit, early in the nine teenth century - an infusion of alien blood

steadily increasing.

was taken from other British breeds.

SHORTHORN CATTLE.

These extraneous dashes of blood, how ever, have been but as drops in the ocean.

In the swelling tide of pure shorthorn

The shorthorn has abundantly earned blood they have long since lost their the right to the premier position amongst distinctive force, so that for all prac

British breeds of cattle. It is by far the tical purposes the pure-bred shorthorn of most numerous, as it is the most widely to -day may be taken as the direct de diffused. More wealth is bound up in scendant of the ancient cattle of the it than in any other variety of the bovine north -east of England. race .

In the development of the live-

Early Improvements.

The first to

stock industry of the British Isles, it has begin the systematic improvement of the played a great part, far exceeding that of shorthorn breedwere the brothers Charles any other distinct class of animals. And and Robert Colling, who were probably it has done more than develop wealth busy at this important work at the dawn

at home. It has gone in vast numbers of the nineteenth century. We are told to foreign countries, bringing in exchange that in those days the great majority of foreign gold to the British farmer, and shorthorn cattle were large high-stand

creating wealth, and promoting pasto- ing animals with good milking prop ral prosperity wherever it has appeared. erties, but rough in form and slow in

The breed which has done all this—and fattening.

The Collings at once directed

is as busy at work as ever, widening its themselves to the improvement of the field of operations from day to day- cattle where they were most defective, well merits a word of homage from the and there is ample evidence to show live -stock historian. that very early in the nineteenth century Origin and Progress. The credit of thesepioneerbreeders had succeeded in giving to the world this fine race of im- establishing herds of cattle which were proved cattle belongs to the north -east of decidedly superior to any others in the England, —in largest measure perhaps to country . From the earliest glimpses we the county of Durham. It is probably get of the Collings cattle, we learn that, right to regard the county of Durham as in comparison with the unimproved

" the cradle" of the shorthorns. They cattle of the district, they were wider in have often been spoken of, both at home the rib, more symmetrical in the frame, and abroad, as the “ Durham Breed ,” yet shorter in the leg, slightly smaller in the valuable race of native cattle from size, heavier in fesh, and much more which the improved shorthorn was raised speedy in growth and in the accumula were the prevailing class of stock kept in tion of flesh and fat. the adjoining counties as far back as reAs to the methods of breeding followed

liable history enables us to trace their by the Collings, there has been a good career.

It was also common in the early deal of speculation. It is asserted by

SHORTHORN CATTLE. some writers — but there is no absolute

407

wonder that this should be the case.

proof in support of the assertion — that The importance of the work which was in improving the native cattle the Col- taken up and carried on by them can Åt th pres e lings introduced an infusion of blood hardly be overestimated. ent day there is not a well-bred living of the country. We do not presume to shorthorn in whose pedigree Colling ar W

from some of the other smaller breeds

e

controvert this suggestion.

e,

blood does not figure prominently - mar

however, more inclined to the belief that vellous testimony, surely, to the import the Collings relied upon " selection ” in ance of the work done by these two great breeding – that is, upon the mating of men , the animals of the shorthorn breed which

Booth and Bates Shorthorns. — The

most nearly approached to their ideal of most famous of the Collings' more im

character, and fixing the type by pur- mediate successors were Thomas Bates suing what is designated “ in- and- in and Thomas and John Booth, names breeding.” This system of “ in -and -in which have long occupied prominent breeding”-that is, the mating of animals positions in connection with shorthorn which are closely related to each other , cattle. At the Ketton sale in 1810,

is well known to assist greatly in stamp- Thomas Bates purchased the two - year ing or fixing peculiar features and char- old heifer, “ Old Duchess," for 183 acteristics upon races of stock.

The

guineas. Thomas Booth bought the

Collings, wehave reason to believe, soon bull “ Albion ” for 60 guineas, while at discovered this, and it is clear to us that the Barmpton sale in 1818, his brother they employed with great skilland discrim- John Booth purchased the yearling bull ination this somewhat uncertain agent, “ Pilot ” for 270 guineas. With these

which, according to the manner in which purchases the shorthorn breed drifted it is directed, is possessed of great power into two great channels, which by de grees absorbed the main current of the

for good or evil. But whatever may have been their

race .

These two strains of Bates and

method of breeding, it is well known Booth, as we have thus seen, had one that the success of the Collings was both common origin in the stock of the speedy and complete. The fame of their brothers Colling. In the hands of their cattle spread so rapidly, that in the first new owners the strains developed distinc tive shapes and characteristics, which in

few years of the nineteenth century they

were obtaining the hitherto unheard -of the purer representatives are still main price of £ 100 each for cows and bulls of tained and easily recognised . The Bates cattle, says Mr Robert their improved strains. Ketton

and

Barmpton

Sales.- Bruce, " are higher - standing, better

Charles Colling's historical sale at Ket- milking, and perhaps gayer-looking cat ton in 1810 is usually spoken of as the tle than the Booths. They have as a first great public sale of shorthorns.

On rule more upright shoulders, flatter fore

that historical occasion twenty-nine cows and

heifers

realised an

ribs, opener sides, with long hind quar

average of ters, less fully packed with flesh than

£ 140, 48. 7d., while the average at

the rival strain . As a rule their heads

tained for eighteen bulls was £ 169, 8s. are clean cut and pretty wide, while the

each. The crowning sensation was the bulls have long arched muscular necks purchase of the renowned bull “ Cornet ” and keen tempers. The prevailing col for the fabulous sum of 1000 guineas. ours in this strain of blood are, generally An equally important event took place speaking, deeper than in theother, being eight years later, when at Robert Col- reds and rich roans . The Booth cattle ling's sale at Barmpton, notwithstand- are wider, deeper, and perhaps less pretty. ing the fact that the time was one Their shoulders are more laid back, their

of great depression , the herd of sixty- fore ribs and flanks deeper and better realised an average of filled. They are more a beef than a milk breed , with well - packed quarters and £ 128, gs. rod. Lovers of this fine race of cattle de- thick loins. The sires remind one more light to dwell upon the doings of the of a fat Smithfield ox, and they move

one animals

brothers Colling, and there is little without that courage and dash so pecu

408

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

liar to the Duke's' and other highly continent of Europe, in Australia, New 1

valued strains of the Bates tribes. ""

Zealand, and other countries, the short But while the Booth and Bates are the horn has been extensively introduced, two chief strains of pure-bred shorthorn and has been employed with great suc cattle, they do not by any means embrace cess in the improvement of native races the whole. Beyond these there are of cattle. The particular mission of the many excellent herds and families of improved shorthorn would seem to be shorthorns which show but little leaning to remove or make up for the deficiencies Its remarkable adapt

either to Booth or Bates, and which are,

of other breeds.

in their own way , equally meritorious and useful. Chief amongst these must be mentioned the “ Cruikshank ” families, long maintained and bred with great success by the brothers Cruikshank at the farm of Sittyton, in the county of

ability for crossing with and improving other varieties of cattle has imparted to it quite exceptional value and celebrity. The great bulk of improved shorthorns have therefore, during the existence of the race, been employed as indirect as well as

Aberdeen .

direct agents in the production of meat Colour. – Roan of varying shades is —in bringing meat out of other races as the prevailing colour of shorthorn cattle. well as raising it upon theirown frames .”

Many of them are red of different hues,

Milking Properties.—The milking

and a considerable number are white. properties of improved shorthorns vary The last-named colour is decidedly un- greatly. Many breeders of shorthorns have unfortunately cultivated the fatten means well founded. Not a few short- ing to the detriment of the milking prop horns are red and white, the patches oferty, carrying on this one-sided develop red and white being distinct from each ment much further than was either nec other. This colour is also objected to, essary or desirable. It is thus by no

popular ; but the objection to it is by no

and breeders strive to avoid it as far as

means uncommon to meet with shorthorn

possible.

cows which are greatly deficient in milk production. Taking the breed as a

Characteristics. — Enough has been said at the outset of this notice to indicate that the attributes of the shorthorns are of the very highest order. Indeed, in the production of meat and in general utility the shorthorn is unsurpassed. It

whole, however, it is still fairly satisfac tory in this point, while the majority both of pure-bred shorthorn cows and of crosses from

the breed are entitled to

rank as heavy milkers. Good shorthorn may be excelled by some other varieties cows give from 700 to 1000 gallons of

in special aptitude for peculiar purposes, milk in twelve months, and occasionally or for certain limited districts, but for a much higher yields are obtained. combination of all the more useful proper-

Weight and Early Maturity . — The

ties of domestic cattle, as well as adap- improved shorthorn has all through tability to varying conditions of soil, cli- recorded history been noted for its pre mate, and treatment, there is no other cocity. It grows rapidly, attains great breed of cattle that can equal the short weight, and accumulates flesh and fat With remarkable facility the with great rapidity. At the Smithfield horn . shorthorn adapts itself to extremes of

Fat Stock Show in December 1887 , the

soil, climate, and management, and this class of shorthorn steers under two years characteristic, combined as it is with old (averaging 672 days each ), gave an

another valuable property which the average live-weight of 1396 lb. Short namely, suitability for crossing with and three years of age (averaging 988 days) breed possesses in an unequalled degree- horn steers over two years and under

improving other and inferior races of averaged 1870 lb .; while shorthorn steers cattle -- has spread the improved short- over three years old ( averaging 1321 horn far and wide, not only in the British days) gave an average live -weight of Isles, but also in many foreign lands. In North and South America, in the

2116 lb. each .

1 Chambers's Encyclopædia , article on “ Cattle " by James Macdonald .

Journal Royal Agricultural Society of England, by James Macdonald . Vol. xix ., part I., 1883.

2 “ Shorthorns in Scotland and Ireland,”

HEREFORD CATTLE.

409

Points of the Shorthorn . — The fol- improved Hereford, which is as widely lowing description of the points of the noted for its picturesqueness and beauty improved shorthorn is from the pen of as for its practical utility.

the late Mr Henry Strafford, editor of Coates's Herd - Book : “ The head of the male animal

Origin . — The generally accepted opin ion as to the origin of improved Hereford

short, but at the same cattle is, that they trace directly from the

time fine, very broad across the eyes, but aboriginal cattle of the county of Hereford gradually tapering to the nose, the nostril and adjoining districts. The improve of which is full and prominent — the nose ment was begun far back in the eighteenth

itself of a rich flesh -colour, neither too century, by the Tomkins family. There light nor too dark ; eyes brightand placid,

is abundance of evidence to show that, as

with ears somewhat large and thin. The early as 1766 , it was taken up in a syste head, crowned with a curved and rather matic manner by Benjamin Tomkins, who flat horn, is well set on to a lengthy, continued the work with great energy and broad, muscular neck ; the chest wide, success until his death in the year 1815 . deep, and projecting ; the shoulders fine, For four years after, his herd was main

oblique, and well formed into the chine ; tained by his daughters, and when it was

fore legs short, with the upper arm largé dispersed by public auction in 1819, one and powerful ; barrel round, deep, and year after the famous Barmpton sale of well ribbed up towards the loins and shorthorns, twenty-eight breeding animals

hips, which should be wide and level ; realised an average of £ 149 per head back straight from the withers to the four adult bulls bringing £ 267,155. each, setting on of the tail, but still shortthat is, from hip to the chine — the opinion

and two bull-calves £ 181, 2s. 6d. each.

Other early breeders of skill and enter of many good judges being that a beast prise took up with commendable spirit should have a short back with a long the work which had been so well begun

frame. As a consequence of this, the by Tomkins, and to their successful efforts

hind quarter must itself be lengthy, but the Hereford farmers of to-day are in well filled in. The hair is plentiful, soft, debted for a valuable race of rent-paying and mossy , with a hide not too thin ,and cattle. in fact something approaching the feeling

It is generally considered that infu

of velvet. The female enjoys nearly all sions of foreign blood have contributed to the same characteristics as the above, with some extent to the building up of the the exception of her head being finer, improved Hereford. In the history of longer, and more tapering; her neck this breed , it is mentioned that in the thinner, and altogether lighter; and her seventeenth century cattle had been shoulders more inclined to narrow towards imported into Hereford from France by the chine. Like most well-proportioned Lord Scudamore, and that in later times animals, the shorthorn often looks smaller there have been introductions of stock into Hereford from various parts of Eng than he really is.“ 1 A famous Shorthorn Cow of modern land and from Wales. Undoubtedly ,

times ( 1890) is represented in Plate 9, however, the dominant ingredient in the vol. i. Plate 10, vol. i., represents a improved Hereford is the aboriginal race

Shorthorn Bull of 1850. Plate 11, vol. of the county-the same race of cattle i., represents a Shorthorn Ox of 1850; which, under different conditions of soil, and Plate 12, vol.

Shorthorn Cows of

1840.

climate, and management, have given us such breeds as the Devon and Sussex.

HEREFORD CATTLE.

Colour . — The colour of the improved Hereford is red with white face, white

This handsome breed of cattle has its marks in the top line of the neck, back home in the English county whose name over the crops as well as in the chest

it bears. No other variety of stock in and bottom line, all the way backwards. the British Isles displays more distincThe white face has been well described tively marked characteristics than the as the “ tribal badge ” of the Hereford, 1 Article “ Shorthorn Cattle , ” Morton's Cy clopedia of Agriculture.

2 History ofHereford Cattle, by Macdonald and Sinclair. Vinton & Co. , Limited , London .

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

410

and we are told that this distinctive mark modern breeders have with good results is traceable to the infusion of foreign given careful attention to the removal of blood referred to.

Many animals of the breed were at

this deficiency. .. “ An important characteristic in Here

one time grey or spotted in the face, and ford cattle is that they carry flesh most even yet there exists a strain of Here- heavily on the parts of the frame from fords known as “ Smoky-faced Mont-

gomerys. '

which the best meat is cut. Their broad backs are usually loaded with meat of

Characteristics.—The following notes the very finest quality, and the average as to the characteristics of Hereford

Hereford carcass is found to have its fat

cattle are taken from the work already and lean mixed in the most admirable referred to : 1 “ Hereford cattle are re

manner.

Butchers and consumers alike

markable for the distinctiveness and hold Hereford beef in the highest esteem .

uniformity of their outward character- Indeed, the grass-fed Hereford beef en istics and general attributes. The red joys quite an enviable reputation, and curly hair, and broad kindly - looking bringstop figures in the best markets of white face, mark the trail of the Here- the country. “ Hereford cattle are unsurpassed as ford wherever the breed has roamed . In . Robust in constitution, quiet graziers mottlethe seen, former times, as we have faced and grey strains were cultivated ; in temperament, kindly feeders, and but all these have disappeared, and now large growers, they thrive and fatten the " white faces ' reign supreme. This admirably on pasture land. ” distinguishing feature would seem to be

indelibly stamped in the breed.

Milking Properties . — Dairying has

The not formed a prominent feature in the

almost unique permanency of the white agriculture of Hereford. The milking face is the strongest possible evidence of properties of its native breed of cattle the purity of the Hereford breed. Heredi- have therefore been neglected. Hereford tary power is the surest sign of purity of cows, as a rule, are deficient as milkers,

descent; and it may be doubted if any the one special object of the breed being

production of high -class beef at an characteristic in any of our domesticated the early age.

varieties of farm live stock is more firmly

fixed than the white face of the Here-

ford...

Size and Weight.-In stature as well

as in height the Hereford corresponds

“ In conformation, the breed displays very closely to the shorthorn. At the nearly as much uniformity as in colour. Smithfield Fat Stock Show in London in The most striking features in this are

December 1887 the class of Hereford

their broad level back, deep wide chest steers under two years old (averaging and brisket, hanging dewlap, light thighs, 634 days) gave an average live-weight of and great wealth of flesh. often heard strangers remark

some of them

We have upon what

1390 lb.-6 lb. less than the average of the corresponding class of shorthorns.

have designated the The average live -weight of Hereford

' wedgy ' appearance of Herefords, their steers over two and under three years of great development in front, broad loins, age ( averaging 938 days) was 1742 lb.; and thin thighs. The light hind leg as while the steers over three years (aver well as the great development in the aging 1310 days) gave an average live fore parts are heritages of the good old weight of 2041 lb. each . times when Herefords were beasts of

Plate 13, vol. i. , represents a noted

burden, when they tilled the fields, and Hereford Bull. carried the harvest.

The broad back,

wide rib, and wealth of flesh have been

DEVON CATTLE.

cultivated for the purpose of meat pro

duction ; but the old characteristic of

This breed has its headquarters in the

light thighs, though less apparent than it counties of Devon and Somerset. There has been, is still a noticeable defect in it has held undisputed sway for hundreds many animals. The more successful of of years. It is the direct descendant of the aboriginal cattle of the south -west of 1

History of Hereford Cattle, p . 258.

England,and has been bred in purity for

DEVON CATTLE.

411

centuries. In some respects, indeed, the same, he prefers a small cow rather than “ Rubies of the West,” as these cattle a large one for breeding a bull, because are fondly designated by their admirers, it is very rare to see any very large one occupy a position which is almost unique. handsome; but to breed oxen, a large Few breeds of live stock of which we have cow. To have them sharp and thin from

any acquaintance have so long main- the throat to the nose ; in the throat the tained undisputed sway over their native districts as have the Devons ; and there are perhaps equally few that can lay claim to as long a career of prominent usefulness. The history of the Devon breed of cattle does not cover a wide extent of country, yet it stretches far back in years, and is, locally, full of interest and edification, bound up as it is in the agricultural development of the counties of Devon and Somerset.

Early Breeders.-Arthur Young had evidently been fascinated by the Devon

cattle, for he put himself to no little trouble to obtain information regarding

cleanest have small variations from the perfect snake ; though fat there, it should not bag. To be thin under the eyes and tapering to the nose, which should be white, but the original breed was yellow . Between the eyes to be rather wide ; eyes themselves to be very prominent, like those of a blood -horse, and no change of colour round them . The horns to be white, with yellow tips ; thin at root and long, spreading at the points. The breast or bosom should project as much as possible before the shoulder and legs ; and the wider between the fore legs the better. To have the line of the neck

them for incorporation in his report from the horns to the withers straight dated 1776. He mentions Mr Quartly with that of the backbone. The belly

of Molland as the most celebrated of to be light and rather tucked up ; if fat the breeders at that time in North before the udder, it is a sign of a good Devon, and he gives details of an in- milker ." terview which he had at Molland with

The Quartly Herd. — Any one who

Mr Quartly (then spelt “Quarterly") knows the Devons of to -day would readily and his brother, “ the clergyman who recognise in the ideal cattle thus por interests himself much in live stock .” trayed the true progenitor of the im

Young inspected their herd, and they proved breed. Intelligent breeders with had the goodness “ to satisfy the in- so clear an ideal, so well defined a model,

quiries ” he troubled them with. He and the relation of all important points thus describes the aims and objects of so well reasoned out, could not fail to leave an almost indelible stamp upon these noted early breeders : race on which they operated. No the in at aimed have they points “ The breeding have chiefly been to gain as wonder that the fame of the Quartly

great a width as possible between the hips ; to have the hip -bones round and not pointed ; that the space from the catch to the hips should be as long as

Devons still lives, for the efforts of Mr Quartly must have done much to mould the breed into the strongly set type which it now displays. Young tells us

possible; the catch full, but not square; that the points which he describes so fall plumb, without fully are the points which these gentle that the tail should catch and rump ; to have men considered desirable to breed for in

a projection of the tail not set on high — not to rise— Devon cattle, which “ they consider as but be snug, and the line to be straight the best in England ; ” and he adds, “ Of

with the backbone - no pillow just below their fattening qualities they observed

the cross-line from pin to pin ; to be that the Somerset graziersare thejudges, thick through the heart under the chine; who are known to prefer them . For that the shoulder-point be not seen - no working none can exceed them . As

projection of bone, but to bevel off to the neck, all elbowing out being very bad. All the bones to be as small as possible; the rib -bones round, not flat ; the leg as

milkers they are represented as possess ing much merit. They had two cows that gave each 17 pints at a meal, and would make in general 10'2 lb. of butter

small as possible under the knee ; not an per week in the flow of the season.” The

atom of the side to have any flatness. systematic improvement of Devon cattle In respect to size, if other points be the as a breed began with this Mr Quartly.

412

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

He stated to Young that his father had

round, with a thick even padding of the

begun breeding Devons about twenty very choicest of meat.

66

Plump as a

years earlier - twenty years prior to 1776

Devon " is a frequent expression, and —and that he thought the breed there or there is no other breed of cattle, excep elsewhere was no better then , or at any

rate “ two years ago ," than it was when

his father commenced , so little progress had there been made by any one in improving the breed . About this time, however, the demand for Devor cattle began to increase, giving a stimulus to the good work so systematically taken in hand by Mr Quartly and a few other men of “ light and leading." Down to this day the Quartly strains are held in high esteem by all the leading breeders.

ting, perhaps, the Dexter variety of Kerry cattle — when these are really well

fed — which represents so fully the idea of plumpness as does the well -fattened “ Rubies of the West. "

It is wonderful

to see the great weight of carcass which these little low-set cattle sometimes carry —who that have been in the habit of attending fat stock shows have not been struck with this ? And while the legs

are short and fine, the expression of the face is bright and gentle, the clear promi

The value of the nent eye being encircled by an orange

work done by that family is well in- coloured ring. The headis comparatively dicated by that experienced and suc- small, with a broad indented forehead, cessful breeder, Mr W. Perry, when he tapering rapidly towards the nostrils, says, “When I use a bull of any other which are fine and clean.

The horns of

blood [ than Quartly ), I find instead of the female are long and spreading, with advancing one step forward I go two a graceful upward turn . The horns of steps backward .” Colour and Characteristics.-Few

the bull are much thicker set, and often more highly curved, than thoseof the cow,

breeds of live stock display more striking and in some instances they stand out

uniformity of colour and general charac- nearly square, with only a slight upward teristics than Devon cattle.

The South

Devons — those bred in the rich valley of

inclination. Beef Production . — As has been indi

Taunton Dene, are larger in the frame cated, the Devon cattle were in former and higher on the leg than the more times much esteemed for working proper

plump North Devon, which is the popular ties. In this respect they had scarcely type. Red is the invariable colour, vary- an equal, but now cattle are worked so ing from a dark to a shade almost as seldom that this quality is hardly worthy

light as chestnut. The nose, which once

of

consideration .

As beef producers,

was yellow, is now creamy white, and in however, Devon cattle enjoy quite a first summer the skin is beautifully mottled by dark spots. Some of the earlier breeders were very particular as to colour. Lord Somerville , who gave much information to Arthur Young re-

class reputation. In certain circum stances, indeed, they could hardly be ex celled for this purpose. For the conver sion of the hilly pastures of their native districts, no other variety of cattle has garding the breed, states that he con- been found to equal them . It is, in fact,

sidered much depended upon the colour. broadly asserted that from the consump Those with curled hair were deemed tion of the herbage of any given number excellent provers, and he also held in of acres, Devons would produce in the much esteem thoso with a very glossy aggregate as much beef as any other

mahogany skin, paler or lighter, " with breed , though a greater number would be required to consume it ; while at the curls like ripples of wind on a smooth required mill-pond.”

same time there would be a greater

Plumpness.— The North or typical weight of the most valuable beef, with Devon is emphatically a " big little ani- less of the coarse joints and offal. It is ?-a large body upon short fine limbs well known that Devon beef, along with

-small in comparison with the short-

prime Scotch ” beef, brings the highest

horn or Hereford, but weighing more price in the London market; and another than either for its height. Its symmetry valuable property in the Devon is that,

is admirable, and when mature in growth beingsmall and active, it can forage well and condition its body is wide, deep, and -walk over much ground for its food

SUSSEX CATTLE.

413

so that it is peculiarlyadapted for poor cattle as they were in the last century, pastures. The Devons have not migrated Mr Alfred Heasman, editor of tħe Sus in any large numbers from their native

sex Herd - Book, and author of an ac

districts, but in these they have never count of Sussex cattle in Coleman's been successfully assailed . Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs of Great Milking Properties.— Speaking gen- Britain, mentions the custom of the erally, it could not be said that the dairy farmers of West Sussex attending the

properties of Devon cattle are of a high fairs at Lewes and Battle in order to buy order. The quality of the milk is of the up the aged working oxen, which weighed

very highest, but on an average the yield when fat a year later from 180 to 200 is not large, although many instances of stone. This was certainly a grand breed heavy yields are on record. Vancouver, on which to found a modern meat-pro writing in 1808, mentions a cow which, ducing type. Mr Ellman of Glynde, the although only three weeks from her time great improver of Sussex sheep, found

of calving, yielded in seven successive the Sussex ox a long-legged , strong days 1772 lb. of butter, several meals of the milk during these days averaging 14 pints. In one day — and she was clean milked out the previous evening - Mr J. G. Davis's “ Cherry” (5177) gave 33 pints of milk , from which 2 lb. 5 oz. of butter were made. A cow belonging to Mrs Stone, living at Catford, on Brendon Hill, often gave 2/2 lb. of butter per

boned, coarse, but useful beast of bur den ; and after breeding and exhibiting the native cattle with great success for many years, and encouraging others to do so, he left them much improved. Still they were an old - fashioned sort. Their colour was either light or dark red . The type was greatly improved during the Ellman period, and in spite day, and it is recorded that this cow of the decay of the breed which we read milked till nearly twenty years old, was of in the prize report on Sussex farming then fattened slowly on grass alone, and in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural slaughtered, when her dressed carcass Society of England, 1850, several farm weighed 800 lb. ers in the county, predecessors in some Weights. — The weights which Devon cases of the breeders and prize-winners cattle attain when fattened are small of the present day, still retained good compared with those credited to our herds. larger breeds, but, as already indicated,

Coming down to more recent times,

they are great for the apparent size of we find the breed taking high honours the cattle, while the percentage of dead at the Smithfield Club shows. The meat to live-weight is exceptionally high, first volume of the Susser Herd -Book

and the amount of cheap meat relatively was published in 1879, but unfortun small.

have

Occasional animals of the breed ately it contains no introductory chap as much as 19 cwt. ter showing the exact steps which have

reached

live-weight at four years old, but the been taken in forming the present im average is much below that. At the proved race. It is now so well under Smithfield Fat Stock Show at London in stood that in the case of most improved December 1887, the class of two years old breeds of cattle and sheep judicious cross

Devon steers (averaging 681 days) gave ing has preceded selection, that Sussex an average live-weight of 1235 lb. ; steers breeders would most probably be willing over two and under three years old to admit the depth of theirrepeated dips (averaging 996 days) 1489 lb.; and steers

into the Devon blood. The Royal Society

over three years (averaging 1320 days) first gave separate prizes for Sussex cat 1734 lb. each.

Plate 14, vol. ii. , represents a noted modern Devon Bull.

tle at Leeds in 1861.

At the Paris exhibition of 1859 the Sussex and Devon breeds were conjoined

in competition, though it was agreed that SUSSEX CATTLE .

they differed sufficiently to make such mixing undesirable. They ran neck and

Mr Henry Evershed contributes the neck, however, the Devons winning in the class for bulls under two years old, following notes on this breed : Speaking of the old breed of Sussex and the Sussex in the old bull class. At

414

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

Kilburn, in the same year, the persever- established a class of animals of great uni

ing exhibitors of this hardy, beef-making formity of character, which had lost the breed were highly complimented on unlevel outline that once distinguished their position, since their cattle, as stated them , and which retained immense length , by the reporters in the Journal of the with a carcass good enough for the most

Royal Agricultural Society of England, fastidious West End butcher. The cows “ formed one of the main features of

are not behind the bulls in massive

a generally splendid exhibition of the frames of well-balanced meat, surpassing bovine race . It was admitted by the in this respect all other breeds. It could reporters that the Sussex steers would, not be expected that such a conformation

at two years of age, be as heavy as the of the females would be accompanied Devons at two years and six months,

by good milking qualities, and as dairy

though the comparative weight of the stock it must be admitted that the Sussex animals by no means decides the ques- breed is defective. tion of their comparative profit.

Pass-

As the showyard representatives of the

ing on to the year 1881 , when Sussex cattle had already risen high in public favour, the reporter of the live stock at Derby, in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, assists No us in carrying on their history. ““ No breed,” he wrote, “ has been so improved as the Sussex during the past thirty years.. Their form has been levelled up to fair and comely proportions, and their touch mellowed by happy selection ; and it is acknow-

breed have for some years past been very numerous compared with the total num ber of Sussex cattle, they must have stamped their character on the stock at large in a very marked degree, and for this reason we have brought forward what may be styled official evidence of the “ vast progress ” of the prize-winners at the Royal exhibitions and the Smith field Club shows . So able and impar tial a reporter as Mr William Macdonald, late editor of the North British Agri

ledged that in respect of early matur- culturist , said of them, after the York , as evidenced at the shows of the show of 1883, that with something like ity Smithfield Club, they are fast ap- the scale and outline of the shorthorn, they proaching to the standard of short- approached the Devon in uniformity and Kentish and Sussex butchers quality of flesh . They are, said this prefer well -bred Sussex bullocks to authority, “ grand beef-producing cattle,

horns.

any others.”

and deserve a wider hold than they yet

In the report of the judges after the possess of thismeat-raising country.

In

Reading show in the following year, we regard to early maturity, Mr Macdonald of remarks of a victorious yearling heifer, find an acknowledgment of the merits a breed of cattle which had now become “ Few animals of any breed , at the age, the observed of all observers, although a would scale with her, and withal she is

few years previously breeders of Here- symmetrical. ” The least important characteristic of a breed of cattle probably is colour, but

fords, shorthorns, and Devons had passed them by with a shrug of the shoulder. As the origin of a breed is always a matter of interest and importance, we may mention that the experts just re-

we must nevertheless state that instead

of the lighter or darker red, which are now fashionable with Devon breeders, ferred to spoke of them as big Devon- an intermediate or cherry colour is pre like beasts ; but they described them as ferred by the fanciers of the Sussex

having more size and a deeper colour, as cattle, indicating, they think, good flesh,

being higher on the leg, and possessing good quality, and aptitude for fattening. robust appearance; adding to this de inspected some of the best herds of less finish, less elegance, but a more It happens that the writer has recently

scription, “ they give one quite the idea Devon and Sussex cattle, and it seems of being of Devonshire extraction.” The to him that the remarks of Captain

same experts assigned to those enterpris- Davy, late editor of the Devon Herd ing tenant-farmers, to whose successful Book, on the superior beauty of his enthusiasm the improvement of the breed favourite breed, though made as long was solely due, the full credit of having ago as 1863, are still applicable. The

SUSSEX CATTLE.

415

Sussex cattle are now, as they were then, are allowed to drop their calves all the less pleasing in appearance, coarser in year round.

bone, with comparatively upright shoul-

Among their other good qualities, the

ders and less perfect form . The remarks uniform character of the breed is strong of Captain Davy being quite dispassion- ly transmitted to the progeny of Sussex ate, may be quoted as follows : “ It is bulls, when they are crossed with other not difficult to observe that the Devon- cattle. It is no slight merit that they shire and Sussex races are of the same can clear up the roughest pasturage, extraction ; indeed so nearly do they bear hardships, and walk any distance resemble each other in colour and length without suffering. of horn that, if a stranger to the breeds Before concluding this brief account of

were shown two animals, one a Devon,

a breed of cattle which is even now far

the other a Sussex, I doubt if he would too little known, it will be well to de observe any material difference between scribe, as a typical animal, a bull bred them , except that the Sussex beast might by Messrs Stanford, and acknowledged appear rather the larger, or, as

the

to be the best Sussex bull ever shown .

Swiss would say, the taller breed, from This is “ Goldsmith ,” thus described in the greater length of the leg ; but the the report of the live-stock York show, more experienced observer would dis- 1883 ( Journal of Royal Agricultural

cover in him a larger and less finely Society of England ):

“ With a brisket

chiselled head, coarser eyelids, combined well down to the ground, this ponderous

with a less pleasing expression of the bull is no more noteworthy in respect of eye, and a crescent-shaped upward horn, size, width, and length, than for levelness instead of the deer-like head and grace- and accumulation of flesh. He is aston fully curved yellow-coloured horn of the ishingly coated , and retains his bloom Devon." wonderfully." The present owner of The hardiness of the Sussex breed is

“ Goldsmith ” is Mr W. S. Forster of Gore

acknowledged, but in this respect it is Court, Maidstone, in whose boxes the not perhaps superior to the Devons, which writer has seen “ Goldsmith ,” still (1891) in their own county, in a humid climate, blooming in his twelfth year, with his

are frequently wintered out of doors grandson “ Mikado,” which has been little from an early age, running at will in the if at all less successful in the showyard more sheltered of the pastures, with open than himself. Mr Forster is now one of the most sheds for their only lair. The following merits of the breed, set forth by an ex- distinguished breeders of Sussex cattle,

cellent authority, cannot be disputed : standing on a level in the great showyard “ The Sussex cross well with any breed ; struggles with the Stanfords and Agates,

by using the male, animal substance and and others among the older exhibitors. firmness of flesh are imported, and the He owns a herd of ninety -two, and there colour of the offspring is generally red. can hardly be a more interesting pastoral They are of themselves a hardy breed scene than the herd in the grass fields

and have been found to surpass all others round his house on a fine dayin summer, in the poorest pastures of their native when the glossy rich coats of the animals county .”

He adds, “ The cows are not shine in the sun.

good milkers ; those with the heaviest Hesh are the worst, but produce sufficient to rear their calf.” Then follows a good hint in regard to management : " The most successful way of breeding is to

Mr Forster has found

that in pastures of moderate quality Sus sex cattle do better than any other kind .

They are very large in frame, hardy and robust in constitution, and, as a rule, very gentle and tractable. His heifers are sent

calve them down in October and Novem- to the bull at two years old, and the pro

ber, let them have theirown calf through geny run with their mothers in the pas the winter, which can be weaned in the tures till they are six or seven months spring and another calf put to the cow.

old .

The hardihood of the breed is

If managed in this way, each cow will maintained by the treatment of those rear two calves, and the number of animals which are not in training for the barreners be greatly diminished ; ” and shows, the cows (when their calves are barreners are sure to follow when cows weaned), as well as the two- year-old

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

416

heifers in calf, running out alike in sum- fattened to above 50 stone ( 14 lb.) ; mer and winter, day and night, having,

the milk-veins remarkably large ; cow's

however, a yard and sheds where they upon good land give a great quantity of can find shelter at will. The cows, with rich milk .” calves by their side, also run out summer From these useful native cattle the and winter, unless the weather is very improved Red Polls have been built up,

severe, but the calves are taken in at entirely, it may be said, by selection in night in winter. The yearling steers and breeding and by judicious treatment. heifers are wintered in yards, and fed on straw and roots and a little cake, so as

to bring them on steadily.

It should be added that the butchers of Kent and Sussex prefer the Sussex bullocks to any others; and this is not a mere prejudice, for amongst a large number of prize beasts of the Smithfield show of 1888, a Sussex bullock came out best in the proportion of dressed carcass

Characteristics. — The improved Red Polls are considerably larger than their

progenitors were at the beginning of the nineteenth century. They are still uni formly red in colour, but without the mottled face spoken of by Marshall. They are good beef producers, and, as has already been indicated , are possessed of excellent dairy properties. Indeed, it is with good reason contended that there

to live-weight. This bullock was a steer is no other variety of cattle in the British Isles which in sohigh a degree combines dressed carcass weighed 1422 lb. , and fattening and dairy properties. No doubt, Shorthorn cows will be the percentage of dressed carcass to gross found to exceed Red Polled cows in the live-weight was 71.67 .

a few days less than three years old . Its

An improved Sussex Cow is repre- yield of milk ; but, taken as a whole, the latter are superior to the rank and file sented in Plate 16, vol. ii. of Shorthorn cows. NORFOLK AND SUFFOLK RED POLLED CATTLE .

The Red Polls,

moreover , are hardy docile cattle, mature at a moderately early age, and are on the

whole an eminently thrifty and profitable Amongst the native cattle of England class of cattle. the Norfolk and Suffolk Red Polled Yield of Milk . — Mr Thomas Fulcher,

breed stands highest for dairying pur- one of the most successful breeders of The Red Polls are handsome Red Polls, states “ that many good cows poses. symmetrical animals of medium size. yield from 45 to 50 lb. of milk per day Origin.— They bear a close resem- for five months after calving, and they

blance to the polled cattle of Scotland, and have not that tendency to go dry which from the fact that in former times Scotch

belongs to the Alderney, Ayrshire, and

cattle were in large numbers transported

the

Shorthorn .

It not unfrequently

for fattening in Norfolk, it is assumed happens that a cow will continue to give that this likeness in form arises in some milk from one calving to another.” The part from kinship in blood . Be this as Red Polled cattle have been exported in it may, however, the Red Polled breed considerable numbers to foreign countries. mod can be traced as a distinct 'and well-de-

A

ern Red Polled Bull is repre

fined variety far back into the eighteenth sented in Plate 15, vol. ii. century. In his Review of Norfolk, pub lished in 1782, Marshall states that the native cattle of the county were “ a small

LONG -HORNED CATTLE .

hardy thriving race, fattening as freely This ancient and characteristic breed at 3 years old as cattle in general do at of cattle would seem to be approach 4 or 5 . They are small-boned , short- ing extinction. It was the first breed

legged, round-barrelled, well-loined, the upon which Bakewell, the great pioneer favourite colour a blood-red, with a white breeder of farm live stock, began his and mottled face .”

experiments in the improving of cattle.

Writing twelve years later, Arthur These experiments were begun as early Young says, the Suffolk breed of cattle as 1755 , and from that year dates the

" is universally polled — that is, without breeding of farm live stock upon scien horns ; the size small, few rise when tific principles.

POLLED ABERDEEN -ANGUS CATTLE.

417

The Long -horned cattle at one time British Isles, but also in many foreign existed in large numbers throughout lands. The breed is as much thought England , chietly in the Midland counties.

of abroad as in its native regions in the

They were also introduced into Ireland, north-east of Scotland. It is gradually but long ago they have been supplanted extending into England and Ireland, and at one point after another by the Short- has been exported in large numbers to horns or some othervariety, and now the foreign countries, chiefly to the United last few remnants of the breed are to be

States and Canada.

Origin . — It is established beyond The Long-horns are big, long, rather doubt that the improved Aberdeen -Angus ungainly cattle, with long drooping horns, cattle are the direct descendants of the found in the Midlands of England.

which are often so shaped as to make it ancient polled cattle of " Angus ” and difficult for the animals to graze short “ Buchan ,” two varieties of cattle of the pasture. The cows are fair milkers, and same type known in the former district the bullocks attain great weight. In the as “ Doddies,” and in the latter as

general properties of rent-paying stock,

“ Humlies.” The history of this breed

however, they are surpassed by most has been traced fully in a volume pub other improved breeds ; and although we

lished in 1882 ; and those who are inter

look upon them with a kindly historic ested either in the descent of this par

interest, it must now be reluctantly ad- ticular breed, or of polled cattle gene mitted that there is little reason for their rally, may be referredto that work. Early Improvement. —- It is stated

continued existence.

in that volume that there is good reason POLLED ABERDEEN -ANGUS CATTLE.

to believe that both in Aberdeen and in

Angus the systematic efforts to improve

Amongst the polled varieties of cattle, the breed had begun some time before the Aberdeen -Angus breed is by common the advent of the present century. In consent allowed the first position.

No Angus, the first improver was the late

race of British farm live stock has made Mr Hugh Watson, farmer, Keillor, Meigle. more progress since the middle of the In Aberdeenshire, the work which was nineteenth century than this famous race

so well begun by Mr Watson was taken

of beef-producing cattle. At the great up heartily and methodically, and with InternationalExhibitionat Paris in 1878, great advantage to the interests of the the late Mr William M‘Combie of Tilly- breed, by the late Mr Wm . M‘Combie of

four carried off the champion prize for Tillyfour, who has been justly described the best group of meat-producing cattle. as the “ great deliverer of the polled His victorious group consisted of five race - a distinction which he earned by

black polls, all of his own breeding ; and when it is remembered that no fewer than sixty different varieties of cattleincluding the best of the English breeds -were represented in that memorable

the fact that when the fast-spreading popularity of the Shorthorn threatened the extermination of local breeds, Mr M'Combie came to the rescue of his favoured race of Aberdeen polls, holding

contest, it will be understood that the to them against all comers, and as we

triumph gained by Mr M‘Combie and have already seen , carrying them through his favourite polls was one of no ordi- to world-wide renown . nary importance. That great victory has Characteristics. From the work on been followed up by repeated successes at the history of the breed already referred

the annual fat stock shows at Birming- to we take the following extracts as to ham and London - representatives of the the attributes of the improved polled breed having won the £ 100 Champion Aberdeen -Angus cattle : Plate at the London Christmas Fat Stock “ In general form a model polled shows in 1881, 1885 , and 1887. These animal differs considerably from a model great achievements, backed up as they shorthorn . Both should be lengthy, have been by the undeniably high char acter of the Northern polls as beef-pro

? History of Polled Aberdeen or Angus Cattle.

ducing animals, have won for the breed By James Macdonald and James Sinclair. W. high esteem , not only throughout the VOL . III ,

Blackwood & Sons. 2 D

418

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

deep, wide, even, proportionate, and should lie well backwards, fitting neatly cylindrical. The polled animal, how- into the body, and not lying awkwardly ever, should be more truly cylindrical in outside it : they should show no undue

the body than the shorthorn . Its points prominence on the shoulder-top, on the should be more quickly rounded off; or, points, or at the elbow. An upright in other words, the frame of the polled

shoulder in cattle is generally accom

animal is not so fully drawn out to the panied by a light waist- an important, square as that of the shorthorn. Critics and in all breeds a much too common, have pointed out in some of the best defect. The chest should be wide and

for polled animals now or recently living, a deep, so as to give plenty of room should

tendency to approach too nearly to the lung -development.

The bosom

square type of the shorthorn . In a beef- stand well forward between the fore

producing animal, a broad square frame legs, and underneath should be well

can hardly be said to be a blemish ; for covered with flesh and fat. The crops should be full and level, with no falling off behind them ; the ribs well sprung, springing out barrel - like, and neatly joined to the crops and loins ; the back level and broad ; the loins broad and strong ; the hook-bones not too wide narrower than in an average shorthorn ; animal is, that such a form is foreign to the quarters long, even, and rounded,

if it is thoroughly well covered all over, it will carry more beef than a rounder frame. A compact well-rounded frame, however, has always been a leading characteristic of the polled breed ; and the main reason why a square shorthornlooking frame is objected to in a polled

the breed, and therefore apt to arouse with no hollow from the hooks to the

suspicions of impurity. The admirers of tail ; the tail should come neatly out of the breed claim

for it valuable natural

properties not found to an equal extent in any other breed ; and they fear that should the breed lose its characteristically natural appearance, it may also lose

the body, not too far up the back, and not higher at the root than the line of

the back. A high tail-head was to some extent characteristic of the ancient polled breed, but it is one of the defects that

its superiority in those valuable pro- are being gradually removed by the more perties — ' the genuine article should scientific systems of breeding now pur always bear its trade-mark .' Careful improvers of the breed are specially par-

sued.

“ Some good polled cattle, too, have

ticular as to the hind quarters. While been found to show a development of they aim at developing long, level, thick, soft worthless flesh and fat on the rounds deep quarters, they also strive to retain behind ; but that defect, which is dis the rounded appearance which was origi- liked very much , is also almost obliter nally one of the dominant characteristics ated. The tail should hang straight down, close to the body all the way till of the breed.

“ The head of the polled male should it comes near to the level of the flank.

not be large, but should be handsome On both sides of the tail the quarters and neatly set on. The muzzle should should turn away in a rounded manner, be fine ; the nostrils wide ; the distance swelling out downwards, and ultimately

from the nostrils to the eyes of only passing into thick deep thighs. The moderate length ; the eyes mild , large, twist should be full, and the hind legs

and expressive; the poll high ; the ears set well apart, and not detached from

of fair size, lively, and well covered with the body until the level of the flank is hair ; the throat clean, with no develop- reached . The flank should be full and ment of skin and flesh beneath the jaws,

soft, so that a good handful may be got

which should not be heavy ; the neck out of it. The bottom line should be as pretty long, clean, and rising from the even as the top and side lines ; and the head to the shoulder-top, and surmounted bones of the legs fine, flat, and clean, by a moderate crest,' which contributes a desirable point in a bull. The neck should pass neatly and evenly into the body, with to masculine appearance

full neck - vein.

with plenty of muscle and flesh above the knees on the fore legs. The body should stand neatly and gracefully on the legs ; and when the animal is station

The shoulder - blades ary, the fore legs should be perfectly

POLLED ABERDEEN -ANGUS CATTLE.

419

straight, and the hind legs very slightly and Hereford, have been developed to so bent forwards below the hock. All over high a degree, it could not be expected the frame there should be a rich and that with anything like unanimity any even coating of flesh .

Even the hook- one breed would be accorded the premier

bones, and other prominent parts, should position. Be that as it may, we think be well covered ; and above all, there the polled Aberdeen or Angus breed may should be no patchiness- no hollows, safely be said to be inferior to none as and no rolls of hard flesh, with spaces of all-round beef cattle, and superior to all soft useless fat between them , such as others in some respects. The brilliant

are always found in a patchy animal. and unequalled position it has latterly

Except in rare cases, the skin is fairly taken, alike in the show -yard and market thick, but soft and pliable: it ought to place, sufficiently establishes its claim to be so free over the ribs as that one could fill one's hand of it.

The hair is, as a

that description. Its show-yard achieve ments will be fully noticed afterwards.

rule, not long, but fairly thick and soft ; Here it may be noted, that at the Paris and in the best animals shows two Exhibition in 1878 it carried off every

growths, or rather two lengths — one single honour for which it was entitled short and thick, and the other longer to compete, including the £ 100 prize and thinner. When walking, a good for the best group of beef- producing animal of the breed presents a very com- cattle in the Exhibition ; and that in

pact, graceful, and symmetrical appear- British show -yards, both fat stock and

ance. Indeed'it is fairly enough claimed breeding, it has attained to a leading for the breed that in these and in some position. In a strictly butcher's point other respects it has hardly any equals, of view, it has very seldom to yield to and no superiors. The above description any other race of cattle. refers more correctly to bulls than to “ The superiority over most other COWS.

The latter, of course, differ con- breeds, for the butcher's purpose, lies

siderably in character. The head is mainly in the excellent quality of beef, much finer, the neck thinner and cleaner, and in the high percentage of dead -meat

with no crest ; the shoulder-top sharper; to live-weight.

As a rule, the beef of

the bone altogether finer ; the skin not

the northern polls is very well mixed,

quite so thick ; the udder large, and milk -vessels large and well defined . “ In appearance, as well as in other characteristics , the polled Aberdeen or Angus breed differs substantially from the polled Galloway race. The former has lived under a dry cold climate, and has been fed in the house during a large

and contains a greater proportion of com pact, finely grained flesh, and less soft, coarse fat , than most other kinds of beef.

Inside, the carcass is usually well lined with fat of the finest quality ; while in the density and quality of the carcass

itself, the breed may fairly enough claim the premier position among all our lead

part of the year. The latter has its ing breeds of cattle. Some place the home in a moist climate, and has spent small Devon breed alongside, if not even much more of its time in the open fields. before it, in this respect ; but with that

The differences between the two are just exception, we do not think that any such as might be expected from their other breed in the British Isles will on different conditions of life.

The Gallo-

way, as already noted , has a thicker skin

an average yield so high a percentage of

dead -meat to live -weight.

In butcher's

and stronger coat of hair, and has alto- phraseology, it ‘dies ' well and cuts up '

gether a slightly more shaggy appearance admirably. In all the leading fat-stock than the northern polled cattle, and does markets in the country the breed is held in high estimation, and, as a rule, com not mature quite so quickly. “ It is claimed that the northern poll mands the very highest prices--in fact,

surpass all other races of cattle in the generally a higher price in comparison to

production of beef. On that point there its size and live-weight than any of the opinion ; for at the present day, when the case at the great Smithfield Christ is, of course, considerable difference of other leading breeds. This is especially

the beef-producing properties of our other mas Market in London, where the plump leading breeds, notably the shorthorn compact polls from the north never fail

420

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

to find a ready sale at the highest history been infused into the breed from quotations." any outside quarter whatever, must no

In the direction of early maturity this doubt be traced one of its most marked breed has in recent years made marked and valuable characteristics — viz ., the progress.

At several of the large recent extraordinary impressiveness of the

Fat Stock shows it has surpassed all breed .” other breeds in this respect.

At the

Characteristics of the Galloway.

London Christmas Fat Stock show in Galloways are black and hornless like December 1887 the class of polled Aber- the polled Aberdeen Angus cattle. From

deen steers two years old (averaging the latter they differ substantially, how 667 days in age) gave an average live- ever, not merely in outward features, but weight of 1475 lb., while steers over two years and under three years (averag-

also

in their inherent characteristics.

The two breeds are similar in size ; the

ing 984 days) gave an average live-weight Galloway is the more shaggy and muscu lar in appearance, has a thicker hide and of 1874 lb. Colour. — Black is the all -prevailing a ranker coat of hair, and is perhaps on colour of the Aberdeen - Angus cattle. the whole the hardier of the two. Aber Formerly red was by no means uncom- deen - Angus cattle, however, have a mon . Occasionally a red calf is still decided advantage in regard to early dropped, but it is an unwelcome visitor, maturity , and to their adaptability for and is seldom allowed to “ stay."

house - feeding

Plate 17 , vol. ii. , represents a noted Polled Aberdeen -Angus Bull.

For grazing the Galloways are especi ally renowned, and for this purpose they have long been eagerly sought after both

GALLOWAY CATTLE.

in England and Scotland, while in later

years they have gained considerable

This hardy and picturesque breed of popularityin the ranches of the Western black polled cattle takes its name from the south -west of Scotland.

There it is

States of America. Milking Properties .-Galloway cows,

believed it has existed for centuries, com- as a rule, are below the average in the ing down to us with a long line of pure production of milk . descent.

The dairy properties of the breed have

Origin . — The origin of the Galloway never been systematically cultivated, and

cattle is lost in the mists of antiquity. many of the cows give a very small Yet enough is known to justify its claim quantity of milk . As a rule, however, to rank as one of the oldest and most the milk is exceptionally rich in quality. Plate 18, vol. ii., represents an im distinguished of the British breeds of They are referred to by proved Galloway Bull. live stock. several writers as having exhibited great excellence as grazing cattle about the

AYRSHIRE CATTLE .

beginning of the nineteenth century. As to the more recent progress of the

Of all the native British breeds of

breed, the Rev. John Gillespie, writing cattle, the Ayrshire is the most valuable, in 1886 , says : “ The improvement made judged exclusively from the dairy far

in the breed during the last sixty years mer's point of view. The production of has been very great. This is an era milk is the one special function of the within the memory of living men, and Ayrshire, and this it fulfils in so admi there has never been the slightest shadow rable a manner as to have earned the

of a doubt cast upon the fact that it has highest estimation of dairy farmers. Al been brought about by the identical though it has its headquarters in the means employed last century-viz., by

county whose name it bears, the breed

systematic and skilful mating of the is now widely diffused throughout the best specimens of both sexes, and also by south - west of Scotland, while it has attention to diet and general manage- spread into England and Ireland, as well ment. To the early improvement of the as into many foreign countries. Galloways, and to the further fact that Origin . - There is much uncertainty no blood has at any period of their as to the origin of the Ayrshire breed.

WEST HIGHLAND CATTLE.

421

The most generally accepted idea is that spine at the shoulders, straight back, its progenitors were of Dutch extraction. wide hook - bones placed the same dis It has been located in the south-west of

Scotland for a very long period of time, and has been there bred in its purity • with the greatest success. There is abundance of evidence to show that it

tance from

outline of tail as from the

fore rib ; the ribs well sprung and gradu ally deepening backwards, hind quarters long, broad, and straight ; soft elastic skin, with the whole body set on short

had established its name as a distin- legs, and exhibiting throughout fineness guished dairy breed of cattle in the

of bone.

The teats should be well set,

south -west of Scotland before the close of moderate length and thickness, and of the eighteenth century. the milk -vessel not fleshy, but large and Characteristics . — The prevailing col- capacious, well up to the escutcheon be

ours of the Ayrshire are brown and hind, level with the belly, and the milk white, each colour being distinctly de- veins on the abdomen showing largeness fined. Some, however, are almost entire- and superior development. The animal

ly white, while others are almost wholly should be a free, jaunty mover, exhibit brown. Ayrshires are wide, low - set cattle, with long horns curving upwards.

ing style and grace in her actions.” A noted modern Ayrshire Cow is illus

Their beef-producing properties are not trated in Plate 19, vol. ii. of a high order, and if it were improved

in thisrespect without materially deteri

WEST HIGHLAND CATTLE.

orating its milking properties, the pop

ularity of the Ayrshire throughout the country would be vastly increased.

This singularly handsome breed, often spoken of as the “ Kyloe,” has its head

Writing of Ayrshire cows, Professor quarters on the high - lying farms of the Primrose M'Connell says : “ They will counties of Argyll,Perth, and Inverness. cost £15 per head to lay in ; will cost £ 15 per annum to feed ; will yield about 2.20 of produce, which will be over 600 gallons of milk per annum , showing 3.5

Amongst all the many varieties of British cattle there is none more handsome than the typical West Highlander. It is quite as handsome in form as the improved

to 4 per cent of fats, 12 to 15 per centof Shorthorn, is almost as large in size, and with its rank, shaggy coat of hair, long, lb. of butter per annum ; and she will spreading, gracefully turned horns, hardy sell when fat at £ 12 to £15. Her muscular appearance and defiant gait,

cream , 127/2 per cent of solids, and 200

bardiness will enable her to live and to

throws all other varieties of cattle into

thrive in exposed situations and on scanty fare ; while when taken south, if she gets plenty of good water to drink,and is not pampered with too much good food, she will do better, and will repay the outlay

the shade in picturesquenessand beauty. Origin . — The prevailing idea as to the origin of West Highland cattle is that they are descended , and that in a direct unadulterated line, from the ancient

and trouble .” 1

native cattle of the districts still regarded

Mr William Bartlemore gives the fol as the home of the breed.

lowing description of a typical Ayrshire

It is gene

rally considered that the Wild White

cow : “ The Ayrshire cow of the present Cattle of Chillingham , the Wild Cattle day is a fully medium -sized beast, with in Hamilton Park, the useful little Kerry

wide upstanding clear horns and body of Ireland, and the West Highland cattle somewhat wedge-shaped. What breeders of Scotland, are the purest representa have universally aimed at in order to en-

sure the highest milking qualities was to produce an animal with a body light be-

tives of the ancient cattle of the British Isles.

Characteristics. — The West High

fore, and heavy behind, with capacious land breed exhibits considerable variety udder . The leading characteristics of a in size, form and colour. The strains

desired specimen are a nice clean short which are reared in the South-Western head, full lively eyes, clean long neck, Highlands are much larger than those broad but clean chest, well-developed which have their home in the higher and bleaker mountain-ranges of the northern 1 Live Stock General Almanac, 1886, p. 112.

counties.

The former are also the more

422

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

handsome, and in all respects the more Origin . - It is generally acknowledged profitable class of cattle. The prevail- that nowhere in the British Isles is there

ing colour is dun or yellow, of various a purer representation of the smaller

shades, but many of the animals are black varieties of the aboriginal cattle of Nor or brindled, and a few are dark red. The West Highlanders are slow in

thern Europe than is provided in the Kerry cattle of Ireland.

They are the

growth, and equally slow in taking on smallest of the many varieties of British flesh and fat. When fully matured for cattle, and none possess more distinctive

the butcher, however, they sell readily, features or more certain marks of purity and bring a high price per cwt. Their of descent. Their individuality is indeed beef is well mixed, choicely flavoured, and is in high repute amongst the best class of butchers. " Like all other breeds, they have in recent years made some progress in the matter of early maturity.

very striking, and although small in size and slow in maturing, they are most useful cattle in their own proper sphere. The breed has its headquarters in the bleak steep hills of county Kerry, where

As a rule, however, they are not fully it has had to subsist upon scanty fare, exposed to wind and rain , with little matured until four years old. The West Highland is the hardiest artificial shelter or attention of any kind .

breed of cattle known to exist. They This untoward treatment has of course live and thrive on exposed heather and told its inevitable tale. It has cramped hilly ranges on which no other variety the stature of the cattle, and made them slow in maturing ; but it has also en of cattle could maintain an existence.

For Highland districts, therefore, the breed possesses a special value, while they are also in request for stocking gentlemen's parks, where, as might be

dowed them with a sound constitution and exceptional hardiness, as well as the rare and useful faculty of existing and feeling happy on small fare. Proverbially,

expected, their picturesque appearance is highly appreciated. In his work on domestic animals, Low gives thefollowing description of a typi-

Irishmen make the best of emigrants. A similar property can be claimed for the Irish national breed of cattle ; for the little Kerry " adapts itself readily and

cal West Highlander : " The neck should agreeably to change of scene, and seems be strong and muscular, the forehead as muchat ease in the wooded parks of rather broad, and the nose from the eyes England as on the rocky heights of its to the muscle somewhat short ; a dewlap Irish home." By degrees Kerry cattle should exist as a character of the breed ; are making their way into England, the eyes should be prominent and clear, where they are found specially useful on the horns should be of a good length poor land and in small family dairies. without approaching to coarseness, spreadThe Typical Kerry. — In outward ing and tipped with black. . . Their form Kerry cattle are somewhat similar limbs are short, though muscular ; their to the cattle of Brittany, fully as high, chests wide and deep, their ribs well

but rather more slender and deer- like.

arched, and their backs as straight as in any other breed . The neck, indeed, and dewlap, seem somewhat coarse in the bull; but these are characteristics indicative of theirmountain state, and almost all their other points are what breeders

The Kerry is active and graceful, long and light in the limb, head small and fine, throat and neck slight and clean, eyes prominent and keen, horns turned upwards, and white with black tip ; shoulders thin and sloping, and sharp would term good .” on the top ; chest fairly wide, back Plate 20, vol. ii., represents a modern straight, but rather narrow ; ribs

West Highland Cow and Calf. KERRY CATTLE.

fairly well sprung , barrel not deep, hooks wide, quarters long but often uneven ;

tail - head

sometimes

rather

high, tail slight and long, thighs thin ; As has been already indicated, Ireland udder large in size and well shaped, being

claims only one pure breed of cattle— full behind and carried well " forward ; namely, that which takes its designation

milk -veins full and well defined , skin

from the rugged mountains of Kerry.

moderately thick and mellow, colour

KERRY CATTLE.

423

usually black, but some have white spots whether we have any breed of cattle in

underneath, and now and again a red this country which will beat the Kerry Kerry is seen . The bull is thick, straight, in the return in milk and butter from fine in the skin, with good masculine a given quantity of food. Youаtt gave

head and neck. Many of the animals the Kerry cow a high character, and yet have curiously " cocked ” horns, first he was well justified in what he said : projecting forwards and then taking a " Truly the poor man's cow , living every peculiar turn backwards-caused, says where, hardy, yielding for her size abun

an Irish wag, by the strong winds the dance of milk of a good quality, and cattle have to face in mounting the fattening rapidly when required ." Kerry hills ! An increasing demand for exporta The Dexter . — The animal just de- tion and neglect of the breed at home

scribed is the typical Kerry. The “ Dex- seemed to endanger its existence. Just ter,” a distinct branch of the same breed, in time, however, a movement has taken is an animal of a very different type- shape for the cultivation and improve much shorter in the leg, thick and plumpment of the breed. A herd -book has in the body ; indeed, in all respects, ex- been established, and the interests of the cepting that of size, an admirable sample breed are at last being well looked after. of a beef-producing animal. If less eleMr Robertson's Herd.—For many

gant and “ milky ” looking than the years Mr James Robertson, La Mancha, typical Kerry, the Dexter is decidedly Malahide, Co. Dublin, was the most suc more symmetrical ; and if increased in cessful exhibitor of both Kerries and size, as by selection in breeding and Dexters, and his valuable herd has sup liberal treatment it might soon be, it plied breeding stock to many admirers of

would be found to be a very profitable the breed in England as well as in foreign class of stock, very hardy and docile, countries. easily fattened, and producing beef of the An average Kerry cow under favour very choicest quality. able conditions will yield from 12 to 13 The origin of the Dexter variety, so quarts of milk daily, and very little over distinct from the parent stem, is some- 10 quarts of milk will give one pound of what uncertain . The prevailing im- butter. Mr Robertson's famous prize

pression is that it resulted from a cross

cow “ Rosemary,” afterwardsthe property

introduced upon the Kerry, bred by a of Mr Martin J. Sutton, of Kidmore

gentleman of the nameof Dexter between Grange, Reading, was one of the most 1830 and 1840 ; but there is no actual record of this, and no information vouchsafed as to what breed had been resorted to for the cross. Others believe and contend that Mr Dexter established his favourite variety entirely by selection in breeding. Be this as it may, it is certain that he succeeded in stamping the Dexter type very firmly upon the cattle, for there is now as mucb fixity of type and character in the Dexter variety as in the true Kerry itself. Characteristics . - Irish farmers have

handsome Dexters we have ever seen. Her height at the shoulder was only 3 feet 4 inches, and yet behind the shoulders she girthed 5 feet 7 inches, her length from the shoulder-top to the tail - head being 3 feet 9 inches ; and what is more remarkable still, her udder when in full milk girthed no less than 34 inches. Live-weights. — Mr Pierce Mahony, of Kilmorna, has made efforts to increase the size of the Kerry cattle, and the following figures giving the live-weights of a few of his animals will show that he

paid little attention to the Kerry breed, has made some progress : Bull, 2 years and thus have neglected their own in- 8 months and 2 weeks old, 8 cwt. i qr.; terests. The breed certainly possess bull, 15 months old, 5 cwt. 2 qrs. 7 lb. ; characteristics which, with careful culti- bull, 12 months old, 4 cwt. I qr. 15

lb. ;

vation, would earn for them an excellent bull, 87/2 months old, 4 cwt. 2 qrs.; cow, reputation as rent-paying stock . They aged 4 years, 6 cwt. 2 qrs. 7 lb.; heifer, are specially adapted for high cold situ- 2 years and 2 months old, 6 cwt. 21 lb.;

ations where food is not too plentiful. heifer, 14 months old, 4 cwt.

Kerry

As dairy cattle they have gained a good cattle fatten readily on moderately good name .

Indeed it may be doubted

treatment, and they are well liked by

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

424

butchers, who can readily dispose of

in 1887 the class of Welsh steers gave

their handy little cuts of sweet whole- an average live-weight of 2111 lb. , their some meat . average age having been 1286 days. A Family Cow . - The Kerry or Dex

ter cow is admirably adapted for the

SHETLAND CATTLE.

villa dairy --for those who have only a small plot of grass, and yet would wish

The native cattle of the Shetland and

to indulge in the unspeakable delights Orkney Islands are quite distinct in of a cow of their own . The hardy and character from the races in the mainland. docile Kerry will thrive well in the house They show a considerable resemblance to or on the lawn, and will give a bountiful the Kerry cattle of Ireland, and, like return of delicious cream and butter. these hardy animals, are well adapted to

In England Kerries are making their their surroundings. There are They are small in size, and, as a rule, now several large herds of Kerries and not of a high character. The true Shet

way in the family dairy.

Dexters in England, one of the largest land cow , however, is a handsome animal, and most select being that which Mr with fine brown mellow skin and silky

Martin John Sutton has establishedat hair. On the poor scantyfeeding which Kidmore Grange, Reading. Mr Sutton she generally obtains she gives a wonder drew principally from the La Mancha fully rich yield of milk. herd, and his stock have thriven so well with him that it is doubtful if even in Ireland itself there is a herd of higher

JERSEY AND GUERNSEY CATTLE.

average merit. Mr Sutton's fancy leans The valuable breeds of the islands of to the Dexter, and he has bred some Jersey and Guernsey have been imported excellent representatives of this variety. into England and Ireland in large num Plate 21, vol. ii., represents improved bers during recent years. Where the Kerry and Dexter- Kerry Cows. chief object is the production of milk of a rich quality, these cattle are highly WELSH

CATTLE .

esteemed, and they are steadily growing in favour in the British Isles.

In the principality of Wales several

Origin .-- There is hardly any doubt

varieties of cattle have existedfrom time that, although the Jersey and Guernsey immemorial, all of them derived from breeds are now so different in appearance, the aboriginal cattle of the country. At

they were descended from one common

least four varieties are generally spoken origin. Be that as it may, it is known of-namely, the Pembroke, Glamorgan, that they have been bred in absolute Anglesea, and the Merioneth cattle. purity in their respective islands for up The first -named has generally been

wards of one hundred years.

In each

regarded as the best. Although these breed the type is fixed with remarkable varieties present considerable diversity firmness, showing that the family current of type and character, there is all through has all the strength of concentrated them a noticeable family likeness, sup- breeding for a long period of time. sey

porting the belief in their common

Characteristics.-- The

Jer

and

Guernsey breeds are both essentially dairy

origin.

Characteristics. — The Welsh cattle cattle. They give an abundant yield of are generally black in colour, with long rich, highly coloured milk . The Jersey

horns, hardy in constitution, slow in is the smaller of the two, and is a delicate, maturing, but able to subsist and thrive attractive-looking animal, of a graceful upon scanty fare.

Many of the cows are deer-like form . It is of little value for

excellent milkers. In recent years the the production of beef, but its milking

best of the varieties have been greatly properties are ofa remarkably high order. properties. Jersey cows give an average of 9 % lb. improved, especially in their fattening When in full milking, whole herds of The larger strains attain great weight of butter each cow per week, an excep: when from three to four years old.

tional cow occasionally giving as much

the London Christmas Fat Stock Show

as 16 lb. of butter in one week. Good

SHEEP - LEICESTERS .

425

Jersey cows yield from 500 to 700 gallons Romney Marsh sheep are useful animals of milk and from 300 to 350 lb. of butter ofthe long-woolled variety. In the moun in twelve months.

tain districts of West Somerset and North

The Guernsey is larger in size than the Devon the Exmoor breed is highly Jersey, is a trifle hardier, and on the esteemed. whole more generally useful. Guernsey The Lonk breed of sheep, somewhat

cows occasionally give over 800 gallons resembling the Scotch Blackfaced sheep, A noted cow,

are kept in several parts of Lancashire,

when 6 years old, gave 2272 lb. of butter in seven days, her daily yield of milk at that time being 19 quarts. These records, high as they are, however,

Yorkshire, and Derby, chiefly on the higher and poorer pastures. The Rye land breed is one of the oldest in Eng land, but it has been to a large extent

of milk in twelve months.

have been exceeded in severalinstances,

supplanted by the improved Downs, and

both in this country and in America. A celebrated modern Jersey Cow is

it is now in the hands of a very small number of flock -owners, the great ma

jority of these being in their native represented in Plate 22, vol. ii. Plate 23, vol. ii., represents a noted county of Hereford. In Cumberland modern Guernsey Cow . and other parts of the north of England the Herdwick breed is much thought of,

and is cultivated with great success, hav ing -been considerably improved in recent

SHEEP.

years.

The British Isles are possessed of great

The Wensleydale sheep are a very

wealth and of exceptional advantages in their large and diversified stock of sheep. Small as they are in area, the British Isles present great variety both in soil

useful class of animals. They are some times known as Yorkshire-Leicesters, are large in size, high standing, somewhat similar in appearance to Leicesters, and

It is therefore natural are much esteemed for crossing with and desirable that there should be many other breeds, notably with Scotch Black different races of live stock, with varying faced ewes. aptitudes and characteristics. It has been In Wales the Welsh mountain and and climate.

already seen that in regard to cattle, British farmers are in this respect well provided. If anything they are even better supplied in respect of sheep.

Radnor varieties are extensively raised, and much valued for their hardiness and for the choice flavour and quality of their mutton.

There are throughout the British Isles

In Scotland there are only three pure

even a larger number of races of sheep breeds of sheep specially associated with than of cattle, all possessing distinguish- that country - namely, the Border-Lei

ing features which adapt them in a spe- cester, Cheviot, and Blackfaced breeds. cial sense to their particular surroundings.

In Ireland the only breed of sheep

The existence of these many local varieties which has attained to the distinction of of sheep is an undoubted advantage to being classed asa breed is the Roscom the country, for by these our live stock

mon variety.

They are large and un

industry has no doubt been more success- gainly, yet on the whole very useful fully developed than it could have been sheep. by a much smaller number of breeds,

LEICESTERS .

however meritorious.

In England and Wales alone there are

This is the breed upon which Bake

some fifteen or sixteen varieties of sheep, well first tried his cunning hand. It is all less or more distinct, and each with well entitled to rank as the pioneer of its own special habitat.

The chief of all our improved breeds of sheep, for it

these are the Leicester, Cotswold, Lin- is acknowledged that Leicester blood has coln, Southdown, Shropshire, Hamp- played an important part in the improve shire, Oxford, and Suffolk breeds.

Two ment of several other varieties, mainly,

important breeds in the south -west of of course, those known as long and inter England are the Devon Long - woolled mediate woolled sheep. and the Dorset horned breeds.

The

Characteristics. — The typical Lei

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

426

cester is a thick, plump, rather short have contributed to the result. In Bake

Leicesters were tried on the sheep ; fine in the bone, broad back, well's time,Hills, but the climate was too usually very wide at the heart, clean ,

Cotswold

firmly set head , which is free from col- severe for them , and they were soon oured wool and hair ; mutton of medium abandoned. But in all probability the quality, with a tendency to excess of fat ; visit of the Leicester may have tended

fleece averaging from 7 to 8 lb., and car- to accelerate the improvement of the cass exceeding 80 lb. native breed. Anyhow, alike in form , The Leicester is exceptionally well maturity, and weight, the Cotswold covered with flesh along the back, while sheep of to-day are vastly superior to the fore parts are deep and full, the neck those of former times. being short, muscular, and well set into The patronage of the Royal Agricul

wide sloping shoulders, which do not tural Society stimulated the improvement For-

as well as the demand for Cotswolds ;

merly, bare heads were preferred ; but latterly, and with good reason, heads which are protected from the fly by a covering on the top of close, short, white

and although the breed is not, as a rule, exhibited in large numbers at the Royal Show , and does not cover a very exten sive area of land, yet through its antiquity

wool, are preferred.

and intrinsic merit it is entitled to a pro

rise above the level of the back .

Value for Crossing. -- Upon rich minent place among the leading varieties abundant pastures, this breed does well of sheep in England. in its pure condition ; but its main value,

Characteristics.-- The Cotswold dis

perhaps, lies in its splendid properties plays a majestic appearance, with a huge, for crossing with other races. It has long, broad, regularly formed body, set been said that there is not a county in evenly on long, clean legs ; head large, the British Isles, and probably few civ-

clean, and handsome ; features usually

ilised countries in the world , where the Leicester or traces of its blood cannot be found . It hastens maturity and ameliorates the fattening properties of all varieties with which it is crossed. The Leicester is quiet, docile, moderately

white, but sometimes grey or spotted, well woolled on the crown, with long curling locks hanging down the face. The neck is long and thick , the top line from shoulder to tail -head is long, broad, and level, with great covering of flesh

hardy, not very prolific, the wool being and fat; ribs well sprung; under line often slightly irregular and deficient ; fine and fairly long. Plate 24, vol. ii., represents an im- the wool long, open, and curly, coarser proved ( 1890) Leicester Ram . in the staple than the Leicester, but COTSWOLDS.

heavier per fleece. Hoggets often reach or exceed 14 lb., and whole flocks, young and old, exceed an average of 7 lb. of

The Cotswolds are the largest and wool per head. There is frequently rather highest standing of the long - woolled

an excess of fat along the back ; but upon

breeds. Like the Leicesters, their anti- the carcass, in one place or another, there quity is well established. They have is a large percentage of lean meat of their home in the Cotswold Hills of fairly good quality. Gloucestershire, which they are known

Cotswolds fatten rapidly with good

to have inhabited in the days of Queen treatment, and weigh, when about twelve Elizabeth, when they were described as months old , from 22 lb. to 25 lb. per strong in the bone and long in the wool.

quarter.

Older sheep attain

great

Origin and Improvement.- In re- weights; sometimes as much as 70 lb. cent times the Cotswolds have been vastly improved in form and in feeding properties. No doubt this advance in character has been brought about mainly, if not wholly, by selection in breeding

per quarter, dead-weight. Plate 25, vol. ii., represents an im proved Cotswold Ram . LINCOLNS.

and better management. It is regarded as more than probable, however, that a The improved Lincoln breed is a suc slight infusion of Leicester blood may cessful blend of the Leicester and the

SOUTHDOWNS - SHROPSHIRES.

427

native sheep of the county. As wool- short wool, while a little soft wool on the producers they stand pre -eminent in cheeks is esteemed. The head backwards this country. Prior to about 1850 they should be closely woolled, the neck thick

were flat-sided, ungainly, slow -feeding and muscular, passing neatly into a wide sheep. Now, thanks to a judicious ad- cylindrical body, set on the shortest and mixture of Leicester blood, and to careful finest of legs.

They are as broad and as

breeding and management, they are well covered with flesh and fat below as vastly improved in form as well as in above, almost as wide behind as in front,

fattening properties ; while their wool and the Southdown leg of mutton is the production has in no way deteriorated . In the fairly rich pastures of their native districts no other breed can equal them as rent-paying sheep, and in recent years there has been a growing demand for Lincoln sheep, not only in other parts

thickest of any, and of course is also

comparatively short. The wool is close, fine, and short, weighing close on 4 lb. Southdowns mature more slowly than the long-woolled sheep, but have improved in this respect of England, but also in foreign countries. in recent years. The carcass of well-kept

They are hardy and wonderfully prolific, sheep from twelve to fourteen months old about 30 per cent of the ewes producing should weigh from 18 lb. to 20 lb. per twins, triplets being frequent, and now quarter. The amount of offal is less than andagain four lambs are dropped at one in any other breed, and they often yield

birth. The body of the Lincoln is smaller 65 per cent of dead-weight to live-weight. A modern Southdown Ram is repre

but more symmetrical than that of the

Cotswold, the back broad and firmly sented in Plate 26, vol. ii. fleshed, the ribs well sprung, the shoulder

deep and wide, neck thick , head pretty

SHROPSHIRES.

strong, with good legs of lean mutton. It matures at an early age, and the fleece,

The Shropshire breed of sheep has which is long and lustrous in the staple, surpassed all others in the march of pro often exceeds 20 lb.-indeed as much as gress. It is fast spreading throughout 26 %2 lb. of wool has been clipped from a the three kingdoms, and, excepting in fourteen-month sheep.

high-exposed localities, is found to be an

An improved Lincoln Ram is repre- excellent rent-paying race. The Shrop sented in Plate 30, vol. iii.

shire has been built up from the native sheep of the district from which it takes

SOUTHDOWNS.

its name, a dash of Southdown blood

having been employed by its earlier im

This breed justly holds the premier provers. For many years, however, it

in its purity, and and inter- has been maintained position amongst the shortIndeed, like the characteristics of the breed are clearly

mediate woolled varieties.

the Leicester amongst the long-woolled defined and well established. It may sheep, the Southdown has been the pio- perhaps be best described as a magnified

neer of the vast improvement which has Southdown, bigger all over, but par taken place in these useful races, most taking largely of the same features and of which have been benefited by a lesser properties. It is from to 5 lb. heavier per quarter, matures earlier, fleece nearly or greater infusion of Southdown blood.

Characteristics . — The Southdown is twice as heavy but not so fine, and is a small-sized, low-set sheep, bigger than little inferior in quality of meat. The

it looks, meat from head to heels, the face is darker, usually blackish brown, perfection of symmetry, fine in the bone, the head longer and thicker, and closely active, fairly precocious, and in quality covered with wool on the top.

of meat surpassing all other English varieties. In the times of Arthur Young 1 In some notes on improvement in sheep, and Youatt, speckled faces were the order in Divisional vol. ii. p. 362, reference 18 of the day. Now we will have none of made to the leremarkable Southdown ram * Royal Newcast . This fine sheep was bred 66

)

these. Any departure from a uniform and exhibited by Mr Edwin Ellis, Summers

tint, varying from brown to fawn, is dis- bury, Shalford , Surrey, and not by Mr J. J. liked.

The forehead is covered with fine

Colman, as there indicated .

S

BREED

428

OF FARM

LIVE STOCK .

Shropshire rams are now extensively give a good fleece, weighing on an average used for crossing purposes, the results from 6 lb. to 7 lb., shearling rams often being highly satisfactory. yielding asmuch as 20 lb. of wool. They An improved Shropshire Ram is repre- mature early, giving mutton of excellent sented in Plate 27, vol. ii.

quality, weighing 20 lb. per quarter when twelve to fourteen months old.

HAMPSHIRE DOWNS.

The face is dark in colour ; the body

thick and well proportioned, with a broad, Originating in a cross between the Old thickly padded back. The proportion of Wiltshire horned sheep and the Old lean mutton is comparatively large. Berkshire Knot with Southdowns, the

An improved Oxford Down Ram is

Hampshire Downs are now well estab- represented in Plate 28, vol. iii. lished as a valuable breed of sheep. The foundation was laid early in the present century, but it is only in recent years that the Hampshire Downs have attained

SUFFOLK SHEEP.

This is a variety of the Downs which

the great excellence which now dis- has been vastly improved since 1870. It tinguishes them .

is a hardy, active, profitable sheep,

A trifle heavier than the Shropshire, maturing early, excelling in the produc the improved Hampshire Downs are tion of lean meat. scarcely so symmetrical, being higher on In outward form the Suffolk sheep is the leg, and lighter in the underline, but not unlike the Hampshire, but more

exceptionally good along the back, which compact, and finer in the head. Its im is usually covered with lean meat in a provement is being promoted with com manner not equalled by any other breed mendable energy by its leading breeders, in the kingdom . They are big in the who have formed themselves into a society bone, head large, and a tritle coarse- for the purpose. looking, with strong Roman nose. Plate 31, vol. iii. represents an im

They have lately been much improved proved Suffolk Ram . both in form and in fattening properties, and they now attain great weights at an DEVON LONG -WOOLS. early age. Indeed , the precocity of Hampshire lambs has become quite reThis breed, which is a very favourite markable. The fleece is not heavy, from one in the Vale districts of North and 4 to 5 lb., but is of fine quality. East Devon, West Somerset, and some

Animproved Hampshire Down Wether parts of Cornwall, is a cross between the is represented in Plate 29, vol. iii. old Bampton variety and the Leicester, OXFORD DOWNS.

The Bampton was one of the native breeds of Devon , and was a middle

woolled sheep, but its alliance with the The Oxford Down is a successful blend Leicester gave length of staple and larger of the Hampshire and Cotswold breeds. quantity to the fleeces, so that the

It was founded before 1830, and is now variety has ever since been classified as

as firmly established in its own distinctive distinctly long-woolled. The history of features as either of the parent varieties. the ancient Bampton stock is lost in It has grown rapidly in public favour, obscurity. and is much esteemed both for rearing in From about 1820 to 1830 these sheep purity and for crossing purposes. It is still bore the name of Bamptons, although spreading throughout England, and is some were beginning to call them Devon making its way into Scotland, where Notts. The late Mr Andrew Hosegood Oxford Down rams are being very suc- recollected them at this period as having cessfully crossed with the mixed bred grey faces, and has left it on record that ewes of that country. “ they were very hardy, and excellent

In an admirable manner the Oxford for weight of mutton and wool.” As perties of the Hampshire with the wool- considered that it surpassed that of their

Downs combine the meat-producing pro- regards weight of carcass, Mr Hosegood

yielding qualities ofthe Cotswold. They descendants after more Leicester blood

!

DORSET HORNED SHEEP_BORDER LEICESTERS.

429

had been infused, although earlier ma- gives place to greensand, oolite, and turity and greater aptitude to fatten were

lias, and the pastures are less elevated

derived thereby. Wilson, writing on the and more productive, they have never

various breeds of sheep in the Journal of been displaced, nor indeed are likely to the Royal Agricultural Society for 1855, says of the Bampton variety : “ Like most of the old indigenous breeds of the county, it has gradually been displaced

be. In fact, since their great improve ment in grazing character, they have been preferred to either Southdowns or Hamp shires on many farms in the neighbour

by the improved breeds, and now it is hood of Dorchester and Puddletown

very difficult to find the pure Bampton having water meadows,and consequently unmixed with other blood, few only now have reconquered some of the territory remaining in Devon and West Somerset." won from them previously. Eastward,

There was an endeavour some years since to get the breed christened the Devon -Leicester, but Devon Long-wool is the appellation now generally applied,

throughout the Isle of Purbeck, probably there are at the present day more Dorset Horned flocks than existed half a century ago.

and much more uniformity of type is

Few breeds at the present day are pos

observable in sheep belonging thereto sessed of greater uniformity of type than now brought to the showyards than was the Horned race of Dorset and Somerset. The breed deserves to bear the name the case prior to 1870. DORSET HORNED SHEEP ,

of one county as much as that of the other, and in fact the sheep are often called Somerset Horns.

At any rate , the

The old type of this breed was native breeders of Somerset have brought it into to the Dorset hill district, and probably showyards more than those of the other the little Portlander was a branch of it.

county.

Mr Thomas Danger was for

While the latter is getting very scarce, many years the principal exhibitor, but the former of legitimate ancient type is during the past two decades it has been

now entirely extinct, the modern Dorset Mr Herbert Farthing . The flocks of both Horn being the progeny of a cross with are associated with the district between the Somerset Horn, which had a longer Taunton and Bridgewater.

bodyand larger size. Even when Claridge wrote his Survey of Dorset to the Board of Agriculture in 1793 this change had been wellnigh accomplished, for he re-

EORDER LEICESTERS.

Mr John Thomson contributes the fol

marked therein,-- " The original breed of lowing sketch of this valuable breed : Dorset sheep is very scarce to be met Historical. — The Border Leicester has with, as most of the farmers have crossed been known under that name for only a

their flocks with either Hants, Wilts, or comparatively short time — only since Somerset sheep, which certainly improved about 1860. them in size."

Before this, although its distinct characteristics had been glar

The Dorset hill country was the battlefield between the old Horned variety and the Southdowns in the last century. The latter always cropped the fine herb-

ingly apparent, it was classed along with the English sheep descended from the same source, and termed the Leices ter, or the Improved Leicester. The

age of the chalk hills better than their Border and the English Leicesters were competitors, but the contest chiefly bore so widely different in their form and

on the wool question. The fleece of the Southdown, although light, was of exceeding value, for the chief dependance of our cloth manufacturers for short wools

wool, that it became impossible they could compete satisfactorily in the same classes ; as the judges in the showyards, however carefully chosen , could not be

was either on that variety or on flocks of otherwise than biassed . When the ma

the Ryeland breed until the Australian jority happened to be breeders of the colonies became stocked with large merino English variety, the premiums went very

flocks. Ultimately they were driven off naturally, though none the less con the highest ranges of the chalk hills ; sistently and surely, to the type they but in Western Dorset, where the chalk favoured, and vice versa. If the judges

430

BREEDS OF FARM

LIVE STOCK.

were solely on one side, then a grave tups. So general was the breeze of im

injustice followed. The position became provement in sheep stock about that the more acute as in the course of time time that

it was computed no less than

the differences apparent in the two £ 100,000 were annually spent by Mid varieties widened ; and at length it was land agriculturists in procuring sires. found necessary to have distinct classes Large although this sum is, it is not for the variety under notice, which has altogether improbable, considering that since been known as the Border Leicester. in 1789 Bakewell received from £1000 So recentlyas 1868, all Leicesters, whether downwards for the season's use of a single ram . from the Midlands of England or the Border counties, were forced to compete

Such being the condition of sheep in the same classes at the shows of the breeding in the Midlands, it need not be Royal Agricultural Society ; but next marvelled at that agriculturists in far off year, at the Manchester meeting, they shires, even in these days of slow, tedious, were divided as in Scotland.

and imperfect communication, should Both varieties had their origin at have desired to share in the results which

Dishley, near Loughborough, where Mr others hadaccomplished. Robert Bakewell began to improve the

When Bakewell commenced his im

sheep he found around him in or about 1755. The precise method adopted by Bakewell is unknown, as a certainty. It is believed by some that he crossed the sheep of his shire of Leicester— " said to

provements, two brothers, George and Matthew Culley, were farming at Denton, not very far from Darlington. In 1762 and 1763, the brothers visited and be

came intimate with Bakewell, and from have been large coarse animals, with an Dishley they brought rams with which

abundance of fleece and a fair disposi- they crossed the native Teeswater sheep, tion to fatten ” —with other long-woolled which then stood in high favour as a breeds, probably possessing smaller long-woolled breed. Proceeding in this frames and more symmetrical propor- manner, they were not long in forming a Another and highly probable flock oftheir own, which was transferred theory is, that without going beyond to North Northumberland in 1767 — the

tions.

the sheep at his hand, he boldly adopted Hegira of the Culleys— when they took the farm of Fenton, near Wooler, and selected animals of close affinities, and subsequently Crookham Eastfield, on continuing this system as far as was Tillside, -Wark, on Tweedside, -as well

this material, and by breeding from

advisable, he managed to establish a as other farms in the district, until the distinct breed, whose main character- brothers paid an aggregate rental of istics were large yet symmetrical frames, £ 6000 a-year. After having bred in

carrying heavy flesh upon fine bone, North Northumberland for nearly forty decided aptitudeto fatten upon a mod- years, the Culleys retired in 1806, when erate quantity of food ; and capable of their sheep were sold out. Mr Robert Thomson, who, like one of being brought early to maturity, while bearing a fleece of large weight and the Culleys, had been a pupil with Bake superior quality.

well, also took a leading part in the in

To the writer it is evident that the

troduction of the breed . He farmed at

materials, whatever they may have been ,

Lilburn, and afterwards at Chillingham

which Bakewell used, must have been Barns ; and his flock, long known as one very plastic, since his improvements were of the very best on the Borders, was bred quick in displaying themselves. So early directly from Bakewell's. It was at Lil as 1760, he commenced letting his rams burn that the first sale by auction of for a guinea for the season's use. The Bakewell sheep took place in the north. reputation of the Dishley flock increased At Chillingham Barns, Mr Thomson held by “ leaps and bounds, ” rising to such a annual lettings, and there, in May 1814, pitch that twenty years after he com- his entire flock was dispersed. menced to let rams, Bakewell received

A part of Mr R. Thomson's flock

no less than £ 3000 in hire fees in a passed into the possession of Mr James single season . In 1789, it is stated that Thomson, Bogend, Duns, who had also he netted £6000 by the letting of his formerly obtained rams from the Culleys

BORDER LEICESTERS.

431

and it may

in 1802 , and for about thirty years to and from Chillingham Barns; be stated that this flock is still in exist- this date ( 1890) it has been entirely a ence, being now in the hands of Mr James self-supporting flock , not a single animal,

Thomson, Mungo's Walls, agrandson of male or female, being introduced from the tenant of Bogend.

Having been any other flock during all this time. It

bred by the Thomsons for upwards of a has consequently long been and still is a century, the Mungo's Walls flock forms matter for surprise and comment that

the most perfect connection between the the sheep have all through combined re time of Bakewell and the present day in markable constitutions, and large and It seems there

robust frames with unusual fertility ; at

were in Bakewell's flock two types of sheep, known as “ blue-caps ” and “ redlegs," the latter being much the hardier of the two ; and from what the writer

the same time being living evidences of the purest breeding, as shown in their blood-like heads, elegant forms, and stately and gracefulmovements. There

the history of the breed .

has been able to learn, Mr Thomson's can be no question that that at Mertoun sheep were of this hardier sort. is emphatically a self-supporting and

Rams from the flocks of the Culleys self-supported flock. and Mr Thomson must have been very

Rams from the Mertoun flock have for

early and very generally used in the district around them as well as north of the Tweed, since flocks had multiplied to a wonderful extent at the time of the dispersion of the Culley sheep. Whether

many years been keenly sought after by other breeders, and in 1890 Lord Pol warth's 30 shearling rams sold at Kelso

these other breeders obtained ewes of the

Characteristics.-As already stated,

brought within a few pence of £54 per head, one ram realising £155 .

improved breed or “ bred in ” from the there were two families in Bakewell's ordinary country stock with Dishley rams flock , the " blue-caps " and " red -legs."

it were now difficult to determine satis- Formerly “ blue-caps ” were pretty com factorily. Yet this question affects the mon on the Border, but for a long period purity of the breed in later times to a the “ red -legs,” owing to their greater grave extent, and certainly gives weight hardiness, have held possession. Their to the prevalent impression that there is representatives of the present day are much Cheviot blood in the Border Lei- admirably described by Mr John Usher, cester. It is next to an impossibility in The Border Breeds of Sheep, thus : that all of the Tweedside, Glendale, and “ The head of fair size, with profile “ Barmshire ” breeders could have ob- slightly aquiline, tapering to the muzzle,

tained their stock ewes and gimmers but with strength of jaw, and wide

from Thomson and the Culleys so quickly nostril; the eyes full and bright, showing and to the extent necessary to account both docility and courage ; the ears of for the size and number of the flocks in fair size and well set ; the neck thick at

1806. Besides, these pioneers were chary the base, with good neck vein, and tapering gracefully to where it joins the in parting with females. The subject is a difficult one to treat head, which should stand well up ; the

of satisfactorily, and is referred to here chest broad, deep, and well forward,

only in a suggestive way. One thing is descending from the neck in a perpen most evident : that flocks of “ improved dicular line ; the shoulders broad and Leicesters," whether pure - relative open, but showing no coarse points ; from

though the term may be or not, sprang where the neck and shoulders join to the up like the proverbial mushrooms in rump, should describe a straight line, North Northumberland, from which they the latter being fully developed in both quickly spread into Berwickshire and arms and thighs the flesh well let down Roxburghshire. to the knees and hocks ; the ribs well

The Mertoun Flock. As was aptly sprung from the backbone in a fine

stated of a famous herd of shorthorns, circular arch, and more distinguished by the history of the Mertoun flock is virtually the history of a breed. It was founded by Mr Hugh Scott of Harden , grandfather of the present Lord Polwarth,

width than depth, showing a tendency to carry the mutton high, and with belly straight, significant of small offal ; the legs straight with a fair amount of bone,

432

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

clean and fine, free from any tuftiness of sheep has a bluish grey or white face, wool, and of a uniform whiteness with often corded, and usually carries a tuft the face and ears. They ought to be of wool on the head (which keeps off the well clad all over, the belly not excepted , flies), while it is also woolled on the

with wool of a medium texture, with an shanks.

The skin is pink all over, while

open pirl, as it is called, towards the the wool is thick and curly. It is not end. In handling, the bones should be such a large-framed sheep as the Border all covered, and particularly along the Leicester, and is considerably shorter in back and quarters (which should be both neck and legs ; but it is much more

lengthy) there should be a uniform compact, wider through the heart, and covering of flesh , not pulpy, but firm heavier in front in proportion to its size. and muscular. The wool, especially on It is also a much deeper sheep ; at the the ribs, should fill the hand well.” same time it is “ baggy ” below , and has That Mr Usher's description is just as not that appearance of lightness of offal

a whole, will readily be conceded . How- which is the great feature of the Border ever, the present writer may be per- sheep. The bone, too, is finer, and from mitted to add to it a few observations, what the writer can remember of a repre not altogether unnecessary. He is quite sentative flock he saw a few months ago , well aware that many of the best sheep the amount of mutton carried, size con

in most flocks are occasionally flesh- sidered, is greater than that of the Border coloured in themuzzle, but it is regarded sheep. They seemed to one who all his as an evidence of hardiness to have it

life has been partial to Border Leicesters

perfectly black ; therefore in any general to lack style altogether, and the clipped description this point ought to be urged. sheep reminded forcibly of well-filled

The ears should be of moderate length, wine-skins in engravings of oriental and boldly set, but thickness, even at subjects ; but they fulfilled Bakewell's toast— " Small in size and great in value” ewes should be a disqualification. Again, -or, as their breeder characteristically the base, in shearling rams as well as in

the ear should neither be too much flesh- put it: “ What do I care about your coloured, nor blue nor purple. A darkish fancy heads, lugs, and style ? Look at --- not a brownish-skin, covered with the loads of mutton : that pay's the rent ! ” although black spots are not at all obExcept as ram -breeding flocks, Border fine white hair, is most to be preferred,

jectionable. Then the face should be Leicesters are not now kept to the same covered with short white hair ; and on extent as they formerly were ; the mutton

no account should there be any blueness. being too coarse in its texture, and the Corded or scored faces are specially to be fat too much of the consistence of tallow avoided in females and shearling rams. to be put to a profitable use, or please These are considerations of primary im- the palate. These are drawbacks to the portance. The legs, from where the wool general utility of a breed which has few ceases to grow, should be covered with rivals in reaching early maturity, and in short white hair; the “ cluits ” should producing the greatest weight of mutton be black, and thepasterns as upright as and wool in a given time. Its outstand possible. ing merit lies in its pre-eminent suita

The “ blue - caps ” of by - past times bility for crossing with other breeds, such have been described by the late Mr John as the Cheviot, Blackfaced , &c. The Grey, Dilston, as having “ blue faces, cross with the former is the most popular,

generally bare on the scalp, and red when lambed ; and when mature, easily broken by flies; on which account they were not favourites with the shepherds. They

the produce of the Border Leicester ram and the Cheviot ewe being termed a half bred . On most turnip and barley farms a stock of half -bred ewes are kept, which

were good feeders, but light of wool.” being again crossed with the Border It is evident what are now termed Eng- Leicester ram , produce three-parts-bred lish Leicesters are the representatives lambs. These quickly develop, and being

of this Bakewell family, although time fed at high pressure, are generally in the their butcher-market before they are a year old. has both modified and accentuated English

former

characteristics .

The

A modern Border Leicester Ram is

+

BLACKFACED SHEEP - CHEVIOTS.

represented in Plate 33, vol. iii.

A

433

CHEVIOTS.

typical Border Leicester Ewe is illus trated in Plate 32, vol. iii. BLACKFACED SHEEP.

Origin . — Northumberland was the

actual birthplace of the Cheviot, and is still largely inhabited by it. It was early introduced into the Border counties

Origin.— The origin of this ancient breed is obscured in antiquity. It is conjectured that it is not indigenous to Britain ; that it is of foreign origin , and was imported by one of the Scottish kings for the use of the royal house

of Scotland, and these may now be re garded as the principal stronghold of the breed. A greater area of suitable climate, altitude, grass and turnip -growing, and, it may be, greater energy on the part of farmers, have given to Scotland un

hold. We are inclined to believe, how- questionable superiority in the breeding ever, that it originated amongst the of Cheviots. Characteristics. The breed is natu mountains in the north of England and very hardy, and can subsist at an rally in Scotland. Be this as it may, the form and general independent bearing elevation suitable to only one other breed

of the sheep point it out as the native of high and stormy regions.

—the Blackface. The face and legs of the Cheviot are covered by short, wiry,

Differences in Type. — The influ- pure white hair, which extends over the ence of soil and climate on the quality of ear, and well back behind the head. In both wool and mutton is considerable, so

some instances the ram is horned ; in

marked, indeed, as to cause a variance, others he is hornless. His nose is highly not only in the type of sheep reared, but arched, nostrils black , and eyes dark, full, also in the system of management pur- and bright. The wool is moderately

sued . In the West of Scotland, for long and very close set- straight, and example, the prevailing type differs from free from kemp — covering equally and that in the central counties. It partakes well all parts of the body, including legs more of a parallelogram , so to speak, than down to the knees and hocks. The clip the Mid -Lothian sheep; has longer sides, and is altogether a bigger and rougher sheep . The sheep of the higher altitudes and of the far North , too, have certain peculiarities. They are lighter in type than the Lothian sheep, extremely hardy, and less disposed to fatten. These latter points are indispensable in the real mountain sheep . Amongst the Famous Flocks.

of wool, which is generally shorn early in July , runs from 3 to 4/2 lb. per head. In its wealth of. mutton, the Cheviot outweighs the Blackface. Wethers from the hills, three years old, killed and dressed, scale from 70 to 80 lb. ; while others a year younger, if fed on turnips, usually attain about the same weight. Cast ewes are purchased by Lowland farmers for crossing purposes. They pioneer improvers of the blackfaced are mated with Lincoln, Border Lei breed, the more noted are Mr Howatson

cester, or Wensleydale rams, the result

of Glenbuck , Messrs Archibald, Overshiels, and MrFoyer, Knowhead, Campsie. The celebrated Glenbuck stock is perhaps the oldest in the country. It has possessed a well -earned reputation for

of which is a half-bred stock now ex tensively fed on the lower arable farms in Scotland. Improvement of the Breed. - To look back upon ancient sketches of the

upwards of a century. It has been Cheviot sheep which we find occasionally distinguished for superiority of blood in historical books, affords one acquainted and excellence of type. The celebrated with the existing class of stock a pretty Overshiels flock is also a reliable and good idea of the great strides that have much -prized source of pure blood . been made in the improvement of breed. Blackfaced sheep are unequalled for Without some such data, indeed, it would

hardiness, and as rent-paying stock for be almost impossible to suppose so much the great part of Scotland they are su- really good work had been done. In perior to all other breeds.

the counties of Northumberland , Berwick,

A famous Blackfaced Ram is repre- Roxburgh, Selkirk, Haddington, Dum sented in Plate 34, vol. iii. VOL. III .

fries, and Sutherland, attention has been 2 E

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

434

effectually directed to the amelioration of

SWINE.

the breed. The best flocks are to be met with in the neighbourhood of the Borders,

It might be thought to be impossible to draw up a scale of points which would compactly built Cheviot reigns supreme. be strictly applicable to the whole of the Foremost among its promoters have been many improved varieties of pigs. Per where the smaller but thicker and more

the Robsons of Northumberland, the haps this view is a correct one, yet we Elliots of Roxburgh and Selkirk, and think it may be possible to sketch the Mr Brydon of Kennelhead. The stock shown by the Robson brothers at the leading agricultural shows in recent years have been exceedingly creditable. The Hyndhope stock , so long associated with

points of a useful pig according to the ideas of the producer, of the fattener of the pig, and of the butcher and the bacon curer, all of whom have to study the wants or fancies of the consumer. At all

the name of Elliot, is about the oldest in

events the attempt was made some few

Scotland, and contains the finest strains years since by Mr Sanders Spencer when of blood. They are of the small-sized he was Honorary Secretary of the close-woolled sort, which for hill pasture

National Pig Breeders' Association. This

is considered superior to the heavier scale of points was adopted by the sheep with opener skins reared in Dum- Council, as were the more precise de scriptions of the points sought for in An improved Cheviot Ram is illus- those breeds of pigs, the pedigrees of

friesshire.

which are recorded in the herd -book.

trated in Plate 35 , vol. iii.

We give the scale, and we have also taken the description as a foundation for our

ROSCOMMON SHEEP .

remarks upon the six principal varieties The Roscommon is, as already indi- of pigs — namely, Berkshires, Small cated, the only variety of sheep in Ire- Blacks, Large Whites, Middle Whites, land dignified by the title of breed.

It

Small Whites, and Tamworths.

is a native race, improved by selection Points of the Different Breeds.

and by the infusion of Leicester blood . Large in size and often somewhat un

Points. 10

gainly in form , the Roscommon sheep Neck Head muscular wide and and deeprather , lower jaw sprung

are extensively reared in Connaught, Shoulders widebut not openlong

5 .

10

where they hold a good name as rent- Fore legs straight and well placed out

paying stock . The fleece is long, heavy, side the body and of good quality . Ribs well sprung and deep

7 .

WEIGHTS OF SHEEP.

I2

8

Loin wide, not slack Flanks deep and full

7

Quarters long and straight from hip to tail

13

It may be interesting to give here the Hamswide, with meat down to the

following figures showing the live-weights

hocks

IO

of wethers and lambs of the leadingEng. Hindlegs placed well outside and not hsh breeds of sheep exhibited at the

too much under the body Bone

coarse

flat and not Smithfield Fat Stock Show in December Hair long and silky, but without mane 1886, the heaviest pens being selected in or bristles along the neck and each case, and the weights being the shoulders

á 7

average for the three animals in each Total

.

100

pen : Lambs over 12 and Lambs 9 to under 24 months. 10 months.

Leicester Cotswold

Lincoln Southdown

Shropshire Hampshire Oxford Suffolk

To the foregoing general standard may

lb.

lb.

be added the following distinctive char

273 322 312 214 254 282 277

154 194 193 181

acteristics : Berkshires. - Colour, black, except feet and

290

tip of tail , which should be white, and white Fair quantity

143

blaze or mark down the face .

233

of hair of fine quality. Skin without rucks or

183

lines.

179

Blacks . --Colour, black .

Head and body

BERKSHIRES_LARGE WHITE BREED.

slightly longer than Small Whites ; other points similar.

435

six months old those long, deep-sided, lean-fleshed carcasses of 160 lb. weight,

Large Whites.—Colour, white, occasionally which the present tastes of the public with blue spots on the skin, but without black hair.

Head rather long, wide between the

and the bacon-curer demand .

ears, which should be inclined forward. Size, if accompanied by quality, of great importance. Middle Whites. — Colour as above.

LARGE WHITE BREED .

Head

shortened and ears pricked. Body generally

These qualities are most commonly found associated with pigs of the Large Small Whites. -Colour, white without blue White breed, or, as the best of them are spots. Head short, jowls heavy, ears pricked. now being called in Canada and in several

more compact, on shorter legs. dant and silky.

Hair abun

Body short, thick, wide, and close to the foreign countries, Improved Yorkshires. ground. Tail fine. Hair abundant, silky and long, not curly.

Skin thin and free from

The colour of these should be white, but on some of the best of the successful

scurf.

Tamworths. — Colour -- red with dark spots show pigs of some ten or fifteen years on the skin ; other points as near as possible since blue spots on the skin were by no approaching the general standard .

means infrequent.

This did not neces

sarily prove that a cross of the Berk shire or of some other breed had been

BERKSHIRES.

introduced, for the purest bred of the Berkshires have undergone consider. Large White pigswere not free from the able changes in recent years both in

discoloration in the skin.

their formation

open secret that some exhibitors were

and

in

their colour.

But it is an

Within the last forty years many of believed to have a liking for the more the best pigs of the breed were black, compact Berkshire or the Middle White with white or sandy spots, long and -a longing to get the broad backs, short

deep in the body , which was well heads, and heavy jowl which unfortu

covered with rather strong hair ; the nately for pig-breeders were at that time, head was long, the jowls light, and the and even sometimes now are, in great ears pricked .

favour with a certain set of judges, who

The Berkshire breed appears to have place a higher value on symmetry than been the first to be taken in hand by on utility. wealthy men and connoisseurs to be imThese blue spots are far less frequent proved, and from this process has evolved now than formerly, and will eventually the present type, which may be de- be bred out.

scribed as a black pig, barring a white star or shine on the forehead, white feet as far as the ankles, and having a white tip to the tail ; the head comparatively short, the jowls and shoulders heavy, the ribs well sprung, carcass deep, loin wide, and the hind quarters well developed, just

The head of the LargeWhitepig should be of fair length, the lower jaw nearly straight, the jowls, neck, and shoulders light, the forehead broad, the ears pro portionately large and inclined forward, not so heavy as to deserve to be termed lop ears, which cover the eyes and render

the form of a pig to supply prime joints the pig to all intents and purposes blind ; of small pork , such as bring the highest the legs should be straight and placed prices in the London market, where the well outside the body, thebone not being pigs are termed London porkets, and coarse and round, the ribs deep and well should weigh not more than 70 to 80 lb.

sprung, loin fairly wide and not slack,

It is also admirably suited for exhibi- quarters long and square, and hams wide tion at our fat stock shows, as a Berk- and deep. Soft hair, and plenty of it,

shire will stand almost any amount of indicates early maturity and lean meat, forcing and cramming without losing its the two great essentials. form .

Having these valuable and much sought-after qualities, it can scarcely be

MIDDLE WHITE BREED .

Middle White pigs should possess all expected that a Berkshire is so well suited for the present demand for pigs the good points of the Large White, but which mature early, and yet furnish at altogether on a smaller scale, with heads

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

436

shorter, ears more erect, hair finer and

OTHER BREEDS.

in greater quantity, bone finer and legs There are various other local breeds, such as the newly named Oxfordshire

shorter. SMALL WHITE BREED .

pigs, which have for fifty years been bred in

Northamptonshire, Leicestershire,

Some go so far as to say that the Buckinghamshire, and Oxfordshire. They Middle White pig should be an en are evidently a cross of the White, the larged Small White. From this we are Black , and the Sandy or Tamworth inclined to differ, as the latter does not breeds, and they are very prolific and

at the present time appear to satisfy the make capital scavengers, and furnish good requirements of the farmer or the bacon- carcasses of meat, but they require more curer : the body is too small and too short, time for development. and the proportion of lean to fat too Typical pigs of the Large White and small. A well-bred Small White is a Berkshire breeds are represented in Plate handsome pig : its short snout, profusion

36, vol. iii. ; of the Middle White and

of silky hair, fineness of bone, high Tạmworth breeds in Plate 37, vol. iii. ;

quality, and docility of disposition are and of the Small Black and Small White to be admired ; but the current demand varieties in Plate 38, vol. iii. is for something more useful even if less ornamental.

SHEEP DOGS.

SMALL BLACK BREED.

The collie dog is well entitled to men tion amongst the live stock of the farm .

The Small Black is very much after the same style as the Small White, except that the colour is a whole black , the hair less profuse, and perhaps the carcass somewhat longer. Itis nevertheless much liked in some of the Eastern

It is a faithful and worthy servant, abso lutely essential upon sheep farms. The natural temper of the shepherd

may be learned from the way in which he works his dog among sheep. When you observe an aged dog making a great

and South-Western counties . In parts noise, bustling about in an impatient manner, running fiercely at a sheep and turning it quickly, biting at its ears and legs, you may conclude, without hesita tion, that the shepherd who owns it is a claimed by the followers of this system man of hasty temper. Most young dogs that the sun affected the skin of the exhibit these characteristics naturally,

of the counties of Cambs, Essex , and Suffolk , it used to be a very common practice to run these black pigs on the clovers during the summer, and it was black less than that of the white pig. TAMWORTH PIGS.

and they generally overdo their work ;

and if you observe a shepherd allowing a young dog to take its own way, you may conclude that he also is a man of hasty

The Tamworth is a red pig, with occa- temper or careless of his flock . If you sional black spots, and is one of the observe another shepherd allowing his oldest varieties in the country. By dog, whether old or young, to take a judicious mating and infusion of alien range round the fences of a field, driving blood the Tamworth has been improved, the sheep as if to gather them, you may the nose has been considerably shortened, be sure he is a lazy fellow, more ready and the body lengthened and made to make his dog bring the sheep to him deeper, the legs are shorter and the than he to walk his rounds to see them . Great harm may accrue to sheep by ears longer, whilst the colour of the hair and skin is lighter, and quality working dogs in these ways. Whenever Considerable numbers were ex-

sheep hear a dog bark that is accustomed

ported to the bacon -curers in Denmark, Germany, and Sweden ; but the improvement to the native pigs was not marked, so that the foreign demand has fall aw

to hound them every day, they will in stantly start from their grazing, gather together, and run to thefarthest fence, and a good while will elapse ere they will settle again. And even when sheep

finer.

en

ay .

SHEEP DOGS.

are gathered , a dog of high travel, and

437

In short, a thoroughly good shepherd

allowed to run out, will drive them hither only lets his dog work when its ser and thither, without an apparent object. vices are actually required, he bestow

This is a trick practised by lazy herds ing his own labours ungrudgingly, and every morning when they first see their only demanding assistance from his dog flock, and every evening before they take when he cannot do it so well by him up their lair for the night, in order to self ; and at no time will he allow

count them with whathe deems the least his dog to go beyond the reach of his trouble to himself. When a dog is al- immediate control. Dogs, thus gently

lowed to run far out, it gets beyond the and cautiously trained, become very sa control of the shepherd ; and such a style gacious, and will diligently visit every of working among wether sheep puts part of a field where sheep are most apt them past their feeding for a time: with to stray, and where danger is most to be

ewes it is very apt to cause abortion ; apprehended — such as a weak part of a and with lambs, after they are weaned, fence, water -runs, deep ditches, or deep it is apt to overheat them, induce pal- furrows into which sheep may possibly pitation and a considerable time will fall and lie awalt or awkward - on the

elapse before they recover their natural broad of their back, unable to get up Whenever a sorting takes and which they will assist to raise up by place among sheep, with such a dog they seizing the wool at one side and pulling

breathing

will be moved about far more than the sheep over upon itsfeet. Experienced necessary ; and intimidated sheep , when dogs will not meddle with ewes having worn into a corner, are far more liable to lambs at foot, nor with tups, being well break off than those treated in a gentle aware of their disposition to offer resist manner .

When

you ordinarily hear at a ance.

They also know full well when

distance a great noise from the dog among foxes are on the move, and give evident the sheep, you may depend upon it the symptoms of uneasiness on their approach shepherd is not the man that is fit for to the lambing-ground. They also hear your service. footsteps of strange persons and animals A judicious herd works his dog in quite at a considerable distance at night, and a different manner . He never disturbs announce their approach by unequivocal the sheep when he takes his rounds signs of uneasiness by whinging and rest

amongst them at morning, noon, and lessness, aware that noisy sounds would night - his dog following at his heel as alarm the sheep. A shepherd's dog is if he had nothing to do, but ready to incorruptible, cannot be bribed with a

fulfil its duty should any untoward cir- bite of food, and will not permit even a cumstance arise, such as breaking out of known friend to touch it or its charge

one field into another. When he gathers when intrusted with an act of duty. Varieties of Collies . — There are, we sheep for sorting, or catching a particular one, the gathering is made in a corner,to believe, at least two varieties of the

gain which he will give the sheep plenty sheep -collie, --one smooth, short-haired, of time, making the dog wear to the right black on the back, white on the belly, and left, to direct the sheep quietly to breast, feet, and tip of tail, with tan

the spot; and after they are gathered, he coloured spots on the face and legs ; the makes the dog watch, and, with an occa- other larger and longer-bodied, having sional movement, prevent any sheep long rough hair of different colours,

breaking away.

When a sheep does patched or intermixed, and long flowing

break away, and must be turned, he does tail.

Fig. 774 is a portrait of the rough

not allow the dog to bite it, or even to haired clays on the watch. In their re bark, but to give a bound against its spective characters we conceive them to head , and thus turn it.

In turning a be very like the pointer and the setter.

blackfaced wether in this way, the dog runs the risk of receiving injury from its horn, to avoid which it seizes the coarse wool of the buttock, and hangs on by it like a drag, until the sheep turns round, when it lets go.

The small smooth kind, like the pointer, is very sagacious, slow, easily trained, and admirably suited to work in an enclosed low country among Leicester sheep ; the other, like the setter, is more swift, bold, ill to break, requiring coercion , and fitter

438

BREEDS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

for work on the hills among Blackfaced sheep. Our liking is to thesmooth -haired, and we like to hear both kinds named collie. The white tip on the point of the

truth be said of the sagacity and faith fulness of the collie. Suffice it to give a few sentences, which we know to con tain correct information. “ If he be

tail is a sure mark of true breeding.

but with his master," observes Youatt,

Training Collies.— Most shepherds “ he lies content, indifferent to any sur

profess to train young collies, wherein rounding object, seemingly half asleep many display much ignorance of the and half awake, rarely mingling with nature of the breed, and of the apti- his kind, rarely courting, and generally tude of the particular individual for its shrinking from the notice of a stranger. peculiar work ; and hence many dogs are

unfit for useful service.

But the moment duty calls, his sleepy

Every collie- listless eye becomes brightened, he eagerly

pup has a natural instinct for work gazes on his master, inquires and com amongst sheep ; nevertheless, they should prehends all he is to do, and , springing be trained with an old dog. Their ar- up, gives himself to the discharge of his duty with a sagacity and fidelity and devotiontoo rarely equalled even by man himself.” “ If we consider," says Buffon, “that this animal, notwithstanding his

ugliness and melancholy look, is superior in instinct to all others ; that he has a decided character, in which education has comparatively little share ; that he is the

only animal born perfectly trained for the service of others ; that, guided by natural powers alone, he applies himself to the care of our ocks - a duty which he executes with singular assiduity, vigilance, and fidelity ; that he conducts

Stuu

them with an admirable intelligence, which is a part and portion of himself ; that his sagacity astonishes at the same

time that it gives repose to his master, while it requires great time and trouble to instruct other dogs for the purposes to

Fig. 774.-- Shepherd's dog or collie.

dent temperament requires subduing, and which they are destined ; if we reflect on there is no more effectual way of doing these facts, we shall be confirmed in the this than keeping it in company with an opinion that the shepherd's dog is the

experienced dog . A long string attached true dog of nature, the stock and model to the pup's neck , in the hands of the of his species.”

shepherd, is necessary to make it become

The ugliness ascribed to the appear

acquainted with the language of the ance of the shepherd's dog by Buffon various evolutions connected with work. is only applicable to the shepherd's dog With this contrivance it may learn to —we cannot call it a collie - in Conti "hold away out by," "come in, come nental countries, for a more handsome

in behind ," " lie down,” “ be quiet," and beautiful dog than our collie cannot “ bark," " get over the dyke,” 'wear, be seen anywhere. “ The shepherd's “ heel," " kep.” It will learn all these dog,” remarks Graguier, “ the least re 66

terms, and others, in a short time.

It is moved from the natural type of the dog,

said the bitch is more acute in learning than the dog , though the dog will bear the greater fatigue. Of the two, I believe the quietly disposed shepherd prefers the bitch, and is chary of working her when

lives and maintains its proper charac teristics while other races often degene rate. Everywhere it preserves its proper distinguishing type. It is the servant of man, while other breeds vary with a

in pup .

thousand circumstances.

It has one ap

Sagacity of the Collie . — A volume propriate mission, and that it discharges would not contain what might with in the most admirable way ; there is

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

439

evidently a kind and wise design in this. "

Neither hunger, fatigue, nor the worst

The Ettrick Shepherd truly says that “ a

of treatment will drive him from his

single shepherd and his dog will accom- side, and he will follow him through plish more, in gathering a flock of sheep every hardship without murmur or re " 1 from a Highland farm , than seventy pining.” shepherds could do without dogs ; in fact, In the course of some conversation re that, without this docile animal, the lating to dogs, Governor Anderson of pastoral life would be a blank. It would Ohio related a Texan practice in training require more hands to manage a flock of dogs with sheep. A pup is taken from sheep, gather them from the hills, force itsmother before its eyesare opened, and them into houses and folds, and drive put with a ewe to suckle. After a few

them to markets, than the profits of the times the ewe becomes reconciled to the whole flock would be capable of maintain- pup, which follows her like alamb, grows ing. Well may the shepherd feel an up among and remains with the flock ; interest in his dog : he it is indeed that and no wolf, man, or strange dog can earns the family bread, of which he is come near the sheep ; and the dog will

himself, with the smallest morsel, always bring the flock to the fold regularly at

grateful and always ready to exert his half-past 7 o'clock P.M. if you habitually utmost abilities in his master's interests.

feed him at that time.

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK. It is not presumed that the farmer arrives. The information necessary for should become so familiar with veterinary these purposes will be found, carefully

science as to be able to dispense with classified, in the following treatise, com the occasional services of the professional piled by G. H. C. Wright, LL.B.;

Veterinary Surgeon. The farmer, how- edited by F. Tonar, M.R.C.V.S. - third ever, should unquestionably know enough edition, revised and extended by a Fellow of the Royal College of Veter

of the ailments which afflict his live stock

to enable him to recognise the symptoms inary Surgeons, who is one of the most

experienced and trusted members of

of each when he sees them, and also to

successfully treat those of the more the veterinary profession.

For

the

simple kind, as well as to decide when use here of this treatise we are in the veterinary surgeon should be sent debted to the proprietor of the “ Farm for, and what had best be done until he ing World. ' SUBJECTS. PAGE

SWINE

RECIPES

Abortion (cows ) (ewes ) Abrasion, an Abscesses . Acute founders

470

485 .

490

(cattle)

490

staggers

or

(horse) (sheep)

482

(horse ) . of the tongue 230 Aprioritation 449

water. See Red water 479

Bladder, inflammation of . neck of

442

.

472

Bastard strangles 448 472 452 | Black leg. See Anthrax 472 quarter. See Anthrax 472 486

(sheep) (swine)

489 Arsenic - poisoning (horse) 463 ( cattle )

466 475 pneumonia Administration of medicine 195

Afterbirth

(horse )

493 Apoplexy, 480

PAGE

PAGE

442 Anthrax, or splenic fever

HORSES CATTLE SHEEP

stone in the

485 Bladders, tongue 459 | Bleeding ( horse) 479 (cattle)

457 457 459 449 453 479

from the nose (horse) 448 485 Back sinews, sprain of the 464 Blindness . weak . 469 490 Blistering. See Firing racking 497 Bandaging. See Note in rupture of suspensory ligament 462 .

1 Youаtt On the Dog, 59-64.

Blood , staling of striking . See Anthrax

(cattle) . - (swine)

.

459 472

490

AILMENTS OF FARM

440 Bloody flux.

See Dysen-

450 Fever , scarlet Cough, chronic (horse) mud . 473 (cattle) 480 puerperal Cow -pox swine Cracked heels. See Grease 461 492 simple Cramp Crib -biting 450 Firing Cud, loss of 478 Fistulous withers Curb . 460 | Fits. See Epilepsy

481 463 462 455

460

442

456 456 476 485

Diabetes inflammation of the (horse) 442 Diarrhea (horse) 470 486

water on the

Braxy, or sickness

.

Broken knees horns wind .

487 460

492

452

469 455 443

463 Flatulent colic (horse)

.

(cattle)

465 482

.

Bog -spavin Bone-spavin Bots . Bowels, inflammation of 456 the (horse ) (cattle) 477 Cut, speedy twist of the 457 Cutting Brain fever

453

.

476

tery milk

LIVE STOCK.

(cattle )

(calves) ( sheep )

487 491 471

(swine)

- (cattle) Flooding after calving Flukes in the liver Foaling Fomentations Foot, contraction of the

455 476

480 478 457 495 .

inflammation of the weakness of the

403

rot (cattle) 471 Dishorning 450 Dislocation of the stifle . (sheep) t and-mouth disease Foot 465 join 451 ribs h(orse) (cattle ) 451 Bronchitis (horse) 450 Distemper: 474 Docking 498 ( cattle ) (sheep) Bull-burnt,'or ciap 480 Dropping after calving. (swine) 482 Foreign bodies in the See Puerperal fever Dropsy of the chest Calculus. See Stone in the 451 paunch . womb 482 Foul. See Foot Rot . bladder (horse ) 459 477 | Founders, acute belly · 487 ( sheep ). 485 chronic Calf-bed , falling down of Dunt. See Staggers : the Fractures 480 Dysentery or bloody flux of the skuli 456 cial diseases of : 484 (horse ) ves, spe Cal 477 nose and jaw ( cattle) . See Parturition . 480 Calving Cancer of the 488 tongue (sheep) saddle Galls, 471 (cattle) .

Canker

466 Elbow , capped .

Capped hocks

460 460 497 445

elbow

Castration , Cataract

Enemas (injections) | Enlarged knees . | Enlargement of the hock Erysipelas.

malignant.' See Mur: Catarrhal fever. See Dis : rain

temper .

wounds in the

489 475

Chronic cough constipation founder

Clap, or bull -burnt Cleansing , removing :

•

.

.

456

445 448

485

Grain -sick .

477

445

461

- (cattle) 447 Grogginess

477

471

461

Growth on the eyeball

472

446 | Gullet, stricture of the

of the

or ophthalmia ( horse )

446

( cattle)

471

455

Gut tie

478

Hard udder

481

447 Haw , thickening of the

warts on the

467

Heart disease

480 Falling down of the calf-

Heaving

482

4-17

Grease

inflammation of the, 492 450

bed

480

417 454

See Parturition

fever

Coffin -joint, sprain of the : 464 False quarter Cold , common (horse) ( cattle)

466 Hefting, or overstocking 451 | Hide-bound 451 Farcy 473 Fardel-bound or costiveness 476 Hip knocked down

Colic or gripes (horse)

455 Feet, pumiced 470

(cattle)

Hatulent (horse) simple (cattle) spasmodic (horse) Constipation (horse ) . ( cattle )

(calves )

(sheep ) Consumption

.

455

tism (cattle)

455

456 476 484 487 473

.

See Staggers

(sheep ) Fetlock , sprain of the

464 Hoose or husk (cattle)

Fever

: catarrhaltory inflamma

452 451

.

See

Anthrax

milk . See Puerperai

.

sprain of Hock , enlargement of the . 483 Hocks, capped Hog cholera. See Swine fever 485 467

Felon chine. See Rheuma

476 | Fern - sick .

.

454

481

450 Eyelids, tumour or itching

fever

443

446 Gripes. See Colic (horse). 455

(horse)

Chest, dropsy of Choking ( horse ) ( cattle )

Cholera, hog. See Swine

443

Garget ( cattle ) (sheep) Gargle. See Murrain

460

446 Grass staggers

(cattle)

472

476 483 466 467 461

483

491

449

Cattle plague,or rinderpest 472 451

486

405 487

inflammation of the 451

474

491

wind . Gall-stones

443 Goggles. See Staggers

475 Epilepsy gor fits . Extractin teeth 475 Eye, glass.

483 489

460 496

Glanders c catarrh . See 473 Epidemi Catarrh. See Cold (cattle) 486 Influenza 475 | Glass eye (sheep) epidemic . See In and acute pneumonia 475 Gleet,nasal a

fluenz

466 466

( sheep) (swine)

Hoove orhove (cattle) ( sheep ) Horns, broken 482 Hyan . See Anthrax 472

489 481 469 462 464 400 400

492 474

486 491 477

488 471

Contraction of the foot Contu sed wounds

466 463

Convulsions

491

parturition

489

Corns

466

rheumatic .

450 Impaction of the paunch . 477

splenic

452 | Incised wounds .

Costiveness or fardel-bound 476

fever

472

463

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK. 441

Inflammation of the bladder 457 | Lockjaw or tetanus (cattle) 470 | Pulse neck of the bladder

.

bowels ( horse) ( cattle) brain (horse ) (cattle) eye (horse) (cattle) eyelids (horse) ( cattle)

457

( sheep )

jugular vein

477

“ Louping-ill " or trembles 485 Purpura

442

Lumbago.

467 463 453

See Rheuma

483 Quarter, false 466 felon. See Anthrax . 472 446 Lungs, inflammation of the . See ill Anthrax 471 472 453 ( horse) . 446 475 Quittor ( cattle) 467 471 486 Quinsy ( sheep) 473 466 492 (swine) tism

Rabies.

kidneys (horse)

453 457

( cattle) liver horse )

478 | Madness or rabies 458 Maggots. See Vermin

478 (cattle) 488 ( sheep) a moni s lung or pneu 453 (horse) (cattle) 475 ep (she ) 486 (swine) 492 muscles of the neck 454 stomach (horse ) . 457

fourth(cattle)

.

477

Mad staggers Malignant catarrh sore throat Mallenders

See Garget 481 489

(cattle )

( sheep)

482 Rinderpest. plague 465 Ringbone

fever

Mud - fever Murrain

449 .

446 499 450

.

462

.

See Cattle

475 Ringworm (horse)

.

.

467 469 484 454

488 489 464

470 Rot, foot (sheep )

Nettle -rash or surfeit

483 492 479 490

472

.

(cattle) 459 Roaring

448 Round bone, sprain of 467 Rupture of suspensory ligament 498 462

Navicular jointdisease Nursing the sick .

461

Saddle galls

454

476 Ophthalmia (horse )

446 Sallenders and mallenders

462

(cattle ) 409 Opticnerve, palsy of the

471 Sand -crack

468

446 | Scab .

490 453

493

Over - reaching

Itching or tumour of the

446 Overstocking or hefting

Jaundice or yellows (horse) 458 Palsy or paralysis 478 of the optic nerve - ( cattle) 488 Paralysis. See Palsy (sheep ) Joint-ill. * See Anthrax lower lip 472 Paralysis oftong ue of the Jugular vein, inflammation

of .

444

.

Mercury -poisoning 479 Rhododendron -poisoning Rickets Milk -fever. See Puerperal

or epidemic catarrh 475 Open joints ( cattle)

.

(cattle) ( swine)

492 .

485 | Rot

451

479

483 Rheumatism (horse )

cattle) ( les

472 Nasal gleet

Inoculation Intestinal worms Itch . See Mange

495

Removal of the eyeball

458 Navel rupture .

Influenza. See Distemper ( horse)

( sheep) Red water .

481 | Navel ill See

Anthrax

(cattle)

445 493 494

462 Respiration 469 Rheumatic fever

Mange (horse)

Meas (swine) . Megrims

See Madness

442 | Recipes ( horse) . 44+ 490 475 492

488 Mouth , wounds in

(sheep)

eyelids .

Punctured wounds

.

.

womb (mare) (cow) . Inflammatory fever.

Puniced feet

478

Loss of cud

470

foot

udiler.

499

485

456

453

cattle

Parturition or foaling

.

467

Scarlet fever

481 Scrotal rupture .

459

Seedy toe .

408 498

445 Setoning

446 Sheep ticks. See Vermin : 445 449

Shoulder-slip sprain of

449

sore

490

464 464 454

470 Sickness. See Braxy

487 468

457 | Side -bones

482 Simple colic 476 or calving . Kidneys, inflammation of 489 Sitfasts the ( horse ) 457 fever . 455 478 | Peritonitis . See InflamSkull, fracture of (cattle) 443 mation of the bowels Small -pox, sheep 460 Knees, broken 487 458 Sole, pricks and wounds in enlarged 483 ( horse) Knee -tied . 462 Pink eye. ' See Distemper the 467 451 Sore teats : 483 ( horse) Lacerated wounds 450 454 463 Pleurisy throat (horse) 473 Lameness 475 492 Pleuro -pneumonia (cattle ) ia See Inflam 447 Pneumon . malignant (swine) 492 Lampas mation of the lungs Sore shoulders Lead poisoning 454 459 shins . 464 453 (cattle) 479 (horse). ic colic epidemic and acute 475 Spasmod 455 465 Legs , swelled 475 Spavin , bone Lice (horse) 402 469 (cattle) bog 486 463 483 (sheep) (cattle ) 498 (sheep) Spaying 458 490 Poison (horse ) 478 Speedy cut ( swine) 463 - (cattle) 493 454 Splenic fever. See An Poll evil Ligament,rupture of the .

.

suspensory

Liver, intlammation of the (horse )

- ( cattle) (sheep) flukes

462

Polypus Poultices

448

thrax

452

497 Splint 458 Pregnancy, time of 499 Sprain of the back sinews 478 Pricks or wounds in the sole 467 coffin - joint fetlock 459 488 | Protrusion of the anus

463

478

464

rectum

Lockjawor tetanus (horse) 443 Puerperal or milk fever

492

482

round bone shoulder

.

464 464 464 464

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

442

465 Tetanus. Sprain of the stifle- joint (horse) See Apoplexy Staggers. 442 Tetanus . (horse) (sheep) 485 (cattle)

See

.

(grass)

mad (horse ) .

Staling of blood Stifle-joint, sprain of the dislocation of the

Stomach , inflammation of ( horse ) .

(sheep) fourth' (cattle)

455 Weak back . See Rickets . 490 447 Weakness of the foot 468

465

(cattle)

450 White skit 473 | Whites

( swine)

492

Thrush in the mouth

468

477

String-halt Sturdy

water

479

on the brain

486

465 Whistling and wheezing

Throat, sore (horse)

457

488

.

.

Wind , broken

450 455

470 Wind -galls

465 455

468 Womb, inflammation of the 449 449

- paralysis of amputation of

449

449 | Worms (horse ) intestinal (swine)

--- cancer of the

458 481 482

(mare) (cow ). dropsy of the .

471

455 Trembles or “ louping-ill" 485 Wounds (horse) 465 Trichinosis (cattle) 493 contused 485 Tumours on theudder 489 483

Surfeit (horse ) (swine)

470 492

Suspensory ligament, rupture of

Swelled legs Swine- fever

Teats, sore warts on

Teeth, diseases of Teething cough . Temperature

in the brain

442

of the eyelids

446 462 485

(horses ) Turn -sick .

462 Twist of the bowels 465 Udder, hard 492 Udder, inflammation

463 463 463 463 467

incised

of the coronet in the eye .

481

mouth sole

.

449 449

483

489

tongue Yellows.

447 449

467

of

483 481

tumours on the Urine , suppression of 499 | Vermin

punctured . lacerated

457

the. ' See Garget ( cattle) 481 489 (sheep )

459 493

463 484

.

Suppression of urine .

455 485 482

thick ,

referred to in canker . 466 Withers, fistulous wounds of .

489 448 448

Stricture ofthe gullet

481

445 Thick wind 459 Thickening of the haw 465 Thoroughpin

(sheep) g. See Parturition Strainin fever

447

See Red

442 | The whites

Toe, seedy 459 Tongue Stone in thebladder (horse) 487 bładders Strangles -- bastard

484

teats .

485 482

445

staggers

Warbles ( cattle) 443 Warts on the eyelids. 470 | Water, black.

(sheep)

445

stomach

Lockjaw

See' Lockjaw

449

See

Jaundice

(horse)

458

- ( cattle) 490 Yew -poisoning .

478

479

HORSES.

Give a physic ball (No. 17). Remove dung from lower

DISEASES AFFECTING THE HEAD ,

warm glyster (No. 13) two or three times

EYES, MOUTH, AND NERVOUS SYSTEM.

a -day, and if it can be done without

1. —THE HEAD AND NERVOUS SYSTEM.

disturbing the animal too much, give the following every four hours : Bromide of potassium , 4 drs. ; brandy, 6 oz. ; water, 8

on the back of the head .

intestines with the hand .

Apoplexy or Staggers.

OZ.

Administer a

But perfect quietness is the best

medicine. Nothing more can be done :

fatal disease must This almost hopeless disease results this almost invariably course.

from an effusion of blood producing pressure on the brain . Symptoms. — Head carried low . The

be left to take its

Tumours on or in the Brain

horse staggers till he falls. Eyes fixed and pupils dilated. Muzzle cold . Hear can seldom , if ever, be recognised and

ing and sight affected. Teethclenched. localised during life, and their treatment When convulsions come on, the horse is practically hopeless. soon dies.

Brain - fever or Mad Staggers, or Cause.-- Apparently the breaking of a Inflammation of the Brain. small blood -vessel on or near the brain, occasioned by the derangement of the Symptoms. - Sleepy and daft condi system from overfeeding, or by violence. tion. Nostrils distended . Flanks heav Prevention. — There is practically no ing.

Eye wild .

When delirium comes

means of prevention beyond the ordinary on, the horse becomes violent and danger proper management of the animal.

ous ; his struggles will continue till he is

Treatment.- Apply ice, or cold water exhausted, and the stupor returns. This disease is sometimes thought to in a douche or stream along the spine and

HORSES.

443

be colic ; the difference is, however, very Fracture of the Skull.

apparent. In colic, the horse is conscious,

The bones of the skull are so thick and only plunges and rolls from pain, often turning his head round to his that a fracture can only arise from a fall

flanks ; in mad staggers the struggles when a horse rears, or else from brutal are more violent, and consciousness is violence.

This is a common occurrence

lost.

with pit ponies, and is caused by their Cause. — Fulness of blood to the head knocking their heads against the roof through being over-heated in hot weather. timbers. In most pits they wear a Treatment. — This disease is so often leather skull-cap to prevent this. It is fatal, and so little can be done to check generally fatal.

it by medicine, that bleeding seems the only course to pursue.

Treatment. The parts should be elevated and fastened with adhesive

Put the horse in a cool stable. Open plasters, to prevent their moving. To the jugular vein of the neck, and bleed reduce any inflammation, give purgative till he is weak . (No. 18) and a spare diet. Give purgative — croton -nut, 1/2 dr., or Fracture of the Nose croton -oil, 20 drops, in warm gruel, and repeat in 10 gr. or croton -oil 10 -drop is caused by a fall or a blow with a

doses every eight hours till the bowels stick across the bones of the nose. are open . Treatment.— Place the finger up the nose, and gently push the bones back After into their place, and retain them there purgative has been administered, give by an adhesive plaster. every few hours, in gruel, a draught con Fracture of the Jaw. taining chloral hydrate, 4 drs. ; bromide Bathe head with iced or cold water.

Inject warm soap - and - water.

of potassium , 4 drs.; Fleming's tincture Generally caused by a kick, fall, or of aconite, 5 drops ; spirit of chloroform , accidental violence. Treatment. — If the animal is of any

I OZ .

When recovering, feed moderately for value, get the jaw set by a veterinary a few days on bran -mashes and a little hay.

Epilepsy or Fits. A disease on the brain not very common among horses. Symptoms. - Attack is sudden . Horse

surgeon, who will place it in a cradle made for that purpose.

Lockjaw or Tetanus. A disease affecting the nervous system, and one of the most fatal which attacks the horse.

stares round , trembles, and falls to the Symptoms. - A difficulty in chewing ground. Convulsions more or less severe its food and some stiffness about the jaws follow. is often the first symptom observable.

When consciousness returns, the horse Water is gulped down, the jaw becomes will feed as if nothing had happened. Cause.-A derangement of the brain ; but very little is known about it, and there are no known means of prevention

rigid, and saliva runs from the mouth. Afterwards the muscles of the head, neck, and shoulders become fixed , till the whole muscular system of the body

or cure.

seems cramped. After some days, if the disease is not checked, the horse will die

A horse subject to these fits is danger ous for either riding or driving.

Treatment. Give a purgative (No. 17 ), and if the horse is restless or excitable give a draught composed of chloral hydrate, 4 drs.; tincture of belladonna, 1 oz. ; water, 8 oz., morning and evening ;

in agony from sheer exhaustion. Cause. It is now believed by many to

be contagious ; but the apparent cause is generally some wound, kick, or blow. Docking has been known to cause it. In some cases the only apparent cause

but little can be done to guard against a has been the existence of bot-worms in the stomach . Exposure to cold and return of this disease. Fits, see Epilepsy, supra.

general neglect have also brought it on . Prevention . — There is no particular

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

444

means of prevention beyond the proper care of the animal ; but if the beginning of this disease is suspected, give at once

Madness or Rabies. This is the most fearful disease which

linseed -oil, 1 pint; aloes, 2 drs. ; Flem- affects the nervous system . ing's tincture of aconite, 8 drops. Symptoms.- Horse suddenly stops, Treatment. - In this disease there is paws the ground, trembles, staggers, and considerable difficulty in giving remedies, falls ; he will rise and once more fall. owing to the contraction of the muscles Saliva flows from his mouth . After a short time he springs up in a of the jaws and the general stiffness. If

the cause of the disease is some wound, violent manner, kicking and biting any it had better be poulticed, and dressed thing near. Fit will succeed fit till he dies. But the symptoms do not always Open the bowels by come on suddenly, and for a day, or

with carbolic oil or carbolic acid in 20

parts of water.

giving %2 dr. of powdered croton (or even more, the attendant may wonder 20 drops croton-oil) in warm water, re-

what is the matter with his horse that

peating the powdered croton in doses of he is so extremely sensitive to noises, 10 grs. (or croton -oil 10 drops) every movements, and even to changes of eight hours till purging commences. light. If costiveness still continues, administer

The animal rarely lingers more than

a glyster of olive-oil, 8 oz.; opium, 14 three days. Cause.-- The bite of a mad animal, or oz. ; warm gruel, 2 quarts. Put the horse in a cool rather dark inoculation with the virus by some stable where there is plenty of air, keep other means.

Prevention .--Among veterinary sur him very quiet, and let no one but the attendant have anything to do with him . geons, there is practically no means of Mix an ounce each of extract of bella- preventing an attack of madness, if the or microbes of the disease are donna and bromide of potassium together, germsimplanted in the blood. A bite and place a piece of it about the size of once a bean between the molar teeth every from a mad dog should be immediately cauterised with the hot iron , and if four five hours by the aid of the forefinger.

Put a pail of gruel or sloppy mash in months pass without illness the horse the manger, so that the animal can, if may be considered safe. Treatment. - M. Pasteur, of Paris, inclined, partake of it. Never try to force food down the claims to have discovered a remedy for,

animal's throat: it only aggravates the and preventive against, madness, which disease.

he has applied with more or less success

A veterinary surgeon , if called in, in the cases of human beings. But in would probably inject hypodermically, lower animals, when the dangerous na every four hours, atropine or morphia. ture of the disease is recognised, the Tetanus does not extend to the in- sooner the animal is put out of its mis ternal organs ; the horse will suffer from ery and beyond the risk of harming its

hunger. When the horse is recovering, attendants the better. he should be fed moderately with nour ishing food ( bran -mashes, linseed, and oatmeal in preference ), and he will be all the better for a turn or walk out of doors if the weather is suitable.

Megrims. This disease is said to be caused by an undue pressure of blood in the head . Symptoms. — The horse will suddenly

Ifyou wish to save your horse, avoid stop, shake his head, and proceed on his bleeding, so often recommended for this journey, at considerable speed. Some disease . To weaken the vital power at times he will turn round twice, or, more the moment when nature requires the often , perspiring profusely, fall down, greatest vitality and strength appears to and either struggle on the ground , or

be suicidal. I am not an advocate for lie quietly. The attack may last five bleeding in any disease, except brain- minutes, and when it is over, the horse

fever, and I think in a few years the will resume work as though nothing had practice will altogether die out, as it has happened ; he will, however, be con done the medical profession in

.

siderably weakened.

A horse subject

HORSES.

to these attacks is particularly danger-

445

Symptoms. The first symptom may

ous to ride or drive ;and after one at- be dull, colicky pains, sleepy look, pulse tack will always be liable to others in very slow, profuse perspiration. In many the future.

Sometimes horses will die

cases blindness. Rests his head against

instantly when seized with an attack . the manger or wall, and sometimes moves Cause. Violent exertion in hot his legs in a peculiar manner. Stagger -

weather; too small a collar or tighting gait till the horse falls down and dies in a state of stupor. Cause . — Unsuitable or over feeding. Prevention .-- A proper-fitting collar and not too violent exercise ; a judicious Food in an overloaded stomach will

bearing-rein ; a high system of feeding.

system of feeding, and an occasional dose swell and distend it, producing an op of purgative medicine, such as No. 20. Treatment.- Bleeding is of little use,

pression on the brain which staggers.

causes

though recommended by many authoriPrevention . - Proper, regular, and ties. Let the animal stand a few minsystematic feeding with food of good utes, dash cold water on his head, push quality will ensure immunity from this the collar forward, and proceed home as

disease .

quietly as possible. Then give a phyTreatment. - Give a purgative medi sic ball (No. 17 ), and every six hours in cine, such as i pint linseed -oil and 1 oz. water bromide potassium , 72 oz., for two of tincture of ginger. An hour after

or three days; afterwards give tonic the dose of oil give in gruel draught Mashes and green meat (No. 9), and repeat the dose of oil if should be given in preference to dry action of the bowels is not obtained. food , and a run out to grass for two Glysters of warm soap-and -water should months. also be given every four hours.

(No. 21 ).

Grass Staggers. A disease of the nervous system aris A deficiency in nervous power, which ing from the stomach . affects usually the hind quarters. Symptoms. - Stiffness in their action, Symptoms.—They come on slowly, Palsy ( Paralysis).

difficulty in turning, disinclination to lie the horse is dull and listless at first, but

down from the difficulty in rising again, dition. gradually passes into a somnolent con In time the animal gets weak, and sometimes a total inability to rise. Cause. — Pressure on the spinal cord reels, or staggers about, and if sharply from effusion of blood or serum, or from turned, will most likely fall down. It tumours within the spinal canal. Falls, seldom lies down when suffering from injury to the spine from blows or from this disease. turning in too narrow a stable, old age, Cause.—It is mostly seen during the and heavy loads. months of July and August, but varies

Prevention . - Humane treatment and according to the season . It arises from eating rye-grass at a certain stage of its Treatment. - Give mild doses of pur- growth, as if eaten in this state it gative medicine, such as linseed-oil, i causes the disease. In hot and dry pint; which will not only open the seasons it is most frequent. bowels, but also support the system, Treatment. Remove the animal into Rub stimulating embrocation, as mustard a loose -box, give ball ( 17 ) and draught liniment (No 15 ), on the part affected, (9), and repeat the draught every four ordinary care.

and in cases of doubt, especially along hours.

Do not give any more rye- grass,

the spine. Give morning and evening but steamed oats,bran-mashes, and a little nux vomica tincture, 2 drs.; spirit of hay. Fresh, succulent, natural grasses may be given in very small quantities.

ammonia, i oz., in 1o oz. of water.

Rabies, see Madness (p. 444).

II . -THE EYE.

Stomach Staggers.

Cataract

Oppression on the brain resulting is an opacity of the crystalline lens, and from a deranged and distended stomach. often follows an attack of ophthalmia.

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

446

Symptoms. - A whitish speck in the Itching or Tumour of the Eyelids. eye, which varies in different eyes in shape, position, and size. They someTreatment.— Rub the eyelids with times become large enough to cause mercurial ointment and lard in equal parts, and give sulphur, 12 oz., and nitre, blindness. Cause. From a blow, after an attack i dr., in the food once a -day till the

of ophthalmia, or inflammation of the animal is cured. eye. Removal of the Eyeball. Treatment. - In the lower animals very little can be done for it. It is necessary sometimes, when the Glass Eye.

eye has been severely damaged, or has a cancerous growth in it, to remove it.

Paralysis or loss of special sensation This can be done only by a veterinary in the optic nerve.

surgeon, who will not only remove the

Symptoms. — The eye looks larger, eye, but, if you wish, place a glass one pupil dilated, animal stares — in fact, the in its place. In using glass eyes always eye is blind and motionless, and looks take them out at night, for if kept in more like a glass eye than a natural very long they become painful. one .

Ophthalmia .

Cause.—It is seen as a temporary

Violent inflammation of the eyelids, condition in some cases of poisoning, but when permanent it is the result of either extending to the cornea and internal

partial or total loss of function in the structures of the eye. Symptoms. - Light pains the eye, Treatment is of no use unless it is which is kept shut ; a profuse flow of

optic nerve.

the effect of a poison, then give ball

tears.

Pupil is contracted, and iris

( 17 ), a pint of linseed-oil, and every two changes colour. The opacity usually hours give in pint of cold water 4 oz. of extends from the circumference towards brandy and 2 oz. of spirits of ammonia the centre, and the inflammation dimin ishes one day to increase twofold the

aromat.

mmatiophthalmia.

next, till in a few weeks, if not checked,

Inflammation of the Eye, or Simple the eye becomes opaque and blindness . comes on. After an apparent cure Symptoms. - Eyelids swollen , water- the disease will sometimes come on

ing, and nearly closed. Eye bloodshot, again, either in the same eye or in the and inside of the eyelids very red. other which had not previously been affected. Cornea cloudy. Health not affected. Cause .

Foreign matter, such as a

Cause.—A foul-smelling, ill-ventilated

hay -seed or chaff in the eye ; a blow stable, reeking with ammonia and decom with a whip ; or, more generally, cold. posing manure, is a frequent cause of It is sometimes produced in a young this disease. Confinement in a dark horse by over-exercise.

stable and a sudden transition into the

Treatment.-- First remove any foreign glaring sunshine often accounts for it. substance.

Give mild purgative (No. The tendency to inherit this disease from

20), and a mash diet ; bathe the eye with sires with defective sight is too well poppy -heads and warm water every two known from sad experience to need any hours, and if that is not handy, with comment. The management of horses weak brandy-and-water ; if no improve- being now better understood, this disease

ment, bathe with a solution composed is becoming rarer every day. of liquor opium sedativus i oz., in i pint Prevention .-- A well drained and of cold water. A useful lotion for in- lighted stable and cleanliness are the flammation of the eye is, sulphate atro- best preventives. Foment the eye with pine, 4 grs., in i oz. of water. Keep Treatment. the animal in a dark box until better.

warm water, and bathe with a lotion

The inflammation should be cured in a composed of sulphate of atropine, 4 grs., few days ; if not, treat as for Ophthalmia, in 1 oz. of water. Feed on spare diet ; infra.

put the horse in a cool, airy, but dark

HORSES.

447

stable, where there is perfect cleanliness.

III. -MOUTH , NOSE, TEETH, TONGUE,

Give purgative (No. 18 or 19). The use of the lancet may in extreme cases be useful ; the inside of the eyelid should

PALATE .

Glanders,

be exposed, and the lancet drawn lightly or enlargement and ulceration of the along for the purpose of relieving the glands in the lower jaw . parts affected by pressure of blood. Symptoms. — Small discharge of glu

Cloudiness of the eye, or complete opac- tinous matter from the nose, generally ity, is a frequent consequence of this from one nostril, and that the left, but disease, which may be treated by bath- no cough. Swelling of the glands be ing with solution of corrosive sublimate, I gr ., in 2 oz. of water.

neath the lower jaw, which afterwards subsides, leaving the glands more fixed to the side of the jaw.

Thickening of the Haw .

Mucous mem

brane of the nose becomes purple instead

The haw of the eye is situated in the of red, owing to inflammation. Lastly, inner corner of the eye filling the lid. pus-discharging ulcers appear in the nos

A horse can bring it forward over the trils, accompanied by cough, failing ap eye, and with it wipe away any foreign petite, weakness, and staring coat; these matter that may have got into it. This ulcersincrease in number till theyfinally haw sometimes enlarges and protrudes, extend to the lungs, when death is cer so that it cannot retract.

tain.

This disease may at first be con

Treatment. — Give purgative (No. 19), founded with Strangles ( see p. 448 ): the

and bathe the eye with poppy -heads and difference, however, between the two warm water. Should the ulceration con- diseases is well marked. In strangles tinue, bathe with white vitriol, 12 dr.; the membrane of the nose is red, the

water, 6 oz. ; or paint with a weak solu- discharge from the nose profuse ; there tion of silver nitrate.

If further treat- is cough and sore throat, besides a swell

ment is necessary, it must be left to a ing of the glands on both sides of the The opinion of a veterinary throat. veterinary surgeon . surgeon should always be obtained should Warts on the Eyelids. Treatment. — Cut off with a pair of scissors and touch with lunar caustic, taking care not to touch the eye, and not to put on more than is necessary. Rub-

glanders be suspected.

Cause. — Unhealthy stable, want of

fresh air, improper management, and contagion, are the most frequent causes of this disease. Prevention .-- Do not run any possible bing the roots with blue vitriol will sometimes effect a cure. Take care also risk of contagion. See that thereis good

that any bleeding, when cutting, does ventilation and cleanliness in the stable, not touch any other part, as blood from

combined with judicious and proper

management of the animal. Treatment.—Completely isolate from Wounds in the Eye or Eyelids. other horses. When once glanders is Generally caused by brutality or care- declared by the veterinary surgeon, the

a wart may spread the disease .

lessness.

sooner the horse is destroyed the bet Treatment. — Very little can be done ter ; there is no recognised and practi except to reduce the inflammation by cable cure, and the danger of its being

purgative medicine ( No. 20), and bathe spread by contagion is so great as with warm water, and apply a lotion to make it safer to destroy the animal composed of atropine, 4 grs., in 1 oz. of at once. Notice must be immediately This lotion is best applied by given to the police, as it is included the aid of a feather, which, when soaked under the Contagious Diseases (Animals) water.

in the lotion, should be drawn gently Acts.

across the eye. When the eyelids are Lampas.

torn, never cut any of the skin off, but

retain it in its proper position by the aid of silver wire. In these cases the horse should be kept in a dark box.

A fulness of the lower bars of the

palate. Cause .

It generally occurs

with

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

448

young horses, and is a natural result tincture of perchloride of iron, I OZ.; from the congestion caused by the shed- spirits of sweet nitre, 2 oz. ding of their milk -teeth and the growth Strangles. of the permanent ones. Treatment. — Cut the bars lightly with A disease more common among horses a penknife several times across, avoiding under four years old than among older the artery. Never burn them. Give ones . bicarbonate of potash , 6 drs., morning Symptoms. A cold, cough, sore

and evening in drinking-water, and warm throat, and profuse discharge of yellow bran - mashes. Use lotion (No. 16) for mucus from the nostrils, swelling under washing the sore places. the throat, which increases and renders swallowing painful. The tumour is Nasal Gleet. situated in the centre of the throat

A profuse and unnatural discharge of under the jaw, and feels like one solid mass. Owing to its solidity this disease Symptoms. — The nasal discharge con- can readily be distinguished from Glan

mucus from one or both nostrils.

tinues after every other sign of cold has ders (see p. 447 ) when the tumour is com left. Mucus in large quantities, mingled posed of separate parts, which can be with matter, constantly flows or is blown easily identified. The centre of the from the nose, till the horse becomes tumour is soft, and when it bursts it much weakened. Every care should be discharges an immense quantity of pus, taken to make certain that it is not a quickly healing after the discharge. When the cough subsides, the horse case of glanders. Treatment. Should cough remain , begins to recover from the extreme treat as for Cough ( p. 450). If the dis- weakness attending this disease. charge is foetid , give daily a dose containCause.—Probably cold or climatic ing sulphate copper, i dr.; ginger, 2 drs.; changes. I have strong reasons for be gentian, 2 drs. If the discharge is not lieving that this disease is contagious,

offensive, but only an excessive discharge though this opinion is doubted by many of the fluid which moistens the nose, give authorities. daily , sulphate copper, i dr., made into Prevention . - None. a ball with flour and treacle.

Horses

Treatment.

Blister the tumour with

affectedby this complaint should always ordinary blister (No. 1 or 2)to hasten its have a lump of rock-salt in their racks, progress and prevent the inflammation and a little salt mixed with the most spreading. When the tumour is soft on nourishing food possible. Tonic (No. 21 ) the top, lance it and suffer the pus to

may be useful in treating this disease. drain out without any pressure . After Nasal gleet of long standing is mostly the discharge, keep the place clean by due to a diseased tooth or bone in the bathing it well with warm water ; rub head, which must be removed to effect a with vaseline, which will soften the cure.

wound and promote its healing. Give Polypus.

twice daily, in a pint of gruel, No. 9, and keep the bowels open with carrots and

An excrescence growing in the nostril bran-mashes. Feed on bran -mashes and which impedes the breathing. It must green food , and keep the animal in a cool be removed by a veterinary surgeon, and and comfortable stable. When recovery no treatment by an unprofessional man is established , give morning and night can be of any use.

tonic (No. 21 ), and keep the horse well.

The discharge from the nose will continue Bleeding from Nose. sometime, but will gradually cease. If The result of irritation of the nose, this disease is neglected, death will prob glanders, bursting of a blood-vessel in ably follow . the head or lungs, and sometimes a blow Bastar Strangl

es. d , A low form of strangles in which ab Treatment.-- Keep animal quiet, head elevated, and pour cold water over it. scesses appear on different parts of the on the head.

Give every two hours, in a pint of gruel, body.

The treatment should

be the

HORSES.

449

same as for ordinary strangles. , In this and blister throat with mustard lini disease there is much more danger of ment (No. 15 ), and give every night blood -poisoning. and morning, in a pint of gruel, draught ( No. 10). Teeth ( Diseases of ). Wounils of Tongue. The irregular growth and rough edges of the teeth frequently produce wounds in the mouth . A horse out of condition

Treat as for wounds of the mouth .

Tongue Bladders.

should be examined , and if his teeth

are irregular or have rough edges, they Sometimes occur underneath the should be rasped down with a file that tongue. is made for the purpose. Sometimes it Cause. - Produced by a slight de is necessary to cut off part of a tooth rangement of the system . which projects far above the level of the Treatment.— Give a physic ball ( Nos. others.

Extracting Teeth.

17 or 18 ), which will reduce any fever. The bladders may be readily removed by

opening with a lancet. Paralysis of the Tongue. or four year-old horse, so as to try and To extract the corner teeth of a three

alter his age, is cruel, and any one with

Palsy of the tongue.

experience of horses can easily see on Symptoms.— The tongue hangs in a looking into the animal's mouth if such loose manner from the mouth, and be a thing has been done. Wolf - teeth . — These little teeth are

comes swollen and inflamed.

Cause.—A severe injury to tongue, or

situated in front of the molars, and are by dragging on the tongue when giving believed by some to interfere with the a ball . animal's feeding. They can be easily Treatment. Suspend the tongue in extracted by the aid of a pair of forceps, a loose bag tied to the head-stall ; give or else punched out. But unless it is purgative ( No. 19) and a drachm of nux

distinctly evident that they are causing vomica night and morning in a half-pint of water. trouble, they should be left alone. Molar Teeth . — They sometimes be Amputation of Tongue. The animal quids his come diseased. This is sometimes done by veterinary food, and frequently when feeding pauses for a few seconds. The breath surgeons when the tongue has been ex is very offensive. Their treatment tensively lacerated . A horse that has should certainly be left to the veterin- lost part of his tongue must be fed from a deep manger, and in drinking these ary surgeon.

Wounds in the Mouth .

animals force their heads deeply into a pail of water.

From a cruel bit, &c.

Treatment. - Wash it with a solution of alum , i oz. , dissolved in twenty -eight times its weight of water ; or use lotion ( No. 16 ) .

Paralysis of the Lower Lip. A pendulous condition of the lower lip. Symptoms. — The animal's health is

not interfered with, and he feeds fairly

well, but lets a little food drop, his lip Teething Cough . A persistent and violent cough. Symptoms. — Usually seen between the age of three and four. Food re-

fused, head poked out, gums red and swollen, frequent coughing , and some times a tooth is found in the manger.

Cause. — Teething, which causes irritation of throat.

Treatment. — Extract any temporary teeth showing signs of getting loose, VOL. III.

hangs down, and a little saliva flows from it.

Cause. — Paralysis of the nerve of the lip, which is usually brought about by the curb -chain being too tight, or a badly fitted bridle.. Treatment. — Give a physic ball, con taining 5 drs. of aloes, and rub into the lip and sides of the face a little of embrocation ( No. 12 ). Feed on sloppy mashes. 2 F

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

450

DISEASES AFFECTING THE THROAT, CHEST, RESPIRATORY AND BLOOD .

ORGANS,

Bronchitis,

or inflammation of the bronchial tubes.

Choking. Substances which have lodged in the gullet can generally be forced down by the use of a flexible tube, similar to that

used for cattle ; if not, an operation by a veterinary surgeon will be necessary.

Symptoms. -- Coughing wheezing, hard breathing, and weakness. The horse may die in a severe attack from suffocation .

Sore Throat.

A common complaint, and associated with such diseases as strangles, influenza,

Cause.-- In cases of neglected cold or and scarlet fever, &c. catarrh, bronchitis often follows. Ex Animal has a nasty Symptoms. posure to cold or wet . cough, quids his food , and pokes out

Treatment. — Give plenty of fresh air, his nose. Treatment. - Blister the throat with Apply embrocation

but keep warm .

(No. 12) to the chest ; give nitre, 3 drs ., embrocation ( No. 12), feed on sloppy and Fleming's tincture of aconite, 10 food, and give in gruel twice a -day ( No. drops, three times a -day, and increase 10). Be careful in drenching that you the dose if necessary. Feed on bran- do not choke the animal, for you are mashes containing linseed - meal. For very liable to do so when it is suffering

drinking -water, give weak infusion of from a sore throat. linseed . In acute cases, give in gruel Rheumatic Fever. draught No. 10 three times a-day. A specific fever due to a constitutional Broken Wind . Symptoms. — In this disease the ex

condition of the system . Symptoms.-Animal restless, breath

piration of the breath takes two efforts, ing hurried, slight cough, shows signs of and the inspiration only one ; the breath- pain, goes stiff, and joints swell. ing, therefore, is not regular, as in thick

Cause. — Hereditary tendency, bad

wind.

stables, and insufficient food .

Cause. It is the rupture of air-cells, and is generally attended by a dry cough. Gross feeding, previous inflammation, and violent exercise after heavy feeding. Treatment. There is no cure. Keep

Treatment. - Give physic ball (No. 20), put an ounce of nitre frequently in drinking-water, and give twice a day the following ball : iodide of potassium , i dr.; powdered colchicum , 20 grs.; liquor

for slow work, and feed on soft nourish- ice-powder, 2 drs., made up with linseed meal and treacle. Rub the swollen joints every night with embrocation ( No. 12). Crib -biting Chronic Cough. is more of a habit than a disease. Symptoms. — The animal seizes the A most annoying disease to the rider.

ing food which occupies a small space.

manger or any fixed object, and makes a This cough frequently follows an attack gulping noise as if trying to swallow air. Cause.— Indigestion or habit ; one horse will learn it from another.

of inflammation of the lungs. Symptoms.-- If the horse coughs after drinking, the cough will arise from the

Treatment. - It takes a lot of curing. windpipe. It does not affect the general Anchovy paste on the manger will some health . times effect a cure. Any saddler will Previous inflammation , ne Cause. make a strap to go round the horse's glected cold, and sometimes worms. neck to prevent crib -biting. An invenTreatment. If the coat is staring, tion has been recently brought out to the cause of the cough will generally be cure it by the aid of electricity. The worms , in which case give turpentine,

battery is placed in such a way, that 12 oz. , daily, in 4 oz. of linseed -oil; or whenever the animal seizes and squeezes santonine, 20 grs., and aloes, 3 drs., made the top part of the manger, he at once receives a severe shock .

into a ball with linseed-meal and treacle, in the morning on an empty stomach ,

HORSES.

451

and repeat after two days ; or give a -day containing spirit nitrous ether, i draught (No. 11 ). If the cough proceeds from the throat, feed on green meat and mashes, and give ball (No. 8). Apply blister (No. 2) to the throat if

oz., liquor ammonia acetatis, 3 oz., in a pint of water, and rub the throat with embrocation (No. 12 ). Half fill a nose bag with hay, and pour boiling water

other remedies fail. Water, in which a upon it, and keep the horse's head in it little linseed or treacle has been boiled, till it ceases to steam, but be careful not is useful instead of plain water, for to burn the horse's nose. In cases of

drinking purposes.

extreme depression, as in pink eye, give every three hours spirit nitrous ether, i oz. ; whiskey, 4 oz. ; water, 6 oz. Char

Common Cold .

Symptoms. — Slight discharge from

coal- powders night and morning are

the nose, and weeping of the eyes; fever useful for improving the blood. When and cough. recovering, give tonic (No. 21 ) in a pint Cause. - Changes of temperature and of beer twice a -day. Great care should chills.

be taken to prevent these attacks pro

Treatment. — Clothe warmly, and ducing roaring and other diseases. place in a cool stable. Feed on warm Broken Ribs. bran - mashes with a little linseed - meal

in them, and give in gruel night and The ribs of horses are frequently morning till fever is reduced — acetate broken through accidents and kicks. of ammonium , 3 oz. ; potassium bicarTreatment. — If the ribs are only

bonate, 1/2 oz.; chloroform , 1/2 oz. ; and broken and not the skin, put a good apply liniment (No. 14) to the throat, or pitch -plaster over that side of the chest ; embrocation ( No. 12 ).

but if the skin is broken and there is a

hole in the chest, it is beyond the power of any one but a veterinary surgeon to

Distemper, Catarrhal Fever, or Influenza.

effect a cure.

Most prevalent in spring and autumn, especially when the weather is cold and wet .

Dropsy of the Chest.

The result usually of pleurisy.

Symptoms. - At first dulness, loss of

Symptoms can be detected only by

appetite, and there may be shivering, placing the ear against the chest. cough, weakness, inflamed eyes, nose a Treatment.— Tap the chest and let pale red, watery discharge from nostrils. the fluid out. There is a disease amongst colts run Later the discharge from the nostrils

becomes thick, but seldom offensive, ning on low marshy land of a dropsical glands of throat and under jaw swell, nature, but in this disease the swelling which make swallowing difficult. erally there is intense weakness.

Gen-

There is a violent form of influenza

is seen on the outside of the chest and

along the abdomen . Treatment.Take colt in from the

which has lately come into notice called grass, give good food, and every night “ pink eye.” It is attended with ex- and morning, in a pint of gruel, give treme weakness, depression, and loss of tonic (No. 21 ). appetite, and has been the cause of seri

ous loss in many parts of the country. Cause.—Contagion, influences of cli-

Farcy. A glanderous ulceration which first af

mate producing cold, amounting almost fects the superficial lymphatics or glands. Symptoms. - Small tumours or cords

to an epidemic. Treatment. — Remove into a cool box,

which follow the track of the lymphatic

clothe warmly, feed on warm bran -mashes (the steam from which is very beneficial) and green food, a little hay, or a carrot or two, and give in weak infusion of lin-

vessels ; they increase in number and at length ulcerate. Fætid discharge from nostrils. Swelling round muzzle and of the limbs, which sometimes increase to

seed 1 oz. nitre, instead of pure water an enormous size ; at other times the

for drinking

Sponge the nostrils with heels crack and mangy eruptions cover There are various forms of

vinegar and water. Give draught twice the body.

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

452

this disease, and the aid of a veterinary

Cause. — The chief cause is contagion,

surgeon should always be obtained. it through the animal receiving into its is included in the Contagious Diseases system the germ which causes the dis (Animals) Acts along with glanders, and ease -the Bacillus anthracis. This it notice must be at once given to the is most likely to do in its food or water, or it may be into a scratch or wound .

police.

Cause . — Bad ventilation and sanitary The Bacillus anthracis is a rose -like arrangements; neglect of proper exercise vegetable organism which grows and mul and cleanliness ; contagion . tiplies in the blood with great rapidity. Prevention.

-None beyond proper The disease is mostly seen in low -lying

management.

lands and near stagnant pools.

Dogs,

Treatment. — Remove into a clean, birds, vermin, and flies are propagators cool, well - ventilated box, and isolate of it through feeding on diseased car from other horses. Give opening medi casses. cine, corrosive sublimate, 8 grs. ; gentian Prevention . — Drain the land, run off 2 drs ; ginger, 2 drs. , every night ; in- any stagnant pools. Bury the diseased crease the dose of sublimate gradually till carcasses 8 to 10 feet deep, and throw i scruple is given. Should the mouth be- oil of vitriol and quicklime over them .

come sore, give daily sulphate of copper, Be careful you do not infect yourself i dr., and powdered aniseed ,1 oz. If the through handling these carcasses, and do

horse is too violently purged, give a ball not allow any more animals to graze on containing opium , i dr., mixed with the land that has caused the disease meal and treacle. Cauterise the ulcer- until it has had a good dressing of lime. ated buds with red iodide of mercury Treatment is very unsatisfactory, al ointment (No. 4 ). If the cauterised though the disease is not necessarily places do not look firm , bathe with lotion

fatal.

Give purgative (No. 17 ) and

containing corrosive sublimate, i dr.; carbolic acid in half-drachm doses, in a rectified spirits of wine, 4 oz . When pint of water, every five or six hours ; the buds become healthy, apply friars' or alternate it with salicylic acid in half balsam to heal them . The horse should ounce doses in gruel. Give also stimu

be fed on green meat and carrots, and, should the season permit, a run out of doors for a few hours in the middle of the day will be beneficial. Rock - salt should always be placed in the rack. If

lants occasionally ; in this case turpentine in ounce -and - half doses is perhaps the best, given in thin gruel; and administer salines, as nitrate of potash in half-ounce doses, and chlorate of potash in 2-drachm

limbs are greatly swollen, foment fre- doses, — the purpose being to get the quently with hot water. system rapidly saturated with substances inimical to the life of the bacterium .

Anthrax or Splenic Fever

The greatest care should be exercised

in treating and attending to the animal, is a blood disease of a virulent type. Symptoms. The animal suddenly as the attendants have sometimes become

becomes ill, perhaps during work ; violent fatally affected by receiving the contagion trembling, excessive perspiration, hurried from the animal under their care. breathing; the animal reels, loses the Simple Fever. power of his legs, and, after a few con Symptoms . Staring coat, cold legs vulsions, becomes unconscious and dies. In some cases the symptoms are not so and feet, dulness, alternate shivering and

pronounced at first, the animal only hot fits, constipation . There is no cough sweating, going stiff, trembling, and or turning round to the flanks. Cause .- Sudden change from heat to extremely dull ; and if it lives over the first twelve hours, there is generally ex- cold, often produced by the improper tensive swelling of the throat, often

ventilation of a stable ; checked perspi

spreading down the under part of the ration . neck toward the chest, and a sticky

Treatment.- Place in a cool stable

straw -coloured fluid trickling from the where there is good air without draught , nostrils. But it gradually gets worse, and give soft food while the fever is at and in a few days will probably die.

its height, and then a more generous

HORSES.

453

diet. Give mild opening medicine, such severe illnesses. The legs, nose, and lips as linseed -oil, 1/2 pint. On no account swell, pink spots are seen inside nose and

give active purgatives. Glysters of warm eyelids ; animal refuses food, and looks a soap - and - water will aid the action of pitiful object. the bowels, and give every four hours a Cause. Sequel to other diseases, or draught containing solution acetate of from bad stable drainage. Prevention.— See that your stable aconite, 5 drops; spirit nitrous ether, drainage and food are good .

ammonium , 3 oz.; Fleming's tincture of 1/2 oz. , in pint of water.

The disease is

Treatment. — Is best left to a veterin :

not dangerous, unless complications ensue. ary surgeon. Bleeding Inflammation of the Lungs, or Pneumonia . is gradually becoming a thing of the past, but it is sometimes beneficial, especially Symptoms. - Fever and quickening where there is great blood-pressure, such pulse, cold ears and legs, breathing thick, as brain -fever, mad staggers, and acute nostrils dilated , restlessness, unwilling founder. ness to lie down, and staring coat. Some How to Bleed an Animal.-Put a times the attack comes on suddenly and

driving bridle on the horse, bring his sometimes gradually.

Death has been

head round to the light, turn it to the known to ensue in twelve hours. Cause.—Cold, over-driving when out left side, raise the jugular vein on the right side by pressing on it with the of condition . Treatment. — Remove to a cool airy fingers, hold the fleam in the left hand

parallel with the vein, and give it a smart blow with the blood - stick ; keep the bucket pressed against the neck below the wound, and if the blood does not flow freely, insert the fingers into the mouth to keep the jaw moving. Take from 1 to 3 quarts of blood , afterwards place a pin through the lips of the wound, and wind tow around it. Do not use too large a fleam . Inflammation of the Jugular Vein after Bleeding.

loose-box, and clothe warmly ; rub the legs well, using white oil liniment (No. 14) ; feed on green meat and bran -mashes only ; apply embrocation (No. 12 ) to each side of the chest ; give every four hours a draught containing acetate of ammonium , 3 oz. ; bicarbonate potash, 22 oz. ; Fleming's tincture of aconite, 3 drops ; water, 8 oz., till the fever is subdued . When recovering, give tonic ( No. 21 ), and two months' run at grass if the season permit .

This is a very dangerous disease, and

The wound caused by bleeding is gen- the aid of a veterinary surgeon should be erally held together by a pin and piece obtained. of twisted tow ; it will usually heal in a

While suffering from fever the diet

couple of days. If the fleam has been should be sparing, and entirely composed carelessly used, or has been dirty, the of green meat, carrots, and cold bran wound is apt to become inflamed , swell, mashes. The open air is preferable to a and discharge matter. Abscesses will close warm stable : it is of the first im then form , and if not checked will prove portance that the horse should have cool dangerous.

fresh air to breathe.

If this disease is

Treatment. — Inject a weak solution neglected, the after-consequences, even of nitrate of silver into the abscesses ; should the horse recover, will be most wash the wound at once with a solution

serious, and his constitution will be

of carbolic acid , containing about 20

ruined .

parts of water, and if this does not pre vent the abscesses forming , further treat ment must be left to the veterinary surgeon.

Purpura, or Purpura -hæmorrhagica. A blood disease of a very low type.

Scarlet Fever .

A feverish disease of the horse, char acterised by pink spots in the nose and mouth, and usually associated with a sore throat.

Symptoms. — The animal dull and off

Symptoms.- Is seen frequently after its feed, eyes swollen, pink spots inside

454

AILMENTS OF FARM

LIVE STOCK.

the nose and eyelids ; there is sometimes neck and head from striking the manger, or given by a savage attendant. Treatment. - Apply cooling lotion, Treatment.- Place the animal into a comfortable loose -box, give thrice a -day, such as goulard water, to the swelling, in gruel, draught (No. 9), and when and keep the bowels open with purgative

a sore throat.

recovering, give tonic (No. 21) in a pint ( No. 18 ). If the tumour increases, apply common blister (No. 3) to hasten its dis charge, and when it is soft in the middle

of ale twice a day. Pleurisy.

it should have a seton drawn through

A disease affecting the membrane cov- the tumour from the top, through the bottom , out at the side below the tumour : ering the lungs and lining the chest.

Symptoms.Very similar to those of this will completely drain the abscess. inflammation of the lungs, except that the Then foment and clean with warm water

pulse is hard and small, the breathing till cured. The aid of a veterinary shorter and painful, andperformed mostly surgeon should be obtained to ensure by the abdominal muscles, showing a line at each expiration from the lowerborder

the successful treatment of the tumour. Roaring.

of the ribs to the flank . Cause . — Chills.

A disagreeable noise made by some Treatment - Remove into a cool airy animals during respiration, especially if

stable, and feed on cold bran -mashes and

forced to exert themselves. Symptoms. — A roaring sound when with embrocation (No. 12 ), and give sharp exercise is taken, caused by the

green food .

Rub the chest and sides

twice a - day oil of turpentine, 1 oz .; difficulty of the air passing through the

iodide of potassium , 2 drs.; linseed -oil, contracted opening of the larynx. Call in

4 oz.; lime - water, 6 oz.

a

Cause . — Frequently results from an

veterinary surgeon, who may resort to attack of strangles. Tight reining tends the use of the trocar to puncture the

chest. Complete rest at grass, if possible, and tonic (No. 21 ) should follow when

to produce it. Treatment — There is no cure in the case of a confirmed roarer.

In early

the animal is recovering.

stages rub blister (No. 1 ) on the throat, and give a ball morning and night, com Heart Disease. posed of nux vomica, 12 dr. ; arseniate A disease causing interference with of iron, 3 grs. ; quinetum , i dr. Nothing

blood circulation. Symptoms. There is really but one true symptom, and that is the irregularity of the pulse, but often associated with this there is weakness, cough , hurried

further can be done.

staggers as if in want of breath .

cured.

Saddle Galls.

Cause. — A badly fitting saddle. Treatment. — Apply lotion ( No. 7 ), breathing, and sometimes the animal alter the saddle, and do not work until Cause. — Rheumatic usually in its origin. Treatment.—None.

Sore Shoulders,

The shoulders of horses sometimes

There are several other inflammatory become very sore and painful, and when

diseases of the heart, but it would only in this condition, if neglected, large be wasting time to enumerate them here, wounds and abscesses soon follow. for they are of a complicated nature and very rare.

Poll Evil.

Cause . - Badly fitting collar, heavy loads, using one trace longer than the other, and working horses too young. Treatment. Bathe the shoulders

A painful swelling on the upper part night and morning for an hour with

of the neck behind the ears, generally warm water, then apply lotion (No. 16 ) to terminating in an open sore.

the parts where the skin is broken. Do

Symptoms. - Inflammation and swell- not work the animals until they are pro ing of the ligaments over the atlas bone. perly healed, for you can be summoned Cause.— Tight reining, blows on the for working a horse with sore shoulders.

HORSES.

455

into a deep ulcer, which extends down Sitfasts. These are small hard tumours which

to the bone.

Cause . — Pressure on the withers from

an ill-fitting saddle or collar. the harness comes in contact with it. Treatment.-- Give the horse complete Cause. Pressure of the saddle. rest till cured ; do not work him till Small pimples or pustules from an un- then under any pretence. Upon the healthy condition of the skin. first appearance of the swelling, foment, form in the substance of the skin where

Treatment. — Give rest, foment, and apply cooling lotion. Should they suppurate, wash with tincture of myrh, i oz. ; carbolic acid, 12 oz ; glycerine, 2 oz. ; and water, 10 oz.

and apply lotion (No. 7 ). If the tumour appears, apply blister (No. 1 or 3). The veterinary surgeon should be called in, if this does not stop the inflammation.

Keep the bowels open by feeding on progress towards healing, apply a little green meat and bran -mashes. If they make no

blister ( No. 1 ) to the ulcers, and dress the wounds with friars' balsam .

But

it is often advisable, and brings about a far more speedy recovery, to have the hard core in the centre carefully removed with the knife.

DISEASES AFFECTING THE STOMACH, LIVER, BOWELS, KIDNEYS, AND OTHER INTERNAL ORGANS, AND PARTURITION.

Alter the saddle and Bots.

make it fit.

The larve of the gad - fly. Most com Stricture of Gullet. Symptoms. — A contraction of the gullet which prevents the passage of food. Can be cured only by a veterinary

mon in spring and early summer.

surgeon.

self.

The

eggs of the gad -fly are deposited among the hair, and are introduced into the

stomach through the horse licking him They attach themselves to the

lining of the stomach during the winter, Thick Wind. injuring and weakening it, till finally Symptoms. — Difficulty of breathing they are seen escaping in the spring out when driven. Short hurried respira- of the anus, causing great itching. tions. This complaint is most usual in Treatment. — No medicine will totally horses with contracted chests, often re- destroy these bots. The use of salt

sulting from an attack of inflammation among the food may serve to mitigate of the lungs. the evil, and a draught containing oil of Treatment.— This annoying disease turpentine, 1 oz., linseed-oil, 10 oz., may can be mitigated only by careful man- remove many of them , but very little agement, avoiding sharp exercise after can be done, and nature must be left to feeding, and by never giving a very full take its course. meal. The food should be of a very nutritious nature in a small bulk. A

Colic or Gripes.

thick -winded horse may be able to go a

1. Flatulent Colic.

good pace without inconvenience, if he is

Symptoms. – Stomach and intestines

not hurried when he first leaves the stable.

mitigated only by using the animal for slow work. Å drink made of linseedmeal, one pint, boiled in six pints of water, with a little treacle, may do good ,

distended with gas ; pain and depression. Cause. — Overloading of the stomach with green meat ; cold and over-exertion. Treatment. — Give a purgative (No. 17 ), and glyster (No. 13 ), and everytwo hours give a draught containing opium tincture, 1 oz. ; spirit of ammonia, 1 oz. ; carbolic acid , 15 drops; chloroform , i

but there is no cure.

oz. , in 12 oz. of water.

Whistling and Wheezing are forms of broken wind, which can be

Withers ( Fistulous ).

2. Spasmodic Colic.

Symptoms.--Acute pain, rolling on ease first appears as a swelling on the the ground, suddenness ofattack, ex withers, develops into a tumour, then cited countenance, and the intermittent Symptoms. — This troublesome dis-

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

456

Symptoms. - It first starts with diar nature of the pain. This last characteristic distinguishes the disease from in- rhæa, which passes into dysentery ; the flammation of the bowels. animal becomes restless, occasionally lies Cause. — Chills from drinking cold down ; in the course of a few hours it

water when hot, or otherwise. trembles ; clots of blood are passed with Treatment.-If taken in time, this the dung, which has a bad smell if not

disease can usually be cured by giving soon checked ; a cold sweat breaks out, linseed -oil, i pint ; and every two hours, the legs become cold, the eye glassy, and

in a pint of gruel, a draught containing death closes the scene. oil of turpentine, 1 oz .; tincture of Cause. — Too large a dose of physic, opium , i oz.; chloroform , i oz. Walk worms and improper feeding, associated

the horse about after giving the dose. with a bad sanitary condition of the If the attack continues, apply hot fo- stable. Treatment. — Put animal in a warm mentations to the belly till the aid of the veterinary surgeon can be obtained. box, if cold ; put a rug and bandages on.

Give every six hours until the purging ceases the following drench in half a Frequent passing of fluid dung. pint of gruel : Chlorodyne, % oz.; pow Symptoms. — Animal dull, refuses dered opium , i dr.; prepared chalk, food, slight colicky pains, and frequent oz. ; tincture of cardamoms, 1 OZ ; old dunging, which , if not checked, will ter- port wine, 72 pint. Diarrhaa .

minate in inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bowels.

Diabetes.

Cause.—Bad feeding, or feeding on Symptoms. — Unnatural discharge of raw potatoes, too succulent green food, urine, weakness, and unthrifty appear cold and irritation of the bowels, from

ance .

worms or innutritious food. Treatment.—Place animal in a warm

Cause.—Irritation of the kidneys by a too frequent use of diuretics or bad

box, if cold, put a rug on, keep short of food. Treatment. - Feed on green food and water, and give in half-pint of gruel

twice a -day the following : Tincture of mashes, and give morning and night in catechu, 1 oz ; powdered chalk, 1 oz.; gruel a draught containing dilute hydro tincture of cardamoms, 1 oz.; opium chloric acid, 2 drs. ; quinetum , i dr.; powder, 1/2 dr. To be continued until tincture of opium , 12 oz. The part of the diarrhea ceases.

the loins over the bladder should be cor ered with a hot cloth .

Attend to the

Constipation . quality of the food, and in severe cases Generally arising from the nature of call in a veterinary surgeon . the food or torpidity of the liver or in Inflammation of the Bowels. testines. Prevention . — All dust from chop or Very fatal, often resulting in death in chaff should be sifted out of horse's food,

a few hours.

Symptoms. – At first uneasiness and and too much mealy or dry food should not be given without access to water. dulness ; fever, and in some cases shiv . Treatment. Give purgative medi- ering fits ; nose red and mouth hot ;

cine - linseed -oil, 1 pint, and plenty of breathing and pulse quick ; ears and legs watery food, gruel, &c. , and warm glys- cold ; and the passing of small quan ters of soap -and -water, repeating the tities of dung at short intervals. The

dose of oil when required. For chronic horse will show great pain by kicking constipation give daily a ball composed at his belly and whisking his tail. Cause. -A chill when overheated, of aloes, i dr.; nux vomica ,· 12 dr. ; carbonate ammonium , i dr.; ginger, I often from drinking cold water when dr. ; gentian, i dr. Dysentery.

hot, over-exertion, a too full meal when the animal is tired and worn out .

Prevention .

These inflammatory dis

A continual passing of semi - solid eases of the internal organs are very dung, tinged with blood. common among draught-horses. There

HORSES.

457

is no more pernicious habit than that of Treatment. Nothing can do any working horses during hot weather, with good except opium , which will ease pain

out allowing them for hours together to have any drinking-water till they get into a probably cold stable, where they are allowed to drink their fill and stand for

until death .

Inflammation of the Bladder. See Inflammation of the Kidneys for

an hour during the dinner-hour till they symptoms and treatment, infra. are chilled inside and out. It seems Cause. — Irritant matter in urine, or extraordinary that so many horses stand stone in the bladder. this treatment.

Allow farm -horses fre

quent moderate drinks of water while at their work, when that work is heating or the weather hot.

The exercise after

Inflammation of the Neck of the Bladder. Symptoms. — Distended bladder and

drinking will prevent any chills, and on partial to total suppression of urine.

Cause. — Overstraining or cold . their return to the stable they will eat Treatment. — Give purgative (No. 17 ), their corn without requiring water to an and three times daily in gruel a draught injurious extent. Treatment. — Place in a cool stable containing Fleming's tincture of aconite, and clothe warmly ; give warm glysters 5 drops ; tincture of opium , 1/2 oz.; bi of thin gruel and Epsom salts, 1/2 lb. carbonate of potash , 1/2 oz. Foment the belly with hot water and

Apply hot

fomentations to the loins, and call in a

rub it with embrocation (No 12 ), and veterinary surgeon, who will, if necessary , every three hours give in gruel tincture draw off the urine with a catheter. of ginger, 1 oz. ; tincture of opium, i oz.; Parturition. chloroform , 4 drs.

Rub and bandage

the legs. Give plenty of warm linseedThe act on the part of a mare to bring gruel. If costiveness continue, give forth her young. The period of preg with great caution in gruel small doses

nancy in the mare is usually eleven

of aloes, drs. dissolved, 12 pint months, sometimes variesThis be linseed -oil,2 and send for aandveterinary tween tenthough and ittwelve months. animal seldom brings forth more than

surgeon .

one at a time, nevertheless twins some

Inflammation of Stomach. A disease of rare occurence.

Symptoms. - Animal shows signs of

times do occur, but they rarely live long after birth .

Signs of Foaling. — The mare is dull,

pain, breathes hard, sweats about the abdomen sprung, back bent, vulva swollen, shoulders, thirst, flow of saliva, great and a little mucus discharged . The prostration, legs and ears become cold, udder becomes enlarged, wax appears the animal staggers, and soon dies. at the ends of teats. As the time draws Cause. Foreign body in stomach, or near the mare becomes restless, paws, from a vegetable or mineral poison. keeps on lying down, an anxious ex Treatment. - Give linseed -oil, i pint ; pression in the eyes, and frequent pas

tincture of opium , 2 oz., and give after sing of dung and urine.

The water-bag

every two hours two eggs beaten up in a soon makes its appearance, which ulti

pint of linseed -gruel, and add to it an mately bursts, afterwhich the young foal ounce of tincture of nux vomica, and one of tincture of belladonna .

Twist of the Bowels.

appears. Treatment.

- The mare should be

placed in a nice clean loose - box with plenty of straw, and do not disturb her

A twist in a portion of the bowels, by keeping open the door and looking in which causes strangulation, mortification, frequently. Inflammation of the Kidneys. Symptoms. — Excruciating pain, the animal is up and down, blowing heavy Symptoms. - Fever and peculiar posi and sweating, nothing seemsto give ease, tion , standing with legs wide apart ; hot and death .

and death comes as a happy release.

Cause. — Mostly rolling when in pain.

loins, and tenderness in that part ; sup

pressed urine, which is dark in colour

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

458

and tinged with blood ; straining to Treatment.—Should the attack be Put the hand up the severe, call in a veterinary surgeon. Give rectum , and the bladder under the for a purgative - sulphate of magnesia,

avoid urine.

rectum will be empty without undue In cases of inflammation of the

heat.

5 oz. ; virgin scammony, 30 grs.; and feed on bran-mashes with a light diet. A

neck of the bladder, it will feel hard and useful draught, to be given three times full. In cases of inflammation of the a -day in gruel, is composed of chloride bladder, it will feel empty, but there will ammonium, 2 drs.; bicarbonate potassium, be great heat.

12 oz.; Fleming's tincture of aconite, 5

Cause.----Unwholesome food, particu- drops ; chloroform , 72 oz. larly musty oats, or a violent overstrain ing or cold. Treatment. - Remove into a comfort-

able box, clothe warmly, give plenty of

Jaundice or Yellows.

Symptoms. - A yellow tinge in the eyes, skin, and mouth ; urine quite

water, feed on linseed and bran mashes, foment the loins with hot water. Apply embrocation ( No. 12 ) to the loins over the kidneys , but leave the turpentine out of the embrocation , and give purgative ( No. 17 ) ; give also warm glysters of soap -and-water. When the purgative has acted give white hellebore, 5 grs.; tartar emetic, i dr., mixed into a ball, three times a -day till cured. If possible, find out and remove the cause of the disease, if it arises from improper

yellow ; loss of appetite, and constipa tion.

food .

4 oz.; Fleming's tincture of aconite, 5 drops ; spirit of nitrous ether, 1/2 oz .

Inflammation of the Womb. An inflammatory disease of the womb shortly after foaling. Symptoms.

Animal becomes dull

Cause . —Obstruction of the flow of

bile from the liver, disease of the liver or congestion arising from cold or other cause. Treatment . - Feed on mashes, thin warm gruel, and green food ; clothe well

if weather is cold ; give every morning calomel, 12 dr. If inflammation sets in , give every morning in gruel a draught containing solution acetate ammonium , When recovering give tonic (No. 21 ). Peritonitis.

Inflammation of the lining membrane

and stiff, appetite lost, secretion of milk of the abdomen. diminished , breathing hurried ; the aniSymptoms. - Small hard pulse, colicky

mal grinds its teeth, suffers from colicky pains, dulness, constipation, and tender pains, frequently lies down, stamps, kicks ness on pressure over the abdomen, its belly, the vulva is swollen and a dis- which feels hard and rounded . charge comes from it, which is at

Cause. — It may arise from cold and

yellow , but afterwards becomes a choco- neglect, but generally from worms or wounds, as after castration .

late colour.

Cause . - Exposure to cold, retention of

Treatment. — Hot fomentations per

the after-birth, and injuries received dur- sistently applied ; give opium or laud ing foaling. Treatment.

Put hot cloths across

anum , with small doses of spirits of ammonia every four or five hours, gruel

the loins, and give every three hours the and linseed -tea to drink, and soft sloppy following draught in a pint of linseed- food. gruel: tincture of belladona, i oz. ; Poisons. spirits, ether (nitrous ), 2 oz. ; and soda poison that need vegetable The only sulphite, % oz. be mentioned is yew . The eating of Inflammation of the Liver. this tree accounts for the death of many

An uncommon disease .

horses every year.

If the poison is

Symptoms. - Dull pain, but no great suspected, give at once linseed-oil, 20 oz ., uneasiness, yellowness of the mouth and and drench with spirits of ammonia, nostrils.

3 oz. ; brandy, 5 oz. ; gruel, i pint.

Cause. — Overfeeding and insufficient Repeat dose of oil, if it does not operate in twelve hours.

exercise .

HORSES.

Lead -poisoning. A disease due to the introduction of lead into the system. Symptoms. — The horse has a care-

worn expression, staring coat, back

arched, legs cramped, colicky pains, and flow of saliva from the mouth .

459

Treatment. — Castrate by the covered

operation (p. 497). Staling of Blood, or mixture of blood with the urine.

Cause . — Inflammation of the kidneys. Treatment. - Feed on green meat and mashes ; clothe warmly ; give Fleming's

Cause. — Grazing near rifle -butts or tincture of aconite, 8 drops, every night.

lead-smelting works, drinking water im- Purgative (No. 17) should be given, and pregnated with lead, licking lead paints, three times a -day a draught in gruel, and the barbarous practice of giving shot composed of extract of ergot, 1/2 oz.; for broken wind.

tannin, 1 oz.; dilute sulphuric acid,

Treatment.— Give sulphate of mag 2 drs.

When the appearance of blood

nesia, 8 oz. , in a pint of water, with in the urine has ceased, give daily Per tincture of belladonna, 1 oz.; tincture of uvian bark, 1 oz. ; sulphate of iron, i dr. Stone in the Bladder ( Calculus). four hours until the animal is purged, sulphate of magnesia, 1 oz., tincture of Symptoms. - Irregular voidance of

capsicum , 1/2 oz. Afterwards, give every

belladonna, 1 oz., in half a pint of water. urine, sometimes total suppression, great pain, suddenness of attack, great uneasi Arsenic-poisoning.

ness, a sediment from the urine on the

Due to arsenic either given acci- floor of the stable, and profuse perspira dentally or intentionally.

tion during attack.

Symptoms. - Colic, staggering gait, Cause. Formation of solids in the quick breathing, cold ears, diarrhea, bladder, often brought on by weakness and death. or disease of the kidneys. Cause.—It is sometimes caused by Treatment.--Give morning and even

clever grooms giving it to improve the ing, in gruel, a draught containing bicar condition of their horses, or by allowing bonate of potassium, 1 oz.; benzoate animals to graze where recently dipped ammonium, 1 oz. If the gravel or small sheep have been lying. stones are not passed, place the case in Treatment. - Give every two hours the hands of a veterinary surgeon, who the following in half a pint of water : will treat it for calculus, the removal of

iron sesquioxide, 12 oz.; brandy, 12 which requires an operation, the stone being too large for the horse to pass.

pint.

Navel Rupture. A round swelling under the belly of young horses.

Worms.

Symptoms. - Rough coat and half starved appearance, at other times an

Symptoms.— A soft swelling in the enormous appetite, but no improvement centre of the abdomen, ranging in size in condition ; appearance of a yellow from a fowl's egg to a cocoa -nut.

powder about the anus, with irritation

Cause. — Due to non -closure of the and switching of the tail. navel. Treatment. When fasting give in Treatment. — Trusses, bandages, or gruel draught ( No. 11 ), and repeat in plasters frequently fail, and it may have three days. to be operated on by a veterinary sur Protrusion of Anus.

geon.

Cause. Scrotal Rupture. Descent of the small intestines into the scrotum .

A drastic purge, straining

during foaling, or in a violent fit of colic. Treatment,

Wash the anus with

By galloping, or a severe equal parts of olive oil and liquor opii strain, but very often there at birth. sedativus, and gently work it back to Cause .

Symptoms. — The testicles look large its proper place ; afterwards depress the and feel soft.

tail.

460

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

Symptoms. - Rarely lameness ; the DISEASES AFFECTING THE LIMBS, FEET, AND SKIN . I. -THE LIMBS .

swelling is hard, and about the size of a

large hen's egg Cause. — It is caused by the heel of the shoe in lying, which either irritates or squeezes the skin at the elbow , and sets up inflammation.

Broken Knees. Cause. — A fall. Horses

first brought Treatment. - If observed when only from a stable are liable, from no fault in commencing, treat as for capped hock ; their build, to stumble and fall through but if left until it gets confirmed and excitement. They are also apt to tread on callous, even blisters and setons are of a rolling stone and fall.

A horse that

little use .

Then it may have to be cut

stands over - i.e., whose fore legs are too out, but save the skin ; place in the far under him - and those that shuffle wound a piece of tow saturated with

along without lifting their feet, owing to chromic acid, 1 part to 20 parts of the formation of the shoulder, are very water, sew the wound up, pull the tow liable to fall forward . out next day, dress again with the Treatment. - Wash with warm water lotion, and continue dressing until and remove the dirt. Apply a linseed- healed. meal poultice to allay inflammation ; after twelve hours remove the poultice.

Curb.

A swelling below the hock, seen plainly If a yellow kind of oil exudes from the wound, it shows that the joint has been when the horse is viewed sideways. cut into, and a veterinary surgeon alone Cause. — A sprain of the ligament can deal with the case , which,to say the under the hock. Treatment . – Foment with hot water least, is a desperate one. If, however, there is no yellow joint-oilto be seen, wash and apply cooling lotion ( No. 7 ). If the the wound with a weak solution of carbo- swelling does not go down, apply blister lic acid, or boric acid, i part ; water, 30 (No. 4 ), and give complete rest. Curby parts ; adjust the injured pieces of skin, hocks are natural to some horses, but apply a piece of carbolised tow, bandage once the horse reaches maturity they with carbolised gauze, and so dress twice seldom give trouble . a -day. Keep animal on the pillar reins Cutting. until the knees are healed .

If inflam

mation runs high, give every four hours

The name given when a horse strikes

in gruel a draught containing salicylate the inside of the fetlock with the shoe sodium , 3 drs. Purgative (No. 19) may of the other foot. Horses with feet be useful if the health of the horse is turned in or out, especially the latter, affected .

are most liable to this defect.

It is

often brought on by fatigue or by work ing a young horse too soon.

Capped Ilocks, Treatment. or a swelling on the point of the hock, Let the shoe fit the which does not often cause lameness, but hoof of the cutting foot, which should is shown by the swelling and tenderness be rasped on the inside to reduce it. on the point of the hock. Foment the swelling caused by the

Cause. - Often caused by striking a bruises, and apply lotion (No. 7). See closing door or gate.

remarks on “Speedy Cut ” ( p. 463). Enlargement of the Hock. and bathe with cooling lotion (No. 7) ; Treatment.--Foment with hot water

give complete rest till cured. Apply blister ( No. 4) if the swelling has a

Arising from inflammation. Cause. — A sprain or a blow, such as a

tendency to harden. If this swelling is kick by another horse : it produces great neglected it may prove incurable.

lameness.

Treatment. —Foment with hot water, Capped Elbow .

apply lotion ( No. 7 ), and give perfect A hard swelling at the elbow, varying rest. Purgative (No. 19) will help to in size.

relieve the inflammation , or a draught

HORSES.

461

in gruel, containing salicylate sodium, 3 with cold water without afterwards dry drs., every four hours.

ing the legs, and chills caused by work If any enlargement remains when the inwet, muddy ground, after keeping in inflammation is reduced , apply blister too warm a stable. ( No. 4). The object in view must be to Prevention. — The legs of horses sub prevent a permanent enlargement of the ject to this disease should not be washed unless they are afterwards dried.

hock .

Let

the mud dry on the legs, and then brush it off; it is more than probable if you

Fractures

are divided into simple, compound, and do this, you will have no more trouble, compound comminuted fractures. provided other conditions are favour A simple fracture is when the bone able. Wash the heel with Treatment. is broken into two pieces, compound when broken and associated with a warm soap-and-water, or if very bad, wound, and a compound comminuted poultice at first with boiled turnips and

when broken into several pieces and bran, sprinkling the sores all over with associated with a wound.

soot before applying the poultice, and In the horse simple fractures are the rub in ointment composed of oleate of

only ones worth trying to treat.

In the zinc, i part, and vaseline, 2 parts ; or

case of the other two kinds, the sooner the animal is destroyed the better. Before trying to set a fractured limb, it is wise to consider whether the animal is worth it, and if placed in slings will

lard, 1 oz ., sugar of lead, i dr.; or wash with lotion containing chromic acid, i part, water, 8 parts. If the case proves obdurate, useointment containing white precipitate of mercury, i dr.; liquor

he be quiet. Having decided to set the carbonis detergens, 1 dr.; vaseline, 1 oz. limb, place the animal in slings ; take Give a mild alterative, Barbadoes aloes, 4 drs.; Castile soap, i dr. ; oil of cara and mould it to the limb, or use some ways, 10 drops, or condition powders some gutta-percha, place it in hot water,

sheet-tin, and after moulding it to the part, cover with some fannel to prevent its cutting at edges. Take the splints thus made, place them on the part to

(No. 6 ). Sulphate of soda, 4 oz., in the food every night may prove a useful aperient. Iodide of arsenic, 4 grs.; liquorice powder,2 drs. ; gentian, 3 drs.,

be set, and pack where they do not exactly fit with tow ; then take a nice long bandage, wind it tightly around, and do not touch it for a couple of

made into a ball with treacle and lin seed -meal, is a very good thing for this disease, and a ball should be given every night.

months.

If the animal is a restless one, it will

be only wasting time to try and set the limb.

It is a false but popular idea that

horses' bones will not unite ; nothing

will unite quicker, if the animal will only nurse its limb.

Groggines , see Navicular Disease ( p. 467).

Open Joints. The following joints are sometimes opened : hock, stifle, knee, and fetlock joint.

Grease.

Symptoms. — Great pain and lame

A disease of the skin of the heel, gen- ness ; a small wound is seen , and from erally of the hind feet. it flows a yellowish fluid the consistency Symptoms. - Inflammation, with pain of glycerine. and lameness at first ; discharge of mat-

Cause .

Kick from another horse,

ter ; at first limpid , soon gets thick, accidents of various kinds, and by a foetid , and irritating; swelling ; often

groom pricking the horse with his fork

going on to ulceration and the forma- when bedding the animal up. Treatment is unsatisfactory. Give a tion of fungus - like growths called dose of physic ; place a cold-water band “ grapes.” Cause . — Too little exercise and too age around the joint for twenty - four

much corn ; bad or innutritious food ; hours ; afterwards call in a veterinary too much coarse boiled food ; washing surgeon.

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

462

sary in extreme cases to apply blister Knee- Tied .

A natural defect, for which there is no It is a want of depth under the knee, owing to the hinder knee-bone not cure .

being large enough. Mallenders and Sallenders.

( No. 1 ).

Rupture of the Suspensory Ligament. Lameness from this cause is generally

incurable. The suspensory ligament sus tains the foot, and the rupture of it allows the fetlock to drop down almost

Dry scurfy humours, which, when to the ground. If the horse cannot bend affecting the front of the hock, are called his foot, it is not the suspensory ligament Sallenders, and when under the back of that is ruptured. the knee Mallenders.

Cause.-Neglect in the stable.

Cause. -Over-exertion or strain .

Treatment. — Perfect rest, and put on

Treatment. - Rest, and apply oint- a high -heeled shoe. Bandage the legs,1 ment containing tar, 1 oz.; sugar of lead, foment, and apply lotion (No. 7) ; if this 1/2 oz.; lard, 4 oz.; and give draught does not reduce the swelling, apply

morning and evening containing bicar- blister (No. 4) and give a mild purga bonate potassium , 6 drs.; spirit nitrous tive (No. 19 ). In most cases ether, i oz.; tincture gentian, 1 oz. ;

the lameness will be

Feed on green food and permanent. improve stable management. If the Hip Knocked Down. above treatment is not successful, apply blister (No. 4), mixed with three times Symptoms. – At first great swelling, its weight of lard. the animal goes lame, but when the swelling is reduced the hip that is water, 8 oz.

Tumours.

knocked down looks less than the other

There are two kinds, internal and ex- when looking at it from behind. The former are usually situated Cause . Through falling, in knocking in the brain , womb, abdomen, and liver, against a wall, in passing through a and nothing within the power of man doorway.

ternal.

can do any good.

The external tumours

Treatment . — Little can be done ex

are the ones we are often asked to cure, cept placing the animal in slings, and and they usually appear on the shoulders, bathing the part with hot water; if an neck, under the tail, and at the end of abscess forms, the piece of bone that is knocked off must be cut down upon and Treatment. — There are various ways removed. of removing them, and the best is by the Spavin. knife. If the tumour is narrow at its base, an easy and safe way to remove it There are two kinds the cord after castration .

is by winding a piece of green silk 1. Bone- Spavin . around its base, and allowing it to drop off. In cutting large tumours out, veterSymptoms. — Bony enlargement on inary surgeons sometimes come in con- the inside of the hock -joint towards its tact with large arteries, and these must lower aspect, producing lameness when

be caught up and tied. When a tumour first formed, till the parts accommodate appears after castration, use the hot iron themselves to the enlargement. After and clams to remove it. Rheumatism .

Change of temperature and cold often

wards, the lameness may be apparent only when the horse is first taken out of the stable, unless it interferes with the movement of the joint, when a small

produce stiffness of the joints, varying spavin may permanently lame a horse. Cause. —Hereditary, local injury,

in intensity.

Treatment.-Keep the animal warm , sprains of the ligamentsand concussion, and rub the part affected with lini The frequent bandaging of the legs is apt ment of belladonna, and morning and to 1 produce an unsightly curliness of the hair. evening give in a pint of water iodide The application of alum, 1 oz .; salt, 2 oz .; in of potassium , i dr. It might be neces- 1 quart of water, will do much to remedy it.

HORSES.

463

Symptoms. — The skin is torn, but overwork when young, peculiar formathe wound is not of any depth. tion, improper shoeing. Treatment. - Wash well with warm Treatment. — Perfect rest and repeated

application of blister (No. 4). Should water, dress with tincture of myrrh, and blistering not remove the lameness, firing dust fuller's earth over it. may have to be resorted to. I have found ossoline effect a cure when other

remedies fail. Spavins always constitute

Incised Wounds.

Caused by a knife, scythe, or any such sharp instrument.

unsoundness.

2. Bog - Sparin.

Symptoms. — The wound usually is deep, and the edges cleanly cut.

Symptoms. — A tumour, resembling Treatment. – Having thoroughly a wind-gall on the hock, formed on the cleansed the wound, sew it up with car inside of the front of the hock. The bolised gut, and dress with liq. carbo swelling is due to distension of the bursa detergens, 1 oz. to 30 oz. of water. of the hock with joint-oil, and is usually Punctured Wounds. permanent, but does not much interfere with slow work. Caused by long nails, horns of cattle,

Cause. — Sprain and over - exertion . forks, parts of agricultural implements, Hereditary conformation.

and broken shafts.

Symptoms. - A wound of some depth, advisable to keep the horse for slow and though it may not be large to look Treatment.

If it is not considered

work without treating the spavin, which, at, it is the most fatalof all wounds. Treatment. — If it is bleeding freely, pursue, apply blister (No. 3) and allow plug it up for some hours with carbolised

in my opinion, is the wisest course to

perfect rest, in the hope of effecting a tow ; after the tow is removed, inject

cure, but it is not likely to be permanent.

into the wound, by the aid of a wound syringe, the following lotion : glycerine, Speedy Cut. 3 oz. ; carbolic acid, 1 oz. ; water, 30 oz. ; Horses are apt to strike the inside of and keep in the wound a piece of tow the fore leg at the lower part of the knee soaked in the lotion, until itheals. Re

with the other foot when trotting fast, member, wounds of this kind must heal or lifting their feet high. Horsesliable from the bottom . to this are dangerous to ride or drive, Contused Wounds. the force of the blow being sufficient in Caused by a severe blow, fall, or kick. some cases to bring them down . Great

pain and inflammation and swelling result from the blow .

Prevention . - Cut the hoof away on

Symptoms. — This is more of a bruise than a wound. Treatment.— Bathe

for

two hours

the inside, and put on a shoe of equal twice a -day, and afterwards dress it with thickness at toe and heel, having only lotion (No. 7 ). one nail on the inside, and not project

ing beyond the part of the hoof which has been rasped. Keep a speedy cutting

Lacerated Wounds.

Caused by a bite from a dog or horse, boot on the injured leg to protect it. by being entangled in a fence and strug Foment the bruise, gling, and in coming against the latch of Treatment. apply lotion (No. 7 ), and allow complete a door in passing through it. rest till cured.

If the bruises have a

Symptoms. - A wound usually of some

tendency to harden, apply blister (No. 4). size with its edges ragged . Treatment. — Cleanse the wound well

Wounds.

with hot water, sew up any part you

Wounds are divided into abrasions, in- think necessary, and dress with liq. carbo cised, punctured, contused, and lacerated detergens, i part ; water, 30 parts. wounds. An Abrasion . Splint. Caused by falls, kicks, barb -wire, and short nails, &c.

Symptoms. - A bony enlargement on the inside of the fore leg below the knee.

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

464

It often produces lameness until fully on for a few days, and then blister with grown, when the lameness disappears, (No. 1). unless the splint interferes with a tendon Sprain of the Fetlock. or joint. Splints are not thought much Symptoms. — Lameness, attended with of unless near a tendon or joint. Cause. — Young horses are very sub- heat and tenderness of the fetlock, is prob

ject to splints: they arise from injuries ably a sprain of the fetlock . to and a sudden weight thrown upon the Treatment. - Apply repeatedly blister

bones of the legs, and usually found on (No. 3) till the heat subsides, then ban the inside of the canon bones of the dage lightly to strengthen the fetlock ; give perfect rest.

fore legs.

Treatment.-- Blister (No. 4) applied Sprain of the Round Bone or Hip. once or twice will generally effect a cure. As a horse gets older splints will generSymptoms. — A sprain of the rounded ally disappear. bone of the thigh, by which the horse loses all power of moving that quarter, Sprain of the Back Sinews. and drags his leg, resting it on the toe Symptoms. — Great pain, thickening alone. and inflammation in the leg above the

Cause.—Sudden strain, slip, or fall.

fetlock, preventing the horse bringing Treatment. — Foment and apply im his foot flat to theground. The leg will mediately blister (No. 3), and call in a appear to be round instead of flat.

veterinary surgeon .

Cause . - Inflammation of the sheath

Sprain of the Shoulder.

which encloses the back tendons, the re

Symptoms.--Great pain, especially Treatment. — Perfect rest ; foment when going down -hill, and a dragging with hot water and then poultice with of the foot forward on the toe . If the

sult of hard work or excessive strain .

linseed-meal and bathe with lotion ( No.

foot is drawn forward, the horse shows

7 ) ; keep the bowels open with purgative pain. No outward swelling or heat. (No. 19). When the heat subsides, and Cause.—Accident from slipping or the horse can put his foot flat to the going over rough ground. Young horses ground, bandage the leg with bandages are very liable to this. steeped in vinegar. Should the inflamTreatment. — Perfect rest ; apply hot

mation continue, apply embrocation (No. fomentations to the shoulder necessary, and bathe 12 ), or blister ( No. 3), and give two or with lotion (No. 7 ), and, if three months' complete rest.

Sprain of the Coffin -joint.

blister (No. 3) ; keep down inflammation by giving purgative (No. 19). A long rest , combined with this treatment, will

Symptoms. - Sudden lameness, and generally effect a cure. heat and tenderness round the coronet. Treatment. This kind of sprain should be treated at once, before the

inflammation spreads.

Shoulder -Stip. A peculiar outward movement of the

Apply blister shoulder when the animal walks, some

( No. 3), and give occasionally purgative times, but not always, accompanied by ( No. 19). Bandage the leg and give lameness. Symptoms. — The shoulder-joint looks enlarged, but the muscles of the shoulder

perfect rest. Sore Shins.

are wasted.

Cause .-- By horse being put to plough too young ; by the one foot beingin the Symptoms. — Lameness ; if both legs furrow and the other out, and by pulling are affected, the animal rests first on one awkwardly and using the shoulders un then on the other leg, and the legs have equally before getting accustomed to the Common in young horses that have

not done much work.

a doughy feel.

draught.

Treatment.-- Blister the shoulder with Cause.-By a young horse galloping before the bones are properly developed. (No. 1 ), and turn the animal out for three

Treatment. - Put cold-water bandages months.

HORSES.

465

morning, may relieve and strengthen the

Sprain of the Stifle - joint.

system with satisfactory results.

Symptoms. - Dropping of the hind

quarters and dragging of the leg ; great heat and swelling , and tenderness of the stifle.

Cause.—A blow, sprain , or overwork. Treatment.

If the stifle has been

Mud -fever. Symptoms. - Heat and swelling of the legs, and the animal goes stiff ; there is

certain amount of fever, hence the name .

Cause. — The chilling and caustic dislocated from a kick or blow , send for a veterinary surgeon, who alone can action of mud, which in cold weather judge as to the treatment. In case of produces inflammation in the legs of sprain, apply warm fomentations and horses, especially when the legs are ren lotion (No. 7 ) till the inflammation is dered tender by clipping, repeated wash somewhat reduced , and then apply blis - ing, and imperfect drying. Prevention . — Do not clip the horse's ter (No. 3) ; give perfect rest and purgative ( No. 19).

Dislocation of the Stifle-joint.

legs ; let the mud dry, and then brush it off ; never wash them. Treatment. — Dress the legs with a

This disease is usually seen in young mixture of glycerine, 8 oz.; carbolic acid , horses, and is due to the slipping out- i dr.; and liq. plumbi acet., I 02. wards of the patella or bone which corresponds to the lid of the human knee.

Swelled Legs. Horses of a coarse nature are very sub

Symptoms. - One or both stifles may ject to swollen legs, especially the hind be wrong, the joint looks swollen, and ones. Symptoms. - With or without great when the animal moves it slips out and heat ; lameness accompanied by quick in with a peculiar noise. Cause. --Hard galloping, feeding on pulse and fever. Cause. — Overfeeding, too little exer hilly pasture, and often a disease of the joints occurring in foals. Treatment. - In young horses, seems

cise, and change of food . Treatment. — If there is much fever,

to be of little use ; but blisters may be foment the legs, bathe with lotion (No. 7), tried. If the swelling is accompanied by and give a ball containing turpentine, i heat and pain, apply hot fomentations oz. ; ginger, 72 dr.; linseed -meal, 72 02. ; and cooling lotion first. In older horses and two hours after give purgative (No.

it can be reduced by flexing ( working 19). If there is not much fever but backwards and forwards) the leg; push swelling, stiffness, and pain in the legs, it back into its proper place, and apply a foment them and rub lightly with em brocation (No. 12 ). Give gentle exercise

blister.

and purgative (No. 19). String-halt. Symptoms. - A sudden snatching up of the hind leg or legs, but usually only

Thoroughpin .

Symptoms. —Very similar to wind one leg, which makes the horse's action gall (see below ). An enlargement at peculiar. Probably a nervous disease, the upper and back part of the hock and practically incurable.

It produces between the tendon and the bone. It

no lameness, but is liable to get worse, usually projects on both sides of the and is always considered unsoundness.

hock, but rarely causes lameness, if

Cause.—Often produced by rheuma- taken in time before the swelling be tism or by leaving a horse standing in a comes callous. stable without sufficient exercise, and is Cause.—Overwork or strain. hereditary. Treatment. — Rest, and apply blister

Treatment.- Doses containing citrate (No.3 or 4) till the swelling is reduced. iron, 2 drs.; and ammonium , 2 drs.; tincture nux vomica, 2 drs. ; tincture

Wind-galls. Symptoms.— Puffy elastic swellings capsicum , 2 drs. ; carbonate of ammonium , 2 drs. , given in water night and situated just above the fetlock, which VOL. III .

2 G

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

466

become large and hard, causing lame

Corns.

ness .

- Strain of the tendons, and overwork in young horses. Cause .

Symptoms.— The horn of the sole becomes reddish, soft, and tender. The

Treatment. — Bandage with flannel horse will flinch when this part is pressed, steeped in vinegar till the swelling sub- and occasional or permanent lameness re sides.

If this does not effect a cure,

sults.

blister (No. 3) should be applied. WindCause. — Careless shoeing or tight galls do not, as a rule, cause unsound- shoes, producing undue pressure at a particular point.

ness.

Treatment. — Old corns are difficult II . -

THE FOOT.

to cure ; fresh ones may be prevented increasing by proper shoeing, and by paring the corn as far as possible with

Canker.

A disease of the frog, often extending out wounding the sole. A bar-shoe may to the sole.

Symptoms.

This disease is some-

be put on in serious cases with advan tage, and the horse shod with leather.

times the result of neglected thrush, and

False Quarter. differs from it in its tendency to spread, and in the swelling or enlargement of Symptoms. - It is due to a division the affected parts. The diseased frog of or a want of secretion by part of the

assumes a soft, fungatory appearance ; is coronary band, which extends as the liable to bleed on being touched ; emits a very fætid, offensive, although nearly colourless discharge ; and unless energetically treated the disease is apt to spread over the whole sole.

horn grows downwards, making a fis sure or wide groove in the hoof.

It is

a serious defect, often resulting in in flammation and lameness, and from the thinness of the horn it is very liable to

Cause. — Hereditary; but often neglect injury during work. and want of cleanliness. Treatment.—Cut away

Cause. — Injury to the coronary liga

the sole where ment, and sometimes the consequence of

the canker is situated, removing all fungus, and apply acid solution of nitrate of

neglected sand -crack .

Treatment.-Apply blister (No. 5 ) to

mercury and bandage up the foot, or dust the coronet, and treat the fissure as for on iodoform night and morning; morn- Sand -crack (see p . 468 ). Should the ing and night bathe with lotion - carbolic secreting coronary band be permanently

acid, 1 part ; glycerine, 1 part ; and in injured , no remedy will cure the disease. four days repeat the application of acid solution. If the fungus still grows, call in the aid of a veterinary surgeon. Contraction of the Foot.

Symptoms. - A natural hoof is nearly

Founder (acute), or inflammation of the feet. Symptoms. — Great restlessness and

continual shifting of the animal's weight from onefoot to the other ; pain, fever,

circular, but sometimes through neglect heaving flanks, hot feet. After a time or bad shoeing the hoof is made concave, the horse will lie down and will then

and the heel contracts, producing per- rest quietly. manent lameness if not attended to.

Cause.

· Violent exertion on hard

Cause. — Neglect in stable manage- roads, or cold causing inflammation ; ment or shoeing. Extreme dryness, or feeding on wheat ; unusual or inordin allowing the shoes to remain on too long, will cause the hoof to shrink.

ate feeding of any kind ; from inflam mation of the lungs, or bowels ; or from

Prevention. – Stopping the feet with drinking largely of cold water when cow -dung or moist clay , and removing overheated. Treatment.

the shoes.

Remove

the

shoes,

foment the feet, and poultice with lin hardly ever be cured, but if it is decided seed -meal or bran. Give a draught in Treatment.

A contracted foot can

to attempt a cure, a veterinary surgeon gruel every six hours, containing bi should be called in.

carbonate of potassium , 1 oz.; Flem

HORSES.

467

ing's tincture of aconite, 5 drops ; the tender part being of course shown nitrous ether, I OZ.

Feed on mashes

by the horse flinching.

and green food, and keep the poultices Cause . — Commonly a fault in shoe on for three days. Bathe the foot with ing, or a wound caused by a stone, flint, lotion containing ammonium chloride, 2 piece of glass, or nail on the road . oz. ; potassium nitrate, 2 oz., in 16 oz. Treatment. — Having found the ten If the inflammation continues der place, pare that part of the sole

water.

after three days of such treatment, ap- down to the quick, and fill up the ply blister (No.2 ) to the pastern. In wound with a little tow dipped in extreme cases the aid of a veterinary friars' balsam . If the horse is very surgeon is necessary. Founder (chronic). The result of acute founder or inflammation of the foot, and nothing can cure

lame, or if the wound is festering, apply a poultice of linseed-meal or bran. If

it does not heal, touch the place with chloride of antimony, which should in duce the crust to form.

it ; shoeing may do good . Pumiced Feet. Navicular Joint Disease.

A result of inflammation of the feet.

Symptoms. — A sprain of the joint The exudate thrown out between the made by the shuttle-bone at the back wall of the hoof and the coffin -bone dur

of the coffin -joint in the foot of the horse ing inflammation of the feet forces the will, if the cartilage of the bone is in- latter to press on the sole of the foot,

flamed, produce lameness. When first flattening it and causing what is called brought out of the stable, the horse will a " pumiced ” foot. tread on his toes and avoid bringing his Symptoms. - Hollowness of the

heel to the ground ; consequently he will middle of the front part of the foot. go lame down-hill ; when resting he will Fulness or convexity of the sole. Cause . —Inflammation of the foot, or point his feet. This lameness is very

deceptive , and has often been judged to very hard work, especially on hard roads be in the shoulder.

or streets.

Hereditary ; over - exercise after undue rest. Cause.

Treatment. - No cure.

Blisters or

stimulating dressings to the coronets

Treatment.-- Foment and apply hot may be tried, to increase the growth of

linseed -meal or bran poultices ; and give healthy horn. Care - in shoeing—that purgative ( No. 19). The early advice of nothing presses on the pumiced part of

a veterinary surgeon should be obtained, the foot, or a bar-shoe, is the only thing and he will best determine how ulcera-

that can be done.

tion and ossification of the cartilage can be prevented.

Quittor.

Over -reaching,

A suppurating wound of the coronet, often arising from a neglected prick.

or wounding of the coronet with the Wounds of this nature are very serious, other foot.

and should be left to the veterinary Symptoms. — Often inflammation and surgeon.

pain ; and the wound, however slight apparently, should not be neglected . Treatment . - Wash all dirt from the

Ringbone. A most prevalent disease situated in

wound, apply a piece of tow dipped in the pastern. In the hind feet, unless friars' balsam , and tie it up.

In severe

the disease is found at the front of the

cases poultice with linseed -meal or bran. foot, the horse will walk on his toes ; If the wound does not heal, call in a in the fore feet, owing to the greater veterinary surgeon . concussion, it is generally at the front and sides, and the animal will walk on Pricks or Wounds in the Sole. Symptoms. Lameness, which

his heel.

can Symptomg. - Pain and inflammation, probably be located by pressing all with enlargement of the bone above the round the sole with a pair of pincers, coronet, generally on both sides of the

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

468

pastern -joint, which, if not checked, will practicable ; pare away the diseased por spread rapidly. tion of the hoof, and apply blister ( No.

Cause .—Horses having straight pas- 2) to the coronet.

Rest till

cured.

terns are very liable to this disease, ow- Afterwards shoe with side -clips. ing to their peculiar formation . It may Side -bones. also be hereditary: Symptoms. Somewhat similar to Treatment. - Apply hot poultices to the leg and give purgative (No. 19), re- Ringbone ( p. 467 ), except that the disease

peating the dose if necessary. If there is located above the heel ; it is an ossi is no improvement, blister once or twice fication of the cartilages of the foot. with No. 4. Firing is often resorted to Usually found in heavy draught-horses, with success. Complete rest for some months will be necessary .

and in the fore feet rather than in the

Treatment. - Wash the crack to clean

hind feet. If the horse has good, well developed feet, they do not generally cause lameness. Concussion and hereditary Cause . predisposition ; bad shoeing . Treatment. - Apply blister ( No. 5 ) ; if this does not cure the lameness, have Professor Smith's operation performed on the foot by a veterinary surgeon ; some of the well-known patent specifics

it from gravel and dirt. If the pain and

may be tried with a chance of success.

Sand -crack. Symptoms. - Cracks in the fore feet

will generally be found on the inner side, and in the hind feet in the front of the hoof.

Cause.—Brittle nature of the hoof, previous disease, heavy work or neglect.

lameness are severe, it may have to be Thrush . poulticed. Pare and rasp it, and apply ointment composed of oil of tar, 2 oz.; A disease of the frog, which secretes a fish -oil, 4 oz.; and stop the foot with fætid matter instead of horn. cow -dung and moist clay. By passing a Symptoms. A discharge of matter red-hot iron above and below the crack,

from the cleft of the frog. There is not

healthy sound horn may be got to grow often lameness, and the disease can be from the top. If any growth of proud detected only by the matter exuding

flesh appears in the crack, apply nitric from the frog. If thrush is neglected , it acid, and blister the coronet with No. 2 . Give rest and cover the crack with a

will increase, the frog will become soft and split up , the horn will disappear, and

plaster made of pitch, and bind the canker of the sole may supervene. whole up firmly for five days. If the Cause.- Generally excessive moisture coronet has been divided, the aid of a in the bedding, bad stable management,

veterinary surgeon had better be ob- and constitutional predisposition. tained .

Treatment.— Give purgative (No. 19),

Seedy Toe.

clean the frog thoroughly, and pare away all loose horn, apply a lotion to the frog,

A disease of the foot in which an un- composed of carbolic acid , i part ; gly

healthy horn is secreted that fails to cerine, 6 parts, and place tow moistened maintain the connection between the with this lotion in the cleft of the frog horny laminæ and the wall of the hoof. every night. If possible, remove the Symptoms. — There may or may not cause of the disease.

It is not necessary

be a swelling of the wall of the foot, or expedient to turn the horse out to generally situated at the toe ; sometimes attended with lameness. If the part

grass.

Weakness of the Foot. affected is rapped with a hammer it will sound hollow , and by paring, the crack Generally a fault in the make of the or hollow inside the wall-part of the foot horse. Sometimes the result of disease. can be found.

A well-formed foot should be at an angle

Cause.- Previous disease or injury, of 45 ° from the coronet to the toe; a naturally weak feet, pressure of a part weak foot will be perhaps 36° to 40°, of the shoe, generally the clip. which is not sufficient to bear the pres Treatment. - Remove the cause, if sure required. No cure for this defect.

HORSES .

469

Rasping the wall of the hoof is often the cause of this complaint.

Lice

Firing

may be destroyed by applying a lotion composed of tobacco, 4 drs., in a

is a painful operation often unnecessarily pint of hot water, or by using an oint performed, for more than 50 per cent of ment composed of white precipitate of the horses that are fired are as lame mercury, i part, lard, 12 parts, well

after the operation as they were before. rubbed in. It is best to clip the horse Firing was at one time greatly in vogue, before applying these dressings. Clean

but, like bleeding, it is getting out of liness and nourishing food will prevent fashion, and by -and -by horses with fired their reappearance. legs will be as rare as those with cut ears. It is thought by some that the lines in

firing act as a permanent bandage to the

Mange or Itch.

Symptoms. - Loss of hair, itching,

weakened part : such is not the case, tenderness, and scurfy eruption, from but firing does act as a counter-irritant which matter issues. When the scab of a severe kind .

falls off, a larger blotch will appear. It

Before you resort to firing, blister your generally begins at the root of the mane horse once or twice, and give it a three or on the neck . months' run at grass ; then if it comes

Cause. —Stable neglect, dirt, and con

up lame, think about firing; but remem- tagion, it being due to the presence of ber there are some cases of lameness that animal parasites - small insects called nothing will ever cure.

Acari.

Treatment.--Give purgative ( No. 20), There are two kinds of firing—lines and dots : line firing is the best for and rub the places with ointment com curbs, ringbones, and the back tendons; posed of sulphur, 1 oz. ; lard, 1 oz. If

the dots are preferable for splints and this does not effect a cure, add to the ointment 30 grs. of white precipitate of spavins. Having clipped the hair off the part to mercury. This disease is often very

be fired, secure your animal, take the obstinate , and patience must be exercised.

iron and make the lines at first super- A little salt should be given with nour ficial, then with a fresh iron deepen them , ishing food, and the skin kept clean, but never go through the skin in line using warm soap -and -water for the pur firing ; afterwards rub blister in, and tie pose. Complete isolation is necessary.

the animal's head up for forty-eight Wash the stable, harness, brushes, &c., hours.

Blistering. Clip the hair off the chosen part, and

with solution of chloride of lime, i pint in 3 gallons of water, before they are used again.

Ringworm . then tie the animal up for twenty -four Symptoms.- A parasitic fungus, which hours. After a few days a second or affects the skin in circular patches ; the third application may be necessary. hair comes off, leaving a dry and scaly eruption .

rub the blister in for at least ten minutes,

Cause. - Contagion, neglect, or dirt. Treatment. - If the animal is in high condition, or in a disordered state, give Hide -bound . purgative (No. 20 ), but if not, give A want of oily matter, which produces nourishing food, and keep him clean III. —THE SKIN AND ITS DISEASES .

hardness of the skin, giving the coat a

and isolated from

other animals.

Rub

rough look. It shows thatthe digestive the fungus with ointment composed organs are out of order, and is not so much a disease of the skin itself.

of oleate of mercury, i part ; lard , 2 parts, till cured . Clean the stable,

Treatment.-- Givepurgative (No. 19), harness, brushes, &c., with water con

and afterwards daily in the food condi- taining i pint of chloride of lime to tion powder (No. 6). Powerful tonics 3 gallons of water before they are used should be avoided .

again .

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

470

by injury to spine, and before or after Nettle-rash or Surfeit. calving, and is called parturient paralysis. Give purge (No. 27), Treatment. Symptoms. - Large pimples, disap-

pearing as quickly as they come, which and apply liniment (No. 26 ) to the whole spread from the neck to different parts of length of the spine, and every night and morning give in a pint of ale thefollow Cause . — Exposure to chills, or drink- ing drench : tincture of nux vomica, 2 ing cold water when hot. oz. ; iodide of potassium , 2 drs.; sulphate Treatment.— Give in a pint of water of iron, i dr.; turn the animal once a . 2 oz. of spirits of ether and i oz. of day. When paralysis appears before tincture of ginger, and then treat the calving, the cow usually calves before she rises ; but if it appears after calving, same as for Hide-bound (p. 469). the body.

treatment often does little good, and if fat it may be best to kill the animal. But if a cure is to be tried, pursue the

CATTLE. DISEASES AFFECTING THE HEAD, EYES, MOUTH , AND NERVOUS SYSTEM.

same line of treatment as before calving, and try galvanism . Thrush in the Mouth .

Inflammation of the Brain. This usually appears as an epidemic May arise from violence, disease, or as amongst cattle in cold and wet weather. Symptoms.-- Small pimples and vesi an effect of poisons. Symptoms. - Great pain and moaning, cles appear on the tongue, lips, and slow respiration, eyes red , loss of con- about the mouth ; they break and form sciousness. Attacks of delirium , and ulcers, but these ulcers soon heal. There the beast becomes ungovernable till is not much danger in this disease, though stupefaction returns, accompanied by ex- a little fever often exists. treme weakness; at length death ensues. Treatment . — Give purge (No. 28) ; Cause. — Exposure to great heat, want wash the mouth out with alum -water, i of water, overdriving ; sudden change part of alum to 30 of water, and give into a rich pasture . Treatment.

If the beast is in fair

night and morning, in a pint of water, i oz. of salicylate ofsoda.

condition you should slaughter it at once. Lockjaw or Tetanus. If not, give linseed -oil, 2 pints; croton oil, 2 dr., and three times a day, in A disease of the nerves, producing gruel, hydrate of chloral, 1 oz.; bromide contraction or spasm of the muscles. of potassium , 1 oz.; and apply ice or cold water to the head.

If the animal

Symptoms. - Sluggishness, and for

some days increasing difficulty in masti

survives the first stage, blister the crown cation and swallowing, till the jaw sud of the head and sides of the neck denly becomes rigid . The contraction with No. 22 .

Most probably the animal of the muscles will then extend to the head, neck, and shoulders, and appear to cramp the whole body. Constipation.

will never recover .

Paralysis. Recovery is very doubtful. Generally some wound or Cause . There may be palsy of the half, or any

part, or of the whole of the body. Symptoms. — The animal lies, eats,

blow affecting a muscle, or exposure to cold.

and chews its cud as if nothing were wrong ; but when you try to rouse it you will see it makes several attempts to get on its legs but fails. When parturient paralysisappears before calving, it is not so serious as the form of paralysis that comes after calving or an attack of milk-

prompt to be efficacious. Give if pos sible at once, linseed oil, 2 pints ; croton

fever.

oil, 12 dr.

Cause.—By derangement

Prevention.-If this disease is sus

pected, give in gruel Epsom salts, 1 lb., and Fleming's tincture of aconite, 10 drops. Treatment. - Any treatment must be

Inject every three hours

of the glyster of warm gruel, with 12 lb. Epsom

stomach, and is called reflex paralysis ; salts in it. If constipation continues, re

CATTLE.

471

the base of the horn, which is much water. Should the attack result from thicker in young than in old animals. a wound, poultice it ; and treat as Dishorning causes an abnormal increase directed for the same disease in the of pulsation and temperature, which ex peat the dose of croton -oil in warm

horse .

Try to induce the animal to tends over several days. The appetite

drink strong gruel to support the sys- is also affected during the twenty -four tem , and keep the bowels open by the hours succeeding the operation. (4)

addition of Epsom salts, 42 Ib., or com- Dishorning is more especially to be re mon salt, 1/2 lb. As in the case of the commended for those animals that are horse, tetanus does not affect the inter- of vicious temperament, that are what nal organs ; the beast will often suffer are termed masters ’; to be applied to bulls and to beef animals that are kept intense hunger if it cannot get gruel. quiet and closely stabled or shipped. Cancer of the Tongue. (5) From evidence quoted from other This disease, though not often sus- sources, it appears that dishorning is not

pected, frequently exists, and the teeth necessarily a cruel practice, but may be are usually blamed for it ; but the dis- conducted to promote ends that are both ease now known as actino-nycosis is humane and desirable in live - stock often mistaken for cancer.

breeding

Mr Sadler, British Consul

Symptoms.— The animal is unthrifty, at Chicago, reports that in his very ex off its food, frothy saliva flows from the tensive district the system of dishorn mouth, and it quids its food. On ex- ing or dehorning cattle is rapidly in

amining the mouth you find the tongue creasing. Some farmers have dehorned hard in places, and slightly swollen.

their whole herd.

It has been calcu

Treatment. As soon as it is detected , lated that 200,000 cattle and horses die kill the animal, or else it will gradually each year in the United States from starve to death.

The enlargements on

horn-thrusts.

The advocates of the sys

the tongue, caused by the presence tem of dehorning claim that, besides amongst the tissues of the parasitic lessening this loss and that of human

fungus known as the actino-nyces, are life, much shed -room is saved, less hay sometimes successfully treated , if not is consumed, there is less turmoil from too far advanced, but they should be restive animals, and that cows, being left to the veterinary surgeon. more quiet and docile, give more milk. “ In the case of calves, the horn is Dishorning and Broken Horns. extracted by a gouge or punch when In saying a few words about dishor- two or three months old, and with full ning, we cannot do better than quote a grown animals the horn is sawn off at

paragraph from the Veterinary Journal the point where the matrix joins the of November 1888.

bone horn , and should be done early in

“ Dishorning of Stock.— TheTennessee the spring.

If sawn higher up, the

Agricultural Experimental Station has horn grows again ; if below, the process issued a report on the subject of dishorn- of granulation would not take place. ' ing cattle. The conclusions to which the experimentalists have come are :

that ( 1 ) For removing the horns, an ordinary meat-saw is perfectly satisfactory. ( 2 ) The horns should be removed as close to the head as possible, without cutting the skull proper. The sawing should be done rapidly, and with long sweeps of the arm if possible. (3 ) Ani-

Broken Horns.

If the horn is severely crushed, it is best to amputate it ; but in cases where it is only torn or broken off, wash clean, smear some Archangel tar over it, wrap

some tow around, and take a long linen bandage and wind around the horns in the figure-of-8 style.

mals one and two years of age appear to

suffer considerably in dishorning.The Ophthalmia. Inflammation of the Eyes. painful effects decrease with increase of The symptoms and treatment of the age, so thatan animal of ten years old diseases affecting the eyes are practically may suffer but very little. This is the same as those given in the section owing to the layer of flesh surrounding on Horses (see p . 446 ).

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

472

Cold wet districts are peculiarly subject

Growth on Eyeball .

to them , and certain farms are more

There is sometimes seen in cattle a

growth on the eyeball : this can easily

liable to them than others.

Prevention . — A seton in the dewlap

be removed by cutting it off with a pair is the most common preventive. In of scissors, afterwards touch with nitrate many herds calves are always setoned of silver.

DISEASES AFFECTING THE THROAT,

in the spring of the year. Salt should be given, 1/2 oz. daily, and care taken to remove the herd to poor pastures if the disease makes its appearance .

In

CHEST, RESPIRATORY ORGANS, AND

oculation as a preventive is now being

BLOOD.

experimented on. Abscesses.

Treatment. Foment the swellings Symptoms. - Frequently large lumps on the limbs with hot water, and rub appear on the side of thejaw or on other well with liniment (No. 26). Every six

parts of the body.

In time they burst

hours give, in gruel, sulphite of sodium,

and discharge a large amount of matter, /2 oz.; salicylate ofsodium, /2 oz.; and often affecting the health of the animal. Fleming's tincture of aconite, 15 drops. Cause .- Generally a blow, prick, or Wash the ulcers with chloride of lime, other injury 1/2 oz ., in a quart of water. Treatment.-- A mild purgative ( No. Bury the dead body at once, and 28) should be given in gruel, and the cover with quicklime to prevent in abscess should be fomented with hot

fection.

water, and opened as soon as it is ready.

Cattle Plague or Rinderpest.

If making little or no progress, it should be rubbed with blister (No. 22 ).

Tonic

An acute, specific, contagious fever.

( No. 29) may be given in a pint of warm Symptoms. - Weakness, shivering, ale morning and evening when recov- cold feet and horns, short breathing, red ering.

eyes, mucous discharge from nostrils,

sore places on the inner side of the lips Anthrax or Splenic Apoplexy.

and roof of the mouth , diarrhea, aver

A disease of the blood (see p . 452 ). sion to green food, loss of appetite. In Diseases generally regarded as allied to the advanced stage the body is distend anthrax - namely, Black -leg, quarter-ill, ed, and while at first there is constipa joint- ill, black - quarter, quarter - felon, tion, it gives way to profuse and fætid

blood -striking, inflammatory fever, hyan, diarrhea. & c. — are usually confined to animals un-

Cause.

-

It is indigenous to the

der two years old, while anthrax attacks steppes and elevated regions of Central animals of all ages indiscriminately. Asia, and is always due to contagion Symptoms. — These diseases usually affect cattle under two years old, and

in Britain. Prevention.

During the cattle

are most prevalent in the spring. The plague epidemic all kinds of disinfec animal will first separate itself from the tants and precautions were tried, with others, lie down, shiver, lose its appetite, varying success. Carbolic acid and pulse feeble and rapid, mouth hot and water is the most powerful disinfectant, dry, lameness and stiffness. Hot and painful swellings appear on the loins, neck, or limbs, afterwards becoming cold, painless, and tympanitic, and containing a dark bloody Huid. The urine

and, combined with the isolation of in fected beasts, may do much to prevent the disease spreading. Treatment. - Immediately slaughter any beast affected with the disease , and

becomes bloody and the dung fætid . thoroughly disinfect the premises. Death will often ensue after an illness

Choking.

lasting from a few hours to several days. Cause . — These diseases, concerning

Very often cattle get pieces of turnips

which at the best little is known, are most prevalent in spring when the grass

or linseed -cake into their throat, especi ally if the turnips are cut in large

is flushed and the weather changeable. pieces.

CATTLE.

473

Symptoms. - Animal ceases to feed, the following every three hours between nose poked out, saliva flows from the the molar teeth : extract of belladonna mouth ; the animal in time becomes and chlorate of potash of each an ounce,

hoven , and frequently dungs. If it is and made into apaste. choked by a piece of turnip, you can smell it in the breath , and if the piece

Consumption ,

is near the larynxthere may be coughing. or chronic disease of the lungs, arising Treatment. - Give a pint of linseed- from a tuberculated state of the lungs. oil very slowly. If this does not pass it Symptoms.- Loss of condition , cough,

on, you must use the probang. In using which is at first clear, but gradually this instrument you must first place the becomes shorter, weaker, and more pain

gag in the animal's mouth, and have it ful. Appetite unaffected. After a time held there by two men, who cross their the breath becomes offensive, diarrhea

hands, holding the gag in one and grasp- becomes constant, and the dung foetid ; ing a horn with the other ; then take the skin dry and scaly, the loins tender, the probang, oil it well, and gently pass and the whole system disordered. it down the throat until you reach the

Cause.- Hereditary ; neglected cold,

offending body. Do not use much force influences of climate, and close, badly in passing it into the stomach, for it is

ventilated cow -house.

It is now known

an easy thing to rupture the gullet. If to be due to the irritation set up in the it cannot be moved by the probang, it tissues by the presence of a bacillus must be cut down upon and extracted by the Bacillus tuberculosis, or, as it is often a veterinary surgeon . Cold or Common Catarrh .

called after its discoverer, Koch's Bacillus. Treatment. The object in view is to prevent the confirmation of the disease ;

Symptoms. - Dulness ; running discharge from the nose ; cough ; watering eyes ; loss of appetite. Cause. — This common complaint is most frequently met with in spring and

taken in time the cough will often dis appear, and the beast recover perfect health . In advanced stages death will probably result. If the beast is in good condition and fit for the butcher, I should

autumn ; it arises from exposure to strongly recommend it to be slaughtered ; otherwise, remove into a cool, well weather. If neglected, it will lay the ventilated box, feed on the most nourish

draughts and from chills caught in wet

foundation of serious coughs, inflamma- ing food, give porridge made of linseed tion of the lungs, and other formidable meal, and water in which linseed has diseases. been boiled instead of pure water for Treatment. — Epsom salts, 1 lb., and drinking. Twice daily give, in gruel or

ginger, 72 oz., may be given at first in water, draught (No. 25). Frequently warm gruel ; afterwards, morning and

rub the throat and chest with liniment

evening, in gruel, solution of acetate am- ( No. 26). When recovery takes place, monia, 4 oz.; bicarbonate of potassium , the beast should be fed for the market I oz.; spirit of chloroform , oz. All as quickly as possible ; it will not be drinking-water to be given with the chill suitable for breeding. off ; and feed on bran -mashes and green Cough. Cause. — Neglected colds are apt to

meat.

Sore Throat or Quinsy. Inflammation of the mucous membrane of the throat.

Symptoms.

The animal refuses to

develop into coughs which are difficult Cold caught when the system is relaxed, as is the case with cows after

to cure.

calving, may take the form of a cough

feed, pokes its nose out, breathes hard, which will settle on the lungs and pro and makes a peculiar noise in the throat. duce serious consequences. Cause. — Cold and an insanitary conTreatment.— Keep the animal warm ; dition of the byre, associated with bad give water in which linseed has been feeding boiled for drinking purposes, and morn Treatment - Blister with No. 22, and

ing and evening, in gruel, draught (No.

place a piece about the size of a bean of 25).

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

474

wheezing, loss of condition, and death, Foot-and -mouth Disease.

if means are not taken to remove the

A specific, contagious, eruptive fever.

thread - worms in the bronchial tubes.

Symptoms. — Shivering, staring coat, In the later stages of the disease there

fever, quick pulse, weakness, loss of ap- is much slimy mucus about the mouth petite, tenderness over the loins, tender- and nose. It is very prevalent among

ness of the jaws, profuse discharge of calves and growing stock during the stringy saliva, generally accompanied by first summer out of doors, and especially smacking of the lips. Vesicles on the lips so in the autumn when the weather is and tongue; sometimes vesicles on the wet. The cough is particularly notice feet, udder, and between the toes.

Pain

able if the animals are chased.

The losses Prevention . Cause and lameness. There is a peculiar smacking noise made by the mouth, which is caused by these parasites render it most very characteristic, and a movement of important that every care should be the affected feet resembling an attempt taken to keep animals likely to be to kick the hoof off.

In mild cases the

attack is soon over, and in a week the

affected free from the influences calcu

lated to invite an attack.

These para

In aggravated sites frequent low, marshy, and undrained a wetseason any kind cases the constitution is much reduced , ground. During will be found to contain animal will be well.

strength being rapidly lost.

Pregnant of grass-land

animals often suffer abortion.

Cause. the disease from place vitality for

Contagion. The germs of may be carried by the wind to place and retain their a long period. Prevention. Under the Foot-and-

Mouth Disease Order, complete quaran-

them . Calves and young stock should be kept in good condition, and, if pos sible, during the autumn should be housed at night, and not turned out till the dew is off the grass.

This is the

surest preventive. Treatment.- Stock

in the

autumn

tine of infected areas and powers for should be daily examined, and upon the

compulsory slaughter served as the best first sound of husk the affected beast means of preventing the disease spread- should be attended to. Give daily to a

ing. The liberal use of carbolic acid calf turpentine, 1/2 oz., beaten up with milk and an egg; keep him well, giv and water among the cattle is a valuable ing preventive. linseed - porridge; and if the calf Treatment. — Completely isolate the is young, new milk. In the case of cattle. Give, morning and evening, sul- older cattle, give morning and night

phite of sodium, 3 drs., dissolved in turpentine, 1 oz., in six times the water, and place in the crib some fine quantity of sweet oil.

I have tried

meal, which will induce the animals to applications of tar to the animals’ noses, lick a little without increasing the irrita- but they do no good. A new method tion of the mouth . If constipated, give of treating this disease is to inject Epsom salts, 12 oz. , in water. Apply remedies directly into the windpipe, ointment of boric acid between the claws but this should be left to a competent of the feet and the teats, if sore. Water veterinary surgeon. in which linseed has been boiled is use Bronchitis. ful for drinking purposes. A useful

medicine is chlorate of potassium , 12 oz.; Inflammation of the small air -tubes of camphorated spirits of wine, 1 oz., in a the lungs. quart of water, to be given daily.

Symptoms.

Animal dull, breathes

Trouble must be taken to induce the quick and short, fits of coughing, and, animal to eat hay, small pieces of oil- on placing the ear against the chest, a peculiar wheezing noise is heard . cake, and cut grass. Cause . — Cold , exposure to wet, and Iloose or Ilusk allowing medicine to get into the wind

is a peculiar disease produced by the pipe in the act of drenching an animal. thread-worm or lung parasite of cattlethe Strongylus micrurus. Symptoms. - Peculiar

Treatment.—Remove to a warm box,

throw a couple of sacks over its back,

short cough, rub each side of the chest with embroca

CATTLE.

475

tion (No. 12), and give in a pint of gruel the nose. As the disease advances, blood twice a -day ( No. 25 ). is mixed with the dung, and the breath becomes offensive. Great weakness sets Inflammation of the Lungs or in, the mouth becomes ulcerated, till Pneumonia .

finally the beast dies, a mass of cor

Symptoms. — Dulness, loss of appetite, ruption. Cause.-Contagion or epidemic. cough dry and hard , rapid breathing, Treatment. - If this dreadful disease hot mouth, very cold ears, horns, and is suspected, completely isolate the beast; feet, slimy discharge from mouth . Cause. — Exposure to cold and sudden give every four hours, in warm gruel, chills. Treatment.

-

salicylic acid, 3 drs.; tincture of cin Remove into a cool chona, 2 oz. ; brandy, 4 oz., till the

loose-box, and give every six hours, in opinion of a veterinary surgeon can be a pint of gruel, Fleming's tincture of obtained, who will decide whether to aconite, 20 drops ; solution acetate of slaughter the beast or not. ammonia, 4 oz.; spirit of nitrous ether, Contagious Pleuro- pneumonia. 1/2 oz. Feed on mashes and green food ; rub the chest repeatedly with blister An infectious lung disease confined to ( No. 23 ). If the bowels are costive, the ox tribe, which must not be con

give in gruel Epsom salts in 1-lb. doses. founded with ordinary inflammation of Clothe with rugs or sacks about the the lungs. It is a combination of in shoulders and chest. flammation of the lungs and pleurisy. This destructive and contagious disease Influenza or Epidemic Catarrh. often remains latent in a beast for a long Symptoms. — All the symptoms at- time, and sometimes is not discovered tending common colds are intensified in till it is slaughtered, when it is found the more serious form of influenza. Pro- ' some part of the lungs is almost entirely

fuse discharge from eyes and nose, pain- gone. When, however, the beast is not

ful cough, obstinate constipation, fever, strong enough to withstand the disease followed by equally obstinate diarrhea; after its development, it is very rapid in swellings about the head, accompanied its progress, and death may result in by great weakness. Usually the disease forty -eight hours. runs through a herd, and is attended Symptoms. —An acute attack com with considerable loss among the cattle. mences with a hard dry cough, dry Cause. - Influences of climate, which muzzle, hot mouth , excessive thirst, loss seem to make the disease an epidemic. of appetite, rough coat, weakness and

Isolate the affected Give linseed -oil, 1/2 pint, followed by gruel to drink ; if constipation continues, give enemas and every six Treatment.

beasts.

often lameness of the hind quarters, heaving flanks, dung dry, black, and foetid. As the disease develops, the cough becomes painful, and a frothy

hours a draught containing acetate of mucus runs from the mouth ; the breath ammonium, 4 oz.; bicarbonate of potash, may become offensive ; the dung watery ; I oz.; spirit of chloroform, 12 oz.

Keep and the beast dies a mere skeleton .

Cause.—The primary cause is con the body warm , and for drinking purposes give water in which a little linseed tagion ; but its spread and development has been boiled. Feed on mashes and is favoured by exposure to cold, neglect, and dirt.

green food.

It has been introduced into

this country by direct infection from Murrain, or Gargle, or Malignant

abroad.

Cattle sales and markets have

Catarrh.

always been the most active centres of

Symptoms.—This disease, which is the disease, from which it has been one of the most contagious and fatal spread over the country by contagion. to which cattle are subject, usually Prevention . - The only means is the

begins with a cough, followed by heav- isolation and slaughter of the beasts

ing flanks, shivering, tenderness over affected, and the free use of such disin the loins, horns cold, dung hard, black, fectants as chloride of lime in the cow and foetid, bloody matter running from

sheds, stalls, &c.

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK

476

Inoculation . - Inoculation as a pre- slimy. Frequently the body will swell. ventive to pleuro -pneumonia is a some- Inflammation follows, and loss of appetite.. what ancient remedy, and has been tried Cause . — Excess of dryness in the food , in various countries, but has not been or the peculiar properties of some kind of very successful.

underwood often eaten by cattle.

Often

Treatment.-- Should the disease be also a symptom of some other disease. suspected, a veterinary surgeon should

Treatment. - Give linseed -oil, i pint ;

be called in, and if he pronounces it to and warm oatmeal-gruel, in which % oz. be pleuro-pneumonia, it must be at once salt has been mixed. If this does not reported to the police.

act, give, in gruel, purgative (No. 27 ), and, if necessary, a warm glyster of gruel and 72 oz. salt .

DISEASES AFFECTING THE STOMACH ,

Foreign Bodies in the Paunch .

LIVER, BOWELS, KIDNEYS , AND IN . TERNAL ORGANS .

Some cows at times suffer from de

Bloody Flux, see Dysentery (p. 477 ).

praved appetites, and pick up almost any thing that comes in their way. Leather,

Colic or Gripes

wire, cutlery, rags, &c. , have been found in the paunch of an animal. Symptoms.— They are not very notice able, and an animal might have a foreign

is of two kinds. 1. Flatulent Colic.

Arising from retention of food in the body in its paunch for months without feeling any inconvenience from it, but if third stomach and bowels. Symptoms. — Fever, moaning, and the foreign body passes into any vital pain ; discharge of gas from anus, swell- organ, symptoms such as loss of appetite ing on right side of the belly, restlessness. and colicky pains are soon noticed. Cause. --Costiveness, produced by dry

Treatment. - Nothing can do any good

food, or overfeeding on dry meal or hay.

in the shape of medicines ; if you are sure

Treatment. - Give purgative (No. 27) there is something in the stomach that in gruel, and every four hours, in gruel, should not be, you must cut through the solution of ammonia, 1 oz. ; spirit of left side and take it out. chloroform , 1 oz. Give gentle exercise, and rub the belly with liniment ( No. 26). Glyster of warm water may be necessary. Feed on mashes and gruel.

Diarrhoea.

Symptoms.-- A frequent discharge of fluid dung mixed with mucus, which soon causes great weakness .

2. Simple Colic.

Cause. - Change of food, especially -Spasmodic attacks of when moved from a poor into a luxuriant pain, increasing in violence. Irritability, pasture. Bad water or atmospheric in Symptoms.

and constant striking of the belly with fluence, amounting almost to an epidemic. Treatment. — Give linseed-oil, i pint; the hind legs or horns ; continual rest-

tincture of opium , 1/2 oz. ; oil of turpen - Chills from drinking cold tine, 1/2 oz ., and repeat the dose, if nec water when heated ; improper food . essary, which will remove any cause of lessness.

Cause.

Treatment. - Give linseed -oil, i pint,

irritation in the intestines : till this is

repeating the dose if there is costiveness ; done, no astringent should be given. and every four hours give in gruel: oil of When the oil has cleared the system ,

turpentine, 2 oz.; tincture of opium , 12 give morning and evening, in cold gruel : oz. ; spirit nitrous ether, 2 oz. Walk the powdered opium, 2 drs. ; catechu, 4 drs.; animal about. In obstinate cases send galls, powdered, 4 drs. ; prepared chalk, for a veterinary surgeon, and in the

I oz.

Looseness of the bowels, unat

meantime rub the belly with liniment tended with pain and weakness, should not (No. 26). be regarded as serious, provided it can be accounted for by change of food ; it Costiveness or Fardel -bound . should be carefully watched, and steps

Symptoms.

Excessive costiveness ;

dung hard, and at intervals loose and

taken to prevent its assuming too violent a character.

CATTLE.

Dysentery or Bloody Flux. Symptoms. - Continual and obstinate

477

Impaction of the Paunch , or Grain -sick. This disease is seen when animals are

purging, the animal is hide-bound, eyes allowed to gorge themselves with such pale, pulse weak, extreme weakness. In foods as succulent grass, chaff, potatoes, time the dung appears like undigested turnips, and grains. food, and water with clots of blood in it.

Symptoms.- Animal dull,refuses food ;

Cause.—Internal inflammation from disinclined to move and generally lying neglected diarrhea . down ; greatly swollen on the left side, Treatment. - Clothe warmly, foment but, unlike hoove, it has a doughy feel. Treatment. — Give purge (No. 27), and rub the belly with liniment (No. 26). Feed on gruel made of oatmeal and lin- and with it i pint of linseed-oil and 2 seed, with 4 oz. of starch and i oz. nitre oz. of tincture of nux vomica ; if this in it. Give three times a -day in gruel : fails, you must get a veterinary surgeon ipecacuanha, i dr.; chlorodyne, 40 drops; to perform an operation to remove it. opium , 2 drs.; chalk , 1 oz .; galls, 2 oz. Inflammation of the Bowels. Give also cold glysters of oatmeal-gruel ; Symptoms. — Restlessness, pain, per and laudanum , 2 drs. This disease is spiration, hard breathing, quick pulse. most dangerous and almost hopeless.

Cause.—Sudden chills in hot weather,

Gripes, see Colic ( p. 476).

as from drinking a great quantity of cold water when overheated .

Iloove, Hove, or Hoven , Treatment. - Give, morning and even or distention of the stomach by gas, ing, linseed -oil, %2 pint ; spirit of nitrous owing to the food being retained in ether, 1 oz. ; tincture of opium , 1 oz.; the stomach so long that it begins to and repeat the dose of spirit of nitrous ferment.

ether and tincture of opium in a little

Symptoms. - Swelling of the belly ; gruel every four hours. heavy breathing ; moaning and unwill ingness to move . As the gas is evolved ,

the stomach becomes further distended,

Dropsy of the Belly. An accumulation of fluid in the ab

there is even danger of the paunch domen . bursting ; the circulation of the blood Symptoms. — The beast increases slow

is impeded ; gradually suffocation sets ly in size ; the swelling is on both sides in, till at length the beast falls and and on the lower part of the abdomen ; dies. as the fluid increases the breathing be Cause .Overloading of the stomach comes hurried, belly hangs low , the so that it is unable to react on its con-

animal looks thin, and if you force your

tents, greedy feeding on green food, feed- fist against the side of the belly you feel ing on clover before the dew is off it, the impulse of the returning water hence it is often termed - dew -blown.

against it.

Treatment.—In desperate cases the Cause.—Debility and organic disease only cure is to relieve the stomach by of the liver or spleen. Treatment. — The chance of success means of a stomach-pump, which will be

almost beyond an ordinary breeder of in treatment is not great, for the only stock. In cases of sudden emergency, thing to be done is to tap the abdomen an incision into the paunch behind the with a trocar and canula to let the fluid short ribs with a penknife will give relief. out, and if it again accumulates the case A trocar and canula should be used if it is hopeless.

can be got. In ordinary cases give at once in a pint of water hyposulphate of soda, 4 oz., repeating the dose till relief

Inflammation of the Fourth Stomach. Symptoms. — Uneasiness, pawing of

When recovering, Epsom the ground, striking of the belly with salts, 1 lb., and ginger, 12 oz., may be the feet, showing where the pain is lo given, and but little food allowed till the cated ; dung thin and offensive ; pulse digestive organs have recovered their hard and quick ; breathing accelerated ;

is afforded .

strength.

alternately hot and cold shivering fits.

478

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

Cause.—Unwholesome or poisonous

food ; change from a poor to a rich pas

Inflammation of the Liver ( Yellows or

Jaundice). Symptoms. — Yellowness of the eyes but no green food ; give linseed -oil, i and skin ; pulse quick ; ears and horns

ture ; prolonged indigestion. Treatment. Feed on bran-mashes,

pint; and every six hours, in gruel, tinc- ' hot ; muzzle dry ; shivering of the right ture of opium , 2 oz.; Fleming's tincture side ; stiffness, fulness of the belly ; pain of aconite, 30 drops ; spirit of chloroform , when the right side is pressed ; urine and The belly may be frequently dung light brown in colour. I oz. rubbed with liniment ( No. 26). Cause . - Over - fattening ; driving in hot weather; injury to the body near Gut Tie.

the liver, impeding circulation and in It is only seen in castrated animals, ducing inflammation. Treatment. - Give in warm water and generally terminates fatally. Symptoms. It is usually seen at the purgative ( No. 27), and feed on bran

age of two or three, rarely before. mashes. Morning and evening give in The animal at first appears dull and warm water chloride of ammonium, 4

loses its cud ; after a time colicky drs. ; bicarbonate of potassium , 1 oz.; pains appear, it strikes its belly with ginger, 4 drs. Keep free from draughts. hind legs, goes stiff, breathing becomes The animal should be sold when occasion

hurried , the animal wears an anxious offers ; it is never likely to do well after expression, no medicine seems to do

the attack.

any good , and in a few days it dies in great agony. Cause.The cord of the testicle en-

Flukes in Liver.

Cattle, like sheep , suffer from flukes

circling a portion of the small intestines in their livers, but not so severely, and and strangulating it.

Treatment. There is only one thing

it is rarely discovered until their death . The reasons for cattle not suffering so

to be done, and that is, cut into the right severely as sheep are — firstly, they do side, introduce the hand, and release the imprisoned gut. Inflammation of the Kidneys. Symptoms. — Straining to void urine, which is forcibly ejected in small quan tities ; loins tender and hot. After a

not feed so close to the ground, and thus pick up fewer fluke-eggs ; and, secondly, their livers are larger, and can stand the ravages of the fluke better.

Loss of Cud. Symptoms. — Very often cattle do not

time blood and pus may be mixed with chew their cud properly, and a great the urine and the straining increases; quantity of saliva dribbles from their muzzle becomes dry, horns cold, breathing mouth. Cause.—Indigestion. quick. Diarrhæa follows, dung becomes Treatment.—Change the food , and foetid ; pain increases, total suppression

of urine takes place, and the animal will give a dose of linseed -oil, 1 pint, and, in die in about three days.

the case of a calf, give oatmeal-porridge

Cause. — Unwholesome food or a chill with bicarbonate of soda, i dr., night and which has produced inflammation in this morning. A little salt thrown with the particular part. food will help to remedy the evil. Treatment. - Foment the loins with

hot water, and rub in mustard mixed with water ; give glyster of warm gruel

with 2 oz. salt in it, adding tincture of opium , 1/2 oz. , if straining continues. Give at once, in gruel, purgative ( No. 27 ), and three times a -day give, in gruel, a draught containing Fleming's tincture of aconite, 20 drops ; solution acetate of ammonium , 3 oz.; and tincture of opium , I OZ.

Poisons.

The poisons that cattle usually suffer

from are yew, rhododendron, arsenic, mercury, and lead. Yere - poisoning

is perhaps most frequently met with. Symptoms are those of a virulent

poison, and is rapidly fatal. The animal usually dies in a few hours.

CATTLE.

Cause. — By animals being allowed to graze in the vicinity of yew-trees, or by

the trimmings of these trees being thrown within their reach .

479 Red Water.

When in an acute form , it is often called Black Water.

Symptoms. The first thing that Rhododendron -poisoning. draws attention to the animal is usually Symptoms.-- This poison is not so the red colour of the urine, which froths

quick in its action ; the animal staggers, when it falls to the ground ; this is gener becomes partially paralysed, colicky ally accompanied by diarrhæa or scour

pains; animal lies and moans and fre- ing, which soon gives way to constipation. quently vomits, the vomit being greenish The urine gets darker, the appetite fails, the animal gets weaker, and the heart Cause . - Same as yew. can frequently be heard beating while Treatment. — The treatment of these ' standing behind the animal. Death

in colour.

two vegetable poisons are identical. often ensues within three or four days. Open the stomach and

remove the

Cause. It is not very well known.

poisonous stems and leaves, then give It is most common in milk cows, occur purge (No. 28) and half a pint of brandy ring generally from ten to fifteen days in some water every three hours.

after calving

But in some districts

when it is very common it attacks bulls, Arsenic -poisoning.

oxen, and heifers as well, and at all

Symptoms.—Great prostration, shiv seasons. Too many turnips have been ering, colicky pains, diarrhæa, and death. blamed for it, and particular plants grow Cause. - In being given by accident,

and by grazing on land where recently dipped sheep have been lying. Treatment. — Give the following in a pint of water every hour : dialised iron, I oz. ; brandy, 6 oz.

ing in some soils.

Undoubtedly it is

most common on moorland soils, and where there is a wet retentive subsoil. Prevention. - Careful feeding after

calving, a limited supply of turnips, some linseed -cake, and other foods allowed.

Thorough draining and manuring of the Mercury-poisoning. Symptoms. - Flow of saliva from the

land. Treatment.

If observed before the

mouth, breath fætid, gums red and ten- appetite and rumination are diminished, der, colicky pains, and appetite lost. give in gruel : Epsom salts, 16 oz. , and Cause. — By dressing cattle with mer- ginger, %2 oz., but not otherwise ; and

curial preparations to cure mange and morning and evening give tincture of perchloride of iron, 1/2 oz . ; spirit of

warbles.

Treatment. — Give purge ( No. 28) chloroform , 1/2 oz ., in gruel, and give with half -a -dozen eggs, and follow every milk, raw eggs, and stimulants if appe two hours with iodide of potassium , 2 drs.; opium powder, 2 drs. , in gruel.

tite lost.

Yellows, see Inflammation of the Liver Lead -poisoning.

(p. 478).

Symptoms. — Animal dull, abdomen

tucked up , eyes staring, unsteady gait, bowels constipated, swelling under jaw ,

Bleeding. Cattle are bled from the following

and emaciation .

veins : jugular, the vein below the eye, Cause. — Grazing near smelting fur- and the milk -vein. The jugular is usu naces or rifle-butts, and by eating red ally opened in cases of milk -fever, apo

paint or tea -lead.

plexy, &c. , and is easily got at on either

Treatment. — Use the stomach -pump, side of the neck. First raise the vein by afterwards give the following in a quart placing a rope tightly around the neck,

of water : sulphate of magnesia, 1 lb .; turn the neck a little to the opposite sulphuric acid dil., 3 drs. Give every side, and a sharp blow will send the

three hours the following: iodide of fleam through the skin into the vein. potassium, 2 drs. ; sulphuric acid dil ., 3 The fleam should be a size larger than that used for a horse. Afterwards, close

drs. ; 3 eggs ; and half a pint of water.

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

480

the wound with a pin, and twist tow around it. The vein below the eye is opened with a lance in cases of inflam mation of the eye, and the milk-vein in

Calving, see Parturition (p. 482 ).

Cow -pox. Symptoms.-- Small ulcers or pustules cases of inflammation of the udder. Two on the teats, which, when large, produce quarts of blood is a fair quantity to take inflammation and affect the health. Cause. — Constitutional, and contagion

from an animal.

from other cows, carried by the milker's DISEASES AFFECTING THE PARTURI . TION AND MILKING ORGANS. Abortion.

Symptoms.

hand.

Treatment. — Give purgative ( No. 28 ) ; keep the teats clean, and bathe them with goulard water, or chloride of

When abortion takes lime, 1/2 oz., dissolved in half -gallon of

place in early stages of gestation, as it 'water. The pustules will soon heal. often does in the second month, the symptoms are very slight, and may be

passed unnoticed , especially in the sum-

Bull-burnt or Clap.

This is a contagious disease of the

mer when the cattle are at grass. In genital organ, and is propagated through the later stages of gestation, the symp- copulation . Symptoms. toms are easily recognised. There is

In the cow a glairy

restlessness and derangement of health, discharge is seen coming from the vagina the udder becomes enlarged, accompanied a few days after being bulled ; inthe by calving pains, and discharge from the bull this discharge is seen issuing from vagina. But frequently the first symp- the penis. Treatment. - Inject into the vagina tom is the appearance of the calf.

Cause. Thereis so much uncertainty twice a -day a little of the following, after connected with this disease, that it is syringing with lukewarm water : liquor sufficient to remark here that blows,

opium sedativus, i oz. ; sulphate of zinc,

injuries, exposure to cold, improper food, 2 oz. ; water, i quart. In the case of foul smells , and overdriving are the most the bull, it must be injected into the But there are some sheath. Give the animal purgative (No. forms of abortion that, once started in a 28) now and then to keep its bowels

immediate causes.

herd of cows, are to all appearance communicable by contagion.

Prevention . - Careful attention , good water, and the removal of any existing

open .

Falling Down of the Calf-bed .

Symptoms.After calving, the womb

influence will do much to make the sometimes follows the calf, and hangs A goat down like a large red bag.

occurrence of the disease rare .

allowed to run amongst the cows is a Return the womb as Treatment. good preventive. Have the cow isolated soon as possible, having first dressed it

as soon as observed, before abortion if possible, and attend to the thorough cleansing and disinfection of everything with which the calf or the discharges could have come in contact. And, lastly,

with lotion composed of extract of bella donna, i part ; water, 30 parts. Give a draught in warm gruel containing tinc ture of opium , 2 oz.; chloral hydrate, 1 oz. ; spirit of chloroform , 1 oz. Raise

the rejection for breeding purposes of the animal higher behind than in front. any animal that has once aborted .

Afterwards place a truss on the animal

Treatment. — Should any symptoms to keep it in. of abortion appear, give Epsom salts, 12 Flooding after Calving. oz. ; Fleming's tincture of aconite, 10 A flow of blood from the womb. drops; chloral hydrate, 1 oz. , in a pint of warm water, and repeat the dose of

Cause .

· Rupture of some of the

aconite in a half-pint of water three times vessels of the womb through using force a -day if there is no improvement. Bury in extracting a calf. Treatment. Keep the cow higher the fætus at once, and if it takes place in or cold a field, remove any cattle in it to another behind than in front ; place ice water cloths across the loins ; give every pasture.

CATTLE.

481

three hours in a pint of cold water the on the udder after each milking, and if following : tincture of perchloride of there is much tenderness give purgative iron, 12 oz. ; tincture of opium , 1 oz. ; (No. 28) in gruel. and tincture of ergot, 2 oz. Bloody Milk Garget,

Symptoms. — Generally the first and

or inflammation of the internal part of only symptom is the presence of blood in the milk, and it is very often confined This is a very serious to one teat. The udder may neither disease, and often attacks young cows be hard nor painful . This disease is

the udder. Symptoms.

after their first calf, and if the inflamma- especially prevalent among young cows tion is not reduced , the milk will become after the first calf. discoloured , the health and appetite Cause.-- Injuries to the udder ; sudden affected, and the cow may be lost. change to a rich milk - producing diet;

Cause. - Careless milking ; too hasty chills ; too hasty drying of the cow ; care drying of the cow ; injury to the udder; lying on cold wet land in the autumn. Prevention . Should there be any appearance of the disease, the calf should, if possible, be put to the mother, and it will, by its sucking and bumping, speedily relieve her of the pressure of milk and disperse the lumps.

less milking, &c., &c. Treatment. — Give Epsom salts , 1 lb.;

nitre, 1 oz.; and ginger, 1 oz. Follow with tonic (No. 21). Milk the affected teat or teats into separate vessels. Warts on Teats.

These little but troublesome things

Treatment. Should the disease be- can easily be removed by winding green come established, draw off gently all the silk around them and allowing them to

milk at frequent intervals, and apply drop off; or by cutting them off with a linseed -poultices to the bag, containing pair of scissors, afterwards touching the belladonna, 3 drs. Give four times a- parts with nitrate of silver. day, in gruel, bicarbonate of potassium, Inflammation of the Womb. 1 oz.; Fleming's tincture of aconite, 10 drops.

Should ulcers form and break ,

Symptoms.-- After calving, inflamma

they should be dressed with lotion con- tion of the womb sometimes sets in, taining carbolic acid, i part ; water, 20

causing fever and loss of milk , accom

panied by inflammation of the bladder,

parts.

and a fætid discharge from the uterus ; Overstocking or Hefting. sometimes the discharge from the uterus This is not a disease, but the conse- is suppressed. There is generally pain,

quence of the cruel practice of placing fever, stiffness, straggling gait, and an elastic band around the teats, or plugging them up with grains of barley,

straining.

Cause.-Generally injury done during and not milking the animal for twenty- parturition, either from violence used in four to thirty -six hours, with the result the assistance given , or otherwise. High that the animal arrives in the market condition and improper rich food induce with a beautiful udder, and the owner a tendency to this complaint. tries to get more for the cow than she Prevention. — Afortnight before calv is worth.

The results of overstocking ing, a cow's diet should be reduced to

are intense suffering of the animal, in- the simplest character.

If the condition

flammation of the udder, and a permanent of the beast is very high, Epsom salts,

1 lb., and % 2 oz. ginger in gruel, or a pint of linseed oil, given a few days before Hard Udder. calving, will do much to ensure safe Cows' udders frequently become hard, recovery. Treatment.-- If there is difficulty in especially with heifers after their first calf. passing urine, the aid of a veterinary interference with the secretion of milk .

Symptoms. — Swelling and inflammation.

surgeon should be at

once obtained.

In the first stages of the disease give

Treatment. — Rub a little goose -grease VOL. III .

a warm glyster containing tincture of 2 H

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

482

opium, 2 oz. If constipation, give purgative (No. 27), and repeat in half-doses till the bowels are opened ; then give every six hours in gruel, salicylate of sodium, 4 drs.; tincture of opium , 172

of ammonia, 4 drs., should be given every day, unless diarrhea supervene, until it appears. Should decomposition actually commence, the hand must be introduced, and the placenta removed as

oz.; solution acetate of ammonium , 4 oz., gently as possible. and rub the spine and loins with lini ment (No. 26). Feed on mashes, and be careful not to allow the animal to get a chill. The Whites.

Called so from the colour of the dis-

Dropsy of the Womb. An accumulation of fluid in the womb, and is often mistaken for pregnancy. Symptoms.—The cow looks as though she were pregnant; but when her time is

up — that is to say, if she has been to the bull-she shows no sign of calving,

charges.

Symptoms. The cow is unthrifty, and if you place your hand up the and a white discharge runs from the rectum nothing but a huge water -bag vagina, especially when she coughs or

lies down.

can be felt.

Treatment consists of tapping the

Cause . From injury to the womb, womb and allowing the fluid to escape. usually after difficult calving.

Treatment. — Give tonic (No.29)night Puerperal or Milk Fever ( Dropping after

and morning in a pint of ale ; inject into the vagina, by the aid of a syringe, the

Symptoms.

Calving) After calving the cow

following twice a -day : sulpho -carbolas of will appear restless, muzzle hot and dry, zinc, 12 oz. ; water, i quart; and feed udder tender and hot, constipation. In the animal well .

creasing weakness, ending in death, if the treatment is not successful.

Parturition or Calving.

The natural presentation of a calf is with the muzzle resting between the fore feet, with the back of the animal upwards.

In cases of unnatural presenta-

tion, assistance will always be required. Every endeavour should be made to get

Some

times cows have been known to suddenly drop down a few hours after calving without the herdsman previously know ing that anything was wrong. Cause. The origin of the disease is as yet not satisfactorily settled ; there are many opinions, the enumeration of

the calf into a proper position . Experi- which would occupy too much space to ence and skill in extracting the calf is be profitable for our present purpose. more needed than mere force. Every care

Prevention .

A

fortnight

before

calving keep the cow on a spare diet, No description within the scope of the composed in winter of bran-mashes and present treatise could give a proper idea other opening food ; a little linseed meal of the methods used in all cases of un- or cake will help to keep the bowels natural presentation. The aid of an ex- open . After calving, it has always been must be taken not to wound the cow.

perienced surgeon must therefore always my practice to give a drink of thin gruel be obtained if the case is beyond the with 12 oz. Epsom salts in it ; and

knowledge of the man in charge. Two should any signs of derangement appear, or three hours after calving it may be add Fleming's tincture of aconite, 10

prudent to give, in warm gruel, purga- drops ; repeating the dose of aconite tive (No. 28). Shortly after calving the every six hours should signs of restless cleansing or after-birth should come away. ness continue. If retained more than twenty -four hours,

Treatment. - When once this disease

with no appearance of coming away, it is established, give linseed-oil, 2 pints; should be carefully removed before de- and every four hours a draught in gruel composition is too far advanced, as it containing carbonate of ammonia, 4 drs.;

very often sets up a septic or putrefactive powdered ergot, 1 oz.; whisky or brandy, inflammation ; but if not removed, a 6 oz. Apply cold water to the head, draught in gruel containing Epsom salts, but keep the body warm , as, if the cow 8 oz.; powdered ergot, 1 oz.; carbonate is very ill, the temperature very often

CATTLE.

falls below normal.

Warm

483

glyster of Then dress the feet with a mixture of

gruel, containing 12 lb. of Epsom salts, gas-tar and powdered sulphate of copper. will help to loosen the bowels. The in- Should much swelling of the ankle with jection of olive - oil and liquor opium some lameness remain, apply blister (No. sedativus, one to seven, into the uterus, 23 ). If there is a wound in the foot repeating the injection every twelve caused by a splinter, apply a hot poultice hours, has in some cases been tried with of linseed -meal and bind up the foot. success in addition to the above treatment.

Enlarged Knees. Cows in byres frequently suffer from If milk - fever does not an enlargement on the front of the knee

This disease is a very dangerous one, and in many cases the animal will have to be

slaughtered. come on before the end of the third day through lying on the stony floor. after calving, the cow may be held to be Treatment.—If there is much pain nearly out of danger. and swelling, apply warm fomentations assiduously , and cooling lotion (No. 7). Sore Teats. See that the knees are protected from the Symptoms. — After calving, cows are hard floor and from the manger.

liable to have sores or small cracks or

chaps on the teats, making them very tender and painful.

Lice.

Symptoms.-Cattle in poor condition

Treatment .-Apply boracic acid oint- often lose their hair, especially on the

and back, owing to their being ment to the teats, having previously neck infested with lice.

bathed them with warm water to remove all scabbiness and dirt.

Cause. — Want of cleanliness and poor condition.

Suppression of Urine.

Treatment. - Wash the part affected

Cows in calf are very subject to this with lotion made from tobacco, 4 drs. , complaint, in consequence of the pressure dissolved in i pint of hot water. ' Oint caused by the calf. It is also a symptom ment made of lard, 6 oz., white precipitate of several other diseases.

Treatment. — Keep the bowels open

of mercury, 1/2 oz. , is a certain remedy, but requires careful handling. Improve

by giving in warm gruel purgative ( No. the quality of the food and keep the 28), assisted by a glyster of warm gruel, animal clean ; give tonic (No. 29). and give till relieved, morning and even

ing, in gruel, tincture of perchloride of iron, 1 oz. ; spirit of chloroform , 72 oz . DISEASES AFFECTING THE LIMBS, FEET, AND SKIN.

Mange .

Symptoms . - Itching, loss of hair, scurf, scab, or sores, especially on the back. Cause. It is caused by a small in sect (the Acarus bovis), and it is favoured by dirt, poverty of the blood, and ne

glect ; and is very contagious when Foul or Foot Rot.

animals can get into contact. Treatment.-- Improve the food given, Symptoms.- Cattle are very liable to this disease of the foot, which produces and keep the animal clean. Rub the

great lameness. There is a good deal of places affected with ointment composed foetid discharge from the cleft of the of sulphur, i oz. ; lard, 4 oz.; give in gruel mild purgative (No. 28), adding foot, also swelling of the ankle. Cause . — Driving over rough roads or sulphur, i oz.

If this does not effect a

for long distances ; injury from a prick, cure, wash the places with corrosive sub nail, or splinter ; standing on moist and limate, 1/2 oz. ; muriatic acid , 1 oz. ; soft dirty bedding. Treatment.

water, 2 quarts ; or by the treatment - Put the beast into a

dry, clean place. Dress down the dis eased hoof with a knife, and wash with

recommended for lice.

Rheumatism , Lumbago, Felon Chine. hot water and soda. If there is pain and Symptoms. - Swelling of the joints ; fever, and the lameness excessive, poultice stiffness ; listlessness; unwillingness to for some days to reduce the inflammation. move, which the beast does withpain.

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

484

Cause. — Cold, especially after calving maggot about May or June in the fol or when weakened by illness.

Treatment. - Give a draught in gruel

lowing year.

Prevention .—None, except the exter

or warm water, morning and evening, mination of the flies by diligent destruc containing carbonate of ammonia, 1 oz.; tion of the maggots. bicarbonate of potassium , 1 oz.; gentian, Treatment . In April or May all I oz.; ginger, 1 oz. Rub the parts cattle should be examined , and the mag affected with liniment of belladonna, i part, compound liniment of ammonia , i

gots squeezed out between the fingers, which may easily be done, and in my

part. Give nourishing food and a little opinion is the best way of ensuring their linseed meal or cake, and keep free from chills till quite cured. Ringworm

destruction .

If the holes are smeared

with M‘Dougall's cattle-smear, the mag gots are no doubt killed, but they re

main in the ulcer, and certainly the is caused by a parasitic fungus growing most healthy way is simply to crush in the skin.

them out and relieve the beast of them

Symptoms.- Loss of the hair, which

at once .

comes off in circular patches, leaving a The damage done by this fly to the dry and scaly eruption. The face, neck, cattle and the hides in the country may back , and root of the tail are the parts

be estimated at millions of pounds;

most generally affected.

every means should therefore be taken

Cause. — Contagion, neglect, and dirt.

to remove this pest from the country.

Treatment. If the animal is in high condition or out of health, give purga

Wounds.

tive (No. 28), and keep on nourishing

In severe cases, unless the animal has

food . Rub the parts affected with oint- a fancy value, it would be better to ment composed of oleate of mercury, i slaughter at once. Simple cases may

part ; lard, 2 parts, or use a lotion of be cured by bringing the edges of the perchloride mercury, i part ; water, 500 skin together, and fastening them with I have used lotions composed of sulphurous acid, but have found the mercurial ointment the most efficacious; sometimes a second application is not

parts.

carbolised gut and a bandage of car bolised gauze. The bowels must be kept open by doses of purgative (No. 28), and the wound kept clean by bath

even necessary . Wash the cribs, rub- ing with warm water. bing-posts, &c. , which have been used

by a beast affected with ringworm with I pound chloride of lime dissolved in 2

gallons of water, to avoid spreading the

SPECIAL DISEASES AFFECTING CALVES.

disease among other stock.

Constipation . Cause.-Frequently the first milk or Symptoms. — Early in the year and in biestings from the cow has not been the spring, from January till May, large given to the calf, and constipation en Warbles.

lumps about the size of half -a-crown may

sues.

Also, when milk has been taken

often be found along the backs of cattle; to excess it is apt to coagulate and pro these increase in size till the contents, duce constipation. the maggots of the bot-fly ( strus bovis), Prevention. - In a young calf the escape .

There is always a small air -hole

natural first milk of the mother is

to be seen in the middle of the lump, most suitable, and afterwards care and the head of the maggot is often should be taken that only as much visible. milk is given as the digestive organs Cause. The bot-fly pierces the skin can dispose of. Treatment.—Give castor -oil, 1 oz. , of the beast while out at grass during the hot weather in July and August, beaten up in the yolk of an egg, with

and leaves an egg at the bottom of the ginger, i scr. ; repeating the dose if wound, which hatches, develops, and necessary. Glysters may be required, grows, till at length it emerges a large but not so often as in young foals.

SHEEP.

485

sheep on the richest pastures, especially

Diarrhoea .

in the spring of the year.

The animal

Cause.-- Injudicious feeding, and at seized will drop down suddenly, and in too long intervals; bad smells, cold, extreme cases die at once. Any animal

acidity in the stomach, produced by affected should be killed immediately. any sudden change of food, or by any thing which deranges digestion. Prevention.—Care should be taken

Louping-ill or Trembles. A disease of the nervous system .

that the milk given to calves should be

Symptoms. --- The animal trembles, sweet, and that the air is kept pure. breathes in a jerky manner, moves its Treatment. — If the calf refuses its legs in an automatic style, occasional

food, and blood is mingled with the spasms of the muscles of the neck , which dung, accompanied by great pain and usually terminate in paralysis. weakness, immediate steps must be Cause . — It is seen only in certain dis

taken to remove the irritating matter. tricts, and is supposed to be due to a Give castor-oil, 2 oz. , to relieve the in- peculiar formation of the soil or the con

testines, and after this has had time to act, give morning and evening i oz . of calf-cordial ( No. 24 ). If this does not produce any effect, give four times daily, tincture of catechu, 2 drs.; spirit of

chloroform, 30 drops; and dilute sul-

dition of the grass.

Prevention . - Dip the sheep, remove them to fresh pasture, and give them corn and salt ; to every pound of salt add one ounce of sulphate of iron. Treatment.—Of little use ; look to

phuric acid, 30 drops, in thin gruel. prevention. Diarrhea, indigestion, and death are also caused by hair balls, which form in There is no preventive. the stomach .

Blindness.

Sheep are sometimes attacked by tem Caused by the calves licking each other. porary blindness, often lasting only about ten days. Navel- ill.

Cause. - Changes of temperature ; Calves sometimes suck one another's blight.

navels, which causes swelling and inflam-

Prevention . -None.

mation of it ; or it may be caused by the

Treatment.—If left to nature, the

cord breaking off too short, by neglect, blindness will probably pass away. exposure to cold, wet, and dirt.

Lambs thus affected require extra care,

Treatment.-Poultice, if no tendency and should be putto the ewes so that to bleeding, or apply hot fomentations they should not suffer from loss of milk. persistently, and carbolic oil to the raw Lockjaw or Tetanus. surface. Symptoms.-- Practically the same as those in the case of the horse (p. 443).

White Skit.

Whitish diarrhæa seen in calves that live on a milk diet.

Cause.—Cold, especially during lamb ing-time; also produced by careless cas

Treatment.-- Give castor -oil, i to 2 tration, wounds, &c. oz., according to the size of the animal, Prevention.-Shelter and careful at

and follow up with calf-cordial (No. 24). tention will do much to avert this dis Keep the animal for a few days on lin- ease . (See pp. 443, 444. ) Treatment.--- Give castor-oil, 2 oz., repeating the dose every six hours till it takes effect. Give, in gruel, tincture of

seed or oatmeal gruel. SHEEP.

opium , 1 dr., morning and evening. Flem

DISEASES AFFECTING THE HEAD,

ing's tincture of aconite, 5 drops, may be added to the gruel if there is no relief.

EYES, MOUTH , AND NERVOUS SYSTEM.

Staggers, Sturdy, Goggles, Fern -sick, Apoplery. This disease

cannot

be

treated or

Dunt, or Turn -sick. Symptoms. - Dulness; unsteady walk,

guarded against ; it attacks the fattest generally in a circle ; separation from

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

486

the rest of the flock ; blindness.

The

Treatment. —Give daily, in linseed

animal affected will often fall into a gruel, nitre, i dr.; digitalis, 1 scr. , and ditch and perish, or die gradually. This keep the animal warm . disease generally attacks sheep in good Foot -and -mouth Disease.

condition.

Cause. — A species of parasite--the

A disease of the blood . (See p . 474 )

Coenurus cerebralis-in cysts or bladders

Symptoms.-- Mouth hot, with small

containing fluid, which lodge in the vesicles on the inside of it, dribbling brain .

saliva, swollen and painful legs.

The

Prevention . — Young sheep in damp udder and teats of ewes become sore situations are very liable to this disease, and painful. Cause. — Usually contagion. and care should be taken to avoid putting them into such pastures. The use Prevention . Careful isolation

of

of lump or rock salt, which they can lick infected stock, and the free use of dis as often as they like, helps to ward off infectants, such as carbolic acid and Keep your sheep -dog free from tape-worms, for it is

this and similar diseases.

water.

Treatment.—Give three times a day,

the egg of this worm that gets into the in warm water, sulphite of sodium , i dr. brain .

Treatment.—Slaughter is the most profitable course to follow. There is a

Apply carbolic acid ointment to the udder and teats, and the same or boracic

acid ointment to the feet. Completely method of treating this disease by punc- isolate all sheep affected , and induce turing the soft place in the skull, and them to eat fine meal and hay.

removing the bag or cyst ; but unless

This disease comes under the Con

this is done in good time, and performed tagious Diseases Act. skilfully, it is rarely successful. Hoose or Husk . Water on the Brain .

Symptoms.-- A short husky cough,

This disease often affects very young which increases if the animal is hurried. lambs. Gradual loss of condition , till the health Symptoms.-- Dulness and stupidity ; is undermined. In time the diseased staggering gait ; rapid loss of flesh. lungs will no longer be able to purify Death may ensue in about a month .

the blood, and the animal will die .

Cause. - Often congenital, taking Cause. — The presence of parasites place before birth ; constitutional weak- the Strongylus filarius -- in the throat and lungs.

ness .

Treatment. — No cure , so far as the farmer is concerned .

DISEASES AFFECTING THE THROAT, CHEST,

Prevention .

Lambs should never

be depastured on land fed previously the same year with sheep. If this ad vice is acted on, and proper care taken of the flock, cases of hoose will be less

RESPIRATORY ORGANS, frequent on most farms. Treatment. - Give daily : turpentine, i dr., for a lamb ; 3 drs. for a sheep, in Anthrax. respectively 6 and 12 drs, of sweet-oil,

AND BLOOD.

See Anthrax ( p. 472 ) for description of and feed liberally, giving some good this disease. Sheep will die in convul- linseed-cake with the food . sions in about twenty -four hours.

Pneumonia - Inflammation of the Lungs. Catarrh.

Symptoms. - Hard breathing ; loss of

Symptoms. — Dulness ; loss of appe- appetite ; fever ; cough, which becomes tite ; difficulty in swallowing ; water more and more distressing ; fætid dis running from the eyes and nose ; hot charge from the nose ; thirst. After

mouth and muzzle ; constipation ; cough, wards intense weakness sets in, followed and discharge of yellow mucus from the by unconsciousness and death. nose .

Cause . — Chills and exposure.

Cause . - Cold, particularly from shear ing in cold weather.

SHEEP.

487

Treatment. — Give, in linseed -tea, Fleming's tincture of aconite, 5 drops, Fleming's tincture of aconite, 5 drops, may be given in gruel every morning, three times a-day, and with it once a- and the food should be sparing, with a day tartar of antimony, 12 dr. Keep little linseed. The treatment of the dis warm, and in cases of complete prostra- ease is generally unsatisfactory. Change

tion, give, as a stimulant, in the gruel, their pasture, and if on good arable grass, put them on the heather, if possible, for

gin, 1 or 2 oz.

a day or two.

Small-pox. A very rare disease in this country. Symptoms.-- Loss of appetite ; sep

Calculus or Gall-stones, and Kindred Diseases of the Bladder. Symptoms. - Dulness; loss of appe

aration from the flock ; stiffness of the hind quarters ; costiveness ; red patches tite ; separation from the flock, generally

onthe limbs and stomach ; later a small lying down ; quick breathing ; when red eruption appears on the skin and roused, painful efforts to void urine, only face. In severe cases a great part of the a few drops of which come away. Saline flock may succumb to the disease ; and deposits will sometimes be found in the

when mildest it is a very serious malady. sheath. Cause.— High and stimulating system Cause. — Contagion. Prevention. This disease should be of feeding, especially on saccharine roots, stamped out and not treated ; the ani- such as mangel-wurzel ; want of exercise ;

mals attacked should be destroyed, and absence of water for drinking. Prevention. — Avoid an exclusively saccharine and starchy diet, and allow

the premises disinfected.

free access to water.

DISEASES AFFECTING THE STOMACH , LIVER, BOWELS, KIDNEYS, AND INTERNAL

ORGANS .

PARTURI

TION AND MILKING ORGANS.

Treatment.-- In the latter case warm

fomentations and syringing with tepid water may get rid of the deposit ; after wards wash out the sheath with an

I. - STOMACH , LIVER, BOWELS, KIDNEYS, AND INTERNAL ORGANS .

Brary or Sickness.

But if the seat of the

astringent lotion.

malady cannot be reached, the sheep should be at once slaughtered when the disease is suspected.

Symptoms. - Restlessness ; hanging of

Constipation. the head ; aching of the back ; grinding of the teeth ; cold extremities ; kicking Symptoms. — Dulness and costiveness. Cause . — Especially prevalent among of the belly with the hind feet; separating from the rest of the flock . young lambs, caused by the quality or

Cause.-- Inflammation of the bowels too great quantity of the ewes' milk, from cold or feeding on strong rank which has coagulated in the stomach. grass, some of which may have been rot-

Prevention . — Avoid any irregularity

ten. Prevalent in the autumn, especially in the ewes' food, and especially too luxuriant pasture among the lambs ; often runs through a

flock like an epidemic.

.

Treatment. — Put the ewes on shorter

Prevention . - If possible, keep the pasture, and give every morning as much sound pastures for the lambs, and avoid warm water, with Epsom salts, i oz.,

letting them have too succulent pasture dissolved in it, as the lamb can take. for grazing, and always let rock -salt be within reach.

Don't allow an affected

Lambs also suffer from wool balls, which form in the stomach . There is no

animal to be bled or slaughtered on cure, but care should be taken that the ground that the rest of the flock have bags of ewes should be kept as clear of

access to, as blood diseases of an anthra- wool as possible, in order to prevent coid nature, as well as inflammation of the lambs getting it into their stomachs. bowels, enteritis, and acute indigestion, are sometimes all included under the

Diarrhoea.

Symptoms.-Simple looseness of the Treatment.-Give purgative (No. 34). bowels without much pain.

general name of braxy.

488

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

Cause. — Fresh, succulent herbage, gas. The subsequent food should be especially when it has been touched with rather scanty. frost. Inflammation of the Liver. Treatment. —Change the pasture or source of irritation, and if weakness Symptoms.-- Loss of appetite ; skin

comes on, give rhubarb, i dr. , and after- hard and itchy ; tongue foul; dung white wards, in warm gruel, powdered opium , and fatid ; weakness. 20 grs.; catechu, 72 dr.; prepared chalk , Cause . - Sudden change from poor to nutritious food is generally the cause. 14 oz. Prevention . - Extra care when any Dysentery. change of food takes place. Treatment. — Give daily, in gruel, pur Symptoms. — Frequent evacuations of

hard lumps of fætid dung, mixed with slime and blood ; loss of appetite ; pain, fever, and great weakness. Affects sheep of any age ,generally in the summer.

gative (No. 32). Foment the body near the liver with hot water, and inject warm water if the bowels are costive. In chronic cases of this disease, salt (4 oz. per

Cause. — Aggravated and unchecked head per week) should be given in addi diarrhea ; chills after being clipped. tion to the purgative above mentioned . Many believe it to be contagious.

Prevention.Sheepthat are scouring should be watched, the food altered, and

any aggravation of the attack checked. Treatment.

Inflammation of the Stomach. Symptoms. — Loss of appetite and separation from the flock ; alternate hot

Give in warm water, and cold shivering fits ; restlessness ;

three times a -day, ipecacuanha, 72 dr.; straining to empty the bladder. powdered opium , 20 grs.; chlorodyne, 10 Cause . — Too nutritious food, or, in drops ; chalk, 14 oz. Gruel, or if animal some cases, inflammation after castration. will eat, flour- porridge, sprinkled with Prevention . Avoid exposing the salt, should be given.

lambs to chills and cold east winds after

being cut, and exercise care when forcing Hoove.

A distention of the stomach by gas,

owing to the fermentation of food which has been too long retained in it. Symptoms. Enlargement of the belly, especially on the left side, which sounds hollow when tapped. Stupor and death follow, unless the animal is

on sheep for the market. Treatment.— Foment the belly ; give

Fleming's tincture of aconite, 5 drops, twice a day, and purgative (No. 34),

halving the dose in the case of young lambs. Keep warm , and let the food consist of warm gruel with a little boiled linseed in it.

relieved.

Jaundice. Cause.--- When sheep are incautiously fed on green clover or turnips, they are Symptoms. — Yellowness of the skin apt to eat to excess, and fermentation of and eye ; constipation ; urine brown ;

food in the stomach sets in before the loss of appetite. Cause. --Richness of the pasture, es organs are able to dispose of the accumulation of food. pecially in damp sultry weather. Prevention . - Green clover and tur-

Prevention.The use of salt among

nips should be given in small quantities the artificial food, combined with care as at first, and sheep should only be turned to the nature of the pasture, will make into a very succulent pasture for an hour the appearance of thisdisease rare.

Treatment. — Give purgative (No. 32) or two till they get accustomed to it, when there will be no danger of hoove. and frequent doses of salt, 4 oz. per head Treatment.— The insertion of a trocar per week . into the flank will relieve the pressure of gas, and a dose of purgative ( No. 33) will open the bowels. A drachm of

Rot .

Symptoms. — At first the animal will

chloride of lime dissolved in a quarter of lay on fat very quickly, but afterwards a pint of water, and horned into the the wool begins to fall off ; the eyes sheep, will often reduce the pressure of become hollow, the belly enlarged ; swell

SHEEP.

489

ings appear on the body ; scouring sets 8 parts, carbolic acid, 1 part. in, and finally death ensues.

Great

cleanliness should be observed in the

Cause.—The presence of the Distoma lambing - yard, and a free use made of

hepaticum, or flukes in the liver, especi- carbolic acid, and the hands washed and ally prevalent in wet seasons, or when nails cut before manipulating the womb. turnips are mildewed.

Sheep fed on

Treatment. - Besides the injection of

low -lying, wet, and undrained land are carbolic lotion, give every four hours very subject to this disease. carbolic acid, 20 drops, in water ; and Prevention.--The use of salt in the if constipated, purgative (No. 33) ; give food and judicious grazing during wet plenty of gruel and linseed - tea. If straining and diarrhea come on , give seasons will do much as preventives. Treatment.

Remove the flock at whisky, 4 oz., and tincture of opium, i

once to dry uplands or salt-marshes if oz. , in gruel. The treatment is, however,

available, and give salt in the food, 4 generally unsatisfactory. oz. per head per week, and as much in Abortion ,

the troughs as the sheep will lick up.

or the premature expulsion of the fætus. II.-- PARTURITION AND MILKING ORGANS .

Symptoms. — There are no particular symptoms in abortion among ewes.

Garget, or Inflammation of the Udder. Cause.- Overdriving ; cold ; improper Symptoms. — Pain when the lambs food ; injuries to or disease of the ab are sucking, lameness, restlessness, fever,

domen.

A very frequent cause is the

inflammation, and swelling of the udder, disturbance of sheep by dogs. which becomes ulcerated and painful. Prevention and Treatment. — When Cause . - Stoppage of the secretion of cases of abortion occur, the cause of the milk ; exposure to cold ; injuries. disease must, if possible, be ascertained Prevention . Care should be taken and removed. It may generally be to prevent the udder being surcharged traced to one of the causes mentioned with milk, especially when the lambs are above. When one sees a flock of ewes weaned or dead . occupying a turnip-fold, only vacated by

Treatment. — Foment the udder with warm water, and clear it from all wool.

the fat hoggs when it was too bad for them , up to their bellies in mud, one can

If not very painful, let the lamb suck it hardly be surprised that cases of abortion and knock it about as much as possible.

are only too frequent.

Given a proper

Give purgative (No. 33), and remove all rational system for the management of the milk by frequent milkings ; rub the a breeding flock, and cases of abortion udder with belladonna liniment.

Parturition Fever __ " Heaving," “Straining."

will be rare, and only the result of cir

cumstances which cannot be altogether avoided .

Should a ewe appear sickly

after abortion, inject lotion composed of

Symptoms. - Fever, loss of milk, list- carbolic acid, i part ; water, 40 parts ; lessness, frothy saliva, stiffness of the and give purgative (No. 33). hind quarters, discharge of dark fluid Tumours on the Udder.

from the vagina, swelling of the vagina, straining, and pain.

The whole con-

Treatment. — Give purgative (No. 33),

stitution will now be affected, diarrhea and lance the tumours, taking care that will set in, followed by death. This the bottom is reached ; afterward dress with lotion ( No. 30). disease is nearly always fatal. Cause. — Probably the result of blood poisoning, owing to deleterious matter DISEASES AFFECTING THE LIMBS, entering the system through wounds of FEET, AND SKIN. the parturient organs. Prevention . - Should any wounds be

made during parturition , they should be washed with warm water and syringed

Foot- rot.

Symptoms. — Lameness, which may

with lotion (No. 30) daily for some days, be traced to disease between the claws and afterwards anointed with glycerine, of the feet, indicated by the discharge

AILMENTS OF FARM

490

LIVE STOCK .

of matter and swelling, which, if not elements necessary to produce a perfect checked, will gradually extend to the offspring Food grown on light moor tillage land, dressed with caustic lime, Cause.—Often contagion, grazing on will produce rickets. Prevention . — Avoid in - and -in breed low, rich pastures, encouraging overwhole of the foot.

growth of the hoofs, which are apt to ing, and also food grown on land which, asabove described , is apt to produce the Prevention .-- The maxim , “ A stitch malformity. in time," &c., if put into practice, will Treatment. — Direct treatment is use prevent the disease spreading, and will less.

split and crack and collect dirt.

soon cure those affected.

As a means

Scab.

of prevention it is useful to pass hthe whole flock twice a - year throug a

A pustular eruption of the skin, pro solution of arsenic, put into a trough, duced by parasites -- the Dematodectes through which the sheep are driven ovis—minute acari which burrow in the

slowly. The solution is thus prepared : skin. Constant rubbing Symptoms . Boil 2 lb. of arsenic with 2 lb. of potash (pearl-ash ) in i gallon of water over a against gates, & c.; loss of wool ; skin slow fire for half an hour ; keep stirring,

red, rough, and afterwards covered with

and when like to boil over, pour in a hard scabs; loss of health and condition. little cold water ; then add 5 gallons of Cause. — Generally contagion. cold water. Put this solution into the Prevention.—Bottling, or smearing

trough to the depth of 1/4 inch. The solution is poisonous, so the trough should be kept locked when not in use. Treatment. Pare away all loose ragged horn, to allow the matter to discharge, cut away any proud flesh with sharp scissors, dress the foot with chloride of antimony. If much diseased, wrap it

the sheep with salve, is the best pre servative, and isolation of infected stock. Treatment.-- Rub the part affected with ointment composed of corrosive sublimate, 4 oz. ; train-oil, 3 gals. ; resin, 1 lb. ; tallow, 1 lb. ; and wash all posts

and gates against which the sheep may have rubbed with carbolic acid, i part,

in tow to prevent its getting fly-blown, water, 100 parts. and every day dress it with lotion

This disease comes under the Con

(No. 31 ). Cauterising with carbolic acid tagious Diseases Act. might be tried, but it must be done very

Vermin .

carefully .

Note. - Sheep, when they have travSheep ticks and lice may be destroyed elled far on hard stony roads, get very by the use of one of the many dips foot-sore.

When thus affected, the sore which are sold for the purpose.

Maggots may be destroyed by apply. feet should be dressed daily with vaseline, and poulticed if required ; any ab- ing spirit of tar, i part, olive oil,4 parts,

scesses should be opened with a knife, to the places affected. It will also keep and bathed with carbolic acid, i part, off the flies. water, 30 parts. Rickets - Weak Backs.

Lameness of hind quarters, resulting from fracture of bones, which, from their malformation, are liable to injury under trifling exertion.

This disease only af-

SWINE.

Anthrax - Blood -striking (see p . 472). A disease of the blood .

Symptoms.

Dulness ; thirst, hot

fects the lambs, and when once it ap- ears, brownish - red eyes, tender hind pears, will run right through the flock. quarters ; urine, and sometimes the The outbreak may occur at any time of dung, mixed with blood, black spots on the year .

the skin, external swellings.

When

Symptoms. — Difficulty in rising ; the caused by eating the flesh or blood of fore feet are not affected .

animals dying of the disease, there is

Cause.—Peculiar condition of the soil, nearly always great swelling about the pointing to an insufficiency of particular throat.

SWINE.

491

Cause. - Generally contagion. goes down at the end of a few days, a Prevention. — Keep in good condition, dark-red patch will be left. and avoid close buildings, putrid food,

Cause. — Want of ventilation ; dirt ;

and bad water. Completely isolate all heating food ; wounds. diseased animals.

Treatment. — Give, in gruel, jalap, i

Treatment.--Owing to the rapid and dr.; sulphate of magnesia, 3 oz.,mixed fatal nature of this disease, all treatment in a little water, and as soon as the pur is unsatisfactory. But it is not so fatal gative has acted, give muriate of iron, as in horses and cattle, although young

10 drops, night and morning in food .

pigs are more easily affected by it than grown ones. Give Epsom salts, 3 oz. , and oil of turpentine, 2 drs., in a little linseed - gruel, and rub the limbs with

Foment the swellings on the skin with water, i quart, in which i oz. of sul phate of zinc has been previously dis solved. Good nourishing food should

oil of turpentine. Call in a veterinary be given, and the animal should be com surgeon, who will inject diluted carbolic pletely isolated. acid under the skin.

Foot-and -mouth Disease.

Convulsions.

A disease of the blood (see p. 474). Symptoms.- Shivering ; hot and dry Symptoms.-- Young pigs are subject to convulsions, which take the form of mouth ; lameness ; blisters in the mouth, sudden spasms with complete insensi- on the teats, and between the claws.

bility, frothing from the mouth, and Sometimes the entire hoof drops off. Animal buries itself in its bedding . redness of the eyeballs. Contagion , especially by Cause . Cause.—Disorders of the brain ; indigestion ; sometimes intestinal worms. means of milk, which should be boiled Prevention.-Good water and nour- if suspected. Prevention . — Total isolation of dis ishing food . Treatment. eased stock and the use of disinfectants. Give a purgative Treatment. - Give Epsom salts, 2 oz. Epsom salts — regulating the dose according to size. Remove as far as pos- Wash the mouth with lotion composed

borax, 1 oz.; tincture of myrrh, i oz.; sible the cause of the attack — i.e., expel of and water 12 oz . Dress the feet and

the worms if they exist (see p . 493), or

alter the food if it has produced indiges- teats with carbolic acid, 72. dr.; glycer tion.

Give sulphate of iron, i dr. , in the

food .

Diarrhoea .

Symptoms. — Looseness of the bowels, which affects the health.

If unaccom-

panied by loss of appetite, fever, or pros

tration, no treatment is required beyond care that the complaint does not increase.

ine, 10 oz. Feed on mashes, and re move all diseased horn in the feet, and poultice if much inflamed . Very dan

gerous to sucking -pigs. The disease comesunder the Contagious Diseases Act.

Husk (see p. 474). Symptoms. — Short, dry cough ; frothy

Cause. — Often a symptom of some discharge from the nose; loss of appe other disease.

Often caused by indi- tite ; thirst ; loss of flesh, till finally

death results. gestion, putrid food or water. Prevention . — Proper food and attenCause. - The presence of worms in

the air-passages, amounting almost to an Treatment. — Give castor-oil, 3 oz., epidemic in certain districts. Prevention . - Keep in good condition, and peppermint-oil, 5 drops, in gruel, tion .

and if possible remove the cause of the and isolate from infected animals. Treatment. — Give, in milk, salt, I complaint. teaspoonful ( i dr. ) ; oil of turpentine, i Erysipelas. teaspoonful , daily. Fumigate in a close

Symptoms. - Heat ; itching ; red- building by burning flowers of sulphur ness ; tenderness and swelling of the on a hot shovel till the animals can bear skin, generally on the head and neck ; no more without coughing violently, and When the swelling repeat the fumigation every week. Give loss of appetite.

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

492

linseed-porridge, nourishing food and plenty of skim -milk .

Treatment.-- Give Epsom salts, 1 oz., and sulphur, i oz. , in thin gruel, and repeat the dose twice a - week.

Keep

warm, and feed on nutritious food of Inflammation of the Lungs. Symptoms. — Shivering; hot skin ; good quality. Rub the limbs with tur laboured breathing ; red eyes, nose, and pentine, 4 parts ; mustard , i part ; and mouth ; cough deep and dry ; yellow olive oil, 2 parts. discharge from the nose. Sore Throat (Malignant). Cause. - Cold, aggravated by neglect Symptoms. - Swelling of the throat and predisposition to the disease. Prevention . - Nourishing food, and and neck ; bluish -black colour of the

lining membrane of the mouth and warm dry bedding. Treatment. — Cover with a warm rug, throat; swelling of the tongue ; loss of

appetite; difficulty in breathing and swallowing w; eakness and death .

but allow plenty of cool fresh air ; rub the chest with mustard, 1 part, and turpentine, 4 parts, and repeat the rubbing. Give spirits of nitrous ether, 2 drs.; tincture of opium, 2 drs. , in a little milk twice a -day, and put 2 drs. of nitrate of potash in its food every time the animal

plete isolation of diseased animals, and disinfection of premises tenanted by

is fed .

them.

Cause.—Exposure to cold and wet ;

improper food ; dirt and neglect. Prevention . — Cleanliness and com

Treatment. — A dose of Epsom salts, to be followed by small doses of chlorate

Measles.

Symptoms. — Fever ; cough ; loss of of potash and acetate of ammonia in appetite; red patches on the skin ; pus- their food, with very hot fomentations tules under the tongue. to the throat. Treatment.-Give, fasting, I oz. of

sulphur in the food, and repeat the dose till the animal is quite recovered.

Keep

the animals warm .

Surfeit. Symptoms. - Fever ; swellings

in

patcheson the lips, eyelids, and nostrils, which quickly appear and disappear.

Protrusion of the Rectum . Cause.—Change of food or climate. After parturition the rectum sometimes Generally occurs in the autumn. Treatment. — Give in gruel, jalap, i

protrudes and swells.

The gut should be dr.; Epsom salts, i oz., and avoid im emptied and washed. It may be re- proper feeding. turned by inserting the finger into the Swine-fever - Hog -cholera. opening and pressing it into the anus. A nourishing diet should be given. Symptoms. - Shivering ; dulness ; Treatment.

-

Sometimes a truss will be necessary to

sunken eyes ; loss of appetite; thirst ;

keep the gut in its place after it has unwillingness to rise ; heat and sore been returned It necessary .

may be

to ness of the skin, which is covered with

amputate the protruding part. Advice red and black patches ; costiveness, fol should be obtained if this is found to be

lowed by fætid diarrhæa mixed with

necessary .

blood.

Cause. — Contagion . Rheumatism , Cramp, Lameness. Symptoms. - Dulness ; lameness, es-

Prevention. —Cleanliness and good food, together with ordinary care. Iso

pecially of the hind quarters ; tenderness lation from all infected animals, and the use of disinfectants, such as carbolic Cause. — Damp bedding ; lying on acid. cold brick floors ; chills. Especially Treatment. - Immediate slaughter is

of the joints ; constipation.

prevalent where pigs lie on fermenting the only course to follow at present. horse -manure. Immediately bury the dead body, and Allow Prevention. young pigs cover it with quicklime ; disinfect the plenty of exercise and dry bedding in premises. This disease comes under the

which they may bury themselves.

Contagious Diseases Act.

RECIPES.

Worms ( Intestinal). Symptoms. - Ill-health ; scurvy ; dry

2. Powdered cantharides ( Cantharis Lard ( Adeps præparatus), 1 lb. Resin ( Resina ), 4 lb.

Melt the resin and lard together skin ; irregular appetite; itchiness of tempera ture, then sprinkle in the can

the arms, and the passing of worms ;

and stir till cold.

loss of flesh ; cough ; scour. Prevention . - Sound food and water.

Treatment. - Give santonine , 3 grs.,

on an empty stomach, and four days

3. Perchloride mercury ( corrosive sublimate) ( Hydrargyri perchloridum ), 40 grs. Methylated spirit ( Spent methyll), i oz. To be applied with a small brush . Shake

later repeat the dose ; the next day give together in a bottle until dissolved . 3 oz. Epsom salts. Allow access to plenty of coal, slack, or cinders, so that the pigs may eat as much grit as they like.

Trichinosis.

A parasitic disease of the pig, but

rarely seen in this country.

4. Red iodide of mercury ( Hydrargyri iodi. dum rubrum ), /2 lb.

Lard (Adeps preparatus), 4 lb. Mix together. Poison. 5. Iodine ( lodum), 2 oz. Iodide of potassium ( Potassii iodidum ), 1 oz. Camphor (Camphora ), 12 oz. Methylated spirit, i pt. Should be made up by a qualified party.

Symptoms. — The animal is dull, loss Put the iodine and iodide of potassium in a

of appetite, goes stifly, vomits frequent- dissolve bottle with 15 oz. of the spirit, shaketill d. Dissolve the camphor in 5 oz. , then ly.

As the disease advances, the animal

mix together.

persistently stands, and when it lies CONDITION POWDERS .

down it tries to bury itself under the bedding. Cause.

6. Fenugrek, 2 parts. Carbonate of iron, i part.

It is due to a minute worm

called the Trichina spiralis, which infests the whole body, causing what is called measly pork ; far more common in Germany and America than in this country.

Nitrate of potassium ( Potassii nitras ), 2 parts.

Gentian powder (Gentianæ radix ) i part. Sulphur (Sulphur sublimatum ), 2 parts.

Mix all together and sift.

Give i oz. daily

Treatment. — Slaughter and bury the in the food . animals at once, for the diseased pork is poisonous to human beings.

COOLING LOTION .

7. Solution of subacetate of lead ( Liquor

plumbi subacetatii ), i part. Lice. These may

Tincture of arnica ( Tincturæ arnicæ ), 3 parts.

be easily removed by wash

ing with water saturated with petroleum .

Water ( Aqua ), S parts. Mix . COUGH BALL .

RECIPES.

8. Digitalis ( Digitales folia ), 72 dr.

Powdered opium (Opium ), i dr. Aloes (Aloe barbadensis), i dr. Soft-soap ( Sapo mollis) | enough to

The scientific names are given as found

in the British Pharmacopoeia and Squire's Companion to the British Pharmacopoeia. Directions for preparing the mixtures are appended to each recipe.

Linseed -meal ( Lini farina ) I make a ball. Give one ball every

Make into a stiff mass .

day. DRAUGHTS.

9. Spirits of ammonia ( Spiritus ammoniæ aro ABBREVIATIONS .

Grains, grs .; scruple, scr.; drachms, drs .; Pounds, Ib.; ounces, oz.; quart, qt.; pint, pt. HORSES. BLISTERS .

1. Powdered cantharides ( P. Cantharis), 1 oz.

maticus ), 1/2 oz. Chloroform ( Chloroformum methyl ), 1 oz. Bicarbonate of potash ( Potassii bicarbonas), 12 oz. Water ( Aqua ), 10 oz.

Mix. Shake up well before giving in gruel or other bland liquid . Every two hours till improvement, then twice a -day.

Olive-oil ( Oleum olivce ), 8 oz. FOR BRONCHITIS ,

Use the ordinary “ salad -oil ” obtainable from grocers.

Mix together in an earthen

10. Tincture of digitales ( Tinctura digitalis),

ware pot, and infuse in a water -bath for four hours,and strain . Clip hair off the part before application .

Bromide of potassium (Potassii bromidum ),

3 drs. 2 drs .

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK.

494

Nitrous ether Spirit ( @theris nitrosi), 1 oz . Water ( Aqua ), 10 oz.

19. Aloes ( Aloe barbadensis), 1/2 dr. Tartar emetic (Antimonium tartaratum ) . I dr.

Dissolve bromide of potassium in water, add the other ingredients, and make up with water To be given three times a -day. to IO OZ .

Nitre ( Potassii nitras ), 2 drs.

Digitalis ( Digitales folia ), 12 dr. To be made into a ball with meal and treacle.

FOR WORMS . ORDINARY PURGATIVE .

11. Extract male fern ( Extractum filicis liqui. dum ), 2 drs.

Oil of turpentine (Oleum terebinthinæ ), 1/2 oz. Linseed -oil ( Oleum lini), i pt. Mix and shake well together. EMBROCATION.

12. Hartshorn ( Liq. ammon , dil.), 1 oz. Turpentine ( Oleum terebinthinæ ), 2 oz. Spirit of camphor ( Spiritus camphorce ), 2 oz .

Laudanum ( Tinctura opii), 2 oz. Olive-oil ( Oleum olivce), 6 oz. Mix the hartshorn with the olive-oil, and

shake, then the turpentine, spirit of camphor,

20. Barbadoes aloes ( Aloe barbadensis ), 12 dr . Calomel (Hydrargyri subchloridum ), i dr. To be made into a ball with meal and treacle. TONIC.

21. Sulphate of iron ( Perri sulph .), 1/2 dr. Sulphate of quinine ( Quining sulph .), 20 grs .

Sulphuric acid, diluted (Acidum sulphuri cum dilutum ), 2 drs. Water ( Aqua ), 10 oz . Dissolve the sulphate of iron in water,

diffuse quinine in the solution, then add di . luted sulphuric acid, and make up to 10 oz. Give morning and night.

and laudanum, shaking after each addition . Shake well before using. CATTLE. GLYSTER,

13. Oatmeal, 3 qts.

BLISTER

Salt, 3 oz. Olive-oil, 12 pt.

22. Powdered cantharides ( Cantharis ), i oz .

Give warm , and repeat till relief is given. IRRITANT.

Olive -oil (Oleum oliva ), 8 oz .

Use the ordinary “ salad- oil ” obtainable from grocers. Mix together in an earthenware pot, and infuse in a water -bath for four hours, and

14. Ammonia solution ( Liquor ammoniæ, F. ), 3 oz.

strain .

Clip hair off the part before appli

cation.

Soft-soap ( Sapo mollis), 4 oz. Oil of turpentine (Oleum terebinthince ), 8 oz .

Olive-oil ( Oleum olivæ ), 4 OZ .

Rub the soap with the olive -oil to smooth ness, then add turpentine and ammonia solu tion . Bottle, and shake well.

23. Powdered cantharides, I part. Venice turpentine, i part. Resin , I part. Lard , 4 parts.

Melt resin and lard together, then stir in the cantharides and Venice turpentine. CALF- CORDIAL.

LINIMENT

15. Mustard ( Sinapis ), 4 oz . Oil of turpentine (Oleum terebinthince ), 5 oz .

Linseed -oil ( Oleum lini), i pt.

Mix together, and shake thoroughly.

24. Prepared chalk ( Creta preparata ), 2 oz . Powdered catechu ( Catechu ), i oz. Ginger (Zingiber ), 12 oz .

Opium ( Opium ), 2 drs. Peppermint-water (Aquæ menthe peperite ), I pt.

LOTION.

16. Tincture of myrrh ( Tinctura myrrha ), I

oz .

morning and evening. Mix all together.

Alum ( Alumcu ), 2 drs. Water (Aqua ), 6 oz. Mix together. PURGATIVES .

17. Aloes powdered ( Aloe barbadensis ), 6 drs. Ginger ( Zingiber ), 2 drs. Made into a ball with soap or treacle.

18. Calomel (Hydrargyri subchloridum ), i dr. Opium, powdered ( Opium ), 20 grs. To be made into a ball with linseed -meal and treacle.

Dose for calf, two tablespoonfuls morning and evening ; dose for sheep,one tablespoonful

DRAUGHT FOR COUGHS, & c. 25. Powdered digitales ( Digitales folice), i dr. Liquor ammonia acetatis ( Liquor ammonii acetatis), 3 oz. Spirit nitrous ether ( Spiritus atheris nitrosi ), 2 oz. Extract belladonna ( Extractum belladonne ), 2 drs,

To be given in a pint of water. Melt extract of belladonna in a little warm

water ; when cold, add the other ingredients.

APPENDIX.

495 SHEEP.

Shake, and make up to a pint with cold water .

LOTION

30. Carbolic acid ( Acidum carbolicum), i part.

LINIMENT.

Water (Aqua ), 50 parts.

26. Oil of turpentine (Oleum terebinthinæ ),

Shake.

8 oz . DRESSING FOR FOOT - ROT .

Solution of ammonia ( Liquor ammonia , F. ), 3 oz.

nitrate of mercury ( Hydrargyri

31. Red

oxidum rubrum ), 1 oz. Nitrous acid , 2 oz. To be mixed with two tablespoonfuls of water ; dissolve the red nitrate of mercury

Soft-soap ( Sapo mollis ), 4 oz. Rub down the soft-soap in the turpentine, then add the ammonia , and shake.

in the acid, and then add the water .

PURGATIVES .

PURGATIVES.

27. Epsom salts ( Magnesii sulphas), 16 oz. Powdered aloes (Aloe barbadensis), 8 drs. Ginger (ground ) (Zingiber ), 1 oz.

32. Calomel (Hydrargyri subchloridum ), 5 grs. Powdered opium (Opium ), 4 grs.

To be given in a quart of warm water or gruel.

Epsom salts for cattle costs Is. a stone. Use Barbadoes aloes and ordinary domestic ginger.

Epsom salts ( Magnesii sulphas ), 1 oz. To be given in 3 oz . of gruel or water. All obtainable from a druggist. Mix and

give in gruel. Ask for Epsom salts for cattle.

33. Epsom salts (Magnesii sulphas), 3 oz . Ginger ( ground ) (Zingiber ), i dr. In thin gruel. Take ginger used for domestic purposes,

MILD PURGATIVE .

28. Epsom salts (Magnesii sulphas ), 12 oz. Powdered ginger (Zingiber ), 72 oz. To be given in a quart of warm water or

mix with the salts, and give in thin gruel.

34. Castor-oil ( Oleum ricini), 2 oz . Tincture of opium (laudanum ) ( Tinctura

gruel.

Salts for cattle, and ordinary ginger.

opii ), 2 drs.

Use ordinary castor -oil and laudanum ; mix, TONIC.

and give.

Note . — The doses given , except where other.

29. Gentian (Gentianæ radix ), 1 oz . Ginger (Zingiber), 1/2 oz .

wise stated, are intended for fair - grown

Carbonate of ammonia ( Ammonii carbonas ), 1/2 oz. Carbonate of iron , 2 drs.

animals of medium

size .

Allowance must

therefore be made should the age or size of the animal to be treated exceed or otherwise the average .

To be given in a pint of gruel or water .

TABLE OF Doses . Horse.

Cattle.

4 years and over 2 to 3 years I year 2 to 10 months . .

.

Swine.

Sheep.

Doses.

2 years

I year

I year

I

6 months 3

6 months

6 months

3

.

I

I

I

.

!!

I part. to 1 part. i to to part.

A drench should never exceed a quart, APPENDIX . ADMINISTERING MEDICINE.

and before giving it, make sure that it is neither too hot nor too strong, for choking will follow .

A tin bottle is the best for drenching Some notes will be useful as to the with ; if this cannot be had, use

methods of administering medicine to champagne-bottle. the various animals. How to fix the animal. — Put on The Horse.

a

a

head-stall or halter ; take a piece of rope or plough -line, make a loop at one end,

Medicine is usually given by the pass the loop first through the nose-band mouth, but sometimes injected under of the halter or head -stall as the case the skin into the blood, the rectum, and may be, then into the mouth, throw the by inhalation.

other end over one of the rafters above,

496

AILMENTS OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

and pull the horse's head up ; the medi- place the toe of the boot into the pig's cine should be slowly poured into his mouth, for horses are slow swallowers. Never be guilty of pouring it down the horse's nose, as I have seen some men do, and kill the animal.

mouth, pour the medicine into the leg portion of the boot, and the pig will bite savagely at the boot and swallow the medicine at the same time.

If the animal

makes an attempt to cough whilst you are drenching him , let his head down

FOMENTATION .

Fomentation is of great value in all

instantly.

The Ball.— They should never exceed cases of pain and inflammation. Never

1/2 oz. in weight, and never be given start to foment a part, however, without when they have become hard. The best having plenty of hot water and time, little or no good unless con for it does way to give a ball is by the hand, and tinued for an hour or two.

with a little practice it can be soon learned. Take the tongue gently in the

In cases of external injuries or inflam left hand, and draw it to the side of the mation - if it is on the knee or below it mouth, place the ball between the fingers —place the leg in a tub full of hot water,

of the right hand, quickly run the hand if elsewhere soak a piece of flannel or along the roof of the mouth, and leave sponge in hot water, and hold on the the ball at the back of the tongue ; with- part.

draw the hand, and let go the tongue.

For internal inflammation, such as in

The animal will soon swallow , and you

the bowels and the chest, double a

will see the ball pass down the left side blanket, soak it in hot water, and have it of the neck. If you are not clever held against the chest or belly as the enough to give it in the manner de- case may be, by a man on each side of

scribed, use a balling gun or iron. Do the animal, and place over it a water

not attempt to give a ball on the end of proof carriage - rug to keep in the heat. The blanket must be dipped into the the stick into some vital part of the hot water every three or four minutes.

a pointed stick,for you are sure to run throat, and perhaps ruin the animal. Cattle.

If the blanket is too hot for your hand it is too hot for the horse's skin, so be careful not to scald the animal.

The cow is best drenched with a bottle

or horn , and the quantity should not

ENEMAS .

exceed 2 qts. In giving the medicine, stand on the right side of the cow, seize Enemas or injections are of various the nose with the thumb and finger of kinds, and are given in cases of constipa

the left hand, and get some one to hold tion to hasten the action of the bowels ; the horns on

the left side.

A COW

in dysentery and diarrhæa, to check

swallows much more quickly than the the action of the bowels; in debility, to horse, so it takes but a minute or two to support the animal, and when in pain give a drench.

to relieve it. Sheep.

A long -necked sauce- bottle is best to use for sheep. The quantity to be given should not exceed 4 oz.

Stand on the

An enema for constipation should consist of linseed -oil, 1 pint ; salt, 4 oz ; and warm water, i gallon, to be repeated, if required , every four hours. For diarrhea and dysentery use liquor opium sedativus, 2 oz. ; starch, 4 oz. ; and warm water, 3 pints. For weak

right side, span the nose with your finger and thumb, place the finger in the mouth, and slowly run the medicine in ness and debility use half a gallon of at the right side of the mouth . Swine.

The quantity to be given should not exceed 5 oz.

warm milk with two eggs, or the same

quantity of beef-tea to be given every four or six hours.

To relieve pain use warm water, i

In giving physic to a pig, quart ; extract of belladonna, i drachm ;

take a child's old boot, cut a hole in the or liquor opium sedativus, i oz. ; to be toe of it about the size of a shilling, given every three hours.

APPENDIX.

An enema is given by the enema-

497

Having haltered the colt, take him

syringe, and the tail should be depressed to the chosen spot, pass his head through for a few minutes after it is given. BACK - RACKING .

the loop in the rope, pass the two ends between his fore and hind legs, bringing

them back, pass them through the loop at the shoulders, and drawtight until

This is occasionally done to remove the animal is on his side ; then tighten the hard dung from the bowels, but it up , wind the rope around the fetlock, is not necessary if an enema has been include the fore legs, and get a man given . The person who performs this

on each side to hold the end of the

operation should have a small hand, rope so as to keep the animal on his cut the nails short, and oil the hand back.

before introducing it. POULTICES .

To remove the stones by torsion, make a bold cut through the bag, release the stone, place the clams around the cord, put the torsion forceps on the cord about

Poultices are applied to certain parts half an inch from the clams, and twist to relieve pain, soften, and draw out the forceps slowly around until you sever any matter that may exist. The poul- the cord ; the other stone to be treated tice should be made of boiled turnips

or bran, the softer and warmer the

in the same way.

To operate with the hot iron : Having

better. A poultice to do any good must placed the stone in the clams, take a red be of considerable size, kept on from hot iron and saw the cord slowly through twelve to twenty -four hours, with hot close to the clams. As to after-treatment, house the animal water continually poured over it, taking care not to scald the animal. for a few days, and then let it run out For the foot the poultice should be during the day, housing it again at placed in a stout bag, and fixed around night. the fetlock by a strap. From castration, lockjaw , bleeding, inflammation of the bowels, or broken CASTRATION .

back sometimes arise.

If the animal has only one stone down,

The horse is usually operated upon postpone the operation, for it is almost at the age of one or two years ; but he certain to come down in a few months ;

is sometimes allowed to go uncut until if it never appears, the animal is most three years old to see if he is worth likely a “ rig,” and must be operated on keeping for an entire horse, or to allow as such . his neck to get developed. The spring or autumn is the best time to perform

Calves.

this operation, as we then avoid the When a few weeks old they can be cut cold winds of winter, and the sultry standing, by twisting the tail around one weather and the troublesome flies of hind leg.

Stand behind the calf, cut

through the bag, twist the stone several There are various ways of performing timesand scrape the cord closely through this operation, but the best and most with your finger-nails or a blunt knife. successful way is either by torsion or When they are several months old they

summer.

the hot iron . Some precautions should

require to be cast.

This is done by

be taken before operating. Handle the tying the hind legs together with a rope, colt for several weeks before, so that place a halter around the neck, take the when he comes to be cast he will not

shank end of the halter and

run

it

fight, struggle, and break out into a through the rope that joins the hind sweat ; feed him sparingly the day before legs, tying it back, pass it through the the operation ; make sure that both test- portion that is around the neck, and icles are down and no rupture exists ; draw the legs tight, and fasten. The always see that the ground is soft and fore legs can be held by a man. Take free from stones where you intend to the stones off with the hot iron as in cast the animal. VOL. III .

the case of the horse. 2 I

TS

AILMEN

498

OF FARM LIVE STOCK .

The bull is best castrated standing of either draining an abscess, acting as with the hot iron.

Pigs.

a counter-irritant, or for the purpose of inoculation. In using a seton for draining an abscess,

Let a man seize the pig by its hind such as poll-evil or fistulous withers, al

legs and hold it between his legs. ways bring it out at the lowest part of Cut through the bag, twist the stone the abscess, so as to secure drainage. In using setons as counter -irritants in several times, and scrape through the cord with a blunt knife or your finger- cases of lameness, diseases of the eye or

brain, pass them simply underneath the

nails.

skin , and be careful not to wound any Lambs.

internal structure.

For inoculation , in cases of black for you ; cut the tip of the bag off, and quarter or pleuro -pneumonia, the seton Let some one hold them on a bench

use the hot iron and clams, or do them must be soaked with some irritant, such the same way as the pig. In many parts, as embrocation (No. 12) in the case of

one person takes the lamb in his arms, black -ley, but in pleuro -pneumonia with holding its four legs tightly, two in each the serum of a diseased lung. hand, while the shepherd cuts the top off

the bag with a sharp knife, presses out

NURSING THE SICK.

the stones with his fingers, and draws

them away with his teeth, then using the hot iron. SPAYING .

Heifers and sows are frequently spayed in order that they may fatten more quickly, but a description of this operation would not enable one to do it, and it can be learned only by watching those

All the doctoring in the world is of no avail unless associated with good nursing Sick horses should be placed in a com fortable loose-box, free from draughts,

and with plenty of straw in it. In cold weather a rug should be placed on the animal, and its legs bandaged. Animals, like human beings, soon lose their appe tite when sick , so that every means should be tried to induce them to feed.

skilled in it. DOCKING .

It is best performed when the animal is but a few months old, and at that age the tail can be easily cut off with a stout

pocket -knife, and the end seared with

The diet must be soft, nourishing, and given frequently in small quantities. The following foods are recommended : bran - mashes, with bruised oats, sweet hay with a little treacle -water sprinkled over it, scalded oats, a little linseed -cake, and, when in season, grass, tares, carrots,

the poker. In adults the operation is as and parsnips can be given sparingly if simple, but often followedby excess of the horse is not suffering from any bowel affection. A pail of oaten or linseed end of tail. Having parted the hair gruel should be placed within the reach

bleeding, lockjaw , or an abscess at the

at the spot where the tail is to be cut

of the animal, and if it does not drink

off, tie the top hair back, get some one this, give it treacle-and -water, or water to hold the tail out, and with a sharp with a tablespoonful of nitre dissolved in stroke of the docking-machine it is di- it. Take the chill off the water if the vided. Afterwards, hold the tail up, weather is cold. slightly sear it with the searing -iron,

Never allow one kind of food to re

then place a piece of tow saturated in main too long in front of the animal ; perchloride of iron on the end, bring the take it out and try something fresh . hair over it, and tightly tie below . The animal should , if strong enough, and the weather permits, be taken out every day, and led up and down for SETONING . halfan hour with a rug on.

Exercise of

Setons are tapes passed through cer- this kind strengthens the animal and tain parts of the body, with the object

increases the appetite.

See that the

FARM -SERVANTS AND WAGES.

manger and bucket from which the horse A

499

USEFUL TABLE.

is fed are clean, for horses are naturally very sensitive as to what they eat, and

It is useful for stock -owners to have

more so when they are sick. Sick horses before them the following table, indi

should every morning get a thorough cating a normal condition of the pulse, respiration, and temperature of their wisping down. Do not work the animal before it has various animals ; also the period of ges properly recovered, and then gradually. tation .

Pulse .

Respira tion

Beats per

Beats per Where felt .

Minute .

Tempera ture

Average Dura

Degrees Fahrenheit,

Pregnancy .

tion of

Minute .

Horse

40 45 75

Cow

Sheep Pig Dog .

60

.

100

Jaw Jaw

IO

100

II months.

12

At the heart At the heart

18 15

IOI IOI

285 days. 151 days.

100

4 months.

Thigh

20

102

9 weeks.

.

FARM - SERVANTS AND WAGES.

The labour of the farm is an important held at many centres throughout the element in agricultural economy.

Its cost has advanced from 30 to 50 per cent, in some parts even more, since the first edition of this work was issued. In all respects the condition of the farmlabourers in the British Isles has been greatly ameliorated since 1850. They not only receive higher wages, but they

country; but there is a growing tendency to avoid these public fairs and have the engagements made by private inquiry or through registry offices. For harvest -work extra hands are em

ployed, most likely at fairs held in towns and villages. Wages and Perquisites. are also provided with more comfortable dwellings, are better treated in regard to The rate of wages, as well as the form food, and have shorter and more regular in which the payment is made, varies hours of labour.

greatly throughout the United Kingdom.

OOOOO

A few samples will best indicate the Methods of Hiring. general custom . The methods and times of hiring South of England. --- In Essex a

and terms of engagements vary greatly horse-keeper or ploughman is paid as throughout

the country.

Generally

follows:

speaking, half - yearly or yearly engage 52 weeks at 148. per week . ments prevail in Scotland, with wages Extra for haymaking, 4 weeks paid in one sum at the end of the term ,

Do. in harvesting

or in instalments as arranged. In England and Ireland the terms are shorter and less regular, wages being as a rule payable weekly and engagements simi larly terminable . Hiring markets, at which servants and

Cottage Firewood, beer-money, &c. , say Total value for the year .

£36 8 0 I

IO

3 lo 5 o I

2

£47 10

This is the rate for the best men .

O

Ordi

nary men get about 18. per week less. farmers meet and make engagements, are In the neighbourhood of London the rate

500

FARM-SERVANTS AND WAGES .

of wages is higher by 2s. or 3s. per week. haytime and harvest, and is conditional

On the other hand, in counties further upon the man giving satisfaction to his away from London, the rate is lower- employer. 1os., 118. , and 12s. per week, with similar

The feeding of farm -servants in this

perquisites, being paid in several English part of the country is very different from what it was about 1850. Tea and coffee

counties.

In Essex, a day's work with horses is are now largely substituted for oatmeal,

only 772 to 8 hours. Including cleaning and beef and mutton for bacon. The and feeding, the men are daily about hinds have usually at least a two-roomed 972 to 10 hours in actual work ; general house, with a garden for vegetables. A labourers, 972 hours, sometimes 10 hours man who has in his family a lad or a daily. Field -work all stops at 4 P.M., woman to work out in the fields can except in haymaking and harvesting. generally obtain about is. per week more

Bailiffs get about £ 50 to £,60 in wages than if he could not provide these money, with house and perquisites in workers. Although what is known as addition. Cattle-men generally get 2s. the “ bondage ” system has been nomi or 38. per week more than ploughmen, nally abolished, families with working as their hours are a little longer, and members in it are most in demand. they have Sunday work.

Housemaids

As to the hours of labour, the rule in

get about £ 7 to £8 per annum . No this district in the spring and summer

servants are boarded ; every man brings months is for the ploughmen to take his own food, and takes his meals in the their horses out of the stable at 6 A.M. ; stable, barn, or outside in summer. The they are allowed a quarter of an hour for

men will likely have a fire in the harness- breakfast, and a quarter of an hour for room in cold weather. tea in the field, with two hours for dinner, These rates with little variation would the day's work terminating at 6 P. M. apply to a great part of England.

Female field -workers commence work at 8

North of England. — As a rule, the A.M., have an hour and a half for dinner, rate of wages is higher in the northern and stop work for the day at 6 P.M. than in the southern counties of England ;

In Northumberland and many other

and it is asserted by many that the parts, the women and the men have the quality of the labour is better. The same hours at work . following are the wages and perquisites Berwickshire. — Where paid by the on a farm in North Durham : Steward

“ old boll,” the allowances for ploughmen

—21s . per week, free house and garden, are, per annum : £12 in money ; 60 coals driven to him , a cartload of pota- bushels of oats ; 30 bushels of barley ;

toes as they are lifted, and a sack of 1800 yards potato-ground ; one

COW

flour at Christmas. Cattle-men— 195. per housed and fed ; free house and coal

week, and the same perquisites as above. driven ; butcher-meat for one month in Ploughmen - 18s. per week, and the same harvest. When paid by money, the rate perquisites as above. Women field- is : 138. per week, with a cow's keep,

workers - 28. 6d. per day in harvest, 1800 yards of potato-ground ; or 16s. per and is. 2d. per day at other times. Kitchen servants- £ 19 per annum and board . Housemaid – £ 12, Ios. and board. Lads, boarded in the farm kitchen, hired half-yearly, get from £20 to £ 27 a -year, according to ability. In Northumberland wages are about Is. , and in South Durham 28., per week less than the above.

In this part of the country the men

week , if no cow is kept. Women at farm work get gs. per week in the summer half-year, and 8s. per week in the winter, with 15s. per week in the few weeks of the grain harvest. Farm grieves get about £ 10 more. Cattle-men get about the same as plough men. Shepherds have similar perquisites, but instead of money most of them are allowed to keep a “ pack ” of their own,

are usually hired for the year, and the consisting perhaps of about 10 ewes and wages paid fortnightly “ in sickness and 3 hoggs, it being a condition that they

in health, rain or shine. ” The sack of keep a strong lad, who receives about gs. flour mentioned above as given at Christ- per week. The shepherds on the Cheviot mas is anent food and extra hours in

Hills will have about 50 Cheviot ewes and

FARM -SERVANTS AND WAGES.

501

hoggs in their own “ pack," with a cow's similar, although the form in which the keep, three loads of oatmeal, and coal or perquisites are given varies considerably.

peat ” driven. The general tendency

West of Scotland.

In the west of

now is to lessen the perquisites and in- Scotland the good old system of boarding crease the payment in money ; but it is the servants in the farmer's kitchen still

very doubtful if this change is advanta- survives, although it is not so general as geous to the servants.

in former times . On an Ayrshire farm ,

East Lothian.— In East Lothian, with half-yearly engagements, the rates Farm managers who have entire charge are: ploughmen from £ 12 to £ 17 per get from £70 to £ 100 a -year, a cow's half-year, with board and lodging ; dairy keep, 1 ton dressed potatoes, and in some maids from £11 to £ 14 per half-year ;

cases free coals and light. Stewards get general women servants, for wintering £40 to £60, a cow'skeep, i ton dressed cattle, house and outdoor work, from

potatoes, 40 to 65 stones oatmeal, harvest

£ 8 to £ 10 ; and lads from £5 to £ 10

food or £ 1 for same; in some cases 2 tons -all with board and lodging. of free coals and 1/2 quarter of wheat. Forfar and Perth . — The wages and Working grieves get £ 30 to £ 40, a cow's perquisites generally paid in these coun keep, 1 ton of dressed potatoes, 40 to 65 ties are : stones oatmeal, %2 quarter wheat, har Farm Grieves or Stewards (generally vest food or £ 1 for same. Ploughmen, Married Men ). when a money wage is agreed upon, get Experienced men of this class, at 158. to 16s. a -week, 16 cwt. to i ton

an average wages equal £ i in presevalue food or, who dressed potat of nt , getto on st ghma oes, ngharve about £65 a -year, or 255. plou A leadi for same. n stacks andsows, gets 2 quarter wheat

a

for same. When the payment is in money

1. Cash , from £ 40 to £45 , say

-week, as under : · £42 10

O

and meal, the ploughman gets £30, with 2. Oatmeal, an allowance of 672 65 stones oatmeal , 16 cwt. to i ton

bolls (a boll of meal being

140 lb.) during the year , dressed potatoes , harvest food or £ 1 for equal in value to about same. Ploughmen on the “ gains ” system 3. Sweet milk, an allowance gene

get £24 to £26, 65 stones oatmeal, 16 cwt. to i ton dressed potatoes, 112

5 100

rally of 24 gills daily, yearly value

9

0

0

2

10

0

6

o

o

quarter barley, ' quarter beans (some 4. Potatoes, i ton of potatoes, aver get in place of barley and beans 2 quarters

5. Free house and garden,equal to

wheat ), harvest food or £ 1 for same. On some farms in the upland parts of £65 10 the county a cow is kept by the plough man, and £ 5 to £6 deducted from the Besides other small perquisites, such as money wage. Cattle-man . — If a first-class firewood for kindling, not included. man, he is paid the same wage as a Very often grieves get a whole cow's ploughman, but has extra for Sunday milk, which would be worth not less than o

labour, generally £ 1 , but in some cases

£ 15 a -year; but when a cow is given,

is. for each Sunday's labour. Cottars the allowance of money is generally less

( out-workers) get is. 4d. a -day, 8 to 10 in proportion, so that the result would cwt. dressed potatoes, harvest wages and be much the same. food for a month, or, in place of harvest Ordinary Ploughmen. wages and food, £2. Some also get extra pay during potato -lifting, to the

This class of servants get on an average

extent of 6d. or 8d. per day. Frequently about £48, 108. a-year, or 18s. 6d. a -week . cottars do not take potatoes, and in such

In the case of married men, as under :

cases is. 6d. a -day is paid instead of IS. 4d.

Cash, from £28 to £32, say Boys and girls get from gd . to 2.1. Oatmeal, 6/2 bolls, value .

28. a -day, according to qualifications.

3. Milk, 16 gills daily, value .

£300

O

5 10

o

6

0

o

These generally are the sons and daugh- 4. Potatoes,1 ton, average value

2

10

O

ters ofthe householders on the farm, and

4 10

O

£ 48 10

O

5. Free house and garden , value

reside with their parents.

In adjoining counties the rates are

FARM -SERVANTS AND WAGES.

502

· £2 12 0

In the case of unmarried men living Lodgings, 18. a-week in bothies, the details are somewhat 4 bags potatoes, say Meal, same as married men different, namely :

O 15 4 lo

bolls, value .

O

5 10 6 0

Ploughmen ( single, in bothy ), £22 to £27 , and the following perquisites -

2

Oo

4. Fuel and light supplied free by the master, equal to 5. Lodgings, valued at 1s. a -week .

10

2 12

£48 12

O

Potatoes, say Meal, same as married men Coals for bothy fire, say ·

· £10

Foremen in this class and experienced cattle -men generally get from £2 to £3

O

4 10

0

2

O

0

£7 10

0

Lads (in lodgings), £12 to £ 19, and

more .

Meal Potatoes

Extra or “ Orra " Labourers, engaged only from day to day. This class of servants get : Men, from 3. to 38. 6d. a -day ; women and young lads, from is. 4d. to is. 6d ., without any other allowance.

o

47 17 0

1. Cash, from £ 30 to £34, say £ 32 0 2. Oatmeal, usual allowance of 692 3. Milk, 16 gills daily, value .

0

During harvest and

Lodgings .

· £4 10

0

.

015

0

.

2

12

O

17 17

0

Lads (in bothy), £ 12 to £ 19, and

potato-lifting, however, these orra workers same perquisites as single ploughmen. Lads ( in kitchen), £ 12 to £ 19, and

get extra pay.

In harvest, men get from 30s. to 36s. board in kitchen , say £ 10. a -week ; women, from 25s. to 30s. a-week. Out-women, £ 12 to £ 16 , and board During potato -lifting, men get from 18s. 'in kitchen, say £10. to 215. a-week ; women and boys, 12s. Kitchen -women, £ 10 to £ 15 , and board in kitchen, say £ 10 . to 158. a-week. Milk is paid for in all these cases. Women engaged for the year to work in the house and out on the farm when The men get it at the farms good and by required , get from £ 16 to £20 a -year, large measure, but they pay for it. They with board . Servants for house-work may buy it, however, anywhere else,

only, about 5,2 less. “

which they never do.

This is to save

Halflin "lads engaged for the year complaints as to quality of it.

get from £14 to £ 17, with the same

As to the housing of servants, ex

allowance of meal and milk as other Provost Black of Sherifston, to whom we men .

are indebted for the foregoing figures,

Morayshire. — The following are the rates for the year paid by several farmers

says :

in this county :

vided with houses for married servants .

“ Morayshire is on the whole well pro

Grieves, in money, £30 to £35, and I have all I need - seven in number. “ I have sometimes a single man or

the following perquisites 0

OO

· £3

OOO

House, say Coals, i ton Potatoes, say

4 to

O

o

£ 10 10

of the ploughmen ,or in a cottage on the

farm , where they find lodgings when they prefer it. They get their food prepared,

2

Meal, 66 stones, at average of, say, 138. 6d . per imperial boll - in all, say

lad , or both. They are lodged with some

their house-room , and fire and light, for Is. a -week. They sleep at the steading in an apartment for the purpose, adjoin ing the stable_indeed, over a loose -box. I mean to turn the loose-box itself into a

Ploughmen (married ), £22 to £27, sleeping -room after Whitsunday, fitting it and the same perquisites. up properly for the purpose. Ploughmen ( single, in lodgings), " I have no bothy. They are used, £22 to £27, and the following per- however, on most of the large farms, and quisites :

are generally of a superior and comfort

FARM -SERVANTS AND WAGES.

503

able character, kept clean and tidy, and bound to receive his domestic servant to the men's food prepared either by one of his or her situation, and to provide the the out-women or one of the kitchen- servant with bed and board during the period of the service, unless there be an

women ,

“ On the smaller farms a good many still have the men and lads in the kitchen. Young lads prefer this to the bothy - or, at any rate, their fathers and mothers do. Some of the men prefer the kitchen - others the bothy.

agreement to the contrary. A male do mestic servant may be compelled to reside out of his master's house, the master paying expenses, but a female is entitled to the protection of her master's house.

A master is not bound to provide medical Out-working women are very few in attendance or medicine to a servant in

66

number now - I mean .fee'd'ones. Most of them are hired by the day. I hire all at is. 3d. a -day. They find everything themselves. Sometimes at hoeing - time

sickness, even in cases where the servant is entitled to bed and board from the master. But if the master himself call in the medical man, or authorise this to

the wage is is. 6d. ; and in harvest this be done, he will be liable for the bill, year ( 1890) it was 178. a -week - last year, and will not be entitled to charge the 158. 6d . — they finding everything except servant with the amount, or retain it out the usual drink of beer and piece of of the wages. bread in the middle of both the forenoon and afternoon work turns. '

Duties of Servants . - Servants are bound to serve their masters in every

thing relating to the situation for which they have engaged themselves. They must be respectful to their master and “ Arles.” — It is not necessary to give his family, and in their general conduct LAW OF FARM -SERVICE .

earnest or “ arles ” to servants when

avoid actions scandalous or of bad ex

hiring them , unless such be the universal ample. They have no right to absent custom of the district ; but if such a themselves without leave.

They are re

custom does prevail, the engagement is sponsible for everything committed to not complete unless earnest be given their charge in the routine of their duty, A servant who has received “ .arles

on

but not for such accidents as are not

engagement is not entitled to dissolve the attributable to their fault. They have engagement by returning the “ arles.”

no right to draw nice distinctions between

Period of Engagement. - Farm -ser- what comes within their duty and what vants are presumed to be hired for one

does not ; but they cannot be employed

year when no specified period of endur- against their will on any duty really ance is stipulated, and when no other different from the customary duties of

period is to be presumed from the cir- the service which they have undertaken, cumstances of the contract or the custom and therefore any unusual branch of

of the district. If a servant be engaged service should be matter of special ar for a period differing from the customary rangement when the engagement is period, and particularly if the engage- made. ment is to endure for more than one year, it is desirable that the agree-

Payment of Wages, &c., and Breach

of Engagement. - Where the amount of

ment be in writing and signed by both wages is not fixed, the customary amount, parties.

or such amount as the Court in case of

Travelling Expenses.-In ordinary dispute shall fix as reasonable, will be circumstances themaster is not bound to payable. The servant has a right to pay the expense incurred by the servant leave his master and claim wages (and

in going to the place where the engage- board wages if entitled to board) should ment is to be fulfilled, or in returning his wages not be paid at the terms agreed after the termination of the engagement ; on or implied from the engagement. but when servants are brought from a The servant may also leave in the event great distance, it is usual for the em- of any other serious breach by the master ployer to pay the expense of their removal of the conditions of the employment, but should, where practicable, first en to the place of service.

Board and Lodging . - A master is deavour to have the grievance remedied.

FARM -SERVANTS AND WAGES.

504

Though a farm-servant be engaged by the he may sustain against the servant, and year, his wages are payable half-yearly. in the case of a female servant, against Sickness or Accident.—If a servant

be disabled from performing his service

her husband.

Enlistment is not a justification of

by sickness or accident attributable to breach of his engagement by any servant ; his own fault, wages will not be due for but may give riseto a claim of damages the period of disablement, and the ser- at the instance of the master. A servant

vant may even be liable in damages to unjustifiably leaving or failing to enter the

master should such be

sustained

on the master's service may not only

beyond the amount of the wages. But forfeit all claim for wages for any period a short temporary disablement in the for which service has been rendered ; but course of service, not attributable to the is liable for the damages resulting from servant's fault, will not entitle the master his desertion.

Dismissal. — A servant may be dis to retain part of the servant's wages, particularly if the illness of the servant missed for immoral conduct, disobedience, has not necessitated the employment of or habitual neglect of duty, or for absence a substitute. What length of disable without leave, or other serious fault ; but ment will entitle a master to provide a remonstrance is expected of a master for

substitute, or to terminate the engage- the less serious faults before resort is had ment and cease payment of wages de- to dismissal. Legal dismissal forfeits the pends upon the circumstances of each right of the servant to wages even for the case . period of actual service ; but in some If a servant die between terms, his cases, where the dismissal, though justi representatives are entitled to wages for fiable, has not been for the gravest fault, the period during which he gave his and the forfeiture of wages would be service.

Death or Bankruptcy of Employer.

disproportionate to wages earned, the Court has held that the servant is entitled

-When the master dies during the en- to wages for the period of actual service . gagement, wages, and also board wages, A servant is bound to leave, when dis if the servant be entitled to board, are missed even without sufficient or any

due to the servant to the next term (not cause, and by leaving quietly does not within the period of notice) or to the end forfeit right to compensation for wrongous of his engagement if that be earlier. But dismissal. the servant should make reasonable Notice of Leaving. - If a master

exertions, if called on, to get another wishes to part with a servant, or the

situation, and on the new engagement servant wishes to leave his situation, at commencing, the wages in respect of the the expiry of the engagement, former will cease . While in receipt of warning must be given, unlessreasonable the local wages after his master's death, the servant

custom is to give no warning. The period of warning requisite in the case of The effect on the engagement of the agricultural and domestic servants, en

is bound to continue service.

master's bankruptcy is similar to the gaged for a year or for half a year, is effect of his death. Domestic and farm servants have for long enjoyed in Scotland a preference for their wages for the current term on the death or bankruptcy of their master. In England by statute the same preference is accorded to them

forty days. If timeous warning be not given on either side, the engagement will be held to be renewed for one year, or such less period as may be usual in the

particular occupation and locality. Character . -

A master is not bound to

as to other servants.

give a servant a character, or to state his A master may at any time turn off his reason for withholding it. If he know servant on paying him full wages to the ingly give an untrue character, he will be end of the engagement, including board responsible for the damages consequent

wages, if the servant is entitled to board.

on his act. But if, when asked for a The marriage of a servant is not a character, he gives it to the best of his ground for dismissal ; and if a servant belief, he will not be liable to the servant

leaves service on marriage, the master in damages, although the character be may have a claim for any damage which

unfavourable and injurious to the servant.

CARE OF IMPLEMENTS .

CARE

OF

505

IMPLEMENTS.

Farmers are in many cases not so care- paired, taken to pieces and cleaned, the

ful as they ought to be in protecting their journals greased, and the separate parts implements from injury, by exposure to stowed away in the implement-house. the weather. Implements are used both The small manual implements, turnip within and without doors.

Those used

hoes, spreading-graips, dung-hawks, hay

without doors may be divided into those knives, scythes, if not placed in the

in use every season, and those only occa- implement-house whenever out of use, sionally.

Implements frequently in use are liable to be lost. Of all implements, carts receive the constantly exposed to the weather ; and most neglect. Their axles are not

upon the soil cannot be otherwise than

fortunately they are of simple construc- greased , their bodies and wheels un complicated construction, which are used enlarged , and the tire of a wheel becomes

tion, and are less affected than those of washed , holes in the bottom or sides get for a short time at certain seasons .

loose, till some day it flies off, to the risk

The implement most frequently in use of breaking down the felloes.

The

is the plough. Being now made of iron, threshing -machine should be cleaned out it can withstand exposure. Harrows, every time a different sort of corn is also frequently in use and much exposed threshed , otherwise samples will be im to the weather, are now made of pure. The gudgeons are oiled every iron. Not being required in winter ,they time the mill is in use. Wherever a

are placed in the implement-house . The repair is required , it should be done tines should be sharpened just before the

immediately , otherwise a serious and

commencement of the oat-seed in spring. expensive fracture may ensue. Holes in sacks and in barn The roller being only occasionally in use,

and chaff

in rolling young grass and spring crops, sheets should be instantly repaired by broken and pulverising the soil in summer, is patching and darning ; and a“ wec "

replaced in its shed whenever its services are no longer wanted . The small double

mould -board ploughs, being used in spring and summer , should be placed in the implement-house before winter sets in ,

mesh in a riddle or a hole in a

ht

or basket should be at once repaired. Implement-house. The fitting up of the implement-house,

scraped clean of earth, and have the irons for the accommodation ofthe finer and repaired.

smaller implements, should be so arranged

There are few implements which receive as to have the floor unencumbered, and less regard when not in use than scufflers give free access to every implement re

and grubbers. They are often allowed quired at a time. To effect this most to remain at the sides of head - ridges easily, the house should extend from the and corners of turnip and potato fields, floor to the roof. The floor is flagged to perhaps the whole winter. Being made prevent rusting of iron in the implements. of iron, they do not suffer much from A wooden floor should be placed half

weather ; but having many small parts, way between the ground and roof to form tines, coulters, wedges, screw-bolts — they a loft , covering only two-thirds of the are best preserved in the implement-house, area of the house, and having one trap after having been repaired.

stair to ascend to it.

Both floors contain

Delicately constructed machines - such a large number of things, while the as grass-seed sowing, drill-sowing, turnip- height to the roof admits of long forks, sowing - are seldom allowed to remain shafts, feering-poles, &c. , being put into longer in the field than in use, but often a corner . remain unheeded at the steading for a Wheels, short shafts, and angular considerable time. Instead of, as is often the case, being taken to the stackyard and

pieces of iron are best placed against a wall upon strong nails. Articles of

covered with straw , they should be re- length, as sowiny-boxes, are best sup

506

CARE OF IMPLEMENTS .

ported against a wall upon brackets. large implements ; and were cross-beams Small articles of iron and other material put upon the wall-heads, they would are best kept upon shelves. Hand -hoes contain many others. and weed - hooks are best placed in framed

Neglect of implements may fairly be

stands. . Scythes are best suspended from imputed to the steward . Were he to the balks. The bodies of small ploughs, give strict orders that every implement grubbers, and scufflers should be placed out of use shall be put into the imple along the foot of the walls. ment-house, that every one may know

Ifevery implement were put into its where to find it when again wanted, and own place at the end of its season, con- to see that his orders are obeyed, there

fusion would be avoided in seeking for would be no waste of time in seeking them, and many more articles find room

for anything — there would be no loss of

in the implement - house when well implements or parts of them and the

arranged, than when things are put implements themselves would last much down anywhere, without regard to longer, to the manifest advantage of the order.

The cart-shed forms a good store for

farmer, and to the steward himself in the

long-run.

INVENTORY AND VALUATION OF STOCK.

507

FARM BOOK -KEEPING .

It is generally believed that farmers Such an attempt at estimation would in have no regular system of book -keeping. volve the labour of many men , and incur The belief is true in regard to farmers as the disbursement of a large amount of

a class ; but many farmers have correct wages. Estimation of such items may

sets of books, and many more now keep amuse the leisure hours of the amateur books than in former times.

Difficulties of Farm Book -keeping

or the investigator, but they would not suit the matter-of-fact working business

-But, at best, farmers cannot keep a perfect set of books as mercantile men can . It would be impracticable for them to put a value on every article they use

of a farmer.

on the farm ; for consider how a farm is The farmer, for example, conducted. cannot estimate the value of every stone as of straw given daily to his live stockthe fodder or litter. He cannot estimate

acquaint him whether the balance of pro duce and of cash is greater or less this year than in the last. The theory of a is system of book-keeping for a farmer in simply this : Let the farmer take an

Common-sense Book -keeping. – The common -sense view of the matter is this :

Let the farmer keep such books as will

various amount of labour, manual and ventory and valuation of his live stock,

mechanical, bestowed on the land before implements, crops, cost of labour, and it yields its produce. He cannot estimate the value of manure when first taken to the dunghill, or then estimate it again when applied to the soil after being fermented . He cannot put a value

debts due to and by him at the begin ning of every agricultural year, and he will see whether his capital has increased

on every turnip, every handful of corn

him whether he has received or paid

or diminished in the bygone year.

Let

him keep a cash-book, which will inform

or forage, and every mouthful of grass away more cash in the course of the year.

his live stock consume. The weight of Let him have a day -book, into which is all these articles could be ascertained by inserted every transaction as it occurs. the steelyard ; but of what use would It is clear that a knowledge of all these

with the the estimate of their weight and money- particulars will acquaintat him the beginning value be, since they are not sent to mar- real state of his affairs ket and turned into cash, except in farms of every agricultural year. in the neighbourhood of large towns ? samples of inventory S

Here are

INVENTORY AND VALUATION OF STOCK ON IST OCTOBER 1889. Farm 500 acres under the mixed husbandry.

£ $. d.

I. Casi On hand

In British Linen Co.'s Bank :

:

40 300

o

o

0

0

Oo

II . IMPLEMENTS

£ 8. d. 340 300

O

350

оо

o

14 horses , at £25 IV. CATTLE i Shorthorn bull

20

6 Shorthorn cows, at 612

72

10 steer calves, at £4 5 heifer calves, at £ 3 15 yearlings, at £ 8, 108.

OOOOO

III. HORSES

40

15 127 10 274 10

Carry forward

41264 10

o

o

G FARM BOOK -KEEPIN .

508

& Brought forward €

V. SHEEP

200 Leicester breeding ewes, at 325. 60 Leicester draft ewes , at 325 . 290 Leicester hoggs , at 218.

320 Half-bred wethers, at 308. 3 Leicester tups, at bos.

&. d.

1264 100

$. d .

320

O

O

96

0

O

304 lo 480 O

0 O

9

‫ه‬ ‫درهي‬

20 pigs, at 228. .

‫ܘ‬ OOO

1209 100

VI . Pigs 3 Sows , at bos. i boar, at 6os.

34

00

1240

оо

VII. CORN

11 stacks wheat, 20 qrs . cach , 220 qrs. at 36s. !! barley, 30 each , 300 at 2os.

10

oats, 40 each , 680 at 16s.

17

396

O

300 544

O

O

o

VIII. SEED AND LABOUR 350 00

Upon 100 acres of turnips at 70s. per acre IX . DEBTS DUE ME AS PER LEDGER James Marrowman Thomas Butters

30

O

45

O

75

o

O

4173

o

o

1000

0

o

X. I OWE TO MY LANDLORD

Half-year's rent due Martinmas 1889 11 Whitsunday 1890

500 500

0

0

Capital IN 1889

£ 3173 0

O

INVENTORY AND VALUATION OF STOCK AT IST OCTOBER 1890. We shall suppose this to be the inventory and valuation of stock at the beginning of the succeeding year, 18go . On hand In open account with

£ s. d.

£ 8. d .

I. Casa

:

B. L. Co.'s Bank

40 1125

2

7

O

o

OOOOO

UI. HORSES, 14 at £25 IV. CATTLE 20

:

72

14 yearlings , at £ 11 20 yearlings, at 28

OOOO

V. SHEEP

200 101 297 200

7

O

0

350

O

82 10 154 160

15 calves , at £5 , 1os.

Leicester breeding ewes , at 328. . Leicester draft ewes and gimimers, at Leicester hoggs, at 208. Half-bred hoges, at 158.

2

300

‫ܘ‬

i Shorthorn bull , at £20 6 Shorthorn cows, at 612

1165

o

II . IMPLEMENTS

320 151 10 297 o 150 o

305 .

488 100

918 100

32 pigs, at 228. .

9

o

3 35

4

OOO

VI . PIGS 3 sows , at 608. i boar, at bos.

50 acres of wheat, 3 % qrs. per acre = 175 qrs. , at 305. 50 acres of barley , 472 qrs. per acre = 225 qrs ., at 208. 100 acres of oats, 62 qrs. per acre = 600 grs ., at 168 .

262 10 225

o

4

0

OOO

47

VII. CORN

480

VIII. SEED AND LABOUR on 100 acres of turnips, at yos. per acre

967 10

o

0

O

350

IX . DEBTS DUE ME AS PER LEDGER 2 15

o

Thc Shepherd .

4589 117 Carry forward

£ 4589 II

7

INVENTORY AND VALUATION OF STOCK. Brought forward X. I OWE TO MY LANDLORD

£

Half -year's rent due Martinmas 1889 11 Whitsunday 1890

500 500

$. d. O

O

o

o 1000

CAPITAL IN 1890 II

1889

:

:

Gain on crop 1889

509

€ 8 . d. 4589 11 7

O

O

3589 II

7

O

O

£ 416 11

7

3173

On comparing the two inventories, we find that the capital has increased by £416, 118. 7d. in the year from ist October 1889 to ist October 1890.

We do not propose giving the elab- would thus show the profit or loss for

orate details of a whole year of a farm, any period that may be wanted. This is the system which was illus tories. For those who have not time to trated and recommended in former edi keep more detailed accounts, a simpler tions of this work, and although other system may be adopted, showing a cor- systems may be better or as good in cer rect result in so far as money transac- tain respects, yet it is well thought of of which the foregoing are the inven-

tions are concerned — the basis of the by many farmers, and is reproduced in

system being that all sales and purchases the original form. or sums due, such as rent, are entered in

To carry out this system the books re

a Day -book (whether received or paid or quired are : not). Every entry in this Day -book is 1. DAY-BOOK, containing a record of posted to its individual ledger account, sales and purchases, and of moneys and when the transaction is settled it

passes through the Cash - book, from

which it is posted to the Ledger. The system is one that does not enter into

the settlement of accounts between buyer and seller, but shows the balance on each

due.

2. CASH -BOOK, containing a record of the receipt or paymentof the sums referred to in the Day-book.

3. LEDGER, containing the combined entries in the two previous books.

branch of receipt and expenditure. The A specimen of each kind of book is here

balancing of such Ledger, combined with given, drawn up by an eminent account the estimated value of crop and stock, ant in Edinburgh.

[ DAY- BOOK.

FARM BOOK -KEEPING .

510

Cr .

Dr.

DAY - BOOK.

Ledger Folio,

1889. Mar.

9

To manure purchased , 130 bags Peruvian guano from Dun & Co.

13

J. Tod

£ 174 10

3

115 o 25 15

O

" crop sold, J. Steel & Sons , 4 tons potatoes, at 378. 6d . To rent and taxes, poor - rates for year to Whitsunday

20

By cropsold, J. Barr, ş tons potatoes, at 378.6d. purchased, R.Buist,for11pigs, £ 22, custom To livestock and toll, 5s. purch " crop ased, G. Jack , for tons seed - potao: toes £ 13 15 2 19 Railway carriage of do. : : of soda

4

9 22

5

0

15

4

2

I

53 13 11

66 6 8

4

7 6 10

29 bush. annualrye-grass, at 4s. 6d. 11 Italian rye- grass , at 58. gd. 25 bags, at 6d..

8

29

6

9

‫ܘ‬ ‫ܘ‬ ‫ܘܘ‬ ‫ܗ‬

5

58 . alsike, at is. 60.

0

O 12

31 25 30

I!

2

19

By crop sold , J. & J. Tod, for 14 % 2 quarters wheat, at 46s . To servants' wages, J. King, for 22 bags meal , at 438. .

25

33

5

53 13

To crop purchased , J. Elder, for i cart hay, 162 stones, at I

" servan ts' wages, for 14 year to Whitsunday 1889-* J. Kirk

0

O

R. Gardiner

12

o

J. Allan

12 10 II O

o O

12

4

10

1 manurepurchased J. Raeburn, 6 tons 6/2 cwt. stable.

J. Harley, 122 tons 9/2 cwt., at 78. P. Binnie, 106 tons, at 78.

!!

оо

5

manure, at 6s.

W. Dickson , 144 % tons, at 78 .

£2 50 13 42 17 . 37 5

3 5

6 132 17

June

I

11 rent and taxes Rent of farm for crop 1888

o

!!

!!

30

11

o

200

2

I 200

3

30

2 6

60

12 8 3

5

19

o

O

o

o

" crop sales, R. Mackintosh, for 60 bush. turnip -seed, at 208 , To implements, & c., D. Robertson, for repairs on sheds, &c.

0

8

o

Nov. 21

1 do. , J. Bell, for 60 acres potatoes, at 620 1 live- stock sales, J. Smith, for 10 pigs , at £ 3 .

O

19 TO 2

OO

Sept. 26

6

P!

By crop sales, Jeffrey & Co. , for 100 qrs, barley, at 408.

2

o

2

,, implements, harness, &c., w. Bell, for repairs on har: ness do., D.Grant, for do., on ploughs,& c. :

7

O

10

11

.

o

at

o

wages, J. Young, 1 day threshing turnip -seed, To servants' 408

o

15

600 !!

2

8

£615 0

Less property -tax 11

9

o

62 11

7

7

£ 14

J. Gray J. Thomson 11

70

76

2

By crop sold , Lindsay & Son, 29 quarters barley, at 378. 692d.

11

6

1

2

7

o

May

6

7

“ crop purchased, Roughead & Co.174 " red clover, at 7'2d.

!!

o

4 19 11

2

5

168 lb. cow -grass, at od .

11

3

93

manures purchased , M‘Lean & Co., for 53 bags nitrate

April 2 5

315 5 7 lo

8

1889

27

4

o

16 19

21

128 17

3

6 cattle , do . 7 pigs, do, PT

£ s . d.

.

£ 5

By live-stock sales, 78 sheep sold to

3 to

o

4

0

1915 16

9

1890 . Jan.

9

" manures purchased , police commissioners, for 108 tons manures

Feb.

13 27 28

By live-stocksales, Buist, for i pig :

2

6

5 12

0

3

3 4

o

22

O

To crop purchased , J. Bell, for 7 bolls potatoes, at 16s. By crop sales, K. Mackenzie, for 2 qrs.oats, at 328. To live stock purchased, Buist, for 11 pigs .

o

1149 17

CASH-BOOK.

511

Dr.

CASH-BOOK,

Cr.

Ledger Folio.

1889. 11

13

By manure paid , Dun & Co. , for guano To Bank of Scotland , drawn

- live-stocksales, received from J. Tod : By Bank of Scotland , paid in

1

i miscellaneous expenses,paid commission sale of stock

20

27

:

5

May

2

:

25

.

To crop sold ,received from J. Barr By miscellaneous expenses, paidtolls, &c., of potatoes " crop purchasedPaid G. Jack , for seed -potatoes Railway carriage of do .

I

11 servants' wages, paid J , King for meal

9

7 IO

:

6o

10

£2

Nov. 21

50

0

0

62

оо

6

0

o

o

1

50 13 42 17 37 5

3 5 6

IO

By rentand taxes, paid£ 615 0 15

130

оо

600

оо

132 17

2

600

O

o

To Bank of Scotland, drawn

10

o

2

implementsand harness, & c., paid w. Bell for repairs

%

8 19 10

1 do. , paid D. Grant for do.

To crop sales, received from Jeffrey & Co. for barley:

2

do., received from J. Bell

By Bank of Scotland, paid in

200 1200

I 200

IO

To live -stock sales, received from J. Smith for pigs By miscellaneous expenses, paid commission to J. Smith on sale of pigs

, Bank ofScotland, paid in

11

6

5 •

To Bank of Scotland, drawn

11

31 II 5 7

:

implements, &c. , paid D. Robertson for repairs

3

30

o

Sept. 30

2

o

11

4

oo

11

10

15

Oo

#1

11

53 13

2

IO

*** servants' wages, paid half-year's wages to Whitsunday 1889

11

2

6

0

0

50

7

By servants' wages, paid J. Young 11

7

53 13 II

5 1Ο I

To crop sold , received from Lindsay & Son for barley

Rent of farm for crop 1888

#1

o

2

.

Less property -tax

10

9

9 7 6

9

To Bank of Scotland, drawn By crop purchased ,paid Roughead & Co. for grass seeds

P. Binnie

11

3

" manures purchased, paid M‘Lean & Co. for nitrate of

J. Harley

40

оо

413 15 0

J. Raeburn W. Dickson

I

4

4 19 11

2

By manure purchased , paid

June

3

I

To Bank of Scotland, drawn .

25

5

8

By Bank of Scotland, paid in

11

11

315

5

soda

30

$. d .

£

315

.

April 2

O

OO

!!

o

Oo

10

128

# rent and taxes, paid poor -rates for year to Whitsunday 1889

11

$. d.

128 17

3

1

19

&

5 10

OOO

9

‫بةي‬ ‫و‬ ‫ه‬

Mar.

оо

O 15

9 IO

30

2

12

0

8

3

1890. To live -stock sales, received from Buist

28

crop sales, received from K. Mackenzie . By live stock purchased, paid Buist for pigs To Bank of Scotland, drawn

11 1

By balance

19 2 6

5

-3 10 3

4

22

0

86

1

22

o

86

1

3

2804 19

9

O

: 2804 19

To balance

0 o

13

o

9

Feb.

‫دمه‬ ‫تهمة‬

" manure purchased , paid police commissioners

Jan.

9 3

2

Apr 25 il

20

1

11

To

p7 igs

to sold To Tod J. 78 sheep cattle 6

t5" ons

seeds

Buist to sold ipig

,atons potatoes .sJ. 6d 378. to on S4told & Steel

I2 9

1

D.-B. Fol . io

15 13 o

.d£ 8.

3

3

D.-B. Folio .

a!!2qtold soats ,M328. K to uarters ackenzie

IO 174 0 115 25 15

8d. .£

3

3

,a.told wheat quarters ,s1472 & J. to J468. Tod I 378. ,a"2t9old barley &S,squarters Lindsay to on 2 ato do quarters .,s100 4os &Ctold Jeffrey o. 2 a0told potatoes acres ,s£260 Bell J. to 2 turnip "6eed 2os t0 Mackintosh .,sa-bushels R. to old

to Barr J. 6d .,s375. old at . do

I

cash paid oughead CR,f& o. grass or

cash To G. paid pJack -for seed otatoes

sto a"1old 3,pigs £ t0 Smith J.

bil carried . alance folio to

. do of carriage Railway

60

2

.d £

5

348 315

о 310

5 315 3 30 O o

8. d.&

1 6 1567

4 3

O

12000

o 200

70 1 7 6 9 733 13 53

56 15

9

II 31 6

14 15

d.€ s

O

1890 . Feb. 13

Sep 30 t.

Mar 13 .

.1889

1890 . 28 Feb.

30

26 Sept.

June 2

May

11

16 Mar.

1889 .

Feb.

. 1890

5April

1889 . Ma 27 r.

C.-B. Folio .

OOOOOOO

2

Sep 30 t. .1890 Feb. 13

Mar. 13

. 1889

S - TOCK .LIVE SALES

189 . 0 Feb. 28

June 2

May

Mar .20 .

188 . 9

CROP SALES .

189 . 0 Feb. 27

Ma 19 y

Apri 5 l

1889 . Mar. 27

11

PURCHASED .CROP

LEDGER .

d. 6%

29 !!

b.potatoes f"Jolls .or 16s ,a7Bell t

f"J62 .or 1stones cElder art ,ahay t

D.-B. Folio .

3

2

1

#cash Smith J. from received

. Tod J. from received cash By

received 11cash from Mackenzie K.

received "cash Bell J. .from

received cash By from Barr J. potatoes for received Lindsay from barley &S"cash for on received cash Jeffrey from Co. &

from "cash received Buist

balance 1. folio to II

.t ,a6d bags 25

,a.. alsike .658 is td

a.45. . tnnual bush ryegrass ,29 6d Italian aryegrass 58. ., t gd

totatoes 5 -pBy seed Jack G. from ons

,a%d. ed 7clover t ·r174

for Co. & Roughead -168 rass aglb. t .,cow yd

Railway carriage do of ..

8

5

2I 9

9

O

02 1

2

1

C.-B. . Folio

2

2 2

I

C.-B. Folio .

60 6 1

4 7

8

6

o 15 13

$.d £

€

2 4 15

0 12 5

100 17 0

315 30

53 оо

348 15 3

3100

.d 8.

1 6 1567

34

200 O 1200 o

13 53

97

8d. .£

56 15

9 7 4

11 31 6

8d. .6

5

Oow

‫ܘ ܘ ܘ ܘ‬

OO

512

FARM BOOK- KEEPING.

" ΙΙΙ ΠΟΛ

. 1890

9

JuneI

Mar. 19

1889 .

Nov 21 .

June I

. 1889

Jan.

.1890

May 25

9March April 2

1889

28 Feb.

1889 sunday

soila

Less property -tax

Cfor & M'Lean paid cash of nitrate o.

police commissioners paid cash

cash To paid CDun & o. guano for

crop for farm of rent paid cash 1888

-rates poor paid cash To for Whit to year

Robertson D. "cash paid for repairs

paid cash To for Bell W. repairs paid cash for Grant D. repairs

Raeburn paid J. "cash Dickson W. Harley J. Binnie P.

II bfolio . alance to

pigs for Buist paid cash To

I 2

C.-B. Folio .

1

T

1

C.-B. . Folio

15

615

.Folio

8d. .£

o

o

2

2

2

Folio .

D.-B.

56 37

2 0 1 3 13 50 5 17 42

s.d £

2

C.-B.

£

0

5

22

2

1889 .

19 ΙΟ 812

оо

2 K

604 19 11

боo o

11 149

$.d.

339 18

3

0

1

1889 .

!!

IMPLEMENTS HARNESS .AND

AND RENT .TAXES

Nov. 21

.1889 June I

9

8o

Jan.

1890 .

May 25

March 9 April 2

. 1889

MANURE PURCHASED .

Mar. 21 1890 . Feb. 28

s.d £

11 10 334

6219

17 132

11 13 53

12 17 8 4

.d£ $

544 0

0

.dE 8. 0

22

PURCHASED STOCK .LIVE

—continued .LEDGER

.6s a, t ure 2

-r1889 poor By 19 Mar. Whitsund to year for ates ay

2

I

Folio .

D.-B.

Robertson D. repairs for sheds ,&c.on

.D. for Grant ploughs on c.repairs ,&

Bell W. By repairs for harness on

tons 108 for commissioners police

.

D.-B. Folio .

Crom o. Dun ,fBy guano & Peruvian bags 130 1 Csoda o. ,fbags & M'Lean "5rom of nitrate 3 I m ,6t"J.table .sRaeburn cwt -672 ons an

,tons Dick W. ,a17s . t4474son "J7s ,1Harl 9/2 tons t ey .,a.22 .cwt tons 178 Binnie 06'2 ,aP. t .

1888 "rJune crop for farm of ent Less tproperty - ax

for pigs 11

pigs 11 for Buist R. and 2By ,c£ . 2ustom 58 toll

.£ $d

2

O оо 15

19 604 11

600 0

11 1 49

8. d.&

3 18 39

8оо o 10 19

.d£ s

II 10 334

6

83 12

2

17 132

128 4 17 11 13 53

0 5 4+

оо

o

. d

3

19

22

522

.£ s

2 2

C.B. . Folio

13 50 3 17 42 5 6 5 37

10 2

.d s£

3

.d£ 8.

0615

D.-B. . Folio I

LEDGER. 513

2

Sept. 30

1cash in paid

potatoes c.for ,& tolls paid #cash

B. C. . Folio

2

I

2

Folio .

C.-B. 1

pigs of sale on Smith J. to "1cash commission paid

stock of sale on Young J. to commission paid cash To

-year half for wages paid cash 1888 Whitsunday to

I

9 3 5

O

O 0 30

IO00 2

315 o o

.d8£.

36

50 O

O

o

6769

.d 8£.

o 2

62 0

7

1595O

O5 1

7 o

5

doo

June2

cash To in paid 1cash in paid in paid cash

paid "cash Young J.

meal for King J. paid cash To 6

8d. £ .1889

1890 .

1

IT

April 2 May 25

. 1889

at 408 .

Folio .

D! .-B. 2

cdrawn 28 ash +Feb. 11 folio to 11balance

drawn #cash drawn #cash drawn cash drawn ash c"IJune

9|By March drawn cash

.to 11 folio By balance

2

10 12

Thomson J.

14

C.-B. . Folio

2

I

I

.d s£

12 O 12 10 11 o

eed ,turnip s -,o"J.ne threshing day Young

.t ,a435 meal bags 22 for King J. By April 30 1889– Whitsunday to yhalf -for ages "wear Gardiner R. Allan J. J. Gray

Kirk J.

. EXPENSES MISCELLANEOUS

. SCOTLAND OF BANK

Feb.

. 1889

June 1

May 25

'WAGES .SERVANTS

o

1595

O

O

O

0

0

O 0

130 O

O

50 o

d. 8.

36

s.£ d. 63

67 69

0 605

600 22

0

о бо

128

2

62

6 7 5

.d8£.

o

May

1889 . Mar. 13

1

20 Sep 30 t.

1889 . Mar. 13

June 1

1889 . April 30 May 25

C.-B. . Folio

OOOOO

. continued —LEDGER

o

OOOOO

514

FARM BOOK-KEEPING.

PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT.

515

STATEMENT OF TRANSACTIONS FOR YEAR TO FEBRUARY 1890 . Crop sales, ledger folio 2 Live- stock sales ,

.

£ 1567 1 6 348 15 3

Crop purchased, ledger folio 1 Livestock purchased, 4 Manure purchased , 5 Implements and harness, 6

£56 15 NOO

PI

Servants ' wages, Rent and taxes ,

PO

1

Miscellaneous expenses,

11

5

44 5 O 334 10 11 39 18 3 09 7 6 604 19 11 6 6 3

10

10

9

£ 1156 3 Balance, 61915 16

759 13

3 6

£ 1915 16

9

STATE OF BALANCE .

Balance as above

Dueledger by farmfoliofor1 crop purchased, as per

£759 13 6

Due to farm for crop sold , as per ledger

9 19

Balance due by Bank of Scotland, as per

folio 2 • 9

Due by farm forlive stock purchased, as per ledger folio 4

$ 100 17 0

ledger folio 10 22

5

0

Balance due to farm , as on casi -book

4791 18 3

605

o

O

86

1

3

4791 18

3

PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT, FEBRUARY 1890. Horses per inventory do . do. do.

Pigs Sheep

£ 100 0 87 10

Accounts due to farm

O

25

10

68

o

£ 100 17

In bank

Cash inhand :

Less dueby farm for crop purchased Do.

115

605

O

86

I

OO

do .

WOO

Implements Cattle

£ 396 oo

791 18

3

61187 18

3

4

9

£9 19 9

for live stock purchased :

22

5

o

32

CAPITAL, 1890 . CAPITAL, 1889 Profit for year

£ 1155 13

6

O

O

4455 13

6

700

When it is desired to have a detailed orders given to be executed on any par account of the disposal of the crop and ticular field, for any other field . stock, it is necessary to have sheets ruled There should be a plan of the Stack on purpose to show all the particulars at a glance. On a farm , say of 500 acres, yard, which should contain a number

divided into twenty equal-sized fields of appertaining to each stack, and the let 25 acres each, which should each be' ter or letters of the alphabet of the field named, perhaps by a letter of the alpha- or fields upon which the stack was reaped.

bet, wrought in a five-course rotation, Such a plan will be found on the follow the

Fields A, B, C , and D, will be in turnips . wheat and barley. E , F, G , and H , 10 first year's grass. I , K, L, and M , second year's grass . N , O, P, and Q, oats . R , S, T, and U,

ing page. The Corn - accounts show the time ties to whom it was sold — the uses

when the crop was threshed — the par which were made of it on the farm—

On every farm the fields are designated by a particular name. Such a designation is required for each field, otherwise confusion might arise in mistaking the

the balance of corn on hand at any time in the corn -barn and granary — the weights of the corn, and the prices ob tained for it.

BOOK -KEEPING .

FARM

516

Weight . bushel per

CORN -ACCOUNT — CROP 1889. Whole Quantity

Date.

Amount of Produce ,

Bu .

To

62

11

4

Qrs.

By

бо 2

11

Το

21

3

Threshed froin field E (stack 1)

By

23 7

‫شهدا‬

Sown on field A and part of B

15

Nov. 7

To

11

By 11

13

21

112 00

3

20

7

4

1

6

4

Bruised for pigs

Ő

35 35

5

6037/4

Threshed from field E (stack 2 )

21

1

Sold .

7

36

II

60

11

6

Used .

Threshed from field G (stacks

Sold Isaac Marshall & Son

64

11

Light.

Ib. Qrs. Bu. Qrs. Bu. Qrs. Bu. Qrs . Bu ,

9 , 10 , 11 )

4

Price .

Rate.

Clean.

1889. Oct. 3

Disposal.

WHEAT.

1

Sold to John Cuthbert

1

63

35

34/

59 14 3

31

35

54

50

36 /

116

31

37/

37

OO

1890. 9

Το

40

!

11

10

By

7

4

1

Jan.

I!

32 31

4

13

1

62

4. 3

63

7

63

7

To

By

-

Sold to J. Marrowman

!!

20 20

7

11

7

11

7

63

Threshed from field G (stacks 6, 7, 8) .

Sold to John Factor (3 qrs. 7 bu . light)

64

637

Threshed from field E (stack 3) Sold to Isaac Marshall & Son

3

20

7

May 30 5

By

1

4

2

28

TO

38

60

Apr. 25

Threshed from field E ( stacks 4 and 5)

Sown upon field B :

11

64

20

11

Bruised for pigs 5

11

220

7

17

17

5

227

5

Totals 227

STACKYARD — CROP

5

379 24

5 210

7

1889.

I.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Wheat . Field E.

Wheat.

Wheat.

Field E.

Field E.

Wheat. Field E.

Wheat. Field E.

6. Wheat. Field G.

7. Wheat .

8. Wheat.

Field G.

Field G. 16.

9.

10.

II .

12 .

13 .

14 .

15 .

Wheat. Field G.

Wheat. Field G.

Wheat. Field G.

Barley.

Barley.

Barley.

Barley.

Field F.

Field F.

Field F.

Field F.

Barley. Fields F & H .

2 of each. 18 .

22 .

23 .

Barley.

Barley .

Barley .

Barley .

Barley.

Oats .

Field H.

Field H.

Field H.

Field H.

Field H.

Field R.

Oats. Field T.

24 . Oats. Field s.

25 . Oats. Field R.

26 . Oats .

27. Oats . Field R.

28. Oats .

Field R.

Field s.

29. Oats, Field s.

Field T.

31 . Oats, Field T.

32. Oats, Field T.

35 Oats . Field U.

Oats. Field U.

17

33 .

34 . Oats.

Oats. Field T.

Fields T & U .

2 Loadsof U.

19.

20 .

36.

21 .

37. Oats.

Field U.

30 . Oats.

38. Oats. Field U.

Weight per Whole

. bushel

CORN -ACCOUNT.

517

Amount of Produce.

Disposal. Rate .

BARLEY .

Date .

Quantity. Light .

Clean , Ib.

Qrs.

Bu .

32

3

Threshed from field H (stack

By

6

6

Used for wages(supper barley)

5

To

25 30

5

Ву

55 50 5 29

5

Price .

Sold

Used.

£ s. d.

Qrs. Bu. Qrs. Bu. Qrs. Bu. Qrs . Bu.

1889. 2

To

3

-

21 )

Dec. 26

31

To

I

34 11

11

By

3

-

10

11

24 24

6

28

Sold to John Newman .

11

11

Το

31

27

By

30

Threshed from field H (stack 19)

7 5

28

To

34

Feb.

Ву

11

11

3

11

2

33 30

24

2

20

5000

11

I

Used for wages

6

6

Light bruised for pigs .

3

5

2

Sold to James Marrowman

3

Threshed from field H ( stack

55

Sold'to John Factor

3 4

Threshed from field H (stack

7 3

Liglit bruised for pigs .

33

19,6

22 120

30

18

27

30

18/6

27 15 o

19/

28

61

20

боо

276

20

27 15 0

3

54

18) 35

11

50

2

11

30

2

I

5

30

1

6

56

1

24

6

Threshed from field H (stack

11

37령 27

11

#1

3

11

1890 . Jan.

1

6

20 ) 30

11

.

Out .

4

I

00

11

2

3

4

Sold to John Factor

11

56

To 11

Threshed from field 1 (top of stack 16) .

1!

Do. from of stack 16) .

11

19

Do.

30

:

-

.

3

field F ( top from field F (stack

:

11

24

Mar. 15

1!

17

By To

By

7

30

11

33

7

31

11

64 3

7 7

61 61

11

4

4

16

10

11

3

2

11

28

15) 63

13

10

-

16

‫دتیهه‬ ‫ة‬

4

Sold to Jonathan Cornbuyer

56

Threshed from field F (stack 12)

30

30

11

3

7

56

: 56

2.

9

2

Sown on field C

9

2

9

4

Sown on field D

9

4

37 3

4

28

34 27

4 6

Sold to John Factor

May 23

6 6

6 6

Used for wages

April 14

‫لیا‬

13 and 14) Used for wages

11

6

60

6

11

63

By

11

30

11

11

Sold to Jonathan Cornbuyer Threshed from field F (stacks

оо

I

Boiled for horses

Το

11

11

66

47

Boiled for horses

‫الیا‬

11

-

11

11

10

56

66

:

1 *

11

25

2986 Totals

5 253

11

12

7

58

5

311

5

311

5

12

7

58

244 12 0

FARM

Whole Date .

BOOK -KEEPING . Weight per .bushel

518

Ainount of Produce.

Disposal.

OATS .

Rate .

Quantity . Clean .

Qrs.

Ви.

65

7

Ib.

Light.

Price,

Sola .

Used ,

Qrs. Bu , Qrs. Bu Qrs. Bu. Qrs. Bu.

. d.

1889. Oct. 15

To

Threshed from field T (stacks 31 and 32)

11

IO

7

Used for horses Threshed from field T (stacks 30 and 33)

IO

7 IO

7

60

6

-

By

!

55

55 *

22

To

89

2

By

144 60

2 6

83

4

#1

!!

++

To

26

Sold to Isaac Marshall & Son

60 23

4

40

#1

80

1

63

4

45

PI

Threshed

from

4

28

4

20

8

Dec.

2

By

51 19

4

32

4

To

39

5

4

80

16

64

15,6

62

оо

16

96

00

270

OO

20

Sold to Thomas Dewar .

#1

20

120

!!

110

13

1 #

Feb. 7

5

42

Threshed from field U (stacks 35, 36, and 37) 4

12

35

Used for horses

PP

123

11

43 00

4

131 80

1890 . Jan. 30

161

Threshed from field U (stack Sold to J. Clay

Το

!

30

60

:

11

30

108 80

2

fields T and

38) 1

4 : By

9

43

U (stack 34) Nov.

11

Used for wages

80

42

Used for horses

19

11

Used for horses

20

10

30

11

h

4 1

Threshed from field S ( stacks 23, 24, and 2y)

100

20

Threshed from field R (stack 27)

40

3

.

132 !!

10

43

175 30

4

By

4

1

145 30

4

24

11

115 31

84

4

31

11

Mar. 15

10

!!

Used for horses

Sown upon fields N and P

(Sandy) 91

30

Sown upon fields ( and Q ( Potato )

11

9

75

April 30

31

08

Used for horses

9

19

Used for horses

20

4

20

H

=

May 23

To

11

Ву

31

55

4

41

11

96

4

June 6

Ву 11

6

11

20

4

130

+

206

4

Threshed from field R (stacks 22, 25, and 26 )

Sold to Isaac Marshall & Son

I 20

.

86 86

11

120

10

1 #

9

To

35

Used for horses

20

76

Threshed from field S ( stack 28)

1 20

43

4

86

In granaries for horses . 614 82 Totals

1697

4 5

82

5 357

4

I 340

357

1

1697 1 1

STOCK ACCOUNT.

519

The Live-Stock Accounts give, in like numbers on hand at different periods

manner, the particulars of every species the prices obtained and the prices paid of stock — the disposal of them — the for them .

STOCK ACCOUNT— 1889. Price. Whole No.

Date.

Steers. Cows. Calves.

CATTLE ,

Received .

Paid .

£ $. d.

1839. Oct.

2

To

11

P!

1 6

11

10

PP

IO

rising 1 year old Steers Heifers

10

15

37 30

2 -year -old steers bought at Yarm , at £7

26 30

11

5

20

11

Ву

15

To

52 15

Steers sold Adam Butters, at £ 18

Steers bought at Darlington, at 67

.

.

67

11

15

21

By

82 14

11

68 16

00

June

1

11

11

52 15 37 15

Steers bought at Darlington, at £8

15

Steers sold at Newcastle, at £ 18 .

71 14

252

оо

Steers sold at Newcastle, at £ 14 .

57 16

224

Steers sold at Newcastle , at £ 12 .

41 15

180

Steers sold at Edinburgh , at en

26 15

165 o o

.

1

Το

20

Steers bought at Darlington, at £6, 6s.

11

To

I

41 15

о

о

o

o

126 Oo

20

31

42

Sept. 29 By

120

TI

22 11

105 00

o

15

11

270 00

15 41 15

56

20

May

210 OO

o

Mar.

II

56

67

1890. Feb.

6

Steersrising 2 years old

5

to s. d .

I

15

I!

11

Bull Cows

Heifer died .

4 100 IO

Calves weaned

561 00 15 10

56

31

Total stock of cattle

56

1095 100

FARM BOOK -KEEPING .

520

Whole

Date .

Ewes .

SHEEP .

No.

Price .

Feed Hoggs. Rate . ing Sheep . Paid

£ s. d .

1889. Oct.

2

To

200

Ewes

11

290

Hoggs

320

Wethers

3

200

290

320

Rams

3

813 11

30 By

3

323

2 hoggs and 1 wether dead

810

Xov . 30

11

2

808 40

Dec. 25

4

1890. Jan.

30

11

11

60 704 3

288 2

Wethers sold to Timothy Wood

.

Wethers sold to Jacob Keyworth .

11

11

30

1

3

281 60

283

Hoggs died

30

11

O

108 OO Ι το

3

ο

280 1

I ewe and 1 hogg dead

1

1

Wethers sold at Edinburgh .

599 3

2 ewes and 1 wether dead

O 150

279

199

100

120

I 10

361

100

32/

16o

o

o

2

0

0

2ΙΟ

Ο

Ο

121 2

197

Wethers sold at Edinburgh .

1

120

F!

68

221

596

Apr. 14

о

282

3 hoggs and I wether dead

699

Mar. 15

11

2

ото

34 /

40

701

Feb. 28

150

286

764 1

2

322

o

31

1

Hoggs dead

768 11

Received .

120

35 /

I 20

476 11

May 30

11

2

474 3

Hoggs dead . 2 ewes and 1 hogg dead .

471

June 15

10

170

I OO

2

277 2

1

195

276

Clipped hoggs sold at home .

170

I

o

o 1

30 /

255

00

106

301

195

Account altered by addition of Lambs. July 8 To 11

T! 11

11

Sept. 27 By

200 IOI 170 130 601 бо

Breeding ewes and gimmers Draft ewes and gimmers Wether lambs weaned do. Ewe do.

301 200 IOI

170 130 300

Draft ewes sold at St Ninians fair

бо

Half-bred wether lambs bought at

41

32/

об оо

541 "

200

30

Melrose

200

14 !

140 OO

741 500

By

3

Hoggs dead

738

200

Total stock of sheep

1 15

3 497 41

738

140 Oo

908 is

0

ACCOUNT OF CHARGE AND DISCHARGE.

Whole No.

Date.

Breed Feed ing or ing store Pigs. Pigs .

Pigs.

Price. Rate . Paid .

1889 .

Received .

£ 8. d.

Oct.

2

To

3

11

11

1!

I

11

11

20

Store pigs

24

24 18

Weaned (2 litters)

Nov. 7

42 8

1890. 1. By

Jan

20

To

May 8 By

55 48

June 8

7 30

I

20

18

38 Weaned

8

46

Sold at Edinburgh

20

30 /

Bought at Berwick

26 25

15/

Sold at Edinburgh

51 48

30 /

Weaned (3 litters)

3 30

30 оо

18 15 0 72 00

33

37 I

£ 8. d .

3

50

30 25

To

Sows Boar

4

11

521

Died

1

18 15

32 4

Boar and sows

Total stock of pigs

o

36

102

O

O

36

ACCOUNT OF CHARGE AND DISCHARGE OF THE INTROMISSIONS OF A- B-, FARMER AT C-

→ FOR CROP AND YEAR ENDING IST OCTOBER 1890. CHARGE.

Cash

Balance in account with BritishLinen Bank :

do.

do.

do.

do.

£ s. d .

o

o

340 75 379 2 244 12 270 O

Oo

Barley Oats

O

оо

BRANCH II.-- Debts due me at ist October 1889, per last account BRANCH III. - Cornsold Wheat sold , per corn account

£ s. d . 40 300

4

OO

I. – Balance on hand at 31st October 1889–

poo

BRANCH

893 14 4

BRANCH IV.—Live stock sold : 1. Cattle

Cattle sold, per stock account Sheep sold, per stock account

1095 IO

o

908

5

3. W001–

Wool sold

.

O

2. Sheep

153

4

o

102

o

o

4. Pigs

Pigs sold, per stock account .

2258 19 0 Sum of charge

3567 13

4

FARM BOOK-KEEPING.

522

DISCHARGE.

£ s. d .

BRANCH I. -RENT, TAXES, AND INSURANCE. 1.

1890 . Jan

. 24

June 24

By paid half-year's rent, due at Martinmas do. due at Whitsunday By

.

2. Tazes

Nov. 22

Aug. 26 1!

500 500

o

1000

o

o

By Schoolmaster's stipend, for year ending this date

1890 . May 28

£ 5. d .

O

1889 .

€ S. d .

Rent

By poor -rates for year, to Whitsunday 1890 . :

By assessed taxes By income-tax

I 17

6

25 0 7 18

O

II

1

o 872 45 16 372

3. Fire Insurance

1889. Nov. 20

By premium paid Phoenix, for one year

9

7 17

1053 14 0 BRANCH II . -LIVE STOCK BouchT.

I. Cattle

Cattle bought, per stock account

5610

2. Sheep 1

!!

Sheep bought, per stock account

140

3. Pigs Pigs bought , per stock account

11

0

18 15 0 719 15

O

1890 . June 9

50 TO 12 II

.

By ironmonger's account, for past year By sundry accounts Farrier 45 0

6

0

8 oo O

Roper

2 10

Mason

4 to 4 4 17 10

O

16 18

Feb. 20

April 1 22

July 11

1 TI

0

By 3 tons of cake from James Cuthbert, at £ 8 per ton By saddler's account, for past year By lime, bought at Sunderland kilns By 15 tons of guano , at £9 per ton By 3loads of palings, at 108.

24 8

O 0

9 135

5 0

1

10

OWOO O

r!

By John Irons, for castings for mill

Slater

I

O 2

2. Furnishings and Repairs

1889. Nov. 7 . 1890 . Jan. 7 11

1. Seed bought By clover and grass seed account By turnip -seed account By 10/8 qrs. of beans, at 228.

DOO

BRANCH III. - FARM WORKING.

2

3

208 13

1889. Oct. 27

5

2. Labour and Oatmeal -

By harvest expenses By 5 sacks of oatmeal, at 268..

71 S 10 6 10 o

Nov. 22 May 26

By Labour account, for half-year to date

134 II

642

By

130

July 1

By William Young for use of his stallion

8 6

do.

do.

do.

1

7 2

344

o 6% 626 6 84

BRANCH IV . - DEBTS DUE ME

1890. Sept. 30

By shepherd , due me for fallen mutton

2 15

o

BRANCH V. - BALANCE . Cash on hand

40

2

7

Balance at credit in account with theBritish Linen Company

1125

00

1165 2

Sum of discharge

3567 13 4

LABOUR - BOOK .

523

Memorandum -book . — Every farmer stances of accuracy in farmers who trans ought to be provided with a pocket acted business of the most multifarious memorandum -book , to contain every character by memory alone ; neverthe item , great or small, connected with the

less, the safer plan for every farmer is to

farm , whether involving cash or not. jot down every particular incident in the Without such a memorandum, confusion memorandum -book that involves the in may arise from broken promises, forget- terests of others as well as his own. fulness, or neglect.

At one time it was Labour -books. — Here is a simple customary in farmers to trust solely to form of keeping the field -workers' daily the memory to retain their transactions; labour-account : and we have heard extraordinary in Isabel Kerr,

Oct.

11.11.111.1.0 ... 1||== 1818 days, layn,atat Is.the,

Anne Paterson , Mary Scott,

11

1.111.|.|||11|111.11.11.11

Ło 18 0

= 19

11

at Is . ,

O 19

= 16

11

at Is. ,

0 16 0

0

Between the long strokes is compre- of wages per day, and the gross amount hended one week ; the short strokes are of the half-year'searnings is brought out the days of the week. Suppose the distinctly. account runs for the half -year across two A proprietor not living on the estate ruled pages of the book. The name of in which his home-farm

is situated, is

the field-worker is written on the left desirous of knowing how the work goes hand. A short stroke is made for every on on his distant farm . Here is an ex full day the field -worker has worked. If ample of a labour-book which would suit

she has only worked 12 day, the 12 is his purpose. It contains columns indica marked. If 34 of a day, 34 is marked. ting the number of hours each labourer If she has not been working, then i dot · is made. Thus at a glance is seen the work done every week , as well as when work was not done. The account thus

is employed daily, with a weekly sum mary showing the total number of days andhours for each person employed, and rate of wages, from which the amounts

kept for the half - year, the days are earned can easily be calculated . summed up and calculated at the rate LABOUR - BOOK .

each

Rate per

Week.

Day.

Time

Date of

First Day of Week

Hours each Day.

WORK-PEOPLE'S NAMES .

T.

W.

Th .

F.

. s

M.

D. H.

S.

d.

SUM .

d.

524

FINAL EXHORTATIONS.

FINAL

EXHORTATIONS.

When the young farmer is settled on

tion on his live stock.

In winter, those

his farm, he undertakes certain duties confined in the steading should have and obligations which he must fulfil.

abundance of food at regulated hours,

Work well advanced. — It is an im- be comfortably lodged, and carefully portant duty of a farmer of arable land to tended, and those inthe fields provided have his field operations in an advanced with shelter and food. Turnips should state at all seasons. If by negligence a be stored in the best state, in case of delay of an operation takes place for one frost ensuing In summer, pasturing day or two in its proper season, it can- the grass fields requires attention , both not be executed in the best way ; and if on account of the pasture itself and the

then overtaken by bad weather, the risk stock upon it, with a sufficient supply is incurred of a deficient crop.

When

of water.

Any stock on green forage re

field operations are in advance, a few quires more particular attention. days' waiting can do no harm ; and when finished in a good state, a well-founded

Marketing Corn.-As long as the corn - market is active in winter, the

hope may be cherished of a good return .

farmer should attend to the threshing

To secure an advance in labour, the work- and cleaning of grain, for the double ing stock should be adequate to complete purpose of supplying his stock with every operation in its season. Time lost straw , whether with fodder or litter, then can never be made up by inefficient and of disposing of the corn . It is not means of labour. Efficient and Well-arranged La-

a farmer's duty to speculate on his own corn in the stack ; for the live stock

bour.-That labour may be employed have a legitimate demand upon the straw , inost economically, the farmer should have and if by speculation they are deprived the ingenuity to arrange the labourers to

of fodder and litter, so is the land of

work for one purpose. For example, when ploughs are working by themselves, and the field -workers by themselves, they do their respective works efficiently ; but

manure ; and, on the other hand, if he thresh faster than the stock can consume it, the straw suffers deterioration as fod

der and litter, and as manure.

The corn

when ploughmen and field -workers are at presented at the market should be in a the same work - manual and mechanical perfect state of cleanliness, not only on

labour combined the strength of each account of the farmer's own sake of ac

party should be proportioned to produce quiring the character of a clean dresser of the desired result in a given time.

To grain, but for his demanding the highest

make the co-operation perfect, the horses price. should be well matched , sufficiently fed ,

Bearing towards Work - people.

and judiciously wrought ; and as a coun- In his bearing to his work -people the terpart, the field - workers should be active, farmer should be kind and reasonable. willing, strong, and skilful. He should not be constantly rebuking. Good Implements. -Still further means to the same end, the best-con-

structed implements should be selected, for skilful labourers require the best im-

A fault should be checked ; and one arising from the head, not the heart, should be gently dealt with. Theft and falsehood should never be forgiven, and

plements, and the horses use them with the delinquent should be got rid of at the greatest ease . Ploughmen , horses, im- the first term, for no trust can ever be plements, and field-workers are the work- confided in him . When a ploughman

ing stock of a farm ; and unless all these quarrels seriously with his horses, the are maintained in the most efficient state, the farmer cannot expect his operations to be executed in the best manner .

Attention to Live Stock . — Besides

safest expedient is to cause him to put them into the stable till next day, when his temper will have calmed down, and the affront will have served to curb it.

the land, the farmer must bestow atten- A mere severe rebuke at the time, with

FINAL EXHORTATIONS.

525

allowance to continue at work, will never evening is great.

Much more

It is then physically impossible to betake to readingon a sub ject that requires thought. The desul tory newspaper affords the most fitting reading until the hour of bed, which must be early. In winter it is different,

work will be obtained from field -workers

and at that season it is not true that

convince him that he was wrong. The wives and children of married men are frequently troublesome on a farm ; when a man cannot control his own household, he should be parted with.

by a little indulgence than by over exac- the farmer does not read - for many read tion of work. A short rest at mid- much ; and as they advance in years,

yokings has a wonderfully encouraging much leisure is given to reading. We effect, especially upon field -workers. Punctual in paying Wages.— The

have only to peruse the discussions in farmers' clubs to be satisfied that the

farmer should be punctual in his pay- present race of farmers read , and have ments to his servants at the specified read to good purpose. terms; for if he be not, he loses control, Townspeople also believe that the and places himself in their power in artisans of towns are much more intel

many ways. Work -people calculate on ligent than the labouring people of laying out their earnings when they be the country. There are different kinds come due ; and on being

disappointed, it of intelligence. We have had many causes them much inconvenience and vex- opportunities of conversing with both ation of spirit. Women especially feel classes of workpeople, and we like to do it, but never could observe the supe the disappointment keenly. Relation to Neighbours.- In rela- rior intelligence of the town artisan. The tion to his neighbours, the farmer should country labourer is a keen observer of be punctual to his engagements. If he nature: he knows the symptoms of the

promised to buy or sellany commodity weather, different kindsof soil, of rocks, with a person on a given day and hour, of trees, the habits of many animals, he should keep his appointment.

If he

and the properties of the plants he culti

has promised to settle accounts with any vates ; and as to the shepherd, no ordinary tradesman at a given time, he should do artisan is his superior. The manufacturer

so without fail. A few breaches of pro- is favourably contrasted with the farmer, mise soon affect a man's character where since he avails himself of every improved he resides, and a few more may ruin his piece of machinery, while the farmer neglects similar opportunities for improv Recreation and Instruction. — The ing his business. The cases are not

veracity, and even credit.

farmer should provide himself with re-

analogous.

The manufacturer knows

creation and instruction at home. Re- with certainty that machinery and ma creation he will find in his own family, terials which suit a co -manufacturer will

in field-sports and manly exercises, and suit him also ; but the farmer has no in visits to and from friends at a dis- certainty of any implement or manure

tance, and neighbours around. For in- suiting his own climate, soil, situation, struction he must have recourse to books,

and locality, until he has tried it — and

papers, and conversation. If he does not it is only once in a year that he can try provide attractions at home, he will go it. He prudently waits the approval of elsewhere for them , and neglect his farm. others before he adopts it. It is a common remark among townsIn catering for mental food, the young people, that farmers, as a class, read farmer should take the periodicals con

little. If they knew the habits of farmers nected with the agricultural societies of as well as we do, they would consider the kingdom , as well as those in any

this no obloquy. Little do townspeople class of literature which suits his taste. know the fatigue which is endured in Agricultural chemistry and physiology, early rising and constant exercise in animal and vegetable, he should not ne the fields on foot, when even ordinary glect. His local newspaper he patron operations are going on in summer, and ises; and, above all, he should have a

especially when improvements are on good agricultural paper. It is a great lassitude consequent

The on matter for the farmer, especially the fatigue which overtakes the frame in the young one, to take a short ramble now

hand.

FINAL EXHORTATIONS .

526

and then, in summer, in Continental between the proprietor and labourer of countries.

Travel expands the mind,

the soil. He thus belongs to that middle

presents new objects, refines intelligence, class which forms the staple portion of corrects prejudices, and adds many ma- the community. In taking leave of our terials to happiness.

young friends, we do so in the anxious

In parting with the young farmer, and heartfelt hope that this effort in the now no longer a pupil, we would exhort

cause of agriculture may prove as pro

him always to maintain independence fitably instructive and as practically use of mind and honourable behaviour. Heful as have the former editions of this forms the connecting and binding link

work .

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Fug Pig Sties . Gua

B no oil ho

St

or

e

Sarle 2

70

97

ier

2

PLATE IV

STEADING

vo

Ha

Bojz

89

In

nt

er

k abl Wor St

Cart Shed

irs

n

Tur

d fooStore m

. .

s

el

mm

Ha

tle

for Cat

,

Ba

rn

tle oxes B

Cat

tle

Cat

re

By

ng a H .

Du

Fig 3

120

0

47

2 de

Fio 4

vir

ASTO

R

ika

1

RY

‫را‬

C I

PLATE V

STEADING

FARM RSE

llo n He

ed Sh e l tt Ca

ler

Boi

s

al

Co

Ca rt She d

ine

Eng

e2d

Sh

tle

Cat

l al

Ch

ps ni r Tu

C Ba orn rn

rt Cou le l Cat

Com Hyr e

se

Loo

S t ra w Ba rn

ne

Bo

Ho u T

s ip rn

ing Borl

Tu

Cat t l e Co ur t

le

Imp Ha

D

ut

ll.o

Ho

Ho Hoy

Ca rt H o rs Sl e ab le

10

20

Scale

10

Ha

Hay

10

60

St

ing

Rid

Fact

70

rdas 1

છે

TH

ASTO

R

Gita

e

il

SEAR? d o i s

PLAN

DAIRY

OF

A

HOMESTEAD FOR

COWS

EIGHTY AND

ec .

YOUNG

FORTY

CATTLE

oec .

AON Wash House

Wash House

Wagon Shea & c .

Implements

Carriet Soals TrumWLY and Path Feeding

Coats

Living

Living

Room

Room

LooseBand

Shed

PAIR OF COTTAGES

WA

Dairy Scullery

Tools.fc

Press Room and

Working Dairy

Covered

Milk Room

A

Way

This House might be placed so that the Train rails shall be in a line with

Linger

Yard

Loose Box

Foot

those of theFarm Buildings

Kitchen

Covered Path

Kitchen

Cow

Kitchen

Scullery

covered Υy . Nags Stable

13

end

Harness Room

Office

cellarUnda

Dining Room

Dining Ro

Carriage House Parlour

Parch

DWELLING

ec

O Asin

HOUSE

Ducks

Fowls

PLATE VI

Barn

Scale

to COLD

House for

30

20

20

Cart

Horse

50

I잎

Portable Engine

Harness

Mising House

Stable

Room

House &c .

Chaft

Loose Box

Feeding Boiling House

Path

Cows

TOTE WAY

gupis so 105 95su? n'og

Path

Pig Sty

covere a

Yard

Pig Sty

Pig Sty

20 25 P2 SOU

S2 P

rar a Cow

70OJ

Foot

For

oz

‫مت‬

covered

Calves

8

Tank Manure

ToLaquid

FARM

Calves

LDINGS

Loose Box

1

9

0 1 . 55

UL

R

O ST

A

1

ІІ

І.

А

h

L t oose

>

ாக

Covered W

மராசாமகாய

Covered

Cattle

Ba

OPassage vpen

Shed T9iernip

*

Bor

Byres

House

Hen

Store Tyurnip

Byres

Courts

Courts

Covered

2

n Water Wheel

.1

FARM

and

d I . mp

Straw

Barn

Corn

Chalf

Guano House

Barn

Ho

6

2

. Ho

Boiling

Stable

Riding

House

Dut

' a

E

1 Fig

Shed Cart

INVERQUHARITY AT STEADING .With Additions and Alterations

E ! MA

z Urine T.

Passage

Passage

‫זזזז‬

IZ

Ckattle Court

iCattle Shed

Shed Turnip

Bar

L hoose

Stable

Horse

Cart

House Hay

B

10

3Fig

다.

o

XO

B. A. Line the on Section 1. Fig

1 20

30

SOUTH

10

50

Scale

ELEVATION

60

70

8

.90

100

F. E. line the on

Feet

SFig 6ection

NA

2 Fig Plan of Roots

5Section Fig CD Line the in

PLATE VII

D

0

DE O

DE

!

duv

OR

AST 1 ; $

TH

FRONT

ELEVATION

OF

FARM

HOUSES PLATE VIIT

HU

PAMPAH

AAARIF

1

HHHH0-41

Hazrat

Fig 1

Fig 2

!! Fig 3

HA Scale

10

ss

1Ft

OR

Bil

lii

ST

n RY

E H T

527

I N D E X. *

* Volume I. embraces Divisions i and 2 ; l'olume II., Divisions 3 and 4 ;

*

Volume III., Divisions 5 and 6.

VOL . PP.

Aberdeenshire manure experiments

. ii. 170-175

Abortion , after- risks from

ii.

among ewes 11

bad smells and

10

causes of

coarse pasture causing 11

ergot and

11

hemp seed as a preventive

11

is infectious in mares

Woods and Youatt

on

00

preventing .

11

preventing recurrence of symptoms of

13

ii . 80 ii . 13 ii. 12 ii. 14 ii. I2 ii . 13 ii . 14 ii . 281 ii . 81 ii . 13 ii . 14 ii. 13

Actionsofvarious ploughs :

i. 97

Administering medicine to cattle

iji . 496 495 iii . 496 iii . 496

10

!!

sheep

11

11

swine

Aftermath

Agricultural botany 11 !!

curriculum . education

importance of practice and science preparing and commencing winter operations 9

pupils and their training

11

teaching facilities

teaching institutions

Hares

Magpie

10

iii, 115, 160

Rabbits Rats .

iii. 115, 159

dest ruetive of poultry Carr ion crow

iii . 159

Wild cats

jii . 159 ii. 506

Apatite Arc , modes of describing

i. i.

I

jii. 148 iii. 102 ili . 102

11

American reaping-machines Ammonia in rain .

1 sulphate of .

hot -air method

Nelson system Ash of barley straw

iii. 102 i . +99

11

i. 500 i. 165

bean straw . 11 PI

1

i. 30 iii. 381 ii. 475 i . 280 i. 280

10 11

cabbage

i. 166 ; ii. 384

carrots

hops

ji . 334

kohl-rabi mangels

i. 166

oat straw

i . 499 i . 166

parsnips pea and rye straw turnips green tops

i.

f!

1

ii. 106

i. 165

swedes

i. 164

yellow

i. 164 i. 498

wheat straw constituents of

11

i. 500 i. 164

i . 165 i. 164

Atmosphere, chemical composition of .

38

i. 165

heavy

greystone i. 281 i. 282 iii . 177 ii. 114 iii . 66

114 321 324 457

Arsenic condemned for sheep-bath

72

i. 69

ii . iii . iii. i.

Artificial drying of cereal crops

importance of properly balancing Alta Vela phosphates :

iii. 160 jii . 159

Arable farming, steading for

84

iii . 485

ratio for different classes of stock

iii. 160

Fox Rooks Weasels

Arable and pastoral steading, combined

swine .

Alluvial deposits .

iii . 115

69

i.

16

Mice .

68

iii . 485

food .

i.

iii. 115 iii . 115 iii. 160

Ground game

Annatto

sheep

Air- grates Albumen Albuminoid ratio of foods illustration of

515 ; ii. 94

parasites Animals destructive to crops

15

horses .

Air -engine

Animal excrements, solid and fluid

68 68

!!

cattle

i. 23 i. 116

Angle ploughing

i. i. i. i.

11

Agriculture , the sciences applicable to Ailments of farm live stock

i. 501 i . 24

Ancient threshing-machine . Anemometer Aneroid

2

i . 73 i . 12 jii . 439 iii . 470 iii . 442

year

i . 17 ii . 427

Anbury or club -root in turnips

iii .

•

horses

11

VOL . PP .

Anatomy

gravity of

i. i. i.

23 22

23

INDEX .

528 Atmosphere, height of

i.

23

pressure of .

i.

23

"I

Aurora borealis a prognostic of rain

i. 39

Autumn anomalies

iii.

48 iii. 138

iii .

barometer

"

cattle in

I clouds . 11

50

iii.

crops

" field-sports :

48 50 49

flora 50 11

11

upper Barometer

aneroid

01

fall of the

iii. 138 iii .

49

48

" upright 11

sheep in sowing cereals in

iii. 139 iii . 126

I

study of the seasons

iii.

48

11

summary of field operations and iii.

48

1

11

of the weather . winds . work

iii. iii .

49 50

11

origin of typical cow Back -band

Bagging grain Bailiff, his duties Bands and binding grain

Barberry blight

Barclay and Sellar's patent digger

i. 498

chaff

classifying by the ear 11

grain

cooked 11

after corn

!!

as a forage crop

germinating of, and the weather "

grains in a bushel of harrowin for : judging g 11

limitsof culture : malting man uring land for

11

meal

for pigs

" quantity of seed 11

11

!!

strength of

uses of

utilisation of varieties of .

1 yield and weight of Barn barrow brooms

door of the corn

English floor of the corn

" granaries in connection with " hay hoe

implements. machinery

"

490 490 210 490

i. 248

precautions against vermin in

ii. 128, 208 i. i. i. i.

248 248 499 499

i. ii . ii. i. ii. i.

499 207 210 490 209 490

17

i. 500 i . 496

consumption of

ii. 201

i. 256

for dairy cows farm culture of field -bean

iii . 135 i . 495

ii. 205 ii. 395 i. 496

11

harrowing drills

.

leguminous plants

11

manure for

ii. 202

11

and nitrogenous manure

ii. 202

peas mixed with .

ii . 205

11

ploughing for

insects which attack

ii. 203

" preparing, as food

i. 256

" quantity of seed for reaping sowing autumn -manured spring -manured spring tillagefor 1 stacking for stock feeding

ii. 202 iii. 108

11 1

ii. 201, 205

11

11

yield and weight of

475 444 442 444 447

i. 442 i. 475

i. 95 iii. 161 iii. 161

11 collecting driven bees commencing driving swarms 11

iii. 165 iii.

161

ii. 165 iii .

as a farm industry food for bees

161

iii. 168

heather honey

iii. 167

, honey -extractor .

iii. 164

11

!!

management, preliminary

11

11

11

!!

11

!!

in autumn

iii . 164 iii. 166

spring

iii. 165

summer

ili.

winter

iii. 165

new swarms

11 purchasing swarms spring food . stimulating stocks sugar -cakes for use in winter

11 11 11

weak hives .

iii. 164 iii. 165 iii . 168 iii . 166 iii. 168

iii. 165 iii. 134

Beet, farm culture of insects which attack

ii . 396 i. 266

root-pulp

iii .

Bell's reaping -machine 11

construction of

iii.

iii.

11

cost of reaping faults and merits

i. 473

11

of

slow progress of Bere

166

iii . 162

" marketing honey

jii . 313 i . 447

i. 256 i. 496 iii. 163

clover for bees

11

204 204 203 109

iii. 161

bees v. shorthorns

11

ii . ii. ii. iii.

ii. 202

varieties of 11

i. 463 i. i. i. i. i.

23

i. 256

ash of :

culture for

i. 490 i. i. ii. i.

i.

ii. 205

Bearing- reins i. 489 Bee-keeping " appliances for

soil for

stock feeding with straw , ash of composition of

botanical character of

ji. 209

ii. 209

11

12

i. 211 iii. 128 ii. 209

ii. 208 ii. 210

tillage for 11

i. 489 i. 489 i. 248

Rothamsted experiments with

sowing steeping !!

7 i. iii . 73 ii. 414 ii. 342

i. 489

Barley . 11

421 421 420 421

37 23

iii . 140 iii . 140

composition of

ji. 300

ii. 486 i . 95 i. 476

“ Baby ” separator

1!

11

iii . iii . iii . iii .

i. i.

iii. 139-148 Bathing and smearing sheep ii. 203 Beans, ancient notions regarding i. 496 ancient superstitions regarding 395 ii. "I aphis

rewards of labour

milking properties of

wheel

Bath jug

"

11

i. 23 i. 23

stool for sheep

rain

11

i. 446 i. 446

.

11

iii.

folk - lore live stock in

Aylesbury ducks Ayrshire cattle, characteristics of

i . 443

straw

truss roois for

iii.

!!

i. 474

Barn stool

iii. iii.

63 65 66 65

i. 252

INDEX.

Biestings, composition of

ii. 35

Binder, self . Biology , study of

iii.

79 14

ii. 117

Biphosphate Bisset's binder

Birds devouring insects " poisoning 1 prevention , not extermination 11 scaring

... in spring storms : Birds destructive to green crops Chaffinch

iii. 84 iii . 113 jii . 11 . jii . 114 iii . 114 ii. 5

iii. III

Corn -bunting Crows

III

113 ii. 110 iii. 112 iii. III

Greenfinch

House- sparrow Linnet .

Partridge

iii . 113

Pheasant

iii. 112 iii. III

Seed -bunting Skylark Wood -pigeon

III

Yellow -hammer

IIO

II2

Blackfaced sheep Bleeding cattle

iii. iii . iii. ii. i. i. ii. ii . ii. ii. ii. ii.

horses .

Blood, dried Boiler, steam , and mountings

Boiling point Bone ash Hour

10

mamure , composition of dissolved

11

early use of

11

preparing

Book -keeping for a farm Boracic acid as a milk preservative Border Leicester sheep Botany , study of

plants classific ation of plants of cultivated

I!

germs

"I plants of the farm

433 479 453 104 122

Briggs's turnip-thinner

research

Bothies, boarding in the kitchen : it

construction of

"

plans of

Brood -sows, housing

origin of the remedy for

Boulders, removing and avoiding Boussingault's experiments with stub ble and roots of cereals Box - beds Boxes for cattle

Buckwheat, composition of . cutting drying feeding properties of as a forage plant . produce of reaping forstock feeding Building dry -stone walls 11

iii . 109 jii . 109

11

iii. IIO

Buildings of the farm . iron 11

rings for

"

summering , in the house

ii. 465 ii. 467

temper of

ii. 467

treatment of

ii. ii . ii. ii .

Bunt of wheat

sheep

Brewer's grains, composition of desiccated . desiccated v. wet grain 11

11

11

11

VOL. III ,

for dairy cows

disinfecting seed

11

prevention Burning land, how conducted

ji. 304

iii. iii. iii. iii. i.

Bush fruit, catch cropping . cost of planting

11 10 11

465 416 416 416

disease in black currants cultivation of

136 136 136 136 382

ii. 497

i. i.

15 15

11

i.

15

11

iii . 376

ii. 519

and cheese making, associated

ii . 519

colouring details of working

ji. ji. ii. ii.

extractor fat

.

11

11 11

iii. 376

16

iii . 377 iii . 270

making methods of making rolls and pats of . salting washing working

ii. 495 ii. 497

ii. 496 ii. 496 ii . 495

iii. 387

Byre fittings

61

i. 247

Byres for cattle drainage of . 1

mangers of ventilation of windows in . .

Cabbage, analysis of

i. 248

11

manuring land for

ii. 456

ji. ji. ii . ii. ii.

planting

plants required per acre 11

iii . 434

11

soil suitable for sowing seed storing

11

stalks, utilising

10

thousand -headed kale

i. 253

ii . 397 i. 160

lifting

jii. 393 iii . 405 393 iii . 425 i. 253

i. 165 iii . 133

farm culture of insects which attack

iii. 487

11

•

ii . 259

!! utilising "

cotton -seed, composition of

258 258 259 258 258

i. 159 i. 160 i . 266

i. 253 Cake, cocoa, composition of i. 253

220 222 220 222 221

i. 266

.

ash of

i. 211

i. 405 ii. 31

i. i. i. i. i.

11

11

499 497 499 474

ii. 498 ii. 498 ii. 487

fresh

hand -working of,objectionable

iii. 376

jii . 293 iii. 387

Breeds of farm live stock 11 cattle 11 " horses 11 pigs

ii. 465

11

ii. 497

iii.

from heifers

ii. 467 ii. 466

.I blending house "I centrifugal drier

Boyce's reaping -machine

11 principles of sheep

iii . 377 iii . 377 iii. 137

11 outlay on Bulbs, culture of, on farms . Bulls, number of cows they serve 11 process of ringing 1 ringing

Butter beaters or boards

Bracken -cutting .

11

iii. 109 i. 255 iii . 230 iii . 311

11

ii . 477 jii . 429 i . 14 i. 15 i. 14

iii. 360 . i . 219 ; iii. 327

Brackets

ii. 260 iii . 109

.

Butcher's beast, history of a

iii. 107

Bran , analysis of for stock feeding Bratting sheep Braxy in sheep Breeding horses

i . 475 i. 455 i. 255

Broom for barn

Bucket water - wheel

jii . 507

iii. 375 iii . 375

Bothy system , evils of the

ii. 293 ii. 292

Brood -nest

32

110 I10 III III 109 110

i. 254 1. 95 ii. 367

Brewer's grains, storing Bridle, horse

scope and necessity for botanical

11

529

.

2 L

i. 261 i . 260

INDEX.

530

Cake, linseed, composition of i.i. 258 | Calving , leading cows . 261 milk - fever " poppy, composition of 259 rape, composition of i. prevention of i. 383, 385 , 389 ; ii. 30 preparations for . Calf-rearing .

11

"

allowances of foods for are calves nuisances ? . artificial food for calves aversion of farmers to

ii.

ii. 32 ii .

breeding from heifers . breed longer from cows calf- crib calf's first food

1 10

38

:::

castrating composition of biestings danger of gorging calves decrease in suckling deficiency of store cattle details of

37

"I

"I reckoning table

31

11

red -water

31

11

refreshing the cow

32

!!

restless cows in

34 46 35

11

11

symptoms of

44

II

too early bulling unwise

35 31

11

32

11

diseases of calves

does suckling hinder breeding

45

11

eggs for calves

46

ii . 46

" feeding calves for veal 11 general rules for . 10 00 11 10 10

progress of . protruding womb quietness for cows

30

44 39

10

reverse presentation reviving calves twin calves . udder and its treatment

uterine discharge " veterinary advice in

Cambridge-road scrapings Camembert cheese and its production Canadian experiments in sheep -feeding

Cantal cheese and its production

housing calves in pure bred herds

Capon . Caponing fowls Caps to gate -piers

late calves

ii .

40

Carbolinium

Carbonic acid in the air

10

letting out calves

33

Carob beans

10

licking and rubbing beneficial

ii.

45

Carpenter -work

!!

milk substitutes .

ii. ii.

32 33 31

Carrion -crow Carrots

" navel-string 10

" 11 11

1 11 10

11 11

on large farms preparing foods for calves

quantities of milk for calves rearing bull -calves

rearing or selling calves rear more calves . reform

35

#1

37

ii. ii.

46 36

"I growing and heating in pits 11 liability to rot 11 pits preparing carrot seed

ii.

35

ii .

35

with heifers . teaching calves to drink weaning calves

ii .

36

shed , construction of weaning

assistance in attendance at

attention to serving, .. barley for newly calved cows

11

11

the calf

10

coming in season conception completed

11

1 11 11 11 11

11

i. 189

517 436 303 380 385 23

cleaning for

farmculture of :

iii . iii. iii. ii .

134 134 134 134

iii . 134

ii. 385 ii. 385

. sowing storing 1

:

i . 160 ; ii. 385 ; iii. 134 i. 160

red

11

thinning

ii. 385

tillage and manuring

ii. 385 iii . 134 i. 266

time of storing 11

ii. 19

tops food for cows

ii . 386

varieties of .

ii .

15

ii.

14 21 19

Carse farm, stocking a farms for grazing cattle

ii. 464

Carse -land farming

i.

16

Cart, farm tip

ii. ii . ii.

"I

11 11

immediate milking in -calf heifers inflammation in the womb isolation in difficult cases

ii .

22

ii . ii.

20

fatigue affecting pregnation flooding

ii. 18 ji. 113 ii. 18

soil for

21

extracting a dead calf

19

pulling

20

.. difficult presentations

18

11

21

11 detecting pregnancy

14 20

11

ii. ii . ii. ii . ii . ii . ii . ii . ii . ii.

cow's record of character dead calf

20

16

16

ii . 385 ii . 386

iii . 315

ii. 465 i. 383

ii .

19 16

produce

ii .

!! desperate cases 11

ii . 45 ii . 41 i. 362

23

ji. 384 ii. 384 ii. 385

botanical order of carrot -tops as food for cattle

31

ii . 34

23

ii. ii. ii. ii. ii. ii. ii . ii. ii.

i. 166 i. 160

Belgian , storing

31

Calving of cows, afterbirth :

11

09

44 32

ii.

" wintering 11

37

and rye ash of .

ii.

whey for calves 11

37

11

ii.

and milking combined

19

ii .

i . 266 ii. 384 ii. 386

.. analysis of

the remedy scalding skim -milk setoning skim -milk for spare dietary for calves suckling

Calves for early maturity 11

ii . ii .

15 15 20

i. 261 iii. 390 iii. 160

11

10

10

ii . ii .

23

ii. i. ii. ii. iii . i.

36 41 32 42

23

jii. 199

ii.

31

ii.

Candlemas entry

ii. ii. ii . ii .

hand rearing home breeding , not importation .

hay-tea for calves

22

ii. ii . ii. ii.

11

11

ii. ji.

17 18 22 17

5

farmers

5

5 ii. 349 iii. 87 i.

franes

iii. 88 iii. 88 iii. 88 ii. 474

harvest

improved

11 ropes Casein .

vegetable Castration of calves

i . 256 ii. 46 ; iii. 497 jii . 497

18

11

21

!1

horse lambs .

20

11

operation of

iii . 497

19

11

pigs

ii. 498

18

ii. 498

Cattle,accommodation for, on the steading 11

ailments of .

i. 214 iii. 470

INDEX. Cattle, calving of 1. calving season

ii.

14

ii.

9

i. 391

cart

cheaper meat from young animals . early maturity

and perfection of " 10

feeding

in England

10

i. 379 i . 239

for show . 11

without turnips grooming and cleaning

01

houses for

11

i. 380 i . 240 jii . 319

iii . 138

in autumn

food and shelter . 11

1

00

11

forage crops for house feeding housing fattening

.

store

11

11

fitable feeding .

loss from bad management of methods of fattening, in winter nomenclature of .

pastoral farming . pasturing of

" preparing for breeding shows fat-show

rapid fattening on pasture : rapid feeding of sheep respiration and mechanical force 11 00

. 11

Scotch feeding customs seal or binder

ii. 501

circular, tub curd breaking

10

Dutch .

ii. 501 ii. 515

iii . 136

11

formula of nutritive properties

ii . 505

Gorgonzola Gruyère

ii. ii. ji. ii. ii. ii. ii. ii.

jii. iii. jii . jii. jii.

138 138 138 138 139

11

"I judging making of 00

Neufchatel Parmesan

i. 369 i. i. i. jii.

239 371 225 319

Roquefort Stilton

ii. 500

vat

ii . 500 i . 12

Chemical elements important to farmers

ii. 458-468 | Chemistry agricultural i. 387 i. 389 general " inorganic i. 364 i. 365 organic 11

i. 241 i. 372 i. 221

Cheshire cheese and its manufacture

Chesset or cheese-mould, metal 11

wooden

i. 243

“ soiling '

southern systems of feeding store

i. 360

symptoms of pregnancy temperature of animals

ii.

.

i. 239

9

i. 242 i. 244

weights of

i. 367

winter feeding of store

i. 357

winter housing of store

i. 354

Cattle - boxes

· plans for : cart

troughs Cattle -man , dress of duties of

i. 219

i. 215

i. 233 i. 9 , 232

time-table of Cattle of the British Isles Ayrshire Devon Galloway Hereford

iii . iii. iii. jii . jii .

233 405 420 410 420 409

origin of

Yorkshire coach -horse, an off iii. 178-185

and rainfall in connection with farm -buildings

iii. 416

Polled Aberdeen- Angus

Welsh

11

for drains

iii . 421

ii. 485 iii. 126

iii.

85

jii. 379 iii. 277

iii . 403

shoot of . Climate

NorfolkandSuffolk red polled

West Highland Centrifugal separator Cereals , sowing, in autumn . stacking Cesspools

i. 532

value for crossing

Cloud , cirrus cirro -cumulus cirro -stratus cumulo - cirro - stratus

iii . 424

530 530 531 531

iii. 402 iii. 402 iii. 403

Cleveland bay horse, characteristics of

Long-horned

iii . 406 jii . 413

ji. 491 ji . 492 ji. 490

i. 531

top-dressing bare heights

iii . 416

Shetland

ii. 489

mixing soils 11

Kerry

Shorthorn Sussex

13

13 512 508 508 192

spreading the clay

is claying injurious to sheep ?

Clip fork

jii . 417 iii . 424

i.

i. ji . ii. ii. i.

i. i. i. i.

iii . 424 iii . 422

Jersey and Guernsey

13 13

i . 426

whole -milk .

11

1

12

i. i.

ii. 494

Churns, barrel . diaphragm types of Claying lands, benefits of clay pits

jji . 327 i. 392

i.

iii . 433

Churning milk !!

516 514 505 500 519 516 517 511

utensils for making

Cheviot flocks, management of sheep . ii. 468 | Chickens, young broods in winter

shelter for for show

varieties of food for

"

composition of

jii. 139

Lawes on high -pressure and pro 10

ii. 493 jii. 153

ji. 505 ii . 505 11 making of . ii . 505-511 17 ii. 505 scale of points in judging cheese ii. 500 Cheese, apartments for Brie ii. 518 00 Camembert ii. 518 10 Cantal ii. 517 10 Cheddar ii. 505 11 Cheshire ii. 512

jii . 139

dairy cows exposing fattening stock

11

i. 335 i. 318 iii . 301

Charlier method of shoeing horse Cheddar cheese, characteristics of

.

i. 362 i. 361 i. 232-392

form

fattening in winter

Chaff -cutting

Chaffing for ensilage Chalking land Charlemont churn and butter worker .

i. 369 i. 361

than old

531

Clipping sheep

cumulo - stratus

iii. 312

iii. 29 ii. 442

i. 35 i. 35 i. 35 ; ii. 4 i. ii.

35

" purple

ii .

4 35 4

stratus

i.

35

cumulus

Clouds

altitude of

study of the Clover, alsike

composition of

i.

34

i. i.

35 35

ii. 233 i . 270

INDEX.

532 Clover, crimson

I creeping trefoil : dodder for fattening cattle 11

for permanent pasture fungoid attacks on

11

. 11

importance of impurities in meadow trefoil

"

perennial red

11

red seel

!!

silage soils and climate for Trifolium incarnatum varieties of .

white .

Clydesdale horse , breedling of 10

10

characteristics of origin of Society

Stud -book, quoted Coal as fuel Cockerel

analysis of food for young calves Cod -fish soup for cattle Collar, horse Colorado fly

Comfrey, prickly, as a forage plant Common farming

Compact pastoral steading : Compensation for improvements . Composition of grasses Compost, preparation of Compound engines Concrete floors 11 foundations

Condensing engines Condimental foods Conditions of lease soils

Conduit for water

Cooke's double-furrow plough Coping to yard -wall Coprolites

composition of Corn aphis

10

ii . 231 ii . 234 ii. 232

52

ii. i. ii . ii.

231 319 231 233

ii . 231 ii . 233

11

manurial value of

10

preparing, for feeding

11

uses of decorticated

94

covered

i. 226

10

1

serving

silage and mangels for clairy summering : 11

cheese .

Devonshire clotted jar

11 10

methods of raising period of ripening preserving

i. 133 iii . 381

I

selling

ii . 487 ii. 486

separated

ii. 487

Crib - trees

ii . 481 ii. 519 iii . 387

Crimson clover as a forage crop sowing

iii .

i. 131

Creameries

ii. 398

dressing

fanner for dressing

i. 470

10

mildew

ji . 414

i. 468

hereditary

ii . 414

prevention of

ii. 415

modern winnowers

i. 470

sacks

i . 480 i. 472

Crop sickness

i. 318

Crops for silage poultry injuring 10

11

Cross-furrow , depth of Cross -ploughing land harrowing before 11

system of

Cultivation , steam Culture of harley in summer

i . 475

i. 476 i . 462 i . 483

rye wheat Curd - breaker

varieties of .

Cotswold sheep Cottage gardening Cottages, accommodation of

i. 123 ii. 513 iii. 426 ii .

6

iii . 3591

ii. 391

ii. 391

ex

periments

shovels

threshing and winnowing

for period crossing recent

11

11

10

ii . 391 ii . 219 ii . 217

ji. 217 ii. 218 i. 141 ii. 300

ii . 387 11

ii . 390

1

ii . 387

!!

ii . 390

11

ii. 388

Curd , artificial souring heating mill

Currants, black , culture of . disease in black

115 168 200 391

process of

.

strikes Cornish boiler Cotherstone cheese

iii. iii . iii. ji.

rotation of

valuing Cross fertilisation of grain

"

51

51 51 171 iii . 195

19

beans oats peas

screens

ini .

culture in England Cropping, conditions of 66

iii . 388 i. 464

ii . 216

338 343 480 513 487 481 479 487 487

skimmer

iii . 379

culture, general principles of

Ιο

ii . 479 ii . 479

principles of raising raising ripening

i. 439 i. 444

i. i. ii. ii . ii . ii . ii . ii. ii .

winter rations for dairy Cream , airing to

11

59 342 463 345 462

ii. 463

water for dairy winter feeding of

10

ii. 112 ii . 113

ii. ii. i. ii. i. ii.

womb .

iii . 304

seq . 387 189 380

iii. 205

Cows, mangels and turnips for

iii. 198 i. 271

i . 40 et iii. ii . iii .

iii . 333

clubs

407 260 6 321

i. 275 iii. 193

i . 261 i . 261 i. 260

Courts for cattle, covered and un

jii . 438 ii. ii. i. iii .

361 359 362 633

i. 200 i. 260

caution in using indecorticated

i , 261

crops, insects which attack

10

two-storey Cotton - cake

i . 261 i . 261

00

10

single-roomed, single-storeyed " single -storeyed detached

Cow's milk for lambs :

i. 278

iii. jii. iii. üi.

11

iii. 398

11

11

iii. 375

iii. 396 iii. 396

374 364 359 358

iii. 359, 374

Cow -byre, construction of

10

!!

11

i. 400

chest

10

farm

of different sizes outhouses of separate rooms

iii . 397 iii. 398

i. 463

1 carting, to be thresheni

family

11

ii. 231

ii . 398

at the steading barn

I

ii . 235 ii. 414

i.

Collies, training

barrow boxes .

double detached :

ii . 417 i. 377

iii .

iii . iii. iii. iii.

Cottages, composite

i . 128

1

11

51

ii. 233

i. 436

Cocoa cake .

10

iii.

ii. 509

ii. 504 ii. 501 ii . 501

iii . 136 iii . 136

INDEX.

Cutter cart, the

i. 372 i. 178

Curry-comb, brusil, foot-picker, mane comb

i. 404

Customs, Scotch feeding

533

Dipping mixtures, quantity of arsenic sheep !!

11

process of

!

10

tossing sheep into bath .

time for dipping

Dairy factories , origin and develop ment of

ii. 520

.

weather for dipping

i.

farming

farm , stocking a . farm , cow -byre for " knowledge required for a " compartments in the finishings of the .

Diseases of calves

11 +

11

milk - shelves

"

motive power for movable milk -stands situation of the

temperature of the

1

iii . i. ii . ii. ii.

333

472 472 472

ii. 473 ii. 482 ii. 471

Divisional fences

Docking animals Dorset horned sheep Draff, composition of Drafting of ewes . Drainage accelerating harvest

ii. 472

Dairymaid, duties of Darby's steam-digger Dead hedge . Deanston reaper

De Laval separator characteristics of colour of

11 11

early breeders

properties . milking origin of

1 11

plumpness Quartly herd of weights .

iii . 412 iii . 412

iii. 412 iii . 411 jii. 413 iii. 410

early methods of

iii . 249

11

and economical manuring

jji. 255 iii . 249

“ Essex " system of

evaporation and loss of heat

iii . 251 iii . 251

11

examining soil for

iii . 258

1

execution of

00

extension of

iii . 270 iii . 250

11

facilitating tillage fertility from rain -water improving pasture increasing produce and irrigation

iii . 255 iii . 253

land, antiquity of loans for mitigating drought

iii. iii. iii . iii. iii . iii . iii .

11

heavy, foretelling rain

! measuring Dipping bath for sheep 1 catching pen 10

!!

11

1! 11

11

1

concrete for construction of cost of

142 iii . 141

depth of dripper , the emptying the finishing the . length of

iii. 142

making the concrete for plans of . situation for .

!!

11

1

ber of hands stone and wood

Wood's swimming bath . mixtures 01

10

11

11 11

iii . 143 iii . 144

11

11 11

object of

. iii . 145

iii. 256 248 250 254 255 253 250 257

outfalls

11

outfalls, scouring

11

and root cultivation

!! 11

soils retaining water and soil temperature of springs

superintending, work :

iii. 269

11

time for

11

varying with soil

iii . 257 iii . 259

and ventilation of the soil

iii . 253

for liquid manure Draining, best season for hill pasture

iii. 258 jji. 255 jii. 251 jii . 251

259

iii . 277 i. 223

i.

75

iii . 294

11

land machines

per acre, cost of

iii . 248 iii. 276 iii. 276

iii. 146

"

plough

iii. 270

iii . 141

11

surface

iii. 285

waste land

iii. 288

.

11

iii . 142

composition of non

Drains, blocking of

poisonous dips dressing for scah

iii . 147

good mixture, a

jii . 147 iii . 147

poisonous dips

iii . 255 iii. 254

11

iii. 146

home-made dips mixing poisonous and non -poison ous dips non -poisonous dips oil in dips

natural

and nitrification :

iii. 146 | Drain -cesspools jii 144

size of dipper, and num

11

11

146 iii . 143

plunge-bath for small flocks iii. 146 jii 142

11

!!

34 310 309 141 145

iii. 256

11

" evaporation lessened by drainage

ii. 483

Dr Wells's theory of

of clay -land

.I

iii . 428

i. ii . ji . iii . iii .

iii . 255 iii . 256 jii . 255

iii . 249

Devon long-woolled sheep

cause of

and autumn-sown crops causes of wetness in land

iii . 268

Devonshire cream- stove Dew

.. beneficial influence of

i. 253 i . 457 jii . 251

“ Deanston ” system of determining necessity for

412

i. 34 ji. 309 ii. 309

iii. 498 iii. 429

custom in executing 11

10

10

10

iii . 442 i. 254 iii . 210

iii. 255

iii . 411 iii. 413

11

iii . 148 iii . 146 iii . 148 ii . 46

iii . 268

ii. 485

Devon cattle, beef production

147 147 141 145

by contract

i. 147 i. 255 iii. 226 iii. 62

iii . iii . iii . jii .

conducive to health "I

iii . 381

Damp course

Dari or durra for stock- feeding

of horses

Distillery wash

ii . 473 , 479 ii. 470-521

utensils work

11

11

iii. 336

steading for

safe method of using stirring :

11

iii . 148

iii . 148

chart of

I

clearing rods cost of cutting depth of

iii . 147 iii. 148 iii. 147

274 259 260 260

10

distance between

iii . iii . iii . iii .

I

falling in of filling .

iii . 271 iii. 276

flushing of :

iii . 277 iii . 271

11

10

displacement of pipes in iii. 148

iii . 278 iii . 276 iii . 278

1 inspecting

INDEX. 534 planks for

iii . 262 iii . 273

peat

iii . 263

field sheds for

iii . 275 iii . 264

goose

Drains, material for

" 10

· pipe-laying iron 00 11

pipes plug

Dung, farmyard , its character and uses fertility in a ton of !!

iii . 263

!1

for grass lands

iii . 260

11

heat from various kinds of :

stone

iii. 263

10

ii. 263

11

tile

.

iii . 270

width of

i. 436

Drake, duck , duckling Dray's Hussey reaping-machine

iii.

1

66

96 97

i . 507

fresh and rotten

preliminary surveying for

ii. ii .

ii . 96 ii. 304 ii. 130 i. 513

ii. 304 i. 512

hen

horse and cow, compared influence of

ji. 99 i. 501 ii. 100

losses from want of care of . loss of residual manure mechanical uses of mixing

Drill-plough

i. 254 ii. 346

Drill-sowing, advantages of .

ii. 243

10

oozing of liquid from heaps of

ii. 98 i. 502 i. 509

102

10

open and covered dung -court

ii. 96

Dreg

Drying racks

iii.

Dry-stonewalls ordykes,artin building

iii . 232 iii . 230 iii . 230

11

badly built dykes building

11

building in stretches . carrying stones for

11

11

coping cost of dykes

11

To

covers

curves in dykes dimensions of

1!

00

11

00 11

11

iii . iii . iii . iii . iii . iii.

231 232 231 232 234 230

faced dykes dry weather for

iii . 231

dyke -building

jji. 231

dykes as fences

frames for dykes . gaps in dykes joining stones levelling the dyke top .

11

stones

11

Dunlop cheese

ii. 512

11

Eaves, gutter Edam cheese

jii . 231

Egg -ended steam boiler Egys, number of, in a setting selecting, for hatching . selecting hen

Electricity

stones to be used :

iii . 234 iii . 230

motion of Electro - culture

sunk fence .

iii . 235

Elevation and local climate .

iii . 233

Embankments against a stream Enclosure and shelter .

.

iii . 232

Enemas

utility of dykes :

jii . 231 iii . 235

Engineering Engines, steam , construction of English sowing-basket Entomologists, services of

watering pools wire over dykes Duck dung, its composition Duckling !!

Ducks, hatching

iii . 234 iii . 234 ii . 304

i. 436 ii. 299

11

!!

care of ducklings

11

11

duck -rearing in Ayles

11

11

hensas foster-mothers

bury for ducks

Duncan's rack for drying sheaves

Dung, application of for bare fallow

1

carting

. "

carting out . composition of

ji. 299

iii. 46 i . 504

ii. 95 i. 510 i. 512

fordifferent kinds of crops

i.

i.

ii . 304 i. 505 i. 502

28

27

iii . 210-215 iii. 496

Ensilage " advantages of analysis of sweet and sour silage chaffing for

i . 22 i. 124 ii . 193 ii. 395 i. 16

iii. 383 i. 306 325 313 318 317 319 318 314 323

11

examples of stack

11

feeding value of silage

i. i. i. i. i. i. i. i.

future of

i. 327

11

choice ofmethods 11

clover silage crops for silage

" grain cropsfor silage

ii. 126

covered courts for

emptying courts of

ii. 310

Entomology Entrance gates

ii. 300 ii . 299 iii . 105 ii. 126

515 122 293 293 292 293 294 28

iii. 183

11

COW

duck

ii . i. ii. ji. ji . ji. ii. i.

sex of .

iii . 235

1

iii. 384

" testing fertility of

shelter

11

ji. 454

Ear-marking sheep

repairing dykes

!!

ii . 515 iii. 228

hoe

iii . 232

providing stones :

supplementing dykes for sheep thorough - bands tools for dyke building

i. 502

Dutch cheese

to

11

ji. 94 ii. 129

for wheat

11

1!

i. 512 i. 306

stock

. turning varieties in the quality of

00

10

11

i. 513 i. 507 iii. 47

.

11

11

11

sheep . spade for " spreading

11 11

iii . 232 iii . 233 iii . 234

iii. 232 iii . 231

ing

ii. 303 iii. 47 ii. 128

preparing putrefaction of

iii . 233

jii . 231

tion

PO

i. 513 ii. 304 i. 509

ii. 351

process of build:

11

11

pigeon pit poultry

Dunghills, forming

preparing founda:

90

Pig

" "

Dung-spreading machine

lining carts for

U

11

!!

iii . 232

double and single 11

11

11

for hay history of

an increased facility for storage 1 11 11

introduction of, into Great Britain meadow -grass silage methods of pressure oat silage and roots

i. jii. i. i. i. i. i. i.

322 37 306 326 307 318 311 323

INDEX.

Ensilage , progress of

i. 307 i. 324 i. 307

"I rearing stock on silos

i . 322 i. 311 i. 311

special silage crops

1

stack .

01

stacks v. silos

11

11 !1 00

business cottages

sweet and sour silage

10

sweet silage, making water and dry food in silage and hay i. 319

ii. 312 ii . 5

11

11

treatment of draft

Exhortations, final Experiments with different kinds of manure at Rothamsted

457 191 194 453 457 524

Experiments with manure

11

10

general principles for

11

11

house and farm to corre

10

10

ii. 174

By Highland and Agricultural

milk -house outline and ornamentation

11 !!

1

1!

11

11

00

!!

10

plan of kitchen, &c. plans of different classes of position of, and steading .

second -class, designs for third -class, designs for

ii. 175-185

trees and shrubs around upper storey of

11

11

insects, literature on labour, variety of

10

live stock

.

Factory dairies, origin and develop ment of

system , utility of Fahrenheit thermometer

11

objects of

11

wheat, sowing .

iii.

!! 01

conditions of lease 10

entering a estimating rent

methods of estimating rent

1

11

44

11

46

11

44 iii . 126

11

i. 468

11

iii. 201

iii . 198

Cash - book

Labour - book .

!!

field - workers

!!

lads

11

11

I

iii . 189

Character

iii. 202

Death or bankruptcy

iii . 510 jii . 507 iii . 523

State of balance Statement of transactions

jii. 515 iii . 515

10

Stock account

iii . 519 iii. 311

10

iii . 316

11

iii . 314

10

farms drains of

11

food -preparing machinery ini. 315 general principles of importance of position internal divisions

09

iii . 313 iii. 316 jii. 313 iii . 315

principles of arrangement iii . 318 10

11

road to

jii . 317

sites to avoid stalls and boxes

iii. 317 iii . 314

Payment of wages, &c. .

iii. 503

Period of engagement

iii. iii . jii . i. ii.

Farm steward , his duties ! tip -cart Farmer, his duties

iii. 526 i.

4 2

4

iii. 176 i. 4

hill learn young

loss from want of training methods of acquiring practical . necessity of foresight . 11

349

i. 7 ; ii. 316

young,parting advice to Farming, advantages of a thorough training to farmers difficulties in learning a faithful guide farm pupils

503 504 503

search for information

selecting, a system of . I study stock feeding

i.

, I

11

Notice of leaving

jii . 504 iii . 503 iii . 504

Travelling expenses

iii. 516

500 501 499 503 503

iii . 504 iii . 504

Sickness or accident

Stackyard crop

jii. 507

iii. iii. iii . iii . iii .

.

Dismissal Duties of servants

iii . 521 iii . 511

iii. 515

general arrangement of

steward

iii . 500 et seq . iii . 502 et seq . iii. 499 et seq.

servants, wages of

Profit and loss account Rationale of .

10

ploughmen shepherd

Farm service, lawof Board and lodging

for different classes of

!!

farm managers iii. 501 et seq.

11

11

iii. 523

iii. 500 et seq. iii . 500 et seq.

bailiffs cattle-men

10

iii . 512

11

10

10

Ledger . Memorandum -book

Farm buildings

personalattention by a word toguardiansof

13

iii. 516 et seq

Inventory and valuation of stock :

I

10

11

Farm book -keeping Corn account Day -book

i. 2 i. 3 i. i. i. iii . 499

must work

188

iii . 189

Account of charge and discharge

fees for 11

iii .

iii. 202

2

ii. 187

195 193 198 188

stocking a term of tenancy valuing sheep stocks on

341 353 341 343 413

plants, new varieties of pupils, hints to

iii . iii . iii. iii.

produce rent of :

343 353 342 344 340 353

iji . 393

servants, hiring

iii . 191

" offering for a "

it

dung for

Fanner for dressing grain Farm , adjusting , labour compensation for improvements on conditions of cropping

11

11

ii . 521

i. 29, 30

Fallow, bare, antiquity of 1

11

ii . 520

jii . iii. iii . jii . iii . jii . iii. iii . iii. iii . ii . i.

iii . 439

ailments of

11

10

iii. 357

spond

ii. 170-175

In Sussex

Society .

iii. 357 iii. 344 iii. 357

of . first -class, designs for

11

site of

ii. 135-170

In Aberdeenshire .

iii. 344

comfort andconvenience

i. 192, ii. 457 ii. i. i. ii. ji. ji.

i. 401-408

horses, treatment of, in winter house , cheese -room of .

i. 312 i. 312

11

Evaporation in spring Ewes, age of draft 11 breeding feeding of management of 1 milking

Farm buildings, ventilation water-supply of

పలుNపద -లAుదేలుే

.

535 iii . 314 iii. 315 i. 73 , 74 iii. 358

i.

11

10

tutor farmers

variety of farm labour Farmyard manure

treatment of :

i. i. 1 i. 2 jii. 313 i. 501

INDEX.

536 Farmyard manures for turnips Farrowing of sows Fat as a food constituent Fat-globules

Feathers Fecundity of swine Feeding cattle, systems of horses in the field

value of silage Feering 11

land Felt on roofs II

Fences, economical hedges as 11

and houses . and renewals

repairing for shelter

in upland districts wire field

Fertility, exhaustion of restoration of Feudal customs

Field-gates 1 angle-iron gate construction of

" !!

i . 436 ii. 292

i. 338 iii . 94 i . 322

.

large

11

number of

shape of size of

small

straightening Final exhortations

Fire-extinguisher Fire-fang in manure Fish - guano as food Fish -meal for cattle

Fish -offal, utilising Flail , the, and its construction Flauchter-spade Flax , advantages of, over corn botanical position of disadvantages of, over corn experiments in growing 11

11

fibres of

for fibre and seed, growing. "

growing in Great Britain

10

meal

. plant, structure of

strawfor paper-making

11

tillage for top -dressing twine, rope, and thread weeding yield per acre

280 280 130 137 26

i.

25

jii. 149 ii. 282

11

Flour, mixed, preferred

ii . 431 jji. 213 iii . 215 jii. 235

ii . 89 ii . 89 iii . 198 iii . 243 iii . 247 iii . 243

ii. 283

attention to the foal 11

box

11

difficult the mating season rearing foals

!!

11 10

11 11

i. 399 ; ii. 281

reviving an exhausted

ii. 282

ii. 289 ii. 283 ii. 282

mare

reviving weak foals

ii. 283

risks, insurance against

ii. ii. ii. ii. ii.

season , the . symptoms of

watching mares at weaning foals

281 281 282 282 288

ii . 281

working mares in foal extra food for

ii. 283 ii. 285 ii. 284

iii . 247

health of the

ii . 286

iii . 248 iii . 248

" reviving weak rearing weaning Fotus, the, of the cow

ii. 283

iii . 247

iii . 248 iii . i. jii. iii. iii. iii . iii . iii . iii . jji.

115 9

212 212 212 211 212 212 211 524

Foals, attention to 01 +1

cow's milk for

10

ii. 283

!!

i . 406 ; ii. 289

Fog or mist .

Folding hurdle Food, function of regarded as fuel

i. 243

varieties of, for cattle .

i. 244

Food rations

Animal's requirements . Composition of foods

i . 290 i. 291

Composition of the principal feed ing stuffs For cows and young stock

i. 295

Disturbing element, a . For fattening oxen What the feeder has to determine

i. 279 jii. 37

Feeding in Sir John Lennard's dairy Feeding standards

ji . 305

ii. 318 i. 258 ji. 323 ii. 327

For horses

Making up feeding rations

Nutritive ratio the essential point For small and large cows Want of care and precision in feeding Foods,bruising grain : " "

cake-breaking chaff-cutting cooked, for pige cooking or steaming

10

evidence in favour of pulping feeding cows in Ayrshire feeding in milk -selling dairies

10

ii . 318 ii. 320 ii. 327 ii. 320 ii. 324

.

Nutritive ratio

ii . 326

ii. 319 ii. 324 ji. 324

35

1

i. 231

325 317 325 324

10

i.

iii. 242 i. 240

i. 279 i. 278

ii. ii. ji . ii.

ii.

11

iii . 205

ii. 321

straw , uses of

for pigs for sheep

1 weight of Flushing ewes Foaling, assistance in

iii . 201

ii . 318 ji . 319 ii. 318

" sowing

i. 280

feeding value of

Fluids, motion of

rotation for seed soil for

11

19

i. 280 i. 280

Flowers, farm culture of

pulling, steeping, and drying

11

11

ii. 448 ii. 448

iii. 384

iii . 248 iii . 248

Field -workers , duties of

Fleeces , rolling, weighing, and assorting Flesh -meal, for cattle its composition

iii. 213 iii . 215 iii. 201

i . 107

gate -posts hanging iron gates

Fields, convenient

10

ji. 451 ii. 451 ii. 448

i. i. iii. iii. i.

iii . 247

wickets for foot-passengers wire gates Field -mice

peculiarities of how rolled rolling and weighing

10

10

ji. 219

gate for farmyard

preserving gate-posts

11

i. 303

fence steps

" painting gates

Fleece of wool, parts of

ji. 475

jii . 246 iii . 248 iii . 248

" deficiency of common gates " fastening 11

ii. 363 ii. 290-292

11 !

11

in Norfolk dairies rations

in a Tyneside dairy food -preparing compartment

i. 292 i. 303 i. 293 i. 290 i. 297

i . 290 i. 301 i. 293

i. 299 i. 300

i. 298 i. 292

i. 336 i. 336 i . 335

i. 423 i. 334 i. 331 i. 350

i. i. i. i. i.

344 347 371 350 333

home- grown and purchased

i. 339

for Jersey herds

i. 348

INDEX. Foods, mangels and turnips for

i. 342 i. 335

.

method of cooking

!!

i. 333

mixing milk -fever preventive .

i. 346

motive power in preparing

i . 333

11

preparing pulped mixtures .

Gates, repairing 1 wrought-iron Gauging snowfalls

proportion of

i. 33 '

Gaws or water - runs

pulped, for store cattle

i. 360

Geese, hatching

rations for dry cows silage in the Duke of Manchester's dairy

i. 352

10

i. 346

.

i. 341

wintering dry and breeding cows

i. 350 3

winter rations for dairy cows

i.

43

i. 129

Foot-pound ” and horse -power .

ii. 253, 386

for heavy lands :

ii . 254 ii. 254

importance of as substitutes for turnips Force-pump

ii . 254

Forests and temperature

iii . 185

Foretelling weather Fork for straw

Forming compost

i.

24

i. 39 i. 404 i. 532

Fowler's double - furrow plough with single lever

Fowls, fattening of care of laying hens collecting eggs !1

ducks .

eggs for preserving

11

fancy prices for poultry goose rearing

1

formation of soils relation of, to animals Germination of seeds !! 11

"

i. 434

11

ji. 240

destruction of seed

dibbling

10

the embryo .

11

importance of economising seed

ii . 246

moisture and

ii. 240 ii. 242

non -sitters nutrition in an egg

pigeons preserving eggs

iii . 158 iii . 156

ji. 247 ii . 241

pared

1

multiple stems or tillering produce from different methods

thick and thin sowing

ii. 246

of sowing .

ii . 246

"I quantity of seed per acre !!

tillering

ii . 242

ii . 246 ii. 246 , 252

transplanting waste of seed 11

the young plant .

ji . 253 ii. 244 ji . 241

iii . 155

Giblet -checks

iii. 387

iii . 155 iii . 158

Gilbey, Walter, on the Shire horse Gladstone's reaping-machine Glazing

iii . 393 iii . 61

jji . 155

Glo'ster cheese

iii . 154

Goose dung,its composition

392, 393

i. 32 ji . 414 ii. 212

Gooseberries, farm culture of fat !!

composition of

Gore - furrows, how made

Gorgonzola cheese and its production . " composition of Gosling

Gouda cheese and its production Grain , bagging

· Boussingault's experiments with

i. 269

crops for silage cross-fertilisation of

preparing, as food

i. 268 i. 268 i . 268

11

number of grains from plants

as winter food

i. 268

11

total weight of crop

“ Gaiting " Gaitins, carting Galloway cattle , origin of

iii. 76 ii. 93 iii . 420 iii . 420

iii . 385 ii . 513

iii . 156 jii . 158

jii. 154

characteristics of

ii. 248

machines

iii. 158 iii. 158

Frost-nails

11

251 252 253 244

different methods of sowing com

11

a green food for winter

ii. ii . ii . ii .

11

Fresh butter

"

ii. 240

ii . 249

i . 436

of

18

iii. 157

iii . 155 iii. 158

Fungoid attackson crops Furrow -water or gorse, composition of whins, Furze,how to feed stock on

19

deep and shallow sowing depth for grass seeds of sowing turnip seeds

seeds dissected

Fructification, organs of ii. Fuel , comparative value of different kinds

i.

conditions essential for

1

Frame for corn and hay cart

17

ji. 241

composition of seeds

ii . 189

19

i. i.

ii. 242 ii. 241

vantage

! changes incident to "

i.

ji. 239

air and germination broadcast sowing and its disad

iii . 155

weight of eggs

ii . 298

Geological survey Geology

iii . 156 iii . 156 iii. 158

iii . 156 iii . 87 ii . 498

11

iii . 176

.

nests

" preventing clucking " rearing turkeys selecting winter layers shell - less eggs " specific gravity of eggs " stray hatching

ii. 298

Geography , physical, of farms

nest -eggs

prevailing laying period of

i . 121

ji. 297

artificial hatching and care of the

5 . iii . 156

nomenclature of : 11

iii . 384 i. 36

ji . 297 ii. 299

11

iii. 154 hatching in autumn iii . 154 periods . humane methods of management of iii. 155 iii . 156 individuality of eggs iii 15

moulting

11

iii . 304 ii. 120 ii . 431

goslings period of incubation produce in eggs rearing of

i. 343

warm mashes for cattle

Forage crops

11

ii. 298

i. 330 i. 332

66

1

iii . 208

Company Gander Gas - lime

use of .

i. 346

nutrition in dry and green

1 skim -milk as, for cows 1

Galloway cattle, milking properties Galloway, Rhins of, Cattle Insurance

Mr Carrington's system of feeding Cows

11

537 jii . 420

measuring

iii . 136 ji. 304

i . 438 i . 439 i. 112

ii. ii. i. ii. i.

516 517 436 515 476

iii . 107

i. 322 ii . 391

i. 476 jii . 107 iii . 106

Grain harvest,advantages of early cutting iii . 53 iii. 54 barley beginning of : iii . 53 iii. 55 degrees of ripeness 11

11

experiments with wheat

iii.

53

INDEX .

538 Grain harvest, happy medium harvest labour judging ripeness loss by too early cutting 11

11

potato -oats

.

19

progress of ripening ripening process ripening in the sheaf seed grain shedding or shaking

11

stage for cutting

!! 1 11 11

Graip Granaries construction of Grass as food for cattle 11

iii . iii . iii . iii . iii,

55 53 54 55 55

Hay

ii . 459 iii . 299 ii . 239

De Laune's mixtures

ii. 236 ji . 239 ii . 237

40

harrows for

ii. 238

11

machine-sowing,

ji. 237

11

11

methods of sowing sowing

sowing with spring crops time of sowing

11 11

varieties of

Grasses and clovers 11

grazing value 10

for permanent pasture

varieties of, sown Gravel floors .

Grazing bulls and cows together . Green maize and its composition . " manuring rape, a spring and autumn food .

t1

ii. 237 ii. 219-239 ii. 239 ii. 236 ii . 219 i. 269

rye as manure

ji. 235 ii . 234 jii . 379

ii. 467 i. 276 iii .

clover and meadow

I!

damaged for feeding

11

knife

manurial value of

47

roots of

for seed

v. artificial food Haymaking .

I

artificial hay -drying

37

dressing stacks English methods Fifeshire practice Gibbs's hay-drier hay-barns " hay -stacks

"

31 8

iii. üi. iii. ‫ تنز‬,

10

drying

" improved hay-stacking appliances Irish method of 11

.

making the hay

permanentstacking

" pressing hay 103 104 103 104 102

iii. iii . ii. ii. ii.

379 114 120 120 120

jii . iii . iii . iii .

404 404 404 404

origin of

, practice of breeding Society and Stud-book

I

Haims . Hammels

i. 95 21

for fattening cattle Hampshire sheep Hand -hoes

.

Hand -pick Hand -threshing machines Harness pegs

9 326 428 368

iii. 216 i. 454

i. 398

plough

Harrison &

i. iii. iii . ii.

i. 94

40

Scotch methods

II

threshing hay

34

time forcutting

2

varieties of hay weather and

I

I

iii. 20 ii. 317

Hay -stack , how built method of cutting a

ii. 316

for horses

iii. 25 i. 130 i. 130 j. 130

Hay -stacking appliances Heat, conductors of . dissipation of economical uses of

its properties

i. 29 i. 129

Heather -burning :

ii. 437 ; iii. 293

Hedge plants, differentkinds of . . spade . weed-hook

reaper .

Harrows, iron grass seed

Hedges, beginning

iii .

68

ii. 196 ii. 238

iii . 229 iii. 228 iii. 228 i. 8

operations for iii . 217

planting

breastingbank and ditch hedges care of

iii . 221 iii. 229

"

charring stakes

iii . 227

"I

cutting down

iii . 220

11 11

and breasting over .

iii. 221

an old

iii. 222

.

11 dead -hedge .

duration of a dead -hedge

M'Gregor's self -raking

37 25 31 8

by stages

iii. 387 | Hedgers , duties of

Haiks

iii. iii . iii.

20

thesource of energy 11

21 22

methods of cutting mowing -machines tedding " object of

i. 436

Hackney horse or Norfolk trotter

32

38

11

preparing to cut .

ii . ii . ii. ii. ii.

use of value of

i . 397 ii. 86 iii . 106 iii. 2 i . 272

"

ii. 514

Gunpowder, a scare for birds Gypsum , sources of

2

317 272 273

for storm

10

"

Gruyère cheeseand its production Frey Bentos

272 272

rack for horse

i. 267

of composition Guano, dissol ved Peruvian Guinea - fowls Gullies

i. i. iii. ii. i. i.

loss in hay -making

iii. 129 jii. 133 ii. 341

fish

21

hot-air and Neilson systems of

Grubbing for turnips

11

11

11

294 216 313 272

i . 271

composition of

i. 269 ii. 235

Greens, cauliflowers, &c . , farm culture of

ji. iii. iii. i. üi.

barns

determining their

11

for different soils

ii. 294

time for setting

Hay and straw , economy of

frost injuring clover hand -sowing

11

open -air laying and

training hens to sit Hawthorn plant

iii. 54

iii. 169

1

10

10

iii . 54 iii . 54 iii. 53 i. 234 i. 447 i. 447

soil nitrogen Grass-land , lime for Grass -seed, crops accompanying !!

iii. 88 ii. 293 ii. 295

Hatching compartment

iii . 173

and rotation

!

ii. 196

iii. 54 | Harrowing, process of iii . 56 Harvest forks

"I earthing the plants " exposing hedge -roots 11 filling gaps .

iii . 227 227

iii. 218 iii . 226

jji. 225

INDEX. Hedges, form of hedge forming right angles curves

the trench

growth of the hawthorn seed 11 hawthorn an ancient fence . hawthorn plant 11 hedge- planters 11 injured by snow . 11

" keeping the line straight 1 laying the plants young twigs " method of plashing mismanagement of " mode of breasting over cutting down . old system 11

11

.

old menfor weeding "

paling planting

11

11

along a water -course

11

thorn

young quicks

" plashing

in England "I 1 "I 11 " "

preparing the ground protecting young prevention from damp pruning railway fences repairing

I

scouring ditches . shelter from stake-and -rice fence

hedge-banks

11

stake-and - rice fence

surveying the ground 11

thorn hedges around plantations

11

time for planting timely weeding tools for planting

11

weeding 11

transplanting thorns trees and

" trench -planting trimming old turf fence untrimmed thorns 11 11

91

up and down strokes in cutting weeding hedges weeds . wire fences

i.

75

iii . iii . iii. iii . jii. iii . iii. iii.

219 215 225 223 224 215 226 218

iii. ii . iii . iii . iii . iii. iii . iii . iii . iii. iii. iii. iii . iii . iii. iii. iii .

215 431 224 224 227 226 217 219 215 228 216 228 216 219 216 221 227

iii. 221

iii . iii . jii . iii .

223 227 219 227

its botanical position

ji. 327

method and object of its culture narcotic properties of .

ii. 328

plant, structure of

Hill pasture, cropping

ii. 327

ii. ii. ii. ji.

328 328 327 327

deterioration of

11

Glenbuck improvements !

heather-burning

!

improvement of

11

irrigation of liming manuring

II

Mid - Lothian improve

11 11

ments .

Hoar - frost

Hoeing-machines Hooding Hook - stones

iii. 380

Hop culture After culture

ii. 330

Creasoting poles

ii. 331 ii. 331

Details of dressing

Drying hops . Harvesting hops Hop plant Hop poles Insect and fungoid attacks Longevity of the hop Manuring Picking Planting hops Pocketing Poling . Preparing land Rearing hop plants Soil for hops Stacking Substitutes for poles Tying up the bines

Acreage under the Ash of hops : Cost of hop -planting hop cultivation Hop -growing risky 10

Insects which attack

Male and female hops Mildew in

Price of hops Produce of hops Spent hops as manure Varieties of hops Horizontal engines

"

condensingengines

Horn -branding sheep Hornsby binder 11

11

working of

Horse, ailments of the 11

forks hoe

Cleveland

Clydesdale Hackney

11 11

iii. 409

milking properties

iii . 410 iii . 410

size and weight .

Herring-meal for cattle " composition of value of

19

Hill pasture, bracken cutting

ii. 175-185

11

Shire

ii. 331 ii . 332

ii. 332 ji. 330 ii. 332

ii. 329 ii. 333

ii. 331 ii. 329

ji. 329 ii. 328 ii . 334 ii . 332 ii . 332

11

Suffolk Yorkshire binding

ii . 336 ii . 334 ii. 335

ii. 335 ii. 336 ji. 403 ii . 334 ji. 430

ii. 336 ii. 336 ii. 335

ii. 334 i. 134 i. 134

ii. 455 jii.

79

79 442 iii, 27

ii. 366 i . 462 i. 129 iii. 393 iii.

402

396 iii. iii. jii. iii. i.

404 393 401 403 399

breeding

i. 405

11

carrot for

i. 414

10

clipping

i. 419

corn

i. 400

English rations for feeding

i. 413 i. 408

i. 279

Highland and Agricultural Society's manure experiments Hill-farms, configuration of geology of

power in threshing of steam -engines Horses, breeds of 11

i. 278 i. 279

ii . 333 ji. 332 ii. 334

Hop plant, the

iii. 409

colour

i. 192 i. 34 ii. 368 iii. 229

jii . 410

11

jii. 293

iii. 311 iii. 76

Hereford cattle , origin of characteristics of 11

iii. 293 jii . 293

Holly hedges

ii. 304

11

293 293 294 293 292 293

Homesteads, modern

· pulling, steeping,and stacking of sowing of Hen dung , its composition 11

iii. iji . iii . iii . iii . iii.

.

Hinds

iii . 220

ii. 328 ii. 327

oil

"

220 218 218 218 220 228 228 216 217 220 217 218 225 223 223 221 221 218 228 227

culture of

Hemp, composition of seed . 11

iii. iii. iii. iii . iii. iii. iii . iii. iii . iii. jii. iii. iii. iii . iii . iii. iii. iii . iii. iii .

539

iii . 176

iii . 176

11

jii. 293

11

INDEX.

540 Horses, feeding, in the field 1 grooming hay -racks for

intelligent animals injured by green food . 11

in autumn

spring summer

1

" language to horses littering 11

10

maize for mashes for

mixed food for names of farm

11

nomenclature of .

11

oats for

iii . 94 i. 403 i . 397 i. ji. iii . ii.

407 470 150 280

rubbing singeing soiling

11

97

Infield and outfield Insect pests

11 I

turnips for ventilation for watering whin for

evils of shoeing

11

fitting the Charlier shoe

faulty . 11 shoe fore and hind feet

form of shoes

functions of parts have the foot level

hoof growing . hoof, the 11

improvement in nails

not always necessary

object of " principles of 11

process of

rasping roughing " shoeing for ice

"

10

sole

studs

weight of shoes

Howard's binder . 01

self-delivery reaper

i. i. i. i. i.

420 416 413 395 401

jii. iii. iii. iii . iii . iii . iii . jii . iii . iii . iii . iii . iii . iii. iii . iii . iii .

154 152 153 152 151 151 153 151 151 152 152 153 154 154 151 154 152

iii . iii.

83 69

Humus

its character

i. 170 i . 212

a necessity

Hydraulic press ram Hydraulics Hydrostatics Hygrometers 0

Chiminello's quili

iii . 312 i . 26 i . 218 i . 26 i . 25 i. 31 i. 32

ii. 397 ji. 397 ji. 407

ii. 404 ii. 398 ii. 398 ii . 399

ii. 398

ii. 412 ii. 410 ii. 399 ii . 403

ii . 405 ii . 403 ii. 395

ii . 396

Onion -fly

ii . 405

Peaand bean weevils

ii. 406 ii. 405 ii. 395

Red spider Thousand legs

Turnip -fly

Turnip saw -tly grub Weevils, &c.

Wheat -midge Wire-worm

ii. 404

ji . 405 ii. 408 ii . 411 ii. 411 ii . 401 i . 402

Insurance against fire and disease

ii. 404 iii . 525 iii . 204

Insuring crops and stock

iii . 205

Ireland , agricultural education in

i. 72 iii. 242

Wire-worm in hops Instruction of farm servants

Iron hurdles

jii. 391

Ironmongery Irrigation-

Climate and .

Crops for And drainage

iii . 307 jii. 305

Effects on the soil of

jii. 305 iii . 305

Bed -work

Catch -work water-meadow

Exhausting Of hill-pasture

Liquid -manure for Moisture and vegetation Regulating water flow Sewage :

Side irrigation And soil temperature Soils for

Systems of Time for Water -meadow

Water -supply for . Italian rye-grass , characteristics of produce 11

iii . 293 iii . 311 iii. 304 iii. 310

iii. 308 iii . 311 iii . 305

iii. 307 iii . 308 iii . 307

iii . 305 iii . 306 iii .

52

iii . iii.

53 53 53

11

seed

11

!!

304 308 309 307

jii. iii. iii. jii.

Reasons for

i. 169 i. 7 , 84

wooden

Husbandry, mixed

ii. 395 ii. 396 ii. 396

Green fly, &c. Hessianfly

Servicesof entomologists Slugs

i. 212 i . 170

I growing willows for

ii. 303 i. 255 iii. 173

Ear cockles

Hop- flea Hop- fly Insect injury to crops Mangel-leaf maggot

i. 478

English wooden . erecting

iii . 521 iii. 505 ii . 302

General observations

Hop -aphis

153 153 151 154 153 152 152

i. 31 jii. 505

ii . 410 ii. 407 ii. 402

Dart-moth maggot Death's-head moth

i . 414 iii . 150 iii . iii. jii. iii . jii . iii . iii .

.

Corn aphis Corn - fly Corn saw - fly . Daddy longlegs

iii . 170 i . 28

Hummellers Hurdles, construction of 1

Colorado beetle Cone - fly

jii. 152

frog frost- nails

10

Cabbage butterfly

iii . 153

Charlier method . 11

1

Bean -seed weevils Beet- carrion beetle Beet- fly

ii. 469

Horse -shoeing calkings

11

Bean aphis

i. 419

stablemanagement of

temperature for

418 413 412 413 408 407

i. 301 i. 414 i. 403

tramway 11

11

i. i. i. i. i. i.

.

1

Incubation, phenomena of

i.

i. 412 i. 414

pulse of rations for

good

"I house

Indian corn for stock feeding

ii . 469

roots for

"I

i. 412

pasturing work " potatoes for

11

Implements, care of

.

ii. 469

11

11

Hygrometers, conservatory

11

sowing

INDEX. iii . 119 iii . 118

Jack's farm - cart

Lambing , hand -feedinglambs

ii.

55

ii. ii .

73 86

10

hardiness of hill sheep hay- rack for storm heating milk for lambs

ii.

59

11

hospital inflammation after

ii . ii .

54

iii . 425 i. 315 iii . 185

11

ii. 71 , 83 introducing a strange lamb to a ewe ii. 57 lambs dropped ii . 65

etiquette of farm -seeking

iii . 186

11

examining a known farm

iii. 185

potato -digger

40

Jersey creamer and Guernsey cattle, origin of

11

ii. 484 jii . 424

characteristics of iii . 424

milking

11

pro

perties of

Johnson's ensilage press Judging land 10

11

soil and subsoil

an unknown farm local knowledge necessary variety of soils on a farm 11

11 11

Kale, consuming . 11 11

11 I

transplanting

ji . 259

Kerr's reaping -machine Kerry cattle Characteristics The “ Dexter "

A family cow Live-weights

Milking properties Origin of Robertson herd

Typical animal

Kidney vetchas a forage plant

ji. 140 ii. 455 iii . 62

advantages of

423 423 424

423 423 422 423 422 260

ji. 383 i . 266

ash of .

i. 166

planting or sowing

11

produce of

.

soil for

tillage and manuring

time for sowing uncertain crop varieties of .

11 hours Lactocribe

Ladders for farmyard . Lambing, abortion among ewes 11

1

ii .

table

ii. 87 ii . 453

Lamb store

.

Lambs, age for breeding on arable farms

ii. 384 ii. 383 ji . 384 ii . 383

ji. 384 iii . 524 ii . 315 ii . 474

losses of

ii. 455 59

preparing ewes for railway travelling ii.

85

removing ewes and

ii.

56

reviving hill

ji .

73

ii. ii.

58 56

ii.

59

risk of over- forcing 11 11

scour in second

shearing 11 10

! 11

shed shelter on hill - farms

ii .

ii.

85

ii.

59

" stocks” for refractory ewes

ji.

57

11

the, and its mother

ji.

55

training, to artificial food :

ji . 453

treatment of

51

Lancashire boiler

ii . ii .

Land breeze customs

!!

ii .

60

ii.

58

ii .

48 55

ewe's udlers:

60

i . 195 ; ii . 64 ewes and

unkinūly mothers 1

weaning yard

.. levelling presser , use of the

ii . 72 , 75 60

Language to horses Lantern , safety Lath - work

Leading -stick Lease, care in drafting

ii .

84

Legumes and cereals, mixture of .

false presentations fattening lamb and ewe together

ii .

53 61

Leguminous crops and soil nitrogen | plants Leicester sheep Levelling box

ii. 65

fold for

ii .

49

ii .

63

11

iji. 389 ii . 467

iii . 288

Leeks, farm culture of " manuring of

forcing young lambs

ii. 200 j. 97 i. 237

land

61

11

iji . 289

ridges .

76

ii .

11

i. 24 iii. 198

496 425 289 289

ii .

ewe and Jamb box

ii .

ii . 65 i. 123

i. iii. iii. iii .

docking lambs early market lambs

ii . 64 , 65

63

ii. 57 ii . 452

193 193 134 134 130 170

ii .

59

ii .

iii . iii . iii . iii . iii . iii.

conditions of

cow's milk for lambs

feeding of ewes flushing ewes

79

!!

ii . 54 ii. 55

ii .

ii. 50, 73

stimulants for weak

ii .

catching ewes changing ewes and lambs classifying ewes for cleaning

ii . 53 ji . 447 ii .

shepherding hill sheep snow in lambing .

assisting in .

castration ofmale lambs

86 i . 192

weak

i. 464

77 54

ii .

produce of ram

11

192 192 453 191 66

ii.

pet

assistance in bad weather and

i. i. ji. i. ii .

!! marking

ailments among lambs lambs to suck

ii . 454

fattening feeding of

10

i. 193 ii. 62

i. 192 ii . 454

ewe

11

51

ii. 72

for breeding clipping I dipping "I drafting 1 early 11

80 55 82

Casarean operation carrying lambs

11

56

symptoms of

ii . ii . ii.

after

10 11

48

ii.

ii . 47-87

10

11

Labour, efficient and well-arranged of

64

season

ii. 383 ii. 384 ii. 383 i. 160

storing

thinning and hoeing

ii. ii . ii . ii . ii .

mothering lambs newly -born lamb preparations for . protecting lambs from foxes

11

iii . iii . iii . jii. jii . iii. jii . jii . ii.

analysis of 11

lamb hurdles

management

10

ii. 383

Kohl- rabi

11

iii . 185

iii. 185 iii . 186

ji. 259

Keel-marking sheep

11

11

ii . 259

50

of the udder

iii . 186

thousand -headed

Keds

11

541

INDEX .

542

ii. 312 ii . 310

Light, nature of . Lightning

ii. iii . iii . iii .

conductors

11

Lime, action of application of !!

benefits from

310 297 297 297

dissipating plant -food .

iii . 298

effects on land

iii. jii . iii . iii . iii. jii .

effete

10

"I frequent for grass land

guided by the crop for hill pasture on hill pastures and nitrification . . preparing 1 quantity of, per acre regulating action of in restoring grass -land for sandy soils 1 slaking and soil nitrogen .

293 301 300 299 298 300

jii . 293 iii . 298

Malt -combs as manure

Malt, comparison of, and barley cost of preparing for feeding cattle 11

Howard on 10

! special properties of Woburn experiments on Malt-tax controversy Management of fowis . Mangel, advantages of storing " application of manure !!

11

composition of :

iii . 298 iii . 300

11

10

iii . 298

10

iii . 303

10

jii . 298

11

and soluble phosphates 1

top-dressing grass with varieties of

Limestone, composition of : Lincoln sheep

Linseed,adulteration of cakes analysis of boiling

10

cake, analysis of , preparing and using, as food "I

299 299 301 302 426

i. i. i. i. i.

259 257 258 258 257

i. 259 i. 257

storing

varieties of Liquid -manure cart composition of compost with 10

iii . jii. jii. iii . iii .

cost of pulling and carting . covering with dry straw cultivation for

diseases andinsect attacks: dung for

ingredients absorbed by 10

injuring plants

11

insects which attack

11

manures for

lambs and sheep medium v. large roots 10 19 10 11 10

preliminary cleaning for produce of pulling salt for seed

11

soils for stored in houses

i. 514

10

storing

i. 523

11

botanical position of climate for .

10

i. 525

" thinning

i. 521

11

irrigation with . i. 526, 528 , 529

11

i . 224 , 521

"

drains

253 251 252 248 251 249 252 251 248

iii. 154

i. 265 ii. 381

i. 165

ash of .

autumn and spring tillage 11

303 300

.

Rothamsted experiments on

i. i. j. i. i. i. i. i. i.

and after cultivation

ii. ii. ii. i. i. i. ü. ii. ii. ii. ii . ii.

376 375 375 265 158 159 376 383 378 377 382 396

i. 188

ii. i. ii. ii. i. ji . ii. ii. i. i. ii.

377 265 382 382 158 378 376 376 158 158 382

ii . 382

time of sowing transplanting

ii. 377

i. 524

varieties of

ii. 382

tank i. 224 , 520 11 valuable character of . i. 517 ii. 413 Literature on farm insects i. 214 Litter for cattle

Mangers of byres " fire -clay

i. 220

11

pump scoop

11

.

.

attention to

i. 214 iii . 439 iii . 524

10

insurance of

jii . 205

11

in summer

ii. iii . i. i.

Littering courts of a steading Live stock, ailments of farm

Lochlyoch stock . Locust or carob beans . 1

10

analysis of how to be used for

10

cattle

Loft roof

Long-horned cattle, scarceness of characteristics of .

11

Lonk breed of sheep

Lucerne, botanical position of 11

11

for cattle - feeding crop of

soil suitable for sowing

Lupin, thecultivation of Maggot -fly

.

Main posts Maize for ensilage 11

as a forageplant green , and its composition v. grass silage

Malleable iron fence

Malt-combs, composition of for cows 11

430 297 261 262

11

Mann's reaping-machine " application of artificial for cereals

for different rotations for different soils

estimating the value of 10

i. 262 iii . 383 iii . 416 iii . 417 iii . 425

ii. 256

ii. 256 i. 257 ii. 436 iii. 381 i. 320 ii . 260

experiments in Aberdeenshire 11

11 11

11

at Rothamsted . in Sussex .

farmyard farmyard , ingredients in green rye as

!!

mixing of

. phosphatic purchasing of for slowand fast-growing crops 11

" sowing, by machines " special Manurial value of foods Lawes's manurial tables voided

Solid excreta

i . 321

Theoretical and realised manure

i. 253 i. 253

ii.

87

ii. 126 ii. 102

ii. 176 ii . 133 ii. 131 ii. 123

ii. 170-175 ii. 135-170 ii. 174 i. 501 ii. 95 jii. 129 ii . ii. ii. ii .

123 109 121 133

ii . 135 ii. 102

i. 284

Proportion of food assimilated and

i. 276 iii . 243

iii. 63

by Highland and Ag. ricultural Society ii. 175-185

11

ji . 256 i . 279 ji. 257

i. 398 i. 398

metal .

Manures and manuring

11

ii. 382

values

i. 283 i. 283 i. 288

Unexhausted value of consumed food .

i. 289

INDEX Manurial value of urine

i. 283 | Molasses, useful properties of for young bulls

jii. 47 jii. 293 i. 404

Manuring , green hill pastures 01

Mares in foal

Marketing corn Mason -work

385-390

Mattock

M'Cormick's reaping-machine

iii . 288 iii. 66

Meadows, water, advantage of

iii. 306

Mashes, warm , for cattle Mashlack

iii. 285

Main drain Method of Outfall .

iii . iii . iii . iii .

Process of mole-draining

iii. 282

431 130 20 414

Repair of mole - drains

Time for mole -draining Mortar for farm -buildings Mountain -ranges and temperature

28

ji . 503

souring of for calves

ji. 474 ji. 479

ash of .

Mountains and climatic variations

churning condensed

composition of

ji . 477 ii. 474

culture of

11

consumption and selling of whole

10

cream from .

ii. 478

ii. 480

Neighbours, relation to

fever, prevention of symptoms of, in cows as food for young animals globules

ii . 23 ji. 23 i. 244 ii. 475

Nets for enclosing sheep

heating and cooling

ii . 476

It

" philosophy .

soda

11

Nomenclature of sheep

in sealed bottles

ji . 477 ji. 479

HI

cattle

11

horse

ii. 487 ii. 481 ii. 475

" poultry

.

specific gravity of

11

ji. ii . ii . ii.

testing percentage of cream

hefting the operation of theory of troublesome

side

:

10

stool tubes

Mill -wheel arc Mist or fog

how , is used risky for breeding stock

27

i. 35 6 i. iii . 130

-

34 i . 262 i. 262 i. 262

barley and, mixed chaff

26 26 28

i.

19

jii . 525 i. 171 26

ji. 105 ji. 105 ii. 106 i. 174 i. 225

11

as a foot- warmer

classification by the grain

" culture classifying by the ear . of .

experiments with grains in a bushel of

harrowing kerneland husk : "I improvements in culture of limits of culture of 11

iii . iii. iii . ii . ii. iii .

416 416 416 287 287 498

i. 491

antiquity of cultivation of as food for stock .

11

°

Molasses or treacle

10

24

iii . 326

husbandry, steadings for Moist and dry winds

Characteristics of . Origin of Yield of milk

Oats

jii. 386

-

11

24 25 26

i. 408 i. 15

Norfolk and Suffolk Red Polled cattle

working Nursing sickanimals

i. 456

Mill-dam , forming

Mixed farming tlour preferred

ii . ii . ii . ii . ii . ii. ii . ii.

iii . 205

i. 407 i. 436

Nursing-mares, feeding

ii. 476

Milking cows, first milk 11

of .

475 475 474 474

186 182 124 260 260

ii . 104

.

ii. 476

statistics sugar

iii . iii . i. ii. ii.

ii . 519

Nitrogenous manures, characteristics

01

iii . 380

ii .

ii . 29 ii. 477

selling trade

iii . 285 iii . 281

Nievling in milking Nitrateof potash

Nitrifaction, theory of

ii. 25, 480

285 283 284 283

Neufchatel cheese and its production

period . preserving purifying

various qualities of weighing

1

.

dishes .

separated

10

Names of horses Natural history

destination of the

pail

11

Mutual insurance against disease

ii. 500 ji . 479 ji. 474

skim

10

Multitubular boiler, locomotive

Mustard, botanical position of

from different breeds ii. 474

sieve

iii . 284

Enemies of mole - drains

11

11

Draining permanent pasture Draining ploughs . Draining tillage land Duration of mole -drains

21

11

10

iii . 281 iii. 281 iii. 282 iii . 281

i. jii . iii . i. ii. ii.

for Highland districts

ji . 489

11

Destruction of mole - drains Different soils and Distance apart

iii . 309

11

00

284 284 284 284 285

jii . 308 iii. 306

Mildew , corn

01

Depth of mole -drains

jii. iii . iii . iii . iii .

forining

Milk, artificial means ofmilking:

11

Cost per acre Coulter track

catch -work

Meteorology

11

Contracting , and price for Cost of mole and pipe draining compared

iii. 283 iii. 284 iii. 284

11

Mechanics Mertoun tlock Meslin .

09

Channel of mole -drain

iii . 281

1 11

11

Advantages of Auxiliary mains

302 302 302 129 341 130 524

iii . iii . iii . jji. i. jii . iii.

Martinmas entry .

i. 262 i. 262

Mole-drainage

ii . 454 ii . 456

Marking of sheep Marks, registering sheep Marl clay, composition of . shell, composition of Marling land

10

543

machine sowing . manuring for

i. 494 i. 494

ii. i. i. i. i.

214 499 499 491 492

ii. iii . i. ii. i. ii. i. ii. ji.

211 131 493 212 493 212 494 212 214

INDEX.

544

jii . 131

Oats, mixed . meal

i. i. i. i. ji . ii . ii. ii. i. i. ii . ii. i. iii . iii . i.

composition of yield of

. " ! 17

origin of ploughing for quantity of seed per acre sowing mixed varieties

for stock -feeding

straw , composition of ash of thick and thin sowing . varieties of .

yield andweight of Ogle & Brown's reaping-machine.

Offering for a farm Oil as food

493 494 493 494 213 212 212 213 254 499 313 211 492 191 62

303

Peacock

Pea-fowls, hatching Peas consumption of farın culture of

and beef production

i. 304 i. 305

and milk production

i . 304

10 00

11

food . source of fat

10

value of fat as a food constituent

1 stacking tillage for varieties of . Permanent fences

ii. 114

Pigeons, hatching Pigs , ball -feeding for

ii. 405 iii . 137

Orchards

Organic matter, function of

Oxen, rations for fattening

iii . 242 iii . 173 i. 293

Oxford Down sheep

iii. 428

" Outfield " land .

Oxygen and combustion

i. 209 i. 261

for sheep Palm - nut meal

analysis of

i . 261 i. 261

food for calves and cows

Paring and burning land ii. 304-308 ii. 308 changes involved in burning soil . ii. 305 ii . 304

methods of .

object of plough

process of burning

ii. 306 ii . 307

useful on certain soils .

ii. 305

Parmesan cheese and its production

ii . 516 i. 266 i. 166

farm culture of leaves as food for cows

1 storing

Partitions,wooden

ii. 386 iii. 134 i. 160 i. 160

iii. 387

Pastoral farm , altitude of

i. 209

drainage of

i. 203

11 10

farmers .

1

fencing sheep on a

10

11

i. iii . 213 i. 201

steading for

i. 203 ; iii. 313

subdividing

i. 203

!! farming

lite, poetry of

:

Pasture, preparing, for stock . improvement of hill

. plants on hilly ground Pastures, analysis of Pasturing of cattle

11 11

11

11

i. ii . ii. iii . ii . i.

4

47 430 291 437 270

ii. 458-468

iii. 112 ii. 300 i. 423

i. 422

castrating cocoa -nut meal for cod - liver oil for condimental food for

i. 422 i . 422 423

farrow sows

fed on raw and cooked food 10

feeding Howard's rations for

11

litter for

11

10

i. 421 422 i. 425 i. 421 421 i. 425 i. 421 ii. 291 ii. 290 i. 421

meals for nomenclature of . numbers in a litter rearing rest for

when weaned 11

weaning young , litter for : treatment of

iii. 387

Pillars for support of roofs Pipes, down Pirling Plan of the work Plans for different classes of farm -houses Plant-food .

iii . 314 i. 57

iii . 288 jü . 214 iii . 219

Plantations, shelter from

11

iii . 384 ii. 76 i. 73 ii. 138

in dung

Plantation ground, reclaiming Planting along a water -course 11 cabbage hops potatoes

i. 420 420 i . 423 i. 423 i. 421 i. 422

i. 425

" managing litters : 11

17

ii. 304

disadvantages of feeding, in winter . early maturity in

i. 128

üi. 212

.

i.

Physioiogy

ii . 185

Ornamental wire - fencing

ü . 169 iii . 176 i. 19

i. 465 jji . 134

insects which attack

6

116 114 109 118

i. 306 | Physical geography of farms

i. 305

Oil- can

11

characteristics of

10

!! manuring, experiments on

in food

.

i. ii. ii. ii. ii .

manures 10

fat per unit

10

jii . 215

Phosphatic layers

Pigeonwood dung, its composition

1 botanical position of

i. 497 ; ii. 206

Persons who conduct and execute the

Physics

Parsnips ash of .

ii. 206

ji. 130 iii . 109 ii. 206

it

j. 303 i. 305

Onions, farm culture of

10

i. 256 , 257

in autumn

i. 304 i. 304

valuable for sheep

11

production of reaping for sheep sowing

497 135 406 497 108

Phosphorite, composition of

oily

11

Paddocks, grass

i. iii. ii. i. iii.

labour of a farm

i. 306

fat in foods .

I!

i. 497

1. 305 Phosphate of lime, composition of

want of

11

ji. 300

insects which attack 10

, albuminoils compensating for

" oily food decreasing milk " practical conclusions as to

i. 500 i. 436

Pea, composition of ash of

ii. 258 ii . 329

. ii. 269 ; iii. 131

Plaster -work

u . 389

Pleuro, stamping out Ploughs, actions of various . " American, and its working .

iii . 207

its constituent parts digging and pulverising draught of

i . 85 ji . 343

10

00

11

English wheel horses for, how harnessed

11

irons

i.

97

i.

91

i.

91

i. 87 i go et seq .

i. 99

INDEX. Ploughs, mechanics of the mole- draining 11

89

reins

i. 95

Scotch

i.

modern

85

i.

87

Small's

i.

97

staff

i. 91

steam

i. i. i. i. i. i. i. i. i.

turn -wrest

on wheels

Ploughing, angle . bad

in breaks correct cross

crown and furrow

11

i.

iii . 282

140 117 90 116 116 114 IOI 116 110

deep

i. 119

and shallow furrows different forms of ridges

i. i. i. i. i.

finish or mould furrows

friction of the earth

gore -furrows head -ridges . irregular fields land manured by sheep lea

ground

100 106 110 90

112

i. 121 ii . 218

i. 177 i . 75 i. 118, 120

learning

i . 100

matches

i. 98, 104

medals of the Highland and Agri cultural Society modes of rain - water channels

ridges and feerings shallow

smashing speed of horses steep land stubble land

" subsoiling with two horses three horses trench and subsoil

for turnips unseasonable water -runs

Ploughmen , duties of how employed in bad weather Plumber - work

Plunkett's reaping -machine Polled Aberdeen -Angus cattle

Poetry of pastoral life . Characteristics of . Colour

Earlyimprovement Meat of

Origin of Points of Poncelet turbine

Ponds, care of rain -water reliability of

Ponies, rations for Poppy -cake . " analysis of

· apt to becomerancid Portable engines . " threshing -machine Potassic manures

Boxing system of preparing sets Care of potato seed Composition of VOL. III .

Conditions of culture Cross-fertilisation .

ii. 425 ii. 276

Culture after planting Cutting off the tops

ii. 271 ii. 424

ii. 426

Destroying potato refuse

Details of planting Digger

ii. 265

Disease .

iii . 118 jii . 117

Disease -resisting varieties

ii. 276

Distribution of the

ii . 273 ii. 425 ii . 270

Dry elevated land for potatoes

Experiments with late planting

iii . iii. 116, ii. ii. i. ii.

125 136 269 271 267 265

Land suitable for planting Lazy -bed system Lifting and selecting

ii. ji. ii. ii . ii.

407 273 261 270 279

Male and female organs Manure for

ii. 425

Frosted

Graip Hand -basket Hand -hoeing For horses How to cut sets

Insects which attack Introduction into Europe

ii. 276

Manuring for

ii. 261

ji . 278

Marking fertilised plum Methods of raising Need for new varieties .

ii. ii. ji . iii . iii. ii. ii.

Period of development . i. i. i. ii . i. i. i. i. i.

104 106 118 219 120 120 102 103 118

i. 119 i . 96 i. 97 iii . ii . i. i. i.

295 341 121 121 7

Pits

Planting

Planting boxed seed Planting machines Planting the seed .

116 280 279 123 131 275 268

ii. 269 ii. 267

Plough

Plough digging

iii . ji. ii . ii. ii. iii.

Points of a good

Preserving sets Process of cross - fertilisation

Quantity of seed per acre Raising

Raising new varieties of

121 274 266 277 266 116

ii . 276 ii . 280

Retain only superior varieties Rothamsted experiments with Securing and storing seeds Seed , how prepared

ii. 263

i . 407 iii . 388

Seedless varieties .

ii. 278 ii. 265 ji . 276

Seeds raised from the plum .

ii. 276

iii .

Selecting varieties for different

61

ii.

47

jii . iii. jji. iii. jii .

417 420 417 419 417

iii. 418 i. 461 ji. ii . ii . i. i. i. i. i. i. ji .

433 432 433 417 261 261 261 137 451 119

ji. 273

soils

Separator

Potato

Autumn planting . Botanical position

545

Sowing the seed

126 iii. 125, ii 279 .

Storing Sunshine and dry winds Tillage for Utilising diseased Value of, for cattle

122 ii. 279 ; iii. 42

Varieties of . Varieties in use Various manures for the

ji. 271 ji. 273 ii . 266

Water with, to animals Width and depth of sets Width of drills

i. 267 ii . 270 ii. 269

Wild potato : Young seedlings

ji. 272 ii. 279

5 ii. ii . 261

i. 267 i. 267

Potato disease Cause of

ji. 417

Disease-resisting varieties

ii. 425 ii. 417

Fungus iii . 131 ii . 271 ji . 274 ji. 426

i. 267

Fungus in its active state How the fungus passes the winter Humidity necessary for the fungus Other potato diseases

ii. 418

Preventive measures

ii. 422 2 M

ii. 421

ii. 425

ji . 426

INDEX .

546 Protective moulding and its merits Recognising the fungus

ii. 422

ii. 418

Remedial measures

ii. 422

Weather and the

ji. 417 i. 436

Poularde Poultry

Artificial hatching In autumn Bronchitis in “ Brooders " . Bumble - foot . : Catarrh

Pregnancy, feeding in -calf cows oil -cake for calving cows testing

ii. ii . ii . ii. ii.

treatment of in -calf COWS

ii .

II

iii. iii.

41 41

indication of bull -calves twins

11

I

ii. 303 iii. 154

Presses, steam - power, for hay horse -power, for hay hand -power, for hay Highland Society trials of i. 438 | Prickly comfrey i . 437 Proctor's digger i. 427 Prognostications of wind i. 430 Prognostics of rain i. 437 i. 434

.

Catching pigeons Characteristics of old birds Common pigeons

Crop-bound Daily treatment of

i. 428 i. 427 i. 437 i. 430

i. 437 i. 438

Diarrhea

Diptheria Diseases of Ducks Dung .

i . 437 i. 427

.

ii . 303

Egg -bound

i. 438

Eggs in winter

Embryo of the chick

i. 439 i. 434

Fattening Feathers Foods for Formation of feathers Fowls in town Geese

Hatching Imports of eggs and Indigestion Injuring crops prevention Laying season

i. 436 i. 432

Lice

Management of Movable poultry -coops. Neglect of

437 115 115 292

i. 429

Phenomena of incubation

ii. 301

Pigeon -house

i. 429 ji . 300

i . 428 i. 431 i. 431

i . 438

Scaly legs Soft crop

Soft or shell-less eggs

In spring

11

i. 437 ii. 301

i. i. i. ji.

438 438 438 292

i. 436 i. 198 ii . 332

mixtures, preparing

i. 329 i . 329 i. 329

Pulping

economises fodder economy of .

evidence in favour of

11

i. 331 i. 24 i. 24 i. 224

Pump, common sucking force

liquid -manure Purchase of foods

i. i. i. i.

Guaranteed analysis

i. 439

i . 434

Sand, dust and water for fowls

crops and roots

1

Pullet . Pulped food for sheep .

ii. 292

Pampered fowls

Rheumatism . Roup

ii. 313 ji . 292 iii . 105 iii . 106

Hints on the . Purity of linseed- cake Tests of cake

i. 426 i . 436

Rapid fattening of Regularity in feeding

summer weather .

Prolificacy of swine Proportion of grain to straw

Chemical analysis essential

i. iii . iii . ii .

i. 1.18 i. 39 i. 38 ii. 314 ii.

i. 427

Nomenclature of :

A plea for Poultry -houses

of spring

ii . 302 ii . 301

i. 438 i . 438 i. 426

Leg weakness

rainbow

i. 433 ii . 302

ii. 301

Facts about eggs Farming

11

IO

42 iii . 43 i. 277

11

10

12

ili.

10

.

Catching

II

II IO

i. 283

Rack for drying sheaves

Radiation , preventingloss of heat by :

iii . 103 i. 130

i.

Rain , ammonia in

. prognostics of " theory of

i.

38 38

i. 36

water drains 11 spouts for steadings Rainfall and climate in connection with

iii . 379 i. 224

jii . 312

farm buildings amount of distribution of

11

282 282 282 282

37

i. 37

in Great Britain in a season

37

iii. 184

weight of, per acre Rain -gange .

i.

!!

. position of the :

i. iii . iii . jii . iii . jii .

Rakes, hand

Ram -breeding on hill farms " intermixing blood Il selecting and mating ewes selecting ram lambs

36 36 74

150 150 150 150

i. 381

Randall's system of stock -feeding Ransome's threshing -machine

i. 453 ji. 259 ii. 200

Temperature for incubation .

i. 434 ii. 303

Testing eggs for chicks .

ii. 302

11

ji . 260

i. 437 i. 427

11

i. 183 ; ii. 200

11

Table poultry all the year round Time and place for feeding Turkeys Varieties of farm Weeding pigeons Wood pigeons Young broods in winter .

Poults

of cows

10

critical period in .

ii. i. i. i.

200 259 200 200

i . 433

Realisation

iii. 176

i. 436

Reaper knife-sharpener self-delivery manual v.self-delivery

iii.

iii . 118

Pregnancy, abortion #1

culture of

as green food for sheep sowing of i. 426 | Rape-cake impurity of Indian i. 430 i. 428 preparing, for cattle

Powell Brothers & Whittaker's potato digger

Rape, botanical position of .

12

ii . ii.

9 12

5 70

Reaumur scale 10

11

rule for converting into the Fahrenheit .

i.

29

INDEX . Reaping appliances reaping -machine scythe .

56

Roots,turnips consumed on the ground

60

by sheep : Roscommon sheep

iii. 434

Rotation of crops . rationale of

iii. 168-175 iii. 169

57 56

sickle or hook

cost of

iii.

68

oats 70 70

process of

wheat, barley, oats, and rye

60

iii. 63

first effective modern . 11

iii.

nineteenth -century

Rearing stockon silage

Recipesfor ailments of farm livestock Red -clover seed, cutting and drying

Recreation for farm -servants

harvesting " threshing Redonda phosphates Re-draining land " testing

Rent, covenanted estimating

502 503 502 191

iii. 278

i. 495

flour

iii. 129

for forage as a forage plant

ii. 258 ii. 226 i. 320

grass

for ensilage and timothy, analysis of, cut at different stages of growth

11

.. and timothy, composition of I

i. 270 i. 269 i. 495

limits of cultivation of sowing

iii. 129

straw , composition of ash of yield and weight of Ryeland breed of sheep

i. 495 iii. 425

i. 255

Rice for stock - feeding . Rice -meal for stock - feeding

Richmond's rack for drying sheaves

i. 255 iii. 103

Rick - lifters .

iii .

stands.

"

parts of

86

i. 473

Riddles, grain Ridges, ancient form of casting cleaved-down . direction of . gathered

,

lifter

Sainfoin, botanical position of " hay

sowing

as a winter food for cattle

25

i. 440 iii.

Rickling , ortemporary stalking

gathering levelling up

Sack -barrow

i. 315

Reynolds's ensilage press

i. 107 i. 111 i. 115

i. 107 i. 112

i. 109

Salmon's reaping -machine

Salt on pastures 11

i . 500

i. 107 i. i. iii . iii. jii.

Ring -fences . Ripening of grain , irregular Roads to farm -buildings

114 107 210 130 317

ii . 215 ii. 215 ii . 215

Rollers, diameter and weight of . divided

water - ballast

Savoys, farm culture of Samuelson's back -delivery reaper Science applied to agriculture

1. growing in favour " prominence to chemistry with practice

Sciences applicable to agriculture ! to be studied by farmers Scientific education widening Scotch plough threshing-machine Scots fir leaves for sheep

Scott's reaping -machine

Rolling land process of speed in time for

ii. 215

Romney Marsh sheep Rones . Roof -boarding

iii. 425

ii. 216 ii. 216

treatment of

Sculls, willow Scythe, bent sned 11

Roots, advantages ofstoring per acre of . weight thinning ascertaining careful and careless 11 carting

comparative mineral ingredients

" estimating weight of

.

of hay

iii. i. i. i. i. i.

383 149 150 167 158 166

i. 168

iii. 106

keeping properties and feeding value of swedes , nutritive matter in anacre of different kinds of

plan of stripping turnips pulling mangels . turnips

. quantity of, to be left for sheep .

cradle .

i. 166

i. 166 i. 150

i. 158 i . 151 i. 150 i. 149

ii. 477 iii . 133

iii. i. i. i. i.

II ΙΟ II 10

i.

10 12 II

i. 85 i. 449 i. 210 iii. 61

ii. 46 ii. 46 i. 235

iii. 59 iii .

setting a sharpening speed with the straight sned Sea - breeze

58

. .

Sea-weed , collecting . improvement in germination of for rotation grasses

i standard mixtures of grass Seed-time

, selecting seeds testing seeds

Self -delivery reapers

58 58 59 59

method of, reaping

"

69

i. i.

Hainault iron

Seeds, change of . i. 166

ii . 257 i. 277 iii. 61 ii. 433

common

i. 215 ; iii. 389

480 479 257 257

i. 200 ; ii. 59

Scour in lambs

Scouring in calves

ii. 214

i. i. ii. ji.

ii. 436

for sheep

Saltpetre in milk

iii. 288

twice-gathered-up widthof

storing

i . 494 i. 252

composition of

iii. 493 iii. 525 iii. 52 iii. 52 iii. 52 ii. 114

ji. 433

Rye

191 , 192

Reopening drains

"

ii. 357 iii. 154

Roughing horse-shoes . Rubbing-post

67

iii. 188

offering

nitrogen

11

iii. 61 i. 324

ii. ii. ii. iii .

action of

"

Rothamsted experiments with manures ii. 135-170

iii. 276

Rennet

i. 150

for turnips

iii.

machines, American ancient .

547

59 iii. i.

59 24

i. 532 ii. 187 ii . 186

ii . ji. ii. ii. ii.

239 234 235 185 186

ii. 187 iii .

70

INDEX .

548

ii. 46 ; iii. 498

Servants, classes of 1

residence of, on the farm

Sewage, town, application of Sheaf- gauge . Shearing of sheep Sheaves, size of Sheep

Feeding ewes in lamb in winter Feedling, in sheds .

i. 135 iii. 211

Semi-portable engine Serpentine fences Setoning

Fodder for

iii . 359 iii . 359 57

ii. 441-452 iii .

.

74

i. 184 i. 176

Hay -silage and corn for hill feeding

i. 182 i. 182

Increase in tallow

i. 187

Irrigation on hill-farms Lambs on turnips Linseed , beans, and turnips for

i. 211 i. 174

Hand -feeding, when to begin

i. 528 iii.

i. 182

Linseed -cake saving roots

i. 187 i. 187 i. 184

iii . 485

Littering the turnip-break for Management of, in typical flocks . i. 191-213 Mangels for lambs and .

i . 188

Mixed , on turnips

i. 174

Near towns

training collies varieties of collies . Drafting

iii . 323 iii. 436 iii. 438 438 iii. 437 ii . 456

i. 191 i. 174

Excessive valuations for

iii . 202

Pickingout turnip shells

i . 176

Prevention of foot -rot

i. 198

Rape for Ration for breeding ewes

i. 183

Ailments of

And arable farming steading com bined

Dogs

sagacity of the collie "

Nomenclature of

i. 361

Improvement in

iii . 140 ii. 457 ii. 454

Keds on

Lodging for Marking of

Marks, registering of Nets, dipping

precautions in setting setting Pastoral farining

Rapid feeding of

.

Salt for

In spring In spring storms Washing of Weights of Sheep in autumn

smearing, and dipping Bathing, Fly and scab Former customs Keds

Object of dressing Sheep in summer Pasturing of . Shearing of Shearing-machine . Washing of Water for

Sheep in winter Advantageous to use rich foods with turnips

Advantages of pulped food for Begin cautiously with turnips Begin turnip -feeding early Blackfaced , in winter Cabbages v. swedes

212 172 171 321

i. 183

Standing and floating flocks .

i. 183

Stells for

i. 205 i. 176

Turnips for hoggs .

White turnips v. swedes for .

i. 185

i. 187

Cheviots Cotswolds

Border Liecesters : i. i. i. i. i.

i. 190

i. 173

iii . 429

jii. iii. iii . jii,

Lincolns Oxford Downs Roscommon

Southdowns Suffolk .

Weights of Shelter, effects of

Cutting turnips for On dairy farms

i . 191

11 !!

i. 183

hut medicines

Shepherd's crook

i. 174

knot

i. 175

Shepherds, duties of

i. 169

Shetland cattle, characteristics of milking properties of .

i. 180 i. 173 i. 181

i. 181 i. 177

11

Shire horses

. characteristics of 1

form of

name of the breed

428 425 426 428 434

Shropshires

on upland farms . Shepherd ,his duties

snowstorm

i. 174 iii . 433 iii . 429

Dorset horned

from plantations .

Draft ewes on turnips Dry food with turnips Enclosing, on turnips Ensilage for tup hoggs . Extent of roots given at a time Fattening wethers Feeding, avoid changes in Feeding cut turnips on lea

i. 188

Devon long -wools .

i. 209 i. 177

Dangers of putting, in a wood in a

i. 186

Hampshire Downs

i. 189

.

Cots

i. 174

jii . 433 iii. 426 iii, 428

Liecester

Carting turnips to lea in wei

Consumption of food and increase

174 180 204 204

i. 174 i . 181

Young, on turnips Sheep, varieties in the British Isles-

199 173 173 182 188

i. i. i. i.

Turnips on sheep -farm . Turnips risky for ewes , Turnip -tops for sheep Unripe turnips dangerous for Washing roots for Wheat -meal v. linseed -cake for

Blackfaced

On carse farms

of weight

i. 208

Shelter for, on turnips .

ii. 434

Cake or corn for, on turnips Canadian experiments in feeding weather

Shelter for

Substitutes for racks Tups on turnips On turnips during snow

ii. 434

ii. 438

Shed and yard feeding .

Shed for

139 139 139 140 139

180 204 185 184

i. i. i. i.

Salt for

ii . 46 ii. 438 i. 368

ji. 441 ii . 447

i. 182 i . 180

.

Securing winter food for

ii. 46-87

i. 180 i. 178 i. 189

Cake -breaker

heavy rains

i . 365 ii. 436

iii. iii . iii. jii . iii .

i . 201

Removing, from turnip -land in

ii. 456 i. i. i. iii .

i. 179

Oats and hay for hoggs On pastoral farms

427

iii. 427

iii . 428 iii . 434 ill . 210

iii . 214 iii. 215

i. 8 ; ii . 48 , 49 li.

51

ii.

31

ii.

60

i. 151 i.

8

424 424

393 ii. 394 iii. 39+ iii. 393

INDEX. Shire horses, origin Stud -book

typical Shire Shorthorn cattleBooth and Bates stock .

Characteristics of . Colour of

Early improvements Kelton and Barmpton sales Milking properties Origin of Points of the Progress of

Weight and early maturity Shropshire sheep . Sick , nursing the Sickle .

smooth-edged still used toothed

above and below ground

11

!!

with lever pressure

Siphon . Skim -milk cheese

" "

reviving sheep .

Smoke wasteful Smut of corn

preventing propagation of Snow- harrow, mountain 10

" line, perpetual plough Snowfalls , gauging "

Soiling cattle oxygen from the air

47

58

43

and stock

i.

62

i.

56

i.

43

i. 43

Gravelly Hard and soft

i. i.

iii. 408 iii . 427

Heat in

i. 45 i. 45

498 iii. 56

influenced by moisture

iii.

57

Heavy Humus in Hungry

iii .

57

Influence of colour in

iii .

56

of subsoil

iii . iii . iii . i.

i.

43

i.

59

i. i.

43 44

i. 55 i. 51

and organic matter in

Kindly

43

Leguminous crops enrich, with nitrogen Light

i.

61

i.

43

Lime as a manure

i. 65

Loamy

i.

Manurial value of foods Nitrate of soda

i. i.

Nitrates in , production of Nitrogen , phosphoric acid , and potash in

Nitrogenous manures which enrich

65 65 59

i.

58

i.

61

i. 40, 55

Origin of Oxidation in different

1.

Oxide of manganese in

62

i. 51

Oxides of iron in

141 141 140 128

Peaty

Phosphatic manure, effect of, on Physical condition of Porous and retentive

Potash and soda in

ji. 417

i. 52

manures

Red

ji. 417 ii. 86 iii. 182

Relation of, to water of plant- food to Restoration of fertility by manuring 11

ii. 85 i. 36 ii. 468 i.

41 43

i.

Inorganic matter in plants

308 310 310 310 307 309 309 309 310 308

Retention of manures

Retentive power of

Soil

Absorbing power of

i.

i. i.

.

Fine and coarse Grateful

ii. 416

"

55

Fertility of

16

Smearing clean and dirty sheep

i.

Exhaustion of, by removal of crops

i. 24 ii. 513 iii . 387 iii. 388

Sky- lights Slater-work . Sledge, hay .

43

Diluvium or subaqueousdeposits .

408 346 409 406

i. 310

Chezelles Goffart's hillside

11

i.

407

ii. iii. iii . iii.

wooden

concrete slab converted

11

Dry and wet

Deep and thin

duced

new

concrete 11

Distribution of plant -food in

ji. 408 iii. 408 iii . 406

i. i. i. i. i. i. i. i. i. i.

Bentall's

11

Discriminating, by the plants pro

iii . 407

i. 474 i. 307

Sieves Silos

549

jii. 393 jii. 394 jii. 395

45

i. 46

Accumulation and exhaustion of

i. i. i. i. i. i.

55 44 57 57 64 65

Rich and poor

i. 46 i. 43

Sandy loams Sharp

i. i.

Silica in

i. 51

41

43

i.

60

Solubility of phosphates and potash in i.

59

Alluvial deposits

i.

55

Sources of fertility in

i.

57

Alumina in

i.

51

i.

i.

fertility of

Analysis of Becoming sick .

Black

.

i.

54

i. i.

43

Stones afford renewed supplies of mineral matter . Structure andcomposition of

44

Subsoil .

i. 51 51 42

Blue clay

i. 44

Temperature of

Brown

i. i.

Twelve substances in

Upper mould

i.

55

i.

Valuation of unexhausted manure in

i. i. i.

66

Causes of infertility of . Capacity of, for retaining water Capillary action of Chalky Characteristics of

Chemical analysis of, essential Chemical composition of

46

White With fine skin

i. 42 iii. 186

i. 55 i. 51

Of clay and sand : Clayey loams

i.

41

Colour of subsoils Conditions of

i. i.

44 43

Sowing barley

Deaf or dead

43

Southdown sheep !!

basket

51

44

i. 44

Soluble phosphates or superphosphates Sombrero or rock guano Sorghumn as a forage plant Sour hay

40 40

i.

What plants withdraw from the

i. 51

i. i.

Clay

i . 45 .

ii. ii. i. ii.

116 114 277 260

i. 306 iii . 427

iii. 128 , 207 ii. 193

550

INDEX .

crimson clover

ii . 201 iii . 126 iii. 51

German practice of

iii. 130

Sowing beans cereals in autumn grass seeds . hand

ii . 219 ii. 192

machines, broadcast

ii. 194 ii . 195 ji. 211

in drills

11

oats

.

ii. 205 ; iii. 130

peas rye

"

spring wheat

varieties of corn together wheat .

Sows, brood Sparrows, plague of I destroying .

advantages of Spaying, COWS heifers and sows

jii . ii. 421 et iii . iii . ii . ii .

130 126 seq . 112 114

iii. ili.

86

i. i. i. iii .

440 440 411 107

Stackyard , fencing the " preparing 10

roofed

11

tidy

·

feeding and management of

ii. 289

10

number of mares to one

ii. 289

for feeding cattle 11

iii . 207 iii. 94 i. 214

Steading, arrangementof, for cattle !!

for dairy-farming

iii. 336 iii. 333

"

Forfarshire . hanging doors in

for mixed husbandry

326 iii . 331

iii . 498

i. 25 , 26 iii. 376 et seq. for a steading for a farm of 500

pastoral farming . preservation of wooden floors principles of constructing

11

11

y of field operations and summar of the weather

ii . 1-7

weather in winds in

boxes for

broom .

1

cart -horse , construction of corn -chest dimensions of fittings

10

floor of

foaling-box harness - room in hayhouse hay -racks in 10

hind- posts length of mangers

"

metal mangers and racks paving stalls in

temperature of ventilation of window of Stack , bosses for . corn , how built 01 11

ensilage 11

formation of foundation for foundations

" .

ground - plan of heating of

11

.

ropes of

" 11

roping . thatching trimming upon stathels

331 jii. 319 i. 445

ii. 316-340 i. 440

construction

i. 445

roofs for

forsuburban farming :

iii. 338

Steam - cultivation

rain in snow in

Spring -hook Springs, draining Stable for farm horses . 11

378 389 385 484

ii. ii . ii . ii. ii . ii.

prognostics of 11

д Ел ол л

of modern stone steading Speedwell cream - raiser Spring, clouds in . evaporation in grass -parks in

i. 445

modern English modern Scotch

and woods

iii . iii. jii . ii .

single and double

Stamping out pleuro Stathels

Specifications acres

i. 219 i. 219 i . 220

Stalls for cows

Specific gravity of soils, rocks, minerals,

of labourer's cottages .

85

ii. 384 ii. 289

Stall divisions Stallions, exercise for

30 29

iil . 101

process of

"

ii . 336

turnips

11

iii . 129 ii. 188

Stack ventilators .

Stacking cereals

4

Advantages of steam -ploughing

i. 141

Double -engine system Injury by too deep ploughing Plough engines

i. 142 i. 141 i. i. i. i.

143 143 141 1.44

i. i. i. i. i. 30 et

149 148 146 148 seq .

Ploughing plant, cost of Prejudice against steam -ploughing Single -engine systems Steam -digging, advantages of

ii .

3

ii .

3

11

cost of

ii. 467

10

principle of

iii. 259 392 et seq . i. 399 402 iii . 315 i. 400 i. 392

weeds killed by Steam -engine and the action of the steam boiler . construction of

i. 131 i . 123

corrugated boiler flue different types of fuel per horse-power

i. 127

i. 394 i. 399

fuel, & c . grate

i . 128

i. 399

Highland and Agricultural trials

i. i. i. i. i.

iii . 388

i. i. i. i.

400

397 394 392

10

10

10 11

11 mountings soft water best for boilers Steam generators 10

iii . 383 i. 398 i. 394 i. 392

i. 395 i. i. iii . iii. i. i.

395 392 101 95 311 441

iii.

95

i. 441 i. 441 iii . 100 iii . 90 iii . 97 iii . 97

ploughs power on farms

to agriculture,application of 11

properties of

Steelbow

Steerage horse-hoe Stells for sheep 11 10

11

concave

inside . outside

plantation

Stilton cheese and its production Stock , preparing pasture for rearing on silage

Stocking a pastoral farm Stone fences, repairing Stony ground , trenching Stooking or shocking grain Store lambs

iii. 96 | Storing roots iii . 94 Stormsignals

i. 131 i. 134 i. 129

i. 125 137 125 128 124 140

i. 31 i. 122 i. 128 iii. 199

ii. 389 i. 205 i. 200 i. 207

i. 205 i . 200 ii. 511 ii. 430

i. 324 5 i. ii. 431 ui . 288

iii. 74 ii. 453 i. 149 i . 39

INDEX.

Straining-posts Straw , advantagesof stored straw.chati ancient uses of

.

11

ash of .

11

carrying, to the farm courts

11

composition of different kinds of farm culture of feeding value of fermentation of as food or litter manurial value of

00

.

11

i. 467 i. 273

Form of surface -drain .

ii. 285

Placing the sods Repairing surface -drains Surface -stones, removal of

iii. 286 iii. 286 iii. 430

Sussex cattle Breeders of

Hardiness of the breed

jii . 135

i. 275 i. 275 i . 500

Herd -book

History of As meat-producers

ii. 95

Success of, at shows

i. 407

preparing and storing

i. 274 i. 216

Sussex manure experiments Swine, ailments of

i. 467

removing rope -making

iii .

straw.chaff : 11

trusser value of

1

yield of

i. 454

Strawberries, duration ofplants . fruit , the

irregular produce of : labour and soil

planting price Strawsoniser, the Stream , how to measure its velocity Stripping in milking

318 500 136 135 136

iii. 136 iii. 136

Subletting a lease Subsidiary farm cropsflowers 11

11

fruit .

11

11

vegetables

Suburban farming

ii .

26

iii . iii . iii . iii . i.

132 137 135 133

farm , capital for a

Suffolk horse,aptitude for work characteristics of

11

origin of stallions

11 11

sheep Sugar as food for stock v. starch

Sugar -beet, nutritive value of

iii. 435

iii. 436

11

points of the different breeds

iii . 434

Small Black breed Small White breed

iii. 436 iii . 436

in spring Tamworth pigs

iii. 436

11

in winter

Swing-trees .

Tares or vetches, botanical position of cleaning land cutting 11 11 11

Atmospherical complications in Culture of corn crops

for horses 11

spring .

i. iii. iii . iii . iii . iii .

use of 11

401

Tar-marking

surface

i. 278

11

and latitude

i . 278

11

daily range of

i. 265

11

drainage and soil

11

duration ofvegetation and

11

evaporation

ii . 309 ji. 387

elevation and

Hail

11

Heat of the sun

ii . 313

11

Light Rain

ii . 312 ii . 310 ii. 311

Rust and mildew

ii. 414

Lightning Summary of tield operations and of the weather

Thunderstorms

Weather prognostics Wind

Summering cows . Suntlower, harvesting . oil

varieties of . winter

sheep Temperature and configuration of earth's

309 310 312 311

Electricity Evaporation

land for

manuring reaping

ii. ii . ii . ii .

Dew

for ensilage . for fattening cattle

seed

Summer

from earth and water forests and . mean and actual . 10

11

11 11

314 310 313 311

ii . 462

Surface -olraining

91

jji . 499 i. 435

i. ii. ii. ji.

187 255 256 256

i. 320

i. ji. ii. ii.

377 255 256 256

iii . 108

ii. ji. ii . ii.

256 255 255 255

ji . 255 ii . 455

iii . 178 iii. 178 iii . 184 iii . 181 iii . 180

iii . 181 iii. 181 iii. 181

iii . 185 ill.

179

range of, for crops

iii. 180 iii. 181

Thermometer 11 Fahrenheit

how placed for growing crops minimum

"

i. 420 i.

iii. 185

of soil and atmosphere of wheat ripening Tenancy, term of Thatch -making machine Thatching, materials for

iii . 110 iii . 110

ii . 291

mountain - ranges and and plant growth and produce of crops pulsations of

11

ji. ii . ii . ii .

iii. 435

miscellaneous breeds of

iii . 338

401 401 428

413 413 413 413 174 490 435 434

16

5

5 401

jii . iii . jii . jii . ji . iii . iii. iii.

Middle White breed

steading suitable for

iii . 415 iii . 415

10

with arable culture,

11

distinctive characteristics of Large White breed

iii . 40 136 | Table for stock -owners ii. 9 fowl, dressing i. 27 Tallow, increase of, in sheep iii . 154 iii . 198

Studs

11

iii. i. üi. jii . iii .

Berkshires 11

90

i. 467 i. 274

screen

11

235 274 500 500

mows of racks

"

iii . i. i. i.

551

placing

Arrangement of surface -drains

iii. 285

Caution in

iii . 285

Thomas -slag

Cost of

Cutting surface -drains ,

iii . 286 iii . 286

Thousand -headed kale

Distance apart

iii . 285 | Thraving

stack

Thorn herges around plantations

iii. 180

iii . 184 iii. 183 iii . 179 389 iii . i. i. i. i. i.

92 92 29

29 30 30

30

i. 30 ii . 115 iii . 219 ii . 259 iii . 57

INDEX .

552 Threshing by out -going tenants Threshing machines

" irregular driving of 1

i. 448 i. 454

hand 11

iii . 200

motive power for

portable Ransome's

" safety drums for . 11

Scotch .

11

steam engine for

straw -trusser attached to water-power for Throw -crook

i. 466 i. i. i. i. i. i.

454 451 452 453 449 454

i. 454

Thunderstorms

i. 455 iii. 90 ji. 310

Tile -drains

iii . 263

strain on

Till

Timothy hay

Townsewage, application of Traction -engine

Travis for horse -stables Tree -fruit, cultivation of Trees and hedges

iii. 266 i. 41 iii . 14

i. 528 i. 138 i. 393 iii . 137

Composition of heavy and light Conditions influencing nutrition of Consumed on the ground by sheep For cows

i. 164 ii. 374 i. 150 i. 235

i. 177 ii. 353

Cutting, for sheep Depth for seed Distance between plants

ii. 369

Distribution of the

ii. 338

Drill -sowing of

ji. 345 i. 155

Dry weather best for storing

Dunging and sowing in raised drills ii. 348 Earthing up : Economising Excess of water in roots Farmyard manure for Feeding sheep on, in winter . Finger -and - toe in . As food for cattle .

Force employed In foreign countries

For servants' cows Fungoid injury to Greystone

i. 157 ; ii. 374 i. i. ii. i. ii.

264 264 363 169 427

i. 330

iii. ii. i. ji. i.

348 339 235 374 162

Trenching and subsoil ploughing

iii . 219 iii . 295

Growing may be overdone

ii. 337

Troughs

iii. 387

Harrowing

ii. 367

Harrowing land for

ji. 342 i. 210 i. 154

concrete water

Truss-roofs for barns Tuberculosis

i. 215 i. 217

i. 446 iii . 207

Tupping season

Number of ewes to each ram Selecting ewes

jii. 150

Service marks

iii . 149 jii . 150

Mating .

Time for tupping Treatment of tups

Tups, changing Turbine, horizontal Morton's

poncelet

. principles of the I Thomson vortex or inward flow : Turbines

Turf, removing Turkeys, care of turkey -poults food for turkey -poults 11

.

149 149 149 149 149 149

iii. iii . iii . jii . iii. iii .

Age of ewes for breeding Age of tups for using Changing tups Flushing ewes

hatching and rearing as layers as mothers

Turnstile

jji . 150 iii. 149 i. 461

i . 461 i. 461 i. 460

Checking growth in spring

Mildew

Nitrogen for

ii. 373

i. 163 i. 164

i. 153, 154 ii . 353

i. 156 ii. 429 ii. 357

i. 460

i.

Peculiarities of seed

ii . 370

Pests

ii. 374 157

ii. ii. ii . ji .

296 296 295 297

ji. 297 iii. 247

ii . ii. ii. i. i.

Carting of

Methods of storing

ji. 408

i. 460 i . 27 iii . 288

Anbury, or club-root Aphis

10

injury Insects which attack Irregularity in growth of Keeping properties of Large swedes best Lifting apparatus . Manuring

i. 155 ii. 338 ii. 374

i. 167

ii. 373

yellow Broadcast sowing of Bulbs for seed , transplanting

Insect attacks on

i. 166

i. 263

ii. 336

Ash of green tops . greystone . 11 swedes

Importance of storing roots

i. 168 ii. 366

Number of, per acre

After cultivation .

Application of manure for

History of the Hoeing . Ill-shaped

Nutritive value of Order of using

TurnipsAdvantages of storing the crop 11

On hill - farms Hints to lifters

i . 263 427 410 365 165 165

Pits in the field Phosphates for Plan of stripping

ii . 300

Potash for

ii . 359

Preparing clean land for foul clay land Process of sowing Produce of different varieties Proportion of leaf and root Protecting the seeds Pulling . Quantities of manures for Quantity of, eaten by sheep .

ji. 344 ii . 343

seed In raised drills

ii. 353

Rothamsted experiments

i. 164

Seed collecting

i. 164 ii . 346

drill

ii. i. i. ii .

206 155 153 339

160

11

10

drying the harvesting produce of threshing

i. 150

ii. 348 ii. 338 i. 163 ji. 374 i . 151

ii . 364

i. 163 ji. 346 ji . 357

iii . 48 ii. 349

iii . 48 iii . iii.

48 48

ii.

48

Singling

ii. 353 ii . 360

Climatic influences on

ii. 367 ii. 338

Soils for

ji. 339

Common

ii. 337

Specific gravity of Storing in furrows

i. 157

Clay soils unsuitable for Cleaner

Composition of different varieties of

i. 263

ti

selection of

i. 104

INDEX.

Storing in houses objectionable hurdle enclosures Swedes . For table use Taking roots from the store

Temporary storing on lea Thick and thin sowing . Thinning machines Tillage of land for Time for storing swedes of sowing Topping and tailing Tops as food . 11

as manure

how to utilise

11

Turnip -meal . " tops . Tutor - farmers Varieties of

i . 157

553 Poor land

i. 157

Process of reclamation

Reclaiming plantation ground

ii. 337 iii. 135

i. 157

Rules for land improvement Scotch example

ii. 368 ii. 339

Trenching

i. 162

iii . 288

i . 404

Brush

Channels in ploughed land : Cistern

i. 75 i. 217 i. 23 i. 28

.

Horse -power of

How to measure quantity in stream

i. 264 i. 265

in use

iii. 287 iii. 287

Trenching stony ground

iii . 135

swedes

iii. 306

Meadows for Highland districts on farms

i. 75 jii. 305

irrigation of On pastures : 11

ji . 432

Pump

ji. 432

Quantity of, for stock

ii . 432

Weight and sizes of white

i. 162

Ram

When to store white White varieties

i. 167

Running

i . 161

i.

As winter food for cattle

i. 263

Yellow varieties

i. 162

Supply in buildings for farm -buildings measuring the

Yield per acre of white of yellow

i. 161

Tank

i. 162

Troughs

sore, and its treatment

Undershot water-wheels Unexhausted manures , value of Urine cesspools 11

11 11 11

composition of decomposition of fixing ammonia . fresh , injurious to vegetation how the, may be utilised specific gravity of

Useful table for stock -owners

ii . ii.

i. 217

iii . 313 i. 455

11

iii. 379

. i . 217 ; iii. 384 i. 460 i. 26

Velocity of, from an orifice

24

iii. i. i. i. i. i.

386 516 515 516 527 511

i . 516 jii . 499

Wheels breast maximum effects of overshot .

!! 11

34

lambs

Veal, feeding calves for

pigs Weather axioms

Velocity of water

i.

26

1

i.

27

11

Ventilation , principles of required for farm buildings 19

i . 25 jii. 314

i . 395

of stables

Ventilators . Vermin , precautions against Vertical engines

iii . 101 , 382 i . 447 i . 134

boiler and engine

i. 135

boiler .

i. 123

Vetches,how fed to stock or tares

Veterinary science Guide-books .

Studying minor ailments

i . 276 ii. 235 i. i. i.

Wages, punctuality in paying Waste land, improving Cropping new land

Depth and cost of trenching Draining Hill pasture : Irish example, an

Levelling -box land 10

ridges

Methods of

.

VOL. III .

33

35

i. i.

24

Wechts, barn

i. 474

11 1

on alluvial deposits .. arable land, clay gravel 11

.. mountain pasture 11

11

11

disposing of forking out .

11

and harvest work

11 11

48 47

i.

peat

sandy soils vegetable soil

i . 48

collecting 1

i. i. i.

11 mossy land

11

11

20

iii . 197 jii . 171

Weed -cleaning Weeds, cleaning of land from

11

iii. 290 , 292

i.

i. 39 i. 33 i.

17 17

iii . 290 iii . 288 iii. 288

ii. 452 ii . 291 i. 33

Weather forecasts Weathercock

11

ii. 438-441

Washing of sheep

199

465 ii. 45,i . 406

and farm work

16

iii . 525 iii . 88

i. 27 iii. 234 iii. 212

foretelling " judging most wholesome .

11

Waggon , farm

27

i. 459 i. 460 i. 459

Watering-pools Wayfares and fences Way-going crops . Weaning of calves

34

a stream , how measured

i.

troughs and sluices undershot

i. i. ii.

44

i. 27, 455 i. 27, 459

speed of the wheel

foals

Vapour weight of

i. 130

Waste steam , condensing

30 29 i. 455 i . 66

ii .

26

ii. 432

Turbines

Udder, cows, its structure preventing, from running

288 288 292 286

Water-

i. 152 i. 152

I i. i. 160 ii. 337

iii . iii . iii . iii .

Removing turf Renewing pasture

i. 157 ii. 353

i. 161 ii. 352 i. 153

iii . 291 iii . 287

46

46 ii. 345 iii. 107 ii. 433

on pastures . in relation to soils

i. 47 ii . 396 i: 481 i. 482

Weevils , bean -seed

jii . 291

Weighing -machine, balance

iii . 289 iii. 289

Well for farm buildings

jii . 379

iii . 288 iii . 286

Welsh cattle, characteristics of milking properties of

jii . 424

portable 11

iii. 424

11

2 N

INDEX.

554 Welsh cattle, origin of

Wensleydale cheese sheep origin of West Highland cattle , characteristics of 10

11

01

10

41

meat producers typicalanimal .

Wheat After beans

iii . ii. iii . iii. iii . iii. ili.

424 513 425 421 421 422 422

iii. 128

ii. 198 ; iii. 128

After grass

After potatoes

iii . 128

Ancient practice of storing Antiquity of the cultivation of Artificial supply of nitrogen essen

i. 487 i. 488 ii . ji. ii. i.

tial for

Art of sowing Broadcast sowers

For cattle and sheep

141 193 194 245

Classifying by the grains

i. 498 i. 484 i. 485

Colour of

i. 484

Chaff

Classification of, by the ear

Wind, force of the, how measured prevailing prognostications of storm signals

Date of sowing Drill sowers Dung for

tides and 10

Feeding value of, for cattle

Firm seed -bed for

Winnowers, modern

Grubbing for Hand seed -drill Harrowing Judging of

iii. 126

ii. 196

Frost

Frost-smoke Hail Halos

Hoar- frost Ice

Prognostics Sky -tints

i. 487

and of the weather in Thunderstorms Winds .

Wire field -fences . Barb -wire Corrimony fence

Durability of Erecting

Horse and cattle wire fence . Intermediate posts Iron standards strainers

ii. 199

Production of an acre of

fences

For seed

i. 486

Winding pillars Wood , selling

Seed -basket .

ii. 192

Wood's self-delivery reaper

Sowing :

f!

ji. 189

moth

machines

ii. 194

" packing

uses of

Two - hand sowing . Tillage for

Varying with soil Vilmorin's classification of

Weight of Whin hedges raising trimning

Whitsunday entry Wicket for hurdle - fence Wilkie's plough

Willows, growing, for hurdles Wind .

Wool , composition of . 1 disposing of

in spring Storing v. immediate selling of Straw , ash of

i. i. i. ii .

487 498 498 192

Il

preserving

"

properties of

71

rolling and weighing

!!

room

i. 486

i. 485 i. jii . iji . iii . iii.

486 229 230 230 199

jii . 242

i.

.

selling, in spring

ii . 188 10

iii . iii . iii . iii. iii. iii .

241 2.10 239 241 237 237

iii . 241 iii . 239

iii . 239

i. 485

i. 532

i. 78 79, 80, 84 iii. 235 ji . 238

iii . iii. iii . iii.

Relation of ear and grain of :

i. 483

i. 75-85

Number of wires

Varieties of wire

i. 487

Simple classification of

84

Standard for barb -wire . Straining-posts

ii . 190

Quantity of seed

79

i.

ii . 236

and wire fence Knotting wire

i. 487

Presser - roller

i.

Summary of the field operations

i. 488 Manuring for ii. 135, 169, 201 ; ii. 128 i. 486 Number of grains of, in a bushel . ii . 192 One -hand sowing . ii . 190

i.

i. 80-82

Snow

ii. 201

Pickling

78

i. 28 i. 78 i. 83 i. 83 i. 79 i. 83 i. 83 i. 78 i, 82 i . 83 i. 78

Freezing

Limits of culture of

Preserving, in granaries

i. 77

Fog

i. 485 i. 487

Origin of

i. 475

i.

Dull sun , moon , and stars Falling stars

ii.- 196

Late varieties of

470

Winnowing corn in olden times Winter Aurora borealis Clouds . Coronæ

Rain

ii. 188

Kernel and husk of

25

iii . 380

iii. 383

ii. 137

Good land for

39

Window -sills

i. 486

For flour

velocity of the

Windows for farm buildings

iii. 126 i. 245 iii. 128

Fallow .

i. i.

.

variable

ii. 129

Experiments on the continuous growth of, at Rothamsted

24

i. i.

11

i. 245 ii. 188 ji. 195

Composition of

i.

239 235 237 240

iii. 236 ii . iii . ii. ji . ii. ii .

70 452 450 419 450

449 ii. 451

ii. 448 ii. 448

shears .

ii. ii . 442

weighing

ii . 450

worn

Woollen rags, composition of

448 ii . 452

Work -people, bearing of farmer towards

jii. 524 jii. 527

Yorkshire coach-house

ii. 403

Zones, the

iii. 178 i. 15

Work well advanced

98

i . 212 i. 24

Zoologyor natural history :

PRINTED BY WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS .

THE NEW YORK PUBLIC LIBRARY REFERENCE DEPARTMENT

This book is under no circumstances to be taken from the Building

turi 410

SEP 27 1921